/''/ Copyright N°^ COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. Field ManagementN and Crop Rotation Planning and Organizing Farms; Crop Rotation Systems; Soil Amendment with Fertilizers; Relation of Animal Husbandry to Soil Productivity; and Other Important Features of Farm Management BY EDWARD C. PARKER Formerly Assistant Agriculturist, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station; Special Agent, Bureau of Statis- tics, U. S. Department of Agriculture, and Agricultural Expert with the Gov- ernment of Manchuria ( O r^ COPYRIGHT 1915 BY WEBB PUBLISHING CO. W-1 All Rights Reserved APR 3 1915 ©CI..A398213 PREFACE This book has been written with the hope that it will prove of wide usefulness as a textbook in agricultural schools and colleges; as a handy reference book for editors, publicists, and agricultural students; and as a popular treatise for farmers. It treats, in popular language, of the most im- portant problem of modern times — the maintenance of soil productivity and the profitable use of capital and labor in agriculture — a problem worthy of much consideration by the American people in these days of high costs, diminishing agricultural exports, and increasing population. Field management and crop rotation, as presented in this book, had their inception, so far as the author is con- cerned, in the class rooms of the Minnesota School of Agri- culture under the tutelage of Professors Willet M. Hays and Harry Snyder. In large measure the subject matter of this book traces back to the investigational work of these men as well as to their classification of knowledge about field management and crop rotation. Furthermore, this book is the outgrowth of the author's own experience in crop rotation investigational work at the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, in teaching crop rotation and the plan- ning of farms to students in the Minnesota School and College of Agriculture, as well as in the surveying and platting of Minnesota farms in connection with the gather- ing of cost statistics and farm management data by the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station and the United States Department of Agriculture. Travel and observation of farming practice in many regions of the United States of 6 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION America, as well as in Japan, Korea, North China and Manchuria, have also had an influence on the author's presentation of the subject. The author acknowledges that in this book there is a free use of many ideas and principles taken from Snyder's "Soils and Fertilizers" and "Chemistry of Plant and Animal Life," and also a free use of the ideas and principles relative to soil amendment with fertilizers as advocated by Dr. C. G. Hopkins in the bulletins of the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. The investigational work of these men is so important to a discussion of field management and crop rotation that no book on this subject would be complete without it. Acknowledgment is made to Andrew Boss, Chief of the Division of Agronomy and Farm Management, and to A. D. Wilson, Director of Agricultural Extension and Farmers' Institutes, of the Department of Agriculture, University of Minnesota, for important suggestions and for correcting copy, also to F. J. Alway, Chief of the Division of Soils of the Department of Agriculture, University of Minnesota, for valued suggestions. Many other agricultural writers-^ and Experiment Station workers have given valued assist- ance in securing local facts about crop rotation plans. The problems and practicums of this book have been prepared with the idea of calling attention to many of the important features of the text, and also to provide supple- mentary work relative to the subject matter. Where time permits, the problems demanding supplementary reading will be found of great value. The practicums, if carried out under local conditions, will add greatly to the students' interest in the subject. The responsibility for the arrangement and presentation of the subject matter, as well as for the interpretation of PREFACE 7 much of the investigational data, is with the author. The greatest possible care has been used by the author, as well as the publishers, to avoid error and the omission of valuable facts, and yet it is possible that errors or important omis- sions exist in the text. The author requests that he be apprised of any that may come to the attention of readers. ■ EDWARD C. PARKER. St. Paul, Minn., February 4, 1915. CONTENTS PART I— HISTORICAL REVIEW Page Early Experience of Mankind in Agriculture 15 The Eariy Use of the Bare Fallow 18 Legume Crops in Agricultural History 19 The History of Soil Tillage Methods and Implements 24 The History of Crop Rotation 29 Crop Rotation, an Important Feature of Farm Management . . 33 The Effect of Cheap and High Priced Land on Agricultiiral Methods 36 PART II— ROTATIONS AND PLANS Chapter I Definition and Classification 39 Grain Crops, Grass Crops, Cultivated Crops, Catch Crops, Green Manure Crops, Cover Crops II Effect of Cropping on Soil Properties 50 Humus Producing Crops, Humus Destroying Crops, Nitrogen Gathering Crops, Gross Feeding Crops, DeUcate Feeding Crops, Shallow and Deep Rooted Crops ni Effect of Continuous Cropping on Productivity, Plant Diseases, Insects, and Weeds 64 Continuous Grain Crops, Continuous Cultivated Crops, Continuous Grass Crops, Available Supply of Plant Food, Crop Residues, Plant Diseases and Insect Pests IV Advantages of Crop Rotation 71 General Results; Control of Weeds, Crop Diseases and Insect Pests; Relation of Live Stock to Fertility; Main- tenance of Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium; Farm Labor and Business Management; Value of Land, and Farm Profits V Field Management to Establish Crop Rotation 98 Meaning of Systematic Crop Rotation, Drainage and Clearing, Division of Fields, Reorganization of Old Farms 10 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Chapter Page VI Plans and Diagrams 124 Short Cycle Rotations, Long Cycle Rotations, Rotations for Live Stock Farming, Use of Catch Crops, Use of Green Manure Crops, Use of Cover Crops, Use of Alfalfa, Per- manent Pastures, Plans without Pasture Lands for Inten- sive Systems of Live Stock Farming VII Rotations for North Central States 164 General Statements, Small Grain Farming, Corn Farming, Potato or Sugar Beet Farming, Mixed Grain and Live Stock Farming, Tobacco Farming, Semi-arid Farming VIII Rotations for North Atlantic States 183 General Statements, Dairy Farming, Potato Farming, Tobacco Farming, Mixed Grain and Live Stock Farming IX Rotations for South Atlantic States 191 General Statements, Live Stock Farming, Mixed Grain and Live Stock Farming, Tobacco Farming, Cotton Farming, Miscellaneous Crop Farming, Rice Farming X Rotations for South Central States 203 General Statements, Cotton Farming, Diversified Farm- ing, Sugar Cane Farming, Tobacco Farming, Rice Farm- ing, Grain Farming XI Rotations for Western States 223 General Statements, Plans for Humid Regions, Plans for Non-irrigated and Semi-arid Regions, Plans for Arid and Semi-arid Irrigated Lands . XII Practicability of Rotations and Field Plans 261 Chief Criticisms, Value of Field Plans and Maps in Farm Management PART III— ROTATION AND COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS I Relation of Fertilizers to Permanent Agriculture 267 Comparative Permanency of Agriculture, Subtraction of Plant Food, Unavoidable Losses of Plant Food, Fertility not Inexhaustible, Ultimate Permanency of Agriculture II Limitations of Crop Rotation in the Maintenance of Pro- ductivity 264 Insufficiency of Crop Rotation, Sufficiency of Crop Rotation CONTENTS 11 Chapter Page III Need for Commercial Fertilizers 269 General Conditions, How to Determine Need, Profit- ableness rV Phosphorus, the Key to Permanent Productivity 277 Dearth of Phosphorus, Geographical Variations, Im- portance V Source and Value of Commercial Fertilizers 280 Acid Phosphate, Ground Bone Steamed, Sulphate of Pot- ash, Muriate of Potash, Kainit, Wood Ashes, Dried Blood, Tankage, Sulphate of Ammonia, Nitrate of Soda, Complete Fertilizer VI Economical Use of Commercial Fertilizers 294 Draft of Crops on Plant Food, Indiscriminate Use of Commercial Fertilizers, Conditions Warranting Use of Complete Fertilizers, Fertilizer Efficiency Dependent on Good Farming VII Use and Application of Commercial Fertilizers 306 Lime Fertilizers, Phosphate Fertilizers, Potash Fertil- izers, Nitrogen Fertihzers, Fertihzer Machinery VIII Experiment Station Reports 321 Fertilizers for the Cut-over Lands of South Mississippi, Wheat Growing in Kentucky, Soil Fertihty Problems in Kentucky, Natural Rock Phosphate and Manufactured Acid Phosphate in Illinois, Complete Fertilizers in the Corn Belt (Illinois), Fertility in Illinois Soils, Fertihzer Experiments with Sugar Beets (Colorado), Summary PART IV— EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE I Rotation and Farm Management Experiments — Minnesota.. 341 II Cropping Systems for Wheat — North Dakota 353 III Co-operative Rotation and Fertilizer Tests — Nebraska 363 IV Continuous and Rotation Cropping with and without Manure or Commercial Fertilizers — Ohio 364 V Thu-ty Years of Crop Rotation — Illinois 375 VI Results of Scientific Soil Treatment— Illinois 381 12 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION PART V— REVIEW OF SOIL PRODUCTIVITY Chapter Page I Lessons from Other Nations 386 II Depletion and Maintenance of American Soils 392 PART VI— ADDITIONAL FEATURES I Plowing Practice 405 All Soils Cannot Be Plowed Alike, SubsoiUng or Deep Tillage, Fall and Spring Plowing II Soil Inoculation for Legume Crops 416 Bacteria Essential to Legume Growth, Frequent Lack of Bacteria, Species of Bacteria, Natural Means of Dis- tribution, Artificial Methods of Inoculation, Other Conditions Necessary to Legume Growth III Seed Selection 420 Heavy Seed is Good Seed, How to Select Good Seed, Special Care Necessary for Seed Corn IV Improved Crop Varieties 424 Pure Seed Desirable, Value of Improved Varieties, Maintenance of Variety Productivity V Fungus Diseases 428 Flax Wilt; Stinking or Covered Smuts of Wheat Barley, Oats, and Rye; Loose Smut of Oats, Wheat, and Bailey; Corn Smut; Kafir Corn Smut; Potato Scab; Potato BUght; Sweet Potato Black Rot and Stem Rot; Tobacco Root Rot and Bed Rot VI Weed Eradication 436 Wild Mustard, Wild Oats, Kinghead or Giant Ragweed, Corn Cockle, Bull Thistle, Burdock, Canada Thistle, Quack Grass CONTENTS 13 APPENDIX Compendium of Facts and Statistics Page Rules for Measuring Hay in Mows and Stacks, Grain and Roots in Bins, Corn in the Crib, Grain and Ear Corn in Wagon Boxes, and the Acreage of Fields 449 Legal Weights of Agricultural Products 452 Amounts of Seed per Acre. Depth to Plant. Methods of Planting. Crops : Annual, Biennial or Perennial 454 Standard Grass Mixtures 458 Composition and Amounts of Manure Produced by Different Kinds of Farm Animals 459 Amounts of Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium in Animal Products 459 Annual Maintenance Costs for Dairy Cattle 460 Quantity of Milk Required to Cover Costs of Maintenance of Cows of Different Values 462 Haecker's Feeding Standards 463 Wolff's Feeding Standards 477 Cost of Farm Horse Power 478 Fencing Costs 479 Work Capacity of Farm Machines 482 Depreciation in Value of Farm Machinery 484 Cost of Producing Corn, Wheat, Oats, Barley, and Potatoes in the Various Geographic Divisions of the United States 486 Summary of the Cost of Producing Field Crops in Minnesota 490 Itemized Accounts of the Costs of Producing Corn, Hay, Wheat and Potatoes in Minnesota 491 iiWii FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION PART I HISTORICAL REVIEW Early Experience of Mankind in Agriculture. The evolution of agriculture among the various nations of the earth has proceeded along very similar lines since the dawn of history and, doubtless, for many centuries of the pre- historic age. Indeed such pioneer agriculture as exists in the twentieth century A. D. in portions of North America, South America, and Africa, closely resembles, in many particulars, the agricultural experiences of mankind in the earliest periods of history. The growing of food crops on cultivated land has never been the first plan of a tribe or pioneer community of men to satisfy their food requirements. Man's first recourse to obtain food has ever been the wild animals of the forest or plain, the fish of the lake or stream, supplemented by the roots, grains and fruits that nature yielded unaided. Sometimes the wild meat and fruits would Note: Acknowledgment is here made to three treatises on the historical features of agriculture from which the author has freely dra^wn for the material of this part: Roman Farm Management, or treatises of Cato and Varro, translated by Fairfax Harrison, a Virginia Farmer; English Agricultural Writers from Sir Walter of Henley to Arthur Young, 1200-1800 A. D., by Donald McDonald; Historical Sketch of American Agriculture by T. N. Carver, Vol. IV Bailey's Cyclopedia of American Agriculture. 16 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION be supplemented with a cultivated cereal grown on small patches of virgin soil, but, even then, the main food reliance was the wild animal life of the country. The families and tribes were more or less migratory. Nature fed them and they wandered from one hunting or fishing ground to an- other. As population increased, nature's supply of easily ob- tained food decreased. Then we find man taming and domesticating animals and guarding their young from the attacks of wild beasts that he might control his meat supply and increase it according to his needs. With his flocks and his herds he now sought the richest grazing lands for his habitation. Life was still migratory to a large extent, but not so much so as when entire dependence was placed on the natural supplies of food. Man had then become skilled as a shepherd or drover. He still hunted and fished, but the hunter had mainly given way to the flock-master and the cattle-drover. In the early history of mankind, as well as in the agri- cultural history of many modern communities, the pastoral or grazing stage of animal husbandry was slowly merged with agriculture. Agriculture— the growing of food crops on cultivated land — originated from several causes, chief of which was the desire for a varied diet, the need of winter forage for live stock, and the ever increasing population that demanded more food supplies from the known regions of the Eartli than could be supplied from hunting, fishing, and grazing live stock. And so man chose from the wild plant life surrounding him the cereals and vegetables that best suited his taste, and the grasses and forage plants that produced most abundantly, and began to grow these crops on cultivated land where he could nurse and protect them as he had once learned to tame and protect the wild HISTORICAL REVIEW 17 animals of his environment. Early agriculture did not displace the grazing of live stock, but merged with it. An- imal husbandry came to rely more and more on the prod- ucts of the cultivated fields to winter and fatten the animals. As long as two thousand years ago the farm breeding and feeding of live stock, as distinct from pastoral animal hus- bandry, was well developed among the Romans, and this same evolutionary process has taken place in the develop- ment of nearly all the agricultural regions of the Earth. It was early learned that cultivated lands under crop grad- ually lost their producing power. When cultivated land lost From Painting by Rosa Bonheur. Plowing with oxen in Europe. some of its producing power, it was abandoned to nature, and new land of virgin fertility was reclaimed from the forest or prairie. This was the natural and simple procedure under the circumstances. Rich, productive, virgin land was abun- dant and cheap. Labor was relatively scarce. There was little knowledge of the causes for the decrease of soil pro- ductivity or the methods for renovating worn out land, and so the farmer followed the lines of least resistance and aban- 18 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION doned the old land for new. This custom of abandoning partly worn land has been almost universal in the history of all nations and their agriculture. The English farmers of the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries grew considerable grain, and the preparation of virgin land every year was a regular part of the farmer's work, some of the old land being allowed to go back to grass or weeds every year. Early agriculture in the American colonies followed the same practice. The tobacco growers of old Virginia would clear virgin land, plant tobacco for three to eight years on it, and th^n abandon the land to nature. Agricultural communities in South America, Central America, and even North America may still be found where this practice is followed. The Early Use of the Bare Fallow. Along with such agricultural experience as taught man that cultivated lands under crop soon lost their producing power came the knowl- edge that idle lands tend to recuperate their power to produce good crops. The experience of the farmers of many nations in many chmates- showed that idle, abandoned land would come back in its productivity. In man's early discovery of this principle we find the origin of the practice of "bare fallow- ing." As land became scarcer and as agriculture increased in importance the bare fallow became a systematic feature of agriculture, j Instead of working land to a condition of un- productivity and then abandoning it to nature, the farmer cropped the land continuously with regular fallow periods every second or third year. The bare fallow was the basis of Roman agriculture for a long period, being systematically alternated with the field crops every second or third year. The English farmer of the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries also placed a great deal of dependence on the bare fallow in his scheme of cropping. Writing in the early part of the seventeenth century and just HISTORICAL REVIEW 19 prior to the spread of knowledge about clover in England, the Rev. John Laurence says : "Fallowing kills weeds by turning their roots to the air. It lays the land in ridges thereby bet- ter exposing it to receive the nitrous influence of frost, wind, sun and dew. These influences all tend to sweeten and mel- low the land." Many agricultural regions of the United States of North America have made extensive use of the bare fallow in their methods of agriculture — in fact the bare fallow, as a method for increasing the productivity of land, may still be found in numerous agricultural regions of North America. Modern agricultural science reveals the fact that, while the bare fallow acts as a temporary stimulus to soil productiv- ity, it is a. practice that serves to hasten the ultimate unpro- ductivity of a soil area. The green manure fallow, the annual pasture, and the legume meadow are the modern methods for "resting land," and the old bare fallow is disappearing except as a means for destroying noxious weeds and, in some regions, for conserving soil moisture. Legume Crops in Agricultural History. While modern science has answered all the whys and wherefores about the bare fallow, the green manure legume crop, and the legume meadow crop, in their relation to soil productivity, the prac- tices of green manure fallowing and seeding down land with legume crops did not originate in modern times. The value of the legume crop as a soil renovator was known many centuries before science discovered all the reasons why legume crops rest the land more than a bare fallow. In fact, the green manure fallow and the legume crop meadow came to supersede the bare fallow in Roman and English agricul- ture long before the scientific facts were known about legume crops and the nitrogen gathering bacteria or the function of humus in the soil. Early experience with legume crops, there- fore, developed the art of rotating them with other field crops. 20 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Two thousand years ago the Romans well knew that the seeding of lupines, beans and vetches on their cultivated lands greatly increased the yields of succeeding grain crops. Discussing the best plants for the Roman farmer to cultivate, Varro wrote, fifty years before Christ: "Field beans should be sown as much as possible in your corn land." Varro also wrote about green manure crops in a manner that needs no revision to-day. He says: "Certain plants are cultivated not so much for their immediate yield as with forethought for the coming year, because, cut and left lying, they improve the land. So, if land is too thin, it is the practice to plow in for manure lupines not yet podded, and likewise the field bean, if it has not yet ripened so that it is fitting to harvest the beans." Alfalfa was one of the standbys of ancient agriculture. It was brought into Europe from Asia long before Christ and gradually spread all over Europe. It had become a standard farm crop in Roman agriculture about the time of Christ. Columella, a Roman author, writing about alfalfa in the early Christian era, says: "But of all the legumes, alfalfa is the best, because, when once it is sown, it lasts ten years; because it can be mowed four times and even six times in a year; be- cause it improves the soil ; because all lean cattle grow fat by feeding upon it; because it is a remedy for sick beasts; and because two thirds of an acre of it will feed three horses plentifully for a year." Columella gives instructions about seed bed preparation, seeding, care of the new seeding, and methods for feeding, that can hardly be improved to-day. Clovers, trefoil, and alfalfa were introduced into England from Spain, France and Flanders in the first part of the seven- teenth century. About the middle of this century many observing writers began to discuss the public loss that arose from constant pasturing on one portion of the land and con- HISTORICAL REVIEW 21 stant plowing and fallowing on another portion of the land. After the introduction of legume crops into England the bene- fits to succeeding grain crops from the use of legumes became quite well known. The practice of seeding legume crops with a nurse crop of grain developed during this period, and the rearing of cattle on arable land received a great impetus. Animal husbandry and grain growing were merged in England during this period largely because farmers discovered that Plowing in North China with a steel pointed wooden plow, not inverted but merely cultivated into ridges. The topsoil is legume crops yielded much more hay and pasture than their native grasses, as well as that they improved the productivity of arable land better than the bare fallow. The prevalent ideas about legume crops in the middle of the seventeenth century in England are well illustrated by the writings of Andrew Yarranton, who, in 1663, wrote a book encouraging the growing of clover, entitled, "Great Improve- ment of Lands by Clover." He says in this book: "Six acres of clover are as good as thirty acres of natural grass for fattening cattle." "Clover doth so frame the land that. 22 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION being plowed, it will yield three or four years together a crop of wheat, and after that, a crop of oats," "Clover improves land by the roots' cleaning the soil, and by the shade of the leaves, beneath which an incipient decomposition is en- couraged which mellows the surface of the ground and pro- vides food for future crops." "Lime should be used to encourage the growth of clover." Clover was the first important legume crop to be intro- duced into the United States of North America. It was introduced from England into the New England colonies in 1763. In the period 1790 to 1810 clover first began to have some importance in American agriculture, and was frequently used in rotation with grain in Pennsylvania and New York as a substitute for bare fallow. The use of legumes in Ameri- can agriculture has not yet become widespread. The development of the great cotton growing industry in the Southern states in the years 1830 to 1860, the rapid extension of cattle and sheep grazing in the Western states in the years 1865 to 1885, and the rapid development of specialized wheat and corn culture on the extraordinarily fertile prairies of the Middle Western states in the years 1870 to 1890, built up three great special industries that have not yet given way entirely to the mixed type of farming with the use of legume crops and the rearing of live stock in connection with the special enterprise. The use of legume crops in American agriculture is on the increase, however. Progressive grain, corn, and cotton growers are fast learning that clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, soybeans, or some other legume is a necessity in any rational scheme of cropping that will maintain soil produc- tivity. The American live stock feeder is also fast placing his chief dependence on the legume crops for fodder crops on account of their productivity and high nutritive value. The United States Department of Agriculture has literally HISTORICAL REVIEW. 23 combed the Earth to find legumes adapted to every soil and climate of the United States and to every need of farm man- agement. As a result, the most profitable and productive legume crops of all nations and all climates have been brought to the United States, and the future will undoubtedly see a great increase in the use of legume crops in American agri- culture. It was not until 1888 that scientific investigators dis- covered the relationship that exists between legume crops and the nitrogen gathering bacteria (See page 57). This discov- ery cleared up the mystery of why legume crops had such unusual power as soil renovators, especially when used for green manure fallows. It settled for all time the hitherto vexed problem of nitrogen plant food in agricultural soils, for it showed that the legume crop, and the nitrogen gathering bacteria associated with it, were the farmer's key to an absolutely inexhaustible supply of nitrogen in the atmos- phere. It also proved that the legume crop meadow or green manure was eminently superior to the bare fallow as a means for maintaining the productivity of the soil (See page 350). Scientific investigation since 1888 has added much to our knowledge of the soil bacteria associated with legume crops and of the methods that can be employed to inoculate soil with these bacteria so as to stimulate legume growth. (See page 415). There is much that we may still learn about legume crops and their place in a permanent scheme of agriculture, but we know enough now to realize the unrivaled value of these crops as soil renovators. The Romans realized the value of these crops in relation to soil fertility two thousand years ago, and when one sees the thousands of acres of cotton, corn, and wheat in the United States still grown in a ruinous system of continuous cropping, one wonders if the Romans were not 24 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION wiser farmers two thousand years ago than we are to-day in the twentieth century after Christ. The History of Soil Tillage Methods and Implements. The tillage methods employed in the agriculture of ancient and medieval times were crude in comparison with the best tillage methods of modern times. The farmer of early times did not have at his command the steel moldboard plow, the disk harrow, the sub-surface packer, and the deep tillage plow, with which to invert and pulverize his soil easily and thoroughly. The plows employed in agriculture, prior to the middle of the nineteenth century, were crude and inefficient. As compared with the thorough pulverizing Photo by courtesy "The Farmer." In the disk harrow the modern farmer has an implement for smoothing and fining the seed bed, closing air spaces in freshly plowed land, and killing noxious weeds, that is far more efficient than any implement available to the farmer of ancient and medieval times. HT8T0RTCAL REVIEW 25 work of the modern plow they merely stirred the surface soil. Many of the earliest plow types were merely sharp- ened, hardened sticks of wood. Later, an iron point was attached. The ancient and medieval farmer usually ridged his land in order to form a seed bed of loose soil. Often the tillage was accomplished as much with the mattock and spade as with the oxen or horse drawn plow. Hand tillage was common in Roman and English agriculture, and was largely employed in the early days of colonial agriculture in North America. In the Virginia colony, which was mainly agricultural, there were but one hundred and fifty plows of any kind in use in 1649, the majority of the fields being hand tilled. In spite of the tillage implement handicaps under which early agriculture was pursued the Romans learned from long experience the value of deep and thorough tillage. The Roman farmers worked their land deeply, thoroughly, and often. They learned the value of deep tillage in con- serving soil moisture and practiced "dry farming" in Meso- potamia for generations. The value of thorough soil tillage as a factor in crop pro- duction was not emphasized and brought completely to the light until the middle of the eighteenth century. The Romans undoubtedly understood the value of thorough soil tillage and practiced it themselves, but with the decay of Rome and of Roman civilization their knowledge of the art of agriculture passed temporarily into oblivion. Many centuries intervened before the European barbarian tribes developed the art of agriculture to a point approximately comparable to that of the Romans in the height of their civilization. English agriculture, for example, underwent all the elementary stages of agricultural evolution from the eighth to the eighteenth centuries, and not until the middle of 26 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION the eighteenth century, or even the first part of the nine- teenth century, had Enghsh agriculture sufficiently advanced to be in any way comparable to the agriculture of the Romans. In the middle of the eighteenth century an Englishman named Jethro Tull made some discoveries about soil tillage that made his name famous, and that gave a great impetus to the study and practice of thorough soil tillage as one of the most important of all factors in crop production. Before TuU's time English lands were scantily tilled and the seed was thickly sown broadcast. Legume crops had come into quite common use as well as the rearing of live stock on arable land, but the tillage methods were poor and ineffi- cient. During Tull's travels in France he noticed that the vineyards were not manured, but were very thoroughly tilled. This gave him the idea that field crops could be similarly grown without manure, if the soil were thoroughly pulverized. He invented a crude machine for sowing grain in drills that would permit inter-tillage, and he also improved the plows and tillage implements of his time. His experi- ments and observations showed that drill sowing required less seed than broadcast sowing, and that with inter-tillage the fold of crop from seed was greater than his neighbors were getting by the common methods of sowing and tillage. Tull's experience led him to develop a theory of crop production which stated that "tillage is manure," and that "hoeing and pulverizing the soil might supersede the use of manure." In the later years of his life he came to realize that his tillage methods were but one important factor of crop production and not inclusive of all the essential factors. For many years, however, he advocated thorough soil tillage as the cure-all for lands of low productivity. Agriculture owes much to Jethro Tull. In his experiments and writing he gave us the first great and comprehensive lesson about HISTORICAL REVIEW 27 the value of the inter-tilled crop and thorough soil pulver- izing in the art of successful agriculture. Other men may have known of the value of these practices in the centuries before his time, but, if so, they failed to stamp their ideas permanently on the art of agriculture. Jethro Tull's ideas soon became incorporated in English agriculture, and, subsequently, in the modern agriculture of many nations. From Jethro TuU we have learned that thorough soil tillage is essential to maximum crop production and that the inter-tilled crop prepares the land for a succeeding crop as well as a bare fallow. The invention of modern tillage implements is mainly a rnatter of American history. In 1814 Jethro Wood, of New York, took out the first patent for a cast-iron plow, but it was not very successful. By 1825 the cast-iron plow had received enough improvement so that a number was put. mi Hi - ■ • ■pMf l^^r^^ W^i^^^ Surface tillage between crop rows leaves the &uil in a-^ K'jnd t inchuiin tor the succeeding "grain crop" as the bare fallow, and there is no loss of revenue tor one year from the land. 28 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION to use in the New England States. John Deere made the first steel plow from an old saw blade in 1837. From that date one improvement after another has followed on the steel plow, until to-day the farmer has a plow that runs easily, cuts evenly and deeply, and that lifts and pulverizes the soil in a manner more thorough than can be attained with hand tillage. The modern plow with its long base, hard but malleable shear, curved moldboard in types adapted to many soils and conditions of plowing, clevis attachments, and rolling coulter, is an implement of modern times only. The plow as we know it to-day is less than fifty years old. The last quarter of the nineteenth century saw many valuable inventions in tillage implements, such as the disk Photo by courtesy Emerson Brantingham Company. Breaking sod with gas engine power. A distinctive feature of twentieth century agriculture is the application of engine power to farming operations. HISTORICAL REVIEW 29 harrow, sub-surface packer, riding cultivator for inter-tilled crops, and various types of smoothing harrows, all of in- estimable value in the fining and pulverizing of soil. The early part of the twentieth century has seen two notable inventions pertaining to the work of soil tillage, namely, the gas tractor with its engine gang plow, and the disk deep tillage machine. Gas tractor plowing, though now practical, is still in its infancy. The future will undoubtedly show an evolution in the application of power to soil tillage that will give the farmer a new and marvelous control over the tillage of soil. The disk, deep tillage plow of the twentieth century will plow and pulverize types of soil that were difficult to handle properly with the common plow, and where deep tillage is desirable this machine will cut and pulverize the soil to a depth of twelve to eighteen inches, mixing the top- soil with new subsoil or mixing the organic matter of a green manure crop with the soil to a depth of twelve to sixteen inches, and thus, in certain types of soil, greatly enlarging the area in which crop roots can penetrate and absorb plant food. Not only have modern inventions in tillage implements eliminated all back breaking labor from the work of soil tillage, but also applied all the modern scientific principles relative to soil tillage in their mechanism and operation. Other civilizations learned from experience many of the principles of efficient soil tillage, but none had such power and mechanical facilities to apply these principles as we have who live in the twentieth century. The History of Crop Rotation. Crop rotation is by no means a distinctive feature of modern agriculture. Many of the principles of rotation cropping were known to the primi- tive nations. The value of alternating legume crops and fallow years (forerunner of the modern cultivated crop) with 30 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION grain crops was known to the Romans one hundred years before Christ. The Romans also understood the value of farm manures as a cheek to the loss of plant food from the soil, and that the rearing and feeding of live stock on arable land in connection with the growing of food crops gave great- er permanency to agriculture than a system *of agriculture that did not include live stock. Concerning the relation of animal husbandry and forage crops to agriculture, Varro, the Roman author, writing fifty years before Christ, says : "The practice and the art of the farmer are one thing, I say; that of the shepherd, another; the farmer's object being that what- ever may be produced by cultivating the land should yield a profit; that of the shepherd, to make his profit from the in- crease of his flock; and yet the relation between them is intimate, because it is much more desirable for a farmer to feed his forage on the land than to sell it, and a herd of cattle is the best source of supply of that which is the most available food of growing plants, namely, manure; so it follows that whoever has a farm ought to practice both arts, that of agri- culture and that of grazing cattle." Systematic crop rotation, however, as we now define it, meaning the alternation of the grain, grass and cultivated crops on a certain area of land, was not formulated into a definite practice, commonly employed in agriculture, until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. During this age legumes had been introduced into England, turnip culture for sheep feed had become quite common, and the tillage prac- tices of Jethro Tull had been accepted. In the eighteenth century in England, sheep raising and dairying were practiced by many farmers on arable land. Clover and turnips had been largely substituted for the bare fallow, and the forage crops were fed on the farm. The frequent use of the bare fallow, so long a feature of English agriculture, began to be HISTORICAL REVIEW 31 strongly disapproved by the leaders in agricultural thought who advocated, instead, the continuous cultivation of the land with successions of different crops including clover a,nd turnips. Systematic rotations were developed during this period, such as (1) turnips, (2) barley, (3) clover, or, (1) wheat, (2) beans, (3) oats. The leases on English lands began to con- tain rigid cultivation clauses which required tenants to manure land; allowed only two crops to be grown in succes- sion and removed from the land; and stipulated that land sown to clover, if fed off, or with turnips, fed on some part of the farm, were not to count as crops. Leases of this kind show the well defined cropping systems that had grown up in England at this time, which combined legume crops, grain crops, cultivated crops, and annual pastures in a systematic rotation, and which prove that the merging of animal hus- bandry with agriculture had become an accomplished fact. Arthur Young, the most prolific of all the early English agricultural writers, whose writing was done in the latter part of the eighteenth century and the first part of the nineteenth, was the first great apostle of mixed farming. He taught the value of legume crops, the use of crop rotation, and the feeding of live stock on the farm with the return of the manure to the land. He insisted that grass land and grazing were of pri- mary importance to English agriculture, and the manage- ment of arable land of only secondary importance. Of his writings it has been said: "They produced more private losses and more public gain than those of any other author." In many ways he was a theorist. His own agricultural enter- prises often failed and he doubtlessly caused others to fail in the attempted practice of his theories. He, nevertheless, stimulated his people into an awakened agriculture out of which there came definite policies of crop rotation, soil man- 32 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION agement, and the relation of animal husbandry to agriculture, that have come down as a valuable heritage to the agriculture of the twentieth century. By 1840 the practice of crop rotation was almost universal in England, and also the use of artificial manures to supple- ment animal manures. English vessels were bringing large quantities of guano, rich in phosphorus and nitrogen, to the soils of England. The use of bone phosphate in English agriculture also commenced in the years 1840 to 1860. Early agriculture in the United States of North America was based mainly on English customs, due to the fact that the early settlers were chiefly English and Scotch. English rotation plans appeared early in the history of American agriculture in the oldest communities where agriculture had advanced beyond the pioneer stage. The old English plans were modified somewhat to suit the new conditions, especially to include Indian maize. One of the earliest used rotation plans in the American colonies was: (1) fallow, (2) wheat, (3) peas or beans, (4) barley. In his letters and papers George Washington describes a good crop rotation plan that he found in use on Long Island in 1790, as follows: (1) corn (manured), (2) oats or flax, (3) wheat (with four to six pounds of clover and one quart of timothy), (4) meadow, (5) pasture. In the years 1800 to 1810 this same Long Island rotation plan, with some slight modifications, came into quite general use in Pennsylvania. In Virginia, prior to 18C0, many farmers followed a rotation plan of (1) corn, (2) wheat or oats, and (3) land allowed to grow weeds and grass and pastured. After 1800 in Virginia a rotation plan often used was: (1) corn, (2) wheat (with clover), (3) clover meadow with second crop plowed under, (4) wheat. The most important principles of rotation cropping are shown in these rotation plans used in England and the Amer- HISTORICAL REVIEW 33 ican colonies in the first part of the nineteenth century. We have improved but Httle on these plans in the twentieth- century. We have learned more about the use of annual pastures, cover crops, and green manures, as well as the meth- ods for combining these crops with the staple field crops in a rotation plan. We have improved somewhat the English rotation plans of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, but the principles of rotation cropping are not new in the history of agriculture. The scientific investigations of the nine- teenth and twentieth centuries have explained many of the facts about crop rotation that were known only by experience to previous generations. Modern exploration work also is continuously adding valuable legume and forage crops to fit into cropping schemes for many different climates and systems of farming. Furthermore, modern science has shown us the limits of the potency of crop rotation to secure high crop yields. We now know that the chief value of crop rotation is to keep the reserve plant food of the soil available to crops, and that no amount of crop rotation can add any plant food to the soil except nitrogen. Knowledge of these facts enables the modern student of agriculture to place a correct value on soil tillage, crop rotation, and commercial fertilizers, as factors of crop production. Crop Rotation an Important Feature of Farm Manage- ment. The practice of crop rotation developed chiefly from the experiences of mankind relative to soil productivity. The early history of agriculture and of crop rotation shows that man's chief concern in planning systems of cropping was to maintain soil productivity and avoid the low yields that ex- perience had shown him resulted from continuous cropping. Labor was cheap in the early years of agriculture and but little attention was paid to the economical management of man labor, horse power, and machinery. 34 FIELD 3IANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION The twentieth century has brought labor conditions in agriculture that make the correct management of farm labor, horse power, and machinery, as important a factor in profit- able farm management as the maintenance of soil productiv- ity. Farm labor becomes more costly with every passing year, and farm wages are tending to rise to the city wage level for skilled mechanics. At the same time the twentieth century farmer demands more skill of his laborers than the nineteenth century farmer demanded. The modern exten- sive use of large capacity machinery in agriculture demands skilled laborers, large capital investment, and a relatively large Photo by courtesy Deere and Company, The modern American type of steel plow inverts and pulverizes the soil more thoroughly than any tillage implement possessed by the farmer of previous eras, and the gang plow has greatly increased the amount of horse power which one man can control. HISTORICAL REVIEW 35 amount of efficient horse power on the farm. Under these conditions small leaks in the management of farm labor, horse power, and machinery, may become an important feature in the profit and loss account of a farm. Maximum efficiency of man labor and horse labor is essential to the maximum net profit on the twentieth century farm. Systematic crop rotation has a very important relation to the efficiency of labor and machinery on farms. The orderly arrangement of fields, and seasonal distribution of farm labor, provided by a well planned crop rotation system, are basic features of good farm management, and essential to the max- imum efficiency of farm labor and machinery. Other things being equal, the farm that has its fields laid out in an orderly and systematic scheme of cropping will effect economies in the management of labor and machinery that are not possi- ble in a haphazard scheme of field management or in systems of continuous cropping. By far the greater part of the scientific evidence relative to the value of crop rotation in farm practice relates to the problem of soil productivity. There are but few scientific data to illustrate and prove the value of crop rotation in the efficient management of farm labor and machinery, but the experience and observations of the best farm managers sup- port the theory of the value of crop rotation in this respect. The new farm management of the twentieth century must recognize the basic importance of a systematic scheme of crop rotation in the successful management of the vast major- ity of American farms. As the reader of th is book peruses the text and the diagrams of Part II the great importance of systematic crop rotation in the general management of a farm will become apparent. The Effect of Cheap and High Priced Land on Agricul- tural Methods. The history of all nations shows that cheap, 36 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION fertile land has always been accompanied by wasteful, exten- sive methods of agriculture. Under such conditions it has ever been useless to preach against slothful farming and to advocate crop rotation and all the good farming practices associated with it. So long as land is cheap and virgin fer- tility abundant it is easier and usually more profitable for the pioneer farmer to increase his profits by increasing his acreage of land than to practice intensive systems of farming. The lure of increasing land values is also a factor in causing men to own and farm large areas of land in a slothful and wasteful manner. But history also shows that, whenever land begins to lose its virgin fertility and yet become high in price, more inten- sive systems of farming eventually arise from the force of necessity. Systems and methods of farming, such as contin- uous wheat growing or cattle grazing, that were profitable on land worth $10.00 per acre, are not profitable on land worth $100.00 or more per acre. High land values are usually accompanied by high market prices for farm products and by a lowered marketing cost; but, on the other hand, the carry- ing charges on the land and the costs of production rise to a point that more than offsets the price gain and the marketing economies. Profitable farming on high priced land must consider the problem of soil productivity, efficient manage- ment of labor and capital, and the choice of crops and sys- tems of farming that will yield large returns per acre under intensive management. It often occurs, however, that lands, once cheap and very fertile, pass through a generation or two of advancing land values maintaining the same simple, wasteful systems of farming that were in vogue in the days of cheap land. Much of the choice, high priced, prairie land of the Middle West in the United States is farmed to-day by methods that are but HISTORICAL REVIEW 37 little different from the methods employed when lands were cheap and virgin fertile. Many of these choice old farms would not carry operating expense, taxes, and current interest on a modern valuation, because the system of farming is ill- suited to the present day conditions of soil fertility and mar- ket value of the land. The owners of such farms remain solvent only because the present day value of their land is not a real factor in their expense accounts. Many such farms would be in bankruptcy, if interest charges had to be met, as well as taxes and the expenses of crop production. Successful farming on high priced land from which much of the original store of available plant food has been taken is a problem necessitating serious attention by the man who purchases high priced land and to whom the price of land is a real factor in business. Under these conditions the necessity for crop rotation, thorough tillage, and even soil amendment with fertilizers, is apparent and real, in order to raise and maintain a condition of high productivity in the land. Also the necessity arises for a system of farming that will give the greatest possible efficiency to the farm labor and to the money invested in machinery and equipment, and that will yield crop values commensurate with a high land price. Crop rotation in itself is not the cure-all for unproductive land or the absolute key to profits from high priced agricul- tural land. But crop rotation is the chief factor in a com- bination of good farming practices that will maintain the productivity of the soil, and around which intensive systems of farming may be developed that will yield the maximum crop value per acre at the minimum of expense. Crop rota- tion is to general field agriculture what the foundation is to the house, the solid base on which we may successfully rear a permanent superstructure designed in a hunderd different ways according to our individual requirements and desires. PART II ROTATIONS AND PLANS CHAPTER I DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION The term "crop rotation" is used to define a system of growing grain, grass and cultivated crops on a given area of land in such order and succession as to keep the soil produc- tive, in good tilth, free from weeds, in such mechanical con- dition that moisture for the crops is easily controlled, and so as to insure the productive employment of the farm proprie- tor's capital and labor. The term "continuous cropping" is commonly used to mean the exact opposite of crop rota- tion: namely, the growing of any one class of crops, such as the grain, grass or cultivated crops, for many years in suc- cession on the same area of land. Classification of Field Crops for the Purpose of Studying Crop Rotation. The staple field crops may be divided into six general groups for the purpose of studying and planning systems of crop rotation: namely, grain, grass, cultivated, catch, green manure, and cover crops. This classification is not based on any botanical relationships whatsoever, nor on any similarity of appearance, but on the methods employed in seeding and harvesting the crop, the methods of soil prep- aration and cultivation, and the purposes for which the crop is grown. Grain Crops. This group includes such crops as wheat, barley, rye, oats, flax and millet, grown for the value of their seeds. Field peas, wrinkled peas, and soy beans, when sown with a grain drill, and grown for seed production, may also 40 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION be included in this group, although they differ materially in their effect on the land as compared with other grain crops. Wheat and rye have varieties that are spring sown and varieties that are autumn sown. These crops are grown in largest quantities in the Northern part of the Temperate Zone, and the usual method of soil preparation is autumn or early spring plowing with thorough harrowing. The modern, almost universal, method of seeding the grain crops is to sow in drills six or seven inches apart with a machine kno^vn as a grain drill that mechanically opens the soil and puts the seed in the ground at a uniform depth. Photo by courtesy "The Farmer." Seeding the "grain crop" with the grain drill. Drilling the seed ia superior to broadcasting, because less seed is necessary, the seed goes in at a uniform depth, and the seed is covered better. "Grass crops" are often seeded with the grain as a nurse crop, either by mixing the seed with the grain in the hopper, or by means of a special grass seeding device on the drill. DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION 41 Wheat and oats are sometimes sown on land that has not been plowed but merely pulverized to a depth of three or four inches with a disk harrow. In many of the corn growing sections of the United States, land which has grown corn is quite commonly prepared in this manner for the seeding of wheat or oats. When crops are sown very thickly on the land, as grain crops usually are, no cultivation of the soil is possible from seedtime till harvest. Grass Crops. In this group are included those crops that are most commonly used for pasture and hay to be fed to farm animals, such as timothy, brome grass, redtop, blue grass, red clover, alsike clover, crimson clover, white clover, and alfalfa. The characteristic feature of this class of crops is that they require little or no cultivation, and that during the time they occupy the land a turf or mulch of roots and stems is developed that fills the surface soil with vegetable matter. When the soil occupied by these crops is broken, this turf of roots and stems is mixed with the mineral matter of the soil and gives it a loamy, friable texture that cannot be secured following the growth of either the grain or cultivated crops, unless heavy applications of barn- yard manure have been made. The grass crops are usually sown by either of two meth- ods: (1) the seed is so^vn with a special grass seeding machine or a grain drill on a thoroughly pulverized seed bed at a time when no other crop occupies the land, and in a season of abundant rainfall or when the subsoil is well supplied with moisture, or (2) the seed is sown with a nurse crop of wheat or barley in the spring season, or sown in the spring on land occupied by a crop of autumn sown wheat or rye. If sown with spring wheat or barley, the grass seed is mixed with the grain seed in a grain drill and drilled into the soil along with the grain seed, or, if seeded with autumn sown wheat or rye, 42 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION 43 it is scattered on top of the soil with a special grass seeding machine where the grain crop was sown and then harrowed in. Seeding grass crops with a nurse crop of grain is a more practical method, wherever it is possible, than seeding the grass crop alone in the spring season, for, when the nurse crop is sown, the land produces a crop of grain while the grass crop is getting started; whereas, if the grass crop is sown in the spring season without a nurse crop, the land is unproductive and idle for one growing season. If the climatic conditions of any region are such as to provide favorable conditions for grass seeding in midsummer, grass seeds can be sown alone after a winter rye or winter wheat crop. By this method the land produces a crop in the season of seeding down to grass, and it is possible, if desired, to sow the grass seeds alone instead of with a nurse crop. In many parts of the North Temperate Zone alfalfa is sown in midsummer without a nurse crop in order to have an opportunity to destroy all weeds before the seeding is done and thus provide favorable conditions for the young stand of alfalfa. In some parts of the United States, soy beans, co\vpeas, Canadian field peas, and vetches are sown thickly on the land and harvested for hay or for ensilage, or perhaps pas- tured to live stock. When grown in this manner, they may be classed as grass crops in the planning of crop rotations, particularly so, if pastured; for, in that event, there remains a considerable portion of organic matter and manure to plow into the soil that is comparable to the turf of grass crops. Cultivated Crops. Any crop which is so planted as to permit of inter-tillage during the crop growing season may be classed" as a cultivated crop. Indian corn, sorghum, Kafir corn, potatoes, cotton, tobacco, and sugar beets are typical examples of this class of crops. Crops which permit of 44 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION inter-tillage are sometimes called "cleaning crops," because weeds may be cultivated out or cleaned from the land during the time that these crops occupy the soil. Weed seeds often become buried below the surface of the soil and fail to germi- nate until the plow again brings them to the surface. Then, if a cultivated crop is on the land, the weeds may be quite thoroughly cleaned out by the cultivator. Very weedy land is sometimes cleaned by growing cultivated crops two or three years in succession and plowing the land each year so that the cultivation will clean weeds from both sides of the furrow-slice. When crops are so planted as to permit of inter-tillage, the continuous cultivation throughout the summer months Photo by courtesy "Farmer and Breeder." Cultivating corn 'with the two-row cultivator — a machine that effects eco- nomies in man labor. Cultivated crops clean the land of weeds, promote the disintegration of soil and organic matter, and prepare tiie land well for delicate feeding crops such as wheat. DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION 45 is not only beneficial in destroying weeds, but also in pulver- izing and aerating the soil, and thus aiding the processes of soil decay whereby the plant food of the soil is rendered available to the roots of plants. It is a noticeable fact about plant growth that when the grain crops, such as wheat, barley or oats, are sown on land that was previously occupied by a cultivated crop, the yield is much greater than when grain crops are grown successively with no alternation with cultivated crops. The explanation is, that the work of inter-tillage has hastened those processes that change the raw fertility of the soil to a condition where the elements of plant food may be easily taken up by the plant. The effect of a cultivated crop on the soil is much the same as that of a bare fallow — a prac- tice of leaving the soil bare or fallow occasionally and thor- oughly tilling it during the summer months. Catch Crops. The term "catch crops" is used to desig- nate those crops that may be sown in the Temperate Zone to take the place of regular, staple crops that in a rotation have failed on account of unfavorable climatic conditions, or crops that may be so^vn with regular crops, or between the seasons for regular crops, as supplementary pasture for live stock or to produce a second marketable crop in one growing season. The crops most widely used for this purpose are winter rye, rape, crimson clover, buckwheat, turnips, Canadian field peas, soy beans, cowpeas, and fodder corn. Examples of the use of these catch crops are as follows: Rape, soy beans, cowpeas, Canadian field peas or fodder corn may be used in a rotation to take the place of grass crops, that may have been killed by drought or a severe winter. Pasture or fodder may thus be provided instead of the regular grass meadow or pasture. Buckwheat or turnips can be sown 46 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION after the barley harvest and a crop matured before winter. Rape can be sown with grain in the spring and be used for pasture after the grain harvest. Winter rye can be sown in the autumn following the ordinary grain harvest and be used in the autumn and the succeeding spring as sheep or swine pasture, and then be plowed up in the late spring in preparing a seed bed for corn or some other late sown crop. Photo by courtesy "Farmer and Breeder." A "catch crop" of cowpeas sown with corn in central Iowa for annual pasture or green manure. A consistent policy of growing this crop in rotations with corn will materially increase the yields of corn. Green Manure Crops. Green manure crops are those that are grown for the particular purpose of producing organic matter that can be plowed under and incorporated with the mineral matter of the soil. This is a practice that is commonly employed to restore worn out soils to a state of productiveness, or to improve the physical texture and fertility of sandy soils. The decaying organic matter assists in releasing and making available to plants the plant food of the soil, and also assists in maintaining a DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION 47 1. ■ i ^ :0W P/!o/o 6y courtesy C. V. Piper, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Rye and vetch for green manure or forage. The rye supports the vetch plants. This is an excellent soil renovating crop for sandy soils in the North Central States, as well as other agri- cultural regions. desirable percent of moisture in the soil. The most commonly used green manure crops are buckwheat, mammoth clover, red clover, crimson clov- er, Canadian field peas, soy beans, cow- peas, sweet clover and vetches. They grow quickly and produce large amounts of or- ganic matter. The legume crops — crim- son clover, mammoth clover, red clover, Canadian field peas, soy beans, cowpeas, sweet clover or vetches — are the best crops for green manuring, because they contain a higher percentage of crops as buckwheat, is used to desig- nitrogenous compounds than such Cover Crops. The term "cover crop' nate certain crops that are sown for the particular purpose of covering the land at those seasons of the year when soil is likely to be eroded and soluble plant food lost by leach- ing. Cover crops may also be used to prevent wind drifting of soils in the early spring, and in fruit orchards to act as a mulch that will assist somewhat in the prevention of 48 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION root killing by frost and to retard growth in the spring in order to avoid danger to fruit buds from late frosts. Cover crops are not grown to produce marketable prod- ucts but as a special means of soil protection. The crops most commonly used for this purpose are crimson clover, rape, buckwheat, winter rye, soy beans, cowpeas and the vetches. The manner in which these crops cover and protect the soil may be illustrated as follows: Crimson clover, a quick growing annual crop, is sown on a hillside field subject to erosion and to loss of soluble plant food by leaching and running water. The crop of crimson clover is sown in the autumn following a regular crop and soon the roots penetrate the surface soil and the growing plant absorbs the soluble plant food. Thus, when the succeeding winter and spring come on with their storms of wind and rain, the soil is somewhat withheld from erosion by the roots of the cover crop, and much of the soluble plant food of the soil is stored in the roots, stems and leaves of the cover crop in such a way that loss is minimized. As spring comes on and the crimson clover starts into life again, the crop with its stored supplies of plant food is plowed under in preparing the land for the succeeding marketable crop. In regions too cold for crimson clover to survive the winter, such crops as winter rye are used for the same purpose. Rape, buckwheat, soy beans and cow- peas may be used with good results, even though winter kills down the plants. PROBLEMS AND PRACTICUMS (1) What two botanical families comprise the majority of the Tem- perate Zone crops cultivated by man? (2) What are the advantages to be gained by seeding cereal and grass crops with the grain drill instead of the broadcast seeder? Are there any disadvantages? DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION 49 (3) What grain crop is the best "nurse crop" to use in your lo- cality when seeding land to grasses, clovers or alfalfa? Com- pare wheat, rye, oats, barley and flax. Can grass crops be sown satisfactorily in a corn crop in your locality? If so, outline methods. (4) Compare the advantages and disadvantages of seeding alfalfa in your locality with a nurse crop. What advantages are to be gained by sowing alfalfa without a nurse crop in mid- summer? (5) Why does the bare fallowing of land usually increase the yield of the crop following? See page 350. (6) Why is it inadvisable to bare fallow land except to destroy noxious weeds? See pages 297 and 360. (7) Why is it better policy to alternate grain and grass crops with a cultivated crop rather than with the bare fallow? See pages 297 and 360. (8) How many days does it take in your locality to mature a crop of wheat, oats or barley? How many days does land com- monly lie idle in your locahty between small grain harvest and the close of the pasture season? Estimate the value per acre of this period of time if the land were occupied by an annual catch crop pasture completely utilized by live stock. (Get data on this question from local farmers. Make an estimate for dairy cows, fat cattle, young cattle, or sheep.) (9) What is the best green manure crop for your locality? Why? (10) What are the soil and climatic conditions that make it advisable to use cover crops? In what part of the United States are these conditions commonly found? (11) Study the modern types of machinery used in planting the grain, grass and cultivated crops. Ascertain the conditions which best fit the use of the various t5rpes of grass seeding machines. (12) How much seed should be sown per acre for the various crops noted in this chapter? See page 454. (13) Why is it customary to sow less seed in a semi-arid climate than in a humid cUmate? CHAPTER II EFFECT OF CROPPING ON SOIL PROPERTIES Great differences exist in the effects which the various field crops have on the physical and chemical properties of the soil, and the student of field and crop management must understand these facts before it is possible for him to realize the advantages in rotating the grain, grass and cul- tivated crops. In considering the field crops from this point of view, namely, the effect which their growth has on the physical texture of soils and the supply of available plant food in the soil, they may be roughly divided into seven groups as follows: 1. Humus producing crops. 2. Humus destroying crops. 3. Crops which gather atmospheric nitrogen. 4. Gross feeding crops. 5. Deli- cate feeding crops. 6. Deep rooted crops. 7. Shallow rooted crops. Humus Producing Crops. The structure of all plants is chiefly composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, elements that the plant obtains from the carbon dioxide of the atmos- phere and the water in the soil. These compounds, carbon dioxide and water, are abundant in nature and usually acces- sible to cultivated plant life. The chief portion of organic matter, therefore, is easily produced and easily accessible as a constituent of the soil. Organic matter during its process of decay in the soil is called humus. Humus is very valuable in soils, because its presence determines, to a large extent, the moisture supply and the ease with which the soil may be tilled. Soils lacking in humus are hard and gritty, difficult to till, and incapable of allowing the passage of air and water in such EFFECT OF CROPPING ON SOIL PROPERTIES 51 amounts as to favor crop growth. Humus acts as a sponge within the soil. In sandy soils it absorbs and holds moisture, and in clay soils it makes the soil loamier and easier to till, more porous and accessible to air, and prevents baking, cracking, and the consequent rapid evaporation of moisture. Humus, also, during its process of decay in the soil, produces certain acid solvents that assist in putting the plant food compounds of the soil into solution, so that plant roots may absorb and make use of them. It may thus be seen that humus is a very important soil constituent, and that the productivity of the soil depends to a large extent upon the humus supply. All crops are humus producing in their natural and wild existence; for the plant structure, when its life is completed, decays into humus and is incorporated in due time with the mineral matter of soils. Virgin soils are always rich in humus and when the breaking plow inverts the wild sod the accumu- lated humus supply of centuries may be seen. In the forest, likewise, the dead leaves, the twigs, and the old bark, all decay and become mixed with the mineral matter of the soil, holding moisture for the tree roots, and in their decay releas- ing the elements of plant food from their fixed condition in chemical compounds. When man uses the soil to produce vast acreages of wheat, com or cotton, he usually checks the natural production of humus and fails to supply the soil with organic matter to offset the decay and consumption of the original supply. In many of the great grain fields of North America many tons of straw are burned every year, thus wasting in smoke and gases the supplies of humus that should be returned to the soil to keep it mellow and productive. In the sorghum, soy bean and millet fields of Manchuria in North China, humus is destroyed and wasted in a still more reckless 52 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION manner; for not only are the stalks of the crops taken from the land and used for fuel, but even the roots of the crops are dug up and burned. Such practices may continue on the most fertile soils for several generations, but eventually the day of reckoning arrives. The soil becomes hard, gritty, underlaid with a plow hardpan, and unproductive. Then the land is either abandoned to nature to have its humus supply again built up, or it is reclaimed and cropped scientifically by men who understand the production and control of humus, and who can soon restore a supply of humus to the barren soil. A humus equilibrium can undoubtedly be maintained in the soils from which men produce their staple crops, providing the straw and roots of grain crops are either returned directly to the soil and plowed under or used as feed and bedding for live stock and returned to the soil as manure, this supply of humus being augmented occasionally by growing grass crops that produce a turf of roots and stems that increase the humus supply of the soil when plowed under. In some of the wheat growing districts on the Pacific Coast, where the grain is cut with a header and the straw plowed under, the soil is still mellow and productive after many years of continuous grain growing. Those crops that are commonly called "humus producing crops" are the meadow and pasture crops, such as timothy, red top, blue grass, brome grass, clovers and alfalfa. The clovers and alfalfa are particularly valuable in this respect; for they produce large taproots underground and also branch profusely, so that, even though the plant above ground is cut off for hay or pasture, a large amount of organic matter remains to be plowed under and mixed with the mineral matter of the soil. EFFECT OF CR0PPI1\^G ON SOIL PROPERTIES 53 s "go. ^ C3 .o «. 03-5; o & 3 (1) 2 o 3 bll u d (1 ja 3 fcf tiOd a •SB 54 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION It may thus be seen that the term "humus producing crops" is apphed to those crops that will produce supplies of humus for use in the upkeep of the soil, and will also, during the time they occupy the soil, produce marketable crops of hay and pasture. All crops produce humus, but, in case of the grain and cultivated crops, the greater portion of the plant is usually removed from the soil and its organic matter con- sumed, except where corn or grain is fed off in the field or the straw of headed grain is plowed under or where such crop products are fed to live stock and the manure returned to the land. The grasses and clovers, however, will produce humus that can be plowed into the soil, and also permit the market- ing of a portion of the plant structure. Hence the term "humus producing crops" has been applied to them. Humus Destroying Crops. Such crops as com, sorghum, Kafir corn, wheat, rye, millet, buckwheat, barley, oats, cot- ton, flax, hemp, potatoes, and sugar beets, when growTi for their seed, forage, root or fiber value, are often called "humus destroying" or "humus consuming crops." This term is not applied to these crops because they actually consume humus as a form of plant food and other kinds of crops do not, but only because the residue of stubble and roots from these crops, when plowed under, adds very little humus to the soil. Experience has shown that, when this class of crops is grown continuously on the same area of land, the humus equilib- rium is not maintained; in other words, the rate of humus decay and consumption is faster than the rate of production. When such crops as corn and cotton are grown as culti- vated or inter-tillage crops, the decay of humus is particularly rapid. The constant stirring of soil with inter-tillage imple- ments promotes aeration and moisture conservation, thus providing favorable conditions for the decay of organic matter. The rapid decay of organic matter in the soil. EFFECT OF CROPPING ON SOIL PROPERTIES 55 caused by inter-tillage crops, and the attendant disintegra- tion of mineral matter resulting from the solvent action of acids liberated from the decaying organic matter, produce a very favorable condition for the succeeding crop, because soluble and available plant food is produced in large amounts. When these inter-tillage crops, such as corn and cotton, are grown continuously on the same piece of land, the inevitable result is the destruction and consumption of humus at a faster rate than the rate of production, and thus the soil in time loses its natural loaminess, ease of tilth, and produc- tivity. Crops Which Gather Atmospheric Nitrogen. Nitrogen salts, one of the most important groups of plant food, are Photo by courtesy Blocki Mantifacluring Company. Pea harvesting attachments that can be put on any standard mower. The vines gatfier into a cylindrical roll behind the cutter-bar and are dropped out behind in a neat windrow. Clearance is given for the following round of the team and mower. The vines dry nicely in the windrow. The pea harvester is also very useful for cutting clover and alfalfa seed crops, as well as all legume forage crops. 56 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION exhausted rapidly from soils by the seed bearing grain and cultivated crops. How to keep the soil supplied with this important plant food has ever been a perplexing problem. The nitrogen of the soil compounds, when assimilated by the plant, is stored up in the seeds and tissues of plants in organic compounds. The foods containing large amounts of nitrogenous organic compounds are eagerly sought by man on account of their strength and muscle giving proper- ties. When food products containing nitrogen are taken into the human or animal body, the nitrogen is used to repair and strengthen the body tissues. The worn out tissues of the body are voided from time to time and these waste products also contain nitrogen. Could all the waste products from human and animal bodies be returned immediately to the soil as soon as voided, the loss of nitrogen from the soil would not be noticed, but this result is rarely accomplished. Probably not one fourth of the original amounts of nitrogen in the soil are returned again in the waste of animal bodies. This loss occurs be- cause the waste products are only partially preserved and because fermentation, oxidation, and leaching cause great losses in those portions of animal waste that are preserved and returned to the soil. The waste of nitrogen as well as other forms of plant food through city sewers is enormous. Countless tons of nitrogen and other essential forms of plant food are brought into the great cities in various food products which become a total loss to the agricultural soils of the nation, because, in the cities, all of the waste products containing plant food are diverted into the rivers and the ocean. It is possible and practical to recover the fertilizer materials of sewage in septic tanks where the sewage is decomposed and sepa- rated into pure water and solid matter. Our American EFFECT OF CROPPING ON SOIL PROPERTIES 57 Cities, however, have never adopted any extensive plans for recovering the fertilizer value in sewage. Until recent times it was thought that the only means for restoring nitrogen to the soil were the waste products from animal bodies and the great deposits of nitrogen salts that exist in South America. At one time the problem was regarded as serious, because the world's deposits of nitrogen salts are very limited, and because it is very difficult to re- cover the total waste from human and animal bodies. Nitrogen, however, exists as a free gas in the atmosphere that surrounds the Earth, and some years ago experiments in chemistry revealed the fact that certain species of small plants (bacteria) had the ability to assimilate atmospheric nitrogen. These bacteria live together in great col- onies and attach them- selves to the roots of growing plants be- longing to the legume family — peas, beans, clovers, and alfalfa. These colonies of small plants are parasitic to a certain extent on the legume plants, but they in turn supply the legume plant From Bui. 94, Illinois Agr. Expt. Station. Cowpea roots, about one third natural size, showing the tubercles that contain the nitrogen gathering bacteria. 58 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION with nitrogen assimilated from the atmosphere. Thus the tissues of legume plants contain atmospheric nitrogen fixed in certain organic compounds, and when the roots and stubble of these crops are plowed under and buried in the soil, this nitrogen is eventually released from the organic compounds of the plant and combines with certain mineral elements in the soil, in which condition it is available to the roots of succeeding crops. The legume crops, therefore, not only have great value in relation to soil productivity as a means of supplying humus, but also of gathering atmospheric nitrogen and in- corporating it in the soil. The bacteria that are the real agents in collecting and storing atmospheric nitrogen in the soil are associated only with the legume crops. No nitrogen gathering bacteria are associated with such crops as corn, wheat, millet, cotton, buckwheat, barley, oats, flax, hemp, tobacco, potatoes or sugar beets. These crops must have their nitrogenous food supplied to them in the nitrogen salts of the soil. They are all crops that soon deplete the nitrogen supply, if legume crops are not occasionally grown, or manure spread on the land, to check the loss. Gross Feeding Crops. The field crops may be divided into several groups on the basis of the character of their root systems. Gross feeding crops are those that have strong, coarse, quick growing and widely reaching roots, that branch out in many directions in the soil and thus have a large soil area from which to absorb food and water for the plant. Typical crops belonging to this group are corn, sorghum and the coarser millets. It is a well known fact that these crops will thrive fairly well on soils that are not in condition to produce large crops of wheat or flax, and the principal reason lies in the extensiveness and greater assimi- EFFECT OF CROPPING ON SOIL PROPERTIES 59 lative power of the root systems. Corn roots, for example, grow quickly, and soon produce in the soil an enormous net work of roots some of which extend five to seven feet. Delicate Feeding Crops are those that have comparatively fine, slender roots that grow mainly in the furrow-slice, and, therefore, confine the crop to a comparatively small soil area from which to secure plant food. Typical crops belonging to this group are wheat, flax, barley and oats. Gross Feeding Crops and Delicate Feeding Crops Com- pared. Gross feeding crops by reason of their strong root systems are said to be able to prepare their own plant food from the soil to a greater extent than crops with slender roots that are restricted to a more limited feeding area. While it is true that all crops, both gross and delicate feed- ers, respond profitably to the best of soil tillage, it is also true that gross feeding crops like corn, sorghum and millet, will produce relatively greater crops on rough, poorly tilled land than will delicate feeding crops such as wheat or flax. In other words, the delicate feeding crops to be truly prof- itable should receive the most favored places in the rota- tion, where the plant food would be in the condition of easiest assimilation. Wheat, for example, does not thrive well on freshly manured land nor on land that is not in most excellent physical condition. The plant food of the soil must be in a condition where it is quickly soluble, if wheat may be expected to produce large and profitable yields. Corn, however, will thrive on freshly manured soil, on soil that contains applications of coarse organic matter, and on soil where the plant food solution is not exceed- ingly strong. There are many field crops whose root systems illustrate all gradations between a gross, coarse feeding crop such as corn, and a very delicate feeding crop such as wheat or flax. 60 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Rye, barley and oats, for example, are grosser feeding than wheat and less so than corn and sorghum. The root crops such as potatoes, beets and turnips are grosser feeding than flax and less so than corn. Clover and alfalfa, in their early periods of growth, are extremely delicate feeders and the soil must be very carefully prepared to get the crop started. If these crops are once in possession of the soil, however, their roots run deep and they become gross feeders, the roots penetrating and covering a large soil area. Shallow and Deep-Rooted Crops. As a rule, those crops that are delicate feeders are shallow rooted, and the gross feeding crops are deep rooted. Wheat, cotton, flax, barley, oats, buckwheat, potatoes, sugar beets, hemp, soy beans, timothy, blue grass, brome grass, redtop, and cow- peas are called shallow-rooted crops, and alfalfa, clover, corn and sorghums are deep-rooted crops. The methods by which crops are planted and cultivated determine, to a large extent, the character of the root sys- tem. Wheat, barley and oats, for example, produce a large mass of slender, fibrous roots within the furrow-slice when planted in six or seven inch rows with a grain drill. Isolated plants of wheat, barley or oats, or rows so planted as to permit of inter-tillage, would produce a deeper and more extensive root system than plants growing closely together. It may thus be seen that the natural differences in certain crop root systems are heightened and exaggerated by the methods of planting employed. Corn and wheat, for example, would produce quite similar root systems under similar methods of planting, but when wheat is sown with a grain drill in six or seven inch rows and corn is planted in hills three and one half feet apart, the root systems are very different, and wheat under such conditions is com- EFFECT OF CROPPING ON SOIL PROPERTIES 61 paratively shallow-rooted and corn comparatively deep- rooted. A most striking illustration of the difference between a shallow and a deep-rooted crop is shown by the root sys- tems of wheat and alfalfa. The wheat roots are slender and fibrous and grow in greatest profusion in that portion of the upper soil known as the furrow-slice. The alfalfa roots, on the other hand, are taproots that grow straight down in the soil, penetrating to some distance in the subsoil and throwing out occas- ional strong lateral branches. Alfalfa roots can be easily traced to a depth of ten to fifteen feet and in some soils to an even greater depth. Shallow and deep-root- ed crops exert a tre- mendous influence on the An alfalfa root about one fourth to one sixth i • i . i c -i natural size. The deep taproots of alfalfa phySlCal tCXturC 01 SOUS. and sweet clover are powerful mechanical rrii • •. i i ix r agents in the work of opening and mellowing i nC meVltablC rCSUlt 01 subsoils. J . . . ^ , contmuous croppmg with shallow-rooted crops on a given area of land is to form a hard-pan just beneath the furrow slice, especially so when accompanied by shallow plowing. Such a soil cannot absorb and supply moisture properly for growing crops, and when in such condition the soil area available to plant roots is very limited. The effect of growing alfalfa or red clover, with their deep growing taproots, is to open 62 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION up the subsoil, and make it more porous and receptive to moisture, and to increase the soil area available to the roots of succeeding crops. Such crops as corn, sorghum, and Kafir corn, also have an effect on the mellowness and porosity of the subsoil, but in a less marked degree than clover and alfalfa. PROBLEMS AND PRACTICUMS (1) Approximately what proportion of a plant's substance is water? What proportion is dry matter? See page 295. (2) What proportion of the dry matter of plant substance is derived from plant food in the soil? What proportion from other sources? See page 295. (3) What is it that gives a black color to most prairie soils? Why are the prairie soils of semi-arid regions usually brown in color and the prairie soils of humid regions black in color? See reference books on soils. (4) When grasses grow up and die down again on land for long periods of time does the fertility of the soil increase, decrease, or remain stationary? (5) How many pounds of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are removed from an acre of land by a 20 bu. per acre crop of wheat including the straw? If the grain is headed and the straw plowed under what is the loss of plant food? When straw is burned what is lost to the soil other than the amounts of phosphorus, potassium and nitrogen sold away in the seeds or left in the straw ashes? See page 296. (6) Why is it usually profitable to inoculate soil with the bacteria that are associated with the various legume crops? How may such inoculation be accompUshed for alfalfa, red clover, or soy beans? See page 415. (7) Compare the influence of the root systems of red clover, alfalfa and wheat on the physical texture of surface soil and subsoil? (8) Examine carefully the root systems of corn, wheat, flax, potatoes, cowpeas, alfalfa and red clover while growing in the field. Use a spade and a garden hose, if possible, to study the size and extent of the root systems. EFFECT OF CROPPING ON SOIL PROPERTIES 63 (9) Examine the roots of clover, cowpeas, soy beans or alfalfa on land well infected with bacteria and on land that has not been inoculated. Note the number and size of the root tubercles. (10) Write a 1,000 word essay on the function of humus in soils, discussing its effects on the physical and chemical properties of various kinds of soils. Also discuss methods for maintaining or increasing the supply of humus in the soil. Pholo by courtesy Northern Pacific Railway. A ninety ton stack of alfalfa hay. Stacking hay with a derrick saves hard work and expense, and makes it possible to build large stacks having a minimum amount of waste hay per ton. CHAPTER III THE EFFECT OF CONTINUOUS CROPPING ON PRODUCTIVITY, PLANT DISEASES, INSECTS AND WEEDS In the preceding paragraphs occasional references have been made to tlie effect which various classes of crops have on the physical texture and the fertility of the soil. These facts, already stated, together with other facts pertaining to this same subject, may be summarized as follows: The Effect on the Soil of a Continuous Succession of Grain Crops. When the grain crops, such as wheat, oats, rye, barley, millet and flax, are grown year after year on the same piece of land, and the crop products removed, the supply of humus is gradually decreased until the soil loses its loaminess and its power to supply various ele- ments of plant food in sufficient amounts for profitable yields. A soil without humus may contain abundant amounts of the necessary elements of plant food and yet be unproductive, because these elements of plant food are in firmly fixed chemical compounds unavailable to plant roots. Such a condition could not exist in a soil containing plentiful supplies of humus, for the humus provides the necessary conditions for soil decay and the plac- ing of plant food in solution easily available to plant roots. The grain crops also are delicate feeders and their root systems are not strong and far reaching. Plant food, es- pecially nitrogen, must be plentifully supplied and easily accessible in the soil or else these crops do not produce heavily. The inevitable result of continuous grain cropping is to consume the available plant food of the soil at a faster EFFECTS OF CONTINUOUS CROPPING 65 rate than new supplies are liberated, and so, ultimately, the soil is unproductive of grain crops whose roots are delicate and confined to a relatively small area. These statements are not so applicable to field peas and soy beans, when grown for seed production, as in case of such grain crops as wheat, oats and barley; for the peas and beans are crops that gather atmospheric nitrogen. Shallow plowing has usually been a feature of con- tinuous grain growing in the United States, and under such conditions of farming there is a tendency for subsoils to become more compact than when deeper plowing and crop rotation are practiced. A nard, compact subsoil does not make a good reservoir for the storage of soil moisture. Heavy rains are not absorbed quickly in such a subsoil and roots cannot penetrate deeply to obtain moisture. At all seasons a hard subsoil is unfavorable for root development. Weeds accumulate very rapidly and are difficult to eradicate on land that is subjected to continuous grain cropping. Weeds rob the crops of moisture, plant food, and sunshine, and their seeds injure the market value of the cereals unless additional labor is provided to separate the weed seeds from the grain. Weeds accumulate quickly on grain growing lands, because many of them grow up with the crop and scatter their seeds on the ground before the crop is harvested. These seeds are then plowed into the soil and placed in favorable conditions to germinate and produce another generation of weeds. Weed seeds, also, may be carried over from one year to another with the seed grain, but they can be eliminated in the case of most weeds by carefully cleaning the seed grain with a fanning mill. The Effects on the Soil of a Continuous Succession of Cultivated Crops. Such difficulties as weed eradication and the hardening of subsoils are not so apparent when cul- 66 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION tivated crops, such as corn or sorghum, are grown continu- ously, as under a system of continuous grain cropping. Weeds are easily kept in check by summer cultivation, and the stronger roots of these crops open the subsoil to a certain extent. The chief trouble caused by a continuous succession of cultivated crops is that the constant stirring of the soil de- cays humus at a rapid rate, and, while this process is con- ducive to big yields during the time that the original supply of humus is great in the soil, it is a decidedly unprofitable practice when long continued. If soil is continually sub- jected to summer cultivation, the decay of humus becomes very rapid. During this process of decay more nitrogen may be liberated than can be immediately used by the crop or fixed and stored away in the soil as plant food. Such excess amounts of nitrogen are largely lost through leaching. Thus, in time, the soil becomes deficient in nitrogenous plant food unless it is liberally manured and fertilized. A continuous succession of cultivated crops on hillside lands permits of annual soil erosions that soon carry away the finest and most valuable soil particles and deposit them on the low lands and river bottoms. The cultivated crop, with its loose surface soil and the furrows that lead and draw water, is an aid to the natural processes of soil erosion and should not be used continuously on hillside lands. The Effects on the Soil of a Continuous Succession of Grass Crops. Even the grass crops, with their ability to produce humus, to prevent leaching and soil washing, and, in the case of clovers and alfalfa, to push their taproots into the subsoil, cannot be grown continuously for many years with maximum profits. When grass crops, such as timothy and brome grass, occupy the soil for many years, the upper crust EFFECTS OF CONTINUOUS CROPPING 67 of soil becomes a thick mat of roots crowding each other for air, moisture and plant food. The crop becomes sodbound and the yields decrease greatly, due to the crowded condition of the roots. When the grass crop reaches this stage, the turf should be broken, and the plow, the harrow, and the cul- tivated crop be allowed to assist the decay of the turf and to loosen and improve the physical texture of the soil. The same conditions are met when alfalfa and clover are allowed to occupy the land for many years. Red clover cannot profitably occupy the land for more than two or three years; for its natural life is only two years, and, after this period has closed, the crop can maintain itself only by natural seeding, which is always scattering and, therefore, pro- ductive of low yields. Soil is said to become "clover sick" or "alfalfa sick" when these crops remain on the land too many years. This soil condition is thought to be due to the accumulations of crop residues in the soil which prove unfavorable to the continuous growth of one kind of crops. This simply means in a practical sense, that the conditions within the soil have ceased to be favorable for the roots of these crops, and that the soil, to yield its maximum products, needs tillage and aeration and a change in the character of plant life. Old alfalfa sod can be benefited by thorough disk- ing and manuring, and the crop is thus stimulated to further production. Even these methods, however, fail to make of alfalfa a permanently productive crop on the same soil area. Eventually a change of crop is desirable. The Efifect of Continuous Cropping on the Soil's Supply of Available Plant Food. The total supply of plant food matter in the soil and the supply which is actually available to crops are two radically different factors. Only a small portion of the total supply of the elements of plant food in the soil is in an available condition to growing crops at any given time. 68 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION The plant food of the soil must undergo certain chemical changes and must be in solution in soil water before crop roots can assimilate it. The soil must be well drained, must be supplied with decaying organic matter, and must be thor- oughly tilled and aerated, if conditions are provided that will bring about the chemical changes whereby plant food is rendered available to crop roots. If these conditions are not provided, the result is that the crops draw on the soil's supply of available plant food until it is partially or entirely exhausted and the soil becomes un- productive. The continuous cropping of any one class of crops tends to draw heavily on the available plant food of the soil and to ultimately check the chemical changes in the soil that liberate plant food and render it available for crop roots. The soil conditions necessary to the liberation of plant food are best provided when the grain, grass, and cultivated crops alternately occupy the soil. The Effect of Crop Residues on the Growth of a Succeed- ing Crop of the Same Species. The unproductivity of soils subjected to continuous cropping is further explained in modern chemistry and bacteriology by a study of the effect of crop residues on the growth of a succeeding crop of the same species. It is believed that crop roots in their growth excrete waste products that remain in the soil and unfavor- ably affect the root growth of a succeeding crop of the same species. In time the soil may store up enough of these poi- sonous waste products to materially check the growth of that particular species of plants. Such a condition is avoided when various kinds of crops are alternated. The addition of animal manures to soil is also a valuable practice in remedy- ing this unfavorable condition produced by waste products; for, in the decay and oxidation of the manure, the poisonous waste plant products are absorbed and rendered harmless, EFFECTS OF CONTINUOUS CROPPING 69 just as the poisonous and foul matter in water is absorbed when the water is put through a charcoal filter. It is highly probable that further investigations in soil chemistry, plant physiology and bacteriology will give many additional explanations for the unproductivity of soils sub- jected to continuous cropping. But, whatever the reasons and explanations offered, the remedy will undoubtedly re- main unchanged, namely, the rotation of the grain, grass and cultivated crops. Continuous Cropping and the Control of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests. The control of plant diseases and insect pests is also very difficult when continuous cropping is prac- ticed. This is easily explained, if it is realized that the extent of an epidemic of insect pests or plant diseases is mainly de- pendent upon the supply of food available to the pest, and that it is the crop affected by the disease or the insect that supplies the food. Thus, if large areas of a particular crop are grown year after year in any locality, a constant supply of food is provided for these crop enemies and they thrive accordingly. An excellent example of how a crop disease flourishes under a scheme of continuous cropping is shown in the case of ''flax wilt," a fungus disease affecting the growth of the flax crop. Flax wilt is caused by a fungus that is parasitic on the roots of flax. The fungus plant develops among the root and lower stem tissues of the flax plant and gradually starves its host by absorbing the plant food in its cells. It lives in the soil for several seasons on the decaying roots and stubble of the flax crop. Thus, if flax is grown continuously on the land, the fungus disease is able to attack the successive crops of flax and cause considerable damage. If flax is rotated with other crops, however, the flax wilt fungus dies out after a few seasons, because it loses its vitality, if it cannot become parasitic on the flax crop occasionally 70 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION PROBLEMS AND PRACTICUMS (1) What are the best methods to employ in eradicating wild oats, mustard, corn cockle, Canadian thistle, and quack grass in systems of continuous grain growing, or on a badly infested farm? See page 436. (2) Collect samples of the important noxious weeds of your locaUty. Famiharize yourself with the roots, seeds, and general appear- ance of these weeds. Study the best methods for eradicating these \\'eeds and discuss the effect of systematic crop rotation on the Ufe history of each weed. ,3) Study the adjustment and operation of the fanning mill to sepa- rate various kinds of weed seed from seed grain. v'-l) Examine the soil in some field that is known to have grown cultivated crops for a long term of years, also the soil in some fields where meadow and pasture crops or green manure crops liave been alternated with cultivated crops. Compare these soil samples carefully in the laboratory. (5) Examine the furrow-shce area of an old timothy sod. Note the number and extent of the roots in proportion to the amount of soil. (6) Learn the essential facts about the life histories of the chinch bug, Hessian fly, army worm, grasshopper, flax wilt, potato scab, and corn smut, and find out what effect continuous cropping has on these crop enemies. See page 428 of this book, also reference books on entomology. CHAPTER IV ADVANTAGES OF CROP ROTATION General Results Accomplished by Crop Rotation. Crop rotation has been previously defined as a system of growing the grain, grass, and cultivated crops on a given area of land in such order and such succession as to keep the soil in a high state of productivity. From the preceding paragraphs it may be noted that successions of grain crops such as wheat, barley and oats ; cultivated crops, such as corn and cotton or corn and potatoes; or successions of grass crops, such as timothy followed by clover and brome grass, are not rotations or changes of crops that vary much in their effect on the productivity of the soil. They are merely successions of crops bearing different names, but having similar effects on soil productivity. When the grain, grass, and cultivated crops, however, are alternated on the land, the result is, that, with thorough tillage methods, the soil is kept free from weeds and in a con- dition of good tilth and productivity. The rotation of grain, grass, and cultivated crops provides a system of field man- agement in which the humus consuming and humus pro- ducing crops, nitrogen consuming and nitrogen gathering crops, and the deep and shallow rooted crops alternately occupy the soil. As a result, the furrow-slice and the subsoil just beneath the furrow-slice are kept in a continual state of decay, so that plant food is at all times available to plant roots and crop residues are not injurious to succeeding crops. Crop Rotation and the Control of Weeds, Crop Diseases and Insect Pests. Noxious weeds have great difficulty in maintaining their existence on land subjected to a systematic 72 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION rotation of grain, grass and cultivated crops. If weed seeds accumulate during the time that grain crops occupy the land, the weed plants in succeeding years must contend with strong growing grass crops for the possession of the soil or be uproot- ed by cultivation during the period when cultivated crops are on the land. Many weed seeds, buried in the soil, lose their vitality during the years that grass crops occupy the land. If the weed seed possesses the power of remaining dormant yet vital for several years, it will not be destroyed by the grass crop, but will come to hght and flourish as soon as the grass land is plowed up. Its chances for propagation, how- ever, are very slight if a cultivated crop is grown, for the process of inter-tillage during the summer months is pretty sure to destroy the growth of weeds. The rotation of various kinds of crops on the land is undoubtedly a severe check to widespread epidemics of such fungus diseases as rust, smut and flax wilt or insect pests such as chinch bugs, Hessian fly, army worm, and grass- hoppers. The reasons are that in case of crop rotation the extent of the area of any given crop in any region or locality is lunited, as compared to vast areas of the same crop con- tiguous to one another. Thus the epidemic cannot accumulate so rapidly and spread so far, with attendant losses, because the area of the crop on which the epidemic feeds and accumu- lates is interspersed with areas of other crops. Likewise it is more difficult for crop diseases and insect pests to carry over from one year to the next, if various classes of crops are being alternately grown on the soil; for a sudden change in the methods of soil preparation and kind of crop that occupies the soil will disturb and interrupt the propagation of the fungus disease or the insect pest. Crop Rotation, The Use of Live Stock, and the Relation Which Live Stock Has to Soil Fertility. A succession of ADVANTAGES OF CROP ROTATION 73 crops that does not include hay and pasture crops is sure to be destructive to the humus supply of the soil. Green manure crops, it is true, can be occasionally introduced and the organic matter which they produce plowed under to enrich the soil. But the green manure crop is comparatively expen- sive. It entails an outlay for seed and labor, and it gives no direct returns — only a return in the increased yield from succeeding crops. The so-called grass crops, however, will provide humus supplies for the soil and also yield marketable products in the form of hay and pasture crops. To obtain the greatest possible returns from these grass crops it is necessary that hve stock be kept on the farms. Without live stock to utilize hay and pasture crops and to Photo by courtesy "The Farmer." Mowing the"grass crop" of clover and timothy. Rotation meadow and pas- ture crops, utilized by live stock, offer the easiest and cheapest method for maintaining the soil's supply of humus. 74 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION manufacture meat and milk therefrom, the grass crop, in many locaHties, has no market value, and can be regarded as a profitable part of the rotation only in the same sense as a green manure crop is regarded profitable, namely, as a producer of humus. In some localities hay products have a cash value, and the grass crop portion of the rotation can be turned into cash without the use of live stock on the farm. When these methods are followed, however, there is a loss of humus and plant food from the soil that would largely be recovered in manure, if the grass crops were fed to live stock. Agricultural experience, the world over, has shown that in the long run the system of farming that includes live stock and grass crops is the most profitable. When good markets exist for live stock products, the grass crop portion of the rotation is usually more profitable than the grain or cereal portion, providing, of course, that the grass crops are intelli- gently grown and that good types of live stock are used and intelligently managed. Grass crops are more cheaply pro- duced than grain or cultivated crops (average cost about one half that of the other crops) and the cost of a pasture crop is very little besides the fixed charges on the land, as the live stock harvests the crop free of costs. The marketing charges for live stock products, per acre of land, are much less than for grain products, because the crop products fed to live stock are concentrated by the animals and delivered in the markets in the least bulky form. Live stock farming as a business is much more difficult to manage than grain farming. It requires more diversified knowledge and more capital. It is, therefore, rarely under- taken by the pioneer farmer on virgin soil areas adapted to grain growing or associated with grain production in an inten- sive scheme of farming in regions of sparse population not tributary to great centers of dense population. But, as ADVANTAGES OF CROP ROTATION 75 agricultural regions become thickly settled and the soil loses its natural stores of humus and available fertility, successful agri- culture becomes almost dependent upon the use of live stock. It is not difficult to see why live stock is so essential to a permanent and abiding system of agriculture, if thought is given to the differing effects which continuous grain cropping and live stock farming have on the productivity of the soil. Incase of grain farming, the mineral elements of the soil that have been taken up by the crop are sold away entirely from the farm; the humus, nitrogen, and other plant food supplies of the soil are reduced too low for successful crop growth ; and the shallow rooted crops soon put the soil in an undesirable physical condition. When live stock farming and grain farm- ing are combined, however, the soil tends to stay permanently in a productive condition. Grass crops accompany the use of live stock, and the taproots of clover and alfalfa open and mellow the subsoil, while the matted turf of roots and stems produced by meadow and pasture crops, when plowed under, adds humus to the soil, and maintains a desirable physical condition within the soil. Morever, only small amounts of plant food are sold from the land when live stock farming is combined with grain culture. The manure and urine from live stock contain more than three fourths of the original elements of plant food taken up by the plants and consumed by the live stock. Thus, if these waste animal products are returned to the soil soon after they are voided, the actual loss of plant food is greatly lessened. Experiments in crop growing have always shown that, no matter how skilfully crops are grown and rotated, the total yield of crop products through a series of years from unmanured fields is never equal to the yield from a similar rotation in which the land is occasionally manured. The beneficial effects of manuring soil can be noted for many 76 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION years after the manure has been applied. Not only does manure directly add available plant food to the soil, but it also provides humus and acid solvents that assist soil decay and make supplies of raw plant food available to crop roots in succeeding years. The most desirable system of cropping, therefore, as regards soil fertility, is one in which the grain, grass, and cultivated crops are alternated, and in which the grass crops and a portion of the grain crops are fed to live stock, the manure from the live stock being returned to the soil as soon as possible after it is voided. The litter carrier takes the manure from the stalls to the manure spreader at the minimum of expense. During late autumn, winter and eariy spring manure should be hauled directly to the fields to avoid losses in value from leach- ing and fermentation. ADVANTAGES OF CROP ROTATION 77 The problem of maintaining soil productivity without live stock is more difficult than with live stock. Without live stock and grass crops, the farmer must resort to com- mercial fertilizers (the by-products of meat packing plants or the nitrogen, phosphate, and potash salts taken from mines) and green manures, if the soil is kept in a continual state of high productivity. Both of these processes demand an advance outlay of money and labor, and the returns are not direct, as in the case of live stock. Green manure crops, however, are of great value in keeping soils in good tilth and they afford a good substitute for grass crops and When fall plowing is leveled with the harrow, it is not difficult to spread the manure on the plowing during the winter months. Spring disking works the manure into the seed bed where the plant food is available to young crop roots, and where the manure mulches the land during the summer season. This is the ideal method for preparing corn ground. 78 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION the manure from live stock. They may be grown as catch crops between regular crops and plowed into the soil when they have matured sufficiently to have developed a large mass of foliage, and thus they will not seriously interfere with the growing of regular market crops. The addition of large amounts of organic matter — pro- duced by a green manure crop — to a worn out soil increases the productivity of the soil very noticeably, and, in agricul- tural regions where great live stock markets do not exist, where grass crops cannot be universally grown and prof- itably fed to live stock, or where the natural preference of the farmer is for extensive grain, corn or cotton growing, the occasional use of green manure crops is a practical necessity in maintaining soil productivity. Crop Rotation and the Maintenance of The Soil's Supply of Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium. Among all the chemical compounds of the soil that are assimilated by crops during their growth, those compounds containing nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium are most essential to the development of the plant. In previous paragraphs it has been shown that nitrogen can be supplied to the soil by means of legume crops and the nitrogen gathering bacteria associated with them. Thus it is possible to restore and even increase the supplies of nitrogen in the soil. The soil's supply of phosphorus and potassium, however, is dependent upon the original supplies in the rock materials that make up the body of the soil. The total amounts of these elements of plant food in the soil can be increased only by the addition of commercial fertilizers which contain phosphorus and potassium, such as ground bones, phosphate rock, wood ashes, and the Stassfurt potash salts from Germany. These fertilizers are expensive and impractical of use for a vast majority of the world's farmers. Thus it may be seen that ADVANTAGES OF CROP ROTATION 79 the original supplies of phosphorus and potassium in the soil must always be the main supplies for plant growth. Potassium is more abundant in soils than phosphorus. Phosphorus is more likely to be lacking in soils than any other element of plant food. Only a small portion of the phosphorus and potassium compounds of the soil is in such a form that plant roots may assimilate it. The larger part is quite firmly fixed in nearly stable chemical compounds, and the disintegration of these compounds and the releasing of the supplies of phos- phorus and potassium is a slow and gradual process. Grad- ual disintegration of these chemical compounds is absolutely necessary, if the soil continues to be productive. The necessary conditions in the soil to bring about this disinte- gration are: (1) the presence of decaying organic matter and the acid solvents produced therefrom; (2) the presence of moisture in sufficient amounts for plant growth; (3) a condition of soil tilth that facilitates the movement of air in the soil; (4) the presence of certain soil bacteria which assist in the decay of organic matter and the production of acid solvents, such as nitric acid. When these conditions are maintained in the soil, the decay and disintegration of soil material are continuous, and all naturally productive soils will continue for long periods of time to yield phosphorus and potassium in sufficient amounts for good crop growth. If the method of farming fails to provide these conditions, however, a severe check is given to the production of available phosphorus and potassium, and crops are soon starved for these necessary plant foods. When true crop rotation is practiced, with live stock to utilize pasture and forage crops, the farmer needs to worry but little over the supplies of phosphorus and potassium for his crops, providing the soil is not naturally deficient in 80 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION these elements of plant food. Humus producing crops keep the soil well supplied with humus and acid solvents. Animal manures provide humus and acid solvents" as well as return to the soil actual plant food which crops' have taken up in their growth. The cultivation and tillage of the soil necessary for the grain and cultivated crops aerate the soil and keep it in good physical condition. Under these conditions, as soil ages it keeps in a productive con- dition and its supplies of plant food are renewed from within. As time passes, the plow and the cultivator run a little deeper, year by year, and fresh soil is brought into the furrow-slice where its stores of phosphorus and potassium are liberated for the crops. Soils that are naturally defi- cient in phosphorus, or soils that have been badly worn by crops which remove large amounts of phosphorus, cannot be kept productive, so far as phosphorus is concerned, through crop rotation and careful tillage. Under such conditions there is no large reserve supply of phosphorus to draw on and phosphate fertilizers must be used to amend the phosphorus deficiencies of the soil and to thus maintain crop yields at a high level. It is a mis-statement of fact to say that crop rotation increases the fertility of the soil, for this it does not do. As a matter of fact, crop rotation causes greater amounts of plant food to be taken from the soil than the practice of continuous cropping, because crop yields are usually larger. The advantages lie in the fact that plant food, under a crop rotation system, is drawn from a more exten- sive soil area than under continuous cropping, and that a physical condition is maintained in the soil that continually makes new supplies of plant food available to the crops from the reserve supplies in the soil. In the one case soils may become barren and unproductive, because the plant ADVANTAGES OF CROP ROTATION 81 food of the soil is not in an available condition, and in the other case productivity is maintained for long periods of time, because the reserve plant food of the soil is made available to crop roots. Furthermore, when crop rotation is accompanied by animal husbandry the actual loss of plant food from the soil is much less than it would be otherwise; for live stock provides a check to the dii-ect outgo of plant food. Crop Rotation, Farm Labor and Business Management. The advantages previously accredited to crop rotation have referred mainly to the problems of soil fertility and produc- tivity. Successful agriculture in modem times, however, is by no means confined to the art of preserving soil fertility. Business and commercial principles are as important factors in farm management as the scientific principles of soil man- agement or the principles of animal husbandry. As the agriculture of any nation emerges from the barter stage and enters the realm of commerce it becomes essential that the farmer, if he be successful, shall be something more than a tiller of the soil. Agriculture in modern times is becoming complicated. The farmer comes in contact with the commercial problems of the markets and the problems of farm labor in a much more intimate manner than in the days when each community satisfied its wants with the local products from the soil and the forest. Not only does the march of civilization impose on the farmer the task of master- ing knowledge about soil fertility, but also the task of master- ing system and business methods in the conduct of his affairs. The farming methods that existed in the pioneer days of a nation become obsolete as the land becomes fully occupied and of high value, and as the people extend their business from petty local trade to foreign commerce.* *See discussion at end of chapter on "Value of Land a Factor in Determining the Most Profitable System of Farming." 82 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Systematic rotation of crops is a great aid to the successful management of any farm. It is not the one and only remedy for worn out soils and for badly managed farms, but it is one of the fundamental principles to observe in giving business system and science to the management of a farm. The farmer who has planned a scheme of crop rotation suited to his conditions, and put that scheme into operation, has built Photo by courtesy Deere and Company. The side delivery rake windrowing clover and timothy hay. The hay is dried on one side in the swath and then rolled into loose windrows to complete the drying. When the hay is handled from the windrow with the hay loader, labor is economized and there is but small loss of leaves. his business on a sure foundation, and the farm can be man- aged much more systematically and efficiently than without a definite, basic plan of crop production. Many advantages of an economic or business nature can be cited as the result of systematic crop rotation. In a general sense, crop rotation distributes and diffuses farm labor through the various seasons of the year and minimizes ADVANTAGES OF CROP ROTATION 8» the acute demand for labor at the planting and harvest sea- sons; and this is a most important feature of farm manage- ment. The farmer whose business is confined to growing one or two of the staple crops such as wheat, corn, cotton, or potatoes, must keep horses, machinery, buildings and labor available to plant and harvest these crops in the proper seasons. If he is compelled to hire day labor during these seasons of seedtime and harvest, he must compete in the labor market with thousands of other farmers seeking labor at these seasons, and must pay high wages for his extra help. During the winter and some of the summer months, horses, machinery and men must be idle on these "one crop" farms, and thus the fixed charges for upkeep of horses, machinery, and other forms of fixed capital, are comparatively high, because the most efficient use possible is not made of this portion of the farmer's capital. Contrast this one problem of labor on the "one crop" farm with the situation on a farm where crop rotation is practiced. It is self-evident that, when a variety of crops such as wheat, barley, corn, potatoes, and the meadow and pasture crops are grown on the same farm, the labor of planting, harvesting and preparing the soil for crops will be distributed through longer seasons than if one or two crops only were grown on account of the difference in the crops themselves, and thus the problem of keeping horses, men and machinery constantly employed is at least partially solved. Crop rotation, with its inclusion of the meadow and pasture crops, also demands that live stock be kept on the farm to make profitable use of these grass crops. The keep- ing of live stock also distributes farm labor through the vari- ous seasons and provides profitable winter work for men and horses when the "one crop" farmer and his horses are idle and unproductive. Some winter work can alwaj^s be found 84 FIELD 3IANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION when live stock is one of the farm's enterprises. The work of hauling and distributing manure, grinding feed, and the care of the live stock keeps the farmer, his men, and his horses busy at all times. Of course arguments like these do not appeal to men who have no desire to work steadily and make the most of their capital and their labor, but they are Photo by courtesy "The Farmer." With good calves, good milking mothers, clover or alfalfa pastures, rich grain rations, and some succulent feed such as ensilage or roots, baby beef can be marketed at fifteen or sixteen months of age at a profit that greatly enhances the value of the crops utilized. ADVANTAGES OF CROP ROTATION 85 logical arguments to the farmer desirous of systematizing the business side of agriculture. These arguments become particularly important in regions where land values are high and where transient labor is scarce and costly. When forage crops, as well as many kinds of grain crops, are fed to live stock, it is possible to enhance the value of crops. Live stock feeding is, in reality, a manufacturing enterprise, the products of which have a value greater than the raw products out of which they are made. When forage crops and grain are intelligently fed to good types of live stock, the value of the crops is usually increased to a considerable extent. This feature of animal husbandry is distinct from the problems of soil productivity, and is worthy of consideration as an important business feature of farm management. The finished product usually sells for a greater profit than the raw product. The farm manager who is a good husbandman can usually obtain a higher price for many of his crops when marketed through live stock than when crops are directly marketed. The relation of crop rotation and live stock to the waste products of farming is a matter of considerable importance in farm management. It is always a noticeable fact about "one crop" farms that waste occurs, because the handling of one large crop in a short period of time forces hastily performed work that is often so careless as to cause waste and damage, particularly at the harvest season. Large values are lost in waste crop products also, on all farms where live stock is not kept. For example, in the harvesting of potatoes, many bushels of small potatoes are always left on the fields by the pickers, as well as the bruised and covered tubers left by the diggers. If swine or sheep can be driven over the potato fields after the marketable crop has been removed, they will literally grow fat on the waste part of the harvest. When 86 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Canadian field or wrinkled peas are harvested, it is impossible to so harvest the crop as not to leave several bushels per acre of waste peas on the land. Swine or sheep will fatten at no expense on these waste products. When corn is husked in the field, also, there is always some waste that cattle and hogs will utilize, if the farm manager has the live stock available at the proper time. It is an old saying that "sheep will live on the waste products of the farm," and it is true. The farm manager cannot neglect the waste products of crop growing, if he plans to make the greatest returns possible from his land and his equipment. Crop rotation and the use of live stock reduce the losses on crop waste products to the mmimum. Photo by courtesy "The Fanner ." A small band of sheep is a profitable investment on any farm. They help the farmer to keep weeds under control, and they pay dividends from much of the waste material incidental to crop production. ADVANTAGES OF CROP ROTATION 87 Crop rotation is sometimes said to provide insurance against loss from fluctuating markets and from climatic crop risks. There is some truth in the saying. Sudden and vio- lent market fluctuations in various farm products often mean great gain or great loss to the producer. If "one crop" farm- ing is practiced, the farmer may occasionally have a large stock of produce on hand to sell in a high priced market and thus reap great profits; but years of low prices may affect his profits adversely in the same proportion. Farmers who practice crop rotation, however, must market a variety of products each year, and low prices in one class of products may be counterbalanced by high prices in another class of products. The rotation plan is more reliable and less subject to the ups and downs of business than a scheme of farm man- agement built on one or two crops. The same arguments apply to the losses that occur from unforeseen and unfavorable climatic conditions. Storms or drouth that severely injure wheat may not affect corn, and a season of very heavy rain that may injure corn will increase the products from meadows and pastures. When all these crops are being produced annually, the danger from loss due to drouth, heavy storms, or excessive rain, is greatly minimized, and the system can be said "to pro- vide insurance against loss from climatic conditions." The fact that live stock is usually kept on farms where crop rotation is practiced is an important factor in min- imizing losses from unfavorable climatic conditions. For example, if a crop of small grain is badly lodged after it is headed out it is almost a total loss unless it can be pastured off at once. Again, in seasons of drouth, the straw of small grains may be too short to permit of cutting with a binder, and unless live stock is available to pasture off such crops, the labor of plowing and seeding, as well as the seed value, 88 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION is a loss to the farm. Of course, when these unforeseen crop conditions arise, it is possible for the farm manager to buy feeder stock or to lease the land to stock owners, but in such cases the owner of the damaged crop is forced to take the short end of the bargain unless he owns his own live stock and can pasture off the damaged crop at once. Perhaps the greatest business advantage that may be attributed to crop rotation is that it teaches system and organization to the farm manager. Crop rotation, to be successful, must be systematic and be carried out carefully and precisely. System and organization soon become apparent in all departments of a farm where regular crop rotation is practiced; for it cannot be practiced in a hap- hazard, unsystematic manner. It injects system and organization into all the affairs of the farm, and these things are in well nigh universal need. VALUE OF LAND A FACTOR IN DETERMINING THE MOST PROFITABLE SYSTEM OF FARMING. (From Bulletin 73, Bureau of Statistics, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) Profits constitute one of the factors which operate to fix the market value of land. A clear illustration of the manner in which profits affect the market value of agricultural land is seen in the effect which the location of a beet-sugar factory has upon land values in its immediate vicinity. A demonstration that greater net profits can be made from sugar-beet culture than from grain growing or corn and hog farming will tend to appreciate the value of all land within the territory of the factory. Land owners will quote their land higher than prior to the estabUshment of the new industry, whether they are producing beets or not. Location is undoubtedly an important factor in determining profits and, therefore, in determining the market value of land; fertihty or productivity of the soil is relatively a less important factor as compared with location. Poor land near good markets and with good transpor- ADVANTAGES OF CROP ROTATION 89 tation facilities may yield greater profits per acre from crops adapted to such locations than will the most fertile soils remote from good markets. Thus good roads, the increase of city industries, the use of refrigerator cars, and many other factors of a similar nature all tend to make land more accessible, to better its location, to increase the opportunities for profit making, and to cause an increase in the market values of the land. A number of special causes which have influenced profits in American agriculture and caused appreciation in land values are worthy of men- tion. The coming of the settler into the grazing lands west of the Mis- souri River increased the value of Dakota farm lands, because the profits per acre in wheat culture, even with poor tillage, were greater than those in grazing cattle, and as wheat supplanted grazing the price of wild land was quoted on the basis of profits in wheat, not cattle. Again, the introduction of new crops and machinery has had much to do with increasing land values. Durum wheat has made profitable much semi-arid land that was capitalized very low prior to the introduction of that crop, and many a new farm machine, the creation of American genius, has increased the profits from the soil. The partial passing of the widespread cotton-crop "lien system" in the South has greatly influenced the profits from southern soil and caused a noticeable increase in farm-land values. It is not uncommon in modern American agriculture to find com- munities in which land values have doubled or trebled since the days of settlement, and yet there has been little or no change therein in the system of farming. New and improved machinery has taken the place of old and relatively inefficient machinery, and buildings have usually increased in number, size, and usefulness. The crops, the methods of cropping and of marketing have nevertheless remained unchanged in many instances, although the land has appreciated in value 100 per cent or more. In such communities the market value of the land has been influenced, not by profits on land within the territory, but by those on other land equally well located, under similar chmatic conditions, that has yielded profits proportionate to the higher capitalization. One reason why profits from farm lands are not always in proportion to the market value of the land is that men who secured homesteads or cheap land soon became independent, debts were wiped out, a living was assured, and the habit of cropping the land with the methods of early times persisted even though other men on similar land might be reaping greater profits. Such men or such communities not having 90 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION interest accounts to pay on the new valuations may not have been forced into more profitable systems of farming. Many such commu- nities could be cited in the old wheat-growing regions of Minnesota and the corn-growing sections of Illinois. Such land may yield a fair profit on the original capitalization and enable the owner to create a surplus, but how different the situation becomes to the man who buys a piece of high priced land, places a mortgage on it at current interest rates, and starts out to make a living, to pay interest charges on the high valua- tion, and, in addition, to pay off the mortgage. Land rental, or interest on the investment in land, is not usually considered an item of expense in the production of farm products, but such a charge is fully justified. If capital can be withdrawn from agri- culture and yield 6 per cent in other industries, then the business of farming must be debited with interest on the investment, as well as the wages paid to labor, in the determination of net profit. On high priced land interest becomes an important item of expense as compared with conditions of relatively low land values. It is not beyond the range of possibiUty in new wheat regions for two good wheat crops to pay costs of production and pay for the land, but, even with equal fertility, on relatively high-priced land the situation is materially changed because the costs of production are much higher. The cost of producing wheat in S. E. Minn, is $9.86 per acre; in S. W. Minn., $8.38, and in N. W. Minn., $6.97, the chief difference in cost being accounted for by differ- ences in land rental or in the interest on the investment. Reference should be made to the Table given herewith in which it may be seen that the cost of producing wheat is 66.9 per cent higher on land valued at $100 than on land valued at $20. Increases in the cost of producing field crops, due to changes in land value, fall heaviest on those crops that reqxiire only a relatively small apphcation of capital and labor in their production. The increase of cost is greater for crops hke wheat and clover that require but a small amount of capital and labor in their production than for crops like potatoes, mangels, or ensilage which require a relatively large amount. For example, it may be seen in this table that the cost of producing wheat on $20 land is $7.18 and on $100 land $11.98, an increase of $4.80, or 66.9 per cent. The cost of produc- ing potatoes on $20 land is $24.55 and on $100 land $29.36, an increase of $4.80 or 19.5 per cent. The cost of producing corn ensilage on $20 land is $17.59 and on $100 land $22.39, an increase of $4.80, or 27.3 per cent. ADVANTAGES OF CROP ROTATION 91 CO GO (M ^ (N t^iMOlOO CD CO 05 --H ^ t^ 00 O 'X) GO •4-1 o o lo 01 CO CO a> lOi-Hoocooi O «f» ^ CO (M ^ (N Q0iO^O5'-H t-< ^ --H C^ "-1 --I COrHClrH o ^ CO CO (N ^ . t^ CO 03 »0 (M !>. CO 3 d (m' ^ d (^i t--rt<.-Hoo.-H --1 --H (M ^ --H COr-KMrH > C3 ^ CO OD (M 'Tfi (M t^(MClCOO a O CO O "H ^ t^ooocooo d CO O rH --1 t^ COOOOr-Ht^ '> GO d c^i ^ d --i i>coOQOO c3 a c3 ^ T-H (M --H .-1 CO --H (M rH CO GO (M Tt< (M t^ (M CI O O CO CO 05 "H T-H 1>GOCDCOCO O d t^ ■* lO »0 T-H 1> CO O lO itH «© 05 1— 1 o 05 i-H CO CO o r^ o "3 ^1-H(M T-H CO^C^r-l CO 00 C3 05 "O ^ !>. ■* C» LO "2 «© 05 d 05 GO O COfMOCOOl a ^ i-H "-I rH CO OJ CO 00 (M -* (M t^(NOiCOO bO CO CO 05 rH r-H t^ 00 CO CO 00 a d lO (M CO CO Ol lOrHCOCOOJ -3 3 99 00 d 05 (Z) 03 lOiMOOCOOO a ^ .-H rH CO (M CO GO (M ^ (N t^lNOicOO "^ CO CO 05 rH rH t^ GO CO CO 00 a d 05 CO t^ t^ CO O5»O(Mt^C0 o e© t^ 05 00 1> Oi Tt^rHGOlOOO 3 o a^ rH CO rH rH t^OOCOCOOO 0, d CO CO O rH rH t^ CO 0> CO lO t> ^ t^ C5 00 t^ GO ^di>toi> O ^ ^ CO (M CO CO (M -+ C^ t>(M05C0O o CD CO 05 i-H rH t-- 00 CO CD GO O d t^ ^ lO lO rH l>COO»OrH «» CD 00 t^ CD GO codt^-^t-^ «# rH CO (M CD , CO 00 C^ "* g c3 lO (M CO CO 05 IQ rH QO CO Ol in ■^■^ **J cd +^ >i2 ^ tw "o "^-g 1-^^ 13 1 ^ 03 0. T3 o 1 c3 C ^H 1 ?^ f^i: 1 ^ 1 'E ^3 >-i a ojQj'y^o 1 «a^. 1 o-i^ 1 03 O "^ -6i i C Oi C ' 03 i c C 03 e o o a a a a) OS a a 3 o n a a MXI a +a ca m ja t~t o M J3 ■tj tn o as ^ > ,— 1 o 03 01 Ul n a 0. UJ a iii o O) O ,*^ o j5 0) o 73 a & O as m n1 M __ n a ^ HI o 3 a 0) IH > a> a s -Ox) S d o fll d 03 fi M-( h-l o O ^ o 0. o ■a 03 2 C3 O la a o a n > u 03 03 P ^ & CO _3 C3 3 o >T1 o^*^ S ja a 3 ^ JS o 3 M ■n » o Jl 1) a) a ^ oja "o 3 6 o O a o -^ y\ ^ t_ V fn ■^ o o N ^ 03 rt«> 03 U >. a o o! 13 > 0) 2 3 T3 1 T3 13 03 J3 V 13 b H 1 3 0. a 0. aj o a o T3 T3 T3 O O a a CO o ^ Ji a a> «l» itH.S-t» 92 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION The premises concerning the causes of increase in land value and the effect of "interest on investment" in the cost of production have a practical apphcation in the study of farm management. Systems of crop rotation and farm organization must be chosen and efficiently followed which will yield an income larger than the cost. When land rental or interest on investment is considered as an item of expense, other items of cost remaining the same, the net product per acre must also increase, to yield equal rates of profit. That many locaUties exist in which "net proceeds" and land values are not proportionate must be conceded by all students of agriculture. The chief reason for this situation, wheresoever found, is that the system of farming and the crops grown by that system are not adapted to the economic environ- ment of the farm. Such conditions are nearly impossible in industries other than agriculture, but the independent farmer has his living and his home whether he manages his land to secure the highest possible profits or not, and so systems of farming which, because of changed economic conditions, are antiquated persist for many years in spite of the progress which appreciates the value of land. To illustrate the fact that certain crops and systems of farming are adapted to profitable management only under certain economic condi- tions, some conclusions may be drawn from the precedingTable relative to the cost of producing wheat, corn, and potatoes. Fifteen bushels of wheat per acre on $20 land at an average farm price of 66 cents per bushel will return a net profit of 13.6 per c6nt on the investment (i.e., on the value of the land), "net profit" being over and above the "land rental," which is counted as an item in the cost. The same crop on $50 land gives a net profit of 1.84 per cent, and on $100 land a net loss of 2 per cent. In order to secure equal rates of profit from the $50 land and the $100 land with this crop, price being the same, a yield of 23.9 bushels is necessary on the $50 land and 3S.S bushels on the $100 land. It may thus be seen that wheat is not adapted to profitable culture on high priced land— in fact, it is absolutely impossible to grow it and secure the same rate of profit as can be secured on the cheaper lands, less favor- ably located, but equal to or excelling the high-priced land in produc- tiveness for wheat. Average spring wheat yields of 24 or 39 bushels can not be secured, and wheat grown on $50 to $100 land can not compete with wheat on $20 land. Corn responds better to costly tillage, thrives better on old soils, and in regions favorable to its growth has greater possibilities for returning ADVANTAGES OF CROP ROTATION 93 a fair profit on high-priced land than wheat. Fifty bushels of corn per acre on $50 land at an average farm price of 32 cents per bushel will give a net profit of 11.52 per cent. The same crop on $100 land gives a net profit of 2.76 per cent, and on $150 land a net loss of 0.15 per cent. In order to secure equal rates of profit from the $100 land and the $150 land with the corn crop (price being the same) a yield of 77.47 bushels is necessary on the $100 land and 104.7 bushels on the $150 land. These figures indicate that the corn crop has greater possibihties for profit making on land valued above $50 per acre than wheat. Yields of 75 to 100 bushels of corn per acre are not impossible in Southern Minnesota, with good management; this will pay cost of production and give a reasonable profit on the high-priced land. The value of the corn crop can also be enhanced by feeding to cattle and hogs, and profits thus increased; and as the manure produced will tend to maintain the yields of corn at a high level this increased profit will also thus again be en- hanced. Wheat can not be fed profitably under ordinary conditions except at prices below 50 cents per bushel. One hundred bushels of com per acre is a very high yield for our average farm lands, even in Iowa and Illinois. Thus at present prices this crop under the system of farming associated with it ceases to be profitable when land values approximate $150 per acre. Potatoes illustrate a third type of staple crop that has greater possi- bilities through intensive culture on high-priced land than corn or wheat. One himdred bushels of potatoes per acre at 39 cents on the farm will give a net profit of 25.3 per cent on $50 land. The same crop on $100 land gives a net profit of 9.6 per cent, on $150 land a net profit of 4.4 per cent, and on $200 land a net profit of 1.8 per cent. To secure the same rate of profit as was obtained on the $100 land with a 100 bushel crop (9.6 per cent) the yield per acre must be 119.9 bushels on land valued at $150 and 139.9 bushels on the $200 land. Such yields are possible with fair cultivation. The potato crop, then, is adapted to intensive culture on high-priced land, and large applications of capital and labor are justified by the additional returns — a condition that is not true with the wheat and small grain crops. As land values increase beyond $200 to $300 per acre the potato crop becomes relatively unprofitable as compared with the onion crop and other garden crops requiring large amounts of labor per acre in their production. Onions, for example, under good cultivation, will yield 600 to 1000 bushels per acre, giving a gross income ranging from $200 to 94 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION $400 per acre. Strawberries, small fruits, and orchard crops are also illustrative of crops adapted to soils so located as to have a value of $400 per acre or higher. The value of land is thus seen to be a most impor- tant factor which governs the determination of the most profitable system of agriculture. The crops and the systems of farming must be in accord with land values, or financial loss is the result. Wheat, because of its low acre cost of production and its ease of storage and transportation, is adapted to culture only on relatively low-priced lands. The cost of producing this crop mounts up so rapidly on high-priced land as to make profits impossible; for the crop does not lend itself to intensive culture, and a high apphcation of labor and capital in produc- tion can not be recovered in increased yields. When wheat is grown on land valued at $100 per acre the net product must be approximately five times as great as on land valued at $20 per acre in order to yield the same rate of profit and it is impossible to raise the yield to that point. Waste and loss are, therefore, the results of growing wheat on high- priced land, for 5 acres of $20 land will produce a much greater net product of wheat than 1 acre of $100 land. Similar illustrations might be given with other crops, such as corn, potatoes, and onions, but enough has been given to show that the most successful farm managenent demands that a system of cropping and field management be followed which is in accord with the land values. When land values are relative- ly low, a system of farming which raises crops capable of extensive cul- tivation at low cost of production per acre is usually more profitable than one producing crops of a high cost of production, and when land values are high the intensively cultivated crops are the most profitable. Wheat farming must, of course, give some consideration to problems of soil fertility, so that the production of clovers and the raising of live stock are advisable. Where grain is to be the chief crop of the farm, a large area of grass pastured and fed to tliose classes of live stock demand- ing a low cost for labor in their keep is the solution of the fertility problem, and the markets and economic environment of such a farm rarely justify dairying and intensely cultivated crops, such as ensilage. Likewise, in corn and potato farming on high-priced land, live stock is essential to good farm management and to the maintenance of profitable yields. Cattle and hog feeding are well adapted for combination with the com crop, and dairying with conditions which make potatoes profitable. ADVANTAGES OF CROP ROTATION 95 Good farm management demands the application of the principles outhned in this discussion — principles which, if ignored, result in "no- profit" farming. Those conditions and factors which determine the value of land give a different environment to all grades of land, and the system of cropping and farm management, to be profitable, must recognize the environment. Note: Five years after this bulletin was published (1909) the costs of producing farm crops had increased about 20% due to an increase in the costs of farm labor and feeds, as well as an increase in the rental value of land. Prices of agricultural staples also rose greatly. The author has made no attempt to revise to date the sta- tistics used in this discussion, because the statistics are useful merely for the proof of the general argument. The general statements made in this bulletin on this subject will be as true in 1930 or 1950 as they were in 1909. Students, if they wish, may make a local problem out of this feature of farm management, by following the methods of comparison abo.ve used and substituting local crops, crop prices, and land values. PROBLEMS AND PRACTICUMS (1) Why is a succession of wheat, miUet and oats not a real rotation of crops? Compare such a succession of crops with a succession of corn, oats and clover. Note carefully all the differences. (2) What is the average cost of producing an acre of corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, and meadow crops in your locahty? (Get sugges- tions about cost items from page 491 of this book, and then use local wage rates and local prices for seed, etc.) (3) What is the marketing cost per acre in your locality for a com crop yielding 50 bu. per acre; wheat 20 bu. per acre; oats 40 bu. per acre; potatoes 125 bu. per acre; and a timothy and clover crop yielding 3 tons per acre? Estimate the marketing costs per acre if the corn, oats, and hay crops were fed to dairy cows, fat cattle, swine or sheep. Compute these costs on the basis of local haul to the elevator or shipping point, and also the rail- way freight and commission charges for delivery in the ter- minal market that fixes the local price. See reference books on feeding farm animals. (4) With land of equal value estimate the approximate amount of fixed and working capital necessary to the management of a 160 acre grain farm, corn farm, cotton farm, hay farm, mixed grain and stock farm, dairy farm, and sheep farm. Use local data and conditions so far as possible. 96 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION (5) What is the approximate loss of plant food on a wheat or com farm? What is the loss of plant food on a cotton farm where the lint and seed ai'e both sold? What loss is there when the lint is sold and the cotton seed fed to live stock? What does the loss of plant food amount to on a stock farm where aU crop products are fed to the hve stock? Compute these losses in percentage amounts of the amount of plant food removed from the soil by any desired combination of crops. See pages 296, 459. (6) Prepare a man and horse labor calendar for a 160 acre farm grow- ing 140 acres of small grain and 10 acres of pasture annually; 140 acres of corn and 10 acres of pasture annually; 140 acres of potatoes and 10 acres of pasture annually; 140 acres of hay and 10 acres of pasture annually; and a farm growing 60 acres of small grain, 30 acres of corn, 30 acres- of meadow, and 30 acres of pasture annually. Estimate by months the number of men and horses necessary to properly care for the crops. Study your estimates from the viewpoint of present day farm labor conditions. (7) Why is exclusive grain growing commonly practiced in new agri- cultural regions? Why does mixed farming usually supersede exclusive grain growing? What has the value of land to do with this change? (8) What is the percentage of unavoidable crop waste with peas or potatoes on farms where there is no live stock to consume these waste products? (Get estimates from experienced local farmers.) (9) If a storm just prior to harvest lodges small grain beyond hope of harvesting, would it pay to borrow money with which to pur- chase live stock to recover some value in the crop? What kind of live stock would you regard as most profitable for this pur- pose? (10) How many pounds of gain can be secured from a bushel of corn when fed to hogs 5 months old? Hogs 6 months old? Hogs 8 months old? Hogs 10 months old? Hogs 12 months old? Hogs 16 months old? Using your local prices for corn and the live weight of hogs, compute the possibilities for enhancing the selling value of the corn by feeding to hogs of the ages above mentioned. Make similar computations for cattle, one, two and three years of age. (Secure information from Experiment ADVANTAGES OF CROP ROTATION 97 Station feeding investigations and from local, experienced stock feeders.) (11) If alfalfa hay is worth $7.00 per ton in the stack what price will the hay bring if fed to two or three year old steers worth 7 cents per pound hve weight? What price, if fed to good yearling wethers worth 6 cents per pound live weight? Using your local prices for alfalfa, clover, or pea hay, and for the live weight of cattle and sheep, compute the possibilities for enhancing the selling value of the hay by feeding. (Secure information from Experiment Station feeding investigations and from local, experienced stock feeders.) Photo by courtesy Soo Line. Beef cattle pasturing on cut-over timber land in Northern Michigan. After the land is brushed it is easy to secure a good pasture of tame grasses and clovers from which an income can be secured while the stumps and brush roots are de- caying. In these days of high prices for grass fed cattle the opening of a farm in the timber regions is comparatively easy. CHAPTER V FIELD MANAGEMENT TO ESTABLISH CROP ROTATION Systematic rotation of crops is a term commonly used to mean a system of crop rotation wherein the pasture and meadow lands, as well as the grain and cultivated crops, are periodically planted on all the farm fields, and where the crops follow each other in a definite system on fields planned to meet the requirements of the rotation plan. Where mixed grain and live stock farming is practiced, as is the case on a large part of the prairie land areas of the United States, and where all areas of the farm can be made capable of cultivation, a scheme of cropping that includes rotation pastures and meadows is usually preferable to one that includes permanent pastures or meadows, because the productivity of the entire farm is more easily kept at a high level with the minimum of cost. There are many farms in the United States, however, that cannot be planned in such a manner as to include rotation pastures. Winding creeks, stony ridges, abrupt hillsides, and bottom lands incapable of drainage, make the permanent pasture a necessity on some farms. In some agricultural regions of the United States, and with certain systems of live stock farming, the permanent pasture is preferred to the rotation pasture. On still other farms where very intensive dairy farming is practiced, pasture lands are never used, but green summer feed is provided by means of soiling and ensilage crops. Under the conditions above noted, the so called "sys- tematic rotation of crops," including rotation pastures, ESTABLISHMENT OF CROP ROTATION 99 cannot be practiced as shown in Diagram VII of this chap- ter. Crop rotation plans, however, that will alternate the grain, grass, and cultivated crops on the land and secure the benefits to be gained by crop rotation, can be made for farms that have conditions preventing the use of rotation pas- tures. Rotation plans that will meet all these conditions are shown and explained in detail in Part II, Chapter VI. The diagrams, reorganization plans, and explanatory notes of this chapter pertain to general matters relative to field management intended to secure systematic rotation of crops under conditions favorable to use the rotation pasture. The plans of this chapter, given to illustrate methods applicable to an old farm, should be regarded merely as pertaining to a particular problem from which the reader may gather ideas about farm reorganization that will assist him to develop cropping plans for any farm. Drainage and Land Clearing Essential to Systematic Crop Rotation. Systematic crop rotation cannot be put in operation on the entire area of any farm having lands subject to an excess of standing water at certain seasons of the year or having undeveloped wild sod land or uncleared timber lands. All areas within the farm boundaries must first be made capable of cultivation. For example, if a farm contains one field that is too wet for corn and the small grains, but will produce redtop and alsike hay, the inevitable result is that the field too wet for corn and the small grains becomes a permanent meadow or pasture, and that the other fields grow cultivated and grain crops continuously and lose the benefits of the grass or humus producing crops. Some rotation can, of course, be practiced even under these conditions, but unless large quantities of barnyard manure are available, and unless green manure crops are used, the productivity of the entire farm cannot be made 100 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION SO great as when all the fields are periodically occupied by the humus producing crops, the cultivated crops, and the grain crops. Drainage and land clearing work must pre- cede the planning and inauguration of systematic crop rotation that will benefit all the fields of the farm, and permit systematic field management. Photo by courtesy "The Farmer ." A ditch opened for tile drain. Wet land on a farm is usually a hindrance to the total farm revenue'possible, even though the land is good meadow and pasture. When one portion of the farm grows grass continuously, the tendency is to plant grain and cultivated crops continuously on the balance of the farm, and this ia eventually injurious to soil productivity. Division of Fields. In order to make a crop rotation plan systematic and capable of producing approximately the same amounts of grain crop products, grass crop prod- ucts, and cultivated crop products annually, (this being essential in giving permanency and stability to the farm business, especially where live stock is one of the farm enterprises), it is necessary that the total area of land on the farm shall be divided into three, four, five or more fields of approximately equal size. The number of fields will ESTABLISHMENT OF CROP ROTATION 101 of course depend on the length of the rotation, that is to say, the number of years required to make a complete cycle of the crops to be grown. Let us take a very simple rotation as an example and explain it by means of a diagram. Suppose a rotation of wheat (grain crop), clover (grass crop), and corn (cultivated crop) has been planned. Such a rotation would occupy three years in completing its cycle and would require that the total farm area be divided into three areas of equal size. Supposfe this farm contains one hundred and twenty acres of land, it would then be divided into three fields containing forty acres each, and the crops would be rotated over these fields as shown in Diagram I. For the sake of simplicity no attempt is made in this diagram to show the farmstead and lanes. This diagram is intended to illustrate the methods of systematic crop rotation and nothing more. Diagram I, A Simple Three-Year Rotation. Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 (1) 1. 2. 3. 40 Acres.. Wheat Clover Corn (2) 1. 2. 3. 40 Acres. Clover Corn Wheat (3) 1. 2. 3. 40 Acres. Corn Wheat Clover Year 4 4. Wheat 4. Clover 4. Corn Note: This rotation plan could not be put into effect imme- diately on any farm. One or two years of preparation v?ould be neces- sary during which the field areas could be determined, fencing done if necessary for live stock, and a crop of clover seeded on one of the fields. As soon as this preliminary work is completed the crops are grown in a regular, systematic succession of wheat, clover and corn on each field, and then when the cycle of three years is completed, wheat is again planted after the corn crop. Each year by this plan the farm produces forty acres of wheat, forty acres of clover hay, and forty acres of corn. The fixed order of crop succession is necessary in order to have each crop grown follow that crop that will leave tlae soil in a desirable physical and chemical condition for the crop in question, and also that the same amounts 102 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION of wheat, clover and corn may be produced on the farm each year, and thus not distui'b the permanency of the live stock enterprises of the farm business. Further study of Diagram I will show how exactly this simple rotation follows the best principles of soil tillage and crop production. Red clover is known to succeed best in a compacted seed bed, free from weeds, and protected during its early stages of growth by a nurse crop. Clover is, therefore, seeded with the wheat and after the wheat harvest the clover gains full possession of the soil and in the succeed- ing year produces a heavy growth of forage. Thus no time is wasted in starting the clover crop, and the clover receives the most favor- able place in the rotation for clover. In the autumn of the second year of the rotation the clover sod is plowed under and, during the succeeding winter, time is given to decay the organic matter and crumble the soil before seeding another crop. If manure is available on the farm, it is spread, during the winter and early spring, on top of this plowed clover sod, and disked in, to prepare the land for the corn crop. In the spring of the third year this manured clover sod is disked and harrowed smooth preparatory to corn planting. An exceedingly good seed bed is thus provided for corn. We have previously seen that corn is a gross feeding crop and capable of thriving well on land containing organic matter and raw manure. In consideration of these facts, corn is planted, following the clover sod, and is given a very favorable place in the rotation to yield its maximum product. In the spring of the fourth year the old corn land is disked and harrowed, wheat is seeded with the added mixture of clover seed, and the three year cycle of crops is again started. Wheat, as pre- viously stated, is a delicate feeding crop that must have large amounts of fertility easily available to produce maximum yields. No more ideal place for a wheat crop could be provided than following a corn crop grown on manured clover sod. The disked seed bed would be compact, able to supply moisture, and filled with decaying manure and clover roots that would supply available fertility. Clover also is known to start more quickly and to thrive better on soils rich in nitrogen, so that the clover crop has been considered in that it is given a place in the rotation where it may use the available nitrogen from ma- nure and the decaying roots of a previous clover crop. In this rotation it should be noted that the land is plowed only once in three years, and yet the crops are so arranged that a desirable physical condition in the soil is always maintained. On very weedy land it might be found necessary to plow twice in three years to keep weeds in check, for disking does not d.estroy weeds as thoroughly as plowing. In that event the corn land would be fall plowed in prep- aration for wheat, and the clover sod fall plowed in preparation for corn. It may be seen also, from this diagram, how a rotation of thia nature simphfies and systematizes the field work of the farm, dis- tributing the labor through the various seasons and giving system and ESTABLISHMENT OF CROP ROTATION 103 permanency to the farm business. Apply any or all tests of the scien- tific principles of soil tillage, crop production, and farm management, to this rotation, and the plan of cropping is not found wanting in merit. The rotation given in Diagram I is very simple, but it is fundamental and basic in principle. Any student who mas- ters the principles involved in this simple plan can apply them to problems of field management and crop production of a much more complex nature. A great variety of crops exist that can be grown to advantage in the Temperate Zone, and they can be arranged in a countless variety of rotations, covering a cycle of years anywhere from three to ten years, meeting the demands for big farms, small farms, grain farms, dairy farms, or other types of farming, and still preserving the principles of crop rotation. The Reorganization of Old Farms to Establish Systematic Crop Rotation. It usually requires several years and careful advance planning to reorganize an old farm, and to arrange the fields in such a manner as to make possible a definite, systematic rotation of crops and the most efficient use of labor and machinery in crop production. It would be a comparatively easy matter on a tract of wild, smooth prairie land, to gradually make a systematic arrangement of the fields, buildings and lanes ; but the necessity for crop rotation is never realized when prairie land is broken and put into cultivation. The problems of subduing the land, the real- izing of quick profits, and the establishing of a home, take precedence over plans for the systematic planning of farms for the future needs of the business. The pioneer farmers of the United States have never been systematic in their methods of farm management. Wild land has been broken or cleared a little at a time without any thought of systematic planning for the future. As a result, the great majority of our American farms have developed in 104 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION a haphazard, unsystematic manner. Buildings, lanes, and field divisions, have been often laid out without any definite plan of arrangement or thought for the economies of farm management. Methods and arrangements that prevailed in pioneer days have been often allowed to stand on account of the inertia in regard to tearing down the old and building anew. Fences, lanes, pastures, and farmstead arrangements that served the purpose of the pioneer, are often hindrances to systematic crop rotation and field management. Many a farm in the North Central States has a permanent pasture of native grass that is comparatively unproductive, irreg- ularly shaped fields that cause loss of time in handling labor and machinery, and small areas that are unproductive, be- cause they need tile drainage. These conditions are often found in regionswherelandisworth$75.00to $200.00 per acre. These are the conditions of agriculture in the United States under which systematic crop rotation and field man- agement must usually be established. In the development of such virgin land as still remains in the United States we may expect to see a repetition of the usual pioneer methods that clear and subdue the land, crop it unsystematically, and rapidly exhaust the soil's store of available plant food. The farms are then left badly planned for the succeeding generation of farmers who realize the need and the advan- tage of a systematic scheme of crop production, and who are desirous of planning their tracts of land so that sys- tematic crop rotation and field management can be practiced. When land becomes high in value and when the wasteful methods of pioneer agriculture have exhausted much of the available fertility in soils, the necessity for systematic crop rotation and field management becomes imperative, if land is to return a fair profit on its market valuation. The ESTABLISHMENT OF CROP ROTATION 105 modern high land values, scarcity of competent farm labor, and the growing use of power machines for accomplishing farm work, all demand greater system in field management than was necessary in the early days of American agriculture. Losses in the handling of labor and machinery on irregular, poorly planned fields, losses from anproductive pasture lands, losses in crop values from unproductive fields resulting from long continued continuous cropping to small grains, corn or cotton, and losses resulting from investment values in un- drained or uncleared lands, on which there are taxes and, possibly interest, must be checked by means of systematic crop rotation and field management if the business of agri- culture is made to pay even the current rate of interest on th'e investment. Systematic field arrangement is as essential a part of the business of farming as the arrangement of buildings and the distribution of power in a manufacturing establishment. When a modern factory is built, every possible consideration is given to the location of the buildings and the various divisions or departments and to the transmission of power through the factory, in order to effect all possible economies in time and power. Many an old manufacturing establish- ment is forced into bankruptcy by the competition of its more modern competitors that have a lower cost of pro- duction due to a more systematic arrangement of the divi- sions of manufacturing and transmission of power. Many an old farm in the United States, also, that has badly planned fields, unproductive pastures, waste lands, and run down soil, would go into bankruptcy, were it not for the fact that the farm gives the proprietor his board and lodging, and that the farm was homesteaded or bought in an era of low land values, and has no actual burden of carrying charges based on its present market value. But, even so, the farmer 106 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION who is operating under these circumstances is actually managing a losing business. If the farm, by reason of these conditions previously mentioned, is not paying a net profit of at least 6% on its present market value, the proprietor would find it more profitable to sell his business and invest his capital in reliable securities that will yield a dividend of at least 6%. These methods of field management necessary to effect all possible economies in the handling of labor, power and ma- chinery, -and to realize maximum products from the soil, become apparent and essential to the generation of farmers that purchase or lease high priced land and have an actual burden of carrying charges on high priced land to figure into their accounts. To these men the economies and benefits of systematic crop rotation and field management offer the readiest and most practical methods for increasing the pro- ductivity of their farm lands, and developing a profitable system of agriculture in these days of high land values. The reorganization of an old farm to insure systematic crop rotation and field management is a matter of farm finance to be carefully considered before the work of reorgan- ization is begun. An outlay of capital is as necessary to this work as to the reorganization work of a railroad which con- templates the reducing of grades, the straightening of curves, the laying of heavy steel rails, and the graveling of the road- bed. The railroad manager knows that a wise expenditure of capital in such jvork will eventually increase the efficiency of the railroad and make possible lower operation costs and greater net profits. Similarly, in the case of farm reorgani- zation, the outlay of capital is justifiable and productive of greater net profits, if the result will effect economies in farm management and increase the producing capacity of the farm fields. ESTABLISHMENT OF CROP ROTATION 107 In most cases of farm reorganization to establish syste- matic crop rotation and field management, it is possible to plan the work so as not to interrupt the regular business of the farm, and to pay the costs from the proceeds of the busi- ness. Wherever reorganization work can be financed in this m,anner, it is, of course, preferable to financing the work with borrowed capital, on account of the saving of interest. On the other hand, there are certain conditions relative to farm reorganization where it is highly advisable to use borrowed capital to facilitate the work, and where the cost of interest on the loan is insignificant compared to the gains that may be secured through the use of ready money. An example of a situation of this nature in farm finance is where a portion of the land needs tile drainage. If a farm with forty acres of land needing tile drainage is producing less pasture than a field of similar size growing red clover and timothy or alsike clover and timothy, and if crop rota- tion is not being practiced on the balance of the land on account of this permanent pasture, such a field causes a loss in farm income that is greater than the interest charge on the capital necessary to drain the land and make it pro- ductive plow land. Wherevei a condition of this sort exists, the use of borrowed capital is justified; for the re- turns from the use of such capital will exceed the interest charges several times. If this land can be drained, for example, for $500.00, the first year's crop of flax or corn would pay for the cost of drainage. A loan of $500.00 to accomplish this work would cost but $30.00 per year at 6% interest, and $40.00 per year at 8% interest. It can readily be seen that in a case of this sort the interest charge of $30.00 to $40.00 an- nually is a small item as compared to the annual loss in- curred by reason of the comparatively unproductive land. 108 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Moreover, when a comparatively unproductive field of this kind is drained and put into a system of crop rotation, the chances are that the yield of all crops on the farm will be increased. Tame grass pastures will yield more feed than wet pastures, and the grain and cultivated crops will yield more, because they are in rotation with grasses and clovers. No matter whether the farmer has capital resources of his own with which to reorganize an old farm or whether he borrows capital for this purpose, it usually requires con- siderable time to establish systematic crop rotation and field management. Time is necessary to change old fence lines and seed down land to tame grasses, as well as to accomplish drainage or land clearing. In planning the reorganization of an old farm, therefore, the plans should be so made as to distribute the work through several seasons and to accomplish the desired results with as little inter- ference as possible with the regular work of the farm. By careful planning it is possible, usually, to accomplish most of the work with the regularly employed labor of the farm, and thus keep down the cost of labor to a minimum. Of course such work as drainage or land clearing requires extra labor, but the changing of fence lines and lanes, and the straightening of field lines can all be worked in at odd times with the regular farm help. If drainage or land clearing work is to be done, it should be planned to distribute this work through as many seasons as are necessary to reorganize the balance of the fields on the farm. Thus, by the time the land is drained or cleared, the balance of the land has been systematically arranged, and, when drainage or clearing is completed, the whole farm area is ready to combine in a systematic scheme of cropping. In Diagrams II, III, IV, V, VI, and VII, there is pre- sented a series of plans showing how an old farm can be re- ESTABLISHMENT OF CROP ROTATION 109 organized and placed under a systematic scheme of cropping. This old farm chosen as an example of a badly arranged farm needing field reorganization, is located in Southern Minnesota, in a region where good varieties of corn mature, and where land values range from $75.00 to $100.00 per acre. The owner of this farm values his land at $90.00 per acre. About sixty acres of this farm are in permanent white clover and blue grass pasture that* is first class pasture land, but too wet in the spring to plow unless tile drained. This pasture land is easy to tile drain and could all be put under the plow for a cost that would not exceed $600.00. The farm was homesteaded about forty years ago and has been cropped principally to small grains. No attempt has ever been made to practice crop rotation, and very few grass crops have been grown on the plow land. During recent years the crop yields have averaged as follows : corn, forty to forty-five bushels per acre; oats, forty to fifty bushels per acre; barley, thirty to thirty-five bushels per acre; wheat, twelve to sixteen bushels per acre; and timothy hay about two tons per acre. The system of farming has been grain growing almost exclusively with not much at- tention given to live stock. Under the present system of farming the farm does not pay a good profit over and above the labor, seed, depreciation charges and taxes. The farm needs crop rotation and the use of live stock to raise the productivity of the old grain fields, and better arranged fields to effect economies in the handling of labor and machinery. A discussion of the methods and plans for the reor- ganization of this farm in a practical manner that will not interfere with the regular farm work, and in such a manner that the work, with the possible exception of the tile drain- age, can be accomplished from the annual proceeds of the busi- ness, is given in detail in notes accompanying each diagram. 110 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION r ESTABLISHMENT OF CROP ROTATION 111 DIAGRAM II Note: This diagram shows the present unsystematic and irregular arrangement of the fields, and the manner in which the per- manent pasture cuts into the plow land and prevents a systematic scheme of cropping. The buildings and farmstead are also badly located in relation to the fields, thus causing losses in field work in the management of labor and machinery. The buildings and farmstead improvements repre- sent an investment of about $4,000.00, and, as it would disrupt busi- ness to some extent and also cause an additional financial burden on the work of reorganization to change their location, the reorganization plans will be worked out with the buildings and yards in their present situation. If a change were practical, a more desirable location, from the viewpoint of field management, would be on the other mainly traveled road, midway between the boundaries of the farm. It may also be noted from this diagram that there are approxi- mately 1,100 rods of old internal fencing on the farm, much of which is of little use under the scheme of cropping and field management now followed. By reference to Diagram VII, where the same farm is shown completely reorganized, it may be seen that about 1,020 rods of internal fencing are necessary to completely fence all fields of the farm, thus making every field available for regular pasture, as well as meadow aftermath, stubble, or catch crop pasture. In the diagrams of this farm the fences are represented by solid Hues. It is hardly necessary to point out the unsystematic arrangement of these fields and the inevitable waste of time that takes place in the management of labor and machinery on fields laid out as these are. The lack of system is apparent from a mere glance at the diagram. As the fields are now laid out, systematic crop rotation is impossible; many of the fields are difficult to reach from the buildings; and several fields are of such irregular shape as to hinder the use of machinery to the best advantage. That three meadows are at three different places on the farm is also a hindrance to rapid, systematic methods of han- dling the hay crop. DIAGRAM III Note: In this first year of reorganization the work of straight- ening out the fields is started with the idea of gradually changing the arrangement of the farm fields to correspond with the completed plan shown in Diagram VII. In other words, the reorganization plans must lead up to the completed plan in as practical a manner as is possible, and with as little interruption as possible to the regular farm work. The completed plan, as shown in Diagram VII, is first made, and the reorganization plans are then made to gradually lead up to this ideal plan. This year the old timothy meadows are left undisturbed to produce hay until other land can be seeded to grass. The httle three-acre meadow adjoining the farmstead has been broken up in order to straight- 112 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION w.o r ESTABLISHMENT OF CROP ROTATION 113 en out a large field for wheat, also a small part of the largest piece of meadow land is broken up for potatoes in order to straighten out the fields for succeeding years. The old lane fencing, from the farmstead to the corn field, on the original plan, has been torn down, also the old fence along the corn field. This old fencing is useless and in the way of the completed plan, and is, therefore, torn out to make way for the large, regularly shaped fields of wheat and corn. The work of tile draining the old permanent pasture is started this year. If finances permit, the entire field can be drained this year. If not, part of the work can be done this year, and part next. While this work of tile draining is going on, the old pasture fence is left intact and the land used as before for pasture. A mixture of red clover and timothy, or alsike clover and timo- thy, is seeded with the wheat crop in order to start new and productive meadow land, and permit the old, sodbound timothy land to be broken up the succeeding year. After the oats and barley are harvested and stacked this year, these fields are thoroughly disked and a green manure crop of vetches, black soy beans, field peas or buckwheat sown. Another and simpler method for getting a green manure crop on these fields would be to sow mammoth clover with the grain in the spring and allow it to grow undisturbed after grain harvest. Late in the autumn the green manure crops are plowed under to enrich the soil and increase the productivity of the land until such time as the farm can all be placed under a sys- tematic scheme of crop rotation. The ten acre timothy field is broken up this autumn in prepara- tion for corn. A portion of the seventeen acre timothy field is also broken in preparation for wheat, and that portion of this timothy field adjoining the new grass seeding is left unplowed in order to make a large, sohd field of grass the succeeding year. DIAGRAM IV Note: This year the drainage work must be completed, un- less it was finished the previous year. No old fencing needs to be torn down this year, or new fencing set, as the old pasture is still in use. The corn land of the previous year, together with that portion of the old timothy sod that was broken, is disked in the spring of the year and seeded to wheat. Red clover and timothy, or alsike clover and timothy, are seeded with the wheat. Meadow land is provided this year from the seeding of grass made with wheat the previous year. Corn is planted this year on the ten-acre timothy sod land, the green manured barley land, and the potato land of the previous year. The green manured oat land of the previous year is again seeded to oats this year. This season an increase in the amount of live stock on the farm would be desirable on account of the large amount of corn produced 114 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION 1 Ul Qi »^ h K «j Ql I. §^ S*J K la 00 1 to N ^ (3 r c _^ 1 s» 1 ^ ^ .5 ca -c ?^ Ta ^ t ^ X ^ S ^ In •^ Cj i** ^ ^ / ^ 1 ^ a / p: ■§ Uj C5 "?! Clj ^ / ^ N • ** / "^ 55 ca / 1 1 1 Ul Ul Ql ca ^ ta s: ^4 5 '^C ^0 1 fe § 5« J. 5 L cS! 5"^ r ESTABLISHMENT OF CROP ROTATION 115 the previous year and also on account of the increase in the amount of hay produced as compared to previous years. In the autumn of this season a new fence would be set between the meadow land and the new seeding of grass made with the wheat. The meadow aftermath could then be used in the autumn for pasture. As soon as this new fence is set, and the stock turned in, all of the old pasture fence is torn up as soon as possible to permit of break- ing the old pasture land. The old fence along the line between the wheat and corn fields is left standing. The oats stubble land is fall plowed, and if time permits the corn land should also be fall plowed, thus cleaning up all the plow land of the farm in nice shape. If time will not permit all this plowing to be done in the autumn, the breaking can be done, and the stubble plow- ing held over till the succeeding spring. DIAGRAM V Note: This year the newly fenced grass land is used for pas- ture and the grass seeding of the previous year is used for meadow. The crops can be arranged on the balance of the land this year to suit the requirements of the farm as regards live stock, or in almost any manner that the farm manager desires, providing one field is set aside to seed down to clover and timothy with either wheat, oats or barley. If the farm is now carrying considerable Uve stock, a large acreage of corn can be planted, if desired, on the rich old pasture land. Or, if desired, wheat can be eliminated from the list of crops this year; the grass seeding done with oats or barley; a large acreage of flax sown on the old pasture; and about the same acreage of corn planted as in previous years. The plan shown in this diagram includes wheat for the nurse crop, a field of flax on the breaking, a field of corn partly on breaking and partly on stubble ground, and two fields of oats sown partly on stubble and partly on breaking. In the autumn of this year the fence between the meadow and the new seeding of grass is completed in order that the meadow can be used for pasture the succeeding year. Some fencing work is also done in the autumn of this year to lay out the new yards and minor rotation fields for live stock, that are shown on Diagrams VI and VII. This work can be done in the spring of the next year, but it would ease up the spring work a great deal, if part of this fencing work were done this year in the autumn months. Considerable plowing is necessary in the autumn of this year. The pasture land is broken in preparation for corn, and the flax, oats and corn fields should be fall plowed, if possible, in preparation for the small grains to be sown the next year. If the land that was sown to oats this year shows signs of low productivity, it can be green manured again this autumn. If the land is fertile and in good physical condition, green manuring would be vinnecessary. 116 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION c E Ul a Hi t 1. 3 la < ** s In •=5 "9 s I. ^ a u c -t t5^ I] ^1 \n "^ ^ & «* € M ^ ^ 4 t«) k ■§ N ^ tS Ul *^ <5j ^ p 1 1 1 1 "fl 5 1 •5 1 c:) ^ ta ^ ^ ^ $ S! ^ «5J >i «0 c U E I. "« ^ SI eg u Is ^ 5 "^ c l-i£ ir ESTABLISHMENT OF CROP ROTATION 117 DIAGRAM VI Note: All the preliminary work necessary to the establishment of a systematic rotation of crops has now been accomplished. All areas are now under plow, the field lines have been straightened out, new seedings of grass made for pasture and meadow, and the fields so planned as to be easily accessible from the buildings and to con- serve time and power in the field operations. A systematic rotation of crops is now possible and can begin this year. A comparison of this diagram with Diagram II, will reveal the many advantages secured through having the fields laid out in a sys- tematic manner. In the first place systematic crop rotation will undoubtedly raise the productivity of the old grain fields, increase the acre production of hay as compared with the old, sodbound timothy meadows, and the shifting of the pasture land from one field to an- other will enrich the fields from the manure dropped by live stock. In the second place, man labor, horse power, and machine capacity for work wiU be more efficient on these fields than on the irregularly planned fields of Diagram II. Any man who has ever handled horses and farm machinery knows the advantages of using four or six horse teams and large capacity machines, as compared with two or three horse teams and small capac- ity machines. He also knows that small, irregularly shaped fields cause poor tillage work, weed accumulation, and loss of time in the handling of horse power and machinery. The large, straight lined field facilitates work with the gang plow, the harrow, the binder and the mower, and, also, during the rush seasons of seeding and harvest, permits the concentration of the labor crew on a large piece of work with no shifting about from one little field to another. All these features of farm management are items of consequence in keeping down the costs of production on farms, and, therefore, in securing the maxi- mum net profit. In fact, they are items that cannot be ignored in these days of high wages and scarcity of farm labor. If the farmer, nowadays, expects to secure competent labor, he will be forced to pay as high wages for competent help as are paid by the railroads and manufacturing establishments. It takes abihty to handle a four horse team and a gang plow, binder or potato digger,- and men having this ability will have to be paid as high wages as they could secure in industries other than agriculture. These conditions re- lative to American labor must be reaUzed and squarely faced by the American farmer. If high wages must be paid, labor must be made correspondingly efficient, and to make labor efficient, large teams, large capacity machines, and a systematic field arrangement must be used. Labor cannot be used efficiently on small, irregularly shaped unsystematically arranged fields. On small farms where intensive agriculture is practiced, the use of large capacity machines and big teams is impractical, but systematic field arrangement facihtates the field work whether the farm be large or small. Four small fields of about four acres each are laid out this year adjoining the farmstead. These fields are aU fenced with hog tight 118 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION '5x: M X N :S ^h 1 ^ ^ c:3 •0 Uj m jq; i. ^ ^ "^ ^ J32 C3 ^ N C3 ^ ^J^ ^ ^ l«^ -^ tj ^ 1 1 M ^ ^ i^ Jtvi i 1 la "q; IJ: k ti. 5 N g ^ "C^^ /ey ■er) \cres 1^ ^h S o 5g CO « si W .-4 ESTABLISHMENT OF CROP ROTATION 119 fence, so that they can be used alternately for hog pasture. A four year rotation of crops is started this year on these small fields, crops be- ing chosen that will mainly be used for pasture and feed for live stock. This year a portion of the new pasture land is included in these fields, and the corn and root crops are planted on pasture sod broken the previous autumn. A discussion of this four year rotation and the use of these small fields is given in the notes accompanying Diagram VII. A comparison of these fields with the farmstead conditions shown in Diagram II will reveal the many advantages this plan has for hog feeding and the care of young stock. A five year rotation of crops is begun this year on the five large fields. This rotation and the manner in which the crops are rotated are discussed more fully in the notes accompanying Diagram VII. In the autumn of this year the oat stubble land is plowed, and the pasture land is broken in preparation for corn the succeeding year. Among the small fields, plowing is done this autumn on the corn and pasture lands. DIAGRAM VII Note: In the early spring season of this year all fencing is completed that was not finished the previous autumn. Lane fences are also completed to make all the fields easily accessible to the farm- stead. A headland of grass, about one rod wide, is laid out around all the large fields. This plan can be easily carried out by leaving a head- land of grass in the pasture fields, when the pasture land is plowed each year in preparation for corn. Thus, as the pasture land is ro- tated from one field to aother, the headlands can be laid out without any special work. Grass headlands keep out weeds along the fence lines, provide turning ground for machinery, and make land productive that is usually waste land. It is always impossible to crop every foot of land within the farm boundaries, especially so if land is cross fenced, and if it is planned to use four horse teams and large capacity ma- chines. There is always some waste land along the fence lines and where turning ground is necessary for machinery. This waste land, if it is in grass, prevents weeds from accumulating along the fence lines. It can be mowed for hay, and will also provide a little pasture in the autumn season when stock is running over the grain stubble or cornstalk land. Diagram VI shows the farm completely reorganized for a major rotation of crops on the five large fields, and a minor rotation of feed and pasture crops on the four small fields. The systematic scheme of cropping begins with Diagram VI where the various crops of the rotation, as shown in Diagram VII are started on the various fields in conformity with the field conditions prevailing during reorganiza- tion. Diagram VII is really the second year of the rotation plan. In Diagram VII the plan of rotation cropping is projected on each field for five years, in case of the major rotation, and for four years m case 120 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION •^ i! ? "fl i: N^*)^^ lO Roots Barley Clover Corn Barley Clover Corn Roots xNKiTf ^' iNiKfrj: .5^ vn Qi V. ^ Qi "+-.5 «- ? «5 tjj nj-^ N wj^t^ »o Qi Qi V. N N" ^ Qi "S -^ j= •- 5 fD ui ^ "*- 2 s: N Nj ^t^ wS 'N't EjtaQtcjQ ^ Qi <; Qi S Q ti Nkj^itI Qi u ESTABLISHMENT OF CROP ROTATION 121 of the minor rotation, after which periods of time the rotations begin again with the crop numbered one on each field. The major rotation of corn, oats, wheat, meadow and pasture, occupies five years in completing its cycle on any given field, and these crops follow each other in the order named on each field. Thus each year the five large fields produce approximately forty acres of corn, forty acres of oats, forty acres of wheat, forty acres of meadow, and forty acres of pasture. Each field is plowed twice in five years, once when the pasture land is broken for corn, and the second time when the oat stubble is plowed for wheat. The oat crop would be sown on disked corn land. The crops in this major rotation can be changed somewhat from this plan according to the amount of live stock kept and fed on the farm. If desired, wheat may be eliminated entirely from the rotation, oats or barley used for the grain nurse crop, and a second crop of corn planted where oats are sown in this plan. In this event the land would be plowed twice in five years, each time in preparation for com, and the grain crop would be sown on disked corn land. If this rotation were planned with two crops of corn instead of two grain crops, a larger number of cattle and hogs could be fattened than otherwise. As the rotation is now planned, it is a plan for mixed grain and Uve stock farming. The amount of pasture land in this rotation can be increased, if desired, by sowing rape, clover, or vetches with the oat crop, or with the corn at its last cultivation, thus providing autumn pastui'e. The minor rotation of corn, roots, barley and clover, occupies four years in completing its cycle on any given field, and the crops follow one another in the order named. Thus each year the four small fields produce approximately four acres of corn, four acres of roots, four acres of barley, and four acres of clover pasture. Each field is plowed twice in four years — in preparation for the corn and root crops. The land in roots is spring disked for barley. Rape is sown with the corn at its last cultivation, and when the corn crop is mature, hogs are turned in to "hog off" the corn and the rape. The clover field is used as pasture for sows and young pigs. Either potatoes or mangels can be planted for the root crop. As these diagrams are intended to show principally the methods for reorganizing an old farm, and establishing systematic crop rotation, no further discussion of these rotations is given here. A more detailed discussion of a rotation plan similar to this one is given in Part II., Chapter VI., Diagrams IX and XII. The total cost of drainage, fencing, and field reorganiza- tion on this farm would not exceed $1,200.00, or $5.00 per acre, and this cost could be distributed through three or four years. Would the investment pay? There is no question about it. The investment of $1,200.00 in this 122 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION kind of work would increase the overhead costs, or carrying costs, in the management of this farm by only $72.00 (6% on $1,200.00). Thus, if the farm is now made to pay but $72.00 additional income each year, the investment is justified. But the systematically arranged fields, crop rota- tion, and more extensive use of live stock, would do far more than this. The systematic field arrangment would undoubtedly effect, at the least, a 10% saving in the costs of crop production, and, within a few years, after crop rota- tion and the greater use of live stock had been started, the productivity of the land would increase at least 25%, and in all probability 50%. Furthermore, it is conservative to say that a system- atically planned farm, as this farm would be when reorgan- ized, would have a market value 20% to 25% higher than when in an unsystematically planned condition. The farm would look better and more productive and would, therefore, sell better. The investment of $5.00 per acre in such work as has been outlined in these diagrams, would add fully 20% to the selling value of the property. It is improvement and productivity that appreciate land values. Prairie land newly broken will always sell for more than wild prairie land by more than the cost of breaking. Similarly, the reorganization and improvement of an old farm will give it a market value that will far more than compensate for the costs. The man who has the business judgment and the ability to improve and systematize an old farm gets ample financial rewards for doing such work in advance of the average progress in his community. PROBLEMS AND PRACTICUMS (1) What is the cost per rod of laying tile drain? (Get local prices on tile and estimates of amounts of labor necessary to open a ditch at a given depth, say two feet, and to lay and cover the tile.) ESTABLISHMENT OF CROP ROTATION 123 (2) What is the cost per acre for tiling a 20 acre field with laterals two rods apart, and with the tile laid at an average depth of two feet? (3) If necessary to borrow money with which to accomplish tile drain- age what would the interest charge amount to annually on the costs computed for question (2)? How many crops of corn, wheat, flax, or oats, at average yields and prices, would be nec- essary to pay for the costs of drainage computed in question (2)? (4) When wheat is worth 70 cents per bushel how many bushels must be grown on an acre of land to pay a net profit of 6 per cent on land valued at $100.00 per acre? How many bushels of corn, when corn is worth 50 cents per bushel? How many bushels of pota- toes, when potatoes are worth 40 cents per bushel? See page 490. (5) Draw a diagram of your home farm, or some farm that you are familiar with. Draw this diagram to scale and from an actual survey of the fields. Show all field boundaries, fence lines, lanes, arrangement of buildings, feed yards, and paddocks, streams, rough land, land needing drainage, and the crops growing on the land in the year the survey was made. Deter- mine the number of rods of fence and the acreage of pasture land. Invoice the live stock, horses required to perform farm work, and the machinery used in operating the farm. Estimate the amounts of grain, forage, and pasture annually needed to support the live stock enterprises of the farm, if a stock farm. Ascertain all facts about land value, markets, and labor, that would influence the planning of the most successful type of farming possible. CHAPTER VI PLANS AND DIAGRAMS General Nature of the Farm Business. The crops to be grown and their arrangement in long or short cycle rotations must be determined by the size of the farm, the general nature of the farm business, the personal preferences of the farm manager, the character of the markets, and the local conditions of soil and climate. For example, if a rotation is to be planned for a farm, the chief business of which is grain production, the annual acreage devoted to grain crops should be as high as possible, and the acreage of grass crops as low as may be permitted by the principles of crop rotation. In case of a dairy and hog farm the annual proportionate acreage of forage and pasture crops would, of necessity, have to be higher than on a grain farm, and the annual proportionate acreage of grain crops less. The annual acreage of the grain, grass and cultivated crops must be determined by the general nature of the farm business to be followed, whether grain growing, dairying, beef and pork production, potato growing, cotton growing, the production of sugar beets, or other type of farming. Short Cycle Rotations and the Kind of Farms to Which They Are Adapted. Short cycle rotations, or those in which a given number of crops are rotated over a given area of land in a comparatively short period of time (three to five years), are best adapted to those farms the main policy of which is to produce large amounts of dairy produce and pork, potatoes, sugar beets or cotton. Farms so managed re- quire intensive cultivation, and are usually small in area, be- cause the amount of land that a proprietor may successfully PLANS AND DIAGRAMS 125 manage in these types of agriculture is small. Diagrams are given herewith to exhibit rotations on farms where dairy- products and potato or sugar beet products are to be the chief sources of farm income. These diagrams, as well as all other diagrams in this chapter, are not actual farm plans intended to show the complete arrangement of fields, lanes and farmstead on a farm, but are merely simple diagrams intended to show how a combination of various crops may be systematically rotated over a given area of arable land. Diagram VIII Rotation Plan for a Dairy Farm of 80 Acres. (1) 20 Acres 1. Corn 2. Oats 3. Meadow 4. Pasture (2) 20 Acres 1. Oats 2. Meadow 3. Pasture 4. Corn (3) 20 Acres 1. Meadow 2. Pasture 3. Corn 4. Oats (4) 2.0 Acres 1 . Pasture 2. Corn 3. Oats 4. Meadow 5. Corn 5. Oats 5. Meadow 5. Pasture Note: Each year this rotation would provide twenty acres of corn, twenty acres of oats, twenty acres of new meadow land, and twenty acres of pasture. It would occupy four years in completing its cycle, and the farm would have to be divided into four fields of nearly equal size. The land would be plowed once in four years, the pasture land being broken up for the corn. The corn land would be prepared for oats by thorough double disking. On a farm where it is necessary to give consideration to weed eradication the land could be plowed in preparation for oats as well as for corn. Barnyard manure would be distributed on the pasture lands in preparation for the corn crop following the pasture sod. Eventually it would be desirable to fence all the fields so that a full use of meadow aftermath and catch crop pastures would be possible. This rotation would be most practical for a dairy farm where the main business of the farm is the production of dairy products. It could also be used for a farm producing various kinds of live stock prod- ucts. It should be noted that the annual product of grain and grass crops is such (one half the farm area in grass crops and one half in grain crops) that, if the pasture be fully stocked, the grain and hay yield will be just about sufficient to winter the live stock and keep the milch cows well fed. The profits from the farm would, therefore, have to arise from the sale of milk or other animal products. 126 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Diagram IX. Rotation Plan for a 120 Acre Dairy and Hog Farm. (1) 24 Acres 1. Corn 2. Corn 3. Oats 4. Meadow 5. Pasture (2) 24 Acres 1. Corn 2. Oats 3. Meadow 4. Pasture 5. Corn (3) 24 Acres 1. Oats 2. Meadow 3. Pasture 4. Corn 5. Corn (4) 24 Acres 1. Meadow 2. Pasture 3. Corn 4. Corn 5. Oats (5) 24 Acres 1. Pasture 2. Corn 3. Corn 4. Oats 5. Meadow 6. Corn 6. Corn 6. Oats 6. Meadow 6. Pasture Note : Each year this rotation would provide forty - eight acres of corn, twenty-four acres of oats, twenty-four acres of hay land, and twenty-four acres of pasture land. The land would be plowed twice in five years, both times in preparation for the corn crop. The oats would be sown on disked corn land. Manure would be spread on the pasture sod prior to the first corn crop. This rotation would occupy five years in completing its cycle, and the farm area would have to be divided into five fields of nearly equal size. This rotation would be most practical for dairy and hog production on farms of one hundred to one hundred and sixty acres in size. On farms of larger size it would be a practical rotation for mixed grain and live stock farming, with beef cattle, sheep, and swine. It may be noted that in this rotation the proportion of grain and grass crops has changed from the proportion shown in Diagram VIII, and that three fifths of the farm area is devoted to corn and oats (grain) and two fifths to grass crops. The surplus of corn produced in this rotation, above what is needed for feeding the cows, could be profitably fed on a dairy farm to pigs. Thus the entire rotation is well adapted for a small dairy and hog farm. Diagram X. Rotation Plan for a Potato or Sugar Beet Farm of 120 Acres. (1) 30 Acres 1. Barley 2. Clover 3. Early potatoes (Green manure) 4. Late potatoes 5. Barley (2) 30 Acres 1. Clover 2. Early potatoes (Green manure) 3. Late potatoes 4. Barley 5. Clover (3) 30 Acres 1. Early potatoes (Green manure) 2. Late potatoes 3. Barley 4. Clover 5. Early potatoes (Green manure) (4) 30 Acres 1. Late potatoes 2. Barley 3. Clover 4. Early potatoes (Green manure) 5. Late potatoes PLANS AND DIAGRAMS 127 Note: Each year this rotation would produce sixty acres of potatoes or sugar beets, thirty acres of clover hay, and thirty acres of barley for feed. It would occupy four years in completing its cycle and the farm area would have to be divided into four fields of nearly equal size. The land would be plowed twice in four years, each time in prep- aration for the potato crop. The barley would be sown on the potato land, disked. This rotation is not as symmetrical and as scientific as those given in Diagrams VIII and IX, but it is practical for farms engaged in growing potatoes or sugar beets as the main product of the farm. The number of hve stock that could be kept on a farm practicing this scheme of crop- ping would not produce enough manure to cover one fourth of the farm area annually, as should be done. Manure and commercial fertilizers might have to be purchased to keep up the productivity of some soils where a rotation of this kind is practiced. If so, the expense would be fully justified on a farm where the main products have as high value per acre as potatoes or sugar beets. Animal manures would be applied to the clover sod in preparation for early potatoes. Manure for potatoes should not be applied when freshly voided, but only when well rotted in compost heaps. If potatoes are the chief crop to be considered, a green manure crop could be introduced between the successive potato crops. Early pota- toes could be grown the third year of the rotation, and after harvest a green manure crop sown and the foliage plowed under late in the autumn. The crop the fourth year would be late potatoes, thus dis- tributing the hard work of potato harvest through two seasons, and also placing the crop on the market at two different seasons. In the case of sugar beets it would be impossible to introduce a green manure crop between the two successive crops, but the second crop of clover could be plowed under for green manure, thus adding an additional amount of humus and nitrogen to the soil, as compared to plowing under the stubble and roots of the clover crop after harvesting the second crop of hay. Long Cycle Rotations and the Kind of Farms to Which They Are Adapted. Long cycle rotations, or those where a given number of crops is rotated over a given area of land in a comparatively long period of time (five to ten years), are best adapted to systems of farming where the farms are 128 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION large (at least 240 to 320 acres), and where it is desired to make small grain the chief marketable product. Rotation under these conditions is simply planning a few checks on the evils of continuous grain cropping. The plan and purpose of the farm is still to produce marketable grain, but to recognize the fact that continuous grain cropping is disastrous in the long run, and that the grain crops may be alternated with grass and cultivated crops to the advantage of the entire farm business. Wherever small grain production is to remain the prom- inent feature of the farm business, live stock enterprises must be subordinated to the main line of work and be considered merely as adjuncts of benefit in the support of the greater enterprise. The grass crops necessary to a successful rota- tion are not usually sources of profit to the farm, in the grain growing districts, unless live stock is used to manufacture salable products from the grass and to return all waste matter to the land in the form of manure. This function of live stock in successful agriculture can be cheaply managed on the grain farms by pasturing sheep and young cattle and selling them prior to the fattening period. Some income is thus secured from the grass lands with little outlay for labor and housing, and the grass roots and manure are of incalcu- lable benefit in maintaining profitable yields. Grass crops may be grown on grain farms for their seed value and the land will receive some benefits as regards humus and nitro- gen. In such case, however, the benefits to the land are not so great as when the grass crops are pastured. Long cycle rotations are best adapted to grain farming, because it is possible to divide a farm into seven fields, for example, and to have four of these fields produce grain each year (four sevenths of the farm area) without destroying all semblance of systematic crop rotation. In short cycle PLANS AND DIAGRAMS 129 rotations it is very nearly impossible to plan a practical com- bination of the grain, grass and cultivated crops, and devote more than two fifths or one half of the farm area to small grain crops annually. This fact becomes apparent from Diagrams XI and XII. Diagram XI. Rotation Plan for a Grain Farm of 640 Acres. (1) 91.4 A. (2) 91.4 A. (3) 91.4 A. (4) 91.4 A. (5) 91.4 A. (6) 91.4 A. (7) 91.4 A. 1. Corn 1. Wheat 1. Wheat 1. Meadow 1. Pasture 1. Wheat 1. Oats 2. Wheat 2. Wheat 2. Meadow 2. Pasture 2. Wheat 2. Oata 2. Corn 3. Wheat 3. Meadow 3. Pasture 3. Wheat 3. Oats 3. Corn 3. Wheat 4. Meadow 4. Pasture 4. Wheat 4. Oats 4. Corn 4. Wheat 4. Wheat 5. Pasture 5. Wheat 5. Oats 5. Corn 5. Wheat 5. Wheat 5. Meadow 6. Wheat 6. Oats 6. Corn 6. Wheat 6. Wheat 6. Meadow 6. Pasture 7. Oats 7. Corn 7. Wheat 7. Wheat 7. Meadow 7. Pasture 7. Wheat 8. Corn 8. Wheat S. Wheat 8. Meadow 8. Pasture 8. Wheat 8. Oata Diagram XII. Rotation Plan for a Mixed Grain and Live Stock Farm of 640 Acres. (1) 128 A. Corn Oats Wheat Meadow Pasture 6. Corn (2) 128 A. 1. Oats 2. Wheat 3. Meadow 4. Pasture 5. Corn 6. Oats (3) 128 A. Wheat Meadow Pasture Corn Oats (4) 128 A. 1. Meadow 2. Pasture 3. Corn 4. Oats 5. Wheat 6. Wheat 6. Meadow (5) 128 A. 1. Pasture 2. Corn 3. Oats 4. Wheat 5. Meadow 6. Pasture Note: Comparing Diagrams XI and XII, it may be seen that the rotation plan in Diagram XI provides small grain for four sevenths (365.7 acres) of the farm acreage annually, and five sevenths (457.1 acres), if the corn crop is matured for grain; while the plan shown in Diagram XII provides small grains for two fifths (256 acres) of the farm acreage annually, or three fifths (384 acres), if the corn crop is included as grain. The rotation plan shown in Diagrarn XII is undoubtedly more scientific and better adapted to keep soil in a good physical condition, and to freely release the plant food of the soil, than the rotation plan in Diagram XI. Diagram XII is not a prac- tical plan, however, for a grain farm, and is better adapted for use in mixed grain and five stock farming. The larger area of grass land in Diagram XII requires more live stock to be kept on the farm, and the chief product of the farm becomes five stock rather than grain. 130 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Diagram XI exhibits a rotation plan that is decidely practical for grain producing farms. The humus producing crops and cul- tivated crops are so alternated with the grain crops as to be in accord with the principles of crop rotation, and, if manure is added to the fields twice during the seven-year cycle on the corn land and pasture land, high productivity could be maintained for many years. A green manure legume crop could be sown after the oat harvest in the seventh year of the rotation, and prior to the corn crop, or a seeding of mammoth clover made with the oats in the spring of the year and the clover vegetation plowed under, thus adding an addi- tional supply of humus and nitrogen to the soil. There is absolutely no question that the total annual amounts of grain sold under this system (four sevenths of the land in small grains) would exceed the sales of small grain from an equal area of land where continuous grain cropping was practiced. Such a statement refers, oi course, to old land and not to land fresh from the breaking plow. This rotation shown in Diagram XI would occupy seven years in completing its cycle and the farm area would have to be divided into seven fields of nearly equal size. Each field would have to be plowed four times in seven years, as follows: old oat stubble plowed in prepa- ration for corn, wheat stubble plov,ed for succeeding wheat crop, pas- ture land plowed for wheat, and the wheat stubble of this crop plowed in preparation for oats. Manure would be applied on the land pre- pared for the corn, and also on the pasture land, providing experience had shown that wheat could be grown without lodging on a pasture sod. The corn crop could be grown for grain or for fodder according to whether or not the climate is favorable for corn. This rotation. Diagram XI, would be improved by growing corn two years in seven, placing one corn crop after the pasture land and another, as now placed, between the oats and the wheat. Such a change is practical, of course, only in climates where the summer growing season is long enough to mature corn thoroughly. In countries where flax seed is a valued product, flax would be the most profitable crop to be grown on the pasture land sod in the sixth year of this rotation. Rotations for General Live Stock Farming. The rotation plan shown in Diagram XII is as well adapted to general live stock farming as any that can be formulated. The amount of grain and corn produced annually by such a rotation plan is more than sufficient to maintain and fatten the num- bers of live stock that could be supported by the grass lands. This surplus of grain could be sold or used in fattening and finishing cattle, sheep, and hogs, purchased to fatten, as the proprietor chose. Such a plan is well balanced, elastic, and PLANS AND DIAGRAMS 131 well suited to use on farms where it is desired to grow cattle, sheep, and hogs, as well as to produce some grain for sale. By comparing this plan with Diagram VIII it may be seen that the proportion of corn and grain to grass land in Diagram XII is somewhat higher than in Diagram VIII, while a com- parison with Diagram XI shows that Diagram XI has a greater proportion of grain crops to grass crops than Diagram XII. The plan of cropping in Diagram VIII is intended for intensive dairy farming; Diagram XI for a grain selling farm; while the crops in Diagram XII are so adjusted as to make the rotation adaptable for several kinds of general live stock farming, or for mixed live stock and grain farming. Minor Rotations for Live Stock Farms. The term ' 'minor rotation" is applied to groups of crops that are specially Photo by courtesy "The Partner." Pumpkins, planted with corn in minor rotation fields near the buildings and feed lots, are a valuable food to supplement corn and other grain in the fat- tening of hogs. 132 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION grown for the purpose of providing summer soiling crops for cattle, ensilage crops, root crops for winter feeding, summer pasture for young pigs and brood sows, and early spring and late fall pasture for sheep, cattle, and pigs. The crops most widely used for these purposes are corn, mangels, red clover, field peas, cowpeas, vetches, rape, and winter rye. Pump- kins, also, when planted with corn in minor rotation fields, will provide a large amount of valuable food for hogs during the fattening period of late autumn. The term "minor rotation" is applied to these groups of crops to signify that they are of minor importance to the total interests of the farm as compared with the large fields of staple crops, groups of which are called "major rotrations." It is practically impossible to successfully organize a dairy or general live stock farm without making some pro- vision for small fields of pasture and soiling crops. Often these crops are planted in a haphazard manner and yield only a fraction of what they would if systematically cared for in a rotation plan. These minor rotations should be used on fields adjoining the farm buildings, so that live stock can be. quickly turned out to pasture in the fields, or forage can be quickly hauled to the feeding lots. Minor rotation fields, sown to various legume crops, have special pork-producing value at a minimum of cost. Clover, alfalfa, field peas, soy beans and cowpeas, provide nutritious feed for hogs that they will pasture off at no expense for harvesting and feeding. Hogs grown on these crops, with some slop feed, arrive at the final fattening period with good bone and muscle produced at low cost compared with pen feeding. Field peas, corn, or peanuts, matured in the field, may also be "hogged off" for fattening. A few plans are given herewith with Diagram XIII that illustrate the methods of grouping crops in minor rotations. PLANS AND DIAGFtAMS 133 Diagram XIII. Minor Rotation Plans for Live Stock Farms. Four Bldgs. Year Minor Rotation Main Farm Major Rotations Plan No. 1 1. Corn (Rape) 2. Barley and Oats 2 Pasture (Rye) 3. Rye (Clover) 3 4. Clover Pasture 4 Plan No. 2 1. Corn (Rye) Rye (Clover-Timothy) Plan No. 3 Meadow and Pasture Pasture Corn (Rape) Barley (Clover) Clover Pasture Mangels Plan No. 4 1. Barley and Oats (Rape) 2. Field Peas (Rye) 3. Rye (Rape) 4. Corn (Rape) Plan No. 5 1. Barley (Clover) 2. Clover Pasture 3. Corn (To be hogged off) 4. Corn (To be hogged off) Note : The principal idea usually involved in making up a minor rotation is to provide pasture for young cattle, young pigs, brood sows, and colts, through as many seasons of the year as possible. A special- ized business, such as dairying, might demand the extensive use of these fields for soiling crops, silage and root crops, while one such as pork production would demand as much clover pasture as possible, and corn and rape for fall feed in the fattening period. In regions where alfalfa will stand pasturing one or two small fields of this crop in the minor rotation are of unexcelled value for pasture for growing swine. 134 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Five plans are shown in connection with Diagram XIII that could be used for general live stock farms, or dairy and hog farmc. A descrip- tion of Plan Number 1 will be sufficient to show how such a rotation plan would be used to greatest advantage. 1st Year. Corn planted medium thick. At the last cultivation rape is sown among the corn plants at the rate of about three pounds per acre. The corn could be cut for summer soihng, for ensilage, or allowed to mature as pasture for fattening pigs, sheep or cattle. In either case the rape would provide pasture for fattening i^igs or young cattle until late in the autumn. 2nd Year. Barley and oats seeded in spring and used as pasture for brood sows and pigs and young cattle during the early summer. Photo by courtesy Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station. Cowpeas, used for hog pasture, are a valuable factor in producing cheap pork in regions having a favorable climate for this crop. PLAN'S AND DIAGRAMS 135 In late summer seed winter rye and pasture it until the middle of autumn, when it should be allowed to grow and strengthen its roots for the ap- proaching winter. 3rd Year. Pasture the winter rye, if the stand is vigorous, until late spring and then allow the crop to mature its seeds. After spring pasturing on the rye, clover and timothy are seeded among the rye plants, and after the rye harvest the grass crop is allowed to occupy the land till winter with little or no pasturing. 4th Year. The clover and timothy are pastured all summer and fall by brood sows and pigs, or young cattle, and plowed up late in the autumn in preparation for the succeeding crop of corn. The Use of Catch Crops in the Rotation. Catch crops have been defined and explained in previous paragraplis as those crops that may be so^\^l in a rotation to talce the place of regular, staple crops that have failed on account of unfavorable climatic conditions, or as crops that may be so^vn with regular crops, or between the seasons for regular Canadian field peas. A valuable legume crop in northern climates for grain, forage, hog pasture or green manure. Field peas may be used as a "catch crop" to substitute for injured clover crops in the rotation. 136 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION crops as supplementary pasture for live stock, or jto produce a second marketable crop in one growing season. The American farmer has never made a wide use of catch crops in his scheme of farming, principally because American agriculture has been mainly conducted by ex- tensive rather than by intensive methods, catch crops fitting better into intensive rather than extensive schemes. In many regions of China, for example, where the most inten- sive kind of farming is practiced, the Chinese farmers have become highly proficient in the use of catch crops, and land is thus made to produce several crops in a season. Such crops as buckwheat and turnips are used to occupy the land after a crop of barley has been taken off, or soy beans are planted between the hills of sorghum plants and harvested after the sorghum crop is removed from the land. By such methods as these the Chinese farmer keeps his land producing crops at all growing seasons of the year. In some agricultural regions of the United States, such as the groups of South Central and South Atlantic states, the long growing season permits several crops to be easily grown on the same piece of land in one year, but in the North Central, North Atlantic, and North Pacific Coast states, the schemes of farming that have developed have never made a wide use of the catch crops. One crop a year is the more common rule. In many regions of the North Central states, in particular, land is idle from the time of small grain har- vest until winter. In these regions such crops as corn, potatoes, roots, and clover must occupy the land for the entire growing season to mature the crop; but in the case of the small grains, especially barley and rye, a considerable part of the growing season remains after the normal harvest. Here, then, is a chance to introduce catch crops into the rotation and to increase the total products. PLANS AND DIAGRAMS 137 Catch crops can be used to greatest advantage in the North Central states in increasing the amount of autumn pas- ture on farms. Regular pastures often become short in late summer and autumn, and the catch crop pasture can then be used to keep live stock growing or to keep milch cows from shrinking in their milk production. The catch crops most widely used for this purpose are rape, sown with the grain in the spring, or either mammoth or red clover sown with the grain in the spring, and pastured in the autumn. Field peas, millet, and the vetches can also be used in some regions by seeding after the grain harvest. Winter rye, if sown early, will also produce some pasture in the autumn. The choice of a crop for this purpose depends on the local conditions regarding adaptability of the crop to climate, Photo by courtesy "Breeders' Gazette." Western lambs fattening on corn and soy beans in Indiana. The soy beana are sown with the corn at the last cultivation and both crops fed off in the field in the autumn. 138 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION the price of the seed, and the kind of live stock to be pas- tured on the catch crop. Buckwheat and turnips are two quick maturing crops that can be used to advantage as catch crops to follow small grains in the same growing season. In many regions of the North Central states, thoroughly disked grain stubble land will produce a good crop of buckwheat before winter. If turnip seed is merely scattered and then harrowed in on summer plowing after a grain crop, an excellent sheep pas- ture can be provided for late autumn. A turnip pasture is the finest feed available for old ewes after the lambs are taken away in the autumn. Catch crops, according to the definition previously given, are sometimes planted to take the place of regular crops that have frozen out. If a grass crop, for example, is frozen out by a severe winter, some crop must be planted the succeeding spring to take the place of the meadow land in the rotation that would have furnished forage for the succeeding winter. Canadian field peas, mixed with oats, make a good catch crop for a case of this sort. The crop can be cut and cured for hay and will produce a heavy yield of nutritious forage. Fodder corn and millet are other crops that can be used for the same purpose. The land can be put back into grass again by sowing grass seeds after the pea harvest or in the corn at the last cultivation. In Diagram XIII, numerous catch crops are shown that illustrate various methods of introducing catch crops into the rotation. In Diagram XIV, given herewith, the rotation plan in Diagram XII is used to illustrate the use of catch crops for autumn pasture, under conditions where it is desired to make full and complete use of the resources of the farm for live stock production. PLANS AND DIAGRAMS 139 Diagram XTV. The Use of Catch Crops in the Rotation. (Plan similar to Diagram XII, but with addition of the catch crops) . 1. Corn — Catch crop of rape sown at last cultivation and pas- tured late autumn. 2. Oats — ^Mammoth clover sown in spring with oats and pastured early autumn. 3. Wheat — Grasses seeded this year with wheat. 4. Meadow — Catch crop of peas and oats or fodder corn in case grass crop is thin or entirely frozen out. 5. Pasture. Note: In this rotation plan (same as Diagram XII) a large amount of supplementary pasture for live stock could be provided on the fields occupied each year by the corn and oat crops. Rape seed could be scattered in the corn at its last cultivation and after corn harvest the rape crop would furnish a rich pasture for sheep or cattle in the late autumn. Rape is not injured by early autumn frosts and will furnish feed until late. As this corn land is not fall plowed but spring disked for the succeeding crop of oats, the land can be pastured until very late. Where hogs and cattle are being fattened in the autumn months a portion of this corn and rape crop can be temporarily fenced off, if desired, and stock turned in a few hours every day to feed off both the corn and the rape, thus reducing some of the labor expense of crop growing and live stock feeding. Additional supplementary autumn pasture can be provided in this rotation by seeding mammoth clover with the oats in the spring of the year, and pasturing off the clover in the early autumn. Pas- turing would have to cease on this field in time to permit fall plowing in preparation for wheat. In this plan there is also an illustration of the use of catch crops to take the place of regular crops in the rotation that have failed to make a productive stand. In the event of the failure of a grass crop, fodder corn can be planted, and the fodder thus secured will take the place of the regular hay crop. When the fodder corn is cultivated for the last time, grass seeds may be scattered and covered with the culti- vator, thus producing a stand of grass for the ensuing year. A mix- ture of peas and oats could also be sown, to produce forage m the event of grass failure. Winter rye could be sown after the pea har- vest to provide spring and early summer pasture for the ensuing year, or, if desired, the land could be put back into grass by sowing grass seeds after the pea harvest. MiUet and fodder corn are two good catch crops that can be used to take the place of spring sown, annual crops, that sometimes fail on account of early summer drouth or hail. Unforeseen crop damage can thus be largely recovered, providing the farm is carrying sufficient live stock to utilize the forage. 140 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION The Use of Green Manure Crops in the Rotation. Green manure crops are grown for the particular purpose of adding vegetable matter to the soil. A heavy green manure crop offers the quickest possible method for re- storing productivity to old, badly tilled, worn out soils in a poor physical and chemical condition, or for increasing the productivity of sandy soil. The green manure crop is rarely used or needed on farms where pasture lands are rotated, where there are plentiful supplies of barnyard manure, or where annual, catch crop pastures are used to supplement the regular pasture land. Under these conditions a humus equilibrium is easily main- tained in the soil and there is little need for the green manure crop. But where the permanent pasture is used instead of the rotation pasture, and where annual catch crop pastures are not in use, or where a long cycle rotation for grain farm- ing is practiced, the green manure crop is a necessity in maintaining a humus equilibrium and keeping soils in a high state of productivity through long periods of time. Green manure crops are introduced into the rotation in the same manner as catch crops that are sown with or be- tween regular crops. The best crops to use for green manure purposes are crops belonging to the legume family, because such crops are associated with the bacteria which gather at- mospheric nitrogen. Green manure crops can be introduced into rotations to the best advantage usually after the small grain crops. In that event the green manure crop should approach maturity before being plowed under. Legume crops, as they approach maturity, contain more stored up supplies of nitrogenous matter than when young and before seeds begin to form, and thus it is better to plow under the crop during the late than the early stages of growth. The best legume crops to be used for green manure pur- PLANS AND DIAGRAMS 141 poses are cowpeas, soy beans, field peas, vetches, and mam- moth clover. The choice of these crops depends on the adaptability of the crop to the local climatic conditions, the length of the season in which the crop can grow, and the cost of the seed necessary to start the crop. All of these crops except mammoth clover would be sown after the grain crop had been removed from the land, and in a seed bed prepared by thorough disking or shallow plowing. The mammoth clover seed should be sown with the grain crop in the spring Plowing under a green manure crop of Canadian field peas. Green manure legume crops are especially useful as a means for quickly restoring humus and nitrogen to worn lands, or to improve sandy lands, at the minimum of expense. 142 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION of the year and would grow a great mass of foliage after the grain crop had been removed. Some reference has been made to the use of green manure crops in rotation plans in Diagrams X and XI and also the methods for introducing these crops into the rotation plan. The use of green manure crops in rotation plans on farms having permanent pastures is illustrated in Diagram XIX. Their use in long cycle rotations on grain growing farms is illustrated in the accompanying diagram, number XV. This is the same rotation plan as number XI, but reproduced here to illustrate the use of green manure crops in greater detail. Diagram XV. The Use of Green Manure Crops in a Long Cycle Rotation on an Extensive Grain Growing Farm. (Plan similar to Diagram XI, but with addition of green manure crops.) 1. Corn. 2. Wheat or Barley — Green manure crop plowed under in late autumn. 3. Wheat — Grasses seeded. 4. Meadow. 5. Pasture. 6. Wheat or Flax. 7. Oats — Green manure crop plowed under in late autumn. Note: On land already in a high state of productivity this rotation would keep the land in good physical condition, and in a high state of productivity, for many years, without the use of green manure crops, especially if the two grass crops were fully used by live stock and the manure returned to the soil. In instances, however, where an old grain growing farm has be- come badly run down, and the soil is in a poor physical condition and deficient in available plant food, it would be necessary to introduce green manure crops into the rotation to quickly bring the soil to a condition of high productivity. The green manure crops could be introduced into this rotation in two places to advantage: (1) after wheat or barley in the second year of the rotation; and (2) after oats in the seventh year of the rotation. Whether it would be advisable to use one or two green manure crops in this rotation would depend entirely on the physical condition and productivity of the soil. If the land is in a badly run down condition, it would be advisable to use green manure crops in both the second and seventh years of the PLANS AND DIAGRAMS 143 rotation until the land had been put in good condition again, when one of the green manure crops could be abandoned. The most logical place to introduce a green manure crop in this rotation would be with the oat crop in the seventh year, because of the fact that corn, a gross feeding crop, follows the green maniu-e, and because a green manure crop in this place in the rotation is midway between the grain and cultivated crops that are on the land between those periods when the land is occupied by grass crops. A heavy green manure crop in the second year of the rotation, following wheat or barley, would probably cause rank straw and lodged grain in the third year of the rotation, if the land were very rich and productive. On worn out land, however, this difficulty would not be encountered, and the green manure crop would be of distinct benefit in improving the physical condition of the soil and in releasing avail- able plant food. In the grain growing sections of the North Central states, to which this particular rotation is best adapted, the best green manure crop to use would probably be mammoth clover. Three or four pounds of seed per acre, sown with the grain in the spring of the year, would produce a heavy growth of foliage in the late summer and autumn, after the grain crop was removed from the land, and, when plowed under, would greatly enrich the land. One of the greatest advantages of using this crop for green manure purposes is that it requires no extra labor whatsoever to include the crop in the rotation. The seed is sown with the grain in the spring of the year, and there is no work to be done on the green manure crop after the grain harvest. The only cost of the crop is for seed, and this is a small item compared with the benefits to be gained. Other crops than mammoth clover can be used, however, if desired. Early maturing soy beans, field peas and vetches make good green manure crops. When these crops are used, the grain stubble land should be disked or shallow plowed after the grain harvest to destroy weeds and to prepare a seed bed in which the green manure crop can make a quick start. When the green manure crop is plowed under in the late autumn, the work of plowing needs careful attention; for a poor job of plowing will leave a rough seed bed for the succeeding crop. The land should be plowed a little deeper than usual to bring up enough soil to thor- oughly cover the vegetation, and the rolling coulter and a drag chain used to roll under the green manure crop in nice shape. The Use of Cover Crops in the Rotation. Cover crops, sown for the particular purpose of preventing soil washing and the loss of soluble plant food during seasons when soil areas are not occupied by regular crops, are not extensively used in the Northern part of the Temperate Zone where the soil is frozen solid for five or six months in the year. In more 144 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION southerly regions, however, where there is a distinct winter season, but where the winters are comparatively mild, and where considerable soil washing takes place during the winter season, the cover crop is often used to check the process of soil washing and the loss of soluble plant food. The cover crop is especially useful in protecting soils after the growth of a cultivated crop where the bare soil and furrowed ground are very susceptible to soil washing. Generally the cover crop used is one that will withstand the winter climate and start growth again in the spring of the year. It is usually sown with the cultivated crop in early autumn, allowed to stay on the land all autumn and winter, allowed to produce considerable foliage again in the early spring, and is then plowed under in preparation for the regu- lar spring sown crop. In this manner the soil is covered with a mulch from the harvest season of one year until the seeding season of the following year, and little soluble plant food is washed away. The cover crop, during its growth, absorbs a large part of the soluble plant food of the soil, and when plowed under this soluble plant food is returned to the soil for the succeeding crop. Crimson clover, sweet clover, and winter rye are very commonly used as cover crops. In Diagram XVI three plans are shown for the inclusion of cover crops in rotations. It may be noticed that in all these plans the soil is never left uncovered at any period of the rotation cycle. Diagram XVI. The Use of Cover Crops in the Rotation. Plan No. 1. 1. Com — Sweet clover "cover crop" sown in corn at last culti- vation. 2. Soy Beans — Autumn sown wheat. 3. Wheat — Seed down to grass. 4. Meadow. 5. Pasture. PLANS AND DIAGRAMS 145 Plan No. 2. 1. Tobacco — Autumn sown rye "cover crop." 2. Tobacco — Autumn sown wheat. 3. Wheat — Seed down to grass. 4. Meadow. 5. Pasture. Plan 3. 1. Corn — Crimson clover "cover crop" sown in corn at last cul- tivation. 2. Corn — Autumn sown wheat. 3. Wheat — Seed down to grass. 4. Meadow. 5. Pasture. The Use of Alfalfa in Crop Rotation. Alfalfa cannot be as easily rotated in short cycles with the grain and cultivated crops as red clover, alsike clover, or mixtures of these clovers with timothy and brome grass. The reasons are that alfalfa is a perennial crop; that it requires at least one year, and more commonly two years in Northern climates to get a good stand; and that the seed is so costly as to make it impractical to be continually breaking up alfalfa sods and re-seeding new fields. A field of alfalfa, once well started, should remain as permanent meadow for at least five or six years before it is broken. Thus, when alfalfa occupies one field for many years and is relied on as the sole source of cured hay, the remaining fields of the farm must grow grain crops and cultivated crops for long periods of time, and, even though alfalfa be rotated over all fields of the farm, relatively long periods must elapse when grain and cultivated crops occupy the land with no intervening humus producing crops Diagram XV 11 illus- trates this point, and also the point that, while alfalfa can be successfully rotated in long cycle rotations, it is more diffi(3ult to systematically rotate it with grain and cultivated crops m short cycles. 10 146 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Diagram XVII. Alfalfa and Systematic Crop Rotation. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 1. Wheat 1. Alfalfa 1. Alfalfa 1. Alfalfa 1. AKalfa 2. Alfalfa 2. AlfaKa 2 Alfalfa 2. Alfalfa 2. Alfalfa 3. Alfalfa 3. Alfalfa 3! Alfalfa 3! Alfalfa 3. Corn 4. Alfalfa 4. Alfalfa 4. Alfalfa 4. Corn 4. Oats 5. Alfalfa 5. Alfalfa 5. Corn 5. Oats 5. Corn 6. Alfalfa 6. Corn 6. Oats 6. Corn 6. Wheat 7. Corn 7. Oats 7. Corn 7. Wheat 7. AKalfa 8. Oata 8. Corn 8. Wheat 8. Alfalfa 8. Alfalfa 9. Cora 9. Wheat 9. Alfalfa 9. AlfaKa 9. AKaKa (6) (7) (S) (9) 1. Alfalfa 1. Cora 1. Oats 1. Corn 2. Com 2 Oats 2 Corn 2_ Wheat 3. Oats 3! Corn 3! Wheat 3! AKaKa 4. Cora 4. Wheat 4. Alfalfa 4. Alfalfa 5. Wheat 5. Alfalfa 5. Alfalfa 5. AlfaKa 6. Alfalfa 6. Alfalfa 6. Alfalfa 6. AKalfa 7. Alfalfa 7. Alfalfa 7. Alfalfa 7. AKalfa 8. AKalfa 8. Alfalfa 8. Alfalfa 8. Corn 9. AKalfa 9. Alfalfa 9. Corn 9. Oats Note: In this plan sufficient grain producing crops have been included with the aKalfa to give a plan suitable for general grain and live stock farming. Each field of aKalfa remains unplowed for five years in order to keep the alfalfa seed cost at a minimum, and in order to allow time for the alfaKa crop to obtain its maximum productiveness. The rotation would occupy nine years in completing its cycle, aKalfa occupying the land for five j'ears and grain producing crops for four years. The rotation would be better balanced were a legume crop such as field peas introduced in the eighth year of the rotation, after corn, with oats the ninth year and corn the tenth year, thus making a ten- year rotation. If the rotation is planned as a nine-year rotation, a green manure crop could be introduced to advantage with the oat crop of the eighth year. Such a rotation plan, with its preponderance of aKaKa, is suited only to regions where aKalfa is a certain and dependable crop, and where the feeding of five stock or the sale of alfalfa hay is practical and profitable. It is a plan ill suited to small farms, because it ne- cessitates dividing the farm area into nine or ten fields, and should the total farm area be small, each field would be too small for the prac- tical operation of machinery and for good field management. This PLANS AND DIAGRAMS 147 plan, or some plan of a similar nature, however, could be adopted on large farms of 640 acres or more in size, where it is desired to make alfalfa the main crop. Alfalfa cannot be systematically rotated on small farms with corn and small grains in regions where it is desired to make corn, wheat, oats, or other small grains, the chief products of the farm. It must occupy the land for a relative- ly long period of time, and for this reason it becomes the chief crop of any farm where it is systematically rotated with the grain and cultivated crops. The clover grass crops are much better adapted for rotation with corn and the small grains, where these crops are staple crops, than alfalfa. In regions where alfalfa is a certain and dependable crop a system of agriculture which makes alfalfa the main crop is most profit- able and advisable. Alfalfa is the most perfect animal food known to man; it is very productive and cheaply produced; Photo by courtesy Montana Ranches Company. Alfalfa ia not so well suited to short course rotations with grain and cultivated crops as red clover. Whenever alfalfa becomes one of the main crops of the farm it should be left in permanent fields for five to ten years. Grain and cultivated crops will then be rotated over the other fields of the farm with annual pastures and green manures employed to maintain the humus and nitrogen supply of the soil. 148 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION and it can be rotated successfully with grain and cultivated crops under the conditions named in the notes accompanying Diagram XVII. If alfalfa is to be grown in regions where it is not an absolutely certain crop, and where corn and small grains are staple, it is better policy to set aside for alfalfa an odd field that does not easily fit into a rotation plan with the other fields of the farm, than to try to rotate it with the main crops of the farm. Red clover, alsike clover, mammoth clover, and crimson clover, as meadow and pasture crops, as well as humus producing and nitrogen gathering crops, fit into a short cycle rotation with corn, wheat, oats, barley, cotton, potatoes or sugar beets, much better than alfalfa. Alfalfa is a distinctly valuable crop, however, on any live stock farm for its unsurpassed feeding qualities, and a few fields of this crop will yield a most valuable feeding ad- junct to grain feeds such as corn and oats. Alfalfa is also an excellent crop to establish on the rolling portions of farms. It holds the soil from washing badly and provides the best of pastures. One advantage that alfalfa has over red clover and alsike clover as a hay and pasture crop for live stock is, that its deep roots enable it to survive periods of drouth that are fatal to new seedings of the clover crops. This fact about alfalfa is worthy of consideration in some cli- mates, as well as its productiveness and nutritive value. In Diagram XVIII, a plan is briefly outlined whereby alfalfa can be grown on farms where conditions necessitate a short cycle rotation and not disrupt a practical -plan of crop rotation on all the fields. This plan would be specially adapted to live stock farming, and, with the large amounts of manure produced under such conditions, the soil would undoubtedly be kept in a high state of productivity. PLANS AND DIAGRAMS 149 Diagram XVIII, Alfalfa Field Combined with a Four-Year Rota- tion for Farm Conditions Necessitating a Short Cycle Rotation. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 1. Alfalfa 2. Alfalfa 3. Alfalfa 4. Alfalfa 1. 2. 3. 4. Corn Oats Wheat Clover 1. Oats 2. Wheat 3. Clover 4. Corn 1. Wheat 2. Clover 3. Corn 4. Oats 1. Clover 2. Corn 3. Oats 4. Wheat (AKalfa and shifted t n finlfl 'I'l 5. Corn 6. Oats 7. Wheat 8. Clover 5. 6. 7. 8. Wheat Clover Corn Oats 5. Oats 6. Wheat 7. Clover 8. Corn 5. Clover 6. Corn 7. Oats 8. Wheat 5. Alfalfa 6. Alfalfa 7. Alfalfa 8. Alfalfa (Indefinite) Note: The plan of this rotation, designed to include alfalfa in a practical manner on small farms necessitating short cycle rota- tions, is, to seed down one field permanently to alfalfa for a period of several years and to carry out a four-year rotation including red clover on the remaining fields of the farm. When it is desired to break up the alfalfa field, a new seeding can be made with one of the grain crops, and if a successful stand is secured, the old field can be broken up and planted to some strong growing crop like corn. After the new field of alfalfa has become established, the four-year rotation proceeds on the remaining four fields as before. The only important difference in this plan from that of an ordinary four-year rotation is, that, in the year when it is desired to seed a new crop of alfalfa, grass seedmg would have to be done on two fields, one field for alfalfa, and the other for red clover. In making the shift of fields necessary to establish a new seeding of alfalfa it may be noticed that on field No. 2 a wheat crop is sown following a clover crop. Under most soil conditions it would probably be better to plant a cultivated crop, such as corn, on the clover sod. If the soil is light and not heavliy supplied with available nitrogen, this place in the rotation would be excellent for wheat. If the soil con- ditions are such that wheat would probably lodge, if sown on a clover sod, a crop of corn could be planted after the clover and ? new seeding of clover made in the corn at its last cultivation, thus putting the land back into clover and its prescribed place in the four-year rotation. If a plan of this kind, which produces a large amount of hay each year in proportion to the amount of grain, is impractical on account of this fact, it would be possible to substitute corn or oats for the clover, and to maintain a humus equilibrium on the fields of the four- year rotation by means of green manure crops. The red clover field could also be used for pasture, providing the land were not pastured too closely. By pasturing the hard alfalfa land early in the spring and 150 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION allowing the clover crop to make a strong start, it could be used for pasture during the summer months without any difficulty. It should be understood that this plan is diagrammatic and shows only one of several plans that could be made to combine alfalfa fields with short cycle rotations. Permanent Pastures and Crop Rotation. In the opening paragraphs of Chapter V it was stated that systematic crop rotation, with tlie use of rotation pastures, is impractical on some farms where there are rough lands, or fields cut up badly by streams, that will produce permanent pasture grasses, but cannot be included in a rotation plan with the arable lands of the farm. Many farms in the United States have lands of this kind which prevent reorganization of the farm by such methods as are shown in Diagrams II to VII, and where permanent pasture is the only revenue that can be derived from certian areas. Furthermore, in some regions the permanent pasture of white clover and blue grass is preferred to the rotation pasture of red clover and timothy, A pasture scene in New England. The permanent pasture is a necessity on the majority of farms because of the stony soil and rough topography. The grass crop of these lands is utilized to the best advantage by dairy cattle. PLANS AND DIAGRAMS 151 or alsike clover with timothy or brome .grass. The rotation pasture does not thicken up on the ground and stand as contin- uous and close pasturing and tramping by cattle and sheep as the firmly established white clover and blue grass pasture. Where mixed grain and live stock farming is practiced and where it is not necessary to pasture land closely, the rotation pasture is usually to be preferred, wherever all areas of the farm are arable or can be made so. The rota- tion pasture distributes manure periodically over all areas of the farm without any costs, and keeps up the general productiveness of the farm lands at the least expense. Thus, when mixed grain and live stock farming is being practiced, the rotation pasture is preferable, wherever possible, in consideration of the effect it has on the pro- ductiveness of all crops in the rotation. Where land is to be pastured closely by dairy cattle or sheep, and where live stock enterprises constitute the chief business of the farm, the thick sod of a white clover and blue grass permanent pasture is preferable to the rotation pasture, in some agricultural regions. In such a case there is more manure available on the farm to spread on the plow land than where mixed grain and live stock farming is being practiced. The use of this manure from large numbers of live stock will do much toward keeping up the produc- tivity of the plow land on the farm, and then, if green manure crops be occasionly grown on the plow lands, the produc- tivity of the fields can be kept up as well as though pasture lands were periodically rotated over the farm. If condi- tions indicate that the permanent pasture of white clover and blue grass will yield more pasture than the rotation pasture of red clover and timothy, the arable land used for permanent pasture can be left unbroken for relatively long periods of time, and the other crops of the farm rotated 152 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION with clover meadow and green manured occasionally in much the same manner as was shown in Diagram XVIII, illustrating the method of rotating farm crops where one field of the farm is kept permanently in alfalfa. In Diagram XIX a rotation plan is shown that will illus- strate a practical method for rotating crops on farms where the permanent pasture is a necessity, or where it is desirable to keep a portion of the arable land in permanent pasture for relatively long periods of time. This plan is not copied from any actual survey, but is merely a diagram to illustrate methods that can be applied to any farm where these con- ditions prevail. Diagram XIX. Crop Rotation with Permanent Pasture Lands. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 1. Pasture 1. Corn 1. Oats (Green manure) 1. Wheat 1. Meadow 2. Pasture 2. Oats (Green manure) 2. Wheat 2. Meadow 2. Corn 3. Pasture 3. Wheat 3. Meadow 3. Corn 3. Oats (Green manure) 4. Pasture 4. Meadow 4. Corn 4. Oats (Green manure) 4. Wheat „„,i „i,;f*„j i^ firlrl '^\ (Pasture Icmu oim ucu lu neiu /&; 5. Corn 5. Pasture 5. Oats (Green manure) 5. Wheat 5. Meadow 6. Oats 6. Pasture 6. Wheat 6. Meadow 6. Corn (Green manure) 7. Wheat 7. Pasture 7. Meadow 7. Corn 7. Oats (Green manure) 8. Meadow 8. Pasture 8. Corn 8. Oats 8. Wheat (Indefinite) (Green 1 manure) PLANS AND DIAGRAMS 153 Note: This diagram shows a farm divided into five fields, one of which is permanent blue grass and white clover pasture. On the other four fields of the farm, a four-year rotation of corn, oats, wheat and meadow is practiced. The meadow land is broken each year in preparation for the succeeding corn crop. A green manure crop is sown with the oats and plowed under late in the autumn. If the permanent pasture land is rough and incapable of tillage, this land must, of course, stay in grass always, in which event the four-year rotation is practiced on the other four fields without any interruption. If the land in permanent pasture is arable, and growing permanent pasture only because it is the desire of the farm manager to do so, the pasture can be shifted at any time, every five to eight years, to any other field of the farm. The upper half of this diagram illustrates the rotation of the crops in the event that the permanent pasture is rough, untiUable land. The lower half of the diagram, taken in connection with the upper half, illustrates how the permanent pasture can be shifted from one field to another, in case all areas of the farm are arable. Suppose, for example, field 1 is arable, and has been in permanent pasture so long that the grass is sodbound and a change of pasture is deemed desirable. Two years prior to the shifting of the pasture the change must be planned for by mixing white clover and blue grass seeds in the regular grass mixture used for meadow grass seeding. Then, if a good stand of grasses is secured, the old pasture sod can be broken up for corn, and the meadow land goes into pasture. Meanwhile grass seeds have been sown with the wheat crop of the previous year, and thus, as soon as the old pasture sod is broken, new pasture land and new meadow land have been prepared, so that the new pasture land can remain permanent pasture indefinitely, and the four-year rotation continues over the balance of the farm as shown in the upper half of the diagram. With one year of meadow and one year with a green manure crop in this four-year rotation, there is no question that the system of crop- ping will maintain soil productivity. This rotation is practically the same as the one shown in Diagrams VII and XII, and just as good in every respect. The permanent pasture need not stand in the way of successful crop rotation, if the meadow land is rotated over the arable fields of the farm, if deep rooted legumes like red clover or mam- moth clover are used for the meadow crop, and if occasional green ma- nure crops or catch crops for supplementary pasture are used to assist in maintaining a humus equilibrium in the soil. Rotation Plans without Pasture Lands for Intensive Systems of Live Stock Farming. Where land values are very high, and farms located close to big cities where there is great demand for fresh dairy products, a system of dairy farming is sometimes adopted that does not provide pas- 154 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION ture for the cows, but soiling crops and ensilage for the summer green feed. Of course such a system of dairy- farming is more expensive than one that provides the sum- mer feed by means of pasture land. But the system permits a greater number of cows to be kept on a given area of land than when pasture lands are used for summer feed. Thus the gross income from a given area of land is materially increased, and while the costs of the business may be higher than in case a portion of the farm area is in pasture land. ^^iii.^ Photo by courtesy " Hoard's Dairyman." Specialized dairy farming on farms of 80 to 160 acres in size, without pastures, and with summer feed provided by means of silage and soiling crops, is one of the best solutions of the problem of securing a satisfactory profit from high priced agricultural land. the costs do not increase in proportion to the increase in gross income, and, therefore, the net profit from a given area of land is greater. If close to a big city, the relatively small, highly devel- oped, dairy farm that keeps a large number of cows on a given area of land by means of summer soiling crops and ensilage, is a very profitable type of farming and successful so long as a sufficient labor supply is available to con- PLANS AND DIAGRAMS 155 duct the business. This method of farming, in fact, offers one of the best solutions to the problem of making the small, high priced farm pay a good dividend on the invest- ment. Rotation plans for this kind of farming can be made very simple. The productivity of the* soil is easily main- tained with the large amounts of manure available, and, therefore, the rotation can be planned with but one main object in veiw, namely, to produce the largest possible amounts of roughage and grain feed from the farm area for the feeding of the live stock, and at the same time to arrange the fields in a systematic manner. The plans must include ensilage crops for winter, spring and early summer feeding, and soiling crops that can be cut and fed green in the late summer and early autumn. Corn is the standard ensilage crop in most regions of the United States, with field peas, cowpeas, soy beans, or the clovers sometimes used to mix with the corn in the silo. The soiling crops most commonly used are corn, sorghum, and oats and peas mixed. The grain crops used in rotations of this nature should be those that produce seeds rich in proteids (nitrogenous matter), so that the feeder may have cheap proteid feed available to balance the food nutrients of the ensilage and soiling crops, and thus produce the food ration most desirable for milk production. Clover or alfalfa hay should also be grown on a farm of this kind in order to produce some roughage that is rich in proteid nutrients. Annual pastures of catch crops such as rape or clover can be used, if desired, in some plans to provide pasture for young cattle and dry cows. In planning a rotation for a farm, where intensive dairy farming of this kind is to be practiced, the minor rotation close to the buildings would prove very useful, and should be used unless the farm area is small (80 acres or less). On 156 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION very small farms all fields are so close to the buildings that the minor rotation becomes impractical and unnecessary, but, on comparatively larger farms, the minor rotation fields are very useful in providing pasture for young stock and hogs, and for growing soiling crops close to the feed lots, so as to affect economies in the time involved in feeding the soiling crop. ■ ■ Ml HH |H| ^^% F^^P^^^H EB^^ -^ ^ ^m m^^S* '^^^M ■toy^^^^^ HhIIII HI '^^P ^^^^^^^^^^^ 1^^^^ 9H^ WSSK3S^I^&yiii3i ^^^^^^^^^^1^^^ 1 1 ^Bm Pliuto by cuiirtfsy "The Farmer ." Pigs pasturing in a field of oats and peas. Stioats grow fast on this feed during late summer and early autumn, and arrive at the final fattening period with good bone and muscle produced at small expense. In the accompanying diagrams, Nos. XX, XXI and XXII, three rotation plans are shown that illustrate methods for growing crops on farms without pasture lands, and for practicing intensive dairy farming, or other specialized form of animal husbandry, on high priced farm lands. PLANS AND DIAGRAMS 157 Diagram XX. Rotation ] ;»lan without Pasture Lands for a 120 Acre Farm. 1. Corn 1. Oats-peas 1. Oats 1. Clover 2. Oats-peas 2. Oats Buildings 2. Clover 2. Corn 3. Oats 3. Clover 3. Corn 3. Oats-peas 4. Clover 4. Corn 4. Oats-peas 4. Oats 1. Corn 1. Oats 2. Oats 2. Meadow 3. Meadow 3. Corn 4. Corn 4. Corn 1. Corn 2. Corn 3. Oats 4. Meadow 1. Meadow 2. Corn 3. Corn - 4. Oats - Note: These Diagrams, Nos. XX and XXI, show a 120 acre farm, all arable, divided into four large fields of about twenty-five acres each, for the major rotation, and four small fields of about four acres each, for a minor rotation. The minor rotation fields, are fenced with hog fencing so that each field may be used periodically for hog pasture. The large fields are also fenced so that stock can be pastured on meadow aftermath, catch crop pastm-es, and on the stub- ble fields. In Diagram XX the minor rotation consists of corn, oats and peas, oats, and clover. If desired, rape could be sown with the corn at its last cultivation to provide late autumn pasture for hogs and young stock. The corn crop can be used for summer soiling or al- lowed to mature and furnish feed in the field for fattening hogs. The oats and peas can be used for summer soiling or a portion of the crop 158 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Diagram XXI. Rotation Plan without Pasture Lands for a 120 Acre Farm. 1. Corn 1. Corn 1. Oats 1. Clover 2. Corn 2. Oats Buildings 2. Clover 2. Corn 3. Oats 3. Clover 3. Corn 3. Corn 4. Clover 4. Corn 4. Corn 4. Oats 1. Oats-peas 1. Oats 2. Oats 2. Meadow 3. Meadow 3. Corn 4. Corn 4. Oats-peas 1. Corn 2. Oats-peas 3. Oats 4. Meadow 1. Meadow 2. Corn 3. Oats-peas 4. Oats cured for winter forage. The oats are harvested and threshed. The clover crop, sown with the oats, furnishes pasture for brood sows, pigs and young stock. In Diagram XX, the major rotation consists of com, corn, oats and meadow. One crop of corn can be matured for grain, and the other used for summer soiling, ensilage and fodder corn. Rape, sown with this com crop, would furnish autumn pasture. The oats would be harvested and threshed for grain feed. The clover meadow would be cut for hay and the aftermath pastured. Diagram XXI is much the same as Diagram XX. The chief differences are that more corn is placed in the minor rotation to use for soiling and ensilage, and that a large field of peas and oats is in- cluded in the major rotation. This crop of oats and peas would fur- nish some summer soiling feed, but the main portion of the crop would PLANS AND DIAGRAMS 159 be allowed to mature to a point where pods were formed on the pea vines, and then the crop would be cut with a pea mower, cured in the field, and stored for winter forage. If desired, a portion of this pea and oat crop could be mixed with the corn silage and run into the silo. If desired, also, the pea and oat crop could be allowed to mature in the field, be cut and stacked, and the grain threshed out for feed. The oats in this rotation would be harvested and threshed for grain feed. The corn crop also would be matured for grain, except such portions as are needed to supplement the small fields of corn for en- silage and summer soihng. The clover meadow would be cut for hay and the aftermath pastured. Wherever the oat and pea crop can be handled satisfactorily for either grain or cured feed, the rotation plan of Diagram XXI is some- what preferable to the plan in Diagram XX, because a greater quan- tity of feed rich in protein is produced. The farm feeds produced in this rotation would make an almost perfect combination of food- stuffs for milk production. The feeder who had ensilage, clover hay, oats, and either pea grain or good pea hay, to draw on for feed supphes, would have a small bill for mill feeds. With rotations such as these, which include heavy yielding soiling and ensilage crops, clover hay, grain, and catch crop pastures, the dairyman can stock land, if he so desires, to its maximum capacity, and with heavy milking dairy cows this kind of farming will return satisfactory profits on very high priced land. Photo by courtesy "The Farmer. 'Hogging off" corn saves labor and expense in the fattening of hogs. 160 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Diagram XXII. Rotation Plan Without Pasture Lands for a 120 Acre Farm. 1. Corn 2. Corn 3. Oats 4. Meadow 1. Corn 2. Oats 3. Meadow 4. Corn 1. Oats 2. Meadow 3. Corn 4. Corn Buildings Blue grass pasture Alfalfa pasture 1. Meadow 2. Corn 3. Corn 4. Oats Note: This rotation plan is mucn the same as the plans shown in Diagrams XX and XXI, with this difference: the minor rotation is eliminated and in its place two small fields of permanent blue grass and alfalfa pasture have been provided for hogs and calves. This permits a somewhat better arrangement of the large fields, and it also provides a plan requiring less labor. This plan does not provide quite as intensive a system of farming as the plans in Diagram XX and XXI, but it effects some economies in labor and would, therefore, be preferable under certain farm conditions. Under this plan, ensilage would be the chief dependence for sum- mer feed. Annual catch crop and aftermath pastures could be used if desired. Crops would be handled by the same methods outlined in the note accompanying Diagrams XX and XXI. PLANS AND DIAGRAMS 161 PROBLEMS AND PRACTICUMS (1) Which type of rotation, the short or long cycle, is best adapted to the majority of the farms in your community? Why? (2) Which type of pasture is considered the most profitable in your community, the permanent or rotation pasture? Why? (3) Using your local costs for posts, wire and labor, what is the cost per rod of fencing an 80 acre field 160 rods long and 80 rods wide, with 4 inch cedar posts set 20 feet apart and with 3 strands of barbed wire, and including 4 braced gate posts as well as 4 corner posts? What is the cost per rod with 4 inch cedar posts set 20 feet apart and with 35 inch woven wire and 1 strand of barbed wire? With steel posts 20 feet apart, 26 inch woven wire, and 2 strands of barbed wire? See page 479. (4) How many acres of pasture are necessary, on the average, in your community to pasture a mature cow or a steer? What is the annual cost of an acre of pasture in your community? (Calcu- late current interest on land investment, together with taxes, annual proportion of seed cost, and annual fence cost.) (5) What is the annual cost of an acre of pasture when land is worth $25.00, $50.00 $100.00, $150.00 and $200.00 per acre? (6) If 40 acres of land, valued at $100.00 per acre, will pasture twenty 1,000 pound milk cows, averaging 20 lbs. of 4% milk daily for 160 days, what is the profit per acre of pasture from the sale of milk, when butter fat is worth 30 cents per pound? (7) If dairy cows are summer fed on ensilage, corn, oats, and clover, on land valued at $100.00 per acre, is the net acre profit greater or less than when land is devoted to pasture for summer feed, assuming the flow of milk to be the same in either case? (To solve this problem the first step is to calculate a ration that will meet the requirements of the cows. See "Haecker Feeding Standards," page 473 of this book. Compute the ration for a 1,000 pound cow yielding 20 pounds of 4% milk daily. De- termine the total amounts of silage, corn, oats, and clover, for feeding one cow 160 days — the pasture period. Determine the acres required to produce this amount of feed for one cow with average crop yields such as: silage 10 tons per acre; corn 50 bu. per acre; oats 40 bu. per acre; and clover 2}4 tons per acre. Determine the cost of producing this amount of feed for one 11 162 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION cow — see page 490 of this book — and reduce this cost to the basis of one acre. Determine the number of cows that can be supported on 40 acres of land for 160 days, when fed this ration, by dividing the total acres [40] by the number of acres required to produce the necessary feed for one cow.) With this data in hand the acre profit from pasture land and stall feeding in summer is easily computed. Calculate in each case the total amounts of butter fat produced for 160 days and the value of same; the cost of the pasture or the crops fed out; and the difference, when reduced to the net return per acre, will show the comparative acre profit. This problem is intended merely to show approximate re- turns per acre over and above the cost of feed. The cost of milking and interest on the value of the cows would enter into the problem if an exact comparison were made. (This problem is taken from Circular 5, Cost Accounting Section, Division of Farm Management, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station.) (8) Draw a series of plans, covering the period of time necessary, that will illustrate the reorganization of an old farm and the establishment of systematic crop rotation. The basis of these plans should be the diagram of your home farm or other farm you are familiar with, as referred to in question (5), Part II, Chapter V. Carefully study the reorganization plans shown in Part II, Chapter V to note all facts that must be taken into consideration. In choosing the crops to be grown and in making the rotation plan, consider the personal preferences of the farm manager, the character of the soil, the cUmate, the topography of the land, and the markets. These plans should be in detail and should show all steps necessary to establish the perfected scheme of cropping. Estimate the costs of the reorganization work, such as fencing or drainage. Estimate the total crop yields per year on the perfected plan, at average yields per acre, and show plans for the disposal of tht crops. Estimate the number of dairy cows, fat cattle, young cattle, swine, or sheep that the plan will sup- port or that it is your plan to feed on the farm. State what crops are to be "cash crops." In fact, project a concise plan of farm management on the basis of your perfected plan of cropping. PLANS AND DIAGRAMS 163 (9) What is the best type of plow to use in plowing under a heavy green manure crop? Give reasons. (10) Study the adjustment of a plow to secure best results when plow- ing under a green manure crop. Study the work of various kinds of coulters, the jointer and the drag chain. Learn to adjust the depth and width of cut so as to cover the crop perfectly. From Bulletin 125 Minn. Agr. Expt. Sta. Clover and timothy sod. Backset after a crop of flax. Note the amount of vegetable matter left to the soil from the roots and stubble. CHAPTER VII ROTATIONS FOR NORTH CENTRAL STATES General Statements about the Agriculture of the North Central States. The North Central states of the United States comprise Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Miimesota, Iowa, Missouri, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska and Kansas. This group of states is sometimes called the "Upper Mississippi Valley Region." With the exception of the Western portions of North Dakota, South Dakota, Kansas and Nebraska, these states are all within the humid climate zone, where rainfall is usually abundant for temperate zone plant life, and where the natural vegeta- tion on the prairies was the luxuriant growing forms of the prairie grasses. These states comprise the largest area of contiguous, productive plow lands in the United States. The greater part of the North American prairie, excepting the Canadian prairies, is within their boundaries. From these states comes the greater part of the corn, wheat, oats, barley, flax, and potato crops, as well as the bulk of the live stock products of the United States. The so-called "corn belt" of the United States is mainly within the boundaries of the North Central states. In fact, corn is the principal crop of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska and Kansas, and is grown extensively in all the other states in this region. Wheat is the other great staple crop of this region, being grown most extensively in North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, Nebraska and Kansas. Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Illinois are famous dairy states, and in all the states the dairy indus- try, with the grass and forage crops that accompany it, is on ROTATIONS FOR NORTH CENTRAL STATES 165 the increase. Cattle and swine feeding, accompanied by- intensive farming methods, is also one of the great agricul- tural industries. While these crops and industries are the chief agricultural enterprises of the North Central states, there are many other crops grown that produce large values in agricultural wealth. Potatoes, tobacco, sugar beets, alfalfa, clover and the various grass crops, beans, peas, buck- wheat, and small grains other than wheat, are grown in large quantities. Crop rotation is eminently adapted to this region of the United States. There is a great variety of crops to choose from in planning the rotations, and, furthermore, for a great majority of the farms, the mixed grain and live stock system of farming is the system best adapted to the soil, the climate, the markets, and the farm labor conditions. There are, of course, some conditions where truck farming, intensive dairy farming, extensive grain growing, cattle grazing, or other form of specialized agriculture, are more attractive to the farm manager than mixed grain and live stock farming, but the mixed type of farming is now, and probably always will be, the most popular system of farming. For these reasons the planning of crop lotations that will alternate the grain, grass, and cultivated crops, is compara- tively easy in the North Central states. Moreover, in the greater part of this region the fertility of the soil has not yet been reduced to such a low level by continuous, one crop farming as to make the extensive use of commercial fertilizers a necessity, as is the case in other parts of the United States. Systematic crop rotation, the use of green manures and live stock, with thorough tillage, will keep this agricultural region productive for many years to come, if followed before waste- ful methods of soil cultivation have proceeded as far as in some of the Atlantic Seaboard states. Crop rotation is 366 FIELD MANAGEMENT- AND CROP ROTATION needed on a majority of these farms to provide present and future productive soil conditions and to systematize the field work. The plaiming of crop rotations for the unirrigated lands in the semi-arid portions of Western Kansas, Nebraska, North Dakota, and South Dakota is a far more difficult problem than for regions having more abundant rainfall. In these regions the conservation of moisture is the chief prob- lem. Deep plowing, thorough harrowing, sub-surface pack- ing, and bare fallowing are the factors of crop production that must be chiefly considered. Controlling the moisture supply is the important agricultural problem. Grass crops are not as commonly grown as in the more humid sections of the North Central states. In many places brome grass is the only drouth resistant perennial grass that it is practical to Photo by courtesy "Farmer and Breeder." Cutting corn for the silo, or for separation into grain and fodder by the "corn iiusker and shredder." A common scene in the "corn belt" of the North Central states. ROTATIONS FOR NORTH CENTRAL STATES 167 seed, and it is difficult to secure profitable stands of clover, alfalfa, or other legume crops. Progress is being made in discovering and breeding varieties of alfalfa and vetches that are hardy and productive in these regions of scant rain- fall, but, nevertheless, the problem of growing productive grass crops in these regions is difficult. Practical and profitable agriculture in these regions is chiefly confined to the growing of fall sown grain crops, spring sown grain crops on deep, fall plowed land, or such cultivated crops as the drouth resisting sorghmns and Kafir corn. The most successful crops are quick growing annuals that can make their start on the stored up rain and snow water in the plowing, mature their seeds from the moisture that usually falls in spring and early summer, and ripen off before the dry, hot seasons of midsummer and late sum- mer. Pastures and meadows, not irrigated, will usually dry up in midsummer in these regions, and are, therefore, relative- ly unprofitable crops. For these reasons the problem of maintaining a humus equilibrium in the soils is indeed difficult. The natural supply of humus in those soils is small, and the bare fallows, cultivated crops, and grain crops soon exhaust it. The future will surely bring difficult soil fertility problems to these regions. At the present time these regions have not been cropped for many years, and the soils usually contain abundant supplies of available fertility. If enough moisture can be conserved for crop growth, the crops are good. But, with decreasing humus supplies, these soils will eventually become unproductive; for humus is the key that unlocks the plant food of the soil. Wherever the header can be used to harvest grain, instead of the binder, in these regions, the humus equilibrium can be maintained quite well by plowing under the straw portion 168 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION of the crop. The difficulty with this practice is that the straw, when plowed under, lies between the furrow-slice and the subsoil and may cause the seed bed to dry out, because the seed bed is somewhat disconnected from the moisture of the subsoil. This difficulty, however, can be overcome by fall plowing, and, if necessary, by the use of a sub-surface packer or disk harrow with the disks set straight ahead, that is run over the land in the early spring. Green manure fallow can also be used in the place of bare fallow, and thus add occasional supplies of humus to the soil. Some of the hardy vetches are useful for this purpose. Brome grass sods are also a source of humus supply for the soils of these regions, but the amount of humus that can be turned under is com- paratively small. Hardy varieties of alfalfa will doubtlessly be developed sometime that will prove adapted to many areas where alfalfa is now an uncertain crop. Rotations for Small Grain Farming. Rotation plans for small grain farming have been quite thoroughly presented in Diagrams XI and XII and in the notes accompanying these diagrams. These plans are especially well adapted to those regions where the grain is all spring sown. They are also easily adapted to regions where wheat is autumn sown and where it is desired to make grain production the chief enter- prise of the farm. The rotation plan in Diagram XI, for ex- ample, could be modified easily for winter wheat production by planning to seed winter wheat in the corn of the first year of the rotation, seeding oats after the pasture in the sixth year, and in the autumn of the sixth year seeding winter wheat for the seventh year, A good short cycle rotation for the winter wheat regions of the North Central states is : 1 — Corn (cover crop of soy beans). 2 — Oats (fall sown wheat). ROTATIONS FOR NORTH CENTRAL STATES 169 3 — Wheat (seed down to clover). 4 — Clover meadow. This rotation is really better for mixed grain and live stock farming than for grain growing, as only one half the farm area is annually in grain; whereas, a long cycle rotation would provide a greater proportionate acreage of grain. In the southern part of the North Central states, where the most productive varieties of soybeans will mature, a good four-year rotation for grain growing farms is : 1 — Corn (fall sown wheat) . 2 — Wheat (fall sown wheat). 3 — Wheat (green manure of clover or soy beans) . 4 — Soy beans. All the crops of this rotation could be used as "money crops," if desired, and the green manure and soy beans would maintain the humus equilibrium and the available nitrogen Photo by courtesy "Breeders' Gazette." Soy beans grown for hay in Indiana. Yield 2}4 tons of cured forage per acre. The soy bean is a legume, or crop which gathers atmospheric nitrogen by means of the bacteria that attach themselves to its roots. 170 FIELD MANAGE31ENT AND CROP ROTATION supply of the soil. In regions where soy beans are not profitable as a seed crop, Canadian field peas could be sub- stituted for the soy beans. In the Northern timbered areas of the North Central states, where corn is not always a dependable seed crop, but where winter rye, oats and buckwheat are the commonly used, dependable crops, the following rotation is useful : 1 — Buckwheat (winter rye). 2 — Rye (seed down to clover). 3 — Clover meadow. 4 — Oats (green manure catch crop with oats) . Rotations for Com Farming. Where it is desired to pro- duce the maximum amount of corn from the farm area, the rotation plan should have as high a proportionate acreage of corn and as low a proportionate acreage of grain and grass crops as possible, and yet permit the principles of crop rota- tion. If the farm area is large, the long cycle rotation, such as the one outlined in Diagram XI, can be used, with com predominating in the rotation instead of the small grains. If a corn growing rotation plan is made along the lines of Diagram XI, it should be remembered that, when many cul- tivated crops are introduced into the rotation, the decay and oxidation of humus will be comparatively rapid, and, there- fore, occasional green manure or cover crops should be used to maintain the humus equilibrium. A long cycle, seven-year rotation plan is given herewith to illustrate how corn production can be made to predominate in the rotation and yet the rotation be such as to correspond to the principles of crop rotation : 1 — Corn (soy bean cover crop) . 2 — Corn on spring plowing (green manure crop fall plowed). 3 — Corn. ROTATIONS FOR NORTH CENTRAL STATES 171 4 — Oats on disked corn land (seed down to clover and timothy). 5 — Meadow. 6 — Pasture (broken up in autumn). 7 — Corn (rape catch crop for autumn pasture, fall plowed). It may readily be seen how much better a system of cropping for corn production this plan is, as compared with the old system of permanent pasture with corn and oats alternated on the land not in grass, which made no pro- visions for the maintenance of humus and nitrogen. On farms not adapted to the long cycle rotation the fol- lowing plan is practical for corn production : 1 — Corn (green manure crop fall plowed) . 2— Corn. 3 — Oats on disked corn land (seed down to clover). 4 — Clover meadow, broken up in autumn. Rotation Plans for Potato or Sugar Beet Farming. In Diagram X a short cycle, four-year rotation plan is shown, that illustrates the best methods for rotating crops in order to make root crops the chief product of the farm. Another good rotation giving special consideration to roots is: 1 — Potatoes or beets. 2 — Oats or wheat (seed down to clover). 3 — Clover meadow, first crop hay, second crop plowed under. The root crops can be introduced into rotations for mixed farming as follows: 1— Corn. 2 — Oats on disked corn land (green manure crop fall plowed) . 3 — Potatoes or beets. 4 — Wheat on disked potato land (seed down to clover) 5 — Clover meadow, fall plowed. 172 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Rotation Plans for Mixed Grain and Live Stock Farms. Rotation plans for this type of farming are shown in Diagrams XII and XIX that cover this subject quite thoroughly. This type of farming is usually followed in the North Central states on farms of 160 acres to 320 acres in size, and the prac- tical rotation is, therefore, a four, five or six-year rotation so planned as to provide an excess of grain or corn over what is necessary for the live stock enterprises. In fact the standard type of rotation is the five-year rotation: 1— Com. 2— Oats. 3 — Wheat (seed down to grasses). 4 — Meadow. 5 — Pasture. This plan can be easily modified according to the desires of the farm manager. Where it is desired to make corn the chief money crop or the chief grain crop for stock food, two crops of corn can be grown in the rotation instead of two crops of small grain and one crop of corn, or, where it is desired to make small grains the chief money crops, the rota- tion is planned as in Diagram XII. Where permanent pasture is included in the farm area the plan shown in Dia- gram XIX is well adapted for mixed grain and live stock farming. Other rotations for mixed grain and live stock farming in the North Central states are: (a) 1 — Corn; 2 — Soy beans; 3 — Wheat (seed down to clover) ; 4 — Clover meadow, fall plowed. (b) 1 — Barley; 2 — Field peas; 3 — Wheat (seed down to clover) ; 4 — Clover meadow, fall plowed. Rotation Plans for Tobacco Fanning. Rotation plans to include tobacco should be modeled after the rotation plans where potatoes or sugar beets are the chief crop to be consid- ROTATIONS FOR NORTH CENTRAL STATES 173 ered in the rotation. Tobacco is classed as a cultivated crop in planning the rotation, the same as corn, potatoes or sugar beets. On relatively small, intensively managed farms, the short cycle rotation is best adapted to include tobacco and to pro- vide a practical rotation. Two short cycle rotation plans that include tobacco are given herewith : (a) 1 — Tobacco; 2 — Wheat (seed down to clover); 3 — Clover meadow, first crop, hay; second crop plowed under. (b) 1 — Tobacco (clover or rye cover crop) ; 2 — Tobacco; 3— Wheat (seed down to clover); 4 — Clover meadow, first crop, hay; second crop plowed. On relatively large farms in the North Central states, practicing mixed grain and live stock farming, tobacco can be Photo by courtesy "Breeders' Cazcti:." Cutting soy beans with the binder and following with the wheat drill. Ro- tation of corn, soy beans, wheat and clover — a very practical rotation for the southern part of the North Central states. The soy beans lit the land well for wheat. 174 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION introduced into the standard rotation along with other cul- tivated crops. If it is desired to grow a small field of tobacco each year as a money crop, this crop can be planted on a portion of that field in the rotation annually planned for corn, potatoes, or other cultivated crop. Rotation Plans for the Western, Semi-arid Areas of the North Central States. Wherever irrigation is practiced in the semi-arid portions of Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota and North Dakota, rotations can, of course, be practiced that will include all the staple grain and forage crops of the Northern part of the Temperate Zone, such as corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, sugar beets, alfalfa, red clover, alsike clover and timothy, according to the rotation plans previously described for the North Central states. Many areas in the Western, semi-arid regions of these states, however, can never be put under ditch, and such agriculture as is practiced must depend on the natural rain- fall for moisture for crop growth. In many large areas of these regions the annual rainfall is sufficient for good crop growth, but hot winds and drouthy periods in midsummer cause rapid evaporation of soil moisture and destroy the growth of the common field crops of the North Temperate Zone. In recent times the United States Department of Agricul- ture has introduced a number of drouth resistant crops from Asia and Africa that are more drouth resistant than the common grain and forage crops of North America, and these crops are proving to be of great aid to successful agri- culture in these semi-arid regions. The crops best adapted to these regions of scant rainfall and occasional summer drouths are herewith enumerated: (1) Grain Crops. Durum wheat, awnless barley, sixty- day or Kherson oats, winter rye, emmer — sometimes called speltz, proso millet, Kafir corn, and durra. ROTATIONS FOR NORTH CENTRAL STATES 175 2) Forage Crops. Proso millet — sometimes called hog millet, common millet, Kafir corn, durra, field peas, sweet clover, Dakota vetch, brome grass, Sudan grass and dry- land varieties of alfalfa. (3) Cultivated Crops. Durra, Kafir corn, proso millet, and Indian corn in some places. (4) Green manure Crops. Dakota vetch, sweet clover, field peas, common millet. All of these crops are annuals with the exception of brome grass and alfalfa, which are perennials, and sweet clover, which is a biennial. When these crops are grown in these regions, and when deep plowing, thorough surface tillage, and occasional fal- lowing are practiced, good crops and profitable agriculture usually result. The grain crops, durum wheat, awnless barley, and emmer, are very much more resistant to drouth and hot winds than the bluestem and fife spring wheats and the malting barleys. The sixty-day, or Kherson oat, when sown early, makes its growth before the drouthy period of summer and thus avoids loss from drouth and hot winds. Similarly, winter rye starts early and matures before the period of crop danger. The durra and Kafir corn crops, introduced from Asia and Africa, have the power to resist a great amount of heat and drouth. They take the full growing season to mature, but, if the midsummer season is hot and dry, they have the power to remain dormant in growth and to start growth again with the coming of rain and cooler temperatures. Proso millet is also very drouth resistant and is an excellent substitute for corn in regions where corn is not a safe crop. The grain of either durra or proso millet is a nutritious stock food, and the yields are nearly as large as with corn — in fact, in semi-arid regions the yields are larger. These crops are also excellent forage 176 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION crops, if cut at the proper stage of maturity and properly- cured. The proso millets, durra and Kafir corn, when grown for their seed value, are drilled or listed in rows 36 inches to 42 inches apart and inter-tilled during the summer months. Summer inter-tillage is usually beneficial in con- serving moisture, and, for that reason, as well as the fact that these crops are naturally drouth resistant, they are exceptionally well adapted to many parts of the Western, semi-arid regions of the North Central states. The use of catch crops and green manure crops, included in rotations by the methods shown in rotation plans for the humid areas of the North Central states, is usually im- practical in these semi-arid regions. In most instances iikMi dM%UjJk.k m ^B K^ j^^^MM i|^^ I^^^PHiP Pkotohy courtesy W. A. Carleton, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Blackhull Kafir corn, a valuable grain and forage crop for dry land agriculture as far north as the northern line of Kansas. It requires 115-140 days to mature and yields from 25 to 75 bushels per acre of grain. It withstands drouth and hot winds much better than corn. ROTATIONS FOR NORTH CENTRAL STATES 177 there is not sufficient moisture to support more than one crop in a season. In fact, bare fallow is often practiced in these regions for the particular purpose of storing up an extra season's rainfall in the subsoil for the use of crops. Under these conditions green manuring, if practiced, must be done in the same manner as bare fallowing. That is to say, instead of including the green manure crop as a catch crop with the staple market crops, it must be sown and plowed under in a year when no other crop occupies the land. This can be done usually without difficulty and the crop gains in succeeding years will more than offset the costs for seed and tillage. In fact, the cost, in most in- stances, should be reckoned by a comparison with bare fallow, and thus the cost is merely a matter of seed and the labor of seeding. When green manure crops are thus introduced in the rotation it should be planned to fall plow in preparation for the green manure crop, and to sow the crop at the first opportunity in the spring. Sixty to seventy days from the time of seeding the crop can be plowed under during the latter part of June when the soil is moist enough for good plowing. Then, during the remainder of the season, the green manured field should be occasionally harrowed and treated the same as a bare fallow. Autumn rains falling on such land will readily sink into the subsoil, and the land will be in fine shape for the succeeding grain or forage crop. Canadian field peas, Dakota vetch and sweet clover are the best legume crops available for green manure crops handled in this manner. These crops start quickly from seed and make a rapid, luxuriant growth on a moderate amount of moisture. A thickly sown crop of common millet, early sown, and plowed under while green, is also a good green manure crop in these regions, although not as desirable as 12 178 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION a nitrogen gathering legume crop. Sweet clover, which is biennial in habit, and hardy in Northern temperate zone winters, can be sown in the fall for green manure purposes, if desired. The seed can be sown among cultivated crops in the early autumn and covered with a cultivator, or, if the cultivated crop has been removed from the land, the seed can be disked or harrowed in. With a moderate amount of fall rain the sweet clover will establish itself and make a heavy growth the succeeding spring. It can then be plowed under in early summer to enrich the land, the land being left fallow for the balance of the season as in case of the spring sown green manure crops. With the exception of brome grass and sweet clover there are no truly reliable meadow and pasture crops for this region of the North Central states, and even these generally become very short in midsummer. In many cases the stock- man in these regions must supplement the native range or the brome grass or sweet clover pasture with such forage crops as millet, Sudan grass, Kafir corn, vetches, sweet clover, and field peas, and must depend on these forage crops for winter feed instead of the red clover, alsike clover, alfalfa, and timothy of the regions having greater rainfall. Alfalfa is a dependable forage crop in some of these regions where the annual rainfall is sufficient for good crop growth, but where hot winds and summer drouth are ruinous to the ordinary forage crop. The alfalfa plant roots so deeply that, if once the crop is well established, it will with- stand a great amount of summer drouth. Wherever climatic conditions will permit the growth of alfalfa, it is pre- eminently the best meadow and pasture crop, and rotations with grain and cultivated crops can be made according to the plans of Diagram XVIII, using durum wheat, emmer. ROTATIONS FOR NORTH CENTRAL STATES 179 sixty day oats or winter rye for tlie grain crops, and Kafir corn, proso millet or durra for the cultivated crops. Sweet clover demands attention as a practical and prof- itable forage and pasture crop in these semi-arid regions of the North Central states. It catches easily, grows quickly, is very resistant to drouth and cold and its powerful tap- roots will penetrate the hardest of subsoils. Moreover, under very adverse conditions it produces abundant crops of hay and pasture. The hay crop must be cut very early, as the natural habit of the plant is to rapidly grow woody and tough after blossoming. If cut early, however, the forage is of excellent quality, has very little waste, and is very nearly as nutritious as alfalfa. As a pasture crop it is unexcelled in semi-arid regions; for it starts early, grows late in the autumn, withstands summer drouth, and will stand very close pasturing. It is also a wonderful seed crop, and will produce from four to twelve bushels of seed per acre. Its only drawback is, that sometimes it is not palatable to stock that are accustomed to timothy, alfalfa, clover, or other forage crops, and stock have to be starved to it. Starv- ing is not always necessary, but, when itoccurs,it discourages the use of the crop and gives it a bad name. In spite of all drawbacks, however, the crop is being extended rapidly in the semi-arid regions of the United States as a forage, pasture and green manure crop. It is a biennial crop and is intro- duced into rotations in the same manner as clover and timothy. Several methods of seeding can be employed. The seed can be sown with a nurse crop of grain in the spring; it can be sown in cultivated crops in the early autumn or after early maturing cultivated crops have come off the land in the autumn; or it can be sown in the spring without a nurse crop, — the choice depending on local conditions of climate and other crops included in the rotation. 180 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION In the following paragraphs a number of rotations are suggested for grain farming and mixed grain and stock farming in these regions, that will alternate the crops best adapted to this region in a practical manner as regards moisture conservation, and also make some provision for maintaining a humus equilibrium in the soil. In these rotation plans the term "grain" is used to designate such crops as durum wheat, winter rye or wheat, emmer, awnless barley, or sixty day oats, the selection of these various grain crops to depend on local conditions and the desires of the farm manager. The term "green manure fallow," as used in these rotation plans, refers to such crops as Da- kota vetch, Canadian field peas, sweet clover, common millet, or Hungarian millet, plowed under in early summer and the land fallowed for the balance of the season. The term "cultivated crop," as used in these rotation plans, refers to such crops as Indian corn, Kafir corn, durra, and proso millet, the choice depending on local conditions and the desires of the farm manager. Grain Farming Rotations. (a) 1 — Grain; 2 — Grain; 3 — Green manure fallow; 4 — Grain; 5 — Cultivated crop. (b) 1 — Grain; 2 — Green manure fallow; 3 — Grain; 4 — Grain. (c) 1 — Cultivated crop; 2 — Grain; 3 — Green manure fallow; 4 — Grain; 5 — Grain; 6 — Green manure fallow; 7 — Grain. (d) 1 — Cultivated crop; 2 — Grain; 3 — Green manure fallow; 4 — Grain; 5 — Green manure fallow. (e) 1 — Cultivated crop; 2 — Grain; 3 — Green manure fallow. ROTATIONS FOR NORTH CENTRAL STATES 181 Mixed Grain and Live Stock Rotations. (a) 1 — Grain; 2 — Brome grass; 3 — Brome grass; 4 — Cultivated crop; 5 — Green manure fallow; 6 — Grain. (b) 1 — Cultivated crop; 2 — Grain; 3 — Green manure fallow; 4 — Grain; 5 — Pea or vetch hay. (c) 1 — Cultivated crop; 2 — Grain; 3 — Pea or vetch hay; 4 — Millet or Sudan grass hay; 5 — Grain; 6 — Green manure fallow. (d) Same plan as Diagram XVIII, with one field in permanent alfalfa, and a four year rotation on the balance of the land — the four year rotation as follows : 1 — Cultivated crop ; 2 — Green manure fallow; 3 — Grain; 4 — Cultivated crop. (e) 1 — Grain; 2 — Sweet clover; 3 — Cultivated crop. (f) 1 — Grain; 2 — Sweet clover; 3 — Cultivated crop; 4 — Grain. PROBLEMS AND PRACTICUMS (1) What was the total production of corn in the United States in 1890, 1900, 1910? Name the states in the United States where corn production increased markedly during the periods above men- tioned. What are the principal reasons for the extension of the American corn belt during these periods of time? See U. S. Census Reports. (2) What are the most important "cash crops" of the North Central states? (3) Prepare a table from the United States Census Reports that will show, in the order of their importance, the values produced by the various agricultural enterprises of the North Central states. What are some of the specialized, intensive types of agriculture pursued in the North Central states? 182 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION (4) What is the average size of the farms in the North Central states? What per cent of the farm land area in these states is under cul- tivation? See U. S. Census Reports. (5) Are there any large areas of virgin land remaining in the North Central states? If so, where located? What crops and types of farming are best adapted to these new regions? See reports and bulletins U. S. Departments Interior and Agriculture. (6) Prepare diagrams and rotation plans for a fat cattle and grain farm; dairy, swine and potato farm; sheep and grain farm; intensive dairy farm; speciaHzed grain farm; speciahzed potato farm; and a specialized corn and swine farm; for the North Central states. Elaborate the rotations fully on the diagrams. Show plans for disposal of the crops, and estimate the numbers of live stock that can be supported with average crop yields. (7) Work out a rotation plan and a scheme of farming adapted to the upbuilding of sandy soil. Courtesy of Beaver Dam Mfg. Co. One-horse, five-disk, grain drill, by means of which winter wheat can be sown early between rows of standing corn. CHAPTER VIII ROTATIONS FOR NORTH ATLANTIC STATES General Statements about the Agriculture of the North Atlantic States. The North Atlantic states comprise Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania. This group of states, in a general way, is often called "The New England States." It was in the settlements and colonies of these states along the Atlantic Seaboard that North American agriculture had its beginning. Prior to the settlement of the Middle Western states the agriculture of the North Atlantic states was quite varied. All of the staple temperate zone crops were grown in considerable quantity, and the seaboard cities drew prac- tically all their food supplies from adjacent lands. But, with the settlement of the Western prairies, a change took place in the agriculture of the North Atlantic states. Wheat, flax, barley, ,oats and corn could be produced cheaper on the rich, virgin prairies of the Middle West than on the small fields of the New England valleys. The grain grower of the North Atlantic states could not easily compete with the grain grower on the Western prairie. And so agriculture suffered a change. To a large extent grain growing and live stock fattening were abandoned and dairying, tobacco growing, potato growing, truck farming, and poultry farming, came to be the chief agricultural enterprises of these states. The breeding of pure-bred live stock for breeding purposes also came to be a prominent feature of agricul- ture, when the Middle Western states began to monopolize 184 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION the grain, corn, and fat stock production enterprises of American agriculture. These changes in the character of agriculture, caused by the development of the prairie lands of the Middle West, have been further accentuated by the development of manufacturing and shipping industries. The growth of great city populations in these states, dependent on manu- facturing for their support, has created an enormous demand for the perishable classes of agricultural products, such as milk, poultry, eggs, potatoes, fruits, and garden truck. Present day North Atlantic agriculture is mainly of a type to fill these demands for the perishable food products of agriculture used by city populations. In this type of agri- culture the farmer has an advantage over his competitors in the Middle West; for the largest of all the American city markets is right at his door, and he has the advantage of a comparatively low freight rate into this market. While wheat, rye, oats, barley and corn, are still grown to some extent in the North Atlantic states, they are most Photo by courtesy Pernnsylvania State College. A typical farm scene in the rolling hill lands of Pennsylvania. ROTATIONS FOR NORTH ATLANTIC STATES 185 commonly grown in connection with dairying, poultry farm- ing and live stock breeding farms, rather than for market crops. As a matter of fact, there is not enough grain and corn produced in these states to supply the needs of the dairy industry and other live stock industries, and large amounts of oats, barley, corn and mill feeds are imported from the Middle Western states. Dairy farming is the most common type of agriculture in the North Atlantic states. While it is almost universally practiced, it perhaps attains the highest development in New York. Wheat is still produced for market in some quantity in New York. Maine and New York are large producers of potatoes. Connecticut is famous for its tobacco, and tobacco is also a staple crop in portions of Pennsylvania. New Jersey is famous for its sweet potatoes and its truck farms. These are the chief crops and agricultural enter- prises of this group of states. Many of these states are large producers of tree and vine crops also, but such crops and industries do not enter into a discussion of field management and crop rotation. The meadow and pasture crops of the North Atlantic states are those that are common to all the Northern part of the Temperate Zone. Red clover, alsike clover, mammoth clover, white clover, timothy, redtop, blue grass and alfalfa, are the grass crops most widely cultivated. Permanent pastures of white clover and blue grass are more universally used than in the prairie areas of the Middle Western states, on account of the rough topography of the country that prevents many areas from being arable, and, therefore, prevents the use of the rotation pasture. The soils of the North Atlantic states, as a rule, were not as naturally fertile as the prairie and timber soils of the Mississippi Valley. Many a farm in this region has a 186 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION shallow soil with a small percentage of humus, and derived from rock materials that were not rich in all the forms of mineral plant food. The majority of the Middle Western soils have water deposited soils or glacial debris soils in which, the soil particles were derived from a great varitey of rock materials, thus making the soils comparatively well balanced in the elements of plant food. But this desirable mixing of soil materials, and the sorting action of water, did not take place in the formation of a great part of the North Atlantic soils. There are several rich valley soil regions in these states, such as the Connecticut River Valley, and the Genessee Valley, but the average hillside or small valley farm was not blessed with as naturally a productive soil as the prairie areas and hardwood timber areas of the Middle Western states. In addition to this fact about the average soil of this region, there are many soil areas that have been tilled for two hundred years or more, and unscientific soil tillage has taken its toll of soil fertility in many places to a degree that has made many areas relatively unproductive, unless large amounts of commercial fertilizers are used. A modern dairy barn in New York State. ROTATIONS FOR NORTH ATLANTIC STATES 187 These facts about the agriculture of the North Atlantic states are given to show that the planning of crop rotations in this agricultural region of the United States is not as easy as in the prairie states of the Middle West. In many cases the specialized types of agriculture practiced do not easily lend themselves to rotation plans of cropping, and in other cases the soils need much special treatment and renovation to make them productive — work that is supplementary to ordinary crop rotation. Crop rotation and systematic field management, nevertheless, are as essential to the agriculture of these states, as a whole, as to the agriculture of the prairie regions of the United States, and there are many soil areas and conditions where crop rotation plans are easily made to systematize the prevailing types of farming. In the following paragraphs a number of rotation plans are shown for the North Atlantic states. Rotation Plans for Dairy Farming. The great majority of the dairy farms of the North Atlantic states are not adapted to the use of rotation pastures. In most cases either the permanent pasture is a necessity, on account of rough lands within the farm area, or the conditions of agri- culture are such that dairy farming is practiced without the use of pasture lands, as shown in Diagrams XX, XXI, and XXII, previously given. Where dairying is practiced in a very intensive manner and without the use of pasture lands, the plans shown in Diagrams XX, XXI, and XXII are as good as any that can be devised. With slight modifications, perhaps, these plans are adaptable to any of the North Atlantic states. Where the permanent pasture is to be used in connection with dairying, the following rotation plans are among the best that can be recommended for this region of the United States : 188 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION (a) 1 — Corn for grain; 2 — Corn for silage; 3 — Oats and peas (seed down after harvest to clover and tim- othy); 4 — Meadow; 5 — Meadow. (b) 1 — Corn for grain; 2 — Corn for silage (grass seeds sown when corn is laid by); 3 — Meadow; 4 — Meadow. (c) 1 — Corn for silage (autumn rye cover crop); 2 — Corn for silage (autumn rye) ; 3 — Rye (seed down to clover and timothy) ; 4 — Meadow; 5 — Meadow. (d) 1 — Corn for silage; 2 — Oats and peas (seed down after harvest to clover and timothy) ; 3 — Meadow; 4 — Meadow. (e) 1 — Corn for silage; 2 — Oats and peas (autumn rye) ; 3 — Rye (seed down to clover) ; 4 — Meadow. Rotation Plans for Potato Farming. The same general principles for rotation plans that will make potatoes the chief marketable product of the farm that were outlined in Dia- gram X, are applicable to potato farming in the North Atlantic states. In some sections of these states a two-year rotation for potato farming is practiced that is an excellent plan where the chief business of the farm is potato growing. This rotation is as follows: 1 — Potatoes (autumn rye) . 2 — Rye (mammoth clover; green manure). The clover seed is harrowed in on the rye ground in the spring of the year and the clover crop plowed under in the autumn in preparation for potatoes. In New Jersey a common four-year rotation including sweet potatoes is as follows : 1 — Corn (manured). 2 — Sweet potatoes (autumn rye). ROTATIONS FOR NORTH ATLANTIC STATES 189 3 — Rye (seeded to clover) . 4 — Meadow. If desired, the proportionate acreage of potatoes in this rotation could be increased by eliminating the corn crop and substituting potatoes. In that event it would be a good plan to grow a cover crop of winter rye between the two crops of potatoes and plow under the foliage of this cover crop in the spring of the year. The manure in this latter rotation would be best applied as a top dressing on the meadow, or spread on the meadow land in the autumn and plowed under in preparation for the first crop of potatoes. Other rotation plans adapted to potato farming in the North Atlantic states are as follows: (a) 1 — Potatoes; 2 — Oats (seed down to clover); 3 — Clover meadow. (b) 1 — Potatoes: 2 — Corn; 3 — Oats and peas (seeded after harvest to clover) ; 4 — Clover meadow. (c) 1 — Potatoes (autumn rye) ; 2 — ^Rye (seed to clover) ; 3 — Clover meadow. (d) 1 — Potatoes; 2 — Beans; 3 — Wheat (seed to clover); 4 — Clover meadow. (e) 1 — Potatoes; 2 — Oats (seed to clover); 3 — Clover meadow; 4 — Com (seed to clover when corn is laid by) ; 5— Clover meadow. Rotation Plans for Tobacco Farming. Rotation plans for tobacco farming would be very similar to those for potato farming. In the tobacco growing districts of Connecticut a common- ly used rotation is the following : 1 — Corn (autumn rye cover crop). 2 — Tobacco. 3 — Oats or wheat (seed to clover). 4 — Clover meadow. 190 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION In the tobacco districts of Pennsylvania the following rotation is quite commonly used : 1— Tobacco. 2— Oats. 3 — Wheat (seed to clover) . 4 — Clover meadow. On soils where the humus content and available nitrogen are low, this rotation could be improved by including a green manure crop in the year when oats occupied the land. Rotations for Mixed Grain and Live Stock Farming. The standard rotations for this type of farming, shown in Dia- grams IX, XII, and XIX, are well adapted to the North Atlantic states. Catch crops for annual supplementary pasture, green manure crops, or cover crops could be included to suit the desires of the farm manager by the methods shown in Diagrams XIV, XV, and XVI. PROBLEMS AND PRACTICUMS (1) Prepare a table from the United States Census Reports that will show, in the order of their importance, the values produced by the various agricultural enterprises of the North Atlantic states. What are some of the most important specialized, intensive types of agriculture pursued in the North Atlantic states? (2) What are the most important "cash crops" of the North Atlantic states? See U. S. Census Reports. (3) What is the average size of the farms in the North Atlantic states? What per cent of the farm land area in these states is under cul- tivation? See U. S. Census Reports. (41 Prepare diagrams and rotation plans that will fully illustrate plans for the following types of farming in the North Atlantic states : Dairy and swine farming with permanent pasture lands and with rotation pastures; intensive dairy and swine farming without pasture lands; specialized potato farm; specialized tobacco farm; and a specialized sheep breeding and sheep feeding farm. (5) Prepare a diagram that will fully illustrate a rotation plan to be the basis for renovating worn-out land in the North Atlantic states. CHAPTER IX ROTATIONS FOR SOUTH ATLANTIC STATES General Statements about the Agriculture of the South Atlantic States. The South Atlantic states of the United States comprise Delaware, Maryland, District of Columbia, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Florida. The greater part of the territory within the boundaries of these states has a mild temperate zone climate character- ized by a long growing season, a mild, open winter, and having an annual rainfall of forty to sixty inches that is well distrib- uted throughout the year. In the southernmost part of this region there are districts having semi-tropical climatic conditions, brought about by the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, Here many crops are grown that are not found in the Temperate Zone. With the exception of those small areas that have a semi-tropical climate, the South Atlantic states are naturally adapted to the growth of the same tem- perate zone crops as are found in the North Central and North Atlantic states, and the staple crops, in fact, are very similar. There are certain field crops, such as tobacco, cotton, rice, peanuts, and cowpeas, however, that are staple crops in this territory, that are not found in any great quan- tity in the North Central or North Atlantic states, while cotton and rice are peculiar to this territory and to the South Central states. Speaking of the South Atlantic states as a whole, it may be said that the climatic conditions are such as to favor the growth of a much greater variety of plant life than is possible in either the North Central or the North Atlantic states. 192 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Agriculture has been pursued in some districts of the South Atlantic states for two hundred years or more. It is an old agricultural region as compared with the South Cen- tral, North Central and Western regions. The early settle- ments in Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, Carolina and Georgia, were all agricultural colonies. The colonists, de- pended almost entirley on tobacco, rice, other cereals, and live stock products, for their liveUhood, and, unlike those of Photo by courtesy Norfolk and Western Railway. A typical farm scene in Virginia. New England, engaged but little in fishing and shipbuilding. The early colonies in the South Atlantic states grew rapidly on the agricultural resources of the country, and agriculture developed more rapidly and more extensively than in the New England colonies. Great plantations developed where tobacco, corn, wheat, potatoes, rice and cotton, were produced in quantity for export, and where much live stock was fattened on the native ROTATIONS FOR SOUTH ATLANTIC STATES 193 blue grass pastures. The agriculture of the South Atlantic states from 1800 to 1860 was of a high order. The planta- tions and estates were mainly under the management of an intelligent class of people who lived on the land, and who farmed it carefully and with consideration for its future productivity. The agricultural writings of this early period show that the Virginia, Carolina and Georgia planters under- stood the value of good tillage, the handling of manures, and the benefits of crop rotation, and that they farmed in a manner that was in accord with much of our modern knowl- edge of agriculture and soil fertility. The Civil War of 1861 to 1865 gave the agriculture of the South Atlantic states a serious setback. Many of the leading planters and landowners lost their lives in the war, otliere lost their lands, and to others the reconstruction period following the war brought discouragements that precluded the carrying on of such agriculture as was possible in the ante-bellum days. Then, too, the rapid and wonderful development of the Middle Western prairies gave the agri- culture of the South Atlantic states a setback. Business was dull, many young men went West, political and labor conditions were unsettled, the old men were unready to meet the changed conditions, and so agriculture in the South Atlantic states suffered a decline from which it has not yet wholly recovered. For fifty years following the Civil War, in parts of the South Atlantic states, the almost continuous growth of cotton on certain soil areas, often under a tenant system of farming, has been an important factor in making many soil areas of the South Atlantic states relatively unproductive. This system of farming encouraged shiftlessness and poor farming methods. The continuous growth of cotton without the use of green manure crops, or alternation with pasture and 13 194 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION meadow crops, lowered the humus content of the soil, checked the continuous liberation of plant food within the soil, assisted soil washing 'and the leaching of soluble plant food, and eventually made the use of commercial fertilizers a necessity in many places. The climatic conditions of the South Atlantic states tend to waste the fertility of the soil, when it is cultivated, to a greater extent than in the Northern part of the Temperate Zone. In the Northern part of the Temperate Zone the soil is frozen solid for four to six months in the year, and there is but small opportunity for erosion, soil washing, and the leaching away of soluble plant food during the seasons when the land is not occupied by growing crops. In the South Atlantic states, however, the growing season is much longer and the winter seasons are mild and open, with frequent changes of temperature, and with winter rains and melting snows that run over the plow land to wash the soil and to carry off portions of the soluble plant food. The combined effect of all these conditions, which have influenced the agriculture of the South Atlantic states, has been to impoverish many soil areas, and to necessitate the extensive use of commercial fertilizers. This condition, of course, is true of but a portion of the land in the South Atlan- tic states; for there is considerable rich, virgin land still to be put into cultivation in this territory, and there are also many areas of deep, rich bottom land along the streams and tidewater flats that are very fertile. The South Atlantic states, by reason of their mild climate, plentiful rainfall, proximity to great markets, and general adaptability to the growth of a great variety of field, garden, and tree crops, comprise one of the very best agricultural regions of the United States. Agricultural progress has been tardy since the Civil War on account of the political, economic and social ROTATIONS FOR SOUTH ATLANTIC STATES 195 conditions that have retarded all business in the Southern states; but in more recent years the real agricultural possi- bilities of the South Atlantic states have become realized, and conditions are changing that will make for a better and more permanent system of farming. The greatest agricultural needs of the South Atlantic states are: (1) Deep plowing and thorough tillage; (2) Cover crops to protect land from erosion between regular crop seasons; (3) Increase of the soil's supply of humus by means of crop rotation and green manures; (4) Systems of mixed farming wherein the staple cash crops, such as cotton and tobacco, shall be alternated with forage crops fed to live stock, and the manure returned to the land; (5) Soil amend- ment, when necessary, with cheap, ground phosphate rock and potash salts in place of the indiscriminate use of the "complete commercial fertilizer." Undoubtedly there are many soil areas in the South Atlantic states that have become so impoverished as to need heavy applications of commercial fertilizers and much special treatment to amend plant food deficiencies and to thus make them truly productive; but, generally speaking, the use of thorough tillage methods, green manures, cover crops, and crop rotation systems that shall include forage crops fed to live stock, is what is mainly needed to renovate the old soil areas and make the agriculture of the South Atlantic states permanently productive and profitable. The comparatively recent introduction of the cowpea, soy bean, and crimson clover crops into these states has worked wonders in raising the productivity of the cotton and tobacco lands wherever an intelligent use of these crops has been made in rotation with tobacco and cotton. Cover crops of crimson clover, or green manure crops of cowpeas, are easily introduced into rotations of staple crops in the mild climate of the South, and the 196 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION favorable effect on staple crop yields is very marked. The cowpea is pre-eminently the great legume, soil building crop Fholo by courtesy " Frogressive Farmer." A "catch crop" of soy beans sown with corn at the last cultivation in the South Atlantic states. The soy beans may be utilized for annual pasture, for a winter cover crop, or for green manure. ROTATIONS FOR SOUTH ATLANTIC STATES 197 of the South, and is not only valuable as a green manure crop but also as a forage or seed crop. The present day agriculture of the South Atlantic states is generally of a mixed type, although many large areas are given over to the almost continuous culture of special crops. With the exception of South Carolina and Georgia, live stock and dairying are the leading farm enterprises. Cotton leads all other farm enterprises in South Carolina and Georgia, with live stock and dairying ranking second. Cereals and forage crops are the leading crops in all states except South Carolina, Georgia and Florida, cotton leading in South Carolina and Georgia, and vegetable crops leading in Florida. Tobacco is a prominent field crop in Maryland, Virginia and North Carolina, and is produced in all the states of this group. Rice is a prominent crop in North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia. Sugar cane is prominent in the Carolinas. Truck crops are very important in Delaware, Maryland and Florida. Other crops commonly grown in this territory are: corn, wheat, oats, buckwheat, rye, Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, peanuts, cowpeas, soy beans, vetches, red clover, alsike clover, crimson clover, alfalfa, timothy, blue grass, Bermuda grass, and Johnson grass. In the following paragraphs a number of rotation plans are shown for the South Atlantic states that are intended for dairy and general live stock farming, mixed farming with cotton and tobacco as the "money crops," and rotation plans intended to give consideration to special crops. Rotation Plans for Live Stock Farming The permanent pasture of blue grass, Bermuda grass, or Johnson grass, is more commonly the rule in the South Atlantic states than the rotation pasture of red clover and timothy. For this reason rotation plans for live stock farming in this region should be modeled, in most cases, after the plan shown in Diagram 198 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION XIX, using green manure and cover crops to maintain the humus equilibrium of the cultivated lands of the farm. The rotation plans given herewith are planned in connection with permanent pasture lands, and are adapted to dairy farming or general live stock farming. (a) 1 — Corn (crimson clover sown in corn in autumn; 2 — Crimson clover for seed, volunteer crop plowed under in autumn, (wheat sown in autumn); 3 — Wheat (clover and timothy) ; 4 — Meadow. (b) 1 — Corn silage (crimson clover sown in corn in autumn) ; 2 — Clover hay, sod plowed, corn silage (crimson clover sown in corn in autumn); 3 — Clover hay, sod plowed, cowpea hay (wheat sown late autumn); 4 — Wheat. (c) 1 — Corn and cowpeas (crimson clover sown at last cultivation for cover crop and green manure); 2 — Crimson clover plowed under, cowpeas for hay (wheat); 3 — Wheat (clover and timothy); 4 — Meadow. (d) 1 — Corn (crimson clover cover crop and green manure); 2 — Crimson clover plowed under, soy beans (wheat in autumn) ; 3 — Wheat (red clover) ; 4 — Meadow. (e) 1 — Com (winter oats); 2 — Oats (red clover); 3 — Meadow; 4 — Cowpeas for hay (wheat); 5 — Wheat (crimson clover cover crop and green manure). Rotation Plans for Mixed Grain and Live Stock Farms. (a) 1 — Corn (wheat) ; 2 — Wheat, cowpeas green manure (wheat) ; 3 — Wheat (red clover) ; 4 — Meadow. (b) 1 — Corn (crimson clover cover crop and green manure); 2 — Corn (wheat); 3 — Wheat (winter oats) ; 4 — Oats (red clover) ; 5 — Meadow. ROTATIONS FOR SOUTH ATLANTIC STATES 199 (c) 1 — Corn (wheat); 2 — Wheat (crimson clover); 3 — Clover green manure (wheat) ; 4 — Wheat. Rotation Plans for Tobacco Farming. These plans are intended to give prominence to tobacco as the "money crop" of the farm, but, in order to make a successful rotation, a portion of the rotation should be devoted to crops fed to live stock. Several plans are given herewith, some necessi- tating live stock to make use of the forage crops, and others depending on green manure crops alone to keep up the humus supply of the soil. (a) 1 — Tobacco (wheat); 2— Wheat (red clover); 3 — Meadow. (b) 1— Tobacco (wheat) ; 2 — Wheat, followed by cowpea green manure. Photo by courtesy "Progressive Farmer." Tobacco is an important "cultivated crop" in the South Atlantic states. Under intensive methods of cultivation tobacco will yield values of $100.00 to $300.00 per acre. 200 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION (c) 1 — Tobacco (wheat); 2 — Wheat (red clover); 3 — Meadow ; 4 — Corn with cowpeas. Rotation Plans for Cotton Farming. These plans are similar to the plans for tobacco farming in that one crop is given prominence in the rotation, and the maintenance of the soil's supply of humus is dependent on the use of green manure crops, or forage crops fed to live stock, or both. (a) 1 — Cotton (crimson clover cover crop and green manure) ; 2 — Corn with cowpeas. (b) 1 — Cotton (crimson clover cover crop and green manure); 2 — Corn (wheat); 3 — Wheat followed by cowpeas. (c) 1 — Corn with cowpeas (winter oats); 2 — Oats fol- lowed by cowpeas; 3 — Cotton. (d) 1 — Corn with cowpeas (winter Oats) ; 2 — Oats with cowpeas (winter oats); 3 — Oats with cowpeas; 4 — Cotton. (e) 1 — Corn with cowpeas; 2 — Peanuts; 3 — Cotton. Rotation Plans, Miscellaneous Crops. (a) 1 — Potatoes (corn) ; 2 — Oats, followed by cowpeas. (b) 1 — Corn (crimson clover cover crop and green manure); 2 — Peanuts. (c) 1 — Corn with cowpeas (wheat) ; 2 — Wheat (crimson clover cover crop and green manure). (d) 1 — Corn with cowpeas (winter oats); 2 — Oats (red clover); 3 — Meadow; 4 — Potatoes. (e) 1 — Corn (crimson clover cover crop and green manure); 2 — Peanuts; 3 — Oats with cowpeas; 4 — Peanuts. ROTATIONS FOR SOUTH ATLANTIC STATES 201 Photo by courtesy "Progressive Farmer.'" Peanuts are an important "cash crop" in the South Atlantic states. They are also a fine forage crop, being as productive and nutritious as clover. Hogs can be fattened on the crop in the field. The peanut i.s a legume and there- fore capable of utilizing atmospheric nitrogen by means of the nitrogen gather- ing bacteria. Rotation Plans for Rice Farming. Rice is more often grown continuously than in rotation with other crops, but as rice lands are alluvial, deep, bottom lands, the effects of continuous cropping are not as noticeable as in the case of wheat, corn, cotton or tobacco. Modern rice farmers, how- ever, are taking cognizance of the benefits to be derived from crop rotation, and where levees are so constructed as to insure perfect water control, it is profitable to occasionally keep the water off the land and to grow crops other than rice. A rotation plan sometimes used by the rice farmers of the South Atlantic states is the following : 1 — Rice; 2 — Rice; 3 — Rice; 4 — Fallow; 5 — Corn fol- lowed by a pea or bean green manure. 202 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION PROBLEMS AND PRACTICUMS (1) Prepare a table from the United States Census Reports that will show, in the order of their importance, the values produced by the various agricultural enterprises of the South Atlantic states. What are some of the most important specialized, intensive types of agriculture pursued in the South Atlantic states? (2) What are the important "cash crops" of the South Atlantic states? See U. S. Census Reports. (3) What is the average size of the farms in the South Atlantic states? What per cent of the farm land area in these states is under cul- tivation? See U. S. Census Reports. (4) Are there any large areas of virgin land remaining in the South Atlantic states? If so, where located? What crops and types of farming are best adapted to these new regions? See reports and bulletins U. S. Departments Interior and Agriculture. (5) Prepare diagrams that will fully illustrate practical rotation plans for the following types of farming in the South Atlantic states: Dairy and swine farming with permanent pasture lands, or, fat cattle and swine farming with permanent pasture lands; same types of farming without pasture lands; diversified farming with rotation pastures producing grain, corn, tobacco and live stock; specialized tobacco farm; specialized potato farm; specialized cotton farm; specialized rice farm; diversified farm with cotton as the "cash crop" and with all other crops fed to cattle and swine. (6) Prepare a diagram that wiU fully illustrate a rotation plan including cover crops and green manure crops, to be the basis for renovat- ing worn out land in the South Atlantic states. CHAPTER X ROTATIONS FOR SOUTH CENTRAL STATES General Statements about the Agriculture of the South Central States. The South Central states of the United States comprise Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas. The climatic conditions within this territory are far from being uniform. Factors causing great climatic variation in this region are: (1) altitude of the various agricultural regions, (2) influence of the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico on air temperatures, and (3) the proximity of the Western por- tions of Oklahoma and Texas to the rainless, desert areas of the North American continent. It is impossible, in fact, to give an accurate general description of the climate of the South Central states. Texas, for example, has humid, arid, semi-arid, semi-tropical, mild temperate zone, and cold temperate zone climates within its boundaries. In the mountain regions of Kentucky, Tennessee, and Arkansas, the climate is quite similar to that of the central part of the North Central states, and very dissimilar to the warm, humid climate that exists in the areas of low altitude within this territory. In the Northwestern areas of Texas and Okla- homa the winter season is cold and prolonged, being some- what similar to the winters of the Western areas of the North Central states, while in Southeastern Texas, Southern Louis- iana, and Southern Mississippi, multiple cropping can be practiced the year around. While there are great climatic variations within the ter- ritory of the South Central states, the greater part of those areas best suited to agriculture has a very mild temperate 204 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION zone climate, almost semi-tropical in nature, except for winter frosts and the short winter season. The growing seasons are long, the winters short and mild, the mean tem- perature during the growing season comparatively high, and the rainfall abundant for crop growth. Scant rainfall in West- ern Texas and Oklahoma necessitates the employment of "dry farming" crops and methods of agriculture, or irrigation in some places where water is obtainable. On the whole, how- ever, the practice of agriculture in the South Central states is greatly favored by abundant rainfall and temperatures favorable to the growth of a great variety of temperate zone plants, as well as many semi-tropical plants. The so-called "cotton belt" of North America is mainly within the boundaries of the South Central states. Cotton can be profitably grown in every one of the states that com- prise this group', and is an important staple crop in all the states of this group except Kentucky and Tennessee. In fact, cotton growing, shipping, ginning, and spinning are the characteristic and outstanding features of business in the South Central states. Tobacco, corn, oats, wheat, and many other temperate zone crops are grown in quantity on the farms of this region, also much live stock is pastured and fed, but cotton is the prominent feature of agriculture in the South Central states. Another conspicuous feature of agriculture in this region is the large area of fertile, alluvial soil along the Mississippi River and its tributaries. These soil areas are of great extent and have a deep, rich soil of very great fertility. These soils are composed of the silt and organic matter carried by the Mississippi, Missouri, Ohio, Colorado, Tennessee, Red, and Arkansas rivers, from watersheds that comprise the most extensive soil areas of the United States. In times of flood the turbid waters with their load of soil materials would ROTATIONS FOR SOUTH CENTRAL STATES 205 206 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION spread out from the main channel over these bottom lands and deposit fresh layers of soil materials brought in from far distant watersheds. Through ages past this process grad- ually built up great soil areas of wonderful richness and last- ing quality, and when the South Central states were first settled, these alluvial river lands were the first developed and put under plow. Danger from recurrent floods was guarded against by the construction of huge levees and dikes to keep the river in its channel. The amount of sediment annually carried to the Gulf of Mexico by the Mississippi River and its tributaries is so enormous, however, that deposits are constantly being made within the river channel, thereby raising the bed till the problem of confining the river to a definite channel becomes ever more difficult. In many places the river channel, at low water stage, is above the level of the surround- ing lands, and thus, when floods occur, the man made levees are not always strong enough to retain the water, and levees break to permit huge floods of water to spread out over the bottom lands as they did before man occupied the land and built levees behind which he could build towns, railways, and farm buildings. Flood danger is a very conspicuous feature of much of the agriculture of the South Central states. Agriculture in the South Central states, as practiced com- mercially by the white man, does not date back as early in the history of North America as the agriculture of the North Atlantic and the South Atlantic states. Agriculture had become quite extensive and well developed in the South Atlantic and North Atlantic colonies before any commercial agriculture came into existence in the South Central states. The early Spanish colonies along the Gulf Coast engaged but little in agriculture, and the Indians and Mexicans of the early days were not agriculturists that subdued much land. ROTATIONS FOR SOUTH CENTRAL STATES 207 Photo by courtesy St. Louis Southwestern Railway. Irrigation ditches and dikes for rice irrigation. Rice is sown with the grain drill on a comparatively dry seed bed, the same as wheat or oats. After seeding time the land is flooded from time to time to provide the proper amount of water for the crop's growth. The development of commercial agriculture did not come in the South Central states until the tide of emigration from the seaboard English speaking colonies began soon after the War of the Revolution. Kentucky and Tennessee absorbed the first landseekers who came over the Alleghenies from the seaboard colonies, and then in later decades the landseekers swept on to Missis- sippi, Alabama, Louisiana, Arkansas, and even to Texas territory then under Mexican government. The water- courses facilitated transportation, and colonization was rapid in the early part of the nineteenth century. By 1840 a con- siderable export trade in cotton and tobacco had developed in the South Central states, the producing lands being chiefly the bottom lands of the main watercourses. Some agricul- 208 FIELD MANAGE3IENT AND CROP ROTATION ture developed from the Spanish settlements along the Gulf Coast, but it was the energetic Anglo-Saxon from the sea- board states that established most of the agriculture in the South Central states. The agriculture of the South Central states, therefore, is not nearly so old as that of the South Atlantic and the North Atlantic states, and few areas have been cultivated one hun- dred years or more. Such agriculture as does date back one hundred years is confined to a relatively small portion of the South Central states, and many agricultural areas, such as the prairie areas of Texas, Oklahoma, and Indian Territory, have been under cultivation only since 1890 to 1900, during which time a distinct and heavy emigration began from the North Central states into these regions of the South, Com- pared with the agriculture of the South Atlantic, North Atlantic, North Central, and Western Divisions of the United States, the agriculture of the South Central states is some- what older than in the Western and North Central divisions, and more recent in development than the agriculture of the South Atlantic and North Atlantic divisions. As a result of the great natural fertility of many soil areas in this division of the United States, and of the comparatively recent development of agriculture, the percentage of impov- erished land in this part is not so great as in either the South Atlantic or the North Atlantic states, and such soils as are somewhat unproductive on account of hard usage in the past, are usually made productive very easily by a rapid increase in the soil's supply of humus and by more thorough soil tillage. Agriculture in the South Central states has been in- fluenced by many of the same climatic, political, economic, and social conditions that were important factors in molding the agriculture of the South Atlantic states. The mild, open ROTATIONS FOR SOUTH CENTRAL STATES 209 Photo by courtesy St. Louis Southwestern Railway. Harvesting rice with the grain binder. Prior to harvest the water is drawn off the land and the crop is cut, shoclied and threshed by the same methods as are used for wheat and oats. winters, for example, with changing temperatures, melting snows, prolonged rains, tend to waste soil fertility through erosion and the leaching of soluble plant food, especially on upland, rolling lands. Unless some of the soil areas in this climate are safeguarded from erosion and the leaching of soluble plant food by crop rotation, cover crops, and green manures, a noticeable loss in soil fertility may result. Many soil areas in the South Central states have undoubtedly suffered in this respect; for they have been subjected to much continuous cropping to cultivated crops, such as corn and cotton, that leave the land unprotected against the elements that cause erosion and the leaching away of soluble plant food. As a result some soil areas in this region are impover- ished, and need crop rotation, cover crops, green manures, and fertilizer amendments to build them up to a state of high productivity. Furthermore, the Civil War and the period of reconstruc- tion following the war made a distinct impression on the 14 210 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION agriculture of the South Central states that must be taken into consideration in studying agricultural conditions in the South Central states. Prior to the Civil War the staple crops of the South Central states, cotton, tobacco, corn, and rice, were chiefly grown on the large plantation or estate under the management of the intelligent and skilled planter, who made the plantation his home, and who gave much personal attention to the work of growing crops. Farm labor was largely performed by negro slaves working under overseers. From an economic point of view, the sytem was successful. Good crops were produced, the planters were usually skilled in the art of agriculture, consideration was given to the maintenance of fertility and the farm manager planned for the upkeep of the land that provided him with his home and his business. But the Civil War caused some Photo by courtesy St. Louis Southwestern Railway. Pumping water for rice irrigation in Arkansas. ROTATIONS FOR SOUTH CENTRAL STATES 211 very radical changes in the agriculture of the South Central states. Many planters never returned from the war; to others who survived the war, the war brought bankruptcy; and still others were helpless, under the conditions of the reconstruction period, and with free negro labor, to pursue the agriculture to which they were accustomed. For a time agriculture was at a standstill. Fields were idle and fallow. The landowner with his large plantation knew not how to sow and reap the crops under the new and changed conditions, and the negro laborer was as nonplused as the planter. Out of this chaos in the agriculture of the South Central states there gradually emerged a new system of agriculture wherein much tenant farming replaced the large plantation. The negro laborer became a tenant farmer on a small tract of land. Some of the old plantations remained intact, and, also, many Northern farmers came South to operate small farms; but, nevertheless, large areas of land went under a tenant system of farming wherein the tenant was generally unskilled, shiftless, and poorly versed in the art of agriculture. Very naturally these conditions caused a decline in the agriculture of this region. Agricultural progress in many regions of the South Central states has been remarkably slow in the past fifty years as compared with progress in the North Central states. Modern agricultural machinery has not come into universal use and the methods employed in tilling the soil and in growing crops are often antiquated and ill suited to secure the best results. Continuous cotton and corn culture, accompanied by soil erosion and the leaching of soluble plant food, have impoverished many soil areas so badly that the crop is no longer profitable to either tenant or landlord. Experience has shown, however, that the majority of these impoverished soil areas are easily renovated and made productive. The average soil area of this region is naturally 212 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION fertile, and unproductivity of the soil can usually be traced to a poor physical condition, lack of a sufficient supply of humus, and to the unavailability of the elements of plant food — conditions that are all easily remedied. What has been said in previous paragraphs in regard to impoverished soil areas, negro tenant farming, and lack of progress in the agriculture of the South Central states, is not applicable by any means to the whole area included in these states. As a whole, the area is a wonderfully rich agricul- tural region, still containing much rich virgin prairie and timber land and having developed areas that are farmed by modern methods and with the most modern types of ma- chinery. The agriculture on the Oklahoma and Texas prairie, the rice farming in Texas, Arkansas, and Louisiana, the tobacco farming and horse breeding in Kentucky, the fine alfalfa fields and the fat stock in parts of all these states, and the skillful truck and fruit farming of favored districts in this territory, all bear witness to agricultural progress and successful types of agriculture. The South Central states have some areas that past influences have made backward in agricultural progress and where land is impoverished and unproductive; but, on the other hand, there are many pro- gressive districts practicing up-to-date agriculture, and there is much virgin land still available for the staple crops of the South, namely, cotton, rice, sugar cane, corn, and oats. The greatest agricultural needs of the South Central states, as a whole are: (1) Better protection from river floods. (2) A more universal use of modern agricultural machinery and better methods of soil tillage. (3) Systems of crop rota- tion wherein the staple "money crops," cotton, corn, oats, tobacco, rice, and sugar cane, shall be rotated with forage and pasture crops. (4) A more general use of cover crops on the rolling lands to check soil erosion and the leaching of soluble ROTATIONS FOR SOUTH CENTRAL STATES 213 Photo by courtesy C. V. Piper, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Plowing under cowpeas for green manure. Cowpeas are the pre-eminent soil renovating crop of the Southern states. The humus and nitrogen content of a worn soil can be quickly increased by a systematic rotation plan including occasional cowpea green manure crops. plant food. (5) A more general use of green manure crops to maintain a "humus equilibrium" in the soil. (6) Soil amendment, when necessary, with cheap, ground phosphate rock and potash salts, in place of the indiscriminate use of the "complete commercial fertilizer." Flood protection is an immense problem entirely outside the scope of the subject of crop rotation. But, with the ex- ception of this important agricultural problem, crop rotation and systematic field management — in the broadest interpre- tation of the term — is the remedy for most of the agricultural ills of the South Central states. There may be areas that have become so impoverished through continuous cotton or tobacco culture and shiftless farming methods, or that were so naturally deficient in the elements of plant food, as to 214 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION make the extensive use of commercial fertilizers an essential part of a profitable system of agriculture; but experience shows that crop rotation, thorough tillage, cover crops and green manure crops, are the practices most needed in the South Central states to raise the general productivity of the land. The present day agriculture of the South Central states is extensively varied in character. On the whole, there is probably more mixed farming than special crop farming, as live stock products are the largest agricultural resources of the region. But special crop farming is also very prominent in this region, and some special crop usually predominates in the so-called "mixed" types of farming. In Kentucky, Tennessee, and Oklahoma, live stock is the leading product of the farms, with cereals second in importance. In Texas and Arkansas live stock products lead, with cotton second. Harvesting sugar cane in Louisiana. '0TATI0N8 FOR SOUTH CENTRAL STATES 215 In Alabama and Mississippi, cotton is the leading product, with live stock second. In Louisiana, cotton is the leading product, with sugar cane second in importance. In all the states of this group except Kentucky, cotton is an important crop. In Kentucky, tobacco is the great special crop, and the white and dark Burley tobaccos are world famous. Hemp is also a great staple crop in parts of Kentucky; in fact, about nine tenths of the hemp crop of the United States is grown in Kentucky. Rice is an important special crop in Louisiana and Arkansas. Kentucky is famed for its horses and cattle. Texas, although rapidly being settled and put under plow, is still famous for its range cattle, and live stock products still lead all others by a wide margin. Truck crops are becoming especially important in Southeastern Texas, Louisiana, Mis- sissippi, and Arkansas. All kinds of temperate zone fruits and some tropical fruits are grown in considerable quantity in this region. The staple field crops of the South Central states are cotton, corn, and oats, and they are prominent in nearly every part of the region. Other important field crops are: alfalfa, cowpeas, soy beans, clovers, peanuts, vetches, sweet clover, timothy, blue grass, Johnson grass, Bermuda grass, brome grass, Irish potatoes, sweet potatoes, wheat, rye, barley, buckwheat, Kafir corn, milo maize, and proso millet. In the following paragraphs a number of rotation plans are shown that provide plans of cropping wherein cotton, tobacco, sugar cane, and rice are given prominence in the rotation. Other plans are shown for mixed grain and live stock farming, also plans for grain farming in the Western areas of Texas and Oklahoma. Where these rotation plans are not adaptable to a wide territory but only to some special region, the name of the state is given with the plan to indicate that the rotation is not of general adaptability. 216 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Rotation Plans Giving Special Consideration to Cotton. Cotton, corn, and oats are the three great staple crops of the old farming regions of the South Central states, cotton being the universal ''cash crop," and corn and oats the feed crpps. A majority of the farms in the old cotton belt are small in area, and without considerable re-planning and financial outlay ill adapted to diversified farming with pasture crops and live stock. For these reasons a widely useful rotation in the cotton belt should be a short course rotation without pasture crops; should include the staple crops to which the farmers are accustomed ; and should depend on some reliable legume crop used as a catch crop to maintain the humus equilibrium of the soil. The following three-course rotation meets all these requirements and is widely adaptable in the cotton growing areas of the South Central states : 1 — Corn (cowpeas sown at last cultivation and plowed under for green manure) ; 2 — Oats, stubble plowed in summer (cowpeas for hay or ensilage) 3— Cotton.* Experimental work with this rotation to demonstrate its usefulness in the cotton belt has shown very marked results in increasing soil productivity. Generally, the poorer and more impoverished the soil the more marked have been the results, indicating that the great need of the soil areas in the cotton belt is an increase in their supply of humus and avail- able nitrogen. As a rule the beneficial results are cumulative : that is to say, the crop yields increase gradually up to a max- imum that is reached several years afterthe rotation is begun, indicating that as the humus supplies decay in the soil the plant food is gradually unlocked from the soil materials and made available to crop roots, until a maximum productivity *The Triennial Crop Rotation System. Hugh N Starnes. Bailey's Cyclo- pedia of American Agriculture. Vol. II. ROTATIONS FOR SOUTH CENTRAL STATES 217 Photo by courtesy C. V. Piper, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Harvesting cowpeas for their seed value. When grown for seed, the crop is planted in rows that can be inter-tilled. is reached that is Umited by the natural fertihty of the soil. Some general results may be stated that show the efficiency of this rotation on the soil areas of the old cotton belt. Where the average yield of cotton on the old impoverished soil areas under a continuous system of cotton culture is about 3^ bale (500 lbs.) per acre, the yield of cotton will often increase to ^ bale (1,000 lbs.) per acre after the first cycle of the rota- tion; to 1 bale (1,500 lbs.) per acre after two rotation cycles; and to 13^ bales (2,000 lbs.) per acre after three rotation cycles, thereafter seldom falling below 13^ bales (2,000 lbs.) per acre, and sometimes reaching two bales (3,000 lbs.) per acre under very favorable climatic conditions. The yields of corn and oats do not usually increase in proportion to the increase in cotton yield, because cotton is given the most favorable place in the rotation, and yet the increase is 218 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION marked and the yields are much higher than under con- tinuous cropping to the staple crops. Other rotations giving prominence to cotton are given herewith : (a) 1 — Corn with cowpeas; 2 — Oats, followed by cow- peas or soy beans; 3 — Cotton (crimson clover sown among cotton plants in autumn for cover and green manure crop). (b) 1 — Corn with cowpeas; 2 — Oats followed, by cow- peas; 3 — Cotton (crimson clover sown among cotton plants in autumn for cover and green manure crop); 4 — Crimson clover plowed under; Cotton. (c) (Mississippi) 1 — Cotton continuously with annual vetch in winter between crops of cotton. (d) 1 — Corn with cowpeas; 2 — Cotton. (e) 1 — Cotton; 2 — Cotton (crimson clover sown among cotton plants in autumn for cover crop and green manure); 3 — Crimson clover plowed under; Corn; 4 — Oats followed by cowpeas for hay or ensilage. (f) 1 — Cotton; 2 — Oats, followed by cowpeas for hay or ensilage; 3 — Cotton; 4 — Corn (cowpeas sown at last cultivation for green manure) . (g) (Oklahoma) 1 — Corn or Kafir corn; 2 — Oats fol- lowed by cowpeas fall plowed for green manure ; 3 — Cotton, Rotation Plans for Diversified Farming. The following rotation plans illustrate a great variety of crop combinations for diversified farming in the South Central states. Some of these plans are adapted to small dairy farms, others to general live stock farms also producing "cash crops" on a portion of the land, and still others are so planned as to have ROTATIONS FOR SOUTH CENTRAL STATES 219 certain staple "cash crops" predominate in the rotation and to make Hve stock enterprises of secondary importance. (a) (Kentucky and Tennessee) 1 — Corn (wheat); 2 — Wheat (red clover) ; 3 — Clover meadow. (b) (Kentucky and Tennessee) 1 — Tobacco (rye cover crop and green manure); 2 — Rye plowed under, corn (wheat); 3 — Wheat (blue grass); 4 — Blue grass; 5 — Blue grass. (c) (Kentucky and Tennessee) 1 — Corn with cowpeas (crimson clover cover crop and "green manure) ; 2 — Crimson clover plowed under, Soy beans (wheat); 3 — Wheat (clover); 4 — Clover meadow. (d) 1 — Corn; 2 — Cowpeas for hay or ensilage (wheat); 3 — Wheat (clover) ; 4 — Clover meadow. (e) Same plan as (c) or (d) but with a fifth field in perma- nent pasture, the rotation to be planned as in Diagram XIX. (f) (Kentucky and Tennessee) 1 — Tobacco (wheat) ; 2 — Wheat (clover); 3 — Clover meadow; 4 — Corn (crimson clover cover crop and green manure) . If desired, this rotation could have a fifth field in permanent pasture according to plan of Diagram XIX. (g) (Kentucky) 1 — Tobacco (wheat); 2 — Wheat (clover); 3 — Clover meadow; 4 — Hemp; 5 — Corn (crimson clover cover crop and green manure). If desired, this rotation could have a sixth field in permanent pasture according to the plan of Dia- gram XIX. (h) (Tennessee) 1 — Cowpeas (rye cover crop and green manure); 2 — Rye plowed under, Cowpeas; 3 — Corn (wheat); 4 — Wheat (clover); 5 — Clover meadow. 220 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION (i) (Tennessee) 1 — Wheat (clover and timothy); 2 — Meadow; 3 — Pasture (wheat); 4 — Wheat, fol- lowed by cowpeas; 5 — Corn with cowpeas; 6 — Oats followed by cowpeas (wheat) . (j) (Texas and Oklahoma) 1 — Corn; 2 — Cowpeas for hay or ensilage; 3 — Cotton; 4 — Oats, followed by cowpeas for green manure. A fifth field in alfalfa or clover and timothy as in Diagram XIX. (k) (Texas and Oklahoma) 1 — Cotton; 2 — Corn; 3 — Oats* (clover and timothy); 4 — Meado,w; 5 — Pasture. (1) (Texas and Oklahoma Grain Regions) 1 — Wheat, followed by cowpeas for hay or ensilage; 2 — Oats, followed by cowpeas for green manure; 3 — Corn (wheat) ; 4 — Wheat (clover) ; 5 — Clover meadow (wheat). (m) (Oklahoma Grain and Cotton) 1 — Corn; 2 — Oats, followed by cowpeas for green manure (wheat); 3 — Wheat; 4 — Corn with cowpeas; 5 — Cotton. ^n) (Oklahoma Grain and Com) 1 — Corn with cowpeas (wheat); 2— Wheat; 3 — Oats followed by cow- peas for green manure (wheat) ; 4 — Wheat. (o) (Oklahoma Grain and Live Stock) 1 — Corn (wheat) ; 2 — Wheat (wheat); 3 — Wheat (clover and tim- othy); 4 — Meadow; 5 — Pasture. Rotation Plans Giving Special Consideration to Tobacco. (a) (Kentucky) 1 — Tobacco (wheat) ; 2 — Wheat (clover) ; 3 — Clover meadow. On farms of comparatively large size where live stock is an important farm enterprise, this rotation could be used in con- nection with another field of permanent alfalfa, as in Diagram XVIII. ROTATIONS FOR SOUTH CENTRAL STATES 221 (b) (Kentucky) 1— Tobacco (wheat); 2— Wheat, fol- lowed by cowpeas for hay or ensilage (crimson clover cover crop and green manure) ; 3 — Crimson clover plowed under, Tobacco. Rotation Plans Giving Consideration to Sugar Cane. (a) (Louisiana) 1 — Sugar cane; 2 — Sugar cane; 3 — Sugar cane; 4 — Corn with cowpeas for green manure. Rotation Plans Giving Special Consideration to Rice. (a) (Louisiana and Arkansas) 1 — Rice; 2 — Rice; 3 — Rice; 4 — Fallow; 5 — Corn and cowpeas. (b) (Louisiana upland rice) 1 — Rice; 2 — Rice; 3 — Corn with cowpeas. Rotation Plans for the Grain Districts of Western Texas and Oklahoma. (a) 1 — Wheat (winter oats for pasture and green manure ; 2 — Wheat; 3 — Oats (sweet clover for cover crop and green manure) ; 4 — Sweet clover green manure and fallow. (b) 1 — Milo maize or Kafir corn (wheat); 2 — Wheat (sweet clover cover crop and green manure) ; 3 — Green manure fallow (wheat) ; 4 — Wheat. Either of these rotations could be combined with a permanent pasture of alfalfa, brome grass, or sweet clover, as in Diagram XIX. PROBLEMS AND PRACTICUMS (1) Prepare a table from the United States Census Reports that will show in the order of their importance, the values produced by the various agricultural enterprises of the South Central states. What are some of the speciaUzed, intensive types of agriculture pursued in the South Central states? (2) What are the most important "cash crops" of the South Central states? See U. S. Census Reports. 222 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION (3) What is the average size of the farms in the South Central states? What per cent of the farm land area in these states is under cul- tivation. See U. S. Census Reports. (4) Are there any large areas of virgin land remaining in the South Central states? If so, where located? What crops and types of farming are best adapted to these new regions? See reports and bulletins U. S. Departments Interior and Agriculture. (5) Prepare diagrams that will fully iUustrate practical rotation plans for the following types of farming in the South Central states: Diversified farming with rotation pastures producing grain, corn and live stock or dairy products; same type of farming with permanent pastures; diversified farming with cotton or tobacco as the "cash crop;" specialized cotton farming; specialized tobac- co farming; specialized rice farming; specialized sugar cane farming. (6) Prepare a diagram that will fully illustrate a rotation plan devised for the particular purpose of renovating worn cotton lands in the South Central states. CHAPTER XI ROTATIONS FOR WESTERN STATES General Statements about the Agriculture of the Western States. The Western states of the United States comprise Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Nevada, Idaho, Washington, Oregon, and California. This vast territory, tributary to the Pacific seaboard, has a variety of climatic conditions that range from arid to humid as regards moisture, and from semi-tropical to north tem- perate as regards temperatures and the character of plant life. No other territory on the North American continent has such a wide variation in rainfall, temperatures, and character of plant life as this one designated as the Western states. Those portions in the lower altitudes in New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, and California, are desert areas where rainfall is so scant as to be an absolutely negligible factor in agriculture, where such rain as does occasionally fall is quickly evaporated in the high temperatures, and where such desert loving plants as the cactus, greasewood, and the sagebrush are the only indigenous forms of plant life. In many of these desert areas, moreover, the supply of water for irrigating purposes is very limited, and there are millions of acres that never can be used for agricultural purposes. In contrast to these desert areas there are large areas on the North Pacific Slope, and also on the higher altitudes of some of the mountain ranges, where the rainfall is abundant for temperate zone plant life and where the evaporation of soil moisture is not such as to cause almost total loss of the moisture precipitation as in the desert areas. In these humid 224 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION ROTATIONS FOR WESTERN STATES 225 sections of the Western states a great variety of temperate zone plant life is found that is quite similar to the plant life of the humid sections of the North Central states. Gen- erally speaking, the winters are less severe in the humid sections of the Western states than in the North Central states, and there is less snowfall. Semi-tropical temperatures and crops are found in several places in the Western states, notably Southern California, Southern Arizona, and Southern Nevada. In these regions, however, the rainfall is not sufficient for profitable agricul- ture or horticulture, and irrigation is essential to crop or tree growth. The frost free conditions of these regions is mainly due to their proximity to the warm waters of the Japan Current and the trade winds which pass over these warm waters and modify the air temperatures inland. The Japan Current is also a noticeable factor in modifying the climate of the North Pacific coast, and its influence on air temperatures and rainfall can be noted as far North as Alaska, and East well into the Rocky Mountain districts. In Montana, for example, the climatic conditions West of the Rocky Mountains are much different from those on the Eastern side of the state. West of the Rocky Mountains, and in the mountain valleys, the winters are comparatively mild and the rainfall more abundant than in Eastern Mon- tana. Cold air and storms come into this territory more often from the East and the Northeast than from the West and Northwest. In Oregon, Washington, and British Col- umbia, the winters are milder, and extremes in temperatures less marked than at similar latitudes in the North Central states or the central provinces of Canada. Altitude is a very important factor in causing climatic variation in the Western states and, therefore, modifies agricultural conditions. Arable land areas, either having 15 226 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION sufficient rainfall for crop growth or available water for irrigation, exist in the Western states at altitudes ranging from a few feet above sea level to 6,000 or 8,000, feet above sea level. Regions of high altitude have a comparatively low mean temperature, with cool nights, small extremes in temperature, and with greater rainfall than regions of low altitude in the same latitude. Thus it is not uncommon in parts of the Western states to find warm valleys at low altitudes where semi-tropical and southern temperate zone crops will flourish, and agricultural areas at higher altitudes where the only crops that can be grown are the hardy cereals, grasses, and forage crops of the northern temperate zone. Great plateaus or plains are found in the Western states, at altitudes of 1,000 to 5,000 feet above sea level, that are semi-arid in climate, and where the native vegetation con- sists mainly of short grasses such as the bunch grass and the buffalo grass. The annual precipitation of moisture in these regions is from ten to twenty inches, most of which falls in the spring and early summer, the balance falling in the late autumn and winter. The greater part of these areas can never be supplied with irrigating water, and such agriculture as is pursued must depend on the rainfall. Fortunately, however, such rains as do fall come in the seasons when crops are most in need of moisture, and the generally cool temper- atures do not cause excessive evaporation. Thus the so- called "dry farming" methods of agriculture which provide deep tillage, occasional bare fallows, and thorough surface tillage to conserve moisture, are usually successful, and per- mit the profitable growth of many temperate zone cereals, grasses, and forage crops. The agriculture of the Western states is new as compared with the agriculture of the North Atlantic, South Atlantic, South Central and North Central states. Few agricultural ROTATIONS FOR WESTERN STATES 227 areas of any importance have been under cultivation for fifty years. Some scattering agriculture was practiced prior to the Civil War near the old Spanish missions, also by the Mormon colonies in Utah, and by some of the stranded gold seekers of 1849; but commercial agriculture in the West- ern states received its first great impetus with the coming of the trans-continental railways in the decade 1870 to 1880. From that time to the present the agricultural development of the Western states has been marvelous. It was unusually rapid compared with the development of the older regions on account of the fact that modern agricultural machinery was at the service of the Western pioneer, and his efficiency in subduing land was greater than in the earlier periods of American history. The agriculture of the West has developed into vast proportions in a night, as it were. In its early stages it was almost entirely pastoral, with the exception, perhaps, of the great wheat farms that quickly came into being in Northern Cahfornia and in Washington and Oregon. Cattle ranching in the earliest days, and then sheep ranching as well, came to be the great agricultural industries. There were millions of acres of free range, abundant water in the mountain streams, shelter in the valleys, and plenty of irrigating water for the early settler to employ in producing alfalfa for winter feed. When the gold seeking craze subsided in the West, thousands of prospectors were bankrupt and unable to leave the country. From necessity many of these men turned to ranching. With countless acres of range, with freedom from the financial burdens of the Eastern farmer who paid interest, taxes, and machine bills, these ranchers of the early days in the West had but to wait for the natural increase in their live stock to make them a living and sometimes to make them very weal- thy. And it was the spirit of the West to lend a helping 228 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION 1 & •o 2 ROTATIONS FOR WESTERN STATES 229 hand to the beginner. The well estabUshed rancher would provide the beginner with a small herd or flock for half the natural increase, and so ranching flourished and grew to enormous proportions in all of the Western states. While live stock ranching was developing in the West there was much agricultural and horticultural development also taking place. The wheat fields of Northern California, Northern Idaho, Washington, Oregon, and certain favored valleys in the Rocky Mountain regions, produced wheat in sufficient quantity to become a recognized factor in the world's wheat markets. Large areas of land, capable of irrigation by primitive methods, were sown to alfalfa to provide winter feed to supplement the range grasses in live stock production. In other places where soil and climate were found to specially favor the fruit crops of the temperate and semi-tropical zones, orchards were planted, and, in a short space of time, the horticultural enterprises of the West assumed large proportions. When the railways had laid their steel paths throughout the Western states, and when the pioneers had proven con- clusively the agricultural and horticultural possibilities, the small farmer, the truck grower, and the orchardist began to steadily encroach on the great, open live stock ranges of the country. The best land was soon homesteaded, water rights on the streams available for irrigation were filed with the courts, and the patches of grain, alfalfa, and tree crops grew up rapidly in the wildernesses where once the cattleman and the sheepman were supreme. Ranching died hard on the Western range. It gave way to the farmer only after a bitter struggle, but the thousands of small farmers would not be denied, and to-day there is littleof the old time stock ranching in the West. Stock grazing is still supreme in those sections of the West too arid for dry farming crops, and where irrigat- 230 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION ^^ 6 I S-d r2 ro a; IV Ob ^ ^^ "^ So 1^ o >> 1 P a ^ s i p. S^ <-) >- as a 03 o 8:3 ;? c-S m ° 8 o d 60— o 9 (D O Oja m Q S ^ s g ^a a) >> o ^ en d a; n oo' in i> 00 rt (N -H in ■* r-l oooooo inoinin o o oooooo oooooo oooooo oooooo O -g 'uoisaiJTiqo SBBj^ "ud^sog ooooo q q o o in in:D Tjiin oj qqo dino oooin in oooin in inoooo^oin oo^^ooinoot^ oi (N in c-i •-< ci TO CD ■^T. 16 Oats (straw) 52 Total 68 Wheat (grain) Wheat (straw) Total 50 bu. 2iiT. 13 45 58 Timothy hay 3T. 4T. 3T. ST. 4bu. 300 bu. 20 T. 1000 lbs. 1000 lbs. 2000 lbs. 71 Clover hay 120 Cowpea hay 98 Alf aljf a hay 192 Clover seed 3 Potatoes 90 Sugar beets 157 Tobacco (leaf and stalks) 30 Cotton (lint) 3.5 Cotton (seed) 19.3 Total (2 bales).. 3000 lbs. 11.20 22.8 Note: This table shows the approximate amounts of plant food removed from the soil by large yields of staple American field crops. The amounts of plant food removed will vary, of course, with the crop yields. Such variations may not be exactly proportional to yield, but for approximate calculations they may be considered so. *The amount of nitrogen actually removed from the soil by leg- ume crops varies greatly with the soil, the number of nitrogen gather- FERTILIZERS— ECONOMICAL USE 297 ing bacteria in the soil, and the methods of disposing of the crop. On medium fertile, well inoculated soil, it is usually estimated that legumes draw about two thirds of their nitrogen from the air and one third from the soil. When legumes are cut for hay about one third of the total nitrogen content of the crop remains in the stubble and roots, while two thirds is removed in the hay. Thus, as a rule, when legume crop stubble and roots are plowed under there is neither loss or gain in soil nitrogen, but if the hay be fed to stock and the manure returned to the soil, or if the top part of the crop be plowed under as a green manure, there is an increase made to the soil's supply of nitro- gen by reason of the amounts of atmospheric nitrogen which the crop has assimilated. The food requirements of tobacco shown in this table are taken from Bulletin 139 of the Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station; of cotton from Circular 583, Farmers' Co-operative Demonstration Work of the United States Department of Agriculture; and of all other crops from Bulletin 123 of the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. The Indiscriminate Use of Commercial Fertilizers, Espe- cially the Complete Fertilizer. The art of securing maximum profits from the use of commercial fertihzers is not based on the practice of supplying the soil with the estimated amounts of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium removed by a given crop. Because a 100 bushel corn crop, for example, is known to remove from the soil about 148 pounds of nitrogen, 23 pounds of phosphorus, and 71 pounds of potassium, it does not follow that fertilizers should be applied to the land in such quantities as to annually provide these amounts of plant food. To do this would entail heavy expense, and use would not be made of the, free nitrogen of the atmosphere and the reserve supplies of plant food in the soil that may be prepared for the use of crops by means of crop rotation, legume crop green manures, and thorough tillage. In other words, the expense for fertilizers would be made unnecessarily high by the amounts of plant food purchased in the fertilizer that could have been secured at less cost by the aid of legume crops and good farm practice. In the majority of cases the purchase of complete fer- tilizers involves the purchase of some plant food that could 298 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION be provided, if necessary, at far less cost in other fertilizers, or that is not essential to the maximum productivity of the land. Rarely are soils so impoverished of plant food as to have their productivity limited by all three of the important elements of plant food, i. e., nitrogen, phosphorus, and potas- sium. In the great majority of cases phosphorus is the limiting factor in productivity, although there are cases where nitrogen or potassium or lime is the form of plant food so greatly lacking as to limit the soil's productivity. For these reasons the purchase of a complete fertilizer is quite likely to involve the purchase of uimecessary plant food and thus cause an expense of crop production from which there is no profitable return. Let us illustrate this matter relative to the indiscriminate use of complete fertilizers by means of fertilizer cost figures taken from Table I for Chicago territory. Suppose that an attempt is made to purchase enough plant food in complete fertilizer to provide the amounts of plant food taken up by a 100 bushel corn crop (148 lbs. nitrogen, 23 lbs. phosphorus, and 71 lbs. potassium). The average complete fertiUzer sold in the United States for $25.00 to $30.00 per ton, con- tains about 33 pounds of nitrogen, 70 pounds of phosphorus, and 33 pounds of potassium in one ton. Thus, at $30.00 per ton, it would require about 43/2 tons of fertihzer costing $135.00 to supply sufficient nitrogen; about }/s ton costing $10.00, to supply sufficient phosphorus; and about 2K tons costing $65.00, to supply sufficient potassium. A complete fertilizer specially mixed to correspond to this formula (the draft of a 100 bu. per acre corn crop) would cost at least $50.00 per ton and per acre. From these figures it may easily be seen that ordinary field crops cannot be profitably produced on the plant food contained in the complete fer- tilizer. An attempt to feed a crop all of its plant food from FERTILIZERS— ECONOMICAL USE 299 a sack of complete fertilizer would most surely result in a loss to the producer. The cost of the plant food, so ob- tained, plus the costs for seed, plowing, planting, cultiva- ting, and harvesting, would usually be so much in excess of the crop's value as to preclude any possibility of profit. The figures in the preceding paragraph are given merely for the purpose of illustrating an extreme and theoretical example in regard to the use of commercial fertilizers and to show the utter impossibility of profitably feeding ordinary field crops all of their plant food out of a sack. In actual farm practice and in the growing of our staple field crops no attempt is ever made to actually supply the soil with the total amounts of plant food necessary to the production of a full crop. The common practice in districts using com- plete fertihzers is to apply 200 to 500 pounds per acre aimually of the fertilizer. The fertilizer formulas are made to vary somewhat according to the crop grown — the percent- age amount of potassium being comparatively higher in complete fertilizers used for tobacco and potatoes, and the percentage amount of nitrogen and phosphorus being com- paratively higher in the so-called grass and grain fertilizers. Now, let us see the effect which an application of 500 lbs. of average complete fertilizer would have on the plant food requirements of a 100 bushel corn crop. The 500 pounds of average complete fertilizer, costing about $7.50, would contain 8.2 pounds of nitrogen, 17.5 pounds of phosphorus, and 8.3 pounds of potassium (in a fertilizer analyzing 2% ammonia, 8% phosphoric acid, and 2% potash). The entire inadequacy of such a fertilizer to supply the nitrogen and potassium .requirements of a 100 bushel corn crop, or even a 40 or 50 bushel crop, may be easily seen. The amount of phosphorus, while nearly adequate, could be supplied in about one seventh of a ton of acid phosphate costing about 300 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION $2.50, or in about one twelfth of a ton of rock phosphate costing about 65 cents. The cost of plant food in the complete fertilizer is always high when compared with the cost of more simple fertilizing materials carrying nitrogen, phosphorus, or potassium. If it is known that the soil is limited in its productivity on ac- count of a phosphorus deficiency, phosphorus can be pur- chased cheaper in either rock phosphate, acid phosphate, or bone meal, than in the complete fertilizer. The same truth applies to either nitrogen or potassium deficiencies and their correction. In fact, the purchase of nitrogen and potas- sium in the complete fertiUzer is commonly a pure waste of money, because the use of legume crops and good farm practice will provide these elements of plant food at Uttle or no cost. Instances where nitrogen and potassium fertilizers can be used profitably are pointed out in succeeding paragraphs, but even in such instances the complete fertilizer is not a profitable carrier of these elements of plant food. In so far as cost is to be con- sidered in the selection and use of fertilizers the complete fertilizer is an expensive carrier of the elements of plant food, and the farmer who fertilizes his land from a sack of manufactured complete fertilizer is forcing his business to carry an unnecessary burden of expense. There is reliable evidence to show a net profit resulting from the use of complete fertilizers, but it can also be shown that, where net profits were secured by the use of complete fertilizers, better net profits were secured by correcting the plant food deficiencies of the soil with cheaper fertilizers carrying the needed plant food. Good business manage- ment demands that production costs shall be kept at the minimum. A high net profit is as much the result of low cost as of high gross income, and the farmer who attempts FERTILIZERS— ECONOMICAL USE 301 to correct the plant food deficiencies of his soil with complete fertilizers is not destined to produce his crops at the mini- mum cost. The comparatively high cost of plant food in the com- plete fertilizer is by no means the only drawback to its use. Wherever the use of complete fertilizers becomes a fixed feature of agriculture the effect on the ultimate pro- ductivity of the soil and on the systems of farming that grow up is deleterious to a marked degree. The application of complete fertilizers in such amounts as only partially meet the plant food requirements of crops tends to stimulate the absorption of plant food from the reserve supplies in the soil at a rapid rate during the early periods of such fer- tilizing methods. This results in ultimate unproductivity, unless the amounts of fertilizer are increased in proportion to the subtractions made from the reserve supplies of the soil, or unless the systems of farming and fertilizing are changed. The continuous application of complete fertilizers also reduces rapidly the humus supplies of the soil, forms a hard gritty metallic-like soil, and creates acid soils that need neutralizing with lime. In the older agricultural regions of the United States of America many soils are to be found that are almost entirely devoid of organic matter, in a poor physical condition, and with their available and reserve supplies of nitrogen and phosphorus reduced to a very low point from the long continued use of complete fertilizers. In this condition heavy applications of complete fertilizer are needed to get any kind of a crop. Furthermore, the use of complete fertilizers tends to thwart the best farming and cropping systems. There is no reason for this, but it is a matter of fact nevertheless. Apparently the complete fertilizer becomes a staff of support to the farmer who gets into the habit of using it. He places 302 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION too much reliance on the power of the fertiUzer to make a good crop, and too httle reUance on crop rotation, farm ma- nures, legume green manure crops, and thorough tillage. The complements of the complete fertilizer in American agri- culture are usually continuous cropping and little if any use of farm manures, legume green manure crops or legume meadow and pasture crops. Eventually the farmer who places his reliance in complete fertilizers for the production of profitable crops will face increasing fertilizer bills and decreasing crop yields, because a system of farming based on the plant food of the complete fertilizer is inherently wrong. In the older agricultural regions there are thous- ands of farms that have been made comparatively unpro- ductive from the long continued use of the complete fertilizer. By means of crop rotation, green manure legume crops, thorough tillage, and the addition of a bountiful supply of phosphorus the productivity of most of these soils could soon be increased very greatly. It may be said that this picture of the deleterious effects on the soil from the use of complete fertilizers is overdrawn, and that the complete fertilizer will bring good results with no injury to the soil, if used in connection with crop rotation, green manures and animal manures. Undoubtedly many of the injurious effects on soil produced by continuous cropping and the complete fertilizer would be avoided, if the complete fertilizer were used in connection with crop rotation, green manure crops, and animal manures. But, even if there is need to correct some plant food deficiency in the soil by means of a commercial fertilizer, where is the advantage to be gained in purchasing nitrogen in the complete fertilizer at thirty to ninety cents per pound, when it can be had for tempo- rary use in nitrate of soda for fifteen to twenty cents per pound, and free of cost in a permanently projected scheme FERTILIZERS— ECONOMICAL USE 303 of agriculture by means of legume crops that can use the nitrogen gas in the atmosphere? Phosphorus costing thirty to forty cents per pound in the complete fertilizer can be purchased for about three cents per pound in ground phos- phate rock. Potassium costing thirty to ninety cents per pound in the complete fertilizer can be purchased in mu- riate of potash for five to six cents per pound, in sulphate of potash for six to seven cents per pound, in kainit for seven to nine cents per pound, and can be liberated from the reserve supplies of most soils in the United States free of cost by means of crop rotation, green manure crops, farm manures and thorough tillage. Conditions in General Agriculture Warranting the Use of the Complete Fertilizer. There are certain conditions, perhaps, in the practice of general agriculture where the complete fertilizer can be used to advantage. For example, a farmer purchases a farm having impoverished soil, and yet the farm is desirable on account of other considerations, such as roads, markets, and schools. He plans to establish a permanent system of farming that will build up this soil to a high state of productivity and keep it productive. This system of farming which he will employ includes the use of crop rotation, green manures and animal manures, to provide and maintain the supply of humus and nitrogen, and to liberate potassium from the reserve supplies of the soil. He plans to add phosphorus plant food to the soil in abundance for maximum crops by means of ground phos- phate rock in which the actual phosphorus will cost but three cents per pound. Now, the establishing of a system of farming such as this cannot be accomplished in the twink- ling of an eye. Raw phosphate rock is not immediately avail- able to crops and its change to soluble and available forms of phosphorus is very slow, unless the soil is abundantly 304 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION supplied with decaying organic matter. The production of organic matter and nitrogen for this soil may be severely checked by a lack of available nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium to give the "humus producing, nitrogen gathering" legume crops a good start. Such a soil condition would give an opportunity for the use of a comiDlete fertilizer for a year or two until the cheaper and more permanent scheme of soil building was under way. The complete fertilizer could be used advantageously to produce a heavy green manure crop to plow under and give an impetus to the permanent work of soil improvement. As soon as the soil had its available supplies of potassium released from the hitherto unavailable supplies in the soil, its nitrogen provided from the free nitrogen of the air, and its available phosphorus released from the cheap, raw phos- phate rock added to the soil, there would be no further need for the expensive plant food of the complete fertilizer. Of course, even under these conditions which may justify the use of the complete fertilizer as a temporary expedient, the same temporary feeding of crops can be accomplished at less cost through the purchase of available forms of plant food, as needed, in acid phosphate, muriate of potash, and nitrate of soda. An eight to ten ton dressing of farm manure per acre, mixed with about 250 to 300 pounds of acid phosphate, would start off a corn crop or a grain nurse crop with a legume catch crop, as well as, or better than, an expensive application of 300 to 600 pounds per acre of complete fertilizer. Also for quick results with grain, potato, or other crops, the needs of the crop can be temporarily met with applications of acid phosphate, muriate of potash, kainit, and nitrate of soda, in various amounts and combinations according to the crop and con- dition of soil at less cost than with the complete fertilizer. FERTILIZERS— ECONOMICAL USE 305 Fertilizer Efficiency Dependent on Good Farming. The efficiency of commercial fertilizers is almost in direct pro- portion to the character of farming that accompanies their use. When commercial fertilizers are judiciously used as an adjunct to good tillage, crop rotation including legume crops, green manures, and animal manures, the maximum efficiency of the fertilizer will be realized in the production of crops. If too much reliance is placed on the fertilizer and too little attention given to the art of good farming, the efficiency of the fertilizer is greatly lessened. Good farming, so far as soil fertility is concerned, is essentially those prac- tices that provide for a good physical condition in the soil, for the maintenance of an abundant supply of humus, for maintaining the soil's supply of nitrogen by means of legume crops that utilize atmospheric nitrogen, and for the use of some live stock to check the sale of plant food from the soil in large amounts. These practices are the basis of permanent and profitable agriculture. Sometimes good farming needs supplementing with soil amendment to produce the best results, and when the commercial fertilizer is correctly used for this purpose it is efficient and profitable. The indiscriminate use of commercial fertilizers, without proper consideration for good farming, or the soil deficien- cies that good farming cannot correct, is more likely to result in loss than in profit. The commercial fertilizer has its place in the permanent, profitable system of agriculture for many soils; but its place is subordinate to that of good farming and its value dependent on the character of farming associated with its use. 20 CHAPTER VII USE AND APPLICATION OF COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS Lime Fertilizers, Use and Application. Soils rich in lime compounds are well known to be very productive wheat and legume crop soils. Legume crops, such as clover and alfalfa, remove large amounts of lime from the soil and are often called "lime loving plants." Lime takes a very important part in the fertility of the soil, not so much because it is a very essential form of plant food as because it functions as a neutralizing agent that combines with and neutralizes the acids that are contin- uously being formed in the soil from the decay of organic matter. All cultivated soils tend to become acid in nature, unless the natural supply of lime in the soil was very great. When a soil becomes somewhat deficient in lime and, there- fore, acid in nature, productivity is greatly checked for many crops, especially clover, alfalfa, and other legumes, that do not thrive well in an acid soil. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium may all be present in the soil in abundant amounts for good crops, and yet poor crops will result if Ume is absent, and there is, therefore, an acid soil condition. An abun- dance of lime in the soil is desirable and essential to high fertility. Lime also has a favorable effect on the physical condition of soils. In heavy clay soils an application of lime causes the cementing together of many groups of fine soil particles into compound particles of somewhat larger size, and thus the porosity and friableness of the soil are bettered. In a FERTILIZERS— V8E AND APPLICATION 307 sandy soil an application of lime improves capillarity and the water holding capacity of the soil as well as increases the productivity of the sandy soil for legume crops, which, in turn, improve the physical texture, especially when plowed under. In many of the older prairie regions of the United States where it is well known that clover does not thrive as well now as formerly, lime is often the fertilizing material that should receive the first consideration. When tests reveal soil acidity, the first step to be taken in building up the productivity of the soil and establishing a permanent, profitable system of agriculture, is to thoroughly lime the land and increase its productivity for clover or other legume. Clover and other legume crops will not grow well in acid soit, and thus, if an acid soil checks the production of legume crops, the benefits to be derived from humus producing and nitrogen gathering crops are lost, and lime is the limiting factor in the soil's productivity. It is well known that land plaster (sometimes called sulphate of lime or gypsum), fresh burned lime and fresh slaked lime, are active stimulants in the soil that release potassium and phosphorus from the reserve supplies in the soil through hastening the decomposition of soil. On natu- rally rich soils well supplied with organic matter an applica- tion of these forms of lime will stimulate the soil to high productivity through the liberation of available plant food from the reserve supphes in the soil. For this reason the proverb has arisen "Lime makes the father rich but the son poor." The proverb is true enough, unless the system of farming provides for maintaining the humus and nitrogen supphes of the soil by means of animal manures and legume crops, and the supply of phosphorus by means of commercial fertilizers, in which case the son may become as rich as the father through the use of lime on his land. 308 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION In general, there is no necessity for the use of a lime fertilizer except to correct soil acidity. Soil acidity when very marked, is detected by inserting a small piece of blue litmus paper into a sample of soil. If the blue paper quickly turns red the soil is acid. Another simple method for de- tecting marked soil acidity is the ammonia test. This is performed as follows: fill a drinking glass about two thirds full of rain water (soft water), add a teaspoonful of the soil to be tested and a teaspoonful of strong ammonia. Stir thoroughly and allow to settle. If the liquid turns black or dark brown the soil is acid and in need of lime. Slight discoloration of the liquid would show such a small degree of acidity that the need of lime would be problematical. Un- less acidity, as revealed by these tests, is very marked, it is well to proceed slowly with the purchase and use of lime. Experiment with a strip of Umed land in a clover or alfalfa field and note the results. A test of this kind is far superior to the litmus paper and ammonia tests in revealing the needs of a soil for Ume. Failure of clover, or poor clover crops, on old land, is also an index to soil acidity, although this test is not infallible. In correcting soil acidity the choice of the kind of Ume fertilizer to be used should depend on the cost and availabil- ity of the material. Ground limestone, marl, fresh burned lime, air slaked lime, and water slaked lime, can all be success- fully used, though not similarly, for the purpose of correcting soil acidity. Ground limestone and old air slaked lime are the safest and usually the cheapest materials to use. Either one of these materials will correct soil acidity, but will have little if any effect as a soil stimulant acting on the soil's reserve supplies of plant food. Either of these materials can be applied to the land at any season of the year most convenient FERTILIZERS— USK AND APPLICATION 309 to the farmer, with no danger to crops. If spread in winter on sloping lands, some leaching may take place that could be avoided by spreading at some other season. The best time to spread a lime fertilizer, providing time permits, is in the spring of the year shortly before seeding time. The lime can be disked and harrowed into fall plowing or spread on stubble ground and plowed under, if spring plowing is to be practiced. Lime can be spread on land in the autumn just prior to fall plowing if desired, or, if time does not permit the doing of the work in either autumn or spring, it can be done during the winter months by scattering the lime on stubble ground to be spring plowed, or on fall plowing that is to be sur- face worked in the spring. Ground limestone or old air slaked lime can be applied to land in unlimited amounts with no danger to crops. Two tons per acre distributed every four to six years will usually be sufficient to sweeten an acid soil and keep it sweet and productive. Larger amounts at great- er intervals of time can be applied, however, with no danger of injuring the productivity of the land. Marl (a mixture of disintegrated limestone and clay and containing lime, phosphorus, and some potassium) is an excellent form of lime fertilizer. It is commonly found in many of the Northern regions of the United States, under- lying peat beds. No better fertilizer can be had at any price for the light, sandy soils of large areas in the Northern tim- bered areas of the United States than a mixture of peat and marl that can be dug out of the drained lowlands. A thorough application of marl and peat, or marl and animal manures, to a light soil will greatly improve the physical condition of the soil, amend the natural phosphorus deficien- cies, and promote the liberation of plant food from the reserve supplies in the soil, thus increasing productivity. Thousands of tons of this valuable fertilizer are scattered 310 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION throughout the glaciated areas of the Northern part of the United States, and at small expense the productivity of many farms could be greatly increased by its use. Fresh burned lime, water slaked lime, and land plaster all contain a higher percentage of lime (calcium) than lime- stone, old air slaked lime, or marl, and, if used as fertilizers, should be applied in smaller amounts than limestone or marl. Eight hundred to twelve hundred pounds per acre every four or five years is usually a sufficient amount to correct all soil acidity and to supply crops with lime. All these forms of Ume fertilizers are more or less caustic in nature and should not be applied to land after crops have been seeded, as the young vegetation may suffer injury. Whenever fresh burned lime, water slaked lime, or land plaster is to be used as a fertihzer, the material should be scattered on the land in the autumn, winter, or early spring, and plowed or harrowed into the land thoroughly before seeding. In using lime fertilizers it is usually thought best not to apply lime to a soil in the same year that it is planned to distribute raw phosphate rock or bone meal, as the lime tends to retard temporarily the availability of the phos- phorus. A better plan is to lime first and follow with the phosphate fertilizers in succeeding years. Phosphate Fertilizers, Use and Application. It has been previously pointed out that natural phosphate rock is the cheapest of all carriers of phosphorus, but that the phos- phorus which it contains is not immediately available to crops. Natural phosphate rock is the logical material to employ in correcting the phosphorus deficiencies of a soil and to give permanence to the soil's productivity at the minimum expense. In the improvement and renovation of worn out land that is in need of fertihzer amendments, however, there are many instances where it is profitable to FERTILIZERS— USE AND APPLICATION 311 use an available form of phosphate fertilizer, such as acid phosphate, to supply crops liberally with phosphorus until it can be made available from natural phosphate rock. Experience and experimentation have clearly shown that a liberal supply of organic matter in the soil is essential to the processes that make available to crops the phosphorus of natural rock phosphate, also that legumes have greater power to assimilate phosphorus from raw rock fertilizer than such crops as wheat, corn, cotton or potatoes. It may be easily inferred from these facts that the best plan to follow in correcting the phosphorus deficiencies of a badly worn soil is, first, to use a sufficient application of available phosphorus (acid phosphate) to grow a legume green manure crop (sown, if desired, with a nurse crop of grain) that can be plowed under in connection with a heavy dressing of natural phosphate rock, and, then, to put a crop of clover on the land as soon thereafter as possible. After Buch preliminary steps have been taken and the soil is well supplied with organic matter and phosphorus in natural rock phosphate, there will be no further need for the use of expensive phosphate fertilizers such as acid phosphate. The real value of acid phosphate lies in its availability for the quick stimulation of some "nitrogen gathering, humus producing" crop that is essential to the cheap amendment of nitrogen deficiencies in the soil as well as for the liberation of phosphorus from natural rock phosphate. On many soils where phosphorus is not yet very deficient, but where greater crops could doubtlessly be produced, if the soil were more hberally supplied with it, there is no need for profit in the use of acid phosphate. A liberal application of natural rock phosphate in connection with a green manure crop or with barnyard manure will accomplish the desired results at minimum cost. 312 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION In applying acid phosphate to land it is not advisable to apply it in large amounts and at infrequent intervals, because the excess of phosphates will become fixed in insolu- ble compounds unavailable to crops. It is best, therefore, to distribute an amount of fertilizer sufficient only for the needs of the current crop. From two hundred to three hundred pounds per acre would be ample for the needs of an average crop and would afford plenty of phosphorus to stim- ulate the growth of a heavy legume crop for the purposes mentioned in preceding paragraphs. The best time of the year to apply acid phosphate, dissolved bone, bone black, or other carriers of available phosphorus, is in the spring just prior to seeding. Harrowing or disking the fertilizer into the seed bed is preferable to plowing it under. The methods of applying natural rock phosphate to land are somewhat different from the methods best adapted to acid phosphate. Rock phosphate can be applied at infre- quent intervals in large amounts, if desired, and also at any season of the year that best suits the farmer and his other work. Rock phosphate undergoes decomposition slowly in the soil and there is a negligible loss from leaching even though the material is distributed in comparatively large amounts and at infrequent intervals. An application of 1,000 pounds per acre of rock phosphate every five or six years in a good crop rotation will provide a liberal supply of phosphorus for maximum crops. In case of a badly run down farm it would pay to apply a ton to the acre at the outset and to apply smaller amounts every three to six years (estimating the phosphorus needs of crops on the basis of 150 to 200 pounds of rock phosphate per acre annual- ly). The work of spreading rock phosphate on the land can be divided up through several seasons and years, if desired, after the whole farm area has been covered and a rotation FERTILIZERS— USE AND APPLICATION 313 has been started. Part of the fertilizer can be mixed with the barnyard manure and spread on the land during the win- ter, and another part spread on land just prior to either fall or spring plowing. After a farm has once been fertilized and a rotation started, the easiest and cheapest method for spreading phosphate fertilizer is to broadcast the fertilizer on pasture sod just prior to breaking, or, in case of a rotation without pasture, to apply the fertilizer just after an annual pasture, meadow, or green manure crop, and to plow it under with the accumulated manure and humus. Potash Fertilizers, Use, and Application. In the growing of staple field crops there is rarely any real need for the use of potash fertilizers to supply the food requirements of the crops, providing methods of farming are followed that will release potassium from the large reserve supplies that exist in the majority of soils. Occasionally there are soils so deficient in potassium as to need real amendment in this respect. Drained swamp lands with peaty soils are often very deficient in potassium and must receive applications of potash fertilizers to make them truly productive. Certain field crops such as potatoes, tobacco, and sugar beets draw heavily on potassium, which is essential to large yields and full development with these crops. In consider- ation of the fact that the gross income per acre for these crops is comparatively large and that a liberal supply of potassium in the soil will swell the gross income greatly at small proportionate expense, the judicious use of potash fertilizers is quite often advisable and productive of large profits. Field crops of this character are analagous to the truck gardener's crops which respond profitably to forcing with commercial fertilizers. There are four forms of potash fertilizer that are prac- tical in amending soils or feeding such special crops as 314 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION potatoes, sugar beets, and tobacco. These are: wood ashes not leached, kainit, muriate of potash, and sulphate of pot- ash. All these fertilizers are water soluble and the potas- sium is readily available to crop roots. Wood ashes are rarely purchasable in any quantity. When produced on the farm or in local sa^vmills, it pays to save them and apply them to root crops or tobacco. The cost of potassium in kainit, muriate of potash, and sulphate of potash is nearly the same in most markets. Choice between these three forms of potash fertilizer should depend on the price (cost per pound of actual potassium,) although it is not advisable to use large amounts of muriate of potash on tobacco, potatoes, or sugar beets as a direct fertilizer. Muriate of potash can be successfully used to amend potassium deficien- cies in peaty soils, but should not be applied directly to tobacco, potatoes, or sugar beets, whose quality it is likely to affect unfavorably. Potash fertilizers are so easily soluble in water that con- siderable leaching may take place, if large amounts of fer- tihzer are used in excess of the amounts that can be absorbed by the current year's crop. For this reason the infrequent application of large amounts of potash fertilizers is not economical. It is better to apply potassium in an amount slightly in excess of the needs of the current year's crop, and to make applications frequently on soils deficient in this form of plant food. Furthermore, it is best to apply the potash fertilizer, wherever possible, to root crops or tobacco that will utilize the plant food so provided to the greatest profit. Unless soils contain an abundance of lime, the fre- quent use of potash fertilizers tends to produce an acid soil. If a soil is acid, it should be limed before potash fertilizers are used in order to make the potash fertilizer fully efficient, and to neutralize the acid portion of the fertilizer after the FERTILIZERS— USE AND APPLICATION 315 potassium has been dissolved and utilized by crops. Potash fertilizers give the best results when applied jointly with lime, or when used on soils naturally rich in lime. The best method for applying potash fertilizers is to broadcast the fertilizer early in the spring on fall plowing and harrow it thoroughly into the seed bed. In spring plowing the fertilizer should be broadcasted and harrowed in as soon after plowing and as long before planting as pos- sible. It is not a good plan to drill in much potash fertilizer where it will come in direct contact with the plant roots, nor is it advisable to spread the fertilizer after the crop has started. These practices are likely to cause injury to crop roots and retard growth instead of stimulating it, particularly in dry seasons. The economical, safe method is to get the fertilizer thoroughly harrowed into the seed bed and in partial solution prior to planting. The amounts per acre of potash fertilizers to secure best results vary greatly according to the fertilizer and the crop to be fertilized. Wood ashes, for example, contain from 2% to 10% of potash, (1.7% to 8.3% of the element potassium) and with the maximum percentage of potassium it would take 500 pounds of raw material to supply as much actual potassium as could be had in 100 pounds of sulphate of pot- ash which contains 50% actual potash, (41.5% potassium). Kainit, also, usually contains about 12% potash (10% potassium) and would have to be applied in larger amounts than sulphate of potash to provide the same amount of potassium. From 300 to 500 pounds per acre of wood ashes or kainit is regarded as about the maximum amounts it is desirable to use. If it is desired to use a larger amount of potassium for a root crop than is contained in 300 to 500 pounds of wood ashes or kainit, it is better to use 200 to 250 pounds per acre of sulphate of potash, A top-dressing of 316 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION 75 to 100 pounds per acre of sulphate of potash is ample for the needs of a tobacco crop, and 200 pounds per acre will provide a liberal supply of available potassium for a bumper potato crop. Nitrogen Fertilizers, Use, and Application. The pur- chase of nitrogenous commercial fertilizers for general field crops is not good business. Live stock manures and legume green manure crops provide nitrogen at a cost so low as to prohibit any real competition from other nitrogen carrying materials. The only conditions of general farming that warrant the use of commercial nitrogen fertilizers are in the early work of building up a farm of impoverished soil. Nitrogen deficiency in an impoverished soil needs attention prior even to phosphorus, potassium or lime. The legume crops that are capable of utilizing atmospheric nitrogen cannot start and thrive on a soil deficient in available nitro- gen. The first step in the cycle of a plan to establish a permanent system of agriculture on an impoverished soil is to replenish the nitrogen supply. In such a case resort must be had to the commercial nitrogen fertilizer, unless animal manures are available. The best commercial nitrogen fertilizers are nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, dried blood, and tankage. In most cases nitrogen can be purchased as cheaply in nitrate of soda as in any other form (see page 281). If dried blood, sulphate of ammonia, or tankage, can be purchased at a price that will provide nitrogen more cheaply, they may be given the preference. It should be remembered, though, that the nitrogen in tankage is not readily available, and, therefore, this fertilizer is not as quick acting as the others. An application of 300 to 400 pounds per acre of nitrate of soda is none too much to use in case of a soil badly im- poverished of nitrogen, when it is desired to quickly stimu- FERTILIZERS— USE AND APPLICATION 317 late the growth of "nitrogen gathering, humus producing" crops to form the basis for a permanent supply of cheap nitrogen. Three hundred pounds of 16% nitrate of soda would contain 48 pounds of available nitrogen and this would be none too much for a thrifty legume crop of any kind, or a grain crop that was being used as a nurse crop; But this amount of nitrogen fertilizer would create a very heavy acre expense (about $9.00 per acre) and would hardly be justified under the conditions mentioned. It would be a wiser plan usually to apply 100 to 150 pounds of nitrogen fertilizer per acre, together with lime, if needed, thus getting the legume crops started as cheaply as possible, and depend on animal manures and green manure legume crops as soon as possible to build up the supply of nitrogen plant food in the soil. Nitrogen fertilizers can be applied to land and to crops by various methods. They will cause a rank growth of vegetation and for that reason are often used as a top-dress- ing on meadows. They may cause rank and weak grain straw on some soils, when care should be exercised in giving nitrogen stimulation to the grain crop. In general, if there is a real need, for the use of a nitrogen fertilizer in general farming, the fertilizer can be used to best advantage in giving a quick start to an annual legume crop or to a seeding of meadow grasses and clovers. In such an event a portion of the fertilizer can be broadcasted and harrowed into the seed bed prior to seeding and another portion used later on as a top-dressing, or, if desired, the entire amount worked into the land prior to seeding. The actual cases where a nitrogen fertilizer can be pro- fitably used are very rare. Money spent on commercial nitrogen fertilizers is usually wasted, and they should be shunned by a majority of farmers growing staple field crops. 5l8 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Fertilizer Machinery. Commercial fertilizers can be spread on land fairly well by hand methods either from the wagon or from piles on the land. But these methods involve much hard work and fail to give the even distribution that is essential to the best results. The work of distributing commercial fertilizers should be done by machinery wherever possible. Machine distribution gives the maximum efficien- cy to a given amount of fertilizer on account of the evenness of distribution, greatly reduces the amount of hard work involved and also permits of rapid work — an item of import- ance when lime or phosphate rock must be unloaded and distributed from a railway car. There are numerous machines and attachments for standard farm machines made for the special purpose of distributing commercial fertilizers. In general, these ma- chines are planned to distribute fertilizers by either of two flMBL^^' ^ « 1 ^^^ -If ■PP^TM ■ nf ' H t' " :#> '> ... > -=, , Photo by courtesy American Seeding Machine Company. A machine that broadcasts ground limestone, ground phosphate rock, or other fertilizer, on land. The practical way to apply commercial fertilizers. FERTILIZERS— USE AND APPLICATION 319 methods, (1) broadcasting the fertilizer on the surface of the land, and (2) drilling the fertilizer into the seed bed along with the cotton, corn, potato, or other seed. The broadcasting method is usually the preferable one, especially when lime, potassium, and phosphate fertilizers are being used to amend soil deficiencies. Large broadcasting ma- chines can be had that will distribute fertilizers evenly and rapidly. They are provided with large hoppers, screens to take out lumps and sticks, large, wide tired wheels, and force feeds to give an even distribution of the fertilizer. The amount of fertilizer per acre can be regulated in much the same manner as the amount of seed per acre is regulated on a grain drill. When fertilizers are evenly distributed with a good broadcasting machine, and thoroughly harrowed into the seed bed, the maximum efficiency of the fertilizer will usually be realized at the minimum cost for distribution. PROBLEMS AND PRACTICUMS (1) What are the approximate plant food requirements of a wheat crop yielding 22 bu. per acre? What would it cost to supply- all the plant food (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) for this crop, if the plant food were supplied from a complete fertilizer analyzing 4% ammonia, 8% phosphoric acid, and 4% potash, and costing $30.00 per ton? What would it cost to supply these same amounts of plant food from acid phosphate analyzing 16% phosphoric acid and costing $18.00 per ton; muriate of potash analyzing 50% potash and costing $45.00 per ton; and nitrate of soda analyzing 15% nitrogen and costing $60.00 per ton? See pages 296, 282. (2) Perform the simple htmus paper and ammonia tests for soil acid- ity described in this chapter, using a soil sample of your home farm or some local farm. (3) Why is the purchase of nitrogen fertilizers for field crops usually a waste of money? 320 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION (4) Outline a plan for the economical distribution of lime, phosphate rock, or potassium fertilizers on a farm. Consider the season of the year, the time allowed by railways for unloading a car, the distance of the farm from the railway siding, the amount of fertilizer to be used per acre, the equipment for unloading and distributing, and the number of men and horses necessary and desirable to accomplish good work. Estimate the cost per acre for unloading and distributing. (5) Select two or three of the rotation plans and diagrams that were called for in the questions accompanying Chapters VI to XI, Part II, preferably those that apply to your local conditions, and insert a rational plan for soil amendment with fertihzers. If the local conditions are such that fertihzer amendments are unnecessary, use theoretical diagrams presupposing a need for lime, phosphorus or potassium amendment. This plan should show first of all the desired soil amendments or the results it is desired to accompUsh with special crops in the rotation, such as potatoes, sugar beets, or tobacco. It should further show the kinds and amounts of fertihzers to be used; the place in the rota- tion for applying the fertilizer or fertilizers, and the time of year the fertilizers are to be applied. Supplement the diagram with a" thorough explanation and discussion. Give your reasons for the plan of amendment you have outlined. CHAPTER VIII EXPERIMENT STATION REPORTS In the following paragraphs quotations are given from the bulletins of several Agricultural Experiment Stations con- cerning the use of commercial fertilizers in general farming. Space does not permit the use of excerpts from commercial fertilizer bulletins in every agricultural region of the United States. Selections have been made, therefore, from a few bulletins that it is believed will best show the principles and practice for the general farming conditions of the United States. In order to avoid confusion in regard to terms pertaining to phosphorus, all references in these bulletins to phosphoric acid have been changed to the common and comparable basis of the element phosphorus. All references to potash and potassium are taken exactly from the bulletins. These terms are often used indiscriminately in agricultural publi- cations, but the reader will not be confused, if be remembers that potash is a chemical compound containing 83% po- tassium. The Cut-over Lands of South Mississippi. Bulletin 160 Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station (pp. 12-13). The results of hundreds of tests with fertilizers conducted here under all classes of crops bear out the evident conclu- sion drawn from a study of our soil analyses that phosphorus is the mineral element most seriously lacking in these soils. * * * Potash is still relatively high as compared to phos- phorus, there being about twenty times as much potash in soil and subsoil as there is phosphorus. This fact is also borne out by practical or actual results, for the addition of potash either alone or in combination with phosphorus and 21 322 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION nitrogen has given little increase of crop. * * * Nitrogen is necessary even on freshly cleared lands here and must from the start be supplied either with commercial fertilizers or by growing legume crops. Nitrogen when purchased in fertilizers costs so much, is so easily lost from the soil by leaching or oxidation, and is so cheaply supplied by legumi- nous crops so easily grown here either alone or as catch crops, that it is really extravagant to buy this nitrogen in any well planned system of cropping. * * * The fact is, people have gone fertilizer mad, as it were, and have learned to depend almost entirely on buying plant food in a sack rather than on manufacturing the same on the farm by growing leguminous crops and by keeping more live stock from which to make manure. From the experience with the matter at this station, it would seem that the fertilizer question resolves itself into the simple proposition of adding more humus to the soil by growing more leguminous crops which at the same time will supply the necessary nitrogen, leaving only the phosphorus to be purchased, which in the presence of an abundance of rotting organic matter can be supplied as raw phosphate rock. Thus, instead of spending $20.00 a ton for a complete fertilizer, which, generally speaking, would contain about $2.00 worth of potash and $9.00 worth each of nitrogen and phosphorus, the farmer could on these soils dispense with the potash entirely, and could supply the nitrogen with leguminous crops and animal manures, and instead of pay- ing 123/^ cents per pound for phosphorus in acid phosphate, could, by increasing the humus content of his soils, get practically the same results by using raw phosphate rock at a cost of three cents per pound for phosphorus. We would by no means recommend that this substitution of raw phos- phate rock for acid phosphate be done indiscriminately; for, unless the organic matter is present in quantity, the result would be very disappointing. There is so much doubt as to the financial benefit from the addition of potash to ferti- lizers used here that we do not hesitate to advise its elimina- tion, except in individual instances where the farmer has satisfied himself that it does good. EXPERIMENT STATION REPORTS 323 Wheat Growing in Kentucky. Bulletin 155 Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station (pp. 50-51). * * * There is only one safe rule, so far as fertility is concerned, for pro- ducing good crops of any kind, and that is to keep up the fertility of the soil by a judicious rotation of crops, the use of all the manure that can be produced on the farm, and the purchase of whatever mineral plant food the soil may be deficient in. * * * * * * The solution of the problem of fertility, then, is, as stated, to keep up a good humus supply by a good rota- tion containing clover and other legumes and by the use of manure, supplemented by the purchase in sufficient quantity of the element which may be deficient, which is usually phosphorus. It is no doubt profitable on many soils to use a high grade, complete fertilizer, to give the crop a good start; but it should always be borne in mind that the use of it alone will not keep up the fertility of the soil. Any soil, no matter how abundantly supplied with the mineral elements of plant food, may become so deficient in organic matter that the availability of the mineral plant food will not be sufficient to meet the needs of the crop. In such cases the use of commercial fertilizers may give profitable results, and may be used until a supply of organic matter is restored to the soil. Soil Fertility Problems in Kentucky. Extension Circular, May, 1913, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station (pp. 7-9). The large quantities of organic matter necessary to keep a soil in good condition cannot be produced on soils deficient in phosphorus. The first essential, then, in the improvement of such soils, after correcting acidity, is the addition of an adequate supply of phosphorus. The question at once arises as to what form it is best to use. We realize that in discussing this question we are treading upon disputed ground. Let us first consider the cost. A ton of 6% acid phos- phate costs $16.00 and affords 120 pounds of phosphorus. A ton of 12% raw ground phosphate rock costs $6.00 to $7.50 in most parts of this State, and affords 240 pounds of phosphorus. But more than two tons of raw ground phos- 324 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION phate rock may be brought for $16.00, affording not less than 500 pounds of phosphorus against 120 pounds in the acid phosphate. When appHcations amounting to five or six tons have been made on an acre of the ordinary thin soils of the State, at a cost of $30.00 to $40.00, it will contain as much phosphorus as the high priced lands of the Blue Grass Region selling for $125.00 to $150.00 per acre, and in many cases can be made quite as productive. This content would be sufficient, under good conditions, to furnish avail- able phosphorus for 100 bushel corn crops. This of course requires capital, but no business can be conducted without capital. * * * * * * On soils deficient in organic matter, acid phos- phate may be expected to give better results than raw ground phosphate rock. Also acid phosphate may be expected to give better results the first year than raw ground rock. But in a continued process of soil building, rock phosphate used in connection with sufficient decaying organic matter may be expected to give the most profitable results. * * * * * * The following table gives the results of experi- ments begun at Burnside, Kentucky, in 1908, on a very badly worn piece of land. The analysis of this soil shows in the surface 7 inches: 14,600 pounds of potash, 1,860 pounds of nitrogen, and 666 pounds of phosphorus. Table HE. Fertilizer Experiments on Badly Worn Land in Kentucky Plot SOIL TREATMENT Amounts of Fertilizer per Acre Bu. Corn 1909 Bu. Oats 1910 Pounds Clover Hay 1911 Bu. Corn 1912 1. 2. Rock phosphate 2,000 lbs . Muriate of potash 400 lbs . . . No treatment 3.8 7.0 11.3 17.7 20.4 11.9 9.3 9.0 11.9 13.6 14.0 10.5 2,436 668 2,168 2,328 1,292 764 32.9 9.5 3. 4. 5. Acid phosphate 800 lbs. Muriate of potash 400 lbs . . Acid phosphate 800 lbs No treatment 45.7 43.5 30.3 6. Muriate of potash 400 lbs . . . 17.6 EXPERIMENT STATION REPORTS 325 Note: In these experiments an application of fertilizers was made when cowpeas were planted in 1908. Rock phosphate was used at the rate of one ton per acre; acid phosphate 800 pounds per acre (equal in money value to the rock phosphate), and muriate of potash 400 pounds per acre. Manm-e was added each year equivalent to the crop removed. A second application of like amounts was made in the spring of 1912. Both times the fertilizers were applied broad- cast and plowed under. The plan is to make only one application of fertilizers in a rotation. No nitrogen is used in this experiment for the reason that it is not profitable to restore nitrogen to a soil by purchasing it in commercial form. * * * It will be observed that the effects of raw ground phosphate rock did not show up very much until the clover crop was reached. The reason for this is that the soil was very deficient in organic matter and nitrogen, and that the plot on which the rock phosphate was used was decidedly the poorest in nitrogen. * * * in the summer preceding the corn crop (1909), all the plots were sown to cowpeas which were turned under and followed by a rye cover crop which was also turned under. Where acid phosphate was used there was practically twice the growth of cowpeas and rye as on the plots where acid phosphate was not used. It is thus readily seen that the acid phosphate plots had the advantage in the beginning over the rock phosphate plot. The idea was to give rock phosphate a severe test in the pro- cess of restoring fertility. It is interesting to note that potash has shown no appreciable results on any of the crops. From our experience in this experiment, we are led to recommend that in beginning the restoration of a badly worn soil deficient in phosphorus, it is best to use an appli- cation of acid phosphate in growing a cowpea crop turned under with a liberal application of raw ground phosphate rock, to be followed with clover as soon as possible. Clover seems specially able to utilize the rock phosphate. The clover turned under, pastured, or fed with the manure returned, furnishes available phosphorus as well as nitrogen for succeeding crops. On soils fairly well supplied with organic matter rock phosphate may be used to begin with. 326 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Shall We Use Natural Rock Phosphate or Manufac- tured Acid Phosphate for the Permanent Improvement of Illinois Soils? Circular 127, Illinois Agricultural Experi- ment Station (pp 16-18). This bulletin, prepared by the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, gives a thorough resume of all experimental work at the Ohio, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Maine, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Illinois stations, on the comparative merits of raw rock phos- phate and acid phosphate for general field agriculture. While the conclusions reached in each case are quite similar, the experiments at the Ohio station are the most comprehensive, because a definite plan of plowing under organic matter accompanied the application of the fertilizers, as would be done in good farm practice. Excerpts are, therefore, given from the investigational work of the Ohio station only. * * * The investigations of the Ohio Agricultural Experi- ment Station cover twelve years of undoubtedly as careful field experimentation as has ever been conducted. In these investigations three different and entirely distinct fields are used, and in each field a double comparison has been made between raw rock phosphate and acid phosphate. A three-year rotation is practiced, consisting of corn the first year, wheat with clover seeding the second year, and the regular clover crop the third year, these crops being rotated so that every crop is represented every year. In each field there are two plots that are treated with manure alone, which is applied to the clover sod at the rate of eight tons per acre and plowed under for corn, no further application being made for the wheat or clover. There are two other plots in each field treated with the same kind and amount of manure to which has been added 40 pounds of raw phosphate rock with each ton of manure, and there are still two other plots on which, likewise, the same quantity and kind of manure is used, to each ton of which has been added 40 pounds of acid phosphate. EXPERIMENT STATION REPORTS 327 The following tabular statement gives the average of all of the yields obtained during the twelve years for each field. Table IV. Ohio Experiments with Manure, Raw Rock Phos- phate, and Acid Phosphate. Average of 12 Years. Duplicate Tests on Each Field. Soil Treatment Field A Field B Field C Average CORN— BUSHELS PER ACRE Manure alone Manure and Rock Phosphate Manure and Acid Phosphate 47.2 56.4 54.6 63.6 69.5 70.8 53.3 58.2 62.0 54.7 61.4 63.1 WHEAT— BUSHELS PER ACRE Manure alone Manure and Rock Phosphate . Manure and Acid Phosphate. 20.4 21.7 17.2 23.4 30.4 24.6 23.8 29.4 25.7 19.8 26.1 26.1 CLOVER HAY— TONS PER ACRE Manure alone 1.99 2.47 2.23 1.34 1.90 1.76 .83 1.79 1.92 1.39 Manure and Rock Phosphate Manure and Acid Phosphate 2.05 1.97 It will be seen that, as an average of all the data from the 12 years' experiments, the increase from the raw rock phosphate has been practically identical with that from the acid phosphate, while the cost of treatment was twice as great with the acid phosphate as with the raw rock. Fur- thermore, twice as much phosphorus has been applied in the application of raw rock as in the application of acid phos- phate, so that at the close of the twelve years the raw phos- phate plots still contain as much applied phosphorus as the total application made in the acid phosphate. It will be observed in case of the clover crop, which has power to secure nitrogen from the air, or should have, if the soil contains 328 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION plenty of lime, the rock phosphate has produced distinctly better results than the acid phosphate, the average diJffer- ence amounting to .08 of a ton per acre, or 64 cents' worth of hay at $8.00 per ton. Fine ground natural rock phosphate, carrying 12% to 12/^% of the element phosphorus, can be delivered in car lots to Central Illinois for a cost of $6.50 to $7.50 per ton of 2,000 pounds. Acid phosphate (with 7% phosphorus) commonly costs from $15.00 to $18.00 per ton in Central Illinois. Shall We Use "Complete Commercial Fertilizers" in the Com Belt? Circular 165, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station (pp. 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 13, 14, 15, and 16). This bulletin is an excellent summary of the facts about "complete fer- tilizers" for the agriculture of the Middle West. Numerous excerpts are here made from it that will present considerable experimental evidence about "complete fertilizers" in con- densed form and popular language. * * * The most common "complete fertilizer" in the United States has a composition known as 2-8-2, which means it contains in 100 pounds the equivalent of 2 pounds of ammonia, 8 pounds of available phosphoric acid, and 2 pounds of potash, or, in terms of actual plant food elements, one ton of such fertilizer contains about 33 pounds of nitro- gen, 80 pounds of phosphorus, and 33 pounds of potas- sium; and, as a general average, such a fertilizer is sold at retail for $20.00 to $30.00 per ton. A 50 bushel crop of corn takes from the soil 75 pounds of nitrogen, 12 pounds of phosphorus, and 36 pounds of potas- sium; and, in proportion to the yield, other grain crops have approximately the same requirements. Such a crop would require more than a ton per acre of such fertilizer to supply the potassium, or more than two tons to furnish the nitrogen, or from $4.00 to $6.00 worth of "complete fertilizer" to pro- vide even the phosphorus for one acre of corn yielding 50 bushels. * * * EXPERIMENT STATION REPORTS 329 * * * The ordinary "complete fertilizer" is made by taking one ton of ground phosphate rock and adding to it about one ton of sulphuric acid and two tons of "filler," together with a small amount of nitrogen and potassium; thus producing four tons of "complete fertilizer" of the average composition noted above, with no more phosphorus in the four tons than was contained in the one ton of raw rock phosphate. Fine ground natural rock phosphate can be delivered at the farmers' railroad stations in most parts of the corn belt for less than $8.00 per ton, while the four tons of "complete fertilizer" containing the same amount of phosphorus would cost the same farmers more than $80.00 as an average. About a year ago I found one farmer in Illinois who had purchased four tons of such a "complete fertilizer" at a cost of $114.00 ($28.50 per ton), whereas for $7.00 he could have purchased in raw rock phosphate, delivered at his station, the same amount of phosphorus as was contained in the four tons of "complete fertilizer." Long continued investigations clearly establish the fact that by growing and plowing under leguminous crops, either directly or in manure, he could have secured plenty of nitrogen from the air, and have liberated not only abundant potassium from the inexhaustible supply contained in the soil, but also phosphorus, as needed, from fine ground natural rock phosphate plowed under in connec- tion with the decaying organic manures. I have given the above figures in order to show some- thing of the enormous profit from the manufacture and sale of commercial fertilizers, as well as to show that it is not necessary for the farmer to buy small amounts of three different elements of plant food, but rather that he should buy large amounts of one element — so far as we can judge from the broad facts concerning the supply of the plant food elements in normal soils and in the air, the requirements of the staple farm crops for these elements, and the composi- tion and cost of the "complete fertilizer" as well as of ground natural rock phosphate. * * * * * * The Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station published in April, 1912, Bulletin No. 155, entitled "Results r,30 . FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION of Co-operative Fertilizer Tests on Clay and Loam Soils." * * * The authors have used reasonable prices for farm products and have also been fair to the fertilizer industry in regard to the cost of fertilizers. They report fifteen different tests in eleven different counties with the use of the ordinary 2-8-2 fertilizer for corn, and they show that, as a general average, for every dollar invested in such fertilizers the value of the increase in the corn crop amounted to $1.59. They also report eighteen different tests in sixteen different counties with the use of 4-8-4 fertilizer on corn, and show that for every dollar invested in "complete ferti- lizer" of this composition the value of the increase in the corn crop was worth only 83 cents. Furthermore, they report nineteen different tests in thirteen different counties with the use of 4-8-4 fertilizer on wheat, and for every dollar invested in the fertilizer the value of the increase produced amounted to $1.30. They report six different tests in four different counties with the use of "complete fertilizers" of different composi- tion on oats, and, as an average, every dollar invested in the fertilizer produced an increase in the oat crop valued at 31 cents. Finally, they report thirteen different tests in seven different counties with the use of 4-8-4 fertilizers on potatoes, and for every dollar invested in the fertilizer the increase produced in the potato crop was worth $1.04. It will be seen that, as a general average of the fertilizer tests on corn, wheat and oats, the investment of $1.00 in "complete commercial fertilizers" paid back only 94 cents. In the summary of this bulletin occurs the following significant statement: "Phosphorus and potash gave a greater profit per dollar invested in the fertilizer, than com- plete fertilizer, on both corn and wheat. In nearly all experiments with all crops on clay and loam soils phosphorus was found to be the most effective of the fertilizer elements." Thus the data reported show that while 4-8-4 fertilizer for corn paid back only 83 cents out of each dollar invested, when the nitrogen was omitted from the fertilizer it then EXPERIMENT STATION REPORTS 331 paid back $1.19 for each dollar invested. In other words, by omitting the nitrogen the net loss of 17 cents was changed to a net profit of 19 cents. Furthermore, as may be seen from the results mentioned above, when both the nitrogen and potassium were reduced by one half (from 4-8-4 to 2-8-2) the net return per dollar invested was changed from a loss of 17 cents to a profit of 59 cents; and, in harmony with the above quotation, the authors of this bulletin show that when the nitrogen was entirely omitted from the 2-8-2 fertilizer used for corn, the net profit per dollar invested rose from 59 cents to $1.24. This series of experiments did not include any tests with the use of phosphorus alone, but Circular Number 10 of the Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station gives the results from a comparative test with acid phosphate and raw rock phosphate conducted in Scott County over a period of four years with a two year rotation of corn and wheat. If we allow $15.00 per ton for the acid phosphate and $7.50 per ton for the ground natural phosphate, and figure the crops at the same prices as were used by the Indiana Station (35 cents a bushel for corn and 80 cents a bushel for wheat) we find that for each dollar invested the acid phos- phate paid back $2.45, and the raw phosphate $3.41 as net profit. In commenting upon these experiments in Indiana Circular Number 10, Director Goss emphasizes the fact that the acid phosphate gave better results for the first two years, but that during the third and fourth seasons, the rock phos- phate produced very striking results, even forging ahead of the acid phosphate. * * * * * * In a five year rotation of corn, oats, wheat, clover, and timothy, grown on five different series of plots, so that every crop may be represented every year, the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station has tested the use of "com- plete commercial fertilizers" for a period of eighteen years. As a general average the "complete fertilizers" have cost the Ohio Station $19.78 per acre for the rotation, and the increase in crops (at average Ohio prices of 40 cents a bushel for corn, 30 cents for oats, 80 cents for wheat, $8.00 a ton for hay, 332 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION $2.00 a ton for straw, and $3.00 a ton for corn stalks) has been worth $32.84, thus showing a profit of $13.06 for the rotation, or 66 cents for each dollar invested. * * * In comparison with "complete fertilizers," phos- phorus was used alone in these Ohio experiments; and the same Ohio Circular (Number 120) shows that $2.60 invested in phosphorus gave a net profit of $13.93 per acre per rota- tion. In other words, as an average of these most trust- worthy investigations covering eighteen years, the actual profit per acre from $2.60 invested in phosphorus was 87 cents greater than that from $19.78 invested in the "com- plete fertilizers." The fact is that the expenditure for nitrogen and potassium was worse than useless; for, when the net returns are computed as above, it is seen that the actual profits were reduced 87 cents per acre by the purchase of nitrogen and potassium. It will be noted that for every dollar invested in phosphorus alone there was a net profit of $5.36, compared with the average of 66 cents from the "complete fertilizers." Of course the profit from phos- phorus would have been still greater, if the increased crops produced by the phosphorus had been returned to the soil to a considerable extent, either in farm manure or in green manures and crop residues, as they would be in rational systems of farming. If one invests $2.60 in phosphorus and receives $16.53 thereform in increased crops, then it would seem that the man who has any more money to invest in fertilizers would buy more phosphorus, rather than spend it for nitrogen and potassium which fail to pay even their cost. It may be added that where nitrogen was used alone in these same Ohio experiments, it paid back only 58% of its cost, while nitrogen and potassium together paid back only 52% of their cost. Potassium alone did not pay its cost, but when used in addition to phosphorus each dollar invested in potas- sium paid an apparent profit of 22 cents in five years, which is less than 5% per annum. Another very important point to consider is that the Ohio Experiment Station did not buy the "complete ferti- lizers" used in these experiments, but bought the ingredients EXPERIMENT STATION REPORTS 333 and mixed them at about two thirds of the average cost of the ready mixed "complete fertihzers." If we figure the cost of the "complete fertilizers" on the basis of average retail prices for the ready mixed "complete fertilizers," the average profit of 66% derived from the use of "complete fertilizers" in the five-year rotation at the Ohio Station, shrinks to about 11% or to about 2% per year on the money invested. * * * These very valuable Ohio experiments furnish additional definite proof of the need of purchasing phos- phorus in profitable systems of permanent soil improvement; but the results do not justify advising the use of "complete fertilizers" in general farming on normal corn belt soils; and, for the sake of maintaining general industrial prosperity, as well as for their own sake, farmers and landowners should be encouraged to invest their money in the positive and permanent improvement of their soils, rather than to spend it for small amounts of high priced "complete fertilizers" in systems of ultimate land ruin, which will finally leave them too poor ever to adopt systems of permanent agriculture. * * * The long continued investigations conducted by such public service institutions as the agricultural experi- ment stations, clearly show to the careful reader that, in profitable systems of general farming, nitrogen should be secured from the air, potassium should be liberated from the inexhaustible supply naturally contained in all normal corn belt soils, and that phosphorus should be purchased and applied liberally in low priced, fine-ground natural rock phosphate, ground limestone (likewise a low priced natural fertilizer) also being used where needed. The Fertility in Illinois Soils. Bulletin 123, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station (p. 209). * * * On land deficient in phosphorus the standard rule should be to apply phosphorus equivalent to 25 pounds of the element per acre per year, remembering that a 100 bushel crop of corn re- moves 23 pounds of phosphorus. To supply 25 pounds of phosphorus will require 200 pounds of good steamed bone meal costing about $2.50, or 200 pounds of good raw rock 334 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION phosphate costing about 80 cents, or 123^ tons of average fresh farm manure, or the manure that can be made from 200 bushels of corn costing $80.00 to $100 as feed. * * * Probably the most practical and profitable meth- od of maintaining the supply of phosphorus is by applying 1,000 pounds per acre of raw phosphate rock once every five or six years, preferably in connection with all available farm manure, and for the first two or three applications one ton per acre of the phosphate may well be used. It will remain in the soil until removed by crops unless subject to surface washing. If one adopts the rule that when one applies phosphorus it must be at the rate of at least 25 pounds per acre for each crop in the rotation (not 25 pounds of so called phosphoric acid, nor 25 pounds of so called bone phosphate, but 25 pounds of phosphorus) he will then be proof against the misleading and ruinous practice of using ordinary so called "complete commercial fertihzers," for he will at once dis- cover that to buy 25 pounds of phosphorus in such fertilizers will cost from $8.00 to $10.00, and that the amounts he can afford to apply of such fertilizers will not furnish more than 3^ to ^ as much phosphorus as is actually removed from the soil in good crops. Fertilizer Experiments with Sugar Beets. Bulletin 115, Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station, (pp. 13, 14 and 23). The fertilizer experiments noted in this bulletin are particularly interesting in that they show so plainly the great difference in the general fertilizer requirements of the Western soil areas of the United States as compared with the soil areas of the Middle Western, Eastern and Southern states. These experiments, conducted on the comparatively new soil of the Western states where the per cent of natural phosphorus in the soil is comparatively high and the percent of natural nitrogen comparatively low, show plainly that at the present stage of general agriculture in the Western states, nitrogen is the element of plant food demanding most consideration by the farmer. The need for soil amend- ment as regards phosphorus is not an important feature of EXPERIMENT STATION REPORTS 335 Western agriculture at the present time as is the case in parts of the Middle Western, Eastern and Southern regions of the United States. Table V. Fertilizer Experiments with Sugar Beets, Andrews Farm, Lake Park, 1905, Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station. Plot No. Kind of Fertilizers. Lbs. per acre Cost of fer- tilizer per acre Yield clean beets tons per acre Gross income beets per acre Net income after taking out fer- tilizer cost 1. Acid bone meal 193 /192 1 96 142 /lOO \199 426 Dollars 1.93 5.58 4.47 9.12 12.78 15.61 16.81 15.14 17.89 18.60 14.76 16.16 15.93 14.71 12.18 13.63 Dollars 78.05 84.05 75.70 89.45 93.00 73.80 80.80 79.65 73.55 60.90 68.15 Dollars 76.12 2. Acid bone meal Sulphate of potash 78.47 71.23 3. Sulphate of potash 4. Sulphate of potash Nitrate of soda 80.33 80 22 5. Nitrate of soda 6. No fertilizer 73 80 7. Nitrate of soda 212 /214 \215 fl87 187 94 6.36 9.28 11.06 74 44 8. Nitrate of soda Acid bone meal 70.37 9. (Complete fertilizer) Acid bone meal Nitrate of .soda Sulphate of potash 62 49 10. No fertilizer 60 90 11. No fertilizer 68 15 336 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Table VI. Fertilizer Experiments with Sugar Beets. The Resid- ual Effects of Manure and Fertilizers. Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station. Plot No. Kind of Fertilizer Applied in 1903 only Am'ts fer- tilizer per acre Tons Yield per Acre 1905 Aver- age 3 Years 10. Cow manure. Cow manure . Cow manure . Nitrate of soda Nitrate of soda Nitrate of soda Raw bone meal No fertilizer Raw bone meal Thomas Slag phosphate (Complete fertilizer) Nitrate of soda Dried blood Acid bone meal Sulphate of potash Carbonate of potash in to- bacco ashes (Complete fertilizer) Nitrate of soda Dried blood Acid bone meal Sulphate of potash Carbonate of potash in to- bacco ashes Tons 60 30 15 Lbs. 150 150 /150 \200 200 400 50 75 250 50 75 100 25 250 50 75 24.11 25.10 25.25 25.67 25.61 21.46 21.72 22.60 20.63 22.35 19.68 20.31 19.13 19.28 17.98 16.94 16.17 15.55 14.57 16.49 15.82 14.57 16.94 17.78 16.10 17.07 16.14 14.61 15.18 15.99 19.87 19.99 20.44 20.91 19.89 18.49 18.01 17.59 16.79 18.28 EXPERIMENT STATION REPORTS 337 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. (1) Colorado soils generally contain ample supplies of potash and phosphorus, and an excess of lime. (2) The native soil is generally somewhat deficient in nitrogen and humus. Both are supplied by growing leguminous plants like alfalfa, peas, vetches, or beans, or from sheep and stable manures. Nitrogen, but not humus, can be supplied by commercial fertilizers. Photo by courtesy "Sugar." Planting sugar beets with four-horse teams and eight-row planters. (3) Nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda is the only element which has had any decided effect in increasing the yield of sugar beets over the cost of production. (4) Potash and phosphorus, derived from sulphate of potash, raw bone meal, slag phosphate, acid bone meal, and phosphate rock, used alone or together, have very little or no effect on the yield. (5) There are strong indications that potash and phosphorus from fertilizers, largely, if not entirely, neu- tralize the effect of nitrate of soda upon the yield of sugar beets, although the quality of the beet is good. 22 338 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION (6) No difference in results was obtained between applying the nitrate of soda at the time of planting, or in part at the time of planting, and in two applications during the growing season. (7) The net profit from reasonable quantities of ma- nure, if cost of application as well as cost of manure is considerable, is mainly obtained in the after effects in the succeeding year, while there appears to be no residual effect the third year after application. (8) An excess of nitrogen from manures or fertilizer over what the plant needs lowers the yield and quality of the sugar beet some though not much. (9) Reasonable quantities of manure were fully as effective as large or excessive quantities. (13) Fertilizers will not take the place of good prep- aration or cultivation of the soil, or good care of the crop. The soil must be in good physical condition to make the best use of fertilizers applied. PART IV EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE In this part there is briefly presented some of the most reliable and representative data on crop rotation that has been secured and published by the Agricultural Experiment Stations of the United States of America. The amount of scientifically collected data on this subject is comparatively small in proportion to the importance of the subject and the length of time crop rotation has been under discussion and in practice. American agricultural literature teems with opinions and observations on the subject, but comparatively little scientific investigation of crop rotation has been carried on for sufficient time and with sufficient thoroughness to provide extensive and reliable data. In fact, the practice of crop rotation has developed in many places on the basis of erroneous beliefs in regard to its function in the problems of soil fertility, and in other places the value of the practice of crop rotation has been assumed as proven, and, therefore, the Experiment Stations have not investigated the subject very thoroughly nor with the idea of gathering real scientific data on the subject. Undoubtedly, in future years, there will be much more scientific data on the subject than now; for much experimental work has been started bearing on the problems of permanent soil produc- tivity as well as on the business features of crop rotation in its relation to farm management. From such experimental work and data as are now available, however, selections have been made from the publications of the Minnesota, North Dakota, Nebraska, Illinois and Ohio Experiment Stations. 340 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION The investigations of the Minnesota, North Dakota and Nebraska Experiment Stations have been conducted with httle regard for the use of commercial fertilizers, and are typical for a stage of agriculture that is midway between pioneer farming on rich, virgin lands, and intensive farming that must recognize some plant food deficiency in the soil. The data of the Minnesota, North Dakota and Nebraska Experiment Stations, as here given, are representative for, and applicable to, those soil regions that have an abundant reserve supply of plant food in the soil, and where there is especial need for systems of farming that will stimulate those processes of soil decay that will make available to crops these reserve supplies of plant food and at the same time provide a check on the direct outgo of the important elements of plant food. Under these conditions crop rotation, includ- ing legume meadows and pastures or legume green manures, and with forage crops fed to live stock, is sufficient to main- tain productivity for many years to come, and there is rarely any need for the commercial fertihzer. The crop rotation investigations of the Illinois and Ohio Experiment Stations have been conducted mainly in con- junction with commercial fertilizers to amend certain plant food deficiencies of the soil, and are typical for a stage of agriculture somewhat older than that of Minnesota, North Dakota, and Nebraska, and where the reserve supplies of plant food in the soil are somewhat lower — in some cases too low for profitable crop production, even though the best possible methods are provided for the liberation of available plant food from the reserve supplies in the soil. Under these conditions crop rotation is insufficient to maintain profitable yields and must be supplemented by soil amendment with fertilizers. CHAPTER I ROTATION AND FARM MANAGEMENT EXPERI- MENTS—MINNESOTA The crop rotation experiments at the Minnesota Agricul- tural Experiment Station were begun in 1894. The plans called for the continuous culture of the staple field crops of Table VII. Yields of Wheat from Five Cropping Schemes. Average 6 Years 1899-1904. (Table I, Bulletin 125, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station.) Year. Wheat con- tinuously, no manure. Two-year rotation: wheat and mangels, no manure. Three- year rotation: corn wheat, clover, no manure. Two-year rotation: wheat annual pasture, no manure. Five-year rotation: corn, wheat, meadow, pasture, oats, S tons manure. 1899 bushels 1900 " 1901 " 1902 1903 1904 22.5 14.5 16.0 17.0 16.3 20.8 24.2 13.5 15.1 21.3 19.1 20.0 20.9 27.3 13.7 18.1 24.4 27.3 27.0 29.5 17.8 23.1 28.8 28.6 27.3 25.6 15.2 25.1 30.8 32.0 Average yield " Average value " 17.8 $11.80 18.9 $12.41 21.9 $14.76 25.8 $16.99 26.0 $17.44 Gain in yield over continuous wheat, bushels 1.1 $0.61 4.1 $2.96 8.0 $5.19 82 Gain in value over continuous wheat $5.64 Note: The average value of the crops is based on a ten year average, December 1st farm price for crops, as recorded in the Year- book of the United States Department of Agriculture. 342 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Minnesota, and rotations of these crops in various combi- nations, with and without legume crops, and in long and short rotation cycles. At the time these experiments were made there was no interest in the use of commercial fertili- zers in Minnesota and no fertilizer work was included in these experiments. The plots of land were analyzed and special study was made of the effect of continuous and rotation cropping on the soil's supply of nitrogen and humus. This experimental work at the Minnesota Station is especially valuable in making comparisons between the cost per acre of continuous and rotation cropping. The Minne- sota Experiment Station has accumulated many reliable and scientific data on the subject of "costs of farming" that Table VIII. Comparisons of Yields of Corn Grown Continuously with Corn Grown in Three and Five-Year Rotations for Five Years. (Table II, Bulletin 125, Minnesota Agricultural Expt. Station.) Corn in Corn in 5-year 3-year rotation: rotation: corn, Year. Corn con- corn, wheat, tinuously. wheat. meadow, no manure clover pasture. no manure oats, manure 1899 bushels 20.8 51.1 31.3 1900 37.5 42.6 58.0 1901 " 13.9 42.0 42.8 1903 " 23.6 54.7 85.3 1904 " 11.1 45.1 37.1 Average, 5 years " 21.4 47.1 50.9 Average value $7.01 $16.11 $17.89 Gain in yield over continuous cropping bushels 25.7 29.5 Gain in value over continuous cropping $9.10 $10.88 Record of crop of 1902 lost. ROTATION EXPERIMENTS— MINNESOTA 343 are used to advantage in comparing the merits of contin- uous and rotation cropping. These rotation experiments are of value in studying effects of continuous and rotation cropping on the nitrogen and humus content of the soil. The most important features of this experimental work relative to crop rotation and soil fertility are given herewith. Table IX. Comparisons of Very Good and Very Poor Cropping Schemes. (Table IV, Bulletin 125, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station.) Annual net profit per acre Loss or Loss or Rotation scheme (+) or gain of gain of When net loss nitrogen, carbon, manured (— ). 1895- 1895- G) 1900- 1904 1904 "S 1909 03 s Group 1. Very good cropping schemes Per cent Per cent I 9 1, wheat; 2, 3, meadow; 4, oats; 5, potatoes +$8.11 +0.008 1899,1904,1909 IV 10 1, wheat; 2, 3, meadow. . . . + 7.40 + .011 ' '+6.16 IV 8 1, barley; 2, 3, 4, pasture; 5, corn + 6.41 + .016 1899, 1905. IV 5 1, corn; 2, rye and rape; 3, barley: 4, pasture + 6.03 + .022 1900,1904,1908 Standard rotation, check plats, series I, II, III, IV, plat 1,6, 11; 1, corn; Z, wheat; 3, 4, meadow; 5, oats + 5.87 + .015 + .09 18»»,1904,1»0« II 4 1. barley; 2, oats; 3, 4, timothy + 5.82 + .15 III 7 1, wheat; 2, permanent pas- ture + 5.36 + .004 + .07 Group 2. Very poor cropping schemes II 7 Corn in hills continuously. . — 1.47 — .040 — .54 III 9 1, millet hay; 2, clover; plow under second crop — 2.03 + .007 III 10 Rape continuously; drill; pasture off — 2.40 + .10 II 8 Potatoes continuously — 3.17 '— ' mi ' — .66 11 9 Mangels continuously — 14.55 — .033 — .45 344 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Note: The average, annual net profit or net loss per acre shown in this table is arrived at by giving each crop a gross value based on average December 1st farm prices for crops shown by the Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture, and sub- tracting therefrom the average cost of producing the crop as shown in Bulletin 117 of the Minnesota Experiment Station and page 490 of this book. These figures represent the genuine net profit or net loss. All production costs were considered, including $3.50 per acre for land rental or interest on the land value. It may be noted from this table that the rotation schemes of cropping not only yielded greater net profits than the schemes of con- tinuous cropping, but also maintained or increased the humus and nitrogen content of the soil, whereas, nitrogen and humus decreased under the schemes of continuous cropping, particularly with a con- tinuous succession of cultivated crops. Table X. Comparative Yields of Com, Wheat, and Hay under Different Systems of Cropping. 1899-1907. (Table IX, Bulletin 125, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station.) Corn Wheat Hay Year Corn con- tinu- ously Corn in 3-year rota- tion Corn in 5-year rota- tion Wheat con- tinu- ously Wheat in 3-year rota- tion Wheat in 5-year rota- tion Hay in 3-year rota- tion Hay in 5-year rota- tion 1899 Bushels 20.8 37.5 13.9 (1) 23.6 11.1 25.1 27.6 23.6 Bushels 51.1 42.6 42.0 62.0 64.7 45.1 64.1 36.1 35.2 Bushels 31.3 58.0 42.8 78.6 85.3 37.1 64.4 60.5 52.2 Bushels 22.5 14.5 16.0 17.0 16.3 20.8 20.8 14.1 24.5 Bushels 25.3 27.3 13.5 18.1 24.4 27.3 20.6 13.3 19.1 Bushels 27.3 25.6 15.2 25.1 30.8 32.0 30.9 22 6 239 Tons Tons 1900 1901 1.58 2.25 3.86 4.26 4.86 1.91 125 2.36 1902 1.95 1903 6.10 1904 5.77 1905 5.81 1906 3.18 1907 1.42 Average, 9 years 222.9 48.1 25.2 56.7 33.8 18.5 21.0 2.4 25 9 7 4 22.85 33.80 .95 1 Record lost. 2 Eight years. 3 Seven years. Note: The plats continuously planted to one crop and the 3-year rotation plats were not manured. The 5-year rotation plats received 8 tons of manure every fifth year. ROTATION EXPERIMENTS— MINNESOTA 345 Table XI. A Comparison between Continuous Cropping and Rotation Cropping at the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station. Average Yields 10 Years, 1902-1911. Systems of Cropping Wheat Corn Oats Hay Mangels Wheat, continuously Bushels 19.3 Bushels Bushels Tons Tons Corn, continuously (a) 27.5 Hay, continuously (b) 1.7 Mangels, continuously .... 3.8 (c) Wheat, continuously . . . 6 lbs. red clover annually . . 22.1 23.4 27.0 20.6 27.4 2-year rotation, wheat and mangels 2-year rotation, wheat and annual pasture 3-year rotation, wheat, clo- ver and corn 5 -year rotation, wheat, meadow, pasture, oats, and corn 9.2 46.3 61.3 58.6 (a) 2.7 (b) 3.6 Note : (a) Nine-year average, (b) Eight-year average, (c) Clover plowed under in the autumn. No manure was used on any fields except eight tons per acre applied "to the corn crop in the five-year rotation. The rotations were started in 1894. Yields are for the ten-year period 1902 to 1911. This table prepared by, and published through the courtesy of, Prof. Andrew Boss, Chief of the Division of Agronomy and Farm Management, Department of Agriculture, University of Minnesota. Siimmary of Rotation Experiments. (Bulletin 125, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station.) (1) Cultivated ci'ops, as corn, potatoes, and mangels, grown continuously, rapidly decrease the productivity of soils. This is largely due to the fact that cultivation stim- ulates decomposition of vegetable matter, leaving too small a supply of fresh vegetable matter in the soil. (2) Grain crops grown continuously decrease the pro- ductivity of soils. This, it is believed, is in part due to reducing the fresh vegetable matter which supports chemical 546 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION From Bui. 125, Minnesota Agr. Expt. Station. Corn on a plot growing corn continuously. Average yield for the last ten years of an eighteen year period of time 27.5 bushels per acre. and wholesome bacterial activity in the soil, and in part due to an increase in weeds. (3) A rotation of com, oats, millet, and barley, which tend to exhaust the supply of vegetable matter, did not produce better results than continuous wheat cropping. (4) A 2-year rotation of mangels and wheat, both of which reduce vegetable matter, gave little better yields of wheat than wheat continuously. (5) A 2-year rotation of wheat and annual pasture gave greatly increased yields of wheat, presumably in large part because the annual pasture crop added fresh vegetable matter to the soil, greatly increasing the bacterial and chemi- cal activities of the soil and improving its physical condition, (6) A 3-year rotation of corn, wheat, and clover with no manure did not give as large yields of corn and wheat as were obtained from a 5-year "standard" rotation of corn, wheat, meadow, pasture, and oats, with some manure applied to the corn. The lower yield on the 3-year rotation is pre- ROTATION EXPERIMENTS— MINNESOTA 347 From But. 125, Minnesota Agr. Expt. Station. Corn on a plot growing corn in a five-year rotation of corn, wheat, clover and timothy meadow, pasture, and oats. Eight tons of barnyard manure applied every five years. Average yield for the last ten years of an eighteen year period of time 61.3 bushels per acre, sumably due mainly to the fact that clover once in three years did not maintain the supply of fresh vegetable matter so fully as did the 5-year rotation with two grass crops and 8 tons of manure once every five years. (7) Among the advantages of vegetable matter in the soil the following may be named: It aids aeration, retains moisture, deepens the soil, prevents baking, checks leaching and washing, stimulates decomposition, supplies easily usable plant food, affords favorable conditions for bacteria, increases chemical activities, and presumably aids in disposing of or neutralizing substances left by crops which are evidently toxic to the same or to other crops. (8) The combination of cultivated crops, grain crops, and grass crops, including clover, as in the 5-year standard rotation, not varying greatly from two fifths of the time in grass, results in substantial profits. 348 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION (9) In a word, the best rotation schemes yield $12 to $16 worth of crops, at a cost, including $3.50 rental, labor, and all other' expenses, of $7 to $11. With a net profit of $3 to $6 per acre, and under the conditions of the average farm there should be secured a net profit of $2 to $4 per acre on all the cultivated acreage. Influence of Crop Rotation and Continuous Cultivation upon the Composition and Fertility of Soils. (Bulletin 109, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, pp. 286, 332, 334, 335, 336.) On most Western farms it is more economical at the present time to make the reserve mineral matter avail- able as plant food than to purchase new stores. In many soils there is a large amount which is not in the most available forms, but is capable of being made so by cultivation. It should be the aim to keep this reserve fertility in such a condition that it will gradually become available and can be drawn upon by future crops. When the soil is made to pro- duce one crop year after year, there is but little opportunity for the reserve fertihty to become available. * * * * * * Chemical and physical changes are continually taking place in the soil, and in some soils these changes are more rapid than in others. In the cultivation of the soil it should be the aim to assist nature in bringing about those changes which render the plant food available. * * * While a rotation of crops in which clover forms an essential part may result in maintaining the nitrogen and humus content, there is, after a series of years, a material loss of mineral plant food, as potash and phosphorus com- pounds. In fact, a rotation of crops removes more total mineral plant food from the soil than when a grain crop is grown continuously, and thus a rotation may hasten the exhaustion of fertility. A rotation of crops with the occasion- al use of farm manures and the production of clover will not indefinitely maintain the fertility of all soils; only those soils that are naturally fertile and contain large amounts of re- serve plant food will indefinitely respond to such a system of cropping. * * * ROTATION EXPERIMENTS— MINNESOTA 349 Table XII. Rotation Removes More Mineral Plant Food Than Continuous Cropping to Wheat. (Table XLI , Bulletin 109, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station.) FIVE-YEAR ROTATION SERIES III. PLOT 1 FERTILITY REMOVED Year Crop Yield Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium 1900 1901 Wheat Meadow Meadow Oats Corn 23.3 bu. 3.2 tons 2.1 tons 59.0 bu. 58.3 bu. 40.8 lbs. 10.17 lbs. 33.53 lbs. 22.00 lbs. 9.25 lbs. 11.26 lbs. 33.9 lbs. 147 4 Iba 1902 96 5 lbs 1903 1904 59.0 lbs. 96.8 lbs. 44.1 lbs. 64.2 lbs. Total fertility removed in five years Fertility added by 8 T. manure. . 196.6 lbs. 81.6 lbs. 86.21 lbs. 24.45 lbs. 386.1 lbs. 67.7 lbs. Total lost by rotation 115.0 lbs. 61.76 lbs. 318.4 lbs. WHEAT CONTINUOUSLY SERIES III. PLOT 2. (Total Yields 1900 to 1904 inc. 84.6 bu.) Total fertility removed in five years 148.0 lbs. 36.94 lbs. 122.8 lbs. Excess removed by rotation *-33 24.82 lbs. 195.6 lbs. Note: The figures for determining the amount of fertiUty removed by the various crops were taken from Prof. Snyder's "Soils and Fertihzers." The figures for determining the amount of plant food supplied by the manure were taken from Cornell Bulletin No. 27. No nitrogen is charged against the meadow crops as the crop was about one half timothy and one half clover, and it is assumed that the clover added as much nitrogen as both crops removed. * * * The indiscriminate practice of bare summer fal- lowing has been another cause of loss of the soil's nitrogen 350 FIELD AIANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION From Bui. 125, Minnesota Agr.Expt. Station. Vertical section of soil on a plot that has grown corn continuously for eigh- teen years. Note the absence of vegetable matter and the hard, compact, gritty appearance of the soil. and humus. The occasional fallowing of land to destroy insect pests and weed seed is often necessary, but the alter- nation of grain and summer fallowing is particularly destruc- tive to the humus by encouraging rapid decay with liberation of the nitrogen. Fallowing is temporarily beneficial, a few good crops being secured, but it is at the expense of perma- nent fertility. Experiments show that when summer fallow- ing is practiced five times more nitrogen is rendered soluble and available than is required for the succeeding crop; and the soluble nitrogen that is not utilized as plant food is readily lost. There is no soil so rich in nitrogen that it can endure the long continued practice of summer fallowing without ultimate decline in fertility. Particular stress is laid upon the nitrogen and humus of the soil, because they may be controlled by cultivation, and, if the humus and nitrogen content is maintained, the problem of fertility is greatly simplified. The maintenance ROTATION EXPERIMENTS— MINNESOTA 351 From Bui. 125, Minnesota Agr. Expt. Station. Vertical section of soil near a corn plant growing on newly broken alfalfa sod. Note the presence of vegetable matter, and the loamy, friable appearance of the soil. of the mineral plant food of the soil cannot be neglected; but the mineral matter is not subject to such large gains and losses as the nitrogen. * * * * * * On some soils the rotation of crops only hastens exhaustion of the fertility by causing a larger total amount of plant food to be removed, and where large reserves do not exist in the soil the use of commercial fertilizers will be necessary. At the present time and in the case of prairie soils that are beginning to show the effects of excessive grain production, rotation of crops and the production of clover will be more beneficial than any other means for restoring fertility. This will assist in securing larger yields for a series of years, but will not prove the final solution of the problem of maintaining the fertility of the soil. * * * * * * Commercial fertilizers should not be used indis- criminately on old soils with a view of securing large yields, 352 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION and it is not feasible by their use alone to economically restore the fertility to soils that have been impoverished by exclu- sive cropping to small grains. Commercial fertilizers are of great value when judiciously employed in a rotation and for encouraging the growth of legumes, as clover, so as to add nitrogen to the soil from atmospheric sources. It is believed that when they are used in this way they will prove bene- ficial and remunerative. Before applying them in large amounts it is recommended that farmers make preliminary trials on a small scale to determine the actual needs of the soil, so that unnecessary elements of plant food be not pur- chased. Commercial fertilizers cannot take the place of farm manures or crop residues, particularly those from clover and timothy, for permanently improving the soil; but they aid in the production of some crops and often assist a crop, as clover, which in turn is beneficial in adding nitrogen and humus to the soil. Commercial fertilizers should be used in connection with crop rotations, farm manures, and clover production, rather than as the only means of increasing the fertility. When judiciously used, they have a proper place in our agri- culture; but when indiscriminately applied, there is gener- ally a financial loss. 23 CHAPTER II CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR WHEAT IN NORTH DAKOTA The crop rotation experiments of the North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station were begun in 1892, and the original plans were discontinued in 1907 to make way for a new group of rotation experiments better adapted to diversified types of farming and the present agricultural conditions of North Dakota. The experimental data here quoted were gathered during the period 1892 to 1907 while the agriculture of North Dakota was quite young and when wheat culture was the universal farm enterprise of the state. These data are of particular interest to students of soil fertility, crop rotation, and permanent systems of farming, because they illustrate certain elementary principles in the maintenance of soil productivity, such as the value of inter- tilled crops in rotation with thickly sown grain crops, and also the value of humus producing, nitrogen gathering legume crops in rotations with thickly sown grain crops. These experiments are also interesting in that they illustrate the rapid changes that take place in the soil of a new agri- cultural region after the pioneer days are over. Evidently the experiments were planned to prove to an unbelieving population of continuous wheat growers the vital and fun- damental facts about soil productivity. Wheat was included prominently in all the rotation plans, and the plans were so projected as to show the influence of inter-tilled crops, animal manures, green manures, and bare fallow on the yield of wheat. These experiments illustrate the elementary facts about soil productivity very nicely and show how quickly in the history of a rich soil area the available stores of virgin fertility are taken up by crops, and how quickly the need 354 FIELD 3IANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION arises for cropping systems that will somewhat check the sale of plant food from the soil and liberate supplies of avail- able plant food from the reserve supplies in all naturally- fertile soils. The most striking features of the cropping system exper- iments of the North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station are herewith quoted from Bulletin 100 of that Station (pp. 5, 6, 7, 8, 25, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 37, 38, 41, 42, 43, 44, and 45.) Table XIII. Composition of Typical Soils of the Red River Valley in North Dakota. Pounds per Acre in Two Million — about 7 Inches of Soil. (Table I, Bulletin 100, North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station.) Locality Total Nitrogen ACID SOLUBLE Phosphorus Potassium Bathgate . . . Fargo Wahpeton. . (Average) 7,560 7,200 5,520 6,760 1,460 2,520 1,040 1,673 11,560 13,600 6,540 10,566 Note: These samples were taken from fields that are repre- sentative of the Red River Valley. It is evident that these soils are well suppUed with the important elements of plant food. That the black soil of the Red River Valley contains a comparatively large amount of the important elements of plant food is evident. The soils used in making these analyses have been cropped in much the same manner as the average farm in the Red River Valley. At the time the sample was taken at Fargo the land had grown at least nine- teen successive crops of wheat. The other samples were taken from land that, previous to its use as a demonstration farm, had been cropped by farmers without any special effort to maintain its fertility. In their virgin state these soils would have no doubt shown a higher percentage of the important elements than some of the most productive lands of the corn belt. It is evident, therefore, that our problem is not one of building up worn out lands, but of making the best use of an adequate supply of plant food supplementing it as much as possible with manures in order that this supply may be maintained for future production. Briefly this will be accomplished by through tillage, drainage, proper rotation of crops and the rational use of manures. ROTATION EXPERIMENTS— NORTH DAKOTA 355 * * * The original purpose of these crop rotation ex- periments was to determine the influence of various crops, and the cultivation incident to their production, upon the yield of succeeding crops of wheat. For this reason wheat is the most prominent crop in all of the rotations. * * * * * * These experiments were conducted on a nearly level forty acres of typical Red River Valley land having fair surface drainage provided by roadside ditches. The land was exceptionally uniform in physical texture as well as in chemical composition as revealed by analyses. The land was broken about 1882 and had borne continuous crops of wheat until 1892. Table XIV. Average Yields of Wheat on Plots Cropped Contin- uously and in Rotation. (Table V, BuUetin 100, North Dakota Agricultural Experi- ment Station.) Yield per acre of all plots continuous wheat Average 12 years Average yield per acre all plots in rotation Average 15 years Increase due to -otation 13.13 bu. 19.12 bu. 5.99 bu. The Influence of Corn in Rotation with Wheat. It is quite generally recognized that the cultivation given the corn crop improves the physical, chemical and biological relations of the soil so that it is in better condition for wheat production. In order to get at the benefits measured by crop yield, plots 5 and 6 (as shown in the following table) were cropped to corn one year followed by three years of wheat. Plot 6 received an application of six loads of rotten manure per acre. No application of manure was made to plot 5. The yields for these two plots are summarized and compared with the yields on plot 2 which has been in wheat contin- uously during the period. The yields for the first year and the second year after corn are the average of four crops, and the yields the third year after corn are the average of three crops. 356 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Table XV. The Influence of Corn on Succeedmg Wheat Yields. (Table VIII, Bulletin 100, North Dakota Agricultural Experi- ment Station.) Wheat after 1st Year after 2nd Year after 3rd Year after Plot Bushels Yield Bushels Increase Bushels Yield Bushels Increase Bushels Yield Bushels Increase 2 5 6 Wheat Corn Corn 11.27 19.14 20.48 7'.87 9.11 15.39 22.96 25.85 ' ' 7^57 ' 10.46 19.40 21.80 25.78 ' ' 2.40 ' ' 6.38 Note: The highest yields were obtained the second year after corn. This group of years was somewhat more favorable for wheat production than either of the other two, but the yields on the con- tinuous wheat plot indicate that the first group of years was by far the most unfavorable. The real test of the influence of the corn, however, is measured by the increase in yield over continuous wheat. The significant facts brought out by the above data are as follows: (1) The culture of corn increased succeeding wheat yields. (2) The benefit of the corn crop is greatest in the two years immediately succeeding the year in which it is grown. (3) An application of farm manure once in four years increases the yields of wheat in a rotation with corn. (4) The beneficial effects of such manuring extended over a longer period than the effects of corn in the rotation. The Influence of Potatoes in Rotation with Wheat. The culture given potatoes is quite similar to that given corn and as potatoes can be marketed directly to better advantage than corn in this locality, providing there is a shipping poirit close at hand, some farmers prefer to raise them as a culti- vated crop. In order to determine the effect of potato culture on succeeding wheat yields, a rotation consisting of potatoes one year and wheat three years was started on plot 20 in 1896. Plot 19 was originally planned to be seeded to wheat continuously and was continued as such until 1900. Comparisons can, therefore, be made between these two plots for one four-year period. ROTATION EXPERIMENTS— NORTH DAKOTA 357 Photo by courtesy N. S. Davies, Red River Valley Development Association. In the northern part of the North Central states potatoes are an important "cultivated crop."_ The ijotato crop_ fits the land in fine shape for small grain and is of great assistance in controlling weeds. Table XVI. The Influence of Potatoes on Succeeding Wheat Yields. (Table IX, Bulletin 100, North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station.) Plot Wheat after First Year Bushels per Acre Second Year Bushels per Acre Third Year Bushels per Acre 19 20 Wheat Potatoes 18.30 16.80 17.28 30.57 17.48 21.65 Increase or Decrease -1.50 + 13.29 +4.17 Note: While the period during which this work was conducted was too short to draw any definite conclusions, it is evident that the introduction of potatoes into the rotation has a marked beneficial 358 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION effect on wheat yields. As was the case with corn, the beneficial effects were not as marked the third year after potatoes were grown as the second year. The Influence of Field Peas in Rotation with Wheat. It is often desirable and sometimes necessary to replace a biennial or perennial legume with an annual legume. The latter fit into short rotations a little better and, as a rule, it is comparatively easy to secure a stand. If, for any reason, a stand of clover is not obtained the previous year, the land must be seeded to an annual legume, if the rotation is to be maintained without interruption. For the Northwest, field peas have proved to be the most satisfactory legume crop. In order to determine the influence of field peas on wheat yields, a rotation consisting of peas one year and wheat three years was carried out on plots 7 and 8. The pea crop was removed from plot 7, and plowed under on plot 8. The following table shows a comparison of the yields of these plots with those on plot 2, the continuous wheat plot for the same year. Table XVII. The Influence of Field Peas on Succeeding Wheat Crops. (Table XII, Bulletin 100, North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station.) Wheat after First Year Second Year Third Year Plot Bushels Yield Bushels Increase Bushels Yield Bushels Increase Bushels Yield Bushels Increase ?, WTieat Peas Peas 11.27 17.80 15.91 15.39 17.32 19.49 19.37 19.08 21.73 7 8 6.53 4.64 1.93 4.10 —0.29 2.36 Note: The turning under of the pea crop failed to produce an increase in wheat yield the first year after, but there was a gain of 2.17 bushels the second year, and 2.65 bushels the third year attrib- utable to the green manuring. A study of this data indicates that green manuring with field peas does not give immediate results in a soil well supplied with organic matter, but that, when such manuring ROTATION EXPERIMENTS— NORTH DAKOTA 359 is practiced regularly, the beneficial effects ai-e cumulative. In the last half of the period the yield on the green manured plot was greater than on that from which the peas were removed. The plot from which the peas were removed showed an increase in yield over the con- tinuous wheat plot the first and second years, but the beneficial effects did not extend to the third crop of wheat following. The Influence of Summer Fallow on Succeeding Wheat Yields. One of the greatest impediments to the continuous production of wheat on the same land is the rapid increase of certain weeds due to the carrying over of the seed from one year to another. In the past, summer fallow has been one of the most common methods of cleaning the land of weeds in this state. In order to determine the influence of fallow on succeeding wheat crops, plots 4, 15 and 26 were fallowed every fourth year and seeded to wheat the three remaining years. * * * A comparison of the yields of the first, second and third wheat crops after fallow with contin- uous wheat is given in the following table. Table XVHI. The Influence of Fallow on Succeeding Wheat Crops. (Table XIV, Bulletin 100, North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station.) First Year Seeon d Year Third Year Plot Wheat after Bushels Bushels Bushels Bushels Bushels Bushels Yield Increase Yield Increase Yield Increase 2 Wheat 11.27 15.39 19.37 4 Fallow 16.93 5.66 22.26 6.87 27.30 7.93 15 Fallow 20.89 9.62 18.51 3.12 22.53 3.16 26 FaUow 16.55 5.28 19.00 3.61 21.08 1.61 Note: Plots 4 and 26. were plowed twice and plot 15 was plowed but once, in July. The extra plowing in the fall failed to produce an increase in yield of the wheat crops, as indicated by the difference between plots 15 and 26. The yields of plot 4 are not strictly compar- able on this point, because the fallow was manured with six loads of rotten manure on this plot. The same general tendency of the yields to be maintained after fallow for a longer period, when manured as 360 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION was noted when corn was manured in the rotation, is evidenced in the data. The figures indicate that fallow produces a marked increase in yield the first and second years and to a lesser degree in the third year after having been fallowed. It is usually considered, however, to be more economical to have corn take the place of fallow on account of the income received fi'om the corn crop. The Relation of Active Organic Matter in the Soil to Wheat Yields. The soils of the Red River Valley are very- high in their content of organic matter, but some of these have been cropped for some time without the return of organic manures, and the greater part of this organic matter is in the more advanced stages of decay. In this form it decays very slowly and has only a slight effect on the availability of the mineral elements of plant food in the soil. There are two plots in Series I. which show the ett'ect of farm manure applied once in a four-year cropping system. As an average, manure has produced an increase in the yields of all crops on each of these plots. * * * The most satisfactory method for calculating this increase is on the percentage basis. Table XIX. The Increase in Wheat Yield Due to Farm Manure, by Courses, 1892-1906. (Table XVIII, Bulletin 100, North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station.) Manure applied to Per Cent Increase 1st Course 2nd Course 3rd Course 4th Course 6 10 Corn Millet 5.5 6.1 9.3 10.1 21.5 33.0 (*) 12.5 (*) 30.2 (*) Three year period only. Note: There has been a gradual rise in the percentage of in- crease as the years have advanced with the exception of the last course. In this case, however, the yields of wheat for only two years are avail- able and in one of these years (1905) the rainfall was the highest that has been recorded at the Experiment Station. It is a well established fact tlaat manure does not show as much beneficial effect in wet years ROTATION EXPERIMENTS— NORTH DAKOTA 361 as in dry years, hence very little increase would be expected on the clay soil of the Red River Valley in a year that the rainfall was 17.22 inches in April, May, June and July, as was the case in 1905. As 1906 was not an especially favorable year for wheat the yields were low and the increase less striking. If the third wheat crop in this course had been harvested, the increase might have been as great as in the third course. In the past very little attention has been given to the production, management and use of farm manures on many of the farms of the state. The manure produced by the work stock has been allowed to accumulate and remain exposed for years and the greater part of its fertilizing value lost. The failure to appreciate the value of manure has been largely due to the fact, that, under our climatic conditions, organic manures do not decay rapidly enough to show marked results the first year or so. Another mistake has been made in plowing under fresh manure for small grain. The manure should be applied when fresh to pasture land which is to be broken, or should be plowed under for corn which is to be followed by small grains. It is thus given a chance to decay in the soil before the land is seeded to small grains. It is quite evident that the maintenance of the supply of organic matter has a very important bearing upon wheat production and that, while the yield is increased the first few years to a marked degree, the yields are more striking as the years advance, indicating that the results are cumula- tive and extend over a period of years. Futhermore, in the early years of the experiment the soil contained a high percentage of native organic matter in the early stages of decay and hence did not respond to the manure as much as it did later when this natural supply had been materially reduced by cropping. Two plots in this series furnish us data relative to the effect of green manure upon the yield of wheat. The field peas which were seeded on plot 8 every four years were plowed under for green manure, and the millet, occupying a similar place in the cropping system on plot 1 1 , was plowed under. By comparing the yields on these plots with those on plots 7 and 9 (similar rotations including peas and millet. 362 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION but with all crops removed from the land) the increase due to ,the green manuring can be calculated. The increase expressed in percentage is given herewith. Table XX. The Influence of Green Manuring on Wheat Yields by Courses, 1892-1906. (Table XIX, Bulletin 100, North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station.) Green Manured with Per Cent Decrease or Increase 1st Course 2nd Course 3rd Course 4th Course 8 11 Field Peas MiUet —9.6 + .6 —6.9 —7.0 +.33.2 + 10.0 + 17.6 +10.5 Note: If we consider the first two courses only, green manur- ing has been a failure, but the later data shows it to be of marked benefit. In fact, the increase of the last two courses has more than offset the decrease in the first two. It is evident that the soil was so high in native organic matter in the early years that the artificial supply was unnecessary. As the years advanced, however, the original supply became depleted rapidly and an increase in yield resulted from the residual effects of the green manures plowed under in the early years of the experiment. Under our climatic conditions plant tissues decay rather slowly and, when plowed under in large amounts, they separate the plowed soil from the lower soil layers for some time. When the soil is plowed early in the fall and seeded to wheat early in the spring, not enough tillage is given to fill all of the open spaces between the plant stems and effect capillarity. As a result, many of the wheat plants on such land suffer from lack of water even in periods of moderate drouth. This could be avoided if a cultivated crop like corn, potatoes or other roots, were planted the first year after the green manuring. The soil is prepared for these crops later in the spring and the inter-tillage given them extends well into the summer. More water is con- served in the soil by this means and the open spaces between ROTATION EXPERIMENTS— NEBRASKA 363 the plant stems are filled in with soil. The result is that they decay more rapidly and the re-establishment of normal movement of soil water is more immediate. Green manuring with field peas has produced a larger average increase than with millet. This is probably due in part to the higher nitrogen content of the peas, part of which is obtained from the atmosphere. There is some addition of organic matter to the soil when millet is plowed under, but all of the nitrogen in the millet crop has been obtamed from the soil, and hence there is no actual addition of this element. The continued green manuring with millet or any non-legume would produce soil organic matter of a low nitrogen content. As time advances, it would be necessary for decay to take place more rapidly in order to produce enough nitrogen to meet the demands of a maximum crop. While nitrogen is probably not as yet a limiting factor on the soils of the Red River Valley, their native sup- ply has been materially reduced and some attention should be given to its maintenance by the application of manures and the placing of legume crops in the rotation. CHAPTER III CO-OPERATIVE ROTATION AND FERTILIZER TESTS— NEBRASKA (Bulletin 122, Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station p. 6). ****** * Reports from thirty-one Nebraska farmers from 1906 to 1908 show that they had an average yield of 34.5 bushels of corn per acre on land before seeding it to clover and alfalfa, and 68.2 bushels when the field was plowed up and again planted to corn. Co-operative fertilizer tests carried on by this department on Nebraska farms show that the plots which were not treated averaged 25 bushels of corn per acre, while the ones to which barnyard manure had been added gave an average yield of 36.5 bushels. * * * CHAPTER IV CONTINUOUS AND ROTATION CROPPING, WITH AND WITHOUT MANURE OR COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS— OHIO Experimental field evidence from the Ohio Experiment Station, at Wooster, relative to the maintenance of soil fer- tility, is the most complete and authentic of any available in the United States. The work was started in 1893 and the investigational data herewith given covers periods of time from fifteen to twenty years. In the accompanying tables and notes the figures are taken exactly from the published reports of the Ohio sta- tion, although some rearrangement has been made for the sake of conciseness and popular presentation. Table XXI. Crops Grown in Continuous Culture with and without Fertilizers. Average Annual Yields and Increases Due to Fertilizers. 19 Years, 1894 to 1912. (Table 1, Circular 131, Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station.) 6 o Fertilizing Materials, Pounds per Acre Yield Per Acre Increase Per Acre Bus. Grain Lbs. Stover or Straw Bus. Grain Lbs. Stover or Straw CORN Average of 4 plots unfertilized Acid phos. 160; muriate of potash 100; nitrate of soda 160 Yard manure 2 Y^ tons Yard manure 5 tons Acid phos. 160; muriate of potash 100; nitrate of soda 320 15.88 42.09 1245 2346 22.65 27.67 1781 12.21 37.64 2154 22.51 47.24 2431 33.50 972 547 933 1282 SOIL FERTILITY EXPERIMENTS— OHIO 365 OATS Average of 4 plots unfertilized Acid phos. 160; muriate of potash 100; nitrate of soda 160 22.92 41.41 30.80 38.29 47.39 921 1949 1274 1821 2497 2 20.31 7.65 14.71 23.77 1124 5 Yard manure 2 }/2 tons 347 6 Yard manure 5 tons 862 8 Acid phos. 160; muriate of potash 100; nitrate of soda 320 1506 WHEAT Average of 4 plots unfertiHzed Acid phos. 160; muriate potash 100; nitrate soda 120; dried blood 50. . . . Yard manure 2 }i tons Yard manure 5 tons 7.52 19.05 13.33 17.41 21.96 938 2474 1699 2212 2858 2 5 6 11.48 5.47 9.59 14.45 1458 744 1250 8 Acid phos. 160; muriate potash 100; nitrate soda 280; dried blood 50. . . . 1931 Note: The increase in yield of the fertilized plots over the unfertihzed plots has been computed by the Ohio Agricultural Ex- periment Station on the assumption that changes in the natural fer- tiUty of the soil in experimental fields are Ukely to be progressive, that is to say; that if the yields of plots 1 and 4 unfertilized were 30 and 33 bushels respectively, the yields of plots 2 and 3 would probably have been 31 and 32 bushels respectively, had no fertihzers been ap- plied. Thus in these tables showing increased yield of fertihzed plots over unfertilized plots, the increase shown is not computed by making a comparison of the yield of each fertihzed plot with an average of yield from all unfertilized plots, but is computed by means of a com- parison with adjoining unfertilized plots that aims to ehminate all differences in yield caused by variations in the natural fertility of the soil. This method of computing increase in yields is followed in all reports on crop yields from this Experiment Station. This table does not show the complete records for continuous crop culture, with and without fertihzers, at the Ohio Experiment Station. In order to simplify the comparisons the two highest yield- ing fertilized plots and the plots fertihzed with barnyard manure have been selected to compare with continuously cropped plots with- out fertilizers. The fertilizing materials are valued at a fraction over S16.00 per ton for acid phosphate; 2}4 cents per pound for muriate of potash; and 3 cents per pound for nitrate of soda. 366 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Is ooo «' ri S Villi o c 3 tS^ bi) «^^ o w o ■2 .20 « a; 3 •- 2o a S |<> O >.,; > a> o ^0:>. 1-1 tOOi(N t^ CO CO •># H eo lO o &S >- 10 (M CO (N 00 00 o «o a^ d o6ci (^ (MNtHC 00 'H coeit-oo ^< eo cOTt^oo CO (M t^ cooco--! o '"Ul iH ,-irt,-H ^ (M ^ (MNtH(N . a CO t^ »0 10 03 tJ< -*0OiHI-^ q t^ ^ Th CO 'H oqoooqiq 1-i dioc^ t^ d C5 o6cqt^r>^ eo rt^ -^ TfioseocD CJ COCOTfl CO ■* ■* .^^.^r^ . ^^ Is :S :o~ \ £ CO .00 .CO S^ •0 N 3 c otash 2 ) otash 1 50.... otash 2 a •3 0. blood 5 ariate p( nitrate a^ a-s a-c c 3 2 o'.3 1 to uriate blood uriate 'd bloo uriate id bloo 2 Ph rt % 0) C3 • - 2t3 B-c B-t: '3 .2rt s •r ._o .^.'v .^-a .--0 2 T-l CO ATco _ c CO .^^ 0) 01 [3h > < cj-^u^^cj-t^o'-'o'^cScsg d (NIO00O5 i-H ■<* r^ 00 —( E2 T-( 7-H 1— 1 tH ea SOIL FERTILITY EXPERIMENTS— OHIO 367 TABLE XXII. Note: The crop yields from each of ten plots receiving varying amounts of fertilizers are here compared with the average yield from ten plots receiving no fertilizers. All plots, both fertilized and un- fertilized, are in a 5-course rotation of corn, oats, wheat, clover and timothy, and clover and timothy. From the complete experiment records of the Ohio Experiment Station the six plots in this rotation have been selected showing the largest net gain from the use of com- mercial fertilizers, (plots No. 2, 8, 11, 14, 17 and 21); the two plots showing the largest net loss from the use of fertihzers, (plots 5 and 9) ; and the two plots which were fertilized with barnyard manure only (plot No. 18 received 16 tons barnyard manure every 5 years, and plot No. 20 received 8 tons every 5 years). The cost of the com- mercial fertilizers, value of crop increase secured from their use, and the net gain or loss arising from the use of fertilizers are shown in Table XXIII. This table (No. XXII) is of value in making comparisons of yields of staple field crops in a 5-course rotation without manure or commercial fertilizers, with yields from the same crops in a similar rotation receiving applications of barnyard manure and commercial fertilizers. TABLE XXIIL Note: The figures shown in this table are based on the crop yields shown in Table XXII. Crop increases in comparison with un- fertiUzed plots are computed by the methods described in the note accompanying Table XXI. This table does not show a record of all plots in the 5-year rota- tion experiment at the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, but only the six plots showing the largest net gain from the use of fertili- zers; the two plots showing the largest net loss from the use of fertilizers; and two plots that received applications of barnyard manure only. The fertilizing materials are valued at a fraction over $16.00 per ton for acid phosphate; 2V^ cents per pound for muriate of potash and 3 cents per pound for nitrate of soda. Market value is the nearest practical approach to a common denominator for the various kinds of produce grown in this rotation. Therefore, the crop increases resulting from the use of various ferti- lizing materials are given a market value, corn being rated at 40 cents per bu., oats at 30 cents, wheat at 80 cents, hay at $8.00 per ton, corn stover at $3.00 per ton, and straw at $2.00 per ton. These values are below present prices for grain, but not far from the average values during the period of the test. 368 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION a 2 2 a o o ^J-S c o +? cs eS g>S •d'^.2 s g^i s L. «« 3 > cS ea ^ o^ W OH leat, ost. 1912 ^^^ o ^.boo < M (U tH 0~ '1 O '•2?> J5 ag>^ o -^2 r-T ^ •^^S 3 ^ bO . iH O fl w f ) «-s'§ SSS'S > e-Ye IFer ar P OJ XJ c3 .> rt « H fe o>;< H IQ HH IH U) nJ ibleXX Timoth duced of 5 Ye H d csSSod OS Ort r-l ,-H ,-1 rt'"",-! Q 1 1 v o II -t^ -»i f?000 lO O C^ COOOCO ■S 2 gqt^co q q c<5 ooacioo ■u t-iO 5 SS'doJ'd id (N id ,-ia)iB!N b S ^ O »-H o o Q 1 1 1 tKtB 11 1 ^ — cortO-H tH ,-H lO ICTJI'^CD 2 2 ^ |l ^t^ioco IN CO CO cnooioco ssdodrti ^ oi d TtJoi^co o^ IN »-i CO CO coeoNco 5 IH <^< h Cl jic^o,-! CO o CO oo'l'OTti t3 m ^cocoin IN q CO c^ioieoc^ o ^'+3 ■?'0 S S5'i<05cd CO oj t-^ -< -^ CO -^lOW* III H >< Q "W •<>r~i>i^ ir; CO >-i -HTfoom '•' (DJ3 § ^ ^co-*co CO TjH q qiNPjcJ OJ 2 ^ g"og St^d-* --< ci IN d'^T-id M S =3 0--41-IN rH ■^ CO COWWCO Q •OOOO lO 05 t^ TlfNNCO m *" ^lOt^Tj* 00 CO CO t^oqqrf< ■- '•'^ S s;xt3<-^ id d T-i idoJeod O r-( IN IN --HtHrH IN Q ,«000 O O lO o ■ -o K 0) « t:q-*-H q lo q q .ScMTj^oJ d CO d t>; q 4; 03 q.« ■g rH c^ p, rt ^ •O^- -js -jq -jq • Ui •CO>-i in • m <» ■ u • «■* CJO 03 Co 0310 03 J, . "# -tJiO +^ -»^IN 3 CI 0— OT3 0_, 0-3 IU.Q »-- a ■3 3 ■§ls +i J2 4i'~ +s^ a e a .2T3.2'g.ST3 (H (D f-i . 5 «-" m ■a-E-S :3'C 3 t^ 3-r m a J a-5a?.a-o " o Is'! •- h - 2« 2ja • -0 -.Jo •-<= • 0-*OfqON m .■s g-5d§ "oco c ©'}• a>J3ii: cq-^-^cocsflm- o as M o3i tons One important fact not shown in these figures is that the effect of this treatment is cumulative, as the difference in yields has a strong tendency to increase year after year. Another important fact not shown fully is the benefit of the treatment in getting a stand of clover on certain parts of the fields. Some portions of the check strips show but little, if any, clover the second year after seeding, while on the comparable ground across the treated line there is a good stand. * * * * * * Wishing to know if a maximum application of phosphate would be profitable, that is, an application large enough to bring the total phosphorus content up to the standard of 2,000 pounds per acre, average portions of the main fields were selected, to which an application of four tons of phosphate per acre was made. Also, some smaller fields have been given this full treatment, except for the check strip. The differences in yields for the past year (1910) indicate a good per cent of profit on the investment for this heavy treatment, as shown by the following figures : SOIL TREATMENT ON ILLINOIS FARM 383 Table XXIX. Crop Yields on an Illinois Farm, 1910. Compar- isons between 2- Year Rotation of Corn and Oats ; 4- Year Rota- tion of Com, Corn, Oats, and Clover; same 4-Year Rotation with 1,000 Pounds Rock Phosphate per Acre Every 4 Years; and same 4- Year Rotation with 8,000 Pounds Rock Phosphate per Acre Every 4 Years. (Page 10, Circular 119, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station.) Two-year Rota- tion Corn and Oats Four-year Rotation Corn, Corn, Oats, Clover. 24 Years Same Four-year Rotation with 1,000 lbs. Rock Phosphate once in 4 years Same Four-year Rotation with 8,000 lbs. Rock Phosphate once in 4 years Corn 25 bu. Oats 31 bu. 67 bu. 55 bu. 84 bu. 78 bu. 92 bu. 89 bu. Another advantage of the treatment is its effect on the maturity and quahty of the crops. In view of the widespread and annually increasing complaint from the commercial interests of the poor quality of grain, this problem of matur- ity is an important one. There is c difference between mature grain and grain that merely stops growth at the proper sea- son and then dries out. Maturity is a completion of the process of growth, and not merely a cessation of growth, and full development can not take place unless there is sufficient plant food. Grain will be light and chaffy whenever the crop is insufficiently supplied with the plant food necessary to full seed development. Some comparisons have been made between treated and untreated parts of fields as to maturity of the crops. In the case of corn, maturity has varied from 35% to 84% respectively, for the untreated and treated. No doubt some of this difficulty can be remedied by growing earlier maturing varieties, but with these the fact of immaturity still remains to some extent, for even the early varieties of pop corn with their small ears are likely to contain many immature ears. Plants will not properly mature when insufficiently fed any more than will animals, when not properly nourished. * * * PART V REVIEW OF SOIL PRODUCTIVITY CHAPTER I LESSONS FROM OTHER NATIONS It is well known that the yields of such staple field crops as wheat, barley, oats, and potatoes average higher in England, Germany, France, Denmark, Holland, Sweden, Norway, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, than in the United States of America. Furthermore, these yields are secured on soil areas that were under cultivation for several centuries prior to the time when agriculture was first practiced in North America. The soil areas of the United States have ail the advantages of newness and natural fertility, and yet yields are commonly less than on the old soil areas of Europe. What explanation can be given for this condition of American agriculture? If a comparison be made between methods of agriculture in Europe and in the United States, it will be found that in both regions the use of good seed and improved varieties has become almost universally recognized as an essential factor of crop production, and that so far as this factor of crop production is concerned, conditions are about the same in both regions. A comparison of tillage implements will show that ordinarily the American farmer is provided with more efficient plows and tillage implements than the European farmer. Oftentimes, under the extensive systems of farming that prevail in parts of the United States, the 886 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION work of soil tillage is inferior to that on European soils where the necessity for deep and thorough tillage is well recog- nized, but, generally speaking, the tillage of American soil is as well done as the tillage of European soil. There is not sufficient difference here to account for the differences in crop yields. But, when we come to make comparisons of farming systems, crop rotations, the conserving and hand- ling of farm manures, and the judicious use of commercial fertilizers, we find that the European farmer is in advance of the average American farmer. Herein are the reasons for the higher average crop yields of Europe. In the first place, there is a larger proportionate amount of intensive farming in Europe than in the United States. Farms and fields are smaller and the soil is more carefully tended than the soil areas of many of our extensive Amer- ican farms. Along with the more intensive system of farm- ing there is a more universal use of crop rotation, including legume crops and forage crops fed to live stock. In the matter of conserving and handling farm manures the aver- age European farmer is ahead of the American farmer. Absorbents are used to retain all urine waste, and great care is used in the composting or direct hauling of manure to prevent losses from fermentation and leaching. In the matter of plant food deficiencies in soil, arising from natural distribution of the elements of plant food or from a long continued farming system that impoverished the land, the European farmer has been making a judicious use of commercial fertilizers for many decades to amend the plant food deficiencies of his soil. The merchant vessels of Great Britain, Germany, France and Norway, have been carrying a constant stream of soil fertilizers to European soils for the past sixty years. Great deposits of guano (the dung of sea fowl deposited in sheltered nooks along certain LESSONS FROM OTHER NATIONS 387 coasts), rich in phosphorus, were transported from South America to Europe and used to build up European soils, and, when the guano deposits were mainly exhausted, Europe began to import phosphate rock from the United States.* European farmers, for the past fifty or sixty years, have invested huge sums of money in commercial fertilizers to amend the plant food deficiencies of soils that had been unscientifically tilled by previous generations. In comparing the agriculture of the United States of America with that of Europe, it should also be remembered that Europe, as a whole, has been an importer of foodstuffs for the past thirty to forty years while the United States of America has been an exporter of the products of the soil. Europe has a comparatively dense population, mainly engaged in manufacturing, and for many years past has been a heavy importer of food products from all over the world. Wheat is imported from Russia, the United States, Canada, North Africa, and Argentine, and live stock prod- ucts from Australia, Canada, Argentine, and the United States. Furthermore, the European dairyman and live stock feeder utilize large amounts of mill feed from the United States and Canada and, large amounts of soy bean cake from Manchuria that is rich in nitrogen and phos- phorus. In consideration of all these economic conditions (*) During the five-year period 1908-1912 the total marketed production of phosphate rock from the mines of the United States was 15,014,721 short tons, of which 5,650,607 tons, or 37.6% was exported to foreign countries. An analysis of the statistics on phos- phate rock exports 1908-1912 shows that 35.8% of our total marketed production for this period was exported to European countries. Ger- many was the heaviest buyer during this period, taking 10.6% of our total product; France bought 4.5% of our total product; Great Britain, 4.3%; Italy and the Netherlands, each about 4%; and the balance of the exports was scattered among various countries of Europe, North America, Asia and Souih America. In 1912 Japan purchased 3.2% of the 1912 marketed product, or approximately the same amount as was purchased by Italy or the NetWiands. 388 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION which surround the agriculture of Europe, it is easy to see why the European farmer maintains the fertihty of his soil better than the average American farmer who has been a citizen of a nation that exports the raw products of the soil, European agriculture, on the whole, is very similar to the agriculture pursued on occasional American farms that keep more live stock than the farm can support and purchase additional grains and mill feeds produced by other farmers to meet the deficiency. This sj^stem produces large amounts of manure containing some plant food from another person's farm, and there is no difficulty about maintaining soil productivity under such conditions. Many of the European cities recover considerable fertil- izer material from city garbage and sewage that is made use of by near-by truck farmers, while in the United States no such fertilizer values are recovered and the drainage streams carry off countless tons of valuable plant food. Turning from Europe to Asia, we may see object lessons in soil fertility problems on soils that have been cultivated since the dawn of historJ^ The author has seen soil areas in Central China that have been cultivated continuously since a period that was at least 1,000 B, C, and that are still pro- ducing profitable crops, and also soils in Korea and Japan that are known to have been under cultivation for a thousand years or more. Very few of these old soils in Asia have ever received any applications of commercial fertilizers, nor has crop rotation, the use of legume green manure crops, or the feeding of farm crops to live stock been employed to main- tain the productivity of the soil. The tillage methods also are not usually as good as those practiced on the best Amer- ican farms using the best types of modern tillage implements. The whole secret of the age of Chinese, Japanese and Korean agriculture lies in the wonderfully painstaking precautions LESSONS FROM OTHER NATIONS 389 these people take to recover all forms of human and animal excrement and to return such matter to the soil with a min- imum of loss from fermentation and leaching. The old men and the boys of China frequent the highways to gather up all droppings from beasts of burden. Human excrement in both country and city is very carefully conserved and is an article of commerce in the cities where population is dense. The greater part of all animal and human excrement in China and Japan is recovered and returned to the soil. After it is gathered, it is stored in great vessels or in pits lined with impervious clay, and applied to the soil just prior to seeding or during the early stages of crop growth. Thus the percentage of loss from fermentation and leaching is very small. There are many farming communities in North China, also, where it is a common practice to dig great pits into the soil and to take out large amounts of subsoil annually for use as fertilizer. The soil taken from these pits, is mixed in compost heaps with dung, urine, and garbage, and shoveled over, mixed up, and aerated several times before it is hauled on the land. By these careful, painstaking methods in the conserving of animal and human excrements, many soil areas in China and Japan have been kept productive for very long periods of time. Small plots of land, carefully tilled, with an almost perfect check on subtractions of plant food from the original supphes of the soil, are the reasons for the maintenance of productivity on many soil areas of the Orient. But all the soil areas of the Orient are by no means being cultivated under a permanent scheme of agriculture. There is abandoned land in. China as well as large areas of agricul- tural land where yields are now very low and where the fertil- ity of the soil is rapidily diminishing. This is particularly 390 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION true of the naturally fertile agricultural lands in Manchuria and North China. This region exports large quantities of agricultural produce to South China, Japan, and Europe. The population is not so dense as in South China, the farms and fields are larger, and, as a considerable portion of the crops is exported, there is a constant drain on the soil's store of plant food that is not offset by the recovery of an equal amount of plant food in animal and human excre- ment. In addition to this, the tillage is very shallow, there is no use of green manure crops, pasture crops or meadow crops, and all crops are inter-tilled. Humus is rapidly ex- hausted from these soils by these practices as well as the common practice of digging out crop stubble for fuel. The farmers of this region conserve such animal and human excrement as is available; but it is insufficient to counter- balance the plant food taken out by crops and exported from the country. The author has seen many agricultural districts in Man- churia that have been under cultivation only seventy-five to one hundred years, where crop yields were at a very low level, and where, within the memory of men now living, the yields were double or treble the present-day yields. Many of these impoverished lands are merely in poor physi- cal condition and not absolutely impoverished as regards total amounts of plant food. It is plain, nevertheless, that, if these soils were put into good physical condition again, humus added to the soil to release new supplies of available plant food, and a new lease of productivity so given, the ultimate unproductivity of the land would be deferred only a generation or so longer, providing the present methods of agriculture were to continue. The soil conditions that prevail in the exporting regions of North China and Manchuria are quite similar to the LESSONS FROM OTHER NATIONS 391 conditions that now exist in the North Central states of the United States, and are an object lesson worthy of con- sideration by the American farmer of the Middle West. In those regions of China where the subtractions of plant food from the soil by crops are being offset by the additions of plant food in animal and human excrement, agriculture is practically permanent, and yields are as high now as in generations past. In regions like Manchuria, where crops are exported and the subtractions of plant food from the soil by crops permitted to exceed the additions made through fertilizing materials, soil productivity has diminished in seventy-five to one hundred years to a very low level, and caused the abandonment of some land that has been so cropped for two hundred to three hundred years. Similarly, in many parts of the United States, the system.s of farming that have been in use for the past generation have tended to greatly reduce the natural supplies of plant food in the soil, and a further continuance of such methods of agriculture will ultimately cause very low yields and aban- doned soil areas, as similar agricultural practices have done on some of the older soil areas of the Orient. The lesson we can best note from the older agriculture of the Orient is the value of keeping a balance between the outgo and the income of plant food in the soil. We may not yet be able or desirous to maintain this balance by the same meth- ods that are employed by the Oriental farmers ; but we have the facilities for so doing, if we will but use them. PROBLEMS AND PRACTICUMS (1) What is the average yield per acre of wheat, oats, and barley in England, Germany, France, and the United States of America? (2) What was the total production of wheat in the United States in the years 1870, 1880, 1890, 1900 and 1910? What per cent of the crop was exported to foreign countries at these dates? CHAPTER II DEPLETION AND MAINTENANCE OF AMERICAN SOILS American agriculture is very new as compared with the agriculture of Europe and Asia. We have a very few soil areas along the Atlantic Seaboard that have been tilled from two hundred to three hundred years. Other areas of some size in the South Central states and the southern part of the North Central states have been under cultiva- tion from seventy-five to one hundred years; but the largest part of the present agricultural soil areas of the United States has been put under cultivation only within the last fifty or seventy-five years. Compared with the agriculture of Asia and Europe, ours is so new as to be infantile. With the best part of a great continent at our disposal, we have been at work during our entire national existence in the task of subduing virgin land. The restless American spirit has been well adapted to this work, and, aided in the past fifty years by the modern methods and inventions for facilitating communication, the American people have accomplished marvelous results in the subduing of a wild continent and the creation of wealth from natural resources. One rail- way after another has been projected into the wild regions of North America and in its wake have come the settler, the breaking plow, the grain elevator, the export of food- stuffs to feed the world, the quick realization of fortunes from the virgin fertility of the soil, and, eventually, a decrease in available soil fertility and a problem in the maintenance of soil productivity for the succeeding generations to face. MAINTENANCE OF AMERICAN SOILS 393 In the latter part of the seventeenth century, Bishop Berkeley, the English philosopher-poet, coined the famous epigram, "Westward the course of empire takes its way," and in the first part of the twentieth century. Dr. C. G. Hopkins, the American soil chemist, added to this epigram the words, "leaving impoverished lands behind." These few words added to Berkeley's famous epigram give a clever and accurate epitome of the his- tory of agriculture in the United States of America. It has always been easier and more profitable in the United States to develop new land of virgin fertility than to go to the trouble and expense of maintaining productivity on the older soils. We still have a vast amount of virgin land to subdue and put under cultivation. There are millions of acres of desert land awaiting the irrigating ditch to create real wealth from their potential wealth; millions of acres of cut-over timber lands, especially in the North Central and South Central states, awaiting the stump puller and the brush plow to convert inert stores of plant food into grain, milk and meat; and there are millions of acres of swamp land awaiting the drainage ditch that will carry off the excess water that now prevents these lands from producing valu- able crops. Pioneer agriculture is by no means at an end in the United States. Not yet have all the waste places been made productive and habitable. There are still vast stretches of wild land to occupy the attention of the restless pioneer, development spirit of the American people.* Nevertheless, the most accessible, most fertile, and most * In 1914 the United States Department of Agriculture estimated that of the 1,143,000,000 acres of arable land in the United States only 27% or 311,000,000 acres were actually in crop, leaving a balance of 832,000,000 acres of fair to good arable land still awaiting the break- ing plow. It is further estimated that there are 361,000,000 acres of land available for pasture and tree crops, and 399,000,000 acres that are irreclaimable and worthless for agriculture. 394 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION easily subdued lands of the United States have already been put under cultivation. The increase in the acreage of farm land in the United States during the next generation will undoubtedly be much slower than in the past one. Wild lands will be subdued and the acreage of farm land will increase, but the increase will be comparatively slow as judged by the increase in acreage that took place from 1870 to 1910. The increase in our acreage of virgin farm land can no longer be made sufficiently rapid to keep pace with our increase in population and the decreasing yields on some of our older soil areas. Our best and most easily tilled soil areas are already developed, and the time has come for the American people to take stock of their agricultural re- sources, to give more attention to the permanency of their agriculture, and more consideration to intensive farming and higher yields per acre as a means for swelling the total agricultural wealth of the nation. The prophets of depleted soil fertility have never been taken very seriously in the Middle Western and Western sections of the. United States. So long as virgin fertility was abundantly available for crops, the virgin soil areas were regarded so rich as to be of inexhaustible fertility. Extrava- gant ideas, language, and methods have prevailed, as a matter of course, with every new soil area of any size that has ever been opened in the United States. It was not to be expected that men would or could consider the future conditions of soil fertility when crops were abundant and soil fertility apparently inexhaustible. The prophecies of depleted soil fertility fell on ears that did not hear. Men either disbelieved or did not care. Disbelief was not surpris- ing when we consider the wonderful fertility of the virgin prairies of the United States and the comparisons that the East- ern bred farmer made with the soil areas of New England states MAINTENANCE OF AMERICAN SOILS 395 The point of view is an important factor in controlling the actions of men. The pioneer farmer of the Middle West who came from the stony hillsides of New England is not to be blamed for having developed the point of view that credited Western soil with inexhaustible fertility. It is characteristic of all men also to live in the present. If the present is a time of plenty and of bountiful crops, why bother about the future? The Irish witticism, "Why consider pos- terity, what did posterity ever do for us?" is the rule of busi- ness and of politics that commonly prevails and that often creates serious problems of finance, politics, or agriculture for posterity. The history of agriculture in the great Red River Valley region of Minnesota and North Dakota is a very typical example of the American farmer's attitude toward the prob- lems of soil fertility. When this region was being opened and put under cultivation in the years 1870 to 1890, it was described in business circles with the most extravagant of adjectives. It was enthusiastically called the "bread basket of the world," a region having "the richest soil in the world," "a valley more fertile than the valley of the Nile," and "a region having a soil of such perfect composition as to be of inexhaustible fertility." Farmers, bankers, real estate men, and railway men thoroughly believed these statements about the Red River Valley. The pioneer farmers in the Red River Valley dumped the manure that accumulated on their farms into the Red River. On farms not close to the river the manure would pile up around the horse barns in such quantity as to often interfere with getting in and out of the barn. When such a condition arose, the barn would be "jacked up," put on rollers, and changed to a new location, and the manure piles burned up. The prophets of depleted soil fertility were as voices in the wilderness in those days. 396 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION MAINTENANCE OF AMERICAN SOILS 397 ^. '^V^" tm £ s o « o o. M CI .£;— m a> >j1 r, .5 a 03 bn m a a is 03 398 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Everybody believed that the soil of the Red River Valley was of inexhaustible fertility. Moreover, experience had shown that, if manure was spread on the virgin land, the excess of nitrogen so provided caused rank growing grain crops with weak straw that easily lodged, and a crop that inclined to too much straw and too little grain. These ideas were the accepted theory for agricultural practice in the Red River Valley until about 1905. Prac- tically every farmer was a wheat farmer, and the majority of farmers tilled their land on the theory of inexhaustible soil fertihty, with no need for crop rotation, green manures, meadow and pasture crops, and animal manures. By 1905 the continuous growth of grain crops had exhausted much of the soil's supply of available plant food, decreased the amount of humus, created unfavorable physical soil conditions, and caused an accumulation of noxious weeds. As a result, farm- ers began to notice decreased yields and lower grades in their grain crops. In a period of time that varied from fifteen to thirty years on different farms the theory of inexhaustible soil fertility had received a hard jolt, and the progressive farmers of the Red River Valley began to listen more and more to the prophets of depleted soil fertility and began to practice more diversified farming, crop rotation with the inclusion of legume crops and cultivated crops, and to use some live stock to check the sale of plant food from the soil. Wheat and other small grains are still largely grown in the Red River Valley, but not to the entire exclusion of other crops. The most profitable farms in the Red River Valley to-day are those that combine alfalfa or red clover and corn or pota- toes in a rotation with the small grains, and on which a portion of the crops is fed to live stock and the manure re- turned to the land. The soil is still very rich in total amounts MAINTENANCE OF AMERICAN SOILS 399 of plant food. At the present time and for much time to come it needs a system of farming that will maintain the humus equilibrium and nitrogen, and provide conditions for a continuous liberation of plant food from the large reserve supplies in the soil. In some parts of the Valley- there are whisperings of a need for phosphate fertilizers, and it is possible that in another generation or two there will be a real, need for them to amend the phosphate deficiencies of some soils. Thus has time changed the point of view in regard to the productivity of the soils of the Red River Valley, and what is true of this soil area is characteristic of every soil area in the United States in varying degree and with slight differences depending on the original composi- tion of the soil. American agriculture has already exhausted and wasted large amounts of the nation's original assets of plant food in the soil. In many of the wheat growing regions the phos- phorus content of the soil has been reduced to a point where comparatively low yields are now the rule and where the average grade of the grain is low. In many rich farming regions such as Iowa, Illinois, Southern Minnesota, Missouri and Eastern Nebraska, farmers complain that clover does not yield as well as fifteen to twenty years ago, and increas- ing difficulty is being experienced to secure profitable corn crops. In these instances, also, a deficient supply of avail- able phosphorus in the soil is usually the cause of the farmer's difficulty in securing maximum yields of high grade products. Comparatively young as American agriculture is, there are undoubtedly many large soil areas already needing amendment, particularly as regards phosphorus. We have reached a stage in the progress and development of our agriculture where, as a nation, we must give greater consid- eration to the problems of maintaining soil productivity 400 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION and less consideration to the problems of subduing virgin lands. As our best farm lands are already under plow, we can henceforth add more to our national food supply through increasing and maintaining the productivity of our developed soil areas than through the addition of more tillable land to our total farm land area. The subduing of virgin lands should receive due attention; but to maintain a high productivity on the farm lands already under cultiva- tion is much more important. The same methods cannot be applied to all soils to maintain a condition of high productivity. In many cases the soil is still abundantly fertile in total supplies of plant food; but the amounts of available plant food have been reduced to a point too low for profitable cropping. This is a soil condition that is commonly found in every part of the United States, even in some of the older regions that have been using commercial fertilizers for many years. This condition in the soil is brought about by continuous cropping to any class of crops, shallow plowing, non-use of any deep rooted crops, and the non-use of crop rotation, green manures and live stock manures to maintain nitrogen and humus in the soil. It is a soil condition affecting productivity, quickly •and easily corrected by means of thorough tillage, green manure crops and a well planned rotation of crops. When an analysis of the soil, however, reveals the fact that the total phosphorus or potassium supplies of the soil are below a minimum amount necessary to permit an annual liberation of available phosphorus or potassium in sufficient amounts for maximum crops (even when green manuring, crop rotation, and thorough tillage are practiced), there is but one practical and profitable method to follow to increase the productivity of the soil, and that is to amend the soil and correct its deficiencies with the commercial fertilizer MAINTENANCE OF AMERICAN SOILS 401 best adapted to the particular soil and its needs. The amendment of a soil to correct some prominent plant food deficiency is best accomplished when the commercial fer- tilizer is used in conjunction with green manures, animal manures, and a good system of crop rotation. In planning systems of farming that will maintain the productivity of our older soil areas it should be remembered always that no amount of crop rotation and green manuring with all the crops of the farm fed out to live stock, and the manure returned to the land, can actually add any essential plant food to the soil except nitrogen. Such a system of agriculture, if inaugurated on a soil naturally rich in phos- phorus and potassium, and prior to excessive exhaustion of these forms of plant food, will keep the soil in a state of high productivity for long periods of time, because very little phosphorus or potassium is sold away from the land and because good conditions are always provided for the liberation of plant food in the soil. But, if a phosphorus or potassium deficiency is known to exist no amount of green manuring and crop rotation will benefit the soil in this re- spect. The correction can be made only by means of the commercial fertilizer. Agricultural experience all over the United States has clearly indicated that phosphorus is the element of plant food most likely to become deficient in our agricultural soils. For this reason we, as a nation, should more care- fully safeguard our natural stores of phosphate rock against that day when many of our soils will be in great need of phosphorus amendment. We have already exported large quantities of phosphate rock from the deposits in the South- ern states, but we have extensive phosphate deposits in the Public Domain of the Western states tha.t should be care- fully safeguarded for the future use of the American farmer. 402 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION To further safeguard the productivity of American soils and the future food supphes of the nation we should take a leaf from the history of Oriental agriculture that has kept soil productive for thirty to forty centuries by means of a crude system of checking the waste of plant food that takes place when the excrement of human bodies is allowed to go to waste. Our American cities are the greatest of all wasters of the fertility of our soils. They receive countless tons of plant food from the soil, actually consuming but a small fraction thereof and returning but a small fraction to the soil, the larger part being run off to the ocean in sewage. Our standards of living and methods of sanitation do not as easily permit of the saving of this waste of plant food as in case of a city in Southern China, and yet should our public leaders, our financiers, and our civic engineers turn their attention to it, the problem could be solved without great difficulty. Large municipal septic tanks and garbage incinerators to conserve the plant food in waste products of great city populations would be practical, profitable and comparatively easy to install. The saving of city waste is now practiced to some extent in European cities and it is bound to come in the large cities of the United States. We cannot afford to go on forever mining plant food from the soil, transporting it to our centers of population, and then running it off to the oceans. The conservation of plant food in the soil is the greatest of all the problems in the conservation of natural resources. Productive agricultural soils are by far the greatest of all national assets; for agriculture is the basic industry among all the industries pursued by man. The American people have been blessed with greater national agricultural resources than any other nation, past or present, of the Earth. We have spent a great deal of our national energy and resource- MAINTENANCE OF AMERICAN SOILS 403 fulness in overcoming the natural obstacles that stood in the way of our creating real wealth from this potential wealth that nature gave us within the boundaries of our country. We have been eminently successful in the rapid extension of the farm land area of the United States, and our agricul- tural conditions are now such that we should turn our energies to the problem of conserving the resources that have come down to us from our forefathers. Both city and country need to know more of crop rotation, commercial fertilizers, and the general problem of soil fertility. It is the greatest of all our national problems .and yet one that receives the least consideration. PROBLEMS AND PRACTICUMS (1) Write a short history of the agriculture in your local county or agricultural region. Ascertain the dates of early settlement, the markets and marketing facilities of early days, the changes in land values that have taken place, changes that have occurred in the crops and systems of farming, the history of the yields of staple crops, and the changes that labor conditions and ma- chinery have effected. (2) Write an essay discussing modern agricultural conditions in your region, and state the types of agriculture and animal husbandry you regard best suited to your soil, climate and markets. 404 FIELD MAN AGE MEM' AND CROP ROTATION PART VI ADDITIONAL FEATURES OF FIELD MANAGEMENT CHAPTER I PLOWING PRACTICE All Soils Cannot Be Plowed Alike. Soils vary so in texture and character of subsoil that the best results are not secured by uniform methods of plowing. Local experience is often essential to knowledge regarding the best plowing practice for a certain soil. As a rule, clay and clay loam soils should be plowed deeper than sandy or sandy loam soils. The sandy soil is naturally porous and too much loosening of the soil is undesirable, as it may destroy good capillary connections in the seed bed. The clay soil, on the other band, is naturally retentive of moisture and deep plowing will usually benefit aeration and warmth in the soil. Relatively deep plowing, six to eight inches, has become the standard depth among the best farmers in all the great agricultural regions of the United States. Sod breaking is now commonly done to a depth of five inches, whereas three to four inches was formerly thought to be the correct depth, "When land is plowed six to eight inches deep, a much better seed bed is provided for young plants than if shallower plowing is practiced. Deep plowing prevents an excessive run-off of rain water, and also provides a com- paratively large soil area in which the roots of young plants may quickly penetrate to absorb moisture and plant food. The movement of air throughout the seed bed is also facili- tated when deep plowing is practiced, and air and warmth 406 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION are as essential to seed germination and plant growth as moisture. In times of drouth a deep, mellow seed bed is not so likely to bake and dry out as a shallow seed bed especially if fall plowing has been practiced or spring plowed land packed with the sub- surface packer. The liberation of available plant food from inert forms in the soil is facili- tated when deep plowing is practiced, because more favorable tempera- ture, moisture and aer- ation are provided for the presence of the soil bacteria that assist chemical changes. Experience has shown that when deep plowing is contemplated on ordi- nary prairie or timber clay loam soils in humid regions, on which shal- low plowing has been previously practiced, it is advisable to increase the depth of the plowing gradually rather than to increase greatly in one year. It is not unusual for very poor crops to follow a radical change in the depth of plowing. This is almost i^/jLi/d by courtesy St. Paul Machinery Manufacturing Company. The small gas tractor plow, that can be turned in as small a space as a gang plow with four to six horses, is finding great favor on many grain and corn farms. When prop- erly handled the quality of the work is very high, and the cost per acre less than with the horse plow wherever the annual acreage to be plowed is sufficiently large to justify the investment. PLOWING PRACTICE 407 always the case if the subsoil is different in character from the surface soil or if tests show the subsoil to be more acid than the surface soil. In semi-arid regions, or on any soil area where the subsoil contains more lime than the surface soil, and where the subsoil is of the same character as the surface soil, a quick change in the depth of plowing will not usually cause poor crops. If it is known that the subsoil is more acid than the surface soil, a quick change in the depth of plowing can be effected without much danger by plowing under green manure crops and also liming the soil to correct acidity. A good top-dressing of manure, together with lime, on freshly turned, deep plowed land, would also overcome the difficulties arising out of a quick change in the depth of plowing. When the surface soil is stripped from land along a road, it is always noticeable that vegetation does not thrive well on the stripped land for several years thereafter. Soil experts believe this condition of soil sterihty to be due to acidity and also to the fact that in humid climates subsoils need aerating and the chemical re-arrangement of matter to place plant food in forms available to crop roots. The many forms of bacteria that live in the soil and that play an important part in the preparation of plant food are not found in quantity in the subsoil. Apparently the necessary conditions for the work of soil bacteria and for the processes that convert inert plant food to available forms are not provided in most subsoils, and thus the soil is "dead" and comparatively unproductive until exposed for some time. Deep plowing may bring "dead soil" into the furrow-slice and thus cause a poor crop by retarding early growth. For this reason it is usually advisable in humid regions to increase the depth of plowing gradually on land formerly 408 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION plowed shallow, or to use lime and vegetable matter to give life to new soil brought up from the subsoil. Subsoiling or Deep Tillage. Theoretically it would seem that, if six to eight inch plowing is better than four inch plowing, twelve or sixteen inch plowing would prove still more profitable. Investigational work and practical plowing experience, however, will not bear out this general theory. There is probably more evidence against deep tillage (over eight inches deep) than there is in favor of it. In certain regions deep tillage is recommended as profitable, while in other regions deep tillage experiments show neg- ative or neutral results, especially if the additional cost of tillage is taken into consideration. Practically all of the old types of subsoil plows invented in the United States have been discarded by the farmers who have tried them. These plows were run in the bottom of the furrows made by a common moldboard plow and loos- ened up the subsoil beneath the ordinary furrow-slice. Negative results commonly followed their use or, if positive results were secured, they were not large enough to jus- tify the additional expense. In recent years a heavy, durable, disk plow has been invented that will cut and invert the soil to a depth of four- teen to eighteen inches, if desired. One disk cuts to the depth of the common plow and the second disk cuts to an additional depth as desired. The soil raised by the disks from the two different soil areas is thoroughly mixed and well pulverized. The cost of deep tillage with this plow is reported to run from $4.00 to $6.00 per acre. Investigational work with deep tillage, as performed by this plow, is very con- flicting at the present time, and exact statements about its use cannot be made. Theoretically, it would appear that in the semi-arid regions of the United States deep tillage PLOWING PRACTICE 409 Photo by courtesy Duluth and Iron Range Railway. The heavy construction and strong, sharp disks of the deep tillage plow are of great advantage in subduing new land full of old tree roots and the stubs of brush. With plenty of power it will cut its way through newly cleared land much better than the moldboard brush plow, and will leave a smooth seed bed. would greatly benefit the soil by increasing its ability to quickly absorb rain water and prevent an excessive run-off or surface evaporation. But investigational work will not bear out the theory. In many cases where deep tillage has been practiced in the semi-arid regions positive results were secured in the wet years and negative results in the dry years. Also in the humid prairie regions of the Middle West the practice of deep tillage has more often shown negative results than positive, especially if the additional cost is considered. Deep tillage, as practiced with the disk plow, is reported to be profitable in some of the irrigated sections of Texas and also on some of the badly worn, heavy soil areas of the Southern states. Soils having very hard subsoils appear to be benefited by occasional deep tillage. In the Northern 410 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION timbered areas of the United States the disk deep tillage plow has been found very useful in breaking wild land. It will cut and tear out brush roots and cover rubbish much better than the moldboard brush plow. In drained swamp areas having a peaty surface soil with clay or marl subsoil it has proved useful in mixing the subsoil with the peaty soil and thus making a good seed bed for farm crops. It is quite probable that many of the negative results from deep tillage have been caused by bringing up acid subsoil. In fact some authorities state that 90% to 95% of the subsoils in large areas of the humid regions of the Middle West are more acid than the surface soil, and that deep tillage is sure to be unprofitable under such conditions, unless the soil is thoroughly limed to correct acidity. On the other hand, if the subsoil contains more lime than the surface soil, deep tillage will usually prove profitable.* It appears, therefore, that subsoil acidity is the first point to consider in determining the advisabiUty of deep tillage. If there is an abundance of hme in the subsoil, deep tillage may prove profitable, otherwise negative results will be obtained. If the subsoil is known to be acid and it is thought desirable to plow very deeply to remedy a hard subsoil or to renovate a badly worn soil lacking in organic matter, it should be planned to plow under organic matter and to thoroughly lime the land after plowing. There is not sufficient evidence in favor of deep tillage in the semi-arid regions to warrant the practice. In fact, it is wise, on any soil area, to proceed cautiously with deep tillage. Experiment on a strip of land in one of the fields and, if the results are profitable, the prac- tice can then be extended to all fields. If deep tillage is found profitable, it can be practiced every three to six years * From investigational work of S. D. Conner, Associate Chemist in Soils and Crops, Agr. Expt. Station, Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana. PLOWING PRACTICE 411 in the rotation, the deep tillage plow being used to turn under a clover or alfalfa sod or a green manure crop. On farms practicing crop rotation, including such deep rooted legume crops as red clover, alfalfa, or sweet clover, and with thorough plowing to a depth of six to eight inches, it is doubtful whether there is any present or future need for deep tillage. The taproots of alfalfa, red clover, or sweet Photo by courtesy "The Farmer." The physical condition of certain types of heavy soil is improved by deep tillage. As a rule, plowing to a greater depth than eight inches is not profitable unless the subsoil contains more lime than the surface soil, or unless the land is limed after plowing in case of soils having acid subsoil. 27 412 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION clover, penetrate deeply into the subsoil and keep it mellow and open for the passage of air and moisture. When these crops are made to occupy the land every three to five years, the subsoil will be kept porous and accessible to the roots of other crops. Deep tillage should be considered chiefly as a cor- rective measure for soils having a heavy subsoil, or soils that are in a very bad physical condition from long continued cropping without legume crops. There is no evidence to show that deep tillage is sufficiently profitable to supersede ordinary six to eight inch plowing on the vast majority of American farms. Fall and Spring Plowing. In most regions of the North Temperate Zone fall plowing is preferable to spring plowing for a majority of the farm crops. Weeds can be destroyed to better advantage and the furrow-slice is given time to settle down against the subsoil and to establish good capil- lary connections for moisture. In semi-arid regions, wher- ever the soil is sufficiently moist, fall plowing tends to con- serve snow moisture during the winter and early spring, because plowed land will absorb moisture more readily than hard, unplowed land. Small grains thrive best on a fairly compact seed bed, and fall plowing provides the desired physical condition in the soil somewhat better than spring plowing. Fall plowing also relieves much of the labor rush that occurs in the planting seasons of spring, and makes it possible for the farm manager to give more careful atten- tion to the pulverizing of the seed bed and to the work of planting. In regions where the growing season is compara- tively short, and where the spring season is also short, spring plowing delays seeding, and may cause injury to the crops from a late harvest. Fall plowing is of greater advan- tage on sandy soils than on clayey soils, because moisture is harder to conserve for crops, and a fall plowed seed bed PLOWING PRACTICE 413 has better capillary connections with the subsoil than one that is spring plowed. With many clayey soils, in regions where spring rains are plentiful, spring plowing is regarded preferable for certain crops, such as corn and barley. The seeds of these crops germinate best and early growth is most rapid, if compara- tively warm temperatures prevail in the soil. Spring plow- ing for heavy soils will usually provide somewhat warmer temperatures than fall plowing, and, when practiced in a region of abundant spring rainfall, the conservation of winter moisture is not important. Spring plowing for root crops, such as potatoes, sugar beets, and mangels, is consid- ered best on types of soil that are inclined to become compact during the winter months, if fall plowed. Deep spring plow- ing provides a mellower area for roots to develop in than fall plowing, if the soil is heavy and the spring season moist. If spring plowing is practiced on account of hard, dry soil conditions in the fall or of insufficient time in the fall, rapid evaporation of moisture from freshly plowed land can be easily checked by the harrow and the sub-surface packer. A soil condition in spring plowing similar to that in fall plowing at the spring season can be created with the packer and the harrow. If spring plowing is packed the same day it is plowed, all air spaces will be eliminated from the furrow- slice and the plowing will be crushed down against the sub- soil with good capillary connections for moisture. If the packing is followed immediately by surface harrowing what- ever moisture is in the plowing will be quite securely locked up. The work of packing can be done satisfactorily with a Campbell sub-surface packer or a common disk harrow with disks set straight ahead. Packing and harrowing spring plowed land in the semi-arid regions, the same day land is plowed, is almost essential to a good seed bed. It 414 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION is not so essential to spring plowed land in humid regions, but is, nevertheless, desirable in preparing land for small grains. If clods are thrown up by fall plowing, frost and water are given time to crumble the clods and close up the air spaces; but with spring plowing the case is different, and a spring plowed seed bed is likely to be cloddy and full of air spaces, unless it is packed and harrowed the same day as plowed. Photo by courtesy Deere and Company. The two-way sulky plow, equipped with a right hand and a left hand plow, is very useful in doing good plowing on hillside lands. On level lands, also, its use eliminates the many back furrows and dead furrows caused by "plowing in lands" with the common plow. CHAPTER II SOIL INOCULATION FOR LEGUME CROPS Bacteria Essential to Legume Growth. Legume crops attain their greatest development and productivity when they are associated with the nitrogen gathering bacteria. On soils abundantly supplied with nitrogen, phosphorus and lime, they will grow quite well without the aid of the nitrogen gathering bacteria, but full development of the crop stand and of plant growth is not obtained, if the nitro- gen gathering bacteria are not present in the soil. Frequent Lack of Bacteria. In new agricultural regions, as well as old regions, where continuous corn, grain or cot- ton growing has been practiced, it is not un- common for soils to be lacking in a supply of the bacteria that commonly live with legume crops. If once these bacteria get into the soil, they will remain there several years (esti- mated maximum five to six years) without the pres- ence of the legume crop, maintaining their existence on the decaying roots and FromBul. 9i, Illinois Agr. Expt. Station. , , . - , . Red clover growing in soil provided with all StUDDle 01 the laSt grOWn elements of plant food except nitrogen. l„~.,,v^„ ^-^^^^ "Di,-*- it -^^ Each pot planted with the same number of ICgUmO CrOp. nUl, II UO seeds. The soil in the right hand pot was Ioo-htvio ni'r\na Vicitt-o oTror inoculated with nitrogen gathering bacteria iegUme LlOpb UaVG eVCr from an old clover field, while none were U„„— ^«^.r.r^ ^t^ +U^ Ir.^/^ added to the left hand pot. Dccn growu on the land, %vS|^ i I NO > 1 LLi jv| 416 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION or if a long interval elapses between the seedings, it often happens that there are no bacteria in the soil, and, as a result, the crop stand is weak, thin, and of poor growth. It pays, therefore, to give some consideration to the supply of soil bacteria when plans are being made for the seeding of legume crops. Species of Bacteria. There are many species of bacteria that inhabit the soil and that become parasitic on the legume crops. A few of the most important species are well known to science, but many forms are still but little understood. It is known, however, that certain forms of bacteria attach themselves to certain legume crops only. For example, the bacteria found with the roots of soy beans will not attach themselves to the roots of red clover. Also the bacteria of alfalfa roots will not grow on the roots of red clover, or those of red clover on alfalfa. Thus we know that, if the soil becomes inoculated with bacteria that will aid the growth of one kind of legume crops, they will have no effect on the growth of other species of legumes. The only well known exception to this rule is in the case of alfalfa and sweet clover; for it is known that the same bacteria that live with alfalfa roots are also found on the roots of sweet clover. Except in this one instance, our practice of soil inoculation must assume that each legume crop has its own species of bacteria. Natural Means of Distribution. The nitrogen gather- ing bacteria are spread gradually throughout farming com- munities by the seed, straw, and chaff of the legume crops, to which the small bacteria may adhere. Manure from live stock fed on legumes is also a means for the distribution of soil bacteria. The hoofs of horses, cattle or sheep, the wheels of a wagon, or the plow and harrow may be the means for distributing soil infected with bacteria from one SOIL INOCULATION FOR LEGUMES 417 field or region to another. These ordinary and haphazard means of bacteria distribution are unsatisfactory, of course, when it is desired to quickly inoculate the soil with sufficient bacteria to stimulate the growth of a legume crop. Artificial Methods of Inoculation. There are two meth- ods available for inoculating the soil of a certain field with bacteria, (1) by the use of laboratory prepared cultures of known forms of bacteria which can be put into water, and that will develop large numbers of bacteria that can be spread over soil areas and harrowed into the soil, and (2) by the spreading of soil from a field where the soil is known to be well infected with the desired species of bacteria. The presence of bacteria in the soil for any legume crop is easily determined by examination of the legume crop roots. If the soil contains an abundant supply of bacteria, the crop roots will be covered with many little nodules or swellings that contain the bacteria. The first method is unreliable on account of the difficulty of controlling all conditions of temperature, moisture, and food between the time the culture of bacteria leaves the laboratory and the time it gets into the land. Inoculation may be successful and it may not — usually not. The second method has, therefore, come to be relied on chiefly for the inoculation of soil, and, if soil samples are obtained from well infected land, satisfactory results are secured. In inoculating a soil by means of a soil sample known to contain the desired kind of bacteria all that it is necessary to do is to obtain a load of soil from the infected field of a neighbor and spread this soil at the rate of 200 to 500 pounds per acre over the field on which the legume crop is to be sown, harrowing it in thoroughly. A good plan is to take the soil sample and mix it up thoroughly with barnyard manure, using the manure spreader to distribute the mixture on the 418 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION field. This plan provides for even distribution and also provides a supply of available nitrogen for the use of the young legume crop. The best time of the year to inoculate land depends on the season when the legume crop is to be sown, whether spring, midsummer, or autumn. The sample of infected soil should be worked into the soil just prior to seeding. In inoculating a field for alfalfa the inoculated soil sample should be secured, if possible, from a neighbor's successful alfalfa field. If no neighbors have alfalfa fields, a sample of soil may be shipped in from any distance where freight rates do not make the cost prohibitive. Also a soil sample may be used from roadside patches of sweet clover. One of the very best methods for inoculating the soil for an alfalfa crop is to sow a green manure crop of sweet clover one or two years prior to the time when it is planned to seed down to alfalfa. Sweet clover usually catches more easily than alfalfa. This practice will aid in inoculating the soil as well as in putting the soil in a clean, rich, mellow condition for the young crop of alfalfa. Similar methods should be employed in inoculating soil for the clovers and for soy beans, remembering that the safest plan is to get a soil sample from a successful field of the same species of legume crop. If the soil is known to be supplied with legume crop bacteria, as evidenced by root nodules, there will be no further necessity for inoculation, even though the same legume crop should not reappear in the rotation for several years. It does not usually pay to inoculate the soil for cowpeas, vetches, or field peas. The bacteria for these legumes follow the seeds everywhere. Even with these crops, however, it is very noticeable that the second or third crop growing on infected land is better than the first crop growing on uninfected land. SOIL INOCULATION FOR LEGUMES 419 A very cheap, and often successful, plan for inoculating soil is to anticipate the seeding of a certain legume meadow or pasture crop by prior light and scattering seedings of legume seeds with such staple crops as corn, cotton, wheat or oats. Such light, scattering stands of the legume as may thus develop, are plowed under, and soon a sufficient supply of bacteria will accumulate to provide the conditions for a dependable stand of the desired legume crop. Other Conditions Necessary for Legume Growth. Fail- ure to get a good stand of such legume crops as alfalfa, red clover, or alsike clover, is often due to a poor physical con- dition in the seed bed. The seeds of these plants are very small and also covered with an oily hull. Good germi- nation and strong growth of the young plant cannot be had in a rough, lumpy seed bed. The seed bed should be well pulverized and compact for this kind of seed. In the clover growing regions of the Upper Mississippi Valley, experience has shown that thoroughly disked corn land will provide better seed bed conditions for a clover seeding than spring plowing, for example. Seeding, also, should be shallow to get best results with small seeded legumes. Poorly drained land is also the cause for much legume failure. None of the standard American legume crops, except alsike clover, will stand wet soil. Insufficient supplies of lime and phosphorus in the soils of old farms are often the cause for poor stands of legume crops. (A discussion of this feature of legume growing will be found on page 306.) Note: For complete information on the subject of soil bac- teria and legume crops see Bulletin 94, Illinois Agr. Expt. Station. CHAPTER III SEED SELECTION Heavy Seed is Good Seed. Seed selection is an impor- tant factor in getting a full crop. Light weight seed, diseased seed, and seed with weak germinating power, retard great- ly the early growth of plants. A quick, strong start with any crop means extra bushels at the harvest. The runt pig never makes the gains and the profit that the fast growing young pig makes, and similarly the runt plant never catches up to the plant that started its life quickly and with the full measure of early growth. Heavy seed is usually good seed, because it has a strong, vital germ, and a bountiful supply of food to nourish the young plant until it can develop a root system and gather its own food. Light seed is poor seed for the op- posite reasons. It pays well to select good seed. The farmer who sells his best grain and takes his seed from whatever is left puts a severe handicap on his crop. It is just as important to Photo by courtesy "The Farmer." gave the bcst Good ears of seed corn are those that are cylindrical, geeds foP plant- straight rowed, many rowed, well filled at the tip and -l^ butt, and having as deep kernels and as high a proportion \J\Q^ the CrOP aS of grain to cob as is consistent with the climate. => ^ SEED SELECTION 421 to save the best heifers for breeding purposes. The best farm practice is to save the seed first and sell the balance of the crop. How to Select Good Seed. Numerous machines and devices are available to grade and select the heavy, plump seed that makes good seed. The fanning mill is the most common and practical machine for this purpose. Good seed can be selected out of almost any grain bin, if the fanning mill is used cor- rectly. There is always a certain per cent of good, plump seed in any grain sample that can be separated from the seeds of poor quality. Simply screening the grain, how- ever, will not give a good seed selection. Large seeds are some- times swollen and moldy and, therefore, not the best of seed. Screening will remove the chaff, very small seeds, and most of the weed seeds, but it will leave many weak, light seeds in the cleaned seed. The screens must be supple- mented with a strong wind blast, regulated according to the kind of seed, into which the seed is drop- ped, and by means of which all light weight seeds are carried over. The side shake fanning mill with a long drop between the hopper board and the weed screen is the best type of machine to select seed grain by weight. But all fanning mills can be so adjusted as to put this principle into effect, if enough thought and care is given to the adjustment. Photo by courtesy"The Farmer . ' ' Seed corn hung in such a manner as to permit free cir- culation of air around the ears causing rapid and thorough drying. 422 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Special Care Necessary for Seed Corn. A full stand of strong growing corn is of especial importance to the crop grower. An incomplete stand is always revealed at husking time, and in the Northern limits of the corn belt a slow starting, weak crop, may get caught by early frosts in the autumn. Good, strong, vital seed corn cannot be had by merely grading the shelled seed. The sensible, practi- cal way to provide good seed corn is to give a thought to the selection and curing of the seed in the autumn, and then to eliminate all risks from weak seed by testing everj'' individual ear of corn for germination before the seed is shelled and run into the planter. This is easily done by making a germination box two feet square and six inches deep. Rule off a cotton cloth into one hundred squares two inches by two inches and give each square a number. Place the checkered cloth over moist sawdust or bran in „. , , , ..fi- jR ^ .. the box. Take as many Photo by courtesy rarmer ana Breeder. '' Selecting the sound matured, and well earS of Seed COm aS there formed ears of corn for seed. Field selection onnnrps! nn tViP plnth of seed corn, prior to killing frosts, is an ^re SquarCb OH T/UG CIOIU LTrm[na?i'n?power°^ getting seed with high ^^^ ^^g ^^^^ ^^^ ^j^j^ ^ SEED SELECTION 423 number. Now pull out six to ten kernels of corn from the various places on the ear (except tip and butt that should be discarded) and place on the cloth square of corresponding number. Cover the box with a flannel cloth and place in a warm room. Note the per cent of germin- ation on each square and discard all seed ears that do not give perfect and strong germination. After seed is shelled from selected ears it should be graded with the "corn grader," the sieves of which will take out all irregularly formed kernels. Graded seed will run more smoothly through the corn planter than ungraded. If seed com is selected by this method, the harvest will surely reward the efforts; for the stand will be nearly per- fect, and the early growth strong quick and uniform. Photo by courtesy "The Farmer." A germination box for seed corn by means of which a test can be had on indi- vidual ears. The ability of seed corn to germinate varies greatly with different ears. The only way to make sure of a full stand of corn is to test the seed from every ear. CHAPTER IV IMPROVED CROP VARIETIES Pure Seed of improved crop varieties is to be greatly preferred to mixed seed of common varieties. Pure seed gives a crop that markets to better advantage than a crop from mixed seed, because the quality is more uniform. Not only does pure seed market to better advantage than mixed seed, but it also results in better crops when used for seed purposes. Pure seed will germinate more uniformly than mixed seed and thus cause evenness and uniformity in the crop stand and crop maturity. Improved Varieties, also, have greater productiveness, as a rule, than common varieties, and often have other desirable characteristics, such as earliness and resistance to disease or drouth. Plant breeders have accomplished wonderful results in so breeding and selecting farm crops as to fix desirable characteristics of productiveness, uni- formity, earliness, and resistance to disease. An improved crop variety may yield as great an increase over the yield of a common variety as that of a well bred dairy cow over that of a scrub cow. The United States Department of Agriculture, as well as the various State Agricultural Experiment Stations, have made available to the farmers of the United States a great number of new and improved crop varieties adapted to all the various agricultural regions of the countr3^ New and valuable crops, such as durum wheat, bald barley, Kafir corn, proso millets, Sudan grass, and hardy alfalfa, have been introduced from foreign countries and distributed over the United States. The plant breeders have developed IMPROVED CROP VARIETIES 425 M« * K l^^j^"^^ ^^ .' .^■^J&ir^.js^ ''■'^»^»ifiv^"^»>rmdJ ^^^^ik '*" U / ^ M^ 0M W M)| K -,-! ^ H 1 ^ ti^ ^^^n ^^ •f^ J ^ Phoio by courtesy New York Geneva Agr. Expt. Station. Potatoes sprayed with Bordeaux Mixture to prevent blight, and one row not sprayed. When blight attacks the potato plant the vines die early and the yield is light. Sometimes the late blight works its way into the tubers and causes rot. 434 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION gained entrance to the host plant. Measures can be taken, however, to prevent the fungus from gaining entrance to the leaf tissues. This is accomplished by spraying the potato plants with Bordeaux Mixture and thus coating the leaves with a film of protective material. Spraying must be done with some form of a compressed air sprayer that atomizes the solution into a fine spray. Gravity sprinklers will not perform this work successfully. Bordeaux Mixture is a combination of copper sulphate (bluestone), quicklime, and water. The standard formula for potato blight spraying is 3 lbs. copper sulphate, 4 lbs. lime, and 50 gallons of water. The solution should be made in wooden receptacles, because the copper sulphate will badly corrode iron, tin, and zinc receptacles. The mate- rials should not be put into one receptacle simultaneously. Three receptacles should be provided, one for a stock solu- tion of copper sulphate, one for slaking the lime, and a third in which to combine the materials for use in the field. Weigh out a definite amount of copper sulphate and tie it up in a clean grain or salt sack. Hang this sack in a receptacle containing one gallon of water for each pound of copper sul- phate and leave it there until all the copper sulphate has been dissolved. In a second receptacle slake the lime and make a milk of lime, using one pound of lime to one gallon of water. Into the third receptacle pour from the stock solutions of copper sulphate and lime sufficient amounts to dilute in the proportions of three gallons of copper sul- phate solution and four gallons of milk of lime to 43 gallons of pure water. This gives a dilute solution known as Bor- deaux Mixture containing three pounds of copper sulphate, four pounds of quicklime, and fifty gallons of water. In mixing the solution for field use put in the milk of lime first and then add the copper sulphate solution. FUNGUS DISEASES 435 Spraying machines should have the tank made either of wood or copper, as steel or zinc tanks are quickly corroded by the copper sulphate. In spraying potatoes for early blight the work of spraying for the potato beetle can be done at the same time. Add Paris Green to the Bordeaux Mixture at the rate of one pound to one hundred gallons of water. Sweet Potato Black Rot and Stem Rot. Soak the seed in the same manner as for potato scab. Change location and soil of the hotbeds occasionally. Drench slightly dis- eased hotbeds with a solution of one quart of formaldehyde to fifty gallons of water, using one gallon of the solution to each square foot of surface in the hotbed. Drench in the fall or early spring and do not plant until the odor of formal- dehyde has entirely disappeared from the soil of the hotbed. Crop rotation is essential to keep land free from this disease. Tobacco Root Rot and Bed Rot. Drench the seedling bed in fall or early spring with a solution of one quart of for- maldehyde to fifty gallonsof water, using a gallon of the solu- tion to each square foot of space in the seed bed. Do not seed until all odor of formaldehyde has disappeared from the soil. CHAPTER VI WEED ERADICATION Continuous grain cropping, cut-and-cover plowing, non- use of cultivated crops and grass crops, and non-use of the fanning mill give noxious weeds every opportunity to accum- ulate on the farm and to infest the land. Conversely, rota- tion cropping, including grass crops and cultivated crops, good fall plowing, careful fanning of all seed grain, grass headlands along fence lines, and the keeping of live stock, particularly sheep, on farm land, provide conditions that prevent noxious weeds from infesting the land. There are no weed problems associated with good farming, only with the shiftless type of farming. Weed eradication, in a. nut- shell, is good farming. In the cleaning up of a weed infested farm it is well to know something about the life habits of the noxious weeds, as well as the best methods for quickly eradicating them. In the following paragraphs the life habits of a few of the most important types of noxious weeds are given as well as suggestions for eradication. Weed eradication depends on three important principles, (1) checking the production and distribution of seed, (2) weakening the vitality of weed roots by cutting off the leaves and stems (the stomach and lungs) of the plant or shading and crowding the weed plant with a quick growmg crop, such as buckwheat, hemp or clover, and (3) the actual up- rooting of the weed plant with tillage implements. By keeping these principles always in mind, and with a knowl- edge of the life habits of any weed, it is possible to devise numerous methods for cleaning up foul land. WEED ERADICATION 437 Annual Weeds that infest farm lands in quantity are wild mustard, wild oats, kinghead or giant ragweed, and com cockle. All of these weeds grow up, produce their seed, and die down in one year. Each weed crop comes up annually from the seed. There are no perennial roots to contend with. Checking the production and distribution of seed is, therefore, the method of attack. Wild Mustard seeds profusely from June until October. The seeds are very oily and will stay dormant in land for fifteen to twenty years, if buried too deep to germinate. Mustard seed harvested with grain crops can be easily removed with the fanning mill, but it is nearly impossible to remove it from grass seeds. The quickest and best method for checking early season seed production in grain fields is to spray with a solution of iron sulphate, using seventy-five to one hundred pounds of iron sulphate to fifty gallons of water. Iron sulphate costs about $15.00 per ton and it takes about fifty gallons per acre for badly infested land. The solution can be apphed with a regular potato sprayer with the nozzles set close together so as to cover the land evenly, or with a special weed spraying machine. Iron sulphate will kill the mustard plants, but will not injure the young grain. The spraying should be done before the mustard has come into blossom. Tillage methods may also be used to eradicate mustard. Disk grain stubble immediately after harvest to induce fall germination of seed. Late fall plowing will then bury the young plants. In the following spring disk and harrow the land to destroy other young plants. Defer grain seeding until late in the spring, sowing barley. Harrow the land continuously until the grain is three or four inches high. This will kill many mustard plants and will not injure the grain, if the harrow teeth are slanted backwards. 438 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Cultivated crops, hand hoeing, and hand pulhng, are useful in checking the growth of mustard seed. Care should be used also about locating threshing machine set- tings of mustard infested grain in or near cultivated fields, as mustard patches often start in fields from infested straw piles. Wild Oats mature their seed very quickly and shed seed on the land prior to small grain harvest, particularly in case of wheat, late oats, and late sown flax. The seed can be separated from wheat, rye, flax, and barley with the fanning mill, if proper adjustment is made and a strong wind blast used. It is difficult to separate it from oats, but nearly complete separation can be made, if a strong wind blast is used and if the grain is run through the mill several times. Avoid feeding unground, infested oats to horses, especially during seasons of working the land. Wild oats will pass through the digestive organs of the horse and spread from droppings on the land. It paj^s to grind infested grain used for feed. Plan to seed winter rye or early barley on infested land, as these crops mature earlier than wheat and oats and thus more of the wild oat seeds can be removed from the land in the crop and then fanned out of the seed. Disk or shallow plow infested grain land immediately after harvest and thus induce fall germination of seed. Late fall plowing will then kill the wild oat crop. Seed a catch crop of rape or clover with a grain crop and pasture the land closely after grain harvest, with sheep, if possible. Kinghead or Giant Ragweed grows profusely only on rich, moist land. Seed matures late in the season and is often harvested in quantity with small grain crops. The seeds are heavy and of the same size as wheat, barley and WEED E RADIO A.TION 439 plump oats. Seeds cannot be separated from small grain with the fanning mill. Separation can be made by immers- ing seed 'grain in water and skimming off the kinghead seeds that will float to the surface. When seed grain becomes badly mixed with kinghead the best plan for eradicating the kinghead is to change seed and to procure clean seed from a neighbor or some farm in the same county. Also use the scythe and mower to cut down all kinghead in barnyards, gardens, and along fence lines. These practices, when accompanied by clean plowing and thorough tillage, will quickly clean the land from this weed. It is one of the most easily controlled weeds that accumulate on a grain growing farm. Com Cockle flowers and matures its seeds almost con- temporaneously with wheat and oats. The seed is heavy and of about the same size as wheat, barley, and plump oats. It cannot be separated satisfactorily from seed grain with the fanning mill. Special cockle mills will take out a large part of the cockle seed, but not all of it. Cockle seed does not shatter on the ground prior to grain harvest as in case of mustard and wild oats. The greater part of the seed crop is harvested with the grain crop. Clean seed grain will give a nearly clean crop. Changing seed in order to get cockle free seed is the surest and easiest method for eradicating cockle. Hand hoeing, hand pulling, and cultivated crops are also useful in quickly eradicating this weed Biennial Weeds complete their lives in two years. During the first year the plant develops a taproot that is filled with food material for the plant's growth the second spring. From this taproot, and the crown at its top, the plant starts growth the second year, and a seed crop is produced after which the plant dies and further propaga- 440 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION tion depends on the seed. Typical biennial weeds are the bull thistle and burdock. Eradication depends mainly on checking seed production. Bull Thistle seed is small, light, and produced in great quantity. Feathery tufts of hair attached to the seed aid in its distribution by the wind. The bull thistle often ac- cumulates in great numbers along roadsides and in pastures and meadows. It rarely appears in cultivated fields in suf- ficient quantity to be troublesome, because plowing and tillage interrupt its two-year life. Mowing the plants with scythe or mower in grass lands and along fence lines and roadsides will soon exterminate the bull thistle. Seeds of the bull thistle are frequently found in clover and grass seeds. They are light and easily separated from standard grass seeds with the fanning mill. Burdock tlowers in late summer and produces seed in the early autumn of the second year of its life. The seed is distributed chiefly by sheep, horses, and dogs, on whose wool, tails or hair the burs adhere. The burdock rarely appears in cultivated land as tillage interrupts its life. It often accumulates in quantity in meadows, pastures, gar- dens, orchards, and along fences and roadsides. Frequent cutting with the scythe or mower to prevent seeding will quickly eradicate this weed. Perennial Weeds die down every year above ground, but the roots never die when undisturbed. These weeds seed annually. They are introduced into cultivated fields by the seed or by portions of the roots that have bud-joints from which new plants develop. Noxious perennial weeds are very difficult to eradicate, because not only seed distri- bution but also root development and distribution must be contended with. Typical perennial weeds are Canada thistle and quack grass. WEED ERADICATION 441 Canada Thistle flowers from early summer until early autumn and matures most of its seed in midsummer. The seeds are small, light, and have feathery hairs attached that greatly aid in wind distribution. The seeds of Canada thistle are often found in clover and grass seeds and great care should be used in purchasing grass seeds to see that they are pure and clean. Seed should always be fanned when bought direct from farmers in districts known to have Canada thistle. The roots of Canada thistle will run two feet deep in mellow soil and laterally for four feet or more. The roots are jointed and young plants arise from these joints at fre- quent intervals. From one parent plant an area of ten to thirty square feet will become infested in one or two years from the spread of the root system. The roots are very persistent, frequently jointed, and full of starch to give life to bud-joints. Tillage that chops up the roots and spreads the divided roots over cultivated land will quickly spread the pest. Eradication of Canada thistle should proceed along the lines of (1) checking the wind distribution of seed, and (2) weakening the root vitality so that the roots may be destroyed by tillage. In grain growing districts, when the first small patches appear, they should be kept mowed down closely all summer to prevent seeding and to weaken the roots by cutting off the leaf and stem of the plant. At this stage of the thistle crop development it will pay well to keep after the thistle patches in the grain with a scythe and never per- mit the plants to get any growth above ground. After grain harvest the mowing of the thistle patches should con- tinue until late autumn, if necessary, and then a deep plowing in late autumn will throw up many of the weakened roots to the killing action of frost. If the thistle crop development, under strict grain grow- 442 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION ing, has proceeded to the point where the thistles are all over the land, it is best to take quick and decisive action with a bare fallow on the areas worst infested. Either of two prac- tices can be followed, by means of the bare fallow, to give the land a thorough cleaning: (1) If there is sufficient labor and horse power on the farm, thistle infested land should be constantly mowed all the spring and summer months. If this practice is followed, the thistles must be mowed so often and so closely as to absolutely prevent any leaf and stem growth. In a warm, rainy season, mold will often get into the cut thistle stems and rot out the crowns of the plants, and, even if mold does not work injury, the vitality of the roots will be greatly injured by this constant mowing, and seed distribution will also be checked . In the late autumn plow the land and harrow thoroughly in two directions with a spring tooth harrow set deep. This will lift out many roots, when, if very thick, they can be raked up or left on the surface to the killing action of frost. (2) Permit the thistles to grow undisturbed on the fallow land until they come to blossom. Then plow deeply, using a coulter to insure a clean plowing job. Harrow thoroughly for the balance of the season with a spring tooth harrow. Should the season after plowing be very wet and it appear that the thistles are not under control by harrowing, mow them down constantly and plow deeply again in the late autumn. In most cases, however, plowing under the thistle crop at flow- ering time, followed by thorough spring tooth harrowing, will give the thistles a death blow. Fallowed thistle land should be followed with a culti- vated crop such as corn, if possible. Check rowed corn and cross cultivation are, of course, preferable to drilled corn and one-way cultivation, but a follow crop of fodder corn or potatoes is much better than a follow crop of small grain. WEED ERADICATION 443 A cultivated follow crop with some hand hoeing or cutting will put an end to the thistles, if the work is thoroughly done. Beginning with a fallow year and following with a three- course rotation of barley, clover and corn, will surely put an end to Canada thistles on any land, if the work is thoroughly done. The barley land should be thoroughly harrowed in the spring before seeding, to set back any thistles. Sow clover heavily with the barley (6 to 8 lbs. per acre). The clover will shade the land and crowd the thistles hard during its occupancy of the land, and the two cuttings of clover will prevent all seed distribution. Plow the clover land deeply in the autumn. Frequent cultivation of the corn with some hand hoeing of scattering plants will effectually finish the task, and four years of such cultivation will usually yield more revenue than four years of continuous grain growing on thistle infested land. Quack Grass is the most difficult of all noxious weeds to contend with, on account of the great persistence and re- cuperative power of its underground stems. These stems run in all directions in the furrow-slice and are thickly jointed. Any stem portion having one of these bud-joints will pro- duce a plant, if placed in moist, warm soil. These under- ground stems will dry out until apparently dead and then come back to life again with the first rainfall. Tillage imple- ments are likely to drag these stems over land and hasten the spread of the weed. Quack grass flowers in early summer and ripens its seeds in midsummer. Fortunately the seed does not easily shatter and is easily removed from the land when grain crops are harvested. Most farms become infested, however, by means of the seed. Threshing machines spread it, and much grass seed, especially brome grass seed, is likely to be foul. It cannot be removed from brome grass with the fanning mill, 29 444 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION but is easily blown or screened out of clover, alfalfa, timothy, and small grain seeds. The seed of quack grass is from one fourth to three eighths of an inch long, narrow, and light brown in color. It is usually bearded, but not always. The greatest care should be used not to seed down land with seed containing even a few seeds of quack grass, for, if once started, it brings a train of trouble in its wake. Some wit has said the "best way to get rid of quack grass is to seed the land to winter rye and sell the land with the crop thrown in for good measure." This plan may solve the quack grass problem by avoiding it, but it does not help the real farmer and home maker. Unfortunately quack grass is a far worse problem on rich land than on poor land, and failure to eradicate it on good land puts the good land back to second or third quality land. Delay in attacking quack grass is only pihng up trouble and heavy expense for the future, for, if once started in rich land, it spreads like wildfire under ordinary tillage methods, especially with continuous grain growing. The time to attack quack grass most successfully is when it first puts in its appearance in small, round patches of thick sod. At this stage it can be easily smothered by covering with tar paper fastened down with earth and stones. A small invest- ment in tar paper and time at this stage of development will save hundreds of dollars as compared to neglecting it until it spreads badly. The covered patches need careful watching to see that the grass does not creep out under the tar paper. Follow the smothering of the patches with deep plowing and thorough spring tooth harrowing, or, better still, put in a few days working over the smothered patches with a manure fork and sift out the weakened roots. This will put an effectual crimp in the quack grass at the outset. If quack grass has spread beyond the early small patch WEED ERADICATION 445 stage, it is best to resort to the bare fallow at once, rotating the fallow over the infested land so as to have but a part of the land idle in any one season. In fallowing the infested land do not disturb the quack grass in the spring and early summer, and then plow deeply when the grass is about ready to flower. This plowing will catch the crop at a weak place in its growth, because it will have given up much of its root strength to the production of seed, and, also, because, in regions where quack grass flourishes the best, the season after flowering is hot and comparatively dry. After plowing, run a sub-surface packer or disk harrow (with the disks set straight ahead) over the land to pack down the plowing, close up air spaces in the soil, and assist the work of suffocat- ing the crop. Thoroughly harrow the land for the balance of the season with a spring tooth harrow, and, if the roots are pulled out in quantity, it is a good plan to rake them up and bum them. Another good plan is to put on a thickly sown buckwheat crop after the midsummer plowing that will smother some of the quack grass and give an income from the land. In either case it is best to follow the fallow year with a com crop. Ensilage or fodder com is excellent for this purpose, because it can be sown much later than field corn and thus give an opportunity for semi-fallowing in the spring. A two-year rotation of fodder corn and winter rye gives a good opportunity to attack the quack grass. Seed the winter rye on the corn land well plowed and harrowed to remove as many grass roots as possible. After rye harvest, plow deeply, pack the plowing, and fallow for the balance of the season with thorough spring tooth harrowing. A second plowing late in the autumn might pay on land very badly infested. Plant the fodder corn thickly in early sum- mer, harrowing the land often with the spring tooth harrow during the spring. If harrowing fails to check the grass 446 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION growth, plow deeply in late spring just prior to planting the fodder corn. In cultivating com or other crops on quack grass infested land the cultivation should be shallow and very continuous. The Tower surface cultivator is an ideal implement for this purpose. The value of shallow cultivation lies in the fact that it does not root up and spread the jointed roots of quack grass, but thoroughly kills all surface vegetation and thus weakens the vitality of the roots. Sheep are useful in eradicating quack grass. Badly infested land can be seeded down to clover and timothy, the first crop cut for hay, and then pastured closely with sheep for the balance of the first year and for one or more years following, after which deep plowing, thorough har- rowing, and a year of ensilage or fodder corn, well cultivated, will give the crop of quack grass a severe setback. PROBLEMS AND PRACTICUMS (1) What do you regard as the proper depth to plow land in your community? State reasons. (2) What is the cost of plowing an acre of land with a 14 in. walking plow and two horses; with a 16 in. sulky plow and three horses; with a two-bottom 14 inch gang plow and four horses; and with a gas engine tractor having afour-bottom 14 in. gang plow? (3) What are the difficulties commonly encountered in inoculating land with prepared cultures of bacteria? (4) What are the important weed seeds in your community that cannot be eUminated from seed grain by a fanning mill? How would you eliminate such seeds? (5) What are the best methods to follow in the selection of seed corn ears? Best method of storing seed corn ears to preserve vitahty? (6) Prepare a germination seed box and conduct a germination test for individual ears of corn. WEED ERADICATION 447 (7) Will the formaldehyde treatment for seed flax and seed potatoes prevent crop injury from flax wilt or potato scab in case these diseases existed on the land the previous year? (8) How would you eliminate the open smut of barley? (9) Perform the formaldehyde treatment for seed wheat or other seed grain, and for seed potatoes. (10) Can potato bhght be destroyed after it haa made its appearance on the crop? (11) How long will wild mustard, wild oats, and corn cockle seeds maintain their vitality when buried in the soil? APPENDIX COMPENDIUM OF FACTS AND STATISTICS RULES FOR MEASURING HAY IN MOWS AND STACKS; GRAIN AND ROOTS IN BIN; CORN IN CRIB; AND THE ACREAGE OF FIELDS Tons of Hay in Mows. Compute the number of cubic feet in the mow by multiplying length by width by depth. Divide the total number of cubic feet in the mow by the number of cubic feet in one ton of hay, which is usually about 400 for well settled timothy or prairie hay, and the quotient so obtained will be the number of tons. The number of cubic feet in one ton of hay varies greatly with the kind of hay, the length of time it has settled, and the size and depth of the hay mass. Timothy and prairie hay pack closer than alfalfa or red clover and, therefore, a smaller number of cubic feet per ton should be used. In the accompanying table a few estimates are shown relative to the number of cubic feet required to make a ton of hay. Depth of Mow or Height of Stack Length of Time Standing Cubic Feet Required 10 ft. to 12 ft. 10 ft. to 12 ft. 12 ft. to 15 ft. 12 ft. to 15 ft. 15 ft. to 18 ft. 18 ft. to 20 ft. 30 days 60 days 30 days 60 days 30 days 60 days or more 613 512 512 422 422 343 From Farm Management by Andrew Boss. 450 FIELD 3IANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Tons of Hay in Stacks. The number of cubic feet in a hay stack equals .31 multiplied by the overthrow (distance from the ground on one- side over the top of the stack to the ground on the other side) by the width by the length. Di- vide the total number of cubic feet in the stack by the number of cubic feet in one ton, and the quotient will be the number of tons in the stack. As hay stacks are not commonly over 12 feet in depth, an average rule for the number of cubic feet in one ton of stacked hay is : 600 cubic feet for hay standing 30 days, and 500 cubic feet for hay standing 60 days or more. Bushels of Grain in Bins. Compute the number of cubic feet in the bin by multiplying length by width by depth. Divide this sum by 1.244 (number of cubic feet in one bushel) and the quotient will be the approximate number of bushels in the bin. For more accurate figuring, the number of cubic feet in the bin may be reduced to cubic inches by multiplying by 1728 (cubic inches in 1 cubic foot) and the sum so ob- tained divided by 215J.42 (cubic inches in one bushel). Bushels of Potatoes or Other Roots in Bins. Use same method as for grain in bins. Bushels of Corn in the Crib. Compute the number of cubic feet in the crib by multiplying length by width by depth in case of a square angled bin or crib. Most corn cribs are made wider at the top than at the bottom. In such cribs average the width of the crib at the top of the corn mass with the width at the bottom of the crib and multiply by length and depth to obtain cubic contents. Divide the number of cubic feet in the crib by 2.5 (the approximate number of cubic feet of ear corn to give one bushel of shelled grain), and the quotient so obtained will be the approximate number of bushels of shelled corn in the crib. Bushels of Grain or Ear Corn in Wagon Boxes. A com- mon farm wagon is usually 10 feet long and 3 feet wide and MEASURING ACREAGE 451 will hold approximately two bushels of grain for every inch in depth. Corn on the cob is calculated at the rate of one inch in depth to a bushel of shelled grain. If the wagon box is 11 feet long and 3 feet wide, there are about 2.2 bu. of grain for every inch in depth, and about 1.1 bu. of shelled corn for every inch of ear corn. Acreage of Fields. Field acreages may be computed in either rods or feet. One mile is 320 rods or 5,280 feet. One acre contains 160 square rods or 43,560 square feet. Measurement by feet has become more common than measurement by rods. No matter how crooked a field may be, the exact acreage may be easily determined, if measure- ments are so taken as to plat the field into one or more of the geometric figures that are the common basis for com- puting acreage, namely, the rectangle, triangle or trapezoid. The rectangle has four sides with opposite sides parallel, and the number of square feet or rods that it contains is easily determined by multiplying length by width. The triangle is three sided with no sides parallel, and its area is determined by multiplying one half the length of the base by the altitude. In surveying a triangular field to get the prop- er measurements for computing the area, measure the length of any side and then run a perpendicular hne from this side to the opposite apex of the triangle. This perpendicular line is called the altitude and the side of the triangle from which the perpendicular line was projected is called the base. The trapezoid is four sided, with two sides parallel and two sides not parallel. Its area is computed by multiplying one half the sum of the length of the parallel sides by the length of the altitude (a perpendicular line projected from one parallel side to the other). Acreage is determined by dividing the number of square rods or square feet in the field by the number of square rods or square feet in one acre. 452 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION LEGAL WEIGHTS OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS ?B9tlAi ooooooooooocooooo •OOOOOOO ■ * CO CO CD CO CO CD CD ■ OO • COCO • edtujnx • -o ■ -lO ■ TfOtJI'^ -co • aX-Q •CDOCOCOCDtDcOCOCOO ■ *o*o*o*o*o*o*o*o*o»o CO CO CD CD CD CO CO • 10*0*0*0*0*0*0 • coco • lOiO • (qanoj) aaiy ■ -lO . ..^ ■ -co . .^ ..... . *o ■* do^psH •* :S3 :3 : : : "33 •s (^a9AiS) BaO^B^OJ *o >o O lO : ;S 0*0 -OlOtOOlO 0*0 -lOiO-^iOiO ■*COiOOCD -O • *0*0*OCD*0 -lO • • lO ■ (qsui) eao^B^oj o 50 oo tO!0 OOOOOOOO CDCOCOCOOtCOCO OCOOOOOOOO • CO *0 CO CO CO CO CO CO CO • oo ■ coco • B^aj 1^ § o CO ■ o •to • o O ■CO CO O -OOOOOOO ■ CO • CO CO CO CO CO CO CO * oo • coco • B'^nnBaj : • iO *0 lO lO *0 "O >0 *0 *0 lO *0 lO lO *o *o • CO CO CD CO CO CO CO *o *o *o *o *o *o *o ■ OCO ■ o*o • < <4-l paag laAoio o -oo • CO -050 ■ •OOCOOOO • • CO CO CO CO CO CO CO * OOOOOOO • CO CO CO CO CD CO CO • -ai • .o • O CO ^BaqAiJiong : : (NOINCO • iO-o • • o • • lO • -a paag ssBjQ araojg 1 '■ '■ • •■* 0) paag esBjQ anig j ^ J r)< • ■* . • .T(< .•*•»}< Tf ■* T)" . • ■«)< •*•*■*■»»< ■<»< • s B^aag | : : ■ o • .«5 . o • CO ■ . .o • -o • • . .lO • ■*o • • 1 o>oo • euB9a tD>n«5 ■ oo • ^:0 ■ OO -OOOOO ■ coco . 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Beet planter, gar- den drill, or corn planter with sor- ghum plates Beets, stock B S-12 lbs. 1-1 H in. Beet planter, gar- den drill, or corn planter with sor- ghum plates Blue grass (alone) P 15-20 lbs. 1-1]^ in. Shotgun seeder or wheelbarrow seed- Blue grass (mixtures) P 4-8 lbs. 1-1'^ in. Shotgun seeder, wheelbarrow seeder, or grass seeding attach- ment on grain drill Brome grass (alone) P 6-S lbs. 1-1]^ in. Brome grass seed- er, with grain seed in drill, hand sow and harrow in Brome grass (mixtures) P 4-6 lbs. 1-13^ in. Brome grass seed- er, .with grain seed in drill, hand sow and harrow in PLANTING DATA 455 Amount?, of Seed per Acre. Depth to Plant. Methods of Planting. Crops Annual, Biennial or Perennial — Continued. Annual Amount of Biennial Seed per Depth to Best Method Crops Peren- nial Acre Plant of Planting Broom-corn A 2 quarts lJ^-2 in. Corn planter with sorghum plates or grain drill, rows 36-42 in. apart Buckwheat A 3 pks-l bu. 11.^-2 in. Grain drill Clover, alsike (alone) P 4-5 lbs 1-1 Ji in. Grass seeding at- tachment on grain drill Clover, alsike (mixtures) P 2-3 lbs. 1-1 '2 in- Grass seeding at- tachment on grain drill Clover, crimson A 4-G lbs. 1-1 !'2 in- Grass seeding at- tachment on grain drill Clover, mammoth P 4-6 lbs. 1-13 2 in- Grass seeding at- tachment on grain drill B 4-6 lbs. 1-1 J2 in. Grass seeding at- tachment on grain drill Clover, red (mixtures) B 3-5 lbs. 1-1, '2 in- Grass seeding at- tachment on grain drill Clover, sweet B 10-15 lbs. 1-2 in. Grass seeding at- tachment on grain drill Clover, white (mixtures) .... P 2-3 lbs. 1-Ui in. Grass seeding at- tachment on grain drill Corn, grain A 7-9 lbs. 11-2}^ in. Check row corn planter Corn planter or Corn, fodder-ensilage A J^-1 bu. li-2)^in. grain drill Cotton A 1-11^ bu. 2-3 in. Cotton planter Cowpeas, seed crop A 2-3 pks. 3 in. Grain drill in rows 35"-36" apart Cowpeas, forage or green man- A 4-5 pks. 3 in. Grain drill in rows 12"-14" apart Emmer or Speltz A 2-3 bu. 2-3 in. Grain drill Flax, seed crop A 15-30 lbs. 11-^-2 in. Grain drill Flax, fiber crop A ^.-^}4 bu. l}^-2 in. Grain drill Hemp A 1 bu. 2 in. Grain drill Japan Clover (see Lespedeza) Kafir corn, seed crop A 3-6 lbs. 1-1 J ^ in. Corn planter with sorghum plates, or grain drill, rows 35", 36" or 42" apart Kafir corn, forage crop A 1-lJ-^ bu. 1-1)^ in. Grain drill in rows 28", 30", 35" or 36" apart. 456 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Amounts of Seed per Acre. Depth to Plant. Methods of Planting. Crops Annual, Biennial or Perennial — Continued. Crops Lespedeza . Lupine Mangel-wurzel. . Millet, barnyard Millet, German. . Millet, hog Millet, Japanese. Millet, Proso. . . . Milo maize Oats, (humid climate) . . . Oats, (semi-arid climate) Orchard grass Peanut Peas, Canadian field (alone) . . Peas, Canadian field with oats Peas, wrinkled (seed) Pop-corn Potato, Irish Potato, sweet Rape, broadcast alone Rape, catch crop Annual Biennial Peren- nial Amount of Seed per Depth to Acre Plant Redtop, alone . . . . Redtop, mixtures 10-15 lbs. 80-100 lbs. 5-8 lbs. 1-2 pks. 1-2 pks. 2-3 pks. 2-3 pks. 2-3 pks. (Same as K 2^-3 bu. 1 li-2 bu. 8-12 lbs. 2 bu 2 bu. oats 1 bu. peas 3 bu. 3 lbs. 8-15 bu (Plants set 3-4 lbs 2-3 lbs 4-6 lbs. 2-6 lbs. 2 in, 1-1, 4 in. 1-lH in 1-1 H in, l-l}^ in, 1-11^ in, 1-1 ii in. afir corn) 2-3 in. 2-3 in. l-lj^ in. 2-3 in 2-3 in 3-4 in 1-\14 in 3-4 in in field fr Harrow 1-1 1^ in 1-1 J-^ in 1-lH in Best Method of Planting Shotgun s eeder, wheelbarrow seeder, or grass seeding attach- ment on grain drill Grain drill in rows 12" to 14" apart Beet planter, gar- den drill, or corn planter with sor- ghum plates Grain drill. For hay crop sow same as cereals with all tubes open. For seed crop of hog, Proso and Japan millets sow in cul- tivable rows 28' to 36" apart Grain drill Grain drill Wheelbarrow seed- er or with grain in the grain drill Hand sow or with planter in culti- vable rows, plants 8" to 12" apart Grain drill Grain drill Grain drill Garden drill or corn planter 1 or 2 row planter om hotbeds Shotgun seeder or wheelbarrow seeder With seed grain in grain drill or with shotgun seeder in corn last cultiva- tion Wheelbarrow seed- er or grass seeding attachment on grain drill Wheelbarrow seed- eror grass seeding attachment on grain drill PLANTING DATA 457 Amounts of Seed per Acre. Depth to Plant. Methods of Planting. Crops Annual, Biennial or Perennial— Continued. Crops Rice Rutabaga. Rye, (humid climate) . . . Rye, (semi-arid climate) Rye grass Sainfoin Sorghum, (seed crop) . . . Sorghum, (fodder crop) . Soy bean, (seed crop) . Soy bean (forage or green manure) Speltz (see Emmer) Sudan grass (humid climate) Sudan grass (semi-arid climate) Sugar cane Sunflower , Timothy, (alone) Timothy (mixtures) Tobacco Turnip (drills) Vetch, hairy Vetch, kidney Vetch, Dakota Wheat, (humid climate) . . . Wheat, (semi-arid climate) Wheat, durum (humid) . . . . Wheat, durum (semi-arid). Annual Biennial Peren- nial Amount of Seed per Acre 3-5 lbs 1 bu 2 bu 40-60 lbs of hulled seed. 3-5 lbs. 3-5 pks. H bu. 3 pks. 16-24 lbs. 4-6 lbs. Depth to Plant 2-3 2-3 1-1^ 3-4 2 in 2 in. 1-13^ in, lH-2 in 4 T. cane 3-6 in 8-10 lbs. 10-15 lbs. 5-8 lbs. (1 tablespo lib. 2-4 pks. 2-4 pks. 2-4 pks. IM-I3^bu. 50-60 lbs. IH bu. 1 bu. 1}^ in 1-13^ in. 1-1 H in. onful see 1 in. 1-2 in. 1-2 in. 1-2 in. 2 in. 3 in. 2 in. 3 in. Best method of Planting Grain drill Broadcast with shotgun seeder, wheelbarrow seeder, or drill with garden drill Grain drill Grain drill Hand sow Grain drill Corn planter with sorghum plates Corn planter with sorghum plates or grain drill in 24"- 36" rows Bean planter, corn planter or grain drill in cultivable rows 30" to 36" apart Grain drill in 12" to 14" rows Grain drill Grain drill in cul- tivable rows 28 ' 30" 35' or 36" apart. Cuttings set in fur- rows 4'-6' apart and covered with a plow Corn planter or grain drill 36" to 42" rows Grass seeding at- tachment on grain drill Grass seeding at- tachment on grain drill d to 100 sq . yards of seed bed will plant 6 acres) Garden drill (jlrain drill Grain drill Grain drill Grain drill Grain drill Grain drill Grain drill 458 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION STANDARD GRASS MIXTURES 2. (1) Rotation Meadows and Pastures. 3 Timothy 8 lbs. Red clover 5 lbs. Timothy 8 lbs. Alsike clover 3 lbs. Brome grass 6 lbs. Alsike clover 3 lbs. Timothy 6 lbs. Red-top 4 lbs. clean seed. Red clover 4 lbs. (2) Permanent Meadows or Pastures (High, Well Drained Land). Timothy 8 lbs. Alsike clover 3 lbs. Brome grass 6 lbs. Timothy 4 lbs. Alsike clover 3 lbs. Timothy 6 lbs. Redtop 4 lbs. clean seed Alsike clover 3 lbs. Kentucky Blue grass 6 lbs. White clover 1 lb. Timothy 6 lbs. Alsike clover 2 lbs. (3) Permanent Meadows or Pastures (Lowland). Timothy 4 lbs. Redtop 4 lbs. clean seed Alsike 3 lbs. Brome grass 6 lbs. Timothy 4 lbs. Alsike clover 3 lbs. Perennial rye grass 10 lbs. Alsike clover 3 lbs. COMPOSITION OF MANURE 459 COMPOSITION AND AMOUNTS OF MANURE PRO- DUCED BY DIFFERENT KINDS OF FARM ANIMALS. Analysis Amount per 1,000 Lbs. Live Weight Kind of Animal and Kinds of Food Fed V a a u o a o o p-( fL, g 2 O " a it a o a a "S t. 3 a 0. d3 U V o. a o •^ S? 1-! a 5,000 5,000 3,000 3,300 as CD (U go- IS °^ Sheep. Fed hay, corn, oats; or hay, wheat bran, cotton seed meal and linseed meal Swine. Fed skim milk, corn meal, meat scraps; or corn meal, wheat bran and linseed meal Cattle. Fed hay, silage, beets, wheat bran, corn meal, and cottonseed meal 59.52 74.13 75.25 4S.G9 .77 .84 .43 .49 4.10 .17 .127 .114 .59 .32 .44 .48 34.1 83.6 74.1 48.8 12,446 30,514 27,040 17,812 8.7 17.7 15 Horses. Fed hay, oats, corn meal and wheat bran 10.5 Note: The analyses and amounts of manure produced by farm animals, as shown in this table, are from the Cornell Experiment Station, and the estimates of pounds absorbents per year from "Farm Management" by Andrew Boss. It is estimated that under average farm conditions 50% of the elements of fertiUty in f arm manures is lost by leaching and fermentation. Direct hauling of manure to the field, or composting in concrete pits, will prevent much of this loss. AMOUNTS OF NITROGEN, PHOSPHORUS, AND POTASSIUM IN ANIMAL PRODUCTS. Amount Pounds Animal Products Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Fat cattle 1,000 lbs. 1,000 lbs. 10,000 lbs. 500 lbs. 25 18 57 1 7 3 7 0.2 1 Fat hogs Milk 1 12 Butter 0.1 From Bulletin 123, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. 30 460 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION ANNUAL MAINTENANCE COSTS FOR DAIRY CATTLE. (From Bulletin 88, Bureau of Statistics, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) Average Annual Food Consumption per Cow. ar S.E. Minn S.W. Minn. N.W. Minn. Ye 9 o ■v3 lU IP 1 3 Oh bC a J3 tn 3 O PS g-3 T3 o 3 bs a J3 bO 3 o ^•3 a >- •a 3 s PL, 1904 1905 Lbs. (') 6,014 5,272 4,766 5,554 6,345 Lbs. 0) 584 418 609 421 656 Lbs. (1) 306 308 239 420 357 Days 174 173 157 170 160 Lbs. (1) 3,409 4,513 3,939 4,250 Lbs. 1,045 1,100 631 379 Lbs. 33 161 250 391 Days (J) (•) 178 154 182 171 Lbs. 5,290 5,923 6,005 4,666 6,501 4,800 6,531 Lbs. 635 570 906 678 706 834 722 Lbs. 15 4 55 128 59 15 46 Days 168 153 1906 124 1907 151 1908 162 1909 157 Avera 1904- ge: -1909 -1909 -1909 153 1905 5,590 538 326 167 1906- 4,028 789 209 171 * No data. Annual Cost of Maintenance of a Cow (S. E. MINNESOTA) 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 Average 1905-09 Dollars .78 2.89 22.77 16.99 3.15 2.46 1.68 .28 1.65 1.77 Dollars .55 2.31 23.79 17.26 2.04 2.46 1.97 .26 1.84 1.92 Dollars .74 3.04 24.12 16.47 1.43 2.46 1.82 .61 2,13 2.02 Dollars 1.03 5.37 27.00 22.88 3.47 2.46 4.50 .99 2.12 2.53 Dollars .71 5.18 21.72 20.56 2.67 2.46 6.74 .90 2.26 3.62 Dollars .75 Cash Feed 3.65 23.85 18.66 2.53 Shelter 2.48 3.19 Machinery and Equipment. . . . Herd Bulls .58 1.98 Interest on Investment 2.35 Total 54.42 54.40 54.84 72.35 66.82 60.00 MAINTENANCE COST OF COWS (S. W. MINNESOTA) 461 1906 1907 1908 1909 Average 1906-09 Dollars .38 .16 18.69 13.64 1.53 2.46 .36 .23 1.42 1.59 Dollars .17 1.67 22.43 17.01 2.21 2.46 .35 .66 2.93 1.46 Dollars .46 2.46 20.17 12.74 1.31 2.46 .34 .98 1.61 1.46 Dollars .18 3.64 18.30 14.66 3.05 2.46 .40 1.97 1.69 1.52 Dollars .28 Cash Feed 1.49 Farm Feed 20.33 15.01 1.97 Shelter 2.46 .36 Machinery and Equipment .71 Herd Bulls 2.08 Interest on Investment 1.51 Total 40.46 51.35 43.99 47.87 46.20 (N. W. MINNESOTA) 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 Average 1904-09 Dollars .13 .11 16.97 16.09 2.42 2.46 .30 .31 1.84 1.57 Dollars .15 .23 15.74 15.60 2.36 2.46 .28 1.46 2.90 r.4i Dollars .49 .40 17.73 17.73 2.72 2.46 .31 .76 2.19 1.55 Dollars .'65 1.05 18.15 18.64 1.69 2.46 .29 .96 2.07 1.46 Dollars .39 .70 23.06 19.04 2.76 2.46 .29 .81 2.79 1.46 Dollars .34 .16 24.51 20.83 4.48 2.46 .32 1.32 2.88 1.61 Dollars .39 Cash Feed .48 Farm Feed 19.60 Labor 18 20 General Expense Shelter 2.75 2 46 .30 Machinery and Equip- .92 Herd Bulls 2.42 Interest on Investment. . 1.51 Total 42.20 42.59 46.34 47.42 53.76 58.91 49 03 462 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Percentage of Items of Cost of Maintenance to Total Maintenance. Item S.E. Minn. Average 5 years S.W. Minn. Average 4 years N.W. Minn. Average 6 years Cash sundries Per Cent. 1.2 6.1 39.7 31.1 4.2 4.1 5.3 1.0 3.3 4.0 Per Cent. 0.6 3.2 44.0 32.5 4.3 5.4 .8 1.5 4.5 3.2 Per Cent. 0.8 Cash feed 1.0 Farm feed 39.9 Labor 37.1 General expense 5.6 Shelter 5.0 Depreciation .6 Machinery and equipment Herd bulls, maintenance of Interest on investment 1.9 4.9 3.2 100.0 100.0 100.0 QUANTITY OF MILK REQUIRED TO COVER COSTS OF MAINTENANCE OF COWS OF DIFFERENT VALUE. (From Bulletin 88, Bureau of Statistics, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) Cost o E Maintenance per Year Milk at $1.20 per 100 Pounds Value of Cow Required to Cover Cost Interest and Ail Otlier per Year Depreciation Costs Total Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Pounds 40.00 4.36 54.45 58.81 4,901 50.00 6.22 54.45 60.67 5,056 60.00 8.10 54.45 62.55 5,212 70.00 9.96 54.45 64.41 5,368 80.00 11.84 . 54.45 66.29 5,524 90.00 13.70 54.45 68.15 5,679 100.00 15.58 54.45 70.03 5,836 110.00 17.44 54.45 71.89 5,991 120.00 19.32 54.45 73.77 6,148 130.00 21.18 54.45 75.63 6,302 140.00 23.06 54.45 77.51 6,459 150.00 24.92 54.45 79.37 6,614 HAECKER FEEDING STANDARDS 463 HAECKER FEEDING STANDARDS AND METHODS FOR FORMULATING RATIONS FOR DAIRY COWS. (From Bulletin 130. Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station.) Table I. Food of Maintenance. Weight Pro. C-H. Fat Weight Pro. C-H. Fat 800 .560 5.60 .08 1225 .857 8.57 .12 825 .577 5.77 .08 1250 .875 8.75 .12 850 .595 5.95 .08 1275 .892 8.92 .13 875 .612 6.12 .09 1300 .910 9.10 .13 900 .630 6.30 .09 1325 .927 9.27 .13 925 .647 6.47 .09 1350 .945 9.45 .13 950 .665 6.65 .09 1375 .962 9.62 .14 975 .682 6.82 .10 1400 .980 9.80 .14 1000 .700 7.00 .10 1425 .997 9.97 .14 1025 .717 7.17 .10 1450 1.015 10.15 .14 1050 .735 7.35 .10 1475 1.032 10.32 .15 1075 .752 7.52 .11 1500 1.050 10.50 .15 1100 .770 7.70 .11 1525 1.067 10.67 .15 1125 .787 7.87 .11 1550 1.085 10.85 .15 1150 .805 8.05 .11 1575 1.102 11.02 .16 1175 .822 8.22 .12 1600 1.120 11.20 .16 1200 .810 8.40 .12 1625 1.137 11.36 .16 Table II. Net Nutrients Required for the Production of Milk Con- taining a Given Per Cent of Butter-fat. 7o FAT IN MILK % FAT IN MILK % FAT IN MILK Lb.s. of 3.0 3.2 3.4 Milk Pre. C-H. Fat Pro. C-H. Fat Pro. C-H. Fat 1 .047 .20 .017 .048 .21 .018 .049 .22 .018 2 .094 .40 034 .096 .41 .036 .097 .43 .037 3 .141 .60 051 .143 .62 .053 .146 .65 .055 4 .188 .80 068 .191 .83 .071 .194 .87 .074 5 .234 .99 085 .239 1.04 .089 .243 1.08 .092 6 .281 1.19 102 .287 1.24 .107 .292 1.30 .111 7 .328 1.39 119 .335 1.45 .125 .340 1.51 .129 8 .375 1..59 136 .382 1.66 .142 .389 1.73 .148 9 .422 1.79 153 .430 1.87 .160 .437 1.95 .166 10 .469 1.99 170 .478 2.07 .178 .486 2.16 .185 464 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Table 11. Net Nutrients Required for the Production of Milk Con- taining a Given Per Cent of Butter-fat. Lbs. of % FAT IN MILK 3.6 % FAT IN MILK 3.8 % FAT IN MILK 4.0 Milk Pro. C-H. Fat Pro. C-H. Fat Pro. C-H. Fat 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 .050 .100 .150 .200 .250 .301 .351 .401 .451 .501 .22 .45 .68 .90 1.13 1.35 1.58 1.80 2.03 2.25 .019 .039 .058 .077 .096 .116 .135 .154 .174 .193 .052 .104 .156 .208 .260 .312 .364 .416 .468 .520 .23 .47 .70 .93 1.17 1.40 1.64 1.87 2.10 2.34 .020 .040 .060 .080 .100 .120 .140 .160 .180 .200 .054 .108 .162 .216 .269 .323 .377 .431 .485 .539 .24 .48 .73 .97 1.21 1.45 1.70 1.94 2.18 2.42 .021 .042 .062 .083 .104 .125 .146 .166 .187 .208 i.Z 4.4 4.6 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 .055 .111 .166 .221 .276 .332 .387 .442 .497 .553 .25 .50 .75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.76 2.01 2.26 2.51 .021 .043 .064 .086 .107 .129 .150 .172 .193 .215 .056 .113 .169 .226 .282 .339 .395 .452 .508 .565 .26 .52 .78 1.04 1.30 1.56 1.82 2.08 2.34 2.00 .022 .044 .067 .089 .111 .133 .1.55 .178 .200 .222 .058 .116 .174 .232 .289 .347 .405 .463 .521 .579 .27 .54 .80 1.07 1.34 1.61 1.88 2.14 2.41 2.68 .023 .046 .069 .092 .115 .138 .161 .184 .207 .230 4.8 5.0 5.3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 .059 .118 .177 .236 .295 .355 .414 .473 .532 .591 .28 .55 .83 1.11 1.38 1.66 1.93 2.21 2.49 2.76 .024 .047 .071 .094 .118 .142 .165 .189 .212 .236 .060 .121 .181 .242 .302 ..362 .423 .483 .544 .604 .28 .57 .85 1.14 1.42 1.70 1.99 2.27 2.56 2.84 .024 .049 .073 .097 .121 .146 .170 .194 .219 .243 .062 .124 .185 .247 .309 .371 .433 .494 .556 .618 .29 .58 .87 1.17 1.46 1.75 2.04 2.33 2.62 2.91 .025 .050 .075 .100 .125 .150 .175 .200 .225 .250 HAECKER FEEDING STANDARDS 465 Table II. Net Nutrients Required for the Production of Milk Con- taining a Given Per Cent of Butter-fat. Lb3. of % FAT IN MILK 5.4 % FAT IN MILK 5.6 % FAT IN MILK 5.8 Milk Pro. C-H. Fat Pro. C-H. Fat Pro. C-H. Fat 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 .063 .126 .190 .253 .316 .379 .442 .506 .569 .632 .30 .60 .90 1.20 1.49 1.79 2.09 2.39 2.69 2.99 .026 .051 .077 .102 .128 .154 .179 .205 .230 .256 .064 .129 .193 .258 .322 .386 .451 .515 .580 .644 .31 .61 .92 1.23 1.53 1.84 2.15 2.45 2.76 3.07 .026 .053 .079 .105 .131 .158 .184 .210 .237 .263 .066 .131 .197 .262 .328 .394 .4.59 .525 .590 .656 .31 .63 .94 1.26 1.57 1.89 2.20 2.51 2.83 3.14 .027 .054 .081 .108 .134 .161 .188 .215 .242 .269 6.0 6.? G.4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 .067 .134 .200 .267 .334 .401 .468 .534 .601 .668 .32 .64 .97 1.29 1.61 1.93 2.25 2.58 2.90 3.22 .028 .055 .083 .110 .138 .166 .193 .221 .248 .276 .069 .138 .207 .276 .344 .413 .482 .551 .620 .689 .33 .66 .99 1.32 1.65 1.98 2.31 2.64 2.97 3.30 .028 .057 .085 .113 .141 .170 .198 .226 .255 .283 .071 .142 .213 .284 .355 .426 .497 .568 .639 .710 .34 .67 1.01 1.35 1.69 2.03 2.36 2.70 3.04 3.38 .029 .053 .087 .116 .144 .173 .202 .231 .260 .289 466 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Table III. Pounds of Dry Matter and Nutrients Contained in a Given Number of Pounds of Feed Stuff. CUBED ROUGHAGE Fodder Corn (Drilled) Corn Stover Sorglium Fodder Lbs. Dry Mat- ter .76 Digestible Lbs. 1 Dry Mat- ter .59 Digestible Lbs. 1 Dry Mat- ter Digestible Pro. C-H .41 Fat .015 Pro. C-H Fat Pro. .024 C-H Fat 1 .037 .014 .31 .007 .50 .32 .016 2 1.52 .074 .83 .029 2 1.19 .028 .62 .014 2 1.01 .048 .64 .032 3 2.28 .111 1.24 .044 3 1.78 .042 .94 .021 3 1.51 .072 .96 .048 4 3.04 .148 1.66 .058 4 2.38 .056 1.25 .028 4 2.01 .096 1.28 .064 5 3.80 .185 2.07 .073 5 2.97 .070 1.56 .035 5 2.51 .120 1.60 .080 6 4.56 .222 2.48 .088 6 3.57 .084 1.87 .042 6 3.02 .144 1.93 .096 7 5.32 .259 2.90 .102 7 4,16 .098 2.18 .049 7 3.52 .168 2.25 .112 8 6.08 .296 3.31 .117 8 4.76 .112 2.50 .056 8 4.02 .192 2.57 .128 9 6.84 .333 3.73 .131 9 5.35 .126 2.81 .063 9 4.53 .216 2.89 .144 10 7.60 .370 4.14 .146 10 5.9S .140 3.12 .070 10 5.03 .240 3.21 .160 Millet Timothy Red Top 1 .86 .050 .47 .011 1 .87 .028 .43 .014 1 .91 .048 .47 ,010 2 1.72 .100 .94 .022 2 1.74 .056 .87 .028 2 1.82 .096 .94 .020 3 2.58 .150 1.41 .033 3 2.60 .084 1.30 .042 3 2.73 .144 1.41 .030 4 3.44 .200 1.88 .044 4 3.47 .112 1.74 .056 4 3.64 .192 1.88 .040 5 4.30 .250 2.34 .055 5 4.34 .140 2.17 .070 5 4.55 .240 2.34 .050 6 5.16 .300 2.81 .066 6 5.21 .168 2.60 .084 6 5.47 .288 2 81 .060 7 6.02 .350 3.28 .077 7 6,08 .196 3.04 .098 7 6.38 .336 3.28 .070 8 6.88 .400 3.75 .088 8 6.94 .224 3.47 .112 8 7.29 .384 3.75 .080 9 7.74 .450 4.22 .099 9 7.81 .252 3.91 .120 9 8.20 .432 4.22 .090 10 8.60 .500 4.69 .110 10 8.68 .280 4.34 .140 10 9,11 .480 4.69 .100 Prairie (Upland) Prairie (Mixed) Prairie (Swale) 1 .87 .03 .42 .014 1 .84 .029 .41 .012 1 .86 .026 .42 .011 2 1.75 .06 .84 .028 2 1.62 .058 .83 .024 2 1,73 .052 .84 .022 3 2.62 .09 1.25 .042 3 2.52 .087 1.24 .036 3 2,59 .078 1,26 .033 4 3.50 .12 1.67 .056 4 3.36 .116 1.66 .048 4 3,45 .104 1.68 .044 6 4.37 .15 2.09 .070 5 4.20 .145 2.07 .060 5 4.31 .130 2.09 .055 6 5.25 .18 2.51 .084 6 5.05 .174 2.49 .072 6 5.18 .156 2.51 .066 7 6.12 .21 2.93 .098 7 5.89 .203 2.90 .084 7 6.04 .182 2.93 .077 8 7.00 .24 3.34 .112 8 6.73 .232 3.32 .096 8 6.90 .208 3.35 .088 9 7.87 .27 3.76 .126 9 7.57 .261 3.73 .108 9 7.77 .234 3.77 .099 10 8.75 .30 4.18 .140 10 8.41 .290 4.15 .120 10 8.63 .260 4.19 .110 Barley Oat Pea 1 .85 .057 .44 .01 1 .86 .047 .37 .017 1 .90 .080 .41 .017 2 1.70 .114 .87 .02! 2 1.72 .094 .73 .034 2 1.80 .160 .82 .034 3 2.55 .171 1.31 .03' 3 2.. 58 .141 1.10 .051 3 2.71 .240 1.23 .051 4 3.40 .228 1.74 .04 4 3.44 .188 1.47 .068 4 3.61 .320 1.64 .068 5 4.25 .285 2.18 .05 5 4.30 .235 1.83 .085 5 4,51 .400 2.05 .085 6 6.10 .342 2.62 .06 6 5.16 .282 2.20 .102 5,41 .480 2.47 .102 7 5.95 .399 3.05 .07 7 6.02 .329 2.57 .119 7 6,31 .560 2.88 .119 8 6.80 .456 3.49 .08 8 6.88 .376 2.94 .136 8 7 22 .640 3.29 .136 9 7.65 .513 3.92 .09 9 7.74 .423 3.30 .153 9 8^12 .720 3.70 .153 10 8.50 .570 4.36 .10 10 8.60 .470 3.67 .170 10 9,02 .800 4.11 .170 HAECKER FEEDING STANDARDS 467 Table III. Pounds of Dry Matter and Nutrients Contained in a Given Number of Pounds of Feed Stuff. Cow Pea Soy Bean White Clover T.bs Dry Mat- ter Digestible Lbs Dry Mat- ter Digestible Lbs. 1 Dry Mat- ter .90 Digestible Pro. C-H Fat Pro. ]C-H Fat Pro C-H Fat 1 .89 .058 .39 .013 1 .88 .106 .41 .012 .11^ .42 .015 2 1.7t .116 .78 .026 2 1.76 .212 .82 .024 2 1.81 .2301 .84 .030 3 2.t)8 .17.^ 1.18 .039 3 2.65 .318 1.23 .036 3 2.71 .34; 1.27 .045 4 3.58 .232 1.57 .052 4 3.5a A24 1.64 .048 4 3.61 .46f 1.69 .060 5 4.47 .29C 1.9( .065 5 4.41 .53( 2.04 .060 5 4.51 .57f 2.11 .075 6 5.37 .348 2.36 .078 6 5.29 .636 2.45 .072 6 5.42 .69f 2.53 .090 7 6.26 .406 2.75 .091 7 6.17 .742 2.86 .084 7 6.32 .80,^^ 2.95 .105 8 7.16 .464 3.H .104 8 7.06 .848 3.27 .096 8 7.22 .92f 3.38 .120 9 8.05 .522 3.5-1 .117 7 7.94 .9.54 3.68 .108 9 S.13 1 m;^ 3 80 .135 10 8.95 .580 3.93 .130 10 8.82 1.060 4.09 .120 10 9.03 1.15f 4.22 .150 Red Clover Alsike Clover Alfalfa 1 .85 .071 .38 .018 1 .90 .084 .42 .015 1 .94 .117 .41 .01 2 1.69 .142 .76 .036 2 1.81 .168 .85 .030 2 1.87 .234 .82 .02 3 2.54 .213 1.13 .054 3 2.71 .252 1.27 .045 3 2.81 .351 1.23 .03 4 3.39 .284 1.51 .072 4 3.61 .336 1.70 .060 4 3.74 .467 1.64 .04 5 4.23 .355 1.89 .090 5 4.51 .420 2.12 .075 5 4.68 ..585 2.04 .05 6 5.08 .426 2.27 .108 6 5.42 .504 2.55 .090 6 5.62 .702 2.45 .06 7 5.93 .497 2.65 .128 7 6.32 .588 2.97 .105 7 6.55 .819 2.86 .07 8 6.78 .568 3.02 .144 8 7.22 .672 3.40 .120 8 7.49 .936 3.27 .08 9 7.62 .639 3.40 .162 9 8.13 .756 3.82 .135 9 8.42 1.053 3.68 .09 10 8.47 .710 3.78 .180 10 9.03 .840 4.25 .150 10 9.36 1.170 4.09 .10 Wheat Straw Oat Straw Barley Straw 1 .90 .008 .35 .004 1 .91 .013 .39 .008 1 .86 .009 .40 .006 2 1.81 .016 .70 .008 2 1.82 .026 .79 .016 2 1.72 .018 .80 .012 H 2.71 .024 1.06 .012 3 2.72 .039 1.18 .024 3 2.57 .027 1.20 .018 4 3.63 .032 1.41 .016 4 3.63 .052 1..58 .032 4 3.43 .036 1.60 .024 5 4.52 .040 1.76 .020 5 4.54 .065 1.97 .040 5 4.29 .045 2.00 .030 () 5.42 .048 2.11 .024 6 5.45 .078 2.37 .048 6 5.15 .054 2.41 .036 7 6.33 .056 2.46 .028 7 6.36 .091 2.76 .056 7 6.01 .063 2.81 .042 8 7.23 .064 2.82 .032 8 7.26 .104 3.16 .064 8 6.86 .072 3.21 .048 9 8.14 .072 3.17 .036 9 8.17 .117 3.55 .072 9 7.72 .081 3.61 .054 10 9.04 .080 3.52 .040 10 9.08 .130 3.95 .080 10 8.58 .090 4.01 .060 Kafir Forage Oat and Pea Oat and Vetch 1 .48 .009 .26 .011 1 .89 .076 .41 .015 1 .85 .083 .36 .013 2 .96 .019 .52 .022 2 1.79 .152 .83 .030 2 1.70 .166 .72 .026 3 1.44 .028 .78 .033 3 2.68 .228 1.24 .045 3 2.55 .249 1.07 .039 4 1.92 .038 1.04 .044 4 3.58 .304 1.66 .060 4 3.40 .332 1.43 .052 5 2.39 .047 1.29 .055 5 4.47 .380 2.07 .075 5 4 25 .415 1.79 .065 6 2.87 .057 1.55 .066 6 5.37 .456 2.49 .090 6 5.10 .498 2.15 .078 7 3.35 .066 1.81 .077 7 6.26 .532 2.90 .105 7 5.95 .581 2.51 .091 8 3.83 .076 2.07 .088 8 7.16 .608 3.32 .120 8 6.80 .664 2.86 .104 9 4.31 .085 2.33 .093 9 8.05 .684 3.73 .135 9 7.65 .747 3.22 .117 10 4.79 .095 2.59 .110 10 8.95 .760 4.15 .150 10 8.50 .830 3.58 .130 468 FIELD MANAGEMEl^T AND CROP ROTATION Table III. Pounds of Dry Matter and Nutrients Contained in a Given Number of Pounds of Feed Stuff. SILAGE Corn Silage Sorghum Silage Lbs. Dry Mat- ter .26 Digestible Lbs. Dry Mat- ter Digestible Pro. .012 C-H .14 Fat .007- Pro. C-H Fat 1 1 .24 .001 .13 .002 2 .53 .025 .28 .014 2 .48 .002 .27 .004 3 .79 .037 .43 .021 3 .72 .003 .40 .006 4 1.06 .050 .57 .028 4 .96 .004 .54 008 5 1.32 .062 .71 .035 5 1.19 .005 .67 .010 6 1.58 .075 .85 .042 6 1.43 .006 .81 .012 7 1.85 .087 .99 .049 7 1.67 .007 .94 .014 8 2.11 .100 1.14 .056 8 1.91 .008 1.08 .016 9 2.38 .112 1.28 .063 9 2.15 .009 1.21 .018 10 2.64 .125 1.42 .070 10 ^.39 .010 1.35 .020 Clover Silage Alfalfa Silage 1 .28 .020 .13 .010 1 .27 .030 .08 .019 2 .56 .040 .27 .020 2 .55 .060 .17 .038 3 .84 .060 .40 .030 3 .82 .090 .25 .057 4 1.12 .080 .54 .040 4 1.10 .120 .34 .076 5 1.40 .100 .67 .050 5 1.37 .150 .42 .095 6 1.68 .120 .81 .060 6 1.65 .180 .51 .114 7 1.96 .140 .94 .070 7 1.92 .210 .59 .133 8 2.24 .160 1.08 .080 8 2.20 .240 .68 .152 9 2.52 .ISO 1.21 .090 9 2.47 .270 .76 .171 10 2.80 .200 1.35 .100 10 2.75 .300 .85 .190 Cow Pea Silage Soy Bean Silage 1 .21 .015 .09 .009 1 .26 .027 .09 .013 2 .41 .030 .17 .018 2 .52 .054 .17 .026 3 .62 .045 .26 .027 3 .77 .081 .26 .039 4 .83 .060 .34 .036 4 1.03 .108 .35 .052 5 1.03 .075 .43 .045 5 1.29 .135 .43 .065 6 1.24 .090 .52 .054 6 1.55 .162 .52 .078 7 1.45 .105 .60 .063 7 1.81 .189 .61 .091 8 1.66 .120 .69 .072 8 2.06 .216 .70 .104 9 1.86 .135 .77 .081 9 2.32 .243 .78 .117 10 2.07 .150 .86 .090 10 2.58 .270 .87 .130 Pea Cannery Corn Cannery Refuse Refuse 1 .23 .021 .13 .008 1 .21 .003 .12 .006 2 .46 .042 .26 .016 2 .42 .006 .24 .012 3 .70 .063 .39 .024 3 .63 .009 .36 .018 4 .93 .084 .52 .032 4 .84 .012 .48 .024 5 1.16 .105 .65 .040 5 1.05 .015 .59 .030 6 1.39 .126 .fQ .048 6 1.26 .018 .71 .036 7 1.62 .147 .92 .056 7 1.47 .021 .83 .042 8 1.86 .168 1.05 .064 8 1.68 .024 .95 .048 9 2.09 .189 1.18 .072 9 1.89 .027 1.07 .054 10 2.32 .210 1.31 .080 10 2.10 .030 1.19 .060 HAECKER FEEDU^G STANDARDS 469 Table III. Pounds of Dry Matter and Nutrients Contained in a Given Number of Pounds of Feed Stuff. ROOTS AND TUBERS Carrot Potato Lbs. Dry Mat- ter Digestible Lbs. 1 Drv Mat- ter .21 Digestible Pro. C-H Fat Pro. C-H Fat 1 .11 .008 .08 .002 .011 .16 .001 2 .23 .016 .16 .004 2 .42 .022 .31 .002 3 .34 .024 .23 .006 3 .63 .033 .47 .003 4 .46 .032 .31 .008 4 .84 .044 .63 .004 5 .57 .040 .39 .010 5 1.04 .055 .78 .005 6 .68 .048 .47 .012 6 1.25 .066 .94 .006 7 .80 .056 .55 .114 7 1.46 .077 1.10 .007 8 .91 .064 .62 .016 8 1.67 .088 1.26 .008 9 1.03 .072 .70 .018 9 1.88 .099 1.41 .009 10 1.14 .080 .80 .020 10 2.09 .110 1.57 .010 Sugar Beet Common Beet 1 .13 .013 .10 .001 1 .11 .012 .08 .001 2 .27 .026 - .20 .002 2 .23 .024 .16 .002 3 .40 .039 .29 .003 3 .34 .036 .24 .003 4 .54 .052 .39 .004 4 .46 .048 .32 .004 5 .67 .065 .49 .005 5 .57 .060 .39 .005 6 .81 .078 .59 .006 6 .69 .072 .47 .006 7 .94 .091 .69 .007 7 .80 .084 .55 .007 8 1.08 .104 .78 .008 8 .92 .096 .63 .008 9 1.21 .117 .88 .009 9 1.03 .108 .71 .009 10 1.35 .130 .98 .010 10 1.15 .120 .79 .010 Mange Rutabaga 1 .09 .010 .05 .002 1 .11 .010 .08 .002 2 .18 .020 .11 .004 2 .23 .020 .16 .004 3 .27 .030 .16 .006 3 .34 .030 .24 .006 4 .36 .040 .22 .008 4 .46 .040 .32 .008 5 .45 .050 .27 .010 5 .57 .050 .40 .010 6 .55 .060 .33 .012 6 .68 .060 .49 .012 7 .64 .070 .38 .014 7 .80 .070 .57 .014 8 .73 .080 .44 .016 8 .91 .080 .65 .016 9 .82 .090 .49 .018 9 1.03 .090 .73 .018 10 .91 .100 .55 .020 10 1.14 .100 .81 .020 Flat Turnip Wet Beet Pulp 1 .10 .009 .06 .001 1 .10 .005 .08 .000 2 .20 .018 .13 .002 2 .20 .010 .15 .000 3 .30 .027 .19 .003 3 .31 .015 .23 .000 4 .40 .036 .26 .004 4 .41 .020 .31 .000 5 .49 .045 .32 .005 5 .51 .025 .38 .000 6 .59 .054 .38 .006 6 .61 .030 .46 .000 7 .69 .063 .45 .007 7 .71 .035 .54 .000 8 .79 .072 .51 .008 8 .82 .040 .62 .000 9 .89 .081 .58 .009 d .92 .045 .69 .000 10 .99 .090 .64 .010 10 1.02 .050 .77 .000 470 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Table III. Pounds of Dry Matter and Nutrients Contained in a Given Number of Pounds of Feed Stuff. CONCENTRATES— Ground Grains and By-Products Corn Barley Lbs. Dry Mat- ter Digestible Lbs. Dry Mat- ter Digestible Pro. C-H . Fat Pro. C-H. Fat 1 .89 .079 .67 .043 1 .89 .084 .65 .016 2 1.78 .158 1.33 .086 2 1.78 .168 1.31 .032 3 2.67 .237 2.01 .129 3 2.68 .252 1.96 .048 4 3.56 .316 2.67 .172 4 3.57 .336 2.61 .064 5 4.45 .395 3.33 .215 5 4.46 .420 3.26 .080 6 5.35 .474 4.00 .258 6 5.35 .504 3.92 .096 7 6.24 .553 4.67 .301 7 6.24 .588 4.57 .112 8 7.13 .632 5.34 .344 8 7.14 .672 5.22 .128 9 8.02 .711 6.00 .387 9 8.03 .756 5.88 .144 10 8.91 .790 6.67 .430 10 8.92 .840 6.53 .160 Oats Wheat 1 .90 .107 .50 .038 1 .89 .088 .67 .015 2 1.79 .214 1.01 .076 2 1.79 .176 1.35 .030 3 2.69 .321 1.51 .114 3 2.68 .264 2.02 .045 4 3.58 .428 2.01 .152 4 3.58 .352 2.70 .060 5 4.48 .535 2.51 .190 5 4.47 .440 3.37 .075 6 6.38 .642 3.19 .228 6 5.37 .528 4.05 .090 7 6.27 .749 3.52 .266 7 6.26 .616 4.72 .105 8 7.17 .856 4.02 .304 8 7.16 .704 5.40 ' .120 9 8.06 .963 4.53 .342 9 8.05 .792 6.07 .135 10 8.96 1.070 5.03 .380 10 8.95 .880 6.75 .150 Wheat Bran Flo ur Whea dling tMid- s 1 .88 .119 .42 .025 1 .90 .17 .54 .041 2 1.76 .238 .84 .050 2 1.80 .34 1.07 .082 3 2.64 .357 1.26 .075 3 2.70 .51 1.61 .123 4 3.52 .476 1.68 .100 4 3.60 .68 2.14 .164 5 4.40 .595 2.10 .125 5 4.50 .84 2.68 .205 6 5.29 .714 2.52 .150 6 5.40 1.01 3.22 .246 7 6.17 .833 2.94 .175 7 6.30 1.18 3.75 .287 8 7.05 .952 3.36 .200 8 7.20 1.35 4.29 .328 9 7.93 1.071 3.78 .225 9 8.40 1.52 4.82 .369 10 8.81 1.190 4.20 .250 10 9.00 1.69 5.36 .410 Wheat Sorts I ted Dog Flour 1 .89 .130 .40 .045 1 .90 .162 .57 .034 2 1.78 .260 .91 .090 2 1.80 .324 1.14 .068 3 2.66 .390 1.37 .135 3 2.70 .486 1.71 .102 4 3.55 .520 1.83 .180 4 3.60 .658 2.28 .136 5 4.44 .650 2.28 .225 5 4.50 .810 285 .170 6 5.33 .780 2.74 .270 6 5.41 .972 3.42 .204 7 6.22 .910 3.20 .315 7 6.31 1.134 3.99 .238 8 7.10 1.040 3.66 .360 8 7.21 1.296 4.56 .272 9 7.99 1.170 4.11 .405 9 8.11 1.458 5.13 .306 10 8.88 1.300 4.57 .450 10 9.01 1.620 5.70 .340 HAECKER FEEDING STANDARDS 471 Table III. Pounds of Dry Matter and Nutrients Contained in a Given Nxunber of Pounds of Feed Stuff. CONCENTRATES— (Cont'd) Emmer (Speltz) Corn and Cob Meal Lbs. Dry Mat- ter Digestibl e Lbs. 1 Dry Mat- ter Digestible Pro. C-H. Fat Pro. C-H. Fat 1 .92 .10 .70 .02 .85 .044 .60 .029 2 1.84 .20 1.41 .04 2 1.70 .088 1.20 .058 3 2.76 .30 2.11 .06 3 2.55 .132 1.80 .087 4 3.68 .40 2.81 .08 4 3.40 .176 2.40 .116 5 4.60 .50 3.51 .10 5 4.24 .220 3.00 .145 6 5.52 .60 4.22 .12 6 5.09 .264 3.60 .174 7 6.44 .70 4.92 .14 7 5.94 .308 4.20 .203 8 7.36 .80 5.62 .16 8 6.79 .352 4.80 .232 9 8.28 .90 6.33 .18 9 7.64 .396 5.40 .261 10 9.20 1.00 7.03 .20 10 8.49 .440 6.00 .290 Kafir Corn Sorghum Seed 1 .90 0.52 .44 .014 1 .87 .045 .61 .028 2 1.80 .104 .89 .028 2 1.74 .090 1.22 .056 3 2.70 .156 1.33 .042 3 2.62 .135 1.83 .084 4 3.60 .208 1.77 .056 4 3.49 .180 2.44 .112 5 4.50 .260 2.21 .070 .5 4.36 .225 3.05 .140 6 5.41 .312 2.66 .084 6 5.23 .270 3.67 .168 7 6.31 .364 3.10 .098 7 6.10 .315 4.28 .196 8 7.21 .416 3.54 .112 8 6.98 .360 4.89 .224 9 8.11 .468 3.99 .126 9 7.85 .405 5.50 .252 10 9.01 .520 4.43 .140 10 8.72 .450 6.11 .280 Buckwheat Bran Buckwheat Mid- dlings 1 .92 .059 .34 .02 1 .87 .227 .37 .061 2 1.84 .118 .68 .04 2 1.74 .454 .75 .122 3 2.75 .177 1.02 .06 3 2.62 .681 1.12 .183 4 3.67 .236 1.36 .08 4 3.49 .908 1.50 .244 5 4.59 .295 1.70 .10 5 4.36 1.135 1.87 .305 6 5.51 .354 2.04 .12 6 5.23 1.362 2.25 .366 7 6.43 .413 2.34 .14 • 7 6.10 1.589 2.62 .427 8 7.34 .472 2.72 .16 8 6.98 1.816 3.00 .488 9 8.26 .531 3.06 .18 9 7.85 2.043 3.37 .549 10 9.18 .590 3.40 .20 10 8.72 2.270 3.75 .610 Rye Bran Rye Middlings 1 .88 .112 .47 .018 1 .88 .110 .53 .026 2 1.77 .224 .94 .036 2 1.76 .220 1.06 .052 3 2.65 .336 1.40 .054 3 2.65 .330 1.59 .078 4 3.54 .448 1.87 .072 4 3.53 .440 2.12 .104 5 4.42 .560 2.34 .090 5 4.41 .550 2.64 .130 4?2 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Table III. Pounds of Dry Matter and Nutrients Contained in a Given Number of Pounds of Feed Stuff. CONCENTRATES— (Cont'd) Millet Hominy Feed Lbs. Dry Mat- ter Digestible Lbs. Dry Mat- ter Digestible Pro. C-H. Fat Pro. C-H Fat 1 .88 .071 .48 .025 1 .90 .068 .60 .074 ?. 1.76 .142 .97 .050 2 1.81 .136 1.21 .148 3 2.64 .213 1.45 .075 3 2.71 .204 1.81 .222 4 3.52 .284 . 1.94 .100 4 3.62 .27? 2.42 .296 5 4.39 .355 2.42 .125 5 4.52 .340 3.02 .370 Corn Oil Meal Bean Meal 1 .91 .158 .39 .108 1 .89 .202 .42 .013 9. 1.83 .316 .78 .216 2 1.78 .404 .85 .026 3 2.74 .474 1.16 .324 3 2.67 .606 1.27 .039 4 3.66 .632 1.55 .432 4 3.56 .808 1.69 .052 5 4.57 .790 1.94 .540 5 4.45 1.010 2.11 .065 Cow Pea Meal Soy Bean Meal 1 .85 .168 .55 .011 1 .88 .291 .23 .146 9. 1.71 .336 1.10 .022 2 1.77 .582 .47 .292 3 2.56 .504 1.65 .033 3 2.65 .873 .70 .438 4 3.42 .672 2.20 .044 4 3.53 1.164 .93 .584 5 4.27 .840 2.74 .055 5 4.41 1.455 1.16 .730 Gluten Feed Gluten Meal 1 .91 .213 .53 029 1 .90 .297 .42 .061 ?, 1.82 .426 1.06 .058 2 1.81 .594 .85 .122 3 2.72 .639 1.58 .087 3 2.71 .891 1.27 .183 4 3.63 .852 2.11 .116 4 3.62 1.188 1.70 .244 5 4.. 54 1.065 2.64 .145 5 4.52 1.485 2.12 .305 Linseed Meal Cotton-seed Meal 1 .90 .302 .32 .069 1 .93 .376 .21 .096 ?, 1.80 .604 .64 .138 2 1.86 .752 .43 .192 3 2.71 .906 .96 .207 3 2.79 1.128 .64 .288 4 3.61 1.208 1.28 .276 4 3.72 1.504 .86 .384 5 4.51 1.510 1.60 .345 5 4.65 1.880 1.07 .480 Flax Seed Tankage 1 .91 .206 1 .17 1 .290 1 .930 .501 .00 .116 ? 1.82 .412 .34 .580 2 1.860 1.002 .00 .232 3 2.72 .618 .51 .870 3 2.790 1.503 .00 .348 4 3.63 .824 .68 1.160 4 3.720 2.004 .00 .464 5 4.54 1.030 .85 1.450 5 4.650 2.505 .00 .580 HAECKER FEEDING STANDARDS 473 Table III. Pounds of Dry Matter and Nutrients Contained in a Given Number of Pounds of Feed Stuff. CONCENTRATES— (Cont'd) wers' Grain (Dried) Malt Sprouts T,hs Drv Mat- ter Digestible Lbs. Dry Mat- ter Digestible Pro. C-H. Fat Pro. C-H. Fat 1 2 3 4 5 .91 1.83 2.74 3.65 4.56 .200 .400 .600 .800 1.000 .32 .64 .97 1.29 1.61 .060 .120 .180 .240 .300 1 2 3 4 5 .90 1.81 2.71 3.62 4.52 .203 .406 .609 .812 1.015 .46 .92 1.38 1.84 2.30 .014 .028 .042 .056 .070 Distillery Grain (Dried) Dried Beet Pulp 1 2 3 4 5 .92 1.85 2.77 3.70 4.62 .228 .456 .684 .912 1.140 .40 .79 1,19 1.59 1.98 .116 .232 .348 .464 .580 1 2 3 4 5 .92 1.82 2.75 3.66 4.58 .041 .082 .123 .164 .205 .65 1.30 1.95 2.60 3.24 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000 How to Formulate a Balanced Ration. The term "bal- anced ration" means a combination of foods containing such amounts of protein (organic matter containing nitro- gen), carbohydrates (nitrogen free material), and fat, as are known to be necessary for the maintenance of the animal body and the production of work, milk, or fatty tissues. All dairy cows should not be fed the same ration, because their requirements for food are very variable. Differences in weight and flow of milk should be considered in preparing their daily food rations. It is unreasonable to think that a 1,400 pound cow giving fifty pounds of milk daily should receive the same ration as a 1,000 pound cow giving twenty pounds of milk daily. The requirements of one cow are greater than those of the other and should be considered in feeding. Profitable feeding of dairy cows demands that records of milk flow be taken for each cow in the herd, and also that the weights of the cows be known. Such data are necessary to successful feeding methods. 474 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION The computing of a balanced ration for a dairy cow is accomplished as follows: In case of a 1,200 pound cow yield- ing 40 pounds of 3.6% milk daily, the daily nutrient require- ments for maintenance and milk production are totaled from the data given in Tables I and II. Pro. Lbs. C-H. Lbs. Fat Lbs. For maintenance of a 1200 pound cow For production of 40 lbs. 3.6% milk . . .840 2.004 8.40 9.00 .120 .772 Total nutrients required daily 2.844 17.40 .892 The next step is to refer to Table III and to compound a mixture of roughage and grain feeds that will approximately meet the known nutrient requirements of the cow, using farm, grown feeds as much as possible to reduce the cost of the ration to a minimum. In making up trial rations to get the desired balanced ration, the necessary amount of rough- age may be estimated at the rate of two pounds of hay, or its equivalent, for each 100 lbs. of the cow's weight, and one pound of grain for each three pounds of milk yield. When silage is fed, the rule may be to feed one pound of hay and three pounds of silage per hundredweight, and the balance of the required nutrients should be provided in. concentrates, except that, when roots are fed, they will take the place of a part of the grain at the rate of ten pounds of roots for one pound of grain. These directions are general and should be used only as a guide in making out trial rations to compare with the known amounts of nutrients required. In feeding practice it will be found that spare, big bodied cows will take relatively more roughage. Three rations are shown herewith that will meet the nutrient requirements of a 1,200 lb. cow yielding 40 lbs. of 3.6% milk daily: HAECKER FEEDING STANDARDS 475 Ration No. 1 Kind of Feed Timothy hay Ground oats. . . . Wheat bran Wheat middUngs. Linseed meal .... Nutrients provided . Feed Lbs. 24 6 4 2 2H Protein Lbs. .672 .642 .476 .340 .755 2.885 C-H. Lbs. 10.42 3.19 1.68 1.07 .80 17.16 Fat Lbs. .336 .228 .100 .082 .172 .918 Ration No. 2 [ind of Feed Clover hay . . Mangels Ground corn. Ground oats . Nutrients provided . Feed Lbs. 22 30 Protein Lbs. 1.562 .300 .632 .428 2.922 C-H. Lbs. 8.32 1.65 5.34 2.01 17.32 Fat Lbs. .396 .060 .344 .152 .952 Ration ] ^0. 3 Kind of Feed teed Lbs. Protein Lbs. C-H. Lbs. Fat Lbs. Clover hay 16 30 7 4 1 1.136 .375 .749 .316 .302 6.05 4.26 3.52 2.67 .32 288 Corn silage .210 Ground oats 266 Ground corn Linseed meal .172 069 Nutrients provided 2.878 16.82 1 005 Rations numbered 2 and 3 are much better than number 1, because the feed is more succulent and palatable and be- 31 476 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION cause less expensive mill feed is needed to properly balance the ration. Clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, and other legume for- age crops, contain a much higher percentage of protein (nitrogenous matter) than such forage crops as timothy, brome grass, or fodder com. For this reason, when they are used in feeding, they greatly reduce the amount of nitrogenous mill feeds, such as linseed meal, wheat middlings, or cotton seed meal, necessary to balance the ration properly. Palatability of the Ration. In formulating a ration, due regard should be given to its palatability. When a cow relishes her food, the appetite is stimulated, digestion aided, and she gives better returns. To this end, forage should be cut early and not exposed to sunshine any longer than is absolutely necessary. Dews and sunlight in alter- nation will bleach forage, and reduce its palatability and digestibility. The ration should be composed of a reason- able number of feeds, since a mixture is relished better than only one kind of grain or roughage; but frequent changes in a ration should be avoided, as they cause im- perfect digestion and assimilation. The dairyman should so adjust the supply of feed that the ration can be made from two kinds of roughage and several varieties of grainy and then make no more changes during the winter than are necessary. If an appetizing, well balanced ration can be fed all winter, better results will be obtained than when changes in the ration are made. Succulent feed, such as roots and silage, is greatly relished, and it stimulates the appetite and the flow of milk. It also aids digestion by keeping the cow in better physical tone. Note: Tables taken exactly from Bulletin 130 of the Minne- sota Agr. Expt. Station. Explanation of how to formulate a balanced ration by the author — this being an epitome of Bulletin 130. WOLFF FFjEDIIsG STANDARDS 477 THE WOLFF FEEDING STANDARDS FOR FARM ANIMALS (From Henry's Feeds and Feeding) Lb s. per day per 1,000 lbs. ive weight Kind of Live Stock Dry Digestible Nutrients Crude Sum Nutri- matter pro. C-H. Fat Nutri- ents tive Ratio 1. Fattening cattle — First period 30 2.5 15.0 0.5 15.0 6.5 30 3.0 14.5 0.7 17,0 5.4 26 25 2.7 2.9 15.0 15.0 0.7 0.5 17.2 16.3 6.2 2. Breeding ewes, with lambs .... 5.6 3. Fattening sheep — First period 30 3.0 15.0 0.5 16.5 5.4 2.S 3.5 14.5 0.6 16.9 4.5 4. Horses — Light work 20 1.5 9.5 0.4 10.0 7.0 24 20 22 2.0 2.5 2.5 11.0 13.3 15.5 0.6 0.8 0.4 12.8 15.5 19.0 6.2 6.0 6.6 6. Fattening swine — 36 32 4.5 4.0 25.0 24.0 0.7 0.5 31.2 29.2 5.9 6.3 2.7 IS.O 0.4 22.0 7.0 7. Growing cattle — Dairv breeds Age, Months Av. Live Wt. 2-3 160 23 4.2 13.0 2.0 21.5 4.2 3-6 330 24 3.5 12.8 1.5 19.0 4.7 6-12 550 25 2.5 13.2 0.7 15.8 6.0 12-18 750 24 2.0 12.5 0-5 13.9 6.8 18-24 950 24 1.8 12.0 0.4 13.2 7.2 8. Growing sheep — INIutton breeds 4-6 60 26 4.4 15.5 0.9 20.9 4.0 6-8 80 26 3.5 15.0 0.7 17.8 4.8 8-11 100 24 3.0 14.3 0.5 10.3 5.2 11-15 120 23 2.2 12.6 0.5 13.8 6.3 15-20 150 22 2.0 12.0 0.4 12.8 6.5 9. Growing swine — Breeding stock 2-3 50 44 7.6 28 1.0 38.0 4.0 3-5 100 35 4.8 22.5 0.7 29.0 5.0 5-6 120 32 3.7 21.3 0.4 26.0 6.0 6-8 200 28 2.8 18.7 0.3 22.2 7.0 8-12 250 25 2.1 15 3 0.2 17.9 / .o Note : Balanced rations for these kinds of farm animals may be computed from the forage crop and grain feed analyses shown under the Haecker Feeding Standards, and by similar methods, using the Wolff Standards as the basis for nutrients required. 478 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION COST OF FARM HORSE POWER Agricultural Region Total Annual Cost of Keeping One Horse. Average 5 years 1908-1912 Actual Cost per Hour of Work for One Horse. Average 9 years 1904-1912 Southeastern Minnesota $103.27 100.64 84.67 9.72 cents Southwestern Minnesota (*) 8.64 cents 8.05 cents Northwestern Minnesota C*) 7 year average. Note : The cost figures shown in this table have been selected from the statistical data of the Division of Farm Management of the Minne- sota Agricuhural Experiment Station. These figures are not estimates, but actual records from a large number of Minnesota farms. The averages are based on records of about 450 horses in each region. The annual cost includes interest on investment, depreciation, harness depreciation, shoeing, feed, labor, and miscellaneous expense. Feed is the largest item in the cost of farm horse power, representing on the average two thirds to three fourths of the total cost. The cost of horse power per hour is computed by dividing the total annual cost by the actual number of hours worked. FENCING CO^TS FENCING COSTS 479 Cost per Rod on Basis of a Square 40-Acre Field Kind of Fence Cedar Posts Steel Posts 1 Rod Apart Rods Apart 2 Rods Apart 1 Rod Apart IH Rods Apart 2 Rods Apart 2 strands barbed wire with temporary, driven, 3" posts . Cents 37 53 62 Cents 21 29 45 53. . Cents 18 25 Cents Cents Cents 52 69 77 40 57 65 35 35 inch woven wire with 1 strand of barbed wire 26 inch woven wire hog fence with 2 Note: Statistics of average costs for fencing materials and labor by courtesy of L. B. Bassett, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station; arrangement and cost per rod computations by the author. The costs of fencing per rod shown in this table include posts, wire, staples and labor. These costs have been computed on the basis of a 40 acre field, and thus the cost for four corner posts has been figured into the average cost per rod. No cost for gates has been included. The posts for the temporary barbed wire fence are 3 inch cedar; all other wooden posts are of 4 inch cedar. Steel post costs are for the hoUow type of round, steel post. The temporary 3 inch cedar posts are driven 2 to 23^ feet deep; all other wooden posts are set 2J^ feet deep. The steel posts are driven 214 ft. deep. Fence cost is very variable in various agricultural regions of the United States, varying with the distance from wire manufacturing centers and with the local supply of post materials. Cedar and oak posts, for example, range in cost all the way from 8 cts. to 22 cts. apiece. The cedar post and the steel post are the posts of commerce and have, therefore, been used in this cost table. The costs shown in this table are based on the following data, which represent a fair average for the United States. (1) Labor. Wages for man labor $35.00 per month; board cost $15.00 per month; total of $50.00 per month; or approxi- mately 20 cents per hour for a 10 hour day. Horse labor is figured at 10 cents per hour per horse. 480 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Photo by courtesy American Steel and Wire Company. Types of woven wire fence with steel line posts, corner posts and braces In one day of 10 hours, fencing work may be performed at the following rates: 2 men and one team of horses will drive 200 to 250 three inch cedar posts or steel posts in soil free from stone ; 2 men, with one hour of team labor, will dig holes and set 80 to 100 four inch posts 2}^ feet deep; 2 men win dig holes and set and brace 6 to 10 wooden corner posts; 2 men will dig holes, mix the necessary concrete, and set and brace 4 steel corner posts, set in concrete ; 2 men will stretch and staple 80 rods of one strand, new barbed wire, in one hour; 2 men will stretch and staple 80 rods of new woven wire in 314 to 4 hours. (2) Posts. Cedar line posts, 3 inches by 7 feet, 15 cents apiece. Cedar line posts, 4 inches by 7 feet, 18 cents apiece. Cedar corner posts, 6 inches by 8 feet, 25 cents apiece. Steel line posts, round, galvanized, 7 feet, 32 cents apiece. FENCING COSTS 481 Steel corner posts, round, galvanized, 7 feet 8 inches, with all braces included, $2.90 apiece. (3) Wire. • Barbed wire, $3.00 per roll of 105 lbs. One roll will run about 80 rods, giving a cost per rod for one strand of 3^ cents. Woven wire, 35 inches high, with 12 inch stays, No. 9 wire top and bottom, No. 1 1 wire intermediate, 23 cents per rod. Hog fence, woven wire, 26 inches high, with 6 inch stays, No. 9 wire top and bottom, No 11 wire intermediate, 27 cents per rod. (4) Staples. $2.50 per keg of 100 lbs. Staples run 80. to 90 per pound. In stapling woven wire it takes about 7}/^ lbs. staples for 100 rods of 35 inch fence with posts 1 rod apart. 482 FIELD MANAGE3IENT AND CROP ROTATION WORK CAPACITY OF FARM MACHINES Kind of Machine Binder, small grain Binder, small grain Binder, small grain Binder, corn Cultivator, single row, (42" rows) Cultivator, riding (42" rows) Cultivator, 2 row riding (42" rows) Drill, small grain Drill, small grain Drill, small grain Ensilage cutter, with fly wheel diameter Of Ensilage cutter, with fly -wheel diameter of Ensilage cutter, with fly wheel diameter of ■ Harrow, disk ( \ i lapped) Harrow, disk (!^ lapped) Harrow, disk (,'2 lapped) Harrow, spring tooth Harrow, spring tooth Harrow, spike tooth Harrow, spike tooth Header, small grain Mower Mower Packer Planter, beet (18" rows) Planter, corn, 1 row (42" rows) Planter, corn, 2 rows (42" rows) Planter, potato, 1 row (40" rows) Planter, potato, 2 rows (40" rows) Plow, walking Plow, walking Plow, sulky Plow, sulky gang Plow, engine gang, 4 plows Plow, engine gang, 6 plows Plow, engine gang, 8 plows Plow, deep tillage, 2 disk Potato digger, 40" rows Rake, self dump Rake, aide delivery Shredder and husker (corn) Shredder and husker (corn) Shredder and husker (corn) Threshing separator (pea and bean special) Threshing separator (pea and bean special) Threshing separator (pea and bean special) Threshing separator (pea and bean special) Threshing .separator, small grain (wheat and flax) Size of Ma- chine 6' cut 7' cut 8' cut 12 tube IG tube 20 tube 42 inch 36 inch 30 inch 4 foot 6 foot 8 foot 6 foot 8 foot 3 sec 5 sec 12 foot 5 foot 6 foot 10 foot 4 row 14" cut 16" cut 10" cut 28" cut 50" cut 84" cut 112" cut 20" cut 10 foot 8 foot 4 roll 6 roll 8 roll 12 inch 20x32 " 26x44 " 36x54 " 18x30 " Horse Power Re- quired 3 4 4 3-4 1 2 3-4 2 3 4 15-20 12-15 8-12 2 3 4 3 4 2-3 4 6 2 2 4 2 1 1 2 4 2 3 3 4-5 14-18 20-25 25-30 6 4 2 2 10-12 15-20 25 2-4 6-8 10-14 14-18 15-lS Speed per Hour in Miles, or Revolu tions per Minute Mites 21' 2'^ 21/ 23' 2 2 2 2^ 2^^ 2 'A 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2y2 2J4 2H 2 2,1^ 214 23^ 232 23-2 2 k. 21/0 21/2 23i 2 2 2 2 23^ 23-2 23-i:. Revo- lutions 300-350 300-350 300-350 300-350 1050- 1150 Acre Capa- city per Hour 1.5-1.8 1.7-2.1 2.0-2.4 .8-1.0 .5- . .5- . 1.0-1.6 1.5- 1.8 2.0-2.4 2.5-3.0 .4- .5 .6- .7 .8-1.0 1.0-1.4 1.5-2.0 3.0-3.6 5.0-6.0 3.0-3.6 1.2-1.5 1.5-1 2.0-2.4 1.5-1.8 .5-1.0 1.0-2.0 .6-1.0 1.2-2.0 .25-.35 .3-.4 .3-.4 .5-. 7 .9-1.1 1.4-1.6 1.9-2.2 .34-.4 .7-1.0 2.5-3.0 2.0-2.4 Ton or Bushel Capa- nty per Hour Tons 9-15 8-12 Bushels 25-50 • 50-75 80-100 8-10 3.5-50 50-80 80-100 60 WORK CAPACITY OF MACHINES 483 Work Capacity of Farm Machines — Continued Kind of Machine Threshing separator (oats and barley) Threshing Threshing Threshing Threshing Threshing Threshing Threshing Threshing separator separator separator separator separator separator separator separator (wheat and flax) . (oats and barley) . (wheat and flax) . (oats and barley) . (wheat and flax) . (oats and barley) . (wheat and flax) , (oats and barley) . Size of Ma- chine 18x36 28x50 28x50 32x54 32x54 36x58 36x58 40x62 40x62 Horse Power Re- quired 15-18 30-40 30-40 40-50 40-50 50-60 50-60 60-80 60-80 Revolu- tions per Minute 1050- 1150 750-800 750-800 750-800 750-800 750-800 750-800 750-800 750-800 Acre Capa- city per Hour Bushel Capa- city per Hour 220 75 275 125 300 160 350 200 375 Note: Data on ensilage cutters and shredders by courtesy of The International Harvester Co.; pea threshers, J. L. Owens Mfg. Co.; grain separators, J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co.; all other data by the author. Horse power for engine plows is horse power at the drawbar; for threshing machines, shredders, and ensilage cutters, horse power on the belt. The work capacity of farm machines varies through very wide limits, due to soil and crop conditions, speed and stamina of horses, size and shape of fields, condition of the machine to stand steady work, and the experience and character of the operator. In thi^ table there is shown the maximum capacity per hour for the common tillage, planting and harvesting machines, at the standard speeds for best work; also the average capacity per hour based on observations of the actual average daily capacity of farm machines. The actual, average work capacity of any farm machine may be determined very closely by subtracting 15% to 20% from the maximum capacity at a given speed — this deduction being made for time lost in turning, resting horses, oihng, adjusting, fiUing seed hoppers, etc.; or in case of power machinery for oihng, adjusting, and takmg fuel. The capacity of certain machines such as the corn binder and the potato digger are especially subject to variation. For best results- these machines must be driven at comparatively high speed (23^-3 miles per hour) and this speed quickly tires the horses. In order to maintain maximum capacity it is necessary to change horses once or twice a day. If the horses are not changed the capacity varies greatly according to the amount of rest allowed. 484 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION THE DEPRECIATION IN VALUE OF FARM MACHINERY ''From Bulletin 73, Bureau of Statistics, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture) Annual Depreciation in Value of Farm Machinery Expressed in Percentages. Machine Grain binders Grain drills and seed- ers Thrashing outfit Corn binders Corn planters Corn cultivators Mowers Hay tedders Hay loaders Hay rakes Gang plows Sulky plows Walking plows Wagons Harrows Disks Manure spreaders . . . . Hay racks Reapers Grain tanks Sleds Fanning mills Horse weeders Harness (heavy) Gasoline engines S. E. Minn. Per cevl 8.33 7.27 11.46 6.74 6.67 7.25 4.84 11.78 7.68 10.51 10.27 4.77 6.66 11.01 6.41 10.50 14.57 5.66 5.00 5.97 3.92 S. W. Minn. Per cent 9.44 8.07 10.16 8.54 9.04 10.01 7.51 7.16 11.93 7.29 4.86 8.20 7.46 12.59 14.89 4.50 4.97 6.63 N. W. Minn. Per cent 7.47 6.53 6.97 6.97 8.46 6.69 5.77 7.64 5.44 7.93 10.30 6.82 '7.21' 1,820 Ac. Farm N. W. Minn. Per cent 6.53 4.36 12.00 4.66 7.28 5.81 8.46 2.47 8.89 3.35 5.12 8.13 3.47 8.20 3.66 640 Ac. Farm W. Minn Per cent 10.57 6.47 9.00 5.00 8.93 5.00 6.71 3.70 8.82 5.90 6.78 7.50 10.00 3.33 5.71 4.44 10.00 Average, All Ma- chines Per cent 7.91 6.75 12.00 10.03 7.15 7.25 7.80 4.84 11.78 7.80 7.40 8.42 6.09 4.89 8.72 5.19 11.67 7.76 8.13 3.47 5.81 4.58 5.71 6.17 7.35 DEPRECIATION OF MACHINERY 485 Values in Farm Machinery Consumed per Acre Annually, 1902-1907. Machinery S. E. Minn. S. W. Minn. N. W. Minn. 1,820 Ac. Farm N. W. Minn. 640 Ac. Farm W. Minn. Average, All Farms Grain machinery: Binders $0,240 $0,247 $0,160 $0,135 .171 .036 .004 .012 .023 $0,175 .675' ' .016 .251 $0,181 .171 Drills, seeders Fanning mills .104 .019 .101 .016 .077 .075 .010 .011 Wagons, sleds, and racks Corn machinery: Binders .041 1.199 .094 .171 .171 .332 .152 .113 .300 .078 .064 .086 .027 .185 .041 .911 .080 .145 .159 .310 .106 .036 .653 .034 .826 .087 Cultivators Wagons, sleds, and .218 .100 .150 .081 .086 .155 .158 Hay machinery: Mowers Rakes Tedders .146 .018 .166 .026 .206 .085 .113 ' '.266' ' .061 .132 .021 .097 .100 .151 Ropes, forks, etc. . Wagons, sleds, and racks All crop machinery: Plows Harrows .120 .059 .078 .017 .036 .061 .006 .119 .024 .032 .059 .087 .017 .089 .335 .335 Note: These data relative to farm machinery were collected in four farming communities of Minnesota by very careful methods. On about ten farms in each community inventories of machinery were taken annually for five years and the rate of depreciation computed. An accurate record of the acreage covered by farm machines was also made in order to determine an approximate cost per acre for ma- chinery. It was found that the acreage covered by a machine is not as important a factor in depreciation as age. 486 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION COST OF PRODUCING CORN, WHEAT, OATS, BAR- LEY, AND POTATOES IN VARIOUS GEOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS OF THE UNITED STATES. (From the "Crop Reporter/' Bureau of Statistics, U. S. Department of Agriculture.) Cost of Producing Com in 1909, by Geographical Divisions. Item 0) M •a 'a t3 a a 3 C m 0) 3 lis -C o'S. 2g aj.2 ^ ■S'°"B. d Cost per acre for: — Commercial fertilizer, dollars Preparation of land " . . Seed " . . Planting " . . Cultivation " . . Gathering " . . Miscellaneous " . . Land rental or interest. . " . . 0.82 2.11 .24 .44 2.24 2.20 .47 3.75 2.91 4.42 .32 .74 2.81 5.00 .62 3.62 2.57 2.36 .24 .56 2.80 2.24 .52 3.14 0.79 1.96 .23 .47 2.54 1.65 .48 3.17 0.55 2.51 .25 .36 2.11 2.86 .46 4.97 0.19 1.74 .23 .38 1.80 2.06 .42 3.76 0.12 2.26 .24 .65 1.81 2.51 .67 3.40 Total cost per acre, ex- cluding rent dollars Including rent, dollars 8.52 12.27 16.82 20.44 11.29 14.43 8.12 11.29 9.10 14.07 6.82 10.58 8.26 11.66 Yield per acre bushels Cost, excluding rent, per bushel cents Cost, including rent, per bushel cents Value per bushel cents Average value of corn lands per acre dollars 32.40 26.30 37.90 62.00 59.46 43.10 39.00 47.40 70.00 62.72 25.70 43.90 56.10 85.60 30.60 25.20 32.20 44.80 67.60 31.37 42.60 21.40 33.00 55.00 98.72 34.10 20.00 31.00 51.90 70.80 27.60 29.-90 42.20 74.30 54.57 Tabulated from the reports of 6000 correspondents of the Bureau of Statistics. CROP COSTS 487 Cost of Producing Wheat in 1909, by G eographical Divisions. Item 01 •a a North Atlantic States 3 O m 3 O '^.2 North Central west of Missis- sippi River c o o m Cost per acre for: Commercial fertilizer, dollars Preparation of land " . . Seed " . . Planting " . . Harvesting " . . Preparing for market. . . " . . Miscellaneous " . . Land rental or interest. " . . 0.58 2.11 1.42 0.46 1.33 1.4S 0.48 3.30 2.81 3.86 2.01 0.60 1.82 1.69 0.63 3.63 2.59 2.47 1.52 0.62 1.33 1.26 0.47 2.85 0.57 1.89 1.22 0.46 1.25 1.48 0.42 3.06 1.00 2.58 1.60 0.41 1.25 1.49 0.44 4.63 0.12 1.79 1.36 0.42 1.26 1.42 0.44 2.93 0.17 2.39 1.32 0.53 1.68 1.89 0.75 3.97 Total cost per acre exclud- ing rent dollars Including rent, " . . 7.85 11.15 13.42 17.05 10.25 13.10 7.29 10.35 8.78 13.41 6.82 9.74 8.72 12.69 Yield per acre bushels Cost, excluding rent, per bushel cents Cost, including rent, per bushel cents Value per bushel " . Average value of wheat lands per acre dollars 17.2 46 66 96 54.59 20.7 65 82 103 63.18 15.7 66 85 109 36.66 14.4 51 72 98 36.60 18.7 47 72 98 85.65 15.8 44 62 95 50.24 24.3 36 52 90 58.81 Tabulated from the reports of 5000 correspondents of the Bureau of Statistics. 488 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Cost of Producing Oats in 1909, by Geographical Divisions. Cost per acre for:— Commercial fertilizers. . . , Preparation of land Seed Planting Harvesting Preparing for market Miscellaneous expense ... Land rental or interest on land investment Total co.st per acre: Excluding rent Including rent Yield per acre bushels Cost per bushel: Excluding rent Including rent Value of grain per bu Value of oat lands per acre Dols. .40 1.88 1.12 .44 1.34 1.51 .44 3.78 7.13 10.91 35.2 .20 .31 .40 70.48 Dols. 1.94 3.52 1.48 .68 1.99 1.80 .58 3.28 11.99 15.27 37.3 .32 .41 .50 55.90 -Ceo Dols. 1.97 1.97 1.22 .65 1.22 1.23 .40 2.80 8.66 11.46 26.3 .33 .44 .64 29.33 :g Oft t^ ft O m'S 1^ tu Dols. .33 1.99 1.10 .40 1.27 1.43 .39 4.57 6.91 11.48 37.2 .19 .31 .38 89.86 ■S'°"o. IF Dols. .08 1.46 1.06 .39 1.27 1.46 .44 3.44 6.16 9.60 33.5 .18 .29 .36 68.10 Dols. .41 1.68 1.03 .50 1.32 1.58 .40 2.89 6.92 9.81 31.3 .22 .31 .48 30.67 Dols. .07 2.43 1.16 .58 1.65 2.16 .66 3.87 8.71 12.58 43.7 .20 .29 .50 56.66 Tabulated from reports of 5,000 correspondents of the Bureau of Statistics. Cost of Producing Barley in Important Barley States, 1909. M d C3 a •d m o "3 O rt.1 nn ^ a Item o a o n ^Q ll 0) .2 Cost per acre for — Preparing ground for seed dollars 1 84 3.71 2.22 1.83 1.25 1.83 1.61 0.97 1.77 Seed 1.14 1.96 1.38 1.21 1.22 .97 1.02 .89 .95 Sowing " .46 .65 .69 .42 .36 .46 .37 .48 .44 Harvesting " 1.28 2.00 1.58 1.22 1.37 .99 1.15 .93 1.42 Preparing for market . " 1.50 2.58 1.60 1.38 1.25 1.69 1.26 1.04 1.75 Rental value of land. . " 3.17 2.S7 4.16 2.67 4.80 2.36 2.73 2.43 3.20 Other items of cost . " .66 .72 .73 .62 .39 .29 .49 .29 .93 Total cost per acre — Including item of rental" 10.05 16.28 12.49 9.43 10.64 8.59 8.71 7.24 10.46 Excluding item of rental" 6.88 13.41 8.33 6.76 5.84 6.23 5.98 4.81 7.26 Yield per acre bushels 27.6 41.0 30.0 25.0 28.0 25.0 24.0 23.0 33.0 Cost per bushel — Including rental cents 36.4 39.7 41.6 37.7 38.0 34.4 36.3 31.5 31.7 Excluding rental " 24.9 32.7 27.8 27.0 20.9 24.9 24.9 20.9 22.0 Value of grain — 52.1 65.47 67.0 45.83 60.0 77.43 51.0 51.00 54.0 106.36 47.0 33.96 61.0 52.08 45.0 40.00 50.0 Value of land per acre.doll'rs 62.06 Tabulated from reports of 200 correspondents of the Bureau of Statistics CROP COSTS 489 Cost of Producing Potatoes in 1909, by Geographical Divisions. Item Cost per acre for: — Commercial fertilizers Preparing ground for seed. . . Seed Planting Cultivating Gathering Rental value of land Other items of cost Total cost per acre including rental value of land Excluding rental value of land Yield per acre bushels Cost per bushel: Including rental value of land ■ cents Excluding rental value of land cents Value of product per bushel, cents Value of land per acre . dollars o — o -^ °^.2 a a t3 m C.2 > •s O a O j3"o'S, Dols. Dols. Dols. Dols. 3.29 9.01 5.62 1.07 3.38 4.72 3.20 3.28 6.36 5.90 5.84 4.38 2.39 2.58 2.46 2.10 3.15 3.83 3.20 2.96 5.77 6.73 4.41 5.28 3.99 3.85 3.87 4.15 1.71 2.20 1.50 1.37 29.04 38.82 30.10 24.59 25.05 34.97 26.23 20.44 lis 138 111 115 24.6 28.1 27.1 21.4 21.2 25.3 23.6 17.8 53 53 60 46 64.20 62.07 44.76 71.06 Dols. 0.40 2.22 5.44 2.44 2.44 5.64 3.66 1.26 23.50 19.84 102 23.0 20.0 53 68.25 Dols. 1.94 2.41 6.49 2.12 2.88 4.25 3.84 1.60 25.53 21.69 84 30.4 25.8 71 35.35 ^3 Dols. 0.46 3.42 5.70 2.84 3.73 7.02 4.87 2.76 30.80 25.93 137 22.5 18.9 64 74.23 Tabulated from reports of 4,000 correspondents of the Bureau of Statistics. 490 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION SUMMARY OF THE COST OF PRODUCING FIELD CROPS IN MINNESOTA (From Bulletin 73, Bureau of Statistics, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) Average Annual Cost per Acre of Producing Field Crops, 1902-1907. (Including rental of land.) Crop S. E. Minn. S. W. Minn. N. W. Minn. Minne- sota Agri- cul- tural Experi- ment Sta- tion Large Farm, North- west- ern Minne- sota Aver- age, All Farms $9,647 6.500 11.658 15.297 $8,880 $7,003 $6,179 $8,211 6.500 Corn — ears husked from standing 9.662 10.438 15 297 Corn — cut, shocked, and hauled 10.265 10 265 Corn — grown thickly and siloed. 20.627 10.072 19.187 6.283 19.892 Flaxseed — thrashed from windrow '8.86i 8.400 7.272 7.028 6.895 8.912 7.496 7.851 Flaxseed— bound, shocked, stack- 7.278 Fodder corn — cut and shocked 10.733 12.362 6.185 7.178 9.317 6.036 7.896 9.650 Fodder corn — cut, shocked, and 12.362 Hay — timothy and clover (first 5.553 4.567 5.591 Hay — ;timothy and clover (two 7.178 7.971 5.478 6.349 2.970 7.105 2.584 3.394 4.042 3.394 6.741 6.741 32.682 6.073 32.682 9.854 9.158 9.039 8.092 7.110 8.863 8.884 26.366 37.721 3.432 6.056 26.366 Potatoes — machine production 37.721 5.985 9.861 5.512 8.389 4.310 6.977 4.332 Wheat — fall plowed 7.249 Note: These summarized figures on the costs of crop pro- duction, in Minnesota include a land rental charge of $3.50 per acre for lands in S. E. Minn.; $3.00 per acre for S. W. Minn.; and $1.80 per acre for the large farm in N. W. Minn. Land values have risen greatly in these communities since 1902-1907, and land rentals as an item of crop cost are therefore considerably higher. This item of crop cost may be figured into the data of this table for any community by computing the current interest rate on the market value of the land. Labor and seed Jiave also increased in cost since the period 1902-1907. This increase amounts to approximately 20%. CROP COSTS 491 ITEMIZED ACCOUNTS OF THE COSTS OF PRO- DUCING CORN, HAY, WHEAT, AND POTATOES IN MINNESOTA (From Bulletin 73, Bureau of Statistics, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Cost of Producing Com— Ears Husked from Standing Stalks. Item S. E. Minn. Total Acreage, Five Years Total Cost Cost per Acre Seed Shelling seed Plowing Dragging Planting (horse planter) Cultivating , Weeding Husking Machinery cost Land rental Total. 694.725 559.545 803.331 990.448 834.228 960.388 $157,290 14.400 1,053.520 538.977 200.602 1,734.079 446.430 1,542.824 $0,226 .026 1.311 .544 .240 1.806 3.456 .549 3.500 11.658 Cost of Producing Fodder Com Planted Thick for Forage — Cut, Shocked, and Stacked in the Farmstead. Item S. E. Minn. Total Acreage, Five Years Total Cost Cost per Acre Seed Plowing , Dragging Planting (horse planter) . Cultivating Cutting (corn binder) . . , Shocking and tying Twine Hauhng and stacking ... Machinery cost Land rental Total. 371.194 803.331 372.844 344.005 353.904 334.128 334.128 298.632 246.225 $161,960 1,053.520 198.071 101.367 431.009 232.697 169.984 145.970 401.217 $0,436 1.311 .531 .295 1.218 .696 .509 .489 1.629 1.748 3.500 12.362 32 492 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Cost of Producing Corn — Cut, Shocked, and Shredded. Item S. E. Minn. Total Acreage, Five Years Total Cost Cost per Acre Seed. Shelling seed Plowing Dragging Planting (horse planter) Cultivating Cutting (corn binder . ) . . Shocking and tying .... Twine Picking up ears Shredding Machinery cost Land rental 694.725 559.545 803.331 990.448 834.228 960.388 367.399 343.579 321.499 139.230 181.164 $157,290 14.400 1,053.520 538.977 200.602 1,734.079 267.547 175.050 143.710 34.600 717.929 $0,226 .026 1.311 .544 .240 1.806 .728 .509 .447 .249 3.963 1.748 3.500 Total . 15.297 Cost of Producing Com — Thickly Planted and Siloed. Average of Four Farms in Southeastern Minnesota, 1906-1907. Item Total Acreage Total Cost Cost per Acre Seed. Plowing. . . Han'owing . Planting Cultivating Cutting (binder) Twine (4323/^ pounds) Loading and hauling, feeding and packing Fuel (coal, 13,730 pounds) Engine rent and engineer , Values consumed in ensilage cutter . Interest on silo investment Silo depreciation Farm machinery cost Land rental 371.194 803.331 372.844 344.005 353.904 82.89 82.89 82.89 70.89 70.89 15.00 82.50 82.50 $161,960 1,053.520 198.071 101.367 431.009 62.520 44.120 447.100 37.940 96.340 12.830 60.120 117.990 Total. $0,436 1.311 .531 .295 1.218 .754 .532 5.394 .535 1.359 .855 .729 1.430 1.748 3.500 20.627 CROP COSTS 493 Cost of Producing Hay — Timothy and Clover. First Crop Item S. E. Minn. Total Acreage, Five Years Total Cost Cost per Acre Seed Mowing Raking Cocking and spreading . . Hauling in Hauling in and stacking . Machinery cost Land rental Total first crop . 793.706 618.474 624.645 591.514 $291,705 109.977 124.500 650.056 $0,293 .368 .178 .199 1.099 .548 3.500 6.185 Item S. W. Minn. Total Acreage, Five Years Total Cost Cost per Acre Seed Mowing Raking Cocking and spreading . . Hauling in HauMng in and stacking . Machinery cost Land rental Total first crop. 260.204 260.204 585.352 55.407 260.204 323.135 $0,293 .328 .213 1.242 .477 3.000 5.553 494 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Cost of Producing Hay — Timothy and Clover — Continued. First Crop — Continued N. W. Minn. Item Total Acreage, Five \ ears Total Cost Cost per Acre Seed $0,293 Mowing Raking Cocking and spreading 417.647 287.250 $151,637 71.169 .363 .248 Hauling in . Hauling in and stacking 369 202 470.047 1.273 Machinery cost .290 Land rental 2.100 Total first crop 4.567 Seconc Crop S. E. Minn. Item Total Acreage, Five Years Total Cost Cost per Acre Mowing 245.090 231.090 89.502 128.230 $64,734 26.580 13.448 59.506 $0,264 Raking .115 Cocking and spreading Hauling in .150 .464 Total second crop .993 Total cost of two cuttings . . . 7.178 CROP COSTS 495 Cost of Producing Spring Wheat — Fall Plowed. Item S. E. Minn. Total Acreage, Five Years Total Cost Cost per Acre Seed. Cleaning seed Plowing Dragging Seeding Weeding Cutting (binder) Twine Shocking Stacking Stack thrashing (labor) , Thrashing, cash cost . . . Machinery cost Land rental Total. 41.697 $56,280 4,773.396 41.697 41.697 5,996.560 9.984 15.485 41.697 41.697 41.697 11.430 11.430 11.430 19.182 11.950 9.100 9.021 6.037 3.960 $1,350 1.256 .239 .371 .460 .287 .218 .789 .528 .346 .517 3.500 9.861 Item Seed. Cleaning seed Plowing Dragging Seeding Weeding Cutting (binder) Twine Shocking Stacking Stack thrashing (labor) . Thrashing, cash cost . . . Machinery cost Land rental Total . S. W. Minn. Total Acreage, Five Years 3,891.984 455.586 5,973.625 4,204.806 4,311.334 4.227.757 3,744.207 3,901.137 2,814.768 1,621.959 1,621.959 Total Cost $3,909,910 15.890 6,814.320 722.712 1,016.375 1,407.239 1,082.380 428.305 1,516.979 416.240 1,158.110 Cost per Acre $1,005 .035 1.141 .172 .236 .333 .289 .110 .539 .257 .714 .558 3.000 8.389 496 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Cost of Producing Spring Wheat — Fall Plowed — Continued. Item N. W. Minn. Total Acreage, Five Years Total Cost Cost per Acre Seed. Cleaning seed Plowing Dragging Seeding Weeding Cutting (binder) Twine Shocking Stacking Stack thrashing (labor) . Thrashing, cash cost . . . Machinery cost Land rental 5,196.833 4,965.968 7,186.027 5,184.833 5,196.833 3,501.440 5,124.194 3,041.414 5,124.194 2,448.241 1,297.101 1,297.101 $4,300,810 147.571 8,120.460 1,456.853 1,415.490 278.270 1,706.019 593.200 690.165 1,177.160 404.508 557.310 $0,828 .030 1.130 .281 .272 .079 .333 .195 .135 .481 .312 .430 .371 2.100 Total. 6.977 LARGE FARM IN NORTHWESTERN MINNESOTA Item Total Acreage, Five Years Total Cost Cost per Acre Seed Cleaning seed Plowing 4,851.276 4,705.576 5,363.458 4,851.276 4,851.276 4,707.576 4,851.276 4,851.276 4,851.276 •3,187.216 $4,501,205 62.211 4,958.430 1,175.517 1,101.490 149.299 1,483.647 919.530 614.420 2,089.767 $0,928 .013 .924 Drageing .242 Seeding Weeding Cutting (binder) Twine Shocking .227 .032 .306 .190 .127 Shock thrashing (labor) Value consumed in thrashing outfit .656 .335 Machinery cost .276 Land rental 1.800 Total 6.056 CROP COSTS Cost of Producing Potatoes on Unfertilized Land. 497 Item Clay County, Minn., 1907 Total Acreage, One Year Total Cost Cost per Acre Seed (3,984 bushels) Plowing Harrowing Cutting seed Planting Weeding (horse weeder) Cultivating (three times) Spraying (three times) Paris green Bluestone Digging Picking up 42,000 bushels, at 3H cents per bushel and board Hauling and storing Machinery cost Land rental 331.643 2,790.984 331.642 331.642 331.642 331.642 331.642 331.642 331.642 331.642 331.642 331.642 331.642 $1,925.00 3,322.25 60.96 265.68 205.68 180.41 920.54 97.55 425.00 175.00 443.88 1,594.00 863.24 Total. $5,804 1.190 .184 .801 .620 .144 2.776 .294 1.282 .528 1.338 4.806 2.603 .596 3.000 26.366 498 FIELD MANAGEMENT AND CROP ROTATION Cost of Producing Potatoes on Fertilized Land. Item Clay County, Minn., 1907 Total Acreage, One \ear Total Cost Cost per Acre Spring plowing Harrowing (four times) Cost of seed (3,360 bushels) Cutting seed Treating seed Corrosive sublimate Planting Fertilizers (25 tons) Weeding (twice) Cultivating (three times) Spraying (four times) Paris green Lime Bluestone Digging Picking up 38,300 bushels, 3 >^ cents bushel and board Hauling, storing, and sorting Machinery cost Land rental 237.962 237.962 237.962 237.962 180.250 180.250 237.962 100.000 237.962 237.962 237.962 237.962 237.962 237.962 237.962 237.962 237.962 $241.90 182.07 2,016.00 89.55 21.60 50.00 163.97 650.00 77.70 431.73 106.10 234.00 42.00 160.00 • 430.82 1,513.80 789.40 $1,017 .765 8.472 .376 .120 .277 .689 6.500 .327 1.814 .446 1.833 1.810 6.362 3.317 .596 3.000 Total. 37.721 Note: These itemized cost accounts were collected on groups of Minnesota farms by very careful methods and show very good averages of the costs of farm operations pertaining to crop production. Land values and labor costs have risen appreciably since the date these figures were collected. The item of land rental is easily computed for any community by charging current interest on the market value of the land. Farm labor in these tables was computed from crop season wage rates averaging about $28.00 per month, exclusive of board furnished, which was worth on an average about $14.00 per month. Any increases in wage rates since the date of these statistics may easily be put into percentage increases, and approximate corrections made in these tables, if desired. INDEX (References are to pages.) Acidity of soil- Correction of, 308, 407 Detection of, 308 In subsoils, 407 Acid phosophate — Analysis and cost, 281 Compared with phosphote rock, 326 Manufacture of, 286 Use and application, 310 Alfalfa (see also grass crops and legume crops) — A source of humus, 52 Advantages of, 148 In Roman agriculture, 20 Inoculation for, 418 Method of seeding, 43, 454 Rotations for, 146, 149, 247 Use in rotations, 145 Alsike clover (see grass crops and legume crops)— Method of seeding, 454, 458 Ammonia — Nitrogen equivalent, 283 Analysis of food stuffs, 466 Animal Husbandry- Augment of crop values by, 85 In Roman agriculture, 30 Relation to fertility, 72, 346 Relation to waste crop products, 85 Animal products — Analysis of, 459 Bacteria — Nitrogen gathering — Artificial distribution, 417 Discovery of, 23 Frequent lack in soils, 415 Natural distribution, 416 Not found in subsoils, 407 Species of, 416 Work of, 57, 415 Balanced rations, 473 Barley (see grain crops) — Methods of seeding, 454 Beans (see legume crops) — Meth- ods of seeding, 454 Beets (see sugar beet farming) — Methods of seeding, 454 Bhght— Potato, 432 Blood fertilizer — Analysis and cost, 281 Use and appUcation, 289, 316 Blue grass (see grass crops and pastures) — Method of seed- ing, 454, 458 Bone phosophate — Analysis and cost, 281 Manufacture of, 286 Use and appHcation, 310 Bordeaux mixture, 434 Brome grass (see also grass crops) For pasture in semi-arid re- gions, 178 In rotations, 181 Method of seeding, 454 Buckwheat (see also grain crops) In rotations, 170 Method of seeding, 455 Burdock, 440 Business management — Advan- tages of rotation in, 81 500 INDEX Calcium phosphate — Phosphorus equivalent, 282 Catch crops — How used, 45, 135 List of, 45 Clover (see also grass crops and legume crops) — A source of humus, 52 Early English, 21 Inoculation for, 418 Introduction into U. S., 22 Method of seeding, 455, 458 Cockle, 439 Columella, 20 Complete fertilizers — Analysis and cost, 281, 300 Comparative cost of plant food in, 328 Conditions for use of, 303 Indiscriminate use of, 297 Manufacture of, 291, 328 Continuous cropping — Disadvan- tages, 64 Corn (see also cultivated crops) — Best method for manuring, 76 Germination of seed, 423 Selection of seed, 422 Method of planting, 455 Corn farming — Rotations for, 126, 170 Costs of crop production, 486 Cotton (see also cultivated crops) Method of planting, 455 Cotton farming — Rotations for, 200, 216 Cover crops — List of, 48 Purpose of, 47 Use in rotations, 143 Cowpeas (see also legume crops) — For green manure, 195, 213 For hog pasture, 134 Inoculation for, 418 In rotations, 216, 220 Method of planting, 455 Crimson clover (see legume crops) — As a cover crop, 48 In rotations, 198 Method of seeding, 455 Crop residues, 68 Crop rotation — See Rotation — Crops — Catch crops, 45, 135, 454 Classification for rotation, 39 Cost of production, 486 Cover crops, 47, 48, 143, 454 Cultivated crops, 43, 45, 54, 55, 65, 345, 356 Deep-rooted, 60 Delicate feeding, 59 Grain crops, 39, 40, 60, 64, 345, 421, 454 Grass crops, 41, 54, 66, 454, 458 Green manure crops, 46, 47, 78, 140, 271, 358, 362, 454 Gross feeding, 58 Humus destroying, 54 Humus producing, 50, 52 Improved varieties, 424 Increase of value by feeding, 85 Legume crops, 19, 20, 22, 23, 52, 60, 297, 306, 415, 419, 454 Nitrogen gathering, 55, 57 Shallow-rooted, 60 Cultivated crops — Effect on humus supply, 55, 66, 345 INDEX 501 Effect on soil properties, 54, 65 Effect on succeeding crops, 45, 55, 356 List of, 43 Dairy cattle — Cost of mainte- nance, 460 Dairy farming — On high-priced land, 154 Rotations for, 125, 187 Deep-rooted crops — Effect on soil properties, 60, 411 List of, 60 Deep tillage, 408 Deere, John, 28 Delicate feeding crops — Effect on soil properties, 59 List of, 59 Diversified farming — Rotations for, 129, 172, 190, 198, 218 Drainage — Essential to crop rotation, 99 Financing, 107 Dry farming — Depletion of fertility by, 237 Rotations for, 174, 221, 245 Emmer (see grain crops) — In rotations, 174 Method of seeding, 455 Ensilage — Use in intensive farm- ing, 133, 154 European agriculture compared with American, 385 Experiment station reports — On fertilizers, 321 On rotation, 339 Fallowing — Early American, 18 EngUsh, 18 Influence on nitrogen supply, 350 Influence on succeeding crops, 359 Roman, 18 Feeding standards — Haecker, 463 Wolff, 477 Fencing costs, 479 Fertility — See soil fertility Fertilizer machinery, 318 Fertilizers — Analysis and costs of, 280 Availability of plant food in, 281 Determination of need for, 273 Early Enghsh use of, 32, 386 Economical use of, 254 Efficiency of, dependent on good farming, 305 Experiment station reports on, 321 Need for, 269 Profitableness of, 275 Relation to permanent agri- culture, 257 Sovu-ce and value of, 280 Use and application of, 306 Field management — Economies effected by system- atic, 104 To establish crop rotation, 98 Flax (see grain crops) — In rotations, 129 Method of seeding, 454 Flax wilt — Affected by continuous crop- ping, 69 Control of, 428 502 INDEX Foodstuffs — Analysis of, 466 Forage crops — See grass and le- lume crops Formaldehyde treatment for — Corn smut, 431 Flax wilt, 428 Loose smuts, 430 Potato rots, 435 Potato scab, 431 Stinking smuts, 429 Tobacco rot, 435 Fungus diseases — Affected by continuous crop- ping, 69 Affected by rotation cropping, 72 Control of, 428 Grain crops Effect on soil properties, 60, 64, 345 List of, 39 Method of seeding, 40, 454 Selection of seed for, 421 Grain farming — Rotations for, 129, 142, 168 Grass crops — Effect on soU properties, 54, 66 List of, 41 Method of seeding, 41, 454, 458 Grass mixtures, 458 Green manure crops — Effect on succeeding crops, 358, 362 Experiment with, in Manchuria, 271 List of, 47 Method of seeding, 140, 454 Purpose of, 46, 78 Use in rotations, 140 Gross feeding crops — Effect on soil properties, 58 List of, 58 Haecker feeding standards, 463 Headed grain, straw of — As humus supply, 52 Hemp — In rotations, 219 Method of planting, 455 Historical review, 15 Hogging-off crops, 132 Hog gi'owing — Important crops for, 132 In Western states, 242 Horse power, cost of, 478 Humus — Definition of, 50 Destruction of, 51, 54, 66, 345 Function of, 50, 347, 360 Source of, 51 Humus destroying crops — Effect on soil properties, 54, 345 List of, 54 Humus equihbrium, 52, 54, 253 Humus producing crops — Effect on soil properties, 50 List on, 52 Inoculation of soils, 415 Insects — Affected by continuous crop- ping, 69 Affected by rotation cropping, 72 Inter-tillage — Effect on succeeding crops, 45, 55, 356 Effect on humus supply, 55, 66, 345 INDEX 503 Iron sulphate for wild mustard,437 Irrigation farming — Rotations for, 247 Western, 232 Kafir corn (see also cultivated crops) — For forage or seed in semi-arid regions, 175 In rotations, 180 Method of planting, 455 Kainit — Analysis and cost, 281 Source of, 288 Kinghead, 438 Labor — Advantages of rotation in handling, 81 Land areas of the United States, 393 Land value — Effect of on agricul- tural methods, 35, 88 Laurence, Rev. John, 19 Leases, early EngUsh, 31 Legume crops — Bacteria associated with, 57 Early American, 22 Early EngUsh, 20 Early Roman, 19, 23 Effect on soil properties, 57 Importance, of lime for, 306 Inoculation for, 415 Method of seeding, 454 Proportion of nitrogen in straw, stubble, and roots, 297 Seed bed preparation, 60, 419 Source of nitrogen in, 57, 297 Lime fertilizers — Importance for legume crops, 306 In connection with deep tillage, 410 Use and application, 306 Live stock — Enhancement of crop values by, 85 Relation to soil fertiUty, 72, 346 Relation to waste crop pro- ducts, 85 Live stock farming — Rotations for, 130, 138, 197 Machinery — Depreciation of, 484, Work capacity of, 482 Mammoth clover — For annual pastvure, 139 For green manure, 47, 141, 143 Method of seeding, 143, 455 Mangels (see also cultivated crops) — In rotations, 133 Method of planting, 456 Manure — Amounts produced by ani- mals, 459 Composition of, 459 Effect on' crop yields, 76, 346, 366, 368, 370, 371, 372 Handling, 76 Marl, 309 Meadows — Seed mixtures for, 458 Measurements for — Acreage of fields, 451 Com in the crib, 450 Grain in bins, 450 Grain or ear corn in wagon boxes, 450 Hay in mows and stacks, 449 Potatoes in bins, 450 504 INDEX Millets (see grain, catch, and grass crops) — Methods of seeding, 456 Milo maize (see Kafir corn and cultivated crops) — Method of planting, 456 Moisture — Control of in soils, 412 Nitrogen — Atmospheric, 57 Effect of fallowing on, 350 In straw, stubble, and roots of legume crops, 297 Problem of supply, 56, 260, 348 Sources of, in legume crops, 297 Waste of, 56 Nitrogen fertilizers — ■ Analysis and cost, 281 Source of, 250 Unprofitableness of, 300, 317 Use and application, 316 Nitrogen gathering crops — Effect on soil properties, 55 List of, 57 North Atlantic states, 183 North Central states, 164 Nurse crops, 41 Oats — See also grain crops Oriental agriculture, 388 Pastures — Annual, 45, 136, 139 Grass mixtures for, 458 Permanent, with rotations, 98, 150 Rotation, 98, 120, 125, 126, 129 Peanuts — In rotations, 200 Peas — As catch crop, 135, 138 Food for stock, 242 In rotations, 157, 247 Methods for planting, 457 UtiUzation of waste products, 86 Phosphate fertilizers — Use and apphcation, 310 Phosphate rock — Analysis and cost, 281 Compared with acid phosphate, 326, 370, 371, 372 Production in United States, 387 Results on Illinois farm, 381 Source of, 284 Western, 282 Phosphoric acid — Phosphorus equivalent, 282 Phosphorus — Dearth of, 277 Geographical variations, 278 Importance of, 279 Key to permanent produc- tivity, 277 Plant Diseases — Affected by continuous crop- ping, 69 Affected by rotation cropping, 72 Control of by treatment, 428 Plant food — Affected by continuous crop- ping, 67 Affected by rotation cropping, 71, 78, 80, 349 Conservation of, in Orient, 388 Liberation of, 79 Losses of, 258 Removed by crops, 295 Planting data, 454 Plant structure — Composition of 50, 295 INDEX 50E Plowing practice — Deep, 406, 408 Fall and spring, 412 On brush land, 410 Shallow, 65 Plows — Early types, 24 Modern types, 27 Potash fertilizers — Analysis and cost, 281 Potassium equivalent, 283 Source of, 287 Use and application, 313 Potassium — Abundance of, 277, 321, 329, 333 Potato (see also cultivated crops) — FertiUzers for, 287, 313 Method of planting, 456 Potato diseases, 431, 432, 435 Potato farming — Influence on succeeding crops, 356 Rotations for, 126, 171, 1-88 Utilization of waste products, 85 Proso millet — For forage and seed, 175 In rotations, 180 Method of seeding, 456 Quack grass, 443 Ragweed, 438 Ranching, 227 Rape (see also catch crops) — • For annual pasture, 133, 139 Method of seeding, 133, 139, 456 Rations — Balanced, 473 Red River Valley soil fertility, 395 Reorganization of old farms, 103 Rice farming — Rotations for, 201, 221 Roots of crops — ■ Deep-rooted, 60, 411 Shallow-rooted, 60 Rotation — Advantages, 71 Definition, 39, 98 Diagram of principles, 101 Division of fields for, 100 Experimental evidence, 339 Field management for, 98, 103 Fixed feature of, 253 History of, 29 Importance in farm manage- ment, 33, 37 Insufficiency of, 264 Labor and business manage- ment, 81 PracticabiHty of, 251 Relation to soil fertility, 80, 349 Sufficiency of, 266 Rotations — Early American, 32 Early EngHsh, 31 For North Atlantic states, 183 For North Central states, 164 For South Atlantic states, 191 For South Central states, 203 For Western states, 223 Live stock farming, 130, 138, 197 Long cycle, 127 Minor, for stock farms, 131 Short cycle, 124 Use of alfalfa in, 145 Use of catch crops in, 135 Use of cover crops in, 143 506 INDEX Use of green manures in, 140 Without pastures, for intensive farming, 153 With permanent pastures, 150 Rye — See grain crops Seed — Amounts to sow, 454 Seed selection, 420, 424 Sewage — Cause of plant food waste, 56, 388 Recovery of, in Orient, 389 Shallow-rooted crops — Effect on soil properties, 60 List of, 60 Smuts— Control of, 429, 430, 431 Soil fertility — Conservation of, 399 . Depletion and maintenance of, 392 Not inexhaustible, 261 Red River Valley experience, 395 Relation of hve stock to, 72, 346 Relation of rotation to, 80, 349 Soiling crops, 133, 155 Soil properties, affected by — cultivated crops, 54, 65 deep-rooted crops, 60 delicate feeding crops, 59 grain crops, 60, 64, 345 grass crops, 54, 66 gross feeding crops, 58 humus destroying crops, 54, 345 humus producing crops, 50 legume crops, 57 nitrogen gathering crops, 55 shallow-rooted crops, 60 Soils- Control of moisture in, 412 Inoculation of, 415 Plowing practice, 405 Sorghum (see also cultivated crops) — Method of planting, 457 South Atlantic states, 191 South Central states, 203 Soy beans — In rotations, 169, 172, 195 Inoculation for, 418 Method of planting, 457 Subsoiling, 408 Sudan grass — For forage in semi-arid areas, 175 Method of seeding, 457 Sugar beet farming — Fertilizer experiments, 334 Rotations for, 126, 171 Sugar cane farming — Rotations for, 221 Sweet clover — Effect of roots on subsoil, 411 For green manure, 178 For hay and pasture, 179- Inoculation for, 418 In rotations, 180 Method of seeding, 179, 455 Tankage — Analysis and cost, 281 Source of, 289 Thistles- Bull, 440 Canadian, 441 Tillage- Control of moisture by, 412 Experiments of Jethro Tull, 26 History of, 24 INDEX 507 Timothy — See grass crops and pastures Tobacco (see also cultivated crops) — Fertilizers for, 287, 313 Method of planting, 457 Tobacco farming — Rotations for, 172, 189, 199, 220 Tobacco rot, 435 Tull, Jethro, 26, 30 Turnips, (see also catch crops) — For sheep pasture, 138 Method of seeding, 457 Varro, 20, 30 Vetches — For green manure o; 47, 175 Inoculation for, 418 In rotations, 180, 244 Method of seeding, 457 hay, Washington, George, 32 Waste crop products, 85 Weeds — Affected by continuous crop- ping, 65, 66 Affected by rotation cropping, 71 Eradication of, 436 Weights of agricultural products, 452 Western states, 223 Wheat — See grain crops Wild mustard, 437 Wild oats, 438 Wolff feeding standards, 477 Wood ashes, 281, 288 Wood, Jethro, 27 Yarranton, Andrew, 21 Young, Arthur, 31 STANDARD AGRICULTURAL BOOKS STANDARD AGRICULTURAL BOOKS Published by WEBB PUBLISHING CO., ST. PAUL, MINN. FIELD CROPS By A. D. WILSON, Sup't of Farmers' Institutes and Extension, Minnesota College of Agriculture, and C. W. WAR- BURTON, Agronomist, U. S. D. A. 544 pages, 162 illustrations, cloth, $1.50 net. This book discusses the peculiarities of each of the various classes and varieties of farm crops, the handling of the soil, selections of seed, and general crop management. It covers the cereals, including corn, wheat, oats, rye, barley, etc.; forage crops, including hay grasses, clo- ver, alfalfa, cowpeas and other legumes; how to make good meadows and pastures, and the art of hay making, etc.; root crops; sugar crops; fibre crops, including cotton, flax, hemp; tobacco, potatoes, in fact eveuy farm crop of any importance is discussed. The introductory chapters give the general classification of farm crops and their uses and relative importance, and review the subject of how plants grow. The concluding chapters discuss the theory and practice of crop rotation and weeds and their eradication. A list of supplementary references is given at the close of each chapter. The style is easy, subject matter well arranged and vital, and the book is of excellent mechanical makeup. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING By J. B. DAVIDSON, Professor of Agricultural Engineering, Iowa State College ' 554 pages, 342 illustrations, cloth, $1.50 net. The subjects discussed are so applicable to the every-day work of the farm that the book will prove of great interest and value to those engaged in practical agriculture. The following subjects are given space according to their importance: Agricultural Surveying, Drainage, Irrigation, Road Construction, Farm Machinery, Farm Mo- tors. Farm Structuies, Farm Sanitation, and Rope Work. Each chap- ter is followed by a set of questions for review and for thought pro- motion. Lists of references to best books and bulletins are included. Complete index. A splendid guide to the mechanics of the farm. STANDARD AGRICULTURAL BOOKS STANDARD AGRICULTURAL BOOKS BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY By CHARLES S. PLUMB, Professor of Animal Husbandry, College of Agriculture, Ohio State University. 395 pages, 217 illustrations, cloth, $1.25 net. Beginnings in Animal Husbandry is a book that will be found to be of interest and invaluable assistance to the farmer. Among the sub- jects discussed are: The Importance of Animal Husbandry; Breeds of Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Swine; Animal Type and Its Importance; Reasons and Methods in Judging Live Stock; Points of the Horse; Judging Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Swine, etc.; Heredity: Its Meaning and Influence; Selection and Its Importance; Pedigrees and Their Values; Suggestions to Young Breeders; Composition of Plans and Animals; Influence of Foods on the Body; Feeding Standards, Origin and Use; How to Calculate a Ration; Coarse Feeds and Their Values; Concentrated Feeds and Their Value; Care of Farm Animals; Poultry: Types and Breeds, Judging, Feeding; Eggs and Incubation; Poultry Houses. Every subject discussed fully. SOILS AND SOIL FERTILITY By A. R. WHITSON, Professor of Soils and Drainage, and H. L. WALSTER, Instructor of Soils, Univ. of Wis. 315 pages, well illustrated, cloth, $1.25 net. No other book on Soils presents the relation of the soil to the production of crops in so clear and agreeable a manner as this. There are chapters on the following: Conditions Essential to Plant Growth, Origin and Classification of Soils; Primary Relations of Soil and Plant; Nitrogen; Phosphorus and Potash; Soil Analysis; Farm Manure; Com- mercial Fertilizers; Physical Properties of Soils; Water Supply; Tem- perature and Ventilation of Soils; Drainage: Erosion; Tillage; Humus; Relation of Crops to Climate and Soil; Soils of the United States; Management of Important Types of Soil; Dry Farming. Explicit language and the avoidance of technical matter make the book ideal for those interested in a practical study of soils. DAIRY LABORATORY GUIDE By G. L. MARTIX. Professor of Dairying, North Dakota Agricultural College. 140 pages. Illustrated, cloth, 50c postpaid. This laboratory manual offers a carefully organized series of exer- cises covering the principles of modern dairy practice, with sugges- tions for their practical application. It covers the Production and Care, Testing, Manufacturing, and Marketing, of Dairv Products. An indis- pensable guide for classes in Dairying and for Creamerymen. STANDARD AGRICULTURAL BOOKS STANDARD AGRICULTURAL BOOKS POPULAR FRUIT GROWING By SAMUEL B. GREEN, late Professor of Horticulture and Forestry, University of Minnesota. Revised by Le Roy Cady. 300 pages, 120 illustrations, cloth, $1.00. Although there are a number of books on fruit culture extant, no other book is so thoroughly definite and explicit for the ordinary reader. In this volume every phase of Fruit Growing is discussed thoroughly with particular attention given to details. The Appendix includes a complete spraying calendar with formulas for spraying and instructions how to apply and when; Fungicides and Insecticides; Waxes for Grafting and for wounds — how made; List of Fruits especially adapted to certain typical States; Rules for Naming Fruits; Usual Distances Apart for Planting Fruits; Also Number of Plants to the Acre. VEGETABLE GARDENING By SAMUEL B. GREEN, late Professor of Horticulture and Forestry, University of Minnesota. 12tli Edition. Revised by Le Roy Cady. 252 pages, profusely illustrated, cloth, $1.00, postpaid. This volume contains complete directions for the proper care and management of a farm or market gai-den. It is a tlioroughly practical work, and is the result of the Author's many years of careful study and experience in vegetable growing. It is a work of incalculable value to farmers, truck gardeners and amateur vegetable growers, as well as a most complete text for students. The immense sale of the former editions, which have been fre- quently revised, indicates the estimate of its value as a complete and thorough treatise of the subject. For years Vegetable Gardening has been regarded as the leading authority. The Appendix includes a Monthly Calendar of garden operations which is a valuable and safe guide for planting in the proper season. There are also many valuable tables of different data giving exact details. AMATEUR FRUIT GROWING By SAMUEL B. GREEN, late Professor of Horticulture, University of Minnesota. 134 pages, profusely illustrated, cloth, 50 cents. A thoroughly practical guide to the growing of fruit for home use and the market. Written with special reference to colder climates. Just the book for beginners, as it covers the entire subject of growth, cultivation and marketing of small fruits such as Strawberries, Raspberries, Blackberries, Currants, Gooseberries, Grapes, Cranberries. Juneberry, Sand Cherry, Suffaloberry and Mulberry in addition to the cultivation, pruning and grafting of the larger fruits such as the Apple, Plum and Cherry. Every detail is explained clearly and nothing is left for the Ama- teur to assume. STANDARD AGRICULTURAL BOOKS STANDARD AGRICULTURAL BOOKS FARM RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS By ANDREW BOSS, Professor of Agronomy and Farm Management, Minnesota College of Agriculture, and F. W. Peck, Assistant Pro- fessor of Farm Management, Minnesota College of Agriculture. Size 11x13 inches. Price $2.00. A simple method of keeping farm accounts which is thoroughly intelligible and practical, as it does not enter into the detailed and technical terms of systematic instruction, but contains a minimum amount of directions sufficient to explain the application of the ruled pages which show the cash received, cash paid out, record of crops, feed, labor, etc. The most important feature and value lie in the fact that each phase of farm accounting is preceded by a sample account. PROFITABLE STOCK FEEDING By H. R. SMITH, Professor of Animal Husbandry in the University of Minnesota. Formerly of the University of Nebraska. Cloth, 51^x7 inches, 413 pages, $1.50. A complete work on the subject of stock feeding by a practical stockman. The proper compounding of rations for milk production, beef, mutton, and swine production, together with suitable feed for work horses during summer and winter are thoroughly discussed. In- dispensable for the profitable care of farm animals. GRASSES AND HOW TO GROW THEM By THOMAS SHAW. 450 pages, illustrated, cloth, $1.50 net. This book discusses all the grasses at present found in the United States and Canada possessed of any considerable economic value, when viewed from the standpoint of the needs of the stockman and farmer. The discussion includes the characteristics of each kind of grass, its adaption to climate and soil, place in rotation, preparing the land for the seed, sowing the seed, pasturing, harvesting for hay and for seed, and renewing the grasses where this may be practicable. It also dis- cusses the questions of temporary, permanent and range pastures and that of meadows and making hay. WEEDS AND HOW TO ERADICATE THEM By THOMAS SHAW. A NEW AND REVISED EDITION. 240 pages, illustrated, cloth, 50 cents. This new edition of "Weeds and How to Eradicate Them" con- tains the latest available information on weed pests and how to com- bat them. The most complete and up-to-date manual on weeds pub- lished in the United States. The matter it contains is all based on the long personal experience of the author and on the most recent publications of the experiment stations. The methods of eradication are clearly stated, simple and concise, yet complete and effective. STANDARD AGRICULTURAL BOOKS STANDARD AGRICULTURAL BOOKS AGRICULTURE FOR YOUNG FOLKS By A. D. WILSON, Superintendent of Farmers' Institute and Agricul- tural Extension, L^niversity of Minnesota and E. W. WILSON. Cloth bound, 340 pages, size 514x7 inclies, large clear type. Profusely illustrated, $1.00. The most practical ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURAL TEXTBOOK for Rural and Grade Schools ever published. This new book meets the demand for scientific yet practical in- formation along agricultural lines for the younger pupils in the schools. Agricultural science and practice taught by a series of lessons based on the ACTUAL experience of EVERYDAY farming, in a sim- ple, entertaining way that develops great interest in the study of farm problems. The striking originality of the treatment of the various subjects discussed is no less conspicuous than the careful arrangement and the ideal method of presentation. The chapters are divided into sections, each one of which is a complete reading lesson, followed by questions and examples in arith- metic. Both the questions and examples relate to the lesson. This manner of presenting the various subjects was chosen so that the study of agriculture might replace a part of the reading, language and arithmetic lessons, and thus allow the introduction of the study with- out shortening the time of, or crowding out, any other subject. ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE By J. H. SHEPPERD, Dean of the Agricultural Department and Professor of Agriculture in the North Dakota Agricultural College, and J. C. McDOWELL, Expert in Farm Management, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Profusely illustrated, 254 pages, SV^xT, cloth, $1.00. This excellent elementary text was prepared especially for use in the schools of the Northwestern states. The arrangement is well planned and the subjects are discussed in a manner so clear as to be easily understood. It thoroughly covers the ground of all farm In- terests. STANDARD AGRICULTURAL BOOKS