I'idi'tliiiHiiliUtliiliili!! Class. E\n2> Book_ y\\Ai \^ZO Copyright 1^'. CflROlIGHT DEPOSIT. MACE-BOGARDUS SCHOOL HISTORY M ACE-BOG ARDUS SCHOOL HISTORY By WILLIAM H. MACE Former Professor of History in Syracuse University, Author of Mace's School Histories and "Method in History" and FRANK S. BOGARDUS Professor of History and Economics in the Indiana State Normal RAND McNALLY & COMPANY CHICAGO NEW YORK ' /' 60 Copyright, igzo, by Rand McNally & Company IV1K7 DEC 20 1920 0)CU605058 THE CONTENTS PAGE A List of the Maps xi The Preface xiii CHAPTER I. Europe Accidentally Finds America i The People of Europe Just before Columbus i Europe's Knowledge of Distant Lands 4 Columbus Seeks India and Finds America 6 Other Nations Try Their Fortunes . . ' 9 Spain Leads in Exploration 10 France a Rival of Spain 13 England Spain's Rival too 14 IL The Land and the People of Early America .... 17 Natural Advantages and Disadvantages in Settling North America 17 How the Indian Helped and Hindered the Settlers . . .19 III. The Southern Colonies 23 Making Experiments • 23 Getting a Foothold 25 Virginia, the King's Colony 27 Maryland, a New Kind of Colony 30 The Two Carolinas, the Home of Many Kinds of People . 32 Georgia, the Real Barrier 35 IV. New England Colonies 37 The Pilgrim Fathers 37 The Massachusetts Bay Colony 40 Outside Danger Threatens 43 New Hampshire and Maine 46 Connecticut and New Haven 46 Rhode Island the Most Democratic Colony ..'... 48 V. The Middle Colonies 50 The Struggle of the Dutch to Plant a Colony .... 50 EngHsh Rule in New York 53 New Sweden or Delaware 55 New Jersey 56 Pennsylvania the Great Quaker Colony 57 V vi THE CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE VI. The Ways of Colonial Life 63 The People 63 Home Life and Pastimes 70 Colonial Education 74 Religious and Moral Life . 79 Industry and Commerce 83 How the Colonies Were Governed -93 VII. The Battle for North America 95 The Rise of New France 95 Their First Conflicts 98 The Great Struggle 99 The Meaning of the Victory 105 VIII. Separation from England and Union among the Colonies 107 Reasons for the Revolution 107 The Americans Begin to Fight 116 IX. The Struggle for the Rights of Man 122 Separation from England 122 The British Try to Break the Power of the Middle States . 125 How France Came to Our Aid 129 Irregular Warfare 134 War in the West and South I35 Woman's Part in the Revolution 146 X. The Need for a Stronger Government 149 An Experiment in State Sovereignty 149 Efforts for a Stronger Government 152 Constitutional Convention 155 The States Ratify the Constitution I57 Important Points in the Constitution 160 XI. The Beginnings of the Nation 165 The American People (1790- 1 800) 165 Washington the First President 174 Origin of Our Foreign Policy 177 Home Problems Again 180 XII. The Republican Party in Power 184 Jefferson in Control (180 1 -9) 184 Peopling the West 185 Troubles with Foreign Nations Again 192 XIII. War of 1812 196 War for Freedom of Commerce 196 THE CONTENTS Vll CHAPTER PAGE XIV. The Coming of a New Time 204 Western Migration and Internal Improvements . . . 204 The Old States Feel the Touch of Life 211 New States Introduce New Questions 213 Latin America and the Monroe Doctrine 218 " The West Begins to Influence Politics 220 XV. Social Changes 230 Changes in the Manner of Living 230 The Final Struggle to Keep the Balance of Power . . . 233 Educational Changes 237 The First Signs of a National Literature 240 An Era of Moral Reform 242 The Growth of Industry 245 XVI. The Question of Slavery 254 Economic Contrasts 254 Beginning to Agitate over Slavery . . . . . . .256 The Texan Revolution. Territory on the Pacific . . .259 Shall the New Territory be Slave or Free? 265 XVII. The Political Conflict 272 The Kansas Struggle Drives the North and South Farther Apart 272 The South Secedes. Concihation Fails 282 XVIII. The War between the Union and the Confederacy . 287 The War Begins 287 The Blockade of Confederate Ports . . . ... . .291 Campaign for the Opening of the Mississippi .... 294 The Struggle between the Two Capitals 296 Uprooting Slavery 299 Decisive Battles of the War 30 1 The War and PoUtics 305 XIX. The End of the vStruggle 309 The Confederacy Gradually Wearing Out 309 The Immediate Effects of the Struggle 317 States Admitted Through Stress of War and Politics . . 323 XX. Reconstruction of the State 326 The Struggle between the President and Congress . . . 326 XXI. New Problems in Politics 332 New Questions Cause New Parties 332 THE CONTENTS CHARTER PAGE XXII. Economic Questions in Politics 343 Money and Prices 343 World's Fairs 345 The Tariff and Politics 346 Roosevelt in Office 348 Conservation of Natural Resources 350 The Progressive Movement 353 XXIII. Our New Position in the World 357 The War with Spain, 357 The Panama Canal 363 America in the Far East 366 International Arbitration 369 The Newer Monroe Doctrine 374 XXIV. Economic Problems 378 Immigration 378 Organized Labor 383 Factory Acts 389 The Trusts 390 XXV. Political Reforms 394 Changes in Government 394 City Government 397 Socialism ' 399 The First Wilson Administration (1913-17) .... 401 XXVI. The Growth of the Nation 404 The growth of the West. New States 404 The Indians 411 Growth in Education 414 Growth of Reading 422 XXVII. Growth in Trade and Industry 425 Growth of Foreign Trade 425 Growth of Industry 430 Agriculture 430 Manufacttiring 437 The Age of Inventions 447 XXVIII. The World War 450 America Finds It Hard to Be Neutral 450 America and the Allies Make War Together .... 456 The American Government in the War 458 America after the War 467 Moral and Social Effects of the War 470 THE CONTENTS IX PAGE THE APPENDIX I. Notes 477 II. Study Questions 505 III. The "Mayflower" Compact 519 IV. The Declaration of Independence 519 V. Provisions of the Constitution 523 VI. The Constitution of the United States 525 VII. A Table of the States and Territories 539 Date of Admission, Area, Population, etc. VIII. Growth of the United States 540 The Increase in Town and City Population. IX. Gross Area of the United States 540 X. Facts about Our Latest Dependencies 540 XI. A Table of the Presidents 541 XII. Some Statistics of the United States and Territories . 542 Representation in Congress, School Statistics, etc. The Index 543 t^ A LIST OF THE MAPS PAGE Old Trade Routes to India 6 The Four Voyages of Columbus 9 Magellan and Drake's Voyages Around the World lo The Distribution of Indian Families and Tribes (in colors) . Facing 17 London and Plymouth Companies 23 Territory Claimed by Virginia under the Charter of 1609 .... 25 The Carolina and Georgia Colonies 33 The Settlements along the New England Coast 42 The Region Ruled by Sir Edmund Andros 45 Early Settlements in Rhode Island and the Providence Plantations 49 Nev/ Netherland and the " Five Nations " 52 East and West Jersey and the Surrounding Colonies 56 The Early Settlements in Pennsylvania . . 61 European Possessions, 1763 (in colors) Facing 112 A Map of Boston and Vicinity 119 The Military Movements in the Middle Colonies 125 Burgoyne's Campaign 128 The Campaigns Around Philadelphia 132 The George Rogers Clark Expedition 136 Campaigns in the South During the Revolution 139 The War in Virginia 141 The United States at the Close of the Revolutionary War (in colors) Facing 144 The Northwest Territory 154 The Growth of the Settled Area in 1 790 and 1 800 165 Early Trails and Post Roads 172 The United States after the Louisiana Purchase (in colors) Facing 192 The Lewis and Clark Expedition 188 Campaigns in the North and East, War of 18 12 200 The Coal Fields of the United States 249 The Railroads of the United States in i860 251 xi Xll A LIST OF THE MAPS PAGE The Oregon Boundary Dispute (in colors) Facing 260 The Texas Boundary Dispute 263 Territory Gained by the Treaty of Peace, 1848 264 Changes in Slave and Free Territory, 1820-50 (in colors) Facing 272 Slave and Free States after the Kansas-Nebraska Bill (in colors) Facing 276 Union and Confederate States, 1861 (in colors) .... Facing 288 Campaigns for the Western States 296 The Eastern Campaigns 298 The Campaign Around Vicksburg 304 The Georgia Campaign and the Red River Expedition . ■ 311 Porto Rico and Cuba 357 The Philippine Islands 362 The Republic of Panama 365 Growth of the Settled Area from 1870 to 19 10 404 THE PREFACE The'purpcse in writing this text is to'present the American people in the process of acting out their history. To do this the authors have had constantly in mind to set forth this history as a series of pano- ramic views. These views will take hold of the pupils' imagination, enabhng his understanding to work. We have, therefore, taken special pains: (i) To use simple and easy words. (2) To use the concrete form of the word instead of the abstract form. (3) To use short and striking sentences rather than long and compHcated ones. (4) To use many "word-pictures" in setting forth events, where the events are important and lend them- selves to such treatment. In such cases we have not hesitated to use the word-pictures found in Mace's School History. A textbook made up largely of word-pictures is necessarily a larger book than one of the ordinary kind. Between the two kinds of books there are many differences in favor of the former, if the pupils are to be considered. In the first case the word-picture's are constantly flashing upon his imagination a series of most interesting actions and dramatic events. Action in history is always dramatic if it shows men in the struggle to attain a common end. In the second place the understanding is thus furnished material from which it can draw conclusions by its own efifort. Many of the conclusions can be self-made if the word-picture presents the facts. Hence the high value of the "problem" or "project " method of study. Teachers now generally recognize the fact that the "problem" or "project" method is the best mode of attack. The subjects for com- positions and the questions in the Appendix will be found useful in this connection. The authors urge teachers to make sure that the pupils regard the text as a reference work to be used in the solving of their historical problems, not as something to be used mechanically, or memorized. The teaching of efifective, functioning citizenship is the great problem before the American schools. Citizenship is a functioning force or it is nothing. But in order to- function effectively as citizens Americans must uuderstand their economic and social environment. XIV THE PREFACE It is because the authors are deeply interested in the development of sound American citizenship that industrial and social problems have been given such full treatment. Care has been taken to make clear and full the treatment of the European and world background, while the increasing importance of our interest in Latin America has received ample emphasis in these pages. The authors have distributed their material in such a way as to meet the requirements of the Committee of Eight, the Committee on Social Studies appointed by the N. E. A., and finally by the joint Committee of the American Historical Association and of the War Service Board. The Authors December, igso SCHOOL HISTORY CHAPTER I EUROPE ACCIDENTALLY FINDS AMERICA THE PEOPLE OF EUROPE JUST BEFORE COLUMBUS 1. What Europe looked like. 1 It is not easy to imagine how Europe looked at the time of Columbus. Most of it was covered with great heavy forests. Towns and cities dotted the shores of the Mediterranean, the Atlan- tic, and the land along the rivers. To these towns and cities traders carried the rich products which Genoa and Venice had received from the Far East. To protect their cities and towns from robber bands high walls had to be built around them. On the sea ships were armed to beat off pirates, the robbers of the sea. We must now see what manner of people lived at that time, for some of them are going to settle in America and make the beginnings of our country. 2. The common man (1400-1500). The great majority of the people of Europe were farmers, or peasants as they were called. They were not like American farmers ; they were not free, did not own the soil they tilled, and dared not leave it. They had to grind their grain at the mas- ter's mill and could not hunt or fish without his consent. These peasants, a kind of half slave, did not venture to marry without the master's permission. In England they were a bit better off. The peasants were the lowest in social rank and always took off their hats to the men above them, and stood aside to let the lords pass. I 2 EUROPE ACCIDENTALLY FINDS AMERICA Hjrr Tfjj ■^' RUINS OF CHATEAU DE BOL \GUIL A C\STLE IN rR\NCn The peasants did not live on their Httle farms. They were huddled together in small villages, usually at the foot I of a hill or moun- tain on which the lord or master had his castle home. They lived m poor, dingy, and dirty huts. Only the better class had rugs of a rude sort for the floor, made out of rushes. The chil- dren did not go to school, for they had to work in the fields from daylight to dark. The peasants did not vote or hold office. Laws were made by the big folks for the peasants to obey. Sometimes they worked on the king's highroad, more often for the lord, and the time left was given to their own poor crops. At a warning from the lord or from the king the peasant and his sons had to go to war. 3. The trained workers. Next above stood the trained workers, workers in wood, in iron, and in cloth, such as woolen and linen weavers and dyers. These men lived in the villages and large cities. They formed unions or guilds. The guilds often forced the rulers to grant them favors. 4. The merchant and trading class. Above the trained workers stood the merchants and traders. They grew up later than the other classes but played a great part after 1500. They often joined the king to keep the nobles in THE PEOPLE OF EUROPE JUST BEFORE COLUMBUS 3 order, or the nobles when the king became tyrannical. Order was necessary for trade. The upper classes looked down upon the merchants and traders because they owned no land. Their property was in houses, ships, goods, and money. In Holland and England they first won the right to take part in government. 5. The nobles and the clergy. These were the highest social orders in that day. They owned most of the land. They were called "privileged" classes. The nobles were privileged because they inherited titles and land and did not pay taxes. The clergymen were almost the only educated people, and because they were ministers of religion selected by somebody recognizing the pope's authority, they iDclonged to the privileged classes. The pope was the head of the clergy as the king was the head of the nobles. There were different classes of nobles. Some were great and some were small. Some owned vast estates including hundreds of villages and even large cities. - Such a lord could raise a large army. Sometimes he fought his neighbor and sometimes even attacked the king. It was next to impossible for one not born a noble to become one. Nobles married only people of noble birth. The clergy were of various classes: archbishops, bish- ops, and priests. The higher clergy, too, held estates and had peasants to work their lands. There was something very democratic about the church. Any one of ability and the right spirit could become a priest. 6. The king stands highest. In the society of the Middle Ages, and long after, the king stood highest. Sometimes the nobles selected a king from their own number. They put him down again when he did not suit 4 EUROPE ACCIDENTALLY FINDvS AMERICA them. But usually the king was supreme in power. Very often he tried to make believe that his authority was by divine right. ^ In England and in Holland the power of the ruler was checked by a parliament. The parliament in other coun- tries, if there were one, had little power. This whole system which bound the common man, nobles, and kings together was called feudaHsm. EUROPE'S KNOWLEDGE OF DISTANT LANDS 7. Stories of the Northmen. The Northmen, living in the north of Europe, very early settled Iceland, Green- land, and visited the northeast coast of North America. They were bold sailors. Their vessels were only large, open boats, but they did not fear to sail them upon the stormy Atlantic. Driven by oar and sail, and crowded with tall, fair-haired warriors eager for adventure, these sea-rovers were often seen thous- ands of miles from home. The story of Lief Ericson and his visit to America (1000) did not spread over Europe until after Columbus- had made his discovery. 8. Tales of the ^"-^ Crusaders and of great travelers. In the Middle Ages many Christians made journeys to Jerusalem, the city where Christ had lived. Suddenly NORTHMEN S SHIPS EUROPE'S KNOWLEDGE OF DISTANT LANDS CRUSADERS ON THE MARCH news reached Europe that the Turks, cruel followers of Mohammed, had taken the Holy Land.^ Western Europe sprang to arms. For two hundred years thousands of bold war- riors marched at dif- ferent times to Asia Minor to fight the Turk. These wars were called the Crusades (1095-1291). The re- turning warriors were heroes in the sight of their neighbors to whom they told the most wonderful tales of Eastern lands. Marco Polo, a traveler from Venice, spent nearly thirty years in lands of the Far East. He wrote a book about what he saw. Columbus is supposed to have read it. These stories made the people hungrier than ever for the fine goods, sparkling jewels, and rich spices of these far- away lands. People liked fine things then just as much as now. 9. Smashing old trade routes turns at- tention to the Atlantic. News came again that the Turks had taken Constantinople (1453). They had now broken up the old trade routes of Venice and Genoa (see map). These EUROPE ACCIDENTALLY FINDS AMERICA cities finally fell into decay, since their richest trade had been cut off, and their sailors turned to the Atlantic where Prince Henry of Portugal was striving to find a new water route to India. 10. Portugal leads the way to India. The Portuguese were already in the lead. They were seeking the land of golden dreams. But the sea was full of horrors to the simple-minded sailors. It was not until Dias, a great ^ -^ N D I A .j,i^ INDIAN ■■■.OCEAA Northern RoiiU ContrMcd by Gcno.i MlJdU RcuU Southern Route Controlled by Venice r-i— ,— OLD TRADE ROUTES TO INDIA FOLLOWED BY EUROPEAN MERCHANTS sea-captain, passed the Cape of Storms, now known as the Cape of Good Hope, and looked out upon the Indian Ocean that Portugal could see the way to India. She did not win the race to India until Da Gama reached that country (1498). COLUMBUS SEEKS INDIA AND FINDS AMERICA II. Columbus asks for aid. This great sailor was born in the bustling old town of Genoa (§9). He went to sea early, and when he grew to be a man he was drawn to Portugal by the news of stirring events. Here he worked COLUMBUS FINDS AMERICA 7 out the idea that the world is round and that he could reach India by sailing westward. From maps and globes he judged the world much smaller than it really is, and that India is about where North America is. What a happy mistake 1^ Portugal refused to help Columbus, and he left for Spain. Here for eight years he tried to secure assistance (1484-92). Finally he gave up and started for France. One day he stopped at a con- ' '^<'l\ vent and told his story Christopher columbus to the keeper, or prior. The prior begged Columbus to stay while he hastened to Queen Isabella to ask for help. He won a great victory for Columbus and America, for the Queen pledged her jewels, if needed, to fit out vessels for the voyage. 12. Columbus makes his first voyage across the At- lantic. Columbus was happy, but to his sailors and their friends it was a voyage of death. On August 3, 1492, with the prior's blessing, he set sail in three small ships. He rested at the Canary Islands and then sailed westward for over a month. Each day the sailors grew more down- hearted. They feared the trade winds would never carry them back, and worst of all, that faithful friend, the com- pass, began to vary.'' Encouraged by signs of land, Columbus held on his way, EUROPE ACCIDENTALLY FINDS AMERICA and on October 12, the shores of the New World broke on his sight. He took possession of San Salvador, one of the Bahama Islands, in grand style. He made explora- tions, reaching the coast of Cuba and Haiti. He gathered specimens, even natives, to show his monarchs. But he was woefully disappointed in finding no rich cities. He named the natives Indians, because he was certain he had discovered parts of India. He reached home, told his story to the King and Queen, and showed his specimens to their admiring eyes. 13. Disappointment of Columbus. Now the people wanted him to hurry. Over fifteen hundred crowded his seventeen ships for another voyage. The first voyage had to take men from the Spanish jails, but now Spanish grandees pledged their wealth to go. THE LANDING OF COLUMBUS This voyage so happily begun (1493) brought only the discovery of Jamaica and Porto Rico. A third brought him back in chains,^ but he had seen South America. OTHER NATIONS TRY THEIR FORTUNES 9 Columbus made his fourth and last voyage in 1502 and died four years afterward. Neither he nor any one else THE FOUR VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS then knew that he had seen a new world. The way to India and her treasures still filled the minds of men. OTHER NATIONS TRY THEIR FORTUNES 14. England takes the lead (1497). The news of Columbus' great deed stirred all Europe. England sent John Cabot, a man from Venice, to find a new route to India. He reached North America in the neighborhood of Nova Scotia or Labrador. The next year, with his son Sebastian, Cabot is supposed to have sailed farther south. Thus it was that England laid claim to all North America. 15. The Portuguese turn west. The king of Spain hurried a messenger to tell the pope what Columbus had done. The pope drew a line from pole to pole, 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Isles. This ran through eastern 10 EUROPE ACCIDENTALLY FINDS AMERICA South America. He gave all the new lands discovered east of this line to Portugal and all west of it to Spain. This line seemed to shut England and France out in the cold! Portugal was still busy with India (§io), but Americus Vespucius, an Italian sailing in the employ of Spain and then of Portugal, touched South America. He wrote several letters about his discoveries, calling the country America. The geographers of that day accordingly applied his name to South America and later to the whole New Worid.8 SPAIN LEADS IN EXPLORATION i6. Spanish discoveries. In the same year (15 13) Ponce de Leon explored Florida, and Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and discovered the Pacific Ocean. The king of Spain sent Magellan with five small vessels to explore South America (15 19). He sailed through the strait that bears his name and up the western coast. Then he struck directly westward and reached the 1(7 .)/ Magellan MAGELLAN AND DRAKE S VOYAGES AROUND THE WORLD Ladrones with his sailors half starved. He was killed in the PhiHppines, but his ship made her way by the Cape SPAIN LEADS IN EXPLORATION ii of Good Hope to Spain. Magellan had proved "that India could be reached by sailing westward." Just 377 years after his ships touched their shores Manila sur- rendered to Dewey and the Philippines were ours (§576). -^ f THE AZTEC CITY OF MEXICO 17. Cortez conquers Mexico. While Magellan was saiHng around the globe, Cortez was conquering one of the richest cities in the world (15 19-21). What a sight met his eyes ! A city built over a lake, where canals took the place of streets, and canoes carried people from place to place. Three great roads built of solid stonework ran to the center. Here stood a wonderful temple whose top could be reached by 114 great stone steps running around the outside. The people in Mexico were called Aztecs. Over sixty thousand of them, dressed in cotton clothes, lived in this city. Cortez set up Spanish rule, and Mexico turned millions upon millions of money into the lap of Spain. Pizarro found Peru even richer than Mexico (1532).^ But in the quarrel over these riches he was killed. 18. Spain disappointed. De Soto, comrade of Pizarro in Peru, but later on governor of Cuba, set out for Florida EUROPE ACCIDENTALLY FINDS AMERICA with a large force (1539). He sought rich cities and was cruel to the Indians for not finding them for him. He discovered the Mis- sissippi (1541) but disappointed, he grew sick, died, and was buried beneath its waters. '° Before the fate of De Soto was known, Coronado marched gaily forth from Mexico to find the wonderful ' ' Cities of DE SOTO DISCOVERS THE MIGHTY MISSISSIPPI Cibola." He, too, was disappointed. He saw only a few Indian pueblos and hundreds of "crook-backed cows."'' He was the first white man to behold the beauty and grandeur of the Grand Canyon of the Colorado. But he was searching for gold. The gold, we know, was there, but Coronado did not find it. Not even the exploration of California (1532) could satisfy Spain's call for gold. 19. Ill effects on Spain of the gold of South America. With the exception of the settlement of St. Augustine in Florida (1565) and of Santa Fe in New Mexico (1582), Spain gave most of her early efforts to gathering wealth from Mexico and South America. The gold and silver of these regions made Spain for nearly one hundred years the greatest power in Europe but it hurt her in the end. She built the great Armada and tried to conquer England. Her failure was a terrible blow to her power. Then, too, ' the Spanish people could not see why they should work with the riches of the New World flowing in upon them. FRANCE A RIVAL OF SPAIN 13 They allowed their industries to perish and bought goods made in the countries of Northern Europe. Spain became poorer and weaker. 20. Spanish methods of conquest. When the Span- iards conquered a country like Mexico they were cruel to those opposed to them. But they did not try to kill all the natives. Instead they converted them, reduced them to slavery, and some they married. Thus the natives in many cases mixed with the Spaniards. This is why so many of the people of Spanish-America are of Indian blood or of mixed Spanish and Indian blood. How different it was in the case of the United States ! There the native Indians were pushed ahead of the settlers and at last were gathered together and made to live in certain districts reserved for them. There was no intermarriage of Indian and white. The result is that our population is today all of European origin. FRANCE A RIVAL OF SPAIN 21. Early French efforts. The king of France did not like to be shut out of the New World by the pope (§15).^- Verrazano, saihng under the French flag, stopped, it is said, to admire the New York Bay (1524). Ten years later, Cartier sailed up the St. Lawrence to an Indian town which he named Mont Real (Montreal). He was on his way to China, so he thought. 22. French Huguenots seek a home. The flame of the Protestant Revolution broke upon Europe. It spread to nearly all countries. Before 1500 European nations were nearly all Roman Catholic. After the Reformation they were divided into quarreling sects. France was torn by religious quarrels, and although her king was a Catholic, he gave permission to the Huguenots, 14 EUROPE ACCIDENTALLY FINDS AMERICA or French Protestants, to plant a colony in South Carolina (1562). This failed, and they tried once more at Port Royal on the Saint John's in Florida. But the Spanish governor at St. Augustine (§19) destroyed this last attempt of the French to plant a colony so far south. '^ ENGLAND SPAIN'S RIVAL, TOO 23. Commercial rivalry at first. For nearly one hun- dred years England had done little to follow up Cabot's voyages (§14). She, too, had had her share of religious troubles. In Elizabeth's reign England and Spain were drifting toward war.^* Among her most daring sailors was Drake. The Spaniards called him the "Dragon." He pounced upon them everywhere. Finally he sailed into the Pacific to rob their treasure ships. He captured mil- lions upon millions of gold and silver, spent the winter in California (New Albion) , sailed west and reached home (i 580), having circled the globe. Eng- land was ablaze with excite- ment over Drake's return with Spanish gold. The queen gave him the grand title of "Sir." 24. Raleigh points out a wiser way. Sir Humphrey Gilbert was given a charter for trade and settlement in America. He was lost on a homeward voyage. His rights fell to Sir Walter Raleigh, one of the bravest and wisest of the Queen's friends. He told the Queen a better way to beat the Spaniard was to plant colonies. She was SIR FRANCIS DRAKE ENGLAND SPAIN'S RIVAL 15 pleased with reports from America, and named a part of it Virginia. Raleigh sent out two colonies. They located on the coast of North Carolina. The first did not prosper and the second be- came the "lost colony." No trace of it was ever found. 25. Results of Raleigh's efforts. Raleigh's money was about gone. But he did not lose heart, for he declared that ' ' he would live to see the day when Virginia would be a nation." The settlers had taken back to England a plant called tobacco, which was soon to be the foundation of Virginia's prosperity. With them also went corn and potatoes, two products which have proved of greater value to mankind than all the gold and silver Spain has dug from the mines of the New World. 26. The defeat of the great Spanish Armada (1588). Raleigh's second colony was neglected because England had kept every man at home to fight against the hundreds of ships and thousands of soldiers sent by Spain to attack her. The Spaniards were the bravest of soldiers, and in all Europe they were the greatest ship builders. With 137 ships and 27,000 men they set sail to conquer England, They sailed proudly up the English Channel. The English fleet, of smaller and more nimble vessels, swarmed out and boldly attacked them. The great Spanish ships, with hundreds of soldiers on board, made SIR WALTER RALEIGH i6 EUROPE ACCIDENTALLY FINDS AMERICA an easy mark for English gunners, to help the EngHsh. The loss of A terrific storm came life was awful. Less SPANISH ARMADA than half of the "Invincible Armada" ever saw Spain again. From now on we may mark the decline of Spain. English sailors grew bolder and the English government more courageous in colony planting. SUGGESTED READINGS For teachers: Fiske, Discovery of America, II; Bassett, Short His- tory of the United States, chap, ii; Becker, Beginnings of the American People, 1-36; Hart, American History Told by Contemporaries, I, chaps, i-iv; Thwaites, Colonies, 20-24; Parkman, Pioneers of France. For pupils: Hale, Stories of Discovery, 1-106; Mace-Tanner, Old Europe and Young America, 221-243 (Crusades, Trade Routes), 244- 251 (Marco Polo, Inventions of the Fifteenth Century), 252-281 (Prince Henry, Columbus, Balboa, Magellan, Cortez, Pizarro, De Soto, Coronado, Las Casas), 282-289 (Verrazano, Bayard, Cartier, Coligny, Champlain), 290-305 (Rivalry of England and Holland with Spain), 305-315 (How the English Sea-Dogs Fought Spain); Mace, Stories of Heroism, 1-54; McMurry, Pioneers on Land and Sea, 1-34, 161-225; Brooks, True Story of Columbus, 1-103, 11 2-1 22; Hart, Source Book, 1-23, 26-82; Hart, Source Reader, I, 4-16. Fiction: Henty, Under Drake's Flag; Longfellow, Sir Humphrey Gilbert. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS I. Write what you see in a play -battle. 2. Go with Drake around the world and write letters telling what took place. 3. Describe the scene when Raleigh first attracted the attention of Queen Elizabeth. CHAPTER II THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE OF EARLY AMERICA NATURAL ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES IN SETTLING NORTH AMERICA 27. The eastern part of North America. The Atlantic coast with its many harbors offered friendly protection to settlers. The country from the coast to the moun- tains gave the settlers rich soil for crops, plenty of wood and lumber for their homes, and choice game for food and clothes. This region would have been a paradise for the poor man of Europe (§2) had it not been for the fevers along the coast and for the Indians in the forests. The Appalachian highlands once formed a great barrier separating the East from the Mississippi Valley. The Hudson and the Mohawk formed the easiest way into this region in early days. Another route was by way of the Potomac and the headwaters of the Ohio. Still another, though less known, was the James River and the Great Kanawha. A more famous route ran from the head- waters of the Yadkin through Cumberland Gap. Any good map will show the great number of rivers taking their rise in these highlands and dropping rapidly to the sea. These rivers later furnished the settlers with water power for driving mills. 28. The heart of North America. By either the Missis- sippi or the St. Lawrence we may reach the heart of North America. The French were long-headed enough to see that the nation holding this region would control the con- tinent. This region has become the granary of the world. 17 i8 THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE Northwest of the Ohio River, west and southwest of the Mississippi as far as Mexico, are vast treeless regions called prairies. Here roved countless herds of buffaloes. From the headwaters of the Mississippi and the Ohio to the headwaters of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence is only a short distance. The Indians made trails from one to the other, carrying their canoes and fur packs. 29. The Rocky Mountains and western highlands. Many miles west of the Mississippi rises the gigantic sys- tem of highlands called the Rocky Mountains. This region is higher than the Appalachian (§27) and broader, reaching three hundred miles in places. There are very few passes where man may break a road to the westward. Once across the Rockies we come to a region extending from Canada to Mexico. This highland area has little rainfall. Here, as well as in the Rocky Mountains, the Indian found his match in the great grizzly bear and in the so-called Rocky Mountain sheep. This region is still their home. Here, too, the white man finds pasturage for thousands of sheep and cattle. In these two regions lay hidden from the native vast stores of gold and silver and of copper and lead. 30. The Pacific Coast region. A range of mountains still blocks man's way to the Pacific. Once across, he finds himself in a country not so extensive as were the lands farther east but far more charming as to climate. 31. The Oregon and Santa Fe trails. The rivers, we have seen, were the most important roadways before the white man came. The Indian, however, frequently aided by the buffalo, had trails leading from one Indian town to another. Crossing half the continent to the Pacific were two trails of great historic interest, the Oregon and the Santa Fe trails. From the place where St. Louis HOW THE INDIAN HELPED 19 stands the two routes were the same to the western part of Missouri. Here the two separated: the Oregon going EARLY TRAILS LEADING TO THE PACIFIC COAST in a northwest direction to the Columbia River and the Santa Fe in a southwest direction to Santa Fe. Pitching almost directly south to the Mexican border, it then turns directly west toward San Diego on the Pacific. HOW THE INDIAN HELPED AND HINDERED THE SETTLERS 32. Different ways of doing things. The Indian was far behind white men in many ways: he wore the skins of buffalo, bear, deer, and beaver; these were also used in building and furnishing his wigwam or tent. He built his fire in the wigwam or in the open. He found it hard to keep warm in winter and cool in summer. He THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE armed himself with bow and arrow, spear and tomahawk. The tomahawk was a rude stone ax. It seems clear that ^^ .»»^.„r ^,L-.».».i» ^^^ Indian ^"^ Za^irar^WiMWQ needed many things to meet the white man as an equal. 33. What they both wanted. The Indian really had two things wanted by the white man : land and furs. They did not under- stand each other's point of view about land. The Indian looked upon it as a hunting ground. When game grew scarce, he moved. The forests, as a hiding place for his game, were useful to him. The white man settled down. He made farms, built villages and cities, and had to cut down the forests. When the forests were gone, both the game and the Indians had to leave. The Indian had no ideas of private property. Large sections of the country were regarded as the hunting grounds of certain tribes, but the individual Indian owned HOW THE INDIAN HELPED 21 no land.' The white settler claimed the land as his own property and insisted that the Indian stay off. This difference led to quarrels and war. The fur trade was their one great tie. But the Indian had no idea of the value of his furs. Hence the white man's greed and the Indian's suspicion led to quarrels. The Dutch in New York won the Indians' confidence, but most of the English settlers did not. The Frenchmen were their great friends. They hunted, trapped, and lived together. They shared each other's campfires as boon companions. The Indians and French married and raised half-breed children. The Spaniards mixed with the Indians but were cruel to them and generally treated them as slaves (§20). 34. Imperfect organization makes Indian opposition weak. The great Indian families and their tribes may be seen on the map (opp. p. 20). The families were some- times hostile, and the tribes of the same family were often at war. With the exception of the half-civilized Incas in Peru and the Aztecs in Mexico, the most famous "na- tion" was the Iroquois ^^ in central New York. Its mem- bers had formed an imperfect confederacy and could put in battle several hundred of the fiercest warriors. Had the Indians been united, it would have gone much harder with the early settlers in this country. 35. The warrior and the worker. The man was a warrior and a hunter. He painted his body to make him- self look terrible to his enemy. He was a good friend but a cruel foe. He loved to fight from ambush and to frighten his enemy by loud shouting to give the idea of great numbers. He took fiendish pleasure in torturing prisoners. If the battle did not go in his favor, he was easily discouraged and ran away. 2 2 THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE The woman was a worker and a drudge. While the hunter was bringing in the supply of meat, or away on some warlike expedition, the woman was busy cooking, working around the wigwam, and keeping the patch of corn, beans, and squash free from weeds. She gathered the firewood and when on the move carried the tent poles to newer grounds. Yet the Indian squaw as a mother often had great influence over her husband. Tecumseh was probably the greatest Indian about whom we know. He was a fine-looking man. He had statesmanlike ideas. He was an orator of the first rank and a warrior that knew no fear. He denounced the massacre of prisoners. SUGGESTED READINGS For teachers: Bassett, Short History of the United States, chap, i; Thwaites, Colonies, i-ig; Fisher, Colonial Era, chaps, i-ii. For pupils: Hart, Source Book, 23-26; Hart, Source Reader, I, 116-117, 121-125. Fiction: Monroe, Flamingo Feather; Eastman, Indian Boyhood; Longfellow, Hiawatha. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS I. Resolved that Indian boys had a better time than the boys of the colonists. 2. Climb to the top of the stone temple in Mexico and write about the Aztecs you see. 3. Imagine yourself sitting at the "council fire" of the Five Nations and write what you hear. CHAPTER III THE SOUTHERN COLONIES MAKING EXPERIMENTS 36. England stirs interest in Virginia. Raleigh had failed (§24). Two great companies were given charters to make settlements in Virginia: the Plymouth in north Virginia, and the London in south Virginia. King James promised the settlers that they should be Englishmen, "as if they had been abiding and born within the realm of England." But he took care to give them little power to govern themselves. English people hesitated to settle in America where so many things were new and strange. Besides, was not Spain watching every movement for a settlement ?i« But England needed an outlet for her laboring people (§2), who found it difficult to get work at home. Therefore sermons were LONDON AND PLYMOUTH COMPANIES 23 24 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES preached, pamphlets were printed, and poems were written, sounding the praises of Virginia. 37. Jamestown settled (1607). The wish to get rich quickly and return to England brought 104 settlers to Jamestown in the spring of 1607. They did not come to work but to find gold. Excitement ran high. Their imaginations "worked overtime:" a few miles inland might be the Pacific Ocean, which Drake had crossed, and there, too, might be another Peru. Among the mountains were streams whose waters might flow over golden sands, and mines whose riches no man could count. Men could not work in the midst of such prospects! 38. John Smith comes to the front. John Smith, ^^ the strongest man in the colony, now took charge. He com- pelled idlers to work, traded with the Indians for food, and had the cabins repaired. He wrote to the London Com- pany to send no more such settlers, but ' ' carpenters, hus- bandmen, gardeners, fishermen, blacksmiths, masons, and diggers of trees' roots." John Smith held the colony together until more settlers came. A new charter (1609) THE SITE OF JAMESTOWN gave new boundaries to south Virginia (see map) and greater power to the company. GETTING A FOOTHOLD 25 39. Out of death comes life. John vSmith had to go to England; idleness and disorder broke out, and the TERRITORY CLAIMED BY VIRGINIA UNDER THE CHARTER OF I609 "starving time" resulted. Over four hundred settlers went to their graves, and only sixty were left to tell the tale (16 10). Fortunately Lord Delaware arrived with supplies just as they were leaving for England. In the spring of 1611, eight hundred more settlers arrived, and with them came the man to control them. Sir Thomas Dale. He was a fearless soldier who ruled by military law. He abolished the ' ' common storehouse ' ' and gave each man a few acres to till. The effect was magical. Even idlers went to work. GETTING A FOOTHOLD 40. Tobacco makes Virginia prosperous. The settlers did not prosper at first. They began making things for 26 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES the English market which could be produced cheaper in the old home. Happily, John Rolfe raised a crop of tobacco and sold it for a good price (1612). The settlers took up tobacco-raising with enthusiasm. Governor Dale had to declare that no man should plant tobacco until he had first put two acres in grain. In 1619 Virginia sent 20,000 pounds of tobacco to England, and doubled the amount the next year. On both banks of the James River great tobacco plantations sprang up, and Jamestown be- came a queer-looking village. It was a series of tobacco farms with the James River as its main street. 41. An important date in American history (16 19). The year 16 19 not only marks (i) the first great crop of tobacco, but (2) the beginning of representative govern- ment in America, (3) the sending of a large number of maidens to be wives of the settlers, thus making Virginia homes more cheerful and comfortable, and (4) the landing of a Dutch trading vessel with twenty slaves. Thus ,^^ slavery and f^^ ^ '- representa- ~ five govern- men t had their begin- ning in the same year. The London Company sent over Governor Yeardley to call a repre- sentative assembly. 7Vo men were elected from each plantation or neighborhood. They formed what the THE LANDING OF THE YOUNG WOM VIRGINIA, THE KING'S COLONY 27 Virginians loved to call a House of Burgesses. They met in the little church. The governor and his council, keeping their hats on, took the front seats. The burgesses took seats behind them. The meeting was opened with prayer by the clergyman. Each man took an oath to be loyal to the king. A speaker, a clerk, and a sergeant were elected and took seats facing the assembly. This house served as a training school for Virginians, and when the Revolution broke out, no other colony in America furnished so many great men.^^ 42. Contentment grows. Settlers now came to stay, because work was plenty. Laborers were in demand for tobacco-raising, and came to Virginia in large numbers. For a long time they largely outnumbered the slaves. There were only sixteen hundred people in the colony in 1624, although more than seven thousand had been sent out. Many of them had died, many had returned home, but nearly four hundred had been killed by the Indians in the massacre (1622). Virginia had a hard time getting started. 43. The London Company loses its charter. The Lon- don Company had fallen into progressive hands. King James opposed this and took advantage of the Indian massacre to take away its charter. It was a battle between the "divine right" of the king to do what he pleased and the Company to do what was best for Virginia. The king won. But the Company had made Virginia a barrier against the Spaniard and had founded the idea of representative government. VIRGINIA, THE KING'S COLONY 44. Trouble arises in England. A new party called the Puritan party was arising in England. Parliament was 28 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES becoming Puritan (§6i) and quarreled with the king over taxes and reHgion. Down to 1641 more than one thou- sand Puritans migrated to Virginia to escape the king's persecution. In 1642 one of the king's men, Berkeley, became governor of Virginia. Berkeley and the bur- gesses banished the Puritans. Most of them went to Maryland (§52). The Puritans finally won out in England and beheaded Charles I. The burgesses immediately invited his son, Charles II, to Virginia, but he did not come. The leader of the Puritans, Cromwell, established a kindly rule in Virginia. He gave the colony free government, free trade, and free reHgion. From England came groups of Cavahers, friends of the king, seeking homes in America. The Virginians gave them a hearty welcome, for many of them were well-to-do, refined, and well educated. They gave a higher tone to Virginian society. 45. Virginia again in the king's hands. While the Puritans and Cavaliers were having trouble, Virginia had been growing by leaps and bounds. By 1640 its people numbered about 15,000, and by 1660 they had grown to 40,000. Only 300 were negro slaves. Up Chesapeake Bay and its rivers pushed the planters with their great fields of tobacco and grain. When England, tired of Puritan rule, called Charles II to be king (1660), the Cavaliers in England and Virginia were wild with joy. A C-AVAl.IEK T-« 1 1 1 ' > Berkeley came to the governor s chair again and showed that he had learned nothing from his experience. He kept the House of Burges.ses VIRGINIA, THE KING'S COLONY 29 for seventeen years without election, took the right to vote from all except landholders, and persecuted Baptists, Quakers , and • > ^ ■ " , others who refused t o attend the English church.''-' 46. Bacon's Re- bellion (1676). But Berkeley's time of punishment was at hand. The Indians suddenly fell upon the Virginiansa n d killed some of them. Berkeley would do nothing for fear of losing the Indian fur trade in which he shared. Nathaniel Bacon quickly raised a band of riflemen and marched against the Indians. Berkeley declared him a traitor for fighting without his per- mission. Bacon returned, drove Berkeley out of James- town, and burned it. At the height of his success Bacon died, and Berkeley took pleasure in hanging the "rebel" leaders. King Charles declared that "the old fool has put to death more people in that naked country than I have for the death of my father." One of the burgesses said: "If we had let him alone, he would have hanged half the country." The king called Berkeley back to England. Virginia never forgot Bacon's rebellion. BACON AND HIS FOLLOWERS 30 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES MARYLAND, A NEW KIND OF COLONY 47. A home for Catholics and Protestants (1634). For over one hundred years in England Roman Catholics and Protestants had persecuted each other. George Calvert, Lord Baltimore, was a Roman Catholic. He was greatly beloved by the English king. Baltimore decided to find a home for his people in America. King Charles I gave him Maryland, named in honor of Queen Henrietta Maria. Before the colony was ready, Baltimore died. Follow- ing an old European custom, his oldest son, Cecil, fell heir to his titles and his property (§5). He immediately sent out a colon}^ of over two hundred settlers to the north bank of the Potomac, near its mouth. The majority of this first colony, called St. Mary's, were Protestants. 48. A happy colony. The Indians were friendly and opened their wigwams to the settlers. They taught the men how to hunt the deer and the turkey, and the women how to bake bread before an open fire. Fortune smiled on St. Mary's. She had no starving timej^§39), and no Indian massacre. She had a representative assembly. Her people opened up trade with their neighbors and with far-away New Eng- land. They stocked their farms with cows, hogs, and sheep. They raised good crops, and were very happy in their homes in the New World. GEORGE CALVERT MARYLAND, A NEW KIND OF COLONY 31 49. Maryland, a strange colony. Religious toleration a new thing in the world, was soon established in Maryland by Lord Baltimore who was owner or proprietor of the colony. He not only owned the land, but appointed the governors, vetoed the laws made in the colony, and named the judges. Only the king could do these things in England. Baltimore was almost a king in Maryland. 50. How tobacco -raising spoiled a part of Baltimore's plan. Baltimore had the right to grant titles of nobil- ity. He planned to have a number of great estates in Maryland. On these were to live men with grand titles in splendid manor houses, after the style of old Europe (§5). On these estates, too, were to live the laborers in their cabins. They were to work for the lord of the manor. But when the people came to the colony, they found it much easier and far better to raise their own tobacco and be their own masters. The great estates then had to be broken up into tobacco plantations. 51. A representative assembly and toleration. The very next year after the birth of the colony, a representa- tive assembly was estabHshed (1635). This assembly, called the House of Burgesses, worked well. One of its most important laws was the Act of Toleration (1649). This act declared that "no person or persons whatsoever CECIL CALVERT 32 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES within this province, professing to believe in Jesus Christ, shall from henceforth be any ways troubled." 52. Trouble from Virginia. William Claiborne, a Vir- ginian, claimed Kent Island in the Chesapeake. He refused to obey Maryland's authority, and she drove him out. The Puritans, driven from Virginia, had crossed to Maryland (§44).'*^ When Cromwell, the great Puritan general, came to be head of the government in England, Claiborne and the Puritans joined forces and captured St. Mary's. But Cromwell knew how to be just as well as stern. He restored Baltimore's authority on his promising toleration forever. 53. Maryland prosperous. The kindly cHmate, the rich soil, freedom from Indian troubles, and religious toleration attracted settlers. The great majority of them were Protestants and welcomed the revolution which put William and Mary on the throne of England (1688). 2^ In 1720 was founded, well up on Chesapeake Bay, the chief city of the colony, Baltimore. By the time of the Revolution it was a most prosperous city. THE TWO CAROLINAS, THE HOME OF MANY KINDS OF PEOPLE 54. North and South Carolina. We have already seen settlers migrating from Virginia to Maryland (§44). Shortly afterwards some went to North Carolina. The House of Burgesses gave other settlers land grants on Albemarle Sound (1653). Some New Englanders tried to occupy the region around the mouth of Cape Fear River but had to give it up. These settlements were made, not by England, but by the colonists themselves. But the king gave the Caro- linas to eight favorites. These nobles had a constitution ^^ THE TWO CAROLINAS 33 :|,- N O ' Sa r o •(, FayettO' \' "■\. SOUTH CAROLINA drawn up for Carolina which planned to have classes of people from the laborer up to lords. The people settling in the CaroHnas paid no attention to it and went about making set- tlements in their own way. Thus failed another ejffort to establish feudalism among the southern colo- nies (§50). 55. Settlement of Charleston (1670). The pro- CAROLINA AND GEORGIA COLONIES prietors hurried a colony over to settle ' ' Charles Town at the union of the Cooper and Ashley rivers. Later, the colony finding a better location, moved Charleston to its present place. This colony built a fort and got ready for the Spaniards (§19). They did not have to wait long, but the Spaniards, when they saw the Carolinians were ready for them, returned without striking a single blow. Hence the Carolinas were a barrier in holding back the Spaniard (§24). 56. The coming of many kinds of people. At first the Carolinas promised to be like Virginia and Maryland, settled by English churchmen only. But presently came the Scotch-Irish Presbyterians, driven to America by laws which made it hard to earn a living in Ireland. The Quakers settled in large numbers, especially in North Carolina. A few Swiss and Germans settled along the sea, and latest of all came the Scotch Highlanders, 34 THE vSOUTHERN COLONIES who were banished for being true to the Young Pretender, the grandson of James II (§78).""'' But the most interest- ing of all the people migrating to the Carolinas were the French Huguenots (§109).-' 57. Occupations and government. The Carolinas were alike in that the early settlers in both colonies raised tobacco. This brought them ready money from England. North Carolina was made up mostly of small independent farmers. Many raised wheat and corn and made pitch, tar, and turpentine from the great forests of pine. They did not have many slaves. At first South Carolina centered around Charleston. Her planters Hved in the city in the winter and upon their plantations in the summer. They owned many slaves. Rice was introduced and became the leading product for a long time. Indigo, too, found a place on Carolina plantations. Both articles brought EngHsh trade to Charleston. The proprietors and the people did not get on well together. The proprietors were aristocratic, and the GEORGIA, THE REAL BARRIER 35 people were democratic. They tried several experiments. Albemarle and Charleston had separate governors. In 1 69 1 the two were united under one governor. But trouble continued, and the proprietors sold out to the king (1729). Again they were divided and re- mained royal provinces down to the Revolution. GEORGIA, THE REAL BARRIER 58. Oglethorpe plants a new kind of colony. James Oglethorpe was the founder of Georgia (1732). He was moved to this act by the con- dition of the poor debtors of England. A man who could not pay his debts was thrown in jail. There he might stay until he died. This was usually not so very long, for the jails were foul places and overrun with vermin. Oglethorpe planned to take the fittest of these debtors to some colony where they might get a new start in life. Still another purpose moved Oglethorpe. The Span- iards were now becoming excited over the growth of the Carolinas (§19). The time had come to push "Raleigh's barrier" farther south (§24). Patriotic Englishmen now came forward, and by the aid of ParHament they raised $500,000 to help the new colony. 59. Savannah settled (1733). Oglethorpe selected thirty-five families from among the great number who JAMES EDWARD OGLETHORPE 36 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES wanted to go. Charleston gave them a hearty welcome. They finally selected a place near the mouth of the Savannah River. More settlers came, and among them three famous men : Charles Wesley, who became a great hymn writer; John Wesley, a missionary to the Indians and afterwards a great religious leader, and George Whitefield, one of the most eloquent preachers who ever came to America. There soon came to the new colony Salzburgers from Austria, Moravians from Germany, Protestant Highlanders, Swiss, and Jews. These people were all allowed to practice their own reHgion. 60. Frederica, Georgia's barrier (1736). Frederica was settled on an island well down the coast. It was well fortified. The Spaniards attacked it only once, and then Oglethorpe beat them off and carried the war into Florida. Georgia was the last of the thirteen American colonies to be settled. SUGGESTED READINGS For teachers: Fiske, Old Virginia and Her Neighbors; Hart, Con- lemporaries, I, chaps, xi-xiii; Bassett, SItori History, chap. iii. For pupils: Thwaites, Colonies, 64-95; Mace, Stories of Heroism, 54-61; Hart, Source Book, 11-14, 48-51, 71-73. 88-95, 108-109; Hart, Source Reader, I, 25-28, 98-104, 143, 175-177; Coffin, Old Times in the Colonies, 97-110. Fiction: Johnston, To Have and To Hold, Audrey; Otis, Richard of Jamestown. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS I. Attend the wedding of Pocahontas and write an account of it for a newspaper. 2. Write the story of the "White Aprons" in the story of Bacon and Berkeley. 3. Visit the southern colonies and write in your diary what you see in 1 740. CHAPTER IV NEW ENGLAND COLONIES THE PILGRIM FATHERS 6i. The rise of the Pilgrims and the Puritans. New England was at first a part of "Virginia" (§24), but the Plymouth Company had failed in its settlement on the banks of the Kennebec (1607). Captain John Smith explored, mapped, and ^ named New England (16 14). But a different kind of people was destined for her shores. The Reformation caused mighty religious upheavals (§22). It divided English- men into Roman Catholics and English church people. Some belonging to the Eng- lish church wanted to change certain forms and ceremonies in the church. They wanted a purer church, they said. Hence they took the name Puritan, Some of them broke away from the English church and formed independent congregations, elected their own preachers, and were very democratic. These people were called Separatists. The great body of Puri- tans, however, remained in the EngHsh church intending to purify and to reform it. A PURITAN MINISTER 37 38 NEW ENGLAND COLONIES THE OLD CITY OF LEIDEN 62. Separatists turn Pilgrims. People in London stoned the Separatists, and the king's officers hurried their leaders to jail. In the village of Scrooby worshiped a little con- gregation of Separa- tists. They resolved to fly to Holland, the land of dikes and windmills. Holland had just won its independence from Spain after a hard war and most bitter persecutions. The Dutch made themselves glorious by granting re- ligious toleration. The Pilgrims escaped to Amsterdam and then journeyed to Leiden, After a few years their children were marry- ing Dutchmen, and in a short time their children's children would become Hollanders. They decided to leave for America. 63. The voyage of the "Mayflower." Their pastor, the noble John Robinson, decided to stay in Holland to comfort those who could not go. One hundred and two sailed under the lead of Brewster, Bradford, and Myles Standish.-'^ They planned to settle near the mouth of the Hudson (§84), but storms drove them to Cape Cod. Before landing the men signed the "Mayflower Com- pact" to make sure of an orderly government. They bound themselves to make "just and equal laws for the general good of the colony." 64. Plymouth settled (1620). The Pilgrims chose Plymouth Harbor for a home. They built huts for the people, for they were already in the midst of a cold winter THE PILGRIM FATHERS 39 THE "MAYFLOWER ON ITS WAY TO AMERICA (December). They had been used to the gentler climate of England and Holland and did not yet know how to build warm and comfortable houses. One-half of the little band were dead when spring came. But the Pilgrims had stout hearts, for not one returned with the "May- flower' ' in the spring. 65. Relation to the Indians. The Pilgrims were on good terms with the Indians. Each treated the other well. These dusky warriors taught the whites how to capture the wild animals and showed them where fish were most abundant. They taught them how to raise corn on poor soil by putting a fish in each hill as fertilizer. Massasoit, a neighboring chief, came with friendly greetings. 66. The first Thanksgiving Day. Every man had to till the soil, and raise his crop of corn, wheat, rye, and peas. After gathering their first harvest, they decided to celebrate by giving thanks to a kindly Providence for watching over them and for filling their common store- house. The Indians joined with them, enjoying their own pastimes. Repeated from year to year, this custom has grown into a great national Thanksgiving. 67. Growth of the colony. The colony grew slowly. Several towns sprang up, but when Plymouth joined the 40 NEW ENGLAND COLONIES New England Confederation (1643) there were not over 3,000 people in the whole colony. The Pilgrims formed the most democratic colony planted in North America. They had no church officers except those elected by them- selves. The same was true in government. All ques- tions were debated in town meeting, and then voted on. Above all, the Pilgrim Fathers gave to their children a noble example of manliness, uprightness, and trust in God. In 1920 Massachu- setts and the whole country celebrated the three hun- dredth anni- versary of the "Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers." THE MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY 68. Troubles between king and Parliament. The EngHsh ParHament, composed largely of Puritans (§44), refused Charles I money until he made certain reforms. Charles had to have money and forced rich men to give it to him. This was not legal, and Parliament com- pelled him to sign the Petition of Right (1628).-'^ He dismissed Parliament, resolved never to call another. Charles now put in force harsh laws against the Puritans. ^^ He threw some of their great leaders into prison, drove many of their ministers from the churches, and persecuted those who would not attend the Church of England. FURNITURE BROUGHT OVER ON THE MA.V FLOWER MASSACHUSETTS BAY COLONY 41 69. The "Great Migration." Some of the Puritan leaders decided to try their fortunes in America. They obtained a charter from Charles I for the Massachusetts Bay Company (1629). Eleven vessels carrying over 700 emigrants, under the lead of John Winthrop, sailed for the land of promise (1630). More than 2,000 left for Massa- chusetts within a year, and more than 25,000 migrated to New England before the outbreak of the Puritan Revolution (1641). The Puritans had more property than the Pilgrims . Many were well-to-do country gentlemen who were landowners in Eng- land. Some, too, had been to college at Cambridge. 70. First settlements and governments. Salem had been settled by John Endicott (1628). Winthrop settled Boston, and it soon grew into the leading town as the seat of government. Other towns were soon settled, such as Newtown, afterwards changed to Cambridge, Watertown, Roxbury, Lynn, Dorchester, and others. These Puritans were Congregationalists. Each little band brought its minister and soon formed a town which controlled its own affairs. Over all these, by the charter which Winthrop had brought to America, a government was established. This was made up of the governor and the assistants who advised him. 71. Conservative and progressive parties. Among the Puritans some were conservative and some progressive. JOHN WINTHROP 42 NEW ENGLAND COLONIES The progressives demanded that the towns send represen- tatives to the general government. Representatives were, therefore, elected to ad- vise the gover- nor and assist- ants (1634). The governor and assistants were made into an upper house, while the repre- sentatives from the towns sat as a lower and more demo- cratic house. This change in government was made by the colony itself without advice or orders from ^Massachusetts ,&"^''?-:;SK, "ay ; ) Cape Cod;~-^_^ "<>L^ Cap. Cod \\ Bay \ THE SETTLEMENTS ALONG THE NEW ENGLAND COAST England. The progressives did not always have their own way. They called for a written constitution as early as 1635 but did not get the Body of Liberties until 1641. Roger Williams had already denounced the law com- pelling people to attend church. He was arrested, tried, and ordered back to England. He did not go but fled to Rhode Island. Mrs. Anne Hutchinson preached against a "covenant of works." She, too, was banished. 2** During these discussions in Massachusetts, Thomas OUTSIDE DANGER THREATENS 43 Hooker led a company of one hundred people to the Connecticut Valley, where they found free opportunity. Hooker was progressive and Winthrop conservative. They differed but did not quarrel. OUTSIDE DANGER THREATENS 72. The New England Confederation (1643). The dangers from the Indian, the Dutch (§84-89), and the mother country led the New Englanders to form a union. Four colonies were admitted; Rhode Island was left out. Two delegates from each colony met each year to look after the common business. Massachusetts, the larg- est colony, had the most influence in deciding questions. The colonists never forgot the lessons of this confederation. 73. The Puritan Revolution in England (1641-60). We saw Charles I taking things into his own hands (§89): he gathered money without the consent of Parlia- ment and forced the English church upon the Scotch peo- ple. The Scots sent an army to fight him. Charles was compelled to call the Long Parliament ( 1 6 4 1 ) . This Parliament, in the hands of jmfv>-':»m, '^w-z '■^. \ Puritans, made reforms and %Sr\jL.^^i^^''-''-'^f^^' called Cromwell to organize the army. They defeated and beheaded the king (§44). /~\ 11 a J 1 1 1 CHARLES I, KING OF ENGLAND Cromwell was now at the head of the government . He showed the world what the common man can do. Americans never forgot the lesson of his rule. 44 NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 74. The Quakers invade Massachusetts (1656). Born in the stormy times of Cromwell, the Quakers carried their rehgion where it was not wanted. Massachusetts wanted only Puritans, and when Quakers came, she hanged four of them. But mutterings of rebellion were heard and, much to the disgust of many old-fashioned Puritans, the judges set other Quakers free. Rhode Island gave tHe Quakers hearty welcome. 75. Religious toleration. It seems strange to us that the Puritans who had left their native land on account of reHgious troubles would not let the Quakers stay in Massachusetts. After all it was not so very strange. For centuries all Europe believed that all people ought to belong to the same church. If any one tried to start a new church he was looked upon as a very dangerous person, just as we regard traitors today. It was thought to be just as much the business of the government to protect the people from those who wanted to start new churches as it was to protect them from a foreign enemy. When the Protestant Revolution came people had not changed their minds very much on this point (§44). Most of the new Protestant churches were not tolerant. They still believed in having one church. The Puritans in America tried to make others obey that rule. If this were not done the Puritans felt that they could never have the kind of reHgious and moral influences they wanted. Men only slowly learned that they must tolerate differ- ences as to church and religion. By 1791 the desire for toleration had gained so much that the very first amendment to the Constitution was made to declare that ' ' Congress shall make no law respecting an estabhshment of rehgion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." OUTSIDE DANGER THREATENS 45 76. King Philip's struggle (1675). After the defeat of the Pequots in Connecticut (1637), the Indians remained quiet. Philip succeeded the friendly Massasoit, and he saw he must destroy the whites or his hunting grounds would be no more. He fought two years, killed one-tenth of New England's soldiers, but was himself killed, and the Indian power was shattered. 77. Charles II and James II make trouble. The Eng- lish people had grown tired of solemn faces, quiet Sun- days, and the harsh rule of the Puritans. Shortly after Cromwell died they called Charles II to be king, amid great rejoicing. He hated Puritans and sent certain commands to Massachusetts which were not obeyed. He finally took away the charter of this colony (1684). He died suddenly, and James II made Sir Edmund Andros governor of New England, New York, and Newjersey. Andros ruled with a high hand, abolished New England town meetings, taxed peo- ple without their consent, and threw men in jail with- out trial by jury. 78. The revolution in England and the fall of Andros (1688). James II was a bigger tyrant than Andros and news came that England had driven him from the throne (§92). The people of Boston rushed together and arrested some of the king's officers. Andros fled to the fort in the 46 NEW ENGLAND COLONIES harbor. Alarm guns sounded, and signal fires burned on Beacon Hill. A thousand soldiers gathered, and hun- dreds of men, led by a school teacher, swarmed in from the country ready to fight. Andros surrendered, and William and Mary gave Massachusetts a new char- ter granting toleration to all sects (i69i).29 NEW HAMPSHIRE AND ') MAINE SIR EDMUND ANDROS 79. Proprietary colonies. Mason and Gorges were given the land between the Merrimac and Ken- nebec rivers. Dover had already been settled by fishermen and fur traders when the owners sent out a colony to Portsmouth (1630). The grant was divided: Mason took what is now New Hampshire, and Gorges the larger part and called it Maine. When William and Mary granted a charter to Massachusetts, it gave her control over these colonies. More and more, as they greW stonger, these outposts kept back both French and Indian. CONNECTICUT AND NEW HAVEN 80. The beginnings of Connecticut. We have already seen the democratic Hooker leading his people from Massachusetts to the Connecticut Valley (1636) (§71). They plunged into the wilderness, carrying their tools CONNECTICUT AND NEW HAVEN 47 and arms and driving a goodly herd of cattle along with them. Out of this migration grew the towns of Hartford, Wethersfield, and Windsor. Hooker called the people together and preached them a democratic sermon. They set up a written constitution, the first of its kind in the world (1639).^" They joined the New England Confedera- tion as the colony of Connecticut (§72). While Massachusetts was in an uproar over Mrs. Hutchinson (§71), a band of London Puritans landed in Boston. Eaton and Davenport were its leaders. They were attracted to the region on the north shore of Long Island Sound. They were delighted with their place and named it New Haven (1638). These people were among the strictest of the Puritans. They set up a government based on the Bible. As in Massachusetts, only church members could vote. Other settlements were made: Milford, Guilford, and Stamford. With New Haven, these towns formed a union (1643) and THE PILGRIMAGE TO THE CONNECTICUT VALLEY joined the New England Confederation under the name of the New Haven colony (§72). 48 NEW ENGLAND COLONIES THE CONNECTICUT AND NEW HAVEN COLONIES 8i. The two colonies united (1662). A charter was granted to Connecticut by the king. It continued the democratic government so happily begun. The people liked it so well that they kept it until 1818. But the king did not like New Haven ; two of the men hiding there had been among those who had con- demned his father to death. He joined her to Connecti- cut as a punishment. RHODE ISLAND THE MOST DEMOCRATIC COLONY 82. Origin of Rhode Island (1636). Driven from his home in winter, Roger Williams sought shelter with his good friend Massasoit (§71). " For fourteen weeks he was sorely tossed in a bitter season, not knowing what bread or bed did mean." In June he founded Providence as "a shelter for persons distressed in conscience." True to his teachings, Williams bought the land from the Indians and passed no law touching reHgious beliefs (§71). Other persons driven out by the government were wel- comed by Williams. Among them was Mrs. Anne Hutchinson (§71). She was sent out of the Colony for holding meetings for women. In these rneetings they found fault with the ministers. Newport, Portsmouth, and Warwick were settled. RHODE ISLAND 49 83. Union under one charter (1644). Roger Williams had great influence with Parliament, since it was now strongly Puritan (§68) . He obtained a good charter, uniting the different towns and permitting them to govern themselves. The government under this charter was almost as liberal as that of a republic. When Charles II came to the throne he confirmed the charter (1662). So well satisfied were the people that they kept it until 1842. SUGGESTED READINGS For teachers: Fiske, The Beginnings of Provfdence ( j i' ^ (j, ) ' \S-^,il_LJ_ yllC 0^ eA^ EARLY SETTLEMENTS IN RHODE ISLAND AND THE PROVIDENCE PLANTATIONS New England; Bassett, Short History of the United States, 59-70, 92-97; Hart, American History Told by Contemporaries, I, chaps, xiv-xxi. For pupils: Thwaites, Colonies, 112-117; Coffin, Old Times in the Colonies, 111-140, 152-170, 184-194, 265-270; Dralce, Making of New England; Hawthorne, Grandfather's Chair; Mace, Stories of Heroism, 63-74; Hart, Source Book, 37-41, 80-82; Hart, Source Reader, I, 28-30, 57-59' 59-63, 133-136, 136-140, 172-173, 177-182. Fiction: Stow, Mayflower; Austen, Myles Standish; Mrs. Hemans, l^he Pilgrims; Longfellow, Courtship of Myles Standish; Otis, Ruth of Boston. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS I. Write about the Pilgrims in their three homes. 2. Attend the first Thanksgiving. Tell who was there and what they did. 3. Visit one of Mrs. Hutchinson's meetings and "report it" for the class. CHAPTER V THE MIDDLE COLONIES THE STRUGGLE OF THE DUTCH TO PLANT A COLONY 84. Holland the home of religious freedom. Holland was not great in area nor in the number of its people. But Dutchmen were doing big things. They had driven the Spaniards out of their country, and their sailors were found in every sea. They invaded the East Indies, fought the British and the Portuguese, and even now hold some of the richest islands in the East.^^ Their manufacturers were among the richest in the world. Holland was the home of religious toleration (§62), and there the Pilgrims were still living ._ ' ■ (1610-20). Dutch merchants sent Henry Hudson to search for a new water route to India. In the "Half Moon" he sailed up the river which now bears his name (i6o9).'''- He noted the country's beauty, the richness of the soil, and the great number of fur-bearing animals. The merchants were quick to take advantage of the dis- covery. They built huts on Manhattan ( 1 6 1 3 ) , a fort near Albany, and made lasting friends with the Iroquois (§33). The Dutch had made a good beginning with the Indians. HUDSON IN THE "HALF MOON SO THE DUTCH PLANT A COLONY SI 85. The growth of the colony. Holland gave New Netherland to the Dutch West India Company. Set- tlers had no right to govern themselves, but were ruled by a governor and council appointed by the Company. The fur traders did not mind much and pushed their way down the Delaware, on Long Island, and to the Connecticut ( §80) . Governor Minuit bought Manhattan Island for less than one cent per acre! Today this is the most valuable land in America. 86. The patroon system (1629). Real settlers came in slowly. The Company tried to hurry up settlement by bringing in a part of the feudal system (§6). They gave the title of ' ' patroon ' ' and great tracts of land to any member of the Company bringing over fifty settlers. The patroon was to be their lawmaker, governor, and judge. The settlers were not to hunt, fish, or manufac- ^ "" j,'^ ^ ^ *-^^'' A MANSION OF A PATROON ON THE FAMOUS VAN RENSSELAER ESTATE ture, or remove from the plantation. They had to sell to the patroon and grind grain at his mill. This was the 52 THE MIDDLE COLONIES first effort to plant feudal conditions in America. It did not work well. Neither did other attempts (§§50, 54). 87. The Indian war. After the patroons had taken up their great estates, other settlers had to invade the hunt- ing grounds of the Indians. Neither the settlers nor the red men liked this. Finally war broke out between them. The peo- ple suffered a great deal, and finally demanded a share in the government. It was refused. 88. The people demand self-gov- ernment. Peter vStuyvesant, the new governor, was heartily welcomed NEW NETUERL\NU \\U TIIL (1647). But he made himself unpopular by persecuting Baptists and Quakers, and by refusing the people any real part in managing the affairs of the colony. They appealed to Holland, and the town of New Amsterdam received its own government. The town now had 800 people (1653). The people objected to paying for a great walP^ built by Stuyvesant to keep out the Indians. They came together and pronounced the governor a great tyrant. He dismissed them, declaring he obtained his right from God and the Company, This statement showed the people that they would not get representative government from Stuyvesant. ENGLISH RULE IN NEW YORK 53 89. New Netherland surrenders (1664). Holland and England had become rivals on the sea. England cut off the Dutch trade from the colonies by the Navigation Acts (§179). Terrific sea battles in the EngHsh Channel were fought between the Dutch and Cromwell's ships. Parliament made more laws against Dutch trade in the THE DUTCH MOTHERS BEGGING STUYVESANT TO SURRENDER time of Charles II, and war followed. English warships appeared before New Amsterdam, and Stuyvesant called upon the people to defend their colony. But they refused; they remembered his tyranny and the freer governments around them. Good Dutch mothers, with tears in their eyes, begged him to surrender. "Let it be so. I had rather be carried to my grave," said the brave old governor (1664).^^ ENGLISH RULE IN NEW YORK 90. Meaning of the surrender. From Maine to the Carolinas the English now had one unbroken line of colonies. New Amsterdam was named New York, and 54 THE MIDDLE COLONIES Fort Orange was called Albany.^^ The settlers were dis- appointed, for they did not get a representative assembly A VIEW OF THE CITY AND HARBOR OF NEW AMSTERDAM (NEW YORK), 1656 immediately, but they did get complete toleration in religious matters. In the terms of surrender the English made it very easy for the Dutch. No property was destroyed. They permitted Governor Stuyvesant to retire to his Bowery ^^ or farm, and live out his days in peace. The King granted the colony to his brother, the Duke of York. 91. Progress toward representative government. The "Duke's Laws," made by a convention of the people, were in the right direction: election of town officers by landholders, trial by jury, and freedom of worship. Andros (§77) was made governor and opposed an assembly, but it is said that William Penn urged the Duke of York to grant one. Governor Dongan brought the news of the Duke's consent (1682). The assembly was elected by landholders, made a good set of laws, drew up a "Charter of Liberties," and sent them over for the Duke's approval. But the Duke was now King James II (§77), and not only refused to consent to the Charter of Liberties but destroyed the assembly so happily begun. NEW SWEDEN OR DELAWARE 55 92. A representative assembly established. It took two revolutions to get a representative assembly: a revolution in England and one in New York. When it was known in the colony that James II had been driven from the throne a bold German shopkeeper, Leisler, took charge of the militia and ruled in the name of William and Mary. But many of the wealthier people not only opposed Leisler's military rule, but did not like to see the government in the hands of a common man. Governor Slaughter arrived, seized Leisler, tried him, and when drunk signed his death warrant. William and Mary granted New York a representative assembly. The people were rewarded after half a century of struggle. NEW SWEDEN OR DELAWARE 93. Founding New Sweden (1638). Just before New Sweden was begun, the name of Gustavus Adolphus was on every tongue in Europe. It was the time of the Thirty Years' War. Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, at the head of a well-trained army defeated every general sent against him." The Swedish people caught the enthu- siasm of their great King and planted a colony on the Delaware where Wilmington now stands. They named it Christina, after their queen. 94. A part of New Netherland (1655). The Dutch had already planted a post on the Delaware and looked with jealous eye upon Christina. Just as soon as a good chance came, Peter Stuyvesant sent a fleet of seven ships to compel the fort's surrender. When New Netherland became New York, Delaware became a part of it (1664). 95. Delaware won by the Quakers (1682). Maryland needed Delaware to extend her possessions to Delaware Bay, but William Penn, the friend of the Duke of York, 56 THE MIDDLE COLONIES won the prize and added it to Pennsylvania to give an outlet to the sea. The people of Delaware finally ob- tained an assembly and a deputy governor of their own. The colony was returned to Penn's control (1693-1705), but finally its assembly was restored. Delaware was not backward in the Revolution. NEW JERSEY 96. Early settlements. The Dutch claimed the terri- tory of what is now New Jersey. They built fur trading posts; the principal one was at Bergen. When New Neth- erland fell to the English, the Duke of York gave the country from the Hudson to the Delaware to two favorites, Berkeley and Carteret (1664). The name ' ' New Jersey ' ' was given this region to honor Carteret, who had won fame by defending the island of Jersey against the soldiers of ii Cromwell (^73). The owners were generous, giving to the colony a governor, a council, an elective assembly, and toleration for religious sects. Elizabethtown was settled (1665), and New Haven people displeased at the fate of their colony, settled Newark (§81). They organized a town government and decreed that only members of the church could vote. PENNSYLVANIA 57 97. East and West Jersey. The owners of New Jersey charged settlers a small sum for the use of the land. The settlers objected because many of them had paid the Indians for the land. To escape the quarrel Berkeley sold West Jersey to the Quakers. "We put the power in the people," said the Quaker owners. Four hundred Quakers immediately left England and founded Bur- lington (1677). WilHam Penn, other Friends, and Scotch Presbyterians, bought East Jersey from Carteret's heirs. 98. New Jersey and the Duke of York. The Duke of York repented giving away so rich a part of his possessions. He tried to join it to New York, but the people were strongly opposed to this. William Penn urged the case against it with such good arguments that he had his way, but Andros was made governor of New Jersey as well as of the colonies to the eastward (§77). 99. New Jersey a royal province (1702). The old trouble over rents arose once more. This time the settlers resolved to end the matter by an appeal to arms. But the owners were now Quakers and opposed to war. To escape the awkward position, they turned the colony over to the king. New Jersey was now given the same gov- ernor as New York but had its own independent assem- bly. The separation came in 1738. New Jersey now enjoyed toleration, but as in most of the colonies, only property holders could vote. The rapid growth of New Jersey was not only due to her liberal government, but to her genial climate and her freedom from Indian troubles. PENNSYLVANIA THE GREAT QUAKER COLONY 100. The beginnings of the Quakers. Out of the troublesome times of Cromwell when Puritan fought against Cavalier (§73), no nobler sect was born than the 58 THE MIDDLE COLONIES Quakers. They were even more opposed to forms and ceremonies than were the Puritans (§6i). They had been chased out of almost every colony but Rhode Island (§75)- The corner-stone of their belief was that truth is found out by Hstening to an "inward voice." loi. How their teachings made for democracy. All men are equal, since every man possesses the divine inward light. Hence no titles or honors should be given to any man, and no one should bow or remove the hat for any one, not even the king. Only "thee" and "thou" and "friend" or the given name should be used when speaking to people. Such disrespect was a hard blow at feudal society (§2). The Quaker went farther: he was against paid ministers. He even refused to take an oath in court, or to These points were a direct challenge to the church and to the king's government. Scores were thrown into jail for even beHeving in these doctrines. 102. William Pemi the greatest among the Quakers. William Penn was the son of Admiral Penn, the friend of Charles II. He was sent to Oxford where the aristocracy went to school. Here he was a favorite: a student and an athlete. He became a Quaker. It was as if a bomb- shell had exploded at his father's feet. He was driven from home, but nothing could change him.''** His father finally forgave him. William Penn was saddened by the cruel persecution of the Quakers. He himself was thrown into the foul EngHsh jails again and again. His success in the Jerseys A TYPICAL QUAKER bear arms in war PENNSYLVANIA 59 (§97) led him to resolve to spend his fortune in founding a colony for the Quakers in America. Fortunately, Charles II offered to science without regard to nation, sect, or color; gov- ernment for the people and conducted by them; reform of criminals; trial by jury for both whites and Indians. Penn published the news of his "Holy Experiment" far and wide. He wrote to the settlers in Delaware that he was not coming "to make his fortune great." How the Quakers, as well as others, crowded to go! Over 3,000 sailed the first year for the banks of the Delaware. Over 8,000 were there within five years. No such migra- tion had been seen since Puritan times (§69), 104. Penn goes to America (1682). It was a happy company that set sail from England with Penn at its head. The shouts that greeted its arrival at Newcastle showed 6o THE MIDDLE COLONIES the joy in the settlers' hearts at seeing WilHam Penn. They wore farm clothes, and went through a ceremony which was very strange for America. One man gave him water and soil, signifying that Penn was owner, and another gave him turf and twig, showing that he controlled what grew upon the land. All of this belonged to the PENN TREATING WITH THE INDIANS feudal system of old Europe. But how could such ideas grow alongside the democracy of the Quakers! Penn took care to visit the Indians. He won their hearts. He ate with them, danced at their feasts, took part in their games, and gave them presents. Under the shade of a great elm he made a treaty with them which remained unbroken. 105. Founds the City of Brotherly Love (1683). Penn looked around the region and selected the site of the city of Philadelphia, and there laid out the streets at right angles, a new plan for a city. Settlers crowded in so rapidly that many had to live in caves dug in the banks of PENNSYLVANIA 6t :11^^}^-]_1 the Delaware until homes could be built. In the next three years 2,500 people had made this city their home. It passed Boston in 1760, and for the rest of that century it led the cities of the United States in pop- ulation. Phila- delphia be- came the home of Benjamin Franklin, the wisest man in America. 106. Penn's troubles. From the beginning almost, Maryland and Penn- sylvania disputed about the boundary line between them. This was not settled for a long time. Then two EngHsh- men came and ran the now famous "Mason and Dixon's Line." This line, in the popular mind, was made the boundary between the slave and free states in the quarrels between the North and the South. Penn was not always wise in choosing governors. The people often objected to the ones he named. Then, too, the settlers forgot what Penn had done for them. They objected to the small amount of "quit- rent" given to Penn (§104), This quarrel ran on to the Revolution. But the colony still prospered. People came from Germany and Ireland as well as from England, until only Massachusetts and Virginia had a larger popu- lation than Pennsylvania. 62 THE MIDDLE COLONIES SUGGESTED READINGS For teachers: Fiske, The Dutch and Quaker Colonics; Hart, Con- kniporai'ies, I, chaps, xxii-xxvi; Bassett, Short History, 85-88. For pupils: Thwaites, Colonies, 195-217; Hart, Source Book, 85-88; Coffin, Old Times in the Colonics, 195-233, 291-302; Hart, Source Reader, I, 144-148, 174. Fiction: Irving, Knickerbocker's History of New York; Brooks, In Leister's Times; Bynner, The Begum's Daughter; Bennett, Barnaby Lee; Otis, Peter of New Amsterdam, Stephen of Philadelphia. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS I. Write imaginary letters from early Philadelphia to friends in England. 2. Write points in a debate whether the Puritans or the Quakers were more democratic. 3. You are among the settlers receiving Penn on his first visit. What did the settlers say before his coming and what after his arrival? 4. Write us about the gov- ernment established by Penn. Tell how it differed from that of the other colonies. CHAPTER VI THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE THE PEOPLE 107. How the people grew democratic. We have already noted (§2) how the people of Europe lived when America was discovered. Only a few of the nobles, hke Lord Fairfax, George Washington's neighbor, came to GREENWAY COURT, THE VIRGINIA HOME OF LORD FAIRFAX the colonies. A large number of English gentlemen migrated to better their condition. These gentlemen were between the nobles and the middle class, but it was from the middle class that the colonies drew most of their settlers. But feudal ideas did not succeed well in America. New conditions had to be faced. The settlers had to 63 64 THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE become accustomed to a new climate. They had to clear away the great forests in order to have a place for their farms and had always to keep a lookout for the Indian. The manner of living tended to put people on the same level. Travelers in America during colonial times were struck by the democratic conditions among the people. io8. How the people were distributed. In colonial days only a few people lived in cities. The rest were farmers. Some lived in small villages, as in New England, and went out each day to work on the farm. In the South were great tobacco and rice plantations on which people lived. In the middle colonies, where no Indian danger threatened, the farmers occupied their own farms. In early days Boston was the leading city, but Phila- delphia soon overtook it (§105). The other important places, in order of size were New York, Charleston, Balti- more, and Williamsburg. In the early part of this period the settlers located on bays and rivers near the sea because they longed for easy connection with the mother country. After a time, hardy pioneers pushed up the rivers to the mountains. Some had even crossed the mountains and Were bringing back wonderful tales of the country beyond. 109. The English and non-English. The colonies always had more Englishmen in them than people from the Continent. The New Englanders were almost en- tirely English. Maryland and Virginia came next. The middle colonies boasted the largest number of non- English. The Dutch and Germans in New York and the Germans and Scotch-Irish in Pennsylvania, gave enter- prising and industrious classes to these colonies. The Germans were driven by persecution from their homes THE PEOPLE 65 along the Necker and Rhine. Many occupied the fairest portions of the Hudson and Mohawk Valley. The great majority, however, went to Pennsylvania, where they settled along the banks of the Susquehanna, forming one- third of the population of that colony. Some of their quaint ways may still be found in the nooks and corners of that old state. Germans, in smaller numbers, settled in the Carohnas and Georgia. The most interesting and charm- ing people migrating to America were the Huguenots (§22). They were driven from their beautiful homes in France by the cruelty of Louis XIV. More than 1,000,000 fled to other European countries. Many came to America. Every colony was only too glad to get them. They settled in goodly numbers in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston.^^ no. The Scotch-Irish. Of all the settlers the boldest and most aggressive were the Scotch- Irish, whose forefathers had lived long ago in Scotland and northern England. They came latest into the colonies. They, too, were forced to leave their native country — Ireland — because of the hard laws of the Enghsh Parliament. Of all the people seeking freedom from oppression, none sent so many to America as the Scotch-Irish. It is estimated that more than 500,000, first and last, came to this coun- try. Philadelphia was their favorite landing-place, though many went to Charleston. Thousands remained 4 A HUGUENOT GENTLEMAN 66 THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE in Pennsylvania, but other thousands swarmed along the mountains going southward; they met and mingled with their brethren moving north. They owned few slaves, Hved simply in their frontier homes, and made the boldest Indian fighters in America. It was the Scotch-Irish that broke over the mountains into Kentucky and Tennessee and defended those regions against the Indians. They made up the rank and file of the men who joined the expeditions against Vincennes and King's Mountain. 111. Social classes among servants. The colonists in migrating left a country where many social differences existed. In colonial days there were more social differ- ences than now. Even the servants had their classes.^" Lowest of these were negro slaves. They were lowest because they were slaves forever unless some kind- hearted master set them free. Even among slaves there were classes: field hands and household servants. All the colonies held slaves. Only the Quaker lifted his voice against slavery. Next above the slaves were the white servants. They were of two general classes — those who were forced to come to America and those who wanted to come. 112. Forced immigrants. Sometimes very poor young men and women and even children were kidnapped in the streets of London or other cities and sent to America to be sold for a time. They were called indented servants. They were fed and clothed, and could be whipped. After serving for a term of years as farm workers or house servants they won their freedom. The boldest went to the frontier where land was cheaper and where social differences did not count for much. Another class of forced immigrants were vagabonds and convicts. The laws of England were very severe in THE PEOPLE 67 those days. A judge could sentence one to death for picking a man's pocket or for stealing five shillings from a store. Many humane judges sent prisoners to the colonies rather than condemn them to death. Numbers of these convicts and vagabonds whom England did not wish to support were sold for a time in the colonies. After a few years of service they were set free to make their own way in the world. 113. The "redemptioners." Many poor people in Europe wanted to come to America, but they did not have the money to pay for the sea voyage. These, too, were called indented servants because they signed a contract or "indenture," to serve the captain of a ship for a term of years, usually four or five, if he would carry them across the ocean. When the ship reached America the captain would sell the contracts to some planter or farmer and the immigrants would work for him until their term of service was complete. This seems hard, but many poor people came to America in this way. 114. Social classes among free- men. The small farmer, shop- keeper, and ■ mechanic made the second social group. They stood quite high when we think of char- acter. They were a sturdy class, bound to get on by saving and by educating their boys and girls, great majority in every colony, they from the peasant farmers of Europe (§2)! -.--^M jt^?iS^« A COLONIAL GENTLEMAN This class formed a How different were 68 THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE To the third and highest class belonged the educated and the well-to-do people. It is very clear how wealth and education had changed classes since Columbus' time. 115. How people showed their rank and standing. The servant was extremely polite to people above him. He took off his hat and bowed low when meeting them. A great deal of respect was shown to the upper classes,*^ much more than now. If a girl married above her rank, her parents rejoiced at her good fortune, but if below, she was pitied by her friends. At school and college students were sometimes seated, or names were put in the catalogues, according to the rank of the father. 116. Poor men dressed plainly. The poorer classes sometimes wore moccasins made of leather and fur, and leather breeches, when cloth was not to be had. Since colonial times hunters and trappers on the frontier have worn a peculiar kind of clothes. The royal governors made a great effort to impress their importance upon the people. Other rich persons tried to imitate them. The men wore wigs, rich velvet coats, knee breeches, silk stockings, and carried gold- headed canes. Very fash- ionable young men wore swords and red coats. Fash- ionable women powdered their hair and dressed in the latest London styles. A HARDY BACKWOODSMAN THE PEOPLE 69 117. The royal governor's reception in Virginia. In no colony was the Old World pomp and pride kept up so THE GOVERNOR S RECEPTION IN THE COLONIAL DAYS, ONE OF THE GREAT EVENTS OF THE YEAR well as in Virginia. The great social event was the gov- ernor's reception to celebrate the meeting of the House of Burgesses (§41). It was an interesting topic for talk among the women folks for days before. In his great coach decorated with the family coat of arms and drawn by fine horses, the planter and his family journeyed to the capital. Before and behind them rode negro servants on horseback, all proud to belong to such a master. What noisy scenes in the old capital town of Williamsburg ! How grand and stately the reception! The governor and his wife received the people. How happy the planters if the governor spoke kindly to them ! George and Martha Washington were often seen at these receptions. 118. Rent day on the patroon's estate. On the patroon's great farm (§86) took place many interesting events. Among them was rent day. His house was big with many 70 THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE large rooms. The- fine furniture spoke of great wealth. Around this mansion ran many walks lined with flowers. Near by stood barns with bins for grain and stalls for cattle and horses. Nearer still were smaller houses for servants. How like the estate of a European lord ! When rent day came around, the small farmers appeared. They brought the patroon's share of the crops in wagons. It was a holiday, and every one was dressed in his best. A great feast was prepared: an ox, sheep, or pigs were roasted, and white and black servants ran to and fro. The people ate, drank, and made merry. Everybody declared that the patroon was a good fellow. But once at home and hard at work, these farmers could not help wishing the farms were their own (§86). HOME LIFE AND PASTIMES 119. Colonial homes. The first settlers had to build homes in the forests. They joined hands and built T\PIC^L NEW 1 NCI Wn HOME houses out of logs. When the cracks had been stopped with clay and sticks, when the great fireplace had been HOME LIFE AND PASTIMES 71 finished, a door had been cut, and windows made by past- ing in greased paper, the family was ready to move in. The majority of houses were made of rough logs, but later some were made of dressed logs. Great notches were cut in each end of these logs. This enabled the men to fasten them together. After the sawmill came, "frame" houses began to appear. The earliest furniture for log houses was produced by using the ax, saw, and auger. "Puncheons" were made by splitting logs in two. The floor, when there was one, was made by laying down puncheons with the flat side up. Tables and chairs were made of puncheons with legs. Sometimes a bed of leaves and skins for the boys was placed in the "loft." To this the boys climbed on pegs driven in the wall.^^ In cities and on plantations the rich lived in finer homes. They imported furniture and even bricks from England to make their houses. The homes of Hancock of Boston, Livingston delphia, Byrd of Vir- ginia, and the Rut- ledges of Charleston, were furnished with the best the markets of Europe afforded. 120. Church build- ings and blockhouses. No sooner had the little community built its homes than the men went to work building a church. The church was not heated, and of New York, Morris 72 THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE people in the North carried foot-warmers and kept on hats and overcoats during the service. The men carried their guns to be ready for an Indian attack. If there was great danger from Indians, the men built a blockhouse first. It was built of great heavy logs, had portholes and an overhanging story. When the alarm of danger was given, all the people for miles around ran to the blockhouse for safety. For more than 200 years the log cabin and the blockhouse followed the frontier across the continent. 121. The colonial kitchen. In the cabin the parlor, living room, and kitchen were one. The kitchen was not well furnished. In all there was the great fireplace before which cooking was done, but there was no wood, coal, nor gas range. There were the iron skillet, copper kettle, the iron pot, and maybe the great crane on which pots were hung. Bread was baked in the hot ashes, in the Dutch oven, or in the skillet. There were wooden and pewter knives and forks, earthern bowls and dishes and ^ in a few kitchens "silver plate." A few wooden shelves, a wooden puncheon above the fireplace, and a _ potbench took the place of pantry and cabinet. To one side usually stood the spinning wheel. And in a few kitchens were to be seen chairs or a table brought from the old home in England. The poorest kitchens COLONIAL KITCHEN HOME LIFE AND PASTIMES 73 WHALE- OIL LAMP now would have made the colonial dame living in a mansion open her eyes in wonder. 122. Northern and southern homes. In the North where winters were long and hard, houses were closely built with few doors and windows. There were no stoves, and the great fireplace was the only means of heating. In the South the houses were made to keep cool: their verandas and balconies were large, and a great hall usually divided the house. Colonial days seem far away when we remember that there was no electricity, gas, or even kerosene lamps. Each household made its own candles or used tallow dips. Very few boasted of whale oil lamps. 123. Pastimes of colonial days. The colonies had some games common to every section. One of these was danc- ing. While the people of New England frowned upon this pastime, the young folks in the Dutch settlements and in the South often made merry to the sound of the violin. Sewing and quilting "bees" belonged to each colony; they gave pleasant work for mothers and daughters in the daytime, and in the evening young men happened in to join in some other gay sport. Another pastime common to all parts was boating. On the large rivers it was sloop sailing with the decks large enough for guests. Southern people have always been famed as horseback riders. They had to be good horsemen, for their homes were far apart. The pastime peculiar to the South was fox hunting. Each planter had his stable of horses and his kennel of hounds. Old folks, as well as young, joined in the chase from early morning until the fox was caught. 74 'HE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE The boys of Boston and of Charleston played football, not much after the present-day style, however. They ^ _ _ had many kinds of ball games such as "town around" out of which baseball grew, and "bull pen." Wrestling matches were in- dulged in by the more vigorous boys, and jump- ing games were common. Winter sports were enjoyed, such as skating and sleigh riding, in the North. In the South and among the Dutch, simple plays upon the stage, gotten up by local talent, gave entertainment to the people. The Dutch and Germans in this country made great preparations for enjoying Christmas time. FOX-HUNTING IN VIRGINIA COLONIAL EDUCATION 124. Going to school under difficulties. Everybody had to work in old colony days, even the children. This made it hard for boys and girls to go to school. There were few books then, and little money to buy them. In the South attending school was difficult indeed. The children lived many miles apart, and roads were very poor. Schoolhouses were built without much attention to the comfort of the pupils. If they had floors, they were made of puncheons (§119). This was true also of seats and writing desks. The only light came through windows covered with oiled paper. The teacher was a man who had little sympathy with pranks of youngsters. COLONIAL EDUCATION 75 ^^^^3-^- -^' NEW ENGLAND SCHOOLHOUSE He knew how to keep them busy only by the free use of the rod. Children frequently studied "out loud," and as a rule were not divided into classes, but each child recited his lesson alone. Only the boys were allowed to go to the pubhc schools. The girls got no training outside of the home, except when permitted' to at- tend a private school for girls, "dame schools," as they were called. 125. Schools in the different colonies. The Puritan was a great believer in the Bible. Hence his children must be taught to read. When no teacher appeared he usually employed the minister. The minister was often the teacher in all the colonies. In 1647 the legislature of Massachusetts required every town of fifty families to provide a school for its boys, and every town of a hundred families to have a grammar school. The EngHsh neglected the schools which the Dutch had begun in almost every town in New Netherland. Just before the surrender of New Netherland a Latin school was established in New Amsterdam that drew students from far-away South Carolina. In New Jersey, soon after 1700, every county was required to have a school supported by public taxation. The most famous of all Philadelphia schools was the Penn Charter School. It threw open its doors to both boys and girls, and to the poor without price, and to the rich for a fee. Outside this vigorous city, schools did not flourish in Pennsylvania, 76 THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE although parents who failed to teach boys and girls to read and write were fined. In the South we have seen why schools were few (§124). Virginia tried to establish a free school, but it did not work well. That famous old tyrant, Governor Berkeley, in writing to the king, thanked God that Virginia had neither printing press nor free schools. In vSouth CaroHna free schools were maintained by the gifts of generous-hearted people. But planters everywhere had their children taught by tutors or by a minister. 126. Colleges of colonial times. For half a century Harvard at Cambridge, Massachusetts (1636) remained the only college in the colonies. William and Mary College at Williamsburg (1693), named to honor the new ^ ,.; :x ^^ "^1 HARVARD COLLEGE IX THE EARLY DAYi monarchs of England, came to bless Virginia. The cen- tury was a year old when Yale was founded at New COLONIAL EDUCATION 77 Haven, Connecticut. Another half century sHpped by before New England founded Brown (1764). Dartmouth WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE ABOUT I725 at Hanover, New Hampshire, was soon added (1769). The middle colonies founded Princeton at Princeton, New Jersey (1746), King's College, now Columbia in New York City (1754), Pennsylvania at Philadelphia (1755), and Rutgers at New Brunswick, New Jersey (1770). Colonial colleges were little better than high schools. They took boys in their "teens" and put them through a stiff course in four years. Governor Belcher of New Jer- sey said of Princeton College ' ' that a seminary for religion and learning should be promoted in this Province; for the better enlightening the minds and polishing the man- ners, of this and the neighboring colonies." Hence colonial colleges trained ministers in the main. Their 78 THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE courses were made up largely of the ancient languages and mathematics. In 1755 Benjamin Franklin was the chief founder of an academy which placed as much empha- sis upon English as upon the ancient languages. This school became the University of Pennsylvania. The college life of those days would seem queer to us now. The students were not so democratic as they now are, although there were no fraternities (§115). Organ- ized athletics were absent, and the boys spent their leisure in pranks for which they were tried by college courts and punished by college officers. The colleges of colonial days were modeled after Oxford and Cambridge Uni- versities. It was the custom for the planters in the southern colonies to send their sons to England for an education. ^^ 127. Self-educated men. The great majority of able men in colonial times had been to college either at home or abroad. Some had not, and among them were Washing- ton and Franklin. They were educated in the "Uni- versity of the World." One other such man was John Bartram of Philadelphia, pronounced by a great man to be the "greatest natural botanist in the world. "^^ 128. Reading matter. Libraries. The first printing press in the colonies was set up in Cambridge, Massa- chusetts, in 1639. How slow the world would seem to us without a newspaper of any kind! The earliest one, the Boston News Letter, appeared in 1704. Before the Revolution every colony had one or more newspapers. When the first daily appeared, the Pennsylvania Packet, the colonies must have thought they were progressive indeed. The one book found in most colonial homes was the Bible. It was the favorite textbook in schools. Other RELIGIOUS AND MORAL LIFE 79 books were scarce. Town after town had no public library. Charleston had the only important library in any southern city. A few individuals had, for that time, good libraries. The largest was owned by a wealthy Virginia planter, William Byrd, founder of the town of Richmond . His library numbered 3,500 volumes . Cotton Mather, the great New England preacher, had a library of 3,000 volumes. 129. Peter Zenger's trial. Near the close of the colo- nial period, a New York newspaper — Peter Zenger, editor — criticized the governor. The governor had Zenger arrested. His trial created intense excitement, and Zenger was made to feel how dangerous it was to find fault publicly with a man high in authority. He sent for a great Quaker lawyer, Andrew Hamilton. Hamilton declared : "It is not the cause^of a poor printer nor of New York alone, . . . . it is the cause of liberty. ' ' The judges set Zenger free, and the crowd shouted, and the people of New York gave Zenger a great banquet. Never again was the right of free speech in such danger in America. RELIGIOUS AND MORAL LIFE 130. Many sects in the colonies. Down to the Revolu- tion the EngHsh church was estabHshed in Virginia. Everybody paid taxes for its support. It was also, for a time, the established church for Maryland and the Carolinas. The New England Puritans were Congregationalists (§70), and in all the colonies but Rhode Island the church was tax supported. Among the Scotch-Irish settlers, found in all colonies, the Presbyterians were by far the strongest. The Dutch Reformed people were more GOOSE CREEK CHURCH SOL TI 80 THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE numerous in New York and in New Jersey than in the other colonies. The Baptists were strongest in Rhode Island. Among the Ger- mans settling in America the Luth- erans were most numerous. There were Moravians, Mennonites, and the Dunkards in Pen n syl vania. Quakers were found in nearly every colony, but the middle colo- nies were their home. The Methodist church, founded by John Wesley (1740) in England, did not make much progress until after the Revolution. This great variety of sects gradually came to tolerate each other as the result of bitter experience. 131. Severe church ways. The minister. The colo- nists were very much in earnest about reHgion. The members of one sect not only believed other sects wrong, but to be avoided. In almost all of the first colonies the law compelled a man to go to one church (§75). Protest- ing against this law got Roger WilHams into trouble (§71). The minister was a great man in the colonies, except among the Quakers who had no paid minister (§101). ' He was a college bred man as a rule, and was treated with respect. His advice was asked by the head of the house and by the officers of the colony. 132. People strict in keeping the Sabbath. On Sunday little work was done even in the home. Every person, RELIGIOUS AND MORAL LIFE 8i dressed in his best, went to church to hear long sermons and visit a bit with neighbors. In New England if any one fell asleep during the sermon, an officer gently tapped him on the head. 133. Great colonial preachers. One of the great ministers in early New England was Cotton Mather. He was a college man and could read the ancient lan- guages. While in his "teens" he preached his first ser- mon. He dipped into science a bit and wrote letters to learned men on the Continent. He was a great figure in the witchcraft trouble (§136). Another great preacher was Whitefield (§59). He founded in Georgia the first orphan asylum in America, and was one of the greatest revivaHsts that ever lived. He came to New England, where Jonathan Edwards had produced the "great awakening," a religious revival. Whitefield split the Puritans in two divisions by his preaching (1744). PLRIT^Nb GOING TO CHLRCH 134. Punishment severe among the colonists. The law was cruel in colonial times. Men suffered death for 82 THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE many deeds for which they would now go to jail, be fined, or even be set free with a serious talk from the judge (§112). But even then the laws were not as severe in the colonies as in England. Whipping the children in the family for all kinds of wrongdoing was very common. Few kindly hands were lifted to improve bad children. 135. Punishment in public. In colonial times punish- ment in public was the fashion, but now it is in private. The gallows on which men were hanged stood in a public place, and in nearly every town the pillory and the stocks stood where people could see offenders duly punished. A ducking-stool stood ready for the woman who slandered her neighbors. Scores of men in colonial times bore marks on face and hand made by a^ red-hot iron. A milder way was to hang around a man's neck a card bearing a word showing his offense. The purpose seemed to be to strike terror into the hearts of evildoers. The one bright spot among the colonies was Pennsylvania with the laws made by the Quakers for the reform of evil- doers. 136. The witchcraft craze. Over two hundred years ago, the people in all countries believed in witches. They thought persons ugly in form could become the com- panions of evil spirits and obtain their aid in bringing cruel punishment on those they hated, or "bewitched." In 1692 some young people at Salem, Massachusetts, acted strangely. They declared that certain persons had bewitched them. The excitement spread, and the jail was full of innocent people. Nineteen were hanged before the people of Salem realized that they would all be in jail if the craze kept on. They stopped it. Europe, one hundred years afterward, burned people for being witches. INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 83 IXDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 137. Colonial labor. After the early fever for gold- hunting had passed away, the settlers began to work. They found more work and harder than they had expected. But they found one thing in plenty : free land. All land in Europe had been taken up by men owning great estates (§2). We have seen, too, how such men tried to bring the same plan of land-holding to America (§54, 57). It failed because America was too big. The settlers who wanted to own their own farms needed only to go a little farther west where there was free land in abundance. The result has been, even to our day, that nowhere else has labor owned so many of the farms it tilled. How different in the Old World ! There the wage earner and the tenant farmer are underlings, but in America the farmer is a free man. 138. Common occupations. Farming was the one occupation most common, because both food and clothing came from it. The North had more farmers than the South, because northern farms were small while southern plantations were large. None the less, farming was the only great occupation in the South. No other could compare with it. In all the colonies manufacturing, shipbuilding, commerce, fishing, and fur trading were the other means of winning a living. In the North many people enjoyed the benefits that came from these occupa- tions, while in the South only the planters, the few, enjoyed the best results of farming. 139. Ways and means of farming. The settlers brought to America the old ways of farming used by their fathers. They rested the soil every third year to keep it from wearing out. But when the ground was newly cleared, the American farmer did not think even of this. 84 THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE wood. When the land began to wear out all the settler had to do was to clear a new field or move farther west and take up new land. Land was cheap in those days. This waste- ful and destructive way of treating the soil has continued in some parts to our day. Then the farmer did not know what crops are best for the soil. Now we do. Now we rotate crops; that is, the farmer raises a different crop each year on the same piece of ground. This rests the soil and is much less wasteful than the old custom of letting the land lie fallow every third year. The very tools used by the colonists were ancient. They were nearly all made of wood. The colonial plow was Hke that of the Romans. The harrow, an awkward tool, had The spade, the rake, and the fork were also wooden. The hoe for digging, the scythe for cutting grass, and the sickle for reaping grain, were made of iron. It is now clear why farmers in old colony times raised but a small amount of any one crop. Because of the primitive tools in use, there were no fields with miles of growing corn or acres upon acres of waving grain such as may be seen today. Machinery to help cultivate and gather the crops makes the difference. The sickle was capable of cutting only a single handful of grain at a time. Men now living have seen the farmer use his horses to tramp out the grain on the bare ground or on the barn floor. He then threw the grain up against TOOLS USED BY THE COLONIAL FARMER INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 85 a briskly blowing wind to drive away the chaff. If he had a sieve, he put the grain through it to clean it once more. It was now ready for the mill. But the mill might have been a "hand mill," or a "horse mill," a mill turned by a horse hitched to a "sweep." In later colonial days water mills were introduced. We can understand now why in the North most people had to be farmers. 140. The farmer an independent man. Besides pro- ducing what he wanted to eat, the farmer raised flax and wool, which his own family made into clothes or bedding. Have you never seen the spinning wheel on which our great-grandmothers made flax thread ? Or the larger one on which they made woolen thread? The power for turning the smaller one came from the foot, and for turning the larger one, from the hand. The farmers family wove and cut and made the clothes they wore. Only the rich wore clothes imported from London. Th» farmers of New England and the middle states obtained the finest sirup and sugar in the world from the maple trees growing in the woods. Hogs ran wild and fed on the nuts of the forest. The result was that the farmer could have more meat than he needed. Besides, he added variety to his supply by using his rifle on the game in the forest. The most independent person in the world was the American farmer of the colonial period. COLONIAL HOME 86 THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE 141. How the planter lived. Some account must be given of how the planter managed his great plantation. The first planters were careful to locate on ocean front or river. This gave them easy communication with their neighbors and direct connection with the mother coun- try. The planter and his laborers made up a sort of vil- lage. They could produce everything on the plantation they needed, but not all they wanted. Their leading crop was tobacco, if the planter was a Marylander or a Virginian ; rice or indigo if he was a Carolinian. If he was enterprising, he raised corn and wheat, oats and hay, and had herds of cattle and flocks of sheep. The planter's family obtained fine clothes, shoes, fur- niture, and tableware from the markets of London. The planter, like George Washington, had his agent in London to whom he gave his orders for goods and to whom he INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE S7 sent his products to be sold. Now and then the planter ran deeply in debt to London merchants. Many of the more trusty slaves were shoemakers, carpenters, gardeners, and blacksmiths. The slaves were very proud of their master and of the position he held in the community. 142. When the great ship came to the planter's door. The annual ship from England landed at the planter's own wharf. For weeks everybody talked of its coming, the news it was to bring from old friends, and the fine clothes and fur- niture fresh from the old English home. How all hands worked to get the tobacco or rice or indigo ready for the great vessel! What stir and excitement as the ship came in to view, sailing up the river! What joy it brought to ev- ery one! Good news from the old home, let- ters presents, loading the great ship at the planters wharf and perhaps some long-absent father or brother or sister I Then came the work of unloading what the planter had 88 THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE ordered, and of loading what he had to sell. While this work was being done the planter and his family were entertaining, in true plantation style, officers of the ship, settling accounts, and giving orders for the next year. 143. The small farmer a jack of all trades. The small farmer belonged in every colony. When not busy on his farm he engaged in other labor. While game was plentiful, he hunted for food and trapped for fur. He might turn his attention to lumbering, shipbuilding, car- pentering, blacksmithing, dressing leather, or to making hats. Boys were kept busy whittling out forks and butter paddles for their mothers, or wooden knives, forks, and spoons for the table. They made traps in the winter for catching game birds and animals. In the South, par- ticularly in North Carolina, many people made tar, pitch, and turpentine. . 144. The fur trader. From colonial days until now, trapping and fur trading have gone on. To the early settlers it gave one article wanted in Europe. New York soon led in this trade. The Dutch were just the people to win the friendship of the Indians (§33). Their first cargo of furs brought the thrifty Dutchmen $10,000. It was the struggle of the early settlers for this trade that first drew them to seek lands toward the setting sun. 145. The fishermen of New England. When New England fishing of all kinds was at its best, it brought over $1,000,000 per year. Cod fishing began about 1670, and in a few years 650 vessels, carrying over 4,000 men, were in this industry alone. Twenty, years after whale fishing began, 260 ships sailed in search of this monster of the ocean. The fish were dried for the market, and the whale was cut up for his oil. American ships carried these products to almost every market in the world. INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 89 146. The making of ships. Ships were built in every colony, but in largest numbers in the North. In fact, shipbuilding took its rise in Plymouth soon after the colony was founded (§64). It has been said that Cap- tain Adrian Block of New Amsterdam built the first, ship in the colonies, but New York did not follow up this effort immediately. The splendid forests that grew to the ocean's edge made it easy for the Americans to build the best ships in the world. Very soon the shipbuilders in England were sending petitions to Parliament to have shipbuiMing stopped in America. The English govern- ment wanted a large navy, so they encouraged Americans to send naval supplies to England. One of the best results of colonial shipbuilding was the call for so many different occupations: woodchopping, logging, sawmilling, car- pentering, ropemaking, pitchmaking, sailmaking, black- smithing, and others. 147. The iron industry. In all the colonies there was iron ore. It was easy to get, for it was found in swamps or bogs. Hence it was called "bog iron ore." In the southern colonies, the people were too busy with tobacco and rice to manufacture iron; they loaded ships with the ore and sent it to England. ^^ In the North busi- ness men built mills for rolling it into shape so it could be used. They made tools for the farmer, the carpenter, and the blacksmith, and manufactured articles for the home. In 1750 Parliament felt that the iron trade in America was cutting into English trade; they passed the Iron Works Act, which checked colonial trade in iron (§179)- 148. Colonial manufactures. In colonial days nearly everything was made by hand. Then many things were made in the same house. Now one thing is go THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE made in a great factory filled with machinery driven by great engines. Then the father might make shoes or furniture while the mother and her daughters spun, wove, cut the cloth, and made clothes. The hatrnakers called on Parliament to keep American hats out of their markets. Parliament answered by pro- hibiting the manufacture of hats (1732) (§179). 149. The manufacture of woolens. From an early day the colonies raised sheep for their wool. As they grew they made more woolens than they needed. Their ships carried the surplus to the West Indies and to Europe, where they met English goods. Parliament passed its famous Woolens Bill (1699), declaring that no wool nor woolen goods should be "exported .... out of the said EngHsh plantations to any of the other plantatipns or to any place whatsoever." Hemp was produced for rope in Maryland and Virginia, flax for Hnen in the more northern colonies; and cotton in the South had made a small beginning. 150. Home commerce. The very first trade with Indians was for something to eat and furs to wear. The Indians loved colors, cloth, glass beads, or other trinkets. They soon learned, also, to demand guns and hatchets. The rise of towns caused a demand for farm products, for dried fish, lumber, and rum. The colonists had very little money. Hence most of their trade was carried on by giving so many pounds or bushels of one thing for so many pounds or bushels of another. This way of trading is called barter. 151. Travel and communication. We have seen that early settlers located on harbors or rivers because travel by other routes was slow and dangerous. Small rowboats and canoes were the means of travel on the smaller rivers. INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 91 On the larger streams articles of trade as well as passen- gers made their way in the wind-driven sloop. From city to city along the coast travel and trade made the distance in small sailing ships. As people grew in numbers, they pushed away from seacoast and river. Other means of travel were used. The Indian trails were followed at first. The season when travel was easiest was winter, when the sleigh was used. Until almost Revolutionary times there were no roads for travel by stagecoach. In 1756 a stagecoach between New York and Philadelphia, called the "Flying Ma- chine," made ninety miles in three days. A postman on horseback carried the mail between the larger towns. In 1753 Benjamin Franklin was appointed deputy postmaster-general for all the colonies. 152. Foreign commerce. Articles made in the home- land had first rank in the minds of the settlers. This made trade with England easy. Tobacco, rice, and naval stores (pitch, turpentine, and tar) were shipped out by the southern colonies, while the northern and middle colonies sent masts, salted fish, lumber, pig iron, flour, and salted meat. In return England sent coffee, tea, cutlery, silks, wines, cloth, ironware, and implements of various kinds. The colonial shipowner often sold his vessel, for American ships brought high prices in Europe. 153. Rum and the African slave trade. The New Englander carried some of his goods to the West Indies and traded them for sugar and molasses. He took these home and manufactured them into rum.^'' A part of the rum was sold at home; a part was traded to the Indians for furs ; a third part was carried to the West Indies and traded for more sugar and molasses; and the rest was carried to Africa, where the chiefs were glad to get it in 92 THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE exchange for slaves. The slaves were carried to America and sold to the West Indies and to the colonies." 154. West Indian trade leads to smuggling. England owned some of the West Indies. ^^ The Spanish and French West India Islands were not open to Englishmen for trade. Englishmen at home set the example to Americans in smugghng goods to these islands. The American colonist became a double smuggler when he got by the French or Spanish custom officers, and when he brought his cargo to America and outwitted the Eng- lish officers. 155. Piracy everywhere. Smugghng was not piracy, but sometimes smugglers turned pirates. From Maine to the West Indies pirates were to be found. It is said that one of the colonial governors sold them licenses. Captain Kidd, a bold seaman, sailed to hunt them down, turned pirate himself, and became the terror of the sea. Besides Kidd there were French, Bonnet, and Blackbeard, all famous pirates. Finally the colonists and the English drove the pirates to the Spanish West Indies. HOW THE COLONIES WERE GOVERNED 156. Why the colonists loved England. The great majority of the colonists were warmly attached to Eng- land. They had a right to look up to England. Her government was not only the freest among European nations, but she had given the colonies a more liberal government than any other nation would have done. But Englishmen had to battle with their monarchs now and then in order to keep their government free. The colonists could always point with pride to those great charters of hberty: Magna Charta (12 15); the Petition of Right GOVERNMENT OF THE COLONIES 93 (1629); and the Bill of Rights (1689). « The settlers, as Englishmen, claimed the rights named in these grants. 157. The monarch's blunders. The colonies had a more perfect system of self-government than the mother countr}^ England had a king and a House of Lords. It is true that this king was sovereign over the colonies, but he acted through governors or proprietors. Two colo- nies, Connecticut and Rhode Island, elected their own governors. While the colonies were small the king paid little attention to them. He made the mistake of trying to manage them after they had grown great in numbers. The monarch ceased to use the veto power in England (1707), but made the blunder of continuing to veto colonial laws. 158. Where our state governments came from. "The roots of the present lie deep in the past." We realize how true this is when we think of our present state gov- ernments growing out of colonial governments. The colo- nial governor, vetoed laws he did not like and put others in force. The colonial governor sent messages to the leg- islature, appointed officers, and was a great figure at social doings. Our governors do all of these things. To aid the governor the colony usually had a council made up of leading men. This council in some colonies had the right to help make the laws. Out of this council our senate has grown. But the people of the colonies took pride in their repre- sentatives. They elected them then as now. Not all the people voted, but mainly persons owning property. In some colonies a voter or office-holder must hold certain religious doctrines. . The members of these lower houses kept a sharp lookout over what the governor did. They objected when he spent too much money and some- 94 THE WAYS OF COLONIAL LIFE times cut down his salary if he did not please them. 159. Where our local governments came from. In New England the settlers formed little groups around a church and a school (§70). Each group was given a name and became a town or township. The New Eng- land town included the village and all the farms near it. From this town two representatives were elected to the assembly. This town had its own government. The men met to talk over the town's welfare. At this meeting leaders, called selectmen, were elected to look after the government. In most northern towns we have a similar government. These town-meetings gave the New Eng- land people a fine training in self-government. The southern colonists did not gather into towns but settled far apart on big plantations. They had county governments. The leading officer was called the sheriff after the officer of an English county. We, too, have a county officer so named. SUGGESTED READINGS References for teachers: Lodge, Short History of the English Colonies, 74-454; Roosevelt, Winning oj the West, I, 1 10-125; Bogart, Economic History of the United States, 36-S8; Bogart and Thompson, Readings in the Economic History of the United States, 1-142; Hart, Contemporaries, 1, chap, i; Hart, American Statesmen and Patriots, I, 238-243. References for pupils: Thwaites, Colonies, 186-188, 222-224, 280-281; Earle, Child Life in Colonial Days, Home Life in Colonial Days; Hart, Source Book, 88-92, 11 5-1 23; Hart, Source Reader, I, 143, 159, 161, 177, 184, 185; Hart, Colonial Children, 67-70; Mowry, Inven- tions and Inventors, 187-206. Fiction: Robinson, Lads and Lassies of Other Days, Little Puritans' First Christmas; Stockton, Stories of New Jersey; Paulding, The Dutch- man's Fireside. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS I. Describe a colonial "dandy.'- 2. You are a Scotch-Irishman living on the frontier. What are your experiences? 3. Write letters to a southern boy or girl telling of northern fun in winter time. 4. Get letters from the colonial South. CHAPTER VII THE BATTLE FOR NORTH AMERICA THE RISE OF NEW FRANCE 1 60. The French and the Newfoundland fisheries. John Cabot and the Cortereal brothers (1501) took back to Europe stories of immense numbers of fish in the waters near Newfoundland. As a result, as early as 1504 French fishermen were visiting the fishing grounds, and by 1522 they had built some houses on shore. They came every year and built up a flourishing business. By 1577 they had 150 ships on the Banks, many more than any other nation. We have read of the work of Verrazano and Cartier, but no permanent French settlement was founded for a long time (§21). In 1604 De Monts founded Port Royal, later called AnnapoHs. 161. Samuel Champlain, the founder of New France (1608). Champlain planted the first permanent colony in Canada at Quebec, one year after Jamestown. He joined the Algonquin In- dians (1609) against their deadly enemies, the Iroquois (§34). On the shores of Lake Champlain they met with savage yells. The ranks of the Algonquins opened, and Champlain, clad in steel and THE DEFEAT OF THE IROQUOIS AT LAKE CHAMPLAIN 95 96 THE BATTLE FOR NORTH AMERICA armed with a weapon never before seen by the Iroquois, stepped forth. He fired, and two Iroquois chiefs fell. Other shots followed, and the "boldest and fiercest war- riors of North America " ran frightened through the woods. From that day, for over a hundred years the Iroquois kept the French from coming down into New York. 162. Marquette and Joliet. Marquette and JoHet went from Quebec in search of a great river called the "Father of Waters" (1673). From Mackinac they went through Green Bay and up the Fox River to the portage. The Indians carried their canoes to the Wisconsin, and down this charming river they floated to the Mississippi. On the bosom of this broad stream they were carried for many days. They reached the mouth of the Arkansas. They were satisfied that the Missis- sippi flowed into the Gulf of Mexico and now made their slow way back. Joliet re- ported to Quebec, and Marquette built a cabin on the site of the city of Chicago (1674). He died soon after, a missionary to the Indians. 163. La Salle and Hennepin. La Salle was greatest among the early French explorers. He resolved to hold the Mississippi region for his beloved LA SALLE AT THE MOUTH OF THE MISSISSIPPI THE RISE OF NEW FRANCE 97 France (1679). His expedition started from Canada and went by way of the St. Joseph and the Kankakee rivers to Peoria Lake. He returned to Canada, and Hennepin paddled on down to the Mississippi and up that stream to the Falls of St. Anthony, where now stand the great cities of St. Paul and Minneapolis. La Salle returned and passed down the Mississippi River to its mouth (1783). He took possession and named the region Louisiana in honor of the king of France, Louis XIV. NEW ORLEANS IN 17 IQ 164. Louisiana. The plans of the French. How the Frenchman's heart leaped for joy as he looked forward to a vast empire in the heart of America! The king sent La Salle with an expedition to settle at the mouth of the Mississippi (1684). But La Salle missed the place, wandered about in Texas, and finally was murdered by one of his own men. France was not discouraged: She settled Biloxi (1699) on the Gulf, and Mobile (1702) far- ther east. In rapid succession she built the forts Assump- tion, Rosalie, and New Orleans (17 14-18). Already Frenchmen were coming west and south from the Great Lakes. They, too, had built a strong chain of forts. The English had not yet broken over the Alleghenies, and the French did their work in safety. 5 gS THE BATTLE FOR NORTH AMERICA THEIR FIRST CONFLICTS 165. King William's War and Queen Anne's War (1689-1713). We have already seen the great changes made in the colonies by William and Mary (§78, 92). The king of France, Louis XIV, hated the new king of England and decided to make war. The English colonies were only too glad to join the mother country. The main French and Indian events included attacks on the frontier towns of Schenectady, Salmon Falls, Haverhill, and Deerfield'. The English replied by attacking Acadia in both wars. They changed its name to Nova Scotia, and Port Royal to Annapohs (§160). The treaty of Utrecht gave England possession of the Hudson Bay country and Newfoundland. This was the beginning of the end of New France. 166. King George's War (1744-48). For over thirty years England had no war with .France, thanks to a great %-^:$'^ THE C\PTURE OP LOUISBt RG English statesman, Robert Walpole. France had forti- fied Louisburg, the key to the St. Lawrence. When war TH^ GREAT STRUGGLE 00 finally came, England sent great fleets carrying several thousand soldiers to attack Louisburg. New England raised 4,000 men, and the fortress fell (1745). Great was the joy throughout the colonies. Their disappointment at its return by treaty to France was made lighter by a gift from Parliament to help pay the cost of the war. THE GREAT STRUGGLE 167. In the first West. Causes of the war. Many colonial grants, in fixing boundaries, ran from sea to sea. But the French cared nothing for English charters. Their fur traders pushed south as the English pushed north. They met in the Appalachian region, the West of that time. This was a wonderful region of vast forests, rich soil in the valleys, and abundant animal life. It was already occupied by the Scotch-Irish (§110). The Ohio Company (:■ '\^A}k received a grant of 500,- 000 acres near the source of the Ohio. Settlers were getting ready to go into this region. The French, too, were coming down the Allegheny River to the source of the Ohio. 168. Washington's first public service. Washington^" was a splen- did-looking young man; tall, strong, and able to outdo his fellows. Although he was not yet twenty-one, the governor of Virginia picked him to order the French WASHINGTON ON HIS WAY BACK FROM THE FRENCH POSTS lOO THE BATTLE FOR NORTH AMERICA out of the Ohio Valley region. They refused to go, and he was put at the head of troops to push to the source INDIANS ON THEIR WW BACK TO CANADA WITH THEIR PRISONERS of the Ohio. He fought two skirmishes, winning one and losing one. He was compelled to surrender. War had begun. 169. Other preparations. The Albany union (1754). The French were trying hard to win the Iroquois; hence English colonial delegates were sent to Albany to treat with the Indians. Not all the Indian chiefs came. They plainly told the English, "The French are men; they are fortifying everywhere. But, we are ashamed to say it, you are like women." The Indians were given presents and went away happy. The colonies had long felt the need of some kind of union. The delegates adopted a plan prepared by Benjamin FrankHn. Neither king nor colonies would have it. They faced the war broken into thirteen parts, THE GREAT STRUGGLE lOi while the French were united. The governor of Canada could order every Frenchman in Canada into the army. The colonies could only ask for volunteers. 170. Braddock's defeat (1755). England sent General Braddock with a small army to help the colonists. They joined him in a campaign against Fort Duquesne on the Ohio. He was brave but haughty. He refused the advice of Franklin and Washington that he should get ready for an Indian surprise. He marched along a nar- row road through the deep forests. Near the fort the Indians, yelling like demons fired upon them from behind trees. The soldiers could not see the Indians and ran away after many of their comrades were shot down. Lj I h ^i/^ihll WASHINGTON .\ND THE VIRGINIANS SAVE BRADIJOCK S ARMY Braddock was mortally wounded. ^^ Only Washington and his Virginians saved the army from total wreck. THE BATTLE FOR NORTH AMERKW 171. Washington on the frontier. The Acadians. The House of Burgesses gave Washington hearty thanks for his bravery. He hastened into the Shenandoah Valley to guard the frontier families from the tomahawk and the scalping knife of the Indians. He won name and fame in protecting this "backdoor" to the colonies. The English were successful against the Acadians. These people were French and lived in far-ofif Nova Scotia (§165). They loved their native land and refused to be loyal to the EngHsh flag. They were scattered among strangers from Maine to Georgia. ^- 172. The Seven Years' War. The French and Indian War v/as a part of the struggle in Europe which we know as the Seven Years' War. France, Russia, and Spain joined Austria in trying to defeat Frederick the Great of Prussia. England went to the aid of Frederick. England sent her soldiers to America and her money to Frederick. The English navy, the most powerful in the world, guarded the sea and kept France from sending troops to America. This war raged on three con- tinents at the same time: in America, in Europe, and in far-away India. 173. Pitt to the rescue. For two years (1756-57) France won every battle in America. vShe was united. The English sent over only poor generals to the colonies, while the French had a great soldier, Montcalm. The English turned out their worthless ministers after WILLIAM PITT THE GREAT STRUGGLE 103 JAMES WOLFE two years and called William Pitt to head the government. He was a man of boundless energy and enthusiasm. He did everything at once: sent money to Frederick, raised more soldiers for America, and selected new generals because of their fighting ability. The coloni.es caught his enthusiasm and voted more men and more money than their share. ^^ 174. Pitt's generals. Pitt sent a great fleet and army against Louisburg (§166). The walls of the fort crumbled, and the mouth of the St. Lawrence River was now open. Pitt sent Howe to attack Fort Ticonderoga with the larg- est army yet seen in America, 15,000. Everything promised victory until General Howe was killed. " Nearly 2,000 men fell, the largest number yet killed in an American battle. The Eng- lish retreated. General Forbes gathered an army and captured Fort Duquesne. Washington raised the British flag over that frontier post. Tt was named Fort Pitt in LOUIS JOSEPH DE MONTCALM houor of that great Englishman. I04 THE BATTLE FOR NORTH AMERICA 175. The fall of Quebec. While Niagara and Oswego were being captured and Sir William Johnson and General Amherst were driving the French from Ticonderoga and Crown Point, General Wolfe was moving against Quebec. After Louisburg, Quebec was the key to Canada. Wolfe's cannon easily knocked to pieces the lower town. But Montcalm's real fort was the high bluff of the St. Lawrence called the Plains of Abraham. One night, after a wait of three months, Wolfe's men clambered up the heights and were ready for battle in the THE DEATH OF GENERAL WOLFE early morning. Montcalm advanced to the attack. The British held their fire until the French were near. The French line wavered, broke, and fled. Wolfe and Montcalm both fell mortally wounded. "I am happy," said Montcalm, "I shall not live to see the surrender of Quebec." Wolfe, when told that the French were run- ning, said with a smile on his face, "Now God be praised! I shall die in peace. "^^ The next year Montreal fell, and THE MEANING OF THE VICTORY 105 all Canada became English. The dream of New France had passed away forever. THE MEANING OF THE VICTORY 176. To the world. The treaty signed in Paris (1763) was proof of England's victory. England received Florida from Spain. Spain received all of Louisiana from France. In far-off India, England now laid the foundations of her vast possessions which now reach round the world. But most important of all, Canada fell to England. To America it meant the triumph of the ideas of the "glorious revolution" (§78). In all New France there had never been a representative assembly, town meeting, trial by jury, religious toleration, or a free school. The English colonies rejoiced in all of these institutions. The people of New France, only 80,000, were under the rule of a tyrant king, but the people of the colonies, over 1,000,000, were their own rulers. 177. To England and America. The EngHsh colonies were wild with joy when .they heard of the capture of Quebec. Bells rang, cannon boomed, bonfires burned, and candles and whale oil lamps were set in the windows. The colonists were proud of the English name. They were glad to welcome three new colonies: (i) Canada, (2) Florida, and (3) West Florida on the Gulf. Both England and the colonies went deeply into debt. The war had been a sort of training school for the Ameri- cans. It taught them what a campaign cost in money and food. Thereafter many of their soldiers were better trained and made good officers in the war of the Revolu- tion. As a result of the war the colonists knew each other better. They had fought together, sorrowed over io6 THE BATTLE FOR NORTH AMERICA the same defeats, and rejoiced over the same victories. The ties of union were made stronger. This war removed the French menace. "Do you not see," asked a French statesman of an Englishman, "that Canada in the hands of France will serve to keep your colonies in the dependence which they will not fail to shake off the moment Canada is ceded?" SUGGESTED READINGS References for teachers: Parkman, Pioneers of New France, 46-47, 80-88; Thwaites, Colonies, 246-257; Hart, Formation of the Union, 24-30; Lodge, Washington ("American Statesmen Series"), I, 64-78; Fiske, New France and New England, 58-132, 24Q-259; Roosevelt, Winning of the West, I, 25-48; Hart, Contemporaries, II, 140-144, 32(^322, 346-348. References for pupils: Mace, Stories .of Heroism, 106-110; Mace, Washington, a Virginia Cavalier, 46-66; Hawthorne, Grandfather's Chair, 140-169; Hart, Source Readers, 11, 32-44; Hart, Source Booli, 98-107. Fiction: Otis, Hannah of Kentucky; Oxley, Fife and Drum at Louisbnrg; vSeawell, A Virginia Cavalier. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS I. Go with Champbin and the Canadian Indians down the St. Lawrence and up Lake ChampLain to their battle with the Iroquois. Write what you see and hear and what the effect will be. 2. Go down the Mississippi with Joliet and Marquette. Write an account of the trip to friends in France. 3. Take a trip from Quebec through the Great Lakes and down to 'the Gulf. Describe France's "dream of empire." 4. You are one of Washington's guides to the French. Write up the story. 5. Write a paper justifying Pontiac's conspiracy CHAPTER Viri SEPARATION FROM ENGLAND AND UNION AMONG THE COLONIES REASONS FOR THE REVOLUTION 178. Europe's way of treating colonies. The colonists rejoiced in belonging to a country that had its possessions in India, Europe, and America. Ancient nations had planted colonies to enrich the merchants of their own countries. Spain and France treated their colonies in the same way. Their trade, religion, and government were under the thumb of the monarch. To keep colonial trade for their own mer- chants, no other nation was permitted to trade with their colonies. If colonial goods came into markets where the mother country traded, laws were passed to prevent this competition. Before 1750 English colonies everywhere enjoyed freer trade, freer religion, and freer government than the colonies of any other nation. Yet it must be understood that England planted colonies to benefit herself. She felt that her interests came first, even before those of the colonies. She wanted to build up her navy by having all goods sent to and from America in English ships; she wanted the colonists to send most of their products to England and not to other countries, and she wanted a market for her manufactures in America. She was willing for the colonies to have a good deal of freedom, in some matters but after all she expected to control them so as to make herself rich and strong, and not so as to benefit the colonies. 107 io8 UNION AMONG THE COLONIES 179. Navigation and other laws. The Navigation Laws (§146) crippled American trade because they de- clared that all goods must be carried to England in Eng- lish or colonial ships; that goods coming to the colonies must first be taken to England. The Sugar Act (1733) struck a deadly blow at the sugar and molasses trade with the French and Spanish West Indies (§153). Other acts regarded as oppressive were the Hat Act (§148) and the Iron Works Act (§147). Although the navigation and trade laws dated as far back as Cromwell's time, they had never been really enforced. Grenville, the new prime minister, and George III, the new king, decided to make the colonists obey these laws. 180. A new king brings new ways (1760). George III was ruler of Hanover, in Germany, while he was king of England. He had been educated by tutors and had been taught to believe it the king's duty to win the power lost in the two great revolutions (§73, 78). Most of the Tories supported him. He broke the Whig party into factions by bribes and gifts of office. Many statesmen feared for English liberty. Pitt, Burke, Fox, and other Whigs never gave up the fight against him. We would expect this king to have a new plan for governing his colonies. He needed money as a result of the French and Indian wars (§177). In 1 761 the king tried to collect the custom duties in GEORGE in, KING OF ENGLAND REASONS FOR THE REVOLUTION 109 America by using search warrants, called Writs of Assist- ance, for smuggled goods. This enraged the people, ^^ but he got very little money. He sent the navy to suppress smuggling, but injured the trade with the West Indies. Still he got little revenue. 181. The Stamp Act. America might have given in to these acts if England had not passed the Stamp Act. This was a direct tax laid on legal and business documents and newspapers. No one could even get married without paying the tax. The money was to support 10,000 troops to be kept in the colonies. The people at once cried out, "Taxation without representation is tyranny." , PATRICK HENRY ADDRESSING THE HOUSE OF BURGESSES Patrick Henry of Virginia denounced the law, declaring before the burgesses, "Caesar had his Brutus; Charles I his Cromwell, and George IH — " "Treason!" shouted the speaker — "may profit by their example." The bolder men in the colonies formed the "Sons of Liberty," while the merchants made non-importation UNION AMONG THE COLONIES agreements. The colonists made agreements among themselves that they would not import any goods from ..III ' . > .^ '■.Tf /; {W AS^«¥^>f RESISTANCE TO THE STAMP ACT England and would not use any articles that came from that country. The British merchants were hard hit; they felt that Parliament had gone too far. Mobs in America rushed about the streets, riding stamp agents on rails and crying, "Liberty, property, and no stamps." In New York a torchhght parade carried figures of the royal governor and vSatan and burned them in the governor's presence. 182. The Stamp Act Congress (i765\ The growing feeling of union demanded a congress. Delegates" from nine colonies met in New York. They asserted that the colonists were Englishmen; that they could not be represented in ParHament, and that they could be taxed only by their own assemblies. They sent an address to the king and a petition to Parliament. Gadsden declared : "There ought to be no New England man, no New Yorker, known on this continent, but all of us Americans." REASONS FOR THE REVOLUTION m 183. Parliament repeals the tax (1766). The Whigs of England were now stirring. Englishmen were storm- ing Parliament for the repeal of the act.^^ Pitt declared that he "rejoiced that America resisted." Lord Camden, a great judge, agreed with the Americans, and Burke spoke against the folly of such a law. Lord Rockingham, the prime minister, introduced a resolution repeahng the Stamp Act. Had it not been for the Whigs, the law would very likely not have been repealed. America and England were ablaze with bonfires ! Whigs in both countries rejoiced in the victory. 184. The Townshend Acts (1767). Srill England got little money from America. Townshend put duties on paper, tea, paints, and on other articles wanted by the colonists.^'' Parliament took away the powers of the New York assembly for refusing to quarter British troops. The old spirit of the colonies flamed up in opposition. John Dickinson of Pennsyl- vania declared in his "Letters of a Farmer" that "we cannot be free without being secure in our property." Samuel Adams, called the ' ' firebrand of the Rev- olution," sent a ringing "circular letter" to all the other colonies. He called on them to unite against the new taxes. The king ordered Massachusetts to recall the circular letter and the other colonies to treat it with con- tempt. Not a single colony obeyed the king.^" Two regiments of soldiers were ordered to Boston to enforce the Townshend Acts. S.^MUEL ADAMS UNION AMONG THE COLONIES 185. Outbreaks in the colonies. In New York the king's soldiers and the wSons of Liberty had a skirmish called the Battle of Golden Hill. In Boston (1770) several citizens were shot by soldiers. This is known as the Boston Massacre. In Rhode Island the people seized and burned the king's vessel, the "Gaspee." These events stirred the people. 186. The committees of secret correspondence. George III had found a man, Lord North, who managed Parliament, and did his bidding. He re- pealed all taxes except the small sum of three pence per pound on tea. Still the merchants held to their "boycott" against English goods, but the tea ships were coming to America anyway. To keep the patriots posted, on motion of Samuel Adams, committees were appointed in the towns of Massachusetts to correspond with each other (1772). In a short time Paul Revere was carrying the news from Boston to the other towns. In Virginia the burgesses named a committee to do a like work with all the assem- blies on the continent (1773). 187. The Boston Tea Party. Events were moving fast. The committees had been formed none too soon. Tea ships were on their way to colonial ports. In Boston the ships refused to take the tea back to England. The ^ ^ c I yy-^ REASONS FOR THE REVOLUTION 113 - ^rSf^t-'^V committee summoned 7,000 people from country and town. They overflowed the Old South Meeting House to hear speeches by Samuel Adams and other patri- ots. Candles were brought in, and finally word came that the governor had refused to per- mit the ships to go back. The meetingwas __ _ ^__ QlSmiSSea, ana ^^^ boston tea party aboard the ship the war whoop m the harbor of the "Mohawks" was heard from the gallery and from the streets. The people poured out, rushed to the wharf, and saw the "Indians" dump the tea into the harbor. The next night Paul Revere started on his first long ride to carry the news to New York and Philadelphia. He listened to the cheering words as the patriots in these old towns resolved to stand by Boston. 188. The Intolerable Acts arouse America. England struck back quickly. The Port Bill cut off all trade with Boston. Her people suffered, but the other colonies sent food, clothing, and money. "Hold on and hold out to the last," said one of the many resolute letters to Boston. The Regulating Act*'' changed the charter of Massa- chusetts (§78). The governor was given the power to appoint and pay the leading officers in the colony. A third act was intended to make officers more fearless in doing their duty by providing that they be sent out of the 114 UNION AMONG THE COLONIES colony for trial for murder. A later act gave Quebec all the territory down to the Ohio River. This cut off the natural growth of the thirteen colonies. General Gage, with four regiments, was ordered to enforce these acts and was told to arrest Samuel Adams and John Hancock (§193). 189. The First Continental Congress (1774). With the courageous words of Washington, "I will raise 1,000 men, subsist them at my own expense, and march myself at their head for the rehef of Boston," still ringing in their ears, the Con- gress met in Carpenters' Hall, Philadelphia. It was a noble band of patriots, fifty-five in number. They all knew Washing- ton through his deeds in i the late war (§§168, 171). Samuel Adams and Richard Henry Lee, two firebrands of the Revolu- tion, met for the first time. ..^vor^,™,;,™?. •r^v?g^ia-i Here, too, met the two f^^^i"^ i rV ' iil^'^S' ? greatest orators of the Im .^.-sta>y^^4i Revolution, Patrick Henry and John Adams. The gentle John Dickin- son, author of "Letters from a Farmer " (§184) and Roger Sherman, who rose from the shoemaker's bench to be a judge, were of that band. New York sent her merchant prince, PhiHp Livingston, CARPENTERS HALL REASONS FOR THE REVOLUTION IIS and John Jay, a Huguenot and a man learned in the law. From South Carolina came John Rutledge, a famous lawyer, and Christopher Gadsden, a scholar and patriot. 190. The work of Congress. Union against the Tory king and Par- liament was the highest sen- timent of Con- gress. And yet its members sent appeals to king and Par- liament. Their most impor- tant paper was a Declaration of Rifht*; ^"^ FIRST PRAYER IN CONGRESS (§156) .^2 They again declared that the Americans were EngHshmen (§182); that they could not be taxed except by their own assemblies, but that Americans would sub- mit to all laws for the raising of money to regulate the trade of the whole empire. Congress took a mighty step forward when it adopted the non-importation agreement for the country. It left to the committees of correspondence the duty of carrying out this act (§186). This has been pointed to as the birth of the American Union. Congress finally agreed to stand by Boston and meet force with force if necessary. 191. Chatham talks with Franklin. The king and his party were more determined than ever when they got word from this Congress. But the friends of America were more awake than ever. William Pitt, now Earl of Chatham, the old friend of the colonies, sent for FrankHn.^^ Ii6 UNION AMONG THE COLONIES They talked over the situation in America, and no doubt Franklin gave him the papers issued by Congress. Chatham introduced a bill to recall the troops from Boston and made a powerful speech in its favor, but it was defeated. He immediately introduced his plan of conciliation. It took into account the ten years in the growth of union between the colonies. It repealed every act of taxation opposed by the Americans, but it did recognize the right of ParHament to pass' laws for the whole empire. 192. Burke's efforts. Burke, the greatest statesman of his time, was a friend of the colonies and had been the agent in England of the colony of New York. He proba- bly knew more about conditions in America than did any other Englishman. He had denounced the Stamp Act and now spoke with equal force against the taxation of the Americans. His most eloquent plea in the House of Commons was his speech on conciliation. But his efforts, like Chatham's, were voted down by the Tory party. Lord North brought in a plan which Parlia- ment approved. It proposed to take up the case of each colony by itself, thus ignoring the union that had grown up. Lord North was too late. The colonies were ready to fight. THE AMERICANS BEGIN TO FIGHT • 193. Lexington and Concord (April 19, 1775). General Gage was in a tight place. If he did nothing, the Tories in England and America would blame him. If he acted, the Whigs here and at home would denounce him. He sent a secret force to destroy stores at Concord, eighteen miles from Boston, and to capture Samuel Adams and John Hancock. THE AMERICANS BEGIN TO FIGHT 117 Paul Revere was on the watch (§186). The British were scarcely over the river before Revere was riding hard to alarm the people with the cry: "The regulars are coming ! ' ' Fifty minutemen"^ stood on the green at Lex- ington when Major Pitcairn, at the head of his troops, cried: "Disperse, ye rebels!" Shots were fired and ten Americans fell. The British pushed on to Concord, where more minute- men had collected. There they destroyed some military RETREAT OF THE BRITISH REGULARS TO BOSTON stores. At the old North Bridge a battle took place, and the British turned back toward Lexington. The Ameri- cans poured in a hot fire from behind houses, fences, and trees. Reenforcements came to the British, but they only made more marks for the minutemen. They chased the British right under the muzzle of the cannon in Bos- ton harbor. The British lost almost three times as many men as the Americans. The news stirred Great Britain. To think that Ameri- can farmers had beaten British regulars ! The news flew UNION AMONG THE COLONIES BRITISH REGULAR man in America' to distant parts of the colonies, and everywhere it was met by preparations for war. It reached Europe and raised up friends for Hberty."'^ 194. Americans still loyal to Britain. Just before leaving England Franklin said to Lord Chatham: "I never heard from any person the least ex- pression of a wish for separation." Jefferson declared : ' ' There is not in 1^^ the British Empire a man who more cordially loves a union with Great Britain than I do." Washington de- clared that "no such thing as inde- pendence is desired by any thinking (1774). These sentiments did not mean that Americans would not fight for their rights as EngHshmen. EngHshmen at home had often fought for the same rights (§156). 195. The siege of Boston. Battle of Bunker Hill. In a few days Boston was surrounded by the minutemen of New England. Colonel Prescott, leading 1,000 men, seized and fortified Breed's Hill. They were reenforced by those brave souls, Putnam, Stark, and Warren. Gage ordered Howe with 3,000 men to storm the fort (June 17). The British marched up the slope in solid column, flags flying and drums beat- ing. "Don't fire, "said Putnam, "till you see the whites of their eyes." MINUTEMAN THE AMERICANS BEGIN TO FIGHT 119 Twice the British were beaten back by the deadly fire of the Americans, but with true EngHsh pluck they made e V mkM.ss AcarsETTS :& >" ,N ;.^it,;U/'fiV^ ^Cas.lo William "^ MAP OF BOSTON AND VICINITY a third trial. The minutemen's ammunition was gone and they retreated, fighting stubbornly with clubbed rifles. The loss to the British was 1,154, more than one-third of the attacking force. The Americans lost 449.*"^ The colonies hailed Bunker Hill as a victory. 196. Washington takes command. Massachusetts, a Puritan colony, and Virginia, the colony of the CavaHers, were ringleaders in the war. Hancock was made presi- dent of the Continental Congress and Washington the commander-in-chief of the American armies. As Washington started for Boston congressmen and citizens rode out with him. The trip was scarcely begun when they heard the news from Bunker Hill. When Washington heard how the minutemen had fought he declared : ' 'The liberties of the country are safe. ' ' In New York Washington promised to work for the restoration of good feeling. He received a rousing welcome from the boys at Yale College. On July 3, he took command of the I20 UNION AMONG THE COLONIES army at Cambridge and went to work to make a real army out of these men. Congress ordered men from as far south as Virginia*'^ to make the army a continental one. COLLEGE WELCOME AT YALE 197. The Americans fail at Quebec and succeed at Boston. Many people hoped that Canada would join the colonies. But in an expedition against Quebec Montgomery was killed, Arnold wounded, and Morgan captured. The soldiers suffered untold hardships. Washington had wanted to strike a blow, but ammuni- tion was scarce. Ethan Allen captured Ticonderoga and sent its cannon and powder to Boston. One night in the midst of a terrific cannonade, 2,000 Americans occu- pied and began to fortify Dorchester Heights. General Howe (§195) remembered Bunker Hill and decided not to attack. He put his soldiers and 1,000 Tory citizens on board his ships and sailed for Halifax. New England was now free. Later the British got a foothold at New- port. THE AMERICANS BEGIN TO FIGHT 121 SUGGESTED READINGS References for teachers: Parkman, Pioneers of France, 46-324; Cooke, Stories of the Old Dominion, 94-139, 163-218; Fiske, American Revolution, I, 14-127; Sloane, French War and the Revolution, 116-202; Tyler, Patrick Henry ("American Statesmen Series"), 28-129; Hosmer, Samuel Adams ("American Statesmen Series"), 21-23, 243-256; Lodge, Story of the Revolution, I, 25-136; Bassett, Short History, chaps, viii-ix; Hart, Contemporaries, I, 381-433; II, 546-565; Hart, Source Book, 14-17, 96-98, 103-107. References for pupils: Mace, Primary History, 1 16-138, 141-185; Mace, George Washington, 1-102; Thwaites, Colonies, 246-257; Hart, Formation of the Union, 44-74; Hawthorne, Grandfather^ s Chair, 140- 169, 186-250; Coffin, Boys of '76, 17-90; McMurry, Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley, 1-48; Source Reader, II, 122-266. Fiction: Catherwood, Story of Tonty; Henty, With Wolfe in Canada; Monroe, At War With Pontiac; Seawell, A Virginia Cavalier; Longfellow, Evangeline; Holmes, Ballad of the Boston Tea Party, Grandmother's Story; Longfellow, Paul Revere's Ride; Cooper, Sir Lionell Lincoln; Bryant, Green Mountain Boys, Seventy-Six. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS I. Write an essay about the Indians at the Albany Congress; another on Benjamin Franklin. 2. Visit Washington's home and tell what you hear about him. 3. You are a banished Acadian. Write a letter to an English officer in your old home. 4. Imagine yourself an English traveler in the colonies at the time of the Boston Tea Party and write a number of letters to England. 5. Get permission to go with Paul Revere on his first ride. Report what you saw and heard for a New York paper. 6. Write the history of William Pitt and the English Whigs in their efforts to prevent the war. CHAPTER IX THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN SEPARATION FROM ENGLAND 198. The king a cause of separation. The hard-headed king had refused all offers of conciHation both by England and by America. But Congress sent him one more peti- tion, the "Olive Branch," it was called. George III scorned it, declared the Americans rebels, and hired Hessians from Hesse in Germany to fight the Americans."^ Many of the young men of England had refused to join the king's army to fight their brethren in America. Some of the king's officers had resigned, although they gave up life positions. But the king was determined. His conduct drove thousands of Americans to resolve that if they must fight it were better to fight for the rights of man. 199. Public opinion divided. The great majority of Americans had favored fighting for their rights as English- men. But when they saw their houses burned and their fathers and sons slain, the bolder ones demanded separa- tion. The more conservative ones drew back from this step and began to side with the king. They could not think of giving up their friends in England and of break- ing every tie that bound them to the mother country. Such people lived in every colony. They were among the richest and most highly educated citizens. They were called Tories. 200. Steps toward independence. Just after the battle of Lexington, Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, threw off the king's authority. ^^ Thomas Paine struck a SEPARATION FROM ENGLAND 123 telling blow in his pamphlet, "Common Sense": "The appeal was the King's If you say you can pass the violations over, then I ask, hath your house been burnt? Have you lost a parent or child by their hand? " In the spring (1776) the people were debating the question of independence. Virginia, holding a great convention, gave her delegates in Congress orders to introduce a resolution looking to independence. SIGNING THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 201. The Declaration of Independence. Richard Henry Lee (§189), obeying orders from Virginia, intro- duced the resolution asserting that "these United Colonies are and of right ought to be free and independent states." Congress appointed Jefferson, John Adams, FrankHn, Sherman, and Robert R.. Livingston a committee to draw up a declaration. Jefferson was its author. He pro- duced a document that ranks with Magna Charta (§156). It contained the rights of man, the causes of the 124 THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF UAN separation, and the declaration that all political connection with Great Britain is, and ought to be totally dissolved. "In support of this Declaration, with a firm reHance on Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor" (see Appendix). 202. How it was received. On July 4 Congress adopted the Declaration and sent it forth. The patriots hailed it with delight. The army received it with cheers and the firing of cannon. It was sent to England and published on the Continent in different European lan- guages. All the great nations were ruled by kings and emperors. Not many people in Europe believed that a republic could live. • No one could accept the teachings of the Declaration of Independence and still believe in kings and emperors. The majority of Europeans looked upon the patriots as foolhardy and bound to be hanged as rebels. 203. What the Tories thought. The Tories did not want a republic. They looked upon the patriots as a low class determined to run the country. The Tories feared for their property (§199) and threw in their lot with the king. Thousands of them joined the king's forces. Probably they included one-third of the people in the colonies. The Continental Congress ordered all arms to be taken from them. Hundreds were driven to Canada and other countries. ™ Some went back to Eng- land to hve. The Tories made the war longer and more bitter. The Quakers were opposed to all wars for religious reasons (§101). 204. What the Declaration meant in the war. When the Declaration was made the Americans changed their purpose in the war: now it was a struggle for the rights of man. Every patriot could have said to Great Britain: THE BRITISH AND THE MIDDLE STATES 125 "We are sorry to part from you, but your king^i and your Parliament have driven us to this course by taxing us with- out our consent, by changing our charters (§188), by closing our ports, by hiring Hessians to kill us, and by refusing to listen to our last appeal (§198) Our struggle from now on is for an indepen- dent nation." THE BRITISH TRY TO BREAK THE POW ER OF THE MIDDLE STATES 205. Battle of Brooklyn Heights. The retreat up the Hudson. Washmg- ton set out from Boston to New York. Howe ^2 landed his army on Long Island and defeated the Americans. Washington with- drew to New York and retired up the Hudson, since Howe had more than two soldiers to his one. But the Americans checked i- THE MILITARY MOVE- MENTS IN THE MIDDLE COLONIES, 1776-78 Howe for a short time in the battles of Harlem Heights and of White Plains. 126 THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN 206. Dark days of the war. Washington saw the British aiming at the "rebel capital," Philadelphia. He threw his army across the Hudson, retreated through Newark and other New Jersey towns, and then crossed the Delaware. Congress took flight to Baltimore, and Philadelphia began to hide its gold and silver. People began to lose hope, soldiers in large numbers left the army, and British generals thought the war was over. The people did not yet know Washington. 207. Victories at Trenton and Princeton. General Cornwallis left his troops in Trenton while spending Christmas in New York. Washington saw his chance. The Hessians had been drinking all day. The weather was biting cold, and snow was falling fast. "Surely," thought the half-tipsy Hessians, "there is no need to WASHINGTON AND HIS TROOPS CROSSING THE DELAWARE watch tonight." But Washington and his men had crossed the Delaware amid floating ice. They were press- THE BRITISH AND THE MIDDLE STATES 127 WASHINGTON LEADS AGAINST BRITISH LINES AT PRINCETON ing toward Trenton. Their feet left bloodstains on the snow. The sleepy Hessians were aroused at daybreak. A few shots, a wild charge, and all was over. One thousand Hessians sur- rendered. It was a famous victory. Congress had no money to pay Wash- ington's men. Their families were suffering. Washington appealed to his friend Robert Morris,^'' of Philadelphia. He obtained the money needed, and the Americans were ready to fight again. Washington had posted his men behind a little river as Cornwallis was rushing back from New York to attack. "We will bag the old fox in the morning," said the British general. Washington left his fires burning brightly to deceive the British, and in the morning he was thundering at Cornwallis' rear guard at Princeton (January 3, 1777).^^ 208. Effects on Washington. He was now named the "American Fabius," after a famous Roman general who retreated to save his army and fought when he could win a victory. Both in Europe and in America men nowsaw that England had a gigantic task to defeat Washington. Congress gave him power to raise troops to serve for the war. Lafayette and De Kalb, with other French officers, came to join his army. Pulaski and Kosciusco, brave Poles, had already arrived. THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN 209. The battle of Brandywine and the winter at Valley Forge. Would Howe go up the Hudson to meet Burgoyne, or would he try for Philadelphia once more? Howe sailed for the head of the Chesapeake, and Washington hastened to throw his troops between the British and Philadelphia. Washington was beaten in the two battles of Brandywine and Germantown. He took post at Valley Forge, where his men suffered terribly from hunger and cold. Lafayette said that ' ' they had neither coats, hats, shirts, nor shoes; their feet and legs froze black." The British, on the other hand, were feasting and drinking in Philadelphia and New York and "living off the fat of the land." There were two bright spots at Valley Forge: one was the presence of Mrs. Washington and other ladies who came to cheer the men ; the other was the constant drilling which Baron Steuben gave the army. 210. Burgo3me's cam- paign (1777). While Howe was on his way to Philadelphia, General Burgoyne with 8,000 men was marching from Canada toward Albany. St. Leger was sent up the St. Lawrence to cross over to Fort Stanwix,^^ come down the Mohawk, and join Burgoyne. BURGOYNE S CAMPAIGN HOW FRANCE CAME TO OUR AID 129 The British captured Ticonderoga, but got tangled up in the deep woods where the brave General vSchuyler had cut great trees across the roads and broken down bridges. When Burgoyne reached Fort Edward his men were hun- gry. He sent 1,000 Hessians toward Bennington to get supplies. But General Stark and his minutemen cap- tured the whole lot near Bennington. General Herkimer with his riflemen routed St. Leger and his Indians in the terrible battle of Oriskany. 211. Burgoyne forced to surrender. Kosciusco (§208) had fortified Bemis Heights, and Washington had sent Arnold and Morgan to help Schuyler. Just as victory was within Schuyler's grasp Congress sent the incompe- tent Gates to take command. Two terrific battles were fought at Freeman's farm.^'' Burgoyne's supplies were now cut off, and he surrendered his whole army at Sara- toga October 17, 1777. HOW FRANCE CAME TO OUR AID 212. Immediate effects ,of Burgoyne's surrender. The Americans were happy over the victory. Many Ameri- cans thought Gates a greater general than Washington. The Conway Cabal" was hatched while Washington's army was suffering at Valley Forge. This was a miserable plot to displace Washington, but it came to nothing. The destruction of Burgoyne's army was the turning point in the war because it brought France to our aid. 213. Early relations with France. For a long time Frenchmen had been finding fault with their kings. Those who did not think much about the way they were ruled rejoiced when they saw England and the colonies beginning to quarrel. Among the French were great writers who sympathized I30 THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OP MAN with the Whigs of England and the Whigs in America. The king of France was opposed to "helping rebels," he said, but he burned to have revenge for the Seven Years' War (§175). At the time of the Stamp Act he sent Baron de Kalb to spy out America, talk with the colo- nists, and report. De Kalb told the truth when he said that the colonies were very loyal to England. 214. Franklin in France. Another agent was sent by the French king. He met the men of the Congress (1775) and told them that France would send engineers, arms and ammunition. Just before the Declaration of Inde- pendence Vergennes, acting for his king, sent $1,000,000 to Congress. Franklin now went to France. No Ameri- can had ever been so popular in Paris. He was already known there by his quaint sayings in Poor Richard's Almanac, by his discovery that lightning and electricity are the same thing, and by the high position he had held in London. His learn- ifig attracted the attention of educated people, and his simple manners and plain dress made him the idol of the common folk of France. The French called Ameri- can soldiers "Franklin's troops." Franklin's work soon be- gan to show: France gave $400,000 per year to be paid back after independence had been won, three ships laden with war suppHes, and the right for Americans to fit out privateers in French ports 3ENJAMIN FRANKLIN HOW FRANCE CAME TO OUR AID 131 JEAN PAUL LAFAYRTTE and to bring captured ships into these ports to sell them. The king would not do these things openly, for England was watching. 215. Sentiment in favor of America grows. Franklin helped turn public sentiment in favor of America. The nobles were pressing for open support of America, but the king held back because he did not like to set a bad example > before his own people. He already saw the growth of ideas among Frenchmen that might endanger his own crown some day.'^ He did not hke to hear Franklin praised. He commanded Lafayette not to go to America, but the king's wife bade him go. The merchants and farmers liked the Americans because there were neither kings nor nobles in that country. 216. The French alliance (1778). When the news reached France that Burgoyne had surrendered his whole army, the people were wild with joy. The king now saw that America would succeed and felt that France must reap some benefit from her success. The two nations formed an alliance. France recognized the independence of the United States, and both nations promised to continue the war until England also recognized our independence. This was the real turning point of the war. It brought to our aid a great, powerful nation with ships, supplies, soldiers, and money. It is difficult to see how America THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN could have won her independence without the help of France. 217. England alarmed.' The news of Burgoyne's sur- render stirred England to the center, but the French alH- ance excited her even more. Lord North begged the king to permit him to resign and to call Lord Chatham to the head of the government, but George III was too stubborn. The Rockingham Whigs were in favor of granting independence to America, and a motion was made to that effect. If the king had been wilHng, Chat- ham probably would have repealed all taxes and have taken every British soldier out of America. As much as Americans loved him, it is doubtful if Chatham could have persuaded them to throw overboard their new ally. 218. Other nations join in the war. Spain, too, hesi- tated about setting a bad example for the common man, but in 1778 she joined the allies. The French and the Spanish fleets together were larger than the English, and England was kept busy defending Gibraltar and her colonies in the East and West Indies. 219. British leave Philadelphia (1778). When the British army heard that a great French fleet was on its way to America, it left Philadelphia (§209) THE CAMPAIGNS AROUND PHILADELPHIA HOW FRANCE CAME TO OUR AID 133 Washington was hard on Monmouth. He handled for New York in hot haste, its heels and attacked it at the British so roughly that they left for New York that night.79 The cam- paign for the middle states had ended where it began, but with tables completely turned. Then the British had chased Washington out of New York ; and now he was chasing them into New York. 220. The American navy (1775-81). The navy of Great Britain was the most powerful in the world. When the war broke out the colonies had no navy. They began to send out small vessels, armed them, and called them privateers. They scoured the seas and captured so many British merchant ships that insur- ance rates for them became very high. That great sea captain John Barry, an Irishman, came to high command by fighting on privateers. So did Paul Jones, a Scotchman. 221. France fits Paul Jones for a great sea victory (1779)- The biggest victory at sea in the Revolution was won by Paul Jones. He had already won the name of "pirate" by attacking British shipping. Franklin obtained a small fleet for him. His biggest vessel was the "Bon Homme Richard." ^'^ Jones met the English ship "Serapis" and fought far into the night. He tied the JOHN PAUL JONES 134 THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN two ships together. The decks of both were covered with the dead and dying. "Have you struck your colors?" called out the British captain. "I have not yet begun to fight," repHed Jones. Both vessels took fire, and the British surrendered. The "Bon Homme Richard" sank the next day, and Jones sailed into a French port in the ' ' Serapis. ' ' He was received with great joy by the French people. IRREGULAR WARFARE 222. Wyoming and Cherry valleys (1778). Washington was watching the British in New York. He was roused by the Tories and Indians massacring the people in Wyoming and Cherry valleys. Washington ordered General Sullivan to take 5,000 men and punish the enemy. He defeated them completely on the site where Elmira now stands. He then laid waste the growing crops of the Cayugas and the Senecas. 223. Plundering by the British. Storming Stony Point and Paulus Hook. The British were now desperate. They had failed in two campaigns (§210, 219) and had seen France come into the war (§216). They turned to robbing and burning towns in New England, New Jersey, and Virginia, as if to get even. The British had captured Stony Point on the Hudson. Washington selected "Mad Anthony" Wayne to recap- ture it. Wayne, trained by Steuben (§209), took 1,200 picked men and with empty guns and fixed bayonets charged up the steep slope of Stony Point. He won (1779)- Paulus Hook, a part of Jersey City, had been fortified by the British. Henry Lee, "Light Horse Harry," bravely led 300 picked men at night and captured it. THE WAR IN THE WEST AND SOUTH 135 224. Benedict Arnold again. Washington had stood by Arnold (§197) because he was a brave soldier, but Congress refused to promote him. This angered Arnold, and he burned for revenge. Washington gave him com- mand at West Point, but Arnold agreed to turn the position over to the British. Only the arrest of Major THE STORMING OF PAULUS HOOK Andre, who was coming to meet Arnold, saved West Point. Andre was hanged. Arnold escaped to the Brit- ish forces, where he was given his reward, a command in the British army. WAR IN THE WEST AND SOUTH 225. The Revolution west of the Alleghenies. Ken- tucky County belonged to Virginia (§167). Daniel Boone lived in North Carolina, but went to Kentucky (1769) by way of Cumberland Gap (§27), where three states now meet. Harrodsburg (1775) and Boonesboro (1775) were established. 136 THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN Tennessee, a part of North Carolina, was settled by James Robertson at Watauga (1769). Later a fort was built on the NoUichucky by the Indian fighter, John Sevier. The men of both regions organized as miHtia and were ready to fight the Indians, allies of Great Britain. THE GEORGE ROGERS CLARK EXPEDITION 226. George Rogers Clark and our western boundary. Clark had been in Kentucky and had seen the dangers from the Indians. He resolved to capture the British posts northwest of the Ohio and put an end to these dangers. Governor Henry of Virginia supported his plan with money and good wishes. He gathered about 150 men. They left Pittsburgh (May, 1778), halted on an island near Louisville, and then rowed down the Ohio to the Tennessee. They hid their boats, marched across the country, and captured Kaskaskia and Cahokia WAR IN THE WEST AND SOUTH 137 Clark made friends with the French and the Spaniards. Hamilton, the British commander in Detroit, came with 500 men to reenforce Vincennes. Clark did not wait, but made a dash across country in the winter for the fort. The men suffered terribly, since they marched for miles and miles through water. Hamilton was com- pletely surprised by the assult on the fort and surrendered Vincennes without a fight. The power of the British in the West was gone. 227. The British overrun the far South. Defeated in the North, the British determined to get a foothold in the South. They captured Savannah^^ (1778) and restored British authority. In the summer of 1779 a French fleet joined General Lincoln in attacking the British, but was defeated. THE ASSAULT AT THE BATTLE OF SA\ ANNAH EarHer a British fleet had been roughly handled at Charleston by Moultrie behind his fort of palmetto logs (1776). The British now marched overland from Savannah 138 THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN and captured the city with Lincoln and his 3,000 Con- tinentals. Hundreds of people took the oath to support CAMPAIGNS IN THE SOUTH DURING THE REVOLUTION the king, and Clinton left Cornwallis to conquer the rest of the state. 228. A new kind of fighting. Marion,*^- Sumter, Pickens, and Williams now found a way of fighting even more puzzling to the British than the work of the minutemen. WAR IN THE WEST AND SOUTH ^39 With only small bands under them, they kept the enemy's forces in the Carolinas in constant terror. Armed with homemade swords, mounted on the swiftest horses, hiding in dense swamps or mountain fastnesses, they seldom slept two nights in the same camp. They would destroy a Tory camp at night and before daylight would be in some distant hiding-place; again they would sweep ^j'^ MARION SURPRISING A BRITISH CAMP around the main British force, cutting off stragglers or charging pell-mell into their camp. But they were up and away before the British could recover from their sur- prise. In this manner these bold warriors kept alive the spirit of resistance. 229. The battle of Camden (1780). Congress sent Gates to redeem the South. De Kalb (§213) was busy collecting reenforcements for the Americans. Gates joined him, took charge, and met Cornwallis at Camden. Gates and the militia fled at the first fire, but De Kalb and his Continentals gave the enemy one of Steuben's I40 THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OP MAN famous bayonet charges. De Kalb fell mortally wound ed ^' Gates bv his cowardly act, had lost the day DE KAI.B AND THE MARYLAND AND DELAWARE CONTINENTALS AT CAMDEN 230. The backwoodsmen at King's Mountain (1780). Cornwallis was elated. He started for Charlotte, North Carolina. From there he sent A^ajor Ferguson with 1,200 men to rouse the Tories. The news of this ran far and wide. Soon Ferguson found himself surrounded on King's Mountain by backwoodsmen from three or four states. They charged up the mountain side, killed Ferguson, and captured his entire force. The Americans lost twenty-eight. The victorious men went to their homes, but they had turned the tide in the South. 231. Greene takes command (1781). Washington was happy when General Greene took command in the South, and Morgan was put at the head of the remnant of De Kalb's Continentals. Cornwallis sent his most daring officer, Tarleton, to eatch Morgan, who had taken post at Cowpens. Morgan was too much for Tarleton and defeated and captured nearly his whole force. ^^ WAR IN THE WEST AND SOUTH 141 Greene was a great "Fabius" (§208). He knew Corn- wallis would be furious, and began a famous retreat with Cornwallis after him. Across North Carolina they went and hurried on into Virginia. Greene rested his troops and a blow then struck Corn walhs at Guilford Courthouse Greene had to retire, but Cornwallis lost so heavily that he retreated to Wilmmgton on the coast to get fresh supplies Greene^^ was left free to return to South Car- olina. He fought two drawn battles, at Hob- kirk's Hill and at Eutaw Springs. In both cases the British retreated. The only places held by them in the South at the end of the war were Charleston and Savannah. 232. Washington sees his opportunity. When Lord Cornwallis reached Yorktown from North Carolina, 142 THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN word came that a French fleet was bound for Chesapeake Bay. Washington immediately decided to rush the American and French armies*^ from New York (§219) to Yorktown. It was a bold decision. But he was halfway to Philadelphia before Clinton saw Washington was not planning to attack New York. Philadelphia was wild with joy. Men crowded the streets cheering madly, and happy women threw flowers upon the dusty Continentals and the finely dressed French soldiers. "Long live Washington! He's gone to catch Cornwallis in his mouse trap!" cried the people. 233. Yorktown the final victory (1781). From the head of the Chesapeake the French fleet under Count de Grasse carried the army to Yorktown. For nearly a month the C '"'0 m, CARRYING THE OUTER WORKS .\T yORKT»\VN cannon from fleet and army knocked the British forts to pieces. The Americans and French stormed the outer WAR IN THE WEST AND SOUTH 143 works. The next night the British tried to break out, but in vain. On the very day that America was cele- brating the anniversary of Burgoyne's surrender (Octo- ber 17) CornwalHs raised the white flag. Two days later the British army, over 7,000 strong, marched out between parallel lines of Americans and Frenchmen. Washington stood at the head of one line, and Count Rochambeau at the hea'd of the other. The British played the old tune: "The World Turned Upside Down." 234. What Yorktown meant to America. America was wild with enthusiasm as the news spread. The Liberty Bell rang a joyous alarm, and soon the streets of Philadelphia were alive with people although it was two o'clock in the morning. Congress marched to the Lutheran church and gave thanks for the victory. On every village green in America the people celebrated the great event. 235. What the victory meant to France and England. A fast sailing vessel hastened to France. Paris was happy. Over 7,000 sons of France had joined hands with Washington to make victory sure. A thrill of hope must have shot through every heart that looked for better days in France. The Tories of England were discouraged. Lord North threw up his hands, crying: "Oh God! It is all over!" But stubborn old George III declared that he would rather give up his crown and retire to Hanover (§180)^^ than acknowledge American independence. The Whig leaders rejoiced. It was a victory for the people of Great Britain. Richmond had long hoped for such a victory, and Fox clapped his hands with joy. The younger Pitt had a few months before denounced the war in strong language. Finally George III was compelled 144 THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN to call to power again the Rockingham Whigs, the friends of America (§217).*'^ They made peace with America. 236. The treaty of peace (1783). Congress appointed Franklin, John Adams, Jay, and Henry Laurens to go to Paris to meet men from France and Great Britain. By the treaty (i) America was declared an independent nation, (2) the Mississippi was made our western bound- ary (§226) and the Great Lakes our northern, (3) and east of the Mississippi, Florida was made our southern limit (see map for fuller explanation). 237. Washington retires to Mount Vernon. The Brit- ish left New York, and Washington and his army entered. Later he met his generals to say good-by. He said: "With a heart full of love and gratitude, I now take leave of you. I most devoutly wish that your latter days maj^ be as prosperous and happy as your former ones have =*l-5r4? WASHINGTON BIDS FAREWELL TO HIS GENERALS been glorious and honorable." He took each general by the hand and_embraced him. He then went to WAR IN THE WEST AND SOUTH 145 Whitehall Ferry, waved his hat, and bade them a silent farewell as he started on his journey. iNOM, THE HOME OF WASHINGTON Washington traveled to Annapolis to meet Congress and resign his position. Standing room was all taken, and a great crowd looked down from the galleries. Congress sat with their hats on (§41). Washington said, "I now have the honor .... to surrender into your hands [Congress'] the trust committed to me, and to claim the indulgence of retiring from the service of my country." He refused to take pay for his services of eight years but the money of his own which hehad spent was repaid. ^^ He and Mrs. Washington hastened to Mount Vernon, where a happy scene met their eyes. There, leaning on his staff, was old Bishop, the gift of General Braddock. The other servants were happy in seeing their "Master" and "Mistress" once more. All Christmas afternoon people came to pay their "respects and duty." Among them were stately dames and gay young ladies. The war was over, and Washington gave himself to making Mount Vernon more beautiful than before. The next year Lafayette came from France to visit him and renew the friendship begun on the field of battle. 146 THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN WOMAN'S PART IN THE REVOLUTION 238. What the people did at home. We have thought about armies and war so much that home things have been forgotten. Everybody felt the pinch of war, especially when armies came into their own neighborhoods. Every- body, too, had a part in it. Some had to join the army, and some had to care for the home folks. Sometimes the soldiers had to go home and help gather in the harvests, for the armies had to be fed. Clothing had to be made for the soldiers. Women had to work at their spinning wheels and looms much longer than in times of peace. Then, too, they had to help melt the lead to make bullets and had to cut gun "wads."^'' Then the men had to run their little forges or black- smith shops to make the flintlock guns. There were no breech-loading guns nor machine guns in that day, only those loaded with ramrods. There was no Red Cross then with its thousands of nurses to care for the soldiers. There were not many doctors to look after the sick or the wounded. But the war came home to people every time a battle was fought and there came a call for bandages and nurses. Some- tinies, too, the soldiers of each army were sent to live among the different families of the town or city where the army happened to be. 239. Distinguished women of the Revolution. Women took a real part in this struggle. Hundreds of them dis- tinguished themselves by doing deeds calling for courage and resolution. One of the most famous women was Abigail Adams, wife of John Adams. She managed their little farm while her husband was in Congress or in Europe. Her letters to him were full of patriotism, even while the roar of British WOMAN'S PART IN THE REVOLUTION 147 guns sounded in her ears. In writing him she made an appeal to him to have the Continental Congress favor woman suffrage. Faith Trumbull, wife of the governor of Connecticut, was at church one day. The minister called for a collection for the Continental army. She arose beside the governor, removed from her shoulders a fine scarlet cloak, the gift of a great French general, and laid it on the altar as her gift. The donation was large that day! More than a thousand meetings of governors, generals, and councils of safety were held in her home during the Revolution. Have you read the story of how Mrs. Murray played a trick upon the British ? They were hot after Washington through New York City after the battle of Brooklyn Heights. She invited the British generals to tea in her splendid home. When the tea party was over, Wash- ington was out of danger ! Brave MolHe Pitcher! Her husband loaded a cannon at Monmouth (§219). He was killed, and Mollie took his place and drove home shot and shell until the British retreated. Lydia Darrah, a brave Philadelphia Quaker, saved Washington's army from a surprise attack and perhaps from capture. At her home one night the British officers laid their secret plans. She stole out of bed and overheard them. Early next morning she rode to Washington's camp at Whitemarsh and told an American officer of their plans. Washington and his men were ready! The women of the South were just as brave and did the same kind of heroic deeds as the women of the North. Indeed, had it not been for the noble self-sacrifice of the women of the Revolution, the war would have been harder to win. 148 THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHTS OF MAN SUGGESTED READINGS References for teachers: Fiske, American Revolution, I, 191-344; II, 1-290; Roosevelt, Winning of the West, II, 1-84; Hart, Formation of the Union, 77-89; Lodge, Story of the Revolution, I, 136-278; II, 1-216; Cooke, Stories of the Old Dominion, 245-256; Sloane, French War and the Revolution, 312-347; Morse, Franklin ("American States- men Series"), 2-268; Hart, Contemporaries, II, 467-469, 474-476, 485-678; Bassett, Short History, chap, ix; Van Tyne, American Revolution. References for pupils: Mace, Primary History, 187-198, 211-219, 230-239; Mace, Washington, 103-140; Wright, Stories of American Progress, 1-40; WiUiams, Stories of Early New York; Blaisdell, Hero Stories from American History, 105-122; Beebe, Four American Heroes, 17-68; Hart, Source Book, 147-149, 151-160; Sparks, Men Who Made the Nation, chap, i; Baldwin, Conquest of the Old Northwest, 145-178; Drake, The Making of the Ohio Valley, 11 6-1 21; Coffin, Boys of 'yd; Hart, Camp and Firesides of the Revolution. Fiction: Churchill, Richard Carvel; Cooper, The Pilot; Thompson, Alice of Old Vincenncs; Eggleston, A Carolina Cavalier; Bryant, Song of Marion's Men; Kennedy, Horseshoe Robinson; Ogden, A Loyal Little Redcoat; Mitchell, Hugh Wynne; Ford, Janice Meredith; Henty, True to the Old Flag; Cooper, Spy; Parker, Thaddeus of Warsaw; Bryant, Green Mountain Boys, The Battle of Bennington. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS I. Write about what France did for America. 2. Imagine yourself a member of the Continental Congress and write what you see and hear about the Declaration of Independence. Dra'matize this event. 3. Report to your newspaper on the activity of Franklin in France. 4. You are a spy in Philadelphia (1776-78). Write to Washington at Valley Forge what you see and hear. 5. Tell, in a few pages, the story of Alice of Old Vincennes. 6. Washington is at Mount Vernon again. He is happy and receives visitors. Lafayette visits him. Dramatize these events. CHAPTER X THE NEED FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT AN EXPERIMENT IN STATE SOVEREIGNTY 240. Making colonies into states. Before the Declara- tion of Independence royal governors began to run away from the danger they saw coming. Their governments fell to pieces, and the people of the colonies set up com- mittees of safety. These committees managed things until a governor was chosen or until the people had elected their assembly. The people of New Hampshire acted first (1776). The constitution was to be above laws made by the legislature and received its authority from the people of New Hamp- shire. Massachusetts was the last state to set up a con- stitution (1780). The people were not so democratic then as now, for only the constitutions of New York and of the New England states gave the people the right to vote for gov- ernor. Elsewhere he was chosen by the legislatures or by a council. The right to vote, too, was generally limited to men who paid taxes or held a certain amount of prop- erty (§158). In some cases voters still had to meet religious tests (§158). New Jersey bears the distinction of having given women the right to vote. But this privilege was taken away in a few years. 241. Making the states into a confederation. For a long time we have seen the colonies growing together (§186). Benjamin Franklin thought the time ripe for a confederation (§169) and introduced a set of articles 149 I50 THE NEED FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT (1775). Congress thought it too soon. Richard Henry- Lee's motion for independence contained a proposition for a confederation (§201). But the more Congress dis- cussed the question of confederation, the more it dis- agreed. On the question of independence the thirteen colonies could be one, but on the question of union among themselves they were still thirteen! Not until Burgoyne's surrender did Congress agree on a plan (November, 1777). According to these Articles of Confederation the states were to be in authority above Congress. Congress now sent the Articles to the state legislatures for adoption. But not until just before the battle of Yorktown did the last legislature ratify the Articles of Confederation (1781).^^ 242. The states supreme. The most striking fact about this new constitution was its weakness. But the people were afraid it was too strong. They had just finished a long, hard war with the strong government of England, and they did not now propose to set up one of the same kind in their own midst. The Articles gave Congress only a little power. Con- gress could advise the states to raise so many men or so much money for Washington's army. The states, being supreme, could do as they pleased. By the Confederation each state had one vote in Congress. This made Dela- ware as important in Congress as Pennsylvania. 243. Industry and trade grow worse. At the close of the war Congress could not pay the army. It had bor- rowed money from France and Holland and from its own people. But it could not pay back these loans because Congress had no power to raise money by taxes. It was driven to making millions of paper currency or "con- tinental" money. ^- But this was only promises to pay AN EXPERIMENT IN STATE SOVEREIGNTY I SI money. The army in its despair threatened to attack Congress, but Washington prevented it. One of the PAPER MONEY ISSUED BY CONGRESS DURING THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR officers proposed that Washington be made king, but he indignantly rejected the proposal. 244. Congress not able to protect our trade at home or abroad. Some states taxed goods brought in from other states. These states in turn "boycotted" the offend- ing states. Men who manufactured goods complained because Congress had no power to lay a tariff to protect their trade from foreigners. Great Britain put a high tariff on American goods and also passed laws shutting out our trade from her West India markets. Things were going from bad to worse. Several hundred soldiers, feeling deeply angered at Congress, marched on Philadelphia. Congress ran away to Princeton. In Massachusetts the people were resisting the courts because creditors were suing debtors for their money. A rebelHon broke out, led by Daniel Shays (1786). 152 THE NEED FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT Leading men shook their heads, asking each other, "Will the Confederation break up in anarchy?" EFFORTS FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT 245. Men who worked for a better government. The great majority of leaders were in favor of a stronger gov- ernment. Among them was Washington. He remem- bered the bitter days of Trenton and Valley Forge! From 1783 to 1787 he was kept busy writing letters to men who wanted his opinions on the Confederation. To his own Governor Harrison he wrote: "An extension of federal power would make us one of the most wealthy, happy, and powerful nations on the globe." To his friend John Jay he answered: "I do not conceive that we can long exist as a nation without a power which will pervade the whole union." Alexander Hamilton, though a young man, stood next to Washington in argu- ing for a new plan of govern- ment. He wrote a famous letter on the defects of the Confederation (1780). Be- sides, he published a paper called the Continentalist. In this he sought to turn men's minds toward govern- ment of greater powen James Madison, a young man of statesmanlike notions, worked hard for a better government. Besides these, there were many in almost every state in favor ALEXANDER HAMILTON EFFORTS FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT I53 of improving the Articles of Confederation. Other things were working in the same direction. 246. Spain tries to close the Mississippi (1786). When Louisiana fell to Spain (§176), she controlled the greater part of what is now the United States. Our people had for a long time claimed the right to use the Mississippi River to the Gulf. The Spanish now offered to give our merchants trade rights in Spain itself and in the West Indies if we would give up our right to use the Mississippi. Jefferson wrote : "I will venture to say that the act which abandons the navigation of the Mississippi is an act of separation between the eastern and western country." The settlers west of the AUeghenies threatened to secede if Congress gave away their right to use the Mississippi. This situation called for a more powerful government. 247. Western lands given to the Confederation. Congress delayed long over the question of what to do with the western lands. It was a most happy deci- sion to give them to the Confederation. All the states having claims patriotically gave them up on two condi- tions: (i) that the land be disposed of for the common benefit; (2) that this region be cut up into "distinct republican states." Two states kept a portion. Virginia kept Kentucky and a region in Ohio to pay her soldiers, and a small tract in Indiana, called Clark's Grant, to reward men of the Vincennes expedition (§226). Connecticut kept a part of Ohio known as the Western Reserve. Congress sur- veyed and opened up the rest of this land to the soldiers of the Revolution. 248. The old Northwest Territory. "A region of rich soil, great forests, beautiful prairies, splendid lakes and rivers, and inhabited by Indians and wild animals from i=;4 THE NEED FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT the quail, prairie hen and wild turkey to the squirrel and the buffalo." This region took in the future states of Ohio, Indiana, Illi- nois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota. Settlers poured in from the South and from New England. One of the wisest and one of the last acts of the Con- gress of the Con- federation was to give this region the Ordinance of 1787. It contained four main points: (i) It laid the foun- dation of our gov- ernment in the territories. (2) It prohibited negro slavery. (3) It gave religious free- dom to all settlers. (4) It declared in favor of encourag- Every state now HE NORTHWEST TERRITOR\ ing forever the means of education. had a strong bond tying it to the Union. 249. Commerce leads the way to constitutional conven- tions. After meeting with Washington (1785) to talk THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION 155 over trade, delegates from Maryland and Virginia decided to call a great convention at Annapolis (1786). Only five states sent delegates, but among them were Madison, Hamilton, and Dickinson. These men -sent out a call for another convention to revise the Articles of Confederation. Congress hesitated, but when the news of Shays's rebel- Hon came, it joined in the call. Washington had held back at first, but now the crisis had come, and he decided to go.^3 All the states but Rhode Island sent delegates to this convention. THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION 250. The great men of the Convention. Fifty-five men took part in making the Constitution. These men were well fitted to do their work. Twenty-nine were col- lege graduates, and many had served in Congress, ia the army, or abroad. The four master-minds of the Convention were Washington, ^^ Franklin, Hamilton, and Madison. Washington was chosen president. Other men already famous were John Dickinson (§184) ; William Paterson, author of the New Jersey plan ; Roger Sherman and Ellsworth of Connecticut; Gouverneur Morris and James Wilson of Pennsylvania; Mason and Randolph of Virginia; Davis of North Carolina; and the Pinckneys and John Rutledge of South CaroHna. 251. Disobeying orders. Most of the states had com- manded their delegates to revise the Articles. But the Convention went to work on a new plan worked out by Madison. It favored the large states. It made the num- ber of representatives and senators from each state depend upon its population. The small states were soon up in arms. They still wanted equal representation in Congress 156 THE NEED FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT (§242). They favored the New Jersey plan, which only amended the Confederation. Disputes arose, and Washington asked: "If to please the people we offer what we ourselves disapprove, how can we afterwards defend our work ? ' ' FrankHn declared that he had lived long enough to know that "God governs in the affairs of men," and that they "had come together to consult and not to contend." In the meantime the delegates from Connecticut brought in a compromise providing that all the states be equal in one house, the Senate, and in the other house, the states should be repre- sented according to population. This arrangement pleased the small states and was adopted. 252. Other compromises. A contest arose between the slave and the free states over representation and direct taxation. The Constitution decided to add three-fifths of the slaves to the whites in any state to fix the number of representatives it should have and the amount of direct taxes it should pay. A third dispute arose over commerce. The northern states wanted commerce regulated by a majority vote of Congress. But the southern states were afraid that laws would be made against their export trade (§142). It was finally agreed that Congress must not tax exports, but should control both our foreign and home trade by a simple majority. The foreign slave trade was permitted to go on for twenty years longer. 253. A bundle of compromises. Some one has declared the Constitution to be a "bundle of compromises." We have seen the Convention compromising between the large and small states, the free and slave states, the com- mercial and farming states. There were many other compromises, such as between those wanting the people THE STATES RATIFY THE CONSTITUTION 157 Convention. Gouverneur to vote directly and others who wanted the people to vote only indirectly. Only in the case of representatives were the people to vote directly. Senators were not to be voted for directly, but were to be elected by their own state legislatures. The presidents were to be voted for indirectly, and the judges of the Federal courts were to be appointed by the president. 254. The last days of the Morris could write plain. strong English. To him the Constitution was given to write it out in final form. Only thirty-nine members signed it. A few had gone home angry while others refused to sign for various reasons. On the last day Franklin, looking at Washington's chair on which were painted the bright rays of a half-sun, said : "I have often, in the course .of the session, looked at that sun without being able to tell whether it is rising or setting, and not a setting sun." GOUVERNEUR MORRIS Now I know it is a rising THE STATES RATIFY THE CONSTITUTION 255. Why some great men opposed the Constitution.^^ The Convention sat with closed doors, and the people did not know exactly what kind of government had been made. Some feared that too much power had been 158 THE NEED FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT given to the nation and that the states would lose their importance. Would not the^ president become a king ? At least there was no Bill of Rights in the Constitution (§156). North Carolina and Rhode Island did not ratify until after Washington's election. 256. How the states voted. The states elected dele- gates to state conventions which were to accept or reject the Constitution. There were many hot debates in these conventions. Delaware won the double honor of not only being the first to ratify, but of doing it unanimously. Both New Jersey and Georgia came under the "New Roof," as the Constitution was now called, by a unani- mous vote.*'^ But the friends of the new gov- ernment had hard fighting to get it rati- fied in Massachusetts, V^irginia, and New York. The best arguments in favor of the Consti- tution were found in a newspaper written by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay. These articles took up the Constitution point by point and explained it to the people." Richard Henry Lee wrote the most important argu- ments against the Constitution, called the "Letters of a Federal Farmer." THE STATES RATIFY THE CONSTITUTION 159 257. Celebrating the Fourth of July in Philadelphia (1788). Nowhere were the people happier than in the A VIEW OF THE SENATE CHAMBER IX AN EARLY DAY City of Brotherly Love when the good news came that Virginia was the tenth state to ratify the Constitution. They celebrated in grand style. Salutes were fired at sunrise, and the bells of the city rang a noisy welcome to the day as 5,000 persons gathered for the parade. "Every trade, every business, every occupation of life was represented." When the procession ended, James Wilson (§250), a great friend of the Constitution, gave an oration. The rejoicing went on far into the night. This was a fitting celebration of the greatest event of the American Revolution by a city that had seen the meeting of the First Continental Congress, the signing of the Declaration of Independence, and the meeting of the Constitutional Convention. i6o THE NEED FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT IMPORTANT POINTS IN THE CONSTITUTION 258. The new Congress or the legislative department. The old Congress had but one house , but th^ new Congress has two. The old represented the states, but the new, the people. The members of the lower house of Congress are elected by the people of the states every two years. From this fact it may turn out that the representatives are of one party while the president belongs to another. To the lower house is given the right to originate money bills. This is an ancient custom coming down to us from the English constitution. The Senate is supposed to be conservative.^^ Its mem- bers are required to be older. Then, too, they were elected by the state legislatures until 1 9 1 7 . The term is three times as long as a representative's. These points make men steady-headed and careful in their work. When the Senate is considering a treaty or the appoint- ments to the cabinet or to the United States courts, it may go into secret session. 259. Important powers of Congress. The old Congress lacked the power to raise money by taxation (§242). The new Congress was given that power. The Confederation could not raise an army or navy without permission of the states. Congress can do both. Commerce at home and abroad was in a bad state under the old Congress, but now Congress has the right to regu- late trade with foreign nations and between the states. Congress was given the power to coin money, a right it did not have before. The Constitution forbids the states to make paper money. One of the most far-reaching powers granted Congress is what is called "implied powers." These powers were granted in a clause which declares that Congress may IMPORTANT POINTS IN THE CONSTITUTION i6i make all laws necessary to carry into effect all powers granted by the Constitution to the new government. This clause stands next in importance to the so-called "Preamble" to the Constitution. 260. The president the head of the executive depart- ment.^ The old Confederation had no president. The Convention decided to take the governor of the states as a model for the president (§158). A few wanted the presi- dent to serve for life, but the majority wanted him for a seven years' term.^^ They decided on four years with an opportunity for reelection. How to choose a president was a hard problem. The Convention finally decided in favor of electors chosen by each state, equal in number to the sum of its representatives and senators. The electors meet in each state and vote for a man to be presi- dent and for one for vice-president. 261 . Some things the president may do. The president may help Congress make laws by signing them. If he does not sign the bill, it becomes a law after ten days. If he vetoes a bill, it does not become a law unless Congress passes it again by a two-thirds majority. The great work of the president is to carry out the laws. For this purpose he has the cabinet, 1"° with its many departments, and the army and the navy. The presi- dent's right to a cabinet is one of the impHed powers of the Constitution (§259). He may call out the mihtia to suppress rebellion such as Shays 's or Dorr's rebellion (§244). He can call upon United States troops to protect the mails, as in Cleveland's time. The president, as commander-in-chief of the army and navy in time of war, has "war powers." These again are implied powers. The two most famous examples of the use of war powers are Lincoln's in the Civil War and 7 i62 THE NEED FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT Wilson's in the great World War. No English king since George III has used so great power as did these two men of the people. The president may make treaties and appoint ministers and judges of the United vStates courts, by the advice and consent of the Senate. 262. The United States courts, or the judicial depart- ment. The Confederation had no judges with the power to try men for breaking a law of Congress. Very few men in the Convention objected to having United States judges. They decided to make the judges a more con- servative body than the Senate. In the first place, they removed them as far from politics as possible; they are nominated by the president and passed on by the Senate ; they serve during good behavior and can be removed only by impeachment. Besides, their salaries cannot be cut down once they are in office. 263. Cases to be tried by United States courts. The following trials must take place in the United States courts: (i) if a difference between two or more states calls for a trial; (2) if a man in one state sues a citizen in another state; (3) if ambassadors or other foreign officers bring suit; (4) if any suit arises under the Constitution or laws made by Congress. It is easy to see that the persons named would probably get more perfect justice in a Federal than in a state court. 264. Officers of the courts. The attorney-general of the United States is a member of the cabinet. He may be looked upon as the head officer of the judicial department. Under him are the district attorneys, who begin and carry on cases coming before the courts. The Federal marshal acts as the sheriff of the courts to carry out their orders. He is also under the attorney-general. IMPORTANT POINTS IN THE CONSTITUTION 163. 265. Laws declared unconstitutional. Suppose Con- gress or the legislature of a state passes a law not permitted by the Constitution. What can be done about it ? Some one may bring a suit before the court to test the law. The court will then declare the law is no law. When the Supreme Court first declared a law uncon- stitutional, some men were alarmed. They feared that the court would became more powerful than Congress, They even denied that the Constitution gave the court this power. The right of a Federal court to declare a law unconstitutional is not expressed in so many words in the Constitution but is an implied power. The use of this power has had a good effect. It has made Congress more careful in making laws. The courts of no other nation have this power. When the Parliament of Great Britain passes a law, no king can veto it and no court of the country can declare it null and void. 266. Amending the Constitution. The men who made the Constitution felt that it was not perfect and that with experience to help them, they would wish to cure these defects. Hence the makers proposed two ways of chang- ing the Constitution, (i) If amendments pass both houses by a two-thirds vote, the proposed change is sent to the state legislatures or to state conventions. If three- fourths of the states approve the change, the amendment is added to the Constitution. (2) Or, if two-thirds of the legislatures of the states request it. Congress must call a national constitutional convention which may propose amendments. Such amendments, ratified by three- fourths of the states, become a part of the Constitution. Nineteen amendments have been made by the first plan, but none by the second. • i64 THE NEED FOR A STRONGER GOVERNMENT 267. The first ten amendments. One of the most seri- ous objections made to the Constitution in the ratifying conventions (§256) was that it contained no Bill of Rights. Madison introduced in the first Congress (1789) many amendments intended to correct this defect. When they had been passed upon by Congress and the states, there were only ten left. These ten amendments have been called our "Bill of Rights.""'' Their purpose is to make sure that the government shall never take away the "personal liberties" of the people, such as freedom of religion, of speech, and of the press. The people are also protected in their right to assemble and petition for redress of grievances and in their right to a jury trial. The Ninth and Tenth Amendments were adopted to make clearer the line separating the powers of the Federal and the state governments. SUGGESTED READINGS References for teachers: Fiske, Critical Period of American His- tory, 145-315; Elson, Side Lights on American History, 24-53; Lodge, Hamilton ("American Statesmen Series"), 68-78; Tyler, Patrick Henry, 266-300; Gay, Madison, 88-127; Hosmer, Samuel Adams, 3S9-401; Bassett, Short History, 240-254; McMaster, History of the American People, I, chap, i-iv; Hart, Patriots and Statesmen, II, 153-361; Hart, Source Book, Nos. 64-70; McLaughlin, Confederation and Constitution, chap. iii. References for pupils: Hart, Formation of the Union, 104-133; Mace, George Washington, 140-152; Guitteau, Preparing for Citizen- ship, chap, xiii; Barstow, A New Nation, 3-24; Great Epochs in Ameri- can History, IV, 51-64. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS I. Visit land grants in Indiana and Ohio and write home accounts of. each. 2. Get letters from Washington, Patrick Henry, James Madison, and Samuel Adams on the Confederation. What does each think of a new government? 3. Dramatize the Constitutional Convention. 4. Attend one of the ratifying conventions and report the debates. CHAPTER XI THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NATION THE AMERICAN PEOPLE (1790-1800) 268. The number of people in the United States (1790). When Washington became president (1789) he was at the head of nearly 4,000,000 people. As in colonial days, the great majority lived near the ocean and on farms. Only three persons in every hundred lived in cities (§108). The most important places were Philadelphia with 42,000 people; New York, with 33,000; Boston, 18,000; Charleston, 16,000; and Baltimore, 14,000. These were called cities then, but now they would hardly be Area settled in 1790 frp7^ Area settled betweer l^^^^^iygO and 1800* Population under 2 per s^. mi. not THE GROWTH OF SETTLED AREA IN I79O AND 180O looked upon as such. In spite of the war our population increased more than a milHon during that time. 165 i66 THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NATION 269. The spirit of the American people. We have seen great changes in the colonists during their 150 years in America (§107). Further changes were wrought by the Revolution. The Americans were made more democratic by fighting against an autocratic king and by driving many of the Tories out of the country. But we must not forget that Americans were not even then as demo- cratic as we are. They still clung to the idea of birth, wealth, and position as giving persons standing in life, although ability and character were more and more coming to the front. 270. Still imitating Europe. We had won our political independence but in many ways were still dependent upon Europe. We still loved EngHsh trade the best. Our fashions came from London although our friendship for France brought in some French ways. But the French language stood in the way. Books were still few, and Americans read foreign authors. American poets and story-writers still imitated the English. Colleges and public schools, coming down from colonial days, were still English in their ways. 271. The Revolution and education. War always destroys. No new colleges sprang up during this time, and few public schools. Students had to go to war instead of going to school. Outside of the cities there were hardly any schools during the war. They were very much like those of colonial days (§125). In harmony with the more democratic ways caused by the Revolution, girls were gradually admitted to public schools, and young women were permitted to teach both boys and girls. But the long period of agitation and war produced a fine race of orators and writer?. The public learned much by listening to them, or by reading what they wrote. THE AMERICAN PEOPLE (1790-1800) 167 Newspapers increased during this stormy time and led the people in a political way. 272. Changes in religious life. The great change in religions during colonial times had tended toward tolera- tion (§130). The Revolution had started a nation-wide movement in favor of uniting all churches of the same faith into one body. This change was very much like the movement for a stronger national government. The English church in America at a convention in 1783 declared in favor of calling itself the Protestant Episcopal Church in America. The Methodists grew during the Revolution, and in 1784 they held their first General Conference. This Conference controls the Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States. The Presbyterians formed their General Assembly in 1789, and the Roman Catholics secured their first bishop in 1790. The Baptists and the Congregationalists still held, with slight changes, to the old independent congre- gations (§70). The Christians or Disciples, the Universalists, the Uni- tarians, and the Shakers arose in this period of agitation. These sects were all very democratic in their church government. 273. Religion and morality in practice. Some of the states still taxed people to pay for the support of minis- ters (§130), but this, too, was passing away under the new influence. The Constitution had declared that Congress could not fix on the people any reHgious belief (Amend- ment I). But there was little practical sympathy for the unfor- tunate and the criminal. The jails were generally foul places, too foul for bodily health and too foul for mental health. The hardened criminal, the debtor who could i68 THE BEGINNIXGvS OF THE NATION not pay, and the first offender, old or young, were thrown together in the jail. There were few asylums or reforma- tories, and the insane or the pauper had to be taken care of at home or sent to jail. The old custom of punishing people in public was gradually passing away. 274. Slavery. During the war slavery had existed in all the states, but it never struck deep root in the North. It could not be used with profit on small farms and in hand industries. Such slaves as were found in this section were mainly house-servants. The Quakers still preached against slavery (§111), and a few in other churches raised their voices against it. The Revolution, with its emphasis on the Rights of Man, joined hands with these religious forces and aroused a stronger senti- ment against slavery. This was strong enough to abolish slavery in New England and Pennsylvania by 1790. New York and New Jersey followed a bit later. Many people in the South opposed slavery on moral grounds as well as because of its deadening effect on indus- try. No one in the Constitutional Convention spoke stronger words against the institution than George Mason, a Virginia slaveholder. 275. Industry during the Revolution. We could trade but little with Europe during the war. Hence we had to depend upon home industries. The best of our people were proud to wear homespun. This made a demand upon the farmer for more wool and cotton, and upon the spinners and weavers for more thread and more cloth. New industries sprang up under war conditions, and old ones were made larger. Gunsmiths were in demand all over the country, but the towns of Springfield, Massa- chusetts, and Waterbury, Connecticut, became great gunmaking centers. In Maryland cannon balls were THE AMERICAN PEOPLE (1790-1800) 169 manufactured. ^''- Saltpeter mines had to be opened up to make powder. Shoemakers, harnessmakers, and saddle- makers found themselves hard pressed to meet the demands of the army. A New York "Society for the Promotion of Arts, Agri- culture, and Economy" offered premiums for linen, yarn, and woven stockings, and in Boston a spinning school was set up to teach women to spin. In Philadelohia a factory was opened which employed 500 people in weaving linen and woolen cloth. Lancaster and Reading, Penn- sylvania, were important manufacturing centers. In- New Jersey, there were forty-one fulling machines for finishing the cloth made in farmhouses. In the South planters raised enough wool and cotton to clothe their servants and themselves. '°''' 276. Industrial and political revolutions. We have already seen how the American Revolution changed the minds of men in England and France (§235). Toward its close two mighty changes in England and France began to influence America. The French Revolution made a powerful appeal to Americans because the French were throwing off the rule of the king and were setting up a republic (§287). Long before these events England had been undergoing a mighty industrial change. Men have called it the Industrial Revolution. This change was caused by three inventions: (i) a spinning machine, producing many threads at once instead of one; (2) a weaving machine, producing many yards of cloth instead of one; (3) an engine using steam instead of muscle to drive machinery. 277. How the machine came to America. These inven- tions gave England a big advantage over other nations. She passed a law punishing anyone for taking these I70 THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NATION machines or drawings of them out of the country. But the shrewd Yankee soon found a way. He offered generous rewards to anyone who would set up these machines in America. Several experiments were made. But in 1789 Samuel Slater, an Englishman, came. He had memorized an English mill with its machinery. He set it up at Pawtucket, Rhode Island. The machines in this mill were turned by water, and then the hand wheels for spinning flax and wool began to change to the new inven- tion. Likewise, the spinning and weaving began to change from the home to the factory. In the nooks and corners of America people still use the wheel and the hand loom. 278. The cotton gin, an American invention (1793). Near Savannah, Georgia, lived Mrs. Nathanael Greene (§231). A Yankee school teacher, EH Whitney, was paying her a visit. He heard planters tell how hard it was to separate the seed from cotton. Only five or six pounds a day was a man's work. This did not pay. Whitney put his mind to work and soon had a machine ready which separated the seeds from 300 to 1,000 pounds of cot- ton per day. This inven- tion produced a revolution in the cotton industry. The year before, the South sent 630 bales to England; the year after, 7,000 were exported; and by 1800, 79,000 bales were sent abroad. The cotton industry increased by 1^ Icy ^ ^ 1 V, •^f--*-'' THE AMERICAN PEOPLE (1790-1800) 71 leaps and bounds. The price of slaves rose, and the demand for new cotton lands increased. Cotton mills sprang up in the North, and it became harder to free the slaves. 279. The new West. Even before the Revolution, we saw a new West growing up around the sources of the ^m^^.' EMIGRANTS LEAVING FOR THE WEST Ohio and in the Allegheny regions (§167). The hardy sons of the East and South now pressed rapidly west- ward along old Indian trails leading to Kentucky, Ten- nessee, and Ohio. wSome were attracted by the stories of the adventures that awaited the settler. Others were drawn by the beauty of the country, the richness of the soil, and most of all by the great supply of rich, cheap lands awaiting them. Several families in their Conestoga wagons usually made the journey together. The women and children 172 THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NATION rode in the wagons or on horseback, while fathers and sons looked after herds of cattle or flocks of sheep if they had them. At night they "camped out," well guarded by dog and gun. They were thankful when a river was reached big enough to carry them near their settlement. This was a hard, slow way to travel, and we shall soon hear these settlers calling for better roads and waterways between the East and the West. 280. The trade of the new West. These hardy people had only a few things to sell, but they needed to sell them y 1 ) >- r'' ( V' '" ' '■V *?' 1 > ^ ""Ico^ton ;x > / j CI 11 ^l ^ r ^ ^ 1 K-> 1 I k V '- ^' \. /T^ ^ 1 ( ^<.'~ :i . 7 . / t Tsa ■> all ^ V '\ ^r.lL, 01 ,ic\u Boone s W Idtrness Road ^^=i* .^..,.,.10 - == Robertson s Tra 1 in the best market. Only a few things, such as cloth, nails, hides, fur, and ginseng, could be put on pack horses and THE AMERICAN PEOPLE (1790-1800) 173 sent eastward over the mountains. The settlers loved to trade in their old homes, but there were no good roads, TRANSPORTATION BY WATER BY MEANS OF THE FI.ATBOAT and it was hard to get there. Their heavy articles, such as flour, bacon, and cattle, had to float down some stream to the Ohio, and on down the Mississippi to New Orleans. Here. the goods were transferred to ocean-going vessels and carried to the cities of the Atlantic coast and the markets of the world. What it meant to the Union, let Washington tell:'"* "The western settlers stand, as it were, upon a pivot. The touch of a feather would turn them any way. They looked down the Mississippi .... for no other reason than because they could glide down the stream." But the Spaniards were foolish enough to charge the settlers heavy duties. The settlers demanded the right to trade free of charge. The Spaniards in turn seized their boats and cargoes and left the angry owners to tramp their long way home, telling the story to other backwoodsmen. They threatened to rise and drive the Spaniards into the Gulf. But in 1795 Spain granted the free use of the mouth of the Mississippi to western trade. 174 THE BEGINNINGvS OF THE NATION 281. Little improvement in ways of travel. There had been but little change in travel by land or water (§151). Between the larger towns, stagecoaches carried passengers, and mail carriers arrived about once a week. The stage went from Boston to Philadelphia in about eight days. Freight wagons reached Pittsburgh from Philadelphia in about twenty days, charging $2.00 per hundred pounds. Now it costs but a few cents for such a load. On the water men still used sail and oar (§151). Flat- boats and sailboats were the larger vessels used. But in this very period experiments were being made which promised to revolutionize river trade and travel. More or less successful efforts were made in New England, the middle states, and in the South, to invent a steamboat. WASHINGTON THE FIRST PRESIDENT (1789-97) 282. The first national election. The first election under the Constitution was very different from elections today. There were no excitement, no orators, and no torchlight processions. Each state followed its own plan of voting. The electors all voted for Washington, as was expected. John Adams was elected vice-president.'"^ It was Virginia and Massachusetts again (§196). 283. The first president. The man who had led their armies and who had been head of their Constitutional Con- vention was now going to put into effect the Constitution he had helped to make. From Alexandria, his home town, he and Mrs. Washington began the journey to New York, then the capital. All along the way they were made to feel how greatly beloved they were. At Baltimore, their neighboring city, they were welcomed by flags and bunting, and by shouting people; in Philadelphia, by laurel and liberty caps, ringing of bells, and booming of WASHINGTON THE FIRST PRESIDENT 175 cannon; in Trenton, by a triumphal arch resting on thir- teen pillars. As Washington passed under the arch, maidens, strewing s flowers, came for- ward to meet him. What memories Princeton and Trenton must have recalled (§207) ! New York Bay was black with people in boats, shouting and singing. Warships, both home and for- eign, fired salutes. Congressmen, governors, and dis- tinguished citizens escorted Washington to the home in which he was to live. On April 30 he stood in old Federal Hall, his hand upon the Bible, and took the oath as president (Art. II, §1, ^8). His hand trembled as he read his inaugural address. He was now to travel a road no man had trod. He was now the president of a republic. 284. Appointing great men to office. Among the great men appointed to hold office were Thomas Jefferson, secretary of state, to look after our relations with foreign nations; Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury, to look after the money and debts of the country; General Knox, secretary of war and the navy; and Edmund Randolph, to take charge of the questions of law coming before the new government. These men THE INAUGURATION OF WA'iHINrTON 176 THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NATION made up what has been called the cabinet. They were to advise the president on all questions about which he wanted to know. Sometimes he asked each one separately for his advice, and at others he called them together to get the benefit of their joint wisdom. The Constitution did not mention these departments by name, nor did it contain the word " cabinet. "^•^'^ But the Constitution did mention a Supreme Court with judges. Washington appointed that distinguished Huguenot lawyer, John Jay, as first judge of the Supreme Court (§189). Washington was careful to put good and true men in office in spite of the fact that many persons wrote letters urging him to appoint their friends. 285. Paying the national debt. The old Confederation could not pay its debts (§243), and in 1790 these lOHN JAY amounted to about $50,000,- 000. They were made up of what we had borrowed from our citizens, from our friends, France and Holland, and the debts of the different states. ^''^ Hamilton said the new government should take the latter over and pay them. This meant that the Federal government had to find some means of raising a large sum of money. Hamilton boldly attacked this problem by favoring the following measures: (i) a tariff on foreign goods to bring money into the treasury; (2) the cre- ation of a United States bank (1791) to handle the WASHINGTON THE FIRST PRESIDENT 177 money of the country; (3) an excise tax, a tax on distilled liquors. All of these measures became law. Some money from these sources was set aside to pay the national debt, and some to pay the running expenses of the government. 286. Opposition. Origin of political parties. Debates in Congress over these questions showed great differences ■•^^ffili THE FIRST UNITED STATES BANK AT PHILADELPHIA of Opinions, especially those on the United States bank. Washington took the opinion in writing of Hamilton favoring, and Jefferson opposing the bank. Washington signed the bill (Art. I, §7). On other measures, also, disputes arose until there were formed two groups of men in and out of Congress. Hamilton represented one group who called themselves Federalists. 1"^ They believed in making the national government strong and in using all the powers granted and impHed in the Constitution. Because Hamilton's financial measures had improved business, the trading states supported him. The Federalists were accused of favoring monarchy and of building up a " money power ' ' that would keep laborers and farmers working for many a year to pay off the debt. 178 THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NATION Jefferson led the opposition, which took the name of Repubhcans.'"^ They beHeved in strong state governments and in Congress using only those powers named in the Constitution. Jefferson drew most of his support from the planting states and the frontier communities. He believed in the common man, disliked big cities, and was afraid of the Federal government getting too much power through Hamilton's measures. THE ORIGIN OF OUR FOREIGN POLICY 287. The French Revolution raises hard questions. This revolution was a conflict in France between the king, the nobles, and the rich on the one side, and the peasant farmers and the poor of the cities on the other. The first class did not pay their share of the taxes, and the burdens fell so much the harder on the second class. The king, Louis XVI, was too weak to see justice done. Besides, his fine nobles and women wasted vast sums of money obtained by taxes. The king summoned a national congress, '^'^ called the Estates General, to save France from bankruptcy (1789). Lafayette was a member. Imitating America, the Estates drew up a constitution. But the French people had suffered too long. They overthrew their king, set up a republic, and abolished all titles. Finally they beheaded the king and queen. This led to war with the nations of Europe, including England. What will the United States do? France came to our aid in the Revolution, and ought we not to go to her aid? 288. Washington consults his cabinet. Washington took the advice of his cabinet and sent forth a declaration that the United States would not take sides with either party in the war. This has been called a ' ' Proclamation THE ORIGIN OF OUR FOREIGN POLICY I79 of Neutrality." The year 1793 marks the beginning of our policy of not taking part in European quarrels. But many Americans did not agree with Washington. They declared that he was favoring kings in their war against the French people. They held feasts, toasted the French, wore French colors, and called each other "Citizen" or "Citizeness" instead of Mr. and Mrs. Feeling ran high, the Republicans standing for France and the FederaHsts for England. 289. Troubles over trade. The war in Europe made it dangerous for French and British ships to sail the sea. This left American neutral ships to carry much of the trade to both countries. But neither France nor England liked to see American ships carrying trade to the other. Now- any nation at war has the right to capture ships if they are caught carrying guns, powder, and other war stores to a blockaded port. But England went farther. She captured American ships carrying wheat, sugar, and coffee to France. Some of these goods came from the United States and some from the French West Indies, but England claimed the right to capture all of them. Besides, she held to the doctrine that "Once an Englishman, always an Englishman. "^^1 Hence she searched American ships and in some cases seized American-born sailors because they looked like Englishmen. This act was called "impressing" sea- men, and aroused great indignation throughout the country. Men began to talk of war. 290. Jay's Treaty (1794). Feeling in the West was hot. The settlers beHeved that England, which still held the western posts given us by the Treaty of 1783, was encouraging the Indians to attack us. Washington sent Jay to make a treaty with England. Jay secured i8o THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NATION a pledge to give up the western posts, but failed to get relief for our seamen. Search and impressment went on. That part of the treaty in regard to our trade was so bad that the Senate refused to ratify it. The treaty prob- ably saved us from war. It was so unpopular that it was burned in places, and Hamilton was stoned in New York for defending it. HOME PROBLEMS AGAIN 291. Washington refuses a third term. His death (1799). For eight years Washington had labored faith- fully and well. He had laid the foundations of the new government deep in the hearts of his countrymen. He refused a third election and retired to his beloved Mount Vernon, bearing the affections of the civiHzed world: He sent forth a farewell address carrying his good wishes to the people and expressing a desire that they avoid the dan- gers of party strife. He was happy on his farm once more. He died at the age of sixty- seven and was mourned by the people of all the world."- 292. The race between Adams and Jefferson (1797). Adams and Jefferson had been great friends. Both were on the committee which made the Declaration of Independence, JOHN ADAMS ^^^ ^^^ .^^ author and the other its orator. One was minister to England and the other to France under the Confederation. But now they HOME PROBLEMS AGAIN i8i began to separate. Adams was a Federalist, and Jeffer- son was a Republican, and both were candidates for the presidency. Adams won the election by three electoral votes. Jefferson became yice-president (Art. II, §i, ^3). 293. Relations with France again. France was angry because of Jay's Treaty, and for a short time there was war on the sea with that country. President Adams sent three men to France to make a treaty. But they were told that certain men^^^ Qf influence must be paid $250,000 before anything could be done. Americans were indignant. They declared that we had "millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute." The cause of France suddenly became unpopular, and everybody cheered for the President and joined in singing the new song, "Hail Columbia." Congress caught the enthu- siasm and voted to increase the army and to build more and bigger warships. 294. The decline of the Federalists. The Federahsts found themselves riding a wave of popular favor. They took advantage of it to pass two laws: one to give the president power to order ahens out of the country without trial if they were considered dangerous; and the other to punish by fine and imprisonment speakers or writers who falsely criticized the government or its high officers. These are called the Ahen and Sedition laws.^^^ Some Federalists denounced these acts, and the Repub- licans were angry. The Sedition Act especially roused them, and when the courts began to send men to prison for violating it they said it was being used by the gov- ernment to stop free discussion of political questions and keep the Federalists in power. Jefferson and Madison seized their pens and wrote the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions, declaring the acts were a violation of the l82 THE BEGINNINGS OF THE NATION Constitution (Amendment I). Kentucky declared that any state might excuse its citizens from obeying such a Federal law. This was the doctrine of "nullification." It later made much trouble. Hamilton had shown his opposition to the Alien and Sedition laws. He also had criticized President Adams' administration. This further split the Federalists. 295. The first real presidential campaign (1800). The candidates were Adams and Jefferson again. Adams was called an ' ' aristocrat. ' ' He was a bit reserved and did not welcome the common people to a part in the government. Jefferson was called a "mobocrat" because he sym- pathized with the people of France. He had great faith in the common people, and they naturally loved him. The Republicans pointed to what then seemed great ex- travagance. The cost of gov- ernment had risen from $3,000,000 in 1792 to $10,- 000,000 in 1800. These argu- ments, taken with the split among the Federalists, led to their defeat. The electoral vote stood 65 for Adams and 73 for Jefferson. But Jefferson was not yet president. Aaron Burr, a New York poHtical boss, re- ceived 73 votes also. The election was thus thrown into the lower house of Congress"^ (Art. II, §1, ^3), where the Federalists had a majority. It is supposed that THOMAS JEFFERSON HOME PROBLEMS AGAIN 183 Hamilton's influence elected Jefferson because he thought Jefferson less dangerous than Burr. Just before leaving the presidency, Adams appointed as chief justice of the Supi-eme Court, John Marshall of Virginia. He was a Federalist, and his decisions saved the government from running too much toward States' Rights (§286). SUGGESTED READINGS References for teachers: Bogart, Economic History of the United States, chaps, x, xi; McDonald, From Jefferson to Lincoln, chap, i; Coman, Industrial History, 132-156; Elson, Side Lights on American History, I, chaps, hi, iv; Hart, Formation of the Union, 103-175; Hart, Contemporaries, III, 14-93, 255-343; Hart, Patriots and Statesmenf II, 363-380; III, 15-85; McMaster, History of the People of the United States, II, 1-58, 135-142; Walker, Making of the Nation, 64-168; Lodge, Washington ("American Statesmen Series"), II, 42-46. References for pupils: Mace, Stories of Heroism, 125-127; Mace, Washington, a Virginia Cavalier; Hart, Source Book, 166-183; Hart, Source Reader, III, 45-96. Fiction: Brown, Arthtir Mervyn; Mitchell, Red City. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS I. Your great-grandfather kept a diary, 1 790-1 800. Report on the part telling how the people lived at that time. 2. Visit George Mason before the invention of the cotton gin and listen to him talk against slavery. Tell what he said. 3. Boys and girls are stationed at Alexandria, Baltimore, Philadelphia, Trenton, and New York Bay to witness the passing of Washington and Mrs. Washington. Tell what they saw. 4. Attend Washington's receptions. Tell what the people say about them. 5. Attend a banquet given in honor of Genet in Philadelphia. Write a report for a Federalist paper. CHAPTER XII THE REPUBLICAN PARTY IN POWER JEFFERSON IN CONTROL (1801-9) 296. The first Republican president. There was joy among Republicans when they learned of Jefferson's election. Fear filled the hearts of his opponents because they honestly believed that the government was on the road to ruin. Jefferson was a many-sided man. He was a planter, a scientist, and a philosopher. He corre- sponded with foreigners about inventions, tools for farm- ing, books, and poHtics. Jefferson has been called our shrewdest politician. He set out to win Federalists to his party and succeeded. \f\y \M'^ 'I ■'^s_\\' ii MONTICELLO, THE HOME OF THOMAS JEFFERSON He said in his inaugural: "We are all Republicans; we are all Federalists." He declared in favor of "equal and 184 PEOPLING THE WEST 185 exact justice to all men — peace, commerce, and honest friendship with all nations — entangling alliances with none Economy in the public expense — and the honest payment of our public debts." Jefferson was opposed to pomp and show. He knew that simplicity and economy appealed to most men when they had to pay the bills. Hence he put aside processions and riding in great carriages drawn by fine horses, as Washington and Adams had done. He walked to the new capitol"^ with friends and read his inaugural. He sent his messages to Congress to be read, while Washington and Adams had been driven there and read their mes- sages in person. 297. A popular president. Jefferson made himself popular with all classes except the extreme Federalists. Congress did about as he wished. It cut down the army and navy, for JefTerson was a man of peace. It repealed the excise law, for it was unpopular (§285). Our trade with Europe was bringing millions of money into the coun- try (§285). Jefferson had appointed a famous financier, Albert Gallatin, a native' of Switzerland, to care for our money. By the end of Jefferson's first term he saw nearly half of our debt wiped out. Jefferson, too, had been troubled by "office seekers" (§284). He did not appoint many, because of the men holding office he said : "Few die and none resign." It is plain why Jefferson received so great a vote in the Electoral College (1805) for a second term. PEOPLING THE WEST 298. The West calls again. We have seen how the settlers west of the Alleghenies felt about closing the mouth of the Mississippi (§280). The news suddenly i86 THE REPUBLICAN PARTY IN POWER spread over the West that the mouth of the river was closed and that Napoleon, the victorious French general, ..v^' ^.\^f FIRST SETTLEMENT OF LOUISVILLE had charge of it instead of Spain (1802). Napoleon had swept all Western Europe with his victorious soldiers and now began to dream of an empire in America, a revival of the New France that had been the dream of La Salle (§163). The rifleman of the West took down his gun, looked it over, and started for the place of meeting. He was either going to petition President Jefferson to stop Napoleon, or he was going to join his fellows, march to New Orleans, and settle matters. Napoleon had already changed his mind. The British navy stood in Napoleon's way. Jefferson had also written a note, probably seen by Napoleon, declaring that "there is on the globe one single spot, the possessor of which is our natural and habitual enemy. It is New Orleans." He also said that if Napoleon went farther, we should "marry ourselves to the British fleet and nation." PEOPLING THE WEST 187 299. The purchase of Louisiana (1803). Napoleon saw the point. If he did not, our minister, Robert R. Livingston, had convinced him before Monroe arrived that he must sell the whole of Louisiana or lose it. Jefferson had sent Monroe to buy only the Island of Orleans and West Florida. Both ministers were enthusiastic over buying the whole of Louisiana Territory and agreed to pay $15,000,000 for it. At one peaceful blow Jefferson had doubled the size of the United States. The Federalist leaders of New Eng- land were angry. They denied the right to buy Louisiana since that power was not given in the Constitution. Jefferson himself was in doubt ! But he took the advice of friends, since the West and South were bent on getting this region (see map for boundaries) . The frontiersmen were happy, and only a few of the wilder spirits among them joined Burr's treasonable expedition to the Southwest."^ Their commerce now had free outlet to the Atlantic states and to Europe. No doubt the purchase of Louisiana hastened the development of the Missis- sippi Valley. 300. Lewis and Clark's ex- pedition to Oregon. Like Washington, Jefferson had a vision of the great future of the United States. The people knew Httle of the new country of Louisiana. But he decided that they should know more. He sent forth the first great expedition to explore this region and to gather some IVVETHER LEWIS 1 88 THE REPUBLICAN PARTY IN POWER notion of its resources. Lewis and Clark headed a band of men who trained like soldiers for their task. They left the town of St. Louis (1804) and sailed and paddled up the Missouri to where Bismarck, North Dakota, now stands. Here they spent the winter. From this point they were guided by an Indian woman"^ up the river and across the mountains. They found the headwaters of the Missouri and the Columbia near together. This western river they followed until it flowed into the blue waters of the Pacific. There they remained all winter, writing up their journals and drawing maps of the region explored. In the spring they left and returned to the Missouri by way of the Yellow- 7HE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION stone River. The American people opened their eyes as they read the story of the mighty West. 301. Our claim to the Oregon country. This expedi- tion gave us a firmer claim to this region. As early as 1792 Captain Gray, a fur trader, in the good ship "Columbia," saw this river and gave it the name of his ship. Our right was made still more secure by another fur trader, John Jacob Astor. He sent two parties to PEOPLING THE WEST ZEBULON PIKE Oregon: one directly across the mountains and another by way of Cape Horn. They planted Astoria (i8i i), but they were driven out the next year by British fur traders. Fur trading was still a factor in the making of the United States (§144)- 302. Zebulon Pike also ex- plores the West. While Lewis and Clark were trying for the secrets of the Missouri and the Columbia, Lieutenant Pike was moving up the Mississippi to find its source. He reached Cass Lake but went no farther. After his return he was sent out to trace the boundary between Louisiana and New Spain. He followed the Missouri, then went up the Osage for a time and into Colorado. Here he climbed the famous peak which bears his name. He then crossed into Span- ish territory, was captured and taken to Santa Fe. The Spaniards took him to El Paso, where he was set free, and he finally reached home (1807). 303. New states organized in the West. The new states organized since the Revolution were all in the West except Vermont (1791), the fourteenth state. Vermont, the Green Mountain state, was the first state after the original thirteen to come into the Union. Champlain, the Frenchman (§161), first saw this country (1609). ■ The French settled Fort St. Anne (1665). Massachusetts built Dummer (1724). New Hampshire and New York both laid claims to portions of Vermont's territory. The Green Mountain Boys, organized to igo THE REPUBLICAN PARTY IN POWER resist New York's claims, did heroic service in the Revo- lution. Southern sympathizers from Canada invaded St. Albans (1864). This place was in turn headquarters for the Fenian invasion of Canada (1870). Vermont celebrated the Tercentenary of the discovery of Lake Champlain (1909). Kentucky, since the Revolution, had been making great strides. Over Boone's Wilderness road (§225), the people were pouring into this charming region. Both Lexington and Louisville had been begun during the Revo- lution. Kentucky contained 75,000 people in 1790, and was admitted as the fifteenth state in 1792. In 1800 she had a population of 220,000, and in 1810, over 406,000. Henry Clay had already come from Virginia and was capturing the western people by his eloquent voice and his winsome manners. On the soil of this state, not far EARLY LEXINGTON apart, were born those two sons of destiny, Abraham Lincoln (1809) and Jefferson Davis (1808). PEOPLING THE WEST 191 Tennessee (§225) was crowding Kentucky. Settlers were pouring in from the East and South. When the FORT WASHINGTON, CINCINNATI, IN I787 first census was taken (1790) she was found to hold over 3 5 , 000 people . With this showing she was admitted to the Union in 1796. Two of her early heroes were James Robertson and John Sevier, but the most famous man in all her history was General Andrew Jackson. 304. Ohio the first of the old Northwest. Three flags had waved over Ohio: the French, the British, and the American. Ohio was the first child of the Ordinance of 1787 (§248). The Virginia Military Reservation and the Western Reserve had already been located (§47). Revolutionary veterans from New England, led by Gen- eral Putnam, settled Marietta (1788). In the same year Cincinnati was located. Here Fort Washington gave protection to the struggling soldiers of St. Clair's army, beaten by the Indians (1790). Mad Anthony Wayne won the final victory over the red men at Fallen Timbers and forced them to sign the Treaty of Greenville (1795) 192 THE REPUBLICAN PARTY IN POWER vSettlers now rushed in from the South and settled around ChilHcothe, and those from the East settled around Cleveland. Ohio had over 40,000 people when admitted (1803), but in 1810 she counted more than 230,000. She shares with Virginia the honor of being the mother of presidents. Six were elected from Ohio, and two others were born within her borders. TROUBLES WITH FOREIGN NATIONS AGAIN 305. The rise of Napoleon. Napoleon Bonaparte was born on the island of Corsica in the Mediterranean, then belonging to France. He was sent to a military school and became an artillery officer. He made himself famous by placing his cannon where they swept Paris free of a mob. He was sent to Italy (1796) at the head of a half- starved army, but won victory after victory over the Austrians. He was then sent to Egypt. He returned to France a great hero and had himself elected First Consul. For half a dozen years his armies were victorious. He was probably the greatest general that ever headed an army. He wished to rule all Europe, but the English navy was in his way. He decided to invade England, but in the battle of Trafalgar Nelson defeated the combined fleets of France and Spain (1805). 306. Jefferson gets into trouble. Jefferson was friendl}'- with France and Napoleon (§298). Then England began to search our ships and impress our seamen again (§289). Jefferson did not want war and tried to make a treaty, but would not even show it to the Senate. He then tried the old Non-Importation Act (§181), but England was too busy with Napoleon to give attention to non-importation. Finally an English ship fired into an American vessel, the "Chesapeake," and compelled her to submit to search. TROUBLES WITH FOREIGN NATIONS AGAIN 193 The British officers carried away both British and Ameri- can seamen (§289). PubHc meetings denounced this attack and demanded war. 307. Napoleon blockades Europe (1807). Napoleon decided to strike a great blow at England's source of strength, her trade. He blockaded Western Europe, and declared that no English goods or English ships should go into any of these ports. England was furious and declared that any vessels found sailing for France should be seized. American ships were between two fires. The English had the greater navy and could do more harm than the French, but between them, in a few years they captured over 1,000 American vessels. 308. The Embargo strikes our trading and other economic interests (1807). Jefferson tried to get relief by the Embargo. This law simply forbade American vessels to leave home ports and English vessels to enter them. The loss of trade was intended to bring England to time. Although England suffered, she could not turn away from the struggle with Napoleon. But we suffered more from the Embargo than England did. It hit hard all parts of the country. The ship- owners and sailors of New England, the cotton and tobacco growers of the South, and the farmers of the West were all badly hurt. Smuggling flourished with Canada. Florida, and the West Indies. Much to his sorrow., Jefferson had to submit to the repeal HOW THE FEDERALISTS RIDICULED THE EMB.\RGO 194 THE REPUBLICAN PARTY IN POWER of the Embargo in the last days of his administration. It had failed to do the things he had hoped for. 309. Madison president (1809-17). Madison had been a warm supporter of Jefferson since the beginning of parties (§286). Jefferson had shown his friendship by making Madison his secretary of state. Madison, like Jefferson, tried to keep on friendly terms with Napoleon. But Napoleon was tricky. In the Embargo days when American ships were not permitted to go to Europe, Napoleon captured some that went to France, but he said he was only aiding Jefferson in enforcing the Embargo! 310. The Non-Intercourse Acts. The United States promised that if either England or France would repeal her laws against American trade, she would immediately open up trade with that one and refuse to trade with the other (1809). Napoleon seemed to. agree to this, but when American ships reached France he seized their cargoes, amounting to $10,000,000. 311. The "War Hawks." The rising tide of war was best represented in the new Congress by men from the far South and the new West. These were nick- named "War Hawks" by John Randolph, ^''•' a Re- publican opposed to war. The ablest among them were Henry Clay of Ken- tucky and John C. Calhoun of South Carolina. Both had been fired by the Indian outbreaks which they supposed England had stirred up, and by the insults TROUBLES WITH FOREIGN NATIONS AGAIN I95 heaped upon our ships at sea by both England and France (§307). Clay declared that we could defeat England in Canada. We had about 7,000,000 people then, and Canada less than 500,000. It seemed Clay was right. But he did not count all the factors. It was a hard road through the woods to Canada. Besides, not all our people favored war. SUGGESTED READINGS References for teachers: Hart, Formation of the Union, 176-206; Hart, Contemporaries, III, 31-72, 106-122, 331-422; Hart, Patriots and Statesmen, III, 87-191; Walker, Making of the Nation, 64-168; McMaster, History of the People of the United States, III, 53-307; Elson, Side Lights on American History, I, 54-79; Gay, Madison ("American Statesmen Series"); Morse, Jefferson ("American States- men Series"), 210-212; Coman, Industrial History, 175-179. References for pupils: Earle, Stage Coach and Tavern Days, 253- 264; Mace, Primary History, 241-300; McMurray, Pioneers of the RocJ^y Mountains, 1-40; Wright, Stories of Progress, 104-144; Buller- worth. In the Days of Jefferson, 32-162; Hart, Source Book, 181-200, 226-228; Hart, Source Reader, II, Nos. 60, 76-80, 89-93; Conant, Alexander Hamilton; Seawell, Decatur and Sommers. Fiction: Hale, Man without a Country; Barr, Trinity Bells; Stowe, Minister's Wooing; Bynner, Zachary Phipps; Hale, Nolan's Friends. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS I. You live in 1890 and find a letter from your great-grandfather telling how they lived and what they did in 1790. 2. Write an essay telling of the "good old times" when Jefferson was inaugurated. 3. Write a letter to an admirer of Washington giving reasons for thinking Jefferson ought to take his place as president. Some qne write a letter for John Adams as a proper candidate to succeed him. 4. Attend a banquet given in honor of Genet. Write about it for a Philadelphia newspaper. 5. You are in a theater. News is read of the X. Y. Z. Affair. Music strikes up the "President's March." The people rise and clap. Describe your feehngs to a friend. 6. You are the daughter of a senator in the time of Madison. Write a letter to your "chiun" back east telling of Dolly Madison and the Presi- dent's reception. Compare it with Washington's reception. CHAPTER XIII THE WAR OF 1812 WAR FOR FREEDOM OF COMMERCE 312. Declaration of war (1812). Hundreds of people, mostly Federalists, thought Napoleon was a military despot lording it over Europe, and that England was battling for the freedom of America as well as of Europe. These people, with Republicans opposed to the war who had put up De Witt Clinton of New York, came near winning the election in 1.812. Congress, after a hard fight, declared war by a small majority. '-" No sooner had war been declared than news came that Eng- land was taking steps to patch up the difficulty. The United States was far from being united in the war. A peace loving president had been rushed into war, and the United States was not prepared for it . The Repub- ^t licans had cut down both army and navy (§297) and had done little toward get- ting ready. We had an army of a little more than 6,500 men and a navy of twenty fighting ships. England had nearly, if not quite, 1,000 warships. Fortunately most of them had to be kept near home. Her army was large. 196 JAMES MADISON WAR FOR FREEDOM OF COMMERCE 197 313. Why Americans won in the West. The West was enthusiastic for the war. Led by General Harrison, western men defeated the Indians at the Battle of Tippe- canoe before war was declared (181 1). General Hull, sur- rendering his army, was a victim to Canadian dash and Indian cunning at Detroit. All the Northwest was now open. The people feared the Indian tomahawk and scalping knife. They called loudly for Harrison to recover Ohio and Michigan. While Harrison was gathering his forces for the invasion of Canada, young Captain Oliver H. Perry built a fleet PERRY AT THE BATTLE OF LAKE ERIE out of green timber and completely defeated the British ships at Put -in- Bay on Lake Erie (18 13). General • Harrison was now ready. The British and Indians under Tecumseh burned Detroit and retreated to Canada. Perry carried Harrison's army across the lake. He defeated the British in the Battle of the Thames (18 13). Among the slain was Tecumseh. 1-' igS THE WAR OF 1812 314. Victorious fighting on the sea. The British laughed at our "fir built things," and poked fun at our "gridiron flag." The world opened its eyes when the British ship "Guerriere" searched for and met the "Con- stitution," and was captured near the Gulf of St. Law- rence (18 1 2). At the call of fife and drum, every man on the "Constitution" ran to his post. The sailors climbed into the rigging, the gunners double-loaded their cannon, and the powder boys ran for ammunition. Muskets and pistols were placed near at hand to be ready for boarding. Sand was scattered over the deck. The "Guerriere" had already opened fire, but Captain Hull waited until he was within pistol shot. The "Con- stitution" fired a whole broadside. A British mast fell! The ships came close together, and the American sailors tied them fast. Both crews were ready to board and fight it out hand to hand, but the ships drifted apart. The THE ENG'Vr.EMCNT OF THE "CONSTITUTION" AND "GUERRIERE" noise of cannon, the crack of muskets, the loud commands of officers, the groans of the wounded, the clouds of smoke, WAR FOR FREEDOM OF COMMERCE 199 the powder-stained faces of the gunners, all joined to make an awful scene. As the two vessels parted, the rest of the "Guerriere's" masts fell. With great holes torn in her sides, she lay a helpless wreck, and soon struck her flag. "It took but half an hour, but in that half hour the United States rose to the rank of a first class naval power." 315. Other sea victories. Soon after, the "Consti- tution" captured another British frigate, and was honored with the title of "Old Ironsides," although only a wooden vessel. The warship the "United States" captured her equal in rank, the "Macedonian." A number of smaller vessels won signal victories over small British ships. One of the most brilliant voyages was made into the Pacific by David Porter in the frigate "Essex." He captured more than he could care for. On board the "Essex" was young Farragut, a future naval hero (§464). On Lake Champlain Captain McDonough, with his little fleet of thirteen ships, forced every British ship in a fleet of sixteen to strike its colors (1814). This was the only clear-cut victory in the East. England had been mistress of the sea for so long that she could not beheve the news of these defeats. She turned her great warships toward America and soon wore out our Httle navy. But she could not reach all our privateers (§220). They swarmed in every sea, capturing British merchant ships. They took over 2,000 of them. The British shipowners were very anxious for peace. 316. Victories were few in the North. The people in the middle and New England states were anything but enthusiastic over the war. Besides, many of the THE WAR OF 1812 officers were hardly fitted for the hard campaigning against Canada. The expedition against Queenstown Heights, and the campaign to capture Montreal were both failures. Better fighting was done at Chippewa and Lundy's Lane, but our army was compelled to retreat (1814). 317. Expedition against Washington and Baltimore (1814). A British expedition captured Washington and /". S^ Hull Harrison Dearborn Wilkinson — . ^ . ■ '1 burned the capitol in return for a like act by Americans in burning the capitol at Toronto. Both deeds were unsoldierlike. The British force then turned on Baltimore, hated because of its scores of privateers. The attack was beaten off. Francis Scott Key, detained on a British ship, WAR FOR FREEDOM OF COMMERCE wrote the stirring words of the "Star-Spangled Banner," when he caught sight of the flag still flying over Fort McHenry. 318. General Jackson wins New Orleans (181 5). Jackson had already made himself famous by defeating the Indians. He was commanding western troops who, like their fathers in the Revolution, were sharpshooters. He gathered 6,000 riflemen at New Orleans. From behind breastworks he faced General Pakenham's 10,000 veterans fresh from European battlefields. The main battle was over in twenty-five minutes. The British lost 2,600. The Americans had 8 killed and 13 wounded. This victory blotted out many sore failures. This battle would never have occurred if the cable had been laid, for the treaty of peace had already been signed in Bel- gium at Ghent. 319. The Hartford Convention (1814). From the beginning, we have seen New Englanders opposed to the war. Madison was suspicious and feared disloyalty. Finally delegates from New England met at Hartford to take measures of self -protection. The war party declared that this meeting was to break up the Union. It must have sounded strange 202 THE WAR OF 1812 to Jefferson and Madison to hear New England, once the stronghold of the Federalists, talking about States' Rights (§286)! But the war soon ended and the opposition died out. 320. The Treaty of Ghent (1814). Napoleon had been overthrown in 18 14 only to come back suddenly with another army. His final defeat occurred at Waterloo at the hands of Wellington (18 15). Napoleon had taught the world many things about war, but he had used up much of the manhood of Europe in doing it. The prospect of peace in Europe probably showed the way when American commissioners met the British. They did not settle any of the questions that caused the war. These for the most part had been settled by the ending of the war in Europe. The Americans and the British were glad the war was over. Their merchants had suffered from privateers and from blockades, and taxes had been piled high. The American seaman now stood higher in the estimation of Englishmen than before. 321. A hundred years of peace.'- From 1815 to the present there has been peace between the two great English-speaking countries. The Rush-Bagot Treaty (181 7) declared that along our Canadian boundary no- big forts should frown, and that no warships should sail on lake or river. But along this line of 4,000 miles the Canadian and the American peoples meet in mutual friendship. Differences have arisen, but the solid sense of the two countries has always found a happy way of settHng these disputes. 322. The immediate results of the war. (i) A stronger national sentiment had grown up. We were proud of our navy and of men like Jackson and Harrison. The WAR FOR FREEDOM OF COMMERCE 203 Federalist party soon died out. In 18 16 it had thirty- four electoral votes, and in 1820, not one. (2) Dare the RepubHcans recharter Hamilton's bank (§285)?i23 Con- gress passed the bill, making a bank over three times as large as Hamilton's. (3) The first tariff had given pro- tection to American manufacturers (§285). The Embargo and the war gave more by cutting off European goods. After peace foreign goods rushed in. Americans bought them because they were cheap. The manufacturers called for protection. Congress debated. Daniel Webster was against protection and John C. Calhoun for it. The bill was passed, and America became more independent of Europe. SUGGESTED READINGS References for teachers: Hart, Patriots and Statesmen, III, 197-319; Babcock, Rise of American Nationality, chaps, v-xi. References for pupils: Hart, Source Book, 218-225; Great Epochs in American History, V, 1 1-41, 79-89; Tomlinson, Boy Soldiers of 18 12. Fiction: Barnes, Loyal Traitors; Brady, For the Freedom of the Seas. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS I. You are a boy in Harrison's army going to the Tippecanoe battlefield. Write a letter to your mother back in New York. 2. Imagine you are with the "Essex" in the Pacific and meet young Farragut. Write all about it in your diary. CHAPTER XIV THE COMING OF A NEW TIME WESTERN MIGRATION AND INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS 323. The second wave of western migration. The flow of people at the close of the War of the Revolution brought in the first new states (§279). With peace there began a mightier rush to find homes in the West. People filled the region between the Allegheny Mountains and the Mississippi River, and by 1820 began to occupy the states just across the river. They held closely to the rivers for homes and for means of getting their crops to market. The wooded regions were settled first. There seemed to be a feeling against the prairies. 324. How the western settlers lived. On the frontier the settlers lived over again the experiences of colonial days (§119). The dense forests had to be cut away to build their log houses, and had to be burned to make way for their little crops. Often the trees were "girdled" so they would die, and corn was planted between the dead trees. They helped each other to put up their houses. Neigh- bors for miles around came to "log rollings."'-^ For days the settler and his sons cut down trees and burned and chopped them into logs of proper length for rolling. On the day chosen the neighbors came. Sometimes the two strongest selected their men. The two groups went to work to see which could roll the greatest number of logs into heaps. There Was much rough fun, hard work, and plenty to eat. With the logs all burned, the farmer was ready to plow for corn or wheat. 204 WESTERN MIGRATION AND IMPROVEMENTvS 205 Besides raising grain to sup- ply his own table, he raised enough for his horses, cattle, and hogs. The hogs did not call for much, for they usually got fat on the mast, that is, the acorns, hazel and hickory nuts, and walnuts. 325. How the wife's table was furnished. The frontier farmer's wife usually set her table with many kinds of whole- some food. Besides the meats raised, there were wild meats. The favorites were deer and turkey. Grapes and berries grew everywhere, and if she did not live too far south, the^house- wife could have the best sweet of that time, maple sirup. The great forests furnished homes for bees, and the farmer could add honey to his table. Pies from pumpkin and blackberries were plentiful. 326. The call for internal im- provements. The country was scarcely settled before the farmers began to call for better roads, improved water-ways, and for canals. They wanted to sell some of their land, and villages and expected to grow into larger places if they could HOW SETTLERS MOVE towns count 2o6 THE COMING OF A NEW TIME upon a regular stream of incoming settlers. Very soon Henry Clay, with persuasive vojce, was calling the atten- tion of Congress and of the country to his "American System." This "System" included internal improve- ments, a protective tariff, and a United States bank. 327. The steamboat. "Fulton's Folly" (1807). Experi- ments in building steamboats had been made on different rivers (§282).^-^ Fulton, on the Hudson, had been most successful. After studying boats and engines in Europe he came home and built the "Clermont." Full of hope, a crowd gathered on the day for sailing. The boat moved from her place and stopped. Some shook their heads and said, "I told you so!" Fulton went below and fixed the machinery. The boat moved out and on to Albany, a distance of 150 miles, in thirty- two hours. The "Clermont" had a sail as a help, but depended mostly on an engine fastened to a pair of side wheels. Steamboats quickly appeared on the rivers in the east- ern states, and soon one was built at Pittsburgh (181 1) for the Ohio River trade. Another car- ried supplies to General Jackson at New Orleans (1814). Be- fore another year went by a steamboat was making its way from New Orleans, laden with goods from Europe, to the frontier town of Louisville (§226). ^_jx _ . ^ ^^^^^^^^%t^»^^^^^^ ^^^^^■'j-- '^^ THE CLERMONT STEAMING TO ALBANY WESTERN MIGRATION AND IMPROVEMENTS 207 This frightened the merchants of the East, and they at once demanded a protective tariff and better roads to the West. 328. A race between New Orleans and the eastern cities. Before the steamboat came, there was a race between New Orleans and the cities of the East for west- ern trade. The raft and the flatboat carried the heavy products to New Orleans, but the Hghter things were carried on pack horses over the mountains to Philadelphia and Baltimore. So, too, great droves of hogs and cattle, fattened in the woods of the West, were driven to eastern cities. But the eastern merchants found it hard, slow work to send their clothes, hardware, and wooden articles over the mountains. When the steamboat came. New Orleans was far in the lead. Cincinnati sent her pork, Louisville her tobacco and hemp, and St. Louis her furs, to New Orleans. The value of the trade sent down the Ohio and Mississippi in 18 10 was over $8,000,000. 329. The Cumberland or National Road. But the East had long been up and doing. Both Washington and Jefferson had recommended a roadway over the moun- tains. In 1806 the Cumberland turnpike was begun by Congress. This ran from Cumberland, Maryland, over the mountains to Wheeling on the Ohio. When finished, it was a smooth road 80 feet wide, with markers each quarter of a mile. It climbed the rocky sides of moun- tains, crossed wide chasms, and bridged large streams by great culverts made of stone. Along its winding way great crowds could be seen. There were emigrant wagons, pack horses, and men and women driving a cow, a few sheep or hogs to the western home. Coming eastward one saw droves of fat cattle and hogs for the eastern markets. Now and then one met a dashing stagecoach full of passen- 208 THE COMING OF A NEW TIME gers; the horses were changed before the coach stopped shaking or the passengers had time to get a view of the scenery. It took just twenty-four hours to make the trip from Cumberland to Wheehng, from the Potomac to the Ohio. This was rapid travel for that day. SETTLERS MOVING WEST ALONG THE CUMBERLAND ROAD In 1820 Congress, stirred by the eloquent Clay, sur- veyed this road from Wheeling to St. Louis. It was called the National Road. In time it was built as far as Vandalia, Illinois. 330. Early canals. The people of the older states were alive to the use of canals. Just after the Revolution Washington saw how western trade might be turned east- ward by a canal joining Chesapeake Bay and the Ohio. Virginia and North Carolina very early built the Dismal Swamp Canal. The Boston and Middlesex Canal was finished in 1803. Many canals were planned for New WESTERN MIGRATION AND IMPROVEMENTS 209 TRAVEL ON rUL ERIE C^NAL IN 182S England and the middle states, but none was built until after the War of 1812. Their work began in earnest. 331. The Erie . -^, Canal. Soon after the war Congress refused to spend money on canals. The states took up the problem. The Erie Canal was be- gun in 181 7. Peo- ple thought it could not be built; but De Witt CHnton, governor of New York, stood bravely in favor of it, and the canal was finished in 1825. Fun was poked at it as "Clinton's Big Ditch." It crossed swamps, rivers, and hills, and when first finished was 363 miles long, 40 feet wide, and 4 feet deep. Governor Clinton and other leading men, with a "fleet" of canal boats, began a triumphal voyage from Lake Erie to the Atlantic. Celebrations occurred at all the important towns, and wherever a road crossed the canal the country folk gathered to witness the strange voyage in boats through the land. On November 4, with bells ringing, cannon firing, and surrounded by a large fleet, CHnton emptied kegs of water from Lake Erie into the ocean to signify that the Great Lakes and the Atlantic were forever united (1825). 332. The effects of the Erie Canal. The canal paid for itself in ten years, and its immediate effects were far- reaching. Along its way thriving cities grew up : Buffalo, ' Rochester, Syracuse, Utica, Schenectady, Troy, and 2IO THE COMING OF A NEW TIME Albany. '2<5 The cost of freight was reduced to one-tenth its former cost. The result was that the canal became a great highway between the East and West. Even European goods could reach the towns of northern Ohio and Indiana by way of the canal and the Great Lakes. New York City won the advantage over all rivals and has become the greatest city of the United States. The remote effects of the Erie Canal have been as far- reaching. Pennsylvania took up the plan of building a canal from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh, with a portage railroad to help in getting over the mountains. The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal joined Washington City to the Cumberland Road. Baltimore was successful in pushing the plan for a railroad. Of the new states, Ohio and Indiana were the most active canal builders. The most important canals ran from Cleveland south through Columbus to Portsmouth on the Ohio River. From Toledo another canal ran to Fort Wayne and through Terre Haute to the Ohio. 333. The beginning of railroads. The successful rival of the canal was already here. But the railroad did not THE FIRST TRAIN OVER THE PENNSYLVANIA RAILROAD IN I83S promise much at first. The rails were wooden or were s ripped with iron, and the cars looked like huge stage- coaches. On the first road the cars were drawn by horses. Massachusetts planned a road from Boston to Albany OLD STATES FEEL THE TOUCH OF LIFE 211 to connect with the Erie Canal (1827). The next year work was begun on the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, the first long railroad in America. A great ceremony took place. Charles Carroll of Carrollton, aged ninety-three, the only Kving signer of the Declaration of Independence, said, as he drove the spade into the ground : " I consider this among the most important acts of my life, second only to that of signing the Declaration of Independence." Peter Cooper built one of the first locomotives. To prove its usefulness it ran a race with a horse car. The horse won because the engine slipped a pulley. But it was plain that the locomotive could go faster and not get tired. Short lines were soon built in various parts of the country. THE OLD STATES FEEL THE TOUCH OF LIFE 334. Old parts of the country move forward. In our enthusiasm over the new and growing West we must not forget that the East, too, had its problems to solve. Every region, old as well as new, felt the touch of new energy after the War of 181 2. The old states made improve- ments in their ways of living. New roads were built, canals were dug for trade and travel, and machinery for spinning and weaving was improved. These states were trying to hold their people from moving to the great West. One result of the westward movement was to make labor scarce and wages higher in the East. 335. What the older parts did. The increase in the number of families called for more houses and barns. This created a demand for more lumber and more car- penters. The houses still were heated by wood burned in the great fireplaces (§121). Besides wood, the forests were furnishing timber for fences and shipbuilding. In THE ULD WATiiR SAWMILL 212 THE COMING OF A NEW TIME every state a large number of small sawmills were slowly cutting away the giant forests. Mines in several regions were turning out iron to make the machinery for use in mills and factories. Iron ore was smelted mostly by charcoal fires, although in Pennsyl- vania coal was be- ginning to be used. Running water, still ?^ P T^r°TT'^~lin?""'**T^J the cheapest kind of S-^^vfl |§_ 'J^ Af'S5^'> wheels in mill and fac- ^^ ,V - " p^ (* tory. Steam was not -"*^ J^ " r^^^iis,'-' yet widely used. Hence wherever a sawmill or gristmill or factory was found along streams, large dams were built to furnish a strong flow of water. These dams were great fishing grounds for folks, young and old, on holidays or when the people waited their turn at the mill.^-^ 336. What these changes meant politically. The men engaged in manufacturing goods joined the West in calling for internal improvements and a protective tariff. So also did the merchants seUing goods to western states who wished the young repubHc made independent of Europe. These men joined their political fortunes to "Young Harry of the West," as they called Henry Clay. Not all of the people of the older states favored internal improvements and a protective tariff. Some agreed with the Democrats that the states should build their own roads and canals. Hundreds of shipowners at first opposed the protective tariff. Their ships carried goods to Europe and Asia and did not always find it easy to get a return cargo, especially if they had to pay a high tariff on the NEW STATES INTRODUCE NEW QUESTIONS 213 goods brought back. The cotton raisers, too, opposed the tariff. They wished to sell to foreign nations. Foreign merchants wanted to trade manufactured goods for cotton. But the tariff forced the cotton raiser to pay a higher price for such goods. NEW STATES INTRODUCE NEW QUESTIONS 337. Population of the West from 1800 to 1830. At the close of the War of 181 2 there were 1,600,000 people living in the West (181 5). Northwest of the Ohio there were over 700,000 (1820), and southward, if we add Ken- tucky and Tennessee, the population was much larger. The people came to the "Old Northwest" in two streams: one from the east- ward, occupying the northern parts of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and even Missouri ; the other from the South, occupying the southern portions of these states. Six states were carved out of this region. 338. Louisiana, the first state out of Jefferson's pur- chase (1812). Be- fore Louisiana came into the Union, the flags of three nations had flown over her soil. Her great city, New Orleans, in 18 10 contained over 17,000 kN OLD FRENCH COURTYARD, NEW ORLEANS 214 THE COMING OF A NEW TIME people. Its inhabitants were more than half French. They lived in their own "quarter" and spent a happy, jolly life. They were called "Creoles." Jackson made the city famous by defeating there some of Wellington's veterans (§320). Louisiana is a sugar-producing state. 339. Indiana, the Hoosier state (1816). The first European on Indiana's soil was probably a Frenchman. The French won the hearts of the Indians and built Fort Vincennes. Indiana fell to the British (1763) and was won for the Stars and Stripes by Clark and his back- woodsmen (1779). As a territory in 1800 it included Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. General Harrison defeated the Indians at Tippecanoe (181 1). In the great tide of immigration to the West after the war, Indiana caught her share of the people hunting homes. Between 1 8 10 and 1820 the population grew from 24,500 to over 147,000. For fourteen years Abraham Lincoln made Indiana his home (1816-30). Oliver P. Morton was her great war governor (1861-65), and James Whitcomb Riley, the sweet singer, lived and died within her borders. 340. Mississippi, the home of Jefferson Davis (1817). De Soto discovered the region now known as Mississippi for Spain (1539), but La Salle won it for France (1682). While it was in the possession of France, Tonty, the friend of La Salle, made the first settlement at Natchez (1690). The region fell to Great Britain (1763), but was surren- dered to the United States at the close of the Revolution. In 1804 Mississippi Territory, including Alabama, was set off, and in 181 7 Mississippi became a state. The population grew from 75,000 in 1820 to 136,000 in 1830. The siege of Vicksburg was the greatest event of its kind in the Civil War. Jefferson Davis, though born in Kentucky, had Hved most of his Hfe in Mississippi. NEW STATES INTRODUCE NEW QUESTIONS 215 341. Illinois, the home of Lincoln and Douglas (181 8). For ages the children of the red man had paddled up and down the prairie streams of Illinois. The French were the friends of the Illini tribe, and La Salle built Fort St. Louis at Starved Rock for them Clark made easy conquest of Kaskaskia and Cahokia. The first capital of Illinois was Kaskaskia. After the rush of people to the state, it was removed to Vandalia. Finally, by Lincoln's aid, Springfield secured it (1836). FORT DEARBORN, CHICAGO, AS A FRONTIER POST Lincoln and Douglas were early political rivals. The joint debates of Lincoln and Douglas over slavery drew the attention of the whole country. Chicago, now the second city of the nation, a frontier fort in 1803, was burned in 181 2, and rebuilt in 181 5. In i860 its people numbered more than 100,000. General Ulysses S. Grant, an adopted son of the state, was the favorite northern commander in the Civil War. 342. Alabama, the first home of the Confederacy (1819). Alabama was a favorite region with the Indian. The first French capital was Mobile, settled in 1702. This country fell to Great Britain in 1763 and to the 2l6 THE COMING OF A NEW TIME United States in 1783. The territory of Alabama was set off in 1 8 1 7 and became a state two years later. The people numbered 128,000 (1820), and in 1830 reached over 309,500. The ablest and most fiery orator of the South just before the opening of the Civil War was W. L. Yancey of Ala- bama. Montgomery was the "Cradle of the Con- federacy." 343. Maine, the last of the New England states (1820). We have seen Maine granted to Gorges and Mason (§79), and its union with Massachusetts (1652). When we won our independence, Maine was still a part of the older colony. For a long period it was a sort of frontier to the New England states. By consent of Massachusetts, Maine was put forward as a rival to Missouri for admission to the Union. Maine quarreled with New Brunswick over her boundary. Webster made a treaty with Eng- land and settled the trouble. Maine, among the early states, has been the one to hold firm in the prohibition of the Hquor traffic (1851). 344. Missouri, the home of General Pershing (182 1). Missouri was the second child of the Louisiana Purchase. France gave it to Spain (1763), and it was returned to France by a secret treaty (1800). Missouri Territory was marked out when it had 20,000 people (181 2). Later, people from the South came here with their slaves WILLIAM LOWNDES YANCEY NEW STATES INTRODUCE NEW QUESTIONS 217 because much of the soil was fine tobacco land. Missouri with its 60,000 people asked for admission to the Union (18 1 9). The quarrel over the Missouri Compromise kept it out until 1821. St. Louis, the largest city of the Louisiana Purchase, was settled in 1764. As a center for the fur trade St. Louis has held first place for a long time. It welcomed the world to its doors ST. LOUIS IN to witness the Louisiana Purchase Exposition (1904). Missouri is the home state of General Pershing, who was born at Laclede. 345. The race between free and slave states. The cotton. gin had given a new meaning to slavery (§278). A contest arose to keep equal the number of free and slave states coming into the Union. After Louisiana entered there were nine of each, and their votes in the Senate were equal (§251). Then followed Indiana, a free state, and Mississippi, a slave state. Illinois was free and Alabama slave. But when Missouri asked to come in (§344) before Maine, the North objected. Both Congress and the people now debated the question. THE COMING OF A NEW TIME 346. The Missouri Compromise. Congress refused to admit one state without the other. For over a year the question was before the people. They became very much excited. Jefferson declared: "It sounded like a fire bell in the night." Henry Clay and others brought about a compromise: (i) Maine was admitted as a free state; (2) Missouri as a slave state; and (3) slavery was forever forbidden in the Louisiana Purchase north of the southern boundary of Missouri, or the line of 36°3o'. The excitement soon died down. LATIN AMERICA AND THE MONROE DOCTRINE 347. Spain's trouble with her colonies. We have seen Spain fail to get a foothold in North America except in Mexico and west of the Rocky Mountains (§19). She lost Louisiana to Napoleon and was forced to sell Florida to the United States. But she still held sway in Central and South America, except in Brazil and in Guiana. Spain herself fell under Napo- leon's power, and her colonies were left to shift for themselves . They opened trade with both England and the United States. After Napoleon's power was gone, Spain was ruled by a weak but despotic king. When her colonies demanded more rights, they were denied. One by one they rebelled and set up inde- pendent governments. 348. Heroic struggle of Spanish-America (1816-22). Spain made a desperate effort to hold her colonies. LATIN AMERICA AND THE MONROE DOCTRINE 219 Two men stand out as heroes in the struggle for inde- pendence : San Martin in the La Plata region and Simon Bolivar, who has been called the "Washington of South America," in Venezuela and Colombia. The American people sympathized with the South Americans. Henry Clay, warm-hearted and enthusiastic, roused Congress to recognize their independence. ^^^ In the meantime Mexico and Central America, too, threw off the Spanish yoke. How are the mighty fallen! Only Cuba and Porto Rico left of all that vast empire in America ! 349. The Holy Alliance. European rulers after the the time of Napoleon formed what has been named the "Holy Alliance." Its purpose was to keep down revolu- tions by the people and to suppress such men as Napo- leon. This Alliance had a black record. It had already put down revolts in Italy and Spain and had put the bad rulers back on their thrones. Now Spain asked its help to get back her colonies. Russia, Prussia, and Austria were members, but England had refused to join. Her people sympathized with the Spanish colonies. Besides, she did not wish to lose her growing trade with them. England, therefore, asked the United States to join in protesting against the effort to reconquer these states for Spain. John Quincy Adams, ^^^ Monroe's secretary of state, advised against uniting with England in such a protest, but urged the President to make his own state- ment. 350. The Monroe Doctrine. The Declaration of Inde- pendence, the Proclamation of Neutrality (§288), the War of 181 2, all point to the fact that America plans to work out her own experiments in republican government, and that she will not permit any nation to hinder her in making them. Hence President Monroe, urged by his THE COMING OF A NEW TIME secretary, sent forth to the world this declaration: (i) The American continents have assumed a free and inde- pendent position, and hence are not to be open to future colo- nization. (2) We have recognized the independence of the Spanish- American republics, and must look upon any act "for the pur- pose of oppressing them or con- trolling in any other manner their destiny" as an unfriendly act toward the United States. The immediate effect was to keep the peace. The Holy Alliance did not aid Spain, and no other nation has since tried to colonize any territory in the two Americas. With the exception of MaximiHan in Mexico, the Monroe Doctrine has kept out foreign nations and has given the nations to the south of us time to get on their feet. The meaning of England's offer to share the burden of such a declaration shows how quickly old feelings arising out of the War of 181 2 were passing away. But the best proof of this is seen in the hundred years of peace celebrated in 191 5 between Canada and the United States. What an example this ought to be to Europe! J'^MES MONROE THE WEST BEGINS TO INFLUENCE POLITICS 351. Monroe president (1817-23). The era of good feeling. When Monroe came up for reelection (1822), only one electoral vote was cast against him.'^" The Federalist party was dead. With its people united, the nation from 181 5 to 1840 was springing forward with WEST BEGINS TO INFLUENCE POLITICS renewed life. We have already seen some of its great strides (§§327, 330, 333). One reason for this rapid growth was the fact that the whole nation had forgotten its party quarrels. The people looked upon President Monroe in his last term as bringing in an "era of good feeling. "i^i 352. The common man gains more influence. We have seen the influence of the common man increasing from colonial days (§107). The new states, as they came into the Union, gave all men the right to vote. The old states had to give him the vote to keep him from leaving for the new states. This made the country more democratic. The result was a cry against the cus- tom of having Congress nominate the president. This custom had arisen in John Adams' term because no other seemed so natural. But now it was called ' ' undemo- cratic" (1824). The state legis- latures made the nomination until a more democratic way was found in the national nominating con- vention (1832). 353. John Quincy Adams presi- dent (1825-29). The election of John Quincy Adams was famous because all of the candidates be- longed to the RepubHcan or Demo- cratic-Republican party. They were Adams, Clay, Crawford, and Jackson. Calhoun was elected vice- president. No man had a majority of the electoral votes, and the election went to the House of Representatives (Art. II, §1, ^3). The race was between Adams, an eastern man, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS THE COMING OF A NEW TIME and Jackson, a western man. Henry Clay, opposed to a military hero for president, threw his influence for Adams, and he was elected. Adams then selected Clay for his secretary of state. The Jackson men were furious. They declared Clay's influence had been bought. No proof of this charge was ever discovered, but the slander followed Clay all his life. The friends of Jackson found fault with every measure that Adams and Clay favored. They both favored high protective tariffs, internal improvements, and friendship for South America. 354. A new kind of candidate and a new campaign. Jackson's men had begun to hurrah for him three years before the election. He was nominated at first by western legislatures (§352). They declared he was born on the frontier, had known poverty, had fought the Indians, and had defeated the British. Now he was going to defeat the poHticians and put the people in power, f ^ Jackson was a fine-looking man. He was every inch a soldier, tall, straight, well dressed, and he looked men through with his " e .a g 1 e eye." Jackson loved a quar- rel and even fought duels. He was very polite in the presence of ladies. No man had warmer friends or more bitter enemies. Two of Jackson's most famous friends THE LOC C^BIM IM WHICH \NDKfc.\V J> WEvST BEGINS TO INFLUENCE POLITICS 223 were Martin Van Buren, a New York politician, who followed him as president, and Thomas H. Benton, a senator from Missouri with whom he once fought a duel. COMMITTEE OF CITIZENS BIDS I^CKSON WELCOME 355- Jackson at New Orleans again. Jackson politi- cians introduced the custom of showing their candidate to the people. Other candidates had been too dignified. But the people needed only to see warm-hearted and enthusiastic Andrew Jackson to admire him. The anniversary of his great victory was the time chosen (January 8, 1828) (§318). From Tennessee to New Orleans his journey was a triumphal procession. A committee came up the Mississippi River to Natchez to greet him. The boats then dropped down the river to New Orleans. Near the city the river was packed with boats filled with people. The housetops and the river banks were crowded. Visitors from far-away New York had come to bring him the welcome of that state. Veterans 224 THE COMING OF A NEW TIME ANDREW JACKSON who had stood with Jackson when the British charged came to greet the great commander (§318). The ringing of bells, the booming of cannon, and the waves of human hurrahs were overpowering. For four days the celebration went on. There could be only one result from this kind of campaign- ing, Jackson's overwhelming majority. 356. How the people acted at the inauguration. The spoils of office. The people came in great crowds to see their hero take office. They felt that his elec- tion had somehow saved the country from a great danger. They pushed into the White House, and in their mad rush to see the President, clambered upon the furniture with their muddy boots, and spilled the pails of drink brought for their enjoy- ment. Some people — politicians and editors of Jackson newspapers — came for less patriotic reasons. They came to get office. In one year Jackson dismissed from office over 700 men, some of whom had been appointed by Washington. Only one good result flowed from the spoils system. It gave the common man a deeper interest in national poHtics. From this time forward, "rotation in office" became the rule until long after the Civil War. 357. Jackson, the fighting president. From the day Jackson took office for eight years there was a constant battle. He fought Clay, Calhoun, Webster, and other statesmen; he carried on a long struggle with the United WEST BEGINS TO INFLUENCE POLITICS 225 States bank; he fought nulHfication by South Carolina, his native state ; he fought the speculators ; he went into the arena of social life and opposed people who refused to do as he did in social matters. Jackson was a fighter in the presidency as well as on the field of battle. He stirred up so much opposition that he was nicknamed "King Andrew I." 358. New parties and nominating conventions. From 1803 to 1823 the Republican party was splitting (§353). This party was formed to oppose the use of strong national measures, but no one can fail to see in the Louisiana Pur- chase, the Embargo, the War of 1812, the restoration of Hamilton's bank, and in the protective tariff the use of strong national powers. John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, and Daniel Webster gradually took up the idea of the nation using great power. They called themselves National Republicans and claimed to be true followers of Jefferson. The National Republicans first met in national convention in Baltimore and nominated their favorite, Henry Clay. He was badly defeated by Jackson in 1832. The other portion of Jefferson's party began to call themselves Democrats. They, too, held a national nominating convention and put up Jackson and Van Buren. The name Whig took the place of National Republican, and all sorts of men gathered under this historic name in HENRY CLAY 226 ' THE COMING OF A NEW TIME Opposition to ' ' King Andrew. ' ' Clay was the party's most beloved leader. He was three times a candidate for presi- dent, but he could not win. Another leader was Webster, the man of greatest eloquence in his time, who died wanting to be president but was not even nominated. Calhoun, the deep thinker, though not a Whig, supported the opposition to Jackson for a time. But Calhoun could never "pull in party harness." 359- Jackson believes the bank an enemy of the people. Jackson was fully convinced that the bank made the rich richer and the poor poorer. He therefore opposed its recharter. Henry Clay, the friend of the bank, made the granting of a new charter a question in the campaign of 1832. Jackson easily won the election and declared that by their votes the people had commanded him to destroy the bank. He took all United States money out of it, and it died before its old charter ran out.^^^ 360. Pet banks and the panic of 1837. With the United States bank gone, state banks came flocking back. These banks seemed to be more democratic. Certain of them were called "pet banks" because the govern- ment favored them by putting its money in them. Jackson, it was said, favored their making it easy for the people to borrow money. These banks did this by putting out vast sums of "paper money," which were promises to pay when the bank had real money. Everybody was borrowing money to speculate in public lands. The government sold lands at $1.25 per acre. Speculators bought and sold again at a higher price. "The thing was easy." Towns, cities, and states were borrowing money. But the crisis soon came. The paper money of the banks was pouring into the United States treasury. WEST BEGINS TO INFLUENCE POLITICS 227 Much of it was not worth 50 cents on the dollar. Some- thing must be done. Jackson acted quickly. He sent forth his "Specie Circular" demanding that only gold and silver be paid to the government. Enough gold and silver could not be had. Banks, pet banks and all, went down. Business houses were ruined, and factories closed their doors. Canal and railroad building stopped, and thousands of laborers were thrown out of work. The panic of 1837 was the hardest the United States had seen. 361. Van Buren president (1837-41). We have seen that Van Buren was a warm supporter of Jackson (§354), and he was made secretary of state. Van Buren stood faithfully by Jackson in all his " fights . ' ' Jackson resolved to make him president. He was elected, but had to bear the burden of blame for the suffering from the panic of 1837. The people asked the government for help, but Van Buren refused it. 362. The log cabin cam- paign (1840). The campaign of 1840 began in 1837, an- other three years' contest (§354). Its opening was more exciting than that of any Jackson campaign. Har- rison was the Whig candi- date. He, too, was a western hero. He had beaten the Indians and defeated the British on Canadian soil at the battle of the Thames. He was now the plain Ohio farmer with his latchstring always out to old soldiers. MARTIN VAN BUREN THE COMING OF A NEW TIME WILLIAM HENRY Van Buren was the "little aristocrat." He had always held office, lived in a "palace," ridden in a fine carriage; while the labor-er had been without work and the busi- ness man a bankrupt. Such demonstrations, processions, and barbecues! Never had so many great orators stirred the people. Clay and Web- ster were at their best. The Whigs aroused patriotic feel- ing by meetings on great battlefields. To Tippecanoe (§313) and to Bunker Hill (§195) thousands upon thou- sands came. Miniature log cabins with the latchstrings out, live raccoons sporting over the roofs, and barrels of hard cider with farmers drinking were carried on large wagons. Great balls, drawn by horses, were rolling on to show the tide of victory sweeping by ; catchy songs of "Tippecanoe and Tyler too" added interest and aroused enthusiasm. The Democrats could not check the tide of victory. It swept Harrison into office by over 140,000 majority of the people's vote, and with nearly four times as many electoral votes as Van Buren. 363. The Significance of the Whig victory. The West had won again. The common man was taking a far deeper interest in national life. Henry Clay now talked like Jackson ; he said that the people had commanded the Whigs to kill certain Democratic measures. But Harrison died suddenly after only a few weeks in office. John Tyler WEST BEGINS TO INFLUENCE POLITICS 229 became president (Art. II, "§1, ^6). He quarreled with the Whig leaders and the whole Whig program failed. 364. Old World habits die hard. Events in the East showed that the democratic movement was at work throwing off Old World notions. In Rhode Island the people had outgrown their old charter (^St,) and called for one giving to all men the right to vote. After Dorr's rebellion this new privilege was granted. Another old custom went down. The farmers on the patroons' estates, tired of paying quitrents (§§86, 118), resisted and were granted the right to buy the farms from the owners. It took over 200 years to get rid of this custom. Old usages die hard. SUGGESTED READINGS References for teachers: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 17-92; Elson, Side Lights on American History, chaps, viii-x; Hart, Formation of the Union, 233-262; Hart, Contemporaries, III, 452-483, 499-501; Hart, Patriots and Statesmen, III, 327-383; McMaster, History of the People of the United States, V, chap, liii; VI, chaps. Hv, Ixv; Bassett, Short History, 345-349, 382-426; Morse, John Quincy Adams ("Amer- ican Statesmen Series"), 164-174; Schurz, Life of Henry Clay, I, 221-235; II, 113-127, 171-197; Coman, Industrial History. References for pupils: Hart, Source Book, 226-240; Hart, Patriots and Statesmen, III, 192-317; Mace, Stories of Heroism, 225-233; Frost, Mill Boy of the Slashes; Wright, Children's Stories of American Prog- ress, 179-194; Hart, Source Reader, II, 99-104; Great Epochs in Ameri- can History, V, 133-157, 180-191. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS I. Imagine a company of boys and girls on the National Road. Write up an account of the journey. 2. Go with Governor De Witt Clinton on the canal from Buffalo to New York. Write a sketch of the trip. 3. Hold an oral debate on Jackson and Clay as leaders of the parties in 1832. 4. Write a sketch of the campaign of 1840 for Greeley's Log Cabin Whig paper. CHAPTER XV SOCIAL CHANGES CHANGES IN THE MANNER OF LIVING 365. Growth of^the nation. In 1790 no one dreamed of a nation that in fifty years would have increased its area over three times and the number of its people nearly eight times. In twenty years more we had admitted to the Union two states and one territory on the Pacific (i860). Then we boasted of over 31,000,000 people in thirty-two states and nine territories. Thirty years before we had numbered but 13,000,000 people. In 1790 the North was very little ahead in the race, but in i860 she had forged ahead by mighty leaps, counting 19,000,000 people to 12,000,000 in the South. The cities showed a still greater difference : New York had jumped from 240,000 (1830) to over 800,000 (i860); Philadelphia from 70,000 in 1800 to over 565,000 in i860; Cincinnati, St. Louis, and Chicago were running neck and neck for first place, with over 100,000 each. Ten cities had a population ranging from nearly 100,000 to over 500,000 each. Only three were in the South, and only one joined the Confederacy. This difference in favor of the North was largely due to immigration. In 1830 only one person in fourteen lived in the city; in i860 about one in six. In this respect the South had a great advantage: the number of her people Hving in the city was very small. 366. European immigration and its effects. The vast majority of our people at the close of the Revolution spoke the English language. Before 1820 the large majority 230 CHANGES IN THE MANNER OF LIVING 231 joining the two streams to the West were children of this old English-speaking stock. To Europeans, America had always been a land of prom- ise. In the year 1 830 twice as many migrated to America as in 1820. During the next ten years 500,000 came. Between 1850 and i860 in one year 400,000 reached this country. 133 Thousands came from Germany to escape punishment by the government for taking part in the rebellion to make Germany free (1848). '34 Ireland suffered from a potato famine. Nearly 1,000,000 people perished in spite of help sent from other countries. Thousands upon thousands of the Irish sought homes in America. '^^ 367. Where the immigrants went and why. Why did they pour into the North by millions? Because in the cities and in the country they could find work. There were many occupations, but the South had only a few. Germans generally went to the frontier states of Mich- igan, Wisconsin, Iowa, and Missouri. But the Irish loved the cities with their social attractions. 368. Home life and pastimes on the frontier (1840-60). Many changes had come into the home life and pastimes on the frontier, owing largely to the progress of the people themselves, but partly owing to the inflow of foreigners. The Germans emphasized Christmas with small trees burdened with lights and gifts. They also placed great emphasis on music and organized bands which played in the country schoolhouses. Among English people the frontier pastimes were very like those of old colony days (§123). New ones since that time were the neighborhood spelHng bees and the neighborhood debates. When the people of two neigh- borhoods met to decide which should win, no place was 232 SOCIAL CHANGES large enough miles around. FRONTIER CAMP MEETING to hold those who came from miles and Likewise, the frontier camp meeting was . ^. ^ made an occasion for young people to meet and to enjoy themselves. 369. Home life and pastimes in the older states. There had been greater changes in the home life and pastimes of the people of the older communities than in those of the frontiersmen. The mine, the mill, and the factory were the great causes. Working families did not do their manufacturing at home (§148). They had to go to some great factory. This separated children from their parents. If the parents were poor or if they were more interested in wages than in the education of their children, the young folks also had to work long hours in the factory. Sometimes they worked in rooms dangerous to their health. With the members of families separated, the children grew up unused to the careful oversight and the helpful advice of parents. Sometimes, when the parents could afford it, the older children cared for the younger. These conditions did not favor happy and healthful pastimes, such as were enjoyed by the better classes in the community. The children of factory people, except on Sunday or on a hoKday, did not enjoy games to the full, such as rowing, swim- ming, skating, coasting, wrestling, running, jumping and the various games of ball. These forms of exercise, PINAL STRUGGLE FOR BALANCE OP POWER 233 were all fine tests of the muscle of the boys and girls who could take part in them. THE FINAL STRUGGLE TO KEEP THE BALANCE OF POWER . 370. Arkansas (1836) and Michigan (1837). Arkansas was first claimed by Spain. The French settled it. It went to Spain (1763) and back to France under Napoleon' The Louisiana Purchase gave it to the United States. Arkansas Territory, including Indian Territory, was set up in 1818. Arkansas was admitted to the Union in 1836, which she left in 1861. Michigan, the Wolverine state, resounded first to the Indian war cry. Then came the French missionary and fur trader. Father Marquette was one of its early heroes. He founded Sault Ste. Marie (1668). Detroit was settled by the French (1701). The treaty of 1763 gave Michigan to England, but it became the scene of Pontiac's struggles for his hunting grounds. Michigan became a part of the United States in 1783 and came under the famous Or- dinance of 1787. During the War of 181 2 Michigan was the scene of stirring events. What Hull lost Harrison won back. The University of Michigan was founded in 1837. Senator Lewis Cass was among the state's most famous men in an early day. Detroit, the most celebrated auto- mobile city in the world, ranks fourth in size in the United States. 371. Florida (1845) and Texas (1845). Florida was a favorite region for early Spanish explorations. De Leon looked for the fountain of youth, and De Soto for gold. The history of Florida is set forth in events already noted (§22, 60, 347). Of late years it has become famous as a winter resort. Texas was visited by La Salle while he was seeking the mouth of the Mississippi (§163). The Spaniards claimed 234 SOCIAL CHANGES this region, and the United States surrendered it in exchange for Florida. The history of Texas is fully set forth elsewhere in this book (§§411, 412). 372. Iowa (1846) and Wisconsin (1848). The balance in the Senate, upset by the admission of Florida and Texas, was restored by the entrance into the Union of Iowa and Wisconsin. Iowa, the Hawkeye state, was the home of the Sioux Indians, a great warlike tribe. The Spanish claimed the region, and the French did, likewise. It was given to Spain (1763) and returned to France to satisfy Napoleon. He sold Louisiana.to Jefferson, and Iowa became a part of United States territory (1803). Dubuque had already been settled (1788). First a part of Louisiana and of several other states, Iowa was set off in 1838 as a territory.. Immigration flowed in, and the Sioux Indians tried to put a stop to it by the massacre at Spirit Lake (1857). Popu- lation grew from 19,000 (1850) to 674,000 in i860— a tremendous increase. Kirk wood was Iowa's great war governor. Senator Allison served Iowa with distinction in the Senate, 1 873-1 908. Wisconsin, the Badger state, was a favorite region of the red man. Here, too, the French fur trader gathered vast numbers of pelts, and the missionary early set up his altar. Wisconsin goes back to Old Dominion days according to the Virginia charter (1609). Virginia turned her over, with her sister states, to the Union (1784), and she became a part of the Old Northwest (§248). In the War of 1 81 2 Canadians and Indians captured Prairie du Chien. After the Black Hawk War a large number of people came into this region from the eastern states. In 1836 Wisconsin was made into a territory, but included Minnesota, Iowa, and part of the Dakotas. From 1840 FINAL STRUGGLE FOR BALANCE OF POWER 235 to i860 Scandinavians and Germans poured in, in large numbers. Anti-slavery sentiment was strong and led the state supreme court to declare the Fugitive Slave Law unconstitutional. In no other state have so many German farmers settled. 373. California (1850), Minnesota (1858), and Oregon (1859). These three states broke forever the balance of power in the Senate. California, the second largest state in the Union, is known as the "Golden state." Spaniards from Mexico came into this region, built their missions, converted the Indians, and taught them useful trades. California fell to the United States as a result of the Mexican War (1848). The discovery of gold (1848) drew thousands to this region and made a state organization necessary. California, therefore, had no territorial government (§248). The South hoped to capture the southern part of the state by extending the line 36° 30' to the Pacific. The population grew from 92,000 in 1850 to 379,000 in i860. People soon turned their attention to agriculture and fruit raising and found more wealth than in mining. In southern California lie the Imperial Valley, one of the richest in the world, and Death Valley, a salty, sandy region below sea level. Two of the most famous play- grounds of the United States are the Yosemite and Sequoia parks. Both are national reservations for the people. Minnesota, the Gopher state, ran the round of owner- ship by the Indians, French, Spanish, French again, and finally by the United States. Duluth, a Frenchman, built a fort at Pigeon River (1678) and in 1680 Hennepin dis- covered the Falls of St. Anthony. Pike saw this region in 1805 (§302). Fort St. Anthony was built in 1819, and in 1^23 the first steamboat came to the Falls. St. Paul 236 SOCIAL CHANGES had its beginnings in 1841 in the building of a chapel. The territory of Minnesota was organized in 1849, extend- ing west to the Missouri River. Minneapolis sprang into existence in 1855. Little Crow led his braves in trying to check the incoming tide of settlers and massacred 800 whites. Ramsey was Minnesota's war governor and had the honor of offering Lincoln the first troops in the war. The Germans and Scandinavians migrated to Minnesota in large numbers. From 1850 to i860 the number of her people grew from 6,000 to over 172,000. "The Oregon Country" was a vast stretch of region north of California, west of the Rockies, and extending north to Alaska. The Spanish, French, English, the Russians, and the Americans claimed this country. Much of Oregon's history is told in other places (§§301, 414-18). The settlers met (1843), established territorial machinery, and managed the government until the United States organized a regular territory (1848). It included much of Idaho and all of Washington. The people again met, framed a constitution, and were admitted to the Union (1851). Oregon's greatest growth in population was between 1900 and 1910, gaining nearly 260,000 people. Portland, the chief city of Oregon, celebrates annually the "Feast of Roses." It is called the Rose City. 374. Mormon migration. Joseph Smith organized the Mormon church, or the Church of the Latter Day Saints, (1830). He proclaimed to the world that he had received revelations from God. A little later the Mormons moved from New York to Ohio and then to Missouri. Afterward they moved to Illinois (1839). Their religious beliefs roused the hatred of their neighbors. Harsh treatment followed, and Joseph Smith was shot. The Mormons, led by Brigham Young, began a long. EDUCATIONAL CHANGES 237 hard journey to the westward. They toiled across des- erts, over the Rocky Mountains, and on until they finally reached the Great Salt Lake (1847). Here they began to plant towns and lay out farms. They were pioneers in the work of irrigation in this country. Soon this region began to blossom as the rose. EDUCATIONAL CHANGES 375. Progress in the common schools. We saw the struggle of the pioneer and his children for an education. During the first half of the nineteenth century, especially after 1830, great progress had been made. In nearly every northern state, systems of common schools had been established. At first this meant in the country only a few months of school in log schoolhouses, poorly lighted and heated, and with poor helps for teacher and pupil. The teacher was not required to know much. His prepa- ration covered little more than the requirements of the school he taught. Even this sort of school marked a great advance over the schools of earlier times. In the cities changes were greater. In them the schools were graded and had a superintendent if the city was large and progressive enough, and if the city could spare the money. Textbooks in reading and other subjects had long been in use. In many schools the teacher was prized if he could set fairly correct copies in a bold hand for the children. There are numbers of people yet living who used to "sing their geography lessons." 376. The academy and the high school. The academy arose before the Revolution. It was a great improvement over the old Latin school (§125). It put more emphasis on EngHsh studies. After the Revolution academies spread rapidly over the country, because they were more 238 SOCIAL CHANGES democratic than the Latin schools. Still they were not supported by taxes. To meet the rising tide of democracy a new school sprang into existence about 1820. The high school, as it came to be called, was supported by taxes and con- trolled by the people. It was intended to fit the children of rich and poor alike for the daily work of life. We should expect the high school to spread rapidly westward. The constitution of Indiana (18 16) laid the foundation for a complete system of education extending from the common schools through the university. But nothing was done in this or any other western state for a long time. 377. Men working for better schools. Among those working for better schools Horace Mann of Massachu- setts holds high rank. He appealed to the people through the newspapers and through pamphlets. He went to the people, met them in public meetings, and reasoned with them. He told them that they must grant more money for the support of schools and for better pay for teachers. He urged teachers to become better fitted to do their work. He saw the first normal school established in the United States in 1839. Henry Barnard, ^^"^ of New England, worked in much the same way. In addition to he published a Journal of Education, for teachers in the United States. HORACE MANN his other work, the first paper EDUCATIONAL CHANGES 239 378. The education of woman. In colonial times, boys and girls went to separate schools. One of our THr uNivr ksi 1 \ or \ democratic changes was to throw the common schools open to girls. The mingling of boys and girls in high schools was not common. Some great cities to lead the way in this respect were Providence, Philadelphia, Cleve- land, Chicago, and Indianapolis. In the field of higher education woman was slowly gaining. As early as 18 14 the Albany Female Academy was established. Emma Willard founded the Troy Female Academy (182 1), and Mary Lyon followed with Mount Holyoke Female Academy (1837), ^ truly demo- cratic school. It required each student to reduce the cost of her education by spending part of her time in doing household work.^" The country was surprised anew when New Orleans College threw its doors open to women on the same terms as to men (1833). Antioch College soon followed suit, for Horace Mann was its president. 379. The growth of university education. The colonial colleges generally belonged to some religious denomina- tion. After the Revolution the Presbyterians, Metho- dists, and Baptists added colleges. But a change in university education came in the founding of state uni- 240 SOCIAL CHANGES versities in the new states as well as in some of the older ones. Washington was the advocate of a national uni- versity, and left an estate to found one. Jefferson, in his last days, saw his dream come true in the University of Virginia (1825). The University of Michigan, one of the largest of the state schools, was founded in 1837. The University of North Carolina is the oldest state university (1795). THE FIRST SIGNS OF A NATIONAL LITERATURE 380. The era stirs men to write. Americans before the Revolution had done some writing (§270), but now for the first time they took American subjects. They were stirred by the new life to write. Washington Irving (i 783-1859) attracted attention by his quaint fun in Knickerbocker s History of New York, by his interesting stories in the Sketch Book, and by his charming Life of Christopher Columbus. James Fenimore Cooper (i 789-1851) in his Spy and in other novels was disproving Europe's opinion that we had no subjects fit for writers. Hawthorne (1804-64) kept up the reputation of American stories by his Twice-Told Tales , by the House of Seven Gables, and by the Scarlet Letter. . 381. A group of beloved poets. William Cullen Bryant ( 1 794-1 878) astonished the country by writing " Thanatopsis " at the age of seventeen. His booklet of poems (182 1) contained a lesson of faith in JAMES FENIMORE COOPER BEGINNING OF A NATIONAL LITERATURE 241 the lines "To a Waterfowl." Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-82), although a philosopher, wrote many thought- ful poems. In the days of stress and strain there were born (1807) two of our older poets most be- loved by school children, Henry Wadsworth Long- fellow and John Greenleaf Whittier. Longfellow while yet a student at Harvard wrote that beauti- ful poem the ' ' Hymn to the Moravian Nuns," celebrat- ing the gift of a banner to Pulaski (§208) by the nuns of Bethlehem, Pennsyl- vania. Whittier, a farmer and a Quaker, has been called the poet of freedom because he wrote so much against slavery. When but eighteen years of age he published "The Exiles' Depart- ure." Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809-94) gave to the world many poems as well as prose works of high merit. Among his earliest poems was "Old Ironsides," which saved the ship "Constitution" (§314) from being destroyed (1830). James Russell Lowell (18 19-91), one of America's greatest literary men, dipped his pen in gall and wrote the Biglow Papers. His poetry touched a high plane. Edgar Allen Poe (1809-49), whose best known poem is "The Raven," but whose strange prose sketches are almost as note- worthy, spent most of his short life in the South. 382. Newspapers and magazines. The oldest news- paper stiU alive in the United States is the New Hampshire NR\ W LONGFELLOW 242 > wSOCIAL CHANGES Gazette (1756). The rapid growth of city population after the War of 181 2 gave newspapers thousands of readers. The daily papers were so full of paying adver- tisements that their price was reduced. The New York Sun was the first to sell at a penny (1833). In 184 1 the New York Tribune came into being. For over a quarter of a century it was the greatest newspaper in America. The spread of popular education made it easy for every- body to enjoy reading of all sorts. Magazines had been published before the Revolution. One of the greatest of them, the North American Review, was first published in 181 5. Then rapidly followed Harper s, the Atlantic, and the Southern Literary Messenger. The Ladies' Maga- zine appeared in 1827. In the latter part of this period the lyceum sprang into existence. It did much to bring before the people some of the most forceful and eloquent speakers of that time. AN ERA OF MORAL REFORM 383. The early settlers religious. Those who moved across the Allegheny Mountains from the East were church-going people. They felt the need of churches in the new communities. Among the more aggressive denominations were the Methodists. They sent forth preachers called "circuit riders." These rode horseback, carrying a pair of saddle- bags containing a few books and sometimes food. It often took the circuit rider a month to make one trip in his district. He preached, comforted the sick, married the young, and buried the dead. A new thing among the scattered settlements of the frontier was the camp meeting. It has since spread to all parts of the country under one name or another. AN ERA OF MORAL REFORM 243 Families traveled to it in wagons, on horseback, and afoot. They carried food and tents for sleeping. Great crowds gathered to hear the preacher, often some man of wide reputation. It was a time of strong feeHng. Preachers did not stop short of plain speaking about the sins of the people and the dangers of everlasting punishment. Cart Wright, famous throughout the West for melting an audience to tears and stirring it up until some had the " jerks, "^''^ was a great figure at these camp meetings. The meetings often continued for more than a week. They were made a place for meeting friends. Sometimes politicians came around to shake hands and to "visit with the people." 384. New church denominations. Many new denomi- nations came in with the new tide of European immigra- tion- after the Napoleonic wars. In the Northwest mainly were the Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, and Ger- man Protestants. Roman Catholics now began to in- crease rapidly as a result of European migration. Many of the old denominations spHt because one part began to emphasize some point of difference. On the question of slavery, between 1840 and 1850, a number split into a northern and a southern church. 385. The rise of kindlier feelings. Brandings and public whippings had about gone out of fashion (§135). Pennsylvania kept the lead given by her founder (§135)." She had improved her jails, separating the old from the young. These ideas were slowly spreading to other states. There was much room for improvement in the conditions of jails and in the treatment of criminals. Thanks to the work of Dorothea Dix, a brighter day was dawning for the insane. She claimed it to be the duty of the state to take care of these unfortunates 244 SOCIAL. CHANGES instead of leaving them to private persons or to com- munities. A great change came when it was decided to put nobody in prison for debt. How long it takes to get rid of old ideas and customs! (§§58, 273.) 386. Labor conditions. The improvement of labor conditions by making the shop a better place for work, by having shorter working hours, and by raising wages were all tried during this period. Not much was gained, because the employer felt that his business was nobody's affair but his own. Outside of the great mines and fac- tories laborers were not so badly off. There was plenty of w^ork in the country, except during the panic of 1837, and the cost of living was very low. Men working on canals or railroads, as laborers on boats, or as workmen on new roads found a growing demand for more workers. The farmer and his hands labored from sunrise to sunset, and there was little chance to lessen this burden. Labor unions began in a small way after the Revolution. The mechanics first united in 1827, and in 1837 an attempt was made to form a national organization. These unions favored popular education and tried to prevent child labor. But for the most part they went into" politics and accomplished very little. 387. Woman suffrage. We have seen our new democ- racy call for woman's rights (§§239, 378). Woman's field of work did not extend much beyond the home. Why should she be kept out of all professions except teaching, and why should there not be better treatment of women teachers? They finally concluded that all rights would come to woman when she had the privilege of voting. The first convention for woman's rights was held in Seneca Falls, New York (1848). THE GROWTH OP INDUSTRY 245 388. Other organizations for moral changes. Strong drink was common at social gatherings in this period, even ministers of the gospel sometimes drinking without fear of being blamed. To combat this evil the Washing- tonians sprang into existence. Thousands of men and women joined the movement and pledged themselves to moderate drinking. This new reform was helped by the .work of Father Matthew among the Roman Catholics, and among the Protestants by the efforts of the Good Templar societies. THE GROWTH OF INDUSTRY 389. The farmer and the new movements. When mighty reforms are sweeping the country, the farmer is gradually influenced by them. He is very conservative, because to mingle with his fellows he must stop his work and go where they are. But he was answering more promptly to the great inventions which made it easy to do things. Inventions to take care of wheat, grass, and corn brought about many changes important to him. 390. The leading machines on the farms. In this great period of new things, Cyrus H. McCormick ^^^ came with his reaper and mower (183 1). How quickly the farmer cut his wheat or mowed his meadow! He could now do more ' « * a ' work with less help and cutting crun with the sickle do it more easily. The next year he sowed more wheat than ever. The mower, drawn by two horses, took the 246 SOCIAL CHANGES place of the scythe; and a "horse rake" took the place of the hand rake. The next year the farmer had larger ^^^-, iMA THE ORIGINAL MCCORMICK. HARVl.slER meadows. The "separator" came; it improved the old thresher and added a "straw stacker" to carry the straw up into the loft of the barn or upon a straw stack. Other inventions that added to the charm of Hfe on the farm were improvements in the "breaking" plow for turning the fui-rows in the field. This plow was of steel, enabling it to run deeper and smoother. The corn drill and the wheat drill also came to lighten labor and to make it easier to sow greater quantities of grain, and thus to make more work for the other machines. In the cotton-raising section of the South not many new machines were needed. Improvements in the cotton gin had been made (§278). The planter could now raise as much cotton as the markets in Europe and America needed, and he could sell no more. THE GROWTH OP INDUSTRY 247 391. Increase in manufactures (1820-60). We have already seen factories beginning to increase rapidly in numbers (§275). The great European migration provided plenty of labor. In the older states steam began to take the place of water. Whether or not a town was on a large stream it could have a factory. The tariff gave a big start to manufacturing. Then Clay's compromise tariff (1833-43) came, but the mills did not close again even when the low tariff of 1846 was passed by Congress. They made good in spite of European trade. The manufacture of iron goods was now greatly improved. It was discovered that hard coal instead of charcoal could be used to melt iron ore, and thus pig iron was made much cheaper. Cheap pig iron gave the rolling mills plenty of work to do. From their work came better and cheaper tools of all kinds — cheaper spinning machines, cheaper looms, and cheaper engines. '^JlfA^.i MAKING STEEL PLATES AT PITTSBURGH 392. Beginning of woman's freedom from drudgery. Inventions for the household did not keep pace with inventions in other lines. But the time of woman's 248 vSOCIAL CHANGES freedom was coming. The invention of the cook stove promised to give her much rehef . Many men had puzzled their brains over the invention of a sewing machine. Finally Elias Howe after years of poverty and toil reached success. 1*" He was granted a patent in 1846. Matches came to us from Europe and have finally taken the place of striking fire by the use of a flint or by carrying coals from the neighbors. To the women of the household fell the lot of making the tallow candles. This was hard work, since the tallow came when a cow or an ox was killed for meat. What a blessing to everybody were the lamps! 393. Other inventions, (i) One of the most useful of all inventions was the Hoe rotary printing press. This explains why the great newspapers were turned out at such small cost (§382). (2) Before this time pictures had to be carved on wooden or metal plates. This was very slow work. But in 1839 a Frenchman succeeded in getting a picture by turning sunlight on a copper plate covered with a film of silver. From his name these pictures were called "daguerreotypes." Following this step, rapid strides have been made until today we have the "movie films" and pi-ctures taken from airplanes. (3) An invention which has brought about a wonderful change in things was Goodyear' s discovery of the use of sulphur in the manufacture of rubber. This made it possible to produce "rubber goods" and scores of other articles. (4) How people who came under the surgeon's THE GROWTH OF INDUSTRY 249 knife must have thanked their stars for the discovery of "ether." If ether is taken into the lungs, a person can have an operation performed without feeHng it. 394. Coal and iron mines. Soft coal has been found in almost all of the states from the Great Lakes to the Gulf. THE COAL FIELDS OF THE UNITED STATES In this period anthracite or hard coal came into use. By 1848 ten canals and twenty-five railroads were carry- ing coal and iron away from places where nature had stored them. Its coal and iron have made Pennsylvania the second state in population, and Pittsburgh the center of this trade. 395. Morse invents the telegraph (1844). The ends of the earth were now brought together by the invention of the "magnetic telegraph." Samuel F. B. Morse ^^^ is the man to whom most honor is due for this discovery, although we must not forget Alfred Vail, whose skill and shop were always open to Morse. After years of poverty Morse received from Congress $30,000 (1843) to build a 250 SOCIAL CHANGES line from Washington to Baltimore. This was completed in time to announce the nomination of James K. Polk for president. Morse lived to see his invention widely adopted and to receive medals struck in his honor by European countries. 396. The Atlantic cable joins Europe and America. Com- modore Maury had studied the bottom, of the Atlantic. He sug- gested to Cyrus W. Field, a gener- ous New Yorker, the idea of join- ing the Old World to the New by Morse's invention. By the aid of generous friends in America and England, and assisted by Con- gress, the cable began to uncoil in August, 1857. Three hundred miles out, the line snapped. It cost $500,000 to mend it. Again it broke. Field would not give up. Over the cable in 1858 Queen Victoria and President Buchanan exchanged greetings. While New York City was giving the conqueror of the Atlantic a great banquet, the cable parted once more. But Field would not sur- render. The cable was completed, and Europe and America were tied together for better or for worse (1866). 397. The rapid growth of railroads (1840-60). Road and canal building was forging ahead when the panic of 1837 struck the country. Railroads, however, by giving quicker service, gained first place after the panic. At first they were built in short stretches. A person going from Albany to Buffalo was compelled to change cars several times and had to buy a ticket on each train. THE GROWTH OF INDUSTRY 251 Soon a traveler could go from Boston to Buffalo (1842), but it was not until 1852 that one could reach Chicago by rail. The year 1857 stands out in railroad history, for in that year Chicago and St. Louis were joined by rail, and the Baltimore and Ohio road reached the latter city. By i860 most of the larger cities in the North had been tied together by bands of iron. Unfortunately only a few lines, such as the Illinois Central, ran from There was also a railway of twenty two miles between Sacramento anc Folsom City, California. TIIi; RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES IN I86O North to South, promoting an exchange of friendly feelings. In. this period the United States, unlike some European 2 52 SOCIAL CHANGES governments, did not own any railroads. It did begin the custom of granting aid to build certain lines. Some of the states aided the building of railroads, and some built them entirely. But in the course of time all rail- roads were owned by private persons. 398. Cheaper postage. The first expressman. Eng- land had long since set the example of cheap postage (1839). To send a single-page letter in the United States cost from 6 to 25 cents, according to distance. In 185 1 Congress estabHshed the 3 cent rate for letters. But no parcel post was established then, and an enterprising young man, William F. Hamden, began to carry packages between Boston and New York. The example set by Hamden led to the formation of the different express companies of America. 399. Steamships. The increase and improvement in steamboats on American rivers showed men a quicker way to cross the ocean. Already the "Savannah" had made the trip using both sails and steam (18 19). Men were working hard to improve the engines when coal was introduced as a fuel. By this means the "Sirius" and the "Great Western" both crossed the ocean without the aid of sails (1837). By 1847 the trip was reduced to eleven : - days. When gold was dis- TIIE "SAVAXNAIl" covered m Cali- fornia, steamships carried people to Panama. Others carried them from the western coast of the Isthmus to California. Some ships went by the Straits of Magellan. THE GROWTH OF INDUSTRY 253 400. Home and foreign trade (1830-50). The building of canals increased trade on the Great Lakes. There was six times as much trade in 1830 as in 1820. By 1840 this trade had grown to three times the amount of 1830. In 185 1 Ohio sent 12,000,000 bushels of wheat to the East. The "clipper" ship, an American invention, gave America first place as a rapid carrier of trade. The European wars again put a great trade in American hands. Our clippers traded even with China and India. In the year 1854 Commodore Matthew C. Perry brought us into friendly relations with Japan. The Japanese had never before admitted foreigners, but after Perry and his warships had visited Japan, the United States made treaties of friendship and trade with that country.. SUGGESTED READINGS References for teachers: Wright, Industrial Evolution of the United States, 132-152; Andrews, History of the United States, II, 66-74; Ingle, Southern Side Lights, 10-20, 47-66, 176-195, 298-399; Bogart, Economic History, chaps, xiii, xv, xvi, xviii, xxvi; Morse, Causes and Effects in American History, chap, xii; McMaster, People of the United States, VIII, chap. Ixxxvii; Hart, Contemporaries, III, 161-573; Moore, Industrial History, 299-316, 361-362, 392-422, 448-468. References for pupils : Mace, Stories of Heroism, 22,$-^$^ (Fulton, Morse, Field, and Edison); Hart, Source Reader, II, 334-370; Great Epochs in American History, VII, 36-47; Sparks, Expansion of the American People, chap, xxiv; Faris, Real Stories from Our History, chaps, xlii-xliii. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS I. Write a story about the Irish and German immigrants in 1850. 2. Three boys start for California to dig gold. Each takes a different route and writes back to his friends. 3. Attend a country debate in i860. Write about the subject debated and the argvunents used. 4. A girl in i860 writes a story of woman's efforts to get into men's colleges, into business, and into teaching. 5. Write a brief story of Dorothea Dix. 6. You are a reporter. Write about the banquet given Cyrus W. Field. CHAPTER XVI THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY ECONOMIC CONTRASTS 401. Where differences between North and South came from. Behind all the difficulty between North and South lay the difference in soil and climate. The South raised tobacco, rice, and cotton, but did not manufacture much. From colonial times the South had sold part of its crops to Europe. But the protective tariff made the South pay a higher price for goods bought abroad. The tariff had made the North a manufacturing section. Hence it had to have cotton for its mills. The South wanted to buy goods made in Europe. Hence, it opposed the American tariff. 402. Opposition to the tariff. In the early days of the protective tariff many men in the South thought that they ^^E»- NORTHERN INDUSTRY would build mills and factories and manufacture the cotton they raised (§336). They saw their mistake, and most of them opposed the tariffs of 1824 and 1828.^*2 gy 254 ECONOMIC CONTRASTS 255 SOUTHERN INDUSTRY 1828' the majority of the northern congressmen, including Webster, favored the tariff (§336). The battle against the protective tariff began in earnest when Calhoun, then vice-president, took strong ground against it in a long letter sent to South CaroHna. He took the position that a state might nullify a law of Congress (§294.) 403. The Webster- Hayne debate (1830). Senator Hayne of South Carolina made a brilliant defense of the right of a state to nullify an act of Congress. He attacked New England in this speech, and Daniel Webster felt called upon to- reply. On that occasion the Senate was crowded ; standing room was not to be had on the floor or in the galleries. People had come from distant cities and ' ' grave senators were lost in the crowd of gay ladies." How grand was the scene when Webster arose! His fine figure, massive head, and large, deep-set eyes attracted attention the moment he began to speak. He spoke for hours, linking arguments into a chain that could not be broken. He declared that no state had ever had the right to nullify the laws of Congress. Then with deep feeling he described the glories of a strong and lasting union, closing with the immortal words; "Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable." Americans have come to accept Webster's point of view. 256 THE QUESTION OP SLAVERY 404. The tariff nullified by South Carolina (1832). The battle against the tariff went on. The nullifiers tried to. win Jackson to their side. But at Jefferson's birthday dinner he threw a bombshell into their midst by offering the toast : ' ' The Federal Union : It must be preserved. ' ' Nevertheless vSouth Carolina called a convention which declared the tariff "null and void," and forbade the United States revenue officers to collect it in her ports. This convention declared that if force was used, South Carolina would leave the Union. Jackson was angry. He sent forth a proclamation denying, as Webster had done, the right of a state to nulhfy a law or to leave the Union. He had ordered General Scott to Charleston harbor. He also sent war vessels there, declaring the United States laws should be enforced without fear or favor. 405. The "Force Bill" and the compromise (1833). Union men everywhere praised Jackson for his stand. He now called on Congress to grant him the right to use the army and the navy if need be. Clay at once intro- duced his compromise to cut down the tariff, little by little, for ten years. Both bills passed Congress the same day.^^^ This was a happy settlement, for no man can tell what the result might have been had South Carolina resisted or seceded. BEGINNING TO AGITATE OVER SLAVERY 406. What slavery was like. Slavery has been touched on frequently (§§41, m, 252, 278, 345), but now it begins to divide our people and calls for closer study. The slaves were bought and sold like other property. Hence slaves did not have very much ambition to learn to read or to improve their condition. A mistress sometimes taught them to read, and certain of the faithful negroes were permitted to preach to them. BEGINNING TO AGITATE OVER SLAVERY 2S7 There was little home life among them. Their houses were small and poorly kept. There was constant danger that father or mother, son or sister, might be sold to planters far away. The slaves, as a rule, were kindly treated, especially the household and the body servants. The master valued highly such slaves as he could trust. The "mammies" who cared for the young white children were greatly beloved by them. 407. The rise of the Abolitionists. After the cotton gin came into use (§278), opposition to slavery, even in the North, seemed to die down. About 1830 people in Europe and America began new movements for bettering the conditions of men. Among these people were the AboHtionists, who demanded that all slaves should imme- diately be set free. The Abolitionists were radi- cals, and soon there was a split among them. William Lloyd Garrison, editor of the Liberator, led a faction demanding the breaking up of the Union. Great people belonged to these Abolition parties. Among them were Whittier, the poet (§381) ; Sumner, a United States senator; Phillips, a great orator ; and Lucretia Mott, a Quakeress. Among congre^ismen were Gid- dings and Chase of Ohio and Slade of Vermont. 408. What the South thought about Abolitionists. The majority of slaveholders thought that the two races 10 WILLIAM LLOYD GARRISON 2S8 THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY BURNING ANTI-SLAVERY DOCUMENTS AT CHARLESTON could live together only as master and slave (1840). Cal- houn declared that "slavery is a good, a positive good." The slavehold- ers denounced the Abolition- ists for sending the Liberator and other doc- uments to the South. They declared that the slave would become discon- tented and rise and murder the whites. 409. What the North thought. The majority in the North opposed the Abolitionists at first, and broke up their meetings. Those opposed to the Abolitionists destroyed their printing presses in New York and Cin- cinnati, and in Illinois murdered Lovejoy, who was defend- ing his newspaper. Aided by congressmen of the North, southern members passed the famous "gag" resolution. This resolution tried to shut anti-slavery petitions out of Congress. The South made a great mistake. Before this only a few hundred petitions came into Congress, but now they came by the hundreds. John Quincy Adams was the hero of the battle in Con- gress for the right of petition (§267). He lived to see the gag resolution repealed (1844). 410. A third party. The result was an Abolition party formed in 1840 with James G. Birney as a candidate for THE TEXAN REVOLUTION 259 president. Its popular vote was 7,000. It took a new- name in 1844, the Liberty party, but held to candidate Birney and polled 62,000 votes. The number opposed to slavery, however, was made much larger by the fight over the right of petition. THE TEXAN REVOLUTION. TERRITORY ON THE PACIFIC 411. Texas wins her independence (1836). After Mexico won her independence (182 1) from Spain, Ameri- cans, encouraged by the Republic of Mexico, began to settle in Texas. But the Ameri- cans and Mexi- cans did not get on well together. They differed in both race and re- ligion. When Mexico abolished slavery, American settlers paid httle attention to the law. Mexico then forbade them to settle in Texas. The Texans rebelled and set up an independent govern- ment. Scores of brave men rushed to the aid of Texas. The Mexicans attacked and brutally murdered the few who remained of the garrison at the Alamo and 300 men at Goliad. But General Sam Houston was coming to the aid of the Texans. He defeated and captured Santa Anna at San Jacinto (1836). 412. The campaign of 1844. The Democrats nomi- nated James K. Polk of Tennessee, and the Whigs, Henry Clay of Kentucky. The Liberty party put up Birney again. Polk favored the annexation of Texas, and Clay THE ALAMO, SAN ANTONIO 26o THE QUESTION OP SLAVERY Opposed it unless Mexico gave her consent. He did not want war with our neighbor. Whether Texas should or should not be admitted was the great question in the cam- paign. 413. Texas annexed. Presi- dent Jackson had been kept from annexing Texas by the danger to his party in the North if more slave territory were added. But President Tyler favored annexation. It took place by joint resolution of Congress (1845). This was an entirely new way of ad- mitting a state. 414. Origin of the Oregon question. The Oregon coun- try extended from the southern line of Alaska, 54°4o', down to 42°, and from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific. We have seen our claims to this region (§301). The Hudson's Bay Fur Company also very early claimed it for Great Britain and had driven out American trappers (§301). In 1818 the dispute over this region was settled for a time by a treaty which agreed that both nations might occupy Oregon until further notice. Russia, immediately after the declaration of the Mon- roe Doctrine (§350), agreed not to extend the southern line of Alaska farther south. 415. The Settlement of Oregon. About 1830 an east- ern business man began to plan a chain of posts for pur- poses of trade in this region. The Methodists, fired by zeal, sent missionaries to the Indians of the Willamette JAMES K. POLK THE OREGON BOUNDARY DISPUTE Scale of Miles, b, R.o4. McN.ll; i.Ccimf«aj- TERRITORY ON THE PACIFIC 261 Valley (1834). Congregationalists and Catholics fol- lowed. The Spaniards had sent missionaries into this country from California long before our Revolution. Dr. Marcus Whitman was one of the early missionaries to Oregon. It is claimed that he became alarmed over the danger of the British seizing the country. He made a dangerous horseback ride, in dead of winter, to the East. He came to report on his mission work. But it is said that he went to Washington also and aroused President Tyler to the danger of permitting the British to seize the country. 416. The Oregon Trail. How settlers migrated to Oregon. The bold pioneers to the Oregon country trav- eled much as did those who had crossed the Alleghenies a generation before. They gathered in large numbers at Westport, now Kansas City, for the journey was long and hard. They had to cross the Rockies and great stretches of country where water was scarce. They had great wagons drawn by teams of horses or of oxen. At night their wagons were drawn up in a big circle to keep off the Indians. They halted where grass and water were found. After supper the women and chil- dren rolled themselves in blankets and went to sleep under the stars. Some of the men stood guard over the camps while others looked out for cattle and horses. Sometimes on this journey they halted to bury one whom sickness had struck down. They left the body with only a pile of stones to mark the last resting place. At first it took twelve to sixteen weeks to reach their homes in some nook or valley of the new land. 417. What the government did. A few men, Hke Senator Benton (§354) of Missouri, had always stood boldly in defense of this great region. He had his son- 262 THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY in-law, John C. Fremont, sent to explore it. In three great expeditions Fremont wandered over the wild land of the Rocky Mountains, following the Oregon Trail to this region. Finally, after a long, bitter battle with snow and hunger, he crossed the Sierra Madre Mountains into California (1842-46). The hardy sons of the Willamette Valley set up a local government (1843). Hundreds of settlers were coming into other places. They naturally looked to the United States government to settle the disputed boundary question. 418. How Oregon got into the campaign of 1844. The Democrats stole a march on the Whigs by their campaign cries: the " reannexation of Texas" for the South, and for the North they had two: "Fifty-four forty or fight" and "All Oregon or none."'^^ It was easier to win the elec- tion than to settle the questions raised in the campaign. Mexico had said she would fight if Texas were annexed (§412). Polk, the new president (1845- 49), saw he must settle the Ore- gon question in a friendly way or have two wars on his hands at once. The dispute with Great Britain was compromised. Both nations accepted the line of 49°. Not without cause were some of those pioneers angry over the result. 419. War with Mexico. Taylor's campaigns. The Mexican government had refused for a long time to settle for destroying American property. The Texans claimed ZACH.\RY TAYLOR TERRITORY ON THE PACIFIC 263 the Rio Grande as their southern line, while the Mexicans declared it to be the Nueces. When Mexico killed American soldiers in the disputed territory, Presi- dent Polk declared that Mexico "had shed American blood on American soil."!"*^ Congress immediately de- clared war (1846). General Taylor at once marched across the Rio Grande, and from Palo Alto to Buena vista (1847) won a series of brilliant victories. His boys called him ' ' Old Rough andReady . " He was a hero in the eyes of Ameri- cans. 420. Scott's campaign. New Mexico and California. Polk planned a new campaign and put General Scott in command. This army smashed its way from Vera Cruz to the City of Mexico. Scott rode proudly at the head THE TEXAS BOU.vDARY DISPUTE 264 THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY of the American army, in the land through which Cortez (§17) had journeyed more than 300 years before. vSanta Anna, president of Mexico, was compelled to make a treaty of peace (1848). One of the longest marches ever made through an enemy's country was made by Colonel S. W. Kearney and his men. They went from Fort Leavenworth, TERRITORY GAINED BY THE TREATY OF PEACE, Kansas, to California. They traveled the old Santa Fe trail to Santa Fe, New Mexico (§31), captured this town, and set up a new government (1846). With a part of his men Kearney made his way to California. He found California almost conquered. American settlers had already raised the standard of revolt and had set up the Bear State republic. Fremont joined forces with them. By the aid of a small fleet the Americans had most of CaHfornia under control when Kearney's men arrived. NEW TERRITORY SLAVE OR FREE 265 Mexico, for $15,000,000, turned over to the United States California and New Mexico. Later (1853) the Gadsden Purchase was added (see map). SHALL THE NEW TERRITORY BE SLAVE OR FREE? 421. Opposition to the war. The Wihnot Proviso. Thousands of anti-slavery people in the North opposed the war. The Whig party opposed it, but voted men and money to carry it on. President Polk asked Congress for $2,000,000 to make peace with Mexico. The House refused. It declared that no territory obtained by the war should ever be open to slavery. This was the Wilmot Proviso. i^*^ It did not pass, for the Senate was against it. But it showed how strong the anti-slavery sentiment was. After two years of quarreling over slavery Congress succeeded in passing a bill for the free territory of Oregon (1848). 422. Taylor president. The Free-Soil party (1848). Both Democrats and Whigs were afraid of the slavery question. The Democrats, whose majority lay in the South, nominated a northern man. Senator Cass, from a state containing many anti-slavery Whigs. The Whigs nominated General Taylor, a southern man, from a state containing thousands of pro-slavery voters. The strong anti-slavery men were disgusted. They met at Buffalo and boldly nominated Martin Van Buren (§361). They sent forth a platform against slavery in the territories. Liberty party men united with anti- slavery Democrats and Whigs in shouting for "free soil, free speech, free labor, and free men." The soldier candidate won I^" Even South CaroHna voted for Taylor. 423. Gold discovered in California (1848). Gold was discovered in California shortly after the territory was 266 THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY ceded to the United States by Mexico. Its discovery was an accident. Some men, digging a mill-race along the American River several miles above Sacramento, "^-^ _ discovered yellow grains in the sand. ** They proved to be gold. The news went everywhere. There was great excitement. The old slow ways of making a living were given up. Laborers work- mg at lumbering, milling, herd- mg, clerking, farming, rushed to the gold region. Soldiers and sailors deserted their posts of- duty In four months there A cALiioRM„ MiN.N^ ...Ml ^i ^v wcrc 4,ooo digging gold on the American River. The next year saw the "Forty- niners" reach California from the ends of the earth. Many followed the Oregon trail to the point where a branch turned off to the land of gold. Some went by ship by way of Cape Horn. Others crossed by way of Panama to the Pacific. Intense suffering was experienced by either route. Many going overland perished from cold in the mountains or from hunger and thirst in the "deserts. ' ' 424. The gold miners make California a free state. The people of California had to act quickly. There were nearly 100,000 of them (1849). They needed a govern- ment to keep order. They held a convention and adopted a constitution shutting out slavery. President Taylor favored admitting CaHfornia with her anti-slavery con- stitution."^ The slaveholders were astounded. NEW TERRITORY SLAVE OR FREE 267 Congress was excited over California. The Sovfth was disappointed, and threats of secession were heard. 425. Henry Clay, the peacemaker, to the rescue (1850). Henry Clay, with thousands of southerners, loved the Union first. He was an old and broken man. He had retired from the Senate, but both Whig and Democrat in the Kentucky legislature united to send him back to his place. They hoped the nation would be thrilled once more by that voice in favor of union. He introduced his compromise. This was soon called the "Omnibus Bill" — it contained so many measures: (i) the admission of CaHfornia with her free state consti- tution; (2) the territories of Utah and New Mexico organized without settling the slavery question; (3) the abolition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia; (4) a new law for the return of fugitive slaves; (5) the dispute between Texas and New Mexico over boundary lines settled by paying Texas $10,000,000. 426. The great debate (1850). No such able orators as those who took part in the great debate had been heard before in the Senate: Clay, Webster, Calhoun, Benton, Douglas, Davis, Seward, Chase, and others. Early in February, Clay arose to speak. There was a crowded house. People had come hundreds of miles to hear that silvery voice make a last appeal for the Union. He spoke for two MILLARD FILLMORE !68 THE QUESTIOX OF SLAVERY days. He seemed young again. When he closed, people rushed forward to congratulate him and fair ladies to press upon his cheek the kiss of admiration. Calhoun was too ill to speak. A friend read his address. What a scene ! ' ' There he sat, motionless as a statue, with the hand of death upon him." He watched the effect of his words upon his audience. He asked: (i) an equal division of the territories; (2) a better fugitive slave law; (3) the stopping of anti-slavery agitation. He declared: "If you of the North will not do these things, let our southern states depart in peace." Webster made his fatal "Seventh of March Speech." It was "For the Union and the Constitution." In divid- ing the blame between the agitators of the North and the South he seemed to consider that the North was most at fault. The anti-slavery Whigs of New England made his few remaining days bitter on account of this speech. WEBSTER ADDRESSING THE SENATE ON THE 7TH OF MARCH The new champion of slavery was found in Jefferson Davis, who was already taking the place of the dying NEW TERRITORY SLAVE OR FREE 269 Calhoun."'' Seward declared there was "a higher law than the Constitution," the moral law. JEFFERSON DAVIS IN THE COMPROMISE DEBATES IN CONGRESS 427. The results of the compromise. Congress passed the measures in the Omnibus Bill, and it seemed for a time a happy settlement of the difficulty. The renewed feeling for the Union was encouraged by Whigs and Democrats holding together "Union meetings." But anti-slavery men found fault with the compromise on account of the Fugitive Slave Law (Art. IV, §2, ^[3). The extreme pro- slavery men found fault with it because it did not suppress agitation among the AboHtionists. 428. Franklin Pierce president (1853-57). The cam- paign of 1852 was an overwhelming victory for the Demo- crats. General Scott, the Whig candidate, believed up to the last moment that he would be elected. The cam- paign was like a funeral procession for the Whigs. Clay died at its beginning and Webster at its close. The Whig party, too, was dying. Men began to speak of a 270 THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY new ' ' era of good feeling " (§351). Pierce in his inaugural pledged himself to encourage the growing harmony. 429. "Underground Railroad." The term "Underground Railroad" named the secret routes along which fugitive slaves were helped to reach Canada. ^^"^ Sometimes the anti- slavery men would enter a slave state to help negroes to run away. Everything had to be done secretly, . ^^jHW^^^mkr for such acts were violations of the Fugitive Slave Law (§425). Hun- dreds of anti-slavery men were vio- lating the laws of Congress to keep from violating Seward's "higher law" (§426). A number of northern states passed Personal Liberty laws to protect men ' ' working on the Underground Railroad," and forbade people to aid slave hunters. These laws nulHfied the Fugitive Slave Law as much as South CaroHna nullified the tariff (§404)- Many anti-slavery people were encouraged to seize slaves in spite of the officers of the law and the slave- holder. ^^^ Men were murdered by both sides. 430. "Uncle Tom's Cabin" (1852). Harriet Beecher Stowe saw a bit of slave Hfe in Kentucky. She painted the good and the bad sides of slavery. But she set forth the dark side much more fully. The experiences through which she put Uncle Tom were not the rule in the South, but the exception. Uncle Tom's Cabin was a powerful novel. "That .book will make 2,000,000 Abohtionists," said a northern man. "All the defenders of slavery have let me alone and are after you," said Garrison (§407)- FRANKLIN PIERCE NEW TERRITORY SLAVE OR FREE 271 SUGGESTED READINGS References for teachers: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 11 7-21 2; Lodge, Webster ("American Statesmen Series"), 154-184; Schurz, Clay ("American Statesmen Series"), II, 1-22, 69-94, 315-335; Elson, Side Lights, I, 241-300; Sparks, Expansion of the American People, chaps, xxiv, xxxi-xxxiii; Grant, Memoirs, I, 92-174; Hart, Contemporaries, III, 579-583, 591-594, 612-618; IV, 75-79, 80-83; Hart, Patriots and Statesmen, IV, 135-414; Bassett, Short History, 428-441, 445-450, 497-504; Dodd, Expansion and Conflict, chaps, vii, xii-xiii; McMaster, People of the United States, VII, chaps. Ixxx- Ixxxii, Ixxxv; VIII, chap. Ixxxvi; Khodes,, History of the United States, I, chaps, i-v; II, chaps, vii-viii; III, chap. xiii. References for pupils: Mace, Stories of Heroism, 269-298 (Clay, Webster, Calhoun, Lincoln); Mace, Lincoln, the Man of the People, i-ioo; Hart, Source Book, 248-279, 284-296; Drake, Meaning of the Great West, 215-240, 271-284; Wright, American Progress. Fiction: Lowell, Biglow Papers; Whittier, Angels of Buena Vista; Butterworth, Log School House; Carr, Ulini; Monroe, Golden Days of '49; Smedes, Memorials of a Southern Planter; Hale, New England Boyhood; Jorcom, New England Girlhood. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS I . Two boys sit in the Senate during the Webster-Hayne debate. Write on opposite sides for your teacher. 2. You are a member of Jackson's "kitchen" cabinet. Report what Jackson says about Calhoun and South Carolina to a member of Congress. 3. Dramatize a meeting of the American Anti-Slavery Society ; characters. Garrison and other leaders among the abolitionists. 4. Dramatize the "great debate" in 1850. 5. "Write up" a slave's experiences in escaping by way of the Underground Railroad. 6. Read Uncle Tom's Cabin and write what you think was unfair to the South. CHAPTER XVII THE POLITICAL CONFLICT THE KANSAS STRUGGLE DRIVES THE NORTH AND SOUTH FARTHER APART 431. The career of Douglas (1813-61). Douglas, born in Vermont, lost his father when a mere boy. He was put to learn the carpenter's trade. His family moved near Canan- daigua, New York, where young Douglas entered the academy. He became the best debater in school and a general favorite. In a couple of years he left for the West and turned up in Illinois with 1 7 cents in his pockets. He was clerk to an auctioneer for three days, taught school, studied law, and became attorney-general of the state at twenty-one. He was a congressman at thirty, a United States senator at thirty- four, and in 1852 at the age of thirty-nine received ninety-one votes for nomination for president. He rapidly became the idol of the northern Democrats, and was probably the greatest "offhand debater America has ever produced. 432. Douglas raises a storm over Kansas (1854). Had it not been for the Kansas question, the North and the South would have Hved peacefully together for many STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS 272 j^i:^^" \ h^ Tl ^^r 1. i-'I -^ K I- NORTH AND SOUTH FARTHER APART 273 years. Early in 1854 Douglas brought in a bill making two territories out of the region running from the Missouri River to the Rocky Mountains. In these two territories, Kansas and Nebraska, the slavery question was left in the hands of the people living there. Douglas called this "popular sovereignty," but his enemies named it "squat- ter sovereignty." He proposed to repeal the Missouri Compromise (§346). Suddenly Douglas felt a storm crashing round his head. The North was furious ; pulpit and press thundered their protests against this measure. The anti-slavery men said that Congress could not possibly put slavery into this territory. Public meetings everywhere in the North denounced Douglas and his bill. He was hissed from a platform in his own city of Chicago. ^^^ In spite of northern opposition, the bill was passed and signed by the President, who had so lately promised not to disturb the good feeling growing out of the Com- promise of 1850. 433. The struggle for Kansas begins. Both sides were ready for the struggle for Kansas. The pro-slavery men from Missouri reached Kansas first because they were nearest. But Eli Thayer had already organized in New England the "Emigrant Aid Society" to send northern men there. In the summer of 1854 the first company started on its long journey to the disputed territory. It was a strange company on a strange errand ! People gathered to cheer them on their way, and a few joined them. They located at Lawrence. The South was not to be out done, and bands of settlers entered to make Kansas a slave territory. But the North had more men to send. 274 THE POLITICAL CONFLICT 434. The two rivals face to face (1855). The pro- slavery men won the first election because in the beginning ^^Si&ev" EMIGRANTS OX THEIR WAY TO KANSAS of the struggle they had more voters in the territory. They elected a delegate to Congress, set up a state government, drew up the Lecompton constitution, and passed laws favoring slavery. The antislavery men immediately raised the cry of fraud and refused to accept the Lecompton constitution. They did not stop with this, but went to work as Cali- fornia had done (§425), to make a free state constitution. Having done this they applied for admission to the Union as a free state. There were rival governments in Kansas now, a slave state and a free state one. Soon the wilder element in both factions began burning and murdering. There was civil war in Kansas — "bleeding Kansas" the territory was now called. The attention of the whole county was fixed on Kansas. NORTH AND SOUTH FARTHER APART 275 435. The effect upon the country. Nobody was more surprised at this upheaval than Douglas. But he met the ablest anti-slavery men in debate in the Senate. Some members of Congress were now carrying arms. Most unfortunately of all, good men, North and South, were growing suspicious of each other. The North felt that the South was determined to put slavery in all the ter- ritories and even in the free states. The South believed that the North was bound to stamp out slavery, not only in the territories, but in the states where it long had existed. 436. The Republican party (1854-56). The passing of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill and the deeds done in Kansas had stirred the country. The Whig party was dead. The southern wing joined the Democrats. The northern Whigs united with thousands of anti-slavejy Democrats and Free-Soilers to form the new Republican party. Seward was the leader of the Whig side of the new party. Chase of the Democrats and Free-Soilers. The Republicans were de- nounced as a " sectional party ' ' and as "Black Republicans." On a platform demanding that all territory should be free, the party nominated John C. Fremont , the " Pathfinder ' ' (§417). The Democrats put Douglas aside and named an old bachelor, James Buchanan of Pennsylvania. He had been out of the country during the Kansas struggle. A JAMES BUCHANAN 276 THE POLITICAL CONFLICT third or "American" party — the "Know-Nothings," as they were nicknamed — arose to keep . foreigners out of office. Many Whigs and Democrats, North and South, voted for "Know-Nothing" men. The Republicans had the enthusiasm, but the Demo- crats had the votes. All the northern states but four were carried by the Republicans. Their popular vote was 1,300,000. Buchanan won. All the slave states but one voted for him. Something had to be done. The country was rapidly breaking into a North and a South. 437. The Dred Scott Decision. The Supreme Court tried its hand, but it only widened the deepening chasm. Dred Scott, a negro slave, had sued for his freedom because he had been taken into free territory. Chief Justice Taney declared: (i) that slaves were not citi- zens; (2) that they might be taken to any territory like other property; (3) that neither territorial legislatures nor Congress could put them out. Hence the Missouri Compromise was against the Constitution (§346). This decision was a blow at the Republican party and ^ --^ ^ at Douglas' doc- trine of ' ' popular sovereignty. ' ' The North felt outraged. The vSouth was happy over the decision. One more blow was needed to split the Democratic party. We must stop here to look at the man in the Republican party who was to deliver that blow. IHE LOG CABIN BIRTHPLACE OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN NORTH AND SOUTH FARTHER APART 277 438. Abraham Lincoln (1809-65). Abraham Lincoln was born among the Kentucky hills. At .the age of seven his parents moved to southern Indiana. Lincoln lived there until he was twenty- one. His father built a three- sided shack for a home. The next year a log cabin with only the earth for a floor, took its place. The mother before she died had taught young Lincoln to read. His stepmother was kind to him and saw that he had a chance to go to school. He was the best speller in his neighborhood. He was big for his age and could outdo the others in games of strength, and he kept peace among the boys. He liked mental work better than hand work. He read when he could and made figures on the wooden shovel by the light of the fire. He walked miles to borrow a book or to read a newspaper. He was a man in size and strength at seventeen, and he was a favorite at log-rollings, or where strength was demanded. When he lived in Indiana and once while he was in Illinois, he went to New Orleans as a "hand" on a flatboat. When he was twenty-one his parents moved to Illinois. Lincoln was clerk in a store, surveyor, postmaster, and captain in the Black Hawk War. He studied law, was elected to the legislature, and it was at the capital that he saw Douglas the first time. He was four times in the IlHnois legislature and once in ABRAHAM LINCOLN 2 78 THE POLITICAL CONFLICT Congress. He had frequent debates with Douglas, and after 1854 they were held oftener and grew more serious. Lincoln saw the approaching political storm. 439. A house divided against itself (1858). Douglas came up for reelection to the United States Senate. The Republicans, meeting in state convention at Springfield, declared, "Abraham Lincoln is our first and only choice" for that position. That night Lincoln made a most famous speech ^^'^ before the convention, saying: "A house divided against itself cannot stand. This government cannot endure perma- nently half slave and half free It will become all one thing or all the other." Douglas, before a great audience in Chicago, denounced Lincoln for trying to cause war between sections. Lincoln replied the following night, denied Douglas' charges and showed the weak points in the doctrine of "popular sovereignty." Other political duels followed, and Lin- coln challenged Douglas to debate the question before the people of Illinois. 440. The great debates. The debates attracted wide- spread attention. People gathered from far and near to hear them. They came the day before the debate was to be held, afoot, on horseback, and in great wagons. Some of these wagons carried whole families; others were decorated with flags and banners, and loaded w4th young women. On the great day there was a vast, jostling, noisy, good-natured crowd of country, village, and city folk. The presence of reporters from distant cities showed how the country viewed the coming battle. What a difference in the two men! Douglas was short and thick. Ke spoke rapidly and powerfully. He carried NORTH AND SOUTH FARTHER APART -79 his hearers by storm. He loved a hand-to-hand fight, and when his arguments were weak, he "threw dust in LINCOLN-DOUGLAS DSBATE AT FREEPORT the eyes of his audience " and made ' ' the worse appear the better reason." Lincoln was tall, slender, and awkward. He spoke slowly and calmly. His language was plain, sometimes quaint and humorous. He was a great story-teller. But his mind was sure, if slow. He always debated to find the truth and to set it forth. He was the one man Douglas feared. Lincoln compelled Douglas to admit that a territory could get rid of slavery by unfriendly laws. Douglas was thus true to his doctrine of "popular sovereignty," but this admission was against the Dred Scott decision (§437) and made the South angry. But by this stand Douglas held the people of Illinois. 441. The result. Throughout seven joint debates they discussed slavery in some form or other, but they always j8o THE POLITICAL CONFLICT came back to the question of whether or not the legislature of a territory could prevent slavery. Douglas was elected sena- tor, but he had lost the support of the South for the presidency (§431)- Lincoln began as an Illinois leader. He ended with a nationalreputa- JOHN BkOWN'S fort 4--^„ TT- tion. His success made him later a popular candidate for the presidency. 442. John Brown's raid (1859). In the fall of 1859 the country was alarmed by the news that John Brown with a few companions had captured Harper's Ferry. He planned to set the slaves free. Only a few joined him. He was arrested, and after a fair trial was hanged. The South was startled at the thought of what might have been. A few people at the North regarded Brown as a martyr. The strain between the North and the South had reached the breaking point. 443. The Democratic party splits (i860). Men looked forward with anxiety to the Democratic convention to meet at Charleston. Lincoln by his master strokes had widened the chasm between the northern and southern Democrats. Northern Democrats stood faithfully by Douglas. The southern men left the convention and nominated John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky. Later Douglas was named at Baltimore. 444. Lincoln the winner. The Republicans, full of enthusiasm, met at Chicago. Seward had been a trusted leader, but many remembered his "higher law" doctrine NORTH AND SOUTH FARTHER APART and his "irrepressible conflict" speech. ^^^ They thought Lincoln a safer man. The border states of the North were all for him and he was nominated. Bell of Tennessee was put up by a convention of Union men. They declared that the way to settle the slavery question was to cease talking about it and to stand by the "Constitution, the Union, and the enforcement of the laws." Lincoln won with a people's vote of over 1,800,000 and 180 of the electoral vote. Douglas came next with over 1,375,000 votes, but only 12 electoral votes. Breckin- ridge, who got over 100,000 votes in the North, in all had only a few more than 800,000, with 72 electoral votes. THE NOMINATION OF LINCOLN AT CHICAGO Bell received less support from the people, only 640,000 votes, but won 39 electoral votes. What will the South do? Southern leaders had said that Lincoln's election would be a cause for secession. But the North thought this talk mere bluster. As the 282 THE POLITICAL CONFLICT campaign showed Lincoln's election to be certain, the grumbhng and threats grew greater. Douglas made a journey to the South to appeal to southerners not to leave the Union, but his trip was in vain. THE SOUTH SECEDES. COXCILL\TION FAILS 445. South Carolina leads in secession; other states follow. South Carohna acted first. A convention was quickly called and an "Ordinance of secession" intro- duced. It was short, but men listened intently while it was read. This ordinance simply repealed the act by which South Carolina had ratified the Constitution (§256). It was passed without one opposing vote. The people of Charleston were beside themselves with joy at being free from the Union. They did not yet know the full meaning of this act. Six other states followed South Carolina's lead : Missis- sippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. In some of these states many Union men made powerful speeches pointing out what they had gained from a union which they had controlled. But in the end they went with their states. The able and upright Alexander H. Stephens was such a man. 446. The right to secede. When the Constitution was first made, only a few men denied the right of a state to leave the Union. Threats of secession had been made at various times in both North and South. But gradually the North came to be devoted to the nation and to deny the right to secede. The South gradually came to be the champion of this right. Hence the southern people denied that they were "rebels," but said they were engaging in a movement which the Constitution did not forbid. The southern people declared that in practice secession THE SOUTH SECEDES 283 was the only way left to protect their rights. They charged that Lincoln had been elected because he was opposed to slavery. The Aboli- tionists, they said, were in favor of abolishing slavery every- where ; it was only a question of time until the whole North, with its great crowds of foreigners, would come to this point of view. Hence secession was a necessity. The North could point to its Free-Soil and Republican plat- forms expressly denying the right to touch slavery in the states where it already existed. Lincoln wrote to Alexander H. Stephens pointing out this fact. The North also held with Jackson and Webster that this Union was a government of the people and could be destroyed only by a successful rebellion. 447. The southern Confederacy formed (i86i). Dele- gates from the seceded states met at once and formed a government at Montgomery, Alabama. They elected Jefferson Davis (§340) president and Alexander H. Stephens vice-president (February). They changed the old Constitution in some important points, (i) The term of the president was made six years without any reelec- tion. (2) Cabinet members were given the right to address Congress and to debate bills. (3) The states were made sovereign. (4) Protection was given to slavery in the territories as well as in the states. 448. Buchanan uncertain. The rush of events in the South carried men off their feet. Buchanan was in a hard JEFFERSON DAVIS 284 THE POLITICAL CONFLICT ALEXANDER H. STEPHENS position. His cabinet was made up partly of southern men. His message did not help the North: states had no right to secede, but no power was given the president to pre- vent them. Northern men thought of what Jackson had done (404). When the southern members left the Cabinet to join their states, northerners were put in their places. Buchanan seemed to take courage. He sent a ship- load of supplies to Fort Sumter. The guns in Charleston harbor fired on the ship and she re- turned without being able to reach the fort. 449. Can war be prevented? Neither side wanted war. Good men on both sides tried to prevent it. The North tried to get the southern states back into the Union. How could this be done? Men thought at once of the old plan of compromise. Crittenden of Kentucky, who had taken Clay's place, offered a plan of compromise: (i) All territory above 36° 30' was to be free, and all below slave. (2) When new states came into the Union, they might decide to be free or slave. (3) Congress was denied power over slavery in the states where it already existed. This plan touched the heart of the Republican plat- form, and RepubHcan leaders would not accept the arrangement. Many people in both sections were sorely disappointed over the failure. Virginia sent forth a call for a convention of states. No seceded state responded, but other slave states sent dele- THE SOUTH SECEDES 285 gates. The twenty states there represented suggested a plan somewhat hke the Crittenden Compromise. Con- gress refused to pass it also. People's minds seemed set on war. Men said they would wait and see. 450. Will Lincoln be inaugurated (1861)? Lincoln spoke tender words to his home people as he left for Washington. He had kept his eye on the movement of things. He was cheered by the hearty greetings along the way. The great West spoke to the people again, especially at Independence Hall,^^^ Philadelphia, where Lincoln raised a flag. Rumors of a plot led him, against his will, to go secretly the rest of the way to Washington. In the meantime the country was full of excitement. The Confederacy was getting ready— preparing soldiers and raising money. Washington City was full of people who wanted to see the Confederacy succeed. Rumors of various sorts spread around. General Scott took com- mand of the Union forces and was ready for the worst. 451. The inaugural address. In his address to the multitude, Lincoln let it be known just where he. stood, (i) His great aim was to preserve the Union. (2) No state could secede. (3) The laws would be enforced in all the states. (4) Forts in all states would be occupied and held by the government. (5) He closed with these words: "In your hands, my dissatisfied fellow-country- men, and not in mine, is the momentous issue of civil war. The government will not assail you. You can have no conflict without being yourselves the aggressors. We are not enemies, but friends. The mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battlefield and patriot grave to every living heart and hearthstone all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the Union when again touched, as they surely will be, by the better angels of our nature." 286 THE POLITICAL CONFLICT Douglas and his friends, standing around Lincoln, let it be known that the address pleased them. But the South saw no word of compromise in this speech. 452. Bath presidents wait. Up to March 4 the Union may be said to have had the advantage from not being the aggressor. The Confederacy had seceded and had seized forts, arsenals, and ports which in the eyes of the North belonged to the Union. The South, too, had fired on the ship loaded with provisions for Fort Sumter. Neither side wanted to arouse public feeling by beginning the war. Hence they waited several weeks. SUGGESTED READINGS References for teachers: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 185-212; Morse, Lincoln, I, 166-228; Elson, Side Lights on American History, I, 294-336; II, 1-24, 40-46; Bassett, Short History, chap, xxiii, 497-504; Dodd, Expansion and Conflict, II, 251-359, 384-416, 440-502; III, chap, xiii; McMaster, People of the United Stales, VIII, chap, xcvi; Hart, Contemporaries, III, chaps, viii-ix; IV, 104-118, 155-159, 180- 186; Hart, Patriots and Statesmen, V, 130-305; Johnson, Stephen A. Douglas, chap, xviii; Julian, Personal Recollections, 134-150. References for pupils: Mabie, Heroes Every Child Should Know, 309-319; Baldwin, Four Great Americans, 186-246; Williams, Successful Americans; Barstow, A New Natio>i, 166-180, 186-209; Hart, Source Book, 284-296; Hart, Romance of the Civil War, 1-74, 177-196; Mace, Abraham Lincoln, 101-148; Champlin, Young Folks' History of War for the Union, 24-49; Eggleston, Household History, 103-310. Fiction: Eggleston, Two Gentlemen of Virginia; Trowbridge, Neighbor Jackwood; Civil War Stories Retold from St. Nicholas. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS I. You are an anti-slavery senator. Write to the New York Tribune the story of the northern attack on Douglas in the Senate and in the nation as the Kansas-Nebraska Bill passes. .2. You are a member of the Emigrant Aid Society. Write a story back home telling how you got to Kansas and what you found. 3. The entire class attends the Freeport debate and writes its impressions of the crowd, of the speakers, and of the arguments. 4. Attend the Demo- cratic Convention in i860 and report for a northern paper. 5. Go with Douglas to the South. Tell what he says to southerners and what they say to him. CHAPTER XVIII THE WAR BETWEEN THE UNION AND THE CONFEDERACY THE WAR BEGINS 453. Fort Sumter falls (April 14). Waiting time was over. Lincoln ordered supplies to be sent to Major Anderson in Fort Sumter. Davis ordered the guns in Charleston to fire on the fort. Great crowds gathered to witness the opening event of the war. The little band in the fort bravely defended the flag all day. By after- noon the fort was on fire and the walls were broken in many places. Smoke and cinders almost choked the men. Some lay upon the ground and covered their faces with wet cloths. Others crept to the portholes for a breath of fresh air. Explosion followed explosion, but the men V««'t'?Ni^ THE INTERIOR OF FORT SUMTER AFTER THE BOMBARDMENT would not surrender. Now and then they fired a gun to show that they were "holding the fort." 287 THE CIVIL WAR On Sunday afternoon Major Anderson, without the loss of a single man of the 128, with torn flag flying and drums beating, surrendered. Charleston and the Con- federacy were wild with excitement. 454. Lincoln's call. That Sunday afternoon, Douglas (§431), the pohtical rival of Lincoln, called at the White House. On Monday morning two telegrams sped on the wings of lightning to the nation: one from Lincoln calling for 75,000 men; another from Douglas telling his fellow Democrats that he stood by the President. ^^^ On every farm, in every town and city in the North was heard the answer. In the pulpit and press as well as on the platform went up the cry: "The Union for- ever!" Flags, fife, and drum helped kindle the flame of war. From every walk in life poured forth volunteers. The foreigner and the native-born answered by offering their lives. A mighty wave of patriotic feeling was sweeping the North. There were no Democrats, no Republicans then; only Union men. HK WAR SPIRIT IN THE NORTH 455. Other states secede when war comes. The same feeling, the same devotion, the same wild cry for the THE WAR BEGINS THE W\R SPIRIT IN THE SOUTH defense of their homes, was heard in the South. Men were quickly formed in companies, drilled and armed for the conflict. Here, too, the fife and drum aroused enthusiasm for the Confederacy. Four states — Virginia, North Carolina, Ten- nessee, and Arkansas — - joined the Confederacy. The border slave states must now choose between the Union and the CO;'nfederacy. It was not easy to do, for the people were divided. Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri ^re- mained faithful to the Union. The mountainous parts of North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia contained thousands of Union men. The people of West Virginia, as it is now called, formed a separate state which was admitted to the Union (1863). The danger of this new secession was seen in the fact that Virginia lies across the Potomac from Washington, and that General Lee,^" a native Virginian, threw in his lot with the Confederacy. The capital was removed from Montgomery to Richmond. 456. Strength of the two sections (1861). The North had a population of 22,000,000; the South but 9,000,000 and 3,500,000 of these were negroes. In the North there were over 5,000,000 men able to bear arms, while in the Confederate states there were hardly more than 1,500,000. In a long, hard war wealth counts. The North had hundreds of mills and factories, while the Confederacy II 290 THE CIVIL WAR had but few. Iron works, shipyards, and hundreds of banks with plenty of money, were found in the North. The Confederacy boasted of but one iron mill, at Rich- mond, although she soon set up another at Atlanta. Her factories for clothing were few. There was but one great city in the Confederacy, New Orleans, and the Union forces captured that in the second year of the war. The North had two and one-half times as many miles of rail- roads. More important still, the North had the iron mills and mills to repair the railroads when there was need. The South had none. Is it any wonder that the people in the North thought the war would soon be over? But it was not so one-sided as it seemed. The Con- federates were fighting at home for their own firesides. They knew the ground better than the North. They had the help and sympathy of their own people. Even the negro slaves did not rise and murder their masters, but served them in the army or, most important of all, remained on the plantations and raised food for the Con- federate armies. The Confederacy had high hopes of sending cotton abroad to pay for guns and ships and to get gold. But the blockade stopped that, and made other imported things scarce. 457. The first military objects of the war. Since Richmond had been made the capital of the Confederacy, the Union armies had two important objects in the war: to defeat Lee's army and take Richmond, and to open the Mississippi to its mouth. The navy had for its pur- pose the shutting of the ports of the South so tight that no ships could pass out or in. The political object of the war was the preservation of the Union. THE BLOCKADE OF CONFEDERATE PORTS 291 458. The Battle of Bull Run. What it taught. Both sections gathered troops near Manassas Junction, about 30 miles from Washington. The Union army was under McDowell and the Confed- erates under Beauregarjd. Without McDowell's knowing it, Joseph E. Johnston was bringing reenforcements for the Confederates. The attack was made July 21. The ad- vantage at first was with the Union or Federal troops. ^^^ But Johnston's men helped to turn the battle into an awful Union rout. Soldiers, con- gressmen, and citizens rushed madly back on Washington. The South was elated over the victory; it proved the superior fighting qualities of their boys, they declared. It opened the eyes of the North. Congress proceeded to raise 500,000 men and $500,000,000 to carry on the conflict. George B. McClellan, who had been successful in West Virginia, was called to head the Army of the Potomac. For months he drilled the army until he made it a "fine working machine." PIERRE G. T. BEAUREGARD THE BLOCKADE OF CONFEDERATE PORTS 459. What will England and France do? The South was a tobacco and cotton raising country (§401). With cotton it had to buy many things abroad. Therefore Lincoln struck a mighty blow at the Confederacy when he ordered her ports closed from Virginia to Texas. 292 THE CIVIL WAR But France and England were interested. Their fac- tories would have to close, their laborers starve, and their merchants lose thousands upon thousands of dollars. Would England and France bear this loss in silence ? It was hardly to be expected. The South hoped these nations would break the block- ade. This would mean war with them. The North knew that England had long ago abolished slavery, and there- fore expected her sympathy. Both Great Britain and France agreed to remain neutral, but to recognize the "war rights" of the Confederates. 460. The hard lot of a neutral. We know the lot of a neutral is a hard one (§289). The Confederacy sent Slidell to France and Mason to England to ask that the independence of the South be recognized. At Havana they took passage on an English ship, the "Trent." The next day a United States warship commanded by Captain Wilkes stopped the "Trent" and seized the Confederates. To the people of the North, Wilkes was a hero. But the people of England were angry at this "attack" on their flag. Both had forgotten their own history (§289). But Lincoln had not forgotten and surrendered the prisoners. Queen Victoria saw the danger of war in her government's letter to the United States, and so changed it that it did not stir angry feelings in this country. 461. Battle between the "Monitor" and the "Merri- mac" (1862). The Confederates had one hope of breaking the blockade, the "Merrimac." She was in the Norfolk navy yard. They had covered her with railroad iron. She steamed into Hampton Roads and plunged her great ram into the wooden ship "Cumberland" and chased the "Congress" and burned her. One great day's work for the Confederacy ! Washington was frightened. THE BLOCKADE OF CONFEDERATE PORTS 293 That night a queer-looking craft sHpped into Hampton Roads, the "Monitor" built by Ericsson. She was an "ironclad." Her deck was just above the water. On this was a revolving turret or iron cylinder containing two big guns. The next day the battle began and continued for two hours. An officer on the "Merrimac" asked a gunner why he had ceased firing. ' ' I can do her as much THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE "MONITOR AND "MERRIMAC damage by snapping my thumb at her every two minutes and a half," was-his answer. The "Merrimac" steamed back to Norfolk. Neither side won. But the advantage was with the Union, for the blockade went on, and the government at Washington built many ironclads while the Confederacy could put out only a few. It marked the beginning of warships of iron and steel. 462. Blockade runners and privateers. Europe sent small, swift ships to slip into southern ports on dark and stormy nights. Some of these got away with cotton for the European trade. Some carried it to the West Indies, where different nations bought it at a very high price. So high was the price that it paid the blockade runners even if they did get caught once in a while. 294 THE CIVIL WAR Now only one bale of cotton reached Europe where before the war more than one hundred reached it. Gold grew scarce ( \'^'^,(^ 0-\ ,'^. Except cotton, everything in the Confederacy grew scarce and high. Would the block- ade finally force her to quit? CAMPAIGN FOR THE OPENING OF THE MISSISSIPPI 463. B e gi li- nings of the great campaign (1862). Dougl as had pointed out that if the Confederates held the Missis- sippi River, ' ' grass would grow in the streets of western cities." Both sides tried to get hold of Missouri and Kentucky. The governments of both states at first sympathized with the Confederacy, but the majority of the people were for the Union. In Missouri, Francis P. Blair and General Lyon were too quick for the Confederates. Lyon was killed at Wilson Creek, but the Confederates, by the aid of Grant's victories, were driven into Arkansas. In Kentucky, General Grant, with the aid of a fleet of gunboats, had captured Forts Henry and Donelson (Feb- ruary, 1862), only a few miles apart on the Tennessee and the Cumberland rivers. Fifteen thousand Confederates were captured at Donelson. It was the first big battle of the Civil War and brought Grant great praise. A BLOCKADE RLNNER LO-VDED WITH COTTON FOR LUROPE CAMPAIGN FOR OPENING THE MISSISSIPPI 295 But he lost his hard-earned honors by allowing himself to be beaten back in the two days' battle of Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing (April). The Confederates lost Gen- eral Albert Sidney Johnston ^^^ and were forced to retreat to Corinth. A union of Federal armies gave them 100,000 men. Corinth fell without a blow, and Commodore Foote forced Memphis to surrender. The Mississippi was now open down to Vicksburg. 464. The capture of New Orleans (April 25). The Confederate forts along the Atlantic were already falling. To Captain Farragut was given the duty of capturing New Orleans. The Confederates had fortified it well. The fleet cut the cables guarding the harbor, bombard- ed the forts for five days, drove past them, and destroyed the gunboats. Hundreds fled from the city, and thou- sands of bales of cotton were burned. The fall of New Orleans was a hard blow. It was a great cotton city,_ and its fall discouraged Confederate friends in England. ONE OF FOOTE's GUNBOATS USED IN THE BATTLES ON THE OHIO AND MISSISSIPPI RIVERS 465. The Confederate counterstroke (1862). To offset these victories, General Bragg, now commanding the Confederates in the West, slipped by General Buell and 296 THE CIVIL WAR rushed across Tennessee and Kentucky, going straight for Louisville on the Ohio. Buell outraced him, reaching CAMPAIGNS FOR THE WESTERN STATES Louisville first. After the battle of Perry ville, Bragg retreated to Murfreesboro. General Rosecrans took Buell's place. The close of the old and the opening of the new year at Murfreesboro marked one of the hardest battles of the war. General Thomas held the Union center in spite of all attacks. The Confederates claimed the victory. In the meantime. Grant defeated but failed to capture Price at luka. THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE TWO CAPITALS 466. The Peninsular Campaign (1862). The two capi- tals could be attacked directly across the country, by the Shenandoah, and by way of Chesapeake Bay. Whichever way was chosen, the others had to be watched. The North grew tired of waiting for McClellan to attack Richmond. But he finally went down Chesapeake Bay, THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE CAPITALS 297 started up the peninsula, lying between the York and James rivers, and fought his way to White House Landing, within sight of the spires of Richmond. General Joseph E. Johnston (§458) at- tacked him with great fury. The progress of the Confederates was checked and General Johnston was wound- ed. Lee took his place (§457)- Stonewall Jackson and his "foot cavalry" ■ \niw ^ \\\\\\\\\w'\v^'- ,\ dashed through the ^ . ^ ■^ '"^ Shenandoah, defeated "'^^'^"'^ "•''""°^ mcclellan the Union armies protecting that route, and were soon back with Lee's army. McDowell, protecting the direct route, was expecting Jackson to attack Washington and withdrew to defend the Union capital. General Stuart's Confederate cavalry added to the excitement. It circled McClellan's army, tore up rail- roads, and burned supplies. 467. The "Seven Days" battle. The second battle of Bull Run. Lee now attacked with great fury and drove McClellan to retreat (July). The Army of the Potomac went back to Washington. Lee struck a terrific blow at Pope's forces, a new army just made up,* and defeated them on the ill-fated field of . Bull Run (August) . 468. Lee's first invasion (September). Flushed with victory, Lee crossed the Potomac and was on the soil of 298 THE CIVIL WAR Maryland. In the battle of Antietam, one of the greatest battles of the Civil War, McClellan attacked Lee. Vic- tory was claimed by both sides. Lee retired to Virginia, but McClellan failed to attack him as he recrossed the Potomac. For this McClellan was removed, and General Burnside was given command of the Army of the Potomac. THE EASTERN CAMPAIGNS Just as soon as the Union army had rested, Burnside led it across the Rappahannock River and struck Lee's army on the Heights of Fredericksburg. Lee defeated UPROOTING SLAVERY 299 ROBi-RT EDWARD LEE him with greater loss to the Union than in any previous battle. ' ' Fighting ' ' Joe Hooker was given command, and the Union army rested and , was reenforced. UPROOTING SLAVERY 469. Slavery in the war. Lincoln had always been against slavery. He did not hate the slaveholder, but he did hate the rule of one man over another. When slaves escaped within the Federal lines. General Butler called them "contra- band of war," that is, prop- erty which may lawfully be taken in war. Others refused to return the negroes to their owners. Some Union generals set them free, but Lincoln refused to permit this. He wanted the Union slave states to free their own slaves and to receive pay for them. 470. Congress runs ahead of the President on slavery. Early in the war Congress freed the slaves in the District of Columbia and in the territories. Congress paid slave- holders in the District but not those in the territories. 471. The Emancipation Proclamation (1862). Repeat- edly Lincoln had denied his right to interfere with slavery in the states where it existed. Hence he early tried to get the border slave states in the Union to abolish slavery. He promised to pay owners for their slaves. He was sure this would be a blow from which the Confederates could not recover. The border states did not agree with him, and he had to face emancipation by his own hand. 300 THE CIVIL WAR He had to act. The North was making little headway against the Confederacy. The cost of lives was running into thousands, and the debt into milHons. Englishmen were suffering for want of cotton, and their government might recognize the Confederacy as an independent nation. But did Lincoln have the right to free the slaves in the Confederate states? As commander-in-chief of the army and navy (Art. II, §2, ^i), he believed he could do anything in reason to weaken the Confederate cause. Emancipation, there- fore, was a war act, and could not have been carried out in time of peace. 472. Reads Proclamation to cabinet. In July, before his assembled cabinet, Lincoln read the Proclamation of Emancipation. He told them his mind was made up. He finally put the Proclamation aside to await a Union victory. The battle of Antietam came (September 17), and Lincoln sent forth a warning proclamation^'^'' that if the Confederate armies had not laid down their arms by January i, 1863, he would declare their slaves free. This was regarded in the South as an empty threat, but he issued the Proclamation on the day named (January i, 1863). 473. Not all slaves set free by the Proclamation. The Proclamation did not touch a single slave in the Union slave states nor in those states or parts of states recap- tured by the Federal armies. Lincoln had not the power to go farther. Certain of these states — -Maryland, Ken- tucky, Tennessee, and Missouri — did finally take steps to abolish slavery. Only by amendment to the Constitution could Congress and the people abolish it by national action. To settle the question forever, the Thirteenth Amendment was added to the Constitution (1865) (§266). DECISIVE BATTLES 301 474. Effect of emancipation. The Confederacy rather made sport of the Proclamation, but Davis denounced it. The southern sympathizers in the North used strong lan- guage in attacking it. They declared it was proof posi- tive that the purpose of the war was to free the slaves and not to save the Union. The Proclamation was hailed with delight by our friends in England. 475. The negro soldier. Shall the negro be used as a soldier? The North said "Yes," but the South said "No." But there were thousands of northern people who were opposed to the negro's carrying a gun. They argued, with the southerners, that it was wrong for him to shoot down a white man. Over 180,000 negroes wore the Union uniform. As a rule they were put to work that required no fighting. Just before the war closed, the Confederate authorities were getting ready to use negroes as soldiers. DECISIVE BATTLES OF THE WAR 476. Chancellorsville and the death of Jackson ( 1 863 ) . Hooker crossed the Rappahannock and struck Lee's army at Chancel- lorsville (May). Ahhough his army outnumbered the Confed- erates almost two to one, he permitted Jackson to make one of his lightning-like marches and rout his right wing. This was a terrific battle — in all there were over 3 o , 000 men lost . The loss of Stonewall Jackson , probably shot by some one on his own side, could not be made good by the Confederacy. 1^1 THOMAS JONATHAN ("STONE- WALL") JACKSON 302 THE CIVIL WAR 477. The Gettysburg campaign (1863). Stirred by Lee's victories, the South called upon him to carry the war into the North. He gathered the best army that ever marched under the "Stars and Bars," over 70,000 strong. He headed for Gettysburg. The North was in terror. Lincoln called for 100,000 militia. As the Army of the Potomac, 90,000 strong, was hasten- ing to head off Lee, General Meade was given command and Hooker was removed. The armies met at Gett^^s- burg, the Confederates on Seminary Ridge, and the Fed- erals on Cemetery Ridge. For two days they fought without either side winning. Every- body expected the third day to end the battle. 478. Pickett's charge. Hidden from view by the for- est on the slopes of Seminary Ridge, General Lee on July 3 massed the flower of his army. He was to make a last desperate assault upon the Union center. At midday Lee tried for two hours to silence Meade's guns by artillery fire. As the clouds of smoke rolled away, 15,000 Confederates, formed like a great wedge and led by General Pickett, moved across the valley. Nearly a mile away General Hancock's men lay watch- ing the onrushing lines of gray. Half the distance was passed when the Union artillery blazed forth. Great holes were torn in the Confederate ranks. They never faltered, but closed up and kept right on. The long line GEORGE G. MEADE DECISIVE BATTLES 303 of Union rifles now sent forth their rain of death. The ranks of the Confederates grew thin. But on they came. General Armistead broke through Hancock's line and fell, waving his hat on the point of his sword. A hand-to- hand struggle! The Union troops dashed forward, and Pickett sounded "retreat." High tide at Gettysburg i*^'' had been reached. PICKETT S CHARGE 479. The results. Lee's invasion had failed. Nearly 40,000 dead or wounded lay upon the field. The Union army was so crippled that it did not attack as Lee crossed the Potomac. The awful losses suffered by Lee's army were hard to make up. Lincoln was sorely disappointed that Meade did not attack before Lee crossed the river, and end the war in a crushing victory. We must now turn to the campaign for the Mississippi. 480. The campaign for Vicksburg (1863). General Grant late in 1862 prepared to capture Vicksburg. This 304 THE CIVIL WAR city had been well fortified to protect the streams of food that crossed the Mississippi for the Confederate armies. Grant drove General Pemberton into Vicksburg by a series of brilliant dashes. General Sheridan was Grant's right-hand man in this siege, which was pressed with great vigor. Day and night the two armies bombarded each other. Sharpshooters picked off the unlucky man who showed his head above the breastworks. While resting from fight- ing, sometimes Federals and Confederates joked eac.h other and traded things dear to the heart of a soldier. The houses of the city were torn with shot and shell until people had to dig caves to hide in. Food began to fail and mule meat became a luxury. Both day and night the people were kept in terror by the noise of can- non, the bursting of shells, and the explosion of mines. The citizens of Vicksburg as well as the soldiers were desperate. They sent up a white flag on July 4. The surrender took place one day after the Union victory at Gettysburg. How the North rejoiced! These two victories produced a great effect on public sentiment throughout Europe. A few days afterward (July 9) Port Hudson surrendered to General Banks, and as the great President remarked : "The Father of Waters again goes un vexed to_the sea." CAMPAIGN AROUND VICKSBURG THE WAR AND POLITICS 305 481. The battles around Chattanooga (1863). Rose- crans had driven the Confederates under Bragg out of Chattanooga. Bragg (§465), reenforced by Longstreet, struck the Union army at Chickamauga and sent it reehng into Chattanooga. But General Thomas held the Union left wing and saved the army from greater defeat (§465). The soldiers ever after called Thomas the "Rock of Chickamauga." Bragg occupied the heights of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. Rosecrans was besieged. The North was alarmed. Lincoln ordered Grant, Sherman, and Hooker to relieve Rosecrans. Grant established a new "cracker" line for supplies. The Union forces stormed Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge and drove the Confederates into Georgia. Bragg turned over his com- mand to Johnston ( §466) . Grant had won another cam- paign for the Union. THE WAR AND POLITICS 482. The change in public opinion. With the first cry of war both North and South seemed to be as one man for the Union or for secession. War was forced upon the South. This fact compelled men to unite. Public opinion would not permit southern opposition to the war except in the mountains (§455). Some faultfinding arose because Davis took too much power into his hands. Neither his cabinet nor his Con- gress was made up of great men. The ablest men of the South were her military leaders. When the Confederacy began to fail, the blame fell almost entirely upon Davis. After the death of Douglas, when it had become clearer that the war would be long and hard, people in the North began to take sides on different questions. The result 3o6 THE CIVIL WAR was a Union party and a Peace party. The Republicans and the "War Democrats" were for the Union. The persons for peace tried to hold on to the Democratic name. They often opposed measures for carrying on the war. After emancipation, Lincoln's enemies grew in number. Elections in the fall showed that the Democrats came near having a majority in the state governments and in Congress. 483. Vigorous opposition to the war. The draft riots. Many people who were born in the South lived in the North. It was natural for many of them to oppose the war. But others disapproved the "high-handed" means taken by Lincoln to suppress southern resistance. On the "stump," in the newspapers, and in Congress itself, the opponents of Lincoln werq loud in faultfinding. They formed secret organizations in the northern border states to free the Confederate prisoners and to compel the government to make peace with the Confederacy. The government arrested the ringleaders and threw them into prison. 1''^ All over the country there was opposition to the draft. It was very pronounced in New York City. The mob stopped the draft, burned houses, and killed many per- sons. It seemed very angry with negroes. This was the more dangerous since it took place when Meade and Lee were in their death-grapple at Gettysburg. United States troops had to be called in. The riot was sup- pressed, and the draft went on. 484. Lincoln, the president (1864). Lincoln was the most beloved president we ever had. The men who hated him did not know him. No president ever wrote so tenderly to people in distress, or sent messages to Congress breathing such pure and hopeful patriotism. THE WAR AND POLITICS 307 All people who came to talk to him, whether high or low, rich or poor,' happy or distressed, saw him. No one ever turned a more sympathetic ear to the soldier in distress, or to the broken-hearted mother appealing for the pardon of her son sentenced to be shot. He set aside a part of his time to visit with the wounded Federals and Confed- erates in Washington hospitals.'"^ He was misunderstood because he was not severe in his dealings with men at such a time as this. Instead, no matter how solemn the occasion, he always had a funny story to relieve the strain. He gave Horace Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune, an important mission when Greeley was heaping blame upon him. When one of his cabinet was trying to defeat him for nomination for the presidency, he appointed him chief justice. He bore patiently the insults of another member because he was a tireless worker for the Union. Lincoln was a good man. 485. Reelected president (1864). Dissatisfied Repub- licans opposed to Lincoln could not agree on a man for president. The Peace Democrats nominated McClellan (§458), but he rejected their platform, for it declared the war a failure. At first the campaign seemed to be going against Lincoln. How could the Union be saved if he were defeated ? Fortunately, a number of great victories came just before the election. Besides, the people were convinced that Davis demanded the independence of the Confederacy as the price of peace. Lincoln carried the people's vote by more than 400,000. This was the largest majority yet given a president. SUGGESTED READINGS References for teachers: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 213-228; Morse, Lincoln ("American Statesmen Series"), I, 248-387; II, 1-30, 95-367; Fiske, Mississippi Valley in the Civil War, 1-5, 52-56; Grant, 3o8 THE CIVIL WAR Memoirs, I, 294-584; Hart, Contemporaries, IV, 216-282; Rhodes, History of the United States, III, chaps, xiv-xvi; Grant, Memoirs, I, 294-315, 353-356, 437-584; 11, 31-38- References for pupils: Coffin, Drum Beat of the Nation, 48-414; Coffin, Marching to Victory, 16-455; Mace, Stories of Heroism, 286- 307, (Lincoln, Lee, and Grant); Mace, Lincoln, 136-179; Mabie, Heroes Every Child Should Know, 289-308; Hart, Source Book, 299- 327; Hart, Romance of the Civil War, 75-175, 200-418; Barstow, The Civil War, 3-1 17; ChampHn, Young Folks' History, 50-403; Eggleston, Household History, 311-329. Fiction: Kerbey, The Boy Spy. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS I. Describe the scenes in Fort Sumter and the scenes in Charleston at the time of the surrender. 2. When Sumter falls you go with Douglas to call on the President. Write what they probably said. 3. Go from New York with the "Monitor" to Hampton Roads. Write about its battle with the " Merrimac." 4. Visit a hospital with Lincoln and tell of his conversation with the boys. 5. You are a Confederate soldier in Pickett's great charge. You get back safe. Write what you think. CHAPTER XIX THE END OF THE STRUGGLE THE CONFEDERACY GRADUALLY WEARING OUT 486. Grant the Union head (1864). Lincoln had a long, hard search for a leader for his army. The Con- federacy had a leader from the beginning-. After Chattanooga, Lincoln made Grant ^"^ lieutenant- general in charge of the Union armies. With an army of 120,000 men the new general plunged into the Wil- derness, where he met Lee with an army only half as large. Grant made no headway and decided upon a flank movement to the left. But Lee faced him at Spottsylvania. Hard fighting again took place. Another flanking movement to the left, but there was Lee again at Cold Harbor! Grant ordered a direct assault. The North shuddered when it heard his loss. Lee's works proved too strong, and Grant moved to the left, crossed the James, and began the siege of Petersburg. In less than eight weeks the Union loss was 50,000! Lee had lost 20,000, but his ranks could hardly be fllled again. The Confederacy now had only boys and old men left. ULYSSES S. GRANT 309 310 THE END OF THE STRUGGLE ■HFRID\N S RIDE AT C=-D\R CREEK 487. In the Shenandoah (1864). To break Grant's grip, Lee sent Early by way of the Shenandoah against Washington. The North was in terror until Grant sent reenforcements. Ear- ly retreated, carrying food for Lee's army. Grant Ordered Gen- eral Sheridan to the Shenandoah with dou- ble the force Early had. Sheridan suc- ceeded in defeating the Confederates in two battles, Winchester and Cedar Creek. At Cedar Creek, Sheridan saved the day only by riding from Winchester, where he had spent the night, to rally his retreating men. Sheridan now began the work of destruction, making the Shenandoah impossible as a granary for Lee's army. 488. The Hampton Roads Conference (1865). The Union victories in the fall of 1864 made everyone hope for early peace. Friends on both sides persuaded Lincoln and Davis to send commissioners to Hampton Roads for a meeting to talk over plans of peace. Lincoln went and Hkewise Vice-President Stephens of the Confederacy. Lincoln's terms were: (i) the Confederacy to lay down its arms and submit to the Union; (2) to accept eman- cipation. Davis stood for one thing: the independence of the Confederacy. This Lincoln refused, but promised to try to obtain the consent of Congress to pay for the slaves. Had Davis been less determined, some agreement to Lincoln's terms might have been made. We can now THE CONFEDERACY WEARING OUT 311 see what might have been saved: the assassination of Lincoln and the dark days of reconstruction! 489. The campaign for Atlanta (1864). To Sherman fell the task of capturing Atlanta. It was an important railroad center with great factories. When Grant moved on Lee, Sherman moved against Johnston at Dalton, Georgia. By repeated flanking movements backed by bold fighting, Johnston was forced, in two months, south to Kenesaw Mountain. Here Sherman tried a direct assault, but, like Grant's (§486), it failed. Johnston retreated skillfully, as Lee had done. GULF OF MEXICO THE GEORGIA CAMPAIGN AND THE RED RIVER EXPEDITION Sherman'*^** was now within a few miles of Atlanta. The South was getting nervous, and Davis removed Johnston'**^ and put Hood in his place. Hood was a fighter. Battle 312 THE END OF THE STRUGGLE after battle followed, until Hood was driven into Atlanta. To escape a long siege, he blew up his powder magazines and left Atlanta (Sep- tember 2). 490. Farragut captures Mobile Bay (1864). In the meantime Mobile Bay had been captured. Blockade runners had found Mobile Bay a good place. From this point the Confederacy got European and other supplies. It was strongly fortified, and guarded by a monster ironclad, the "Tennessee." Farragut (§464) lashed his boats together two and two, and tied himself to the rigging of his ship. Here he directed the battle amid a storm of shot and shell from the Confederate batteries. It was terrific but short. He got past the forts with the loss of one vessel, but the Confederates lost their entire fleet. Breaking up blockade running here, together with the fall of Atlanta, was like cutting a main artery of the Confederacy. 491. The blockade tightens. The Confederate navy destroyed. Day by day, the blockade grew tighter. Only a few ships on the darkest nights dared steal in and out. The prices of things rose very high in the Confederacy. Everything made of iron grew very dear. Things to eat and wear were very scarce and unbelievably high. The Confederate soldiers were not well fed nor well clothed. DAVID GLASCO'V FARRA' UT THE CONFEDERACY WEARING OUT 3^3 492. Confederate privateers. Early in the war, the most famous cruiser for the Confederates was the ' ' Sum- THE "KEARS\RGE" sinks THE "ALABAMA' ter." She destroyed property right and left until she was captured. The "Florida" built in England for the Confederacy, was early captured. The "Alabama" was the "terror of the seas." She was built at Liverpool and destroyed over sixty merchant ships. She was sunk by the "Kearsarge" off the French coast (June, 1864). Another Confederate cruiser, the "Shenandoah," escaped into the Pacific and kept up her work until the end of the war. 493. From Atlanta to the sea. Thomas at Franklin (1865). With 60,000 veterans Sherman swept from Atlanta to the sea. He sent Lincoln this telegram: "A Christmas gift of the city of Savannah!" The destruc- tion of property on this march caused deep hatred in the Confederacy. Hood struck at Sherman's line of supplies, but Sherman did not stop, for he had sent Thomas'*^** with another 314 THE END OF THE STRUGGLE 60,000 veterans after this Confederate general. Hood attacked with great fury Schofield's division, a part of Thomas' army, at Franklin, but failed. When all was ready Thomas dealt Hood a terrific blow at Nashville (December 15 and 16). His army went reeling south- ward. Hood resigned. Only 19,000 men were left to join their old commander, Johnston, in North Carolina. 494. Sherman turns north (1865). Sherman started northward in February. Unfortunately Columbia, South Carolina, was burned. Charleston soon fell. Fort Sumter had been battered to pieces (1863). Sherman met Johnston, whose army was too small to fight much. j^^, '\^^^^^^ ^HERMAN'S RAIDERb \7 WORK Finally Sherman marched to Goldsboro and rested. A month later came the welcome news that Lee had sur- rendered. 495. The capital of the Confederacy falls (1865). Early in the year Sheridan had cut Lee's Hues of connec- tion to the westward. He then moved around and extended Grant's line farther southward. He finally seized Five Points, thus cutting off Lee's suppHes. THE CONFEDERACY WEARING OUT 315 LEE AFTER THE SURRENDER Davis was at church. A messenger gave him Lee's dispatch. He left silently. The end had come. Men were hurry- -^, ^ ing to and fro with pa- pers and rec- ords of the Confeder- acy. Soldiers and citizens were busy carrying away some stores and destroying others.. In the confusion, fires were started. Lee's soldiers left that night, and in the morning Grant's came in. Richmond had fallen. The Union troops put out the fire. 496. The surrender at Appomattox (April 9, 1865). Lee had intended to take his army by way of Danville and unite with Johnston in North Carolina. The Con- federates reached Appomattox, but saw the Union troops everywhere. Lee's army had been cut down almost half (§486), and further fighting was useless. Lee and Grant held a meeting and arranged the terms of surrender. They could hardly have been more gener- ous. The Confederate soldiers were to go to their homes and not engage in the war again. They were to take their horses with them. "They will need them in the spring for plowing and farm work," said Grant. Lee's officers and men crowded around him. The men took off their hats. Lee simply said:- "We have fought 3i6 THE END OF THE STRUGGLE through the war together. I have done my best for you. My heart is too full to say more." 497. Closing out the Confederacy. Grant and his officers went back to their men and gave orders not to cheer nor fire cannon over the great event. It was hard for his men to obey this command, for however much sympathy they might feel for Lee's men, their hearts were full of rejoicing over the saving of the Union. Johnston surrendered to Sherman, April 26. Taylor, who commanded in Alabama and Mississippi, gave up May 24, and Kirby Smith, who was in charge west of the Mississippi, May 26. Davis, who was trying to reach Smith, was captured at Irwinville, Georgia. Northern men talked about arresting some of the Con- federate officers, but Grant refused to permit any man who had surrendered to be touched. President Davis was a civil officer and was imprisoned, but was bailed out of prison by Horace Greeley and other northern men. 498. The assassination of Lincoln (April 14, 1865). Lincoln was happy. He went to Richmond to see the city that had given him so many anxious hours. He returned and told some friends that he hoped that there would be no persecution, no bloodshed after the war was over. "No one," he said, "need expect me to take any part in hanging or killing those men." Of all northern men, he best understood the South. Lincoln went to Ford's theater that fateful night. Suddenly John Wilkes Booth, a half-crazy actor, shot him. He died next morning. Booth escaped, but was caught and shot. Persons in the plot aimed to kill Seward and others, but their plans failed. Some of the plotters were hanged, and others were put in prison for life. A wave of sorrow swept over the North. Men had come EFFECTS OF THE STRUGGLE 317 to love that great, homely, kindly face. The common folk almost worshiped Lincoln. Many of them broke down and cried when the news came. He died as he lived, "with malice toward none, with charity for all." 499. The soldiers return (1865). It was a happy thought that brought as many soldiers as possible to Washington for a last review. For two days the veterans paraded through the broad streets of the capital. They missed the kindly leader and friend whom they all loved. But other great men were there to review and to cheer them, it was a grand spectacle. The last roll was called, the last banner furled, and the war-scarred veteran returned to receive the welcome of waiting loved ones at home. But there were hearts among those waiting that could not rejoice; thousands of fathers, sons, or sweet- hearts were sleeping in southern soil. But there was another scene. For the southern soldiers there was no such stately parade. They bade old" com- rades a hearty good-by. One by one, or in little bands, they made their slow journey home. Their hearts were sad. They had lost. But more than all, their homes were in ruins and their loved ones in poverty. But they were glad to be home again with father and mother or with wife and children. THE IMMEDIATE EFFECTS OF THE STRUGGLE 500. What the war cost in life. No one can tell the full story of the suffering during this conflict. What a frightful thing it would be to know what the sick suffered, what torture the wounded bore with little to make the pain less! At least 500,000 soldiers died. Think of the men crippled for life, the number whose lives were made shorter by disease or exposure! We do not often think 3i8 THE END OF THE vSTRUGGLE of the suffering of the loved ones who stayed at home, and of the widows and orphans made by the war. Nearly all southern men of military age went to war. That so large a number were able to go was due to the fact that the slave stayed at ^ home, raised the SANITARY COMMISSION HE'iDQu\RTERb croos, and csiTQd. for the women and old men on the plantations. The draft came a bit earlier in the South than in the North (§483)- In the two armies almost twice as many men died from disease as were killed in battle l^''^ 501. Sanitary and Christian commissions. In the North kind-hearted people were prompt to go to the reHef of the soldier. The Sanitary Commission tried to care for the men's bodies. It aided the government in many ways. It furnished doctors, medicines, bandages, and nurses for the sick and wounded. Its hospitals, cars, and tents moved as the army moved. The money for this came from rich people and from great fairs held in the big cities. The Christian Commission looked after the moral and religious welfare of the soldiers. Ministers of all denomi- nations were enrolled as chaplains. They held religious meetings, talked with dying soldiers, and often wrote the soldier's last message to loved ones in the old home. They also furnished papers, magazines, and books for the boys to read. In every way the chaplain tried to keep up the moral tone of the army. It was the faith and work of the mothers, sisters, and sweethearts that kept the armies of the North well cared for and hopeful. EFFECTS OF THE STRUGGLE 319 502. The Confederacy worn out. The Confederate soldier was in a very different situation. He often marched and fought in the last days of the war without good shoes, without enough cloth- ing and at times without much food. It was no fault of the noble women who sacrificed for him, sending clothing, band- ages, and medicines. The country was being ""'" ""'"^ 1 ,.,,,,, , , A CONFEDERATE HOSPITAL choked to death by the blockade. This fate was overtaking them in spite of their struggles, their prayers, and tears. In the spring of 1862 the government was forced to draft men ; in 1865 old men and boys were sent to the front. The slave raised food for the army and served in many places; he was servant to the officers, cook, teamster, and laborer on the forts. In the last days, when the man-power of the Confederacy was at an end. General Lee favored arming the slaves, but it was too near the end. The women of the Confederacy had to get out the spinning wheels and hand looms of their grandmothers. Homemade clothes were worn, for manufactured goods were too scarce or too dear. Newspapers were printed on wall paper. Many families, both South and North, were compelled to use parched grains instead of coffee. The Confederacy felt the pinch of poverty. 503. What the war cost in loss of property. It is hard to measure the loss of property. Millions upon millions of dollars were used up in the wearing out of clothes, 320 THE END OP THE vSTRUGGLE guns, powder, shot and shell, wagons, horses, mules, cars, engines, and iron rails. Even wooden rails torn from fences around farms were used for fuel in camps and for cooking. Houses were destroyed, barns burned, cattle and hogs killed, cities were set on fire and partly burned. This was war. But it seems tame when compared with the destruction of the World War just closed (1918). H^' (111 PI IP ri A SOUTHERN PLANTER S DESERTED HOME The South suffered most, the border slave states next, the border free states less, and the other northern states but little. The most extensive raid into the North was made by General John Morgan (1863).™ He crossed into Indiana with a few hundred men, and dashed into Ohio, where he was captured. Aside from horses and food taken, he destroyed httle. 504. A ruined planter and plantation. No person suffered more than the planter. He rode to battle full of hope. He returned in despair. The cause of the Con- federacy was lost. His field laborers and his house serv- ants had been set free. This alone cost the slaveholders $2,000,000,000. His plantation was in ruins. He was EFFECTS OF THE STRUGGLE 321 not used to laboring in the field, nor were his wife and daughters used to doing work in the household. Things had changed. He must start at the bottom. If his buildings and tools and fences had escaped destruc- tion, they were out of repair. Horses and mules were worn out or had been taken by the armies as they swept by. His cows and sheep and droves of hogs had been used to feed the army. The blockade had lowered the price of all he had to sell, and raised the price of all he had to buy. His money was worthless. His own slave, who had been a soldier and had saved his money, might now want to buy a part of the old plantation. 505. What the war did for the North. When we think of the destruction at the South, we can say that the North hardly knew what war meant. But in every village and city in the North there was the recruiting camp. Mothers, wives, daughters, and sweethearts wept as the soldiers went marching away with flags flying and drums beating. After great battles, crowds gathered to hear some man with a good voice read the news. Maybe later they read the long Hsts of dead and wounded to see if the name of some loved one might be there ! Perhaps they did honor to a great hero brought home to be buried! There were flowers, the long roll, and the solemn sound of fife and drum as they carried him to his last resting-place ! There appeared wounded and crippled soldiers to remind people of war. Heavier taxes and the drafting of men brought the conflict nearer home. But the North did not feel the tramp of marching armies and the destruction of home and growing crops. With the exception of Gettysburg no great battles were fought on northern soil. But, on the contrary, wages begin to rise because laborers had to be taken for the war. 12 322 THE END OP THE STRUGGLE SALMON P. CHASE The government called for great quantities of clothes for soldier and sailor, and for guns and ammunition. This gave a great "boom" to man- ufacturing. To the northern farmer came a quick and power- ful call for more food. But the farmer's sons had gone to war. He had to send in a call for more machinery. Many new machines were invented. The farmer had to raise hogs, sheep, cattle, horses, and mules for the army. Every line of busi- ness was prosperous. 506. A new kind of bank (1863). Ever since Jackson destroyed the United States bank (§359) banking business had been turned over to state banks. These banks issued paper money, some bad, some good. During the war Secretary Chase (§426) suggested a new plan by which the paper money of the new banks did not change value as much as the old did. According to this plan each bank had to own a given amount of United States bonds. The banks could then issue paper money equal to 90 per cent of the bonds. Thus the government pledged itself to stand behind the banks' paper money. It made the money as good as the bonds. If the state banks wished the nation to get behind their paper money, they must become national banks. 507. Raising money for the war. It was the business of Congress to get the money to carry on the war. It did this in three ways: (i) By taxes. Congress increased old taxes and put on new ones. The tariff had been the common way of getting most of our taxes. The new tax NEW STATES 323 on imported goods was called the "war tariff." Another new tax was the land tax and a tax on incomes of $800 or more. Finally, Congress raised money by means of an internal revenue. This was mainly a tax on liquors (§285). (2) By issuing bonds. It soon turned out that the taxes were not enough to pay for a war costing $2,000,000 per day. By means of bonds the government borrowed money from the people. But in the end the people have to pay for the bonds by taxes. These bonds were promises to pay, at an interest of from 6 per cent to 9 per cent. About $1,000,000,000 came into the treasury in this way. (3) By issuing paper money. But taxes and bonds were not enough. The government issued notes, called "greenbacks" because the back of the notes was often green. When the Confederates won victories, this paper money fell in value. When Union victories came, it rose in value. The same was true of Confederate paper money. The cost of the war reached nearly $3,000,000,000. To this great sum ought to be added the enormous amount paid for pensions. When we add the large sums paid by states, cities, towns, and by persons, the war cost probably reached from six to eight billions. STATES ADMITTED THROUGH STRESS OF WAR AND POLITICS 508. Kansas (1861). Kansas was under the control of Spain, France, Spain again (1763), and France again when Napoleon's star was rising. He sold it to America as a part of Louisiana (1803). Now came the explorers: Lewis and Clark (1804), Pike (1806), Long, who followed the Santa Fe Trail, and Fremont (1842), who blazed the way to Oregon and California. Kansas was made part of Indian Territory (1833-54). The moment the Kansas- Nebraska Bill was passed Kansas became a bone of con- 324 THE END OF THE STRUGGLE tention between the North and South. Much of her his- tory has been told (§§432-33). It is claimed that Kansas sent a larger percentage of soldiers to the Civil War than any other state. One of the most interesting industrial experiments is Governor Allen's court for settling strikes (1920). Kansas, called the Sunflower state, is a wonder- ful agricultural country. 509. West Virginia (1863). West Virginia, once a part of the Old Dominion, was largely settled by Scotch- Irish (§110). Much of its history has already been told (§455). The war for the Union found the people of the mountains strong for the Union, although many persons joined the Confederacy and fought in its armies. Stone- wall Jackson, the great soldier, was born in this state. Since the war there has been a wonderful development in the production of coal, natural gas, and petroleum. In the amount of coal mined it stands second in the Union. For several years it has ranked first in natural gas. West Virginia produced nearly a billion and a half dollars' worth of lumber in 1910. As a result she has increased in population more than 25 per cent each year since 1890. 510. Nevada (1864). The state of Nevada was in reahty born out of conditions created by the Civil War. Its name in Spanish means the "sage-brush" or "snow- covered" state. Nevada is sixth in area among the states, but is the smallest in population. Between 1775 and 1845 it had been seen by various white men. Fremont saw it in three different years and gave the names Pyramid Lake, Lake Tahoe, and the Humboldt and Truckee rivers. It was first settled at Genoa (1849). In this year gold was first discovered. Ten years later the wonderful "Comstock Lode" was opened, the richest gold mine ever found. The rush of miners now set in, and a terri- torial government was organized (1857). Nevada became EFFECTS OF THE STRUGGLE 32$ a state after telegraphing her Constitution to Washington City. Lincoln needed her vote to carry the Thirteenth Amendment. 511. Colorado (1876). The "Centennial State" was first visited, it is claimed, by the expeditions of De Soto and Coronado. These were the first to see the homes of the cliff-dwellers. Spain and France traded this region back and forth till a part fell to the United States in the Louisiana Purchase. Mexico also claimed a part which she ceded to the United States by treaty (1848). The American explorers to visit Colorado were Pike, Long, and Fremont. The discovery of gold near Boulder (1858) and Idaho Springs (1859) was the signal for a rush of people to Colorado. The names of Leadville, Cripple Creek, Ouray, and Silverton suggest that Colorado leads in the output of precious metals. Colorado organized as the Territory of Jefferson (1859) and ran without the aid of the national government till 1861. The political situa- tion forced the Republicans to admit the state in 1876. SUGGESTED READINGS References for teachers: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 232-238, 244-252; Morse, Abraham Lincoln ("American Statesmen Series"), II, 1-30, 95-133, 13s to end; Grant, Memoirs, II, 31-38, 158-307, 344-386, 454-512; Paxson, Civil War, 86-90, 101-112, 144-158, 171- 189, 204-247; Bassett, Short History, chaps, xxvi, xxvii; Hosmer, Outcome of the War, chaps, vii-x, xiii, xiv; Hart, Contemporaries IV, chaps, xiii-xvii. References for pupils: Coffin, Redeeming the Republic, 67-312, 335- 446; Coffin, Freedom Triumphant, 79-160, 327-338, 415-444, 454- 470, 471-486; Mace, Lincoln, 175-186; Hart, Source Book, 329-339; 'iiaxt, Source Reader, IV, Nos. 18-26,62-98; Barstow, C/z)z7 War, 120- 220; Solig, Sailor Boys of '61. Fiction: Colhngwood, Blue and Grey; Cooke, Mohun; Goss, Jed. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS I. Write a letter home from the Wilderness campaign. 2. You are a Union spy. Report to General Grant what you saw in Rich- mond just before the surrender. 3. Visit a negro in Georgia and listen to his reasons for remaining faithful to his " missus." 4. Re- port Sherman's march to the sea. 5. You are in Washington at the " Grand Review." How do you feel? CHAPTER XX RECONSTRUCTION OF THE STATE THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE PRESIDENT AND CONGRESS 512. Lincoln's and Johnson's plan. Lincoln was gen- erous toward the South and had declared that no state can go out of the Union (§451). He said the Confederate states had tried to secede but had failed. Lincoln thought that the easiest way was best. Just as soon, therefore, as the Federal armies had overrun a state, he sent forth an "Amnesty Proclamation." This, with few excep- tions, gave pardon to those taking an oath to support and defend the Constitution, the laws of Congress, and the Emancipation Proclamation. Three states accepted Lincoln's plan and elected representatives to Congress. Congress refused to accept them, and sent Lincoln a plan of reconstruction. He did not agree to it (July, 1864). \^ice-President Johnson was in harmony with Lin- coln's plan. But there is a great difference in men. Lincoln, with his wise, firm, but gentle way, might have won even that Congress to some such plan. Not so with Johnson. He was stubborn when once he had set his mind in a given way. Unfortunately for the nation, 326 ANDKEVV JOHNSON THE PRESIDENT AND CONGRESS 327 Congress had in it a large number of men made bitter by the long struggle, who felt that southern leaders must be sternly dealt with. Among northern leaders were those who put no faith in the men that had taken the oath named by Lincoln. 513. Beginning to differ about reconstruction (1865). While Congress was out of session, Johnson hurried on the work of reconstruction. He appointed governors for the southern states. These states made new constitu- tions and repealed the acts of secession (§445). They declared the slaves free and agreed not to pay one dollar of the Confederate debt. Congress felt that the negro must be protected. It did not know that his old master was, as a rule, his best friend. So Congress passed the Freedmen's Bureau Bill to protect the negro. The North saw in the laws bearing on negro labor, passed by these states, an attempt to turn the colored man back to a sort of slavery, i" The Repub- licans stood for the Freedmen's Bill, but Democrats were against it, and the President vetoed it. 514. Battle between the President and Congress (1866-67). The battle was on between the President and Congress. In the other's eyes, neither could do any good thing. The President scolded Congress, and in like temper. Congress replied. The President vetoed every bill touching reconstruction Congress presented to him. Among these was the Civil Rights Bill. This measure made the negro a citizen. It gave him the same right as a white man to use the United States courts. To make these rights safe, they were put in the Fourteenth Amendment. In some of the northern states free negroes were per- mitted to vote. Lincoln had argued in favor of giving "the right to vote to the very intelligent, and especially 328 RECONSTRUCTION OF THE STATE to those who have fought gallantly in the ranks." But Congress went much farther and voted to amend the Constitution by giving to the negro manhood suffrage (1870). This was the Fifteenth Amendment. 515. Military rule in the South (1867). Congress now struck with a high hand. It divided the seceded states, Tennessee excepted, into five districts and placed over each a military governor appointed by the President. This meant that the governor was to carry out the orders of Congress. 516. Impeachment of the President (1868). FeeHng was now running high in all parts of the country. The President had denounced Congress, and Congress had returned the compliment. The Republicans of the coun- try supported Congress, and the Democrats stood by Johnson. Congress forbade the President to turn men out of office without the consent of the Senate (Art. II, §2, ^2). It put General Grant in complete control over the army to keep the President from calling the troops out of the South. Johnson, in his wrath, turned Secretary of War Stanton out of office. Congress immediately impeached Johnson for "high crimes and misdemeanors" (Art. II, §4). The charges against Johnson were tried before the Sen- ate acting as a jury. The chief justice sat as presiding officer. People came from all parts of the country; they were eager to see the great trial and to hear the ablest lawyers in the country. For nearly eight weeks the trial went on. Finally the Senate voted thirty-five "guilty" and nineteen ' ' not guilty. ' ' The charges against Johnson "^ had failed! (Art. I, §3, ^6, 7.) 517. Carpetbaggers and scalawags (1868-70). As a result of the situation, the negroes and their leaders had THE PRESIDENT AND CONGRESS 329 obtained a majority of voters in several southern states. These leaders had come mainly from the North to make their fortunes. They kept about all their property in carpetbags (small handbags). Hence they were called "carpetbaggers." A few leaders were from the South; they were called "scalawags." These men very easily persuaded the negroes to elect them to office. 518. Negro rule in the South. In the majority of the Confederate states negroes now took control. A strange body of men to make laws for states so broken by war! A few were intelligent because they had been the trusted servants of their masters. Others were ignorant field-hands who had spent their days toiling in tobacco, cotton, and rice fields. But all were ignorant of public business. How strange it all seemed to the old planters ! In these same halls they had heard the voices of Hayne and Cal- houn, or of Toombs and Stephens! If a white member rose to speak, he must address a former slave sitting in the speaker's chair. If he offered a resolution, he must hear it read to the legislature by a negro clerk. If he ser\'-ed on an important committee, its chairman and the majority of its members were negroes. While the legislature was debating a bill to raise money, the greatest excitement would occur. The speaker pounded his desk to keep order, still many persons were on their feet all trying to speak at the same time. The noise of loud talking and even of laughing went right on. Some members leaned back with their feet on their desks, smoking cigars or eating peanuts, while those who were to profit by the bill were busy trying to buy votes for it. 519. What it meant to have negro rule, (i) At the very time when they were least able to meet them, the states were burdened with debts requiring years for their 330 RECONSTRUCTION OP THE STATE payment. (2) This new experience gave the negro a false notion of what he could do. It became so much harder for him to practice those homely virtues of hard work, thrift, and self-control. (3) It destroyed much of the friendly feeling existing between the white man and the negro, and produced years of suspicion and friction. 520. How the South got rid of negro rule. How could the South get rid of these corrupt state governments? THE KU-KLUX KLAN MAKES Were the negro majorities not backed by the soldiers? The white citizens hit upon using the Ku-Klux Klan, a social secret society already in existence. The Klan arose in Tennessee and spread over the South. Its workings were mysterious. Its members went through strange performances. They had a ghostHke dress, and took mid- night rides" with horses covered often with white sheets. In the dead of night they suddenly appeared before the colored man's cabin. To the negroes they seemed to be the spirits of dead Confederates coming back to avenge THE PREvSIDENT AND CONGRESS 331 their unhappy fate. If the bolder negroes and their white leaders gave no heed to warnings, they were whipped, driven away, and some of them murdered. 521. Congress tries to protect the negro. We have already seen Congress pass the Fifteenth Amendment. This provided that no citizen should lose his vote "on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude" (Amendment XV). The majority in Congress, against great opposition, succeeded in passing two bills, called "Force Bills." These bills declared that anyone pre- venting the negro from voting, or his vote from being counted, should be fined and put in prison (1870-71). In 1872 Congress finally passed the Amnesty Act (§512), granting the right to vote to many ex-Confederates. SUGGESTED READINGS * References for teachers: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 232-283; Lothrop, Seward ("American Statesmen Series"), 320-367; Grant, Memoirs, II, 31-38, 158-512; Hart, Contemporaries, IV, 141-155, 162, 259-263, 303-305, 412-500; Bassett, Short History, 594-626,640- 644; McMaster, People of the United States, VIII, 192-339, 405-521; Schaff, The Sunset of the Confederacy; Haworth, Reconstruction, 1-85; Gordon, Reminiscences of the Civil War, 235-465; Trumbull, War Memories of a Chaplain. References for pupils: Coffin, Redeeming the Republic, 67-453; Coffin, Freedom Triumphant, 79-486; Mace, Lincoln, 179-186; Hart, Source Book, 299-349; Morgan, A Confederate GirVs Diary; Champlin, Young Folks' History of the War for the Union, 402-559; Eggleston, Household History, 329-354; Scoville, Brave Deeds of Union Soldiers. Fiction: Hale, Mrs. Merriam's Scholars; Page, Red Rock; Tourgee, FooVs Errand. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS I. Resolved that Johnson's plan for reconstruction was better than the plan of Congress. 2. Describe a day's session of the legis- lature of South Carolina when the negroes controlled it. 3. As a small boy you used to hear your Uncle John who was a member of the Ku-Klux Klan tell of some of their doings. Describe them in a letter to a friend. CHAPTER XXI new' PROBLEMS IN POLITICS NEW QUESTIONS CAUSE NEW PARTIES 522. Old and new parties (1872). The coming of war split parties (§§443-44), but when it ended there were but two great ones again. All men were either Democrats or Republicans. Some men liked to argue war questions. Others grew tired of them and of keeping alive the old war feelings. "^ These people called for a kindher feeling toward the South. They were named ' ' Liberal Repub- licans," and nominated Horace Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune, for president. The Democrats "threw up their hats" and nominated Greeley, too. But he had been too long opposed to the Democrats, so a few of them put up a "real Democrat." The Republicans nominated President Grant again. Other new questions were coming to the front. The Labor Party put up a ticket for the first time. They called for paper money, an eight-hour law, and were opposed to Chinese coming to this country. A national Prohibition party was now formed and a candidate nominated (1872). Grant's victory was overwhelming. Greeley carried only six states. ^^^ 523. The panic of 1873.'" The war taught men new ways of doing business. They saw great armies sweeping over the country — the bigger, the more successful! Why cannot business imitate them? Railroads and other corporations tried this plan. Out West the railroads 332 NEW QUESTIONS AND NEW PARTIES 333 were built faster than the people came. Great manufac- tories made more goods than the people could buy. Business was unsettled. The rich firm of Jay Cooke and Company failed. It could not pay its debts. People in New York grew excited. Crowds of yelling people filled the sidewalks of Wall Street. They swarmed into the basement, climbed over railings, and pushed past policemen into the offices of the doomed company. The whole country was now alarmed. "Runs" on banks took place everywhere. Over 10,000 business houses failed between 1873 and 1874. But the working man bore the worst of the suffering. 524. Bad politics works against the Republicans. The Democrats were happy. The country was blaming the Republicans for the panic and for bad politics. The Whisky Ring had cheated the government out of large sums of money. The Tweed Ring^^'' was ruling the city of New York. One of President Grant's high officers was caught selling contracts in his own department, and was forced to resign. Congressmen were proved guilty of taking stock in a railroad to which Congress had voted large sums. Congress, near the end of its term, voted to increase the salaries of its own members from the beginning of the term. This was called, in politics, the "salary grab," and cost many a congressman his seat. Nearly all this corruption was laid at the Republicans' door. The result was that the Democrats carried the House of Representatives by a large majority for the first time since the war. 525. Who is president, Hayes or Tilden (1876)? For the first time in our history. Congress could not tell who was elected president. The Democrats had gone into 334 NEW PROBLEMS IN POLITICS RUTHERFORD this campaign full of hope. Their candidate was Samuel J. Tilden, the great lawyer who had broken up the Tweed Ring (§524). The Republicans had put forward General Hayes, three times governor of Ohio. A new party, the "Greenback," appeared and called on the government to put out more paper money so that the poor man might earn higher wages and pay his debts. Unfortunately both Hayes and' Tilden claimed to be elect- ed. Congress named an "Electoral Commission" of fifteen men to settle the dispute. The country was wild with excitement, and threats of "civil war" were heard. Three states, where the ' ' carpetbaggers " were being driven out, sent in two sets of electoral votes. This com- mission decided these votes in favor of Hayes by a vote of eight to seven. The excitement gradually died away.^" 526. The fall of the carpetbaggers (1877). Hayes was a man of great moral courage. He immediately removed the soldiers from the South. Extreme Republicans were angry, and Democrats were happy. The white men of the South now took charge, and better governments were established. A kindlier feeling between the two sections gradually came about, especially since Hayes had called an ex-Confederate soldier, David M. Key, to be a member of his cabinet. 527. The election of Garfield and Arthur (1880). Some RepubHcans thought Grant could be nominated NEW QUESTIONS AND NEW PARTIES 335 for a third term since Hayes had been so kind to the South. But they failed to nominate him. General Garfield was nominated. The Democrats put up Gen- eral Hancock (§478), the "Greenbackers," General Weaver, and the Prohi- bitionists, General Neal Dow. This was a campaign of the generals; much was said about their services in the war. General Garfield won JAMCS A. UAKl:'lt-LU by a large majority. But he, too, disappointed some Republican leaders- He was a wise and noble man. He refused to appoint men to office simply because members of Congress wanted them. The people were behind him in this stand. Unfortunately, a half-crazy man shot him as he was taking the train to his old college town to cele- brate the Fourth of July. For three months he lay between Hfe and death. The American people learned to hate the ' * spoils system (§356) as never before. 528. The reform of the Civil Service (1 883 ).i^« Both CHESTER A. ARTHUR Graut siud Haycs had 336 NEW PROBLEMS IN POLITICS demanded a change in the way men were appointed to office. Since the death of Garfield, good men everywhere joined in the cry for a change in this system. Now Senator Pendleton, a Democrat, introduced a bill by which men could get office not because they were party workers (§356) but because they were best fitted for it. This bill provided that men should be examined for the offices they wanted. Arthur, who became president when Garfield died, signed the bill. Every president since then has added to the Civil Service until now more than half the offices are filled by examination. Several states and cities now use the same system. 529. Cleveland, the first Democratic president since the war (1884). The Democrats went in to win. They started by naming Grover Cleveland, a lawyer. He had been mayor of Buffalo, and was elected governor of New York by a vast majority. The Republicans had not read the "signs of the times." They nominated James G. Blaine, of Maine. He was popular — had been three times speaker of the House. He stood for the spoils system and denounced the South for not permitting the negro to vote. A number of Republicans, nicknamed "Mugwumps," refused to sup- port Blaine. The Prohibition- ists nominated St. John and put up a strong fight. The Green- backers put up General Benjamin F. Butler, who appealed to the soldier vote . These forces drew from the Republicans . GROVER CLEVELAND NEW QUESTIONS AND NEW PARTIES 337 As a result Cleveland barely carried New York. Its vote was in doubt for several days, and men remembered 1876 (§525). This time it was settled in favor of the Democrats. 530. No more disputes over the election of the presi- dent. Congress went to work in earnest to prevent disputes over the presidency. It passed, and Cleveland signed, a bill providing that when neither the president nor the vice-president is able to act, the secretary of state, followed by other members of the cabinet, shall act. Another bill provided that each state decide which way its vote is to be counted. 531. Interstate Conmierce Commission (1887). The Constitution had given Congress power over commerce among the states (Art. I, §8, ^3). For a long time people had been grumbhng about the railroads. The different companies had been uniting their roads, so that now a few controlled all the roads in the United States. The states could tax them, but could do Httle in making rules for the commerce they carried, for most of it went from one state to another. As soon as a carload of wheat or meat was started for a station in another state no state law dared to touch it (Art. I, §8, ^3). Congress, there- fore, passed the famous Interstate Commerce Commission Bill (1887). This law made one rule that no road should charge more per mile for a short haul than for a long haul. Another rule was that all railroads should keep their freight rates posted where people could see them. The railroads finally tried to get around this law by charging the same rates for all hauls and then paying back part to one shipper but not to another. This paying back a part of the charge was called a "rebate." Con- gress made the laws stronger and compelled the roads to use inventions to protect the lives of passengers." 338 NEW PROBLEMS IN POLITICS 532. Harrison elected over Cleveland (1888). Gen- eral Harrison had borne his part in the Civil War and was now a United States senator from Indiana. His grandfather had been president (§362), and the RepubHcans tried to imitate the campaign of 1840. Log cabins, raccoons, big balls roll- ing on, striking campaign songs, and Tippecanoe clubs were brought before the people. But the great argument of the Harrison men was for a high protective tariff. The tariff had been greatly reduced under Cleveland. Cleveland lost the support of many old soldiers because he had vetoed too many pension bills, and of many Democrats because he had not turned enough Republicans out of office. He was trying to keep down the spoils system. The other parties had their candidates. Harrison won. The electoral vote was 233 to 168, but the popular vote went to Cleveland by more than 100,000. 533. The surplus and tariff legislation. The war had left the country groaning under a big debt (§507). To the surprise of many, more than half had been paid in less than twenty years. Most of the money to do this had come from the tariff. As the debt grew less people began to demand that the "war tariff" be cut down. This did not suit the manufacturers. In 1887 the war debt due had been paid, and a large amount of money was left in the treasury. Everybody KLNJVMIN H\RRISO\ NEW QUESTIONS AND NEW PARTIES 339 agreed that this "surplus" should not be left idle, but they did not agree as to how it should be used. President Cleveland had recommended, and Congress- man Mills had introduced, a bill to lessen the surplus by cutting down the tariff. The Senate, much to the dis- gust of Cleveland, rejected the bill. Hence the tariff called out a big fight in the Harrison-Cleveland campaign. 534. How the people voted on the tariff (1888). The McKinley Bill (1890). The RepubHcans favored a high tariff. For campaign purposes they charged the Demo- crats with aiming at "free trade" because they wanted a lower tariff. Most of the Republicans lived in the North, while most of the Democrats lived in the South. But some changes had taken place since the war. The farmers in some parts of the North now began to favor a low" tariff to reduce the cost of living. In the South men running the new iron and cotton mills began to favor a high tariff. The Republicans took the election to mean that the people were opposed to cutting down the tariff. McKinley brought in a bill to raise it. This bill also gave the president the right to make treaties with other nations, agreeing to red-^ice the tariff. This was called reciprocity. The Republicans proposed to reduce the surplus by spending it in pensions for old soldiers and their widows, for new buildings over the country, and for the new navy which had been begun under Arthur. 535. Greenbacks and politics (1880-89). The govern- ment had been driven to put out more than $430,000,000 in "greenbacks" during the war. They fell very low in value compared with gold or silver money. But prices paid to the farmer and wages paid to the laborer were never so high.^^^ After the panic of 1873 the Greenback 340 NEW PROBLEMS IN POLITICS party was formed to force Congress to send out more paper money. Congress did not do this, but in 1875 passed a law to "resume specie payment." By this Congress meant that banks should pay out gold and silver money if people wanted it. 536. Populism. Ever since 1873 the discontent of the farmers of the West had. been increasing. FeeHng that the big political parties were controlled by the men of the East for their own interest, they organized the Granger movement of the West and the Greenback party. In western legislatures Grangers passed laws intended to bring about fairer freight rates and lower charges for the use of grain elevators. The Green- backers polled 300,000 votes in 1880 (§527) and then began to drift away from the party, but the farmers did not give up. They organized the Farmers' Alliance and won a few seats in Congress in 1890. A meeting of the Knights of Labor and the Farmers' AlHance was held in St. Louis in 1891. They agreed to work together under the name of the Peoples' or PopuHst party. They nominated General James B. Weaver of Iowa for president. In their platform they called for the free and unhmited coinage of silver so as to put more money into circulation, an income tax, government ownership of railroads and all monopolies, and a postal savings bank. 537. The election of 1892. The McKinley Tariff Bill proved the undoing of the Republicans. The Demo- crats vigorously charged Congress with extravagance. Merchants raised prices and said the McKinley law compelled them to do it. People became dissatisfied with the RepubHcan administration. When the campaign of 1892 came on, Harrison was renominated by the NEW QUESTIONS AND NEW PARTIES 34i Republicans, but Cleveland, the Democratic candidate, was triumphantly elected to his second term. Weaver, the Populist, got over one million votes. 538. The panic of 1893. In 1893 a financial panic swept the country. This was due to many causes. Men had been risking their money in buying the shares of new companies called trusts, and the railroads had been borrowing great sums of money. Americans were sending much gold out of the country to pay for imports, and little gold was being brought to the treasury. People began to fear that the government paper money was not good and always asked to be paid in gold. Business men felt uneasy and began to call for the money owed to them. A railroad failed and then some trusts; banks and factories closed, and thousands of workers found them- selves without employment. This panic caused great harm, especially among farmers. Wages were cut, and many persons, being out of work, lost their homes. Dis- content and suffering grew on all sides. By 1895, how- ever, prosperity began returning. 539. The Wilson Bill. Cleveland wanted a moderate reduction of tariff. A bill known as the Wilson Bill was drawn up. It reduced the tariff and put sugar on the free Hst. The Democratic senators from Louisiana opposed free sugar and fought the bill.^^" At last Con- gress agreed to a tariff on sugar, and the bill went to the President. He refused to sign it, saying Congress had broken faith with the people. The bill became a law with- out his signature. It did not produce enough revenue, and the government had to go in debt. 540. Income tax. The wages of the worker and the profits of the business man are income. During the Civil War, when Congress was desperately trying to find 342 NEW PROBLEMS IN POLITICS money to carry on the war, it laid a tax on all incomes of over $800 a year. This tax was dropped after the war. In 1893, as we have seen, the Democrats passed the Wilson Tariff Bill. It was expected that this law would reduce the revenue by about $50,000,000, and in order to make up for this loss, an income tax was provided. It called for a tax of 2 per cent on all incomes of over $4,000 a year. Its defenders said that the rich largely escaped taxation and that this law would be a means of reducing the big fortunes. The question of the con- stitutionality of the law was raised, and two years later the Supreme Court declared the law unconstitutional, that is, that it was no law. SUGGESTED READLNGS References for teachers: Wilson, Division and Reunion, 289-290, 290-292, 294-297; Beard, Contemporary History, 1-4, 41-46, 50-54, 90-132, 132-142, 164-198; Fish, American Nation, 420-464; JIaworth, Reconstruction and Utiion, 43-119; Paxson, New Nation, 49-133, 134- 256; Hart, Contemporaries, IV, 156-161, 164-167, 168-177. References for pupils: CuUom, Fifty Years; Foraker, Busy Life; Hoar, ,1 utobiography. Fiction: Atherton, Senator North; Ford, Honorable Peter Stirling; Payne, Mr. Salt. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS I. Suppose you are living in New York in 1873. Write a letter describing scenes on Wall Street when the panic came. 2. Imagine yourself a senator from Louisiana in 1 893 . Write to a home newspaper explaining your stand on the Wilson Bill. CHAPTER XXII ECONOMIC QUESTIONS IN POLITICS MONEY AND PRICES 541. Falling prices. From 1873 to 1897 we lived in a time when the prices of things were going down. Many reasons were given. Some said it was due to men risking their money to get rich quickly, some to the tariff, and some believed it was due to the money situa- tion. Whatever was the truth, the farmers felt that they were being badly hurt by the falling prices. 542. Act of 1873. Gold and silver coins had always been issued by our government to serve as money, but by the time of the Civil War, silver had almost dropped from circulation. After the war we used mainly green- backs. In 1873 Congress simply dropped the silver dollar from the list of coins. Nobody paid much atten- tion to this at the time, but later, when prices began to fall and hard times came, many people began to lay the blame on the Act of 1873.'^' 543. Demand to remonetize silver. Those who held this view said the reason prices were falling was that the country did not have enough money. They thought that prices would rise if more money were put in cir- culation. In this way came on the demand that the government should begin coining silver dollars. The cry for more money came largely from the farmers of the West. The silver-mine owners of the West, also, were determined that silver should be brought back. They had seen the value of the silver in the silver dollar 343 344 ECONOMIC QUESTIONS IN POLITICS fall from one dollar in 1873 to fifty cents in 1895, and they demanded the value of silver be raised. 544. The government buys silver. The agitation of the farmers and silver-miners got results as early as 1878. Congress passed the Bland-AlHson Act ordering the government to buy from two million to four million dollars worth of silver every month and coin it into dollars. Still prices fell. Then in 1890 the Republicans tried to please the farmers and silver men by repealing the Bland-Allison Act and putting in its place the Sherman Silver Purchase Act. This law required the government to buy 4,500,000 ounces of silver every month. Still the price of silver and general prices went down. 545. Repeal of the Sherman Act. When the panic of 1893 hit the country, President Cleveland decided that the government should stop buying silver. It now had on hand a store big enough to coin 568,260,982 silver dollars. But the people wanted the gold that the silver had driven out of circulation. The government was supposed to keep a gold supply of $100,000,000 to back up all the other forms of money, but the supply fell to $95,000,000 in 1893. So President Cleveland called a special session of Congress and forced it to repeal the Sherman Act and quit buying silver. The farmers and silver men of the West were furious, but Cleveland held sternly to what he thought was right. 182 546. Discovery of gold in Alaska. Some gold had been mined in Alaska ever since 1880, but in 1896 the great Klondike field on the Yukon was opened. Ameri- cans had to cross land claimed by Canada to reach the Klondike. This led to a dispute over the bound- ary between Canada and the United States which WORLD'S FAIRS 345 was settled by arbitration (§589). The next year gold was discovered at Cape Nome. Soon other fields were found. Men were already leaving all parts of the country in a rush to the land of gold. Hundreds died of hardship and privation, but the rest pressed on over the dreary mountain trails. Some "struck it rich," but the larger number failed to find the fortunes they sought. Alaska has proved to be a storehouse of riches.'**^ From 1880 to 1918 the value of the gold alone taken from that country amounted to $301, 000, 000. ^^^ WORLD'S FAIRS 547. The Columbian Exposition (1893). In 1890 Congress decided that a great world's fair should be held in Chicago to celebrate the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America. The country could not get ready by 1892, so the fair was held one year later. The fair showed the great progress made in industry, agri- culture, art, and all other things in the last four hundred ■^^-i*B«^»W^^ THE MANUFACTURES BUILDING AT THE WORLD S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION years. Here you could see all the various stages in the development of gold-mining from the miner at work with 346 ECONOMIC QUESTIONS IN POLITICS his pan slowly separating the gold from the gravel, up to the most expensive and powerful machinery now used in crushing the rock or in hydraulic mining. t : THE EDUCATIONAL BUILDING AT THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE EXPOSITION Leading men from all over the world came to hold meetings, to discusss important questions like medicine, surgery, temperance, music, education, and religion. They told about progress in their own countries, and got acquainted. They found out that the nations are much alike and have about the same problems. Meetings like this should often be held. It would help to do away with war and would show real progress. ^^^ Among other great expositions held in later years were the Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo (1901), the Louisiana Purchase Exposition at St. Louis (1904), the Lewis and Clark Exposition at Portland, Oregon (1905), the Alaska- Yukon-Pacific Exposition at Seattle (1909), and the Panama-Pacific Exposition at San Fran- cisco (1915). THE TARIFF AND POLITICS 548. The campaign of 1896. The Democrats had divided on the question of silver. The western wing got THE TARIFF AND POLITICS 347 control of the party in 1896 and nominated William Jennings Bryan of Nebraska for president. ^^"^ Mr. Bryan was a fine speaker who favored the government coining all the silver that could be brought to it. He wanted the gov- ernment to stamp 3 7 1 K grains of silver as a dollar, although it was worth only fifty cents in the world's markets. He believed that both gold and silver money would be used if the government did this. This was the "free silver," "bimet- allism," or "16 to i" plan. Many eastern Democrats refused to follow Mr. Bryan and were known as ' ' gold Democrats. ' ' The Republicans opposed the Bryan plan and talked about tariff and pros- perity. Their candidate, Wilham McKinley of Ohio, was elected. 549. The Dingley Tariff. The Republicans now en- acted the Dingley Tariff Law (1897). Dingley made the tariff somewhat higher than the Wilson Bill did (§539). This law put a large amount of money into the treasury and was not disturbed for twelve years. 550. The election of 1900. The Democrats raised the cry of "imperialism" in the campaign of 1900. By this they meant that extending American power to Cuba, Porto Rico, the PhiHppines, and Hawaii, as the result of the war with Spain, was all wrong. They said it was a bad thing to be conquering and ruling peoples and lands that wanted to be independent. The Republicans WILLIAM J. BRY.^N 348 ECONOMIC QUESTIONS IN POLITICS said that these lands came to us as a result of the war, that we wanted to rule them for their own good and not selfishly, and that some other country would surely seize them if we let them go. Further, the Republicans said these people were hot ready for self-gov- ernment but that the United States would train them. The Democrats also demanded free silver and nominated Mr. Bryan. But President McKinley, with Theodore Roosevelt as vice- president, easily defeated him. 551. End of "free silver." Gold was discovered in South Africa in 1886 and in Alaska ten years later. These two countries poured a big supply of the yellow metal into the markets of the world in the next few years. '^^ 552. The Gold Standard Law. By the Gold Standard Act of 1900 the gold dollar, containing 23.22 grains of pure gold, was made the legal money standard of the United States. All other forms of money, and there are nine of them, are directly or indirectly exchangeable for gold. Gold is the prop underneath them all. This was a victory for the gold standard men and showed there was no chance for bimetallism. WILLIAM MCKINLEY ROOSEVELT IN OFFICE 553. Roosevelt's two terms (1901-9). At the begin- ning of his second term President McKinley was killed by an assassin. His place was taken by Theodore ROOSEVELT IN OFFICE 349 Roosevelt of New York, the vice-president. Roosevelt was already well known. ^^^^ He had been in politics for years and had earned a reputation for courage and honesty. As head of the Civil Service Commission under Harrison he did not fear to oppose the big politicians when they tried to violate the Civil Service Law (§528). Afterward he became police commissioner of New York City, assist- ant secretary of the navy, governor of New York, and then vice-president. Few men understood Americans as Theodore Roosevelt did, and only Washington, Jackson, and Lincoln have enjoyed such popularity. His hatred of fraud, his unquestioned courage, and his pure patriot- ism give him a high place among great Americans. Roosevelt was never much interested in the tariff, but he was quick to catch the meaning of the trusts or "big business.' ' He believed that they should be put under government control, not because they were big, but because in many cases big companies became monop- olies and oppressed the people (§531). He wanted to make big business "be good." 554. Roosevelt the peace- ^ ^^ maker. In 1903 and 1904 Russia and Japan were at war with each other over territory in China. Russia had seized Manchuria, and Japan held Korea, but they got to quarreling, and a bloody war followed. 1^^ President Roosevelt, after the Japanese had THEODORE ROOSEVELT 350 ECONOMIC QUESTIONvS IN POLITICS defeated Russia in several battles, decided that the time for peace had come. He urged both sides to send representatives to the United States where they could hold a conference and make peace. They agreed, and the meetings were held at Portsmouth, New Hamp- shire. President Roosevelt helped all he could, and finally a treaty was signed. This was a great triumph for the President; it showed he was a true friend of peace.™ 555. Roosevelt's reelection (1904). The Democrats nominated Alton B. Parker of New York. Roosevelt won a smashing victory, carrying every state in the North and West, and Missouri in the South. During his second term he continued his fight against the trusts and insisted that Congress should strengthen its control of the railroads. His hard-hitting attacks on the trusts, the railroads, and the political bosses won for him many bitter enemies in his own party and out of it. But he was a splendid fighter and was always on the side of the people. He was a tremendous power for reform. CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES 556. A rich country. America is the richest country in the world. This is due to its rich natural resources and to the climate. In this cHmate people can work hard, and the natural resources are here to reward their effort. It is estimated that in 1918 the total national wealth of the United States amounted to $228,000,000,000. This does not mean the amount of money in the country, but rather the value of such things as farms, factories, railroads, mines, quarries, forests, and oil wells. 557. What natural resources are. Natural resources are land, forests, fisheries, minerals such as coal, oil, and CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES 35 r precious metals, and water power. The supply seemed unlimited, and for a long time nobody thought of using these resources carefully so they would not be used up. But President Roosevelt saw we were making a great mistake. He knew that Europeans thought us the most wasteful people in the world. ^^^ He knew lumbermen went through the forests carelessly cutting down trees and not caring if the young trees were destroyed. He knew that we were using twice as much timber as we were growing and that there was great destruction by forest fires. He could see the end of the forests only a few years away. 558. Saving the lands for the people. Roosevelt felt, too, that it was wrong to let the coal, oil, and water power sites of our public lands pass into the hands of corpora- tions which would use them up quickly for profit. He believed that these lands should be saved for the people. Acting under an old law, he withdrew from settlement about 150,000,000 acres and created a large number of forest reserves. He thus saved the forests from destruc- tion. These forest reserves are mostly in the West. Some people objected to Roosevelt's poHcy, saying it kept people out of those regions, but he held to his plan. President Taft also was a friend of conservation, and Congress, by his advice, passed nine conservation laws (1910). Two of these laws provided for leasing coal, phosphate, oil, and natural gas lands. The idea was not to prevent the use of these resources, but by keeping them under government control to make sure there was no waste. 559. The Forestry Service. The Forestry Service, a branch of the Department of Agriculture, looks after our forests. Agents of the service have built roads through 352 ECONOMIC QUESTIONS IN POLITICS the forests and have turned some of the forests into national parks. Rangers are always on the watch to THE ROOSEVELT D \M \CROSS S\LT RIVER check forest fires. These fires destroy much timber each year. In 191 9, 1,400,000 acres of forest land were burned over in Montana and Idaho alone. 1^- 560. Reclaiming waste lands. Sixty years ago settlers in the West wrote their friends "back home" of the coun- try through which they had passed. They told of the rolling plains without a tree as far as the eye could see. They described the Indians and the vast herds of buffalo that sometimes blocked the trains as they crossed the tracks. They spoke of regions near the mountains cov- ered with sagebrush and cactus. They told how the wagon-trains had to travel from one water-hole to another and how the scarcity of water was the curse of the land. Later settlers, seeing what the Mormons in Utah had done by irrigating the land, began to build little irrigat- ing systems leading from the rivers out on to the land THE PROGRESSIVE MOVEMENT 353 Wherever the Hfe-giving water was brought to the land, Nature repaid them with bountiful harvests. Then they set about irrigating the dry lands in earnest. Dams were built, pumping stations set up, and ditches dug. Private companies, counties, states, and at last the nation took up the work. Today all along the Rockies, from north to south, prosperous and happy farmers are growing grain and tending orchards of apples and oranges where a few years ago sagebrush and the wolf ruled undisturbed. ^^-^ 561. Election of 1908. For a third time the Democrats nominated Bryan. Roosevelt by his enormous influence easily secured the nomination of his friend William H. Taft. The Socialists nominated Eugene V. Debs. Roosevelt's backing gave Taft a great advantage. He was elected by a large majority. THE PROGRESSIVE MOVEMENT 562. Tariff revision (1909- 13). The Republican plat- form of 1908 favored revising the tariff. Congress took up this matter at once, and the result was the Payne-Aldrich Act. The people had expect- ed the tariff rates to be lowered, but when the bill was pubHshed it was plain this had not been done. Taft signed the bill {^56$).^^* 563. Postal savings banks. Postal savings banks have been in use in Europe for a long time. But not until 19 10 were they estabHshed in 13 WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT 354 ECONOMIC QUESTIONS IN POLITICS this country. Friends of the plan argued that it would promote thrift, as many people would save money if they THE PARCEL POST SECTION OF A LARGE CITY POST OFFICE could deposit it with the government and get interest for it. This proved to be true. By 1918 the postal savings deposits exceeded $167,000,000. The government pays 2 per cent interest on deposits. Anyone can open an account at his post office by depositing one dollar. 564. Parcel post. Later the post office took up another task, the carrying of packages too large to go through the mail. To be sure, several express companies were making a business of handHng such packages, but the people believed they charged too much. The express companies opposed the bill introduced in Congress pro- viding for the post office to take up this work. They said they would be ruined if the bill was passed. But Congress passed the law (191 2), and people now wonder how they ever got along without the parcel post. THE PROGRESSIVE MOVEMENT 35^ 565. The "progressive movement." During the twenty years before the election of President Taft there was a steadily growing and widespread feeling among the people that "big business," or the "special interests" as they were called, had too much to say about the way the government was run. This feeling was very strong in the West, but it was shared by men of all parties in all parts of the country. They said that in the nominating conventions, in the state legislatures, and even in the halls of Congress, the tracks of the "special interests" could be seen. On the other hand, measures for the common good could hardly get a hearing. Out of this arose a demand for direct legislation — initiative, referendum, and recall — and for more thorough regulation of "big busi- ness." President Roosevelt, the people's champion in the fight with the "interests," had backed Mr. Taft when Taft ran for the presidency, and on the strength of this backing Taft was elected. 1^^ Therefore when Taft signed the Payne- Aldrich Bill, opposed by the "progressive" members of Congress, they fell out with the President. They said he was not true to Roosevelt's ideas. Senator LaFollette became the leader of the "progressives." He tried to secure the RepubHcan nomination for the presi- dency. The eastern "progressives," regarding him as too extreme in his views, threw their strength to Roose- velt, and LaFollette fell into the background. 566. The Republican convention (191 2). To the nomi- nating convention at Chicago many states sent two sets of men, one to vote for Taft, the other for Roosevelt. The convention machinery was in the hands of Taft's friends, the "regulars," who seated the Taft men and nominated Taft.'^" The Roosevelt men withdrew from 356 ECONOMIC QUESTIONS IN POLITICS the convention and founded a new party, the Progressive party. In August they met at Chicago and nominated Roosevelt for president. In their platform they declared for the initiative and referendum, woman suffrage, and popular election of United States senators. 567. The Democratic convention. At Baltimore, where the Democratic convention met, there was the same sort of fight. William Jennings Bryan was the leader of the progressive element and was powerful enough to break down the "regulars" and bring about the nomination of Woodrow Wilson, governor of New Jersey. ^^^ The plat- form was progressive. The result of the election was never in doubt. Taft carried only two states, Roosevelt five, and Wilson all the others. SUGGESTED READINGS References for teachers: Bassett, Short History, 697-699, 729, 745) 755) 760-762; Haworth, Reconstruction, chap, ix; Ogg, National Progress, chaps, i, ii, vi, xi; Latane, America as a World Power, chaps, vii, xiii; Bogart, Economic History, 448, 449; Taussig, Tariff History of the United States; Tarbell, The Tariff in Our Times; Van Hise, The Conservation of Natural Resources in the United States; Croly, The New Nationalism; Hart, Contemporaries, IV, chap, xxviii. References for pupils: Hagadorn, Boy's Life of Roosevelt; Roose- velt, Theodore Roosevelt's Letters to His Children; Ohn, American Irri- gation Farming; Dorrance, The Story of the Forest; Price, The Land We Live In; James, Readings in American History, 104. Fiction: Darhng, Baldy of Nome; Hough, The Young Alaskans. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS I. You are Hving on a Kansas wheat farm in the nineties. Write a letter to your cousin in Ohio telling him why you want more silver money made. 2. Topic, "A day at the Columbian Exposition." 3. You are living in a town in western Montana. Topic, "Why I am against forest reserves." 4. Imagine yourself a Roosevelt dele- gate to the national Republican convention in 191 2. Write an account of your experiences to your local newspaper. CHAPTER XXIII OUR NEW POSITION IN THE WORLD THE WAR WITH SPAIN 568. Cuba rebels. Of all Spain's vast empire in the New World only Cuba and Porto Rico remained under Spanish rule in 1850. Spanish government in these colonies was so corrupt, cruel, and unfair that discontent was always at the boiling point. In 1868 a rebellion broke out in Cuba which continued for ten years. It was a GULF OF MEXIC A T L A N T I C % — "\ ■ ^ ■\^^^f ^.*^^^^° O C E A N ::m -^p^^'^'W E 'S%p^ c^:i-"- N>;rRAL ^.^^ .Ks>^^ M ERICA ^'£' ^-'J^y isEA PORTO RICO AND CUBA failure. A second revolt blazed up in 1895. Both sides showed the greatest cruelty. Gomez, the Cuban leader, 357/ 358 OUR NEW POSITION IN THE WORLD HOW THE CUBANS FOUGHT organized bands of Cubans who caught small groups of Spanish soldiers and slaughtered them without mercy. . Weyler, the Spanish general, burned the vil- lages and gath- ered the women and children in- to great camps so they could not feed the rebels. These camps were places of misery and death, star- carrying off these poor people by thousands. America's interest in the struggle. Americans naturally felt indignant at this awful state of affairs at their front door. The Cubans seemed to them an oppressed people struggling bravely for the freedom which rightly belonged to them. Then, too, Americans owning plantations and sugar mills in the island saw their property destroyed and their business ruined. Congress decided to recognize the Cubans as belligerents, but Cleveland clung to his policy of neutrality. The new president, McKinley, was a lover of peace. He opposed war with Spain, which many people were now demanding. In- stead, he sent a strong protest to Spain about the bad conditions in Cuba.^^^ 570. The destruction of the "Maine." The Spanish party in Cuba was so bitter against Americans that our government sent the battleship "Maine" to Havana to protect the Americans living there. On the night of vation 569- WAR WITH SPAIN 359 February 15, 1898, a terrific explosion tore a great hole in the side of the "Maine." She sank, carrying down 260 men. Americans were stunned at the news. If Spaniards had done this deed, and Americans believed they had, it meant war.^^* The Spanish government declared it knew nothing of the matter, but Americans would not listen; the war spirit swept the land.™ 571. The declaration of war. Further correspondence with Spain bringing only promises of reform in Cuba, President McKinley, April 11, 1898, sent a war message to Congress. Eight days later Congress passed resolu- tions demanding independence for Cuba. The president was given power to use the army and navy in bringing this about. Congress also solemnly declared that the United States would withdraw from Cuba as soon as a firm government was established. 572. Dewey at Manila. The war began with a great naval victory. Commodore George Dewey with his fleet was at Hongkong, China. He at once started for Manila to capture or destroy the Spanish fleet known to be there. -^^m. THE BATTLE OF MANILA BAY On the morning of May i , Dewey's six ships attacked the Spanish fleet, destroyed it, and silenced the batteries on 360 OUR NEW POSITION IN THE WORLD shore. 201 It was a splendid victory. Three months later an American army under General Merritt arrived from the United States and seized the city of Manila. We now held the PhiHppines. 573. The war in Cuba. While Dewey and Merritt were winning the Philippines, the war in Cuba was starting. An army was quickly built up. One regiment of volun- teer cavalry made up of cowboys, miners, lumbermen, Indians, and college athletes attracted special attention. It was called the "Rough Riders." Leonard Wood 202 was its colonel, and Theodore Roosevelt its Heutenant- colonel. About the middle of June an army of 16,500 men started for Cuba. Two battles were won. El Caney and San Juan. The Americans then prepared to storm San- tiago. But the Spanish gen- eral saw there was no hope of holding out. On July 17 he surren dered the city and, with it, most of CHARGE OF THE ROUGH RIDERS AT SAN JUAN eaStCm Cuba. Four days later General Miles invaded Porto Rico. The island was rapidly passing into his hands when news of peace proposals came on August 12. WAR WITH SPAIN / 361 574. Work of the navy. When the war began, the Spanish admiral, Cervera, sailed from the Cape Verde BATTLE OF SANTIAGO Islands for Cuba. Our ships were on the watch for him, but he shpped past them into the harbor of Santiago. The American fleet tried to bottle him up by sinking an old ship, the ' ' Merrimac, " across the mouth of the harbor. The attempt failed, and the six men who made it and their commander, Lieutenant Hobson, were captured by the Spaniards. On the morning of July 3 the Spanish fleet darted out of the harbor. The admiral's flagship led. At once the Americans opened fire, and a running fight took place along the coast of Cuba. One after another, the Spanish vessels went down or ran ashore. In four hours the Spanish fleet was completely destroyed and Admiral Cervera and 1,700 men were prisoners. ^^^ Spain was wiped from the sea. 575. The peace treaty. Representatives of the United States and Spain met at Paris and made a treaty. Under this treaty it was agreed: (i) that Cuba should be free; 362 / OUR NEW POSITION IN THE WORLD (2) that Porto Rico should be ceded to the United States; (3) that the Philippines and the island of Guam should go to the United States ; (4) that the United States should pay Spain $20,000,000. 576. Free Cuba. When Congress de- clared, at the be- ginning of the war, that the United States would with- draw from Cuba as soon as a firm gov- ernment was estab- Hshed, the people of Europe only laughed. They did not believe we would do it. But see what happened. When the Span- ish army left the country, American engineers went into the island and wiped out yellow fever by cleaning up all places w^here the mosquito breeds. Our government started modern schools and helped the Cubans to found their own republic. Then our soldiers came home, and Cuba was ready to go ahead as a free country (1902). Congress had adopted the Piatt Amendment. Under it (i) the United States will see that no foreign power ever THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS THE PANAMA CANAL 363' gets control of the island. (2) It will see that order, independence, and republican government are maintained. (3) It will supervise Cuban finances. (4) Cuba will con- tinue sanitary reforms. (5) The United States is to have the Isle of Pines and certain land in Cuba for a naval station. In 1906 the Cubans seemed about to start a civil war. To maintain order the United States took charge of the country, administered its affairs for three years, then withdrew. Since that time conditions in the island have been orderly. Uncle Sam really has been a big brother to Cuba. 577. Results of the war. Several important results grew out of the war with Spain: (i) It showed that all sections of the United States would stand together against a foreign foe. We are a united nation in spite of the memories of the Civil War. (2) It forced the United States to become a world power. Our time of isolation was gone. (3) It raised the issue of colonial power. Were we to start a policy of taking and holding foreign territory against the will of the people? (4) It led to a bigger army and navy. (5) It opened the way to an expansion of world trade. THE PANAMA CANAL 578. Need for a canal. We have seen how difficult it was for people from the East to get to California when gold was discovered. This gave rise to a demand for a railroad and a canal across the Isthmus. A company was organized, and the Panama railroad was built. 2"-' But as the west coast gained in population and wealth, American farmers and manufacturers wanted to ship goods across the country. They objected to the high 364 OUR NEW POSITION IN THE WORLD freight charges of the railroads. They thought a canal across the Isthmus would help them, for it is a well- known fact that bulky goods can be shipped much more cheaply by water than by rail. 579. The French effort. In 1869 a French engineer, De Lesseps, completed the Suez Canal. It was a great success, and De Lesseps began to plan a canal across the Isthmus of Panama. He organized a company and started to work. But yellow fever, as well as other dis- eases, killed the workmen by thousands. Bad manage- ment also helped ruin the undertaking. After spending about $300,000,000 he gave up the task (1889). THE BATTLESHIP 580. Uncle Sam takes hold. During the war with Spain our largest battleship, the "Oregon," had to make a trip all the way round South America from San Fran- cisco to Cuba in order to reach the scene of fighting. This trip took sixty-six days and more than ever Americans wished for a canal through the Isthmus. After the war our interests in the Pacific made it clear that something must be done. But England stood in the way. Because of her world commerce she wanted a voice in the canal THE PANAMA CANAL 365 question, so in 1901 a treaty, called the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, was signed. It agreed that the United States W\ CARI^BBEAN SEA 1 _ "-y ^'^ MOSQUITO '•y^ f, O, c..^-^-. ' •\^^'*- --" \U /J^^i ^ '"""Mo PACIFIC OCEAN THE REPUBLIC OF PANAM.^ should build the canal and that it should be open to the ships of all nations on equal terms. Congress bought out the French company for $40,000,000 and tried to buy a strip of land across the Isthmus of Panama from Colombia. The govern- ment of Colombia was offered $10,000,000 in cash and $250,000 annually, but it wanted more. The matter dragged. Then word came that the people of Panama had rebelled against Colombia and had established an independent country — the Republic of Panama. President Roosevelt immediately recognized the new republic^"" and in a few days made a treaty with it by which we got a strip of land ten miles wide across the Isthmus. The amount paid was the same as we had offered Colombia. 581. Building the canal. The first thing was to clean up this region so our men would not get yellow fever 366 OUR NEW POSITION IN THE WORLD (§579)- Since this disease is carried by the mosquito, it was necessary to screen the houses and to drain the water from holes and swamps where the mosquito breeds. The towns were made clean and kept clean. The disease was conquered. Then the work went ahead, and the first ship passed through the canal in 19 14. 582. The canal. The canal is 49 miles long and from 300 to 1,000 feet wide. There are 12 locks. It cost $375,000,000 to build it, but it is already earning more than the cost of its upkeep. In 191 9, 2,107 ships passed through the canal. It is easily seen that the Panama canal is of great importance in the trade between our east and west coasts and with the coast cities of South America.-'"' ^/^^Kauai I. ^,vit^' Vni.hau Koloa y,0 ^^^^^^ '• ..iC^ GAHUl/^Laie , V}5^-^ C^vO AIOLOKAII. , Lana. l\J%>h-fa^3tMAUI I. Kealaikahiki Ch. y^ l^i.,.-^ „! Alen „f//a"^ HAWAII Scale 9; Statute Miles to < Railways _ Steamship lines.. Lava flows Kapoht THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS AMERICA IN THE FAR EAST 583. The Hawaiian Islands. Americans early settled in Hawaii.-"^ They were missionaries, business men, AMERICA IN THE FAR EAST 367^ traders, and cattle men. They developed great sugar plantations. In 1893 some Americans and natives started a revolution against the native queen. The revolutionists got the upper hand and asked the United States to annex the islands. President Harrison was willing, but the Senate failed to approve the act. Later, the offer was renewed, but President Cleveland, believing the queen had been badly treated and that it would be wrong to take the islands, opposed the offer. But in 1898, after the Spanish war, they were annexed. The islands were on the highway to the Philippines. 584. Samoa. Tutuila. Far out in the Pacific, two- thirds of the way from San Francisco to Australia, lie the Samoan Islands. Although not very valuable, they are useful as coaling stations. As early as 1878 we secured a coaling station there and promised to protect the islands from other powers. Later Germany and Great Britain also secured interests in the islands. In 1886 a civil war between native chiefs and the high-handed actions of the German consul almost brought on war between the powers. Great Britain, Germany, and the United States all had warships there, but a terrible storm destroyed the German and American ships and all the British except one. This gave time for sober thought. It was finally agreed (1900) that the United States should take over the Island of Tutuila and the harbor of Pago- Pago, and Germany the rest of the islands. Great Britain withdrew altogether. 585. China (1900). The Chinese along the coast felt their country was being torn to pieces by the great powers of Europe and of Japan. These countries were seizing Chinese territory and interfering in Chinese affairs. The Chinese government was too weak to resist. Then the 368 OUR NEW POSITION IN THE WORLD "Boxers," a band of rebels opposed to foreigners, killed the German ambassador and other foreigners at Pekin.^o^ The United States joined the other powers in sending troops to rescue the besieged people. The powers then demanded pay for their trouble. There was great danger that China would be divided among the powers and cease to exist as a nation. Secretary Hay opposed this. He wanted to keep China a country where all nations could trade freely. He called this the ' ' open-door ' ' policy. The powers agreed to this plan, and China was saved. When a settlement of the "boxer" trouble was made, the United States received $24,000,000 from China. This was $13,000,000 more than our losses, so we gave this sum back to her as an act of friendship. China decided to use this money in sending her young men and women to the colleges and universities of the United States. By the ' ' open-door ' ' policy we won the position of China's best friend. 586. The question of the Philippines. The war with Spain gave us the Philip- pines. TheFiHpinos wanted independ- ence, but they were not ready for it. Only a few were educated. Some, indeed, were wild, living in little bands or warring tribes under their own leaders. One of their leaders, Aguinaldo, resisted the Americans for about two years. When he was captured, the trouble ended. PHILIPPINE SCHOOL INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION 369 587. Government of the Philippines. America slowly worked out a plan of government. First, it was made clear that the people must settle down and be orderly. The American army saw to that. Then a system of free schools was established. Many hundreds of good Ameri- can teachers went to the islands to educate the natives. 209 Good roads and bridges have been built, and better methods of agriculture are being taught. Sanitation is looked after, and libraries have been founded. The president appoints a governor, and the natives elect the legislature.. This does not suit some of the natives, as they wish entire independence. In 1916 Congress declared that they shall have their independence just as soon as they show they are ready for it. The Filipinos and the Porto Ricans are being trained by the United States for self-government. r^^^/v^ c_e^±v^ ^ \J^ StXa M E^CEiP . r " HL ' ( ''\y P -I L 1 F I C THE ALASKA PURCHASE OF 186? INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION ^' 588. The seal fisheries arbitration (1893). When we ^bought Alaska in 1867 we took over her claim to the 370 OUR NEW POSITION IN THE WORLD seal fisheries in Bering Sea. Great Britain opposed this claim, saying we could not control the fishing for more :4^?VmA- .^'f>i > o. ALEXANDER P ^^^' v^ ">f sVr^^^ (9 r /^ yi A^ \kCHIIPLAGO, r^ ^'^ .\ f I eiiiuiary established '""J DIXOX EXTRAXCE 0^':, ^t^^ .m THE DISIUrED ALASKAN BOUNDARY than three miles from shore. Our navy arrested tl^*^ masters and crews of several British vessels hunting seals in this region, and the dispute grew bitter. Then the INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION 37 1 two countries decided to arbitrate the matter. The de- cision required the United States to pay damages and denied her claim to control of the sea. We accepted the decision.''^'' 589. The Alaskan boundary arbitration (1896). Soon another question arose. The boundary between Alaska and Canada was not clearly defined, and for some years nobody cared. But with the discovery of gold in the Yukon Valley (1896) disputes arose. In this matter both sides wanted arbitration. Since Great Britain had charge of Canada's foreign relations, our dealings were with her. But there were two Canadians on the arbitration com- mission. The Americans won the decision, and Canada accepted the new line (see map). 590. The Venezuela arbitration (1899). Venezuela and Great Britain disputed about the boundary between Venezuela and British Guiana. This dispute began in 1841 when a line was run that gave Guiana 50,000' square miles of land claimed by Venezuela. The matter came up several times, but no settlement was reached. Vene- zuela appealed to the United States for justice in 1895. President Cleveland demanded the question be submitted to arbitration. He said the Monroe Doctrine meant we would not allow a state like Venezuela to be oppressed by a European power. Lord Salisbury, prime minister of England, opposed arbitration and denied that the Monroe Doctrine covered the case. President Cleveland then sent a message to Congress which plainly stated that the United States would resist any attempt by Great Britain to seize Venezuelan land. He suggested the appointment of a commission to study the question and tell us where the line should be. Con- gress immediately provided for the commission. 37^ OUR xNEW POSITION IN THE WORLD Englishmen could hardly believe the news when they heard there was danger of war. Public sentiment quickly turned against Salisbury, who finally yielded to the demand that the dispute be arbitrated. The court of arbi- tration which met at Paris (1899) decided England was entitled to about five-sixths of what she claimed. The best feature of this case was avoiding war by arbitration. 591. The Newfoundland fisheries arbitration (1910). For a hundred years there had been disputes over the fishing grounds off the coast of Newfoundland (§160). Many unsuccessful attempts had been made to reach a settlement. In 1910 the United States and Great Britain referred the question to the Hague Tribunal. The deci- sion gave Great Britain the right to make reasonable rules for fishing on the Banks, but she was required to let the American fishermen go on shore to dry their fish and to buy bait and supplies. What a fine thing it is that these two great nations, the United States and Great Britain, have formed a habit of settling their differences by arbitration instead of war ! If other nations were equally wilhng to do this, war would soon be no more. 592. The Hague meetings. In 1899 the Czar of Russia called a peace meeting of the nations at The Hague in Holland. For years all great nations had been building big navies and adding to their armies. Each feared it would be caught unprepared when war came. This system piled up taxes on the people, and almost every- body was tired of it. Accordingly twenty-seven coun- tries, among them the United States, sent men to the conference. They did not succeed in putting an end to war, but some rules were adopted for making war less terrible. A permanent court of arbitration was created. INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION 373 Nations were invited to bring their disputes to it for settlement. The United States was the first country to bring a case to this court. THE CARNEGIE PEACE PALACE, AT THE HAGUE Many friends of peace felt that the meeting of 1899 only made a start toward getting rid of war. President Roosevelt was one of these. He urged the Czar to call another meeting. This was done in 1907. Forty-four countries sent representatives. Much more was done at the second Hague Conference than at the first. Defi- nite rules were made on such subjects as arbitration, the rights of neutrals, and the way in which war is to be carried on. There were thirteen of these rules, or "con- ventions," as they were called. Most of them were accepted by the leading nations of the world. The two Hague meetings did not put an end to war as had been hoped. The nations of Europe were so filled with hatred and suspicion of one another that their agree- ments amounted to httle. Many people came to believe we could not get rid of war until some way was found for compelling nations to arbitrate questions in dispute. / 374 OUR NEW POSITION IN THE WORLD 593. Progress at home. Three notable attempts have been made in recent years to put the United States on a general arbitration basis. In 1904 President Roosevelt made treaties with several countries in which it was agreed that future disputes should be referred to the Hague Tribunal. The Senate rejected the plan. In 191 1 President Taft made general peace treaties with Great Britain and France which provided for arbitration. The Senate again failed to accept the plan. When Presi- dent Wilson took office he made peace treaties with thirty countries. William Jennings Bryan, secretary of state at that time, was largely responsible for these treaties. They are called the "wait-a-bit" treaties because the nations agreed they would wait a year after a dispute arose before going to war. This delay gives a chance for study of the question and also for the nations to "cool off." If all nations had followed this rule, the terrible World War would probably have been avoided. THE NEWER MONROE DOCTRINE 594. Venezuela again in trouble (1902). Citizens of England, Germany, and Italy had loaned money to Venezuela. For several years Venezuela had paid nothing on this debt. Finally these countries sent German and British war vessels to blockade Venezuelan ports and seize the custom houses to collect the debt. The blockade had lasted a year. Then President Roosevelt persuaded Venezuela to submit the question to arbitration and a settlement was soon reached. 595. Santo Domingo. In 1904 Santo Domingo also was in debt to Europe and suffered from revolution. European powers threatened to collect the debt by force. Roosevelt took charge of the finances of the country at THE NEWER MONROE DOCTRINE 375 the request of Santo Domingo. Since then money matters have been better managed and the danger of collection by force has disappeared. Twice under the treaty American troops have been used to put down disorder. The United States has also shouldered the same tasks in Haiti. 596. The situation in Mexico. In 191 1 a revolution drove President Diaz from the country. For thirty years he ruled with an iron hand, enforcing law and order and collecting heavy taxes.''" Land ownership was drifting into the hands of a few great famiHes. With Diaz gone the country entered upon a period of civil war and repeated revolution. Madero, Huerta, and Carranza in turn held the office of president. None could restore order. Europeans and Americans have invested large sums of money in Mexican mines, ranches, railroads, and oil wells. Many of these properties were ruined by Mexicans. American citizens were carried off by bandits and held for ransom. Others were ruthlessly murdered. Mexican bandits even crossed the border and killed Americans on American soil. A demand arose that the United States send an army into Mexico. Both Presidents Taft and Wilson refused to do this. To do so they held would 376^ OUR NEW POSITION IN THE WORLD mean war with all its evils. They said Mexico could hardly be held responsible as no real government existed there. This view roused much bitter criticism in and out of Congress. When war between the two countries threat- ened, Argentine, Brazil, and Chile brought about an agree- ment. This was the so-called "A. B. C." intervention. ^i^ 597. New meaning of the Monroe Doctrine. The settlement of the questions in Santo Domingo, Venezuela, and Mexico proves that a new meaning is being given to the Monroe Doctrine. It shows that we will not allow armed force to be used against Latin-American states for collecting debts unless they refuse to arbitrate. This seems to mean that we should control the money of such a government when this happens. It also shows that Argentine, Brazil, and Chile are becoming partners with us in sustaining the Monroe Doctrine and keeping the peace between the countries of the Western Hemisphere. These great nations are anxious to help in bettering the world. 598. The Pan-American Congress. James G. Blaine, secretary of state under Harrison, like Clay,-^^ wanted the Latin-American states and the United States to become better friends. So in 1889, on invitation of the president, representatives from all these states except Santo Domingo came to Washington to hold a conference. It was the first time men from all these countries had been together in our land. They had no power to make laws, but they discussed a great many questions of com- mon interest and united in making recommendations to their governments. They agreed that there ought to be free navigation of all American rivers, uniform systems of weights and measures an international banking system. The second Pan-American Congress met in 1901 in Mexico City. It recommended that the countries be compelled to arbitrate and that a Pan-American railway THE NEWER MONROE DOCTRINE 377 be built. The third meeting was held in Rio de Janiero (1906), and the fourth one in Buenos Aires (1910). It recommended that all money claims between American nations should be subject to arbitration. A fifth meeting was to be held in 191 5, but the World War prevented it. 599. Pan-American Union. The Pan-American Union was created by the first Pan-American Congress (§598). It is composed of representatives of the Latin-American states living in Washington, and our secretary of state is chairman of its board of directors. Its headquarters are a building in Washington donated by Andrew Carnegie. The purpose of the Union is to keep up friendly feelings and to develop comrrierce between the countries' members. SUGGESTED READINGS References for teachers: Bassett, Short History, 8-27-849; Ha- worth, Reconstruction, chap, vii; Wilson, Division and Reunion, chap, xiv; Latane, America as a World Power, chaps, ii-vi, ix, xi, xii, xiv-xvi; Crow, America and the Philippines; Fish, American Diplomacy; Johnson, The Panama Canal and Commerce; Hart, The Monroe Doc- trine; Ross, The Changing Chinese; Steiner, The Japanese Invasion; Hart, Contemporaries, IV, chaps, xxix-xxxii. References for pupils: Morris, The War with Spain; Bowman, South America; Cause and Carr, The Story of Panama; Dewey, Auto- biography of George Dewey; Hart, Source Book, Nos. 140-145; James, Readings in American History, chaps, xxix, xxx, Nos. 100-102; FHnt, Marching with Gomez; Barrows, History of the Philippines. Fiction: Kipling, Captains Courageous; Stratemeyer, Under Dewey at Manila; Reeve, The Panama Pilot; Burks, Barbara's Philippine Journey. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS I. Imagine yourself one of Hobson's men. Write an account of "Bottling up the Spaniards at Santiago." 2. Write about "My trip' to the Panama Canal." 3. You are a Chinese student in an American university. Write a letter to your sister in China telling of the day's experiences at your university. 4. Your home is on a ranch near the Mexican border and you are visiting a friend in Chicago. You are trying to show him why the United States should send troops into Mexico. Topic, "An experience with Mexican bandits." CHAPTER XXIV ECONOMIC PROBLEMS IMMIGRATION 600. Civil War period. During the Civil War the tide of immigration fell to less than 100,000 per year, but by 1873 it had again risen to almost a half million. The government treated these people very kindly. They were allowed to take up farms in the West. They were also allowed to pay their way over by making contracts in advance with employers. This law produced bad effects and after four years was repealed. The great grain-growing states of the Northwest benefited by the "incoming" of Swedes, Norwegians, and Danes. It began in the sixties and continued for forty years. From 1870 to 1880 over 650,000 arrived. They settled mostly in Minnesota, Nebraska, and the Dakotas, developing comfortable farms, and in every way proving themselves worthy American citizens. 601. Railroads and immigration. The connection of railroads with immigration is very close. As the roads were pushed into the Northwest during the sixties, seventies, and eighties, great regions were opened to settlement. The railroads wanted this country settled and turned into farms as quickly as possible. They wanted ■to get pay for carrying the produce of the region. They sent agents to Northern Europe to persuade immigrants to come over. The plan was very successful. The rapid development of the Northwest was largely due to the railroads. 378 IMMIGRATION 379 602. The change in immigration. Many of the early immigrants from Northern Europe went to the new West. Others became laborers on the railroads and other building enterprises. A third large group turned to the factories and mines. In 1880 practically one-third of the people in our factories and mines were immigrants. About 1890 the number of people coming from Northern Europe began to fall off, a growing number coming from Southern and Eastern Europe. During the years 1880-90, half a million Russians, Poles, and Italians, came knocking at our gates. But this was only a beginning. In a little while the stream became a torrent. Many Slavs, as well as Jews, Hungarians, Greeks, Roumanians, and Turks were crowding into our big cities. In one year (1914) immigration reached the astonishing figure of 1,218,000.-" 603. Why the later immigrants went to the cities. By the end of the nineteenth century the free or cheap land had all been taken up. Anyway, these newcomers did not understand farm life in America. They were used to the village life of Eastern Europe, so they settled in the cities. They found work in factories, foundries, ship- yards, mines, and steel mills. The employers were glad to get them, for they were used to low pay and hard work. While they have contributed greatly to the upbuilding and wealth of the country, their coming to America gave rise to serious problems. 604. The effect upon cities. The various nationaHties settled in separate groups in the cities. In a little while every city had its Italian, its Polish, or its Roumanian quarter, and so on. These people built churches, founded newspapers, and started their own stores and banks. Polit- ical leaders soon appeared among them, "bosses" who 380 ECONOMIC PROBLEMS turned their votes this way or that for their own gain. Soon poHtical parties were struggHng with one another to get their votes. This is bad not only for America but also for the foreign citizens. It keeps them in groups and prevents their becoming familiar with American institutions and American ideals. Our great cities are now largely made up of foreigners. In 1910, 40 per cent of the people in New York City, 35 per cent of the people in Chicago, and 29 per cent of the people in Cleveland were foreign-born. These per- centages increased steadily. 605. Restrictions. The ' shifting in immigration from Northern to Southern and Eastern Europe startled our people. A demand arose that immigration be made more difficult. As long as there was a supply of cheap or free land the newcomers could find a place on the soil without harming anyone. But when the tide turned to factory, mill, and mine, the American workman, whose standard of living was different, at once felt that it harmed him. He said the immigrants kept wages down by working for what pay would starve him. American labor first objected to the Chinese. The feeling in California has long been bitter toward them, not only because of their race, but because they work for such low wages. As a consequence a law was passed (1882) shutting off Chinese immigration for ten years. This is still in force. Lunatics, anarchists, and persons having contagious diseases are also shut out by law. In 1917 Congress excluded people who cannot read their own language. After the World War the inflow of immigrants was as great as before. 606. Japanese immigration. On the Pacific coast the Japanese question is a live one. The labor unions object IMMIGRATION 3^1 strongly to the presence of the Japanese. They say the Japanese, Hke the Chinese, work for a low wage and thus drive out American workmen. In 1906 the San Francisco school board ordered all Japanese and Chinese children put in separate schools. The Japanese government immediately protested, and a good deal of bad feeHng was stirred up between the two countries. President Roose- velt got the matter smoothed out, but there is no doubt that California was acting within her rights. Again, in 1 913 California passed a law forbidding Japanese to own land in that state. The law still stands, although Japan has protested. The Federal government is in a difficult position. While it makes treaties with foreign powers, it has no power to control the state in such matters. Japan does not want her workmen to come here and has agreed not to let them come. Yet she feels that the United States regards her people as an inferior race and resents any action that appHes to them and not to other peoples. 607. Naturalizaticn. When an immigrant wishes to become a citizen of the United States, he must go through certain steps in the courts. He files with the clerk of the court a statement that he wants to be "naturalized." He must have been in the country at least three years before he can do this. In this statement he must give his name, age, and occupation, tell when he arrived in the country, and agree to give up all loyalty to his former ruler and country. He then receives his "first papers." After two years he files a petition asking for full citizen- ship. He must have two witnesses who have known him and will swear that he has behaved himself and is loyal to this country. After another ninety days he is given his "second papers" and becomes a full-fledged citizen. ^'^ 382 ECONOMIC PROBLEMS Only people of the white race or of African descent may be naturaHzed. Anarchists and polygamists are excluded. TAKING THE OATH OF CITIZENSHIP 608. The immigration problem. .America faces a real problem in this immigration question. The early immi- grants from Northern Europe knew something of govern- ment by representatives of the people and were of the same race as those already here. They easily adjusted them- selves to American ideals. It was not so easy for those that followed them. Many of these people were unable to read and write. They knew little of free government and were used to low standards of living. It was hard for them to become Americans. This was not their fault; they wanted to learn, but, crowded together in the big cities and employed as cheap labor, they had little chance to learn the true spirit of America. 609. Americanization. A good deal is being done today for the "Americanizing" of these people. All children of school age must be in school, learning about ORGANIZED LABOR 383 American institutions and ideals and learning to love America. In the large cities night schools are being established for the grown-up men and women where they can learn to read the English language and to think in English. There is an earnest endeavor to make the immigrants feel that America wants them to have a fair chance to earn good wages and to live according to Ameri- can ways. America believes in the "square deal." But the immigrant must be taught that we have orderly ways of doing things and that violence will not be allowed. The "old" Americans should set an example of fair- mindedness and patriotism to the "new" Americans. America is not simply a country in which people may get wealth, a sort of boarding-house for all nations. It is a land struggling to show the world that "a government of the people, for the people, and by the people" can be maintained. In this task it has a right to ask the help of every American, "old" or "new." ORGANIZED LABOR 610. Labor before the Civil War. In the early days of the Republic the rule was for each workman to deal directly with his employer. There were very few unions, and these were found only among skilled workers (§386). The spirit of the times was hostile to unions, and strikes were unlawful. Leaders of strikes were sent to jail. They were declared guilty of plotting. By 1845 these early unions had about died out. 611. Effect of the Civil War. The Civil War caused a great rise in prices. This result follows all wars. Wages did not keep up with prices, and the workers found it harder and harder to live. So again they began to form unions. Three great unions of railway workers and about 384 ECONOMIC PROBLEMS fifty other associations were organized. A national organization, the Knights of Labor, was formed which took in all workers without regard to their trades. This was a powerful organization claiming at one time (1886) at least 730,000 members. It organized a number of strikes. These failed, and trouble arose between the skilled and unskilled workers. This order soon lost its power. 612. The American Federation of Labor. The Ameri- can Federation of Labor took the place of the Knights of Labor. This organization is made up of different trade unions. Each city has its own printers', carpenters', and other trades' unions. These unions are united in state federations. Each city, too, has its central labor union made up of all the unions in the city. The Federation does not include unskilled workers. Above all is the national organization composed of men from the different unions. This order has grown in membership from 200,000 in 1890 to 3,260,000 in 1919. About 10 per cent of the people listed in gainful occupations in the whole country are members. The four great railroad brother- hoods, numbering a quarter of a million men, are not rnembers of the Federation. In counting the number of unionized men in the country they should be added. 613. Collective bargaining. The main thing the Fed- eration of Labor stands for is "collective bargaining." The union chooses men to meet the employers and discuss such questions as hours, wages, and conditions of work. If these men from the union agree with the employers on certain wages and hours, all union men are bound to work on the terms thus fixed. The union men believe they get better wages and shorter hours in this way than they would if each man bargained for himself. Many serious ORGANIZED LABOR 385 questions have grown out of the practice of collective bargaining. 614. Organized employers. The growth of labor unions led employers to organize. These men have to do with steel making, coal mining, and the making of clothing and many other things. Many of these asso- ciations were united in 1893 into the National Association of Manufacturers. Later the Citizens' Industrial Asso- ciation of America was formed. Still later came the National Manufacturers' Association. Thus we see that both labor and capital are organized. 615. Strikes. When workers fail to get what they want from their employer, they often quit work in a body. This is a strike. They believe the employer can STRIKE RIOT be brought to terms in this way because every day the' plant is shut down he loses money. To make the strike 14 386 ECONOMIC PROBLEMS a success they try to keep non-union men from taking their places. This leads to trouble and sometimes to violence. The union officers advise the members against violence, as they know that the public does not approve of it. When a strike is called at a factory, some union men stay near the factory, so as to warn non-union men or strike-breakers away. This is called "picketing." Sometimes employers close their factories to force the men to come to their terms. This is a "lockout." Between 1900 and 1910 there were many strikes in the United States. In coal mining (1908-17) each worker lost on an average thirty-eight days a year because of strikes. In 1914 the average loss was sixty-eight days.-'*^ Some of the costliest strikes in recent years were the great railway strike of 1894, the strike of hard-coal miners of Pennsylvania in 1902, the strike of the Colorado coal miners in 1914 and 191 5, and the strike of the textile workers at Lowell, Massachusetts, in 191 2. 616. The Chicago strike of 1886. The strike of 50,000 workers in Chicago in 1886 shows how hard it is to keep down violence in time of strikes. The city held a nest of anarchists who had been driven out of Europe and had come here to spread their doctrines of destruction and murder. Anarchists are opposed to all government and believe in using any kind of violence to destroy it. At a big public meeting held in the Haymarket a bomb was thrown that killed seven policemen and wounded sixty others. Some of the anarchists were caught, and after a trial four were hanged. These anarchists had no connec- tion with the unions. They had taken advantage of the disorder caused by the strike to do their deadly work. 617. Arbitration. The strike is industrial warfare. It always costs the workers and employers great sums of ORGANIZED LABOR 387 money, but it costs the public still more. This fact has led to a demand that some way to settle such disputes besides strikes should be found. When the hard-coal strike came on in Pennsylvania in 1902, the people demanded arbitration. This meant that somebody like the president should appoint a board of judges to study the whole question and give a decision as to what the miners should have. The miners were willing, but the owners were not. President Roosevelt said, "No man and no group of men can so exercise their rights as to deprive the nation of the things necessary and vital to the common life." He appointed a board of arbitration, and the owners had to submit their case to it. A decision was given, and the miners went to work. Many states have boards of arbitration. The Federal government, too, has made several laws providing for settling labor disputes. One of them was the Erdman Arbitration Act to cover strikes on railways. Another was the Newlands Act.^^^ In 1913 the new Department of Labor was created by Congress. The secretary of labor was given power to act as "mediator" in strike troubles. 618. The boycott and the injunction. Sometimes the union asks people to stop buying goods from an employer whose men are on a strike. This is a "boycott." Such an employer is said to be "unfair" to union labor. A famous case of this kind occurred in 1903. When the United Hatters of North America started a boycott against a certain company, the Supreme Court of the United States declared this boycott unlawful. An injunction is an order issued by a judge telling some- body that he must not do a certain thing. If he dis- obeys, the judge will punish him. Labor unions are opposed to the use of injunctions. They say it gives the 388 ECONOMIC PROBLEMS judge too much power in labor disputes and that it is used to prevent workers from getting their rights. They complain because juries are not used in injunction cases in the courts. In 1907 a judge issued an injunction ordering the American Federation of Labor not to print the name of the Bucks Stove and Range Company in an "unfair" list. It disobeyed the order, and the officers of the union were arrested. Mr. Gompers, the president of the Fed- eration, said the order took away the right of free speech and free press (Amendment I). There followed a long, tiresome lawsuit without definite result. 619. The Clayton Act. The labor unions for years kept demanding new laws on such subjects as picket- ing, boycott, and injunction. In 1914 Congress passed the Clayton Anti-Trust Act, which deals with these sub- jects as well as with trusts. This law declared that labor unions could not be prosecuted as trusts. If this law had been enforced earlier it is likely that the decision in the Hatters' case would have been different. Second, it limits the kind of disputes in which injunctions can be used. Third, if a man is arrested for disobeying an injunction, this law gives him the right to call for a jury trial. Fourth, it declares that strikes, picketing, and boycotts do not violate any Federal law (§§615, 618). The Clayton Act was a great victory for the unions. 620. The unions and politics. One might think that the labor unions with their large numbers would form a political party and elect their own men to office. Some of the union leaders think this the best thing to do, but the majority of them, led by Mr. Gompers, oppose this. They think it is much better to decide what laws they want and then go to the big political parties and offer them the labor vote if they will promise to enact them. FACTORY ACTS 389 FACTORY ACTS 621. Child labor. Children have worked in factories from their very beginning, but thoughtful people have always felt it ^ bad custom (§374).^^^ It not only kept the children out of school, but it stunted their 'growth and took work away from grown-up men and women. The opposition to it got so strong that by 19 13 thirty- one states had passed laws against it. Some states have been very slow to protect the children. Congress placed a tax of 10 per cent on goods intended for interstate commerce if they are made in factories where children under fourteen are employed (1919). A Children's Bureau was established in 191 2 by act of Congress. It is to look after the welfare of children and has done valuable work. Several states, too, have passed laws limiting the hours women may work and keeping them out of certain occupations. 622. Safety. Many states now have laws requiring good ventilation, plenty of Hght, and proper sanitary arrangements in factories. Machinery likely to catch the worker and injure him must be covered. The states keep inspectors whose business it is to go among the factories and see these safety measures carried out. 623. Workingmen's compensation. In spite of all that can be done to make the workers safe, there is still a shocking number of accidents each year. Men are crushed, torn, crippled, and killed in large numbers. ^i^ In 191 7 over 3,000 railway employees were killed and over 156,000 injured. In the old days when a man got hurt his only hope of getting anything from the employer to help him live and keep his family was to go to law with the employer. This was too slow and costly a method. Now it is changed. 390 ECONOMIC PROBLEMS Forty-two states, the territories of Alaska and Hawaii, and Porto Rico all now have "Workingmen's Compensation Acts." A half million employees of the Federal govern- ment likewise are protected by laws of this kind. These laws say how much the worker's family shall receive if he is killed. 220 By these means the worker can get good hospital care and get back to his work in a short time. If he dies, his family will not have to break up. It is much better than the old way. 221 624. Welfare work. Many employers realize that people will do better work if they are contented. Hence they carry on what is called "welfare work." This takes the form, in part, of a community clubhouse which is free to all the workmen of the company. In the club- house are bowling alleys, swimming pools, reading and visiting rooms. Here are bands, dramatic clubs, and debating clubs. Here, too, the young people meet for their dances and social affairs. The company pays visiting nurses to go to the homes of the employees who are injured or sick. Some companies maintain systems of insurance and pension systems for their workers. THE TRUSTS 625. What trusts are. Before 1880 if a man had a few hundred dollars and wanted to start a factory he formed a partnership with some other man and began business. He met plenty of competition, but the competition came from firms Hke his own. The product was small, and the profits were small. Later, certain shrewd men saw that if they could get the stronger firms to combine, the com- bination could break down the weaker firms and control the industry. A big factory or a big mill could produce goods more cheaply than a small factory or a small mill. THE TRUSTS 391 It could use more labor-saving machinery; could buy its raw materials and fuel in big lots; and could get lower rates from the railroads for carrying its goods. This was the beginning of "big business." 626. Growth of trusts. John D. Rockefeller, of Cleve- land, persuaded forty oil-producing concerns to put them- selves in the hands of a board of "trustees" who were to run the whole business. This new company was the Standard Oil Company. It was the first trust. Pro- ducers of sugar, whisky, cottonseed oil, rubber products, and dozens of other articles followed this example. Before 1904 something like 300 combinations had been formed. In 1904 there were over 1,900 companies, each with a capital of over $1,000,000. By 1909 the number had grown to over 3,000. Hundreds of shoe factories, woolen mills, sugar refineries, and other plants were closed down and their business turned over to the big producers. Thus the number of business firms grew smaller. The biggest concern, the biggest in the world, . the United States Steel Corporation, had a capital of $1,400,000,000, controlled 180 companies, and employed over 200,000 men. 627. Combinations of railroads. Before the Civil War railroads were not more than fifty to one hundred miles in length. They usually connected neighboring cities. But before the war combination of these lines had started. Men like Cornelius Vanderbilt saw the advan- tage of connecting different roads into one system. In this way the New York Central, the Pennsylvania, and the Baltimore- and Ohio systems were built up. Cities Hke New York and Chicago, Pittsburgh and St. Louis, were connected by single railroad systems. The Civil War checked the union of roads, but it began again soon 392 ECONOMIC PROBLEMS after the war. During the eighties and nineties railroad building went on rapidly, and combining kept on. There are now something like 1,300 railroad lines in the country, but most of them are only parts of some great system. " It is said there are now only five or six great railroad sys- tems and that they control all of the lines in the country. 222 628. What the people thought. As the process of building big business went on, the people became angry. They said a small producer had no chance against the big companies and that the big companies used unfair methods. For instance, the big companies compelled the railroads to carry their goods at lower rates than they charged the little ones. This was true. Yet while the big companies produced more cheaply, the people got no benefit from it in the form of lower prices. The men who formed the trusts kept all that was saved and piled up fortunes of millions of dollars. 629. The Sherman Anti-Trust Act. In 1890 Congress passed the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. The object was to prevent these great combinations from getting in their hands all the business in any one line. This would check trade. Presidents Harrison, Cleveland, and McKinley did little to enforce this law. But Presidents Roosevelt and Taft made a big fight against the trusts. In only a few cases did the government win. The most important victories were the Standard Oil case and the American Tobacco Company case. The Supreme Court of the United States ordered these companies broken up into a number of smaller companies which would compete with one another. But no reduction in price followed. In 1 9 14 Congress made the law stronger and clearer (§619). 630. What we have learned. Out of all this discussion and lawmaking two points have become clear. First, THE TRUSTS 393 big business is not necessarily bad because it is big. It seems to be a natural and proper development so long as it keeps within the law and does not become a monopoly. Second, it is also pretty clear that we cannot hope to destroy big business nor to prevent its development. But a way should be found to control it for the benefit of all the people. SUGGESTED READINGS References for teachers: Bassett, Short History, 765-827; Ogg, National Progress, chaps, iv, vii; Latane, America as a World Power, chap, xvii; Ferine, The Story of the Trust Companies; McCabe, Media- tion, Investigation, and Arbitration in Industrial Disputes; Ross, The Old World and the New; Steiner, On the Trail of the Immigrant; Bogart, Economic History, chap, xxxi; Ely, Monopolies and Trusts; Hart, Contemporaries, IV, No. 201 ; Henderson, Citizens in Industry. References for pupils: Antin, They Who Knock at Our Gates; Warman, The Story of the Railroad; Hughes, Community Civics; Ashley, The New Civics; Magruder, American Government; James, Readings in American History, chap, xxvii. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS I. You have been in the United States a month. You came from Eastern Europe arid are writing back home. Topic, "My first month in America." 2. Topic, "How I became a naturalized citizen." 3. Topic, "Why I came to America." 4. You are supposed to belong to a labor union, and yovi are trying to show a fellow workman why he should join. Topic, "Why I belong to the union." Then give the other man's views in a composition entitled "Why I do not belong to the vmion." 5. Topic "Why I am against child labor," or "Why I hke to work in the factory," or "The adventures of a tele- graph messenger boy." CHAPTER XXV POLITICAL REFORMS CHANGES IN GOVERNMENT 631. The old way. When a man wanted to be elected to an office he went among the voters of his party and asked them to favor him for office; that is, he tried to secure the nomination. Of course other men in the same party wanted the same office, so some way had to be found to decide which man got the nomination. In the early days the leading politicians and office-holders settled the question of nominations in a meeting of their own called a caucus. But about the time of Andrew Jackson (§357) people got tired of having candidates picked for them, and they began holding conventions for making nomi- nations. After all parties had made their nominations in this way the election was held. Years later people came to believe these conventions were run by the bosses. They decided to hold nominating elections and choose the candidates themselves. 632. Primary elections. When a party holds an elec- tion to decide who its candidates shall be, that election is called a primary. During the period 1904-12 almost all the states established the system of holding primaries under state authority. When a voter goes to a primary election, he must make his choice from the members of his own party. The men thus chosen are the candidates of that party for office. Later, at a regular election, the voters choose from among the candidates of the different parties. 394 CHANGES IN GOVERNMENT 395 633. Presidential preference primaries. Twenty-one states now give. the voters a chance to say whom they desire as candidates for the presidency. This is called the presidential preference primary. But national norrii- nating conventions are still held. 634. Ballot reform. In 1888 a new system of voting was introduced. It was called the "Australian" system and is still in use. Under the old system people crowded around the ballot box and a citizen could not vote with- out' the bystanders knowing for whom he voted. This made bribery easy, as the man who gave the bribe could follow the voter right up to the box and see that he voted as he was paid to do. Then anybody could print ballots and hand them out, and the ballot box was open. This made corruption at the ballot box easy. Under the Australian system the voter must register or get his name on the list of voters before election day. Then the state prints the ballots with the names of the candidates on them. But, most important, the ballot is secret; a voter may cast his ballot without other people knowing how he votes. Every ballot is handed out by an officer and is numbered. The voter steps into a little booth and marks the names of his choice. Then the ballot is put into the ballot box. Later the ballots are counted. 223 635. The short ballot. There are so many names on a ballot that the voter knows only a few of them per- sonally. This has led to a movement to make the ballot more simple by making it shorter. The idea is to put on the ballot the names of the men running for the most important offices and then leave them to appoint their helpers. This shortens the ballot. Some cities and a few states have made this change. 396 POLITICAL REFORMS 636. Direct legislation. In spite of the effort to have a real democracy in this country, many people have felt that things too often go wrong. Officers sometimes refuse to do what the people want and again they do things that the people do not like. People said that the members of the legislatures obeyed the "bosses" and the "interests" rather than the people who had elected them. For this reason three measures known as the initiative, referendum, and recall were invented and put to work. 637. The initiative. By this law a given number of the voters can ask the legislature to pass a certain law. Then if the legislature fails to do this, the matter goes back to the voters, and tTiey say in an election whether they want the law or not. 638. The referendum. In the initiative we have pointed out one way in which a law may be referred to the voters. Another is this — if a legislature passes a law that a certain number of the voters oppose, they can get up a petition and prevent the enforcement of the law until the people can say in an election whether they want it or not. South Dakota, the first state to use this system, adopted it in 1898. Now twenty-two states use the initiative and referendum. 639. The recall. The recall is a plan to get officers with whom the people are dissatisfied out of office before the end of their term. Usually, under this law, when a certain percentage of the voters sign a petition asking for the recall of an officer, he must resign or must submit himself to the voters at a second election. Oregon, in 1908, was the first state to adopt the recall. Ten states since that time have adopted this law, but in four of them it does not apply to judges. Some of these states CITY GOVERNMENT 397 are Louisiana, Washington, Arizona, California, and Michigan. 640. Direct election of United States senators. The Constitution provides (Art. I, §3) that the legislatures of the states shall choose the United States senators. People became dissatisfied with this system and changed it. They said it was not democratic. So in 19 13 the Seventeenth Amendment was adopted by which the senators are elected by the people. CITY GOVERNMENT 641. The problem. In 1880 less than one-fourth of the whole country lived in cities; in 19 10 more than one-half of all our people were found there. Our ten largest cities contain over 13 per cent of the entire popu- lation of the country. This growth of the cities has created many serious problems, none of them more serious than the problem of how to govern the city. There are so many things that a city government must do. It must look after schools, paving, Hghting, water supply, police, sewers, and finances. The average citizen knows little about these things and can learn but Httle about them. So he leaves the management of the city's affairs to its officers and pays Httle attention to them. This failure of the citizens gives bosses and political rings a chance to run the affairs of the city about as they please. For this reason we have had much bad city government. It is clear that we have had less success with city than with either state or national government. 642. The city and the state. All cities are under the control of the state. The city government may do only such things as the state legislature permits it to do. 398 POLITICAL REFORMS The cities are usually put into four classes according to size. There is a certain type of government in all cities of the same class. The paper in which the powers of the city and the duties of the officers are described is called a charter. A few states allow cities to frame their own charters, but they must be approved by the legislature. 643. Ordinary type of city government. Most cities have a mayor and a council, both elected by the voters of the city. 224 The council makes the city's laws, and it is the mayor's business to enforce them. There has been a great deal of complaint about graft and waste of money in city government. Many people thought this was due to the form of city government, so they devised a new plan. 644. The commission plan. The new plan provided that commissioners, usually five, should be elected. The commissioners make the city laws and control the admin- istration. Their duties are thus both law-making and law-enforcing. Each commissioner is responsible for some branch of city government, as one looks after the poHce and fire departments, another streets and alleys, and so on. The initiative, referendum, and recall, in some form, usually go with the commission plan of city government. This plan was first used in Galveston, Texas. It was found that this new form of city government was better than the ordinary form. By 1918, 646 cities had adopted this plan. Among them were such impor- tant places as Buffalo, Denver, Cleveland, Dallas, and Newark. Later another improvement was made. 645. City manager plan. The city manager plan is like the commission plan except that it brings in a trained SOCIALISM 399 expert to manage the business affairs of the city. He is not supposed to be a poHtician. He is a business man. He must know how to run the city to make Hfe and property safe and give the people the most for their money. The commissioners choose the city manager, pay him a good salary, and make him responsible for all administration. When the commissioners choose such a manager, they are supposed to select the best man to be found, no matter whether he lives in the city or not. The manager is expected to show good results just as is the manager of a factory, a mine, or any other large business. He is given the right to appoint all of his helpers and is held responsible for their work. In 1918, 168 cities had hired city managers. Some of these cities were Wichita, Dayton, Norfolk, Grand Rapids, Dubuque, and Kalamazoo. 646. Reason to be encouraged. All these changes in city government are encouraging. There has been a vast improvement in city affairs all over the country. They show that the people want good government in the city and that they are willing to make experiments in order to get it. But it is well to remember that no form of popular government can be successful unless the citizens take an active interest in political matters. It is also plain that no form of city government can succeed without honest officers. SOCIALISM 647. The rise of socialism. Socialism appeared first in France during the great French Revolution (1789-98). It was brought to this country about the middle of the century by immigrants from Germany. The unrest of the eighties and nineties in the labor world caused many 400 POLITICAL REFORMS working people to turn to socialism. The feeling that the poor man has a hard time and little chance to gain wealth, while the rich man lives in luxury and has all the good things of life, led them to think the whole industrial world is wrong. They do not reaHze that the great majority of well-to-do people were once poor. 648. What socialism teaches. Socialism teaches that the ownership of tools, such as machinery, railroads, and factories, puts great riches into the hands of the owners or capitalists. It says that capitalists are few while workmen number millions. It objects to a few persons being rich and many poor. What does socialism propose to do about it? It pro- poses that the government own and operate all means of production, land, railroads, factories, mines, and machinery. The capitalist as an owner would be entirely wiped out. All workers would work for the state. The socialists think this would do away with poverty and misery. Most people do not believe this. Not only socialists but thoughtful people everywhere want to see suffering and poverty grow less. The great reform movements of the last fifty years show that Americans are determined to make conditions better for the poor, but nothing will take the place of honesty, intelligence, and hard work. 649. The Socialist party. The Socialist party was organized in 1898. In 1900 it nominated a candidate for the presidency and polled 87,000 votes. Since that time it has regularly taken part in politics. In 191 2 almost 900,000 votes were cast for Eugene V. Debs, its candidate for the presidency. The Socialists have made a fight to get control of the American Federation of Labor, but so far have failed. WILSON'S ADMINISTRATION 401 THE FIRST WILSON ADMINISTRATION (1913-17) 650. The Underwood Tariff. The years from 1896 to 19 13 were filled with earnest discussion of reform. Some important reform laws had been passed before Wilson became president. In the campaign of 191 2 the Demo- crats promised a reduction of the tariff if they were elected. Wilson called a special session of Congress to revise the tariff laws. A bill reducing the tariff rates on food, clothing, steel products, sugar, cotton goods, wool, and other articles was proposed by Representative Underwood of Alabama. After months of discussion it was passed. This meant a loss of many millions to the govern- ment. The Democrats promised to make up the loss by an income tax. 651. Income Tax. The income tax law of 1893 had been declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, but in 1 9 13 the Constitution was changed by the Sixteenth Amendment to permit such a law. Congress now passed another income tax law which more than made up the loss caused by reducing the tariff. 652. Federal Reserve Act. About every twenty years the country has suffered from a financial panic. When banks suspected a panic was coming, each bank gathered in all the money it could get in order to be able to meet expected WOODROW WILSON 402 POLITICAL REFORMS demands upon it. Each bank had to look out for itself, and there was no way of combining the strength of the banks to resist the panic. This lessened the amount of money circulating among the people. It was believed, too, that the money and credit of the whole country tended to collect in the New York banks to such an extent as to give New York control of all the finances of the nation. To meet this situation the Federal Reserve Act was passed in 1 913. It placed all the national banks under the Federal Reserve Board and arranged to combine the strength of all the banks. These united banks can keep more money in circulation if a panic threatens. It established twelve reserve banks in twelve districts throughout the country. This prevents the money from being drawn to New York. The Federal Reserve cities are Boston, New York, Phila- delphia, Cleveland, Rich- mond, Atlanta, Chicago, St. Louis, MinneapoHs, Kansas City, Dallas, and San Fran- cisco. Other important acts of this period were the Farm Loan Bank Act (§709), the Clayton Act (§619), and the " Wait-a- Bit" treaties (§593). 653. Trouble with Mexico. In 191 6, after the bandit Villa had killed seventeen Americans in New Mexico, President Wilson ordered a small army under General Pershing to capture Villa. -^ The president of Mexico JOHN J. PERSHING WILSON'S ADMINLSTRATION 403 strongly opposed the sending of American soldiers to his country and ordered the Mexican army to stop General Pershing's advance. War seemed certain. But when Carranza saw that Wilson was in earnest, he proposed a conference. The Americans agreed and terms were fixed. Our troops then withdrew from Mexico. Trouble with Mexico continued until 1920, when Carranza was overthrown and better relations were estabHshed between the two countries. 654. Purchase of the Virgin Islands. In 1917 the United States bought the Virgin Islands from Denmark. These three islands, with some smaller ones, lie east of Porto Rico. "6 By this purchase, by the control of Porto Rico, Santo Domingo, and Haiti, and by our connection with Cuba, we control the Caribbean Sea and can protect the Panama Canal from European attack. SUGGESTED READINGS References for teachers: Bassett, Sliori Histo}-y, 66s, 736-744, 774, 776, 830; Ogg, National Progress, chaps, ix, xii, xiv-xvi; Munro, Tlie Initiative, Referendum, and Recall; Barron, The Mexican Problem; Guitteau, Government and Politics in the United States; Woodburn, The American Republic; Hart, Contemporaries, IV, chap, xxxiii; Haworth, America in Ferment. References for pupils: Garner, Government in the United States; Lapp, Our America; Parsons, The Land of Fair Play; Hughes, Com- munity Civics; Ashley, The New Civics; James, Readings in American History, No. 105. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS I. You are an immigrant from Poland and have been naturalized. Yesterday you cast your first vote in America. Topic, "How I felt when I cast my first ballot." 2. "Why I should Hke to be a fire- fighter in a big city." 3. Your father keeps sheep on his farm in Ohio. Write a letter to Congressman Underwood telling him what you think of the Underwood tariff. CHAPTER XXVI THE GROWTH OF THE NATION THE GROWTH OF THE WEST— NEW STATES 655. The territories. In 1880 two-thirds of the area of the United States was occupied by states; the other Area settled in 1870 ryTJTTiArea settled between •-^^^^1870 and 1910 Populatiua under 2 per aq. mi. not taken into account GROWTH OF sn.TlLLD \RI \ FROM 187O TO I9IO third consisted of nine territories. This vast region, almost a milHon square miles in extent, lay along and spread out on each side of the Rockies. Colorado, cut out of this area, was made a state in 1876. Dakota and Indian Territory lay far out on the plains, and Washington stretched westward from the Rockies to the Pacific. There were good reasons for this being the last region to be occupied by the steady stream of settlers. It is 404 NEW STATES 405 a rough, mountainous region of little rainfall, so farm- ing as carried on in the Mississippi Valley could not be successful. But in the mountains were great deposits of the precious metals, and stretching along the foothills and in the river valleys were ranges of grasslands on which cattle could feed. So the miners and cattle men had the country to themselves as long as there was good farming land to be had elsewhere. 656. Dakota.227 In 1862 Congress passed the Home- stead Act offering every genuine settler 160 acres of government land. This was to attract immigrants from Europe. They came. In the next ten years three million of them came! But not until about 1883 did the tide turn strongly to Dakota. In that year the Northern Pacific railroad was completed, and poured thousands of settlers into the Northwest. One author says, "Farmers settled in Dakota so rapidly that single counties with scarcely an inhabitant at the beginning of the summer were well populated at the end of the year." Before long the great "bonanza" farms were pouring torrents of spring wheat into the markets of the world. Between 1880 and 1890 the number of farms increased to over 60,000 and the acreage to over 15,250,000. This great growth led to a demand for statehood. In 1888 the people of the territory decided to divide it into North Dakota and South Dakota. They were admitted as states the following year. 657. Montana. Montana is rich in gold, silver, lead, and copper. This mineral wealth early drew settlers to this section, but the great forests soon attracted the lumbermen. Cattle raising was early developed on a large scale. Years later the wheat-growing region of the eastern part of the state came under cultivation. 4o6 GROWTH OP THE NATION During the years 1880-90 the population rose from 40,000 to 132,000. Here again we see the influence of the Northern Pacific upon settlements. In 1889 Mon- tana was admitted as a state. It is said to have the best school system in the country. 658. Washington. The year 1889 saw the admission of another state, Washington. When we read of Wash- ington we think of those intrepid explorers, Lewis and Clark, and of the days when the Astor Fur Company and the Northwest Company were struggling to get control of the fur trade of this region. Only its great distance from the centers of population prevented the early settlement of this country. But, as in Dakota and Montana, with the completion of the Northern* Pacific the tide of settlers began to flow in. They found a land rich in natural resources. Fertile farming country, great ranges for cattle, extensive for- ests of fir, cedar, spruce, and yellow pine, and a climate and soil ideal for fruit growing are all here. But this is not all its natural wealth. Coal, rare in the Northwest, is found, and the Columbia is known the world over for its salmon fisheries. A look at the map shows us the advantages this state enjoys in the way of ports on Puget Sound. We see why Seattle has become one of the big cities on the Pacific coast. It is no wonder that Washington had a larger population than any other of the nine territories admitted between 18S0 and 19 1 2. 659. Wyoming (1890). The forty-third state admitted was Wyoming, a true mountain state. This territory was first entered by Verendrye, the French fur trader, and his sons about 1735. The first settlements grew up around the fur companies' trading posts. Fort Bridger NEW STATES 407 on the Green River was one of these posts. Gold was discovered in 1867. Coal mining and cattle raising became the leading industries and oil fields have been opened. In 1867 the Union Pacific railroad entered Wyoming and laid out Cheyenne, which became the capital. In the northwest corner of the state lies the famous Yellowstone Park. Thousands of tourists every year visit this wonderful playground to see its natural beauties. 660. Idaho. Another mountain and mining state is Idaho, admitted in 1890.^28 Three great railroad systems, the Union Pacific, the Northern Pacific, and the Great Northern, cross this state. The small rainfall has pre- vented Idaho from becoming great in agriculture, but when the land is irrigated it yields most abundant crops. Like the other mountain states, Idaho has great forests. 661. Utah. Utah, as we have seen, was settled by the Mormons (§372). The territory then belonged to Mex- ico, but as a result of the Mexican War it was ceded to the United States. The Mormons found themselves again subject to the laws of the Union. Other settlers came in, attracted by the mines and the possibilities of sheep raising. The soil proved to be good for growing sugar beets, and that became an important industry. In 1896, after years of debate on polygamy, Utah was admitted as a state. The Constitution of the state for- bids polygamy and says this provision cannot be changed without the consent of Congress. 662. Oklahoma. After long-continued troubles with the Indians east of the Mississippi, the government set aside a vast region of about 70,000 square miles in all, west of Arkansas, for them. This country, called Indian Territory, lay in the valleys of the Red, Canadian, and 4o8 GROWTH OF THE NATION Arkansas rivers. White men were ordered to keep out of it. But they knew of its rich lands and were con- tinually trying to break in and seize them. Finally the government bought the lands from the Indians and made the western half of them into Oklahoma Territory. 663. The Oklahoma rush. A proclamation by Presi- dent Harrison announced that at noon, April 12, 1889. the territory would be open for settlers. Great crowds gathered along the border, anxious to rush in and estab- lish claims. People in wagons, on horseback, and on foot eagerly awaited the signal. At just twelve o'clock a bugle blast rang out and they started across the line in a mad race for land. Fifty thousand people went in the first day. Before night towns were laid out, and banks, newspapers, and stores were established. In 1907 Oklahoma was admitted as a state. GUTHRIE ON THE FIRST NIGHT OF THE OPENING 664. New Mexico and Arizona. Lying far over to the southwest in the arid region are New Mexico and NEW STATES 409 Arizona. The first European to enter Arizona was Coronado, a Spaniard, who set out in 1540 to find the ^r^TS/i 1^-^53 frmm ^uf,^2%r , t ' A ?L t ' tint, \ GUTHRIE FOUR YEARS LATER, A THRIVING AND WELL-BUILT CITY mysterious Seven Cities of Cibola. Instead of reaching cities with streets of gold and silver he found only the simple dwellings of the cliff-dwellers. De Vaca in 1536 entered the region now called New Mexico. The capital of New Mexico is the old Spanish town of Santa Fe.^^a Acquired by the United States as a result of the Mexi- can War, this area was organized as the territory of New Mexico in 1850. It included Arizona. In 1854 the "Gadsden Purchase" was added to it. Arizona was cut off and became a separate territory in 1867. This vast region, Arizona and New Mexico, more than six times as large as Indiana, is noted for its rich deposits of gold, silver, copper, and coal. Both of these ter- ritories, the last to become states, were admitted to the 4IO GROWTH OF THE NATION -Union in 191 2. The Santa Fe and the Southern Pacific railroads carried settlers to these states. 665. The vanishing frontier. All good farming land of the public domain had been occupied by 1900. The Pacific railroads were responsible for the rapid develop- ment of this region (§§657-661). They poured thousands of settlers into the West, and farms and cities took the COWBOYS DRIVING CATTLE FROM THE PRAIRIE PASTURAGE place of desert and wilderness. No longer could men in the East who had failed in factory or on farm pile their goods into a "prairie schooner" or into a freight car and start west to seek their fortune on free government land. The farmers' sons of the East and Middle West, unable to buy western lands, turned to the factories and the mines for employment. The rush to the cities was on. From the earliest days of America there had been a frontier (§108). The intrepid Scotch-Irish, pushing THE INDIANS 411 through the passes of the Appalachians and rearing their log cabins in the Kentucky and Tennessee wilderness, carried the frontier westward (§110). As their descend- ants moved on into Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, they were flanked on the north by men of New England all drawn on by free land and free life. Roads and barbed wire fences, grain elevators, fruit and grain farms, and flourish- ing cities took the place of the frontier. The trapper and fur trader, the lonely gold hunter, the cowboy and the cattle king, gave place to the farmer and the factory hand. The frontier had passed like a dream in the night. America had entered upon a new era. 666. The democratic influence of the frontier. Of all the influences bearing upon America the frontier made the deepest and most lasting impression. On the fron- tier one man was as good as another. Family name counted for nothing. Men earned what they got and intended to keep it. The frontiersmen were democratic, fearless, and impatient of restraint. Compelled to meet dangers and privations by discovering new methods of working and living, they became progressive. Not bound down by tradition, they were not afraid to try new ways. Thus the West has led the rest of the coun- try in political, social, and economic reform. The frontier has gone, but its spirit is still leading America to a bigger and better life for all her citizens. THE INDIANS 667. The old way. Until 1875 the white man and the Indian struggled for possession of the land. The white man wanted it for farms, the Indians for hunting grounds. Many treaties were made under which the Indian signed away his right to the land, accepting 412 GROWTH OF THE NATION money and goods in its place. But the Indian did not understand that the sale meant he must go away from the land forever and not hunt nor fish upon it (§33). Many times, too, the Indians said their chiefs who signed the treaties had no right to sell the lands of the tribe. So they tried to hold on, and Indian wars, one after another, desolated the frontier. In 1830 Congress tried to get the eastern Indians to move to the Indian Territory. They did not go will- ingly, but by 1850 most of them had been moved beyond the Mississippi. This removal caused much suffering and hard feeling. In 1836 the government bought the land of the Potta- wattomies, lying in northwestern Indiana. When the time came to move, the Indians refused to leave, and soldiers were called in. Eight hundred men, women, and children on foot started on the long trail to the West. The weather was hot, and the change of water and food brought on sickness. Across Illinois and Missouri the sad procession moved. When at last they reached their new home in Kansas, the journey had cost more than 150 lives. West of the Mississippi it was the same way. During the sixties and seventies fierce wars with the Sioux, Cheyennes, and other powerful tribes resulted in the defeat of the Indians. 668. Battle of the Little Big Horn. One of the fiercest battles with the western Indians took place in 1876 on the Little Big Horn River in southern Montana. Here the Sioux tribe under one of its chiefs. Sitting Bull, fought a desperate battle with General Custer and his little army of 260 men. Custer and all of his men were killed, but the Indians were soon driven back to their own territory. ^^o THE INDIANS 413 A monument marks the spot where Custer fell. As a result of these wars the Indians were gathered into reservations or were sent to the Indian Territory. GENERAL CUSTER S LAST FIGHT 669. The reservation system. The government gave food and clothing to the Indians who stayed within the bounds of the reservation. It kept up schools and tried to keep traders from selling the Indians firearms and whisky. Indeed, it treated the Indians just as if they were children who must be fed and clothed but must be kept shut up for fear they would get into mischief. This idle, useless, dependent life was very bad for them and made trouble for the government and for the Indians. One difficulty with the reservation plan was that when the Indians had settled down in a certain place it was only a few years until they were asked or ordered to move again. Tecumseh in 18 10 said to General Harrison: "You are continually driving the Red people; at last you will drive them into the great lake where they can't either stand or work." 414 GROWTH OF THE NATION 670. The new way. In 1887 Congress passed the Dawes Act. It gives the Indian a chance to own his own land and to run a farm. If he stays quietly on his farm for a few years, earning his living and caring for his family, the land becomes his. At the same time he becomes a citizen with the right to vote and hold office. The new way is successful. The Indian gets along much better than he did under the old plan of reserva- tions. Many of them now have their own farms and cattle ranches; some have become rich. 671. Recent conditions. The Indian population is now about 325,000. It does not seem to be dying out. On the contrary it is slowly gaining in numbers. There are still 113 reservations scattered over the country. Arizona has the largest area of reservation land, almost 30,000 square miles, and Oklahoma the largest Indian population, nearly 120,000. All the Oklahoma Indians now have their own land and have given up tribal organization. GROWTH IN EDUCATION Religion, morality, and knowledge, being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged. — Ordinance of 1787. 672. Progress to 1880. Nothing seems to have been clearer to the founders of our repubhc than that free, general education was a matter of the greatest impor- tance. Thinking people understand that to keep up a democratic government the people must be able to form their own opinions. Hence public schools were founded and real progress was made. The Civil War interfered with this progress. In the South it destroyed so much property that it was hard to raise enough money to educate all the children. The GROWTH IN EDUCATION 415 people of this region have been struggling with this problem ever since, but are now making progress. 673. Growth since 1880. In kindergarten, grades, high school, and college there has been great growth in the last forty years. Many new kinds of educational work, barely thought of in 1880, have become common since that time. Among these are included night schools, vocational training, citizenship classes, community cen- ters and extension work, medical inspection, compulsory attendance, and vacation schools. 674. The kindergarten. The kindergarten is a school for children too young to go to the regular school. The first school of this kind in the United States was founded in 1855. By 1880 the movement was well started. Now there are kindergartens connected with the pubHc schools all over the country. ^^i 675. The grades. The elementary school means much to the country because it is the place where young America, for the most part, gets its training. Out of one hundred children starting school in the first grade, on an average, fifty have dropped out at the end of the sixth grade, and sixteen more drop out during the seventh and eighth grades. This means that about two- thirds of the children who start in school never attend the high school. In 1880 there were 9,500,000 children in the elementary schools; by 1916 this number had risen to 20,500,000. It costs about $42 a year per pupil to run the schools. In the schools of earlier days Httle was taught except reading, writing, spelHng, arithmetic, grammar, geog- raphy, and United States history (§375). Now there are added nature study, drawing, music, cooking, sewing, physical training, and manual training. 41 6 GROWTH OF THE NATION 676. The high school. In 1880 there were about 2,500 free public high schools in the country; in 191 5 the number had increased to 12,000. This great develop- NICHOLAS SENN HIGH SCHOOL ment has taken place in all parts of the country, especially in the South and West. Years ago some people objected to paying taxes to keep up the high school, but there is much less objection now. Most people used to think the high schools existed mainly to get boys and girls ready for college. Now high schools have come to be the "people's college." Many of the great city high schools now have better buildings, better equipment, and better teachers than the old-time colleges had.-'^^ 677. Changes. There have been two great changes in high schools since 1880. Country children once had no chance for high-school training unless they went to the city. Now in many states they are coming to have right at home as good a chance as the city child has. In a growing number of states there are fine township or community high schools. Children whose homes are not in walking distance are taken to and from school in wagons or cars. Some of these consolidated schools also care for the children in the grades. The old one-room GROWTH IN EDUCATION 417 country school is disappearing and its place is being taken by the modern, well-equipped consolidated school. The second change is that in the cities different kinds of high schools are appearing. The old-time high school offered two or three courses , now there are gen- eral culture high schools, manual training high schools, commer- cial high schools, a rural school and agricultural and industrial high schools. ^^^ 678. Normal schools and agricultural colleges. Long ago it was thought that anyone who had completed the work of the eight grades knew enough to teach school. Gradually, people got the idea that a good teacher must at least be a graduate of a high school and should have some special training for teaching. Thus arose the nor- mal school for the special preparation of teachers. These schools have increased rapidly in number. In 1916 there were 278 of them with about 173,000 students. ^^^ The Morrill Act of 1862 granted 30,000 acres of the public land to each state for each senator and represent- ative it had in Congress. The proceeds of the sale of these lands were to be used to support "agricultural and mechanical" colleges. Every state in the Union now has a state university or college of agriculture resting upon this grant. They give courses in agriculture, engineering, law, 15 4i8 GROWTH OF THE NATION teaching, business, and other subjects. Any young person in the country can find in his own state one of these institutions eager to help him in getting a higher edu- cation.235 Besides the state universities there are many colleges and universities founded by churches and private citi- zens (§379). All of them have done a great work in bringing to the boys and girls of America the chance for college training-^^** 679. Vocational training. People used to think there was time enough to settle the question of a boy's occu- pation after he completed the high-school course. The result was that the high-school course of study did nothing to train him for any certain line of work.^" About 1880 people began to change their minds about •^ Svo! ma'-«is^A^37-l LABORATOR-i IN A TECHNICAL HIGH SCHOOL this question. They had discovered that only about twelve out of every hundred children that entered the GROWTH IN EDUCATION 419 first grade ever finished high school. The others stopped in order to go to work. They thought young people should be fitted in the schools to earn a living whether they go on through high school or not. In this way "practical" or "vocational" studies came into the schools. First came the founding of agricultural high schools by several states. In these schools stock judging, farm accounts, seed testing, soils, marketing, and similar sub- jects were taught. Then the cities began to found trade schools where the boys were taught such kinds of work as printing, electrical work, drafting, and plumbing. In a Httle while, too, there were schools in which the girls could learn millinery, dressmaking, cooking, and sales- manship. This is a great change from the old type of education, but it keeps many boys and girls in school. It will also help them to earn a good living. Congress showed its interest in this kind of work by passing the Smith-Hughes Bill in 191 7. By this act the Federal government agrees to pay several million dollars a year to help the states carry on schools in agriculture, home economics, and in the trades. Over 2,000 schools received this help in 19 19. 680. Compulsory school attendance. In 1852 Massa- chusetts passed the first law compelling parents to send their children to school. Since that time all of the states with the exception of Mississippi have passed such laws. In most of the states the children must be in school a part, or all, of the school year until they are fourteen years old; in other states the age limit for school attend- ance is sixteen years. 681. Schools for adults. One-fourth of the people in Chicago, Detroit, Buffalo, and Pittsburgh cannot speak 420 GROWTH OF THE NATION the English language. They cannot read the newspapers, and it is hard for them to gather true information about American life and purposes. They will become good Americans if they are given a chance to learn the lan- guage of the country. Thoughtful Americans understand this need, and now in all the large cities there are night schools where the immigrant is taught to use the English language. He is taught also the history of the United States, what it means to vote, and what the duties and privileges of citizenship are. This is practical Ameri- canization. 682. The school a community center. The school is the natural center for all community interests. All our citizens, of every race, color, condition, and creed, have a like interest in the school. In the public schools all children have the same opportunity. The rural schools were closed about half of the year. About the year 1900 people began to use the school buildings for community meetings. One of our troubles in the past was that we did not get together enough and talk things over. Now people of a neighborhood gather in the schoolhouse and have lectures, debates, parties, banquets, and meetings to discuss public questions. Many a rural school has a good library and pleasant read- ing room open to the public. To the school the farmers come to hold their seed-testing and stock- judging con- tests. This does much to take away the loneliness of the farmer's life. It also shows the country boys and girls that people can have good times in the country as well as in the city. City people, too, are taking hold of the community center movement. In 191 6 there were com- munity centers in 518 cities, and the movement is spread- ing rapidly. GROWTH OF EDUCATION 421 683. Medical inspection. Many a boy who does poor work in school is thought by the teacher to be lazy or stupid. But often when the boy is examined, some physical defect of eye, ear, nose, throat, or teeth has been found. If he has the attention of a physician, the boy will become as alert and bright as any of his schoolmates. Should he not get this help, he will probably drop out of school and will be held back all his life. Medical inspec- tion of school children, begun in Europe years ago, was K,m slow getting started in the United States. In 1906 Massachusetts passed the first act requiring such inspec- tion. By 191 1 twenty states had followed her example. Splendid results have been secured. 684. Woman and higher education. One of the great educational movements of the last fifty years is the admis- sion of women to colleges and universities. Before that time the ' ' female seminaries ' ' were thought good enough for women. Now, practically all higher institutions of learning admit them. In addition there are many colleges of high standing for women. Many medical colleges and law schools have opened their doors to women. 422 GROWTH OF THE NATION GROWTH OF READING 685. Literature. Literature has had a great develop- ment since the Civil War. Samuel L. Clemens, "Mark Twain," first of a group of western writers, gave the world two of the greatest boys' books ever written. Huckleberry Finn and Tom SawycrP^ He also established a reputa- tion as a humorist in his Innocents Abroad. Bret Harte was another western writer, and Joaquin Miller, also of the West, gave America a splendid vision of herself in his poem "Columbus." The South, too, made fine contributions to our literature. George W. Cable wrote stories like The Grandissimes and Bona- venture about Louisiana people, while Charles Egbert Craddock pictured the life of the southern mountaineers. Thomas Nelson Page with . Red Rock belongs to this group. Three great southern poets were Sidney Lanier, Paul Hamilton Hayne, and Irwin Russell. The Middle West found a voice in the poems of James Whitcomb Riley and Eugene Field. Riley, known as the "Hoosier poet," wrote many poems in "Hoosier dialect," but also many beautiful compositions in pure English.^^^ His poems picture scenes of simple life with humor. His best loved poems are found in the volumes entitled Rhymes of Childhood, Out to Old Aunt Mary's, The Rag- gedy Man, and The Little Orphant Annie Book. Field also was a poet of childhood and a humorist. Among his best known works are A Little Book of Western Verse, With Trumpet and Drum, and Poems of Childhood. Edward Eggleston wrote three famous stories of early days in the Middle West: The Hoosier School Boy, The Hoosier School Master, and The Circuit Rider.'^*'^ The New England life of this period is pictured in the works of Sarah Orne Jewett, Mary E. Wilkins Freeman, and Alice Brown. GROWTH OF READING 423 MODERN PRINTING PRESS But there were some writers whose work cannot be thought of as belonging to any special part of the country. They wrote for all America. Among them was the poet Walt Whitman, and the short story-writers Hamlin Gar- land,24i Frank R. Stockton, Richard Harding Davis,^^^ ^nd O. Henry.^^s Some novelists of this group were Henry James, William Dean Howells, Owen Wister, Meredith Nicholson, Gene Stratton Porter, Jack London, and Winston Churchill. 686. Newspapers and periodicals. Since 1880 there has been a great increase in the reading habit on the part of the general public. This increase has expressed itself in a demand for more magazines and newspapers, as well as for more books. Outside of the schools, the newspapers and magazines are, without doubt, the greatest educational force in America. The number of news- papers and periodicals in 1918 was two and one-half times what it was in 1880. Some of the great newspapers print over 200,000 copies a day, while one popular magazine prints over 2,000,000 copies a week. 687. Books and libraries. The great ironmaster, Andrew Carnegie, 2** believed that every city and town should have its free public library. He gave almost $45,000,000 for this purpose. He did not give all the money needed for the buildings, ^^^ but required the city where a library was to be built to pay part of the cost. As a result Mr. Carnegie is responsible for 1,539 free libraries for the use of the general public. In addition 424 GROWTH OF THE NATION to this Mr. Carnegie gave over $18,000,000 to colleges for their libraries. This was a princely gift to the American people. Magazines that give a review of current events with an intelligent discussion of them are important. In many schools it is the custom to use these magazines for class work. Prominent among them are the Literary Digest, the Review of Reviews, the World's Work, the Outlook, and Current Events. SUGGESTED READINGS References for teachers: Pattee, History of American Literature sitice 1870; Bassett, Short History, 711, 712; Eastman, The Indian of Today; Cubberley, Public Education in the United States; Hart, Con- temporaries, IV, Nos. 204, 205; Schafer, History of the Pacific North- west; Paxson, The Last American Frontier; Sparks, National Develop- ment; Sweet, History of Latin America. References for pupils: Paine, The Boy's Life of Mark Twain; Sabin, Building the Pacific Railway; Dellenbaugh, Breaking the Wilder- ness; Muir, Our National Parks; Hough,. The Story of the Cowboy; Garland, Boy Life on the Prairie; Hart, Source Book, No. 138; Parrish, The Great Plains. Fiction: Eaton, Boy Scouts in Glacier Park; Tomlinson, Scouting with Kit Carson; Schulz, With the Indians in the Rockies; Grinnell, Blackfcet Indian Stories; Allen, The Mettle of the Pasture; Fox, 'Christ- mas Eve on Lonesome; London, The House of Pride; Harris, On the Plantation. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS I. Imagine you have been visiting friends in the Red River Valley in North Dakota. Write an account of the big wheat farms to your friends at home. 2. Topic, "Salmon fishing on the Columbia." 3. Imagine yourself an old Indian telling your grandchildren the story of the struggle between the white man and the Indian for the land. 4. Topic, "Why I like my school." 5. Make out programs for three community meetings at your school this winter. CHAPTER XXVII GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY GROWTH OF FOREIGN TRADE 688. Foreign trade. Many products of our farms and factories go to other countries to help feed and clothe their people. This volume of outflowing goods is our exports, but we bring into this country great quantities of rubber, coifee, wool, sugar, pulp wood, and other products. These are our imports. Imports and exports together make up our foreign trade. World trade rests upon the fact that the United States can produce some kinds of goods more cheaply than other countries can and that in producing some goods other countries have the advantage over us. So each country, after using what it wants of its products, trades the rest to other countries. 689. Agricultural exports. The United States has always had a big advantage in farm products. This is due to our rich soil, our favorable climate, and our wide use of farm machinery. We have been exporting farm products ever since the founding of our country. In 19 1 8 we sent out of the country two and one-half times as much as in 1880. Cotton, meat, wheat, and flour were valued in the order named. ^^^ The people of Europe are not accustomed to using corn meal, so we feed the corn to our cattle and hogs and export it in the form of meat. 690. Export of manufactures. While our exports of farm products have greatly increased since 1880, manu- 425 426 GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY factures have left them far behind. The export of manu- factured goods has increased more than twenty-seven times the amount in 1880 and is now ten times greater than our agricultural products exported. ^^'^ In far-away Siberia locomotives made in Philadelphia are drawing trains of American made-cars over steel rails made in Pittsburgh. Chinese shopkeepers light their FREIGHT AT THE DOCKS READ\ FOR SHIPMENT TO EUROPE stores with the product of the Standard Oil Company, and Australian sheep raisers use American barbed wire fences between their pastures. Self-binders from Chicago gather the wheat crop in Hungary, and American-made talking-machines and moving pictures entertain the boys and girls of Siam. The Brazilian lights his streets with electric current made by machinery from Schenectady, and a bridge made in Chicago and shipped in parts spans the straits between India and Ceylon. American boots and shoes, rubber tires, and automobiles are found in GROWTH OF FOREIGN TRADE 427 every land. The American manufacturer uses the whole world for his market. 691. Our customers. Europe has always been our best customer. This is natural because highly developed countries having industries of their own are able to call for the products of all the world and get them. They have something to give in exchange. England is our largest buyer, with Canada next. Then in order come Germany, France, Netherlands, Italy, and Belgium (19 13). 692. Imports. No nation can export goods to any great extent unless it also imports goods. This is because the nations receiving goods cannot pay for them in money alone. That would soon strip them of gold. They pay for goods with other goods of their own production. In 1 918 the imports of the United States were four times greater than in 1880. The principal articles brought in are sugar, chemicals, rubber, coffee, silk, flax, hemp, and jute. These goods come from the countries to which we export largely. It is important to know that they appear in the same order — England, Canada, Ger- many, France, Netherlands, Italy, and Belgium. 693. Balance of trade. Since 1880, the value of United States exports has always been greater than the worth of its imports. When we are selling more than we are buying we are said to have a ' ' favorable balance ' ' of trade. 694. Trade with South America. With its large popu- lation and big cities. South America is a great market for all kinds of manufactured goods. But until recently the United States has had only a small part of this trade. England and Germany years ago got into this market and taught the people to use their goods.^*^ The United States, on the other hand, never made any special effort 428 GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY to get into the South American market. There were no branches of American banks there, and American business firms had few men there who spoke Spanish. 695. Reciprocity. About 1880 America began to show more interest in South America. We have seen how Secretary Blaine brought about a meeting of Pan-Ameri- can delegates in Washington in 1 889. They recommended reciprocity treaties between the different countries (§598). As a result reciprocity was put in the McKinley Tariff Law of 1890 (§534). The substance of it was that the United States would admit free of duty, sugar, molasses, coffee, and hides if the South American states would receive our farm machinery, engines, shoes, and other goods on favorable terms. This was the real basis of the trade that has developed since that time. 696. Panama Canal. Among other things the building of the Panama Canal was intended to help trade between the United States and South America. One can see what a big change it makes when he looks at the map (p. 365). 697. The new attitude. Our business men are awake to the fact that there is a big market for their goods in South America and are training young men to go there as their agents. The bankers are opening branch banks in all the large cities, and the South Americans are being taught to use our products. Many meetings have been held to develop friendly feeHngs, and groups of business men have visited back and forth. The results are very encouraging. Our exports to South America have grown to fourteen times what they were in 1880. This is a fine gain. Our exports to Europe are five times what they were in 1880. In imports, too, we have done well. They are now seven times as great as they were at the beginning of this GROWTH OF FOREIGN TRADE 429 period. The five countries leading in business with the United States are in order Argentine, Brazil, Chile, Peru, and Uruguay. It is clear that the South American trade will be an increasing factor in our industrial life. 698. Merchant marine. Most of the commerce of the country was carried in American vessels until the Civil War. After that war our merchant marine went down rapidly and other nations got our sea trade. 2"*^ Americans could make more by putting their mon§y in railroads, farms, and factories. So our merchant ships almost dis- appeared from the sea, and Holland, England, Norway, and Germany carried our products and collected big freight bills. By 1907 only seven ships out of one hun- dred carrying our exports sailed under the American flag. Men who wanted to start steamship lines asked for a subsidy; that is, they asked Congress to help them with money just as it had helped the western railroads with gifts of land (§524). Others thought it best to let for- eigners carry our freight if they could do it cheaper than we ourselves could. The World War made a big difference in shipping. '-"^^ The ships of other nations were largely driven from the THE AMERICAN OCEAN LINER "NEW YORK," WHICH CROSSES THE OCEAN IN FIVE AND ONE-HALF DAYS seas, and we began to buy and build ships as fast as we could. In 1 9 18 our tonnage was forty times as big as it was in 1912. 430 GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY GROWTH OF INDUSTRY 699. Our national wealth. With about 6 per cent of the land surface of the globe and about 6 per cent of its population, the United States each year produces one- third of all the world's wealth. We have enough national wealth to give every man, woman, and child over $2,000, if it were evenly divided. In 1880 our national wealth was hardly one-fifth of what it is now. Its growth has been astonishing. It has grown even faster than the population. How has this growth been brought about? AGRICULTURE 700. Reasons for growth. There are several reasons for the great growth in farming during the last forty years. Some of them are: the increase in the area of farm land and the number of farms; the development and the greater use of farm machinery and of scientific methods of farming; the development of hard roads and railroads ; the higher standard of living and of intelligence among farmers. 701. Increase in farm land. The United States census tells us there were 4,000,000 farms in the United States - - - -o-:>, in 1880. In 1918 the number had in- creased to about 6,700,000. We have seen how the Home- stead Act opened the West to settle- ment, how the build- ing of the railroads brought settlers into that region (§§656-664) and how irrigation added to the farm lands (§560). THE STEAM PLOW Al WORK ON PRAIRIE FARM AGRICULTURE 431 702. Science and farming. In the great state uni- versities and agricultural colleges the laboratories are filled with scientists who are studying questions of farm work. Some of them are studying diseases of plants and how to get rid of them. It was in 1885 that a scientist gave the Bordeaux mixture to the world. By this mixture many bad diseases of plants may be kept down. In the labora- tory other scientists are studying diseases of animals and their prevention. Many of these diseases are due to germs. ^'^^ The scientists find and study the germ, and then show the farmer how to fight it and thus keep his cattle, hogs, and sheep in good health. In other laboratories scientists study soils. They learn what kind of fertilizers the soil needs to make it produce more. They tell the farmer how to use these fertiHzers. They tell him also how to make worn-out soil productive again. Other scientists study insect pests and how to deal with them. They have told the farmer how to fight the potato bug and the codling moth that ruins so many apples. They have studied the Hessian fly that killed half the wheat crop, and have found out that if the farmer delays planting until the flies that lay the eggs are gone, he will have no trouble. The cotton boll weevil that threatened the entire cotton crop a few years ago has had to surrender to the scientist. The grain farmer, the cattle and hog ^^ r^.^^_.^«,..=.^^^ J^^^ri'^r|^. raiser, the fruit " 1. J-."^ V.^SSfe [ i*^!^ grower, the cotton C^'^'>^*^^^ ""Jn^S^^ market gardener ^^^^^^-^'^'"-^-^^^^ are all dependent ^ ki RosENt^MoioR ^ttachld to mowing machines upon the work of the scientist. Our food supply could hardly be kept up without his help. 432 GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY 703. Farm machinery. Farm machinery saves human labor. A modern farm has about twice as much machin- ery on it as it had in 1880. With its gang plows, its gasoline tractors, its corn planters, and its riding culti- vators, its harvesters and motor trucks, it is a good deal like a factory. The farmer of today must know as much about machines as he does about plants and animals. STEAM HARVESTER AND THRESHER These machines lessen the cost of producing crops, and greatly increase the quantity raised. ^^i 704. Transportation. The farmer raises products to sell in the markets of the world, but if he has no means of carrying them to market he might as well go out of business. Modern farming and means of transporta- tion go together. Improvement of country roads and extension of railroad lines have been the two main ways of meeting the transportation problem. In 1880 there were 93,000 miles of railroad in the country. In 191 6 there were over 254,000 miles. There has been a wonder- ful improvement in country roads in the last few years. It now costs on the average a bit over 14 cents per bushel for the western farmer to get his wheat to the primary markets — Chicago, Minneapolis, Kansas City. If his wheat is going abroad, it will cost about 30 cents AGRICULTURE 433 iN OLD-TIME MUD RO^D IN EARLY SPRING per bushel to send it to Liverpool. By the extension of railroads and the cheap- ening of ocean freight the whole world has now be- c o m e the American farmer's market. The extension of railroads improves the city milk supply. Farmers living 300 miles from cities like New York now ship milk daily by special train to the city. In 1880 it was a rare thing for milk to be sent even 100 miles. Thus city dwellers get good fresh milk every day, and farmers who live hundreds of miles from the city can have successful dairy farms. One of the latest developments is the rural truck line. In many parts of the country gasoline trucks stop at the farmer's gate daily, and take on loads of butter, eggs, fruit, and p'oultry for the city. This is a great convenience to the farmer and relieves 5'y#' THE SVML RO\D IMPROVED 434 GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY the railroads of part of their work. Good railroad and good truck service raises the value of farm lands. 705. Storage. In some states the wheat crop is so big that the roads cannot carry it all to market at once. Hence it must be stored. The farmer cannot do this, so he hauls the wheat to the nearest town and' sells it to the people who run the storage elevators. ^^^ In many O^^ A MODERN ELEVATOR instances the farmer feels that he does not get enough money for his crop, but he must sell it at the elevator price or lose it. In some places the farmers have com- bined and built elevators of their own. In this way they can hold their wheat until they are ready to sell it. North Dakota has gone into the business of running storage elevators. 706. Cold storage. Eggs, meat, poultry, butter, and fruit can be kept for some months in cold storage. Many companies are buying these articles fresh from the farm and then keeping them in cold-storage houses until they can get a high price for them. In this way much of the mutton, butter, poultry, and eggs stay in these plants six months or more. In September, 191 9, there were AGRICULTURE 43 5 12,000,000 cases of eggs in cold storage in New York City. A case contains thirty dozen eggs. 707. Higher standards. The farmer's Hfe is not what it used to be. In addition to being a farmer, he is now a business man. He sells his goods in the markets of the world. He thus meets competition. He must have his daily newspaper and telephone so he can keep track of prices and do business quickly. He must know about animal and plant diseases and about soils. He must understand machinery. It is to his interest to keep him- self informed on public questions such as the tariff and trusts. He must be on good terms with the banker so he can borrow money when he wants it. He sees the relation between good schools and good farming and for this reason he wants good schools for his children. All this means that he is much more intelHgent and alert than was the farmer of 1880. The agricultural colleges, sending the results of their work to the farmer through the public schools, the farmers' institutes, and the demon- stration trains, have been very helpful in aiding him to meet the demands of a new time. The farmer has learned to live much more comfortably than he did in 1880. He eats better food, lives in a better house, rides in an automobile, and has his farm work done largely by machinery. He will work and plan harder than ever, use more machinery, and make more use of science in the future so that he can increase production and thus add to his income. In this way the rising standard of living constantly leads to better farming. 708. Farm renters. The picture of farming in the United States from 1880 to the present time is very encouraging, but there is another side that is not so pleasant. It has to do with farm renting. 436 GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY In 1880 one-fourth of the farms were occupied by farm tenants or renters. By 19 10 the number had risen to almost two-fifths, and it has greatly increased since then. There are several reasons for this. It takes more money now than formerly to own and run a farm. In the North Central states it is not uncommon for farm lands to cost as much as $300 an acre. This means that an ordinary farm of 120 acres is worth about $36,000, a sum so large that only well-to-do people can buy land and become farmers. The farmer, too, must be able to put a good deal of money into machinery and labor. Many successful farmers place tenants on their farms, move to the cities, and live on their incomes. Big companies are formed to buy up farms in the same neighborhood and throw them together. They farm on a "big business" scale, hiring tenants to do the work.^^^ Many students of the subject think this habit of rent- ing farms is bad for the country. They say that the renter does not keep as much live stock as the farmer- owner and lets the soil run down. Expecting to move to some other farm after while, the renter fails to keep up the improvements. In this way some of the best farms in the country are losing their fertility, and a permanent tenant class is appearing. The highest percentage of farm lands held by tenants is in the North Central states — Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa. 709. Land banks. Farmers have long complained of the high rates of interest they have been compelled to pay when they borrowed money at the banks. They also said they needed money for longer periods than the banks were willing to grant. This led to an agitation for MANUFACTURING 437 the founding of some special kind of bank to meet the needs of the farmer. In 191 6 Congress met this demand by estabHshing Federal Farm Loan banks. There are twelve of them. When a farmer wants to borrow money, he forms an association of at least ten farmers who are willing to back one another. Through this association they are able to borrow money from the Land bank in their district. 710. The Department of Agriculture. The Depart- ment of Agriculture at Washington supervises the farming industry of the country. It is organized in thirteen main divisions. The divisions that look after forests, public roads, markets, and animal industries are the most impor- tant. The Department maintains laboratories for experi- mental purposes at the state agricultural colleges and universities. It pubHshes bulletins upon all subjects of interest to the farmer. About $28,000,000 per year is required to keep up the Department, but it is worth many times that sum to the country. ^S'* MANUFACTURING 711. Manufacturing and agriculture. Agriculture was easily developed in the United States because soil, climate, and people were all favorable to it. It was naturally the first and main industry. Not until 1880 did manufac- turing pass agriculture in the value of its annual product. In spite of this gain the census tells us that more than one- third of our workers are engaged in agriculture while over one-fourth are engaged in manufacturing. From the standpoint, therefore, of the number of people engaged, agriculture is still our leading industry. 712. Manufacturing. Many factors enter into manu- facturing: land, labor, capital, management, transporta- .438 GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY tion, raw materials, and markets. We have become the greatest manufacturing nation in the world because we are specially favored in these respects: (i) We have a rich soil that yields great quantities of raw materials such as cotton, cereals, meat, and lumber. In another class of raw materials are ores, such as iron and copper, and petroleum. (2) The intelligence and industry as well as the ingenuity of our laboring people are largely respon- sible for our success in manufacturing. Our schools try to educate the child of the worker as well as of the rich man. There are no social distinctions. The better edu- cated a man is, the better worker he is. Our factories and mills have many thousands of superintendents and foremen who have risen from the ranks by hard work. (3) We have abundant capital. Our production of wealth is so great that a large surplus is left after we have used what we need. This surplus is used as capital in the production of more goods. It takes the form of machines, THE LARGEST LUMBER MILL IN THE WORLD tools, buildings, and railroads. Thus our industries grow. (4) The management of a great manufacturing MANUFACTURING 439 plant is a difficult task. Men should be trained for this work. Many universities have courses to train men >-^.1v •i:^^ :---lT ..^*«r K^^^m^- -^^^i^ iw^^ ii ^ ^: - to become superintendents and managers. Some large estabHshments, such as the General Electric Company, maintain schools for training these young men to take places in their plants. (5) Our transportation system of railroads, country roads, and Great Lakes is the best in the world. We have about 40 per cent of all the railroad Hnes in the world, and thousands of miles of hard- surfaced road. (6) We have markets both at home and abroad. Our population has high standards of living and demands high-grade manufactured goods in hundreds of forms that the common people of Europe have never had. 713. Science and manufacturing. We have seen how much modern science helps agriculture (§702). It is just as useful to manufacturing. Until 1880 manufacturers worked largely by "hit or miss" plans or by imitation. 440 GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY but that day is gone. Now the manufacturer uses the very best methods and the best machinery to be had. The universities and technical schools prepare young men to be managers and superintendents, but they do much more than this. All the colleges operating under the Morrill Act, and many others, have big laboratories and experimental stations as well as shops. Here young men study materials of which manufactures are made. They learn the nature of the materials and how they can best be used. Manufacturers have found that it pays to keep trained scientists at work in their factories. They are trying to improve the product as well as to make it cost less. For a long time Germany led the world in this use of scien- tists in industry and enjoyed a great advantage. But she no longer has this advantage, as the manufacturers of the United States have adopted a similar plan. 714. Direct production. In the pioneer stage of our life there was very little exchange of goods between com- munities at a distance from one another. The people of every neighborhood grew their crops and raised cattle, sheep, hogs, and poultry. They sheared the sheep, spun the yarn, wove and dyed the cloth, and made the gar- ments. They butchered the cattle, tanned the hides, and made their own shoes and harness. They cut down trees and made their carts, plows, and buildings. They salted their meats and baked their bread. They dug the clay and made the bricks they used. About the only articles not produced in the immediate neighborhood of the early settlers were iron, salt, gunpowder, coffee, and spices. These articles they got from peddlers. Not much money was to be seen. Now what was the reason for this state of affairs? It MANUFACTURING 441 was the lack of roads and means of transportation. Each group had to produce its own goods. There was no other way. To the people of today, living in comfort with the products of the whole world brought to their doors, the life of that time seems hard and poor. It was the time of direct production. 715. Indirect production. Let us look at production as it is carried on today. In the old days, there were only a few distinct occupations, now there are thousands. The work is so divided up that each producer is expected to know only one trade and to work at that. The farmer raises crops and grows live stock; the carpenter builds houses; the printer sets type; the tailor makes clothes; the baker makes bread; the tanner prepares the hide. Each man follows his own trade, develops skill and speed, and exchanges his product for those of other producers. The result is that each one gets a larger quantity and a better quality of goods than he had when he tried to produce all these different articles for himself. The growth of this system of exchange depends upon two things: an increasing supply of money and growth of the means of transportation. When we compare the life of today with the life of the frontier in this matter of occupations, we see the enor- mous influence of good country roads, railroads, and waterways upon our industry. Today we live in an era of indirect production. Hardly anybody produces all he uses, but by producing for others he gets all the things he wants. 716. Division of labor. Indirect production or division of labor is carried far in the modern factory. Each workman has just one thing to do. For instance, in a shoe factory there are men who do nothing but run 442 GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY stitching machines, but there are half a dozen kinds of stitching to be done, so there are half a dozen stitchers, each one running his own pecuHar kind of machine. Others run buttonhole machines, or punch holes for eye- lets, and still others run machines that put in the hooks. In all there are over one hundred different operations, each performed by a different worker. Another illustration is a butcher's gang in a meat-packing plant. It is estimated that thirty men are used in cutting up an animal, each man performing just one kind of work. 717. Use of machines. Division of labor depends upon the use of machines. They have become the most important feature of modern industry. Indeed the present time is often called "the era of machine production." Machines are used because they save human labor; they give a bigger output at lower cost.^^^ Our leading position in manufacturing is due largely to the readiness of the manufacturers to use machines and division of labor in their factories. 718. Geographical distribution. An industrial map of the United States shows that most of the factories are in the region east of the Mississippi and north of the Ohio and Potomac. The first ten states rank as follows in their manufactures: New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Massachusetts, Ohio, New Jersey, Michigan, Wisconsin, Indiana, and Missouri. Of these, each of the first six produces goods worth more than a billion dollars a year. New York's products run up to over three billion dollars a year. 719. The Pacific coast. The Pacific coast is so far from the manufacturing centers of the East that the people on the coast have been compelled largely to develop their own factory system. They have made a good start, MANUFACTURING 443 California ranking eleventh and Washington twenty- first among the states. 720. The South. The southern people, too, are begin- ning to build factories. Alabama has a large iron and steel business. It centers at Birmingham, where the essentials of iron manufacturing, coal, iron ore, and Hme- stone, are found near together.'"'^ North Carolina, South INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS IN THE SOUTH Carolina, and Georgia are now manufacturing a large part of their cotton product. They formerly sent it to New England to be turned into cloth. The value of cotton goods made in these states in 19 10 was more than four times as great as in 1880. 721. Further localization. It is interesting to note that factories engaged in the same kind of industry try to collect around some one city. This is often due to the fact that the industry got started there in the first place and that new factories afterward located there to get the use of trained labor. Thus Chicago is the great 444 GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY meat-packing center, New York City, the ready-made clothing center, Troy, New* York, makes most of our collars and cuffs, Philadelphia leads in carpet making. Detroit is widely known in connection with automobile manufacturing. 722. How the cities rank. The census says that our big cities in the value of their manufactured goods rank as follows: New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, St. Louis, Cleveland, Detroit, Pittsburgh, Boston, Buffalo, and Milwaukee. This counts only the production inside the city Hmits. If the count were extended to the district around each city, the ranking would probably be different. 723. By-products. In some industries there is natu- rally a good deal of waste. Until 1880 little effort was made to find uses for this waste. Manufacturers looked upon it as a nuisance and burned it or dumped it in a near-by river. Since that time a great change has come S^ii "'^^ '-'■ " ' about Scientists have (^ '^ „ ' shown the manufacturers ") nf^ ^-^^Z^^^^^'t producing goods that the VN OIL FIELD IN PENNSYLVANIA world wants or needs. These wastes are now called "by- products." Big factories are much more able than small ones to take care of their by-products. MANUFACTURING 445 A good illustration of the use of by-products is found in the cotton manufacturing industry. Formerly the seed, when it was separated from the fiber, was thrown away. Now the hull of the seed is used for ten different purposes, among which are stock feed, fertilizer, fuel, packing, and explosives. The meat of the seed, treated in various ways, yields no fewer than forty commercial products, among which are fertilizers, dyestuff, stock feed, cooking oil, and oils used in glycerin, candles, washing powder, soap, linoleum, and oilcloth. Another illustration of the use of by-products is in the refining of petroleum. That business was established to produce kerosene, but now some of the by-products are more important than the original main product. In this group are gasoline, benzine, naphtha, lubricating oils, paraffin, and asphalt. A few of the many other by- products of petroleum are coke, dye stuffs, tar, and vaseline. 724. Slaughtering and meat packing. The slaughter- ing and meat packing industry centered at Cincinnati until about i860. In that year Chicago took first place, a position it still holds. Large plants are located at Kansas City, Omaha, and Oklahoma City. There is a minute division of labor in these plants, and by-products are carefully looked after. The refrigerator car is an important part of this business j^" by means of it fresh meats are sent all over the country. 725. Iron and steel. It would be a hopeless task to try to count all the uses of iron and steel. When we think of railroads, locomotives, stoves, machines of numberless kinds, saws, tools, hardware, barbed wire, structural iron and steel, firearms and steamships, we see how true is the saying that this is the "iron age." This industry 446 GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY centered at Pittsburgh, Pehnsylvania, in the early days because the coal, iron ore, and limestone were found there. The Pittsburgh district has always retained first place. Other manufacturing districts that have been developed are the Birmingham, Alabama, district; the Ohio district, around Cleveland and Youngstown; and the Chicago district, including South Chicago and Joliet, Illinois, and Gary, Indiana. A wonderful system of water and rail transportation brings the ore from the Lake Superior region to these manufacturing plants. ^^^ Scientists have studied the nature of this metal until they have invented processes of producing different kinds of steel goods for different purposes. Between 1899 and 1 9 14 the value of the product in this industry almost trebled, the number of workers employed rising from 745,000 to 1,061,000. THE AGE OF INVENTIONS 447 726. Cotton goods. New England was the early home of cotton manufactures (§278). It still leads all other sections. This is largely because of the labor situation. New England has a "dependable labor supply, while the South is hampered in this respect. The negro does not make a good machine tender, and the supply of white labor in the South is limited. In spite of this handicap, the South has recently made good progress in establishing cotton mills (§720). The states rank as follows in cotton manufacture: Massachusetts, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Rhode Island. THE AGE OF INVENTIONS 727. The inventor. The inventor, knowing of some need of society, tries to create a machine or device that will satisfy that need. Thomas Edison saw the need of a small electric light for use in offices and homes. He made hundreds of experiments and at last found th^t a little strip of bamboo was what he wanted. He turned this into charcoal, put it in a glass bulb from which the air was exhausted, and connected it with an electric battery. He had invented the incandescent lamp. Wilbur and Orville Wright of Dayton, Ohio, knew that the world needed flying machines. For years they worked patiently, solving one problem after another, until they realized that all they needed was a high-speed gasoline engine. They built such an engine, and on December 17, 1903, made a successful flight. The problem of flying had been solved. After the original invention is made, inventors use it as a starting point for many improvements. Thus Edison's lamp has been developed into the hydrogen- tungsten lamp, and the Wright brothers' crude machine GROWTH IN TRADE AND INDUSTRY has grown into the fast scouting machine that darts across the sky at the rate of 120 miles an hour. Some inventions are accidental discoveries, but most of them are the result of long, patient study. -^^ 728. Patents. Our government has always felt the importance of encouraging inventors. In 1790 our first patent law was passed. It was largely the work of Thomas Jefferson. He is called "the father of the patent system." By the patent law the govern- ment gives an inventor for seven- teen years the sole right to manu- facture and sell his invention. Of course he can sell this right if he wishes to. Americans lead all the rest of the world in invention. The year 1918 saw almost 40,000 patents issued, while since 1790 they num- ber over a million and a quarter. 729. Inventions since the Civil War. It would be useless to try to mention even the most impor- tant inventions of the last fifty years, but we may name a few of them. In the field of electricity there is the telephone, the electric light, the electric street car and interurban, the wireless telephone THE PROGRESS OF ILLUMINATION FROM CANDLE TO LAMP, TO GAS, TO ELECTRICITY THE AGE OF INVENTIONS 449 and telegraph and the X-ray. Electric power made at central stations is sent out over wires to factories to run machines, and electric locomotives pull long freight trains across the Rockies. Then we have the moving-picture machine, the fountain pen, the phonograph, the air- brake for railroad cars, the typewriter, the automobile, and the many wonderful machines now used on farm and in factory. Any student can think of many others. SUGGESTED READINGS References for teachers: Bassett, Short History, 478, 479, 665, 679, 680, 685-689, 690, 748, 818-821; Bishop and Keller, Industry and Trade; Bogart, Economic History, chaps, xxviii, xxxii; Galpin, Rural Life; Day, A History of Commerce. References for pupils: Wheeler, Thomas Edison; Rocheleau, Geography of Commerce and Industry; Sanford, The Story of Agriculture in the United States; Weed, Farm Friends and Farm Foes; Gibson, The Romance of Modern Manufacturing; Hodge, Nature Study and Life; Darrow, The Boy^s Own Book of Great Inventions; James, Readings in American History, No. 103. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS I. Topic, "How we can build up trade with South America." 2. Write an argument in favor of a ship subsidy. 3. Imagine yourself an apple grower in Kansas. Tell of your fight with the enemies of your apple trees. 4. Do you think a state should go into the elevator business? Topic, "State-owned elevators in North Dakota." 5. Compare the conveniences of the farmer's life today with what it was fifty years ago. 6. Topic, "What would the world be without steel?" 16 CHAPTER XXVIII THE WORLD WAR AMERICA FINDS IT HARD TO BE NEUTRAL 730. The explosion. The great majority of our people were looking forward to a long time of peace when the year 1914 came in. Suddenly in the summer the greatest war in history broke out. The war was the greatest if we think of the number of nations fighting, the number of men killed, the amount of property destroyed, and the difficulty of settling its problems. 731. The immediate causes. In June Archduke Ferdi- nand, heir to the throne of Austria, was killed by a bomb. This was the spark that set the world on fire. Austria held Serbia responsible and immediately made demands on her to which no nation could submit. Germany, with the largest and best trained army in the world, backed up Austria. Russia stood behind Serbia; and France was ready to support Russia; Turkey and Bulgaria came into the war on the side of Germany. Just before the crisis came, England appealed to Ger- many to stop war preparations, but she refused. In a few days vast crowds of German soldiers were sweeping into Belgium, aiming at the heart of France — Paris. 732. The effects of Germany's violation of Belgian neutraUty. Belgium is a small state, and the great nations of Europe had taken a solemn pledge never to attack her. When Germany broke that pledge, Great Britain jumped to Belgium's defense, and to her own, too, for everybody saw that England would be the next victim if France were crushed. 450 AMERICA TRIES TO BE NEUTRAL 45 1 The British army, not large, joined the French, and they drove the Germans back in the first Battle of the Marne. The British navy, the largest in the world, swept German commerce from the seas and blocked up the German navy in German waters. Only the Ger- man submarines could slip out from their hiding places in the North Sea and menace the British and French fleets. In Eastern waters Japan joined the cause of the Allies, and a bit later Italy threw herself into the war against the Germans and Austrians. 733. America declares herself neutral. The people of the United States were in a hard place. They had come from the very nations now fighting. How could they be neutral although President Wilson sent out his appeal to them to treat the warring countries in a friendly manner ? How could they when they saw fathers, brothers, or hus- bands falling in battle? The American government might be neutral, but the American people were not neutral in their feelings. 734. Why America found it difficult to be neutral. The nations at war influenced their friends in America to make sentiment for them. Just as in the time of the Napoleonic Wars (§289), the trade of the world fell to America. American merchants seized the opportunity. They not only carried vast quantities of food and clothing to England and France, but turned their shops and foundries to making shot, shells, guns, cannon, airplanes, and other things used in war. None of these went to Germany because the Brit- ish fleet controlled the sea. Friends of Germany objected to our helping her ene- mies. But America had a right to trade with the nations 452 THE WORLD WAR at war and could hardly give up this trade to please Germany. In fact, in a way, it would have been a blow at the Allies to have done so. America was ready at any time to trade with Germany. She did trade with the "Deutschland," a German submarine, which came to America. 735. America protests to England and to Germany. In spite of the fact that we were sending millions of trade to England' she searched our ships for letters, papers, and other things intended for Germany. The United States protested against England's acts. But the acts of Germany were worse than England's. Her submarines sank passenger ships without attempting to save the passengers. On May 7, 191 5, a German submarine shocked the world by sinking the "Lusitania," a giant English passenger .ship, with many on board.^^" Over one hundred of the victims were American citizens. Within a short time a number of ships were sent to the bottom of the sea, some of them belonging to America. President Wilson warned Germany and demanded that she settle for the damage done. Germany simply ex- pressed her "regret" that American lives had been lost. Another protest was immediately sent, declaring that the United States would be compelled to cease friendly rela- tions if the sinking of merchant ships was not stopped. Germany then promised to save the lives of American citi- zens in case she needed to sink passenger ships. 736. Rise of a war sentiment in America. A year had passed since the sinking of the "Lusitania." A powerful sentiment in favor of war was growing up in America. The demand arose that the United States should increase its army and navy. But the government at Washington gave little heed to this cry for preparation for war."'"' AMERICA TRIES TO BE NEUTRAL 453 737. Presidential campaign of 191 6. When the Demo- crats of 1 91 6 faced their declaration for one term made in 191 2, they were silent. They nominated Wilson for a second term. The Republican and Progressive parties met in Chicago at the same time. Roosevelt was nomi- nated by the Progressives, and Hughes by the Republicans. Roosevelt withdrew in favor of Hughes, a former governor of New York, where he had fought the bosses as Roosevelt had done. Hughes resigned from the Supreme Court to make the race. The Socialists and Prohibitionists both had candidates in the field. With the practical union of the Progressive and Republican parties again, the race became a close one. 738. The issues and the result. The issues of the campaign were not many. The Republicans asserted that the Democrats had practically refused to protect American citizens in Mexico and on the high seas. They declared that Wilson had sacrificed the nation's honor to keep out of war. Hughes attacked the manner of putting through the claims of the railroad men for eight hours' work a day. The Democrats pointed to Wilson's record and took pride in the fact that "he kept us out of war." This was a favorite banner in Wilson processions. The election itself was full of interest. Wilson won in 191 2 with fewer votes of the people than Taft and Roose- velt. His vote in the Electoral College was larger than both of theirs. Wilson won in 191 6 by over 400,000 votes of the people, the largest majority ever given a Demo- cratic president. His majority of electoral votes was very small. 739. America breaks with Germany. Early in the year 191 7 Germany sent the United States word that she proposed to break the power of Great Britain by a 454 THE WORLD WAR wide-spread submarine attack. She offered to give the United States free passage for one passenger ship a week to one port in England. What was to become of our milHons and milHons of trade going to England? President Wilson immediately ordered the German ambassador to leave the country and recalled our ambas- sador from Germany. Germany was as good as her word : she sank over two hundred ships in February alone. Among these were American ships carrying American citizens. These acts were stirring up the war feeling. 740. Germans plotting in America. From the first the people of the United States suffered at the hands of Ger- man plotters. Germany had hired agents to stir up trouble among our laboring men and to blow up our fac- tories engaged in turning out munitions. Other agents were paid to put bombs secretly on vessels carrying war material to the Allies. Newspaper men received German gold for setting the cause of Germany before the American people in a good light. So dangerous had these agents become that President Wilson was compelled to dismiss the Austrian ambassador before the break with Germany. Early in January, 191 7, the German minister to Mexico got word from Germany to offer to restore the states of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona to Mexico. All this was to come about providing Mexico would join Japan in a war on the United States. 741. The Kaiser a ruler by divine right. Why did Germany find it so hard to get on with us, a friendly nation ? Why did she fill this country with spies and paid agents? Simply because the Kaiser trusted no nation, no matter how friendly. The Kaiser claimed to rule Germany by divine right just as James I did England a long time ago (§43).^^- AMERICA TRIES TO BE NEUTRAL 455 The Kaiser was an autocrat whose wish was law. It was dangerous in Germany to criticize him. But many- thousands of the German people were opposed to him because he had so much power as the head of the army and navy. He influenced the schools to teach how much stronger and better the German race was than any other. Many of the people of Germany had come to believe that no nation was able to beat them in war. To make his power more secure his picture was placed in an important position in every public school; the pupils were taught that their first duty was to obey the Kaiser. 742. The Kaiser dreams of world power. Before this Kaiser came to the throne, the German rulers began attacking the nations around them. They took a part of Denmark (1864); Austria was the next victim (1866); France fell into the trap and lost Alsace-Lorraine in the War of 1870-71. With the present Kaiser on the throne, activity of another kind began. Now German influence began to extend itself out into the world. Germany obtained colonies in Africa. She established posts in China, planned and schemed in South America and Mexico. She planted business houses in all parts of the world. She had already begun to build a great navy, second only to Great Britain's. In this way the Kaiser won the support of the big business men in Germany. The Kaiser encouraged friendship and marriage with the smaller countries to the eastward. He even visited Turkey and made friends with the Turks. It began to be whispered about that the time was coming when the Berlin-Bagdad railroad, connecting Germany with the East, would be a real thing. 456 THE WORLD WAR England feared that Germany was aiming at India. With the largest and best trained army in the world and a growing navy there seemed no limit to the Kaiser's ambition, except the British navy. AMERICx\ AND THE ALLIES MAKE WAR TOGETHER 743» The United States joins the Allies in the war (April 6, 1917). President Wilson went before Congress PRESIDENT WILSON ADDRESSES CONGRESS and repeated in telling words the wrongs that Germany had done, not only against the United States, but against the civilized world. He declared that "vessels of every kind, whatever their flag, the character of their cargo, their destination, their errand, have been ruthlessly sent to the bottom without warning." Germany had already attacked us, he said, and hence he only asked Congress to declare that Germany was making war upon us. On April 6, Congress, amid a crowded house, sent forth the decree that threw America on the side of the Allies. Hundreds of pacifists and pro-Germans were in Wash- AMERICA JOINS THE ALLIES 457 ington to prevent this declaration, but all in vain. It should be said, however, that thousands of Americans whose parents were German were loyal to America. 744. Not the government alone but the people go to war. Since the war opened, thousands of Americans had been taking part in it, some as soldiers in the Canadian army, others as nurses under the Red Cross, and many as helpers in preparing bandages and in giving money. Now all the people went in ■.'^^^ millions as soldiers ; mil- lions of farmers organized to raise more food; millions of women joined the Red Cross to prepare bandages, knit socks and sweaters ; and other thousands volunteered to go to the hospitals at the front. The doctors, too, organized and went to the front to care for the wounded on the field of battle and in the hospitals. Ministers of the gospel volunteered to go with the boys CO advise them on moral and religious questions. The RED CROSS WORKERS Y.M.C.A. and the Y.W.C.A., the Salvation Army, the Hebrew Association, and the Knights of Columbus went into the war to do their part. 458 THE WORLD WAR The business and professional men in every city and town organized to give aid. Sometimes they aided the government in the campaigns for getting money, or sat on boards of examiners to decide on the fitness of the young men who were drafted. There was, therefore, no class or party in America which did not throw itself into the war with all its power, except the radicals. The Sociahst party declared itself opposed to the war, but it split in two as a result. THE AMERICAN GOVERNMENT IN THE WAR 745. The government. had to do everything at once. The American people were a people who always had stood for peace and opposed war. Hence, never in our history have we been prepared for war when it came. We were less prepared than ever for this war, if one thinks of what had to be done. Hence we say, the "government had to do everything at once." 746. Congress voted men and money. Congress went to its work with great energy. It voted almost every measure to carry on the war that the President asked for. It was a great task which we had undertaken. How could we send an army across the sea in time and of a sufficient size to be of any help? We soon had a part of our navy in European waters helping to fight the submarines. But we needed to build all sorts of ships — submarines, submarine chasers, dreadnaughts, super- dreadnaughts, vessels to carry soldiers, and ships to carry food and guns. Airships for fighting had to be built by the thousands. We knew how to make airships to sail the air, but to make them to carry bombs and guns was a new problem. We were a bit slow in getting American airships ready. AMERICA IN THE WAR 459 American inventors went to work to improve machine- guns, big guns, tanks, and airplane engines. Some entirely new devices like the depth bomb, used in fighting submarines, were invented. 747. Raising an army. How shall we get our millions of men prepared to fight ? "''^ " Volunteers make the finest soldiers," said those who remembered the Civil War. But the government decided on a more democratic way — the "selective draft." Congress ordered all men between ^C r\ ^. .WJ L f/*\JVhl1^rff?Cf^ "''^i*''"}' -'^s.v^z&rjy--^ ^^^ A TRAINING CAMP IN THE UNITED STATES twenty and thirty-one to present themselves before ' ' war- boards." These boards selected those that were fit and sent them to training camps in different parts of the country. Later all between eighteen and forty-five were summoned. An army of carpenters was at work building the train- ing camps, which looked like little cities. Here the boys drilled many hours each day. When not drilling, those who could not read and write and those who could not 460 THE WORLD WAR Speak the English language were put in schools where they soon got a start in education. The other boys :5^^, --.^>-t -\i//;"^ ^'^-^^^feS^- A Y. M. C. A. HUT AT ONE OF THE U. S. A. CAMPS were busy with athletics of every kind or attending enter- tainments given by lectures, by motion picturers, or even attending theaters. On Sunday they had an opportunity to hear great preachers. The purpose of this was to keep the boys "fit" physically and to keep up their spirits. 748. Pershing goes to France. While the boys were being trained, General Pershing was sent to France with 25,000 men who had seen service on the borders of Mexico (§596). How happy the French people were to see the splendid-looking American soldiers! These boys were just a vanguard of the millions yet to come. It made the French people think of the time, long ago, when they gave Lafayette (§208), DeKalb (§229), and Rochambeau (§233) with thousands of soldiers to aid in the American Revolution. It was a touching scene when General Pershing, sur- rounded by the great men of France at the tomb of Lafayette, said: "Lafayette we are here!" 749. Congress gives the President power over the rail- roads, telegraph, coal mines, and food supply. The President put the railroads under the control of Secretary AMERICA IN THE WAR • 461 McAdoo, who immediately cut out trains, combined roads, and gave trains carrying munitions, food supplies, and troops the right of way. Everything else had to wait. It was necessary for the government to control the carrying of food, clothes, munitions, and soldiers to the coast cities. Our allies needed these things badly. Ger- many had been pressing them hard for three years, and their soldiers were wearing out. H. A. Garfield, president of Williams College, was given charge of the coal supply. He sent the coal where it was most needed and for a short time closed all factories and other places of bussiness not doing work necessary for the war. Herbert C. Hoover, who had control of the food sent to Europe for starving people, was given authority over our food supplies. He ordered wheatless and meatless days for the table. Housewives had a busy time furnishing their tables with "war-bread." But the great majority of women did their part. 750. How the government obtained money to run the war. In the Civil War the government asked the people for millions of money, but in this war it called for billions. In the first place the government raised billions of money by increasing taxes. It put a heavy tax on incomes of men who had plenty of money or other property. It taxed heavily the profits of industry. Secondly, it raised billions more by borrowing from the people. To make the loan very democratic the govern- ment issued bonds as small as fifty dollars. To encourage the young people to loan their money to the government, it sold War Savings Stamps. 751. What the government did with these billions. (i) It loaned $10,000,000,000 to the Allies, who were 462 THE WORLD WAR GENERAL FOCH really fighting our battles till we could get men ready. (2) It took large sums to pay the soldiers, the sailors, the men working in the shipyards, and in the camps. The government raised from all sources nearly $30,- 000,000,000. This great sum our people must pay in taxes. Only those who bought bonds and Thrift Stamps will ever get any of this money back. 752. The desperate situa- tion on the western front. Russia had broken down and her soldiers were going home. The Germans were rushing soldiers from the Russian front for a last desperate drive on Paris before the American army could reach France. This was in the spring and summer of 19 18. A desperate call came for American soldiers to aid in saving Paris. Only a few hundred thousand had reached France. The others were still training in American camps. Foch, a great French general, was given control in March over the Allied troops. Before there had been three armies: Belgian, British, and French. Now these fought as one man.^^^ This change came none too soon, for in March the Germans began their last great effort. The whole Allied world was anxious lest the Germans should break through the British line. The line wavered, but the French came. The fighting was desperate, but the city of Amiens, a great railroad center, was saved. AMERICA IN THE WAR 463 In a few days the Germans struck at the French Hne, which Hkewise was driven back but finally held. The Germans met a new foe, the Americans. The first soldiers sent over were placed among British and French veterans to get used to the new ways of fighting. These men, with the Second Division, at Chateau-Thierry helped to block the last advance of the Germans toward Paris. 753. Rushing troops to France. The need was desper- ate. The Allies were calling loudly, although we were sending 50,000 men each month at the beginning of 1918. But when the last mighty effort of the Germans threat- ened to carry them to Paris and to the English Channel, our troops had to be rushed over. But where were the ships to carry the men? "They cannot be found," said the Germans. "Besides, how can the Americans get over in the face of our submarines ? And then the Americans are not good soldiers, for they have been trained for only a short time." Ships seemed to come from every- where. We seized nearly one hun- dred German vessels in our ports. We rented ships from neutral nations. England gave us some and the other Allies a few, and we added some new ships which we had built. To meet the crisis our allies were willing to turn BUILDING NEW SHIPS 464 THE WORLD WAR ships carrying food to Europe into ships to carry our soldier boys. War vessels guarded the ships carrying our men so that no submarines dared come near them. The depth bomb was the terror of the submarine ! Ten thousand soldiers reached France every day in July, 1918, and by the first of November we had 2,ooo;Ooo men in France. 754. The Allied counter-drive brings victory. The Americans in the summer formed a separate army under General Pershing. Foch was now ready to strike back with all the power of the united armies (July 18). One blow after another fell rapidly on the Germans. The German line was broken in many places, and the mighty guns roared from the North Sea to Switzerland. Vx-'^^-'"'^i^-. **' i /J. *ii»«tf BK, (jUN in action on THE TRENCH FROM The American marines-'''' had already covered them- selves with glory at Belleau Wood, and now the American AMERICA IN THE WAR 465 soldiers won a brilliant victory at St. Mihiel. There 500,000 Americans met the best troops Germany had, L.-^f^#sAkl DESTROYING A SUBMARINE captured 16,000, and went smashing through their lines. But in the Argonne Forest was fought the biggest battle Americans ever took part in. Over a million men in khaki fought like heroes for over a month. They drove the Germans reeling back toward the Rhine. ^^^ T*he British and the French had been hurling back the Ger- mans, too. The German people could not believe the news of defeat. 755. Trouble in Germany. The work of the British and American navies had been choking the life out of Germany. Her people were hungry and tired of fighting. They threatened to rise in revolt. Austria had been urging peace, for she had been defeated by the Italians. Bulgaria (September 30) and Turkey (October 31) had quit fighting. Austria, too, ceased fighting (November). x\ll at once, in November, came the news of a threat- ened revolution on the part of the German people. Next, the Kaiser fled to Holland. ^•'^ This was Germany's situa- tion when she asked Foch for terms of an armistice. 466 THE WORLD WAR 756. The terms given to Germany. The German gen- erals came bHndfolded to Foch's camp, while the Allied guns were booming all along the battle line. On November 11, Foch agreed to the following terms: The Germans were to quit Belgium and France, and the Allies were to occupy that part of Germany west of the Rhine. The Germans were to surrender most of their AMERICAN TROOPS IN FRANCE cannon, machine guns, airplanes, locomotives, freight cars, warships, submarines, and merchant ships to the Allies. The common man was on top in Germany. Thus the last great stronghold of aristocracy had gone down before democracy. The guns now ceased to roar, and the world looked on a broken and torn Europe. 757. What the war cost in men. The number of men killed in the war staggers the imagination. More than 7,000,000 men fell in battle and twice as many more were wounded. More than 100,000 American boys lost their lives, and many times that number were wounded. That most of these men were young and strong of body. What a mighty loss the world suffered ! It appears even greater when we remember the millions of widows AMERICA AFTER THE WAR 467 and orphans the war made. The cost of this war is gigantic when to all this we add the suffering in mind and body it caused. The cost in money and property. The money cost no man knows. We can say the nations spent over $200,- 000,000,000. How much is this? The mind staggers at its size. But this is not all: the sinking of ships and cargoes, the destruction of hundreds of villages and cities, the tearing up of acres and acres of farm lands and their growing crops, the destruction of the mines and factories of Belgium and France make a loss that is unthinkable. War is certainly an awful thing, but if this World War saved to the people the right to rule themselves as they wish, the price paid was not too great. AMERICA AFTER THE WAR 758. The making of peace. The men appointed by the Allies met in a suburb of Paris, called Versailles. President Wilson journeyed to Europe, and was gladly received by all the people because they were happy that America came into the war and because the common people felt that Wilson stood for democracy. Largely through Wilson's influence the League of Nations was made a part of the treaty of peace. These men worked until June, 191 9, in getting the treaty ready. The Germans were called to sign it. They did sign it under great protest. They said the treaty was too hard on Germany. She had to give up Alsace-Lorraine and all her colonies; she had to reduce her arm}^ to 100,000 men and agree not to train soldiers as in former years; she must not build up a great navy as before; she must pay $25,000,000,000 to Belgium and France. 468 THE WORLD WAR 759. The League of Nations. The first purpose of the League was to make war forever impossible. This League is given the power to shut off all commerce with a nation which goes to war. It may even use force, if necessary, to prevent war. To encourage peace each nation belonging to the League pledges itself to cut down its army and navy and to submit disputes with another nation to a grand court made up of the great judges of different nations. If any nation violates its pledge, it can be expelled from the League. 760. The Senate fails to ratify the treaty. On the return of President Wilson, he called a number of senators to the White House to talk over the treaty. The Senate opposed the treaty, because they did not like the League part of it. President Wilson resolved to go on a speaking tour in defense of the League. He went as far as the Pacific, but while returning he suffered a stroke which made it impos- sible for him to speak further. The battle went on in the Senate, and the question of the League became the main topic of debate in the cam- paign of 1920. 761. The economic and industrial effects of the war on America* The war tore the industry of the world to pieces. In America it set thousands of men to work in munition factories, in machine shops making instruments of war, in factories for producing airplanes, in shipyards for building new kinds of ships, and in many other new works. Not only were the men in strange shops making strange things, but they were working for wages greater than they had ever received before. Thousands of men were taken out of their usual lines of work. This made labor scarce in these lines of work. AMERICA AFTER WAR 469 and wages went still higher. The want of labor caused a shortage in living suppHes of all kinds and in turn caused prices to rise higher. The government issued milHons of paper money. This disturbed prices again, and they soared still higher. The workingman called for a higher wage after the war. When he did not get it he struck. There was an era of high prices, extravagance, and profiteering. The fall in prices did not begin until September, 1920. 762. The great strike era (1919-20). In many indus- tries it was almost impossible for wages to increase as fast as prices. In many cases workmen had agreed to work for a time at certain wages. But prices were still rising. The workmen in New York City engaged in loading and unloading ships went on a strike. Ships could not be unloaded. Many of them carried perishable products, and the loss was great. The steel workers struck and tried to stop the making of steel. They demanded shorter hours and more pay. Rioting occurred in some places, and General Wood was called with troops to keep order. President Wilson appointed a committee made up of strikers, the steel owners, and the public. These men met to patch up the difficulty, but could not agree. The strike ran on, but the people got the impression that the strikers were under the influence of radical leaders. The result was the failure of the strike after the strikers had lost milHons in wages. The soft-coal strike had a different ending. The courts were appealed to and ordered the men back to work. Winter was on, and the loss in business was very great, and the suffering of the people threatened to be wide- spread. But the strikers finally went to work. 470 THE WORLD WAR A committee appointed by the President examined into the coal situation and finally decided on an increase in wages thought just to the miners, to the mine owners, and to the public. The people, as a rule, must pa^^ every increase in the cost of mining coal or any increase in the cost of producing anything else. 763. The effort to control high prices (1920). The government, in going suddenly into a war for which little preparation had been made, was compelled to pay high prices for everything. As the government was one of the first causes of high prices, so it undertook to control the high cost of living. It did this by arresting and trying certain men who were accused of selling goods at" prices unusually high in a time of high prices. Some men were found guilty and fined. But it was believed that this did not have much effect in lowering prices. MORAL AND SOCIAL EFFECTS OF THE WAR 764. Effects on the churches. The war tended to bring the churches together. The news of how their members, wounded and dying, were cared for by men of different faiths roused a warm sympathy for one another among the different religious denominations. The result was that some genuine efforts were made for cooperation among churches of widely different beliefs. The churches resolved to widen their field of work. To do this it became necessary to collect vast sums of money. The Methodist church was the first in the field and suc- ceeded in pledging over $100,000,000. Other churches followed, and each obtained more than it set out for. With this money the churches propose to give strength to weak churches ; take better care of the country churches ; MORAL AND SOCIAL EFFECTS 471 encourage the city churches to carry on home missions on a grander scale ; build gymnasiums for the young people of the church and neighborhood; and finally widen the mission work in foreign fields. Almost every church in America has gone into the work of relieving distress in Europe. Some have even undertaken the task of restor- ing towns in the devastated regions. -"^^ 765. Growth of the movement for prohibition. At first growth in the sentiment for prohibiting the liquor traffic was very slow indeed. We have seen its rise and fall (§§388, 522). Out of five states Maine alone remained steadfast. After the Civil War other states voted for prohibition, but only Kansas remained true. But within the last ten years prohibition sentiment has been rapidly rising. By December, 191 7, twenty-four states had gone dry. Congress prohibited liquor from being taken into a dry state and expelled it from the District of Columbia. War caused a rapid growth of sentiment in favor of temperance. Congress put the ban on whisky and decided that beer should not contain more than 2.75 per cent of alcohol. Finally Congress voted for the Eight- eenth Amendment, and forty-five state legislatures rati- fied it. It thus became a part of the Constitution (1920). In spite of the fact that prohibition has been written in the Constitution, there arose a considerable demand for an interpretation of the amendment which will give the right to drink beer and wine. This was one of the questions in debate in the presidential campaign (.1920). 766. The struggle for the rights of woman. The World War, too, had its bearings on the question of woman suffrage, as we shall see. Far back in the days of the American Revolution, one 472 THE WORLD WAR brave woman, the wife of John Adams, raised her voice for the rights of woman (§239). A bit later New Jersey took action favorable for woman (§240). Growing out of the world-wide movement for moral reform (1830), the cause of woman took on new life and energy. Very few were the rights then belonging to woman. She could not go to school in either high school or college where men were. Scarcely a business or any other occupation was open to her. If a woman with property married, her husband took over its control. She was shut out from becoming a lawyer, a doctor, or a preacher. When a brave woman, like Frances Wright of New York, demanded that these privileges be granted to women, men poked fun at her; and women, too, were not slow to smile at her "queer notions." 767. The woman's movement grows. The aboHtion agitation caused a step forward in the new movement. Some great men saw that woman's help was needed in the anti-slavery cause (§407). Abraham Lincoln, a young man just then plunging into Illinois politics, declared he was in favor of everybody sharing the privi- leges of government, "by no means excluding the females " (1836). The first national convention in favor of woman's rights was held in Seneca Falls, New York ( 1 848) . It was called by Lucretia Mott, Martha C. Wright, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Mary Ann McClintock. It tried to arouse the attention of the country by sending forth a "Declaration of Rights." 768. Rapid progress of woman's rights. Although the newspapers and writers still made fun of "petticoat" government, the "Declaration of Rights" won other MORAL AND SOCIAL EFFECTS 473 women to their ranks. Among these were Margaret Fuller, Lucy Stone, Susan B. Anthony, and Julia Ward Howe. With these new recruits and the help of the abolition leaders their hopes rose high. They were looking forward to the time when universal suffrage would prevail. But the Civil War came, and they saw their "brother in black " given the ballot which had been denied them. 769. First victories in the West. Disappointed by Congress, women now turned to the states. They had been encouraged to do this by what occurred in the new state of Kansas. The legislature had given women the right to vote in school elections (1861). The women organized a great state campaign for complete suffrage. It was an odd sight to see public meetings held by women in every sort of place in Kansas. They did not win, but they took courage from the size of their vote. The West was their hope. In 1869 the territory of Wyoming granted women complete suffrage. When Wyoming entered the Union, so well pleased had she been that full suffrage was written into her state consti- tution. In four more years Colorado joined Wyoming in favor of women. While Utah was still a territory, her men granted women this boon, and like Wyoming, when she became a state, Utah again established the right of women to vote. The fourth state to vote in favor of woman suffrage was another mountain state, Idaho (1896). For fourteen years afterward, the many campaigns for woman's vote failed. The aggressive mountain states had nearly all been won for women. In 1 910-12 came a return wave in favor of woman's political rights. Washington began the movement (19 10) 474 THE WORLD WAR which swept in California (191 2), Oregon, Arizona, and Kansas (1913). These victories caused great rejoicing among the women. They were hardly done rejoicing when news came that far-away Alaska had placed herself under their banner and had granted suffrage to women. The next year Nevada and Montana came to their support (1914). In 191 7 they carried New York for woman's suffrage by over 100,000 majority. The states of Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, North Dakota, and Nebraska gave the women the right to vote on certain questions. The movement seemed to be gaining great power, but certain old states still held back. 770. The Susan B. Anthony Amendment. This amend- ment, first introduced in 1877, was named for Miss Anthony, a famous suffragist living in Rochester, New York. It read: "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied by the United States or any state on account of sex." For a long time there seemed little hope of the adoption of the amendment. The great progressive movement stirred public sentiment to its depths (191 2) and the Progressive party stood for woman suffrage. In the campaign of 1916 Hughes, the Republican, favored suffrage by national amendment, and Wilson, the Demo- crat, by state action. 771. Congress takes action. The great victories won by women opened the eyes of Congress, and the Lower House passed the Anthony Amendment on January 10, 1918. The Senate followed more tardily. The amend- ment went to the people of the various states. It could hardly fail, for woman in the war had proven her ability to take man's place in the work of war. The war could not have succeeded without her. MORAL AND SOCIAL EFFECTS 475 But old prejudices die hard, and it was not until the campaign of 1920 that the thirty-sixth state voted in favor of the amendment and it became a part of the Constitution. 772. The campaign of 1920. Long before the time for the nominating conventions the Republicans had several candidates in the field. Among these were General Wood, Governor Lowden of Illinois, Senator Johnson of California, and Senator Harding of Ohio. The Demo- crats, too, had a number of candidates. Among them were ex-Secretary McAdoo, Attorney-General Palmer, and Governor Cox of Ohio. The Republicans met at Chicago, and after a hard battle nominated Harding of Ohio for president and Coolidge of Massachusetts for the vice-presidency. The Democrats went to San Francisco and nominated Cox for the first place and Assistant Secretary of Navy Roosevelt for the second place. The main questions under debate in this campaign were as follows: the League of Nations, which most Republicans opposed and most Democrats supported ; the question of prohibition, which both parties tried to avoid; and Wilson's administration. The Republicans asserted that it was wasteful and extravagant, and that President Wilson was an autocrat. The Democrats denied the truth of these charges. The Prohibitionists nominated a man from Ohio. This made the campaign unique in having three candidates from the same state. For the fourth time the Socialists nominated Eugene V. Debs. The campaign was very bitter. It resulted in Hard- ing's winning a larger majority over Cox in both the people's vote and the electoral vote than has ever been given to any candidate. 476 THE WORLD WAR SUGGESTED READINGS References for teachers: Bassett, History of the World War; World^s Work, igi4-2o; Review of Reviews, 1914-20; Independent, 1914-20; Outlook, 1914-20; Literary Digest, 1914-20; Current Events, 1914-20; Rose, Origins of the War; McMaster, The United States in the World War. References for pupils: Powell, The Spirit of Democracy; Van Dyke, Fighting for France; Bott, Cavalry of the Clouds; Gibbons, And They T/iought We Wouldn't Fight; O'Brien, Outwitting the Hun; Paine, The Fighting Fleets. SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITIONS I. Imagine a familiar conversation with ex-President Roose- velt, one with ex-President Taft, and one with President Wilson on the sinking of the "Lusitania." 2. Take a trip on a submarine. 3. Another in an airship. 4. Write about your experience in a tank battle. 5. Write a composition on your father's, mother's, sister's, or brother's part in the war. THE APPENDIX THE NOTES 1. If the pupils have read that charming httle book, Old Europe and Young America, pubhshed by Rand McNally and Company, they will need to read the next pages only by way of review. 2. How long an English village may be kept in one family by pass- ing from father to son, may be seen in the fact that an English noble- man has recently sold his village (191 8). This shows how long old customs will live. 3. Many kings once made their people believe that they ruled by "divine right." The last great ruler to fool his people thus was Kaiser William II, of Germany. 4. For hundreds of years the Turks held the Holy Land. They crossed into Europe and killed thousands of Christians. But it remained for the British in the great World War to defeat the Turk and capture the Holy Land. For a fuller story of the Crusades and the great men who battled in them see Old Europe and Young America, 221-244. 5. This was a happy mistake because there were few men in the world then bold enough to sail half way around the earth even to find India. Columbus figured the distance was only 4,000 miles or less, if he sailed west. 6. Sailors now know that the compass will vary a bit in some parts of the earth. But neither Columbus nor his sailors knew this. Colum- bus found it hard to invent an explanation that would satisfy his sailors. 7. Jealousy was the cause of his arrest. Queen Isabella set him free. 8. Americus cannot be blamed for what others did. Columbus, however, has had his full share of honor: Poetry hails this country as the "Land of Columbia," and many towns and cities, a district, and a imi versify have taken his name. 9. The Mexicans and Peruvians had made more progress than any other Indians. It took long and hard fighting to conquer them. Peruvians had the llama to carry packs for them, but the Mexicans had no pack animal. These countries were rich in silver and poured millions into the lap of Spain. 10. De Soto wandered westward as far as Oklahoma and as far north as southern Missouri, it is thought. 477 478 THE APPENDIX 11. This name was given by Coronado to the bitffalo or American bison. 12. The French king demanded to know v/hether "our first father, Adam, made them [Spain and Portugal] his sole heirs .... and until I do, I shall feel at liberty to seize all the land in the New World I can get." 13. The leader of the Huguenots in France was Coligny. He won great fame as a soldier and received permission from the king of France, a Catholic, to plant a colony in Florida. 14. The rivalry between Spain a:id England grew into a quarrel which marks a turning point in the history of the world. Both nations were proud and jealous. Religion was added to their differences. England was Protestant and Spain Roman Catholic. Englishmen were seeking trade everywhere in the world, and so was Spain. Eng- lish sailors fell upon Spanish ships laden with gold and silver from Mexico and Peru. Holland and Spain had the same differences, except that Spain claimed the right to send governors to rule the Dutch. The governors were cruel, and the Dutch revolted. Then followed a long and bloody war. So desperate did the Spaniards become that they assassinated the Dutch leader, William the Silent. England then came to the help of the Dutch. The Spaniards were angrier at the English than ever and resolved to send the great Armada to punish England. The destruction of this great fleet "meant safety for England, freedom for the Dutch, and the decline of Spain." England went bravely forward with planting settlements in America. 15. The Iroquois were composed of the Mohawks, the Oneidas, the Onondagas, the Cayugas, and the Senecas. These made up the Five Nations. The Tuscaroras, driven from the South (1713), joined the Iroquois. After this these Indians were called the Six Nations. 16. The Spaniards kept a sharp eye on English settlements. How they felt about Enghshmen occupying Virginia may be seen from a letter to the Spanish king written by the Spanish ambassador: "It will be serving God and your Majesty to drive these villains out from there [Jamestown] and hang them." 17. Smith was captured by the Indians. Just as he was about to be killed, Pocahontas, the beautifvtl young daughter of the Indian chief, so the story runs, sprang to Smith's rescue and claimed him as her own. Pocahontas became the good angel to the colony, telling the settlers of Indian attacks and helping them to find food. She married John Rolfe, and they visited friends in England. Pocahontas was received as an "Indian princess" by the king and queen. John Randolph of Roanoke, once a leader of the House of Representatives and a friend of Jefferson, was descended from Pocahontas. The second Mrs. Woodrow Wilson is also related to Pocahontas. 18. Each act named in this paragraph is an "old home" custom for which Englishmen had long struggled. TheVirginians had tried many THE APPENDIX 479 new experiments in governing themselves, but now were glad to get back to old English ways. Here are some of the leading men trained for the great Revolution by the House of Burgesses: Washington, Jefferson, Richard Henry Lee, Patrick Henry, Edmund Pendleton, Benjamin Harrison, Richard Bland, Edmund Randolph, John Marshall, and George Mason. 19. The rule of the two sets of Stuart kings forms an interesting chapter in EngUsh history (1603-88). James I and Charles I (1603-40) quarreled with Parliament over money and religion. James threw leaders of Parliament into prison and drove Puritans out of England. Charles quarreled with Parliament, dismissed it, and declared he would never call another. But the Scots saved the day. They invaded England, because Charles was trying to force them to be Episcopalians. The King had to call Parliament to get money to fight. Parliament and King quarreled and went to war. Oliver Cromwell, the great Puritan general, overthrew the King's soldiers, and thrust him into prison. Parliament tried and executed Charles I. Cromwell now became the head of the government. He was a stern, unyielding man, but a great soldier. His government was carried on mainly by com- mon men. He showed what he could do. His soldiers were called "Ironsides." They often sang and prayed before going into battle. After Cromwell died. Englishmen called Charles H to be king (1660). He was lazy and easy-going and ran the government deeply into debt. His brother, James H, succeeded him (1684). Neither king learned anything from the past. James turned tyrant. English people thought he was trying to make Englishmen into Catholics. Englishmen rose against him, and he fled to France. The revolution was short. William and Mary of Holland were called to the throne, and Parliament passed what was known as the Bill of Rights. The rights named in this document were claimed by Englishmen living in America, as well as those in England (1689). 20. The Puritans settled the town of Annapolis, at first called Providence. When they got hold of Maryland's government, they removed the capital from Saint Mary's to Annapolis. We all know that here is located our great naval academy. 21. See note 19. 22. Carolina extended from Virginia to Florida and was named in honor of the King. The constitution was called the Grand Model. It was a grand failure. It planned to establish a kind of feudalism with all different classes of people. 23. The "pretenders" were descendants of James II. They claimed the right to rule in place of the Georges. The pretenders were Roman Catholics, and so were some of the Scotch Highlanders. 24. In France, Protestants were called Huguenots. They were followers of the great reformer, John Calvin. They were persecuted in France, and we have seen them trying to found a colony. Thousands of them were slain in the great Massacre of St. Bartholemew's Day. 48o THE APPENDIX Henry IV finally freed them from persecution. They prospered. They were skilled in industry and had many learned men. Louis XIV did not like them, so he took away their freedom of worship. Thousands fled to Germany, to Holland, to England, and to America. 25. Do you know anyone whose ancestors came over in the "May- flower"? Find some and have them talk about the voyage. Myles Standish was not a Pilgrim, but had joined the Dutch when they were fighting against Spain. 26. The Petition of Right was a famous landmark along the road to English liberty. It is only a bit less noted than Magna Charta. The King promised to obey Parliament. See note 19. 27. See note 19. 28. Roger Williams, a young Puritan preacher, was driven from England (1632). He preached in several towns in Massachusetts and stirred up the people by his doctrines. He did not worry over the efi^ects of his doctrines, but leaders in the colony did. Anne Hutchinson ^criticized the preachers and the officers of the colony. The men were divided in their opinions of her, but the majority were against her. Modern society does not agree with the Puritans that Roger Williams and Mrs. Hutchinson were dangerous citizens. 29. See note ig. 30. This constitution did not mention the king, but only the people. It created a government. Magna Charta, the Bill of Rights, and the Mayflower Compact did not pretend to set up a government. 31. Java, Sumatra, and other islands still belong to Holland. 32. While Hudson was sailing up this river, Champlain was explor- ing the near-by lake which bears his name, and John Smith was trading for food with the Indians in Virginia. 33. This wall gave its name to Wall Street, now famous as the money center of the United States. 34. The Navigation Acts were first aimed at the Dutch. These acts forbade them to trade with the English colonies. The Dutch were angry, and finally wai- broke out. Their great sea captain, Van Tromp, fastened a broom to his masthead and declared he would sweep England from the seas. But the English, too, were great sea fighters and forced the Dutch to make peace (1653). Cromwell was glad, for he, too, was a Protestant, and England and Holland had long been friends. Charles II did not feel this way and seized the colony of New Amsterdam (1664). 35. This was done in honor of James, Duke of York and Albany. 36. The Bowery is the name of another famous New York street. It is the home of poor people. 37. The soldiers of Gustavus went into battle singing and praying. The Germans hold his name in grateful remembrance. 38. Penn stood at the parting of the ways. He could be a fine gentleman, belong in high society, and attend the king's court or he THE APPENDIX 481 could be a poor and despised Quaker. Banishment and jails could not move him. He stood firm as a rock. 39. The names of persons such as Paul Revere, John Jay, Boudinot, Dabney, Laurens, and Sevier and of places such as Faneuil Hall, Debrosses Ferry, and New Rochelle remind the people today of the debt owed to France since colonial times. 40. An interesting survival to our day is seen in the classes existing among the servants in any community. 41. A common way of showing respect which survives to our time is the custom of lifting the hat to ladies. Gentlemen of equal rank in Germany lift the hat when they meet each other. 42. These rude ways of living on the frontier were common when Lincoln was a boy. 43. Lawrence Washington, George's half-brother, spent a year or more in a London school. Between 1760 and 1765 a score or more of young men from Charleston went to England to attend school. 44. John Bartram was poor and was an orphan at thirteen. He studied after his day's work was done. He founded in Philadelphia the first botanical garden in America. He wrote papers for European botanical societies. A friend said that Bartram would go one hun- dred miles to see a new plant. 45. Augustine Washington, father of George, was captain of a ship carrying iron ore from Virginia to London. There he had the happy fortune to fall in love with Mary Ball, called "the Rose of Epping Forest" on account of her beauty. She, too, was a Virginian, visiting in London. They were married. 46. John Hancock of Boston, one of the richest men in the colo- nies, made his fortune largely by making rum. 47. At different times during the colonial period the southern colonies, through their legislatures, sent earnest protests to Parliament against dumping slaves upon them. 48. The Barbadoes and Jamaica were the leading English West India islands. 49. Lord Chatham called them the Bible of the English Consti- tution. 50. Two brothers of George Washington were members of the Ohio Company. Before this George had gone across the Blue Ridge Moan- tains and surveyed the lands of his friend Lord Fairfax. He had spent several years in this wild region and knew the ways of the Indian. 51. Before Braddock died he saw his mistake. He gave his favorite servant. Bishop, to Washington. At Braddock's grave Washington read prayers. Washington himself had four bullets through his clothes and a number of horses shot under him. 52. Longfellow's Evangeline is based on scenes connected with the scattering of the Acadians. 53. The proof of this is found in the fact that Parliament paid back to the colonies $5,000,000. 17 402 THE APPENDIX 54. In a nook in Westminster Abbey may be seen the monument erected by M assachusetts to the memory of General Howe. 55. The people of Canada, loving the names of both Wolfe and Montcalm, have erected a single monument to keep alive the memory of their heroic deeds. 56. James Otis, a Boston lawyer, carried the question to the courts. He resigned his office under the king to plead the cause of the merchants. He declared that "our ancestors and we, their descend- ants, are entitled to all the rights of the British Constitution." In this he struck the "keynote" of the first half of the Revolution. George III had an excuse for using these writs, for the Americans were great smugglers. It cost England $40,000 to collect $5,000 in revenue. 57. The leaders were James Otis, Christopher Gadsden and John Rutledge of South Carolina, John Dickinson of Pennsylvania, and the Livingstons of New York. 58. The non-importation agreements had almost destroyed the American trade of the English merchants. 59. England proposed to spend this money in America by paying the king's officers. 60. The English Whigs were having exciting times. A member had been expelled from Parliament for criticizing the king in No. 45 of a certain paper. The Massachusetts assembly gave ninety-two votes against recalling the "Circular Letter." In England toasts were drunk to "ninety-two" and "forty-five" as symbols of liberty. In America ninety-two patriots would drink forty-five toasts, or the dance would have ninety-two jigs and forty-five minuets, or ninety-two Sons of Liberty would raise a flagstaff forty-five feet high. This shows a warm sympathy between English and American Whigs. 61. The Regulating Act raised a new question that was deeper than taxation. May Parliament change colonial charters or consti- tutions which it did not make? America said "No." William Pitt, now Lord Chatham, agreed with them. In the debate in the House of Lords, Chatham did Samuel Adams the high honor of quoting from his "Circular Letter," declaring that those statements would be Chatham's to the end. 62. Daniel Webster advised young men who wished to drink deeply of the spirit and life of the Revolutionary fathers to read the noble papers sent forth by this Congress. Lord Chatham said: "When your Lordships look at these papers, when you consider their decency, firmness, and wisdom, you cannot but respect their cause and wish to make it your own." 63. Franklin had been in England for several years as the agent for some of the colonies. Eight years before, the Whigs in Parliament summoned him to appear before a committee on the Stamp Act. His answers, no doubt, had much to do with the repeal of that act. Chatham invited Franklin to be present on the day he presented his THE APPENDIX 4S3 plan to the House of Lords. It gave the great orator an opportunity to praise Frankhn by declaring that he was an honor to the English name and ranked with the great men of the world. 64. Afterward John Randolph declared that they were "raised in a minute, armed in a minute, fought in a minute, and vanquished the enemy in a minute." 65. Lafayette, not yet eighteen, a captain of artillery in the old fortress of Metz, listened to the story of how the American farmers fought that day at Lexington. He then resolved to link his name and fortune with the American cause. How fitting that American soldiers who captured Metz should permit the French to enter first, on the heels of the retreating Germans (1918). 66. In two battles the Americans had proved themselves sharp- shooters. From childhood they -had been taught to handle the gun. All pioneer people are skillful in the use of arms. 67. In a few days brave General Morgan appeared in camp and saluted Washington, saying: "From the right bank of the Poto- mac." His men were Washington's own neighbors. They had marched to Cambridge, six hundred miles, in twenty-one days. They bore on their hunting shirts Patrick Henry's famous words, "Give me liberty or give me death!" Washington got down from his horse and shook hands with each man. 68. George III, a German by descent, called upon one of the German princes for help. He paid so much a head for the Hessian soldiers. Congress offered them free land, and hundreds deserted. 69. This was the Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence. The people of this region were Scotch-Irish Presbyterians. 70. There were able men among the Tories. Many of them were well-to-do and were educated. They were the "upper classes" in many communities. Among them were Governor Hutchinson of Massachusetts, Lord Fairfax of Virginia, and Count Rumford. The Count went to England and held high position. He finally joined the armies of the king of Bavaria. The king made him a general. In Munich, the capital of Bavaria, stands a monument erected to his memory. It is estimated that 40,000 Tories fled to Canada and New Brunswick. 71. Jefferson was skillful in the use of the pen. He was true to the facts in the case in laying the reasons for the Declaration of Independence at the door of the king, and in not blaming the English people. 72. Howe brought a pardon from George III. He directed it to "George Washington, Esq." Washington returned the letter unopened. The next time it came addressed to General George Washington. Washington sent a short reply, stating that the Ameri- cans needed no pardon since they had done no wrong. Nathan Hale, a school teacher, disguised himself and went to Howe's camp to gather news for Washington. He was discovered, arrested, 484 THE APPENDIX and tried as a spy. Just before he was hanged he declared : "I only- regret that I have but one life to give for my country." 73. Washington's army was without money. Congress did not have any. After pledging them his own fortune, Washington obtained $50,000, which his friend Robert Morris had raised by going from door to door in Philadelphia. This tided them over, and they were ready for Princeton. 74. Cornwallis never forgot the "trick" Washington played him at Trenton. At Yorktown, Cornwallis remarked to Washington: "Nothing can excel your Excellency's skill at Trenton." 75. At Fort Stanwix, after the retreat of St. Leger, the brave backwoodsmen heard that Congress had adopted a flag. They immediately ran up a flag to celebrate the victory. It was made from a white shirt, a blue jacket, and red stripes from a petticoat. The patriots had used different flags in different parts of the coun- try. One contained a picture of a rattlesnake with the words: ' ' Don't tread on me . ' ' Another contained the words of Patrick Henry : "Liberty or Death." Colonel Moultrie, defending Charleston (1776) against the British fleet, used a blue flag with a white crescent and the word "Liberty" in large letters. The Pine Tree flag was a favorite, too. But the Star-Spangled Banner grew out of the red flag of England. Washington, at Boston, raised a flag containing the crosses of St. George and St. Andrew, but the red fleld had been divided into thirteen stripes, red and white. The colonies were still hoping for understanding with George III. They had gone to war only for this end. When Congress lost hope of peace, it adopted (1777) the Stars and Stripes as the flag of the new republic. The only change from Wash- ington's flag was to put thirteen white stars on a blue background in place of the crosses. About a year before this action Betsy Ross of Philadelphia, at the request of Washington, Robert Morris, and George Ross, made a flag like the one voted by Congress. Betsy Ross's home, where she made the flag, still stands, an object of veneration, preserved by the Daughters of the American Revolution. 76. Arnold and Morgan did most of the fighting at Saratoga. Burgoyne said to General Morgan: "Sir, you command the finest regiment in the world!" This was a regiment of sharpshooters. A wounded German, lying on the ground, shot Arnold and shattered his leg wounded at Quebec. An American soldier made for the German to run his bayonet through him. Arnold cried: "For God's sake don't hurt him! He's a fine fellow!" What a hero Arnold would have been had he died in this battle! 77. The "Conway Cabal" plotted to have Congress turn Wash- ington out and put Gates in his place. The plotters were discovered, and Washington stood higher in the estimation of the people than before. THE APPENDIX 485 78. Many of the better educated Frenchmen sympathized with Enghsh and American Whigs. They hoped for the day when France would become a repubhc. The king feared the influence of this class of people as well as of the common people. 79. The battle was going well until General Lee began to retreat. Washington rode on the field, reprimanded Lee, ordered him to the rear, and himself restored order. Lee was tried before a military court and dismissed from the anny. 80. "Bon Homme Richard" means "Good man Richard." It was named in honor of Franklin's Poor Richard's Almanac. 81. Here fell Count Pulaski at the head of his famous legion while making a charge. He was a brave Pole and died far from home and native land, while fighting for freedom in America. 82. Marion was a small man but a mighty warrior. He was a Huguenot and was called the "Swamp Fox" by the British. He invited a British officer to dine with him one day. Marion's servant, as they sat on a log, brought some baked sweet potatoes on pieces of bark! The Englishman resigned and went home, declaring it was no use fighting such people. 83. De'Kalb, a general in the French army, came to America to help the colonists. The people of South Carolina, loving his name, erected on Camden battlefield a monument to honor his memory. Lafayette, his comrade in arms, laid the cornerstone on his last visit to America (1824). 84. Tarleton in this battle, in a hand-to-hand encounter with Colonel Washington, received a wound in the hand. He was not per- mitted to forget this. Tarleton remarked to some ladies that he had never had the pleasure of meeting Colonel Washington. It was sug- gested that if he had "only looked behind him at Cowpens he would have had that pleasure." On another occasion he said he understood that Washington was so ignorant that he could not even write. A lady replied : ' ' You bear the proof that he can at least make his mark. ' ' 85. Greene was rewarded by his countrymen. Congress gave him a medal, South Carolina a sum of money, and Georgia a beautiful plantation. He was Washington's favorite general. 86. The French king, according to the treaty (1778), sent a large army to America under Count Rochambeau. It was at Newport, Rhode Island. Washington called it to New York to join him in an attack on that city. But when the news reached Washington that a French fleet was coming to the Chesapeake, he changed his plan and started for Yorktown. 87. Hanover is a German state over which the Georges of England ruled. 88. How fortunate for America that her friends in England were again called to power! Besides Rockingham there were Shelburne and Camden, old friends of Lord Chatham, Richmond, who made the motion for independence in 1778, Grafton, Conway, and Cavendish. 486 THE APPENDIX Burke was not given a place in the Cabinet, but he was the greatest defender of the treaty in the House of Commons. 89. Washington certainly was a man who loved his country. He would not take a cent of pay for his services during the Revolution. Lafayette, too, gave his services to America without pay. 90. But what they did was all very simple compared with the many things the stay-at-home people had to do in the World War (1918). 91. Maryland was the last state to ratify the Articles. She had a good reason. She owned no western lands by which she could pay her soldiers. She held back until all western lands were given to the nation. 92. Not only Congress, but the states issued millions of paper money. It took $100 in paper money to buy a pair of shoes (1781), and $1200 to purchase a cow. 93. Washington had refused to go to Philadelphia as chairman of the Society of Cincinnati, which was to meet there. He said he could not very well go to this new convention. Some friends advised him to stay away. They did not want Washington's name connected with a failure! 94. Washington was the greatest character in America. Franklin was the wisest man in the English-speaking world and the oldest man in the convention. Hamilton, a foreigner born in the West Indies, educated in King's College, was the youngest man but one in the con- vention, thirty years old. He wanted a stronger government than the one made. Madison was the best read man on the subjects to come before the convention; he was the author of the Virginia Plan which formed the basis of the Constitution. He made a shorthand report of the speeches, motions, and votes of the convention. Madison is called the Father of the Constitution. 95. Among the opponents of the Constitution were some of the ablest men in the country: Elbridge Gerry, Samuel Adams, John Hancock, George Clinton, Richard Henry Lee, Patrick Henry, George Mason, and others. 96. The small states were happy. They had been made equal to the larger states in the Senate. The Senate had been given unusual powers. It could accept or reject treaties, accept or reject the presi- dent's cabinet, accept or reject any United States judge, and so on. When the election of a president was thrown into the House, each state had one vote. 97. Afterward these arguments were gathered up and put in a book, which you may now buy under the name of the Federalist. 98. The House now has 415 members, almost five times the number of senators. 99. A growing demand has arisen for a president for six years with no reelection. The southern Confederacy had the six-year term for its president. THE APPENDIX 487 100. The word "cabinet" is not in the Constitution, but is taken from the Enghsh government. The head of the Enghsh cabinet is called the prime minister. He must choose the other members from Parliament. The prime minister and his cabinet sit in Parliament, listen to the debates, take part in them, and vote on the bills, for they are members of Parliament. If the President were to choose a man from Congress for his cabinet, this man'would have to resign from Con- gress. The cabinet presents most bills in Parliament. If Parhament should not agree with the cabinet, the latter would have to resign at once. The president and his cabinet do not introduce bills in Congress. If Congress and the president do not agree, no change takes place. 1 01. A comparison of these first ten amendments with the English Bill of Rights will show why they are so called. 102. The Maryland factory was owned by Englishmen. When they had to give it up, through the interest of the Washington family, probably, it was turned into a shop for making cannon balls. 103. Cotton, before this time, was not raised much in the South. 104. Washington had journeyed through parts of this wild region. He owned over 30,000 acres here. He was deeply interested in holding these western settlers in the new nation. 105. Electors meet in their own states and vote for president. The Constitution (Art. II, §1, ^3) declared that the person receiving the most votes should be president and that the one having the next highest number should be vice-president. Amendment Twelve has changed this. 106. The cabinet now contains ten departments. Its growth into great departments and sub -departments is a tine illustration of the "Unwritten American Constitution." 107. The agreement to pay the state debts raised great opposition, and the measure at first failed. But Jefferson and Hamilton put their heads together and agreed that if enough northern votes were given to locate the capital on the Potomac after 1800, enough southern votes would be given to pass the Assumption Bill, as the bill for paying the debt of the states was called. 108. Among others who were Federalists we may name Washing- ton, John Adams, John Jay, and John Marshall. 109. Among other Republicans we may name Madison, Clinton, Samuel Adams, and Albert Gallatin, a Swiss immigrant and a great financier. The names given to these parties were not used as they now are. The Federalists of Washington's time were more nearly like the RepubUcans of today, while the Republicans of Jefferson's day were more nearly like the Democrats of our time. no. This Congress had not met for nearly two hundred years. It was called the "Estates General." You can think what it meant to the people of France, if you try to imagine what America would do without our Congress for so long a time. For a long time French kings and their nobles lived high and spent the money given in taxes very wastefuUy in drinking, gambling, and 488 THE APPENDIX feasting. But the common people were in poverty. Our Revolution against a tyrant king stirred the French people to greater action. They had welcomed our Benjamin Franklin, and we had warmly received their Lafayette. The great explosion came when the common people of Paris arose and stormed the Bastile (July 14, 1789). This was the great prison in which the king had shut men up for speaking against him and his government. Republican France now celebrates this day each year much as we do the Fourth of July. But in 1789 the French leaders of the Revolution had had but little experience in managing governments. They quarreled among them- selves, and the "Reign of Terror" soon followed. After the leaders had killed each other, Napoleon Bonaparte came to the front. He was the greatest soldier Europe had ever seen. For over a dozen years his soldiers defeated all enemies and finally made him emperor of the French people. While Napoleon was a wise ruler in many ways, he was a selfish tyrant. 111. America could not agree to this rule. If she did, no EngHsh- man could become an American. 112. Napoleon remarked to some Americans: "Ah, gentlemen .... the measure of his fame [Washington's] is full. Posterity will talk of him with reverence as the founder of a great empire, when my name will be lost in the vortex of revolutions." A monu- ment built in his memory, containing separate stones given by the great nations and by our states, stands 555 feet high in the city bear- ing his name. The home of his forefathers has been searched out in England and a tablet has been placed there in his honor. Both England and France have honored him with monuments. 113. President Adams in his message to Congress called these men X, Y, and Z. Hence this is usually called the X. Y. Z. affair. 1 14. Laws quite similar to the Alien and Sedition Laws were passed during Wilson's second administration. The danger was much greater in the great World War, because there were more foreigners in America than in Adams' time. 115. Congress resolved to have no more disputes over who was president. The Constitution was amended so that the electors are required to make two lists, one for president and another for vice- president (Amendment XII). 116. The capital had been at New York, then at Philadelphia for ten years, and was finally located in the new city of Washington. The last was a place chosen by Washington himself, and was then in the fields, where cows and hogs roamed at will and where wagons toiled through muddy and unpaved streets. Here it was that Jefferson estabhshed the custom of sending his message to Congress to be read. This custom ran until 1913, when President Wilson broke it by reading his message in person to Congress. 117. Burr hated Hamilton and killed him in a duel (1804). Public sentiment was so hot against Burr that he became an outcast. He THE APPENDIX 489 organized an expedition and floated down the Ohio and Mississippi to Natchez. Jefferson had him arrested for treason. He was tried and set free. 118. This woman was called the "Bird Woman." 119. John Randolph was one of the keenest and queerest men in the early days of the Republic. He was a descendant of Pocahontas. He was a leader of the Republicans in Congress, and was a warm friend of Jefferson at first. Randolph was opposed to the Embargo and bitterly objected to the War of 181 2. 120. The declaration of war was carried by only five votes in the Senate and by thirty in the House. 121. Tecumseh was probably the greatest Indian statesman. He had high ideas. He would not allow the massacre of prisoners and denounced those who did. He was a noble orator. He visited General Harrison at Vincennes and pleaded for his people and for their hunting grounds. He traveled over the eastern Mississippi Valley, trying to form a grand league of Indian tribes to destroy the whites. He opposed the retreat of the British from the Northwest Territory. He told his warriors that the battle of the Thames would be his last. 122. Canada and the United States have given a fine example to warring Europe of over a century of peace. It might be wise for our students to look at our neighbor's history during this time. We can recall that the English won Canada from the French and that these Canadians, though they were French, refused to join the Americans in the Revolutionary War. We also saw thousands of well-to-do Americans driven to Canada during our Revolution. After the war English settlers began moving to Canada. They settled in "Upper Canada" along the Great Lakes. The French Canadians occupied "Lower Canada." Quebec was their leading city. These two districts were separate but had the same governor, appointed by the king of England. Each had a legislature of its own. But in those days Frenchmen and Englishmen did not get on well. They quarreled, and then came fighting. The English government made peace between them by uniting Upper and Lower Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia under the name of the Dominion of Canada (1867). Since then people from England, the Continent, and from America have rushed into Canada by the thousands, and other states have been added to the Dominion. Canada now extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific. When the great World War broke out, Canadian boys were among the first to rush to the front (1914) in defense of the motherland. Hundreds of Americans joined them. 123. The new bank, created by the Republicans, is a good illus- tration of how war changes the minds of men. During the war the country had only state banks, and these got the money of the United States in a bad condition. The Republicans were wise enough to see the need of a United States bank to regulate the money of the country. 490 THE APPENDIX 124. The early settlers helped each other in many ways. Besides "log rollings," there were house and barn raisings, and in the fall corn huskings or "shuckings." These all called for the gathering of neigh- bors for miles around. At the end of the day the old folks went home, but the younger ones usually remained for "fun and frolic." 125. Rumsey on the Potomac, Fitch on the Delaware, and Long- street on the Savannah had each invented a steamboat before Fulton did. But in a sense they were failures. In England, Fulton met Watt, inventor of the steam engine. He aided Watt in building an engine. He went to France and built a boat with an engine to make it go. The trials proved Fulton correct. He got his engine for the "Clermont" from Watt and Boulton. Fulton took the "Clermont" out of the river, covered her with a deck, built two cabins with berths, and changed her name to the "North River." It is interesting to note that Nicholas Roosevelt and other men in New York built a steamboat in 181 1 at Pittsburgh. Boats of a some- what different kind were soon put on the Great Lakes, and after the Erie Canal was finished one could travel from New York to northern Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin by water. 126. Scarcely less important has been the effect of the canal on Lockport, Batavia, Oneida, Rome, Herkimer, Little Falls, Amsterdam, Cohoes, and Troy, to say nothing of other .enterprising places. New York voted $100,000,000 (1903) to make the canal into a "barge" canal and added $27,000,000 to this in 191 5. The canal was used by the national government to carry war freight to New York (191 8) and thus relieve the railroads. 127. The greatest fun for the boys came when the mill pond was to be drained. Farmers made up small parties with seines from fifty to one hundred yards long. It was rare sport when some one had to draw his end of the seine through water over his head or when the alarmed bass jumped over the top of the seine and escaped. 128. No American is better remembered in South America than Henry Clay. He worked hard, as secretary of state, to aid the South Americans in getting their independence. 129. John Quincy Adams was brought up under the teachings of Washington and Jefferson that we should keep out of European quar- rels. He was a son of John Adams and had been to Europe to study. He had favored the Embargo and had opposed New England's attitude toward the War of 181 2. The Republicans took him up and sent him to help make the Treaty of Ghent. He returned and was appointed secretary of state by Monroe. 130. One elector voted against Monroe because he wished Wash- ington to be the only president who received a unanimous vote for that high office. 131. Another proof of the "era of good feeling" was that Adams and Jefferson had renewed their friendship and were once more engaged in exchanging friendly letters as of old. They both died just fifty THE APPENDIX 491 years after independence had been declared — the one at Quincy, Massachusetts, July 4, 1826, the other at Monticello, Virginia, on the same day. 132. The bank had been chartered in 181 6 for twenty years with a capital of $35,000,000. It had its branches in all the main cities. When Jackson made war on the bank, it went into politics, and tried to help elect Clay. This was a mistake, for it made many votes for Jackson. 133- By i860, 4,000,000 foreign-born people had found homes in the United States. Only 400,000 of these were in the South, and more than half of that number were in Maryland and Missouri. 134. One of the most distinguished sons of Germany driven to America for his part in the Revolution of 1848 was Carl Schurz. He escaped from a German prison and came- to America. He rose rapidly, was a warm friend of Lincoln's, and became a general in the Civil War. He was a member of the cabinet of President Hayes and became prominent as a civil service reformer. 135- From 1845 to 1847 Ireland suffered a terrible famine because of the failure of her potato crop. Thousands died of starvation in spite of food shipped in from England and the United States. From 1840 to i860 over 1,700,000 Irish migrated to America. 136. Henry Barnard was made United States commissioner of education in 1867. 137. In that day there was Httle room for women outside of the home. It was pointed out that this school was preparing young women to take their place in a proper manner as head of the family. 138. The "jerks," a sort of nervous twitching of the body, some- times took hold of the head, and made its motions very rapid. Again persons fell upon the ground or made other strange motions, show- ing that they were deeply and strangely affected by the preaching. The "jerks" seemed to get hold of all classes of persons, even those who went to the meetings in a spirit of fun. It is interesting to note that a preacher in a southern city has in this day, November 15, 1919, complained to the police that persons so affected are breaking up his meetings by alarming others so that they leave the meetings. 139. Cyrus H. McCormick lived in the Shenandoah Valley. His father had tried to invent a reaper, and the son kept at it until suc- cessful. His neighbors smiled at him for wasting his time. He built a shop in Cincinnati but finally located in Chicago, the center of wheat- growing on the prairies. Here there were no stumps in the wheat fields. He took his reaper to the World's Fair in London (1851). He kept on improving his machines, and today they are sold wherever wheat is grown. 140. Howe, rather an exception, made himself well to do by the invention of the sewing machine. Since the first machine great changes have made the machine more perfect. Outside of the home, it is used for making all sorts of articles of cloth and leather. 492 THE APPENDIX 141. Morse was born in 1791. After finishing at Yale he went to England. As he came home the idea came to him of sending news by electricity. He worked hard on his invention, aided by two mechan- ics, Vail and Baxter. On three miles of wire, strung around his shop, Morse sent this message : "A patient waiter is no loser" (1838). They hastened the invention to Congress, for Morse was a poor man. Members of Congress made fun of the invention. He went home discouraged at ten o'clock, March 3, 1843. He had no money to pay his board bill. That very night Congress voted him money. 142. The tariff of 1816 was favored and opposed by congressmen from all sections. The South gradually saw that the negro could not safely handle the machinery of a cotton mill. Besides, the planter had his money in slaves and lands and could not change easily to the business of running a factory. 143. Calhoun and Clay taunted each other over the situation, each claiming the victory. Calhoun declared that he forced the central government to back down from its high protective tariff policy, of which Clay had been the great defender. Clay declared that he had saved Calhoun's neck from Jackson's halter. 144. The Democrats had three vote-catching cries. For the South they called for the " reannexation of Texas." The United States had given Texas, then in dispute, to Spain when Monroe purchased Florida (181 9). For the North the cry was, "Fifty-four forty or fight." This was to be the northern boundary line of the Oregon region, but the Democrats accepted the line of 49°. This campaign cry was intended to raise the enthusiasm of northern voters. It succeeded, but the President did not carry out the threat of "Fifty-four forty or fight" and "All Oregon or none." The Whigs blamed Birney for the defeat of Clay. They insisted that the anti-slavery Whigs sup- ported Birney in the election in New York, thus giving that state to Polk. 145. Abraham Lincoln, who had been in Congress bvit one term, introduced his famous "spot" resolution calling on President Polk to point out the "particular spot where American blood had been shed on American soil." Lincoln hoped by this resolution to call the attention of the country to the fact that the "spot" was in the disputed territory. 146. So named from David Wilmot, a Democrat from Pennsylvania, who introduced the bill. 147. New Yorkers were again blamed for the election. This time the Democrats blamed the Free-soil Democrats for voting for Martin Van Buren, thus giving the state to Taylor. 148. President Taylor was a slaveholder, but it is said that Senator Seward was his chief advisor. Taylor took a soldier's view of the trouble the settlers in California were having with lawless persons, so he favored its admission as a state. He died in office and was succeeded by Vice-President Millard Fillmore of New York. THE APPENDIX 493 149. Calhoun was an able man. Before the War of 181 2 even, he stood out as a great leader. Even now (1850) he was the leader of the states' rights party in the nation. He died in 1850. 150. These routes ran from "Mason and Dixon's Line" through Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa. 151. A number of the rescues were most exciting. A Boston mob took "Shadrack," a negro, from the officers of the law. At Syracuse a crowd gathered and seized "Jerry" while he was being tried. Other men along the border made it a business to "hunt" slaves for the officers. 152. Douglas declared that on his way from New York to Chicago he could read his newspaper by the light of his own burning effigy. The Missouri Compromise had stood for over thirty years. It was almost as sacred as the Constitution. To the North its repeal seemed like tearing up the foundations of the government itself. 153. Lincoln had been preparing this speech for some time. He showed it to friends and asked their advice. " Don't put that in your speech," said his friends. "If you do, Douglas will beat you." Lin- coln replied: "I would rather be defeated with that in my speech than win with it out of my speech." Douglas had met and had defeated the best debaters in Congress. He told them, when asked about Lincoln, that he would rather meet any of them in debate than Lincoln. It was at Freeport, Illinois, where Lincoln, though opening and clos- ing the debate, put the fatal questions to Douglas. The night before, he had met Repubhcan leaders and had showed them the questions. Again they advised him against using them. "Douglas will surely win, if you do," they said. "I am gunning for bigger game. If Douglas answers as you say he will, he can never be president," he replied. After the debates were over he wrote to a friend: "I am glad I made the late race. It gave me a hearing on the great question of the age Though I now sink out of view and shall be for- gotten, I beheve I have made some marks which will tell for the cause of liberty long after I am gone." 154. Lincoln had expressed the same idea in his "house-divided- against-itself " speech, but in milder terms. In the fall of the same year, at Rochester, Seward had declared that the two sections are engaged in an "irrepressible conflict " which must result in the country becoming all slave or all free. This gave offense to southern leaders. 155. On Washington's birthday in Philadelphia, in the presence of a vast crowd, Lincoln raised the Stars and Stripes over Independence Hall. As he did so he said : " I have never had a feeling, pohtically, which did not spring from the Declaration of Independence." 156. Shortly after the call for men Douglas, with Lincoln's knowl- edge, made a trip to the Middle West to stir the patriotism of that region. He spoke twice in Ohio and then hastened to Springfield, 494 THE APPENDIX Lincoln's own town, and received a great ovation at the hands of the Repubhcan legislature. He made them a rousing union speech. He hastened to his own home, Chicago, and in the building where Lincoln had been nominated he made another patriotic speech. He was overworked and in a few days was dead. Lincoln and the Union lost a great champion. 157. Robert E. Lee was a "Virginia cavalier" by birth, education, and character. His father was a famous cavalry officer in the Revolu- tion, " Light Horse Harry " Lee. Robert went to West Point, where he distinguished himself as a student. He won name and fame in the Mexican War. He was called to be the head of West Point, where he made many changes for the good of the school. He was a Union man and was opposed to secession, but, like many Southern men, felt he must go with his state. To the man Lincoln sent to offer him the command of the Union armies, Lee replied: "How can I take part against my relatives, my children, and my home?" 158. In the battle of Bull Run, when it looked like a Federal vic- tory. Confederate General Lee called to his retreating men: "There stands Jackson Hke a stone wall." "Stonewall" Jackson, as his soldiers loved to call him, became, next to Lee, the greatest general of the Confederacy. 159. General Johnston was a noble man. Just before he was shot he had sent his surgeon to care for wounded Union prisoners. Johnston bled to death before his surgeon returned. 160. The simple faith of the northern farmer in Lincoln is seen in the remarks of one of them who came from the South, too. "The slaveholder now has no one to blame but himself. Did not ' Old Abe ' promise them that if they would come back into the Union they and their property would be protected?" 161. Jackson was a poor boy and was raised by relatives. He walked to Washington to get his appointment to West Point. He was in the Mexican War and became a professor in a Virginia military school. He was a sternly religious man and, like Cromwell, prayed for success. His soldiers idolized him, although he drove them hard. He was a great general. Lee said when he heard of his death: "I have lost my right arm." 162. Gettysburg was the place made immortal in 1864 by being dedicated as a national cemetery, and by being the place where Lincoln, before the great men of the nation, read his most famous writ- ing, "the Gettysburg Address." Just fifty years after the battle, and after both North and South had built many monuments to their dead, a great reunion of the Confederate and Union veterans was held on the Gettysburg battlefield. This reunion was proof to the world that the brave men who wore the Blue and the Gray were one. 163. The most dangerous opponent of the war in Congress was one Vallandigham. He tried to prevent boys from joining the army and THE APPENDIX 495 to induce them to desert when once they had enlisted. He was arrested and imprisoned. But Lincoln finally sent him, as a sort of logical joke, into the Confederacy, so that he might be with his friends. He escaped and finally got back home. 164. One day a soldier was taking Lincoln through the hospitals. Lincoln talked with the men in the most friendly way about their condition, their homes, their mothers, wives, and sweethearts. When passing through the rooms the soldier said to Lincoln that he need not go into the next room since they were only rebels in there. Lincoln stopped, put a friendly hand upon the boy's shoulder, and said : "You mean Confederates!" The soldier says that he meant Confederates ever after. He could see no difference in Lincoln's treatment of the Blue and the Gray. 165. Grant was born in Ohio and went to West Point, where his record was only fair. He was in the Mexican War. After the war he resigned and went into the real estate business, but failed. He went to Galena, Illinois, and went into business with his brother. When the Civil War broke out, the governor of Illinois "discovered " him and put him to training soldiers. To discipline a company, it is told that he made the men carry rails upon their shoulders for a long distance. At the capture of Fort Donelson he made his name famous by replying to the request for terms : ' ' Unconditional surrender. ' ' He was nicknamed "Unconditional Surrender " Grant. When meeting awful losses in the Wilderness, he sent this despatch to Washington: "I propose to fight it out on this line, if it takes all summer." After the war he was made president. After his second term he went around the world. His friends tried to make him president a third time, but Washington's example was too powerful. He wrote his Memoirs while battling against death. He lies buried in New York City in a spot overlooking the Hudson. 166. Sherman was born in Ohio. He went to West Point. He was teaching in the South when secession came. He made himself unpopu- lar in the North by stating that the South meant to fight and fight hard. Grant and Sherman became warm friends. Sherman was probably the greatest strategist in the northern army. 167. General Joseph E. Johnston was a brave man. He had been at West Point, in the Mexican War, and was head of the Confederates at Fair Oaks. Here he was wounded. He was helping Pemberton at Vicksburg. Johnston was given command in Bragg's place. He and Sherman played a great game at strategy, but Johnston had to retreat for lack of men. It is hard to understand why Davis should have removed him for following Lee's plan of fighting. 168. Thomas, born in Virginia, did not "go with his state." He had been to West Point and in the Mexican War. He saved the day at Murfreesboro and at Chickamauga and stormed IMissionary Ridge for Grant. He was a bit slow, but sure. Thomas disturbed both Lincoln and Grant. Grant ordered his dismissal, but took it back. 496 THE APPENDIX Thomas destroyed Hood's army. The plan of the battle of Franklin is said to be the only battle of the Civil War studied in European textbooks. His boys loved to call him "Pap" Thomas. 1 69. The World War resulted differently. Not so many men died of disease, owing to new and better ways of taking care of drinking water, cooking, drainage of camps, and the curing of sickness. The work, too, of surgeons in caring for the wounded was not less miraculous. 170. The invasion of Pennsylvania by Lee's army was in no sense a "raid," but was the regular movement of a great army. 171. These were called "vagrant laws." They required all able- bodied negroes to work. But many were enjoying their "new-found liberty" too much to work. The South feared they would become idle and dangerous. If they refused to work they could be arrested and put to work for some white man. Their children could be "bound out" until a given age was reached. 172. The bitter feeling aroused by this trial is hard for us to under- stand in this day. The few Republicans voting for Johnson were treated shamefully. Some were accused of being bought, others of being traitors to their party. Most of them were driven from their party. Very few were ever permitted to hold office again. 173. Talking over old questions such as the doings of the Ku-Klux carne in campaign years. People opposed to discussing "southern outrages" called such discussions "waving the bloody shirt." 174. Greeley was a most interesting figure. He gave rise to the saying, it is said: "Go West, young man, and grow up with the coun- try." The Tribune, of which he was editor, was a mighty force in bringing on the war. But Greeley had signed the bail bond of Jefferson Davis and was opposed to "congressional reconstrviction." In the campaign "everybody went to hear him, but nobody voted for him." The rejoicing of the Repubhcans at his defeat was hardly over when the news came that his defeat, joined to family sorrow, had sent him to his grave. 175. About every twenty years this country has had hard times, or a "panic." Not all these have been equally hard. The years in which they have occurred were 1819, 1837, 1857, 1873, and 1893. 176. Tweed was, for a long time, the head of a body of politicians who could not be touched by public opinion, because it was said his supporters did not read the newspapers. But Thomas Nast, in Harper's Weekly, began to make pictures about them. Everybody could understand these pictures. The result was that Tweed was driven from power and finally put in prison. 177. No little credit is due to Tilden, for he urged his followers to accept the decision and not to appeal to force, as had been threatened. This they did and settled down like good Americans to obey the laws, although every Democrat felt that Tilden had been "cheated out of the election." Congress and the country did not want any more dis- puted elections, so laws were passed to prevent such. THE APPENDIX 497 178. One of the strongest arguments for the civil service was that the system of examinations had worked out well in Europe, especially in England. 179. One danger from having more paper money in the country than gold was just this fact of high prices. It took more greenbacks to pay for a day's work or for a bushel of wheat or corn than it did gold. In other words, the rich man with his gold could buy more for a gold dollar than the poor man could buy with his greenbacks. 180. Louisiana was a sugar-producing state and did not want to have to compete with sugar producers from other countries. 181. This act was called "the crime of '73" by the silver people. 182. During the debate in Congress one senator talked for fourteen hours against repeal. Nevertheless, the law was repealed. 183. Dawson and Klondike City sprang into existence as the result of the gold rush. A traveler who visited Dawson in 1898 says that four loaves of bread sold for a dollar and that the newspapers cost fifty cents a copy. 184. Copper, also, is mined in large quantities. Both hard and soft coal are found in Alaska. The government is building a railroad to the coal fields. 185. Fifty-two foreign countries had exhibits. It was a real world's fair. The exhibits were grouped in fifteen classes, such as agriculture, mines, manufactures, electricity, and education. There were 158 acres of buildings, some of them so big that the visitor felt lost in them. The largest was the Manufactures and Liberal Arts building that covered 30K acres. Dviring the time the fair was open there were 27,500,000 admissions. 186. The Democratic convention was held in Chicago. Bryan made a speech that won him the nomination. Speaking to the advo- cates of a gold standard, he said, "You shall not press down upon the brow of labor this crown of thorns ; you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold." The speech became famous. 187. The annual product rose from 5,000,000 ounces in 1886 to 12,300,000 ounces in 1900. This met the demand of the Democrats for more money and took the strength out of the "free silver" argu- ment. 188. Roosevelt, as a boy, had a weak body, but he made himself strong by outdoor life and exercise. He was an athlete, a great hunter, and an explorer. He wrote several interesting books about his trips. For a time Roosevelt lived as a ranchman in the West. He had many adventures with rough men and wild animals but was always able to take care of himself. 189. The battle of Mukden was the greatest battle of the war. It was a victory for the Japanese. During this battle Marquis Oyama, commander-in-chief of the Japanese forces, directed the fighting on forty miles of front from a spot miles in the rear of the line. He did it by telephone. 498 THE APPENDIX 190. In 1906 Roosevelt received the Nobel Prize. This is a reward of $40,000 given to the person who does most during any year to bring about peace between nations. Roosevelt gave all of the money to good causes. 191. An example of the wasting of natural resources is found in the way natural gas was allowed to flow unchecked for some years. In Indiana, Ohio, and Pennsylvania people set fire to the escaping gas and let it biirn. At night, mile after mile of countryside was lighted up in this way. Today these same gas fields are nearly exhausted. 192. The forest rangers are now aided in their work by regular airplane patrols over the forests. These watch for fires and report them to the fire-fighters. In 191 8 there were over 5000 fires in the' national parks. 193. The Elephant Butte Dam on the Rio Grande in New Mexico is the largest government irrigation project. The dam is 305 feet high and 13 10 feet long. It forms a lake that covers 40,000 acres. It is capable of watering 183,000 acres of crops. Other great irrigation projects are the Roosevelt Dam in Arizona and the Shoshone Dam in Wyoming. Altogether about 15,000,000 acres have been reclaimed from the desert. This work is in charge of the Reclamation Service. 194. President Taft later made a speech at Winona, Minnesota, in which he pronounced the Payne-Aldrich tariff "the best the country ever had." This was very offensive to the western Republicans who had opposed the bill. They took it to mean that Taft was trying to force them out of the party. 195. After seeing Taft safely inaugurated, Roosevelt left for Africa on a hunting trip that lasted over a year. On his return he found Taft engaged in a quarrel with the progressive Republicans and the party threatened with a serious split. 196. Elihu Root was chairman of the convention. Aided by the National Committee, he succeeded in keeping the Roosevelt delegates out of the convention. This system was called the "steam roller." 197. Wilson had been president of Princeton University after being a teacher in the same institution. He wrote extensively on the govern- ment and history of the United States. As governor of New Jersey he secured progressive legislation. 198. Many small high-power boats were engaged in the fihbustering trade with the Cuban insurgents. They would take on board a load of ammunition and arms in some port in Florida. Then on a dark night they would slip out of the harbor. The morning would find them off the Cuban coast unloading their precious cargo for the Cubans. 199. In 191 1 the "Maine" was raised. The condition of the hull showed that the explosion came from the outside. Just who was responsible has never been determined. 200. "Remember the Maine" became the battle-cry of the Ameri- cans. It makes us think of "Remember the Alamo." THE APPENDIX 499 201. When the fleet was about two miles from the forts, Admiral Dewey turned to the captain of the ship and said quietly, "When you are ready, you may fire, Gridley." The reply was the thundering report of two long, eight-inch guns in the turrets of the "Olympia." The battle had begun. 202. Leonard Wood had started army life as a surgeon. He won fame in capturing the savage Apache chief, Geronimo. From 1899 to 1903 he was,military governor of Cuba. He began many reforms. 203. The "Maria Teresa," badly cut up by shells and in flames from end to end, ran on shore. As the "Texas" passed the Spanish ship the American tars began to cheer. But Captain Philip, seeing the burning and drowning Spaniards, turned to his men and said: "Don't cheer. The poor devils are dying." 204. The Panama railroad was built between 1850 and 1855. It earned big sums of money in its early days. The government now owns it. 205. Roosevelt was criticized for recognizing the republic so quickly — he waited only three days. It was even charged by his opponents that he started the revolution and that he sent troops to help the revolutionists. 206. Distances saved by the canal are as follows: San Francisco to New York, 7873 miles-; New York to Valparaiso, 3823 miles; San Francisco to Para, 5210 miles; Liverpool to San Francisco, 5465 miles. 207. The famous Captain Cook discovered these islands in 1878 and named them the Sandwich Islands. The first American mission- aries arrived in 1820. Some of the greatest volcanoes in the world are found here. The country was organized as a territory in 1900. 208. This affair was the beginning of movements in China that have driven the old rulers from the throne. After much disturbance the Chinese Republic was proclaimed in 1910. Japan seems determined to get control of the country, but the United States stands for the "open door." 209. The native children are being taught the English language in the schools. Over 600,000 children were in school in 191 7. 210. In 191 2 Great Britain, United States, Russia, and Japan agreed to cut off seal hunting in the open sea for fifteen years. This was to give a chance for the seal herds to grow in numbers. 211. Diaz gave Mexico peace and prosperity. His methods were so harsh, however, that there was constant danger of revolution. 212. The meeting of the delegates was held at Niagara Falls. 213. Henry Clay is regarded by South Americans as their greatest friend among American statesmen. In 181 7 he favored recognizing the independence of the South American states. When he was secre- tary of state under John Quincy Adams, he tried to bring about a close relation with South America. 214. There have been six years since 1900 when more than a million immigrants arrived. In 1910 14.7 per cent of our population 500 THE APPENDIX were foreign-born. In 1910 in nine American cities over half of the males of voting age were foreign-born. 215. No naturalized person can become president or vice-president. Filipinos may be naturalized in two years after coming to the United States. Nine states allow the immigrant to vote if he declares his intention to become a citizen. 216. In 1 916 there were 3157 strikes. Of these, 1031 were to get higher wages. 217. Forty disputes were settled by the Erdman Act and sixty-one disputes by the Newlands Act. 218. The Census says there are about 2,000,000 children between ten and fifteen years of age in the country who are engaged in gainful occupations. About one-fourth of them are working in factories. 219. In the same year over 2600 coal miners were killed. In 1913 over 2,000,000 workmen were injvired. 220. In most states the injured workingman can receive as high as 50 or 60 per cent of his weekly wage, but not more. 221. Some states grant compensation for sickness caused by "occupational" diseases. These are diseases which come to workers in occupations like lead and brass working, or occupations that use wood alcohol, varnish, arsenic, or mercury. 222. Some men who have brought about this result were Cornelius Vanderbilt, George Gould, James J. Hill, and E. H. Harriman. 223. In some places voting machines are used. 224. In most cities the city council has only one house or body. In a few there are an upper and a lower house. Usually, the number of members is from ten to twenty, but Philadelphia has 132 in her two houses. 225. From 1911 to 1920 Mexico was overrun by bandits and desperadoes of all kinds. They murdered and robbed right and left, Mexicans as well as other people. It will be a long time before Mexico recovers from the effect of their evil deeds. 226. The largest city is Charlotte Amalie on Saint Thomas. It has a fine harbor. 227. French-Canadian fur traders made the first settlements. In 1 810 Lord Selkirk built a fort near Pembina. One of the greatest gold mines in the world, the Homestake mine, is in the Black Hills. Gold was first discovered in this district in 1874 by one of Custer's soldiers. Gold hunters rushed into the region, and Indian troubles followed. 228. Lewis and Clark were the first white men to visit this region. Idaho leads all other states in lead mining. 229. Kit Carson, the famous scout and Indian fighter, lived in the old Mexican town of Taos. Dates for the founding of Santa Fe are given from 1582 to 1605. 230. Sitting Bull was helped in this battle by the Cheyenne chief, Rain-in-the-Face, with 1000 warriors. Custer's body was the only one not disfigured by the Indians. THE APPENDIX Soi 231. Kindergartens were first started in Germany by Froebel. 232. Some high schools, hke those in New York City, have as many as 5000 pupils. In many high schools the pupils h^ve debating and literary societies, and football, baseball, and basket-ball teams. They also have bands and orchestras and run their own school papers. Many have fine gymnasiums, athletic fields, and swimming pools. 233. In some states the principal of the rural high school lives near the school building in a house provided by the school district. He thus becomes a real member of the community and can act as a leader out of the school as well as in it. 234. Samuel Hall opened the first normal school at Concord, Ver- mont, 1823. Massachusetts was the first state to start public normal schools. James G. Carter, Charles Brooks, and Horace Mann helped in the movement. 235. In several middle western states like Minnesota, Illinois, and Wisconsin, the state universities have more than 5000 students each. Columbia University in New York City is the biggest university in America. In 191 7 it had over 17,000 students. 236. Some of these colleges founded by churches are Denison Uni- versity in Ohio, DePauw University in Indiana, and Illinois College in Illinois. In the early days these colleges expected each student to work about half of each school day on a farm so as to earn his college education. This was a great help to poor boys. 237. In 1910 not one per cent of workers on farms or in factories had any training in school for the work. It has been shown that girls with vocational training earn twice as much as those without training. 238. Mark Twain was a Missouri boy. He never went to school very much, but worked in a printer's shop, learned to be a pilot on a Mississippi River steamboat, and tried his hand at gold mining. He traveled extensively and at last settled down to write books. As an author he was a very great success. 239. Riley was an Indiana boy. Unhke Twain, he had a fair school education. For some years he roamed the Ohio Valley, earning his living as a sign painter. Later, he began to work on a newspaper and to write poetry. After a while he was ranked as one of our leading poets. The schoolboys and girls of Indiana celebrate "Riley Day" every year on his birthday, October 7. 240. Eggleston also wrote historical works of much merit. 241. Wisconsin is Hamlin Garland's home state. He taught school for a while and afterward became a lecturer. He has written both prose and poetry. 242. Davis was a great traveler. Whenever a war was going on anywhere in the world, Davis was sure to be there. He was not fight- ing, but was reporting the war for big newspapers. He wrote some fine adventure stories. 243. O. Henry (William Sydney Porter) was a North Carolina boy who spent some time on a Texas cattle ranch. He went to Central i?o2 THE APPENDIX America ^d became a banana grower, but failed in this business. He returned to the United States and began writing stories, finally- moving to New York City. He ranks very high as a short-story writer. 244. Andrew Carnegie came to the United States from Scotland when he was ten years old, a poor immigrant boy. He began work in a cotton mill at 20 cents a day. His honesty, quickness, and devo- tion to duty led him from one position to another. He learned teleg- raphy and had charge of the eastern military railroads and telegraph lines during the Civil War. All this time he was saving his money. He brought the Bessemer process of steel-making to this country from England and began to make steel. He built up this business until the Carnegie Steel Company became the biggest in the country. In 1901 he sold his interests and retired, one of the richest men in the world. Mr. Carnegie believed that he should use his great wealth to make the world a better place. So he gave away great sums of money to good causes. He gave money to help colleges and universities. He gave $10,000,000 to help on peace between nations; he founded many libraries. It is said that he gave away altogether over $300,000,000. 245. In 191 8 cotton was exported to the value of $665,000,000 and meat to the value of $593,000,000. 246. The value of the exported manufactured goods in 191 8 was over $3,500,000,000. 247. South American merchants usually wanted long-time credit. They also wanted their imports packed in certain ways. The Ameri- can manufacturers did not pay much attention to these ideas of the South American buyers. The result was that many a South American merchant gave one order to some firm in the United States and after that gave his business to Germany or England, whose manufacturers were more accommodating and careful. 248. All our coastwise and lake commerce is carried in American ships. It is the biggest coastwise commerce in the world. 249. During the World War we had 341 shipyards building ships. Some of these ships were of wood, some of steel, and some of concrete. 250. Every living thing has to fight against germs. Many dis- eases of people, such as tuberculosis, typhoid, and pneumonia, are caused by them. Among plants smut and rust, apple scab, and pear blight are germ diseases. Farm animals suffer from tuberculosis, tetanus, and cholera. 251. The average value of the machinery on each farm of the coun- try is about $1,000. 252. Elevators used to be built of wood, brick, or iron. Many are now made of concrete. The largest concrete grain elevator in the world belongs to the Armour Grain Company and is in Chicago. It can hold 4,383,000 bushels of wheat. 253. There are three types of tenancy: (i) "cash tenancy," in which the renter agrees to pay a fixed sum per year; (2) "share tenancy," in which the renter turns over part of the crop to the owner; (3) " manager THE APPENDIX 503 tenancy," in which the owner acts as a superintendent and directs the work of the tenant. 254. One of the best things the Department of Agriculture is doing is getting the county agent system started. The county agent is a farm expert who advises the farmers about their work, teUing them how to use the best methods and helping them in their buying and selling. He helps them to organize agricultural clubs. 255. Making the machines is itself a big business. There are about 10,000 shops in the country making machines. The largest group is the one making farm machinery. 256. Birmingham has grown up in the last thirty years. Iron and coal have made it. It is built partly upon the slope of a mountain of iron ore. 257. Refrigerator cars were first used between Chicago and New York City. Ice is put in at each end of the car and a blower drives the cold air through the car. 258. Special kinds of steel steamers are built to carry iron ore, coal, and grain. These boats carry about 80,000,000 tons of cargo through the "Soo" Canal in a year. This is several times as much as passes through the Suez Canal in the same time. The canal was opened in 1855 and has been much enlarged since then. At lake ports like Toledo and Cleveland there are huge machines that pick up a whole freight car and dump its load of coal into the waiting ship. 259. Other inventors and their inventions are Bell, the telephone; Goodyear, the welt machine for sewing soles on shoes; Robinson, block signals for railways; Brush, the arc electric light; Patterson, the cash register; Burroughs, the recording adding machine; Thomson, electric welding; Hardy, the disk plow; and Lewis, the machine gun. 260. The " Lusitania " had left New York bound for England. She was sailing along the coast of Ireland. Her passengers were happy in the thought that they would soon see their loved ones and friends. Suddenly she was struck by a torpedo shot from a German submarine, then another, and the ship went down in twenty minutes with all on board, more than 1200. This was not war, but was pretty close to murder. The whole world shuddered at the news, but Germany struck medals in honor of the event. 261. Theodore Roosevelt was one of the most active in demanding that America prepare for war. He had offered to take command of a volunteer force and go to France. But permission was refused him. 262. The Kaiser was king of Prussia and emperor of Germany. He often dashed along the streets of Berlin on horseback- at the head of his soldiers, or rode with his wife in the royal carriage. People gathered in great crowds on both sides of the street to see him pass. When he came everybody raised his hat. If anyone failed to do this, a policeman might ask him to do so. The Kaiser's picture hung in a prominent place in every public school. 263. One of the most interesting facts of the war was the great 504 THE APPENDIX numbers of school boys and girls who took part in so many efforts to help win the war. They did noble service in helping raise money and in going, in great numbers, to aid the farmers. The girls were called "farmerettes." Those who remained at home, both old and young, added greatly to our food supplies by making gardens by the thousands. 264. The German government carried on "propaganda" not only in America, but in Germany as well. It taught its own people to believe that Americans were only money-getters and would not fight. It said that it would take years for us to make an army; that even if we did, their submarines would never permit it to sail for Europe. But when a million men stormed the Argonne Forest and shattered the German line, the Germans felt their government had deceived them. 265. When General Pershing heard General Foch had been appoint- ed over all forces fighting Germany he went to him and said: " Infantry, artillery, aviation, all that we have, are yours to dispose of as you will." 266. Did you ever see the cartoon: "Go Tell It to the Marines"? So grateful were the French for the splendid work of our marines in capturing Belleau Wood, defended by three times as many Germans, that the French government changed its name to the "Wood of the Marine Brigade." ^ 267. The stories of the deeds of bravery by the American soldiers make a page of history that will thrill the American boy and girl to the remotest time. Among these stories, none shows more of a simple courage and trusting confidence in a Higher Power than that story of Lieutenant York, a Tennessee mountaineer. In the Argonne, he was sent with a handful of men to capture a nest of machine guns. They crept through the tangled forest and over the rocks and hills until they reached the enemy without being seen. Then began a battle which tested the courage of the bravest. Nearly all York's comrades had fallen, but he kept on. With his automatic pistol he killed 25 men and captured 132 others. He destroyed several machine guns and marched his prisoners back to the American army. York did not seem to think he had done much. In this battle, an American battalion advanced so rapidly, that the Germans cut it off from the American army, but could not capture it. For three days this brave band, without food and water, stood their ground. They have become immortalized under the name of "The Lost Battalion." 268. The Kaiser lost greatly in the estimation of his own people by deserting them in their hour of need. Had he led his army in one desperate charge against the Allies and had he died fighting, he would now stand much higher in the esteem of the German soldier. 269. Before the war closed, the Quakers of America, true to the teachings of Fox and Penn, were already in the field helping to build up towns and villages in France. They were the first among the churches to take united action to aid France. Others have now gone in, and some of larger ones have been given certain villages to rebuild. STUDY QUESTIONS (1-26) I. Picture Western Europe in 1500. 2. What did the common man do for a -living? 3. How many and what classes were there then? 4. What changes in classes have been made since then? 5. Picture the Northmen. 6. What were the causes of people turning attention to Western Europe? 7. What did Spain win in America in the race with Portugal? 8. Make a list of Spanish explorers with the countries visited, g. What new thing would Columbus have learned in 1522? 10. What did the king of France say about the pope's meridian? 11. What events grew out of the rivalry of England and Spain? (27-35) I. What natural advantages helped and what hindered the early settlers in America? 2. Explain how the Indians helped and hindered American settlers? (36-60) I. Why did English people at first hesitate to settle in America? 2. Why did they come later? 3. Give an imaginary con- versation between two Virginia settlers. 4. What events changed the whole life of the colony? 5. Name the things which made Vir- ginians content with their lot. 6. Who were the Puritans and Cava- liers? 7. What proof can yoti give that Berkeley had learned nothing from the rule of Cromwell? 8. How did Maryland as a colony differ from Virginia? 9. What became of Maryland's experiment in found- ing a medieval society? 10. Why should Maryland and Virginia have trouble? 1 1 . Make a list of the countries from which the settlers of Carolina came. 12. In what respect did the Carolinas resemble Maryland? 13. What double motive did Oglethorpe have for founding Georgia? 14. Name the three great men who came out to Georgia. (61-83) I- To what other colonies did Puritans go besides Massa- chusetts? 2. What is the difference between a Separatist and a Puritan? 3. What custom came to us from the Pilgrims? 4. Give the cause and the purpose of the Puritans' leaving England. 5. Name the causes which led Puritans to settle in towns. 6. How does this plan of settlement compare with that followed by the southern col- onies? 7. Classify leaders in New England as conservative and as progressive. 8. Which class comes nearest our time? What does this prove? 9. What have we already heard about the Puritan Revo- lution, or the Civil War in England? 10. What was the difference between the two revolutions in England? Which produced the greater changes in America? 11. What proprietary colonies have we already studied? 12. What other colonies were founded by the people themselves? 13. Name the leaders and state which of these 505 5o6 STUDY QUESTIONS colonies were democratic and which conservative? Where would you class the Plymouth colony and the Massachusetts Bay colony? 14. What became of the colony of New Haven? of Maine? of Plymouth? (84-106) I. What had the people of Holland done before they occupied New York? 2. Who were the patroons and what did Mary- land and the Carolinas have that was like the patroon system? 3. What were the reasons why New Netherland did not get self-govern- ment as soon as the other colonies? 4. Why did the Dutch settlers not fight when the English came to conquer New Netherland? 5. What things did the English do for the advantage and for the disad- vantage of the colony? 6. What first became of the colony of New Sweden? What was its fate finally? 7. Who first settled New Jer- sey, and how did it become English? 8. Draw a line between East and West Jersey. 9. Who occupied each part and how did the two parts finally become one? 10. Why did the people of New Jersey have no trouble with the Indians? 11. When did the Quakers first arise and who is called their father? 12. If a person obeys the inward voice, what will he believe and not believe? 13. Who was the most famous man among the Quakers? 14. In how many and in what ways did William Penn prove that he was a true Quaker? 15. Why was Penn's work in Pennsylvania called a "Holy Experiment"? 16. Penn and the Indians? Penn and the settlers? (107-159) I. Make a list of European nations sending people to settle in America and indicate the nations sending most settlers. 2. What class of people did not come to America? 3. Name the impor- tant towns in colonial times. 4. Which colonies were most purely English? Where did the Dutch and Scotch-Irish settle? The Ger- mans? 5. Describe the first colonial houses and the furniture belong- ing to them. 6. Why did the log cabin and the blockhouse follow the frontier? 7. How did young people in different sections "pass the time away"? 8. How did a colonial schoolhouse differ from yours? 9. Why were libraries so scarce then?. 10. Explain how the kinds of religion came to tolerate each other? 11. Why did they punish people publicly in colonial times? Why not now? 12. How did the farmer in old colony days differ from the farmer of Europe? 13. What occupations were common to all the sections? 14. What was the leading occupation in each section? 15. Why did the colonial farmer raise so little wheat? 16. Prove that the farmer was an independent man. Is he independent still? 17. Why was the small farmer a "jack of all trades"? 18. What other occupations did shipbuilding call for? 19. How did England look on colonial manufactures? 20. What were smuggling and piracy? 21. Where did we get our present-day state, county, and town government? (160-177) I. Picture the Indian battle at Lake Champlain in 1609. 2. Trace the routes of Johet and La Salle. 3. What was the Frenchman's plan for possessing New France? 4. What were the causes of King William and Queen Anne's wars? What did STUDY QUESTIONS 507 England gain? 5. What were Englishmen and Frenchmen doing in America during the long peace? 6. Why did both France and England want the region about the mouth of the Ohio River? 7. Why was George Washington chosen for the trip to order the French out of this region? 8. What did the meeting at Albany try to do? 9. What was another name for the French and Indian War and why so named? 10. What great Englishman planned England's vic- tories? II. Why did the Englishmen want to get Quebec and why did the colonists rejoice over their victory? 12. What was the meaning of the victory to England and to the colonists? 13. What had these great wars done for the colonies? (178-197) I. How did European nations treat their colonies? 2. If England treated her colonies so well, why did she and the colo- nies begin to quarrel? 3. Prove that George III had German ideas about England and America. 4. Why did English statesmen oppos- ing him support the Americans? 5. Explain what the people in America and England did to defeat the Stamp Act. 6. Keep a list of great Whigs in England until the end of the Revolution. 7. Give an example of the way the committees of secret correspondence worked. 8. Causes and effects of the Intolerable Act? 9. Visit the First Continental Congress and tell what you see there. 10. Why and by whom were the English Whigs kept posted on the Continental Congress? 11. What did the Whigs of England do to prevent war from breaking out? 12. Shut your eyes and tell the story of the fight at Lexington and Concord. 13. Picture the battle of Bunker Hill. Why did the British lose so many men? 14. Prove it is better to win a battle by strategy than by fighting. (198-239) I. Prove that George III caused the separation of the colonies from England. 2. Which side would you have taken? Are you sure? 3. What are the rights of man? Read the cause of separation named in the Declaration of Independence. 4. What did Europe think? 5. See note 8 for the most famous Tory. 6. What was our purpose before the Declaration? After it? 7. Prove that the British had good reasons for thinking the war over. 8. Pic- ture the battles of Trenton and Princeton. Make a list of the times Washington surprised the British. 9. Resolved that Washington was wise or unwise in following the method of Fabius. 10. What great men came to join the Americans now? 11. What good came out of Valley Forge? 12. What was the plan of Burgoyne? 13. Why was each part not carried out? 14. What great effect did it have in Europe? 15. Frankhn's work in France? 16. Effect on England of the treaty between France and America? 17. Beginnings of the American Navy — John Barry and Paul Jones? 18. Give the story of Boone, Robertson, and Clark. 19. Why did the British go south and what success did they have? 20. Tell the story of Marion and his men. 21. Name the three battles in the South before Cornwallis started north. 22. What were the reasons causing Washington to SoS STUDY QUESTIONS start for Yorktown? 23. Give the effects of Yorktown. 24. Give the story of the heroines of the Revolution. (240-267) I. How did the people make constitutions? What colonial examples did they have? 2. How did they make the Con- federation? What early examples did they have? 3. On what principle did they agree in making the Confederation? 4. Name the political and military defects of the Confederation, also the trade defects. 5. Why do people speak of the Ordinance of 1 787 as a famous document? 6. What events frightened some men into going to Philadelphia in 1787? 7. Prove John Fiske was right in calling this a "critical period." 8. What other such periods have we had in our history down to 1920? 9. Get acquainted with the great men in the Convention and see what each did. 10. What does it mean that they disobeyed orders? 11. What was the first great dispute in the Convention and how was it settled? 12. Do you agree with Washington's speech? 13. How did a state ratify the Constitution? 14. Who were opposed to ratification? 15. What was the Bill of Rights? Where did it come from? 16. Name the great departments of government under the Constitution and a Hst of powers granted to each. 17. How does the Supreme Court declare a law contsitutional or unconstitutional? 18. Read over the first ten amendments. (268-295) I. Name the states with a larger population today than the nation had in 1790. 2. In what way were we and in what ways were we not independent of Europe? 3. Effect of the war on education? On religion and morals? 4. What did people think about slavery in colonial times and in 1790? 5. What good effect did the war have on industry? 6. What two revolutions were there in Europe in the latter half of the eighteenth century? 7. How did Samuel Slater get his machinery to America? 8. Tell the effects of the cotton gin on the South and on the North. 9. Where was the "West" in 1790? Describe how people got there. 10. Where did they trade and why? What danger was there in this western trade? II. Where could men travel the fastest in 1790? Where now? 12. How did the makers of the Constitution intend the electors for presi- dent to vote? How do they vote now and why? 13. Make a con- tinuous picture of Washington's journey to New York. 14. Write short sketches of the men Washington appointed to office. 1 5. Explain the origin of political parties. Which of them correspond to parties of today? 16. What hard questions were raised by the French Revolution? 17. Compare Washington's position in 1793 with Wilson's position in 1914. 18. Have you read Washington's Fare- well Address? 19. Explain the X. Y. Z. affair. 20. Name the causes and effects of the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. 21. Give a full account of the campaign and election of 1800. (296-311) I. Prove that all the criticisms of Jefferson were not true. What did he believe that we accept now? 2. Why was he STUDY QUESTIONS SoP so popular in his first term? Who was Albert Gallatin? 3. Causes and effects of the purchase of Louisiana? 4. How did the purchase show that both Jefferson and the Federalists were not consistent? 5. What two ends were served by the Lewis and Clark expedition? 6. Study the admission of early states and show between what years the people went west in greatest numbers. 7. Sketch Napoleon. Was he good, bad, cr both? 8. Whom would you have sided with, Napoleon or England? 9. Was the Embargo a success or a failure? 10. What did Jefferson and Madison do to keep from war? Who were the "War Hawks"? 11. The inequality of the two nations in the war? (312-322) I. Why were Americans generally successful in the West and not in the East? 2. Picture the battle between the "Con- stitution" and the "Guerriere." 3. How do you explain our vic- tories on the sea? 4. Name two events in the war for both EngHsh- men and Americans to be ashamed of. 5. Why would the battle of New Orleans not now occur? 6. What was there awkward in the Hartford Convention for Federalists and Republicans? 7. Explain how the Embargo and the war stimulated home manufactures. 8. Explain the causes of the protective tariff of 18 16. Who favored and who opposed it? 9. What do a hundred years of peace between England and America mean? (323-364) I . Why did the people rush West after the War of 1 8 1 2 ? 2. How did the farmers get on when first settUng in a new region? How did the wife furnish her table? 3. The cause for the call for inter- nal improvements. Who was the great champion of this movement for roads, canals, etc.? 4. Uses of the steamboat in that day? 5. What effect did the first steamboat from New Orleans to Louisville have? 6. Picture scenes on the Cumberland Road. 7. Locate lead- ing canals and show how the Erie Canal operated. 8. What became of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, begun in 1827? 9. What were the older states doing in this time? 10. How did their people divide over internal improvements and a protective tariff? 11. What new prob- lems did the new states introduce? 1 2. The cause and purpose of the Missouri Compromise? 13. Origin of Spain's trouble with her colo- nies? 14. Who were the heroes of South America? Who gave them sympathy? 15. What was the "Holy Alliance"? Who were the leading men opposed to the AHiance? 16. Cause, nature, and purpose of the Monroe Doctrine? 17. When has the United States asserted this doctrine? 18. When lately was it under discussion? 19. What was the "era of good feeling"? 20. Explain the changes that came to the common men since colonial days. 21. Account for the election of John Quincy Adams. 22. What were the strong points and the weak ones in Jackson's character? 23. What was the "Spoils Sys- tem"? What became of it? 24. Prove that Jackson was the fighting president. Who were the great men against him? 25. Causes and effects of the panic of 1837? 26. Picture the Log Cabin and Hard Cider Campaign (1840). 510 STUDY QUESTIONS (365-400) I. Compare the United States in 1790 and i860. Com- pare North and South. 2. How do you explain the difference in popu- lation between the North and South? 3. Where did the Americans who moved west before 1820 settle? 4. Explain the nature of immi- gration 1 830-1 860. Where did the immigrants settle and why? 5. Effect of new immigration on new states and on the balance of power between the North and the South? 6. Compare "home life and pastimes" on the frontier with those of colonial days and in 1790. 7. What changes had come in the older states? 8. Indicate changes in common and in high schools and in colleges. 9. Leaders in educa- tion? 10. Early writers and the "children's poets"? 11. Newspapers and magazines. Which of these are yet alive? 12. What was the lyceum? Does it exist today? 13. The "circuit rider"? The camp meeting? 14. Improvement in moral reforms and in laboring condi- tions? 15. Origin of labor unions? 16. What was the cause of woman's movement and who were its leaders? 17. Why was the farmer a "conservative "? 18. What were the leading farm inventions in this period? 19. What caused the factories to grow rapidly? What changes came in them? 20. The inventions that gave women relief? 21. Why was Pennsylvania the great industrial state in this period? 22. Prove that Morse and Field were great heroes. 23. How did railroads grow in this period? 24. How long did it take ships in colonial days to get across the ocean? In 1850? 1920? Any shorter way of getting over? 25. Meaning of Perry's visit to Japan? (401-430) I. State the fundamental differences between the North and the South. 2. How was the South disappointed over the first protective tariff? 3. Picture the Webster-Hayne debate. 4. What was Jackson's position? 5. -Personalities in the debate on the "Force Bill" and the "Compromise Tariff"? 6. Position of the slave? 7. What was the demand of the Abolitionists? What did that mean for the slave? 8. What was Calhoun's position? 9. What was the posi- tion of the South? Of the North? 10. Battle over the right of peti- tion? II. Why could the Americans and the Mexicans not get on well together? 12. What did Sam Houston do for Texas? 13. How did it become a part of the United States? 14. Why did Polk win in the campaign of 1844? 15. What nations laid claim to Oregon country? 16. Describe a journey to the Oregon country. 17. Ex- plain how the settlers in Willamette region took the lead. 18. What were the "battle cries" over Oregon in the campaign of 1844? 19. Why did Polk take the line of 49°? 20. Real cause and results of the Mexican War? 21. Who opposed the war and why? 22. What was the Wilmot Proviso? 23. What was odd about the candidates in 1848? 24. Who were the Free-Soilers? 25. How did we get posses- sion of California? What was the effect of the discovery of gold in that region? 26. Where did the majority of settlers come from and why? 27. How did they stand on the slave question? 28. Who was the author of the Compromise of 1850? 29. What different positions STUDY QUESTIONS 51 1 did the great men take? 30. What was the " Underground Railroad "? "Personal Liberty Laws"? (431-452) I. Early career of Douglas? 2. How did Douglas kill the Whig Party and shatter the Democratic party? 3. Why was it easier for the North to send voters to Kansas than for the South? 4. What was "popular" or "squatter" sovereignty? 5. How was Douglas treated by his own neighbors? 6. What did the two parties do in Kansas? The effect upon the country? 7. The campaign of 1856 and what the result shows? 8. What was the Dred Scott deci- sion? How was it a double blow? 9. Early career of Lincoln? 10. What was the point to Lincoln's speech when he was nominated for the Senate? 11. Describe the "joint debate" and show what its effect was. 12. How did the debates help split the Democratic party at Charleston in i860? 13. Why was Lincoln elected in i860? 14. The patriotic conduct of Douglas? 15. Describe the different attempts at conciliation. Why was it not possible? 16. Reasons for and against Secession? 17. Why did the South think she could succeed? (453-485) I. Military problems of the war? 2. England's atti- tude toward North and South? 3. How did the "Monitor" save the blockade? Show how the blockade helped win the war. 4. Explain the different steps in the West taken by Union troops to the time of the fall of Vicksburg. 5. How did McClellan get his army to the "Peninsula"? 6. What was the total result of the campaign? 7. Who was General Pope and why did Lee win in the second battle of Bull Run? 8. What relation did this battle have to Lee's invasion of Maryland? 9. What bearing did the battle of Antietam have on results of the war? 10. What was the first purpose of the war? Did Lincoln change this purpose? 11. What did his enemies say? 12. What was the purpose of the first proclamation? 13. What connection did Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville have with Gettysburg? 14. Would you have quit after Gettysburg if you had been General Lee? 15. What was the difference between "War Democrats" and ' ' Peace Democrats " ? 16. Who were ' ' Copperheads " ? 17. What was the political situation during the campaign of 1864? (486-511) I. Name the war campaigns in 1864 and in 1865 and tell the results of each. 2. Tell the story of Lee's surrender. 3. How did Lincoln's assassination affect the fortunes of the South? 4. What were the different effects of the war on the Union and on the Con- federacy? 5. Why was the planter such a sufferer? 6. Who was secretary of the treasury and what did he do? Name other members of the cabinet. (512-521) I. What was Lincoln's plan of reconstruction? What great principle was it based on? 2. Why did Congress not like Johnson? 3. In what sense did the Thirteenth Amendment complete the work of emancipation? 4. How did Congress try to protect the negro? 5. What caused Congress to impeach President Johnson? 6. State the main point in the congressional plan of reconstruction. 512 STUDY QUESTIONS 7. Did the congressional plan cause the "Carpetbag" rule in the South? Prove your answer. 8. What was the Ku-Klux Klan? What means did it use? Why was it suppressed? 9. What were the points to the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments? 10. How do the people of the South feel toward them? (522-540) I. What kind of president did General Grant make? 2. What do you know about Horace Greeley? 3. What caused the panic of 1873? 4. What effect did it have on Congress? 5. What new questions were coming up in the Hayes-Tilden campaign? 6. If you had been Tilden would you have given up so easily? Why? 7. What did Hayes do for the South? Its effect on him and on the South. 8. Why were the farmers of the West dissatisfied with the big political parties? g. What did the Grangers accomphsh? 10. What did the Greenback party want? 11. What were the demands of the Populist party? 12. Why were the people dissatisfied with the Harrison administration? 13. Explain the panic of 1893. 14. State some effects of the panic. 15. Why did the Louisiana senators fight the Wilson tariff bill? 16. How can a bill become a law without the president's signature? 17. Why was an income tax law passed in 1893? 18. What is the effect of the Supreme Court declaring a law unconstitutional? (541-567) I. What reasons were given for the fall in prices from 1873 to 1897? 2. What was "the crime of '73"? 3. What remedy did the farmers and silver miners of the West offer for low prices? 4. What two silver purchase acts were passed? 5. Why was the pur- chase of silver stopped? 6. What is the most valuable product of Alaska? 7. What is the value of world's expositions? 8. What does the expression "free silver" mean? 9. What is "imperiahsm"? 10. In what campaign was it an issue? 11. Explain the failure of the "free silver" plan. 12. How much gold in a gold dollar? 13. What is meant by saying that the gold dollar is the standard? 14. Review Roosevelt's pohtical career before he became president. 15. Why did he oppose the trusts? 16. How did he help to bring about peace between Japan and Russia? 17. Why was Roosevelt so popular? 18. What was the estimated wealth of the United States in 191 8? 19. Name some natural resources. 20. Why have natural resources been wasted? 21. What was Roosevelt's plan regarding the forests of the West? 22. How did Taft help conservation? 23. Who looks after the forests? 24. Give some idea of how destructive forest fires are. 25. What is the object of irrigation? 26. Who looks after it? 27. Compare the area of irrigated land in the United States to area of West Virginia. 28. Why was the country disappointed in the Payne-Aldrich Act? 29. If there is $167,000,000 deposited in the postal savings banks, how much interest does the government pay out each year? 30. How do parcel post rates compare with rates for first-class mail? 31. What were the "special interests"? 32. Explain the break between Taft and Roosevelt. 35. How was Taft STUDY QUESTIONS $13 nominated? 34. What did the Progressive party demand? 35. Who dominated the Democratic convention at Baltimore? 36. Explain Wilson's victory. (568-599) I. Describe conditions in Cuba, before 1898. 2. What interest did Americans have in the struggle? 3. Describe the sink- ing of the "Maine." 4. What promise did the United States make when it declared war on Spain? 5. Describe the battle of Manila. 6. Who were the "Rough Riders"? 7. Describe the exploit of Lieu- tenant Hobson. 8. How do you explain the defeat of the Spanish fleet? 9. State four provisions of the Treaty of Paris. 10. Show that the United States kept its promise. 11. In what ways is the United States related to Cuba now? 12. Give five results of the war. 13. What does it mean to say our isolation is ended? 14. When did the demand for a canal at Panama arise? 15. Why were farmers and manufacturers in favor of it? 16. Why did the French fail? 17. What did the trip of the "Oregon" have to do with building the canal? 18. How much did we pay for a strip of land for the canal? 19. How did our men get rid of yellow fever? 20. When was the canal completed? 21. How long and how wide is the canal? 22. What are the locks for? 23. Give examples of distances saved by the canal. 24. Why were the Hawaiian Islands not annexed in 1893? 25. Of what use is a coaHng station? 26. How did the United States get the island of Tutuila? 27. Explain the "Boxer" rebeUion. 28. What was Hay's "Open door" pohcy? 29. Why does China regard the United States as her best friend? 30. Who was the leader of the Filipinos in their resistance to the Americans? 31. What steps have been taken to improve conditions in the Philippines? 32. What is the United States trying to do in the Philippines? ^^. Is there any chance for them to secure independence? 34. Do you think they should be granted their independence now? Why? 35. What is international arbitration? 36. What reason can you give for using it? 37. Name four cases in which arbitration was used. 38. What was the question in the seal fisheries case? The Alaskan boundary case? The Venezuela case? 39. How many times have England and the United States arbitrated their differences since 1789? 40. What were the purposes of the Hague meetings? 41. Why did they not put an end to war? 42. What is the principal feature of the "wait-a-bit" treaties? 43. What was the cause of Venezuela's trouble in 1902? 44. Why does the United States have troops in Santo Domingo and Haiti? 45. Why was Diaz driven from Mexico? 46. How many presidents has Mexico had since Diaz? 47. Explain the interest of Americans in Mexico. 48. Why did neither Taft nor Wilson wish to send troops to Mexico? 49. What was the "A, B, C" intervention. 50. What new meaning is being given the Monroe Doctrine? 51. What is the feeling of the power- ful South American states toward the Monroe Doctrine? 52. What is a Pan-American congress? 53. How many have been held? 54. 18 514 STUDY QUESTIONS Of what use are they? 55. What is the Pan-American Union? 56. What are its purposes? (600-630) I. When did immigration begin to increase rapidly? 2. Why did not the immigrants go to the South? 3. Explain the increase of immigration after the Civil War. 4. What nations con- tributed to the settlement of the Northwest? 5. State the relation of railroads to immigration. 6. About when did the immigration from Central and Eastern Europe begin? 7. Where did these people settle? Why? 8. What effect did this immigration have on politics? 9. Have you ever been in the foreign quarter in any big city? 10. Why did people want to keep the Chinese and Japanese out of the country? 11. What trouble does the Federal government have on this account? 12. What is it to be naturaUzed? 13. Describe the process. 14. Ought all foreigners be compelled to be naturalized? 15. Why did the later groups of immigrants find it hard to become Americans? 16. What steps can be taken to Americanize our immi- grants? 17. How did the coming of the factories change the relations of employers and workers? 18. How did Van Buren win the support of the workers? ig. Explain the revival of the labor union movement after the Civil War. 20. Describe the organization of the American Federation of Labor. 21. About how many unionized men are there in the country? 22. What is collective bargaining? Why do union men believe in it? 23. Name an employers' organization. 24. What is picketing? 25. Give an example of time lest in strikes. 26. Give an example showing how hard it is to keep violence out of strikes. 27. Does the public have any interest in strikes? 28. What was Roosevelt's attitude? 29. What part does the government take in strikes? 30. What is a boycott? 31. Why do the unions object to the injunction? 32. What points of the labor question did the Clayton Act cover? S3- What plan have the unions followed to get the support of the political parties? 34. What objections are there to child labor in factories? 35. What is the Children's Bureau to do? 36. What steps have been taken to make the workers safe? 37. Name some occupations that are dangerous to workers. 38. What reasons can you give in favor of workingmen's compensation acts? 39. Why should everybody be interested in preventing injury to workingmen? 40. Why are some employers in favor of welfare work? 41. Why did men begin to organize trusts? 42. Tell of the growth of the trusts. 43. What is the effect of the trusts on the small producers? 44. What did the railroads gain by combining? 45. Do you live near a branch of any great railroad system? If so, what system is it? 46. Why did the people feel angry over the growth of "big business "? 47. What was the object of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act? 48. Name two com- panies that were prosecuted. 49. What was the result? 50. What have we learned about "big business"? (631-654) I. Why did people begin holding nominating conven- tions? 2. Why did they begin holding primary elections? 3. Does STUDY QUESTIONS ' 515 your state hold presidential preference primary elections? 4. Why was the old system of voting not a good one? 5. Wherein is the Aus- tralian system better? 6. Does your state use the short ballot? 7. Why did people take up the system of "direct legislation"? 8. Does your state use the initiative, the referendum, or the recall? 9. Why was the Seventeenth Amendment adopted? 10. Which is growing faster, city or rural population? 11. Why is the problem of city government a hard one? 12. What is a city charter? 13. Describe the ordinary city government. 14. Why did people complain of it? 15. Where did the commission plan start? Describe it. 16.' Name six cities that use it. 17. Why are city managers hired? 18. What are they stipposed to do? 19. Name five cities that have city man- agers. 20. What is necessary to get good city government? 21. Where did Sociahsm start? 22. What objections do Socialists have to private ownership? 23. What would they do about it? 24. State some arguments for and against Socialism. 25. Why do the Socialists wish to get control of the American Federation of Labor? 26. When did the Socialist party cast its biggest vote? 27. In what way is a protective tariff different from a tariff for revenue "only? 28. Was the Underwood tariff a tariff for revenue only? 29. Why did Con- gress pass the Income Tax Law of 1913? 30. Why was the Federal Reserve Act passed? 3 1 . In what Federal Reserve district do you live? 32. Why did the United States send an army to Mexico in 1916? 1^:^. Should the United States conquer Mexico? Why? 34. Why did we buy the Virgin Islands? (655-687) I. Why was the mountain region the last to be settled? 2. What was the object of the Homestead Act? 3. What was a "bonanza" farm? 4. What states owe their settlement largely to the Northern Pacific Railroad? 5. What national park is in Montana? 6. Why did the fur companies struggle for the territory near the mouth of the Columbia? .7. Explain the large population of Washington when it was admitted to the Union. 8. Why did the Mormons go to Utah? 9. For what purpose was the Indian Territory set apart? 10. Why were the white men so anxious to get into the Territory? 11. What railroads opened up the Southwest to settlement? 12. Why did the Spaniards explore the territory of New Mexico and Arizona? 13. Sum up the part of the railroads in the settlement of the West. 14. What was the reason for the rapid growth of the cities after 1900? 15. What ciualities did the frontier develop in its people? Why? 16. Why is the West the home of reform? 17. What was the main cause of trouble between the white men and the Indians? 18. When did Congress begin moving the Indians beyond the Mississippi? 19. Tell of the death of Custer, 20. Why was reservation life not good for the Indians? 21. Was the Dawes Act an improvement? Why? 22. What is the fact about the Indians dying out? 23. Why should people living in a country like ours be educated? 24. Why has edu- cation been backward in the South ? 25. Why is the elementary school 5i6 STUDY QUESTIONS very important? 26. What per cent of the children starting to school have dropped out by the end of the sixth grade? 27. Why do they drop out? 28. What new subjects have been added to the course of study? 29. What per cent has attendance in high schools in- creased since 1880? 30. Is there a good high school in your neighbor- hood? 3 1 . State two big changes in high schools since 1880. 32. Why should a teacher be trained for her work? ^^. What did the Morrill Act do for education? 34. What can a student study at the state university? 35. Why were vocational subjects added to the course of study? 36. What practical subjects can boys and girls study in vocational schools? 37. Do you think parents should be compelled to send their children to school? Why? 38. Why were night schools started? 39. What is meant by saying a school is a "community center"? 40. Do you have a community center in your neighbor- hood? 41. What good has been done by medical inspection in schools? 42. Do you think women need higher education as much as men? Why? 43. Do you know of any college or university that does not admit women? 44. Will giving women the right to vote have any effect on this situation? 45. Name something that "Mark Twain" wrote besides the books mentioned in the text. 46. Try to find the poem Columbus and read it. 47. Name three southern writers. 48. Have you read any of Riley's poems? Which do you like best? 49. Who wrote the Hoosier School Boy? 50. Name three short-story writers and two novelists. 51. Do you read a daily newspaper? A periodical? 52. Name three current events magazines. 53. Does your school take one? 54. Is there a free public library near you? 55. Does your school have a library? 56. Of what use is it? What kind of books does it contain? 57. What great gift did Mr. Carnegie make the American people? (688-729) I. What are exports? Imports? 2. Why do nations exchange goods? 3. What advantages do our farmers enjoy? 4. Show how our export of farm products has grown since 1 880. 5. What are our largest agricultural exports? 6. Why do we not export corn in large quantities? 7. Explain the growth in manufactured exports since 1880. Is this a good thing for us? 8. Why is Europe our best customer? 9. Why does not England produce all the farm products she wants? 10. Why must a nation import goods if it wants an export business? 11. Is it a bad thing to import goods? 12. What are the principle articles imported by the United States? 13. What is a "favorable" balance of trade? 14. Why did the United States have only a small export trade to South America until a few years ago? 15. What does "reciprocity" mean? 16. What relation does the Panama Canal have to trade with South America? 17. Why are Americans getting more business in South America than they used to have? 18. What countries of South America are our best customers? 19. What is the merchant marine? 20. Do you favor a subsidy for the merchant marine? Why? 21. What part of the world's wealth STUDY QUESTIONS 517 do we produce each year? 22. How has wealth grown in comparison to population? 23. Give reasons for the rapid growth of wealth. 24. Do you think it pays the country to keep up the universities and agricultural colleges? Why? 25. Of what use are the scientists? 26. Give illustrations. 27. Why is machinery used on the farm? 28. How has the use of machinery on farms increased? 29. In what sense is the farmer dependent upon the means of transportation? 30. What does it cost to send wheat from Kansas to Liverpool? 31. Illustrate how extending transportation affects ether industries by the case of dairy farming. 32. Why did the farmers begin running grain elevators for themselves? ^t,. What state has gone into the business? 34. Could we get along as well today without cold storage plants? 35. Mention several respects in which the farmer's life has recently changed. 36. What is the effect of these changes upon continued improvement? 37. Show that farm tenancy is growing. 38. Is this a good thing? Why? 39. What were the reasons for starting land banks? 40. Do you think it pays the country to keep up the Department of Agriculture? Why? 41. How does the num- ber of people engaged in agriculture compare with the number in manufacturing? 42. Give six main reasons for the development of manufacturing. 43. How many classes of manufactured goods does the Census make? (See appendix.) 44. In what ways does manu- facturing make use of science? 45. Give examples of direct produc- tion. 46. Give examples of indirect production. 47. Which is better? Why? 48. Give examples of division of labor. 49. Why do the factories work on this plan? 50. Why are machines important in production? 51. What factors control the location of factories? 52. How do the states rank in manufacturing? 53. Illustrate the growth of the South in manufacturing. 54. Why was it slow getting started? 55. Give some illustrations of how industries are localized in certain cities. 56. How do the industries rank according to numbers of workers? 57. How according to value of output? (See appendix.) 58. Name ten manufacturing cities according to their rank. 59. What are by-products? 60. Give an illustration of how science has shown how to use them. 61. What city leads in meat packing? 62. Of what use is the refrigerator car? 63. Why is the iron industry centered in the Pittsburgh district? 64. What other iron districts have been developed? 65. Why was the cotton manufacturing industry first developed in New England? 66. Why was it slow to develop in the South? 67. How do the states rank in cotton manu- facture? 68. What was the industrial revolution? 69. Why does the inventor go to work? Give two illustrations. 70. Why does invention not stop when a machine has been invented? 71. When was the first patent law passed? 72. Do you think it a wise thing for the government to issue patents? Why? 73. Give some figures indicating the great number of patents issued in the United States. 74. Name ten inventions not listed in the text. Si8 STUDY QUESTIONS (730-772) I. What do you think was the real cause of the World War? 2. Imagine yourself in Wilson's place between 1914 and 191 7. Tell what problems he had to face. 3. State the immediate cause of war. 4. Why had so many Americans gone to war before war was declared by this country? 5. Make a list of the ways people at home helped win the war. 6. Make a list of war organizations at home. 7. Make a list of warships. 8. Make a list of what the soldier saw and did before he went to France? 9. Why were Americans rushed to France before entirely prepared to fight? 10. What was done to overcome this defect? 11. How long had the Allies been fighting when American soldiers entered the war? 12. Which was the great- est battle for the Americans? 13. What connection was there between the work of the English and American navies and the Armistice? 14. State the points imposed on Germany by the Armistice. 15. What great social changes were brought about by the war. 16. Give a brief account of the religious changes due to the war. 17. How do you account for the Harding election? THE APPENDIX 519 THE "MAYFLOWER" COMPACT 2.n ye name of God, Amen. We whose names are writen, the loyall subjects of our dread soveraigne Lord, King James, by ye grace of God, of Great Britaine, Franc, & Ireland, king, defender of ye faith, &c., haveing undertaken, for ye glorie of God, and advancemente of ye Christian faith, and honour of our king & countrie, a voyage to plant ye first colonic in ye Northerne parts of Virginia, doe by these presents solemnly & rnutualy in ye presence of God, and one of another, cove- nant & combine our selves togeather into a civill body politick, for our better ordering & preservation & furtherance of ye ends aforesaid : and by vertue hearof to enacte, constitute, and frame such just & equall lawes, ordinances, actes, constitutions, & offices, from time to time, as shall be thought most meete & convenient for ye generall good of ye Colonic, unto which we promise all due submission and obedience. In witnes wherof we have hereunder subscribed our names at Cape-Cod ye II. of November, in the year of ye raigne of our soveraigne lord. King James, of England, France & Ireland ye i8, and of Scotland ye fiftie- fourth. Ano, Dom. 1620. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE' In Congress, yuly 4, 1776. The following declaration of principles was agreed to on July 4, 1776, and is thus recorded in the Journal of Congress for that day : Agreeably to the order of the day, the Congress resolved itself into a committee of the whole to take into their further consideration the Declaration ; and, after some time, the president resumed the chair, and Mr. Harrison reported that the committee have agreed to a Declaration, which they desired him to report. The Declaration being read, was agreed to as follows : The Unanimous Declaration ok the Thirteen United States of America When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident : That all men are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness ; that, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed ; that, when- ever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their iThe use of capitals, the punctuation, the paragraphing, and the numbering of paragraphs are all modern. In the original draft the use of capitals and punctuation marks was quite different and there was no division into paragraphs. S20 - THE APPENDIX safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes ; and, accordingly, all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies ; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present king of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these states. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. /. He has refused his assent to laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. 2. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be obtained ; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. 3. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature — a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. 4. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. _ 5. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 6. He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected ; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of anni- hilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise; the state remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all the dangers of invasions from without and convulsions within. 7. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states ; for that purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. 8. He has obstructed the administration of justice by refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. S. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure eir offices and the amount and payment of their salaries. 10. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people and eat out their substance. //. He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, without the consent of our legislatures. 12. He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. /J. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our Constitution and unacknowledged by our laws, giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation : a. For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us. b. For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment, for any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these states. THE APPENDIX 521 c. For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world. d. For imposing taxes on us without our consent. e. For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury. /. For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offenses. g. For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies. h. For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering fundamentally the forms of our governments. i. For suspending our own legislature and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 14. He has abdicated government here by declaring us out of his protection, and waging war against us. 75-. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. lb. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercena- ries to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. 77. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the execution- ers of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 18. He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time, of attempts by their legisla- ture to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and cor- respondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of man- kind — enemies in war; in peace, friends. We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; and that as free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other acts and 522 THE APPENDIX things which independent states may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. The foregoing declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed and signed by the following members : New Hampshire Josiah Bartlett William Whipple Matthew Thornton Massachusetts Bay Samuel Adams John Adams Robert Treat Paine Elbridge Gerry Rhode Island Stephen Hopkins William Ellery Connecticut Roger Sherman Samuel Huntington William Williams Oliver Olcott New York William Floyd Philip Livingston Francis Lewis Lewis Morris New Jersey Richard Stockton John Witherspoon Francis Hopkinson John Hart Abraham Clark Pen7isylva7iia Robert Morris Benjamin Rush Benjamin Franklin John Morton George Clymer James Smith George Taylor James Wilson George Ross Delaware Caesar Rodney George Read Thomas M'Kean Maryland Samuel Chase William Paca Thomas Stone Charles Carroll of Car. rollton Virginia George Wythe Richard Henry Lee Thomas Jefferson Benjamin Harrison Thomas Nelson, Jun. Francis Lightfoot Lee Carter Braxton North Carolina William Hooper Joseph Hewes John Penn South Carolina Edward Rutledge Thomas Hey ward, Jun. Thomas Lynch, Jun. Arthur Middleton Georgia Button Gwinnett Lyman Hall George Walton THE APPENDIX 523 PROVISIONS OF THE CONSTITUTION Some steps toward fed- eration, resulting in the Constitution: With regard to the United States Govern- ment the Consti- tution provides for: With regard to the members of the House of Representa- tives, the Con- stitution pro- vides for: With regard to the members of the Senate, the Constitution provides for: With regard to the President, the Constitution provides for: ■ The New England Confederacy (1643). The Albany Plan (1754). The Stamp Act Congress (1765). The Committees of Correspondence (1773). The First Continental Congress (1774). The Declaration of Independence (1776). Articles of Confederation Adopted (1781). Convention at Annapolis (1786). Constitutional Convention (1787). Legislative Department. Executive Department. Judicial Department. House of Representatives'- Senate. President. President's Cabinet. Federal Judges. Federal Courts. Manner of election. By the people of the several states. Two years. (Twenty-five years old. Seven years a citizen of the United States. Live in state where chosen. / Among the states according to the \ number of inhabitants. Term of office. Qualifications. Distribution. The census. Every ten years. A presiding officer. Members elect the Speaker. Power to impeach Federal officers. Number. Two from each state. Manner of election. By the state legislatures.^ Term of office. Six years. (Thirty years of age. Nine years a citizen of the United States. Live in state where elected. (Vice-President of United States. In absence of Vice-President Sen- ate elects president pro tern. Their acting as court to try impeachments brought by the House of Representatives. Qualifications. Term of office. Manner of election . Qualifications. Oath of office. Four years. ' By presidential electors chosen by the people of the several states. Natural-born citizen of the United States. Thirty-five years of age. Fourteen years' residence in United States. ■ To support the Constitution of the \ United States. 1 Amendments, Article XVII. 524 THE APPENDIX With regard to the rT't,^,v „„„^;„f^^„.„ f By President with the Federal Judges, the J ^^^'^ appointments. | i^onsent of the Senate. Constitution provides ] Their number. for : i_ Their term of office. Fixed by Congress. During good behavior. The Constitution f One Supreme Court, provides for Federal -i courts: (^ Inferior courts to be established by Congress. The Constitution provides for Congress : Congress ^ has power .• The Presi- dent's powers: The Presi- dent's duties : Time of meeting. { ^Sfiy^rol'dmber. Quorum, Majority. Each house determine its rules of procedure. Each house keep a journal. Neither house may adjourn for more than three days without the consent of the other. . The method of passing laws. To lay taxes.l To borrow money. To regulate commerce. To pass laws to regulate {^^^ji'^-^- o£ foreigners. To coin money. To fix standard of weights and measures. To establish post offices. To provide for patents and copyrights. To declare war. To raise and support armies. To maintain a navy. To provide for a standing army. To admit new states. To pass laws necessary to carrying out the above powers. r Army. J Navy. j Militia in service of the t United States. Grants reprieves and pardons. {Makes treaties. Appoints i ^^Z^S L Federal Judges. Send messages to Congress. Convene extra sessions of Congress when necessary. Receive ambassadors. Execute the laws. Commander-in-chief of : 1 Amendments, Article XVI. THE APPENDIX 525 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES^ PREAMBLE We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. ARTICLE I THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT THE CONGRESS: ITS DIVISIONS AND POWERS Section i. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. THE house: its COMPOSITION AND POWERS Sec. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of mem- bers chosen every second year by the people of the several states, and the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for elec- tors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen. (Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned amorig the several states which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons.) The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one representative; and until such enumeration shall be made the state of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three; Massachusetts, eight; Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, one; Connecticut, five; New York, six; New Jersey, four; Pennsylvania, eight; Delaware, one; Maryland, six; Virginia, ten; North Carolina, five; South Carolina, five; and Georgia, three. When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other oflScers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. THE senate: its COMPOSITION AND POWERS Sec 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from each state [chosen by the legislature thereof 2], for six years; and each senator shall have one vote. 1 In the use of punctuation and capitals this draft is modern. 2 The phrase in brackets has been set aside by the XVIIth Amendment. 526 THE APPENDIX Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expira- tion of the second year; of the second class, at the expiration of the fourth year; of the third class, at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year; [and if vacancies hap- pen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any state, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall fill such vacancies.^] No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen. The Vice-President of the United States shall be president of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments; when sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside; and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States; but the party convicted shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment according to law. CONGRESSIONAL ELECTIONS AND DATE OF ASSEMBLING Sec. 4. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for sena- tors and representatives shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. RULES OF PROCEDURE OF SENATE AND HOUSE Sec. 5. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall consti- tute a quorum to do business; -but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner and under such penalties as each house may provide. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two- thirds, expel a member. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the 1 The phrase in brackets has been set aside by the XVIIth Amendment. THE APPENDIX 527 consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. COMPENSATION AND PRIVILEGES OF MEMBERS Sec. 6. The senators and representatives shall receive a compen- sationi for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either house, they shall not be questioned in any other place. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased, during such time; and no person holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office. methods of legislation Sec. 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amend- ments as on other bills. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate shall, before it become a law, be presented to the Presi- dent of the United States; if he approve, he shall sign it, but if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, a-nd proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objec- tions, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. powers vested IN CONGRESS Sec. 8. The Congress shall have power: To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 1 Seven thousand five hundred dollars a year, and twenty cents for every mile necessary traveled in coming to and returning from the Capital. 528 THE APPENDIX To regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes ; To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States ; To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures ; To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States ; To establish post offices and post roads ; To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, for limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries ; To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations ; To declare war, "grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water ; To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; To provide and maintain a navy ; To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces ; To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions ; To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the states, respectively, the appointment of the officers and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress ; To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the govern- ment of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings; and — To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any depart- ment or officer thereof. LIMITS TO POWERS OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT Sec. 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in case of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state. THE APPENDIX 5^9 No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one state over those of another ; nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one state, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States. And no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. LIMITS TO POWERS OF THE STATES Sec. io. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confedera- tion ; grant lettejs of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of credit ; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws ; and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States ; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of ton- nage, keep troops, or ships of war, in time of peace, enter into any agree- ment or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, oi in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. ARTICLE II THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT THE EXECUTIVE OFFICERS ; THE ELECTORAL COLLEGE Section i. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, together with, the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected, as follows : Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to which the state may be entitled in the Congress ; but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. [The electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each ; which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the pi'esident of the Senate. The presi- dent of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and 530 THE APPENDIX have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose by ballot one of them for President ; and if no person have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said house shall, in hke manner, choose the President. But in choosing the President the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot the Vice-President.'] The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day shall be the same throughout the United States. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President ; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or ina- bility, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as President ; and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a com- pensation* which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or affirmation : " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Consti- tution of the United States." POWERS GRANTED TO THE PRESIDENT Sec. 2. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several states, when called into the actual service of the United States ; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate shall appoint, ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and 1 The paragraph in brackets has been set aside by the Xllth Amendment. 2 The President receives Its.ooo a year, and $25,000 additional for traveling ex- penses; the Vice-President receives Ji2,ooo a year. THE APPENDIX S3 1 which shall be established by law ; but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. The President shall have power to fill up vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their next session. THE president's DUTIES Sec. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on extraor- dinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. IMPEACHMENT OF EXECUTIVE AND CIVIL OFFICERS Sec. 4. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. ARTICLE III THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT THE FEDERAL COURTS — SUPREME AND INFERIOR Section i. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. POWERS AND JURISDICTION OF THE FEDERAL COURTS Sec 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls ; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party ; to controversies between two or more states ; between a state and citizens of another state ; between citizens of different states ; between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states, and between a state, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and con- suls, and those in which a state shall be a party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury ; and such trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed within any state, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. 532 THE APPENDIX TREASON : ITS NATURE AND PUNISHMENT Sec. 3. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted. ARTICLE IV RELATIONS OF THE STATE AND FEDERAL GOVERNMENTS RECOGNITION OF STATE AUTHORITY Section i. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state. And the Congress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. LAWS REGARDING CITIZENS OF THE STATES Sec. 2. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several states. A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another state, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the state from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the state having jurisdiction of the crime. No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. ADMISSION OF STATES AND REGULATION OF UNITED STATES TERRITORIES Sec. 3. New states may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; but no new state shall be formed or erected within the jurisdic- tion of any other state ; nor any state be formed by the junction of two or more states, or parts of states, without the consent of the legislatures of the states concerned as well as of the Congress. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so con- strued as to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any partic- ular state. PROTECTION GUARANTEED BY THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT Sec. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every state in this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion ; and on application of the legislature, or of the Execu- tive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence. ARTICLE V POWER AND METHOD OF AMENDING THE CONSTITUTION The Congress, whenever Iwo-thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several states, shall THE APPENDIX 533 call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; provided that no amend- ment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article ; and that no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. ARTICLE VI PUBLIC DEBTS; THE SUPREME LAW; OATH OF OFFICE ; RELIGIOUS TEST PROHIBITED All debts contracted and engagements entered into before the adop- tion of this Constitution shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution as under the confederation. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof ; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any state to the contrary notwithstanding. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several state legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several states, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States, ARTICLE VII RATIFICATION AND ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CONSTITUTION The ratification of the conventions of nine states shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the states so ratifying the same. Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the states present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names, Deputy from Virginix New Hampshire John Langdon Connecticut Nicholas Oilman "William Samuel Johnson Massachusetts ^^^^^ Sherman Nathaniel Gorham ^^^^ ^'^^^ Rufus King Alexander Hamilton 534 THE APPENDIX New Jersey Maryland William Livingston J^mes McHenry David Brearley Daniel Jenifer of St. Thomas William Paterson Daniel Carroll Jonathan Dayton Virginia Pennsylvania John Blair ■D . . ^ IV James Madison, Jun. Beniamin rrankun •' ,t , Vi ,• Thomas Mifflin _.„. E"'^^' Carolina Robert Morris William Blount George Clymer Richard Dobbs Speight Thomas Fitzsimons Hugh Williamson Jared Ingersoll South Carolina James Wilson John Rutledge Gouverneur Morris Charles Cotesworth Pinckney Delaware Charles Pinckney George Read Pierce Butler _ Gunning Bedford, Jun. „,.„. Georgia John Dickinson ^'f"" ^?.^. • Richard Bassett Abraham Baldwin Jacob Broom Attest: William Jackson, Secretary AMENDMENTS Articles in addition to, and amendment of, the Constitution of the United States of America, proposed by Congress, and ratified by the legislatures of the several states pursuant of the fifth article of the orig- inal Constitution. ARTICLE I' FREEDOM OF RELIGION AND SPEECH ; RIGHT OF ASSEMBLY Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peace'ably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. ARTICLE II RIGHT TO BEAR ARMS A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people fo keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. ARTICLE III QUARTERING OF TROOPS No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner ; nor in time of war but in a manner to be pre- scribed by law. ARTICLE IV RIGHT OF SEARCH PROHIBITED The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be 1 The first ten amendments were proposed in 1789, and adopted before the close of 1791. They were to "more efficiently guard certain rights already provided for in the Constitution, or to prohibit certain exercises of authority supposed to be dangerous to the public interests." THE APPENDIX • 535 violated, and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, sup- ported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. ARTICLE V RIGHT TO TRIAL BY JURY No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infa- mous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war and public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life and limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a wit- ness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, with- out due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. ARTICLE VI RIGHTS OF ACCUSED IN CRIMINAL CASES In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. ARTICLE VII SUITS AT COMMON LAW In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise reexamined in any court of the United States than according to the rules of common law. ARTICLE VIII BAIL AND FINES Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. ARTICLE IX MODIFICATION OF ENUMERATED RIGHTS The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. ARTICLE X POWERS RESERVED TO STATES AND THE PEOPLE The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people. ARTICLE XI > LIMITATION TO POWER OF THE FEDERAL COURTS The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another state, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. 1 Adopted in 1798. 536 • THE APPENDIX ARTICLE XII' NEW ELECTORAL LAW The electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President ; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice- President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government ot the United States, directed to the President of the Senate ; the President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Repre- sentatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted ; the person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the vote shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote. A quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President.. The person havmg the greatest number of votes as Vice-President shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number ot electors appointed ; and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list the Senate shall choose the Vice-President. A quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the oflfice of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. . ARTICLE XIIP ABOLITION OF SLAVERY SLAVERY AND INVOLUNTARY SERVITUDE PROHIBITED Section i. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to then- jurisdiction. Sec. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- priate legislation. ARTICLE XIV 3 NEW LAWS MADE NECESSARY BY THE CIVIL WAR QUALIFICATIONS FOR CITIZENSHIP Section i. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the state wherein they reside. No state shall make or enforce 1 Adopted in 1804. 2 Adopted in 1865. 3 Adopted in 1868. THE APPENDIX 537 any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. APPORTIONMENT OF REPRESENTATIVES Sec. 2. Representatives shall be appointed among the several states according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each state, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice- President of the United States, representatives in Congress, the execu- tive or judicial officers of a state, or the members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such state, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of repre- sentation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such state. DISABILITY FOR BREAKING OATH OF OFFICE Sec. 3. No person shall be a senator, or representative in Congress, or elector of President or Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or mili- tary, under the United States, or under any state, who, having previ- ously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any state legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any state, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each house, remove such disability. THE PUBLIC DEBT Sec. 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, author- ized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be ques- tioned. But neither the United States nor any state shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. Sec 5. Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legis- lation, the provisions of this article. ARTICLE XVI RIGHT OF SUFFRAGE RIGHT GUARANTEED TO ALL CITIZENS Section i. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any state, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Sec 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- priate legislation. 1 Adopted in 1870. 538 THE APPENDIX ARTICLE XVII INCOME TAX The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several states and without regard to any census or enumeration. ARTICLE XVII 1 DIRECT ELECTION OF SENATORS The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from each state, elected by the people thereof for six years; and each senator shall have one vote. The electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislatures. When vacancies happen in the representation of any state in the senate, the executive authority of each state shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies; Provided, That the legislature of any state may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct. This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution. ARTICLE XVIII 2 PROHIBITION Section i. After one year from the ratification of this article the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors with the importation thereof, or exportation thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof, for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited. Sec. 2. The Congress and the several states shall have concurrent power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. Sec. 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the constitution by the legislatures of the several states, as provided in the constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the states by the Congress. 1 Adopted 1913, 2 Adopted I9i9« THE APPENDIX 539 A TABLE OF THE STATES AND TERRITORIES Dates 787. Dec. 7 757. Dec. 12 787, Dec. 18 788. Jan. 2 7 88. Jan. g 788. Feb. 6 788, April 28 t88. May 2j 788, June 21 788, June 25 758, July 26 :789, Nov. 21 790, May 29 791, March 4 792, June I 7q6 June i .803, Feb. 19 ;8i2, April 30 816, Dec. II 817, Dec. 10 818, Dec. 3 .819, Dec. 14 :82o, March 15 821, Aug. 10 836, June IS 837, Jan. 26 845, March 3 845, Dec. 29 ;846, Dec. 28 84S, May 29 850, .Sept. 9 85S, May II 859. Feb. 14 861, Jan. 29 863, June 19 864. Oct. 31 867, March i 876, Aug. I 889, Nov. 2 ;S89. Nov. 2 889, Nov. 8 889, Nov. II 890. July 3 890, July 10 896, Jan. 4 907, Nov. 16 912, Jan. 6 [912, Feb. 14 868, July 27 791. March 3 [900, June 14 Under Civil Government . No. Name Delaware Pennsylvania . . . New Jersey . . . . Georgia Connecticut . . . . Massachusetts . . Maryland . . . . ■. South Carolina. . New Hampshire. Virginia New York North Carolina. . Rhode Island. . . Vermont Kentucky Tennessee Ohio Louisiana Indiana. Mississippi Illinois Alabama Maine Missouri Arkansas Michigan Florida Texas Iowa Wisconsin California Minnesota Oregon Kansas West Virginia Nevada Nebraska Colorado North Dakota South Dakota Montana Washington Idaho Wyoming Utah Oklahoma New Mexico Arizona Alaska District of Columbia . . Hawaii Porto Rico Philippines Guam Panama Canal Zone . . Tutuila, Samoa Islands. Virgin Islands Area in Square Miles 1 ,514 ,725 ,820 .039 .941 ■ 495 ,031 ,262 .654 .740 ,067 ,124 ,181 ,687 .740 .409 .045 ,362 .043 ,279 .89s ,727 .52s ,480 ,861 ,398 ,586 ,256 ,652 ,858 ,607 82,184 69,414 122,503 113. 810 590,8843 60 6,4493 3.4353 120,000* 210* 436 102* 138^ Population in 1910 2 202,322 7,665,111 2,537,167 2,609,121 1. 114.756 3,366,416 1,295,346 1,515,400 430.572 2,061 ,61 2 9.113,614 2,206,287 542,610 355.956 2,289,905 2,184,789 4,767.121 1,656,388 2,700,876 I. 797. 114 5,638,591 2,138,093 742,371 3,293.335 1,574.449 2,810,173 752,619 3,896,542 2,224,771 2,333,860 2.377.549 2.075,708 672,765 1,690,949 1,221,119 81,875 1,192,214 799,024 577.056 583.888 376,053 1,141,990 325.594 145.96s 373.351 1,657.155 327.301 204,354 64.356 331,069 191,909 1.118,012 8.937,597* 13.689* 62,8io5 9,100* 27.086* in 1910 (per Rquaro mile) 2 103-0 171.0 337.7 44.4 231-3 4i8.8 130.3 49-7 47.7 51-2 191. 2 45-3 508.S 390 S7-0 52-4 117-0 36-S 74-9 38.8 100.6 41.7 24.8 47-9 30.0 48-9 13-7 15-3 25-7 7.0 20.7 50.8 0.7 iS-S 7-7 8.2 7-6 2.6 17. 1 3-9 1.5 4-5 23-9 2-7 S5I7.8 29.8 325. S 74-0 65.1 144-0 196-3 I910. 1 Actual land area, excluding water. Abstract. 2 Thirteenth Census of the United States. 3 Aggregate area (land and inclosed water). 4 The Statesman's Year Book, 1916. 5 Census of Canal Zone, 19 12. Thirteenth Census of the United States 540 THE APPENDIX GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES^ Showing the Steady Increase in the Percentage of Toiun and City Population Census Years [820. 1830. [840. [850. i860. 1870. 1880. 1890. 1900. 1910. Total Population 2 3.929.214 5,308,483 7.239,881 9.638,453 12.866,020 17,069,453 23,191,876 31.443.321 38,5S8,37i 50.155.783 62,622,250 75.477. 467 91,972,266* Population Living in Peroene«ge ofFopul.. Cities 3 mCUi.. 131.472 3-4 210,873 4 356,920 4 <) 475.135 4 864.S09 6 7 1.453,994 8 5 2,897.586 12 S 5,072,256 16 I 8,071,875 20 9 11.3J8.547 22 6 18.272.503 29 2 24.992.199 33 I 38,517.727 41.8 1 6 6 II 13 26 44 8S 141 226 286 447 545 .232 1 From Twelfth and Thirteenth Census of the United States. 2 Exclusive of Indian Territory, Indian reservations, and insular possessions. 3 Places of 8,000 inhabitants or more are here designated as cities except in 1910, where s.ooo is taken as the limit. 4. Exclusive of outlying possessions. GROSS AREA OF THE UNITED STATES i Including Land and Water Census Years Gross Area Square Miles 1790 1800 i8io(Louisiana purchase,! 803) i82o(Florida cession. 1819) ... 1830 1840 i8so(Texas accession. i845,and Mexican cession. 184S). . . i86o(Gadsden purchase, 1853). i87o(Alaska purchase, 1867... [890. 827,844 827,844 1.999.775 2.059.043 2,059,043 2.059.043 2,980,959 3,025,600 3.616.484 3.616.484 3.616.484 Census Years 1900 Hawaii (annexed. 1898) Porto Rico (ceded by Spain. 1899) Guam (ceded by Spain. 1899) Philippines (purchased from Spain. 1899) Samoa (by treaty with Great Britain and Germany, 1900) 1910 Panama Canal Zone (by treaty with Panama 1904) Gross Area in Square Miles 3.742.87J 1 Based on the Twelfth Census of the United States, Vol. I., p. XXXII. 2 From U. S. Department of Interior, Bulletin No. 302. FACTS ABOUT OUR DEPENDENCIES Hawaii . . . PortoRico. Guam Philippines Samoa Panama Canal Zone How Acquired Annexed ; Ceded by Spain By purchase from Spain.. . | Treaty withi Great Britain and Germany 1 Treaty with Re- 1 public of Pan- ama 1 By purchase from Denmark When Acquired July 6. Feb. 6, Feb. 16. Feb. 23, 1900 1904 Feb. 19. 1917 Territory j Civil Govem- < mentbyCon- ( gress i Civil Govem- -; ment by Con- ( gross I Civil Govem- < ment by Con- j gress (Civil Govern- ) ment by Con- ^ gress Area in Square Miles 1 6f449 3.435 210 [2O,0002 1022 1382 Popula- tion 191.909 1,118.012 13.6892 937.5972 9.1002 1 From Abstract of Thirteenth Census. 2 Estimates from Statesman's Year Book.. 3 Census of Canal Zone,- THE APPENDIX 54 i:Sc^^ OS W CI n1 C |o-2 ^ s c c u ►< ^-5 S S H rt Si s s oio) : : tn : : a m C CCCCCmCmC CCo) =1 d d s ftaE OJi t^^OO 00o0<^ 00 '^S C^oO^'i*^ i-it~« M„oo woo ooggoooo «• " M « M " „- " J3 « " ^ ^ " " ^ § g g g g" I i § ci g T «• g g E "2 co./,o<»oo-» E rO « M O fO 1-1 M 1-1 M fo hC« •s 5 II 1 5 SI si"sir^iiii ^slsilll g s N w ro S?l ii^ IHIIel 1 i sSsHS 1 1 00 00 Si "S "Bo w o O rt u 002:^£2 Q. Z E • cK 01 O C IS E E^ :r-^ ;s o « I s 'si -sis i I ^ >-3E"oco-_S t^ 00 Ov 542 THE APPENDIX SOME STATISTICS OF THE UNITED STATES AND TERRITORIES Electoral 1912 2 Number of Children in Schools, TQ13-19143 Per cent of Total Population Enrolled 1913-19143 Alabama .Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Coanecticut Delaware District of Columbia. Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts. . Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire. New Jersey New Mexico.... New York North Carolina. . North Dakota. . Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania. . . Rhode Island . . . South Carolina. . South Dakota... Tennessee Te.xas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia . . . Wisconsin Wyoming 473,150 44.303 439.624 480,002 178,392 211,975 35.950 56,563 177,154 6 1 5. 044 92.437 1,043,227 548.497 517.559 392,662 532,196* 284,136 144,620 245.258 576.510 572,201 4 457.041 492.7564. 706,364 85,782 287,566 11,710 63,004 * 496,899 67.147 1. 532. 151 599.647 148,021 895,167 496,908 133,819 I.40I.325 86,505 378,669 130,812 593,437 830,642 4. 96,678 65,137 427.937 * 238.663 299.135 440.103 29.301 20.84 18.53 26.07 17.40 19.61 17.63 17.13 16.01 20.89 22.15 23.38 17.43 19.73 23.30 22.00 22.64 16.02 18.96 18.29 15-99 19.23 20.64 25-91 20.94 19-83 23-08 11.86 14-36 17.65 17-51 15-48 25-63 21-55 17-81 24.52 17.09 16.99 14-63 23-82 19-77 26.32 19-51 23.32 18.03 19-90 16. 95 22.44 17.99 17-36 United States. 19,153.786 '9-30 1 The number of representatives is fixed by Congress every ten years. August 8. 191 1, :t was provided that there should be one representative for every 211,877 persons. (See Constitution, Art. I., Sec. 2.) 2 To find the number of electors, add two to the number of representatives. (See Constitution, Art. II., Sec. i.) In 1912 there were 531 electoral votes s.nd 266 were necessary for election. 3 Report of the Department of the Interior, 1916, Commissioner of Education, Vol. II. 4 1912-1913. THE INDEX "A. B. C." INTERVENTION, 376. Abolitionists, rise of, 257; form party, 258-259. Academies, 237. Acadia, see Nova Scolia. Acadians, scattered through the colonies, 102. Adams, Abigail, in the Revolution, 146; favors woman suflfrage, 471. Adams, John, in First Continental Con- gress, 114; helps make peace with Great Britain, 144; first vice-president, 174; portrait, 180; president, 181. Adams, John Quincy, portrait, 221; presi- dent, 221-222. Adams, Samuel, portrait, iii; writes "cir- cular letter," ill; proposes committees of correspondence, 112; British try to arrest, 116. Agricultural colleges, 417. Agricultural products, export of, 425. Agriculture, growth of, 430; modern, 437- 438; Department of, 351. 437- Aguinaldo, Emilio, Philippine leader, 368. Airplanes, 458. Alabama, history of, 215; secedes from the Union, 282. "Alabama," Confederate vessel, 313. Alaska, boundaries of, 260, 371; discovery of gold in, 344; and woman suffrage, 473. Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition, 346. Albany, named by English, 54, Albany Union, 100. Albemarle, united with Charleston, 35. Algonquin Indians, 95. Alien and Sedition Laws, 181. Allen, Ethan, captures Ticonderoga, 120. Allies, America joins, 456-457; loans to, 461. Amendments, constitutional, how passed, 163'; first ten, 164; Thirteenth, 300; Fourteenth, 327; Fifteenth, 328, 331; Six- teenth, 401; Seventeenth, 461; Eight- eenth, 471; Nineteenth, 473. America, how named, 10; resources of, 350. America, North, visited by Northmen, 4; discovered by Columbus, 8; claimed by England, 9; physical features of, 17-19. America, South, discovered by Columbus, 8; visited by Vespucius, lo. American Federation of Labor, 384, 400. Americanization, 382-383, 419-420. American Party, 276. Amnesty, proclamation of, 326; act of, 331. Amusements, in the colonies, 73-74; on the frontier, 231; in the older states, 232. Anarchists, 382, 386. Anderson, Major Robert , commander of Fort Sumter. 288. Andre, Major John, captured and hanged, 135. Andros, Sir Edmund, governor of New England, New York, and New Jersey, 45; portrait, 46. Annapolis convention, 155. Annapolis, Nova Scotia, founded, 95; cap- tured by British, 98. Anthony, Susan B., 472. Antietam, battle of, 298. Appalachian Mountains, barrier to Missis- sippi Valley, 17. Appomattox, surrender at, 315. Arbitration, of seal fisheries dispute, 369; and the Hague conference, 373; and the United States, 374; industrial, 386-387. Argentine, intervention of, 376. Argonne Forest, Americans in, 464. Arizona, history of, 409; and woman suf- frage, 473. Arkansas, history of, 233; secedes from the Union, 289. Armada, Spanish, tries to conquer England, 12; defeated, 15. Armistead, General Lewis A., at Gettys- burg, 303. Arnold, Benedict, wounded at Quebec, 120; aids Schuyler, 129; treason of, 135. Arthur, Chester A., portrait, 335; president, 335. Atlanta, siege of. 311. "Atlantic Monthly," 242. Austria, in the World War, 450, 465. Aztecs, natives of Mexico, 1 1. BACON, NATHANIEL, rebels against Berkeley, 29. Bahama Islands, discovered by Columbus, Balance of trade, 427. Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, Spanish explorer, discovers the Pacific, 10. Ballot, Australian, 395; reform of, 395; short, 395- Baltimore, founded, 32. Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, 211, 391. Baltimore, Lord, see Calvert. Banks, General Nathaniel P., at Port Hudson, 304. Banks, national, 322; and the panic of 1873. iiV, Postal Savings, 353-354; Farm Loan, 402; Federal Reserve, 401-402; Land, 436-437. Baptists, in Virginia, 29; in New Nether- land, 52; at the time of the Revolution, 167; found colleges, 239. Barnard, Henry, and education, 238. Barry, John, in the Revolution, 133. Beauregard, General Pierre G. T., at battle of Bull Run, 291. Belgium, and the World War, 450. Belleau Wood, Americans at, 464. Bemis Heights, battle of. 129. Bennington, battle of, 129. Benton, Senator Thomas H., and Oregon, 261. Bergen, founded by Dutch, 56. Berkeley, Lord John, is given New Jersey, 56. 543 544 THE INDEX Berkeley, Sir William, governor of Virginia. 28; driven out of Jamestown, 29. "Big business," 355. Biloxi, founded, 97. Bimetallism, 347. Blackbeard, famous pirate, 92. Black Hawk War, 234. "Black Republicans," 275. Blair, Francis P., in Missouri, 294. Bland-Allison Act, 344. Blockade, of southern ports, 291, 293-294, 312. Blockhouses, 71-72. "Body of Liberties," 42. Bolivar, Simon, portrait, 218; and South American independence, 219. "Bon Homme Richard," defeats the "Scra- pis." 133-134- Boone, Daniel, goes to Kentucky, 135. Boonesboro, settled, 135. Boston, founded, 41 ; siege of, 1 18-1 19. Boston and Middlesex Canal, 208. Boston Massacre, 112. "Boston News Letter," earliest colonial newspaper, 78. Boston Tea Party, 11 2-1 13. Bowery, Stuyvesant's farm, 54. "Boxer" Rebellion, in China, 367-368. "Boycott," 387. Braddock, General Edward, defeat of, loi. Bradford, William, leader of the Pilgrims, 38. Bragg, General Braxton, in the West, 295- 296; at Chickamauga, 305. Brandy wine, battle of, 128. Brazil, intervention of, 376. Brewster, William, Pilgrim minister in America, 38. Brooklyn Heights, battle of, 125. Brown, Alice, 422. Brown, John, raids Harper's Ferry, 2S0. Brown College, 77. Bryan, William Jennings, portrait. 347; candidate for president, 347, 353; makes "wait-a-bit" treaties, 374. Bryant, William Cullen, 240. Buchanan, James, portrait, 275; president, 276; and secession, 282-284. Buell, General Don Carlos, at Louisville, 296. Buffalo, world's fair at, 346. Bulgaria, in the World War, 450, 465. Bull Run, battle of, 291; second battle of, 297. Bunker Hill, battle of, 11 8-1 19. Burgesses, House of, established in Vir- ginia, 27; in Maryland, 31. Burgoyne, General John, marches against Albany, 128; surrenders at Saratoga, 129. Burke, Edmund, English statesman, 108; speaks in favor of the colonies, 116. Bumside, General Ambrose E., succeeds McClellan, 298. Butler, General Benjamin F., and "con- trabands of war," 299. By-products, use of, 444-445. CABINET, how formed, 175-176. Cable, George W., 422. Cable, across the Atlantic, 250. Cabot, John, visits North America, 9- Cabot, Sebastian, visits North America, 9. Cahokia, captured by George Rogers Clark, 136. Calhoun, John C, and the trouble with England, 194; in the great debate, 268. California, history of, 235; admitted to the Union, 266; and the Mexican War, 265; purchase of, 265; discovery of gold in, 265-266; and woman suffrage, 473- Calvert, Cecil, portrait, 31; sends first colony to Maryland, 30. Calvert, George, portrait, 30; obtains Mary- land, 30. Cambridge, founded, 41. Camden, battle of, 139. Camp meetings, 232, 242. Canada, becomes British, 104-105; and fugitive slaves, 270. Canals, 208-209; trade influenced by, 253. Canal Zone, see Panama Canal. Canary Islands, visited by Columbus, 7. Cape of Good Hope, passed by Dias, 6. Capital, organized, 385. Caribbean Sea, control of, 403. Carnegie, Andrew, establishes public libraries, 423. Carolinas, given by King to eight favorites, 32; first settled, 32-33; attempt to establish feudalism in, 33; characteristics and products of, 34; slavery in, 34; see also North Carolina and South Carolina. Carpenters' Hall, 114; picture, 114. Carpetbaggers, in the South, 329; fall of, 334- Carranza, Venustrano, president of Mexico, 375. 403. Carroll, Charles, and the railroad, 211. Carteret, George, is given New Jersey, 156. Cartier, Jacques, French e.xplorer, sails up St. Lawrence, 13. Cartwright, Peter, 243. Catholics, in England, 37; in Maryland, 30; at the time of the Revolution, 167; send missionaries to Oregon, 261. Caucus, 394. Cavaliers, migrate to Virginia, 28. Cedar Creek, battle of, 310. Cemetery Ridge, 302. Cervera, Admiral, at battle of Santiago, 361. Champlain, Samuel, French explorer, 95- 96. Chancellorsville, battle of, 301. Charles I, King of England, forced to sign Petition of Right, 40; grants charter to Massachusetts Bay Company, 41; por- trait, 43; beheaded, 28, 43. Charles II, King of England, ascends the throne, 28, 45; invited to Virginia, 28; revokes Massachusetts' charter, 45. Charleston, founded, 33- Chase, Salmon P., portrait, 322; estab- lishes national banks. 322. Chateau-Thierry, Americans at, 463. Chatham, Earl of. see Pitt. William. Chattanooga, battles a.ound, 305. Cherry Valley, massacre of, 134. Chicago, Marquette's winter quarters, 96; early history of, 215; world's fair at, 34.S- THE INDEX 545 Chickamauga, battle of, 305. Child labor, in the early factories, 232; regulation of, 389. Children's Bureau, 389. Chile, intervention of, 376. China, and the "Boxer" Rebellion, 367- 368; trade with, 253. Chippewa, battle of, 200. Christian Commission, 318. Christians, see Disciples. Christina, founded, 55. Church, officers of, 3; in the colonies, 71- 72; growing influence of, 470. Churchill, Winston, 423. "Cibola, Seven cities of," 12, 409. "Circuit riders," 242. Cities, European before 1500, i; American, 64, 165, 230; and immigration, 379- 380; and the railroads, 391; govern- ment of, 397-399; industries in, 443- 446. Citizens" Industrial Association of America, 38s. City manager plan, 398-399. Civil Rights Bill, 327. Civil Service, reform of, 335-336. Civil War, 287-316; cost of, 319-320; results of, 320-322. Claiborne, WilUam, causes trouble in Maryland, 32. Clark, George Rogers, in the Revolution, 136-137. Clark, William, expedition to Oregon, 188. Clark's Grant, 153. Clay, Henry, and the trouble with England, 194; and the "American System," 206; political leader in the West, 212; and the Missouri Compromise, 218; portrait, 225; candidate for president, 225; favors the United States Bank, 226; in great debate, 267-268; introduces "Omnibus Bill." 268; death of, 269, Clayton Anti-Trust Act, 388, 402. Clemens, Samuel L., "Mark Twain," 422. Clergy, European before 1500, 3. "Clermont," first successful steamboat, 206. Cleveland, Grover, portrait, 336; presi- dent, 337. Clinton, De Witt, and the Erie Canal, 209; candidate for president, 196. Clipper ships, 253. Clubhouses, community, 390. Coal, used in smelting ore, 212; increasing use of, 249; in the Northwest, 406. Cold Harbor, battle of, 309. Cold Storage, 434- Collective bargaining, 384. Colleges, colonial, 76-78. Colombia, and the Panama Canal, 365. Colonies, government in, 92. Colorado, 325, 404. Columbia University, 77- Columbian Exposition, 345. Columbus, Christopher, seeks aid from Portugal and Spain, 7; portrait, 7; first voyage of, 7; later voyages of, 8; death of, 9. Commerce, colonial, 90, 108; at the close of the Revolution, 151; and the Con- stitution, 156; of the new West, 172- 173; growth of, 253, 337. 425-429. 19 Commission plan of government, 398. Committees of Safety, in the Revolution, 149. Community centers, schools as, 420. Compromise of 1850, 267-269. Concord, battle of, 117. Conestoga wagons, 171. Confederacy, formed, 283; constitution of, 283. Confederation, Articles of, 150; weakness of, 150-151. Congregationalists, in Massachusetts, 41; send missionaries to Oregon, 261. Congress, Stamp Act, no; Continental, 1 14-1 is; how elected, 160; powers of, 160. Connecticut, settled by Thomas Hooker, 43 ; early settlements in, 47; joins New Eng- land Confederation, 47; given a charter, 48. Connecticut Compromise, 156. Conservation, of natural resources, 351. Constantinople, captured by Turks, 5. Constitution, compromises of, 156; how amended, 163; how ratified, 158; Amend- ments of, see Amendments, Consliht- lional; of the Confederacy, 283. "Constitution," captures the "Guerriere," 19S. Constitutional Convention, 155. Continental Congress, First, 114-115. "Continentalist," Hamilton's paper, 152. Conventions, nominating, 394. Conway Cabal, 129. Coolidge, Calvin, elected vice-president, 474. Cooper, James Fenimore, 240; portrait, 240. Cooper, Peter, builder of early locomotive, 211. Corn, found in America, 15. Cornwallis, Lord Charles, at Trenton and Princeton, 126-127; at battle of Cam- den, 139; surrenders at Yorktown, 143. Coronado, Francisco Vasquez de, explores the Southwest, 12; in Arizona, 409. Correspondence, Committees of, 112. Cortez, Hernando, Spanish explorer, con- quers Mexico, II. Costume, in the colonies. 68. Cotton, production of, 246; importance of to South, 294; manufacture of, 443, 447. Cotton gin, invention of, 170; and slavery, 217, 257. Cotton industry, growth of, 170. Courts, United States, 162. Cowpens, battle of, 140. Cox, James, candidate for president, 474. Craddock, Charles Egbert, 422. "Creoles," 214. Crittenden Compromise, 284-285. Cromwell, Oliver, rule in Virginia, 28; restores Lord Baltimore's authority in Maryland, 32; at the head of the English government, 43. Crusades, effect on Western Europe, 5. Cuba, discovered by Columbus, 8; rebellion in, 357-358; American interest in, 358; war in, 360; made independent, 361; con- ditions in after the war, 362; relations of United States to, 363. Cumberland Gap, gateway to the West, 17; visited by Boone, 135.. Cumberland Road, 207. 546 THE INDEX Currency, iSL 323. 339-340, 343-345. 348. "Current Events," 424. Custer, General George, at battle of the Little Big Horn. 413. Czar of Russia, calls peace meeting, 373- DA GAMA, VASCO, reaches India. 6. Dakota Territory, 404; see also North Dakota and South Dakota. Dale, Sir Thomas, governor of Virginia. 25. Danes, immigration of, 378. Darrah, Lydia, saves Washington's army, 147- Dartmouth College, 77. Davenport, John, founds New Haven. 47. Davis, Jefiferson, home of. 214; champion of slavery. 268; portrait, 283; president of the Confederacy, 283; and the surrender of Richmond, 315. Davis, Richard Harding, 423. Dawes Act, 413-414. Debtors, imprisonment of. 35, 167. Declaration of Independence, 123-125. Declaration of Rights, 1 15. De Kalb, Baron Johann, joins the American army, 127; sent to spy out America, 130; killed at battle of Camden. 140. Delaware, first settlement of. 55; joined to Pennsylvania. 55-56. Delaware, Lord, arrives in Virginia. 25. De Lesseps, Ferdinand, attempts to build Panama Canal. 364. Democratic party, rise of. 225; breaks up, 280. De Monts, founds Annapolis. 95. De Soto, Hernando, Spanish explorer, dis- covers the Mississippi, 12. Detroit, surrendered to British, 197. "Deutchland," German submarine, 452. Dewey, Commodore George, at Manila Bay. 359-360. Dias, Bartholomew, rounds Cape of Good Hope. 6. Diaz, Porfirio, president of Mexico, 375. Dickinson, John, author of "Letters of a Farmer.'; 1 1 1 ; in First Continental Con- gress. 114. Dingley tariff, 347- Disciples, at the time of the Revolution. 167. Dismal Swamp Canal, 208. Dongan, Thomas, governor of New York, Dorchester, founded. 41. Dorr's Rebellion, 229. Douglas, Stephen A., early life of. 272; and the Kansas question. 273; debates with Lmcoln, 278-280; calls upon Lincoln, 288. Draft, in the Civil War. 306. 318; in the World War. 459. Drake, Sir Francis, English explorer, por- trait. 14; sails round the world. 14. Dred Scott Decision, 276. "Duke's Laws," in New York, 54- Dutch, bring first slaves to America, 26; in the colonies, 64. Dutch West India Company, 51. EARLY, GENERAL JUBAL A., in the Shenandoah, 309-310. Eaton, Theophilus, founds New Haven, 47. Edison, Thomas A., inventor, 447. Education, in the colonies, 74-78; at the time of the Revolution, 166; growth of, 237. 414-421. Edwards, Jonathan, great colonial preacher, Si. Eggleston, Edward, 422. El Caney, battle of. 360. Electric light, invention of, 447. Elevators, 434. Elizabeth, Queen of England, knights Francis Drake, 14; names Virginia, 15. Elizabethtown, founded, 56. Emancipation, in the District of Columbia, 299; in the territories. 299; by state action. 300; in the seceded states, 300; in the border slave states. 300; by the Thirteenth Amendment. 300. Emancipation Proclamation, 299-300. Embargo, i'j3- Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 241. "Emigrant Aid Society," 274. Employers, organizations of. 385. Endicott, John, founder of Salem. 41. England, leads in exploration (1497), 9; sends the Cabots to explore America. 9; sends Drake and Raleigh to explore America, 14; defeats the Spanish Armada, is; charters London and Plymouth Com- panies, 23; sends first settlers to Virginia, 23-25; purpose of in planting colonies, 107; and American trade, 179, 192-193; •and the Civil War. 291-292; and the Panama Canal, 364-365. English, in the colonies. 64. English Church, in the Carolinas, 33; in England. 37; becomes Protestant Epis- copal. 167. "Era of good feeling," 221. Erdman Arbitration Act, 387. Ericson, Lief, discovers America, 4. Erie Canal, 209-210. "Essex," captures British vessels in Pacific, 199. Europe, conditions in before 1500, 1-4. Eutaw Springs, battle of, 141. Excise tax, 177. Exports, 425-427. Express companies, beginning of. 252. FAIRFAX, LORD, in Virginia. 63. Farmers, colonial. 83-84, 88; implements of, 84-S5, 245-246. 430-432; living con- ditions of. 245. 430-431, 455-456. Farmers' Alliance, 340. Farm Loan Bank Act, 402. Farragut, Admiral David G., on board the "Essex." 199; at New Orleans. 295; por- trait. 312; at Mobile Bay. 312. Federalists, origin of. 177; decline of, 181. Federal Reserve Act, 401. Ferdinand, Archduke, assassination of. 450. Ferguson, Major Patrick, at King's Moun- tain. 140. Feudalism, in Europe before 1500, 4; attempt to establish in Maryland. 31; attempt to establish in Carolinas, a. Fisheries, colonial. 88; French at New- foundland, 95; dispute over Newfound- land, 372; in Washington, 406. THE INDEX 547 Florida, explored by Ponce de Leon, lo; becomes British, los; southern boundary cf the United States, 144; history of 218, 233; secedes from the Union, 282. "Florida," Confederate vessel, 313. Foch, General Ferdinand, commander for the Allies, 462. Foote, Commodore Andrew H., at Mem- phis, 295. "Force Bill" (1833). 256. "Force Bills" (1870-71). 33i- Forestry Service, 3Si- Fort Donelson, captured by Grant, 294. Fort Duquesne, captured by British, 103. Fort Henry, captured by Grant, 294-295. Fort Orange, becomes Albany, 54. France, explorations and settlements of, 13. i4i 95-97; fisheries of, 95; sends help to America, 130-131; alliance with, 131; interferes with American shipping, 179, 193; and the Panama Canal, 364; in the World War, 450-451. Franklin, Benjamin, Albany plan of, 100- loi; talks with Pitt, 115-116; in France, 130; helps make peace with Great Britain, 144; proposes confederation, 149; at the Constitutional Convention, 155- Frederica, settled as barrier against Span- iards, 36. Fredericksburg, battle of, 298-299. Freedmen's Bureau, 327. Freeman, Mary E. Wilkins, 422. Freeman's Farm, battles of, 129. "Free-Silver," 347-348. Free-Soil party, 265. Fremont, John C, explores Oregon, 262; in the Mexican War, 264. French, in New Orleans, 214. French and Indian Wars, 98-106. French Revolution, 178, 399- Frontier, end of, 410-41 1. Fugitive Slave Law, 267, 269, 270. Fuller, Margaret, 472. Fulton, Robert, builds the " Clermont," 206. GADSDEN PURCHASE, 265, 409. Gage, General Thomas, ordered to arrest Adams and Hancock, 114; sends force to Concord, 116; at the battle of Bunker Hill, 118. Garfield, H. A., 461. Garfield, James A., portrait, 3351 president, 335- Garland, Hamhn, 423. Garrison, William Lloyd, abolitionist leader, 257; portrait, 257. "Gaspee," burned, 112. Gates, General Horatio, succeeds General Schuyler, 129; defeated at Camden, 139. Genoa, early trade routes of, 5; birthplace of Columbus, 6. George III, King of England, 108-109; drives the colonies to separation, 122; and American independence, 143. Georgia, founded, 35; religious denomina- tions in, 36; secedes from the Union, 282. Germans, in the colonies, 64; in the Caro- linas, 3i; early immigration of, 231; plots of in America, 454. Germantown, battle of, 128. Germany, invades Belgium, 450-451; United States breaks with, 453-454; colonies of, 454. 4^7; defeated, 464; troubles in, 465; terms of peace with, 466. Gettysburg, battle of, 302. Ghent, treaty of, 201-202. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, given charter for trade in America, 14. Gold, Spanish discoveries of, 12; dis- covered in California, 235, 252, 265-266; discovered in Alaska, 344; discovered in South Africa, 348. Golden Hill, battle of, 112. Gold Standard Law, 348. Gomez, Cuban leader, 357-358. Gompers, Samuel, labor leader, 388. Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, settles Maine, 46. Government, state, origin of, 94. Governor, how elected, 149. Grangers, 340. Grant, General Ulysses S., in the West, 294; at Vicksburg, 303-304; at Lookout Mountain, 305; portrait, 309; head of the Union armies, 309; and Lee's surrender, 315-316; president, 332. Great Britain, and the Oregon question, 262; arbitration with, 369-373; in the World War, 450-451. "Great Migration," 41. Greeks, immigration of, 379. Greeley, Horace, candidate for president, 332. Greenback party, 334- Greenbacks, 339-340. Greene, Nathanael, takes command in the South, 140. Guam, annexation of, 362. "Guerriere," captured by the "Constitu- tion," 198. Guilford, founded, 47. Guilford Courthouse, battle of, 141. Gustavus, Adolphus, King of Sweden, 55. HAGUE PEACE MEETINGS, 373. Haiti, discovered by Columbus, 8; United States in, 375. "Half Moon," Hudson's ship, 50. Hamilton, Alexander, portrait, 152; favors a stronger government, 152; at the Con- stitutional Convention, 155; secretary of treasury, 175. Hampton Roads Conference, 310. Hancock, John, British try to arrest, 114, 116; president of Congress, 119. Hancock, General Winfield Scott, at Gettysburg, 302. Harding, Warren G., elected president, 475. Harlem Heights, battle of, 125. "Harpers' Magazine," 242. Harrison, Benjamin, portrait, 338; presi- dent, 338. Harrison, General William Henry, at battle of Tippecanoe, 197; portrait, 228; presi- dent, 228. Harrodsburg, settled, 135. Harte, Bret, 422. Hartford, founded, 47. Hartford Convention, 201. Harvard College, 76. Hat Act, 108. Hawaiian Islands, 366-367. 548 THE INDEX Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 240. Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, 364-365- Hayes, Rutherford B., portrait, 334; prosident. 334- Hayne, Paul Hamilton, 422. Hayne, Robert Y., speech on nullification, 255- Hennepin, Louis, French explorer, 96-07- Henrietta Maria, Queen of England, Maryland named for, 30. Henry O., 423. Henry, Patrick, addresses the House of Burgesses, 109; in First Continental Congress, 114. Henry, Prince, of Portugal, hunts route to India, 6. Herkimer, General Nicholas, at battle of Oriskany, 129. Hessians, hired to fight the Americans, 122; at Trenton, 126; at battle of Bennington, 129. Hobkirk's Hill, battle of, 141- Hobson, Richmond P., at battle of San- tiago, 361. Holland, Pilgrims in, 38; religious tolera- tion in, 50; founds New Netherland, 50-52. Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 241. Holy Alliance, 219. Home life, in the colonies, 70-71, 73; on the frontier, 231; in the older states, 232; made more comfortable, 248. Hood, General John B., succeeds Johnston, 311; at Nashville, 314. Hooker, General Joseph, (Fighting Joe), succeeds Burnside, 299; at battle of Chancellorsville, 301; at Lookout Moun- tain, 30S- Hooker, Thomas, settles in Connecticut, 43. "Hoosier State," 214. Hoover, Herbert C, 461. Howe, Elias, invents the sewing machine, 248. Howe, George E., British general in French and Indian Wars, 103. Howe, General William, at the battle of Bunker Hill, 118; leaves for Halifax, 120; at battle of Brooklyn Heights, 125. Howells, William Dean, 423. Hudson, Henry, Dutch explorer, sails up Hudson River, 50. Hudson River, early route to the West, 17- Huerta, Victoriano, president of Mexico, 375. Hughes, Charles E., candidate for presi- dent, 453- Huguenots, French Protestants, plant a colony at Port Royal, 14; in the Caro- linas, 34; in the colonies, 64. Hull, Captain Isaac, commander of the "Constitution," 198. Hull, General William, surrenders Detroit, 197- Hungarians, immigration of, 379- Hutchinson, Mrs. Anne, banished from Massachusetts, 42. IDAHO, history of, 407; and woman suf- rage, 473- lUinois, history of, 214; and woman suf- frage, 473. Immigrants, forced, 66; naturalization of, 38r. Immigration, early, 230-231; Chinese, 332; during the Civil War, 378; and the rail- roads, 378; and industries, 379; restric- tion of, 380; prohilem of, 382. "Implied powers," 160. Imports, 427. Income tax, 340, 341-342, 401, 461. Independence Hall, Lincoln speaks in, 285. India, reached by Da Gama, 6; trade with, 253- Indiana, history of, 214; education in, 238; and woman suflfrage, 473. Indians, named by Columbus, 8; treatment of by Spaniards, 13; characteristics and customs, 19-22; map showing tribes, opp. 20; ideas about land, 20-21; organization and government, 2 1 ; massa- cre early settlers in Virginia, 29; teach settlers to hunt and cook, 30, 39; over- thrown in New England, 45; fight the Dutch in New Netherland, 52; friendly to Penn, 60; Algonquin, 95; Iroquois, 95 ; in Iowa, 234; in Wisconsin, 234; treatment of by United States, 411-414. Indian Territory, 404, 412. Indigo, product of South Carolina, 34. Industrial Revolution, 169. Industries, at the time of the Revolution, 168; in the Civil War, 322; and immi- gration, 379; and commerce, 425-427; distribution of, 442, 444. Initiative, 355. 396- Injunction, 387-388. Interstate Commerce Commission, 337- Intolerable Acts, 113. Inventors and inventions, 447-449- lowa, 234. Irish, early immigration of, 231. Iron, manufacture of, 89, 247, 445-446. Iron Works Act, 108. Iroquois, 95- Irrigation, Mormons begin, 237; growing use of, 352-353- Irving, Washington, 240. Isabella, Queen, aids Columbus, 7- Isle of Pines, acquired by United States, 363- Italians, immigration of, 379. Italy, and the World War, 451. luka, battle of, 296. JACKSON, ANDREW, captures New Orleans, 201; character of , 222; his cam- paign, 223; portrait, 224; inauguration, 224; president, 224-225; opposes the United States Bank, 226. Jackson, "Stonewall," in the Shenandoah, 297; portrait, ^^oi; death of, 301. Jamaica, discovered by Columbus, 8. James I, King of England, promises settlers shall remain Englishmen, 23. James II, King of England, makes Andros governor of New England, New York, and New Jersey, 45; driven from throne, 45. 55; destroys New York assembly, 54. James, Henry, 423. Jamestown, settled (1607), 24. Japan, trade with, 253; at war with Russia, 350; in the World War, 451. THE INDEX 549 Japanese, immigration of, 380-381. Jay, John, in First Continental Congress, us; peace commissioner, 144; judge of the Supreme Court, 176. Jay's Treaty, 179-180. Jefferson, Thomas, secretary of state, 175; portrait, 182; president, 183; character and popularity, 184-185; and the patent law, 448. Jewett, Sarah Orne, 422. Jews, in Georgia, 36; immigration of, 379- Johnson, Andrew, president, 326-327; im- peachment of, 328. Johnston, Albert Sidney, death of, 295. Johnston, General Joseph E., at battle of Bull Run, 291; at Kenesaw Mountain, 311; at White House Landing, 297; suc- ceeds Bragg, 305. Joliet, Louis, French explorer, 96. Jones, John Paul, portrait, 132; defeats the "Serapis," I33-I34- Judges, Federal, how appointed, 157. Judicial Department, 162. KANSAS, the struggle over, 273-275; his- tory of, 323; and woman suffrage, 473. Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 273-275. Kaskaskia, captured by George Rogers Clark, 136. "Kearsarge," sinks the "Alabama," 313. Kenesaw Mountain, battle of, 311. Kent Island, claimed by Claiborne, 32. Kentucky, first settlements, 135; history of, 190. Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, 181. Key, Francis Scott, writes "Star Spangled Banner," 200-201. Kidd, Captain, famous pirate, 92. King, how chosen, 3; power of, 4. King George's War, 98-99. King PhiHp's War, 45. King's College, 77- King's Mountain, battle of, 140. King William's War, 98. Klondike, gold field, 546. Knights of Labor, 340, 384. "Know-Nothings," see American party. Knox, General Henry, secretary of war, 175. Kosciusko, Thaddeus, joins the American army, 127; at battle of Bemis Heights, 129. Ku Klux Klan, 330. LABOR, in the colonies, 83; improvement in conditions of, 244; Department of, 387. Labor party, 332. Labor unions, in Europe before 1500, 2; growth of, 243, 383-388; oppose Japanese immigration, 380-381. "Ladies Magazine," 242. Ladrone Islands, visited by Magellan, 10. Lafayette, Jean Paul, joins the American army, 127; portrait, 131; visits Wash- ington at Mount Vernon, 145. La FoUette, Robert, aids the Progressive movement, 355. Lake Erie, battle of, 197. Land banks, 436-437. Lanier, Sidney, 422. La Salle, Robert de, French explorer, 96-97. Laurens, Henry, peace commissioner to Great Britain, 144. League of Nations, 466, 474. Lecompton Constitution, 274. Lee, Richard Henry, Revolutionary hero, 114; captures Paulus Hook, 135; argues against the Constitution, 158. Lee, General Robert E., succeeds General Johnston, 297; invades the North, 297- 299; at battle of Antietam, 298; portrait, 299; at battle of Chancellorsville, 301; at Gettysburg, 302; surrender of, 315. Legislature, state, negroes in, 329-330. Leiden, picture, 38; Pilgrims in, 38. Leisler, Jacob, rule of, 55- . Lewis, Meriwether, portrait, 187; expedi- tion to Oregon, 188. Lewis and Clark Exposition, 346. Lexington, battle of, 117. Liberal Republicans, 332. "Liberator," abolitionist newspaper, 257. Liberty Bonds, 461. Libraries, colonial, 78-79; public, 423. Lincoln, Abraham, home of, 214; portrait, 277; early life, 277; debates with Doug- las, 278-280; elected president, 281; inauguration of, 285; character of, 306- 307; at the Hampton Roads Conference, 310; death of, 316; and woman suffrage, 472. Lincoln, General Benjamin, in the South, 137-138. Liquors, tax on, 177. "Literary Digest," 424. Literature, at the time of the Revolution, 166; growth of, 422. Little Big Horn, battle of, 412-413. Livingston, Philip, in First Continental Congress, 114. Lockout, 386. Log Cabin Campaign, 227-228. "Log rollings," 204. London, Jack, 423. London Company, given charter for Vir- ginia, 23; loses charter, 27. Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, 241; por- trait, 241. Longstreet, General James, 305. Lookout Mountain, battle of, 305. Louisburg, captured by British, 99, 103. Louisiana, named and explored, 97; history of, 213; secedes from the Union, 282. Louisiana Purchase, 187. Louisiana Purchase Exposition, 346. Lowell, James Russell, 241. Lundy's Lane, battle of, 200. "Lusitania," sinking of, 452. Lynn, founded, 41. Lyon, General Nathaniel, killed at Wilson Creek, 294. McADOO, WILLIAM, controls railroads, 460-461. McClellan, General George B., commands Army of the Potomac, 291; in the Pen- insular Campaign, 296-297; portrait, 297; at battle of Antietam, 298. McClintock, Mary Ann, 472. McCormick, Cyrus H., invents reaper, 245. McDowell, General Irvin, at battle of Bull Run, 291. S50 THE INDEX "Macedonian," captured by the "United States," 199- Machinery, invention of, 169. McKinley, William, president, 347; por- trait, 348; and the Spanish-American War, 3S8. McKinley Tariff, 339. 340- Madero, Francisco I., president of Mexico, 375- Madison, James, favors a stronger govern- ment, 152; at the Constitutional Con- vention, 155; president, 194; portrait, 196. Magazines, 242, 423-424. Magellan, Ferdinand, sails around the world, ID. Maine, early settlements in, 46; history of, 216. "Maine," destruction of. 358-359- Manassas Junction, battle of, 291. Manhattan Island, first settlement on, 50; bought from Indians, 51. Manila Bay, battle of, 359-360. Mann, Horace, portrait, 238; and educa- tion, 238. Manufactures, colonial, 89-90; growth of, 247, 437-439; export of, 425-426. Marco Polo, Italian traveler, 5. Marion, Francis, in the Revolution, 138- 139. Marne, battle of the, 451. Marquette, Jacques, French explorer, 96. Marshall, John, chief justice, 183. Maryland, named, 30; settlements in, 30-32. Mason, James M., Confederate commis- sioner to England, 292. Mason, Captain John, settles New Hamp- shire, 46. "Mason and Dixon's line," 61. Massachusetts, settlements in, 38-41; loses charter, 45; gets charter from William and Mary, 46; forms state government, 149. Massachusetts Bay Colony, company formed, 41 ; government, 41-42. Massasoit, Indian chief, 39- Matches, invention of, 248. Mather, Cotton, colonial preacher, 81. "Mayflower," Pilgrim's ship, 38; picture, 39- "Mayflower Compact," 38. Meade, General George G., at Gettysburg, 302. Meat packing, 445. Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, de- clares its independence, 122. Memphis, surrender of, 295. Merchant marine, 429. Merchants, European before 1500, 2. "Merrimac," battle with "Monitor," 292. Merritt, General Wesley, at Manila, 360. Methodists, at the time of the Revolution, 167; colleges of, 239; in the West, 242; send missionaries to Oregon, 260. Mexico, conquered by Cortez, 11; Texas revolts from, 259; war with, 262-265; United troops in, 375, 402. Michigan, 233; University of, 240. Miles, General Nelson A., in Porto Rico, 360. Milford, founded, 47. Miller, Joaquin, 422. Mines and mining, 212, 249. Minnesota, 235. Minutemen, at Lexington and Concord, 117; at battle of Bennington, 1 29. Missionary Ridge, battle of, 305- Mississippi, history of, 214; secedes from the Union, 282. Mississippi River, discovered by De Soto, " 12; western boundary of the United States, 144; Spain tries to close the mouth of, 153, 186; and western trade, 173; importance of, in Civil War, 294. Missouri, 216. Missouri Compromise, 218; Douglas pro- poses to repeal, 273; declared unconsti- tutional, 276. Mobile, founded, 97. Mobile Bay, captured by Farragut, 312. Mohawk River, route to the West, 17. Money, see Currency. "Monitor," battle with "Merrimac," 292- 293- Monmouth, battle of, 133. Monroe, James, portrait, 220; president, 220-221. Monroe Doctrine, 219-220; and Venezuela, 371. 374; new meaning of, 376. Montana, 405-406; and woman suffrage, 473- Montcalm, Louis Joseph de, French gen- eral, 102, 104; portrait, 103. Montreal, named by Cartier, 13; captured by British, 104. Morality, growth of, 167-168, 243. Moravians, in Georgia, 36. Morgan, General Daniel, captured at Que bee, 120; aids Schuyler, 129; at battle of Cowpens, 139-140. Mormons, migration of, 236-237; and irri- gation, 352; in Utah, 407. Morrill Act, 417, 440. Morris, Gouverneur, portrait, 157; writes the Constitution, .157. Morris, Robert, pays Washington's sol- diers, 127. Morse, Samuel F. B., invents the tele- graph, 249-250. Mott, Lucretia, 257, 472. Mount Vernon, Washington's home, 145. "Mugwumps," 336. Murfreesboro, battle of, 296. Murray, Mrs., entertains British generals. NAPOLEON, 186, 102, 202. Nashville, Ijattle of, 314. National Association of Manufacturers, 385. National Republicans, nominate Clay, 225. National Road, 207. Natural resources, 350-351- Naturalization, 381. Navigation Acts, 53. Navigation Laws, 108. Nebraska, and woman suffrage, 473. Negroes, made citizens, 327; given the vote, 328, 331; as soldiers, 301; and the Freed- men's Bureau, 327; rule the South, 329- 330; see also slavery. Nevada, 324-325; and woman suffrage, 473. New Amsterdam, 52, 53. Newark, founded, 56. THE INDEX 551 New England, trades with Maryland, 31; explored by John Smith, 37. New England Confederation, joined by Plymouth, 40; organization of, 43. Newfoundland fisheries arbitration, 372. New France, 95-97- New Hampshire, early settlements in, 46; forms state government, 149. "New Hampshire Gazette," oldest news- paper, 241. New Haven, founded, 47. New Jersey, early settlements, 56; bought by the Quakers, 571 becomes royal province, 57- Newlands Act, 387. New Mexico, purchase of, 265; history of, 408-409- New Netherland, surrenders to English, 53. New Orleans, founded, 97; captured by Jackson, 201; and western trade, 207; in 1810, 214; captured by Farragut, 295. Newport, founded, 48. Newspapers, growth of, 241-242, 423. New Sweden, see Delaware. New York, religious toleration in, 54; and woman suffrage, 473. New York Bay, seen by Verrazano, 13. New York Central Railroad, 391- New York City, named by English, 53; becomes the largest city in the United States, 210. "New York Tribune," 242. Nicholson, Meredith, 423. Nobles, before 1500, 3. Nominating conventions, 394- Non-importation, agreements, 109, no; Act, 192- Non-intercourse Acts, 194- North, Lord, English statesman, 112; proposes plan of conciliating colonies, 116; wishes to resign, 132. North, industry in, 254; strength of (i860), 289-290- "North American Review," 242. North Carolina, location of Raleigh's colonies, 15; secedes from the Union, 289; University of, 240. North Dakota, history of, 405; and woman suffrage, 473- Northern Pacific Railroad, 405, 406, 407. Northmen, visit North America, 4. Northwest Territory, 153. Norwegians, immigration of, 378. Nova Scotia, visited by Cabot, 9; captured by British, 98. NuUification, doctrine of, in Kentucky, 182; in South Carolina, 255-256; and the Fugitive Slave Law, 270. OGLETHORPE, JAMES EDWARD, por- trait, 35; founds Georgia, 35. Ohio, history of, 192; and woman suffrage, 473- Ohio Company, 99. Oklahoma, history of, 407-408; Indians .in. 414. "Old Ironsides," 199. Old South Meeting House, 113. Omnibus Bill, 267. "Open-door," in China, 367-368. Ordinance of 17871 i54- Oregon, explored, 188; claim of the United States to, 188-189. 260; history of, 235; settlement of, 260; and woman suffrage, 473- Oregon trail, route followed by, 18-19; travel along. 261. Oriskany, battle of, 129. "Outlook," 424. PACn^IC OCEAN, discovered by Balboa, ID. Paine, Thomas, author of "Common Sense," 122-123. Panama, Isthmus of, crossed by Balboa, 10; Republic of. 365. Panama Canal, 363-366. 428. Panama-Pacific Exposition, 346. Pan-American Congress, 376-377- Pan-American Exposition, 346. Pan-American Union, 377. Panic, of 1837, 226-227; of 1873, 332- 333; of 1893. 341- Parcel Post, 354. Parliament, power of. 4; becomes Puritan, 28; compels Charles I to sign Petition of Right, 40; repeals the Stamp Act, in; appealed to by First Continental Con- gress, 115- Parties, origin of, 177-178. Pastimes, in the colonies, 70-71. 73-74- Patents, 448. Patroon system, 51. 7o; estates broken up, 229. Paulus Hook, captured by Lee, I3S- Payne-Aldrich Act, 353, 355- Peasants, European before 1500, i. Peninsular Campaign, 206-297- Penn, William, and the Duke of York, 54; obtains control of Delaware, 55-56; early life, 58; portrait, 59; settles Pennsyl- vania, 59-60. Pennsylvania, religious toleration in, 59; settlement of, 59-60; University of, 77- "Pennsylvania Packet," earliest daily paper in the colonies, 78. Pennsylvania Railroad, 391. Perry, Commodore Matthew C, visits Japan, 253- Perry, Captain Oliver H., defeats the British. 197- Perryville, battle of. 296. Pershing, General John J., home of. 217; portrait. 402; in Mexico, 402; at the tomb of Lafayette. 460; commands American armies in France. 464. Peru, discovered by Pizarro. 11. "Pet Banks," 226. Petersburg, siege of. 309- Petition of Right, 40. Philadelphia, founded. 60; menaced by the British, 126; abandoned by British, 132; celebrating the adoption of the Constitution, 159- 'Philippines, annexation of, 362; education in. 368-369; government of, 369. Photography, invention of, 248. Pickens, Andrew, defends the South in the Revolution, 138. Picketing, 386. Pickett, General George E., at Gettys- burg, 302. 552 THE INDEX Pierce, Franklin, president, 269; portrait, 270. Pike, Zebulon, portrait, 189; western expedition of, 189. Pilgrims, flee to Holland, 38; to America, 38. Piracy, before 1500, i; in colonial times, 92. Pitcairn, Major John, at the battle of Lexington, 117. Pitcher, Mollie, in the Revolution, 147. Pitt, William, English statesman, 102-103, 108; portrait, 102; consults Franklin, 115-1 16. Pittsburg Landing, battle of, 295- Pizarro, Francisco, Spanish explorer in Peru, II. Planters, how they lived, 86-87; after the Civil War, 320-321. Piatt Amendment, 362. Plymouth, founded, 38; government of, 40; joins the New England Confedera- tion, 40. Plymouth Company, given a charter, 23. Poe, Edgar Allen, 241. Poles, immigration of, 379. Polk, James K, portrait, 260; president, 259-260; and the Oregon question, 262. Polygamy, 382, 407. Ponce de Leon, explores Florida, 10. Pope, head of the clergy, 3; divides world between Spain and Portugal, 9. Pope, General John, at second battle of Bull Run, 297. "Popular sovereignty," 273. 276. Population, growth of, 165, 230, 404. Populism, 340. Port Bill, 113. Porter, David, commander of the "Essex," 199. Porter, Gene Stratton, 423. Portland, world's fair at, 346. Porto Rico, discovered by Columbus, 8; invaded by General Miles, 360; annex- ation of, 362. Port Royal, Florida, founded by Hugue- nots, 14. Port Royal, Newfoundland, see .4 nnapolis. Portsmouth, Rhode Island, founded, 48. Portugal, discovers new route to India, 6; refuses to help Columbus, 7. Postal Savings Banks, 353. Potatoes, found in America, 15. Presbyterians, in the Carolinas, 33; at the time of the Revolution, 167; colleges of, 239- Prescott, Colonel William, at the battle of Bunker Hill, 118. President, how nominated, 221; how elected, 157, 161, 337; powers of, 161, 300. Presidential Preference Primary, 395. Price, General Stirling, at battle of luka, 296. Price control, 469. Primary Elections, 394-395. Princeton, battle of, 127. Princeton College, 77. Printing Press, invention of, 248. Prisons, reform of, 243. Privateers, fitted out in French ports, 130; in the Revolution, 133-134; in the War of 1812, 199; Confederate, 293-294. "Proclamation of Neutrality," 178. Production, direct and indirect, 440-441. Progressive party, 355-356. Prohibition, 245, 470-471. Prohibition party, 332. Providence, foimded, 48. Pulaski, Count Casimir, joins the Ameri- can army, 127. Punishment, colonial, 82; grows more humane, 243. Puritan Revolution, 41, 43. Puritans, arise in England, 27-28, 37; migrate to Virginia, 28; in Massachu- setts, 41-42. Put-in-Bay, battle of, io7- Putnam, General Israel, at the battle of Bunker Hill, 118. QUAKERS, persecuted in Virginia, 29; in the Carolinas, 33; in Massachusetts, 44; in Rhode Island, 44; persecuted in New Netherland, 52; buy New Jersey, S7; their origin and teachings, 57-58; op- posed to war, 124. Quebec, founded. 95; captured by British, 104; expedition against, 120. Queen Anne's War, 98. RAILROADS, beginning of, 210-21 1; growth of, 250-251, 439; and immigra- tion, 378; combinations of, 391; under government control, 460-461. Raleigh, Sir Walter, portrait, 15; sends colonies to America, 15. "Rebate," 337. Recall, 355, 396. Reciprocity, 428. Reclaiming Waste Lands, 352. Reconstruction, Lincoln and Johnson's plan. 326. Red Cross, in the World War, 457. "Redemptioners," 67. Referendum, 355, 396. Reformation, in Europe, 37. Regulating Act, 113. Religious Denominations, in Virginia, 29; in Maryland. 30; in the Carolinas, 33; in Georgia, 36; in England, 37; in Massa- chusetts, 44; in New Netherland, 52; in New Jersey, 57; in the colonies, 79-80; at the time of the Revolution, 167; in the West, 243; and the World War, 470. Religious toleration, in Maryland, 31; in Georgia, 36; in Holland, 38, 50; in Massa- chusetts, 44; growth of, 44; in 'Rhode Island, 48; in New York, 54; in New Jersey, 57; in Pennsylvania, 59; in New France, ids; in Ordinance of 1787, 154; at the time of the Revolution, 167; in the Constitution, 167. Representative Government, established in Virginia, 26. Representatives, how elected, 160. Republican convention of 1912, 355, 356. Republican party, origin of, 178; break-up of. 22s; origin of new, 275. Revere, Paul, Revolutionary hero, n2, 113' 1 17. ."Review of Reviews," 424. Revolution, American, 107-144. THE INDEX 553 Rhode Island, refuge of Roger Williams, 42; obtains charter, 48; settled, 48; gives up old charter, 229. Rice, the leading product of South Carolina, .34- Richmond, Confederate capital, 289; sur- render of, 315. Riley, James Whitcomb, 214, 422. Robertson, James, settles Watauga, 136. Rochambeau, Count de, at Yorktown, 143. Rockefeller, John D., 391- Rockingham, Lord, English statesman, 1 1 1 ; favors America, 132; recalled, 144. Rocky Mountains, location and size, 18. Rolfe, John, raises the first crop of tobacco, 26. Roosevelt, Theodore, lieutenant-colonel of the "Rough Riders," 360; president, 348-350; portrait, 349; and conserva- tion, 351; candidate of the Progressive party, 355-356; and the Panama Canal, 36s; favors peace meetings, 373; and the Venezuela debts, 374. Rosecrans, General William S., succeeds Buell, 296; at Lookout Mountain, 305. "Rough Riders," 360. Roumanians, immigration of, 379. Roxbury, founded, 41. Rush-Bagot Treaty, 202. Russell, Irwin, 422. Russia, and Alaska, 260; at war with Japan, 349-350; in the World War, 450, 462. Russians, immigration of, 379. Rutgers College, 77- ST. AUGUSTINE, Florida, settled by Spanish, 12; destroys French colony at Port Royal, 14. St. Lawrence, explored by Cartier, 13. St. Leger, Colonel Barry, at battle of Oriskany, 128-129. St. Louis, founded, 217; world's fair at, 346. St. Mary's, first colony in Maryland, 30; captured by the Puritans, 32. St. Mihiel, Americans at, 464. "Salary grab," 33i- Salem, founded, 41. Salzburgers, in Georgia, 36. Samoa, annexation of, 367. San Francisco, world's fair at, 346. Sanitary Commission, 318. San Juan Hill, battle of, 360. San Salvador, discovered by Columbus, 8. Santa Fe, New Mexico, 12, 409. Santa Fe Railroad, 409-410. Santa Fe trail, route followed, 18-19; in the Mexican War, 264. Santiago, battle of, 360-361. Santo Domingo, 374-375. Saratoga, Burgoyne's surrender, 129. Savannah, founded, 36; captured by Biit- ish, 137; captured by Sherman, 313; "Savannah" first ocean steamship, 252. Scalawags, 329. Schools, "Dame," 75; colonial, 75-76; high, 238, 415-416; elementary, 415; kinder- garten, 415; consolidated, 416-417; nor- mal, 417; compulsory attendance of, 417; medical inspection in, 421; see also Edu- cation. Schuyler, General Philip, opposes Bur • goyne, 129; succeeded by Gates, 129. Science, and farming, 431; and manufac- turing, 439- Scotch Highlanders, in the Carolinas, 33; in Georgia, 36. Scotch-Irish, in the Carolinas, 33; in the colonies, 65-66; during the French and Indian Wars, 99. Scott, General Winfield, ordered to Charles- ton, 256; in the Mexican War, 263-264. Scrooby, England, home of the Pilgrims, 38. Seal Fisheries Arbitration, 369. Seattle, world's fair at, 346. Secession, South threatens, 267; of first group of states, 282; right of, 282-283. Seminary Ridge, 302. Senators, how elected, 157, 160, 397. Separatists, in England, 37; become Pil- grims, 38. "Serapis," captured by John Paul Jones, 133- Serbia, in the World War, 450, "Seven Days" battle, 297. "Seventh of March Speech," 268. Seven Years' War, 102. Sevier, John, famous Indian fighter, 136. Seward, William H., and the "higher law," 269. Sewing machine, invention of, 248. Shakers, rise of, 167. Shays's Rebellion, 155. "Shenandoah," Confederate cruiser, 313. Shenandoah Valley, defended by Wash- ington, 102; in the Civil War, 297; Early in, 310; Sheridan in, 310. Sheridan, General Philip H., at Vicksburg, 304; in the Shenandoah, 310; cuts off Lee's supplies, 314. Sherman, Roger, in First Continental Con- gress, 114. Sherman, General William T., at Lookout Mountain, 305; at Atlanta, 311; marches to the sea, 313. Sherman Anti-Trust Act, 392. Sherman Silver Purchase Act, 344. Shiloh, battle of, 295. Ships and shipping, colonial, 89; develop- ment of, 429; in the World War, 458. Silver, coining of, 343-344. 346-348. Sitting Bull, Indian chief, 412. Slater, Samuel, brings new machines to America, 170. Slavery, colonial, 26, 92; in Ordinance of 1787, 154; at the time of the Revolution, 168; and the new territory, 217, 265; and the Louisiana Purchase, 218; description of, 256-257; and California, 266; in the far West, 267; and the Kansas question, 272-275; in the war, 299; Lincoln's atti- tude toward, 299; see Emancipation. Slaves, brought to America by Dutch, 26. Slavs, immigration of, 379. Slidell, John, Confederate commissioner to France, 292. Smith, John, leader of the colony at James- town, 24. Smith, Joseph, Mormon leader, 236. SmuggUng, 92, 109, 193- Social classes, in Europe, i, 2, 3; in Amer- ica, 63, 66-68, 166. 554 THE INDEX Socialism, 399-400. Socialist party, 400. "Society for the Promotion of Arts, Agri- culture and Economy," 169. "Sons of Liberty," 109. 112. South, industry in, 254. 443, 447; secedes from the Union, 282; strength of, 290. South Africa, gold discovered in, 348. South America, discovered by Columbus, 8 ; struggles for independence, 218; relations of the United States with, 377 ; trade with 427-428. South Carolina, leads in secession, 282. South Dakota, 405- "Southern Literary Messenger," 242. Southern Pacific Railroad, 409-410. Spain, early explorations of, 10; begins to decline, 12, 16; methods of conquest, 13; joins in war against England. 132; attempts to close the Mississippi, 153, 173. 186; and South American inde- pendence, 218; colonies of, 218, 357; war with, 359-36i. Spaniards, attack Charleston, 33; attack Frederica, 36. "Specie Circular," 227. Spottsylvania, battle of, 309. Springfield, capital of Illinois, 215. Stamford, founded, 47. Stamp Act, 109-1 11. Stamp Act Congress, no. Standard Oil Company, 391. Standish, Myles, 38. Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 472. Stark, General John, at the battle of Bun- kei Hill, 118; at battle of Bennington, 129. State governments, oiigm of, 94- States' Rights, 183, 202. State Universities, founding of, 239-240; growth of, 417. Steamboat, invention of, 206; on the rivers, 206; crosses the Atlantic, 252. Steel, manufacture of, 445-446. Stephens, Alexander H., favors the Union, 282; becomes vice-president of the confederacy, 283; portrait, 284; at the Hampton Roads Conference, 310. Steuben, Baron William von, at Valley Forge, 128. Stockton, Frank R., 423. Stone, Lucy, 472. Stony Point, captured by " Mad Anthony" Wayne, I3S- Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 270. Strikes, 385-387; after the World War, 468. Stuart, General J. E. B., destroys Union supplies, 297- Stuyvesant, Peter, governor of New Nether- land, 52-53; forced to surrender New Netherland, 53. Submarines, 451, 453. Suffrage, in Virginia, 29; growth of, 221, 229, 243, 328, 331, 471-474. Sugar Act, 108. Sullivan, General John, expedition against the Indians, 134. Sumter, Thomas, m the Revolution, 138- 139- "Sumter," confederate cruiser, 313. Sumter, Fort, surrender of, 287. Swedes, immigration of, 378. Swiss, in the Carolinas, 33. TAFT, WILLIAM HOWARD, portrait. 353; president, 353; and the Progres- sive movement, 355. Tariff, Hamilton's, 176; after War of 1812, 203, 212; and manufactures, 247; a sectional question, 254-255; and the Civil War, 323; McKinley, 339; and the Wilson Bill, 341; Underwood, 401; Dingley, 347; and the Payne-Aldrich Act, 353- Tarleton, Colonel Sir Banastre, sent to defeat Greene, 140-141. Taylor, General Zachary, portrait, 262; in the Mexican War, 263; president, ^265. Tea, tax on, 112. Tecumseh, 22; death of, 197. Telegraph, invention of, 249-250. Tennessee, first settlements, 136; history of, 191; secedes from the Union, 289. "Tennessee," guards Mobile Bay, 312. Texas, 233; revolution in, 259; annexation of, 260; secedes from the Union, 2S2. Thames, battle of, 197. Thanksgiving, the first, 39- Thomas, General Geoige H., at battle of Murfreesboro, 296; at battle of Chick- amauga. 305; at Nashville, 314. Ticonderoga, captured by Americans, 120; captured by British. 164. Tippecanoe, battle of, 197. 214. Tobacco, taken to England, 15; culti- vated in Virginia, 26; breaks up feudal- ism in Maryland, 31. Toleration, Act of, 31, see also Religious toleration. Tories, in England, 108, 116, 143; in America, 120, 123, 134. Toronto, burned by Americans. 200. Trade Routes, Eastern, cut by Turks, s; map of. 6. Transportation, colonial, 91 ; at the Revolu- tion, 171-174; in the West, 207; mod- ern, 432-434- Travel, colonial, 91; at the close of the Revolution, 174; in the West, 207; to the far West. 261, 266. "Trent Affair," 292. Trenton, battle of, 126-127. Trumbull, Faith, in the Revolution, 147. Trusts, 390-393. Turkey, in the World War, 450, 465. Turks, close routes to East, 5; iinmigration of, 379- Tutuila, annexation of, 367. Twain, Mark, see Clemens, Samuel L. Tweed Ring, 3ii- Tyler, John, president, 228-229. "UNCLE TOM'S CABIN," 270. "Underground Railroad," 270. Underwood Tariff, 401. Union Pacific Railroad, 407. Unions, see Labor Unions. Unitarians, at the time of the Revolution, 167. United Hatters of North America, 387. THE INDEX 555 "United States," captures the " Mace- donian." United States Bank, created, 176; destroyed by Jackson, 226. United States, extent of.in 1783, 144; breaks with Germany, 453-454. United States Steel Corporation, 391. Universalists, at the time of the Revolution, 167. Universities and colleges, growth of, 239. Utah, 407; and woman suffrage, 473. VACA, CABEZA DE, in New Mexico, 409. Valley Forge, 128. Van Buren, Martin, portrait ,227; president , 227. Vandeibilt, Cornelius, 391. Venezuela, arbitration, 371, 374. Venice, trade routes of, 5. Vermont, 189-190. Verrazano, Giovanni da, explorer, 13. Versailles, Treaty of, 466. Vespucius, Americus, names America, 10. Vicksburg, siege of, 303-304. Villa, Francisco, Mexican bandit, 402-403. Vincennes, captured by George Rogers Clark, 137. Virginia, named by Queen Elizabeth, 15; receives a new charter, 24 ; growth of to 1660, 28; University of, 240; secedes from the Union, 289. Virgin Islands, purchase of, 403. Vocational training, 418. "WAIT-A-BIT TREATIES," 374, 402. Walpole, Robert, English statesman, 98. "War Hawks," 194. War of 1812, 196-203. "War powers," of the president, 161-162, 300. Warren, General Joseph, at the battle of Bunker Hill. 118. War Savings Stamps, 461. Warwick, founded, 48. Washington, George, orders the French from the Ohio Valley, 99-100; defends the frontier, 102; takes command of the army, 119; at Trenton and Princeton, 126-127; at Valley Forge, 128; at York- town, 142-143; retires to Mount Vernon, 144-145; resigns as Commander-in-Chief, 145; favors a stronger government, 152; at the Constitutional Convention, 155; first president, 174-175; death of, 180. Washington, D. C, burned by British, 201. Washington, state, history of, 406; and woman suffrage, 473. Washingtonians, 245. Watauga, settled, 136. Watertown, founded, 41. Wayne, Anthony, captures Stony Point, 135 Wealth, national, 430. Webster, Daniel, Whig leader, 226; defends the Union, 255; in the Great Debate, 268; death of, 269. Webster-Hayne Debate, 255. Welfare work, 390. Wesley, Charles, settles in Georgia, 36. Wesley, John, settles in Georgia, 36. West, settlement of, 204-205, 207-208, 213. Western front, in the World War, 462. Western lands, given to the Confederation, 153- Western Reserve, 153. West Indies, trade with, 108, 109. West Virginia, becomes a state, 289; his- tory of, 324. Wethersfield, founded, 47. Weyler, General, Spanish commander in Cuba, 358. Whig Party, new name of National Repub- licans, 22s; death of, 269. Whigs, in England, iii. Whitefield, George, settles in Georgia, 36; great colonial preacher, 81. White House Landing, battle of, 297- White Plains, battle of, 125. Whitman, Dr. Marcus, missionary to Ore- gon, 261. Whitman, Walt, 423. Whitney, Eli, invents cotton gin, 170. Whittier, John Greenleaf, 241. Wilderness campaign, 309. Wilderness Road, 190. William II, Emperor of Germany, 454-455, 465. William HI, King of England, grants new charter to Massachusetts, 46; grants New York an assembly, 55. William and Mary College, 76. Williams, Roger, flees to Rhode Island, 42; founds Providence, 48. Wilmot Proviso, 265. Wilson, Woodrow, president, 356, 401; portrait, 401; and neutrality, 45i;elected for second term, 453; in Europe, 466. Wilson Bill, 341. Winchester, battle of, 310. Windsor, founded, 47. Winthrop, John, portrait, 41; governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony, 41. Wisconsin, 234. Wister, Owen, 423. Witchcraft, in the colonies, 82. Wolfe, James, British general, 103; por- trait, 103. Woman Suffrage, 127, 149, 243, 471-474. Women, in the Revolution, 146-147; edu- cation of, 166, 239, 421. Wood, Leonard, colonel of the "Rough Riders," 360. Workingmen's Compensation, 389. World's Fairs, 345-346. "World's Work," 424. Woild War, 450-468; causes, 450; United States enters. 456; end of, 465; cost of, 466; effects of, 468. Wright, Frances, 471. Wright, Martha C, 472. Wright, Orville, and the airplane, 447. Wright, Wilbur, and the airplane, 447. Writs of Assistance, 109. Wyoming, history of, 406, 407; and woman suffrage, 472-473. Wyoming Valley, massacre of, i34- 556 THE INDEX YALE COLLEGE, founded, 76; welcomes Yorktown, battle of, 142-143. Washington, 119. Young, Brigham, Mormon leader, 23O. Yancey, William L., portrait, 216; south- Y. M. C. A., in the World War, 457. em orator, 216. Y. W. C. A., in the World War, 457. Yeardley, Sir George, governor of Virginia, Yukon, gold discovered on, 344-34f. 26. Yellow fever, 365-366. York, Duke of, given New York, S4- ZENGER, PETER, arrest of, 79. HISTORY OF INDIANA EARLY INDIANA 1. The Indian and the Frenchman in early Indiana. For a long time the region now called Indiana had been a battle ground between hostile tribes of Indians. The principal tribes were the Potawatomis, Miamis, Dela- wares, Wyandottes, and Shawnees. La Salle, on his journey to the westward, crossed from the St. Joseph to the Kankakee. His Indian com- panions carried the canoes and supplies upon their backs from one river to the other. This narrow strip of land separating the two rivers, only a few miles in width, was called a "portage," or carrying place. The French and Indians traveled together in happy companionship, eating and sleeping together as if they had known each other for centuries. Sometimes the Frenchmen were travehng for pure love of what they could see in this wild, beauti- ful land ; more often they were in pursuit of furs, gather- ing them from the Indians. Very often in the front rank of those "wood rangers" was the kindly priest with his cross and altar, trying to win the dusky children of the forest to the gentle ways of Jesus. 2. French settlements in Indiana. A hundred years before the Revolutionary War the French and Indians of the Mississippi Valley lived as boon companions among its hills, valleys, and lakes. Not many French women ventured from far-away France into this western wilder- ness. The French, therefore, took for life companions the dusky maidens of the forests, and raised large families, half French and half Indian, called half-breeds. 2 HISTORY OF INDIANA To protect the fur trade from the attacks of the Brit- ish, and to encourage the missionary work of the Jesuit fathers, the French ordered three forts or posts to be buih : one on the upper Wabash at the Maumee portage, near where Fort Wayne now stands; a second on the northern bank of the Wabash below the mouth of the Tippecanoe, called Ouaitenon (He-at'-e-non) (1720), and a third at Vincennes, on the lower Wabash (1727). The first two .were in time abandoned. 3. The English take the place of the French. Before the breaking out of the American Revolution the French and Indians had been in deadly conflict with the Brit- ish in the French and Indian War. The result of this war was the passing of French authority over to the Enghsh (1763). This was a sad blow for the French and Indians. INDIANA IN THE REVOLUTION 4. George Rogers Clark plans an expedition (1778). The causes of the American Revolution can be studied elsewhere (§§179-188). The Indians had joined hands with the British, and were scalping and murdering the settlers of Kentucky. George Rogers Clark, a Virginian living in Kentucky, thought out the bold plan of stopping this attack by the capture of the British forts northwest of the Ohio. He made his way to Virginia and saw Governor Patrick Henry, who gave both authority and money for the expedition, for Virginia claimed this vast region north of the Ohio. One hundred and fifty men met him at Fort Pitt and floated down the beautiful Ohio to the Falls. Here Clark drilled his men on Corn Island, left a few families to settle Louisville, then floated down to INDIANA IN THE REVOLUTION 3 the mouth of the Tennessee and marched overland to Kaskaskia. 5. Clark surprises Kaskaskia. On July 4th, Clark's men surprised the British and took possession of the town. Clark sent a band of men to capture Cahokia and a French priest to carry the news to his countrymen at Vincennes. They ran up the American flag, and Clark sent Captain Helm to take command. The British at Detroit under Hamilton heard the news and promptly set out with five hundred men for Vin- cennes. They floated down Lake Erie to the mouth of the Maumee, "poled" up the river to the portage, and crossed to the headwaters of the Wabash. Down that river came swarms of Indians and British and cap- tured the fort. 6. Clark attacks Vincennes. Francis Vigo, in whose honor Vigo County was named, carried the word to General Clark. The war spirit of Clark immediately flamed forth in these words: "I must take Hamilton or Hamilton will take me!" Hamilton had decided to wait for spring before advarlcing, but Clark did not wait for wind or weather. His little army, reenforced by the French settlers, was on the march at once. They suffered untold hardships in marching through the "drowned lands" of the Wabash. Clark sent a letter to the people of the town. He advised all who were friends to remain quietly indoors and all who were enemies to go to the fort and cast in their fortunes with the "hair buyer," as the backwoods- men called Hamilton. At evening the battle began, and continued until the next day. By their sharp fire the Americans drove the British from the guns of the fort, and Hamilton surrendered. 4 HISTORY OF INDIANA 7. The results of Clark's work. Thus the "Old Northwest" fell to the United States, and the Missis- sippi became the western boundary of the United States by the Treaty of 1783 (§236). The Indians were so deeply impressed with Clark's great power they gave him a grant of land at the Falls of the Ohio. Virginia afterwards agreed to this grant to the old hero and his brave men. The counties of Scott, Clark, and Floyd are situated in "Clark's Grant." Virginia organized (1787) the region northwest of the Ohio into a territory, and sent men to govern it. Into this region came Clark's old soldiers, a bit later, to make homes for themselves and for their wives and their children. INDIANA UNDER ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 8. Virginia gives this region to the United States. The state of Thomas Jefferson, Patrick Henry, and Benjamin Harrison gave this vast region northwest of the Ohio to the United States. This gift included the present states of Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan, and Ohio, since known as the "Old Northwest." But the Indians were still in an ugly state of mind. They had sided with the British, and had been beaten. Besides, the whites were invading and destroying their hunting grounds. The British still held Detroit and other posts in the territory, and were selling arms to the savages, if not encouraging them. Kentucky was the greatest sufferer, for she lost two thousand men, women, and children taken captive by the savages. General Clark raised one thousand men, invaded the upper Wabash region, and burned the Indians' towns. This settled things for a time. WORKING OUT INDIANA S 9. The Ordinance of 1787. In the very last days of the Confederation, Congress passed a famous bill, called the Ordinance of 1787, for the government of the terri- tory given by Virginia. This ordinance has brought great honor to its authors because it contains two pro- visions: One dedicated this entire region to freedom by declaring that slavery should be forever prohibited, and the other dedicated it to education by providing that "the means of education should be forever encour- aged." On the basis of this second provision the state of Indiana has built the foundation of her splendid system of free schools. WORKING OUT INDIANA 10. Washington sends Wayne against the Indians. The Indians did not long refrain from killing and scalping. General Harmar was defeated by the red men, and General St. Clair suffered more dreadful surprise and slaughter at their hands. Washington was aroused and ordered "Mad Anthony" Wayne to the rescue. He gathered an army of about four thousand and marched to the headwaters of the Maumee and Auglaize rivers, where he built Fort Defiance. He was now in the Indian country. The Indians held a council, and Little Turtle, a great chief, advised them to make peace, but the young warriors wanted to fight. The chief called Wayne the "Man-who-never-sleeps." The battle came. Wayne broke the power of the Indians, destroyed their crops, burned their villages, and boldly marched to the head of the Maumee. Here he built Fort Wayne (1794). In the year following Wayne made a treaty with the Indians which gave much land to the government at Washington. 6 HISTORY OF INDIANA 11. Government begun (1790). Governor St. Clair, appointed by Washington, began his government over the Northwest Territory at Marietta, but soon moved to a fort on the Ohio, where Cincinnati now stands. He visited Clarksville and Kaskaskia, and sent his secretary to Vincennes. The secretary planned the government of Knox County and examined the people's titles to the land. In 1798 the territorial legislature elected William Henry Harrison to Congress, where he had the right to speak but not to vote. 12. Indiana Territory set off (1800). The southern boundary of this new region was the Ohio west of the mouth of the Miami River. The eastern boundary ran from the Ohio at this point north to the Canadian line. Its western line was the Mississippi River. The seat of government was at Vincennes, a place where many an interesting event took place. The new territory, it is estimated, contained over forty-eight hundred people, mostly French, with a few Americans and Spaniards. The first grand jury called for this territory was made up chiefly of persons bearing French names. This was new business for Frenchmen, for the French had never sat on juries. General Harrison was appointed governor by John Adams, President of the United States. 13. The second stage of territorial government (1804). The people were excited, in 1804, over a kind of govern- ment which would permit them to select their own representatives. They decided to change, and Harrison immediately called an election to choose men for an assembly. The Assembly met at Vincennes (1805) and selected a council for the governor. It is interesting to note that in his first message to this body of representatives Harrison advised them to EARLIEST INDIANA SETTLEMENTS 7 pass a law to stop the sale of liquor to the Indians. A sober Indian was peaceable enough when not on the war path, but was dangerous when drunk. In 1809 the terri- tory of Indiana was reduced almost to its present size by act of Congress. In this year the number of whites within the territory had reached a total of about twenty thousand. THE EARLIEST SETTLEMENTS IN INDIANA 14. Clarksville in Clark's Grant at the Falls of the Ohio. It is hard to say just where the first Englishmen settled in Indiana. We know that Frenchmen were early at Vincennes, and until Virginia gave that country to the United States, we believe that some EngHshmen must have wandered to "Old Vincennes." But Clarksville, named after the hero of Vincennes, situated at the Falls between what is now Jeffersonville and New Albany, was settled by Americans. The town, a thousand acres in extent, was marked off by Virginia in 1783. A letter written the next year states that "General Clark has laid off a town on the other side of the Ohio .... at the mouth of Silver Creek and is building a saw and grist mill there Twenty or thirty families have moved there already." Settlers were attracted to the town not only because it was in Clark's Grant but because Fort Steuben stood there ready to protect them by its guns and walls. Clarksville became the county seat, but was afterward succeeded by Charlestown. Finally, at a later day, Jeffersonville succeeded to that honor. The last-named town was laid out in 1802, following a plan which Thomas Jefferson had approved, and in 1807 Congress estabhshed here a land office. Such an office had been in operation at Vincennes for some time. 8 HISTORY OF INDIANA 15. Early settlements in southeastern Indiana. In Switzerland County the town of Vevay makes a strong bid as among the earhest settlements in that part of the state. Only two or three miles above Vevay a family by the name of Picket settled in 1795. The next year came two persons from Switzerland, in Europe, selected the site of Vevay, purchased land from the government, and in 1803 brought settlers from Switzerland. Not far from where Aurora now stands a mill was built in 1800. There must have been settlers in this region before that date, for in 1807 the town of Lawrenceburg was marked out and in the year following Dearborn was set off into a county. 16. Other early settlements. Nearly all of these first settlers were from the southern states. Woolsey Pride settled near White Oak Springs, Pike County, in 1800, and the next year a goodly company from Kentucky joined him. By the time Harrison made his famous campaign against the Prophet, a number of settlers from Pike County joined his forces. In 1802 two of the Boones from Kentucky settled in Grassy Valley, a few miles back from the Ohio in Harrison County. They were joined by men who became famous in Indiana history — Thomas Posey and Davis Floyd. General Harrison bought a farm at Wilson's Spring near Blue River, and upon it built a fine mill about 1806. In this county in 1808 a ferry was estabHshed at Mauck- port to carry the many settlers crossing the Ohio from Kentucky. In the same year Cory don, soon to be the capital of the state, was settled. Brookville was laid out about 1804. Settlers were beginning to press into the second tier of counties, where game was more plentiful. John EARLIEvST INDIANA SETTLEMENTS 9 Kimberlin, leading a party of hunters in 1805, settled on Kimberlin Creek in Scott County. On this farm was located the blockhouse mentioned later in the War of 18 12. In 1 8 10 the town of Lexington, for many years the county seat, was laid out. A bank and a paper were founded a bit later. One of the most famous of the men settling Lexington was Elisha G. English, whose grandson, William E. English, has turned the old homestead into a beautiful park so that now it stands as one of the historical landmarks of old Lexington. The year 1805 seemed -a favorite, for another company of Kentucky settlers came over to Warwick County and settled. Among them was Ratliff Boone, whose name is preserved in the town of Booneville and Boone township. Settlers in 1806 made their way into what is now Daviess County and located at Maysville. This place was far out in the region exposed to Indian attacks. But still the settlers came. Five forts were built to give the people protection, and during the War of 181 2 three others were added. Thus Daviess County, when set off from Knox (18 17), was noted for the number of its forts. The first settlers of Posey County came from Ken- tucky, Virginia, Carolina, and Pennsylvania about 1807. That wonderful old student of birds, Audubon, frequently visited Posey County. About the same time, Gibson County was found to furnish a fine home for people. Among them came Robert Evans, for whom Evansville was named. Because Colonel John Paul saw a heavy fog over the land at the Falls of the Ohio he concluded that Madison would be a better climate. Hence he located there just before the War of 181 2. 10 HISTORY OF INDIANA About 1810 settlers were pushing up into Lawrence, Monroe, and Jackson counties. The people were moving steadily up the Whitewater, settHng in Fayette County (1813), Ripley (1814), Jennings (1815), and Randolph (18 1 6). After the war they pushed on into Hancock, Rush, and Shelby in 18 18. On the western side of the state settlers were moving up the Wabash and White rivers, and located in Spencer (18 1 5), at Gosport about the same date, at Terre Haute (1816), Greene County (1817), Morgan (1819), Ver- milion (1816), and Clinton (1818). 17. New Harmony (18 15). The importance of this settlement calls for emphasis. George Rapp, a German from Pennsylvania, led eight hundred settlers fifty miles up the Wabash to a tract of thirty thousand acres, where he planted a religious community. They prospered, but sold out (1825) to a Scotchman, Robert Owen, who wanted to make the world better. He established free schools, and had well-regulated amusements: Friday evenings, concerts; Tuesday evenings, balls; Wednesday evenings, public meetings for discussion of subjects for the well-being of the community ; Thursday was the day of rest for the community. Eight months later one thousand people had joined the experiment. In 1826 Robert Dale Owen brought over his "boat- load of knowledge." There were great teachers and others who had come to New Harmony. This place now became the greatest center of teaching and investigation in America. The experiment failed, and the plan for making people better had to be given up, but to the present day in New Harmony there can be found, in the character of the people and in the institutions which sur- vive, many traces of the great men who labored there. THE WAR OF 1812 1 1 How many boys and girls in Indiana can find traces of the Maclure Libraries, founded by William Maclure, a friend and fellow- worker with Owen? THE WAR OF 1812 i8. Indiana in 1810. The settlements in Indiana down to 18 10 had brought twenty-four thousand five hundred people within its limits. They were mostly farmers and hunters. Besides these there were a number engaged in running grist and saw mills, and a few were engaged in the manufacture of goods. These men were a hardy race, quick-tempered, and ready to shoulder the rifle for an Indian war. 19. Indian troubles. The Indians had not been satisfied with the treaties. Some chiefs had signed and others had not. Worse than all, they saw their hunting grounds fading away before the coming of the white man and his ways of living. The British still held some of the posts northwest of the Ohio, and the people of the region believed that they were stirring up the Indians to go on the war path. They certainly sold guns and ammunition to the Indians and encouraged them in their dissatisfaction with the treat- ment they received from the Americans. 20. Tecumseh and the Prophet. Among the red men of Indiana lived a tribe called the Shawnees. Tecumseh and the Prophet were brothers belonging to this tribe, but had powerful influence over all the tribes of Indiana Indians. Tecumseh was a splendid-looking Indian, brave, a great orator, and he hated the whites with an undying hatred. He possessed noble ideas of the great- ness of the Indian race, and knew how to play upon the fears of his countrymen to rouse them to action. 12 HISTORY OF INDIANA Tecumseh used the Prophet to stir the imagination of these excitable sons of the forests by teUing what things the Great Spirit would do for them. 21. Tecumseh's visit to Governor Harrison. One day in August, 1810, Tecumseh, with four hundred armed braves, floated down the Wabash to Vincennes and paid General Harrison a visit. For several days this bold Indian held "powwows" with the governor. Then as they parted, Tecumseh said: "Well, as the Great Chief is to determine this matter, I hope the Great Spirit will put sense enough in his head to induce him to direct you to give up this land. He is far off and will not be injured by this war; he may sit still and drink his wine while you and I fight it out." 22. Harrison sends the Prophet a letter. Tecumseh went south to draw other tribes into his confederacy to wrest the land from the white man. The Prophet was gathering the tribes on the upper Wabash. Harrison wrote them: "Brothers, do you really think that the handful of men you have about you are able to contend with the seventeen fires [states]? .... Brothers, I am myself of the long knife fire; as soon as they hear my voice you will see them pouring forth their swarms of hunting-shirt men, as numerous as the mosquitoes on the shores of the Wabash." 23. The battle of Tippecanoe (181 1). The trouble kept up, and General Harrison called for the men of Indiana and Kentucky to join his forces at Vincennes. He marched up the Wabash a few miles above where Terre Haute now stands, and built Fort Harrison. After a few days he passed slowly up the river to the mouth of the Tippecanoe, watching out for an Indian ambush, and encamped on an elevated spot covered with oak trees. THE WAR OF 1812 13 Harrison's men "slept on their arms" that night. It was well they did so! Although the Prophet promised to parley with Harrison the next day, he gathered his -.^^ -. ,- < c^^rv braves, declaring that the bullets of the whites should not harm them. Chanting their war songs, they crept close to Harri- son's men and broke into the camp just before day- light on November 7th. The soldiers could hardly see how to fight at first, but when daylight came they drove the savages from the field, destroyed their town, and their Prophet was a prophet no longer. The Indians had lost faith in him. Tecumseh returned from the south, angry with his brother. He joined the British in the War of 181 2. Some of the Indians, it was said, fought with arms made in Britain. 24. Tippecanoe battlefield in history. General John Tipton, a young ensign in this battle, afterward bought the battlefield and presented it to the state. (Tipton County bears his name as a memorial.) The people of Indiana have always taken pride in this battlefield. Here Harrison's old soldiers gathered to welcome him in 1840. The people who came numbered fifty thousand or more. Both the state and the nation united in building a monument to the heroes who fought and fell here, each giving twelve thousand five hundred dollars. A Tippe- canoe Battle Ground Memorial Association was formed. i^pW^' TABLET MARKING "TREATY TREE" 14 HISTORY OF INDIANA It was a great day (1908) when the monument was unveiled. Orators were there, and a relative of General Harrison, a representative of the state of Kentucky, the governor of Indiana, and a representative from the national government. The centennial of this battle was celebrated by a gathering of the school children of Tippe- canoe County on November 7, 191 1. 25. The Pigeon Roost Massacre (1812). In Clark's Grant, in the western part of Scott County, stands another monument to the men, women, and children who fell under the fury of savage hate. Not far from where the town of Underwood now stands, two men were looking among the giant trees to catch sight of honey bees as they winged their silent way with the newly found sweetness to some hidden storehouse in that great forest. Suddenly the Indians were upon them, and attacked the Pigeon Roost settlement. Some of the people were killed fighting; others fought until night, then escaped in the darkness to give the alarm. But before the militia could arrive the Indians had made good their escape. By action of the legislature of Indiana a fine monument has been raised to commemorate the Pigeon Roost Massacre. 26. Fort Wayne besieged (1812). In the same month the Potawatomis, led by their chief, Winamac, planned to take the fort by a trick. Winamac came to the fort for a powwow, and thought to have a large number of Indians admitted. Only thirteen were permitted to come in; the others waited. The Indians had agreed upon a signal — "I am a man." Winamac made the officers a long speech, and finally pronounced the words, "I am a man," but in the fort a great backwoodsman and Indian hunter immediately sprang to his feet, and striking his THE WAR OF 1812 15 hand upon his belt cried, "I am a man, too!" This threw Winamac off his guard, and the Indians were turned out of the fort. They immediately attacked, but it was too late for a surprise. They kept it up day and night. They pretended to have cannon to storm the fort, but they were only hollow logs which were fired at the fort for "effect." Finally General Harrison arrived with reenforcements, and the Indians fled. Around the fort had clustered quite a little settlement of French and American families. They were saved by being taken into the fort, but lost their homes and other property. 27. The last of the Indian attacks. A number of expeditions against the Indians on the upper Wabash and the Mississinewa took place. Generally the whites were victorious. General Harrison struck a deathblow at the Indians when his men killed Tecumseh and defeated the British in the battle of the Thames (18 13). This put an end to Indian attacks in large bodies. 28. The Indiana blockhouse. Besides the forts built by the national government, many blockhouses could be found in Indiana a little more than a hundred years ago. These houses were built to protect the settlers against Indian attacks. They were made of hewn logs, generally of white oak, for which Indiana became famous. The house was usually two stories in height, and in the upper story were portholes for rifles. The trees were cut down for some distance around the fort so that no shelter would be afforded Indians in trying to surprise the settlers. When an Indian alarm was sounded the people hurried with their families to the nearest blockhouse for protec- tion. The writer when a boy saw one of these block- houses, then falling into ruins. It was located in Scott County, near the town of Nabb, on the farm of "Uncle l6 HISTORY OF INDIANA Ike" Kimberlin. Around it clustered many interesting stories of hairbreadth escapes which, through imagination, lost nothing in the telling. There was a blockhouse for almost every settlement in Indiana before the war closed. In Washington County alone fifteen forts of this sort were built. COMING TO BE A STATE 29. What the people were doing one hundred years ago; the grist and saw mill. As we have seen, the people had to keep their guns ready for Indian attacks. But aside from fighting the Indians the people were trying hard to make a living in this new region soon to become a state. We have already seen the people pouring into this region from various states, and we know that in 18 10 the United States Census showed there were almost twenty-five thousand persons in the territory. In this early day Indiana had thirty-three grist mills for grinding corn and other grains. These were of two kinds: the first kind, probably, was merely two large stones, called "burrs," set one above the other. The boys had to wait their turn to have their grain ground. The power to grind was furnished by the horse of the boy whose turn had come. The second kind was the water mill, and was located on a creek. A dam in the creek furnished water to turn the mill. While the boys waited their turns here they usually took advantage of the dam to go swimming and fishing in the pool above. Fourteen saw mills, each with a vertical saw slowly moving up and down and forward, were driven by water power. These mills were cutting lumber for Indiana homes and for furniture to adorn them. The grist mill and the saw mill were the same water wheel. COMING TO BE A STATE 17 30. Tanners and shoemakers. The census showed that Indiana Territory had eighteen tan yards, or tan- neries as they may have been called. The tan yard was made up of a number of "vats" — oblong places dug in the ground — in which the hides for tanning were placed with tanbark. The tan yard furnished leather for shoes and deerskin for breeches and other parts of clothing. Buckskin breeches, when fringed with fur, made a very striking appearance. But they had one drawback : when wet they would shrink. The primitive shoemaker, or cobbler as he was some- times called, was a man who did other things in the day- time but at night sat at his cobbler's bench and cut out shoes or pegged away at putting on soles by the light of his candle. Sometimes the people wore moccasins, but as the population grew the shoemaker's product became more and more popular. 31. The spinning wheel and the loom. Thirteen hundred and fifty spinning wheels were humming away in Indiana in 18 10. The spinning wheel was of two sorts. The first was a large wheel that called for a woman walking back and forth, who furnished the motive power by twirling the wheel with her right hand. This sort of machine was devoted to spinning yarn. A second kind was a smaller wheel, before which the woman sat and furnished the power with her foot. This sort of wheel spun tow and flax thread. The loom was a larger and noisier machine. There were one thousand three hundred and fifty-six looms whacking away in 18 10, making into cloth the flax and yarn thread already spun. Sometimes the loom turned out very coarse cloth like linsey-woolsey, and at other times a rather fine grade of cloth such as "blue jean." l8 HISTORY OF INDIANA Both the wheel and the loom were often owned by the same family. Counting a family as composed of five persons, you can see that more than every fifth family owned a wheel and loom. This means that most of the people of early Indiana wore "home-made" clothes. 32. The home-made clothes. The mothers and daughters were the tailors of that early day. They not only made the thread and cloth, but cut the cloth and made the clothes of the family. They not only made the nice mixed blue-jean suits which the men wore to church and on other occasions, but they cut and made the roughest clothes for work in the woods or in the fields. They made the clothes, both fine and coarse, of the women too. They were spinners, weavers, and tailors, besides giving aid on the farm and in the garden. 33. The sugar camp. In 18 10 the census gave Indiana the credit of making, in a few weeks of the spring, fifty thousand pounds of maple sugar, more than two pounds for each man, woman, and child. The busi- ness of making sirup and sugar came so quickly and was over so soon that every member of the family had to join in the work. What scenes of labor in the daytime, and what fun and froHc at night! Boys and girls — old and young — carried pails of sap to the "camp" to be emptied into large kettles and boiled down to the candied stage. Here is where the fun came in. Now the candied sirup could be cooled and "pulled." Sometimes the banjo and the "fiddle" furnished music for the occasion. 34. Other things the settlers did. Many other things were enumerated in that census (1810) which we must leave out. The people were mostly farmers and hunters, though every year the hunters grew fewer and the farmers increased in number. They were not in the prairie part COMING TO BE A STATE 19 of the state, so they had slow work cutting away the forest and burning up the logs, for they could not wait for the saw mills of that time to turn all those splendid trees into lumber. 35. A new governor and a new capital. While the people were busy making a living they were also busy about other things. One of the things that most stirred up the people was politics, and from that day to this the Indiana people have loved politics! They thought a great deal of General Harrison, who had been their governor and was now general over the soldiers in the West. President Madison named Thomas Posey to take his place as governor. Like Harrison, he had been born in Virginia, and like him, too, he had served under General Wayne against the Indians. Indiana honors his memory by naming one of its richest counties for him. A question was now forcing itself upon the people. Where should the new capital be? Vincennes was not near the center of population, but some of the other towns were as far away as Vincennes. There was great rivalry and no little excitement shown between the towns of Madison, Lawrenceburg, Vevay, Charles- town, Clarksville, Jeffersonville, and Cory don. Madison won the vote of the lower House, but the council would not stand for it. The two Houses held a conference, and agreed upon Corydon, Harrison County. The people of Corydon had been getting ready for some such event, because in 181 1 they began putting up a two-story building forty-two feet .jMJ THE FIRST 20 HISTORY OP INDIANA square and built from near-by limestone. In this house the legislature met until 1825. This building still stands, and is cherished by the ,^it^^ ^if^^ people of the state as an ^ ^/-^.i. " historical landmark. " v_''^ ,w ^ -^"^ Likewise do the people, ^^ Aa ' " ''^?f^-i ^ "^ \ , ^^ particular the people X' ' y*'^' C''''-^'''.s.- "*'"}^ of Corydon, cherish their famous old ' ' constitu- rkf^- tional elm," not far re- moved from the old capi- CONSTITUTIONAL ELM IT- 1 tol. It is a stately tree, now over fifty feet high, and spreads its generous branches over one hundred and twenty feet from tip to tip. It stands on the banks of Big Indian Creek, vigorous and strong as in those old days when it gave kindly shade to Indiana's first constitutional convention. INDIANA AS A STATE 36. The new state (1816). The people of Indiana wanted to become a state, and said so in a petition to Congress in 181 5. They had more than the required population — sixty thousand people. The petition, ask- ing Congress to make them a state, declared against slav- ery. Congress decided in favor of the petition, and Indiana came in as the nineteenth state of the Union. According to the census ordered by the legislature in 181 5, the state contained but thirteen counties. These counties were situated in the lower third of the state. Knox, with Vincennes, had over 8,000 people, while Washington, Franklin, and Clark came next with over 7,000 each, and Harrison and Wayne counties had over 6,000 each. Two- thirds of the land was still controlled by the Indians. INDIANA AS A STATE • 21 37. The first constitution (1816). The election of men to make a state constitution had been attended with quite a bit of excitement over the question of slavery. There were already some slaves in the territory, but the men sent to Corydon to make the constitution were opposed to slavery. In spite of the hot weather, tempered by the shades of the "constitutional elm," these men did a fine piece of work. It has been declared that it was half a century in advance of the times. In matters of education this constitution stood well to the front, for it called for a graded system of schools running from the district school to the university. It provided asylums for the unfortunate, and declared that the object of punish- ment should be to improve or reform the criminal. These were steps in the right direction. But the odd part of it all was that the constitution was never sent to the people for their approval. This constitution continued in effect until 1850. 38. The first governor of the state (1816). It was a new experience for the people to elect a governor. The man chosen was Jonathan Jennings. He had been a Congressman and had proved himself an acceptable president of the constitutional convention. He had many strong opponents, but was supported by the people, and elected. When at the height of his power, he wielded more influence than any other man in the state. Jennings County bears his name, and at Charlestown, where he lies buried, the people have built a monument in memory of his services to Indiana. 39. The first state legislature. The first legislature had a great deal to do. In the first place, according to the constitution, it had to elect the other state officers. Since the state was new, two United States Senators 20 22 HISTORY OF INDIANA had to be elected also. In addition, this legislature had to make laws to carry out the different parts of the constitution. They had to lay out new counties, because the state was filling up fast with new settlers. New laws had to be made for raising taxes. For one hundred acres of very good land the owner had to pay a tax of one dollar; thirty-seven cents for a horse or mule; and for ferries across streams, from five to fifty dollars. For a pleasure carriage having two wheels the owner had to pay one dollar, and if it had four wheels, one dollar and twenty- five cents. A silver watch was taxed twenty-five cents, a gold watch fifty cents, and every billiard table fifty dollars ! The billiard tables were chiefly owned by the French settlers. As the state grew in population the number of articles that were taxed increased, and on many articles the tax was raised. 40. The Indiana Centennial. Indiana completed one hundred years of statehood in 1916. This was an event that was celebrated in all parts of the state. Many counties held interesting exercises, and some cities pre- sented beautiful pageants. At Fort Wayne a pageant called "The Glorious Gateway of the West" with 1000 performers was given. Famous old Cory don spent two days in acting over again the scenes connected with the beginnings of the state. The most impressive pageant of the year was given at Indianapolis. It occupied each afternoon for a whole week. More than 3000 performers took part, and people from all over the state came to see it. By song, story, and acting this wonderful pageant told the • history of Indiana from La Salle's time to 19 1 6. Every child of Indiana felt his heart throb with pride as he saw the history of his state unfold before him. THE RUSH OF SETTLERS 23 THE RUSH OF SETTLERS AFTER THE WAR OF 1812 41. A new capital. When Congress declared that Indiana should be admitted to the Union, the state was given four sections of land on which to locate a capital. But the Indians occupied the entire central part of the state. The Indians, however, were made satisfied by a treaty, and in 1820 Governor Jennings told the legis- lature that it was time to act. Ten men were elected to choose the place. On June 7th, after looking over the ground for two weeks, they selected the present site of Indianapolis. It was then an almost unbroken forest. The next year (182 1) the town was marked off, con- taining a circle from which ran wide streets in every direction. Settlers were crowding up the Wabash and its tributaries in great numbers, so it was easy to sell the first lots not only in the new capital but in other towns. Thirty-five thousand dollars' worth of lots were sold, and in Terre Haute, in one day, twenty-one thousand dollars' worth were sold. Until 1824 the settlers on the upper Wabash had to depend on Terre Haute for a grist mill to grind their grain, people came in so fast. 42. From 1816 to 1825. The tide of settlers was flowing in from the eastward and upward from the Southern states in great numbers. Some came in ox wagons, some on pack horses, and a few in large covered wagons drawn by horses. From Madison, New Albany, Leavenworth, Troy, Rockport, and Evansville crowds of people made their way farther and farther into the state. They all rejoiced in the great quantities of nuts furnished for their hogs by the oak and beech trees, while their cattle and sheep fed most of the winter on the wild pea vines that grew in plenty. 24 HISTORY OF INDIANA By 1820 these settlers had pushed up to Greencastle, and in four years more they had laid out Crawfordsville. Richmond sold its first lot in -1816, and within six years it had more than four hundred people. It was enterprising in this early time, for it had not only factories and stores, but two newspapers. One of them declared (1825) that such crowds of settlers passing along the National Road (p. 207) had never been seen before. In the years of 182 1 and 1822 over six hundred thousand acres of Indiana land were bought from the national government. The people came in such numbers that between 1816 and 1820 the population more than doubled. By 1822 forty-six counties had reached their present boundaries, while to the northward Wabash, Delaware, and Randolph counties included vast stretches of country out of which new counties were to be carved. THE RISE OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS 43. The first roads. The earliest roads in Indiana were Indian trails. These were paths made by the red man in going from one place to another, and were at first used by the white men. The Indian never improved his roads. When the fur trade was the only industry, these trails and the waterways were the only means of getting from place to place. When white settlers began to pour into the territory, dirt roads began to furnish the routes of travel. At first these roads were marked through the woods by blazing the sides of the trees. They were then traveled mainly by the settlers on horseback, driving their herds. A little later came settlers driving ox wagons with wheels made out of the ends of great logs, or two-horse covered wagons with wheels made in the ordinary way. In these THE RISE OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS 25 wagons were placed the family furniture, and in them the "women folks" usually slept. It soon became necessary to improve the roads. This was done by cutting young trees and laying them side by side in places where the mud was deep. This sort of roadway was known as a corduroy road and was certainly rough, and made travehng in wagons rather jolty. When the stagecoach began to carry passengers along these routes, the corduroy roads became a necessity. Along the more traveled routes, plank roads were built. These consisted of rather narrow planks laid side by side., But such roads did not last long, and the people who built them made little or no money. These plank roads were "toll roads." 44. Where the leading routes began. Early settlers in Indiana came either from the East or from the South. The South in that early day furnished by far the greater number, and even of those who came from the East many came by way of the Ohio. The roads leading into the state began at Cincinnati, Madison, Jefferson- ville. New Albany, Boone's Ferry in Harrison County, Frederica, or Yellow Banks. 45. Where the routes led. From Cincinnati the settlers went up the Whitewater into the eastern counties, while those coming to Madison turned westward, by the stagecoach route, as far as the east fork of White River, or turned a bit southwest to Hanover and Lexington and then went southward to Charlestown or still on to Salem, where they met the road coming northward from the Ohio. From New Albany and Jeffersonville a road ran northward to Charlestown or turned northwest to Salem, 26 HISTORY OF INDIANA branching here to different towns, the main Hne going to Bloomington and Bedford. The Wabash furnished the main route for settlers going to occupy the western counties. The "Buffalo" or "Vincennes Trace" was another famous route. It was the path traveled for unknown centuries by great herds of buffalo, going from Illinois prairies to the Kentucky salt licks. The Trace crossed the Wabash near Vincennes and moved toward the Falls of the Ohio, passing near the present sites of Petersburg, French Lick, and Paoli. It was much used by settlers seeking homes in the Wabash country. 46. Blazing a road through the woods (1818). A man named Whetzel, living near Brookville, obtained per- mission of the Indians to cut a road to the Bluffs of White River. He took five men and food for nine days and went to the Bluffs direct, blazing the trees along the way by chipping them with the ax. Reaching White River in Johnson County, he turned east and began the slow and difficult work of making a road through the dense woods, cutting down the trees and underbrush so that a team and wagon could pass. This road was long known as "Whetzel Trace." The road makers some- times had to cut their way through great swamps up to their "midsides in water." For the night they cut brush and made heaps on which they slept. Hundreds of early settlers traveled along this "Trace," seeking homes in Marion, Johnson, Morgan, and Shelby counties. 47. The National Road. This great road began at Cumberland, Maryland, and finally reached the Missis- sippi at St. Louis (§332). It ran through the center of the state, passing through the counties of Wayne, Henry, Hancock, Marion, Hendricks, Putnam, Clay, and Vigo. THE RISE OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS 27 To these counties, and to many other parts of the state, this road brought thousands of people. 48. The Michigan Road. Indiana resolved to have a road of her own. In 1827 commissioners made a treaty with the Potawatomi Indians by which they received a gift of land. This land was equal to a strip a mile wide running from the Ohio River to Lake Michigan. The choice of Trail Creek to be the northern end of the road decided the location of Michigan City. This road was the making of many towns along its route. Some towns were already growing, and some were to be built. The Michigan Road ran northward from Madison through Jefferson and Ripley counties to Greenburg in Decatur County. Through Shelby it passed on to Marion County, where it crossed the National Road at Indianapolis. From here it ran almost due north through the counties of Boone and Hamilton, through Clinton and the eastern side of Carroll to Logansport. The road continued on up through Fulton, Marshall, and St. Joseph counties to South Bend, where it turned directly west, through La Porte County, to the lake. Thousands of pioneers reached the rich farming lands of the state over this road, and coming where the National Road crossed this road at Indianapolis they could turn in any of three directions to find homes. 49. Stagecoach lines. Along the old "Trace" from Louisville to Vincennes the first stage route was estab- Hshed in 1820. A portion of this route from Paoli to New Albany is still traveled by a stage, the oldest in Indiana. Before the Michigan Road was built another stage (1828) started from Madison to Indianapolis, passing through Vernon, Columbus, and Franklin. It took from 28 HISTORY OF INDIANA Thursday to Saturday to make the trip, and cost six and one-quarter cents a mile — dearer and slower than the "Jeffersonville, Madison, Indianapolis"! Two years later another stage was put on the road from Lawrenceburg to Indianapolis, making the time in two days and one night. Brookville was connected by stage (1831) with both Indianapolis and Cincinnati. Many of these routes were soon sending off branches in different directions. From Leavenworth on the Ohio (1835) a stage started for Indianapolis, running through Milltown, Paoli, Orleans, Bedford, Bloomington, and Martinsville. This road was said to carry two classes of interesting passengers : students going to Bloomington and boatmen returning from down-river trips. The old route from Louisville to Vincennes was now extended through Lafayette to Logansport, and at Logansport connected with a stage on the Michigan Road. Another branch ran from Logansport to Peru and Fort Wayne and on to Ohio towns. The lines carrying the United States mail had beautiful four-horse coaches, some of which cost six hundred dollars. 50. The passengers and the people. Nothing in that early time could be more interesting than the stage- coach. To see one come in sight on a long stretch of road, four horses driven at breakneck speed, driver on the outside blowing his horn, was indeed a great sight. But the coach was filled with people who were not enjoying the ride so much as did their observers. For the roads were not always smooth; neither were they always dry, and frequently the coach mired down and the passengers had to get out and help pull it out of the mud. Sometimes creeks were swollen and the river fords could not be passed. THE RISE OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS 29 51. The flatboat. The earliest craft to float on Indiana waters was the Indian canoe, but it could not carry a big load. Flatboats succeeded these as soon as the white man came, and by 1820 they had grown numerous on the rivers leading into the Ohio. From this time forward, to 1840, the great majority of products for sale in the state was carried to market on flatboats. The streams running into the Wabash, and the larger ones passing into the Ohio, were the main routes for these boats. The farther up the boat went, the smaller she had to be. She floated downstream, but had to be "poled" upstream. A boat for poling was about forty feet long. Six or eight men walking along its sides, with one end of the pole in the water and the other placed against their shoulders, were able to "pole" four tons upstream a distance of ten miles in a day. Along the Ohio and the Wabash were many, landing places where large flatboats were laden for the markets below, usually New Orleans. The days set apart for the loading were days of frolic, the women coming to cook for the men. Some men brought live hogs, fat cattle, chickens, geese, corn, lard, salt pork, beeswax, deer, hams, and wild turkeys. At Lawrenceburg twenty-seven flatboats were loaded and floated downstream in one year. In 1826 one hundred and fifty-two flatboats passed Vincennes for New Orleans. But for real business, Madison, the center of the pork-packing industry of the state, led all the other towns in business with New Orleans. It was estimated that one-half the boatmen in New Orleans were Hoosiers. Before 1830 most of these made their way back on foot. 52. The steamboat. In that early day, rapid travel by country road and river steamer was far more important 30 HISTORY OF INDIANA than now. The Ohio furnished plenty of water for steamboating. The Wabash promised well; it certainly had enough water in its lower course, and in the rainy season it was expected its branches would lend them- selves to steamboating. But it was found that very few steamboats ever got above Lafayette. As early as 1821 a steamboat made regular trips to Terre Haute. In 183 1 one made its way on the White River as far as Indian- apoHs. The people of the capital celebrated this event. A like excitement was caused by a steamboat from Lake Michigan running up to South Bend and Elkhart. 53. The Wabash and Erie CanaL Washington, when president, called attention to the near approach of the Maumee and the Wabash rivers and pointed out that a short canal between these streams would give a water- way from the East to the Ohio Valley. De Witt Clinton, the father of the Erie Canal, had written to Governor Jennings (18 17), pointing out that a great canal between the Hudson and the Mississippi rivers would be greatly helped by Indiana joining in the movement. As the western and northeastern sections of the state filled up, the demand for a canal grew louder and louder. The legislature took up the question, and after many failures decided (1832) to begin the work at once. Money for the canal came from the sale of public lands. From Fort Wayne to Lafayette the canal was finally finished. Ohio had done her part, and a joint celebration was addressed at Fort Wayne by General Cass (1843). 54. The Internal Improvement BilL But the most thickly settled portion of the state at that time had no canal. Therefore the people of the Whitewater Valley were demanding an outlet to Ohio. But a demand was now rising from all parts of the state for some great THE RISE OF INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS 31 undertaking to benefit the people. This was provided for by the great Bill of 1836. It provided for the follow- ing things: (i) the Whitewater Canal; (2) the Central Canal to run from Peru through Indianapolis to Evans- ville; (3) extension of Wabash and Erie Canal to Terre Haute and then to Central Canal in Green County; (4) a railroad from Madison to Lafayette, Columbus, and Indianapolis; (5) a turnpike from New Albany to Vin- cennes, passing through Paoli ; (6) a railroad or a turnpike from Jeffersonville to Lafayette, passing through the towns of Salem, Bedford, Bloomington, Greencastle, and Crawf ordsville ; (7) removing drifts, sandbars, and snags from the Wabash River; (8) either a railroad or a canal from Fort Wayne to Michigan City. This bill left no large and thickly settled region with- out help, and the news of its passage was wildly received. Bonfires, addresses, and other celebrations were held in nearly every part of the state. Indiana began to boom, but the panic of 1837 caught the people unawares. The total cost of all their schemes was set down at thirteen million dollars. Work on these different improvements had to be stopped, and men who had put their money into these schemes failed. The state finally sold to private parties some of the works which had been undertaken, some were never begun, and a few were continued. In i860 that part of the Wabash and Erie Canal south of Terre Haute was abandoned. Long before this date, railroads were gradu- ally taking the place of canals. But for many years the debt for internal improvements in Indiana weighed upon the taxpayers, and the state felt compelled in the end to make terms with people she owed. This situation taught the people of the state a good but dear lesson. 32 HISTORY OF INDIANA 55. State parks. Indiana has three state parks. One of these is AlcCormick's Creek Canyon Park. It is in Owen County and contains 347 acres. Another is Turkey Run Park in Parke County, nine miles north of Rockville. It contains 1400 acres. A third is Chfty Falls Park near Madison. It was donated by citizens of Madison and contains about 600 acres. These state parks are forest and game preserves and abound in interesting scenery. HOME LIFE AND OCCUPATIONS 56. The first house. The "three-sided camp" came from the South. The cHmate there permitted it, but the settlers from the North built a better protection against wind and weather. Very often the cabin had neither door nor window to shut out storms, and some- times only the bare ground for a floor. The Lincoln family had both kinds — a "shack" for the first year and a real cabin after that. At one end of the cabin stood a chimney made of sticks and mud, large enough to take in the great piles of wood which fed the fires on a winter's evening. Before this sort of a fire young Lincoln did his reading and "ciphering." 57. Into the new house. As soon as a farmer grew well to do, or was bent on improving his condition, he built a larger house of hewn or sawed logs. This new residence was thirty to forty feet long and two stories high, and was put up with a great frolic to which the entire neighborhood was invited. If unusually well to do, he built a kitchen at one end or, it might be, at one side, so that a covered porch could join them. This house was covered with clapboards split from Indiana oak, or later by shingles made from the tulip or poplar tree. HOME LIFE AND OCCUPATIONS 33 The furniture was slowly growing better. From 1820 to i860 the bedsteads had their ticks of feathers, covered with sheets, blankets, and coverlets which took the place of frames of poles fastened to the wall and covered with the skins of animals. For people of means, tables and chairs began to come from the "stores" or shops, but the poor had yet to put up with home-made stools, chairs, and tables. The furnishings for the table also began to improVe. Iron knives and forks and wooden or pewter dishes began to give place to steel knives and forks, with plates and other dishes made from artificial stoneware. 58. The kitchen. The number of cooking stoves began to increase. In early times the housewife had cooked the meal before the fireplace, using a skillet, with coals both under and on top, for baking bread; but for making the toothsome johnnycake she used a board which was set before a fire of red-hot coals. An iron pot con- tained the meat and vegetables for boiling. Sometimes the meat was broiled over red-hot coals, but was often fried in a skillet. Wood was used on the fire everywhere. The early pioneers had all sorts of game — squirrels, turkeys, deer, opossums, quail, rabbits, and now and then a bear. But the deer, turkeys, and bears were soon gone, and domestic animals took their places. 59. What the people wore. At first the men wore skins and furs for clothing. The deerskin, with its hair removed, furnished hunting shirts and breeches, and moccasins for footwear. When wet, these skins "drew up," and made one feel decidedly uncomfortable. Bearskins were made into overcoats. But the pioneers were not long in getting rid of these rude though durable clothes. The spinning wheel and 34 HISTORY OF INDIANA loom brought other kinds — linsey-woolsey, jeans, and tow pants and flax shirts. As soon as tanneries were started in different parts of the state, rude sorts of boots and shoes were made by the pioneer shoemaker. He often worked at his bench at night by the Hght of candles and in the daytime was busy about other matters. Some- times he was a "strolling" shoemaker, and stopped for a time wherever he found shoes to mend or to make. When imported goods began to reach Indiana, a change in clothing came. The well-to-do people put on broadcloth and brocades. Dress skirts were sometimes seen spread out by the use of hoops. The old sunbonnet gave way to the hat with flowers on it, and a finer quality of shoes was worn. 60. The Indiana farmer. The great majority of people coming to Indiana in an early day were farmers. It is only in the time since the Civil War that many people have become interested in other things. These early settlers either cut a "clearing" or later deadened the trees and permitted them to stand for a year or more. In either case the "log rolling" took place. Men came from rniles and miles around to take part. They were divided into two squads, of eight or ten men each. With axes they cut the logs and with hand spikes piled them in great heaps. Sometimes the men raced to see which squad could pile the most logs. The women were busy too, some cooking, others quilting or sewing, and at night they finished up with a dance. The finest trees of poplar, oak, walnut, or ash were left for rails or lumber. The first crop on the new ground was generally corn. The rich soil brought forth big crops, but it was hard to get it ready, for tools were of the rudest sort and roots and stumps were thick. HOME LIFE AND OCCUPATIONS 35 Among the corn, in this rich soil, the farmer usually raised a fine crop of pumpkins. After the crop of corn had ripened, just before frost, the farmer and his sons cut it and shocked it. Perhaps later in the season he drove a wagon through, pulled the ears of corn from the stalk, and hauled the load to the crib. • When the winter months approached, the country school was opened and the farmers' sons and daughters all "signed up" for the term. Later they took advantage of the free public schools. It was difficult at first to teach boys and girls the value of being on time and being present each day of school. There were so many things to do at home — cut wood, go to the mill, haul in the corn, and so on — that farmers' boys found it difficult to attend school regularly. 6i. Other occupations. Every county had to have a county seat, or capital, even if there were no other towns. Originally the business part of the town was built around the "square," on which were the courthouse and the county jail. These towns called for one tavern or hotel for lodging the judges, lawyers, and men attend- ing the courts. In every town there were great demands for horses, hence it contained one or more livery stables, with horses and carriages and keepers. The man of wealth was usually the storekeeper. He kept a general store. In the early days his store contained everything from calico to hob nails. The census taken in 1840 showed how much progress Indiana had made in many things. The manufactures then amounted to over $4,000,000 a year. Eleven business houses were engaged in the foreign trade ; there were twenty-six wholesale houses and nearly two thousand retail stores. The fur trade still amounted to over 36 HISTORY OF INDIANA $200,000 a year. The meat-packing industry now ran up to $580,000. New Albany led the state in making machinery, and Indianapolis in making wagons. In the state were three paper mills, located at Brookville, Madison, and Richmond. Michigan City, the only lake port, sent out over 270,000 bushels of grain, and great quantities of flour and pork — all bound for the East by way of the Erie Canal. The occupations of commerce and manufacture employed 23,600 men, while the farm led with over 148,800 persons. THE SCHOOLS OF INDIANA 62. Beginning of Indiana schools. We remember what the Ordinance of 1787 and the first constitution said about education (pp. 5 and 20). But the people were too scattered at that time, or too poor, to press for schools. In many parts of the state "subscription schools" were the only sort. These were taught by men in the neighbor- hood who had a reputation for using the rod as well as for "book learning." Some of these teachers were not long from Scotland or Ireland, and their "brogue" furnished suppressed amusement for the boys and girls. To one of these subscription schools young Lincoln went when living in Spencer County. Not textbooks, but the Bible was used in teaching reading. Books of all sorts were scarce in the Indiana backwoods, and therefore spelling, writing, reading, and arithmetic were the subjects usually taught. Sometimes grammar and geography were added. In many of the schools of this time there existed the strange custom of studying one's lesson "out loud." What a noise! But the real test of scholarship for that day was the ability to spell orally. Hence the frequent "spelHngs" THE SCHOOLS OF INDIANA 37 that took place in each school. On each Friday afternoon the school was divided into opposing sides and fought it out. Opposing schools held joint spelling bees, and great was the honor going to the winning school. 63. Growth of the common school moneys. Not much was done before 1852 in the way of developing a "system of schools." Perhaps the most important thing accomplished before this date was the creation of sources from which came school money. Eight different sources furnished this money: (i) the Congressional Township Fund, (2) the Bank Tax Fund, (3) the Sinking Fund, (4) the Surplus Revenue Fund, (5) the SaHne Fund, (6) the Swamp Land Fund, (7) the Seminary Fund, (8) the Contingent Fund. The money for these funds was obtained in various ways, among which were the sale of land given by the general government, the interest from Indiana's part in the State Bank, national money loaned to the state, the sale of salt springs given to the state by Congress, and the sale of county seminaries. 64. Coimty seminaries. The pioneers in education laid the foundations broad and deep. They provided for a common school to take care of the children, for county seminaries to take care of ambitious boys and girls, and for a university to invite to its halls those whose ambitions urged them beyond the seminary. The law founding the county seminary was passed in 18 18, but only here and there did the seminaries succeed, largely because of lack of funds. Up to 1830 eighteen had been established. Perhaps the most impor- tant of these was that at Salem, in Washington County. This attained widest popularity under the direction of John I. Morrison, for more than twenty years its head. 38 HISTORY OF INDIANA The law of 1842 turned into the permanent fund the money obtained from the sale of county seminaries. 65. The struggle for the state university. In the days while Harrison was yet governor of Indiana Ter- ritory, a law was passed (1807) establishing Vincennes University to teach Latin, Greek, French, English, mathematics, natural philosophy, ancient and modern history, moral philosophy, logic, rhetoric, and the laws of nature and nations. Congress had previously (1804) granted the territory a township of land for the use of a university. This was located in Gibson County. For want of money, the university closed its doors in 1824. In 1 81 6 Congress gave Indiana another township of land to support a seminary. Out of this gift grew a seminary at Bloomington. It opened with a new building in 1825. In 1828 the legislature raised the rank of the institution to that of a college; in 1838 it received its first charter as a university. But not until long after the Civil War did the legislature begin to feel that the university was an institution to be treated generously. In 1919 this institution counted over 3200 students. It now has, in addition to the college of Liberal Arts, the schools of Law, Medicine, Education, JournaHsm, and Commerce. 66. Rise of denominational schools. From 1825 to 1850 was the time of the rise of church schools in Indiana. The CathoHcs began early at Vincennes and later, in 1842, founded Notre Dame. The Presbyterians came next with an academy at Hanover (1827). This school was turned into a college in 1833. The same denomination founded Wabash College (1833) under the leadership of Caleb Mills, a great name in Indiana's early educational history. The Baptists were early in the field, and founded FrankHn College in 1835. THE SCHOOLS OF INDIANA 39 The Methodists were pressing hard, and established several promising schools: Indiana Asbury University (1837), now De Pauw University; New Albany Seminary (1837); Fort Wayne College; Brookville College, and Moores Hill College. There was an interval of time between the founding of Franklin College and the found- ing of the Friends' Boarding School at Richmond (1847), out of which came Earlham College. In 1852 Butler College had its beginning at the hands of the Christian church. The church schools were in many ways a great blessing to the communities in which they were, and gave a good preparation for the battle of life to the hundreds of young men who, without this help, would never have obtained it. It was a recognition of their worth that caused the legislature in late years to put certain presidents of these schools on the State Board of Education. 67. The rise of the common school. The real begin- ning of our modern common school in Indiana takes its rise from the constitution of 1850, and the legislation following it. In 1865 teachers' institutes were established and continued in one kind or another to the present time. Later came a law providing for County Examiner, which was changed, with greater powers to the holder, to County Superintendent. The County Board of Educa- tion was added, which is composed of the County Superin- tendent, the township trustees, and the school trustees of the cities or towns in the county. The County Superintendent now examines the teachers for county licenses. 68. Consolidated rural schools. In 1876 the judges at the Centennial Exposition ranked Indiana as second in her system of schools. Indiana is known far and wide 40 HISTORY OF INDIANA for her fine system of consolidated rural schools. The movement to get rid of the one-room school began about 1898. In 1899 a law was passed providing for the trans- portation of children to central schools. This movement has grown so fast that in some counties there are few one- room schools, and in the state only about 5000 one-room schools are left. Usually, there is one consoHdated school for each township. When the Panama-Pacific Exposition was held at San Francisco (191 5), Indiana was chosen as the state that had made most progress in school consoli- dation. It was asked to prepare an exhibit to show the world how consolidated schools are run in Indiana. The State Board of Education has general control of the public schools. It issues state licenses to teachers, adopts textbooks, and classifies the high schools. Acting as a State Teachers' Training Board, it supervises all normal schools and colleges where teachers are trained. The State Superintendent of Public Instruction has many important duties. 69. The state normal school. The increase in the building of new schoolhouses created a demand for more teachers. But it was soon found that many of these were poorly prepared for their work. This situation gave rise to the demand for a state normal school. After ten years of agitation it was opened in the city of Terre Haute in 1870. From the first its growth was steady though -slow. The school has had only three presidents. William Woods Parsons has been its efficient head for more than thirty years. More than two thousand teachers are now enrolled each year. This school has a hbrary the equal, if not the superior, of that of any normal school in the United States. In 191 7 a branch of the normal school was opened at Muncie. It is called the Eastern Division. INDIANA IN THE MEXICAN WAR 41 A number of other normal schools are found in the state. They are accredited for the training of different grades of teachers. 70. Purdue University. This school is located in Tippecanoe County. To cover the first cost, Congress gave Indiana land amounting, when sold, to over $212,000. John Purdue and others gave $250,000 for the institution to locate where it is. The university opened in 1874 with three schools: (i) Natural Science; (2) Engineering; and (3) Agriculture. The scope of the school has widened in recent years, and now its work is felt in every part of the state, especially among the farmers. Purdue keeps in touch with the woi4c of boys' and girls' clubs and trains teachers of agriculture, home economics, and industrial arts. In addition Purdue carries its extension work into all parts of the state. 71. The Rose Polytechnic Institute. This institution was founded by Chauncey Rose in the city of Terre Haute in 1874. Mr. Rose gave grounds, money for buildings, and money for endowment, and left a part of his property as a further endowment for the school. As the name implies, it is mainly engaged in teaching mechanical, civil, and electrical engineering. It ranks high among such schools, and has already outgrown its present location and is planning a new one. INDIANA IN THE MEXICAN WAR 72. Early politics in Indiana. The old Federalist party was dying or dead before Indiana became a state. When the new party, the Whig, was taking form, the people of Indiana were not taking a very decided part in politics, but were generally Democratic, Jackson being very popular as a western man and an Indian fighter. 42 HISTORY OF INDIANA But in the presidential campaign of 1840 Indiana rolled up over thirteen thousand majority for her old governor, Harrison, a Whig. In 1848 she stood' by her neighbor's candidate, Cass of Michigan, and gave him four thousand over the Whig, General Taylor. Between 1840 and 1850 Indiana was Democratic by growing majorities. 73. Indiana in the Mexican War. The war with Mexico stirred the fighting blood of the young men of the state. Several regiments were enrolled, of which the officers, as well as the men, were mainly volunteers. Although the Whigs were opposed to the war, many young Whigs joined for reasons of adventure and still others because of their neighbors' going, and because they thought that since we had begun the war, we must fight it out. But the Whigs were not the only ones opposed to the war. The Liberty party was out-and-out opposed, because this party believed that the war was being carried on to obtain more slave territory, and since they were abolitionists they stood stoutly against making war on Mexico. Notwithstanding this opposition, the state raised the five regiments allotted to her by the national government. James P. Drake commanded one regiment and Henry S. Lane was lieutenant-colonel. When Lane came home he was made governor, and afterward elected to Congress. Captain R. H. Milroy led one of the companies, and in the Civil War became a major-general. Lew Wallace, who was second lieutenant, also became a major-general in the Civil War; later he was minister to Turkey. Besides these great men, Joseph Lane, William Bowles, Nathan C. Kimball, L. H. Rousseau, and many others won name and fame in Mexico. INDIANA IN THE CIVIL WAR 43 INDIANA IN THE CIVIL WAR 74. The "Underground Railroad." The result of the Mexican War and the Compromise of 1850 troubled a great many minds. When Martin Van Buren became the presidential candidate of the Free Soil party, Indiana gave him eight thousand votes — four times as many as she had given the candidate of the Liberty party four years before. However, Indiana was faithfully Demo- cratic in 1852 and in 1856. The people of Indiana had not yet felt compelled to vote for or against slavery. But from the Mexican War to 1 86 1 there was a gradual increase in the number of people who were willing to aid negroes to escape from their masters. This condition of affairs was true in all states of the North. Indiana was no exception. Sometimes it was a trusted negro, sometimes a white man, who gathered up a family or a number of the bolder negroes in the night time, and led the way through the woods to the Ohio. Here a signal usually brought a boat to the Kentucky shore. The negroes were carried over, where they found other white men to pilot them to some great thicket to spend the first day while the white leaders sought food for them. The second night they traveled until they came to a cellar or barn or coal mine where they could remain for a time until the excitement over their escape died away. Then, hidden in a wagon, they made their way to the northern part of the state and to Canada. 75. Tricks played upon the negro hunters. The men who came armed with authority usually could find persons to assist them in the hunt for runaway negroes. At night they often watched the ferry or some bridge across a stream. It was great sport to gather a crowd 44 HISTORY OF INDIANA on horseback, run down the negro hunters, bind them, threaten their Hves, and then permit them to escape. One negro hunter, Hving on the road along which escaped negroes were known to travel, kept a pack of hounds for catching negroes. One day the hunter saw a negro dodging around his barn. He immediately called his pack and put them on the trail. He followed them a mile away into a deep forest, where the dogs had the negro "treed." The hunter came dashing up on his horse and commanded the negro to come down on pain of being shot. A number of his neighbors had reached the scene of action, attracted apparently by the bellowing of the hounds. The negro climbed down, and behold, he was the hunter's own neighbor, with a blackened face! The neighbors had a good laugh at the hunter's expense. 76. Lincoln's election in i86o. Lincoln had lived in Spencer County more than a dozen years, and there his mother lies buried. Over her grave a noble son of Indiana in after days erected a fine stone bearing these words: "Nancy Hanks Lincoln, Mother of President Lincoln: died October 5th, a.d., 1818, aged 35 years. Erected by a friend of her martyred son, 1879." The people of Indiana were deeply interested in Lincoln. It was the stand for Lincoln of the Indiana men at Chicago that did much to bring about his nomina- tion for the Presidency. Lincoln made it clear in the great debates with Douglas that Popular Sovereignty and the Dred Scott Decision were in conflict. This helped to split the Democratic party into a southern and a northern wing, and thus secured the election of Lincoln. The election of Congress in 1858 showed which way the tide in Indiana was running. The RepubHcans elected eight members and the Democrats but three. INDIANA IN THE CIVIL WAR 45 When the "October" states, of which Indiana was one, elected state officers in i860, the men of the South saw that Lincoln would be elected. Douglas canceled all his engagements and went South to plead with southern statesmen not to break up the Union because of Lincoln's election. Lincoln was elected, and a Confederacy was formed from the states that left the Union. 77. Morton, one of the greatest of war governors. (1861). Before a mass meeting to rejoice over Lincoln's election, Lieuten- ant-Governor Oliver P. Morton declared: "If it was worth a bloody struggle to establish this nation, it is worth one to preserve it." This was called a keynote speech. Washington's birthday was celebrated by raising the Stars and Stripes over the old statehouse. Speeches had been made, but they were pacific. The crowd called for Morton. He responded with a fiery speech : ' ' For myself, I will know no man who will stop and prescribe the conditions upon which he will maintain that flag, who will argue that a single star may be erased, or who will consent that it be torn that he may make choice between its dishonored fragments. I will know that man only who vows fidelity to the Union and the Constitution, under all circum- stances and at all hazards!" This speech raised every- body's courage and prepared them for the crisis that was to come. OLIVER P. MORTON 46 HISTORY OF INDIANA 78. The call to arms. Fort Sumter fell in mid- April, and the next morning Lincoln sent forth his "call to arms." Parallel with it went a message from Stephen A. Douglas, who had thousands of warm friends in Indiana, telling them of his resolution to stand by President Lincoln. Governor Morton sent the following dispatch : " On behalf of the State of Indiana, I tender you for the defense of the nation, and to uphold the authority of the govern- ment, ten thousand men." In a few days twenty thousand men had offered their services. From the Ohio to the lake and from the Wabash to the Whitewater the men of Indiana were rising! This was their answer to the attack on Fort Sumter. 79. Looking after the comfort of Indiana boys. Governor Morton and the noble men and women who aided him deserve lasting gratitude for the quick and efficient way in which they helped Indiana boys. No sooner was a great battle fought in which Indiana troops took part than aid was quick in reaching the wounded. Morton was there in person or sent some one to look after the needs of the troops. Clothes, food, shoes, tents, lint and bandages for wounds, and even nurses were sent. Morton was certainly one of the greatest war governors. 80. Opposition to the war. Many of the people of Indiana were born in the South, and many others had business friends and connections there. It was not unnatural that many persons, especially in southern Indiana, should oppose the war. The war lasted longer than most people thought. The cost in blood and money was growing mountain high. Some men in the nation were for peace at any price, and others wanted peace because they thought the South could not be beaten. The more extreme people were called "Copperheads" or INDIANA IN THE CIVIL WAR 47 "Butternuts" by their enemies, but by themselves "Sons of Liberty" or "Knights of the Golden Circle." These people were members of a secret society and were accused by Governor Morton of being in league with the Confederates. He had spies who searched out their innermost secrets. It was charged that they intended to rise at a given time, set the Confederate prisoners free in the northern states, and march south to join the Confederate armies. When ready, Governor Morton pounced upon the leaders, arrested some of them, and tried and condemned them to death, but they were finally set free. 8i. A taste of war. War is an awful thing! But it was a great blessing to Indiana that she did not see and feel the worst horrors of the war. She was protected by the Ohio River and by Kentucky. But now and then the Confederates made a bold dash as if about to cross the Ohio, as in the case of Bragg making for Louisville and Kirby Smith coming out of the mountains, of Kentucky and making for Cincinnati. What a fright the people of Indiana had as these two forces approached the Ohio ! Indiana, with Morton behind her, was hurrying every man who could bear arms to the help of the Union armies. More than twenty thousand were rushed to Kentucky. But by the time these forces arrived, Bragg and Kirby Smith had been driven back into Tennessee. 82. John Morgan's raid (1863). Frequent reports were sent out that Confederates were crossing the Ohio into southern Indiana. Most of these were mere plunder- ing expeditions. Many of the people had grown used to these scares, and were hardly ready when John Morgan, on July 8th, really crossed into Indiana at Brandenburg. He had two thousand four hundred men and six guns. 48 HISTORY OF INDIANA His troops were well mounted and used to the hard work before them. They met with slight resistance. He started for Cory don. Governor Morton called for volunteers, and ordered the southern counties to head Morgan oR and to annoy him in every way possible. Within forty-eight hours after the first call, sixty- five thousand men were enlisted, but the authorities hardly knew whether Morgan would try to free the Con- federate prisoners at Indianapolis or march upon New Albany and Jeffersonville, where four milhon dollars' worth of military stores were located. Colonel Lewis Jordan with four hundred men attacked Morgan, but failed to stop him. Morgan -hastened to Corydon, destroyed some property, collected twenty-one hundred dollars, and took five hundred horses. He plundered Paoli and Salem, moving rapidly because his direction became known. He threw out forces toward Indianapolis to give the impression that he was going in that direction, while in fact he was striking eastward through Lexington, gathering horses and plunder as he went. He frightened the people of Madison, but kept to the northward and passed through Dupont. Here he robbed a "pork house" of two thousand hams, burned bridges, and made a sudden turn toward Versailles, where he captured three hundred mihtia and robbed the county treasury of five thousand dollars. The militia behind could hardly keep up, because Morgan left only tired and worn-out horses for them. When he reached Sunman's Station he met a large body of troops. He avoided attacking them, and made a dash for the Ohio line. Indiana and Ohio were now thoroughly roused. The Ohio troops soon closed in upon him, killing and capturing nearly all his men. This invasion gave Indiana a genuine taste of war. INDIANA IN THE CIVIL WAR 49 Indiana very generously paid the people for losses at the hands of the raiders to the amount of over four hun- dred thousand dollars. 83. The war comes to an end. The war went on until the spring of 1865. Battle after battle was fought in which Indiana boys bore a brave part and their officers distinguished themselves. According to her population, Indiana gave more men to be soldiers than any other northern state except Delaware — 197,779. Of this number 24,426 were killed in battle or died of disease. More than one hundred and fifty infantry regiments were enlisted, fourteen cavalry, and twenty-seven artillery regiments. They fought in every Confederate state except Florida. ' ' Three Indiana regiments took part in the first battle of the war, and an Indianian was the first to yield up his life on the battle- field The last battle of the war was fought by Indiana troops; the last gun fired at the enemy was by an Indianian, and the last Union soldier killed in battle was John J. Williams, of Company B, 34th Indiana Regiment." 84. How the state has cared for the soldiers. Tak- ing care of the soldiers was a great duty of the state and the nation. Not only did the nation do this by pensions, but for the less fortunate ones a Soldiers' Home was estabHshed at Marion. Here the natural scenery is beautiful, and the grounds, with the great buildings, are kept in fine shape. But not all the old soldiers could be cared for at this home, so the question of having a State Home was agitated. The Grand Army of the Republic raised over five thousand dollars and obtained two hundred and fifty acres of land near Lafayette. This land and money were turned over to Indiana, and 50 HISTORY OF INDIANA the legislature gave seventy-five thousand dollars for the buildings for the Home. Later a home for the orphans of sailors and soldiers was established at Kingstown. THE SOLDIERS AND SAILORS MONUMENT, INDIANAPOLIS 85. The soldiers' and sailors' monument. This monu- ment is located in the Governor's Circle in Indianapolis. A work of art, beautiful and symmetrical, it stands 284^^ feet high, the figures representing Indiana in the Mexican and Civil wars. It cost the state over five hun- dred thousand dollars, and covers three acres. The top is reached by an elevator and stairway. The view from the top is magnificent. The monument is made of Indiana oolitic limestone. Indiana keeps green the memory of the boys who fell in the Civil War. At almost every county seat a soldiers' monument rears its head in honor of the men who fell for the Union. INDIANA IN THE WORLD WAR 51 INDIANA IN THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR 86. Indiana in the Spanish-American War (1898). In 1898 came the Spanish-American War. The cause was Spain's treatment of the Cubans, but the immediate cause was the blowing up of our warship, the "Maine," in Havana Harbor. The call for troops was met promptly. Indiana's share was put at four regiments of infantry and tvv^o of artillery for the first call, and later the Presi- dent called for a second lot of men. This call placed Indiana's share at one regiment of infantry, two companies of colored troops, one company of engineers, and one for signal service. Indiana led all the states in getting her men ready to move. However, none of her regiments was sent to Cuba, but to other places. After the war came to an end a number of Indiana men joined the regular army to fight in the Philippines, and one full company went to those far-away islands. INDIANA IN THE WORLD WAR 87. The United States enters the war. In the summer of 1 914 the World War began in Europe. The United States tried to remain neutral. But Germany killed so many Americans on the sea and did so many other things harmful to America that we declared a state of war existed between that country and the United States, April 6, 1917. 88. Indiana does her part. The minute that war was declared Indiana went to work to do her full part. The government called for volunteers, and Indiana responded by sending 39,856 men. This was a larger number of volunteers, considering population, than any other state furnished. When the selective draft was set working, the young men of draft age were ordered before the draft boards. There they were examined 52 HISTORY OF INDIANA and after a while went to the training camps. Then the scenes of the Civil War could be seen acted over again. On the appointed day the young men gathered at the county seat. There exercises were held, after which, headed by a band and accompanied by fathers and mothers and crowds of friends, they marched to the depot. There were tears and cheers as the train bore them away on their first step to the battlefields of Europe. The draft took 106,581 men out of the state for the army, and the navy took 5,516 men. 89. At the front. One of the most famous Indiana organizations was the 150th Field Artillery. It was sent to France in October, 191 7, being among the first American troops sent across. It became a part of the French army and served in Lorraine. Afterwards it was moved to Champagne and later took part in the famous battle of Chateau-Thierry, where the American army crushed the German advance. After helping in the St. Mihiel offensive it took part in the great battle of the Meuse-Argonne. When the armistice was signed, the Rainbow Division (the 4 2d) and the 150 Field Artil- lery stood at the farthest point reached by any American forces. After the armistice the battery marched away to the Rhine as a part of the Army of Occupation. In April, 1 91 9, it returned home and was given a glorious welcome at Indianapolis by the whole state. Many thousands of Indiana soldiers were not sent abroad. They were kept at home to do important work. Others, by the thousand, were scattered through all the divisions of the great army in France. Some saw bloody service in the battle fine and others were just ready to take up the fighting when the war came to an end. Indi- ana has reason to be proud of them all. INDIANA IN THE WORLD WAR 53 90. Indiana's dead. The total number of deaths among Indiana soldiers was 15 10. Of this number 645 were killed in action and 270 died of wounds. Sickness took 461. These men made the supreme sacrifice for America and humanity. 91. At home. While Indiana's men were taking part in the war, the people at home were working to help them win. Indiana mothers were knitting, preparing bandages, and saving food. Indiana school children were collecting money for the Red Cross, the Y. M. C. A., the Knights of Columbus, and the Jewish Relief Com- mittee. Indiana farmers planted big crops and worked long hours so our boys and the poor, starved people of Europe might be fed. The great factories ran day and night to make war supplies for the army. The colleges, universities, and normal schools turned themselves into training camps. Governor Goodrich, assisted by the State Council of Defense, toiled early and late to organize the people of Indiana for the great task. The churches carried a big part of the work in showing the people that it was a righteous war. Everyone seemed to be anxious to do what he could to help in winning the war. Indiana did her full share. 92. The American Legion and the soldier's memorial. When the American soldiers came home from France they organized the American Legion and chose Indianapolis for its headquarters. At the session of the legislature in 1919 it was decided that the state should erect a memo- rial at IndianapoHs to her soldier heroes of the World War. More than two million dollars will be spent for this purpose. No doubt, it will rank in beauty and impressiveness with the Soldier's and Sailor's Monument which stands in the Circle. 21 54 HISTORY OF INDIANA INDIANA'S REPRESENTATION IN NATIONAL POLITICS 93. Indiana in national politics. The first Indiana man to serve in the President's cabinet was Caleb B. Smith. He was made Secretary of the Interior by Presi- dent Lincoln. Another Secretary of the Interior was John P. Usher, also appointed by Lincoln when Caleb B. Smith was made United States Judge for Indiana. James N. Tyner was Assistant Postmaster-General to President Grant and President Hayes. Richard W. Thompson, the "Old Man Eloquent," was selected as Secretary of the Navy by President Hayes, who was charmed by his eloquence in the campaign of 1840. General Walter Q. Gresham was a brave soldier. He was appointed Judge for Indiana by President Grant, made Postmaster-General by President Arthur, and in Cleveland's second term was made Secretary of State. In 1888, before the National Republican Convention, he led all other candidates for the nomination for the presidency, but he was defeated in the end. Hugh McCulloch served as Secretary of the Treasury under three presidents. After Governor Morton had served his state as chief executive he was sent to the United States Senate and remained there until his death (1877). While he was serving, another Indianian, Schuyler Colfax, Speaker of the House of Representatives, was nominated and elected Vice-President of the United States, on the ticket with General Grant. One of Indiana's most distinguished soldiers, Benjamin Harrison, had been elected Senator, and was promoted to the presidency of the republic (1888). One of our most eloquent young men, Albert J, Beveridge, was elected United States Senator. While he was serving, the Republican party again laid its hands INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 55 Upon an Indianian — Charles W. Fairbanks — and elected him Vice-President with President Roosevelt. The Democratic party has had a brilliant array of Indiana talent in national poHtics. Thomas A. Hendricks, for many years the leader, was elected governor, then made a United States Senator, and then was taken from this position by being elected Vice-Presi- dent of the United States with Cleveland. Joseph E. McDonald, an able lawyer, was sent to the United States Senate. Michael C. Kerr was a Congressman for several terms, and was elected Speaker of the House of Repre- sentatives. Thomas R. Marshall was chosen Vice-Presi- dent on the ticket with Woodrow Wilson. Daniel W. Voorhees, "the Tall Sycamore of the Wabash," had a most distinguished career. For ten years he represented his district in the lower house of Congress, and was twenty years in the position of United States Senator. David Turpie served two terms in the Senate. Two speakers of the House of Representatives, six members of the President's cabinet, four Vice-Presidents, and one President is not a bad showing for a Middle West state. INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 94. Forest resources. The pioneers looked upon the forests as being in the way. Now Indiana is trying to save what remains of those giant trees that once graced her soil. Among the woods that have made the state famous are the white oak, the tulip or the poplar, the hickory, and the walnut. In 1900 it was estimated that fifty thousand people were engaged in wood industries and every year received fifteen million dollars in wages. In 1900 working in wood reached its height, and has since been declining. S6 HISTORY OF INDIANA Indianapolis has developed into a great center of the veneer business. 95. Coal mines. Many often wondered what the people would do for heat when wood gave out. The vast coal beds were a partial answer. The area covered by coal deposits is about one-fifth of the state and lies in fourteen counties in the southwestern part of the state. In 1 91 8 over twenty-seven million tons of coal were mined by about twenty-seven thousand persons. While all the coal of the state is bituminous, it is classed . as three kinds: bituminous, block, and cannel. 96. Natural gas. The people of Indiana have been prodigal in the use of natural gas. Grant, Madison, and Delaware counties furnished most. When it began to be turned to manufacturing purposes, factories in other parts of the state were attracted to the "gas belt." Glass factories and iron factories reaped a great harvest. The discovery of gas caused a great increase in the population of these counties. In Delaware County the population grew from thirty thousand in 1890 to fifty- one thousand in 19 10; in Grant from thirty-one thou- sand in 1890 to fifty-one thousand in 19 10; and in Madison from thirty-six thousand in 1890 to seventy thousand in 1900. In each case the population nearly doubled, and in the case of Madison County it came within two thousand of doubling in ten years. But, unfortu- nately, the waste of the gas for other purposes besides business has almost used up the supply. Many of the people have gone back to other parts of the state. 97. Petroleum. The first well was sunk near Key- stone, Wells County, in 1889. This well belonged to the Northern Indiana Oil Company. The field grew, and in 1896 covered four hundred square miles. It grew still larger, and in 1914 this oil field produced INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 57 over five hundred thousand barrels of oil and had over three thousand wells. The Princeton and Oakland City oil field in Gibson County and the Sullivan County field were developed later. Both were good producers. The newest region to begin yielding oil is the Pike County field near Peters- burg. The total yield of the state in 1918 was almost nine hundred thousand barrels. This shows a big decline; in the year 1900 the total product was over four milHon eight hundred thousand barrels. 98. Building stone. Indiana ranks fifth among the states in the value of the building stone she produces. Besides the ordinary limestone used for building purposes, the reputation of Indiana rests upon her supply of oolitic or Bedford limestone. This stone is quarried in larger quantities in Lawrence and Monroe counties than any other place. It is a fine stone because it is soft when first quarried, and can be sawed or cut into any shape. Perhaps it is more widely used than any other kind of stone. In 191 7 seven million cubic feet were quarried. Many valuable clay beds are found scattered over the state. This fact, along with the presence of coal, explains why Indiana ranks sixth among the states in the clay- working industries. Clay and Vigo are the most impor- tant of the clay-working counties. Immense quantities of paving and building brick and tile of various kinds are made. A fine grade of potter's clay is found in Dubois, Martin, and Lawrence counties. 99. Portland cement. The making of lime and cement has been from a very early day common to some counties along the Ohio. But the making of Portland cement has now largely taken its place. The material for this cement is almost unlimited. The largest factory is at Mitchell, which turns out over five thousand barrels 58 HISTORY OF INDIANA a day. Portland cement is now taking the place of wood and iron in many kinds of structures. 100. Manufactures. Our manufactures were of a very rustic kind when the work was almost all done in the home (pp. 1 6-1 8, 32-36), but by 1850 the work of fac- tories made up by far the greater part of the manu- factures. It amounted to nearly twenty million dollars then, but by 19 14 reached seven hundred and thirty mil- lion dollars. This output came from factories worth over six hundred and sixty-eight million dollars. These dif- ferent factories were engaged in the iron industry, foundry and machine-shop products, carriages and wagons, arti- ficial gas, agricultural implements, lumber and timber products, automobiles, furniture, and flour and grist- mill products. Indianapolis, South Bend, Fort Wayne, Evansville, and Terre Haute rank highest, Indianapolis leading with eight hundred and eighty-six manufacturing plants (19 1 4). The capital city ranks second only to Detroit in the manufacture of automobiles. South Bend ranks first in the making of carriages and wagons, and Evansville in furniture. It is said that the first automobile was invented in Kokomo. In 19 14 the whole number of persons engaged in manufacturing industry was over two hundred and thirty-three thousand. In the northwest corner of the state a great manu- facturing region has been developing since 1906. In that year the United States Steel Corporation founded the city of Gary. There it established a plant for the manufacture of steel. Other manufactures soon followed the opening of the steel company and in a little while the swamps and sand hills gave way to huge factories and a flourishing city. By 1920 Gary had a popula- tion of 55,378. INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 59 The World War caused a great growth of manufactur- ing. The high wages paid by the factories drew thou- sands of workers from the country and the smaller towns to the big cities. This movement almost stripped the farms of hired labor and forced farmers to buy more machinery to take the place of labor. There are several counties in which the rural population is less than it was ten years ago. This is a very serious matter in connection with the food supply. Who is to feed the city workers? 10 1. Indiana farms and farming. Indiana stands high in the percentage of her land that is used in farming, and in the average price per acre. In 19 13 Indiana raised over 160,000,000 bushels of corn; Tipton County led, producing 57.69 bushels per acre. Posey County led the state in wheat, over 1,140,000 bushels being the yield of that county alone. Corn and wheat are Indiana's best crops. Timothy and clover lead among the hay crops, with alfalfa as a rapidly increasing crop. The tomato crop is also increasing, the yield for 19 13 being over 125,000 tons. The crop is mainly canned. Tipton County leads in tomatoes. In this same year over eight thousand acres were devoted to raising melons; Knox, Gibson, and Posey counties take the lead. Live stock has long been one of Indiana's chief products. In this the hog and the cow rank first. There are nearly two million hogs in the state, Rush County leading (1914). In this year over six hundred thousand dairy cattle were counted in Indiana, those for beef reaching a still higher figure. Allen County leads in the number of cows for milk. Over seven hundred and thirty thousand horses and mules belong to Indiana (19 14), Posey County leading. 6o HISTORY OF INDIANA 102. The change in farming. This age of invention has brought almost a complete change in our manner of farming. It is a long way from the iron moldboard and the shovel plow to the riding breaking plow, the riding cultivator, and the traction plow. A similar change has come over the harvest season. Our great-grandfathers used to bend their backs while wielding the hand sickle in the grain field or while cutting grass with a hand scythe. Now we ride a harvester or mower. 103. The social result. The result of all this has been a wonderful change. Farming is no longer an occupation of drudgery, but one of pleasant work. The farmer has time to read and to think. He attends the Grange and the Institute, and is becoming a factor in the social affairs of his neighborhood and county. His children attend the township, town, or city high school. By aid of rural delivery, the telephone, and the automobile, he touches elbows with the great, busy world. He lives in the presence of his neighbors, no longer shut away from them. When he grows old or leaves the farm, he goes to the city and his son or a tenant takes his farm. In 1910 it was estimated that a third of the farms in Indiana were in the hands of tenants. What will be the result? LITERARY INDIANA 104. Historians. Among the first of Indiana writers of history stands John B. Dillon. Law was his profession, but he wrote the first important history of Indiana about 1850. Mr. J. P. Dunn wrote The Massacres of the Mountains, and Indiana in the "American Common- wealth Series" (1888). He has been active in the Indiana Historical Association. John Clark Ridpath, a popular his- torian, for a long time a professor at De Pauw, published LITERARY INDIANA 6i his history of the United States, the Cyclopedia of Univer- sal History (1885), and has written other volumes. WilHam H. English, a native of Scott County, a statesman and a business man, has contributed two volumes on the Conquest of the Northwest (1895). The most exhaustive work on Indiana was written by William H. Smith — two large volumes. Cyrus W. Hodgin, a long-time professor in the State Normal and in Earlham College, produced a volume on Outline of Civil Govern- ment in Indiana (1903). JuHa Henderson Levering has written a sprightly volume on Historical Indiana, and Professor Logan Esary of Indiana State University has lately issued a volume on Indiana which, for accuracy of statement, ranks with the best. WilHam Dudley Foulke has written a fine biography of Indiana's war governor, OHver P. Morton, and John L. Griffiths has followed with a most interesting biography of President Benjamin Harrison. The Honorable John W. Foster wrote his Twelve Years of Diplomacy, and in doing so takes us out of our local situation into the great world of contending states. Hugh McCulloch wrote Men and Measures of Half a Century — -a most readable book. 105. Orators. It is no easy task to select the orators of Indiana. Among them have been great speakers who may not be ranked as orators. Henry S. Lane was celebrated at the opening of the Civil War for his fiery eloquence. His joint canvass with Thomas A. Hendricks for the gov- ernorship was a famous contest. Lane was the better orator, but Hendricks the better debater. Thomas A. Hendricks and Oliver P. Morton were political orators of great power. As a rapid-fire speaker, John L. Griffiths probably excelled them all in his time. 62 HISTORY OF INDIANA Perhaps one of the most persuasive speakers was Albert G. Porter, who canvassed the state in 1880 against his opponent for governor. Probably Benjamin Harrison was one of the most powerful speakers Indiana ever produced. His addresses, made to visiting delegations when a candidate for the presidency, have seldom been surpassed for their logical power. "The Old Man Eloquent" is tribute enough to Richard W. Thompson, who so long wrote the platforms of his party that he was sadly missed when he passed away. For forty years Daniel W. Vorhees stood among the foremost orators of Indiana. He reached a nation-wide fame before he was elected to Congress. A Washington city judge once set aside the decision of a jury on the ground that the jurymen had been so stirred by Vorhees' eloquence that they had rendered a wrong decision! 106. The novel writers. First among novelists is Edward Eggleston, author of The Hoosier School Master. Unfortunately, ignorant people, or those who have not traveled, have taken the characters as representative of the people of Indiana. It is a reflection on the people who so judge the char- acters of The Hoosier School Master. The brave old soldier, General Lew Wallace, gave us among other stories Ben- Hur, a Tale of the Christ. MilHons of copies have been JAMES WHITCOMB RILEY LITERARY INDIANA 63 sold, and the novel has been translated into every language of Europe, into Arabic, and into the Japanese language. It has also been dramatized. Maurice Thompson, another Indianian, wrote several charming books, but his Alice of Old Vincennes leads them all. Charles Major wrote When Knighthood Was in Flower, a charming story of the Middle Ages, and Booth Tark- ington, among many other books, produced The Gentleman from Indiana, a novel almost everybody has read. Meredith Nicholson, a newspaper man, has written much, but among his best is The Hoosiers. One woman must be admitted to the hst of noted Indiana authors — Mrs. Gene Stratton Porter, a naturaHst and writer of note. A Girl of the Limherlost is perhaps her most charming story. 107. The poets. Indiana has produced her share of the writers of poetry. The true poetic fire burns in the verses of Sara T. Bolton, Mary H. Catherwood, Rose Hartwick Thorpe, Joaquin Miller, John Hay, and others. But greatest among Indiana poets is James Whitcomb Riley. He sings for young and old, and all love his songs. For several years Riley made his home in Indianapolis, living on his famous Lockerbie Street. For a number of years his birthday has been celebrated in the schools of the state, and in Indianapolis great meetings have been addressed in his honor by noted men. But Riley's name and fame have long since gone far beyond his native state or even the United States. Indiana, while cherishing him for her own, is proud to have a man whom all the world loves. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 01 1 527 030 8