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 SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 
 
 — 969 — 
 
 THE VARIETIES 
 
 OF THE 
 
 HUMAN SPECIES 
 
 PRINCIPLES AND METHOD 
 
 OF 
 
 CLASSIFICATION 
 
 BY 
 
 GIUSEPPE SERGl 
 
 Professor 0/ Anthropology, Royal University 0/ Rome, Italy 
 
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 CITY OF WASHINGTON 
 PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 
 
 1894 
 
Class. 
 Book. 
 
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JMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS V'o '• 38, <i«^^ 
 
 — 969 — 
 
 THE VARIETIES 
 
 OF THE 
 
 HUMAN SPECIES 
 
 PRINCIPLES AND METHOD 
 
 OF 
 
 CLASSIFICATION 
 
 BY 
 
 GIUSEPPE SERGI 
 
 Professor 0/ Anthropology , Royal University 0/ Rome, Italy 
 
 CITY OF WASHINGTON 
 PUBLISHED BY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 
 
 1894 
 
 "n 
 
 % 
 
PRESS OF 
 
 THE FRrEDEXWALD COMPANY, 
 
 BALTIMORE, MD. 
 
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 . ,«» - -e c ■ ( cGOMBOSED ON THE LlNOTYPB. 
 
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 CONTENTS. 
 
 Part I. — Basis of Human Classification. 
 Part II. — Method of Classification. 
 
 I. THE varieties. 
 II. THE SUBVARIETIES. 
 III. NOMENCLATURE. 
 
A PREFATORY NOTE. 
 
 Doctor Giuseppe Sergi, professor of Anthropology in the 
 Royal University of Rome, Italy, has made for himself a distin- 
 guished position by the ardor with which he has pursued the 
 branch of science which he represents and the numerous valuable 
 contributions he has made to its literature. A brief sketch of his 
 career will form an appropriate introduction to the summary of 
 his doctrines of craniology which is here translated. ^ 
 
 Dr. Sergi was bom in Messina, Sicily, in 1841. His academic 
 education was received in the Universities of Messina and 
 Bologna, where he devoted himself especially to the departments 
 of comparative anatomy and the philology of the Indo-European 
 languages. In 1880 he was appointed to the chair of Anthro- 
 pology in the University of Bologna, and four years later to the 
 same position in the Faculty of Sciences of the University of 
 Rome. In this field he has shown much energy, having by his 
 personal exertions founded there the Museum of Anthropology 
 and the Laboratory for Experimental Psychology. His lectures 
 are attended by a constantly increasing class, and on the organi- 
 zation of the Society of Anthropology of Rome he was chosen 
 as its first president, which position he still holds. He is also a 
 regular, corresponding or honorary member of many learned 
 societies in his own and other countries, among which may be 
 mentioned in the United States the Anthropological Society of 
 Washington, the American Philosophical Society, and the Numis- 
 m.atic and Antiquarian Society of Philadelphia. 
 
 His published works have been very numerous, beginning with 
 " Principles of Psychology," in two volumes, issued at Messina in 
 1874, and of which a new edition is announced for this year (1894). 
 These writings include a wide variety of subjects in physical and 
 psychical anthropology and in education. Some are of a popular 
 character, but the majority are strictly scientific and have been 
 
 * Le Varieta Umane. Principi e methodo di classificazione. Di Giuseppe 
 Sergi. Torino, 1893. 8vo, pp. 60. 
 
PRE FA TOR Y NO TE. 
 
 issued by learned societies and journals. Of especial note have 
 been his studies on the prehistoric peoples of the coasts of the 
 Mediterranean; on the native tribes of Melanesia; on human 
 degeneration and criminal anthropology; on the characteristics of 
 the female sex; and, in American subjects, on the physical anthro- 
 pology of the Fuegians, on skulls of the Omaguas, on ancient 
 Peruvian skulls, and general considerations on American skulls. 
 His attention has been fruitfully attracted to the pigmy races 
 of Europe and to the varieties of the human species found in mod- 
 em and ancient Russia, especially to the remains exhumed from 
 the " kourgans," or ancient sepulchral tumuli, which exist in 
 various districts of that state. 
 
 D. G. Brinton. 
 
THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 PRINCIPLES AND METHOD OF 
 CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 By Giuseppe Sergi. 
 
 PART FIRST. — Basis of Human Classification. 
 
 I. 
 
 In man, as in other animals, we find physical characteristics of 
 two kinds, external and internal. The first are principally those 
 pertaining to the cutis and certain cutaneous appendages, and 
 include the coloring of the skin and hair, the structure and form 
 of the hair, and also the coloring of the eyes. The chief internal 
 characteristics are the bones from which the form and figure of all 
 the members are taken, as well as those of the separate parts of the 
 body clothed with soft tissues, such as muscles and fat. The 
 cranium is the most important and most characteristic part of the 
 entire human skeleton. 
 
 The cranium is a bony case which encloses a viscus of the first 
 order, the brain, which in man is, in relation to the animal series, 
 better developed, both in its forms and functions. It is known 
 that the brain and cranium, from the embryological to the adult 
 state, are in a parallel manner and gradually connected in evolu- 
 tion, and the external form of the one corresponds to that of 
 the other. Most certainly it is not the cranium which gives form 
 to the brain of man; It is more probable that it is the brain 
 which moulds its organ of protection. Given hereditary condi- 
 tions, we may affirm that the form of the cranium is correlative to 
 that of the brain. If we could discover why the brain takes or 
 has taken different forms we would possibly understand better its 
 corespondence with the exterior structure of the cranium by which 
 it is surrounded, though absolutely ignorant now. We might be 
 
8 THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 able to leaiTi also what functional and especially what psychologi- 
 cal characteristics are united to the cerebral forms which are 
 revealed by cranial forms. All that is obscure for us, and also 
 unexplored, because unsuspected; for in place of that, and in an 
 inexact manner, the volume has been taken into account and 
 therefore the weight of the brain, as being the only means of mak- 
 ing an anthropological diagnosis of its functional value, the 
 volume and weight corresponding to the capacity of the cranium. 
 
 But besides the cranium commonly called cerebral, there is the 
 face, which, from the morphologic point of view, is not less impor- 
 tant. The face has generally given more positive means for dis- 
 tinguishing human groups, not only on account of the coloring 
 of the skin, but on account of the form and disposition of its parts, 
 of the nose, of the cheeks, of the molar teeth, and on account of 
 other characteristics which, when considered together, disclose 
 differences not immediately revealed by the cerebral cranium. 
 
 The other parts of the skeleton also have differences more or 
 less profound in the different ethnic groups, the stature, the length 
 of the extremities, both absolutely and relatively to the stature 
 and to the trunk; the thoracic form; and so on. But such differ- 
 ences seem little characteristic compared to those presented by the 
 cranium and the face; until now, moreover, they have had but 
 slight value, as should have those characteristics of classification 
 which are merely secondary. 
 
 We are ignorant what may have been the primitive type or the 
 primitive human types, considered in all their internal and external 
 characteristics; that is, what skeletal forms certain ethnic groups 
 of differently colored skin possessed; or, on the other hand, what 
 color of skin and hair belonged to certain skeletal forms. That 
 difficulty is caused by a fact easy to understand, by the mingling 
 of different types among each other, and by the hybrid forms 
 from which man is derived. It is true, however, that certain 
 hybrid results seem to be limited to certain regions and to a few 
 human groups; and that, on account of this, the elements which 
 have furnished such products may be learned up to a certain 
 point; but in the beginning, at least, it will be necessary to learn 
 the structures of the parts from which hybrids are derived. 
 
 It is impossible not to admit human hybridism, since it is 
 demonstrated clearly by all anthropologists; in this direction. 
 
THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 9 
 
 America alone shows us a perfect example of experimental anthro- 
 pology. It is now determined from observations that human 
 hybridism is multiform among ?11 peoples; but what we learn 
 from that example is the exchange of external characteristics and 
 their mixture with those internal, that is, the union of the external 
 characteristics of one ethnic type with the internal characteristics 
 of another type. Thus, one may observe the color of the skin and 
 hair with its special form united to characteristics of skeletons 
 which do not generally belong to types of that color, and vice 
 versa. That may be observed concerning certain characteristics, 
 and not of all; such as the stature, or the face, with its soft cover- 
 ing, or the form of the cranium only. 
 
 If we study our European populations which are called white, 
 but which have many gradations of whiteness, we may note the 
 great mixture of characteristics, a mixture which is changeable, 
 from which results a great variety of forms of individual types, 
 constituted of characteristics differing from each other. An 
 analysis must be very accurate and very minute to discriminate 
 these different elements which exist in the composition of the 
 ethnic characteristics of individuals and peoples. These mixtures 
 and these combinations of characteristics differ according to the 
 character and number of elements existing in the various nations 
 of the south, the center, or the north of Europe. They arise 
 from different relations with mixed peoples. 
 
 What is most important in this human hybridism, so various 
 and so complex, is the lack of the blending of the external and 
 internal characteristics from which new human varieties may be 
 had. Among the different ethnic elements there exists only a 
 relation of position, called syncretism, or propinquity of charac- 
 teristics, and therefore a facility for forming small groups. Such 
 a phenomenon has already been recognized in America, and it is 
 evident in Europe among peoples who appear little homogeneous, 
 if a careful observation separates the characteristics constituting 
 ethnic types and those of individuals in a mixed population. 
 
 If there were no other cause for such an absence of blending 
 among the characteristics of human hybridism, this cause would 
 exist, that the relations which produce the mixtures are not equal 
 and constant, but are varied and inconstant. If there should be 
 the union of two pure ethnic types only, for several generations. 
 
10 THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 we should be able to derive a hybrid product constant and fixed, 
 as among animals and plants; but a third element, either pure or 
 mixed, arrives in the second or third generation of man, and so on 
 indefinitely. Thus it is easy to understand how unstable must be 
 the characteristics of the hybrid, for they can scarcely survive in 
 one individual for a generation. The hybrids which follow may 
 have characteristics of different types, with the tendency each 
 time to have these reappear by heredity, although not blended and 
 not fixed in the individual. 
 
 To this should be added another fact, that of individual variation, 
 which is present in man, as in other animals, increased by his con- 
 stant interminglings, which may be considered stimulants of this 
 phenomenon, as has been suggested by Darwin and Wallace. 
 
 Hence, I conclude from mv observations, that human hvbridism 
 is a syncretism of characteristics belonging to many varieties, and 
 that these do not modify the skeletal forms as do individual varia- 
 tions, and that hybridism may affect different parts of the skeleton, 
 constituting characteristics in themselves distinct. The stature, 
 the thoracic form, the proportion of the long bones, may be united 
 with external characteristics differing from each other, as well as 
 from different cranial structures. The cranial form may be asso- 
 ciated with different facial forms, and inversely. It happens, how- 
 ever, that the structures taken separately remain in part unvaried 
 in the hybrid constitution. The face preserves its own character- 
 istics in spite of the union of different cranial forms; so also the 
 cranium preserves its structures, associating them with different 
 facial forms. The stature preserves its own proportions in spite 
 of its association with different cranial and facial types, and in 
 spite of the different coloration of the skin and the form and color 
 of the hair. All this may be affirmed, particularly of much larger 
 human groups which, according to external characteristics, may 
 be considered much* nearer than they really are in geographical 
 position, as the so-called white races in Europe, the negroes in 
 Africa, in Melanesia, and so on. 
 
 Now, granting that all peoples exhibit the characteristics of 
 hybridism in the manner just described, it will be necessary to 
 learn how races, groups and human families may be classified. 
 Let us observe for a moment the classification by means of exter- 
 nal characteristics, most common among anthropologists from 
 Linnaeus to Ouatrefages and Flower, and we shall see: 
 
THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. II 
 
 i). That the color of the human skin in one great group of a 
 type, such as yellow, black, or white, is of different gradations and 
 not uniform. 
 
 2). Since, as above stated, all peoples, at least in a great measure, 
 are composed of hybrid elements, it happens that different ele- 
 ments are united under one category, which is, in this instance, 
 the color of the skin. 
 
 3). We must not forget that the external characteristics are more 
 easily lost, and much easier to acquire, by intermixture and 
 heredity. 
 
 A curious example of what I state is found in human classifica- 
 tion according to Quatrefages, which perhaps is now the most 
 complete, considered only as a classification by external character- 
 istics. He places the Abyssinians within the white race notwith- 
 standing that they have the negro coloring, and he does so 
 because he believes that the characteristic form of the skeleton or 
 internal characteristics of the Abyssinians are those of the white 
 race. This is without doubt inconsistent when the principle of 
 classification by color is accepted. This inconsistency itself shows 
 the defect of the method and of the principles mentioned as 
 applied to human characteristics and their combination. 
 
 4). Finally, as we perceive, the theory is not justified that man 
 be classified as a single species with three, five or more variations. 
 
 If the characteristics which present greater stability are internal 
 or skeletal, they should serve for human classification: 
 
 1st. Because, notwithstanding amalgamation and consequent 
 hybridism, the characteristics originating in the skeleton are per- 
 sistent. 
 
 2d. Because they may be taken as fixed points with which other 
 characteristics may be associated, and may be also external, as I 
 shall demonstrate. 
 
 3d. Because, finally, the internal characteristics can demonstrate 
 the full number of divisions and subdivisions in classifying ethnic 
 groups, and in analyzing peoples which are a combination of a 
 great number of hybrids. 
 
 It remains to determine which internal characteristics should 
 have the preference in deciding the value of types for classifica- 
 tion. If we consider the human skeleton, with that object in view, 
 we find three parts which may serve for that purpose, the cerebral 
 cranium, the face, and the stature, with the long bones. 
 
12 THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 Stature. — The stature is a good, but an insufficient characteristic, 
 because it gives only linear differences, and in its value resembles 
 greatly other external characteristics, and is associated with all the 
 most dissimilar derived from the skeleton. 
 
 Face. — The face offers very important characteristics for classi- 
 fication, because it shows typical differences in the ethnic groups. 
 The face has given more points for the distinction of human types 
 than the other parts of the human body, and would appear better 
 adapted for that purpose than the cerebral cranium. But the face 
 is more disposed to individual variations than any other part, 
 because it is very complex, being composed of numerous small 
 bones, clothed with muscles which have continuous and important 
 functions relating to the physiognomy, to the expression of psychi- 
 cal conditions, and to the nutritive functions. These facts render 
 its typical form less constant, and are, or may be, the cause of a 
 multiplication of types. 
 
 Cranium. — The cerebral cranium is itself also liable to varia- 
 tions. More than any other organ, it exhibits -a phenomenon 
 often observed and clearly demonstrated by me, that is, the per- 
 sistence of forms from immemorial epochs, and their reproduction 
 through numerous generations notwithstanding amalgamation 
 with other types. I have demonstrated such a persistence of 
 cranial forms in the varieties of the Mediterranean from the Neo- 
 lithic and from the most ancient Egyptian epochs; other anthro- 
 pologists have recognized such persistence in European types of 
 the Quaternary epoch, and in others, very ancient, from America. 
 This cannot be said of the structure of the face. 
 
 Therefore if the human cranium is accepted as the basis for the 
 classification of human groups, positive results may be had: 
 
 1st. In groups which have been subjected to mixture in what- 
 ever epoch or however many times, the distinctive ethnic elements 
 may be discerned by examining the cerebral cranium only, which, 
 remaining unaltered in type^ may be found united by hybridism 
 with other internal and external characteristics. For the cranium 
 is the point about which revolve all other variations of form, either 
 in hybridism or in the human form itself. 
 
 2d. Knowing the cranial types of a people who seem more or 
 less homogeneous, we are sure of learning of what and how many 
 ethnic elements it is composed, notwithstanding the hybridism, 
 present. 
 
THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 1 3 
 
 3d. Having classified all the cranial types in different regions 
 and among different peoples, we may learn by their geographical 
 distribution the numerical extension of types and also their 
 geographical origin; that is, the place of departure and the course 
 of emigration and dispersion of such forms. 
 
 4th. Then it will be easy to learn what cranial characteristics 
 are found among populations which already have ethnic names, 
 ancient and m^odern, and to discover among them points of simi- 
 larity and difference. 
 
 Being, therefore, obliged on acount of universal human hybrid- 
 ism to select as a guide to classification the most important and 
 the most useful of the internal characteristics, we find greater 
 advantages in choosing the human cranium, about which all the 
 other characteristics, internal and external, are grouped. If we 
 select one characteristic, or a number of variable characteristics, 
 we shall find ourselves in the same position as other anthropolo- 
 gists who classify by external or accessory traits. It follows that 
 accepting the cranium as the principal internal characteristic, we 
 impliedly accept the brain in its various forms, and the brain is the 
 most important of human organs. 
 
 11. 
 
 The classification of man by means of the cranium alone is by no 
 means new. It will be well to consider these schemes, from that 
 of Retzius down to the last, that of Kollmann. Nor, indeed, is 
 the conception of the importance and superiority of the cranium 
 for distinguishing ethnic groups by any means recent. To show 
 that, we have but to refer to the enormous work which has been 
 done, from Morton to Davis and Thurman, from Broca to G. 
 Retzius, to De Quatrefages, to von Holder, to Ecker, to His and 
 Rutimeyer, to Virchow, to Ranke, to others still more numerous, 
 in Italy, from Nicolucci to Alantegazza. 
 
 Notwithstanding so much labor expended on the human cra- 
 nium, satisfactory results were not reached, nor, indeed, I may 
 affirm, have we yet reached them, at least not in the signification 
 which I intend these results to have. The fault lies in the nature 
 of the method of studying the human cranium and in the value 
 attributed to craniometiy. 
 
14 THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 The classification of Retzius is based upon a single characteristic 
 of the cranium, which, however, is merely the numerical expres- 
 sion of the norma verticalis of Blumenbach, that is, the cephalic 
 index. 
 
 According to Retzius we have only two forms of crania, the long 
 and short; though, in fact, many forms of short and long crania 
 are found dififering very much from each other. 
 
 When craniometry was developed in a systematic manner, fol- 
 lowing principally the work of Broca, it appeared the key of 
 anthropology, and took the first place among means of investi- 
 gations, as being the most effectual method for distinguishing 
 human races. The French exaggerated its value; the Italians 
 followed with zeal, in spite of the skepticism of Mantegazza, the 
 head of the Florentine school of anthropology; the Germ^ans 
 have been more rational, and with them the Swiss, represented by 
 His and Rutimeyer. At the head of them I would place Blumen- 
 bach, who based his small but valuable book upon a rational foun- 
 dation.^ The Germans try to establish cranial type almost or 
 entirely independent of the cephalic index; as one may see from 
 the works of von Holder, of Ecker, of His and Rutimeyer, of 
 Virchow, of Kollmann, of Ranke and others. In my opinion the 
 German method is an approximation to the truth, but unfortunately 
 the conception of type is undeveloped and, I should say, has 
 remained rudimental, because craniometry, like a pernicious weed 
 among the grain, injures the harvest. Virchow, the most pro- 
 nounced scholar in anthropology, and the man who has studied 
 more than all others the crania of all peoples, believes that the 
 germ of a sound anthropology should develop from it. He con- 
 cedes only a secondary value to craniometry; but, nevertheless, in 
 his last work, precisely when he distinguishes types, attempting 
 to establish them definitely, he determines them by craniometry 
 alone. In fact, in his great work, Crania Ethnica Americana, 
 he defines types in this manner: " Die Form ist long, schmal und 
 relativ hoch," or, " Die Form des Schadels ist hypsi-brachycephal " 
 and gives the index and the measures. Now the reader who will 
 observe that the Araucanians, the Pampeans, the Chilians of 
 Huanilla and of Copiapo, and the Peruvians of Iquique, have the 
 
 "^ De generis humani varietate nativa. Ilia edit. Gottingen, 1795. 
 
THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 1 5 
 
 hypsi-brachycephalic form of cranium, will not understand why the 
 illustrious author constitutes of them different types, defining 
 them always with the often-repeated proposition, " Die Form des 
 Schadels ist hypsi-brachycephal." That the forms of such crania 
 differ is evident from the fine lithographs, and not from the 
 description^ much less from the definition. Why has the cele- 
 brated anthropologist stopped on the way and has not developed 
 the idea already promulgated by him and by his compatriots? 
 I find in the Crania Helvetica and in the Crania Germanica of von 
 Holder and of Ecker that the conception of type is more evident 
 and has also a nomenclature, which is the only means of distin- 
 guishing typical forms. 
 
 According to my observations upon craniometrs^, which has now 
 become cabalistic, especially in France, on account of the abuse 
 of measures and numerical ciphers, the indices of the cranium and 
 face are taken as a means of distinguishing races, human groups, 
 as we might call them, and other measures are either omitted or 
 applied only to individuals. In order to be convinced we should 
 carefully and conscientiously study the cranio metrical works of 
 Dr. Danielli, of Florence, upon the Nias and Bengalese. The 
 author has not been able to find satisfactory results after persever- 
 ing researches, but whoever would seek evidence of individual 
 variations will find more than enough. It seems to me, therefore, 
 that the method by measurement may serve this purpose, that is, 
 to discover numerically individual differences, but never those 
 typical of a race. But such a discovery is useless, since we are all 
 convinced of the existence of individual differences. I will there- 
 fore add that such differences, to be valuable, must be sought, not 
 among forms differing from each other, but among individuals of 
 the same type. That implies, therefore, necessarily and always, 
 the search for types and their distinction, which is not possible by 
 means of the craniometrical method. 
 
 Craniometry considers two forms, with a third of transition : the 
 cranium long, and relatively narrow; the cranium wide, and rela- 
 tively short, that is, dolicho- and brachycephalic, the form between 
 which is mesocephalic. These forms, as I have said, are expres- 
 sions of the normal line of Blumenbach, but imperfect, inexact 
 and insufficient, as a brief demonstration will show. 
 
i6 
 
 THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 B 
 
 A 
 
 TV 
 
 r 
 
 r" 
 
 n 
 
 n' 
 
 p 
 
 K' 
 
 V 
 
 F' 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Let AA' be the antero-posterior diameter of a cranium, BB' 
 the greatest transverse; it is evident that, given the norma verti- 
 cahs with such diameters and with the greatest transverse at the 
 conjunction of the Hne BB', this norma verticahs takes a particu- 
 lar form on account of the curves which surround the two diame- 
 ters. This Hne or curve, which surrounds them, is called X. If 
 the greatest transverse is placed back and is made to coincide with 
 the line CC, the curve will be modified and will no longer be X 
 but Y. That will be equally true if the transverse diameter is 
 placed still further back at DD', EE', FF'; then we shall have a 
 third curve Z, a fourth, a fifth, Uy that is, we shall have as many 
 different vertical curves on account of the changing of the diame- 
 ter of the width, as the index causes ; that is, the relation between 
 the length and the width will be the same. 
 
 From this it may be judged how much more will the norma 
 verticalis vary if the form of the curve circumscribing the two 
 diameters be modified in other ways, that is, by the frontal width, 
 by the occipital form, and so on. If we also add the lateral curves, 
 those posterior and anterior, which serve to show the form of this 
 irregular body, we shall easily be convinced that the cephalic and 
 vertical index cannot give the cranial form. That is why I have 
 above stated that the expression of Virchow, "The form of the 
 
THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 1/ 
 
 cranium is hypsi-brachycephalic/' is insufficient to define the 
 form. While cranial types so defined have equal indices, their 
 curves differ in degree, and therefore the skull may or not be 
 hypsi-brachycephalic. It is just as if we attempt to calculate the 
 size of an ellipsis by means of the relation of its two axes. Two 
 ellipses equal in this relation may be unequal in size, and this is 
 why these two relations cannot be compared. It is the same in 
 regard to the cephalic and vertical indices of the cranium. 
 
 If it were true and there were no doubt respecting the value of 
 the celebrated cephalic index in determining cranial forms, it 
 would follow that all human crania of whatever type and volume 
 should be placed in the three categories of dolicho-, meso-, and 
 brachycephalic, or of hypsi-, ortho-, and chamaecephalic. Thus 
 all the populations of the earth, either of white, yellow, black or 
 red skin, would have crania belonging to the three categories. A 
 classification solely according to the cephalic index is therefore an 
 absurdity. It is incoherent and without meaning, as are those of 
 Retzius and Kollmann. 
 
 This conclusion is so true that such anthropologists are obliged 
 to add descriptions to the forms of each part of the cranium, in 
 order to distinguish it, recognizing the insufficiency of cranial 
 data. Such descriptions can, to a certain degree only, supply the 
 defect of the method, but they always remain incomplete, and 
 leave the forms or types of the human cranium of various popu- 
 lations and regions indefinite. The French school has gone still 
 farther and has supplied the deficiency with an infinite number 
 of measurements, which only increase the obscurity, leaving the 
 conception of the form more uncertain, and fatiguing the most 
 patient student, who becomes convinced of never reaching any 
 satisfactory result from such a confused accumulation of numbers. 
 
 In order to render classification more definite, or for the sake 
 of finding a second characteristic which might be associated with 
 the cephalic index, Retzius turned his attention to the prognath- 
 ism and the orthognathism of the molar teeth; Kollmann to the 
 facial index. Use could be made of the nasal index instead of the 
 facial, or the orbital index, or any isolated characteristic, and we 
 should have the same results. The combinations given by Ret- 
 zius and Kollmann are possible, but cannot indicate races or varie- 
 ties, from the fact that they are hybrid associations. 
 
1 8 THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 I need not make a longer demonstration of what I have affirmed, 
 that classifications of human groups have been attempted by 
 means of the cerebral cranium, but have not been successful on 
 account of deficiency of method; and that the craniometrical 
 method, still so undeveloped, has not yet, nor cannot, give those 
 results while there is an exaggeration of an exact principle, that of 
 expressing numerically facts relating to the cranium. It seems to 
 me, after several years of study, and after having adopted the 
 accepted form of craniometry, for want of a better, that it is time 
 to establish for our use and for the study of the variations of man, 
 a natural method, resembling that which is used in zoology and 
 botany, and of which I laid the foundation about two years ago. 
 
 III. 
 
 The human cranium presents two kinds of variations: the first 
 are those which change their general form and present types differ- 
 ing from each other; the second are those which do not change 
 their typical form. The first have stable characteristics, therefore 
 hereditary, and which passing through many generations remain 
 unaltered and persistent; the second are the variations of the indi- 
 viduals of a type, and, of course, being transitory, do not in any 
 way alter the typical forms ; they are the so-called " individual " 
 variations. 
 
 There is no need of recapitulating the facts which relate to varia- 
 tions in the human cranium, nor of seeking their causes,, since the 
 investigations of Darwin, Wallace and others concerning the 
 variability of organisms, well known to all students of biology. 
 I would simply state that the various phenomena of variation are 
 repeated in man, and, for the case in point, in the human cranium. 
 
 The relation which exists between the t\yo kinds of variations 
 is close, and it is possible to admit that individual variations have 
 given origin to permanent variations, just as it is easy to accept the 
 idea that the process of variation in animals and in man in the 
 cranium and the brain is continuous and constant. However 
 that may be, an observer accustomed to large and small series of 
 human heads perceives immediately that such series may be 
 divided into groups, different and distinct, according to the form 
 
THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 1 9 
 
 of the cranium itself, and that some difference, often difficult to 
 describe or explain, exists among the elements of the groups; 
 and this difference is derived precisely from the individual varia- 
 tions of the groups themselves. While the character of individual 
 variations is transitory, the character of those which give typical 
 forms is permanent; their persistence consists in being hereditar)'' 
 and numerous in each generation. 
 
 We know that the so-called " species " of the animal kingdom 
 have forms derived from some variations of characteristics, and 
 that they are such because the variations from the mother-species 
 are permanent and become transmitted by heredity. These 
 forms may be called " varieties " of the " species," or races, accord- 
 ing to some, or subspecies, according to others. We will call 
 them " varieties," because the name indicates their immediate 
 origin. According to Darwin, a variety is a species in the process 
 of formation, because it still bears many characteristics of the 
 species from which it is derived, and cannot become an inde- 
 pendent form, like the species itself, until it acquires still more 
 diverging characteristics. 
 
 If we apply this principle to the human cranium, we should 
 first learn if man comprises a single species, as many anthropo- 
 logists believe, or has many species. In the first case, the typical 
 variations of the cranium would certainly be varieties ; if, however, 
 there are several human species, the problem becomes more com- 
 plicated. In that case the varieties might be of one species, and 
 a primitive type be found to which it is allied. But if of such 
 primitive types there were several, these would form several 
 species which should be grouped under one genus. 
 
 I cannot venture the solution of the general question regarding 
 the unity or plurality of the human species, considering the actual 
 state of my personal observations, limited to Southern Europe, 
 especially the Mediterranean, to Oriental Europe, and to the 
 Kourgans of Russia. I should examine Asia, Africa, Oceanica, 
 America, Central and Northern Europe, before being able to give 
 an opinion on such a problem. I will call therefore varieties only, 
 human varieties, the typical forms of the cranium which are 
 clearly distinguished from each other by their own and diverging 
 characteristics, while I will suppose that such varieties may con- 
 verge in different species, of which I cannot now give the type 
 
20 TH^ VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 nor characteristics. Meanwhile it is useful to know and describe 
 the " varieties " under this name, with the purpose of learning their 
 distribution in the various regions of the earth. 
 
 With the present uncertainty about human varieties, I could 
 have no intention of publishing a work which would treat of gen- 
 eral theories, nor would I have thought of the present pamphlet 
 had not necessity demanded it. This essay is ouly designed to give 
 direction to the method of research, because many students have 
 requested it, and in order to place before the public ideas and 
 facts which others either misunderstand or condemn without 
 knowing them. 
 
 Calling the typical forms of the cranium " varieties," we have 
 the advantage of finding the differences or individual variations 
 of the same type, and also certain differences which cannot be 
 reduced to individual variations, but which are equally repeated 
 as diverging characteristics of the same variety: these constitute 
 subordinate groups or " subvarieties." The " sub variety " there- 
 fore diverges from the " variety " by a new characteristic which it 
 retains in a persistent manner. We have an easy means of recog- 
 nizing varieties and subvarieties, and of distinguishing them 
 from individual variations. The latter are not repeated, or if there 
 is repetition it is accidental; varieties are repeated by groups 
 more or less large, which, in addition, have individual variations; 
 the subvarieties also repeat in lesser groups that characteristic or 
 those characteristics of the variety from which they are derived. 
 
 One of the difficulties of craniologists is how to find the limits 
 of individual variations, how to distinguish them from typical 
 forms, or to admit that all cranial variations may be individual, 
 especially if one population is studied without reflecting that any 
 population is invariably a composition of many varieties, notwith- 
 standing the misleading appearance of the external form and the 
 exterior characteristics. We can clearly and easily distinguish by 
 my method the individual variations from the true and constant 
 varieties and from the subvarieties, and we can make a complete 
 analysis of populations, as I have had numerous occasions to 
 demonstrate. 
 
 Another prejudice of anthropologists is that human varieties, 
 determined by my method, may be too numerous. The scientist 
 cannot, indeed, free himself of certain sentiments which are 
 
THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 21 
 
 acquired in following scientific habits and which have become a 
 part of science and public opinion, because in face of the danger 
 of seeing human varieties doubled or decupled, he feels an aver- 
 sion, like an instinct of preservation for that which is established 
 and which has become the belief of most scientists and cultivated 
 men. The human races until now have been either three, four or 
 fi\e, but never six; the first time it is affirmed that they may be 
 twenty, opposition is inevitable; it is the misoneism of Lombroso, 
 the inertia of the mind, which opposes such resistance, just as 
 matter is opposed to every change in the direction of its forces. 
 Treating of man, into which we ourselves enter with our senti- 
 ments, the opposition is greater, even in spite of good intentions. 
 Notwithstanding this psychological phenomenon which influences 
 us all, the force of facts is superior to every inertia and sooner or 
 later will conquer. 
 
 With the observations and the methods which I propose, I 
 believe that many errors will be eliminated from anthropology. 
 Those errors have been accepted because we have never pos- 
 sessed natural scientific methods for the study of human classifi- 
 cation, such as we have in zoology. To apply zoological methods 
 to man appeared to lower him to his congenerous beings; and, 
 while in zoology, science advances freely, in anthropolog}^, on the 
 other hand, preoccupations embarrass researches. I observe that 
 such preoccupations do not exist in two very eminent anthro- 
 pologists, although the contrary at first appears evident in one of 
 them — Blumenbach and De Quatrefages — at least a century apart. 
 Blumenbach, in a valuable little book, attempts to apply the 
 zoological method to man, not only for classification, but for the 
 explanation of the causes of animal and human varieties. De 
 Quatrefages, in his last work, employs the same method and the 
 same scientific freedom. Unfortunately the followers or succes- 
 sors of both have only followed their masters in form, but not in 
 method. Blumenbach, who, after various researches, reduces the 
 human species to five varieties, finds, however, that human varia- 
 tions are infinite in number. If his method had been followed 
 strictly, the number of human varieties would long ago have been 
 increased, both in respect to the structure and the cranial forms. 
 
 The neglect of such methods and the failure to distinguish 
 human varieties by means of the cranium has caused a curious 
 
22 THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 error, that of regarding certain forms which are typically normal, 
 as pathological, as I shall have occasion to demonstrate in the 
 future when I speak of classified forms. This is apt to happen 
 when new and unrecognized forms are placed before the observer. 
 
 One of the important characteristics in classifying the cranial 
 varieties of man is the cranial capacity^ which has a direct relation 
 to the volume and weight of the brain; hence classification by 
 crania means the classification of brains estimated by their form 
 and external configuration. Its importance is for us increased by 
 the fact that that which we find among races of animals occurs 
 also in man; that there are races of small and large animals, races 
 differing in size. This is also repeated in man, and we therefore 
 have large, medium and small varieties, as measured by stature. 
 The origin of such varieties is perfectly analogous to that in other 
 animals. Nor is it an accidental phenomenon, because it is con- 
 firmed by heredity, through numerous and indefinite generations. 
 
 I have concluded, in studying cranial varieties morphologically 
 as human varieties, that is, by their characteristic structures, that 
 the volume has a direct relation to the form, that is, many forms 
 have limited and definite capacities, while other forms have sub- 
 varieties differing in capacity. Such varieties are analogous to 
 the stature of the large and small varieties of animals. The 
 cranial capacity, therefore, while it is one of the integral character- 
 istics of the cranium in regard to its classification, is also the indi- 
 cation of different varieties according to size. I discovered this 
 fact when I classified for the first time the crania of Melanesia, and 
 subsequently I defined it more accurately when I examined and 
 classified thousands of other human crania. 
 
 This fact points to a correction of the value of cranial capacity 
 and therefore of the weight of the brain, until now calculated by 
 the average without distinction among different varieties. The 
 cranial capacity of man varies from looo cc. to about 2000 cc. in 
 the masculine sex; this enormous difference is admitted as indi- 
 vidual variation, and it is thus conceded that there may be a least 
 limit of normality possible which can be ascribed to the function of 
 the brain, crania which descend to 1 1 50 cc. being considered as 
 pathological microcephali, according to Broca, and more or less 
 according to other anthropologists; giving, on the other hand, a 
 great value to a large capacity. Both conclusions are contrary to 
 
THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 23 
 
 the real significance of the facts. I have found normal masculine 
 capacities of 1000 cc. and a little greater, representing small human 
 varieties, not being sporadic and individual phenomena; and, on 
 the other hand, anthropologists have registered for eminent men 
 like Dante, Gauss and others, very mediocre capacities, even very- 
 low, while for ordinar}' men they have recorded a much higher 
 capacit}'. I have found in ^lelanesia normally constituted heads 
 absolutely microcephalic, together with megalocephalic heads, 
 belonging to varieties which have the same social value; they are 
 both inferior, some anthropophagous, and live mixed together as 
 one people. That which I have , asserted concerning ^Melanesia 
 may be said of the ancient and modern populations of the Medi- 
 terranean, among which are the Sicilians, the Sardinians, and the, 
 inhabitants of Central and Southern Italy; and I do not believe it 
 can be said that there are no signs of human superiorit}" in those 
 regions. There are not, therefore, individual differences so great" 
 as from iodo to 1500 cc, and from 1500 to 2000 cc, but character- 
 istic differences of variet}' in human forms. The general average 
 I therefore maintain is inexact and still further arbitrar\', because 
 it is the average of incommensurate quantities. The exact 
 average is that between individuals of the same variety, and the 
 difference is the true individual variation. 
 
 But there is another error to correct due to the signification 
 which I am able to give to varieties distinguished by means of my 
 method. It is considered by some a demonstrated fact that the 
 cranial capacit}^ has been increased in the course of social evolu- 
 tion from prehistoric epochs to historic times. Eminent men have 
 affirmed it, but I have already placed their conclusions in doubt, 
 because the facts do not appear to me evident and affirmative. I 
 wrote some years ago:^ "The most important physical evolution 
 of man would be that which related to the organ of the mental 
 functions, the brain. But the facts are still ver\- doubtful and very 
 obscure which relate to the weight and volume of the brain, and 
 consequently to the cranial capacity. In a recent work of Pro- 
 fessor Schmidt I find that the cranial capacity of the ancient pure 
 Egv-ptians is 1394 cc in the masculine and 1257 in the feminine 
 sex; in the pure modern Egyptians it is 1421 in the males, 1206 in 
 
 "^ Human Evolution. Review of Scientific Philosophy, 1888, Milan. 
 
24 THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 the females. According to these figures there would be an 
 increase of the cranial capacity of the modern over the ancient 
 males, but a decrease in the females. The reverse would be true 
 of the Egypto-Nubian cranium, which is 1335 in the modern 
 males and 1205.8 in the females. Broca found that the Egyptians 
 of the IV. Dynasty had, males 1534, females 1397 cc; those of the 
 XL, males 1443, females 1328; and, finally, those of the XXIIL, 
 the most recent, males 1464, females 1322. There would be in 
 such a case no increase, but decrease, but that is not possible; the 
 cause of these facts lies in the mixtures of races at different times 
 and in different proportions.'^ 
 
 Now I conclude from my recent studies upon the Egyptians of 
 different dynasties, from the most ancient to the present, that 
 according to my method of classification there are capacities of 
 1260 cc, of 1390, of 1480, of 1550, of 1710, and still other capa- 
 cities differing according to the varieties determined.^ As is 
 easily understood, a general average necessarily alters the facts, 
 according to the number of varieties which enter as components 
 of the average in the different series in anthropological museums ; 
 hence the curious results above indicated. 
 
 Another important point is as follows: 
 
 " But the fact which surprises us is the high figure of the capa- 
 city given by prehistoric crania. The masculine crania of Lozere 
 have given 1606 cc, the feminine 1507; also of Lozere, masculine 
 1578, feminine 1473; crania from the pietra levigaia, masculine 
 1 53 1, feminine 1320; the contemporaneous Parisians, masculine 
 1559, feminine 1337. The approximate average of crania from 
 the pietra levigata is 1 560, equal to that of modem Europeans, as 
 is related by Topinard.""^ 
 
 In another of my recent works I have demonstrated that of the 
 crania of the neolithic age^ the Isobathyplatycephalus has a capa- 
 city from 1230 to 1405 in the feminine, and the Eucampylos varies 
 from 1470 to 1564 in the masculine. The two varieties, still per- 
 sistent in Sicily, do not vary in capacity in the modern series, and 
 at the same time show that in the neolithic epochs, as among 
 
 ' Concerning the Primitive Inhabitants of the Mediterranean, Archives of 
 Anthropology, Florence, 1892, Vol. XXII. 
 
 2 See Human Evolution. 
 
 ' Crania of the Neolithic Age^ Boll. Paletnol. Italiana, Parma, 1892. 
 
THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 2$ 
 
 modern populations, large and small varieties are found, just as 
 the same types are now found through persistence of forms. 
 
 From this it is evident how much there is to reform in anthro- 
 pology when we study by natural methods facts until the present 
 misinterpreted, respecting the classification as well as the physical 
 and psychological characteristics of man in time and space. Per- 
 haps in the future, when we know all cranial forms by natural 
 classification, it will be possible to find a correspondence of psy- 
 chological characteristics in populations according to the pre- 
 dominance or superiority of types, a fact which has until now 
 escaped research, because the capacity of the cranium in its abso- 
 lute sense is not in correlation to the development of the mental 
 functions, notwithstanding what is commonly affirmed. The 
 reform is urgent, but a natural method should be employed, and 
 that is my purpose. 
 
 PART SECOND. — Method and Classification. 
 
 I. 
 
 Varieties. 
 
 The greatest variation in a series of human crania cannot be 
 distinguished by an untrained eye; anatomists continually accus- 
 tomed to the study of the human skeleton and scholastic demon- 
 strations do not at first discover the salient points of difference 
 among crania, their attention being distracted by observing the 
 single parts of which they are composed, the canals, depressions 
 and minor details, and does not grasp the complex form of the 
 entire cranium. There are two different kinds of observations: 
 one is useful in examining the development and normal condition 
 of the cranium; the other serves for the classification of forms, 
 and it is this last method of inquiry which I am about to consider. 
 
 The distinctions of forms depend in the first place on the com- 
 parison of different crania. They should be placed upon a table 
 and compared in every direction. Little by little a useful habit 
 and keen eye are acquired, by means of which the slightest varia- 
 tions are detected, so that the similarity of fundamental character- 
 istics can be seen among great differences which at first appear 
 absolutely dissimilar. 
 
26 THE VARIE TIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 The practical method which I have already adopted, for me and 
 others who wish to make use of it, is that of placing the series of 
 crania in order and in an equal row upon a large table, the first 
 time, if possible, of the same color, intact, that is, without having 
 been sawed to extract the brain, without the lower jaw, and there- 
 fore upon a single plane, each placed upon its base. Difiference of 
 color, the line which divides a cranium sawed, an inequality in the 
 table, may alter the positions of the forms or render the discovery 
 of similarities and differences more difHcult. 
 
 When familiarity with the forms has once been acquired, many 
 of the conditions become superfluous, and then an isolated 
 cranium is classified without the necessity of a comparison, at least 
 in the forms which are common. 
 
 After various and attentive observations and continuous com- 
 parisons, it is necessary to form groups of crania which seem to 
 have common characteristics. Formed in groups, each group must 
 be separately analyzed in every component, in order to recognize 
 common and diverging characteristics; if these last are marked, 
 separate the groups into subgroups, noting the individual differ- 
 ences which must necessarily exist. 
 
 Formed in groups and subgroups, one typical cranium is 
 selected for each group or subgroup, and its likeness is trans- 
 ferred by drawing a free-hand outline, by placing the cranium 
 itself upon paper, or by means of a camera, and finally the volume 
 is reduced, or rather the linear magnitude, to a third or half, mak- 
 ing this reduction equal in all the crania which are designed. 
 Drawing has the very great advantage of revealing the linear 
 curves, which are not immediately observed, and demonstrates 
 characteristic differences very easily. In case of doubt concern- 
 ing certain forms which seem similar, it is well to place the pro- 
 files one above another, in order readily to observe similarities and 
 differences, whether apparent or real, profound or superficial. 
 
 The following are additional rules : Distinguish the crania which 
 compose the groups according to sex, because sexual differences 
 should not impair or alter the types under which the crania are 
 classed, nor should another type be made on account of character- 
 istics which are merely sexual. The observer should be trained to 
 discover the sexes of crania and sexual characteristics dis- 
 tinctly and clearly. When the groups are formed, the crania 
 
THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 2/ 
 
 should be adult, though when special conditions permit, those of 
 infants can be added. We should bear in mind that the forms of 
 the latter are never decided, just as they are not permanent. The 
 condition of the sutures and of normal or abnormal development 
 should be taken into account, because abnormal development, as 
 well as the partial arrest of development, may profoundly alter 
 typical forms; exclude, therefore, all pathological crania when 
 this pathological condition is apparent. I have, however, been 
 able to observe and will demonstrate in a future work^ that crania 
 belonging to persons of enfeebled mind, in spite of various alter- 
 ations, preserve the typical forms and are recognizable without 
 difficulty by those experienced in the method and classes of forms. 
 
 The examination of the cranium must begin with the well- 
 known norma verticalis of Blumenbach, that norma from which, 
 in turn, Retzius derives the index of the width. It should furnish 
 us the first form or the first characteristic for classification. When 
 the vertical line is undecided, or cannot be reduced to a normal 
 form, then the norma lateralis must be observed in order to ascer- 
 tain the first characteristic; it may also happen that the lateral 
 modifies the norma verticalis so profoundly that it may be pre- 
 ferred to this, or that it may have a characteristic much more 
 prominent and more easily distinguished than the vertical; in 
 such a case it should have the first place. It may also happen 
 that another characteristic may be more decided and more marked, 
 giving it the preference, and such a characteristic may be visible 
 in the norma occipitalis or norma facialis; this should then be 
 selected as the first characteristic for distinguishing varieties. 
 
 Let us now consider those characteristics which should separate 
 and classify varieties according to the natural method. I begin 
 with the forms given by the norma verticalis, as they are those 
 which are easily distinguished and can be in great part reduced to 
 geometrical figures. 
 
 1st. Ellipsoid {ellipsoides) (Fig. 2). 
 
 We will call ellipsoid a cranium which in the norma verticalis 
 presents an elliptical contour, as in the figure reproduced, taken 
 from life, and which I insert in the parallelogram in order to show 
 
 ^ This is the work of Dr. G. Mingazzini, entitled Concerning the Craniology of 
 the Insane. 
 
28 
 
 THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 its regularity and demonstrate how the exterior outUne harmon- 
 izes with the lines which surround it. Ellipsoid, or whatever 
 similar name is adopted, signifies a body which has an outline 
 similar to an ellipsis. Such an elliptical form, very common 
 among varieties of crania, necessarily has all the projections 
 rounded off, the occipital is never flat, and the parietal pro- 
 tuberances are always slight, or do not exist; the transverse curve 
 of the norma verticalis or cranial arch is moderately or decidedly 
 convex. 
 
 Fig. 2.— Ellipsoides. 
 
 A form of this kind, considered only as norma verticalis, is 
 subject to variations in length and width; hence it may be a short 
 and wide ellipsis, br achy ellipsoid {br achy ellipsoides), a long one 
 or a narrow one, dolichellipsoid or stenellipsoid. 
 
 2d. Pentagonoid (J>entagonoides) (Fig. 3). 
 
 Figure 3 shows a pentagon of unequal sides, but symmetrical, 
 into which is inserted a cranial form corresponding to its respec- 
 tive sides, but with rounded angles, of which the most rounded, 
 which is cut off, is that which corresponds to the occipital cone. 
 In this cranial type the parietal protuberances are pointed, and 
 often with corners definite and acute; from these points towards 
 the frontal there is a gradual narrowing, and so also towards the 
 occipital; but with this difference, that while from the parietal 
 
THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 29 
 
 protuberances forward this narrowing, which forms the two sym- 
 metrical sides, is maintained almost at the same level as the cranial 
 arch, the level from the parietal protuberances to the occiput 
 becomes oblique and descends to form the angle of the pentagon. 
 
 Fig. 3.— Pentagonoides. 
 
 This obliquity is very evident when seen from the norma verti- 
 calis (Fig. 4). 
 
 Fig. 4.— Pentagonoides. 
 
 The variations which the pentagonal norma verticalis may pre- 
 sent are as follows: 
 
30 THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 1st. The corners are acute or obtuse; ^\i^xvz^2,pe7itagonoides 
 acutus and obiusus : the anterior part of the cranium, that is, the 
 two sides which reunite the parietal to the frontal protuberances, 
 can be longer or shorter than usual ; there will then be a penta- 
 gonoides oblongus or a bj'achypentagonoides. 
 
 3d. Rhomboid {rhomboides). 
 
 The rhomboidal form of the norma verticalis (Fig. 5) can inter- 
 change with the pentagonal form, because the most characteristic 
 difference consists in the suppression of the one side correspond- 
 ing to the frontal width. 
 
 V 
 Fig. 5.— Rhomboides. 
 
 This side is very short in the rhomboidal figure of the cranium 
 when considered in relation to the biparietal width of which the 
 protuberances are very distinct and pointed; so the occipital pro- 
 jection is still more acute on account of the greater convergence 
 of the two posterior sides. In this variety the cranium is smooth 
 in the sagittal line, low in relation to its width and length. 
 
THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 31 
 
 Of this singular form I have so far found two variations dis- 
 tinguishable by the norma verticalis: ist, the australensis^ of which 
 I give the type in Fig. 5 ; and 2d, the brachyrhoniboides 
 aegyptiacus, shorter and wider than the preceding. 
 
 N. B. That these forms are often found in infantile crania is a 
 fact worthy of attention. 
 
 4th. Ovoid {ovoides). This form (Fig. 6) is distinguishable only 
 by the norma verticalis. The enlargement of the cranium is at 
 the parietals at about a third of their entire length and posteriorly. 
 The occiput terminates at the large apex of the ^^"g^ while the 
 second apex is represented by the frontal. The cranium has sym- 
 metrical curves; the arch is not always very convex and may have 
 a transverse curve, slight and easy. 
 
 Fig. 6.— Ovoides. 
 
 The ovoid cannot be confused with the pentagonoid, because it 
 has no sides, nor apparent corners, nor has it the occipital obli- 
 quity which forms the posterior part of the two posterior sides of 
 the pentagonoid. 
 
 The " Sardinian ovoid," which I have described and named 
 sardiniensis, diverges a little from this type; the enlargement of 
 the parietals is situated a little in advance of that in the type 
 described,, and, besides, the ovoidal appcn^ance is also perceived 
 in the norma lateralis. 
 
32 
 
 THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 5th. Sphenoid {sphenoides). 
 
 The cranium represented in Fig. 7, which I name " sphenoid," 
 from the Greek, is cuneiform. The characteristics of this type are 
 
 Fig. 7.— Sphenoides. 
 
 very evident ; the biparietal enlargement of the cranium is far back, 
 and there is a gradual and sensible reduction in width from that 
 
 Fig. 8.— Sphenoides Stenometropus. 
 
 unusually large extension as far as the frontal. The occipital 
 part is, therefore, either level and vertical, or rounded, without pro- 
 tuberance. 
 
7' HE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 33 
 
 This form, seen in the norma verticaHs only, is subject to many 
 variations, preserving, however, the characteristics which clearly 
 distinguish it from others. I add some of the most common 
 forms which I have found and classified. 
 
 I, Sphenoides stenometropus, that with a narrow forehead and 
 generally a small capacity. This type is very common in the Medi- 
 terranean (Fig. 8). 
 
 Fig. 9.— Sphenoides Rotundus. 
 2. Sphenoides rotundus (Fig. 9), which is larger and wider than 
 
 Fig. 10.— Sphenoides Latus. 
 
 the former, and has the elevations rounded oflf, especially in the 
 occipital part, which is globular. 
 
34 
 
 THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 3. Sphenoides latiis (Fig. 10). This is much wider in its biparie- 
 tal expansion and is short. It has the occipital smooth and per- 
 
 FiG. 1 1.— Sphenoides Latus. 
 
 pendicular, the parietal prominences acute, the corners evident 
 and the sides flat; observed laterally, this type appears cuboid 
 (Fig. II). 
 
 Fig. 12.— Sphenoides Megas. 
 
 This is the characteristic type of the Kourgans of Russia, and 
 for that reason I have called it kurga7iicus. 
 
THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 35 
 
 4. Sphenoides megas (Fig. 12), the largest which I have found. 
 It is also distinguished in the norma verticahs by a certain con- 
 vexity in the sides of the cranium and by the posterior rotundity. 
 This type is also obtained from the Kourgans. 
 
 5. Sphenoides oblongus. I so name that sphenoid which has a 
 marked distance between the greatest biparietal width and the 
 bifrontal line. This type is opposed to the latus, which is short. 
 
 6th. Spheroid {sphaeroides). 
 
 The general character of this cranial form is the rounding of the 
 frontal, parietal, parieto-occipital and the inferior or basal parts of 
 the occiput itself, by spherical curves. 
 
 The cranium is relatively wide and short, the forehead and 
 frontal large, the cranial arch widely convex, the occiput without 
 protuberance, but rounding, the base wide (Fig. 13). 
 
 Fig. 13.— Sphaeroides. 
 
 I have already distinguished three principal forms of the 
 spheroid, visible from the norma verticalis. 
 
 1st. Sphaeroides proper, which we also find subdivided. 
 
 2d. Sphaer otocephalus , which diverges by having a forehead 
 wider but slightly retreating, following, therefore, the spheroidal 
 
36 
 
 THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 as far as the coronal curve, and which as a whole becomes less 
 even in its curves than the typical spheroid proper. 
 
 Fig. 14.— Strongylocephalus. 
 
 3d. Strongylocephalus. This type differs in that it has a narrow- 
 ng in its sphenoidal fossae, visible in Fig. 14, so that the spherical 
 part of the cranium is that which remains back of this narrowing. 
 
 Fig. 1 5.— Strongylocephalus. 
 
 Fig. 15 shows also very well the frontal narrowing in its temporal 
 lines, while the transversal curve is clearly spheroidal. 
 
THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 37 
 
 7t±i. BiRSOiD {byrsoides) (Fig. i6). 
 
 The apparent form of this cranial t\^pe is an ovoid, which is 
 removed from the usual form, because it has a rather large biparie- 
 tal expansion, which does not terminate at the apex of the tg%, 
 but is rounded off; moreover, the cun-es, which are directed from 
 the larger to the frontal expansion, are concave, with dilatation of 
 the frontal line. Thus this form seems to be that of an elongated 
 purse, the opening of which is found at the bifrontal line and the 
 bottom at the expansion of the parietal curves, whence the name 
 of byrsoides (like a purse). 
 
 Fig. 16.— Byrsoides. 
 
 Obsen-ed from the side, the birsoid presents a superior plane; 
 it is low, with the occipital rounding, but protuberant. 
 
 In its norma verticalis I have observed a variation among the 
 birsoids of ancient Eg}'pt, one with a smaller biparietal expansion. 
 The cranium of this variety is large. 
 
 The seven forms which have been described are lecognizable 
 by the norma verticalis. The following are those in which the 
 vertical is insufficient, uncertain or can be easily confounded with 
 others wh.ich are different. Among these the following are found: 
 
;8 
 
 THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 8th. Parallelepipedoid (^pai'allelepipedoides). 
 
 Figures 17 and 19 represent a Sardinian t3'pe. Tlie normal 
 line has a slight swelling in the posterior part, and does not give 
 the exact image of the form with parallel lines, while the lateral 
 line corresponds to its name more closely. This form has a flat 
 
 Fig. 17.— Parallelepipedoides 
 Sardin. 
 
 Fig. 18.— Parallelepipedoides 
 kurganicus. 
 
 arch, vertical forehead, smooth occiput, and the base leveled; it is 
 narrow, long, low, with smooth sides and evident corners, which 
 makes a geometrical form. 
 
 Fig. 19.— Parallelepipedoides Sardin. 
 
 Figure iSrt^vtstnis2ipa7'allelepipedoidivovLV the Russian Kour- 
 gans. It appears ver}' clear by the parallel lines of the t\vo sides, 
 its length and regularity. 
 
THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 39 
 
 This form is not very common, and can undergo variations in 
 the norma verticalis, that is, can be larger in the transverse diame- 
 ter, and hence relatively shorter; it is always low in the norma 
 lateralis and through its entire length. 
 
 9th. Cylindroid {cylindroides). 
 
 If the rounding of the corners and the sides of the parallel- 
 epipedoid renders it more convex, there is the " cylindroid," which 
 is long, narrow, low, like the first, but rounded all around. There- 
 fore the forehead is lower, retreating (Fig. 20), and, seen from the 
 vertical, the occiput is narrow (Fig. 21); this occurs in the types 
 here given, of which one (Fig. 21) is from Latium, the other from 
 the Russian Kourgans. Such a form is rather rare, as is also the 
 parallelepipedoid. 
 
 Fig. 20.— Cylinlroides 
 
 Fig. 21.— Cylindroides. 
 
 1 0th. Cuboid {cuboides). 
 
 The cranium resembling a cube, has the arch, the occipital, and 
 the sides smooth, and possibly the forehead, which is almost 
 always vertical, at least in the small cuboids. One cubical form, 
 which approaches nearer to its typical name, has the vertical line 
 about corresponding to a quadrilateral, a little elongated; but we 
 know that the anterior is always narrower than the posterior part 
 of the cranium. As a rule, such a cranial form is more visible 
 
40 
 
 THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 from the norma verticalis (Fig. 22) and from the posterior (Fig. 
 23). The characteristic of the norma occipitaUs is especially that 
 the height is almost always equal to the width; hence we obtain 
 the true cubical form from the side, this presenting a superficies 
 of the cube. 
 
 Fig. 22.— Cuboides Parvus. 
 
 Fig. 23.— Cuboides Parvus. 
 
 Figure 24 represents a cuboides jnagnus (from the Kourgans), 
 while Figs. 22 and 23 reproduce a cuboides parvus of Sardinia. 
 
 Fig. 24.— Cuboides Magnus. 
 
 Masculine cuboids may be found, especially large ones, with 
 retreating foreheads and frontal sinuses large, and differing from 
 the type Fig. 24. 
 
THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 41 
 
 The forms which follow are determined especially by the norma 
 lateralis; first of all is the 
 
 nth. Trapezoid {trapezoides). 
 
 The two parallel sides of the trapezium here correspond to the 
 
 Fig. 25 —Trapezoides Sardiniensis. 
 
 arch and the base of the cranium (Fig. 25), the two sides not 
 parallel are the sloping of the forehead, and the occiput more or 
 
 Fig. 26.— Trapezoides Africus. 
 
 less oblique. The type which I show is the trapezoides sardhiieii- 
 sis, a small microcephalous cranium. One important variation 
 of the trapezoid is that which I have called African {africus) ^ 
 
42 
 
 THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 which I have obtained from Harar, and which I have seen again in 
 Russia, especially in the Government of the Chersonesus. 
 
 The Sardinian t>-pe is distinguished by being higher in the 
 back, wider in the norma verticalis, and relatively short (Fig. 26). 
 
 In order to recognize this form it is necessary to know that the 
 greater height of the cranium is at the back, and thence there is 
 a perceptible sloping towards the forehead, which is low. The 
 
 Fig. 27.— Acmonoides (Tver). 
 
 occipital is raised on an inclined plane, ver^^ sloping, while the base 
 of the cranium does not rest upon the same plane through its 
 
 entire length. 
 
 Fig. 28.— Acmonoides Siculus. 
 
 1 2th. AcMONOiD [acmonoides) (Figs. 27, 28). 
 
 It is not difficult to distinguish this variety with its anvil-like form. 
 Once seen, it becomes impressed on the memor\' by the singularity 
 
THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 43 
 
 of its shape. A long cranium, the norma verticaHs not elHptical 
 nor ovoid, because the sides are straight, a slight swelling of the 
 parietal protuberances situated very far back, and the occipital 
 resembling a quadrangular pyramid, leaning slightly on its cranial 
 base. The cranium is high on the side, the forehead vertically 
 inclined, but a little elevated; the arch is on the horizontal plane, 
 abruptly inclined at the summit of the occipital pyramid, the 
 extremity or protuberance of the occipital level. It has quite a 
 large capacity. The types given here are derived (Fig. 2f) from 
 the Russian Kourgans, (Fig. 28) from modern Sicily. 
 
 Rg. 29.— Lophocephalus. 
 
 Fig. 30.— Lophocephalus. 
 
 13th. LoPHOCEPHALic {lopJiocepkalus) (Figs. 29, 30). 
 
 This variety has a conspicuous trait not seen from the norma 
 verticalis nor norma lateralis, but from the norma facialis and the 
 norma occipitalis. This is, as shown in Figs. 29 and 30, the median 
 eminence extending from the forehead to the sagittal. This emi- 
 nence, which I call lophus (lophos), and which is described by 
 other anthropologists as " crania with the arch of the backbone of 
 an ass," or '• arch like the keel of a ship," commences in the upper 
 part of the frontal, at the place where the frontal curve first 
 becomes horizontal. It is an elevation of the median portion, 
 with lateral depressions amounting to a slight concavity, which 
 reaches the coronal, the highest part of the eminence and surpasses 
 it, invading the sagittal, where it terminates at the apex of the 
 triangle, gradually disappearing. 
 
44 
 
 THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 This variety I have described among the crania of Melanesia, 
 and the type which I give is from there; but it is not Hmited to 
 that region and presents certain variations. 
 
 14th. Chomatocephalus {chomatocephalus) (Fig. 31). 
 
 We call "tumulus-like" {chomd) that cranium which is ele- 
 vated like a hill upon a horizontal plane passing through the orbital 
 arches. It is not spherical, and slopes almost equally on all sides, 
 starting at the summit of the cranial arch, which is much elevated, 
 as seen in Fig. 31. Such a cranial arch may not always be regu- 
 lar in its inclinations, nor perfectly symmetrical, and not like a 
 hill or gradual elevations of land, but should resemble a high ele- 
 vation, and be almost disproportionate to the face. The type pre- 
 sented is from Melanesia. It is large, with a large capacity; there 
 are also smaller and different types, both in the same region and 
 elsewhere. 
 
 Fig. 31.— Chomatocephalus. 
 
 Fig. 32.— Platycephalus. 
 
 15th. Platycephalic (^platycephalus). 
 
 Platycephaly usually concerns the arch of the cranium only. 
 It is flat, in a relative degree to the usual convexity. In fact it is 
 a curve of the cranial arch which resembles an arc of a circle with 
 a large radius; the platycephalic forms will be distinguishable in 
 
THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 45 
 
 proportion as this idea is considered. As a rule the cranium is 
 also wide in its transverse diameter, and hence it is also relatively 
 short, as seen in the brachycephalic, Figs. 32, 33 and 34. Fig, 32, 
 which is the profile of an Italian cranium, resembles strongly 
 Fig. 33, which is a Russo-Kourgan ; Fig. 34 is the norma verticalis 
 of the latter and shows its relative width. 
 
 Fig. 33.— Platyceph. Bogdanovii. 
 
 Fig. 34.— Platyceph. Bogdanovii. 
 
 This characteristic is so evident and so much a part of the 
 cranial form, to which a pathological signification has been erro- 
 neously attributed, that it alone is sufficient to constitute a distinct 
 variety. It is easy to distinguish a cranium by such a characteris- 
 tic without directly considering the norma facialis or norma occi- 
 pitalis, and hence it is a good characteristic for classification. 
 Among platycephalous forms there is one which is prominent on 
 account of the unusual lowness of the arch, besides being very 
 flat. It presents a small forehead and a general depression of the 
 cranium from the orbital apophysis to the superior plane. The 
 top of the cranium resembles a flat cake or a bun, whence the 
 name placuntoidcs which I have given to it, that is, the form of a 
 flat cake (Fig. 35). There are also platycephali with narrow fore- 
 heads, which I will consider later. 
 
46' 
 
 THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 1 6th. Skopeloid {skopeloides) (Fig. 36). 
 
 The form which I call " rock-like " (skopelos) is \try curious. 
 It has a summit on the posterior part of the cranium which slopes 
 from ever}' side, and at the occiput descends rapidly to the base. 
 The cranium is large, wide at the base, with a narrow forehead, 
 and the frontal slightly sloping, following the inclined plane of the 
 posterior summit. 
 
 Fig. 35.— Placuntoides. 
 
 This form is difficult to describe, and Fig. 36 gives an imperfect 
 idea of it. 
 
 Fig. 36.— Skopeloides Samniticus. 
 Of this variety, so characteristic and quite common in Samos, 
 I have seen some which are microcephalous, in Samos and like- 
 wise in the Russian Kourgans, although there very rare. 
 
THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 4/ 
 
 The sixteen human varieties above described I have deter- 
 mined, after observations of more than 3500 crania, principally 
 from the Mediterranean, prehistoric tombs, and modern Russia, 
 the crania of the Kourgans, and from soij|e ancient cemeteries in 
 Moscow and the Chersonesus, and from ^Melanesia, I can afftrm 
 nothing of the entire number of human varieties, nor of their dis- 
 tribution, before making new and direct personal observations in 
 the rest of Europe and in other parts of the world ; I wait in confi- 
 dence and with the earnest desire of making such observations. 
 I afhrm with some personal satisfaction that, as regards the new 
 anthropological method, I have surmounted its uncertainties. 
 The number of varieties has been much reduced, and they are 
 separated by definite and recognizable characteristics. 
 
 I cannot affirm that new varieties may not be found even in the 
 Mediterranean field, where I have chiefly extended my researches. 
 If they should be found they would be few, and probably brought 
 from other localities. 
 
 II. 
 
 Subvarieties. 
 
 Though the number of varieties which I have until now deter- 
 mined in the Mediterranean and Russia, together with some from 
 Melanesia, is limited to sixteen only, the subvarieties are much 
 more numerous. Subvarieties should first of all preserve the 
 characteristics of the variety of which they are a variation, and 
 should have some other characteristic, which must not be transi- 
 tory and individual, but fixed and hereditary. Groups of sub- 
 varieties must constitute real groups; the variety is the principal 
 denomination of characteristics common to many subvarieties, 
 which add to the primary or dominant characteristic one or several 
 new characteristics which separate the subvarieties from each 
 other, as the following scheme exhibits: 
 
 Variety: A. 
 
 Subvariety : A -(- a, A -j- b, A -|- c, A + d, and so on. 
 
 While the characteristic A gives the name to the variety, the 
 less general characteristics a, b. c, d give the subvarieties of A. 
 
48 THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 The same relation is found in the animal kingdom between 
 genera and species, or between species and varieties; in the first 
 place, the universal characteristics of the genus are limited by 
 those of the species; \r\. the second, those of the species are 
 restricted by those of the varieties, and those of the variety by the 
 subvarieties. I have above stated that while in my opinion the 
 name of variety is general in its meaning, and therefore also 
 provisional, it may remain definitive by further study and assume 
 a fixed signification. Different results may be reached, but the 
 classification will remain unaltered, because the characteristics 
 will continue stable and the method unchanged. , 
 
 In determining the characteristics of numerous series of crania, 
 and in arranging groups of one variety, another plan occurred to 
 me, that of finding characteristics which separate a subvariety 
 into groups of a third order, meaning by a group of the ist order 
 the variety ; then we shall have a plan like the following : 
 
 1st. Variety: A. 
 
 2d. Subvariety : A + ^^ A -f- b, A + c, etc. 
 
 3d. Sub-subvariety : A-f-a + a, A-f-a + /9, A + a + T'. 
 
 The characteristics «, /9, y are not transitory ; they are stable, and, 
 on this account, of the same type as those which distinguish the 
 subvarieties a, b, c, etc. 
 
 It is easy to answer an inquiry as to the manner of distinguish- 
 ing these characteristics: individual variations are not repeated, 
 and they therefore do not occur in many individuals, unless acci- 
 dentally; not only do they cause little divergence from the typical 
 forms, they constitute oscillations of the same form recognizable 
 as such. It is not so with the characteristics of subgroups of the 
 2d or 3d order; they alter the fundamental form in some part, and 
 are repeated in groups composed of several individual elements. 
 
 We have seen how we may determine varieties, which in a great 
 measure assume geometrical forms and receive corresponding 
 names, because of their approximation to bodies with well-known 
 geometrical characters. We have also seen that we can determine 
 the form of this irregular body, the brain, either by the vertical or 
 lateral norm,, or in some cases by the anterior or posterior aspect. 
 Besides the normae which determine the variety, there remain 
 other normae which have various characters, and can therefore 
 complete the craniological type or show its variations beyond the 
 
THE VARIE TIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 49 
 
 primary character which places it in a given variety. An ellip- 
 soid, regarded vertically, may have different normae laterales, at 
 the same time remaining an ellipsoid; it may also have other char- 
 acteristics, visible from the norma occipitalis, which make it vary 
 from another cranium, also ellipsoid, with a different norma occi- 
 pitalis. There may also be variation in the same norma which 
 gives the fundamental form; for example, the ellipsoid (Fig. 38) 
 is shorter and relatively wider than the one beside it (Fig. 37), 
 
 Fig. 37— Dolichellipsoides. 
 
 Fig. 38.— Brachyellipsoides. 
 
 which is therefore a " dolichellipsoid," while those wide and short, 
 like Fig. 38, we may call " brachyellipsoids." Such variations of 
 elliptical forms correspond to the structure of the cranium, and 
 therefore constitute subvarieties. 
 
 Following the order above carried out in the varieties, I com- 
 mence with the ellipsoid. 
 
 I. Ellipsoides. 
 
 1st. Ellips. depressus. 
 
 This is visible from the norma lateralis and also from the norma 
 anterior (Fig. 39). Cranium low from the vertex to the occipital 
 base, as if crushed in every direction from the frontal and lateral 
 sides, and therefore with a narrow, retreating forehead, of curved 
 
50 
 
 THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 form; the same of the occiput. This curious and characteristic 
 form is subject to variations which would take too long to 
 describe here. 
 
 Fig. 39— Ellips. Depressus. 
 2d. Ellips. isopericampyhts (Fig. 40). 
 
 Isopericampylus signifies "with equal curves all around"; the 
 character of this subvariety is especially that the form is handsome 
 and perfect. It may have variations in the form of the ellipse 
 and in some other characters. 
 
 Fig. 40.— Ellips. Isopericampylus. 
 
 3d. Ellips. embolicus. 
 
 From embolus, prow, because the occipital decline, which com- 
 mences well forward, reaches as far as the cranial base, and such 
 
THE VARIETIES OF THE'^UMAN SPECIES. 
 
 51 
 
 a projection has the apparent form of a stiip's prow. I at first 
 called this form emboloides meridionalis, becajuse I had observed it 
 among the crania of Southern Italy. I found it again in Russia 
 
 Fig. 41.— Ellips. Embolicus. 
 
 among the Kourgan crania, among Etruscan crania, ancient 
 Roman, and finally at Novilara (Pesaro) in tombs perhaps of the 
 
 Fig. 43.— Stenellips. Hypsistegoides. 
 
 Fig. 42.— Stenellips. Embolicus, 
 
 5th century before the Christian era. Fig. 41 is the profile of a 
 cranium of the Kourgans of Tver. This cranium, that is, this 
 
52 
 
 THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 cranial form with definite ellipses, is long and at times exceeds 
 200 mm., and differs in width. In the meridional emboloid it is 
 135-138 mm., but in others is below 130mm.; hence the name of 
 stenellipsoides embolicus which I have given it, as in the cranium 
 from Novilara which I have shown here (Fig. 42). 
 
 4th. Ellips. hypsistegoides (Fig. 43). 
 
 This form is visible from the posterior norma of the cranium, 
 as in Fig. 43 (cranium from Novilara). The arch is constructed 
 like a roof in the example here given, and the height of the cra- 
 nium from the base to the vertex is considerable. There are 
 stegoid varieties also, that is, with a roof-like arch, not very high. 
 
 Fig. 44.— Ellips. Corythocephalus. 
 
 5th. Ellips. corythocephalus (Fig. 44). 
 
 " Helmet-Hke cranium," high, with a fine curve from the fore- 
 head to the occiput as far as the base, of large capacity, and flat at 
 the sides. This gives it the appearance of a helmet. I found it 
 first among ancient Egyptian crania, whence its name of aegyptia- 
 cus ; then among the Kourgan crania. 
 
 6th. Ellips. epiopisthius. That is, a cranium of elliptical form 
 in which the level rises from the frontal towards the posterior part, 
 so that the latter appears to be raised (Fig. 45). 
 
THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES, 
 
 53 
 
 7th. Ellips. scalenus. The epiopisthius can also be, as in this 
 case, scalenus, a rapid obliquity from the occipital slope. But the 
 cranio-scalenus can also be found without being epiopisthius, and 
 
 Fig. 45.— Ellips. Epiopisthius. 
 
 vice versa. These two characteristics appear separately and 
 together in other varieties, as in the ovoid, the platycephalus, and 
 in the ellipsoidal subvariety. This may also be said of the roof- 
 like form, or stegoid, and of the hypsistegoid. 
 
 Fig. 46.— Ellips. Tetragonalis. 
 8th. Ellips. tetragonalis (Fig. 46). 
 This ellipsoidal form is very characteristic in its norma lateralis, 
 
54 
 
 THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 which has the appearance of a tetragon, whence its name. The 
 cranium is high, the forehead as a rule erect, the occiput perpen- 
 dicular and very convex and depressed at the sides. It may be 
 confused with the cuboid when seen only from the norma later- 
 alis. But I must now omit a series of subgroups and limit myself 
 to the principal forms. 
 
 II. Pentagonoides. — With regard to varieties, I have distin- 
 guished various pentagonoids, acutus, obtusus, oblongus, brachy- 
 pentagonoides ; and there may be stegoids, cristati, etc. 
 
 III. Rhomboides, — The rhomboids are also short, brachy- 
 rhomboideSy or elongated in the anterior part, oblongus. 
 
 IV. Ovoides. — Subvarieties of ovoids are found with wedge- 
 like occiput, cuneatus, scalenus, stegoides, depressus. 
 
 Fig. 47.— Sphen. Tetragonus. 
 
 V. Sphenoides. — By the norma verticalis I have distinguished 
 sphenoides, stenometopus, sph. rotundus, spelatus, sph. megas, sph. 
 oblongus; an important subvariety is found in tetragonus (Fig. 47), 
 which is not only sphenoidal in the vertical, but also in the lateral, 
 and has prominent corners, rendering the vertex and sides plane. 
 
 There is likewise a sphenoid, cyrtocephalus, which has a 
 convexity extending from the frontal and parietals to the vertex, 
 
THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 55 
 
 resembling a protuberance, though not so pronounced as to con- 
 stitute a crista or a lophos ; if these two characteristics are found, 
 the sph. is cristatus or lophoides (Fig. 48). 
 
 T^,/vJ\.aIa/1 
 
 Fig. 48.— Sphen. Cristatus. 
 
 VI. Sphaeroides. — I have given the principal variations of this 
 variety, that is : 
 
 a) sphaer otocephalus ; 
 
 b) sphaeroides, hemisphaeroides ; 
 
 c) strongylocephalus (see above). 
 
 VII. Byrsoides. — So far I have only found one variation from 
 the siculus, that is, the aegyptiacus, which is a little narrower (see 
 above). 
 
 VIII., IX., X. ParallelepipedoideSy Cylindroides, Cuboides (see 
 varieties). 
 
 e 
 
 XI. Trapezoides. — I have already distinguished two subvarie- 
 ties with the names of Trap, sardiniensis and Trap, africus. 
 These are the most typical and commonest variations; in my cata- 
 logue of Russian varieties several other secondar}^ forms are 
 found, of which the commonest is trap, rotundatus. 
 
 There is a subvariety which I considered during my first obser- 
 vations as a distinct variety, and which I had named Pyrgoides, 
 
56 
 
 THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 a cranium resembling the form of a tower. This cranium is also 
 a trapezoid, but it is larger, the occiput is high and perpendicular, 
 so that the vertex of the cranium coincides very far back with the 
 bregma. It is large enough to appear spheroid, the anteposterior 
 declivity slopes uniformly from the back. 
 
 I preserve the name Pyrgoides for such forms because the 
 occipital looks like the wall of a tower, high and quadrangular; 
 but I consider it a subvariety of the trapezoid. I have noticed 
 variations in Pyrg. ramanus. The type in Fig. 49 is a cyrtocepha- 
 lus, so called on account of the fronto-bregmatic protuberance, 
 a rotundatus on account of the truncated comers and the convex 
 faces. 
 
 Fig. 49— Pyrgoides. 
 
 XII. Acmonoides. — Of this singular variety I have found sub- 
 varieties : a) siculus, which is the typical form described ; b) mega- 
 lometopuSy or having a large, wide forehead ; c) obtusus, on account 
 of the rounded corners; d) stegoides, on account of the roof-like 
 arch ; e) subtilis, because narrower than the type; f) proophyrocus, 
 because it has prominent frontal sinuses which do not exist in the 
 type. 
 
 XIII. Lophicephalus. — This variety offers some variations 
 from the type from Melanesia before presented; its principal 
 characteristic does not consist in the lophos, but in the cranial 
 
THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 57 
 
 form being a little larger. It is found among the Kourgans 
 (Fig. 50); the width is greater posteriorly, and the lateral parts 
 more convex, loph. kurganicus. 
 
 Fig. 50.— Lophoc. Kurganicus. 
 
 XIV. ChomatocephalMs. 
 
 I have found subgroups with the following characteristics : 
 
 a) Chom. angulosus, because it has a surface with angular pro- 
 jections. 
 
 b) Chom. summuSy on account of its great height. 
 
 c) Chom. cristatus, on account of its crest-like summit. 
 
 d) Chofn. sphenoidalis, for its wedge-like form as observed 
 from the norma verticalis. 
 
 XV. Platycephalus. — The varieties with most subvarieties are 
 the Ellipsoides, the Sphenoides, and the Platycephalus. Of the 
 Platyc. I have so far been able to distinguish 22 varieties, of which 
 several also have subgroups, as the Isobathy platycephalus, which 
 I have called siculus because first found in the tombs of the neo- 
 lithic age in Sicily (Fig. 51). We find: 
 
 a) Platyc. cuneatus ; b) platyc. humilus ; c) stenometopus ; d) 
 platyc.brachymetopus ; e) euryplatymetopus ; {) platyc. embolicus ; 
 g) platyc. rotundus ; h) platyc, scalenus, and so on. 
 
58 
 
 THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 XVI. Scopeloides. — A common form in Santos, and should be 
 more sought after in Italy. 
 
 Fig. 51.— Isobathyplatyc. Siculus. 
 
 In ending this description of subvarieties, at present limited to 
 those of the sixteen human varieties (and which I consider incom- 
 plete in number, just as I have considered incomplete the number 
 of varieties of the Mediterranean and Kourgans of Russia, where 
 I have found the varieties described), I should add, in order to 
 complete the picture of subvarieties, another characteristic of 
 classification, of which I have above spoken, the volume of the 
 cranium. 
 
 As I have said, what is well known in regard to other animals 
 occurs in man, that large and small varieties are found, both in 
 stature and in the volume of the cranium, and these differences in 
 size and volume are not indications of functional superiority or of 
 priority. The functions of the brain of 1200 gr. can be just as 
 perfect as those of a brain of 1600 gr., and it is known that not all 
 large and voluminous brains are those of great men, nor are those 
 of inferior or commonplace human types small. I have found 
 ellipsoids, cuboids, ovoids, pentagonoids, platycephali, trapezoids, 
 large, medium, and small, with complete and perfect structures 
 in the large as well as in the small and microcephalic varie- 
 ties; for this reason I have thought it wise to consider types of 
 different volume or cranial capacity as subvarieties, and not to 
 confuse the capacity of one with another. 
 
THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 59 
 
 I have also found that certain cranial types have a special capa- 
 city which does not belong to another type. Thus the trapezoids 
 have a small capacity, between elatto- and microcephalic, and never 
 exceed that limit; that of the pyrgoids is greater; the stenocephali 
 have a small capacity; the coritocephali are megalocephalic, and 
 so on. 
 
 I have adopted the words megas, magnus, maximus for the 
 large and largest varieties, medius for the medium, and parvus 
 and micros for the small and smallest varieties. In respect to the 
 capacity when measured, we may practically consider micros as 
 far as the average of 1 1 50 cc. ; parvus, as far as the average 
 1350 cc. ; megas, from 1500 up ; maximus, beyond 1700 cc. Thus 
 the number of subvarieties becomes increased. 
 
 III. 
 
 Nomenclature. 
 
 Nomenclature is necessary in the classification of animals, of 
 plants and minerals. Names aid to discern forms, to recognize 
 general characteristics by means of which series and groups are 
 formed, to distinguish series from each other. Without names 
 we should not know of what we speak. Thus in the classification 
 of human varieties and subvarieties it is necessary to adopt tech- 
 nical names in order to indicate them; although we may but 
 imperfectly express the entire conception of the form which we 
 wish to indicate. 
 
 For this purpose I have selected words from the Greek and 
 secondarily from the Latin languages, because Greek words are 
 better adapted for proper names, and are easily constructed, while 
 words in use in a modern language would be difficult to foreigners, 
 and having a vulgar signification, would be equivocal; finally, 
 because many languages derive names of geometrical forms from 
 Greek and Latin, and hence such can easily be understood. 
 
 It may appear that I have too much increased the number of 
 technical names in my earlier vci^mo\r, Human Varieties of Melan- 
 esia. In a measure that is true, but most of the words for each 
 variety were in use previously. Brachy, meso, dolichocephalo, 
 hypsi, chamecephalo, lepto, chameprosopo, lepto, mcso, platyrinno, 
 
60 THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 
 
 brachy, leptostafilino and the like are not my words. It appeared 
 that the vocabulary would be enormous and sibylline when other 
 expressions were added to the name of stenocephalo, etc. The 
 French school, as regards nomenclature, is the most exaggerated. 
 I need but state that besides the words above given and common 
 to all anthropological schools, it has basion, episthion, pterion, 
 obelion, inion, nasion, ophryon, metopion, stphanion and the like. 
 If in adopting the zoological method which I have indicated we 
 abandon craniometry, and with it its nomenclature, there will 
 remain but few technical terms for the indications of varieties and 
 subvarieties, and then nomenclature will be brief and significative. 
 Whoever reads my Memoirs from the first, that upon the Melan- 
 esians, to the last, upon " microcephalic varieties," will observe 
 how I have little by little eliminated names and confusing and 
 wearisome measurements, and have reduced classification by tech- 
 nical terms for nomenclature to the greatest simplicity. 
 
 Objections made against the nomenclature which I have intro- 
 duced can also be applied to that used in zoology and botany and 
 in all the sciences which have one. An important objection seems 
 to me that of Professor Benedict of Vienna, who would like to 
 abolish every word of Greek and Latin origin, because they are 
 dead languages which in a few years will no longer be taught in 
 schools of science. I agree with him. But, as I have above said, 
 it matters little whether a technical name of a variety be under- 
 stood in its signification provided that the variety denominated 
 be known by means of the name, and nothing more, when it 
 refers to a determinate form. Moreover^ a reform in classification 
 should not suffer through a difficulty in names, which, if they were 
 Italian, would not be easily accepted and understood by strangers. 
 Greek and Latin have at least the advantage of being languages 
 which can now be universally retained for the sciences. The 
 objections, or rather I should say the observations, made by 
 Hovelacque and Mantegazza are of no value and do not merit 
 attention. 
 
 I at first adopted technical names Italianized, but afterwards, 
 in order to render the meaning easy to foreigners, I adopted the 
 Latinized form, which has the advantage of preserving the original 
 vowels and consonants. The naturalist, accustomed to zoological 
 nomenclature, finds nothing newj, much less strange, in this 
 
THE VARIETIES OF THE HUMAN SPECIES. 6 1 
 
 method, and the anthropologist is a naturalist who is occupied 
 exclusively with man. 
 
 I consider it useful and opportune to prepare catalogues of the 
 varieties and subvarieties, and to record the geographical distri- 
 bution of forms; they are pictures which render two facts evident, 
 the number of ethnic elements and their dispersion. 
 
 I hope by this method and by these principles a systematic 
 anthropolog}' may be constituted, which may be the foundation 
 for scientific researches upon the origin of human races, upon 
 their number and distribution, upon their crossings, and, finally, 
 upon the possible solution of the problems of the unity or plur- 
 ality of the species. 
 
r 
 
 Smithsonian Institution. 
 
 Washington City, November, 1894. 
 
 This work. "The Varieties of the Human Species," by- 
 Giuseppe Sergi, forms part of Volume 38, Smithsonian Miscellaneous 
 Collections ; other parts of the volume are in preparation. 
 
 LIBRARY CATALOGUE SLIPS. 
 
 Smithsonian Institution. 
 
 The varieties of the human species. Principles 
 and method of classification. B}- Giuseppe Sergi, 
 Washington, published by the Smithsonian Insti- 
 tution, 1894. 8°. 61 pp. 
 
 From : Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 38. 
 {No. 969.) 
 
 Sergi, (Giuseppe). 
 
 The varieties of the human species. Principles 
 and method of classification. By Giuseppe Sergi. 
 Washington, published by the Smithsonian Insti- 
 tution, 1894. 8°. 61 pp. 
 
 From: Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 38. 
 (No. 969.) 
 
 The varieties of the human species. Principles 
 and method of classification. By Giuseppe Sergi. 
 Washington, published by the Smithsonian Insti- 
 tution, 1894. 8°. 61 pp. 
 
 From: Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 38. 
 (No. 969.) 
 
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