* ,\* 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■■ 
 
 \0 O^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 w 
 
 *II1 
 
 
 r^ y 
 
 
 
 ■& 
 
 
 ■■ 
 
 
 *v 
 
 
 
 *" : 
 
 
 V 1 8 
 
 % 
 
 * « , » - v^ 
 
 
 
 
 x 00 ^. 
 
 v 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A* ^, 
 
A 
 
 GRAMMAR 
 
 OF THE 
 
 | ICELANDIC 
 
 OR 
 
 OLD NORSE TONGUE 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE SWEDISH 
 
 OF 
 
 ERASMUS RASH 
 
 BY 
 
 GEORGE WEBBE DASENT M. A. 
 
 L 0-IV DON. 
 
 WILLIAMS «fc MORGAT£ 
 
 14 HENRIETTA -STREET. COVENT- GARDEN. 
 
 1843. 
 
IV TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 hardly know; blind Titans, exhibiting superhuman energy, 
 doing- a great deal of work, but doing it, as the blind 
 are like to do, ill. 
 
 In no fact of our existence does this carelessness 
 for the Past show itself more strongly than in our 
 Language; we have mutilated, and in some respects 
 wellnigh forgotten, the speech of our ancestors, and 
 have got instead a monstrous mosaic, a patchwork of 
 various tongues which we have picked up and pieced 
 together as we went along. 
 
 Some one will exclaim, that the anomalous condi- 
 tion of our Language is no fault of the present Age, 
 that it has only succeded to sins entailed on it by those 
 that came before , and that it adds very little to the 
 store of mutilation, nay strives hard in many ways to 
 bring about a purer state of things. To this it may be 
 answered, that the present Age is responsible for the 
 sins of those that preceded it, if it can atone for them 
 and will not; no one will deny that this is a case where 
 the entail might be docked with the greatest advantage; 
 as to its adding very little to . the mutilation , any one 
 who has the heart to read Novels, Annuals , and a cer- 
 tain class of Periodicals, must be aware that these are 
 
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. V 
 
 just so many mints for forging base and barbarous 
 words, some of which are continually becoming* current 
 in the mouths of those who have not taste enough to 
 distinguish gold from brassy and as to the efforts of the 
 Age to bring about a better state of things, they are, 
 and will remain as good as useless so long as the main 
 remedy is neglected. 
 
 In good truth it seems hopeless to expect that 
 Englishmen should ever get to understand their native 
 tongue till they are taught it, and by teaching I mean, 
 till they study its structure and literature, just as they 
 study the structure and literature of any other language 
 of which they are wholly ignorant. Hitherto on the 
 contrary it seems to have been assumed as granted that 
 we take in our mother's tongue along with their milk ; 
 our instruction in English rarely reaches beyond the 
 nursery, or if continued is conveyed to us under the 
 dreary auspices of Lindley Murray. 
 
 To me it seems plain that such learning by suction 
 is very unfitting; it is not too much to demand that 
 the People of England be taught English; that at any 
 rate there should be found in all Public Schools and 
 Universities, men sufficiently acquainted with their native 
 
VI TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 tongue from its rise till the present day to instruct our 
 youth in the speech and Literature of their country. 
 To some this may seem an easy task, if it be so easy 
 I would it were done, but perhaps it is harder than 
 many think; in my opinion a man who could teach 
 English with comfort to himself and profit to his hear- 
 ers — a man in short who will earnestly do his days- 
 work and not make a job of it — should have a tho- 
 rough knowledge of Anglo Saxon , and Anglo Norman, 
 of our Old, Middle, and New English, beside a consid- 
 erable proficiency in the Old Norse, and early German 
 tongues. There are men in England capable of doing 
 this, but as yet they are few and far between. 
 
 But though the sum of our English instruction 
 amounts to zero, or less, there are some signs which 
 show that the night of our forgetfulness is far spent, 
 and the dawn at hand $ by the praiseworthy efforts of 
 isolated students the results worked out in the School 
 of German Philology founded by Grimm are becoming 
 more and more known among us. The Anglo Saxon 
 Grammar of the Author of this work has been excel- 
 lently translated by Mr. Thorpe, and has tended not a 
 little towards awakening a taste for that tongue long so 
 
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. VII 
 
 shamefully neglected $ a livelier interest is taken in re- 
 prints of our Old English Authors 5 and it may not 
 perhaps be too much to expect that we shall soon have 
 a Professor of English in the University of Oxford. 
 Should the present Translation be instrumental in fur- 
 thering this good work, the pains spent on it will be 
 amply repaid 5 putting aside the study of Old Norse for 
 the sake of its magnificent Literature, and considering 
 it merely as an accessory help for the English student, 
 we shall find it of immense advantage, not only in tra- 
 cing the rise of words and idioms, but still more in 
 clearing up many dark points in our early History 5 in 
 fact so highly do I value it in this respect, that I 
 cannot imagine it possible to write a satisfactory His- 
 tory of the Anglo Saxon Period without a thorough 
 knowledge of the Old Norse Literature. 
 
 Before I close I wish to add a few words on my 
 Translation; it is, I hope, a faithful rendering of Rask's 
 more complete Icelandic Grammar, which he published 
 at Stockholm in 1818 under the Title „Anvisning till 
 Islandskan eller Nordiska Fornspraket, af Erasmus Chris- 
 tian Rask. Fran Danskan ofversatt och omarbetad af 
 Forfattaren." I have been induced to pass over the 
 
VIII TRANSLATORS PREFACE. 
 
 Author's Preface, partly because the information con- 
 tained in it has been already made known to the En- 
 glish reader in the Preface to the Author's Anglo Saxon 
 Grammar, partly because many references are made in 
 it to works since superseded by the progress of Old 
 Norse Philology. I may mention that the short Praxis 
 appended is of my own selection, and I hope it may 
 prove useful to beginners in the Old Norse. 
 Homburg: vor der Hohe, 
 August 7 th 1845. 
 
FIRST PART. 
 
 The System of the Alphabet. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 On the forms of the Letters, 
 
 Runes. 
 
 1. The art of writing was already known in the North 
 long before the introduction of Christianity; the characters 
 then in use are called Runes (run pi. riinir, old runar). They 
 were in the oldest times only 16 in number, the forms names 
 and power of which may be seen in Table A. 
 
 It is easy to see that all the names are chosen with re- 
 ference to the forms; in the case of fe {cattle) for instance 
 horns were thought of; in that of ur {rain) pouring showers; 
 in that of furs {a giant) a fat belly; in that of 6s {the mouth 
 of a river), streaming water; etc. 
 
 2. Our forefathers kept far into the christian times the 
 old characters in inscriptions on gravestones staves and calen- 
 dars, for which they were far more fit than the Roman letters, 
 even then already much distorted by the monks and tricked 
 out with many curves. In the mean time their number was 
 increased by the pricked Runes (Tab. B.), which take the 
 name of pricked ur, J)urs, etc. For C, Q, X, and Z, peculiar 
 
 1 
 
I RUNES 
 
 characters were first found out in later times, for the sake of 
 making the Runic alphabet agree entirely with the Latin. 
 These are therefore quite spurious, and are never met with in 
 any old inscription. 
 
 3. Of the Runic orthography it is especially to be remar- 
 ked, that in the oldest period it never doubled any letter; that 
 the words were commonly separated by one, sometimes two 
 points; that the arrangement of the lines was irregular and 
 must be found out by the context; that the Runic charac- 
 ters were often written reversely from right to left; and that some 
 letters in remote places and in different times seem to have had 
 different meanings; which is especially the case with the vowels, 
 though here a difference of Dialect may have had some in- 
 fluence. In Books it seems Runes were never used in these 
 old times, because there was then a want of suitable writing 
 materials. Two famous variations are the Helsing and Staf- 
 karls Runes: the former are distinguished by the want of the 
 down stroke, only the cross stroke being left; the latter by a 
 very long down stroke, on which several Runes are written 
 by means of their proper cross strokes under one another. 
 
 4. The antiquity of Runes has indeed been denied by many 
 learned men, but yet seems thoroughly credible for the follow- 
 ing reasons. 
 
 At the introduction of Christianity and for some time after 
 they were in general use over the whole North, in Sweden, 
 Denmark, Norway, and Iceland, and we have demonstrably 
 heathen runic stones, on which Thor is invoked; but if they 
 were invented by the monks for any secie- use, their employ- 
 ment on gravestones would be against this view; if on the 
 other hand they had been framed by others after the Latin or 
 Greek alphabet , for the sake of forming a national system of 
 writing, it would have been impossible that they should have 
 been spread so far in so short a time, and besides we should 
 not miss so many needful letters among them. At the same time 
 they are spoken of so often in the oldest Sagas as signs for 
 writing in the heathen times, e. g. in Eigla on the charmed stake 
 set up against King Eric Blodyxa, in Grettla, and many others; 
 
RUNES 
 
 nay in songs which are manifestly heathen, as Rigsmal, 
 Sigurdrivomal , Havamal, Skirner's Journey, where some of 
 them are even mentioned by name, as Jnirs, nau6; that all 
 doubt must fall away; in the Voluspa itself it is said Str. 20. 
 
 Skaro a ski'di. They scored on the tablet 
 
 Skuld hina JriSjo. Skuld as the third, (i. e. Noma.) 
 
 That they were sometimes used of old in Sorcery is rather 
 a reason for, than an objection against, their high antiquity. 
 All old writers assign with one voice their introduction into 
 the North to Odin; and this is supported by the fact that by 
 far the most Runic stones are found in Sweden, especially in 
 the neighbourhood about Upsala, which was the headseat of 
 the old worship of Odin. The Runes have great likeness 
 to the very oldest Greek alphabet, and this coincides comple- 
 tely with the old story of our forefathers having flitted hither 
 from the country north of the Black Sea; it is also known from 
 Ovid that the dwellers in those regions were already at the 
 birth of Christ in possession of the art of writing. 
 
 5. Of Runes, their use, age, and the like, many Icelanders 
 have written treatises; as Olaf Thordson H vita ska Id, in 
 an appendix to the Skalda. Bjorn of Skardsa, John Gud- 
 mundson the learned, Rugman, John Olafson of Grun- 
 nawick in his Runologia; Eggert Olafson has also treated 
 this subject; but of all these the first only has been printed. 
 Vorm, Abraham son, Ver el ius, Celsius, and several Danes 
 and Swedes have made themselves renowned by collecting and 
 explaining Runic stones, but at the same time have seldom paid 
 attention to the language, grammar and orthography. Again 
 many learned antiquarians of both these nations have, by mu- 
 tual abuse, by which they supplied the want of enquiry, reason 
 and knowledge, deprived their works on Runes of almost all 
 interest and worth, stifled the truth, and finally awakened 
 general disgust for the subject itself. 
 
COMMON 
 
 Common Letters. 
 
 6. The Latin Alphabet was introduced into the North by 
 two different hands, the Anglo Saxons and the Germans; the 
 German monkstyle obtained the preference , though with the 
 retention of some Anglo Saxon characters, particularly the two 
 f) and 5, besides the framing of manifold abbreviations, hence 
 arose a peculiar Scandinavian Blackletter, in which ^E was 
 kept in the Latin form , was written as o . with a stroke 
 through it (see Tab. F,) which still remains in Dansk. A was 
 not met with, or was written as a double a contracted (Tab. F.) 
 which is also found in many printed Icelandic books, and 
 which Baden, Abrahamson, and others have tried to introduce 
 again into Dansk; just as the Germans also have fused fs, 
 ch and tz, into so many separate forms. 
 
 7. Such was the arrangement of the alphabet over the 
 whole North: and thus we find it in all old Swedish laws 
 and deeds, till nearly about the time of the Reformation the 
 German w, a, and 6 were brought in, and along with these was 
 formed a new a; besides these changes |) and S w r ere first resolved 
 into th and dh, and afterwards vanished altogether out of both 
 speech and writing *.) Among the Icelanders as among other 
 European Nations, the true old Latin characters have begun 
 very much in later times to drive out the blackletter, and all 
 
 * As an example of this I may quote the beginning of the West- 
 gothland Laws according to the oldest codex in the Royal Library 
 (at Stockholm), it comes, if the accentuation be preserved, very 
 near to the Icelandic. "Kryster aer fyrst i laghum varum i {)a 
 aer cristnse var , oc allir cristnir konongaer, bcendaer, oc allir 
 bocarlser, biscupaer oc allir boclaerSir insen. VarJ)aer barn til 
 kirkju boret oe be|)iz cristini, J)a seal fa{)ir ok moSer fa guft- 
 faefmr oe guSmof)or oc salt oc vatn, f)set seal baerae til kirkju, 
 {>a seal a prest kallaa, han seal a kirkjuboli boaa." 
 
 The same alphabet (with 5) is also used in the addition to 
 this cod.; which however otherwise betrays a much later hand. 
 
LETTERS 
 
 good Editions of old Poetry, Sagas, Laws etc., are printed in 
 Roman type. J) and se have been all along retained, 6 is now 
 often written with two strokes or points over it, (but never 
 o), 5 has been laid aside since the Reformation, and supplied 
 by f) or d, th/ough its sound is still left in daily talk 
 among the Icelanders, and is strictly separate from that of 
 either of the Letters mentioned above. Even in Editions of old 
 Sagas it has been usually neglected, because the Printing Offices 
 had no proper type for the purpose. In Njala and the late 
 Stockholm Edition of Sturluson's Edda and the Skalda it is 
 carefully preserved. 
 
 8. The Icelandic Alphabet now in use is therefore the 
 following : 
 
 a a 
 
 g 
 
 ge 
 
 n 
 
 enn 
 
 u u 
 
 b be 
 
 h 
 
 ha 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 v vaff 
 
 (c se) 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 P 
 
 pe 
 
 x ex 
 
 d de 
 
 J 
 
 jo5 
 
 (q 
 
 ku) 
 
 y y 
 
 8 stungit de 
 
 k 
 
 ka 
 
 r 
 
 err 
 
 z seta 
 
 e e 
 
 1 
 
 ell 
 
 s 
 
 efs 
 
 J) {>orn 
 
 f eff 
 
 m 
 
 emm 
 
 t 
 
 te 
 
 as a3 (aj) 
 6 6 
 
 9. Olaf Thordson Hvitaskald in the appendix to the 
 Skalda, John 1 a f s o n of Grunnawick in his Islenzka retriltan ; 
 and also Eggert Olafson, under the title: "Nockrar ore- 
 gluligar reglur um j>aS hvornveg rett eigi a5 bokstafa J)a mi 
 lifandi fslendsku tungu"— have written on the Icelandic ortho- 
 graphy with this alphabet, of which treatises only the first 
 named has been printed. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 Of Pronunciation. 
 
 10. The Icelandic Pronunciation is in (he highest degree 
 regular , and corresponds exactly to the system of spelling, 
 which is however arranged after a peculiar manner, the most 
 suitable certainly that could have been invented for this lang- 
 uage, but wholely differing from the present Swedish method. 
 
 Vowels. 
 
 11. Every vowel has two sounds, the one simple and soft, 
 the other hard and diphthongic, or as it were in composition 
 with some soft consonant, and commonly distinguished by a 
 stroke or accent over the letter. Some vowels have two such 
 mixed sounds, the one formed of v, the other of^". 
 
 12. A is sounded therefore 1. like a Swedish a. e. g. saga, 
 a tale, danska the dansk tongue , at fara to fare , baka to 
 bake etc.; 2. with a stroke over it, like av or au (not Germ. 
 au); e. g. fra (read frav) from, tap (taup) pith, strength, drattr 
 (drautt'r) drawing. 
 
 13. This a has already in old writers begun to take the 
 sound of a (Engl, o), particularly in cases where it followed 
 after v, in order to aroid the hard sound vav; in these cases 
 therefore o is often written in its stead by old writers, and al- 
 ways by the new: but that in the oldest times it really had 
 the sound a (av) appears partly from the rhyme, e. g. in Stur- 
 lu son's Hattalykill, 
 
 Slikt er sva It is so 
 
 Siklingr a That a king hath etc. 
 
 and in Skalda 2. 
 
 Hareks liSar varu. Hareks men were etc., 
 
 partly from derived words or forms, where it is invariably, like 
 
 a broken into ce. e. g. varu or voru they were, in the conj. 
 
 vwri, never like o into y. It is also written a in many 
 
VOWELS 7 
 
 M. S. (e. g. in the excellent cod. No. 7. in the Royal Libr. at 
 Stockholm.) If in editing old works we were to mark it as 
 a, we should at once be able, without changing the orthography, 
 to express its original as well as its later and softer pro- 
 nunciation; e. g. van (von) hope, vagr (vogr) an inlet, va (vo) 
 fought , qvan (qvon) (also qvaen) a wife , woman , (quean) 
 hanum (honuin) to him, man, pi. manum (afterwards mun-um) 
 v. etc. 
 
 14. To a belongs also the diphthong ee, which is pro- 
 nounced like aj or aj; e. g. rseSa, to talk, aetla to mean. 
 
 15. E is sounded 1. alone like a or high e in the Swed. 
 word engel (French e in apres etc. English e in fellow or 
 ai in hair), e. g. herrar lords, flest most, elska to love, verk 
 work, hestr horse, her army. It has 2. the lower sound of 
 e in the Swed. lefva , veta, (Ft. e) always before the sound 
 of i or j; ei must by no means therefore be pronounced like 
 German ei (which the Icelanders would write m) but as the 
 low e in seg, fel etc.'; with an aftersound ofj; e.g. bein bone, 
 eit owe, seigr sfo^, so also nei, nay, no, etc. 
 
 16. E takes the same low or deep sound before gi and 
 gj, since g is then pronounced as j, e g degi (read deji) dat. 
 of dagr day, £egja (J>ei-ja) to be silent, vegir (vejir) pi. of 
 vegr (vag'r) a way etc, which are therefore often found written 
 deigi, J>eigia, veigir etc., how r ever wrongly according to origin, 
 and needlessly according to the simple rule. Some indeed assert 
 that we should read vajir, etc., where the root has the sound 
 of a; if this be right I dare not decide, but it is not general. 
 
 17. With v E forms no diphthong, but on the other hand 
 one with j before it; this is commonly written e (or ie), and 
 is sounded 1. as je, namely when it is long, viz at the end 
 of a syllable, or before a simple consonant; e. g. tre , tree, 
 vel guile, mer to me, bref letter, lek played, gret wept, rena 
 to cease', so also in the derived forms tres (Gen. of tre) etc., 
 read trje, vjel, etc. 2. as jd when it has a short and hard 
 tone, i. e. before a double conson. or a position, e. g. rettr 
 right, helt held, fell, fell, fretta to spy out', so also her here. 
 
8 VOWELS 
 
 and some words , which in old writers seem to have had a 
 simple e (a), e. g. ek. I. eta to eat, el a hail-or snow-storm'. 
 and in the modern J)ena to serve; (read rjiiltV hjalt) etc. 
 
 18. E has commonly the same high sound (jd) after k and 
 g, though the accent in usually left out in these cases; e. g. 
 ker. jar.; kem / come, gera to make, geld I pay , get can, 
 (v); read kjar, kjam, gjara, etc., with a hard k or g and soft 
 j as in Dansk). But ei is an exception (by rule. 15.) e. g. geit 
 shegoat, leipr a thole, and the word gefa to give, in which e 
 has the deep sound, for which reason it has been changed 
 into i in Dansk and Swedish. 
 
 19. The Diphthong e is thus in its nature opposed to the 
 others, since its vowel follows its consonant, and seems there- 
 fore most fitly written with an inverted accent, which has been 
 also adopted by the Icelandic Literary Society: according to 
 this it would be most correct to write tre, vel, mer, lek, gret, 
 rettr, helt, fell, fretta, her, el etc., but in old M.S. (e. g. the 
 abovementioned cod. No. 7. 4to in the Royal Libr. Stockholm), 
 and in old printed Books it is written e, or often as simple e 
 without any accent, which last however is wrong and mislea- 
 ding. By this would be confounded together; 
 
 vd well and vel guile. leSr leather and le*d> borrowed. 
 
 her army » her here. seSr feeds v. » seSr custom. 
 
 el feeds » el hailstorm, iletta to cleave » fletta toplait. 
 
 fell fells (v.) » fell fell. let dissuades » let left. v. 
 
 lek leaks (v.) » lek played (v). setti placed » setti seventh. 
 ver defends (v.) » ver we. letti dissuaded » letti stopped. 
 
 20. I is pronounced 1. nearly as in the Swedish words 
 vild, visst, which sound especially when it is long seems to 
 approach that of the deep e, e. g. at vilja to will, viss certain, 
 vita to know, lifa, to live, himin heaven, haskaligr dangerous, 
 missir loss, landi landsman; e is therefore often found in its 
 stead especially in terminations, e. g. haskalegr, misser, lande 
 etc., which is however wrong by the simple rule that e by 
 itself sounds like a: 2. with a stroke over it, as in the Swed. 
 word fri, vis, Engl, free, e. g. hT life, rikr rich, brixl abuse. 
 
VOWELS. 9 
 
 21. Besides this i when it comes before another vowel is 
 always taken as the conson. j, which in old times was as little 
 distinguished from the vowel i as v from u; but since it has 
 been agreed in all good editions to separate these last, it seem 
 that we have the same reason to exercise the same right towards 
 the first. The Icelandic Society for the Diffusion of Knowledge, 
 and the so called Smabokafelag (Tract Society), have carried 
 this distinction into execution, and caused to be printed 
 sjon sight j bjarga to help, bjork birch, gjora to do, byrja to 
 begin, fylgja to follow, etc. and this I mean to follow through- 
 out in this work, because it gives the spelling without any 
 essential change much greater clearness and perspicuity; at 
 the beginning of words, e. g. jor5 earth, jam iron, it has al- 
 ready long been in general use, because it there seems to be 
 a little harder. 
 
 22. After the vowel e indeed i is also properly a cons.; 
 but since e in this connection loses its common sound of d, 
 and i also seems almost fused along with it into one sound, 
 which comes near to the long or broad e, and since the ton- 
 gue has other diphthongs of the same kind (au, ey) which it 
 is impossible to avoid; it seems best to retain ei as a Diph- 
 thong, which indeed no one has attempted to change. 
 
 23. is pronounced 1. like the Swed. a (Engl, o), or as 
 the high in Swed. o in bort, Tcomma (the Russian and Finnish o), 
 e. g. opinn open (o-pin), orka to be able, hola cavern, spor. 
 traces footsteps ; 2. with an accent it takes a deep and broad 
 sound, almost like ov, e. g. ro rest, rot root, goSr good, dottir 
 daughter, otti and ogn fright 
 
 24. U is sounded 1. almost like deep Swed. 6 in hog, rok 
 or German u, e. g. hugr mind, thought, sumar summer, stu- 
 Sull, term for the subordinate letters in alliterative verse, urt 
 wort, unna to grant. O is therefore often found instead of u, 
 especially in endings, e. g. herod* for heruS pi. of heraS, dis- 
 trict, sk^onum Dat. pi. def. of sk^ cloud, orvonum the same 
 of or arrow , dryckjor drinkingbouts ; which is however 
 wrong because the Iceland, o has its own fixed, and much 
 
10 VOWELS 
 
 higher sound : the word guS god is pronounced nearly as gv65 
 or gviiS: 2. with an accent over it, like the common u in 
 Swedish and Dansk, (French ou Engl, oo); but this sound is 
 again double as in Swedish: viz, in some cases broad al- 
 most like uv, e. g. hus house, ut out, dukr cloth (duck), ungr 
 young, udi moisture, hufa cap, hood; in other words as the Swed. 
 a in dubbel, ung, the Dansk in gudelig, konst etc. (Engl, young) 
 with no aftersound of v, e. g. hun s/*e, puki goblin, (Puck), 
 kuga fo force. If we were to write this w, the sound would 
 be much more exactly expressed, and some words quite sepa- 
 rate in origin pronunciation and meaning would be disting- 
 uished; thus e.g. dufa dove, kuga, puki, and hun she, but 
 hun in pi. hunar bearcubs. This it seems to occur especially 
 before f, g, and k. In old M. S. no distinction is made between 
 u and v, but they are now entirely separate in general use. 
 
 25. Y, is now sounded exactly like i, and has therefore 
 1. a sound which is very near deep e; e. g. fyrir for, yftr 
 your, gyftingr a jew; 2. like long i, e. g. b^Sr he bids, fKgr 
 he flies. It is therefore merely an etymological sign which is 
 used when the sound i comes from o, w, and the sound i 
 from jo, ju, or u, and in some few Primitives, where the other 
 kindred tongues have y or o; e. g. myrkr murk, syster sister, 
 Swed. syster, Dansk soster etc. The name of the letter how- 
 ever is pronounced altogether as it is in Swed. and Dansk.* 
 
 * This letter is found, in consequence of its sound, interchanged 
 with i in numerous cases; e. g. fyrir and firir; some moderns 
 have made it a rule to write y where the sound i comes from 
 two other letters , and accordingly where the Primitive has ja,jd, 
 etc. But that this rule is false is proved by the universal custom 
 of old writers; we never find among them dyrfast, byrni, mySi, 
 etc., but dirfast to be venturesome; from djarfr daring, birni 
 dat. of bjorn bear, mifti dat. of mj65r mead. By the same 
 rule we should also write vytum for vitura we know, from 
 veit, and giftia for gySja goddess from gufi, because ei is a 
 diphthong but a a simple vowel. Just as wrong is y for i 
 e. g. ryki for riki and the like. 
 
VOWELS It 
 
 26. The Diphthong ey has consequently entirely the same 
 sound as ex, and is used only where the Prim, has au, ju, 
 
 jo, or the kindred tongues o, e. g. deyfta to kill, from dauftr, 
 dead, geyma to keep, from gaumr care, hey hay, (Swed. ho,) 
 it is therefore often interchanged in careless writing with ei. 
 
 27. 6 has the sound of high b in the Swed. dorr, smbr, 
 e.g. gjora is sounded as theDansk#/6>r^ stoSull milking place. 
 
 28. The Diphthong of b is au, which is pron. like a broad 
 b, or nearly as of e. g. auga eye, rauSr red, autt lonely (read 
 ojga, rqjdr, ojtt,) for which sake some very late writers have 
 wished to change it into by. and write oyga, royfrr, etc. 
 
 29. 6 was adopted late by the Northmen: In old times au 
 or av was written for this letter also, and this custom has been 
 carried on till the latest times by many, especially in those 
 cases, where b is derived from a. In order to remedy the 
 confusion thus occasioned it has been finally determined to 
 use av on^ly for the vowel b, and au onejly as the diph- 
 thong; e. g. favour or foSur ace. s. of faSir father; favr or 
 for, a journey, faring from fara to fare. But in order to read 
 old books , in which this distinction is not observed , it is 
 needful to know the word before hand; as as a small help 
 it may however be remarked that the sound is always simple 
 b, where the Prim, has simple a\ and always the dipthongic 
 sound au, where the Prim, has a; e.g. bragor « tfrocA: pi. brogd, 
 whether it be spelt bravgS or hraugS; but fang wrestling, pi. 
 faung, though it be sometimes written favng. 
 
 30. The strokes over the vowels are thus by no means 
 signs of tone, since the simple vowels in the word as often 
 have the tone, and a tone altogether the same, e. g. blasa to 
 turn toward, and blasa to blow, atti heated (v), and aiti had, 
 owned, have exactly the same tone. Nor does this stroke at 
 all denote the prosodiacal length of the vowels, for the simple 
 are often long, and the diphthongic short, or quite toneless 
 e.g. hetja hero, vel well, mattr meat, vesa3ll vile, amattliga 
 sadly, sexaeringr, a sixoared {boat), but it denotes an addition 
 or essential alteration in the sound itself. 
 
1 2 CONSONANTS 
 
 31. The same method of marking the accent has not been 
 always used; at one time two dots were placed instead of 
 the accent (see Tab. D.), out of which ignorant compositors 
 (e. g. in Resen's Edition of Sturlusons Edda) afterwards made 
 a, b, for a, 6, etc. Others placed besides a single dot over 
 the simple vowels in order to make the distinction more plain 
 (Tab. E.). Later still the vowels themselves were doubled, yet 
 so as to fuse them as far as possible into a single form; as 
 may be seen in Tab. F. But of these signs ij, and w, together 
 with the double o and y, as well as those with double dots 
 are all most probably of the 16t& or 17t& century, and now 
 happily quite laid aside, the old simple system of spelling 
 having been again generally adopted. 
 
 Consonants. 
 
 32. C is used by old writers indiscriminately with k, espe- 
 cially at the end of monosyllables , e. g. calla to call, scip ship, 
 dryccr drink, mjoc much, ec I, oc and, mic me-, for kalla, 
 skip, drickr or drykkr, mjok or mj 6g, ek or eg, ok or og, mik 
 or mig. It is now used only in ck for kk; e. g. plocka to 
 pluck, {)6ck thank, staekka to increase. But many write kk, 
 plokka, |)dkk, staekka etc., and thus shut c entirely out of the 
 language, a custom which is already old though not general. 
 
 33. D is pronounced as the hard Swed. and Germ, d, e. g. 
 dagr day, bardagi battle, halda to hold, hond hand, oddr, 
 'point', this sound is found in the beginning of words and 
 syllables, and at the end of syllables after /, n. m, and d, 
 
 34. 8 is an aspirated d, and has the sound of the soft 
 Dansk d at the end of the words med, hvad, etc., which sound 
 has vanished entirely out of the modern Swed., but is still 
 found in English, as weak th both at the beginning and end 
 of words. In the Old Norse tongue it was used at the end of 
 syllables after all vowels and r, f, and g, e. g. meS with, is 
 pronounced as the Dansk med, goSr good, gerfti did, liffii 
 
CONSONANTS 13 
 
 lived, bygftr inhabited country, herao" district. In old writers it 
 is sometimes found after /, m, e. g. fjdl5i fullness, dreymffi, 
 dreamed. 
 
 35. In some old. MS. f) is used for S before vowels within the 
 word, e. g. in the Edda and Skalda. In later times 5 has been every 
 where replaced by {) or d, the first of these is least confusing, be- 
 cause f) with its true hard sound never occurs at the end of a sylla- 
 ble, and therefore leaves the reader in doubt only in compound 
 words, e. g. ij>r6tt handicraft, art, if>ran repentance, the first should 
 be read if)rott, the second iftran; in the words, 6J>ol impatience, 
 65ul right of freehold , ddulr freetongued , all the three diff- 
 erent sounds are found, if we were to write o{ml, we should 
 confound the two first; and w T e chose odul, the two last. When 5 
 is expressed by {), it seems that d may with equal right be 
 written t; but if d be put for 5 we ought also to use t for f). 
 The fittest course therefore is to retain this letter, agreably to 
 the nature of the tongue and the constant custom of our 
 forefathe rs. 
 
 36. F is pronounced as in Swed., accordingly 1. as hard 
 f at the beginning of syllables and before s , e. g. fotr foot, 
 ofsi arrogance: 2. as hard v at the end of a word, e. g. haf 
 sea, so also before r (ur) as hafr hegoat, arfr heritage, and 
 before all vowels in the middle of the word, e. g. hafa to 
 have, erfa to inherit, are read exactly as in Swed. If f is 
 to be pronounced hard in these cases, it is doubled, e. g. straff, 
 straffa, offr or offur, offra, in distinction from ofra to swing, 
 which is read avra (ovra). Besides f takes, 3. before I, n, 5, t, 
 at the end of a syllable the sound of hard b or bb, e. g. tafia 
 table, nafn name, haftJi had, haft had (pt), read tabbla, nabbn 
 habbSi, habbt. Some have therefore wished in modern times 
 to introduce bl for fl, as abl for afl strength, tabla for tafia etc. 
 but as we cannot also write nabn, habSi etc., this only serves 
 to destroy an old and simple rule. 4. If another consonant 
 especially d or t, follow after fn, the sound becomes mn, e.g. nefna 
 to name is pronounced nabna , but imperf. nefndi sounds like 
 namndi, and the supine nefnt like namnt, hefnd hamnd, and the like; 
 we often therefore find hemnd for hefnd, jamnt (or jamt) for jafnt. 
 This pronounciation is general when d follows, but 5. if the 
 
14 CONSONANTS 
 
 succeeding conson. be t or s, it is pronounced by many as ff't, 
 ffs e. g. jafnt, til jafns. 
 
 37. Gis pronounced, 1. generally hard and clear e. g. ganga 
 to go, flag clod, dogg dew, regn rain, vagn, wain etc., read gaunga 
 flag, dogg, and almost regg-n, vagg-n; not rengn, vangn, accord- 
 ing to Swed. Pron. or rejn as in Dansk: in the same way 
 borg, berg etc. read borgg or borgg (not borj.); 2. gj and g 
 before the weak vowels (see rule 41) are sounded like the 
 Dansk gj, or soft g, (not as j or Swed. g in gora, nor as the 
 aspirated Germ g) e. g. gefa to give, gaafi gave imp. conj. 
 geir spear (Poet.), gildr strong, gjafir gifts, liggja to lie, skuggi 
 shade, angi steam, p^ngja purse. This sound is found at 
 the beginning of words, and in the middle, when a consonant 
 goes before. 3. If a vowel go before and a soft one or 
 j come after, it sounds entirely like j, e. g. bogi a bow, 
 
 (read baji) agi chastisement, (read aji or ajji), but in the ace. 
 boga, aga, (read baga aga) faegja to smooth (read faija), bag- 
 indi troubles, (read bau-jindi). 4. If another consonant follow 
 after gn, especially d or t, the sound becomes ngn, e. g lygna 
 to become calm, (of storms) is pronounced nearly like ligg'na, 
 but the imperf lyngdi is sounded like lingndi or lingdi, and 
 the sup. lyngt like lingnt or lingt, so also, rigna, rigndi, rignt, 
 to be rained on, etc. 5. but if it be s that follows the sound 
 is very nearly gg's, e. g. til gagns (read til gagg's.) 
 
 38. H has always a hard and strong sound even before 
 the conson. j, v, I, n, r, e. g. harSr hard, hjarta heart, heri 
 (read hjari) hare , hverfa to vanish, hlaSa to lade, hnottr 
 bowl, globe, hringr ring. It is sometimes found interchan- 
 ged with k, e. g. knifr and hnifr knife, hnottr and knottr. 
 ikring and ihn'ng round about, (adverb^ from which two 
 separate words were afterwards made in all Northern lan- 
 guages. 
 
 39. J has been already spoken of (rule. 21.), I may how- 
 ever add here, that as old writers did not distinguish it from 
 the vowel i, so also they never wrote it before t, because 
 double ii would have been confusing in reading and ugly to 
 
CONSONANTS 15 
 
 the eye. This sound (ji) however occurs very often in the 
 language, e. g. in all pres. conj. of verbs in ja, where only 
 a is changed into short i. e. g. byggja to build, setja to 
 set, sitja to sit, queSja to hail, berja to slay, to heat, qvelja 
 to plague, temja to tame, venja to wean, etc. besides many 
 nouns. The inconvenience of not having a proper sign for a 
 sound which occurs so often, has been remedied in later times 
 in various ways: those who write e for i (rule 20.), write ie 
 here, e. g. byggie, setie, sitie, etc. Those on the other hand, 
 who, after the orthography of the Society for the Diffusion 
 of Knowledge , as laid down by Conferencerad Stephenson, 
 make a distinction betwen i and j, write ji } e. g. byggji, berji, 
 venji, etc. but since the accent (') has been adopted to denote 
 j before e we should be able, by extending it to these case, to 
 express this sound exactly, without making any new rule, and 
 without deviation from the original system of spelling, all which 
 important advantages, are hardly to be united by any other plan. 
 Thus it seems best of all to write seti, siti, qveSi, beri, qveli 
 temi, veni, etc. So also in all like cases in the language, vili 
 will, niSi offspring, bilir snowdrift, hverir which, etc. But after 
 g and k no accent is needed, just as e also in these cases is 
 not accentuated; e. g. byggi, bergi from bergja to taste, veki 
 from vekja to wake, yrki from yrkja to worship. The same 
 sound is also met with at the present time in other verbs in ka 
 and ga, which have no j in the infin.; and also in other words, 
 e. g. eingi mead ( Scotch ince), riki a realm, ungi an youth, 
 j)anki thought, which are wont to be written neither with ie-, 
 nor ji; for the rule that i after g and k sounds like i (ji) is 
 still surer than the one, that e in the same cases sounds like e 
 (je); e.g. backi bank {of river); a baki on the back, druckinn, 
 drunken, skuggi shade, etc., are not pronounced as in Swed. and 
 Dansk, back-e, bak-et, druck-en, skugg-a; but are sounded as 
 backji, bakji, driickjin, skuggji; and so in all like cases without 
 exception *. Finally if we wish to keep the accent on all 
 
 * I heard however some persons of the west and south districts 
 in Iceland pronounce ecki [not} without j, but it is commonly 
 sounded like eckji. 
 
16 CONSONANTS 
 
 verbs in ja, and write byggi, bergi, veki, yrki etc., we ought 
 to make use of it also on all other words which have actu- 
 ally j before other vowels in their inflections, e. g. eingi, seckir, 
 sacks, etc., because we say ein»jum, seckjum in dat. pi., but 
 not ungi, skuggi, because we never say ungja, skuggja, but 
 unga, skugga. Though perhaps this distinction may be regarded 
 as too minute and needless. 
 
 40. K. is sounded 1. hard, as in Swed., before the hard 
 vowels (rule 41.), and all conson. e. g. kala to be frost-bitten, 
 aka to drive, sok a thing, it is also generally written for ch, 
 e. g. kristr, kor; and by many instead of q, e. g. kvinna, kvelja; 
 it is also used double by many instead of ck, e. g. ekkja or 
 eckja widow, sakka or sacka soundinglead , sokk or sock 
 sunk, 2. kj and k before the weak vowels are sounded like 
 the Dansk kj, i.e. as hard k with a slight aftersound ofj; by 
 no means like the Swed. kj, Engl, ch, Ital. ci, which is quite 
 strange to the Icelander, and very hard to pronounce; e. g. 
 kenna to know, kirkja or kyrkja a church', where k and kj 
 have the same sound but must be written differently, because 
 in the one case a weak, in the other a hard vowel follows 
 after them; k has the same sound in all like cases; so in 
 silki silk, merki mark etc. (see rule 39). 
 
 41 . The so called hard vowels, before which g and k sound 
 hard, like Ital. gh, ch, are a, a, o, 6, u, u, 6, au; the weak 
 before which they are soft like the Dansk gj, kj, are therefore, 
 cb, e, ei, i, i, y, y, ey. In connection with the former accor- 
 dingly we must necessarily insert j if g and k are to have 
 the softer sound; e. g. gjarn ready, willing, in fern, gjorn 
 because gorn pi. garnir smallguts, has a quite different sound, 
 so also kjor choice, because kor sick-bed (said of the bedridden 
 state of the weak and old), is wholly different both in sound and 
 meaning: kjot flesh, is sounded soft, but kottr cat hard, as in 
 the Swed. word. In like manner we must write gjalfr sea 
 (Poet.), kjalki jaw, cheek, kjoll frock, gjosa to sprinkle, gjora 
 to do, etc. Before o, u, and au, the soft gj or kj is never 
 heard, we must consequently pronounce kuldi cold, skaut 
 bosom, gufa fog, gaupn the hollow of the hand', and all 
 
CONSONANT* 17 
 
 such like words with hard k and g. In connection with the 
 weak vowels on the contrary, it would be utterly superfluous, 
 and useless to insert j, because g and k have always the soft 
 sound of gj, kj in Dansk. 
 
 It is therefore most correct to write kaer dear, kettir cats* 
 geigr fear, danger, gimsteinar gemstones, kiminn a jeerer, 
 gylla to gild, k^r kine, keyri a ?vhip etc., (not kjaer, kjettir 
 gjeigr, gjimsteinar etc.) There is however an exception, when, 
 e after g and k does not sound like je, but like a, namely in 
 the pi. of subst, in andi, derived from verbs in ga or ka, 
 (without j), e. g. from eiga to own comes eigandi owner, and 
 this has in pi. eigendr (read eigandr not eigjend'r), so also 
 elskandi lover, pi. elskendr (not elskjendr). But these cases 
 are in part few, and in part produce no confusion, because 
 it has been an old custom to retain j fi) in the pi. of subst. 
 in jandi, e. g. verjendr, saekjendr, wnbyggjendr, from verjandi 
 a warder, saekjandi pleader, inbyggjandi indwelhf, etc., never 
 verendr, nor saekendr, inbyggendr. 
 
 42. Double // has a very hard sound like dl or ddl with 
 a hard d, e. g. falla to fall (read fadla), fullr fall, (fudPr); it 
 is therefore sometimes found interchanged with dl, e. g. a milli 
 and a midli between, frilla and fridla concubine, from mio" in the 
 midst, and frio> fair. That the sound is not 8/, is heard plainly 
 in the word eSli nature, and elli age, eld y and again that it is 
 not tl is heard in the masc. name Atli (Attila), and allir all 
 But from this pronunciation // those cases must be excepted in 
 which d, t, or s follow, e. g. felldi felled, allt, alls, all, of all, 
 where // is sounded as in Swed. So also compound words, 
 and derivatives where each /belongs to a separate syllable, e. g. 
 til-lag contribution, Hal-land, Hol-land. Yal-land (meaning some- 
 times Italy sometimes France), mikil-Iatr Mgh-minded , litil-latr 
 lowly-minded, and new words of foreign origin skatollift etc. : 
 rl has a sound very near that of the hard 11, or when pro- 
 nounced distinctly sounds almost like rdl, e. g. karl an old 
 man, varla scarcely, which are also often written kail, valla, 
 though less correctly, for kail is a subst. from kalla, and valla 
 the Gen. pi. of vollr a vale, plain. 
 
 2 
 
18 CONSONANTS 
 
 43. Double nn has also a like hard sound, but only 
 when it comes after a diphthongic vowel in the same syllable; 
 e. g. einn one, sounds like hard eidn or eiddn; so also klenn, 
 small, (read Mjedri) finn (ftdri) fine', dnn (odn for ofn) oven, 
 brunn (brudn) brown, black, kaenn clever, keen, (read kjajdn). 
 But should nn belong to the following syll., or if it be a 
 simple vowel that goes before, the sound is the same as in 
 Swed., e. g. a-nni river (dat. sing, with art.), ey-nni island 
 (in the same case), (read av-nni, ej-nni); so also kanna to sur- 
 vey, ken, hann he, brenna to burn etc.; rn has a sound very 
 near that of the hard nn, or when plainly pronounced it may 
 be pretty nearly described by rnd; it alway makes, like rl and 
 the hard // and nn, the foregoing vowel as hard and sharp as 
 possible; e. g. horn, (read hodn or hordn), jam iron (read 
 javdn or javrdn). It has been often interchanged with nn, e. g. 
 steirn for steinn stone, va^rn for vaen fair, but inflection easily 
 shows which of the two is the right, e.g. ace. stein, vaen-nan, 
 show that n is essential in these and like words, and that it 
 is as wrong to write steirn v&rn as it would be to write 
 storl, sari, for stoll stool, and ssell happy. 
 
 44, The old writers often used, though the custom was never 
 general, // and nn in all cases before d and t without regard to the 
 radical form; e. g. elldr/zre, villdi from vilja to will, skylldi should 
 from skulu, as well as fylldi filled from fylla to fill, maellti said 
 from maela to say, lannd for land, frsenndi or fraendi friend, vanndi 
 from venja, kenndi from kenna etc. This nnd however has been 
 long since entirely laid aside, as also lid in cases where the 
 root has a simple / or Ij; but since Id and It alone denote in 
 all cases the same sound, and since conformity with /7S, md, 
 nd, rS, mt, nt, rt, seem to demand it, the Imperf. and Part, 
 ought certainly, even where the Infin. has 11, to be written Id, 
 It; we always write for instance skemdi, skemdr skemt, from 
 skemma to joke, brendi, brendr brent, from brenna to barn, 
 firti, firtr firt, from firia to place at a distance, and also lagSi, 
 lagSr lagt, from leggja to lay, and bygSi, bygSr bygt, from 
 byggja to build, as well as sagSi, sag5r sagt, from segja to 
 say, in the same way klipti, kliptr klipt, from klippa to clip, 
 which also the pronunciation would seem to demand (rule 45), 
 
CONSONANTS 19 
 
 porr hvesti augun a orminn. „Thorr whetted his eyes upon 
 the worm " says Sturluson in the Edda ch. 48. from hvessa 
 to whet etc. It would thus be of little use to etymologize so 
 strictly in a single case against the established analogy of 
 countless instances. But in declension // and nn are wont to 
 be retained when they are essential, e. g. fall falls, a fall, allr, 
 alls, all, hallr a stone, halls gen., bann a ban banns. 
 
 45. Pt after a simple vowel is pron. between ft, and pt, for 
 which reason it has been entirely changed by many moderns 
 into ft both in prose and verse, e. g. eptir (or eftir) after, 
 lopt (or loft) air, lift, 
 
 46. Ov is often found even in old M. S. interchanged with 
 kv, e. g. kvistr, kveld etc. It has been, like c, retained by the 
 Society for the Diffusion of Knowledge, but rejected by the 
 Icelandic Literary Society, so much is certain that it is of no 
 kind of use either as an etymological sign, or as an abbreviation 
 in writing, but on the contrary a hindrance ; e. g. qvikr and kykr 
 quick, {alive), qvonbon and konbon courtship, are the same 
 words; koma to come makes in the Imperf, kom or qvam, 
 pi. komu or qvdmu, conj. kjamii or qvamii, and thus according 
 to the rule the same sound in the same word is spelt differ- 
 ently, and many .derivatives are separated from their primitives. 
 Within the word q is not readily used, but only at the be- 
 ginning; w r e write therefore commonly vokvi sap, sockva (or 
 sokkva) to sink; though sokqva or socqva etc., are also found in 
 old writers. But this system of spelling is less right, even though 
 q should be retained, because v after ck is never essential in 
 the old Norse ; but only, like j in f>eckja etc., inserted for the 
 sake of euphony, which may be seen in the cases cited, and 
 from the word ek sock / sink. 
 
 47. Z never occurs at the beginning of a word, but at the 
 end it was used by old writers, 1. as an abbreviation for st 
 especially in the Pass., and sometimes in superlatives, e. g. 
 sockvaz to be sinking , optaz oftenest; this has now almost 
 entirely given way to sockvast optast etc.; 2. as an etymolog- 
 ical sign for s before which d or t has fallen away, e. g. lanz 
 for lands, veizla feasting for veitsla, from veita to feast, lezt 
 
 2* 
 
20 CONSONANTS 
 
 for let-st, helzt from heldr rather, bezt from betr better, etc. 
 So also in foreign words in which ti before a vowel has the 
 sound of si, e. g. spazia margin from spatium, disputazia, 
 sitazia, porzion, qvittanzia, but never where the sound be- 
 comes ts e. g. confirmatsion. 
 
 48. Z is also used by old writers, 3. for 5 before which 
 r has fallen away, e. g. in the superl. aztr is often written 
 for astr , because this degree used to be derived from the 
 com p. ar (ari), as it were instead of arstr; e. g. harS-aztr, 
 hardest, agaet-aztr most famous, and also in the shorter superl. 
 e. g. fyztr first, naeztr nearest, for fyrstr etc. But the superl. 
 can be derived in Icelandic just as lawfully as in Angl-Sax. 
 Swed. and other Gothic tongues, both old and new, immedi- 
 ately from the positive, when all cause to write z in these 
 cases falls away, except in those few instances, where the 
 pos. itself or the rootform has an essential r; e. g. harftastr, 
 agaetastr, so also naestr from the old na in nala^gr nearlying, 
 but fyrstr (or fyztr) from the old for or fur before, staerstr 
 (or staeztr) greatest from stdr, so also horskr (or hozskr) 
 swift, clever. But the use of z for rs is now almost entirely 
 rejected ; otherwise it ought to be employed in all 2nd and 
 3rd pers., sing, of the Pres. Pass, jm elskazt, harm elskazt, 
 j>at faezt it is got etc. 4. old writers often used z for the 
 5 of the gen. especially after d, t, 11, where it is hard to guess 
 at the object in view, unless it was wished to show, that d, 
 t, and the last /, had lost their sound, e. g. landz, hestz, gen. 
 of hestr horse, allz, of all etc. But this mode of writing is 
 now wholly laid aside. 
 
 49. The first two uses of z are so conflicting the one to 
 the other, that it is impossible to reconcile them; according 
 to the first we ought to write harftarz, (or hardaz), betz, 
 heldz, leggiaz, lagdzr etc., by the other harftazt, bezt, helzt 
 leggiazt, lagztr etc. The former is perhaps the original way, 
 according to the manifestly old Greek use of i ;for <;#, and 
 would have the advantage, if it could be used for"** in all 
 cases, e. g. zanda, feza etc., for standa, festa, to stand, and 
 
CONSONANTS 21 
 
 fasten, of making the writing shorter; the latter has also a very 
 old though wavering use in its favour; as well as conformity 
 with other new European tongues, (e. g. Ital. mercanzia, 
 spazio etc.) It also serves if it be used in all the cases where 
 d or t before s become mute, materially to shorten w r riting; 
 e. g. vizka wisdom (from vitr), gaezka goodness (from g65r), 
 and this just in cases where a number of contending conson. 
 would otherwise give the language a barbarous appearance, 
 e. g. islenzkt for islendskt, styztr shortest for styttstr, elztr for 
 eldstr or elldstr. So also in all 2. pers. pi. Pass. e. g. f)i5 elskizt 
 ye love one another •, f)iS elskuSuzt ye loved one another etc.; 
 together with all dissyllabic and many monosyllabic supines 
 Pass. e. g. luckazt, tekizt, s^nzt, sezt etc., where otherwise, 
 inconsequently enough, in the case of the longer their origin 
 is left unmarked, while in that of the shorter it is marked con- 
 trary to the demands of pronunciation, e. g. luckast, tekist, sfntst, 
 settst. That system of spelling also seems more natural which 
 leaves out that which speech rejects, and distinctly marks that 
 which it plainly distinguishes, than that which on the other hand 
 distinctly marks what has fallen away, while it describes the 
 actual sound by an abbreviation. Besides according to the 
 first use it is impossible to show when d or t should be heard 
 before s and when not, e. g. Iei5z^ sedz, tired, seen, which 
 by the last method are most accurately distinguished ; e. g. 
 leiSst, sezt. 
 
 50. In what cases indeed according to the demands of the 
 language d and t should be heard before s, and in what not, it 
 is hard to decide, if ihis be not made known in the spelling. In 
 general d is heard oflener than /, viz, always when it is ra- 
 dical in the word and comes after a vowel (and thus is pro- 
 perly 8), e. g. bla5s of a leaf, ra<5s of advice, hofuftsmaSr 
 headman, overseer, g65s manns a good marts, hraeSsla fright, 
 reefist it is decided, redst it was decided, qvaSst it was said, 
 so also if it come after f, g, r or the like (thus again S) ; e. g, 
 orSs a word's, bragSs a trick's etc. In all Pass, supines from 
 Part, in ddr, the essential 5 of the words is retained, e. g. 
 graedst is cured, graeddr cured, from graeda to cure, leiSst, 
 
22 CONSONANTS 
 
 from leiSasi to be weary etc. Perhaps even virost it seems and 
 the like. But hardly ever after n, I, or where there is a hard d 
 except it be altered in pron. to 5*; e. g. lanz from land, elztr from 
 eldri older ', binzst to abstain, refrain oneself stenzt to hold out 
 unless we wish to say lanfts, binSst, stendst etc.: yet dd is 
 kept in the gen. e. g. saddr sated, sadds etc., t which is essen- 
 tial is heard in all gen. e. g. batr a boat bats, hattr hat hatts, 
 hvatr brisk hvals etc., but never in the sup. Pass, whether it 
 be essential or not, e. g. spilzt from spilt spilla to spoil, 
 aminztr spoken of from amint aminna to call to mind, qveikzt 
 lighted, from qveikt qveikja to light; so also sezt seated him, 
 from sett setja, baezt to hare been increased, from baett ba?ta. 
 In like manner in Sup. Pass, of all verbs which form the imperf. 
 and Part. Pass, by inserting 5, which is not radical in the 
 w r ordj for this 5 is changed invariably in the Sup. Act. into 
 t, and t always falls away in the Sup. Pass. e. g. gjora gjorbi, 
 gjoi'Sr, Sup. gjort Sup. Pass, gjorzt; so also bygzt to have 
 been built, from bygt byggja, sagzt, from sagt segja to say, 
 skein zt to have been jeered from skemt skemma, and all like 
 these. The rule might therefore perhaps be shortly laid down 
 thus, I. 5 is kept every where (except perhaps between a hard 
 conson. and s in position, e. g. virzt Sup. Pass, of virSast it 
 seems.) 2. dd is kept before a single s (in Gen.); but is 
 changed before s in connection with more conson. into 5 (in 
 Sup. Pass.) 3. d falls away every where before s which then 
 becomes z, (unless it be sometimes changed into 8). 4. t and 
 tt are constantly retained before simple s (in gen.) but are 
 thown out always before s in position (in Sup. Pass.) 
 
 51. p is an aspirated t, as 8 is an aspirated d, its sound 
 has fallen out of all modern languages except the new Greek 
 (6) and English (th), which last in subst. and verbs comes 
 very near it, e. g. praung throng, feinkja to think etc. In 
 old Norse it has always the same sound, except in pronouns 
 or particles which in daily speech are attracted like enclitics 
 to the foregoing word; e. g. a a?fi-{)inni in thy days, hafir- 
 }m hast thou? where it has the sound of 8, dependant how- 
 ever on the preceding letter (34). The word {)U is often 
 
READING 23 
 
 thus contracted with verbs, in which case u loses its accent, 
 and J) is changed into 5, d, or t, as the foregoing letter may 
 require; e. g haf-Su Imper. of hafa to have, kom-du Imper. of 
 koma, ris-tu of risa to rise, at the end of syllables it is never 
 found except when written instead of 8 (35.) 
 
 Reading, 
 
 52. The first syll. has always the chief tone in all Ice- 
 landic words, be they long or short, compound or simple. In 
 dissyllabic words the second syll. is therefore short; e. g. rida 
 to ride. In trisyllables the middle has a stronger tone than 
 the last, as in tbe Swed. compounds upptaga, anfora; e. g. 
 manneskja mankind, manaSir months, drjugari arrogant, aetlaSi 
 intended. In compounds alone where the last part is mono- 
 syllabic, the last syll. takes a stronger tone than the penul- 
 timate, e.g. perutie peartree, papirsork a sheet of paper. Words 
 of four syll. have the lesser tone on the penult, e. g. oanaegfir 
 dissatisfied, ha^filigr suitable, avinningr winnings, twaer pappirs- 
 arkir two sheets of paper. In compounds and derivatives 
 alone where the last part is monosyllabic, this takes a stronger 
 tone than the penultimate; e. g. Egyptaland Egypt, manneskjiiligt 
 manlike, human. 
 
 53. An exception from the rule that the first syllab. has 
 always the chief tone seems to occur in some prepositions; 
 e. g. amoti against, amilli between, lgegnum through, which are 
 pron. with the same tone as the Swed. words emot, ^emellan; 
 but these are properly only compounds of two words which are 
 often and more correctly written separate, a moti, i gegnum, a 
 meSan, and accordingly the first part, or actual prep, always 
 falls away in all compounds formed with these w 7 ords; e. g. 
 millibil midroom, mdtstafta opposition. 
 
 54. In spelling and reading the Icelanders always divide 
 words according to their etymological nature, so that conson. 
 between two vowels are all given to that which stands first, 
 
24 RKMMNG 
 
 if derivation or composition do not require a different arran- 
 gement; e. g. dag-ar. hralh-ar ravens, hepp-inn lucky, eizt-i 
 eldest, elsk a, aetl-a. The Swedish Academy in its treatise on 
 spelling, and Botin in his work entitled „The Swedish Lan- 
 guage in speech and writing " prove that the Swedish still 
 follows the same Jaws; though in every day use the national 
 system of spelling has been laid aside, and that of the southern 
 nations adopted. Thus the Icelanders write just as correctly lif-ii 
 the life (subst, with art. affixed), as lif life, haf-a to have as haf 
 have, and have no need of fv (as in Swed.) because f always 
 stands at the end of a syll. when it has the weak sound (v.) 
 
 55. Position indeed makes the foregoing vowel prosodi- 
 aeally long, but gives it a sharp short tone, as in the Swed. 
 hort (borrt), hand, and the like. The words sverfi sword, 
 har^r hard, borft, hoard, kaWr cold, hagl hail, |>egn thane, 
 hofh haven, vopn weapon, vatn water, are pron. accordingly 
 as svdrrd, harrVr, horr^, kalWr, haggl, \eygn, hobbn (rule 36), 
 vhppn , vattn; even though the vowel were long before the 
 position occurred, e. g. matr meat, smi5r a smith, are long 
 in the Noum., but ihe Dat. with art, malnum, smionum, sounds 
 nearly as mattnum, smiffonwn. So also datnum. to the dale, 
 stomum to the stool, etc. 
 
 56. Note, that r or ur final (the rune jfx ) never makes a 
 position afler another conson., but is considered as a peculiar 
 short syll. in itself, which however is seldom or never reck- 
 oned in verse. The sound is ur or or, with a very short and 
 obscure vowel sound; e. g. al-r awl, tek-r he takes, etVr or, 
 either, which are not read allr, teckr, eftfir. but aV-r, tek-"i\ 
 e$-'r, or alor tekor e$or; and in Poetry e. g. 
 
 Glaor skal ek 61 meS | asum 
 i ond- | vegi j drecka | 
 glad shall I ale with &sir 
 in the high-seat drink — 
 where glaSr skal ek is reckoned as a dactyl; 
 Almattugr Guft | allra | stetta 
 Almighty God over all ranks — 
 
READING 25 
 
 here ugr gu8 is reckoned as a spondee or trochee. In general 
 also r only makes a position within a word after 5 and f, 
 e. g. okra to practice usury, viSra to air , hafrar oats, read 
 ok-ra, viffira, havvrar. 
 
 57. The double cons, are pronounced plain and hard even 
 after diphthongic vowels, e. g. full foul, leiddr led, slattr 
 mowing-time, harra to be high 1 * msetti ?rae£, which must by 
 no means be confounded with ful femin. of full', leiftr weary, 
 slatr flesh , bara of hair, maeti meets; veggi w«// ? but vegr 
 way etc. Double conson. have therefore the same effect on 
 the foregoing vowel as a position, but single conson. always 
 make the foregoing vowel Jong, e. g. vel well, man-saungr 
 lovesong, veS wager, pledge, f)at that, til to etc., which must 
 not be pronounced veil, till etc., but vel, tel, etc. like stel. 
 
 58. Before m and n all vowels and diphthongs are pron. 
 with a nasal sound, e. g. heimr world, raun trial, a-nni (in 
 dat. sing with art) to the river, a-na ace, of the same, ku-nni 
 ku-na dat. and ace, sing, with art of kti cow., am and anum 
 dat. pi. (with and without art.) of a ; kum and kunum , the 
 same of ku. But this never takes place where a cons, comes 
 between; e. g. gagn gain, read gaggn, (not as in Swed. gangn) 
 botn bottom, read bottn, (not as in the Dansk bund), stefn 
 stem {of a ship) stabbn, (not as the Dansk stavn), seinn slow 
 in the masc. read sejddn or sejd'n, einni one, in dat. fern. 
 ejdni; since nn after a vowel in the same syll. is pron. as if 
 there were a d between. 
 
 59. When three conson. meet the weakest commonly falls 
 out in pronunciation; e. g. halft half, hvirfli dat. sing, of hvirfdl 
 a crow?}, top, volgt lukewarm, margt much, many, are pron. 
 nearly as havlt, hvirrli, vollt, marrt, which last is also often 
 written mart. In the same way are found yrmlingr, yrflingr, 
 ami yrlingr, a worniling; in the words islenzskt, danskt, hardly 
 any k is heard; in gagns, hrafns a crow's, vatns water's etc., 
 scarcely any n, for which reason the last is often written vatz 
 or vaz because t is also very little heard. So also r is 
 hardly heard at all before st and nd, or nt, e, g, verstr worst. 
 
26 OLD PRONUNCIATION 
 
 fyrstr first, alstirndr full of stars, ferhyrnt four cornered; 
 which sound nearly as vesstr, fisstr, alstinndr, ferhinnt. Of 
 fid, fnt, fit, gnd, gnt, and lid, lit, mention has been made 
 already (rules. 36, 37, 42.) 
 
 60. An unaccented vowel at the end of polysyllabic wo ids 
 often falls away in daily speech before a word which begins 
 with a vowel; this is seldom marked in prose, but in poetry 
 it is usual in such cases to put an apostrophe after the vowel 
 which is not heard; e. g. taka' amoti, taktu' amoti 
 
 61. According to a constant custom handed down from 
 the earlest times, the Icelanders only write Proper names with 
 great initial letters, e. g. Haraldr, Irar, Svifjjoo* Sweden, but 
 guft, djofull devil, konungr, jarl earl etc. 
 
 The old Pronunciation. 
 
 62. It has been much doubted whether the Icelandic system 
 of pron. just described, is the genuine old one which was used 
 when the tongue itself was spoken over all the three Northern 
 realms. The language must, it is said, have undergone a 
 change; the pronunciation must have been at first much nearer 
 to the system of orthography, and been altered in later times 
 by the Icelanders, just as the old Greek pronunciation has been 
 plainly much mutilated by the New Greeks. That however the 
 tongue should have been materially changed is contrary to all 
 experience; it is well known that the remote position of the 
 country, the very little foreign intercourse, and the love of the 
 people for its annals and national poetry, have kept up the 
 language to such a degree, that the common people still read 
 the old Sagas for amusement, and the poets without exception 
 still compose their songs after the old alliterative laws. That 
 the pronunciation ought to be nearer the system of orthogra- 
 phy, that is in other words, more like the present Swedish, or 
 Dansk pronunciation, (for on any other supposition it is ac- 
 tually nearer than in any other European tongue), seems to 
 
OLD PRONUNCIATION 27 
 
 be an absurd demand, since according to all analogy it is 
 more probable, that they who have kept the entire gramma- 
 tical structure of the old tongue, and nearly all ils stock of 
 words, should also have the old pronunciation, than those who 
 have distorted and lost so large a portion of the inflections, and 
 have bartered so many old for foreign words, that they can 
 not now without laborious study understand the old authors 
 and Poets, which holds good in nearly same degree of all three 
 Scandinavian nations. A comparison with the Greek speaks 
 iu favour of the Icelandic pronunciation; for it is just the 
 Swed. and Dansk which in their present form are entirely new 
 tongues, while the Icelandic as an original tongue answers to 
 the old Greek and Latin; with the sole exception that it is 
 now alive in speech and writing. There are some who hold 
 up the pronunciation of the common people on the continent as 
 the genuine old one, allowing that the polished pronunciation of 
 Swed. and Dansk can not by any possibility be suited to the 
 old Norse; but they seem not to consider that the speech of 
 the people in each of the three realms is split into so many 
 and so different dialects, that the Inhabitants of one valley 
 often have the greatest difficulty in understanding those from 
 another. Now since all these, especially those who live in the 
 districts more remote from the coast, have a like right to 
 regard theirs as the true old pron., we should thus have more 
 than a hundred modes of pronouncing one and the same tongue. 
 Such a variety bears plain evidence of the destruction of one 
 whole, or the mingling of several dissimilar parts, which in the 
 present case becomes clear on a contrast with the Icelandic, 
 where very nearly the same pronun. reigns in all classes and 
 over the whole immense Island, in districts which have little 
 or no intercourse with one another. 
 
 63. Besides the Icelandic system of Pron. bears in itself 
 the best proof that it is genuine. In it there is no doubt 
 whether we ought to write a or 0, <B or e, hv or v, kj or tj y 
 etc., because each and all of these signs has its own sound, 
 clearly and plainly distinguisht from the others; nor whether 
 t (e) or a should be used in endings, since by these different 
 
28 OLD PRONUNCIATION 
 
 cases and genders are denoted, which it would be as absurd 
 to confound in Icelandic as in Latin, The Icelandic has in the 
 main a single sign for each sound, and no really mute letters 
 in its words: but if sometimes a sign has two or more sounds, 
 these are so clearly dintinguisht by accents, position or some 
 such plain and simple rule, that it is impossible to interchange 
 them. This seems to bear as strong evidence of antiquity and 
 originality, as the condition of the Dansk, and still more per- 
 haps of the Swed. orthography of the numberless changes which 
 these tongues have undergone in later times. Any one import- 
 ant alteration in the Icelandic pronunciation of the old Norse, 
 based on that which is now used on the continent would thus 
 destroy the whole ancient and simple system, and in some 
 cases even the structure of the tongue itself; e. g. if we were 
 to read a as a. 1. This simple sound would have two signs 
 d, and o which is the one now in use. 2. By this means a 
 number of different words would be confounded; e. g. bara 
 billow, bora to bore, far danger, for a drain, gatt the space 
 between an open door and the wall, gott good etc. 3. The 
 diphthong of a would then be wanting, answering to 6 from 
 o, u from u etc. In the same way were we to read ce as 
 a we should, 1. have two signs for the same sound, since 
 e is always sounded like a, when it stands alone; 2. we 
 should confound a number of words otherwise entirely differ- 
 ent in pronunciation, origin, and meaning, e. g. for he goes 
 from fara, with faer he gets from fa; hetta a hood, and ha3tta 
 to go; ferS journey, faerft going (Swed fore) etc. 3. The 
 diphthong of a would then be wanting, auswering to ei of e, 
 i of i, y of y. 4. Not only would the whole vowel system 
 thus be destroyed, but also the rules for the vowel changes, 
 by which a simple vowel, is always replaced by another 
 simple one, and a diphthong by another diphthong. Again if 
 au were read as av the diphthong to o would 1. be wanting. 
 2. It would be unaccountable how this sound should have 
 become d in modem tongues; e. g. haukr hawk, dauffr death 
 etc.; and 3. how the old Norsemen could have written au 
 for o almost indifferently etc. If the hard sounds //, nn, were 
 rejected the Masc. and Fern, of numberless adj would be con- 
 
OLD PRONUNCIATION 29 
 
 founded. It was just by changes of this kind that the old 
 original system of Inflection was in the middle ages first neg- 
 lected, next mutilated, and at last irrevocably lost; and thus 
 it seems quite wrong to wish to fasten on the old Norse any 
 new system of pronunciation which has arisen out of its own 
 mutilation. 
 
 64. In addition many clear reasons for the Icelandic Pro- 
 nunciation may be found in other old tongues; thus that a 
 had anciently the sound of av, seems incontrovertible when 
 we compare 1. the AS. savel with sal sou/, feava with fair 
 (ace. faa) few, savan with sa to sow, cnavan with kna to be 
 able, savon with sao saw. 2. Latin names and words, as 
 Nicolaus Icel. Nikolas, Paulus Icel. Pall; caulis AS. cavl or 
 cavel, Icel. kal, caurus, Icel. kari, the wind Poet. 3. Lapp 
 words borrowed from our old Scandinavian tongue, e. g. blawes, 
 Icel. blar blue, grawes, Icel. grar gray etc. The Germ, words 
 blau, grau etc., also confirm this position though not nearly 
 so strongly as the Lappish examples, because the Germ, is an 
 independant kindred tongue, in which these expressions are 
 as old as in Icel. and may have their own peculiar pronun. as 
 is the case with so many others; e.g. (Haus, reiten etc.) whence 
 we can draw no conclusion as to the sound of hus, rifta, but 
 the Lappish are plainly borrowed from our forefather's tongue, 
 not from the modern Swed., in which they have quite another 
 sound. 4. Besides the Dialect ef the common people has still 
 the same sounds in many parts; e. g. in the plain country in 
 Funen a, 6, €£, ei, au, are heard; there fa is said for fa to 
 get, go for god, good, heel for hdl heel, bein for ben bone, 
 leg, dau for dod death, agreeing exactly with the Icelandic 
 sound. In Smaland also a is at least said for a (6), and in 
 other Swedish Provinces other peculiarities of the old tongue 
 have been retained. 5. With regard to a the analogy of other 
 old tongues, speaks for the right pronunciation, thus e. g. the 
 Latin paucus has become the Italian poco, aurum oro, French 
 or etc., and yet no one has wished to read pacus arum (pocus 
 orum). It would require too much room to reckon up in this 
 place all the Icelandic sounds that differ from the Swed.; the 
 
30 OLD PRONUNCIATION 
 
 one just defended is perhaps one of the most disputed, but I 
 will still make one or two remarks; the broad sound of 6 may 
 be proved very nearly in the same way, Icel. sto a place is 
 written in A. S. stov; the name of the Northern God OSin is 
 written in an A. S. Sermon on Antichrist (in Lye) Ovfyen: 
 domari judge, doomer, dempster., is called in Lappish duobmar, 
 grop ditch graupe ; the hard //, rl, is written by the Fcrro 
 Islanders, who have long since forgotten the old orthography, 
 but have often retained the actual sound, dl, e. g. trodl for 
 troll troll, jadl for jarl earl and the like. 
 
 65. In what has been here said it is not meant that the 
 Icelandic pronunciation of the present day was in all its parts 
 entirely universal in old times over the whole North, it is 
 probable that there was some difference in pronunciation in 
 different places, though this could not have been very great, 
 since there was it is plain but one language, and that one 
 which had reached so high a pitch of cultivation and regula- 
 rity. That which I should be especially inclined to regard 
 as less genuine in the Icel. pronunciation is the sound of u, 
 y and f, as well as au and ey, all which properly reduce them- 
 selves to the two letters u ana 1 y. 
 
 66. About u there can be no doubt; but u (without accent) 
 may perhaps have had the sound of the short Engl, u in nut, 
 but, the Dansk o in hos, the Swed. o in sporde, menmskor, 
 Idrorih, etc. We may thus comprehend 1. why it is so often 
 interchanged with o; e. g. gull and goll (poet.), tiingur and 
 tiingor tongues, etc.; however incorrectly by the rule that o 
 is always sounded as a (Engl, o); 2. how it is retained in 
 the Ferro Dialect as u (not y or o), e. g. gudl as in all Nor- 
 thern tongues; though in some words it is found replaced by 
 y or o, e. g. urt wort Swed. ort, Dansk urt; brunnr brown, 
 Swed. brunn, Dansk brond ; Jwnnr thin Swed. tunn, Dansk 
 tynd, tukt schooling, old Swed. thokt, New Swed. tuht etc. 
 It is therefore probable that in old times the form was differ- 
 ent in different parts, but that the most general was that of 
 the deep simple o (very nearly the same as u see rule 24.) 
 
OLD PRONUNCIATION 31 
 
 67. Y seems then to have had the sound of the present 
 Icel. u, Germ. il, Swed. deep o in hole, or simple y in lycka, 
 etc.; f on the contrary that of Swed. and Dansk y, in by, 
 shy, dyr etc. Which are sounded as yj (Tcel. uj, or ugj.) 
 This may be concluded 1. from its Icel. name y. 2. from its 
 interchange with u, e. g. lykla and lukla of keys (gen. PL), 
 dyra, dura of doors; 3. from the Swed. and Dansk where it 
 has always become y or o, e. g. dyr door, Swed. dorr, fyrir 
 before Swed. fore, fifgr he flies , Swed. flyger, b^5r he bids, 
 Swed. bjuder, Dansk byder ; and 4. even from some Icelandic 
 words according to the present pron. on the Island, e. g. yckr 
 ye two (Dual), kyrr still quiet, dryckr drink, etc.; 5 from the 
 fact that it is denoted on Runic stones by [^ (not |), e. g. 
 
 Uj l^j Vj 'I s I f£ Icel. systir. In the Ferro Dialect however 
 it is entirely the same as i, e. g. likil Icel. lykill key , diir, 
 Icel. dyr, etc. In old writers it is also interchanged with i 
 (e. g. in the Codex Regius of the Ed da firir is w r ritten for 
 fyrir), so that this also is not thoroughly sure. 
 
 68. Au has without doubt been a diphthong of b, but pro- 
 bably formed with v, (instead of j according to the present 
 sound), and pronounced as many Norsemen still pronounce au, 
 e. g. in Laurvig; which is so sounded that it is hard to say 
 whether it be ov, ev; or av that is heard; (but in no wise like 
 the Germ, au which comes nearer to a or o): This seems 
 clear from the sign itself, since it appears impossible that it 
 should enter into the head of any one to denote an articu- 
 lation of j by il It has also been retained , or rather has 
 become, ou, ou in Lappish; e. g. grauts, Icel. grautr. gruel; 
 route as Fjellstrom writes it, others route, Finnish rauta, Icel. 
 raudi iron. But there can be no question of the sound an, 
 because that has its own sign d, which is changed into au, 
 as o is into o, there remains then no other sound but ov 
 to be thought of. Nevertheless it has become ej in the Ferro 
 Dialect, e. g. leikur, Icel. laukr, leek, which shows that the 
 pronunciation oj also is no new Icelandic invention. 
 
52 OLD PRONUNCIATION 
 
 69. Ey was then the second diphthong of b, formed with 
 /, and had therefore the sound of the present Ice I. au, (nearly 
 Germ, eu); for 1. it is thus pronounced still in Norway, e. g. 
 hoj, feel, hey, hay, (Germ, heu), hbjre heyra to hear; 2. It 
 is also quite distinct from ei in the Ferro Dialect , where it 
 has commonly become oj (or 6j) , e. g. hojgi hay, hojra to 
 hear. 3. In the Peasant dialect of Fiinen also it has the same 
 sound as au, thus nearly like oj 4. We may thus understand 
 the reason of the system of writing au and ey; had there 
 been in old times a clear comprehension of o as a simple 
 vowel, and a simple sign for it in the alphabet, without doubt 
 bu or b with an accent would have been written, and bi or 
 by ; but since from the analogy of the Latin and Greek, and 
 the sign m itself, this b was regarded as already a kind of 
 diphthong, it was hard, agreably to other tongues, the other 
 vowels, and the old sound itself, to find any more suitable 
 signs than au and ey, 
 
 70. These conjectures, should they be allowed to pass by 
 any Philologist, and be followed in reading the old Scandi- 
 navian tongue, would in nowise disturb, but rather strengthen 
 and carry out the Icelandic system; since they distinguish y 
 from i, and ey from ei, and settle their pronunciation in ana- 
 logy with the other vowels and diphthongs; u and y* simple 
 vowels, u and y diphthongs, and au is the diphthong to b, 
 but by this arrangement each sign takes its own proper 
 sound, and the pronunciation, on the whole, is brought some- 
 what nearer to the spelling and the Dialect of the Continent. — 
 The whole system of the vowels would then be shortly as 
 follows 
 
 a A se 
 
 6 au ey 
 
 e — ei 
 
 i — i 
 
 o 6, ce (73) 
 
 u u 
 
 y 
 
 * nevertheless remain. 
 
OLD PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 33 
 
 For ja, jo, e, i, etc. have as little to do with the vowels, 
 as, va, vo, ve, vi, etc. 
 
 71. But that a knowledge of pronunciation and accentu- 
 ation, in the old Norse at least, is quite indispensable for 
 its use in etymology, and the right understanding of its words 
 when read, would be perhaps quite plain, if it were consi- 
 dered, that very many inflections are alone marked by vowel 
 changes, e.g. bindi isPres. conj. but byndilmperf. conj.j there 
 is the same distinction between gripi and gripi, viki and viki, 
 etc.; and also that many words quite different in origin and 
 meaning can only be distinguished by accent and pronunci- 
 ation, e. g. I will quote in addition to the words mentioned in 
 rule 19. the following; 
 
 magr son in law. 
 let! voice. 
 sin 
 
 magr meagre. 
 leti laziness. 
 sin sinew. 
 vin friend. 
 forn old. 
 bur son (poet.) 
 hattr hat. 
 leiti hillock. 
 friSr peace. 
 lita to paint. 
 hof temple. 
 nyt gain. 
 
 her (sua), 
 
 vin wine. 
 
 forn victim. 
 
 bur storeroom, barn. 
 
 hattr arrangement of time. 
 
 laeti gestures. 
 
 fri5r fair. 
 
 lit a to look, 
 
 hof measure. 
 
 nyt I enjoy etc. 
 
 It is easy to understand how often the whole sense of a 
 passage may be changed, when such words are confounded 
 together; as an actual example I will only quote one strophe 
 of SkaSis song in Goranson's Edition of Gylfaginning; in which 
 she says why the seastrand was so hateful to her; 
 
 "Sofa ek maka "Sleep can I not 
 
 saefar befjum a on the seastrand 
 
 fugls jarmi fyrjr; for the birds cry ; 
 
 the horse (sea), that comes 
 from the woods, waketh 
 me every morning^ 
 
 3 
 
 sa mik vekr, 
 er af viSi kemr, 
 morgun hvern mar." 
 
34 CHANGE OF SOUND IN OLD NORSE. 
 
 Which is without connection or meaning, but becomes, when 
 read with its proper accents, quite plain and simple ; 
 "Sa mik vekr, "He waketh me, 
 
 er af vi5i kemr as he comes from the sea, 
 
 morgun hvern mar." every morn the mew." 
 viSi is the dat. of viQir sea (Poet.) , but viSi dat. of vi5r wi- 
 thy, tree, wood; and mar is a seamew , but mar a horse, or 
 (Poet.) the sea. 
 
 But to require fixed rules for the Icelandic accentuation, 
 is the same thing as to ask in Swed. when d, and when a, 
 etc. should be written. One is forced to know the word and 
 its sound, when it is not possible to hesitate a moment about 
 its accentuation. The modern pronunciation however always 
 demands an accent or a diphthong before ng and nk (73), 
 which mode of writing is also found in some old M. S. In 
 addition i and y take the accent in daily speech before gi and 
 gj, contrary however in both cases to etymology, and the 
 analogy of other instances; e. g. sprack pi. spningu, conj. 
 sprfngi; imperf. pi. stigu stepped, conj. stigi, and flugu flew, 
 conj. ftygi, agreeing with the pronunciation of e before gi[, 
 
 9h (15.) 
 
 CHAPTER HI. 
 On the change of sound in the old Norse. 
 
 72. The system of Inflection often requires, besides the 
 proper endings, a change of vowel within the word itself; and 
 the formation of derivatives often takes place by means of a 
 similar change, according to rules which hold good through- 
 out the language. The vowels separate themselves, in this 
 respect, into two classes, in which they are commonly inter- 
 changed among themselves, so that it is very seldom that any 
 vowel of the one, is replaced by one belonging to the other* 
 The A -class contains a, o, e, i, a, ce, ei, L (and ja, jd, jah 
 jo, e, t.)', The O-cIass the rest, namely o, u, y, 6, u, y, au, 
 ey, (together with jo and ju). 
 
CHANGE OF SOUND IN OLD NORSE. 35 
 
 73 M alone seems to belong to both classes, because 
 both a and 6 are changed into ce ; but Olaf Hvitaskald re« 
 marks, and this is often found to be confirmed by old M. $., 
 that ce was looked upon as offensive, in case it was not derived 
 from a, and that accordingly ce was in preference used in those 
 cases where the root form had 6 ; this ce, which has been 
 retained in later times by the new tongues on the Continent, 
 (e. g. bondi husband , peasant, PI. bcendr, br65ir brother, PI. 
 brceSr, Swed. bonder, broder.) is therefore the only one 
 which belongs to the O-class. In like manner au and eg, seem 
 sometimes to belong to the A-cIass, but this is only in the 
 syllables aung, eyng, which are derived from dng. But in old 
 writers (as also still among the inhabitants of Dalasyla) bng, 
 eng, and ang, are found in its stead, sounds completely within 
 the A-class; and this pronunciation, which agrees with the 
 Angl. Sax. and Dansk, is perhaps the true and original one. 
 
 74. A is changed, 1. into o before all endings which con- 
 tain u (o), e. g. haka in ace. hoku, pi. hokur, dat. pi. hokum; 
 faSir, ace. foSur; but if the word be polysyllabic, a in the 
 chief syll. becomes 6, and in the others u, e. g. bakari baker. 
 dat. pi. bokurum, hera5 district, dat pi. heruftum. In the same 
 way a is changed in all neut. pi. and fem. sing, of substan- 
 tives and adj. which end in a conson., e. g. hjarta. PI. hjortu, 
 beraft, pl. heruS, haf sea, pi. hof, sok suit, glaSr glad, fem. 
 and neut. pl. gl65, spakr wise, fem. and neut. pl. spok: 2. often 
 into e before the endings i (e), and r (ur), e. g. dagr dat. 
 sing, degi, faSir pl. nom. fe'Sr; and always in the sing, of mo- 
 nosyllabic Pres. (in the 2. Conjug.), e. g. from taka, tek I take. 
 from fara, fer I fare, go, from falla, fell I fall; and also in 
 many deriv. lenda to land from land, nefna to name from 
 nafn name etc. 
 
 75. O is changed, 1. into a before endings which contain 
 a, e. g. sak-ar of a thing, sak-a of things, from sok. Only 
 where a position comes between, or v is inserted, can essen- 
 tial o be retained, e. g. dogg dew, gen. doggvar or daggar; 
 2. Into e before the endings i and r; e. g. borkr bark, dat. 
 
 3* 
 
36 
 
 CHANGE OF SOUND IN OLD NORSE. 
 
 berki, mork a woody plain, gen. iherkr, so also sekr guilty. 
 from sok, etc.; 3. Essential o and jo (which are nvvev inter- 
 changed with a, ja,) are changed into y; e. g. troll a troll, 
 an evil spirit , at trylla to bewitch, smjor butter , smear, at 
 smyrja to smear, mjoll meal, at mylja to grind ; that ?/ must 
 be used here (not trilla, smirja, milja, etc.) is shown by the 
 kindred tongues, and the Icelandic inflection of the word; e. g. 
 Dansk trylle ; and the Icel. imperf. smurSi smeared, mulSi ground. 
 
 76. 27 is changed in deriv. into i, thus illvirki, illdoer, 
 from verk, virSa fo value, from verS worth. 
 
 77. ,/# is changed into ,70 and i, as ^0 into /« and i ; e. g. 
 djarfr daring, fern. djorf, and dirfast £0 5e daring; bjorn #mr, 
 Gen. bjarnar, dat. birni; hjorS herd hjarftar, and hirSa to herd, 
 watch; just in the same cases as a is changed into b, e; and 
 into 0, c, (rules 74. 75.) 
 
 78. A'ng is changed into aung and eing , (never eyng). or 
 according to old pronunciation and orthography, ang into bng, 
 eng (rule 73.); dnk or arik is changed in the same way; e. g. 
 at ganga (ganga) to go, Pres. geing (geng), PL gaungum, 
 (gongum), conj. geingi (gengi), krankr (krankr) weak, fern, 
 kraunk (kronk), at kreinkja (krenkja) to be sick, etc. But if 
 several conson. come between, a remains unchanged; e. g. 
 angraor sorrowful, fern. angruS, hangit kjot hung flesh, dat. 
 hangnu kjoti. 
 
 79. Aung is changed into ang, and eing or eyng', and 
 aunk is altered in the same way; e. g. taung tong , gen. tang- 
 ar, or by another method of inflect, teingr; haunk hank, gen. 
 hankar, or heinkr. These are also found with ey, teyngr etc., 
 but ei seems more right in those cases where d can also be 
 used; ey on the other hand from essential au can never be 
 interchanged with a (by rules 75. 77. 78.) e.g. {miungr thronged 
 close, comp. Jreyngri, and the verb J)reyngja to throng, squeeze. 
 
 80. A before the endings i and r becomes ce, e. g. J)raSr 
 thread, dat. sing. {jraeSi, p!. f>ra?Sir; so also in deriv., e. g. 
 (>rse5a to thread, mal measure, macla to measure, ret tlatr 
 righteous, rettlaeti righteousness, etc.; but e only before a hard 
 
CHANGE OF SOUND IN OLD NORSE. 37 
 
 position, especially with /, or r, thus heisi necklace, helm- 
 ingr (helfingr) one half, from halfr half: alvepni full mail, from 
 vapn weapon. 
 
 81. and u are changed into y before the ending i, and 
 in many deriv.; e. g. sonr (sunr) son, dat. syni, tyrfa to turf 
 from torf turf styoja to stay from stoS a stay, gylla to gild 
 from gull, fylla from fullr. 
 
 82. 0' is changed into ce for ce by rule 73.) , e. g. fotr 
 foot, dat. iseli (fceti) pi. fsetr (fcetr), bondi feasant, pi. haendr, 
 (bcendr); so also haela (hoela) to praise, from hoi praise, haefa 
 (hcefa) to behoove, become, from hof. On the other hand into y, 
 if a hard position especially with / come between ; (comp. 
 rule 80.) e. g. fylki a province, small kingdom, from folk, 
 whence also fy\k\r King (poet.); dylg-jur feud from dolgr foe. 
 
 83. U' is changed into y, chiefly in deriv., e. g. hySa to 
 whip vulg. hide, from huS hide, hfsa to house from hiis house, 
 mfs mice from mus mouse. 
 
 84. Jo and ju into y especially in deriv., e. g. !jos light, at 
 tysa to light, ljuga to lie, tygi a lie, brj6ta to £r6«A: br^t, fljuga 
 to fly, pres. flyg. 
 
 85. Au 1. into ez/, e. g. ieysa ft? loose from laus /oose, 
 teyma to lead, team, from taumr rein, trace, heygja to bury 
 in a barrow, from haugr a barrow, etc.; 2. Into o, e. g. ro8i 
 redness from rauSr re^ doli sluggishness from daufr dea/J 
 sfow, fnauka and f)roka to drudge. 
 
 86. In addition the vowels in monosyll. Imperf. are chan- 
 ged in a peculiar way. 
 
 a (short) into u, e. g. drack drank pi. drucknm, 
 spann span spunnum, part, druckinn etc. 
 
 a (h ng) into a, e. g. drap slew pi. drapum, sat 
 sat satum. 
 
 ei into i, e. g. reif tare pi. rifum, leit saw pi. 
 litum, part, rifirm, litinn; so also in deriv. hiti heat from heitr 
 hot, fitna to grow fat from feitr fat. 
 
 au 1. into u, e.g. fraus froze pL frusum, lank 
 
38 CHANGE OF SOUND IN OLD NORSE. 
 
 locked pi. lukum, so also in deriv. flug flight from flaug flew, 
 hlulr lot, share, hlaut, obtained, 
 
 au 2. into o, in part, from imperf. in an, 
 e. g. frosinn frozen, lokinn, locked, floginn flown, hlotinn ob- 
 tained ; and also in deriv., e. g. frost frost, lok end, lock, 
 dropi a drop, from draup dripped, dropinn dripped; yet per- 
 haps these words should be derived from the Part. 
 
 87. It happens also sometimes that an accentuated vowel 
 loses its accent when the word is lengthened, e. g. spitali 
 spital , lazar house, spitelskr lazar ; ut utan* briidr bride, 
 brullaup bridal. In some deriv. also i is changed into i; thus 
 smiSr smith and smiftja a smithy, from smi'Sa to smithy, lifa 
 to live from lif, bit a bit and biti a bite, from bi'ta to bite, 
 sviSi smart from svi5a to smart, elc. Most of these substan. 
 however would be more rightly derived from part, pass., than 
 from the Infin.; but there is often so great a diiference between 
 these tenses, that they seem to presuppose two separate root 
 forms of the same verb, as in Greek; so that it would be an 
 idle attempt to try to bring this change of sound under any rule. 
 
 88. A soft j is often inserted between two vowels for the 
 sake of euphony; e. g. baer (beer) a farm house, gen. baejar 
 (boejar), ek dey 1 die, Infin. at deyja; ek fif I fly, at ftyja; anc ^ 
 also between a conson. and vowel, e. g. ek vil / will at vilja, 
 lem at lemja to beat, ek hryn / tumble at hrynja, spyr ask at 
 spyrja (Scot, speer.), dys stoneheap gen dysjar, rif rib dat. 
 pi. rifjum, gen. pi. rifja, lep at lepja to lap, ry<5 at ryfija to 
 root out, let at letja to dissuade; but in this last case it is 
 needful that the foregoing vowel be simple and low e, i, or 
 y, followed by a simple conson. (never d, or b.) The case 
 is the same if it be gg , Ig, rg, ch, Ik, or rk, that comes 
 between the ending and the chief vowel, e. g. |)igg at friggja 
 to take, dryckr drink, gen. dryckjar; from folk battlearray, 
 battle, comes at fylkja to set in array, and from sorg sorrow 
 at syrgja to sorrow. If it be g, k, ng, or nk, that comes be- 
 tween, j is inserted, even where the foregoing vowel is diph- 
 thongic, m, ei, i, y, or ey, e. g. vek at vekja to wake, vik at 
 vikja to yield, floki felt at flaekja to entangle, dreingr serving 
 
CHANGE OF SOUND IN OLD NORSE. 39 
 
 man dat. pi. dreingjum, gen. pi. dreingja, langr long at leingja 
 to lengthen, ungr young, yngja upp to renew, make young again. 
 
 89. With the same view, but neither so regularly nor so 
 often ? f is inserted between two vowels, and v between a 
 conson. and a vowel ; e. g. har high, ace. sing, hafan, defin. 
 hinn hafi; mjor small, ace. mjofan, def. hinn mjofi, myrkr 
 murk, ace. myrkvan, dyggr trusty, dyggvan, dockr dark, ace. 
 dockvan. This is especially used where the first syll. has o, 
 and the last a; e. g. hdggva to hew, sockva to sink, because 
 they would otherwise have to be read hagga, sacka, (by rule 
 lb.) In old poetry this v is often inserted, where it is now 
 generally left out. 
 
 90. V falls away before o, u, and y ; e. g. from verpa to 
 lay eggs, to throw , is formed the Imperf varp, which in the 
 pi. becomes urpum, in the conj. yrpi and in part, orpinn; from 
 vinna to win Imperf. vann. pi. unnum, conj ynni, part, un- 
 ninn; vefa to weave Imperf. of, part, oflnn. Where it is kept 
 o or 6 has always come in instead of a (rule 13.); e. g. vega 
 to weigh, Imperf vo or vog, for vd, vdg, vorum or vorum for 
 varum, vor our, for vdr, vopn weapon for vdpn, etc. 
 
 91. That 8, d, t, and r, often fall away before s has been 
 already mentioned. The same happens also before t, which is 
 then doubled in monosyll. words and after vowels; e.g. kallaSr 
 neut. kallat, called, fmkidr (otherwise Jakinn) thatchi, neut. |)akit, 
 annar another, the second, neut. annat, ver"Sr worth neut. vert, 
 harSr hard neut, hart, steindr stained, steint, skyldr bound, 
 pledged, skylt (skillt.), leiSr tiresome, weary, leitt, raudr red, 
 rautt, goor good, gott, gla5r glad glatt; of two d's (dd) one 
 is usually kept, e. g. leiddr led, neut. leidt, graeddr, healed, 
 graedt, which is right, for it is kept also in the sup. Pass, 
 (as 5) where t has been thrown out; e. g. Iei5zt graeSzt; but 
 sagdt, reyndt, (proved, tried), would be wrong, because the 
 sup. pass., is not sagozt, reynftzt, but sagzt, reynzt. Some 
 modern writers however keep this needless 8 in their words, 
 e. g. verdt, hardt, steindt, skyldt, leidt, raudt, but never kal- 
 ladt, \akidt, any more than with 5 ? verftt, harbl, etc., because 
 
40 CHANGE OF SOUND IN OLD NORSE. 
 
 5" is always changed into d before d, e. g. leiddi imperf. of 
 leiga to lead, gra?ddi imperf. of graeSa to heal, etc. N also 
 falls away before t at the close of polysyll. words, e. g. 
 skilit separated, (for skilinf), tamit tamed (for tamint), |>akit 
 (for ^akini), from skilinn, taminn, j>akinn; ndt is particularly 
 avoided ; which in short words is assimilated to tt; e. g. binda 
 to bind, imperf. batt, imperat. bittu; so also sannr , neut. satt 
 (sannt.) Nd, nn, also are sought to be avoided in position, 
 e. g. annarr pi. aSrir, skilinn skildir, |>akinn Jaktir, (for ann~ 
 rir, skilnir, Ipaknir.') In old writers nn and w, are very often 
 exchanged for? S, e. g. sa5r for sannr sooth, muftr for munnr 
 mouth, annarr A. S. ofter , skilinn and skili5r, fmkinn and 
 J)akiSr, taminn and tamiSr, etc. 
 
 92. With k, r is assimilated to ck, when the foregoing 
 vowel is a diphthong, otherwise not; e. g. stsecka to wax 
 big, enlarge, from staerri bigger, mjocka to make smaller, 
 from mjdrri smaller. The case is the same with S in every 
 day speech, though it is commonly kept in writing, e. g. 
 bliSka, (blicka,) to shine, blink, viSka (vicka) to widen; n is 
 assimilated if a simple vowel , but cast out if a diphthong, 
 go before, e. g. macki the crest, {the upper part of a horse's 
 neck along with the mane), (Dansk manke), hreckir tricks, 
 mukr monk, kanukr a canon (for kanunkr from canonicus.) 
 
 93. With r, I and n are assim. to 11, nn, when a diphthong 
 goes before; e.g. heill whole (for heilr), stoll stool (for stolr), 
 grsenn green, (for gramr) s^nn plain, clear, (for sfnr.) If the 
 foregoing vowel be simple, Ir, nr , are often kept, especially 
 in short words , e. g. hvalr whale, skilr separates, skills, linr mild, 
 sonr son, but they are are also often assim., especially at the end 
 of polysyll. words, e. g. vill (for vilr), j)6gull taciturn, gamall 
 old gen. pi. gamalla, jokull iceberg, minn mine (for minr) hinn 
 the, that , (for hinr) gen. pi. hinna (for hinra), f>akinn (for 
 \akinr), gen. pi. f>akinna , (for \akin-rd), which takes place 
 in all dissyll. adj. and part, in -inn. But if there be a conson # 
 before, then r falls away entirely, e. g. ail forge, hrafn raven, 
 (for afl-r,) hrafn-r. The same holds good of sr in old writers 
 e.g. assanJls, god, iss ice, lauss loose, hals neck, lax salmon, 
 
TRANSITION OF WORDS. 41 
 
 (for dsr, isr, lausr, hdlsr, laxr,) but in common speech as, is, 
 laus ; so also in 2. and 3. pers. pi. Pres. in the second con- 
 jugation, e. g. skin (in old writers ski'nn) for sMnr shines, eys 
 waters, old eyss (for eysr.) 
 
 94. All these changes of sound indeed are deep rooted in 
 whole structure and existence of the language, but it is espe- 
 cipally for the sake of inflection and formation of words, that 
 the vowels, and for that of euphony, that the consonants, are 
 changed; which is quite natural, because in all northern ton- 
 gues the consonants have a very great preponderance. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 On the transition of words. 
 
 1. From Old Norse into Swedish. 
 
 95. A great number of words are common to the Icelandic 
 and Swed., though they have become much changed in the 
 latter tongue by the system of spelling and pronunciation; as 
 a help towards recognizing them in their older shape, the 
 following common method of transition should be remarked. 
 
 96. The vowel changes are the following 
 
 d has become a (Engl, o.), e. g. ran", rad., Engl, rede, 
 counsel, langr langr, long, fa, fa, few, pa da, then, there, 
 malari, malar e, miller. 
 
 o also a e. g. hoi, hal, hole, fol, fale, foal. 
 
 e. g. fraendi, frdnde, friend, ssell, sail happy, 
 
 naer, ndr, near. 
 
 e. g. eta, dta, to eat, brenna, brdnna, to burn, 
 
 (old. E. brenn.), hestr, hast, horse, merki, mdrke, 
 
 mark. 
 
 heitr, het, hot, mein, mehn t , moan, reita, reta, 
 
 to pluck. 
 
 skin, sken, sheen, vita, veta, to wit, know, faSir, 
 
 fader, father, hirSir, herde, herd, galinn, gal en* 
 
 silly, andi, ande, spirit, breath, spegill, spegel, 
 
 lookingglass. 
 
 ce has be- 
 
 come a, 
 
 e also has 
 
 become a, 
 
 62 has be- 
 
 come e, 
 
 i also e, 
 
42 TRANSITION OF WORDS 
 
 au and ey kaupa, kopa, to buy, chaffer , keypti, Icopte, 
 have be- bought, draumr, drom, dream, dreyma, dromma, 
 come o, to dream, laus, Ids, loose, leysa, losa, to loose, 
 haukr, hole, hawk, heyra, hbra, hear. The case 
 is the same with ce which comes from 6 (and 
 is also written az 73. 82.); graenn grdn, green, 
 (from at groa to grow): faera, fora, to bring, 
 (for) faeSa, foda, to feed, (foSur, Engl, food, 
 fodder,) aefa, ofva, to practice, plaegja, ploja y 
 to plough, saekja, soka, to seek. 
 
 y also very of- fyrr, forr, before, dylja, dolja, to hide, fylgja, 
 ten becomes o, fblja, to follow, yfir, ofver, over. 
 
 o becomes a, especially in fern, and neut. pi. sok, sak, suit, 
 grof, graf, grave, ditch, born, barn, bairn, 
 (0. Engl.) hof, haf sea, voir, vail, a plain. 
 
 97. The simple vowels o, e, i, y and o, have often been 
 kept in Swed., especially before a position, e. g. orka, verk, 
 viss, mynt, bjorn , which words are written exactly alike in 
 both languages; and also in many cases where the vowel has 
 been shortened , and the consonant following doubled , e. g. 
 skot, skott, shot, brot, brott, crime, lok, lock, lock, til, till, 
 till, to, etc.* 
 
 * In this lies the chief root of all the confusion now reigning 
 in the Swedish Etymology. 1. The pronunciation has been 
 changed, and all diphthongs simplified. 2. The old system of 
 orthography has been altered, and new signs adopted (a, a), 
 for sounds which had already generally received signs in the 
 tongue (o, e,)j while the old way of distinguishing by accents 
 between the sound in trott and brott, stort and kort, has 
 been laid aside; and yet it has not been possible to bring in 
 the new signs in all cases , but the old system has been 
 partly suffered to exist, and at the same time Etymology has 
 made use of the new signs in many cases, and in others re- 
 frained from making them universal. In this way different 
 signs have arisen for one and the same sound, godt fait, den 
 
FROM OLD NORSE INTO SWEDISH. 43 
 
 But the diphthongs above mentioned, a, ce, ei, au, ey, 
 have been invariably changed , commonly in the way given 
 above, but also sometimes differently, e. g. au into a, }>rauk, 
 trak, toil, brauk, brak, a fraction, saungr, sang, song, staung, 
 stang , stake, as in the Old Norse itself (85.). The other 
 diphthongs i, 6, u, f, have been usually kept on the other 
 hand, though without the accent, e. g. lik, lik, a body, rot, rot, 
 root, djup, djup, deep, pryda, pry da, to trick out, pride one- 
 self, etc., though these too have been sometimes changed, 
 e. g. ljos, ljus, light, tru tro, belief d^r, djur, beast, etc. 
 
 98. The most important changes in the consonants are the 
 following ; 
 
 h falls away before all conson. in pronunciation, and is 
 retained only before i and v in writing, e. g. hljoS, ljud, a 
 sound, hnyckr, nyck , caprice, hreinn, ren, reindeer, hjarta, 
 hjerta, heart, hveiti, hrete, wheat. 
 
 p becomes, 1. t in nominatives and verbs, e. g. Jnstill, 
 tistel, thistle, |)raeta, trdia, to deny, wrangle, J)ola, tola, to 
 bear, |>r^tr tryter, fails; 2. d in pronouns and adv., e. g. |m, 
 du, thou, fessir, dessa, these, Joar, der, there, {>a, da, then, 
 
 man, and on the other hand two different sounds for the same 
 letter, e. g. dom om , hem fern, and when the sound is 
 once departed from there is no means by which it is possible 
 to stop these confusions except custom, we find therefore in 
 writing, fog el fag el, haf and hof dga and eg a, ddr and 
 der, and both sides have reason for their system, but were 
 the sound the simple rule , as in the Old Norse , we should 
 be soon all of one mind in the new tongues. In the Dansk or- 
 thography, there is the same confusion from the same cause, 
 here too the sound lias been changed, and the diphthongs thrown 
 away; and though the original aa, ai and o have been kept, 
 yet double signs have sprung up Qaa and o, ce and e,} for 
 single sounds, and again, because the accents have been laid 
 aside, double sounds for the simple signs o, e, i, u, y and b\ 
 
44 TRANSITION OF WORDS 
 
 8 becomes d, e. g. blab", blad, leaf, siSr. sed. wont, frifla, 
 freda, to still, appease. 
 
 Within the word and at its close the conson. have often, 
 been doubled, e. g. timi timma, hour, daema, domiua, to deem, 
 doom, koma, komma, to come, vinir, tanner, friends, vit, vett, 
 wit, sviti, svett, sweat. 
 
 /'between two vowels becomes fv ; kljufa klgfva, rif'a, 
 rifva, to rive, rend, hof-in, hafcen, the sea. 
 
 fn becomes mn, rifna, rtmna, to crack, hafnir, hamnar, 
 harbours, svefh, somn, sleep, (very much in the same way as 
 *vnv6$ somnus etc). 
 
 Other positions like these have often been separated and 
 a vowel inserted ., e. g. vapn vapen, weapon, vatn, fatten, 
 water, fugl, fag el, fowl, hagl, hagel, hail. 
 
 All masc. signs (r, and one of the double 11, nn, etc.) have 
 fallen away, e. g. konungr, konung, king; plogr, plog, 'plough, 
 jprael, tral, thrall; stein, sten, stone, all, al, eel, blar, bla, 
 blue, hvitr, hvit , white; nakinn, naken, naked, finn, fin, fine, 
 einn en, one; etc. 
 
 99. In the adoption of Icelandic Proper Names, which be- 
 long to the old mythology and history, much confusion has 
 arisen in the new tongues, through the ignorance of our old 
 writers in the pronunciation and etymology of the Old Norse; 
 they commonly made use of Latin renderings, but this latin- 
 izing of the old names brought along with it much distortion, 
 which was not suited to our tongue and made new distortions 
 unavoidable. It is not easy to lay down rules for this branch 
 of orthography, but, judging from the transition and use of 
 other words, it seems most advisable, 1. (o keep the chief 
 syll. in the word, as far as possible, unchanged; e. g. Vala, 
 (not Vola), Saga, Freya, Reidg ot aland , Jotunhem, (not Jo- 
 thunhem). Yet 2. h must fall away before 1, n and r ; e. g. 
 Lidskjalf Rejdmar, Loder, for Hlioskjalf, Kreiomar , Hloor. 
 3. j must always be accurately distinguished from i , e. g. 
 M joiner, Asbjont, Njord, (or Njord), Skjold, (Skjold), Thjodotf. 
 3- JE and au, are supplied by a and o, but all other vowels 
 are kept without regard to accent , e. g. Sdming , Hdner, 
 
FROM OLD NORSE INTO SWEDISH. 45 
 
 Odumla, Kerlogar, Gofer, (not Gaidar,) Alf, Asgeir*, Bar aid, 
 Oden, Loke, Gudrun, Gunnar, Sigurd, Heimdall, (or Hejmdall), 
 Frey. 5. The endings undergo most change; i, ir, nir, ill, 
 and inn especially become e, er, ner, el, en, e. g. Br age, 
 Yngve, Sigurlame, Snorre, Saxe, Mimer, Ymer, Ager, Skid- 
 bladner, Yggdrasel , Oden. 6. r, (ur) should be kept and 
 changed into er, where it is essential; e. g. Balder, Ragna- 
 rbcker ; but be thown away where it is not essential ; (i. e. 
 when it falls away in the Icel. inflection of the word); e. g. 
 Rig, Nidhogg, Sdmund, Asmund, Fornjot; this ending however 
 may be very well kept occasionally in monosyll. names, and 
 in poetry, as an er paragogicum, e. g. Ull-er, Hod-er, Lopt-er, 
 Starkad-er, Lbg-er, or Log-en, (not Logaren) ; just as glader, 
 goder, are sometimes used for glad, and god; other endings 
 should be kept unchanged, e. g. Odun , (Auftun,) Amor, 
 Hjalmar, Bbdvar. 7. In Names of women is seems best 
 always to throw away this ending when it is non essential; 
 e. g. Gunnhild, Ragnhild, Sigrid, Urd, Gerd, (or Gerde), 
 Hild (or Hilde), Hejd {or Rejde). The form in e is a later 
 npin. instead of Geror, Hiicr, Ileior, made from the ace. 
 GerSi, Hildi, HeiSi. 8. Those which have a keep it, as Gyda, 
 Edda, Svafva; but those which have no vowel ending do not 
 take a in Swed.; e. g. Skade, Gondul, Skogul, Gefjun, Idun, 
 Sigyn, Frigg, Sif, Skidd, Hald, Ran. 9. If the name contain 
 words which are already well known and current in the new 
 language, these should be adapted to the system of spelling 
 and pronunciation now in use; e. g. Gldsesvall , Idavallen, 
 Alfhem, Vanahem, Ake-Thor, or Ak-thor, (not Auka-Thor which 
 
 * This name, still in use in Iceland, which also occurs on Runic 
 stones , and in old Histories under the form Asker or Esker, 
 in Angl. Sax. Osgdr, is the same as Oscar, and made up of 
 A's an As, God, and geir a spear, or perhaps a kind of falcon 
 (Germ. Geyer); both which words were of old very common 
 in names e. g. Asvaldr, A. S. Oswald, Ulfgeir, A. S. Vulfgdr, 
 etc. The name Osgar itself occurs often in old A. S. deeds, 
 e. g. in ^Elfhelm's will, which Lye has inserted in the second 
 part of his Dictionary. As well as in other documents. 
 
46 TRANSITION OF WORDS 
 
 is a senseless distortion of the old Oku-{)6r, or according to 
 an old Icelandic orthography Avku-J)6r, 29.), Eysten, Asgard, 
 Valhall, Bdf-rosty (not Bi-frost, which a Germ, once trans- 
 lated Bienen-frost (Engl. Bee-frost). If the name has a gene- 
 rally received form , no new one need be introduced, e. g. 
 Erik, Hakari) Anund, Olof. 
 
 100. The baptismal name is always in Icel. the chief name, 
 by w T hich the person is commonly addressed , e. g. Snorri, 
 Hakon, Finnr, etc. ; which old and once general Norse custom 
 is still retained in the case of Kings, as well as in that of the 
 common people, in all the three Northern Kingdoms. For the 
 sake of clearness the father's name is often added , e. g. Har- 
 aldr Gormson, Snorri Sturluson. Jon porlaksson, Gy r $a Eiriks- 
 dottir, pun'Sr Snorraddttir goSa. But this is not usual if the 
 person has any surname from his look, dwellingplace, cha- 
 racter or the like, thus Ragnar LoSbrok, prandr i Gotu, Sigriftr 
 storraSa, Knutr enn riki, Karl tolfti. But these names, as is 
 natural, only apply to one person, and are not handed down 
 from father to son ; our forefathers in general , after old na- 
 tional custom, had no family names at all, and yet', in spite 
 of this, the Icelanders can give a better account of their 
 genealogies than any other nation now existing in Europe. 
 In later times however family names, after the German and 
 French fashion, have begun to be adopted even in Iceland; 
 e. g. Vidalin, (from viSidalr), Hjaltalin, etc., especially with 
 Latin or Dansk endings, as Thorlacius, Stephensen, Thor- 
 grimsen, etc. 
 
 2. From other tongues into Icelandic. 
 
 101. The great question in the new Northern languages 
 at to how foreign words should be written, was quite settled 
 in the Old Norse; they were always written according to the 
 pronunciation they received when embodied into the tongue; 
 from this rule there is not to be found a single exception, 
 e. g. tafla from tabula, djakn (djakni) diaconus, pistill epistola, 
 postuli apostolus, biblia (fern, sing.), messa from missa, salmr 
 
FROM OTHER TONGUES INTO ICELANDIC. 47 
 
 from psalmus. This fundamental rule has luckily also been 
 steadily followed by all good Icelandic writers up to the 
 present day, e. g. by Bishop Hannes Finnsson, and Councillor 
 Magnus Stephensen, who are still living in Iceland. 
 
 102. In the case of c, Bjorn Haldorson, in his Icel. Lexicon, 
 gives the rule, that it is used only in ck, but that foreign 
 words which have c are written with ^ or s according to 
 their pronunciation; for which he gives the following examples, 
 Katekismus, (otherwise in Icel. fraeom), kontrakt, (otherwise 
 samningr) klima (otherwise lopzlag), serimonia (otherwise 
 kirkjusior), sitazia (otherwise tilvisan); So also prins from 
 Fr. prince, dans Fr. danse, etc. (never prints, prinz, or prince.) 
 
 For the Lat. ck, k is always written, e. g. kor chorus, 
 kronika chronica, Kristr Christus, kristjan christianus, kristin 
 christina, krisina. For Erench ch on the contrary usually sk, 
 skatol, Skarlotta, maskina, but chocolade is written sukulaS. 
 
 103. With t the rule is a little more uncertain, because 
 the use of z is still unsettled; but it seems best (by rule 
 49.), 1. to supply it always by z where it has the sound of 
 s; e. g. spazia, visitazia, qvittanzia, ordinanzia, konferenzraS, 
 porzion (otherwise skamtr). 2. Only where it comes after c, 
 it seems best to contract the two into x; thus lexia, axia, 
 axion ; as the Romans did in cases where they used the same 
 pronunciation, flecto, flexi, flexus, and flexio, (for flect-si, flect- 
 sus, and flect-sio) ; otherwise we ought to write lekzia, akzia, 
 akzion. 3. But where a short vowel goes before, and it has 
 the sound of ts, it is always written in the same way; e. g. 
 Reformatsion (siSaskipti), konfirmatsion (staSfesting); th is trea- 
 ted like ch, and is supplied in sound by /, e. g. tron (other- 
 wise haseeti) throne. 
 
 104. Consequently ph must be supplied among the Ice- 
 landers, as among the Italians, Spaniards etc., by f; e. g, fysik 
 filosofi, which however seldom comes into question, for the 
 Iceland, words are always used in preference, natturufraefti ; 
 heimspeki, heimspekingr Philosopher, heimspekligr philosophic, 
 etc. There are in general very few foreign words, w T hich have 
 
48 TRANSITION OF WORDS. 
 
 been taken into Icelandic, e. g. hatign is said for Majesty, 
 haskoli, (Highschool) , for University, bokahirsla for Library, 
 bokavorSr for Librarian, stafrof alphabet, skaldskapr poetry, 
 triiarbrogS religion, holdgan (holdtaka, holdtekja) incarnation, 
 guSfraeSi theology, guftafroeSi mythology, atsetr resident, atfero" 
 (atferli) method, siSferSi morality, hugarfar, character. 
 
 105. The common changes which foreign words undergo, 
 are beside chiefly these ; 
 
 a) they are often contracted, so that a short vowel falls 
 away , e. g. tempra tempero, h'na linea, regla regula, mus- 
 teri monasterium, temple, munkr also mukr (otherwise hrein- 
 lifismaSr) monacus, klerkr clericus,, kapteinn (otherwise hun- 
 draSshofSingi or skipherra) capitaneus, lojtnant Fr. Lieutenant. 
 
 b) The first toneless syll. is often cast away, e. g. spitali 
 spital, Hannes Johannes, (otherwise contracted to Jon). Ras- 
 mus Erasmus, dati (soldati anciently malamaSr) soldat, postuli 
 Apostle, biskup Episcopus. 
 
 c) But little regard is paid in general to the gender of the 
 word in its original tongue, when they denote lifeless things; 
 e.g. partr (hluti), punktr, spegill, sedill, kanall, are masc; as 
 well as annall, titill, (nafnbot), eingill, sirkill, st^ll; planeta 
 (reikandi stjarna, reikistjarna)^ kometa (halastjarna), kronika, 
 biblia, (ritning-in) , on the other hand are fern, like natiira 
 (edli), persona (maor), and bestia (qvikindi); and nummer, 
 attest, instrux, neuter. 
 
SECOND PART. 
 
 The System of Inflection. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 OJf Substantive g. 
 
 106. In the Old Norse, as in all other Gothic tongues, the 
 declensions are harder and more artificial than the conju- 
 gations; the substantives, or denominatives, in particular have 
 a very complex method of inflection. They are divided among 
 the three usual genders , Masc. Fern, and Neut. , and express 
 two Numbers, Sing, and PL, with four cases or relations in 
 each. Moreover when the article, as in Swedish , is affixed, 
 both it and the subst. keep their inflections, so that in this 
 case one and the same word is doubly declined. These in- 
 flections are denoted by endings, contractions, and change of 
 vowel. 
 
 1. Declension without the Article. 
 
 107. The nouns subst. distribute themselves in regard to 
 Inflection into two main classes; the one is declined simply 
 and uniformly, the other distinguishes a greater number of 
 endings by more artificial and harder rules. But even in one 
 and the same class all words are not declined alike, we must 
 therefore assume several declensions or methods of inflection 
 under each. The simpler Class is distinguished by containing 
 only words ending in a vowel ; the more artificial on the other 
 hand consists of such as end in a consonant. In each of these 
 
 4 
 
50 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 divisions the words are again distributed according to their gender* 
 e. g. hjarta and saga belong both to the simple system, but 
 are nevertheless inflected quite differently, because the former 
 is neut. the latter fern. So also akur field, and lifur liver, 
 belong both to the more artificial system, but are differently 
 inflected because the former is masc. the latter fern. To the 
 simpler Class belong all neuters and fern, in a, together with 
 all masc. in i; to the more artificial all other subst., as neut. 
 and fern, in i, all monosyllables with accented vowels, and all 
 words ending in consonants of whatever gender. It is thus 
 indispensable, in order to fix the Class, and particularly the 
 Declension under which each word is ranged, to know its 
 gender. 
 
 108. To give sure rules for gender is as impossible in 
 this, as in the other Gothic and in the Sclavonic tongues; it 
 may however be remarked 1. in regard to ending, that masc. 
 may end in i, r, I, n or s; though all such are not necessarily 
 of that gend. All subst in a are fem. e. g. bylgja billow, 
 koma coming, raena sense, etc., with the exception only of 
 herra master, Lord, and some Prop. Names which are masc. 
 e. g. Sturla, Oraekja; together w T ith the few neuters which 
 come under the first Decl. Most monosyll. subst. the vowel 
 of which is o are also fem. e. g. grof a ditch, grave, for a 
 faring, vok a hole in ice, skor a stairstep', though here also 
 some neut. must be excepted: e. g. fjor lifestrength, bol bale, 
 troll troll, kjor choice, qvold (for gveld) eventide. All mono- 
 syll. subst. having the vowel a but not ending in r, I, n or s, 
 are neut. e. g. malt, land, haf, lag, a layer etc. 
 
 109. 2. From the meaning scarcely any other rule can 
 be formed, than that the names of the duties and employments 
 of men are masc, and those of women fem. ; e. g. konungr, 
 hofdingi chief, headman, prestr priest, Jrsell thrall, drottning 
 queen, ljosa midwife, ambatt sheslave. 
 
 110. 3. From the formation of words on the other hand 
 it is easy to find out the gend. of most deriv. and comp. 
 since e. g. all those in domr, ungr, ingr, ingi, leikr, skapr, naSr, 
 
DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 51 
 
 art, and andi are masc; all in ting, ing, un, a, 5 (d t), ska, 
 sla, dtta, and most in an, ni, fern.; and those in dami, indi, 
 and erni neut. Comp. words keep always the gend. of their 
 last part, which also holds good of the names of countries and 
 towns, e. g. Polinaland Poland, pyzkaland Germany, are neut. 
 Noregr (Norvegr) Norway, masc, Danmork Denmark fern, as 
 well as Svif)j6d Sweden, while Sviariki is neut. HeiSabaer 
 is masc, but Slesvik fern., Lundun London neut. pi. Uppsalir 
 masc. pi. Kanlarabyrgi Canterbury neut. sing. Mikligaror 
 Constantinople masc. Edinaborg Edinburgh fern, because land 
 riki andbyrgi areneutr.; vegr, baer, salr, and gardr masc; and 
 mork, fjod, vik and borg fern, (see farther on this point Part. 
 3. Formation of Words.) 
 
 111. An important source for discovering the gend. of Ice- 
 land, words is to be found, 
 
 4. In the kindred tongues. From Swed. in particular we 
 know the neut., which are by much the most common; masc. 
 and fern, on the contrary are in that language in a state of 
 much greater confusion, so that it seems better in the present 
 condition of the tongue, to assume one common gend. instead 
 of the two. The Dialect of the common people in all three 
 realms is a still more important help than that of the higher 
 classes, because the personal genders are more accurately 
 distinguished in it, and this in such strict accordance with the 
 Icel., that, in Funen at least, hardly one word in a hundred 
 can be excepted, that has changed its original gend. in the 
 speech of the lower classes. 
 
 112. As exceptions from agreement with Swed. we may 
 remark that, n^ra kidney, skald, vor spring, sumar summer, 
 haust autumn, milti spleen, hunang honey, edik vinegar, and 
 kalk lime, port, plaz, place, are neut.; log, law, jol Yule, laun 
 pay, reward, are neut pi. ; but the sing. hliS a wiket or grate 
 neut.; while hli5 a side is fem. egg an egg is neut; but 
 egg an edge fem. 
 
 113. Of all gend the neut. (or no-sex) is the simplest and 
 so to speak the most steadfast, which has maintained itself 
 
 4* 
 
52 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 longest in the language. The masc. (he -sex) again is most 
 akin to the neut. and seems to have been immediately devel- 
 oped out of it; the fern, (she -sex) is both in inflection and 
 formation most separate from the other two. They seem 
 therefore both in IceL, and in other kindred tongues, to be 
 most correctly treated of in the order given above. Of the 
 cases the ace. is always most like the nom., next follows 
 the dat., and last of all the gen., which has most peculiarities. 
 This arrangement seems, both in regard to the mutual Etymo- 
 logical relation of the forms, and the philosophical meaning 
 thereby denoted, to be the best, not only in Icel., but also in 
 Germ, and all Gothic and Slavonic tongues, as well as in 
 Greek and Latin, or the so called Thracian (Phrygian) 
 languages. 
 
 114. According to the principles of division above given, 
 (Two head classes and three genders in each), the declensions 
 ought to be six; indeed the simpler class cannot possibly be 
 divided otherwise, but in the more artificial the masc. and 
 fern, have an inflection so complicated, that it seems better for 
 the sake of greater clearness, to divide each of these into two 
 declensions; the whole number thus becomes eight, the regular 
 inflections of which may be seen in the following table. 
 
 
 Simpler 
 
 system. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 3 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 — 
 
 a 
 
 — 
 
 i 
 
 — a 
 
 Ace. 
 
 — 
 
 a 
 
 _. 
 
 a 
 
 + u 
 
 Dat. 
 
 — . 
 
 a 
 
 — 
 
 a 
 
 4- u 
 
 Gen. 
 
 PlllT. 
 
 — 
 
 a 
 
 — 
 
 a 
 
 + u 
 
 r iur. 
 Nom. 
 
 + 
 
 u 
 
 — 
 
 ar 
 
 -I- ur 
 
 Ace. 
 
 + 
 
 u 
 
 — 
 
 a 
 
 •+- ur 
 
 Dat. 
 
 + 
 
 um 
 
 + 
 
 um 
 
 -f- um 
 
 Gen. 
 
 __ 
 
 na 
 
 — 
 
 a 
 
 — na 
 
DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 53 
 
 
 
 More artificial system. 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 5 6 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Neat. 
 
 — » 
 
 17 
 
 Masc. 
 
 M 
 
 
 » 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 
 » 
 
 
 « 
 
 V 
 
 Dat. 
 
 — i 
 
 (0 
 
 + 
 
 i 
 
 
 («) 
 
 V 
 
 Gen, 
 
 — s 
 
 — s 
 
 + 
 
 ar 
 
 + 
 
 ar 
 
 + r, £ 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nom. 
 
 + » 
 
 — ar 
 
 + 
 
 ir 
 
 + 
 
 ir 
 
 ■+■ r 
 
 Ace. 
 
 + » 
 
 — a 
 
 — 
 
 u, i 
 
 + 
 
 ir 
 
 + r 
 
 Dal. 
 
 + um 
 
 + um 
 
 — 
 
 um 
 
 — 
 
 um 
 
 — um 
 
 Gen. 
 
 — a 
 
 — a 
 
 4- 
 
 a 
 
 + 
 
 a 
 
 + a 
 
 ar 
 
 The endings marked + are those which require besides a 
 change in the vowel of the chief syll. ; should any one regard 
 the four last decl. as too like one another to be separated, 
 the 5th and 6th, and 7th and 8th, need only be joined so as to 
 make together two classes under one decl.; in which case 
 the agreement between the two head classes; as well as that 
 with the other Gothic tongues becomes more plain, without 
 at the same time any disturbance in the system. 
 
 115. The agreement with the Angl. Sax. system of decl. 
 is evident; the declensions also of the Germ., the Moesogothic? 
 and other old Germ, dialects answer very exactly to those of 
 the Old Norse, though the conflicting views of different writers 
 (Adelungs and Zahns) make the likeness less striking. For 
 the sake of easiness in comparison I will present the follow- 
 ing table. 
 
 Icel. 
 
 Germ. 
 
 Moesogoth. 
 
 
 1 
 
 das ohr (6) 
 
 hairto 
 
 heart. 
 
 2 
 
 \ der affe (4) 
 i der funke (5) 
 
 ahma 
 
 breath. 
 
 3 
 
 die welle(7) 
 
 gajuko 
 
 likeness 
 
 4 
 
 das buch (2) 
 
 vaurd 
 
 word 
 
 5j 
 61 
 
 der fisch (1) 
 
 \ vigs 
 \ sunus 
 
 way 
 son 
 
 w 
 
 die bank (3) 
 
 i staua 
 J magaj) 
 
 right 
 maid 
 
54 
 
 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 116. Even the endings themselves have a great likeness 
 to those of other tongues ; the gen. in s is the Swed. and 
 Dansk s, Germ, es, s, Lat. is, Grk. os; the dat. in e answers 
 to the Germ. dat. in e, Lat. in i and abl. in e, Grk. in 2; the 
 dat. pi. in um to the Germ, en, Swed. om in adverbs, as 
 stundom sometimes, etc.; the gen. pi. in a to the Swed. com- 
 pounds in which the first part ends in a, e. g. gudaldra, 
 etc. , the Neut. have always the nom. and ace. alike as in 
 Greek and Lat., and besides all fern, have the nom. and ace. 
 alike in the pi. 
 
 Simpler Class. 
 117. The first Decl. contains all neut. in a, e.g. auga eye, 
 
 hjarta heart, which are thus inflected. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Nom, 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 auga 
 
 auga 
 
 auga 
 
 auga 
 
 augu 
 
 augu 
 
 augum 
 
 augna 
 
 hjarta 
 
 hjarta 
 
 hjarta 
 
 hjarta 
 
 hjortu 
 
 hjortu 
 
 hjortum 
 
 hjartna 
 
 In the same way are declined eyra ear, lunga lung, eysta, 
 testicle, hnoSa hall of thread, bjuga sausage, n^ra kidney, as 
 well as some foreign words; e.g. manna, firma, and names of 
 countries in a, which are however rare in old writers, who 
 commonly add the word land, and also in modern authors, 
 who often make them fern. 
 
 118. The reason of the vowel change in the pi. is the 
 ending, of which mention has been already made (74.); it 
 however takes place only in the w r ord hjarta, because none 
 of the others have a in the chief syll. Manna is used only 
 in the sing., liingun and Indiun (otherwise Indialand) rather in 
 the pi. with the art. The object of the n inserted before the 
 a in the gen. pi. seems to be, to distinguish this case from 
 the nom. sing. 
 
SIMPLER CLASS. 55 
 
 119. The second Decl. embraces all masc. in i; e.g. geisli 
 sunbeam, andi spirit, breath, raeningi robber, eigandi owner, 
 which are thus inflected 
 
 Sing. Nom. geisli 
 
 andi 
 
 Ace. geisla 
 
 anda 
 
 Dat. geisla 
 
 anda 
 
 Gen. geisla 
 
 anda 
 
 Plur. Nom. geislar 
 
 andar 
 
 Ace. geisla 
 
 anda 
 
 Dat. geislum 
 
 ondum 
 
 Gen. geisla. 
 
 anda. 
 
 In the same way are inflected; dropi a drop, tingi the young 
 of animals particularly fowl, bogi bow, risi giant, skuggi 
 shadow, naiingi neighbour, ecki woe (poet.), maki mate, kappi 
 champion, felagi fellow, nagli nail, api ape, asni ass, angi 
 steam, savour, |>anki thought, tangi a point or tongue of land. 
 
 Sing. Nom. 
 
 raeningi 
 
 eigandi 
 
 Ace. 
 
 raeningja 
 
 eiganda 
 
 Dat. 
 
 raeningja 
 
 eiganda 
 
 Gen. 
 
 raeningja 
 
 eiganda 
 
 Plur. Nom. 
 
 raeningjar 
 
 eigendr 
 
 Ace. 
 
 raeningja 
 
 eigendr 
 
 Dat. 
 
 raeningjum 
 
 eigendum (ondum) 
 
 Gen. 
 
 rseningja. 
 
 eigenda (anda). 
 
 In the same way are inflected hofSingi, frelsingi and ley- 
 singi freedman, vili will, domandi doomer, biiandi yeoman, 
 elskandi lover, iSkandi worshipper, illvirki illdoer, einheri Odin's 
 warrior, skipveri shipman, eyskeggi islander, lesandi reader, 
 saekjandi suer, verjandi warder, hallandi slope. 
 
 120. Dissyllabic words which have a in the first syll. change 
 this into o before u, i. e. in the dat. pi. Those which have 
 dng, or dnk, change this in the same case into aung, aunk, 
 e. g. vangi cheek, jawbone, dat. pi. vaungum ; panki |>aunkum, 
 etc., but a by itself remains unchanged, maki pi. makar straddl- 
 ing, dat. makum. 
 
 Trisyllabic words, which have a in the two first syll., change 
 the first into o the second into u, before the ending um; e. g. 
 
56 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 bakari baker, pi. bakarar, dat. bdkurum. If they have a in the 
 middle syll. only, this is still changed into u, e. g. domari, pi. 
 domarar, dat. ddmurum; so also lesari, kennari teacher, els- 
 kari, etc. But if the first syll. has a and the second another 
 vowel, no change takes place, e. g. naungi, pi. naungar, dat. 
 
 121. Those which insert,/ before the ending are, all in 
 ingi, and some few beside, which all have weak vowels in 
 the penultimate. 
 
 122. Like eigandi are declined all pres. part. act. when used 
 as subst. to denote an agent; they are met with most often in 
 the pi. Even those which express something lifeless , and 
 answer to the Swed. neut. uppforande, afseende, etc., are here 
 all masc. , and follow the same inflection, but are used only 
 in the sing. e.g. talandi gift of speech, togandi anything slow, 
 tildragandi, inducement, etc. The word buandi is commonly 
 contracted into bondi, pi. bcendr, bcendum, bcenda. Fjanda a 
 foe, fiend, is inflected like eigandi, but may also be declined 
 like andi. Frsendi, pi. fraendr is regular, as also Jjraendr (pro 
 Tronder), a Norse tri be from which Trondhem takes its 
 name; this word comes from the male name prandr. 
 
 123. The word herra diners only in the nom. from geisli, 
 as also sira * which however is not used in the pi. and endir 
 end which in old writers is met with regular endi etc. 
 
 * 
 
 This word is used only in Priest's titles before the name, e. g. 
 Sira Arni. "The Revd. Mr. Arne." The Councillor M. Stephensen 
 indeed in his "Gaman og Alvara." "Jest and Earnest" p. 79 
 seq. has sought to throw it out of the tongue as laughable, 
 because it is only used in French in conversation with Kings 
 and Princes. But in this I can in no wise agree with the 
 learned writer; its use must not be ascribed to an exaggerated 
 respect for the Catholic priesthood, because it is never used 
 of Bishops , who are called Herra Lord a word expressing 
 a much higher rank. Its meaning also in French can hardly 
 be taken into consideration when the question is of Icelandic: 
 
SIMPLER CLASS. 57 
 
 124. Some few old poetic words take in the pi. endings 
 nar instead of ar, e. g. gumi a man, (whence our groom, prop- 
 erly goom, in Bridegroom), pi. gumnar, yet gumar is also found, 
 and the inserted n has without doubt its origin in the gen. 
 gumna, whence it has crept into the other cases. According 
 to the Msesogothic, Allemannic, and Anglo-Sax. the gen. pi. in 
 the simpler class ought always to end in na, w T hich is also 
 actually the case in neut. and fern, which are much the most 
 frequent; but in the masc. again this n has fallen out. The 
 true original inflection would thus seem to have been; 
 
 Nom. gumar 
 
 Ace. guma 
 
 Dat. gumum 
 
 Gen. gumna. 
 
 But the common is gumnar, gumna, gumnum, gumna; so 
 also skatnar, gotnar, bragnar, which all mean men, warriors, 
 together with flotnar sear over s ; from oxi also (for uxi) the 
 gen. pi. oxna is found. 
 
 the Engl, queen is the highest title Avhile the Dansk qvind is 
 a term of coarse abuse (conf. Engl, quean); the Icel. kona and 
 Dansk hone are so honourable that they are often said of 
 Queens instead of wife, but the Swed. kona is contemptuous. 
 The case is the same with the Germ, gemehi and the Dansk 
 gemen, etc., which does not all hinder the use of these words 
 in each of these several language, without any regard to their 
 meanings in another. Moreover the Icel. sira should not doubt- 
 less be derived from the French sire, but be taken as the 
 Engl, sire i. e. Father. The common people as is well known 
 still use the word Father in addressing Priests all over Den- 
 mark and Norway. Besides the word sira is by no means an 
 Icel. invention but has long ago had its present received sense 
 in Norway also; e. g. it occurs twice in a letter of the year 
 1297. (Diplomatarium Arn. Magn. vol. II. p. 190.), and is again 
 found in a document of the year 1445. which is quoted in 
 Lund's "Forsog til en Beskrivelse over ovre Tellemarken" p. 156. 
 It were to be wished that no word was used in Icel. which 
 had a worse descent than this, 
 
58 DECLENSION OF SUBSSTANTIVES. 
 
 ., e. g. tunga, 
 
 125. All fem. in a follow the t 
 
 hird Dec 
 
 saga, kyrkja, lina, line 
 
 
 Sing. Nom. tunga 
 
 sagu 
 
 Ace. tungu 
 
 sogu 
 
 Dat. tungu 
 
 sogu 
 
 Gen. tungu 
 
 sogu 
 
 Plur. Nom. tungur 
 
 sogur 
 
 Ace. tungur 
 
 sogur 
 
 Dat. tungum 
 
 sogum 
 
 Gen. tungna. 
 
 sagna. 
 
 In the same way are declined; dMadove, |mfa hillock, grima 
 mash, villa error, qviga heifer, vika week , pipa pipe, perla 
 pearl, gata path, flaska flask, staka verse, haka chin, vala 
 spaewife, skata ray (fish), langa ling (fish) ganga going, 
 
 Sing. Nom. kyrkja 
 
 lina 
 
 Ace. kyrkju 
 
 h'nu 
 
 Dat. kyrkju 
 
 linu 
 
 Gen. kyrkju 
 
 lmu 
 
 Plur. Nom. kyrkjur 
 
 linur 
 
 Ace. kyrkjur 
 
 linur 
 
 Dat. kyrkju m 
 
 linum 
 
 Gen. kyrkna. 
 
 lina. 
 
 In the same way are declined, eckja widow, reckja bed, 
 
 manneskja mankind, haekja crutch, sylgja umbrella, fylgja 
 
 ghost, ylgja she elk, bylgja billow, 
 
 lilja lilly, gryfja mine, feija 
 
 ferry, gySja goddess, kanna can, 
 
 skepna creature, vara ware, 
 
 tinna flint. 
 
 
 126. By this Deck are inflected all infln. in a, which are used 
 as subst., e. g. vera being, brenna burning, and in general all 
 fem. in a; names of countries also, especially in the modern 
 language; e. g. Evropa (NorSurhalfan) Affrika (SuSurhalfan) 
 Amerika (Vesturhalfan) etc. 
 
 127. That ganga makes gaungu etc. has been already men- 
 tioned (74. 78.) vala, volu is also found as volva volvu etc. 
 
 128. Words ending in na and ja before which g and k do 
 take no n in the gen. pi. The words kona and 
 
MORE COMPLEX CLASS. 59 
 
 qvinna wife, woman, have both qvenna in the gen. pi. but are 
 otherwise regular. 
 
 129. Many of these words are used only in the pi., e. g. 
 maetur (hafa msetur a einhverju to set store on aught), gaetur 
 watch, care, fortolur talking over, atolur curses, reproaches, 
 likur guesses, hserur gray hairs etc. 
 
 More artificial Class. 
 
 130. According to the fourth Decl. are inflected all neut. 
 that end in consonants, or in i, or which are monosyllabic; 
 e. g. skip ship, land land, sumar summer, qvaeSi song, chaunt, 
 merki standard, tre tree. 
 
 Sing. N. A. skip land sumar 
 
 landi sumri 
 
 lands sumars 
 
 lur. N. A. skip lond sumur 
 
 londum sumrum 
 
 landa. sumra. 
 
 So also are inflected: bor5 board, table, stri5 war, mal 
 measure, bu grange, farmhouse, stra straw, frse seed, hey hag, 
 gler glass, haf sea, lamb lamb, blaS leaf blade, ax ear of corn, 
 vatn water, tjald tent, gras grass, glas a glass, hofuS head, 
 klaustur cloister, f65ur food, fodder, silfur silver, norSur the 
 north, hulstur, holster, veSur weather, mastur mast {of a ship). 
 Sing. N. A. qvseSi merki tre 
 
 Dat. qva?5i merki tre 
 
 Gen. qvaeSis merkis tres 
 
 Plur. N. A. qvseSi merki tre 
 
 Dat. qvaeSum merkjum trjam 
 
 Gen. qvaeSa. merkja. trjaa. 
 
 In the same way go, klaefri clothing, epli apple, enni brow, 
 viti punishment, frelsi freedom, ackeri anchor, gsedi goods, ey- 
 rindi errand, riki realm, fylki province, virki wall, vigi breast- 
 work, nes a ness, sker scar, kyn &m, se#, rif rib, kne Awee, 
 hie shade, lee, spe yee? 4 , derision. 
 
 N. A. 
 
 skip 
 
 Dat. 
 
 skipi 
 
 Gen. 
 
 skips 
 
 N. A. 
 
 skip 
 
 Dat. 
 
 skipum 
 
 Gen. 
 
 skip a. 
 
60 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 131. Even in this method of inflection there are already 
 greater difficulties, though it is the simplest of the more com- 
 plex class. The change of vowel has been before spoken of. 
 (74. 78). Contraction takes place only in those cases where 
 the ending begins with a vowel, e.g. mastr-i, mostr-um, mastr-a, 
 the words heraS, hundraS, 6Sal, are never contracted, but in 
 other respects follow sumar, thus dat. sing. heraSi, dat. pi. he- 
 ruftum, etc. Those in ss, or s after a consonant, take no new 
 $ in the gen., e. g. hross, ax, and the like. 
 
 132. Those in i take no new i in the dat. but are other- 
 wise regular, yet so that those the characteristic letter of which 
 is g or Je, insert j before the endings um and a; this j is 
 heard indeed in all cases of the word, so that the sound is 
 merki merkis, or merkji merkjis, but is not usually written 
 before i (39). Some other words which end in conson. also 
 insert j in the same cases; such are all those which have, 
 simple weak vowels (41.), and simple cons, at their close, 
 e. g. sel sheepfold, seljum, selja, and also men necklace, skegg 
 beard, |)il panelling, etc. 
 
 133. Some few with hard vowels, especially b, insert j 
 before the endings which begin with a vowel, fjor lifestrength, 
 fjorvi, fjorvum, fjorva, so also skrok prating, nonsense, mjol, 
 sol a land of eatable seaweed, etc.; but this is not so strictly 
 observed as the insertion ofj. 
 
 134. Hie and spe are never used in the pi.; fe goods, 
 cattle, fee, has in the gen. sing, fjar, but is inflected in the pi. 
 like tre; ve halidome, temple, house, is declined in the sing. 
 like tre, in the pi. like skip, as are also the names of the let- 
 ters in e, the rest are declined like skip. 
 
 135. Other irregulars are especially; ' laeti character, bear- 
 ing, which makes its dat. pi. latum, gen. lata; megin might, 
 regin the godlike powers, rekin neat, take the vowel a (o) when 
 they are contracted; e.g. dat. pi. rognum, gen. sagna (whence 
 ragna-rockur twilight of the Gods.) The new word altari 
 (stalli) altar, follows this deck in the sing., but in the pi. it 
 makes olturu (or oltoru) olturum, altara. 
 
MORE COMPLEX €LASS. 61 
 
 136. Some others change their gend. to fern, in the pi. and 
 are then declined according to the seventh decl. c. g. lim twig, 
 pi. limar, boughs; tal cheating, pi. talar; eingi a mead, eingjar; 
 smiSi smithy, sraiSar; mund any point of time, mundir; |>usund 
 thousand, jmsundir. Most of these words however are found 
 perfect in both gend., but the inflection here given is the most 
 common. The word fraeSi knowledge is in the sing. fern, and in- 
 dee^ in the pi. on the other hand neut. and declined like qvae<5i. 
 
 137. Many are found both with and without i in the nom.; 
 e. g. fullting and fulltingi help, haensn and haensni hen; rensl 
 and rensli, a drain, sluice; as also all deriv. in si (sli), the 
 latter form seems more common in the pi., and in the modern 
 tongue. 
 
 138. The fifth Decl. embraces all masc. which end in the 
 gen. in s; in the nom. it has the following endings r, I, n and 
 s, e. g. komingr Icing, hamar hammer, laeknir leech, dalr dale. 
 
 Sing. Nom. konungr hamar 
 
 Ace. konung hamar 
 
 Dat. konungi hamri 
 
 Gen. konungs hamars 
 
 Plur. Nom. konungar hamrar 
 
 Ace. konunga hamra 
 
 Dat. komingum homrum 
 
 Gen. konunga. hamra. 
 
 In the same way are declined, hestr horse, eldr fire, ddmr 
 doom, brunnr spring, (burn), f>raell thrall, stoll stool, seat, 
 steinn stone, sveinn stripling, akur field, aldur age, aptan even, 
 morgun morn, drottin Lord, chief, kaSall cable, jokull iceberg, 
 biSill woer, lover. 
 
 Sing. Nom. 
 
 laeknir 
 
 dalr 
 
 Ace. 
 
 laekni 
 
 dal 
 
 Dat. 
 
 laekni 
 
 dal 
 
 Gen. 
 
 laeknis 
 
 dais 
 
 Plur. Nom. 
 
 laeknar 
 
 dalir 
 
 Ace. 
 
 laekna 
 
 dali 
 
 Dat. 
 
 lseknum 
 
 dolum 
 
 Gen. 
 
 laekna. 
 
 dala. 
 
62 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 In the same way are inflected, vi'Sir withy, J)yrnir thorn, 
 einir juniper, reynir rowan, skelmir rogue, lettir easiness, mis- 
 sir loss, maelir measure, bushel, hvalr whale, bolr bole, hver 
 hot spring, ljar sickle, scythe, stafr staff, tySr folk, smiSr smith, 
 hagr condition, affairs. 
 
 139. Some words which end in I, n or s after a cons., or 
 in double s, take no r in the nom., and so have none to cast 
 away in the ace, but are otherwise regular; e. g. fugl fowl, 
 karl man carle, hrafn raven, (Dansk ravn), vagn carriage, 
 wain, hals neck, lax salmon, kross cross,, foss or fors a force, 
 waterfall, krans garland, etc. There are also some other 
 words which do not take r in the nom., e. g. daun smell, 
 Jjon servant, these are in consequence alike in the nom. and 
 ace; the case is the same with those in r, s, after a diph- 
 thong, e. g. bas crib, hnaus turf sod, leir clay, aur w^tf: the 
 old writers often used rr, ss, to meet the pronunciation, e. g. 
 hnauss, aurr, etc., and thus distinguished the nom. from the 
 ace. , but confounded on the other hand the nom. with the gen., 
 in words in s, which case however had still a separate sound, 
 because the diphthong by means of the double cons, becomes 
 shorter and harder in the gen. ; those in actual ss, or s in po- 
 sition, take no new s in the gen. 
 
 140. Among the words which follow konungr are many 
 monosyil., which take no i in the dat. and particularly those 
 in 11, and ingr, those in r, s, after a diphthong, and those which 
 have a simple cons, with r after a diphthong; e. g. holl a 
 mound, hill, haell heel, hri'ngr ring, as well as fatseklingr a 
 needy man, kor choir, mur wall, is ice, 6s rivermouth, draumr 
 dream, batr boat, hriitr ram, etc.; yet they sometimes take i 
 (those in r alone excepted) when they stand alone, and have 
 much weight in the sentence e. g. l draumi in a dream, baerinn 
 stendr a holi, the grange stands on a rise, but a hafum hdl. 
 on a high hill. Those in nn are quite regular. 
 
 141. LI and nn after a diphthong are properly a contr. of/r, 
 nr, (93) and the words which end thus ought to cast away one 
 / and n in the cases where r ( the sign of the masc. ) would 
 
MORE COMPLFX CLASS. 63 
 
 otherwise be dropped. The case is the same with ss, rs, which 
 however is only an old orthography (93. 193.) Great care must 
 be taken not to confound this r, which in old writers is dou- 
 bled in the nom., is essential in the word, and kept in all in- 
 flections, with the non-essential r which is only a masc. sign, 
 never doubled in nom., and invariably falls away in inflection; 
 e. g. |)6r Thor, sur sourness, and her host, army, have essen- 
 tial, but Freyr, skor shoe, hor (hofr) pothook, on the contrary 
 non-essential r ; we find therefore J)6rr, herr, etc., but never 
 Freyrr skorr. The declension is accordingly ; 
 Nom. hrafn kross t>6r hsell Freyr 
 
 Ace. hrafn kross J)6r haell Frey 
 
 Dat. hrafni krossi |)6r hsel Frey 
 
 Gen. hrafns. kross. J)6rs. haels. Freys 
 
 The genitive ending s is never widened to es, is, or the 
 like, however hard the consonants meeting together may be, 
 on the other hand the pronunciation is often softened by leav- 
 ing out one of the cons. (59). 
 
 142. Those dissyll. words which have a simple vowel in 
 their last syll. are contracted in cases the ending of which 
 begins with a vowel ; e. g. lykill hey, dat. lykli, pi. lyklar, etc. ; 
 Jotun giant, dat. jotni, pi. jotnar, jotna, jotnum; morgun (mor- 
 gin, myrgin), dat. morgni or morni etc. Those in / have this 
 letter always doubled (according to pron. and analogy), instead 
 of Ir in the nom.; thus hefill 'plane, aungull angle, hook ; those 
 in n, r, take on the other hand simple n and r, and are con- 
 sequently alike in the nom. and ace. By an old orthography 
 however nn, rr, are often found in the nom., e. g. himinn 
 heaven, aptann, jotunn, jaSarr selvage, akurr, etc., but this is 
 seldom strictly observed, and seems as needless as ss, rr, in 
 monosyll. (139). Bikar bicker, beaker, nykur nixe, kelpy, are 
 not contracted, nor foreign words, as generall (hershofSingi) etc. 
 
 143. By an old orthography r is also often found alone for 
 ur (especially in the ace), but since words in ur agree entirely 
 with those in ar, un, in, and an, and this ur is an essential 
 syll. in the word, which is contracted indeed but never falls 
 away, and is also kept (as er) in the new tongues, e. g. aldur 
 
64 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 Swed. alder , Dansk alder , sigur Swed. seger, Dansk sejer, 
 hlatur laughter, Dansk latter, etc.; this way of writing seems 
 more incorrect than urr. Besides it is misleading because by 
 it this ending may be easily confounded with non-essential r, 
 which is the masc. sign, and falls away in inflection and in 
 the new tongues, e. g. hlatur, heifrur honour, hafur hegoat, 
 have the essential syll. ur, and are declined like hamar, but 
 batr, boat, eiSr oath, rafr amber, (Dansk rav), the non-essen- 
 tial ending r, and are declined like konungr or Freyr. 
 
 144. Those in ir have also another method of inflection by 
 which ir is kept in all cases before the ending; these are 
 
 never contracted. 
 
 .,■* '• . - -v 
 
 145. Those which form the pi. in ir have many peculia- 
 rities; viz, most of them do not take i in the dat., there are 
 however some exceptions, e. g. gestr guest, brestr weakliness, 
 qvistr branch, (which last often makes another ace. pi. qvistu). 
 Others insert j before the endings which begin with a vowel, 
 but this j before i is expressed only by i; e. g. hylr a gulf, 
 pi. hylir, ace. hyli, dat. hyljuni, gen. hylja; so also bylr windy 
 weather along with rain or snow ; but after g andj k the 
 accent also is left out; e. g. seckr sack, pi. seckir, secki, 
 seckjum, seckja. So also seggr brave man, dreingr thane, 
 |)veingr shoe-string , very few insert v before the endings 
 which begin with a vowel, e. g. hjor sword poet., dative 
 hjorvi etc. 
 
 146. Gu5, which wants r in the nom., and makes in the 
 pi. guSir gods, and dagr which in dat. sing, makes degi, pi. dagar 
 etc., are irregular; blastur blast makes, besides its common 
 regular inflection, another dat. blaestri; bogr a shoulder besides 
 its regular inflect, like konungr, has also baegi in the dat., 
 and in the pi. baegir, bogu, bogum, bogu, in old writers; but 
 I doubt whether bosgir is any where to be found in the 
 nom. sing., which Bjorn Halldorson quotes in his Diet.; spann 
 (sponn) spoon, chip, makes in the dat. spaeni, pi. spaenir, spanu 
 (or spaeni) spanum, spana ; eyrir money, pence, is declined like 
 laeknir, only with change of vowel in the pi. aurar, aura, 
 
MORE COMPLEX CLASS. 
 
 65 
 
 aurum, aura; leikr like konungr when it means game, sport, 
 but like dalr when it means draughts (the game); her makes 
 in the gen. hers, old. herjar, (whence alls-herjar) pi. herar 
 (old herir), but is seldom used in the pi. 
 
 Still more irregular are skor shoe, ketill kettle, dor (dorr) 
 spear, poet. ma5r man, fingur finger, which are thus inflected; 
 
 Sing. Nom. skor 
 
 ketill 
 
 dorr 
 
 maSr 
 
 fingur 
 
 Ace. sko 
 
 ketil 
 
 dor 
 
 mann 
 
 fingur 
 
 Dat. sko 
 
 katli 
 
 dor 
 
 manni 
 
 fingri 
 
 Gen. skos 
 
 ketils 
 
 dors 
 
 manns 
 
 fingurs 
 
 Plur. Nom. skor (skuar) 
 
 katlar 
 
 derir 
 
 menn 
 
 fingur 
 
 Ace. sko (skua) 
 
 katla 
 
 deri 
 
 menn 
 
 fingur 
 
 Dat. skom 
 
 kotlum 
 
 dorum 
 
 monnum 
 
 fingrum 
 
 Gen. skoa (skua) 
 
 katla 
 
 darra 
 
 manna 
 
 fingra. 
 
 Foreldrar parents, paskar Easter 
 
 , (old paskir-nar 
 
 fern.) and 
 
 tdfrar witchcraft, are used only in 
 
 the pi. 
 
 
 
 147. Some in r especially deriv. in leikr, sometimes change 
 r into i and are then inflect, after the second decl.; e.g. sann- 
 leikr and sannleiki truth probability, likamr (lik-hamr) and 
 likami body, (yet in the pi. commonly likamir); the last forms 
 in i seem properly to belong to the modern language. 
 
 148. All masc. of which the gen. sing, ends in ar follow 
 the seventh Declension , they have in the nom. the endings r 
 and n; e. g. drattr drawing, vollr field , skjoldr shield, vifrc 
 tree, wood, bragr poem, belgr bellorvs, inflated skin. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 drattr 
 
 vollr 
 
 skjoldr 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 dratt 
 
 voll 
 
 skjold 
 
 
 Dat. 
 
 draetti 
 
 velli 
 
 skildi 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 drattar 
 
 vallar 
 
 skjaldar 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Nora. 
 
 draettir 
 
 vellir 
 
 skildir 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 drattu 
 
 vollu 
 
 skjoldu 
 
 
 Dat. 
 
 drattum 
 
 vollum 
 
 skjoldum 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 dratta 
 
 valla 
 
 skjalda. 
 
 In the same way are declined, 
 
 £attr episode, story, hattr 
 
 character, maltr might 
 
 , frradr thread, sonr 
 
 (son) son, goltr 
 5 
 
66 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 boarpig, vondr wand, knottr ball, borkr bark, kottr cut, fjorflr 
 frith, hjortr hart, kjolr keel, mj65r mead, bjorn foar. 
 
 £. Nom. 
 
 vi5r 
 
 bragr 
 
 belgr 
 
 Ace. 
 
 vi5 
 
 brag 
 
 belg 
 
 Dat. 
 
 vi& 
 
 brag 
 
 belg 
 
 Gen. 
 
 viSar 
 
 bragar 
 
 belgjar 
 
 •. Nom. 
 
 viSir 
 
 bragir 
 
 belgir 
 
 Ace. 
 
 viSu 
 
 bragi 
 
 belgi 
 
 Dat. 
 
 vi6"um 
 
 brogum 
 
 belgjum 
 
 Gen. 
 
 vi5a 
 
 braga 
 
 belgja 
 
 In the same way are declined; vegr way, feldr fell, cloak, 
 siftr custom, li5r joint, smiSr smithy limr limb, litr hue, sj65r 
 £a$r, purse, staSr ste#«?, matr raedtf, rettr right, law, vinr friend, 
 hugr mind, sauftr r#m, munr difference, hlutr ^m#, hryggr 
 £ac&, leggr /egr, /iwz5 , verkr pain, mergr marrow, dryckr 
 drink, lsekr, beck, rivulet, reykr r<?e&, baer grange, hamlet. 
 
 149. This whole Decl. seems to have had its origin in 
 euphony, because it was wished to hinder ds, ts, and ns from 
 meeting together especially after simple vowels. We here see 
 very plainly the cause of the vowel changes in the Old Norse, 
 viz, that it was wished to make the vowel of the chief syll. 
 as like as possible that of the ending, or as it were to 
 balance them one against the other; but the first is commonly 
 the stronger o instead of u, e for i, etc. 
 
 150. Some can take no r in the Nom. (comp. 139), and 
 so remain alike both in the nom. and ace, thus orn eagle, and 
 bjorn; for vinr and sonr vin and son are said, the latter espe- 
 cially always in names; e. g. Isleifr Einarsson, Steingrimr 
 Jonsson, Bjarni porsteinsson (never Einarssonr or the like). 
 It is self evident that sonr changes its vowel in its own way, 
 thus dat. syni etc. 
 
 151 The pi. is formed from the dat. sing.; those words 
 which never take i in the dat. sing, always end the ace. pi. 
 in this vowel. Those which take u in the ace. pi., have be- 
 sides this form also another in i formed from the nom. pi. in 
 
MORE COMPLEX CLASS. 67 
 
 the usual way by throwing away r, and the same as the dat. 
 sing. ; we may therefore also say \atti, syni, knetti, firfti, sifti, 
 for fmttu, sonu, etc. 
 
 152. Those which have the vowel i, are often found in 
 the dat. without i; e. g. lit from litr, siS from siftr, (comp. 
 140). The case is often the same in the more modern tongue 
 with those which have 6 or jo before a simple cons. e. g. log 
 for legi, mjoS for miSi, kjol for kili; as also vorS for verSi, 
 from vorSr warder, probably to distinguish it from the dat. of 
 verSr worth, and verftr a share of meat. 
 
 1 53. All deriv. in -skapr and -nadr are inflect, in the sing. 
 like viSr, in the pi. like bragr; e.g. fjandskapr foeship, lifnadr 
 life; but the former seldom occur in the pi. : many of the lat- 
 ter have a double form either in -nafir or -nuftr e. g. fagnaSr 
 or fognuftr gladness, safna5r or sofnuSr meeting, assembly, 
 manaSr or manuSr month, the ending -nvfir properly belongs 
 to the new tongue; the inflection is the same except that the 
 gen. always takes a, and the dat. pi. always w. 
 
 154. Those which insert j in the gen. sing, insert it in 
 fact every where in the pi.; before i it should be expressed 
 by i, but since the grave accent is not wont to be written 
 after g or k, and most of these w T ords are just those which 
 have these letters before the ending; it seems always to fall 
 away, if however the words byr fair-wind, styr war, unquiet, 
 hyr fire poet., vefr web, etc., occur in the pi. they must be 
 written, byrir_, vefir, etc. The word sjar (sjor) sea inserts f 
 or v, and thus makes in the gen. sjafar pi. sjafir etc. These 
 words are very seldom found in the dat. with the ending i, 
 e. g. mergi or merg. 
 
 155. Some few form the pi. in- ar; e. g. skogr wood, 
 vindr, grautr, pap, gruel, which in the sing, are infl. like viSr, 
 in the pi. like komingr; so also vegr way in old poetry; 
 snjar (snjor) snow makes in the dat. snja (snjo), gen. snjafar, 
 pi. snjafar, etc.; fiskr makes in the gen. sing, fiskjar or fisks. 
 pi. fiskar. Some of the words which follow this dec!, are 
 also found with s in the gen., especially in poetry, in compo- 
 
 5* 
 
68 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 sition, in the new tongue, and in some adverbial expressions; 
 e. g. in Grondal's excellent translation of Theocritus* Idyll. 
 
 po getr samt |)in kracka karta 
 
 komit til vegs, at morgu hjarta 
 
 sar verfta fengin svell ok ill. 
 
 "Yet canst thou though little 
 
 strike many a heart 
 
 with deep and heavy wounds," 
 
 So also Norvegr makes always in the s;en. Norvegs (Nor- 
 egs). jar5vegr mould jarSvegsy but vegr glance, glory, is in- 
 flected like dalr, and is used only in the sing. In daily speech 
 til friSs, til sjos, are still said, but stilla til friSar, fara til 
 sjafar. From unaSr joy unaSs in found in poetry, which how- 
 ever may be the gen. from the neut. unaS, which is sometimes 
 met with, e. g. SolarljoS 71. Gripisspa 46. 
 
 Other irregulars are in particular fotr foot, vetur winter, 
 br66ir brother, faSir father, which are thus declined. 
 
 Sing. Nom. 
 
 fotr 
 
 vetur 
 
 broSir 
 
 faSir 
 
 Ace. 
 
 fot 
 
 vetur 
 
 broftur 
 
 foSur 
 
 Dat. 
 
 fseti 
 
 vetri 
 
 broSur 
 
 f65ur 
 
 Gen. 
 
 folar 
 
 vetrar 
 
 broSur 
 
 foftur 
 
 Plur. Nom. 
 
 faetr 
 
 vetr 
 
 braeftr 
 
 fe5r 
 
 Ace. 
 
 faetr 
 
 vetr 
 
 braeSr 
 
 fe5r 
 
 Dat. 
 
 fotum 
 
 vetrum 
 
 braeSrum 
 
 feSrum 
 
 Gen. 
 
 fota 
 
 vetra 
 
 braeSra 
 
 febra. 
 
 f6ts, veturs, broSurs, and foSurs are also found in the gen. 
 sing. Like broSir are inflected the two fern. moftir, dottir, which 
 last however takes but one t in the pi., daetr, daetrum, daetra; 
 and systir which can undergo no vowel change, but makes in 
 the pi. systr, systrum, systra. 
 
 156. To the seventh Deck belong those fern, which in the 
 pi. end in -ir or -ar, in the sing. nom. they have all kinds of 
 endings, e. g. eign owndom, property, vor lip, bruSr bride, 
 drottning queen, veiSi fishing , fishery , ben (old) bane, death 
 wound, (modern) scratch, which are thus inflected. 
 
MORE COMPLEX CLASS. 
 
 69 
 
 Sing. Nom. 
 
 eign 
 
 vor 
 
 bni5r 
 
 Ace. 
 
 eign 
 
 vor 
 
 bru8i 
 
 Dat. 
 
 eign 
 
 vor 
 
 bruSi 
 
 Gen. 
 
 eignar 
 
 varar 
 
 bruSar 
 
 Plur. N. A. 
 
 eignir 
 
 varir 
 
 bruftir 
 
 Dat 
 
 eignum 
 
 vorum 
 
 bruoum 
 
 Gen. 
 
 eigna 
 
 vara 
 
 bruo"a. 
 
 In the same way are declined dygb* virtue , doughtiness, 
 ferS faring, journey, sjon sight, sokn parish, forn offering, au$n 
 desert, pisl torture, gero* deed, gfof gift, grof, ditch, grave, 
 rost old Norse mile, 6x1 shoulderblade , gjorft girdle, mjofrm 
 Up, skomm shame, loss, hofn haven, byror burthen, and the 
 Prop. Names Geror, Heior, Ur5r 3 pruor, (Gertrude) Sigri5r 
 puridr, Gunnhilor. 
 
 Sing. Nom. 
 
 drottning 
 
 ben 
 
 veiSi 
 
 Ace. 
 
 drottning 
 
 ben 
 
 veiSi 
 
 Dat. 
 
 drottningu 
 
 ben 
 
 veifti 
 
 Gen. 
 
 drottningar 
 
 benjar 
 
 veiftar 
 
 Plur. N. A. 
 
 drottningar 
 
 benjar 
 
 veiSar 
 
 Dat. 
 
 drottm'ngum 
 
 benjum 
 
 veidum 
 
 Gen. 
 
 drottninga 
 
 benja 
 
 veiSa 
 
 In the same way are declined, sigling sailing, djorfiing 
 daring, hormung grief, woe, nal needle, 61 strap, tag withe, 
 egg edge , kly f , hoof, nyt gain, increase of cattle , il sole (of 
 the foot), naudsyn need, fit web foot, ermi sleeve, myri a moor 
 Scot, moss., heiSi heath, lygi lie, festi fastening, eyri low 
 headland. 
 
 157. Like eign are declined all deriv. in n and d, as well 
 as many primitives; among these are some which take u in 
 the dat., and thus distinguish this case from the acc.j this 
 takes place especially in those which end in S, d, or t, and 
 the vowel of which is 6, or u, e.g. mold-u mould. |)jdo"-u folk, 
 sott-u sickness, stund-u hour, ull-u wool, raust-u voice, but this 
 is often disregarded by prose writers and in daily speech; 
 the case is the same with those the vowel of which is b and 
 their final cons. 5, or d, e. g. joro*-u earth, verold-u world, 
 
70 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 strond-u strand, but in these instances also it is not strictly 
 attended to. 
 
 158. Those which have the vowel o took in the oldest 
 times the ending -ar in the pi. e. g. varar lips, grafar, hafnar, 
 and this is probably the reason of the otherwise uncommon 
 vowel change o into a (instead of e) before t , but the vowel 
 once taken into the chief syll. has been kept though the end- 
 ing has since been changed. The Plur. ending -ar for -ir is 
 also found in many other cases in old poetry, e. g. run-ar for 
 run-ir runes etc. 
 
 159. In the oldest times there were also found many fern, 
 in r, which have since lost this letter, or changed it for i, 
 e. g. aeSr a vein, (Germ, die ader), afterwards ae5, elf river, 
 afterwards elf, elfi, or elfa, which last is now general; byrdr 
 afterwards byrSi (in pi. also byrSar), veior more latterly veiSi, 
 heior heiSi, ermr ermi, etc., whence the Swed. forms elf, hed, 
 arm, etc., like brud by throwing away r. 
 
 160. Even of words in i there are some which form their 
 pi. in ir, e. g. gleoi gladness, gleftir, aefi, life, age, sefir; these 
 do not take ar in the gen. but remain undecl. in the sing, and 
 end throughout in i. Some writers give them an s in the 
 gen., but this is against the genius of the tongue, because 
 no fern, ever ends in s in the gen. The incorrectness of this 
 is plainly seen when the art. is added, before which the word 
 always keeps its genitive ending. Now it is impossible to say 
 glefiis-innar, or cefls-innar, but only gleSi-nnar, aefi-nnar. Most 
 of these words are abstracts which have no pi., e. g. elli eld, 
 old age, (Dansk selde.) Kristni Christianity, mildi mildness, 
 rettvisi justice, beiSni desire, htyoni obedience, and many more. 
 
 161. The word sal soul, makes in the dat. salu pi. salir, 
 gen. pi. salna; in the sing, is found also sala, salu, by the 
 3rd Deck; air buttermilk has no sing. 
 
 162. Polysyllables in ul, ur, and the like, are contracted 
 before the endings which begin with a vowel. Deriv. in an 
 have also another form in un, both these are perfect in the 
 
MORE COMPLEX CLASS. 71 
 
 sing, but that in un seems to belong especially to the new 
 tongue, e. g. andvarpan sigh, fjdSur feather, alin ell, 
 
 Sing. N. A. andvarpan -vorpun fjoSur alin 
 
 Dat. andvarpan -vorpun fjoSur alin 
 
 Gen. andvarpanar -vorpunar fjaSrar alnar 
 Plur. N. A. andvarpanir fjaSrir alnir 
 
 Dat. andvorpunum fjoSrum alnum 
 
 Gen. andvarpana fjaSra alna. 
 
 In the pi. the form in un (andvorpunir) seldom or never 
 occurs; in the sing. Councillor Stephensen adopts the form in 
 an only in the nom., and that in un in the other cases, but 
 this distinction is observed by scarcely any other writer; ac- 
 cording to vor the form in an ought only to be used in the 
 gen., but instead of this unar is rather said in the gen., and 
 an in the other cases. 
 
 163. The Primitives which form their pi. in ar can only 
 be distinguished by practice from those which take the ending 
 ir; e. g. leid* a way, makes lei^ir, but skeib* shuttle, (in the 
 old Norse loom) spoon, skeiSar; grein branch, paragraph, makes 
 greinir, but hlein a post, weavers beam, hleinar; sal soul, makes 
 salir, but nal needle, nalar, so also sin-ar sinew, hli5-ar side, 
 seil-ar dragline. The ending ar is taken by all deriv. in ing, and 
 ung, and by all those which insert j or v, by nearly all those in 
 i, as well as by monosyll. ending in a vowel; e. g. ey (now 
 eyja) island, mey maid, the old nom. of which was maer. 
 Few or none of these primitives take the ending u in the dat. 
 leiSu, sinu or the like are never said. 
 
 164. Of those which insert j some are used only in the 
 pi., e. g. menjar traces , refjar crafty shifts. Others which 
 have the vowel 6 insert v, and thus do not change their 
 vowel, e. g. or arrow, gen. orvar, pi. orvar, etc. So also 
 dogg dew, st6(5, rather in the pi. stoSvar, place. Of those 
 which insert j or v there are very few which are ever found 
 with u in the dat., e. g. Hel makes Hel or Helju, or or or oru. 
 
 165. Monosyll. words in a are contracted in the dat. and 
 gen, to dr (for dar), dat, pi. am (for dum), but in the gen. 
 
72 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 pi. they are now commonly uncontracted da, e. g. bra brow, 
 gja rift, (in a stream of lava) spa spaedom, a river, skra 
 lock for a door, ra roe, sla joining, hey , etc., gen. brar, pi. 
 brar, bram, braa, in old writers bra etc. 
 
 166. The eighth Decl. contains those fern, which form the 
 pi. in r, e. g. hind hind, ond duck, rot root, mork woody plain, 
 staling stake, stock. 
 
 Sing. N. A. 
 
 hind 
 
 ond 
 
 rot 
 
 Dat. 
 
 hind 
 
 ond 
 
 rot 
 
 Gen. 
 
 hindar 
 
 andar 
 
 rotar 
 
 Plur. N. A. 
 
 hindr 
 
 endr 
 
 raetr 
 
 Dat. 
 
 hindum 
 
 ondum 
 
 rotum 
 
 Gen. 
 
 hinda 
 
 anda 
 
 rota 
 
 In like manner are inflected nyt nut, geit shegoat, nit nit, 
 grind grate, lattice work, tonn tooth, nogl nail, ort teal, strond 
 strand, old Engl, strond, bot fine, not strong need, bok book, 
 gl65 glede, burning coaL 
 
 Sing. N. A. 
 
 mork 
 
 staling 
 
 Dat. 
 
 mork 
 
 staung 
 
 Gen. 
 
 merkr 
 
 steingr 
 
 Plur. N. A. 
 
 merkr 
 
 steingr 
 
 Dat. 
 
 morkum 
 
 staungum 
 
 Gen. 
 
 marka 
 
 stanga. 
 
 In the same way are inflected, steik steak, eik oak, mjolk 
 milk, vik inlet, spaung a thin sheet or plate, taung long, haunk 
 hank. 
 
 167. Words in d or t end commonly in or in the gen., but 
 those in g or k have their gen. the same as the nom. pi. 
 
 168. This Deck never takes u in the dat. like the seventh: 
 thus ondu is the dat. of ond breath spirit, pi. andir; but ond of 
 ond a duck pi. endr, though these words are found interchanged 
 in old writers; in the same way mork and staung may also 
 be inflected by the seventh decl. with the vowel changes 
 there in force, thus; 
 
MORE COMPLEX CLASS. 
 
 73 
 
 Sing. N. A. 
 
 mork 
 
 staung 
 
 Dat. 
 
 morku 
 
 staung 
 
 Gen. 
 
 markar 
 
 stangar 
 
 Plur. N. A. 
 
 markir 
 
 stangir 
 
 Dat. 
 
 morkum 
 
 staungura 
 
 Gen. 
 
 marka 
 
 stanga 
 
 So also strond, rond, spaung, taung, haunk. 
 
 169. Words ending in a vowel are declined regularly like 
 rot, e. g. klo claw, makes in the gen. kloar, pi. klaer, klom, 
 kloa, as also flo flea, kongulo spider, ta toe, which in the 
 gen sing, alone is contracted to tar (for tdar), pi. taer; bru 
 bridge, has in gen. bruar, pi. both br^r and brur; fru has in 
 both these cases frur; 
 
 170. Irregular are hond hand, nott, night, k^fr (for ku) 
 cow, aer (for a) sheep, both which last are inflected alike, ex- 
 cept that each of their vowels is changed after its own fashion, 
 brun brow, mus mouse and lus, louse, which three are de- 
 clined alike. 
 
 Sing. Nom. 
 
 hond 
 
 nott 
 
 natt 
 
 tyr 
 
 brun 
 
 Ace. 
 
 hond 
 
 nott 
 
 natt 
 
 ku 
 
 brtin 
 
 Dat 
 
 hendi 
 
 nott (nottu) natt 
 
 ku 
 
 brun 
 
 Gen. 
 
 handar 
 
 nsetr 
 
 nattar 
 
 kfv 
 
 briinar 
 
 Plur. N. A. 
 
 hendr 
 
 naetr 
 
 
 kfr 
 
 br^n 
 
 Dat. 
 
 hondum 
 
 nottum 
 
 nattum 
 
 kum 
 
 brunum 
 
 Gen. 
 
 handa 
 
 notta 
 
 natta 
 
 kua 
 
 bruna 
 
 In later times a pi. in brfr has been formed from brun, 
 perhaps because when the art. is added there is little differ- 
 ence in sound between br^nnar and b^rnar, but it so happens 
 that the form with the art. is the most common. In Eigla ch. 
 55. this word occurs with its true old inflections. Like brun 
 in the pi. is also declined in old writers the word d^r (durum, 
 dura) door, with no sing., but in later times dyrum, dyra are 
 commonly used. Br^nn, m^ss, and dyrr are also met with as 
 in the Swed moss aud dorr (by rule 93.). nay sometimes even 
 dyrr-in in the neut. 
 
74 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 2. Declension with the article. 
 
 171. The definite form of subst. is as simple and easy, as 
 the indefinite is complex and hard; it consists only in the 
 addition of the art. with its inflections to those of the word 
 itself, both being in the same gend. The art thus compounded 
 with subst. is hitt, hinn , hin; in the composition h always 
 falls away, and in the rieut. one t; added to which the vowel 
 i itself falls away when the word ends in a simple vowel, as 
 well as in those cases where a simple cons, with a vowel 
 follows in the art. The following syll. therefore remain to be 
 used in this composition. 
 
 
 Neuter 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Sing. Nom. 
 
 -it 
 
 -inn 
 
 -in 
 
 Ace. 
 
 -it 
 
 -inn 
 
 -ina (-na) 
 
 Dat. 
 
 -nu 
 
 -num 
 
 -inni (-nni) 
 
 Gen. 
 
 -ins 
 
 -ins 
 
 -innar (-nnar) 
 
 Plur. Nom. 
 
 -in 
 
 -nir 
 
 -nar 
 
 Ace. 
 
 -in 
 
 -na 
 
 -nar 
 
 Dat. 
 
 -num 
 
 -num 
 
 -num 
 
 Gen. 
 
 -nna 
 
 -nna 
 
 -nna. 
 
 In the dat. 
 
 pi. the m 
 
 in the ending 
 
 of the word always 
 
 falls away when the art. is added, because the ending umnum 
 or uminum, | would be far too long and unpleasant to the ear. 
 
 Of all the old inflections none were longer retained in 
 Swed. than those which belong to this final art.; e. g. in 
 Charles XU's. Bible, Maccab. XIIL 50. "Men de maste bort 
 af borgene, (Icel. borg-inni), och Simon lot rena borgena, 
 (borg-ina). 51. Och tog henne in i them andra manadenom 
 (manaSi-num) , i 171. ahrena (ari-no). The art. is still used in 
 "herranom" and other like expresssions. 
 
 172. A complete example of each declension with the art 
 
 here exhibited; 
 
 
 
 
 Sing. Nom. auga-t 
 
 geisli-nn 
 
 tunga-n 
 
 skip-it 
 
 Ace. auga-t 
 
 geisli-nn 
 
 tungu-na 
 
 skip-it 
 
 Dat. auga-nu 
 
 geisla-num 
 
 tiingu-nni 
 
 skipi-nu 
 
 Gen. auga-ns 
 
 geisla-ns 
 
 tungu-nnar 
 
 skips-ins 
 
WITH THE ARTICLE. 75 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 augu-n 
 
 geislar-nir 
 
 tungur-nar 
 
 skip-in 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 augu-n 
 
 geisla-na 
 
 tungur-nar 
 
 skip-in 
 
 
 Dat. 
 
 augu-num 
 
 geislu-num 
 
 tungu-num 
 
 skipu-num 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 augna-nna 
 
 geisla-nna 
 
 tungna-nna 
 
 skipa-nna 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 sveinn-inn 
 
 vi5r-inn 
 
 eign-in 
 
 bot-in 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 sveinn-inn 
 
 vi5-inn 
 
 eign-ina 
 
 bot-ina 
 
 
 Dat. 
 
 sveini-num 
 
 vi5-num 
 
 eign-inni 
 
 bot-inni 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 sveins-ins 
 
 viSar-ins 
 
 eignar-innar 
 
 botar-innar 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 sveinar-nir 
 
 viSir-nir 
 
 eignir-nar 
 
 baetr-nar 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 sveina-na 
 
 viSu-na 
 
 eignir-nar 
 
 baetr-nar 
 
 
 Dat. 
 
 sveinu-num 
 
 viftu-num 
 
 eignu-num 
 
 botu-num 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 sveina-nna 
 
 vi5a-nna 
 
 eigna-nna 
 
 bota-nna. 
 
 173. Neut. in ur (of the 4«i decl.) always contract this 
 ending, when the art. is added, e. g. nor5r-it myrkr-it, so also 
 in the pi. klaustr-in, veor-in; this does not take place in any 
 other ending, e. g. sumar-it, hofuSit; nor in any other gend. 
 e. g. akur-inn, morgun-inn, hamar-inn, fj65ur-in. Even masc. 
 and fern, in non-essential r keep it unchanged, and are con- 
 sequently pronounced as if they had the essential syll. ur e. g. 
 hest-r-inn, eld-r-inn, bruft-r-in, read hest-ur-inn, etc. 
 
 174. Masc. which take no i in the dat. sing, cast away 
 nevertheless that of the art., e. g. dal-num; nay even those 
 which when they stand alone and emphatically take i (140.), as 
 well as those of the 6th decl. which do not change the vowel, 
 throw away this i when joined to the art, e. g. is-num, hol- 
 num, smi9-num, and the like. 
 
 The case is the same with all words which end in a diph- 
 thongic vowel, when the art. would otherwise make two 
 syll., e. g. tre-nu, Ija-num, bae-num, ey-nni, a-nni, ku-nni; so 
 also in the ace. ey-na, a-na, ku-na, and even sometimes in old 
 writers if they end in a cons., e. g. rei5-na carriage, etc. 
 But in the nom. tre-it pi. tre-in, ace. Ija-inn, bae-inn, nom. 
 ey-in, a-in. 
 
 175. Yet some small changes sometimes occur in the 
 word itself, e. g. those monosyll. which end in the gen. pi. 
 
76 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 in da, da, and ua, cast away the last «, e. g. trja-nna, ljd-nna, 
 skd-nna, a-nna, kti-nna. 
 
 176. The contrary takes place in the gen. sing, of mono- 
 syll. fern.; these are commonly contracted when they stand 
 indefinitely, but always lengthened when the art. is added; 
 e. g. fru, gen. friir, fruar-innar; skra lock, gen. skrar, skraar- 
 innar; but a river is an exception gen. ar-innar; aer sheep aer- 
 innar, k^r cow k^r-innar. 
 
 177. For the rest all, even the irregular, add the art. to 
 their usual endings, and are thus in this respect regular; e. g. 
 eigandi-nn, eiganda-nn, eiganda-num, eiganda-ns, eigendr-nir, 
 etc., faeti-num, faetr-nir, verkan-in, verkanir-nar, stundu-nni, 
 jorSu-nni, salu-nni, salna-nna, naelr-innar, klaer-nar, klo-num, 
 m^s-nar, dyr-nar, etc., Ma5r alone inserts in the pi. the ending 
 ir ace. i; menn-ir-nir menn-i-na; faSir and broSir also usually 
 insert 5 in the gen. sing. fodurs-ins, broours-ins. 
 
 178. It it self evident that Prop. Names do not admit of 
 this composition with the art. e. g. Eyjolfr, Bjarni, Danmork, 
 Ungaraland, Uppsalir, Lundiin, Saxelfr, Njorvasund. (The Gut 
 of Gibraltar) etc. ; unless it be that the word was originally 
 a common appellative which by custom has become used as 
 a Proper Name, e. g. Vik-in (the Fjord at Christiania in Nor- 
 way) Logrinn (Lake Malar). So also in the case of the names 
 of Books etc., e. g. Edda, Njala, Hakonarmal, Grimnismal, 
 (neut. pi.), LoSbrokarqviSa, together w T ith the names of peoples, 
 many of which are used only in the pi., e. g. Danir, Sviar, 
 Gautar, (Goths) Irar, Finnar (Lapps) Ovenir (Finns), Bjarmar 
 and the like. On the other baud the corresponding adj. espe- 
 cially in the new tongue, are often used instead ef these 
 words, and then take the art, like subst., e. g. frfzkr-inn 
 danskr-inn etc. The pi. also mentioned in rules 124. and 125. 
 are seldom used with the art. 
 
77 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 Of Adjectives. 
 
 179. The inflections of the Icelandic adj. and participles 
 are very like those of the subst, but are materially easier 
 because they are nearly all declined in the same way. They 
 distinguish the def. and indef. forms, and the three usual cases 
 in each; every perfect adj. therefore contains as it were six 
 deck; and this in such a way that the def. form answers to 
 the 3 first decl. of subst., and the indef. to the 4th 5th and 
 7 th ; though by no means thoroughly like these. Moreover the 
 three usual degrees of comparison, the Positive, Comparative, 
 and Superlative, are met with throughout. 
 
 1. The Positive- 
 
 180. In no case or inflection of adj. does the real ground 
 or root form show itself with certainty; it is perhaps found 
 in the easiest and surest way in the def. form, when the last 
 vowel is thrown away; e. g. from hit harSa, har5, from hit 
 saela sael, are the respective roots. The genius of the lang- 
 uage does not therefore seem to have pointed out any parti- 
 cular form for the first place in the arrangement of words of 
 this class; but since in these also the neut. is the simplest 
 gend. , with which again the masc. agrees most , it seems 
 most natural and convenient to keep the order adopted when 
 treating of subst. 
 
 181. A view of the regular inflections of adj. will be 
 found in the following table. 
 
 Definite 
 Neut. Masc. 
 Sing. Nom. — a — i 
 Ace. — a — a 
 
 Dat. — a 
 
 Gen. — a 
 
 Fem. 
 
 — 
 
 a 
 
 + 
 
 u 
 
 -t- 
 
 u 
 
 + 
 
 u 
 
78 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Plur. Nom. 
 
 
 
 + 
 
 u 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 
 
 + 
 
 u 
 
 
 Dat. 
 
 
 
 + 
 
 u 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 
 
 + 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 Indefinite 
 
 
 
 Neut. 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Sing. Nom. 
 
 — 
 
 t 
 
 — 
 
 r, » 
 
 + - 
 
 Ace. 
 
 — 
 
 t 
 
 — 
 
 an 
 
 — a 
 
 Dat. 
 
 + 
 
 u 
 
 + 
 
 um 
 
 — ri 
 
 Gen. 
 
 — 
 
 s 
 
 — 
 
 s 
 
 — rar 
 
 Plur. Nom. 
 
 + 
 
 V 
 
 — 
 
 ir 
 
 — ar 
 
 Ace. 
 
 + 
 
 » 
 
 — 
 
 a 
 um 
 
 — ar 
 
 Dat. 
 
 
 
 + 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 ra 
 
 
 182. The def. form is thus in the sing, exactly like the 
 simpler class of subst. (i. e. the I s } 2nd and 3 r d deck), and ends 
 throughout in the pi. in u. 
 
 The indef. form has very nearly the same endings as the 
 final art. already exhibited (171. 172); the only difference is 
 that in those cases where r in the ending would meet n in 
 the art, these two letters are assimilated to nn (93), and that in 
 the ace. sing. masc. of the art. n only is found instead of an; 
 but both these peculiarities in the art. take place also in all 
 dissyll. adj. in it, inn, in. As a help it may also be remarked 
 that the gen. sing, is always alike in the neut. and masc. — 
 that the nom. sing. fern, is, like the Latin, always the same 
 as the nom. pi. neut. — that the ace. sing. fern, is always the 
 same as the ace. masc. pi. — and that the dat. sing. masc. is 
 always the same as the dat. pi. in all gend. — the neuters as 
 in Latin are always alike in the nom. and ace; the same holds 
 good of fern, in the pi. 
 
 183. The endings themselves have much likeness to those 
 of other languages, especially those of old Swed., e. g. t is 
 the Swed. and Dansk t, the Germ, es in the neut., r the old 
 Swed. er 7 e. g. en glader man, unger sven, and the Germ. 
 
POSITIVE DEGREE. 79 
 
 er of the masc.; an is the old Swed. an (lat tigh varda om 
 honom sasom om tigh sjelfvari), Dansk en. Germ, en in the 
 same case; um or om is the old Swed. and Dansk om or um 
 (i godom frid etc.), Angl. Sax. om, Germ, em, en; 5 is also 
 very often found in old Swed. and Dansk, ndr tu sitter vidh 
 en rijks mans bord), and in the Germ, gutes muihes seyn ; a 
 in the ace. fern, is the Angl. Sax. and Germ, e; and ri, rar 
 in the dat. gen. fern, the Angl. Sax re, Germ, er ; a in the 
 ace. masc. pi. is the Swed. a> now used throughout in the 
 pi., (e. g. alia goda vdnner; *) um in the dat. is the Angl. 
 Sax. um, the old Swed. om (i allom), Germ, en and the like; 
 -ra in the gen. is the Angl. Sax. ra Germ. er. 
 
 184. By way of a complete example of the declensions of 
 adj. hagt handy, blatt blue, skaert clear, fagurt fair, may be 
 exhibited; 
 
 Definite. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Sing. Nom. 
 
 hag-a 
 
 hag-i 
 
 hag-a 
 
 Ace. Dat. Gen. 
 
 hag-a 
 
 hag-a 
 
 hog-u 
 
 Plur. throughout. 
 
 hog-u 
 
 hog-u 
 
 hog-u 
 
 Indefinite. 
 
 
 
 
 Sing. Nom. 
 
 hag-t 
 
 hag-r 
 
 hog 
 
 Ace 
 
 hag-t 
 
 hag-an 
 
 hag-a 
 
 Dat. 
 
 hog-u 
 
 hog-um 
 
 hag-ri 
 
 Gen. 
 
 hag-s 
 
 hag-s 
 
 hag-rar 
 
 Plur. Nom. 
 
 hog 
 
 hag-ir 
 
 hag-ar 
 
 Ace. 
 
 hog 
 
 hag-a 
 
 hag-ar 
 
 Dat. 
 
 hog-um 
 
 hog-um 
 
 hog-um 
 
 Gen. 
 
 hag-ra 
 
 hag-ra 
 
 hag-ra 
 
 in the same way 
 
 are declined; 
 
 
 
 spaka i. a. 
 
 spakt spakr 
 
 spok 
 
 wise 
 
 hvata i. a. 
 
 hvatt hvatr 
 
 hvot 
 
 hasty 
 
 harSa i. a. 
 
 hart harSr 
 
 hor5 
 
 hard 
 
 hvassa i. a. 
 
 hvast hvass 
 
 hvoss 
 
 sharp, keen 
 
 * In like manner a in the ace. masc. sing, of the def. form has 
 become the nom. in Swed., e. g. (er) odmjuka tjenare, den 
 
80 
 
 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 snara i. a. snart snar snor swift 
 
 gjarna i. a. gjarnt gjarn gjorn greedy 
 
 ranga i. a. rangt rangr raung wrong 
 
 kranka i. a. krankt krankr kraunk weak* sickly. 
 
 Definite Neut. 
 
 Sing. Norn. bla-a 
 
 Ace. Dat. Gen. bla-a 
 
 Plur. throughout, bla-u 
 
 Indefinite 
 Sing. Nom. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Gen. 
 Plur. Nom. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 bla-tt 
 
 bla-tt 
 
 bla-u 
 
 bla-s (ss) 
 
 bla 
 
 bla 
 
 bla-um 
 
 bla-rra 
 
 In the same way are declined. 
 
 hraa i. a 
 
 fraa i. a. 
 
 haa i. a. 
 
 mjoa i. a. 
 
 frjoa i. a. 
 
 triia i. a. 
 
 htya i. a. 
 
 n^a i. a. 
 
 hralt 
 
 fratt 
 
 hatt 
 
 mjott 
 
 frjott 
 
 triitt 
 
 htylt 
 
 itflt 
 
 hrar 
 
 frar 
 
 har 
 
 mjor 
 
 frjor 
 
 trur 
 
 hip 
 
 nfr 
 
 Definite Neut. 
 
 Sing. Nom. skaer-a 
 
 A. D. G. skaer-a 
 
 PI. throughout, skaer-u 
 
 Masc. 
 
 bla-i 
 bla-a 
 bla-u 
 
 bla-r 
 
 bla-an 
 
 bla-um 
 
 bla-s (ss) 
 
 bla-ir 
 
 bla-a 
 
 bla-um 
 
 bla-rra 
 
 hra 
 
 fra 
 
 ha 
 
 mjo 
 
 frjo 
 
 trii 
 
 h\f 
 
 *f 
 
 Masc. 
 skaer-i 
 skaer-a 
 skaer-u 
 
 Fern, 
 bla-a 
 bla-u 
 bla-u 
 
 bla 
 
 bla-a 
 
 bla-rri 
 
 bla-rrar 
 
 bla-ar 
 
 bla-ar 
 
 bla-um 
 
 bla-rra 
 
 raw 
 
 swift of foot 
 
 high 
 
 small 
 
 fruitful 
 
 true 
 
 lukewavm 
 
 new. 
 
 Fern, 
 skaer-a 
 skaer-u 
 skaer-u 
 
 lilla gossen, and the like. On the other hand e seems most 
 common and correct in the pi. of the def. form, where the old 
 Norse has u e. g. de gamle, de unge, de Grekiske Forf- 
 attarne, etc. however arbitrary the laws of euphony may have 
 become over these endings in later times. 
 

 
 POSITIVI 
 
 : DEGREE. 
 
 
 Indefinite 
 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Sing. Nom. 
 
 
 skaer-t 
 
 skaer 
 
 skaer 
 
 Ace. 
 
 
 skaer-t 
 
 skaer-an 
 
 skaer-a 
 
 Dat. 
 
 
 skaer-u 
 
 skaer-um 
 
 skaer-i 
 
 Gen. 
 
 
 skaer-s 
 
 skaer-s 
 
 skaer-rar 
 
 Plur. Nom. 
 
 
 skaer 
 
 skaer-ir 
 
 skaer-rar 
 
 Ace. 
 
 
 skaer 
 
 skaer-a 
 
 skaer-rar 
 
 Dat. 
 
 
 skaer-um 
 
 skaer-um 
 
 skaer-um 
 
 Gen. 
 
 
 skaer-ra 
 
 skaer-a 
 
 skaer-ra 
 
 n the same i 
 
 way 
 
 are declined: 
 
 
 sara i. 
 
 a. 
 
 sart 
 
 sar sar 
 
 sore 
 
 stora i. 
 
 a. 
 
 stort 
 
 stor stor 
 
 great 
 
 sura i. 
 
 a. 
 
 surt 
 
 siir sur 
 
 sour 
 
 skira i. 
 
 a. 
 
 skirt 
 
 skir skir 
 
 clean 
 
 d^ra i. 
 
 a. 
 
 d>t 
 
 dp d^r 
 
 dear 
 
 bera i. 
 
 a. 
 
 bert 
 
 ber ber 
 
 bare 
 
 |mrra i. 
 
 a. 
 
 Jmrt 
 
 Jmrr fmrr 
 
 dry 
 
 kyrra i. 
 
 a. 
 
 kyrt 
 
 kyrr kyrr 
 
 still. 
 
 Definite 
 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Sing. Nom. 
 
 
 fagr-a 
 
 fag-ii 
 
 fagr-a 
 
 A. D. G. 
 
 
 fagr-a 
 
 fag-ra 
 
 fogr-u 
 
 PI. throughout. 
 
 fogr-u 
 
 fogr-u 
 
 fogr-u 
 
 Indefinite. 
 
 
 
 
 Sing. Nom. 
 
 
 fagur-t 
 
 fagur 
 
 fogur 
 
 Ace. 
 
 
 fagur-t 
 
 fagr-an 
 
 fagr-a 
 
 Dat. 
 
 
 fogr-u 
 
 fogr-um 
 
 fagur-ri 
 
 Gen. 
 
 
 fagur-s 
 
 fagur-s 
 
 fagur-rar 
 
 Plur. Nom. 
 
 
 fogur 
 
 fagr-ir 
 
 fagr-ar 
 
 Ace. 
 
 
 fogur 
 
 fagr-a 
 
 fagr-ar 
 
 Dat. 
 
 
 fogr-um 
 
 fogr-um 
 
 fogr-um 
 
 Gen. 
 
 
 fagur-ra 
 
 fagur-ra 
 
 fagur-ra. 
 
 In the same 
 
 way are inflected. 
 
 
 magra i. 
 
 a. 
 
 magurt 
 
 magur mogu 
 
 r meagre 
 
 vakra i. 
 
 a. 
 
 vakurt 
 
 vakurt vokui 
 
 ' pretty 
 
 dapra i. 
 
 a. 
 
 dapurt 
 
 dapur dopui 
 
 sad 
 6 
 
 81 
 
82 
 
 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 digra 
 
 i. a. digurt 
 
 digur 
 
 digur 
 
 fat 
 
 lipra 
 
 i. a. lipurt 
 
 lipar 
 
 lipur 
 
 neat 
 
 vilra 
 
 i. a. viturt 
 
 vitur 
 
 vitur 
 
 wise 
 
 bitria 
 
 i. a. biturt 
 
 bitur 
 
 bitur 
 
 bitter ; sharp 
 
 185. The vowel changes are the same as usual (74. 78.). 
 In polysyll. words the first a becomes o, the second u, e. g. 
 hit kallafta pi. kolluftu , and in the fern, and neut. pi. of 
 indef. form kolluS, dat. pi. kolluSum. If the first syll. has not 
 a, that of the second syll. is still changed into u, thus hit 
 ritaSa the written, pi. rituSu etc. So also all like part., but 
 adj. which are not contracted, commonly take o in the second 
 and u only in the third syll., e. g. heilaga the holy pi. heil- 
 ogu, and indef. fem. and neut. pi. heilog etc. In old writers 
 this word is usually contracted in all those cases in which 
 the ending begins with a vowel, thus in the def. form helga, 
 helgi, helga, indef. dat. helgu, helgum, and even helgri etc.; 
 friSsama pi. friSsomu, einfalda pi. einfoldu etc. If only the 
 first syll. have a no change takes place, e. g. falliga (fagurliga) 
 the pretty, fair, pi. falligu, so also langsama, pi. langsomu, 
 because the contraction is here plain. 
 
 186. .Like hit haga, hagt, hagr, hog, are also inflected adj. 
 not having the vowel a, with the sole exception that they 
 take no change of vowel, hit froma pi. fromu, indef. fromt pi. 
 from, just, hit heita, heitt, hot, etc. Yet it must be remarked 
 that those of which the characteristic letter is tt or t after 
 any other cons., remain alike in the neut. and fem. of the in- 
 def. form; e. g. hit stutta the short indef. stutt, stuttr, stutt; 
 hit leysta the loosed, leyst, leystr, leyst and the like. Those 
 which have mm, nn, or 11, are found both with single and 
 double characteristic letters before t, e. g. skamt and skammt 
 scant, short svint and svinnt clever, snjalt and snjallt speedy; 
 but nn and 11 seem to be more common, and are kept even 
 before other conson. in the indef. form; e. g. fullt full dat. 
 fem. fullri, gen. fullrar, gen. pi. fullra. Hit ilia the ill, wicked, 
 makes illt (ilt) illr, ill, and hit sanna, satt, sannr, sonn. Those 
 which have 5 after a vowel , change it into t before t, e. g. 
 hit glafta, glatt, glad; hit rauoa, rautt, red, hit breifta, breitt, 
 
POSITIVE DEGREE 
 
 83 
 
 broad ; hit goSa makes gott good', but should they have a 
 cons, before 8 or d, this last falls away altogether, e. g. hit 
 kalda the cold, kalt; hit kenda the Mown, kent; hit sagSa the 
 said, sagt; hit laerfta the learned, laert. The ease is the same 
 in all polysyll. words, even though they have a vowel before 
 8, e. g. hit kallaSa, kallat; hit ritaSa ritat; and all part, like 
 these, never kalladt , ritadt. Those in dda in the def. form 
 keep one d before t in the indef., e. g. hit breidda , breidt 
 broadened, hit faedda, faedt born, hit eydda, eydt wasted; yet 
 faett, eytt, etc., are also found in old writers. Before all 
 other cons. 5, d and dd are kept as before vowels, e. g. gen. 
 and inasc. glaSs fern. glaSrar; goSs go'orar ; kalds (kalz), 
 kaldrar; kends (kenz), kendrar; sagfs, sagftrar; laerSs, laerSrar, 
 kalians, kallaftrar; ritaSs, ritaSrar, etc. 
 
 187. Some other writers wish against all sound and the 
 old custom, though only in monosyllables, to keep o* and d 
 before t, in ordev to distinguish those of which the cha- 
 racteristic letter is d, from those which have t or another 
 con., e. g. blautt of blanSa the weakly, from blautt of blauta 
 the soft ; faerdt brought from faert able (from faer.) But the 
 cases when such a confusion can arise are few, and on the 
 other hand by this rule those part, which have dd are con- 
 founded with the adj. which have 8 for their characteristic, 
 e. g. breitt and breidt from bred and bredd, leitt and leidt 
 from led and ledd, J)^tt and Jr^dt from hit frfSa the mild, and 
 f)fdda the explained etc. So that in this as much seems lost 
 as gained, unless we were to write breiddt, leiddt , ])fddt, 
 fceddt, eyddt, and the like; which would be a quite new and 
 needless custom, and would make the orthography consider- 
 ably longer. If along with this we keep (with the Society for 
 the Diffusion of Knowledge) the double mm, nn, 11, etc., before 
 d (44.); we must write for skemt laughed away, brent burnt, 
 etc. skemmdt, brenndt, and the like ; and if we throw away z, 
 (49)., as this Society also wished, we must in part, and sup. 
 pass, write skemmdst . or properly skemmdtst, for skemzt to 
 have been laughed away. 
 
 6* 
 
84 
 
 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 188. Monosyll. of which the characteristic letter is a dipli- 
 thongic vowel take tt, and in the nom. sing masc. double rr 
 for t and r. Those which have 6 are often found in old 
 writers with an inserted f or v before the endings which begin 
 with vowels; e.g. mjofa, frjofa, sljofa the slow, etc.; the indef. form 
 is mjott, frjott, sljott, in the masc. both mjor and mjofr, frjor 
 and frjofr, sljor and sljofr. So also hit hafa the high, hatt high, 
 masc. har. Some are also found with a cons, for their charac- 
 teristic which insert tf, e. g. glogg-va the clear, rosk-va the 
 rash, J)yck-va the thick, myrk-va the murk, trygg-va the trusty. 
 On the other hand the tongue has very few adj. which insert 
 
 j, and these chiefly in old writers, e. g. hit n£ja the new, and 
 scarcely any more w r ords with cons, for their characteristic of 
 this kind than mitt middle, masc. miftr, fern. miS, ace. mitt, 
 miSjan, miSja, etc. which has no def. form, but is in other 
 respects a regular adj. like the Lat. medium, medius, media. 
 
 189. Adj. in essential r , s, or ss differ only in the nom. 
 masc. of the indef. form, where they take no new r (by an old 
 and now abandoned orthography however they take rr, ss, 
 comp. 93. 139.) The case is the same with those in / or n, 
 after a cons. e. g. lausa the loose, laus, hressa the cheerful, 
 hress, vissa the sure, viss, forna the old forn. 
 
 190. Those of which the character, is / or n, and which 
 have a diphthongic vowel, take in all cases where r should 
 follow, #, nn, for Ir, nr (comp. 93. 441.), e. g. forsjalt fore- 
 sighted, masc. forsjall, dat. fern, forsjalli instead of forsjdlri, ac- 
 cordingly vaent fair, handsome is thus declined ; 
 
 Definite. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Sing. Nom. 
 
 vaen-a 
 
 vaen-i 
 
 vaen-a 
 
 A. D. G. 
 
 vsen-a 
 
 vaen-a 
 
 vaen-u 
 
 Plur. 
 
 vaen-u 
 
 vaen-u 
 
 vaen-u 
 
 Indefinite. 
 
 
 
 
 Sing. Nom. 
 
 vsen-t 
 
 vaen-n 
 
 vaen 
 
 Ace. 
 
 vaen-t 
 
 vaen-an 
 
 vaen-a 
 
 Dat, 
 
 vaen-u 
 
 vaen-un 
 
 vaen-ni 
 
 Gen. 
 
 vaen-s 
 
 vaen-s 
 
 vaen-nar 
 
POSITIVE DEGREE. 
 
 85 
 
 Plur. Norn. 
 
 Aec. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 vaen 
 vaen 
 
 vaen-um 
 vaen-na 
 
 In the same way are declined; 
 
 hreina 
 
 klena 
 
 briina 
 
 br^na 
 
 hala 
 
 saela 
 
 heila 
 
 fula 
 
 i. a. 
 
 i. a. 
 
 i. a. 
 
 i. a. 
 
 i. a. 
 
 i. a. 
 
 i. a. 
 
 i. a. 
 
 hreint 
 
 klent 
 
 brunt 
 
 br^nt 
 
 halt 
 
 sselt 
 
 heilt 
 
 fult 
 
 hreinn 
 
 klenn 
 
 brunn 
 
 br^nn 
 
 hall 
 
 saeli 
 
 heill 
 
 full 
 
 vaen-ir 
 vaen-a 
 vaen-um 
 vaen-na 
 
 hrein 
 
 klen 
 
 brun 
 
 hufn 
 
 hal 
 
 sael 
 
 heil 
 
 ful 
 
 vaen-a r 
 va3n-ar 
 vaen-um 
 vaen-na 
 
 clean 
 
 small 
 
 brown, black 
 
 plain 
 
 slippery 
 
 happy 
 
 whole 
 
 foul. 
 
 191. Those in essential ur, (in old writers also urf), are 
 often contr. in the dat. and gen. fern, sing., and gen. pi. of 
 the indef. form; e. g. fagri, fagrar, fagra, because the regular 
 form has a heavy sound. 
 
 192. All adj. which in the neut. of the indef form end in 
 alt or ult, follow fagra, yet so that these, like monosyll. with 
 a diphthongic vowel (190.), change Ir to // throughout, and 
 are never contr. in these cases; e. g. hit gamla i, a, gamalt, 
 gamall, gomul; j)6gla, i, a, J)6gult, f)6gull, f)6gul silent, taci- 
 turn, etc. Vesalt vile is properly compounded of saelt, and has 
 another form vesaela, vesaelt etc. (by rule 190.), but may also 
 follow this rule, e. g. vesla i, a, vesalt, vesall, vesol. The word 
 hit heimila, the rightful, most commonly indef. heimilt, heimill, 
 heimil is not contr.; mikla mickle, is irregular in the neut. of 
 the indef. form, where it makes mikit (never mikilt) , and the 
 ace. masc. where it makes mikinn (for mikiln but never mik- 
 lan); in the same way litla little, is inflec. which in other 
 cases takes an accent over i if no position follow, thus litit 
 litill, litil, and in the ace. litit, litinn, litla, etc. 
 
 193. All participles of verbs in the 2nd conjug., and all 
 adj. of the same nature, are also declined after fagra, except 
 that nr always becomes nn, as in the case of monosyll. adj. 
 with a diphthong (190.); But it must also be remarked that 
 
86 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 the oharact. n falls away before t in the neut., and that the 
 ace. sing. masc. of the indef. form remains like the nom. -inn 
 (not nan) , so that they are declined exactly as the final art. 
 exhibited in 171. e. g. 
 
 heppna 
 
 i. a. heppit 
 
 heppinn, 
 
 -in 
 
 lucky 
 
 tekna 
 
 i. a. tekit 
 
 tekinn, 
 
 -in 
 
 taken 
 
 haldna 
 
 i. a. haldit 
 
 haldinn, 
 
 -in 
 
 holden 
 
 heiSna 
 
 i. a. heiSit 
 
 heiSinn, 
 
 -in 
 
 heathen 
 
 So also comp. adj. with the same endings, e. g. undan- 
 farinn foregoing, ihaldinn beholden, hreinskilinn upright, gagn- 
 tekinn penetrated. Those which have a in the first syll. un- 
 dergo a vowel change when the i of the second syll. is thrown 
 out by contr., and the ending begins with u, otherwise not 
 (comp. 185), e. g. in the def. fern, hin haldna, ace. hina holdnu, 
 pi. hin, hinir, hinar holdnu, etc.; but the indef. neut. and fern, 
 pi. haldin, dat. sing, holdnu, holdnum, haldinni etc. 
 
 194. Some few adj. in it, inn, in, and participles in parti- 
 cular of thelstconug. 3^ class, have besides this form another 
 in t, dr, d, (ov t, tr, t, if the characteristic letter be a hard cons.) ; 
 both which indeed are found perfect in many words, though 
 the latter is commonly used in those cases where the ending 
 begins with a vowel, and the word consequently should be 
 contr. Galit silly for example is thus declined; 
 
 Definite. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Sing. Nom. 
 
 galda 
 
 galdi 
 
 galda 
 
 A. D. G. 
 
 galda 
 
 galda 
 
 goldu 
 
 Plural. 
 
 goldu 
 
 goldu 
 
 goldu. 
 
 Indefinite. 
 
 
 
 
 Sing. Nom. 
 
 galit 
 
 galinn 
 
 galin 
 
 Ace. 
 
 galit 
 
 galinn 
 
 galda 
 
 Dat. 
 
 goldu 
 
 goldum 
 
 galinni 
 
 Gen. 
 
 galins 
 
 galins 
 
 galinnar 
 
 Plur, Nom. 
 
 galin 
 
 galdir 
 
 galdar 
 
 Ace. 
 
 galin 
 
 galda 
 
 galdar 
 
 Dat. 
 
 goldum 
 
 goldum 
 
 goldum 
 
 Gen. 
 
 galinna 
 
 galinna 
 
 galinna 
 

 
 POSITIVE 
 
 DEGREE. 
 
 
 
 ie same 
 
 way 
 
 are declined. 
 
 
 
 nakta 
 
 i. a. 
 
 nakit 
 
 nakinn 
 
 -in 
 
 naked 
 
 vakta 
 
 i. a. 
 
 vakit 
 
 vakinn 
 
 -in 
 
 wakened 
 
 valda 
 
 i. a. 
 
 valit 
 
 valinn 
 
 -in 
 
 chosen 
 
 tamda 
 
 i. a 
 
 tamit 
 
 taminn 
 
 -in 
 
 tamed 
 
 vanda 
 
 i. a. 
 
 vanit 
 
 vaninn 
 
 -in 
 
 wont 
 
 barda 
 
 i. a. 
 
 barit 
 
 barinn 
 
 -in 
 
 beaten 
 
 dulda 
 
 i. a. 
 
 dulit 
 
 dulinn 
 
 -in 
 
 hidden 
 
 skilda 
 
 i. a. 
 
 skilit 
 
 ski linn 
 
 -in 
 
 farted. 
 
 87 
 
 The word galit is also properly a part, of the verb gala 
 (ek gel) to bewitch. In the three cases, dat. gen. sing. fern, 
 and neut. pi. both forms are used : we say therefore also galdri, 
 galdrar, galdra ; in some one form, in others the other, is 
 more common. 
 
 Some of these words have also a different meaning for 
 each of these forms, e. g. kalit frozen, kalt cold, lagit fated, 
 lagt laid. But others which seem to stand in the same re- 
 lation to one another belong actually to different verbs, and 
 must not therefore be confounded as indifferent forms; e. g. qveSit 
 from qveoa to sing, say, but qvadt from qveoja to hail, salute, 
 setit from sitja to sit, but sett of setja to set, hafit from hefja 
 to heave, but haft from hafa to have. 
 
 195. Besides these perfect adj. now described, a number 
 are formed in a by composition, and these remain always indecl. 
 e. g. gagndrepa wet through, soaked, sammaedra born of the same 
 mother, jafnaldra of the same age, draumstola one who dreams 
 not, heilvita one with all his wits about him, sharpwitted, einmana 
 alone without followers dauSvona on the point of death, a-dying. 
 
 Some of these are also found in the masc. in i, e. g. an- 
 vana lifeless, also andvani, fulltiSa fullgrown, fulltioi (Eigla 
 39 ch. 185. p.) 
 
 196. Pres. part, in -andi, when they stand as adj. are not 
 inflected like any of those already treated of, but will be 
 spoken of below. 
 
88 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Comparative Degree. 
 
 197. The higher degree is formed from the first in two 
 ways by the endings -ra in the neut., and ri in the masc. and 
 fern. These endings are added namely either to the def. neut. 
 so that a is kept , or to the indef. form instead of t in the 
 neut., and r in the masc., in such a way that the chief syll. 
 changes its vowel by rule 74 — 85. Both are very like the 
 common Swed. method of forming this degree ; e. g. haga-ra 
 •ri, fmngt, f>yng-ra-ri. 
 
 198. Those which are formed from the def. form are chief- 
 ly those of which the charact. makes a hard position, as /??, 
 gn, ss, tt, dd, Id, rd",' etc.; e. g. jafna-ra evener, megna-ra 
 mightier, hvassa-ra sharper, J>etta-ra tighter, vio"breidda-ra 
 more widely stretched, kalda-ra colder, harSa-ra harder ; all 
 those with the vowel a (those in ur alone excepted), e. g. 
 glaoa-ra, hvatara and the like; and all those in -it (for -inf.) 
 as well those with a double, as those with one form ; e. g. heppit 
 lucky, heppna-ra, flokit entangled, fldkna-ra ; galit, galda-ra 
 nakil, nakta-ra, and all such like without exception. 
 
 199. Those which form their comp. from the indef. form 
 are especially those, which with a diphthong before the ending 
 have tt, e.g. hatt, hserra; mjottmjorra; n^tt n^rra ; monosyll. 
 in nt or It, which take nna, lla, instead of nra, Ira, e. g. 
 vsen-na sasl-la; many in rt, which take -rra, e.g. stort staerra, 
 dyrt d^na; and those in -ur having a in their first syll. which 
 here change a into e, and are contracted so that one r falls 
 away, e.g. faguri, fegra; vakurt vekra; yet vakra-ra etc. may 
 also be said from the def. form. 
 
 200. Many take both these forms, but so that the shorter 
 form with change of vowel seems to belong to the older, and 
 the longer form in -ara to the newer, tongue. This is the 
 case with monosyll. which have an unchangeable diphthong for 
 their characteristic, or r with a like diphthong before it; e. g. 
 mjott mjofara, irftt n^ara; dfrt d^rara; dockr dark, deckra or 
 
COMPARATIVE DEGREE. 89 
 
 dockvara; djupt d^pra or djupara; so also dissyll. in ult (alt), 
 e. g. gjofult forgiving goflara or gjofulla; and those in ugt or 
 gt in general, e. g. hentugt, fitting, hentugra or hentugara, and 
 the like. 
 
 201. All comp. however formed have but one way of in- 
 flection whether they are used def. or indef. e. g. hagara; 
 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Sing. Nom. 
 
 hagara 
 
 hagari 
 
 hagari 
 
 A. D. G. 
 
 hagara 
 
 hagara 
 
 hagari 
 
 Plural 
 
 hagari 
 
 hagari 
 
 hagari 
 
 The neut. and masc. are inflected exactly like the def. form 
 of the pos., but the fem. and pi. have i throughout. New writers 
 form the masc. also in i throughout, and keep a for the neut 
 alone. 
 
 In the same simple way are also declined all participles 
 pres. act. when used as adj., e. g. lifanda, i, living, liggjanda 
 i, lying, standanda i, standing, sjaanda i, seeing; and the like. 
 But these are commonly used by new writers as indecl. in i 
 throughout, e. g. J>at allt sjaandi auga the all-seeing eye. 
 
 Superlative Degree. 
 
 202. The highest degree is formed, according to the old 
 orthography, from the higher (i. e. comp.) by inserting the cha- 
 racteristic letter st, and adding the same endings which the 
 pos. requires; but since by this method r would come before 
 st, which cannot be pronounced, the superl. was usually writ! en 
 with zt, (for rst), e. g. def. hagazta, hagazti, hagazta; indef. 
 hagazt, hagaztr, hoguzt. This orthography is found in those 
 words also which form their comp. from the indef. form in the 
 pos., e. g. hit naozta the nearest, etc. yet this is more rare 
 (comp. 48.). But in later times the superl. has been univer- 
 sally formed from the pos. in the same way as the comp. is 
 formed, by the endings sta, i, a, in the def., and st, st?\ st. in 
 the indef. form, e. g. hagast, Jjyngst, 
 
90 
 
 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 203. The superl., therefore like the comp., has a twofold 
 method of inflection , one from the def. form , a of the pos. 
 being kept, the other from ihe indef. with a change of vowel; 
 and sometimes it is found in both forms. It is however by 
 no means a general rule that the superl. and comp. of the 
 same word are formed in the same way; thus the longer form 
 in -ast is taken by all monosyll. and polysyll. adj in -It, with 
 the exception of those mentioned in rule 198. e. g. saelast, 
 gjoflast. as also by all polysyll. in gt, e. g. hentugast; and by 
 some monosyll. in nt, e. g. seina-st, hreina-st, fina-st, and 
 others which admit of no vowel change, e. g. n^a-st, and those 
 which insert v, e. g. gloggva-st clearest, dockva-st, and 
 the like. 
 
 204. Thus those which take the shorter form in the superl. 
 are very few, being chiefly those which change their vowel, as 
 in Swed., the most important are the following; 
 
 fatt 
 
 faerra 
 
 faest 
 
 fewest 
 
 smatt 
 
 smserra 
 
 smaest 
 
 smallest 
 
 hatt 
 
 haerra 
 
 haest 
 
 highest 
 
 lagt 
 
 laegra 
 
 laegst 
 
 lowest 
 
 stort 
 
 staerra 
 
 staert 
 
 greatest 
 
 langt 
 
 leingra 
 
 leingst 
 
 longest 
 
 j)raungt 
 
 Jreyngra 
 
 £reyngst 
 
 closest. 
 
 fmngt 
 
 frfngra 
 
 f)^ngst 
 
 heaviest 
 
 ungt 
 
 ^ngra 
 
 fngst 
 
 youngest 
 
 jmnnt 
 
 £ynnra 
 
 f>ynnst 
 
 thinnest 
 
 fullt 
 
 fyllra 
 
 fyllst 
 
 fullest. 
 
 So also beint strait 9 beinna , 
 vsenst, etc. 
 
 beinst; vaent fair vaenna, 
 
 205. Some few take both these [forms, e. g. haegst and 
 haegast, d^pst and djupast; fegurst and fagrast; megurst and 
 magrast, d^rst and d^rast, kaerst and kaerast: In old writers 
 agaezt is also found for agaetast, from agaett excellent, famous 
 and 4igst for -ligast, in all adj., in -ligt, hit virdu-ligsta raft 
 the most noble counsel, hinn mannvaenligsti maSr the most praisr- 
 wortly (young) man etc. This original shorter superl has 
 
SUPERLATIVE DEGREE. 
 
 91 
 
 been retained in Dansk, but the longer in ligasta-i- etc., is 
 now general in Icelandic as in Swedish. 
 
 The fact, that the superl. is formed in so many cases diff- 
 erently from the comp., seems an additional proof, that it 
 should not be derived from that degree, but like it from the 
 pos., and that consequently the old orthography -azt, zt, (for 
 asty st,) is at least needless, and it may be wrong. 
 
 206. The inflections of the superl., however formed, are 
 always like those of the pos. By way however of a perfect 
 example hagast w r ill be here exhibited. 
 
 Definite. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Sing. Nom. 
 
 hagasta 
 
 hagasti 
 
 hagasta 
 
 dc. Dat. Gen. 
 
 hagasta 
 
 hagasta 
 
 hogustu 
 
 Plur. 
 
 hogustu 
 
 hogustu 
 
 hogustu 
 
 Indefinite. 
 
 
 
 
 Sing. Nom. 
 
 hagast 
 
 hagastr 
 
 hogust 
 
 Ace. 
 
 hagast 
 
 hagastan 
 
 hagasta 
 
 Dat. 
 
 hogustu 
 
 hogustum 
 
 hagastri 
 
 Gen. 
 
 hagasts 
 
 hagasts 
 
 hagastrar 
 
 Plur. Nom. 
 
 hogust 
 
 hagastir 
 
 hagastar 
 
 Ace. 
 
 hogust 
 
 hagasta 
 
 hagastar 
 
 Dat. 
 
 hogustum 
 
 hogustum 
 
 hogustum 
 
 Gen. 
 
 hagastra 
 
 hagastra 
 
 hagastra. 
 
 207. In regard to inflection there is no irregularity, but in 
 regard to formation there are some pos. which take no degrees 
 of comp. , as well as some compar. and superlat. which want 
 the pos.; which when the meaning is the same are wont to be 
 classed together as irregular; the most important are: 
 
 Positive. 
 goSa, gott 
 
 Comparative. 
 i betra 
 f skarra 
 
 Superlative, 
 bezt-a 
 skasl-a 
 
 best 
 
92 
 
 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Positive. 
 
 Comparative. Superlative. 
 
 ilia, ilk | 
 
 verra 
 
 verst-a worst * 
 
 vonda, vont ' 
 
 
 
 
 marga, margt* 
 
 fleira 
 
 flest 
 
 -a most 
 
 mikla, mi kit 
 
 meira 
 
 mest-a greatest 
 
 litla, h'tit 
 
 minna 
 
 minst-a least 
 
 gamla, gamalt 
 
 eldra 
 
 elzt 
 
 -a eldest 
 
 Some comp. and 
 
 super!, are 
 
 formed , as 
 
 in Greek, from 
 
 adverbs, prep, and subst., and have therefore 
 
 no posit, e. g. 
 
 norSr (norSlsegr) 
 
 nyrSra 
 
 morSast 
 
 nortkmost 
 
 austr (austlaegr) 
 
 eystra 
 
 austast 
 
 eastmost 
 
 suSr (suSlsegr) 
 
 sySra 
 
 sySst 
 
 soutkmost 
 
 vestr (vestlaegr) 
 
 vestra 
 
 vestast 
 
 westmost 
 
 fram (old. adj. framr) 
 
 fremra 
 
 fremst 
 
 foremost 
 
 aptr 
 
 \ eptra 
 1 aptara 
 
 \ epzt 
 \ aptast 
 
 aftermost 
 
 lit 
 
 ytra 
 
 yzt 
 
 outmost 
 
 inn 
 
 innra 
 
 innst 
 
 inmost 
 
 of old (yfir) 
 
 efra 
 
 efst 
 
 vermost 
 
 niftr 
 
 neSra 
 
 ne5st 
 
 nethermost 
 
 aSr 
 
 seSra 
 
 seftst 
 
 erst 
 
 si5* old 
 
 siSara 
 
 si'Sast 
 
 latest 
 
 for old (fyrir) 
 
 fyrra 
 
 fyrst 
 
 first 
 
 heldr 
 
 heldra 
 
 helzt 
 
 ratherest 
 
 sjaldan 
 
 sjaldnara 
 
 sjaldnast 
 
 rarest 
 
 upp 
 
 
 ypparst 
 
 upmost 
 
 nasrri (naiaegr) 
 
 
 nsest 
 
 neared 
 
 fjarri old (fjarlaergr) 
 
 
 firrst 
 
 | farthest. 
 
 fjaerri 
 
 
 fjaerst 
 
 \ 
 
 * The Swed. sdmre, sdmst is not found in Icel. but is taken 
 from Angl. Sax. s&mre. The word elak is in Icel. regular 
 lakt, lakr, 16k, comp. lakarai, in superl. lakasta. But the pos. 
 is seldom met with. 
 
 * This is not often used definitely in the sing, but hin , J>au 
 morgu the many in the pi. is very common. 
 
SUPERLATIVE DEGREE. 93 
 
 Einn, alone wants the comp. and makes in the super!, 
 einasta loneliest, more often used def. 
 
 208. Adj. which do not take the def. form want also the 
 degrees of comp.; e. g. nog (for naegt, naegr, naeg, comp., 
 naegara, superl. naegast, is another word), allt etc. So also 
 those in a, i, with the exception of the late word ringara, 
 ringast. Prest part. act. in -anda also never take any degrees 
 of comp.; Pret. part. pass, very seldom, unless they have passed 
 quite into adj., e. g. J>eckt known, j)ecktara ; J>ecktast. 
 
 209. Those words which do not take comp. by reason of 
 their ending, but the meaning of which admits of further degrees, 
 express them by means of the adv. meir (meira), mest in the 
 ascending scale, and in the descending use minna, minst, or 
 siSr, sizt; but such periphrases seldom occur.; the diminutive 
 comparative, particularly if joined to a negation, is expressed 
 by 6 before the common form ; e. g. ecki ofegra not less fair. 
 
 210. The adv. which more exactly determine the degrees 
 of adj. are chiefly these; in the pos. vel well, enough, but 
 not in a very high degree, e. g. veil heitt, well warm, vel 
 mikit great enough; harSla, nsesta, and mjok svo, answer to 
 very greatly, e. g. hardla litit very little, nsesta mikit very 
 much, mjok svo goSr, very good indeed; heldr rather, heldr 
 heitr rather hot, heldr mikill rather large ; of too much, e. g. 
 of kaldr too cold; heldr til, helzti, mikils til of, far too, e. g. 
 heldr til snemma far too soon. With the comp. are used jafn, 
 something, (more) e. g. jpetta er jafn betra that is (really) some 
 thing better; miklu much (multo), e.g. miklu fegra much fairer 
 (neut.); and other similar dat. of pron. or adj., ecki ollu etc.; 
 not much better, (perhaps not at all better)-, langt um far, 
 e. g. langt um eldra far elder. In the superl. the determining 
 word is put in the gen.; allra is most commonly used, e. g. allra 
 stserst all greatest, and also einna (i. e. unorum), e. g. einna mest 
 most of all; as well as einn hinn mesti , or einhverr sa mesti 
 one of the greatest. 
 
94 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 Of Pronouns 
 
 211. This class of words is divided in the Icel. as in 
 other tongues. It is very like in part to the subst.; in part 
 to the adj., but has also many peculiarities. 
 
 212. The Personal pronouns are these 
 
 1st Person 2nd Person 
 
 Sing. Nom. 
 
 ek 
 
 
 
 |>u 
 
 Ace. 
 
 mik 
 
 
 
 f)ik 
 
 Dat. 
 
 mer 
 
 
 
 |>er 
 
 Gen. 
 
 mm 
 
 
 
 fun 
 
 Dual. 
 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Dual. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Nom. viS 
 
 
 ver 
 
 f»5 
 
 t>er 
 
 Ace. ockr 
 
 OSS 
 
 yckr 
 
 ytfe 
 
 Dat. ockr 
 
 OSS 
 
 yckr 
 
 y5r 
 
 Gen. ockar 
 
 vor 
 
 yckar 
 
 yffar 
 
 3rd Person. 
 
 
 4th 
 
 Person. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fern 
 
 . Com. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Nom. Sing, sa 
 
 sti 
 
 sja 
 
 hann 
 
 hun 
 
 Ace. 
 
 sik 
 
 
 hann 
 
 hana 
 
 Dat. 
 
 ser 
 
 
 honum 
 
 henni 
 
 Gen. 
 
 sin 
 
 
 hans 
 
 hennar. 
 
 The first two pers. alone have the dual., but this dual is 
 now commonly used as the pi.; and the old pi. only in high 
 style; e. g. ver along with the king's name in official writing, 
 e. g. ver FriSrekr Sjotti, "We Frederic the seventh." per in 
 polite conversation, like the French vous and Germ, sie, e. g. 
 ma ek spyrja y5r "may I ask you sir" etc. In old times ek 
 
PRONOUNS. 95 
 
 and ver were used almost indiscriminately of one's self, {>u 
 and |>er of Kings and Princes. 
 
 213. The third pers. is in the pi. the same as in the sing, 
 except that the nom. is wanting; it is actually wanting in the 
 sing, also, and corresponds exactly in common use to the 
 Latin se, sibi, sui, and is accordingly reciprocal, though it 
 seems originally to have been personal like the Greek 0$, e, 
 d«, 6v, and to have come from the nom sa, su, which now 
 serves to fill up the imperfect demonstrative J>at. This con- 
 clusion is drawn from its agreement with the first two pers. 
 and from the fact that sa, su, in old writers are often used 
 as personal pron., e. g. in Slurluson; i J>vi liSi var maer 
 ein undarliga fogur, su nefndist Yrsa. In that folk was 
 a maid of wonderful fairness, she called herself Yrsa; as 
 well as from the Germ, tongues, where the nom. fern, has 
 been kept as a pers. pron. up to the present time; thus 
 Germ, sie Dutch zy, Engl. she. In addition , though this 
 word in the oblique cases has not quite such an extended 
 use as its counterpart in Greek; yet it is often found in 
 short sentences, where another pers. is the particular sub- 
 ject, but the third person is the subject of the whole period, 
 e. g. (in one of Bp Vidalins sermons.) Trautt kann maSrinn 
 at lata af {>eim glaep, sem hann ecki veit hvorja verkan hefir 
 haft 1 ser, eSr hvat sik hefir tildregit at drfgja hann. Hardly 
 can a man lay aside a sin, which he knows not what work- 
 ings it has had on him, or what has drawn him to commit 
 it. In this sentence there are two chief words, of the first, 
 which is in the 3rd pers (viz the man), the pronoun is used 
 which I have called the 3*d person; of the last which is in 
 the 4th pers. (viz the sin) that is used to which 1 have given 
 the name of the 4th pers. pron. It is certainly possible, be- 
 sides the three usual persons, to think of a fourth; e. g. "he 
 slew him," but no more; unless a new elliptical, or complete 
 sentence is formed by means of a conjunction, by which indeed 
 more words , but no more grammatical persons are obtained ; 
 this 4tn pers. is expressed by hann, hun. But since it is not 
 easy to have two subjects in the same sentence without a 
 
96 PRONOUNS. 
 
 conjunction, there is very little difference between the 3^ and 
 4ui pers. in the nom., so that the words sa and hann are used 
 in the nom. almost indifferently by old writers. In later times 
 hann became commonly the 3*d pers. in the nom., and. when 
 another person is the subject, even in the oblique cases; but 
 when the third person is the subject this word still always 
 expresses the 4th; sa on the other hand became in the nom. 
 the art., but in the other cases continued to denote the third 
 pers. when at the same time it is the subject of the whole 
 context; with other words it became reciprocal. If this view 
 be the right one, none of these words were reciprocal in the 
 oldest times, but all personal, as in English, to meet which 
 use four pers. were distinguished especially in the oblique 
 cases. All the cases and forms which are wanting in sa and 
 hann are supplied by f>at, of which we shall soon have to 
 speak. 
 
 214. The old reciprocal on the other hand was the word 
 sjalft, sjalfr, sjalf. which is used with all pers., as the Engl. 
 self in myself, yourselves etc. This is inflected as a regular 
 adj. but only indefinitely. 
 
 215. Possessives are formed from all the first three per- 
 sonal pron., by turning their gen. into adj. and declining 
 them as such, yet only indefinitely. The possessives are con- 
 sequently these : mitt (for mint), ockart, vort (vdrt) f)itt, yckart, 
 ySart, (yftvart,) and sitt, which is used even if the subject is 
 in the pi., because sin from which it is formed is both sing, 
 and pi. gen.; mitt, f)itt, sitt, take i for i as often as single n 
 follows in their inflection; their other peculiarities will be 
 easiest learnt from a few examples: 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 sitt 
 
 sinn 
 
 sin 
 
 ockart 
 
 ockar 
 
 ockur 
 
 Ace. 
 
 sitt 
 
 sinn 
 
 sina 
 
 ockart 
 
 ockarn 
 
 ockra 
 
 Dat. 
 
 &inu 
 
 sinum 
 
 sinni 
 
 ockru 
 
 ockrum 
 
 ockarri 
 
 Gen. 
 
 sins 
 
 sins 
 
 sinnar 
 
 ockars 
 
 ockars 
 
 ockarrar 
 
PRONOUNS. 
 
 97 
 
 Plur. Norn, sin sinir sinar ockur ockrir ockrar 
 
 Ace. sin sina sinar ockur ockra ockrar 
 
 Dal. sinum sinum sinum ockrum okrum ockrum 
 
 Gen. sinna sinna sinna ockarra ockarra ockarra. 
 
 So also are inflected, mitt mine, J>ilt thine, vort our (of 
 several) , yckart your ( of two ) , ySart your ( of several). 
 For ockart, yckart, are also found ockat, yckat. The 
 Icelandic of the present day instead of these three pos- 
 sessives ockart, yckart, yftart, uses only the gen. of the per- 
 sonals, ockar, yckar, ySar, in all cases. From hann, hun, no 
 possessive is formed, in this case the gen. hans, hennar, and 
 in the pi. feirra (from J>at) only are used. 
 
 216. On the other hand eigit, eiginn, eigin own, may be 
 regarded as a possess, of sjalft, which takes these endings in 
 the nom. and ace. sing, alone, but in all other cases of the 
 sing and pi. whether def. or indef. remains invariably eigin. 
 
 217. Demonstratives, like the foregoing, may be joined to 
 subst.; these are chiefly |>at that, which has no masc. or fern., 
 these cases being commonly supplied by sa, si'i; |f)etta, f>essi, 
 this, hitt, hinn, hin, that, the other, which is also used especi- 
 ally by old writers as the def. art. ; samt samr som, or in the 
 def. form which is now more common sama, i, a, the same; 
 slikt, slikr, sh'k, as well as jm'liktj f)vilikr, fwilik, the like; 
 J>essligt, svoddan, such. 
 
 218. Of these J)at and {)etta have many peculiarities in 
 
 their inflection. 
 
 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 {>at 
 
 sa 
 
 sii 
 
 Ace. 
 
 {>at 
 
 |>ann 
 
 t>a 
 
 Dat. 
 
 f)vi 
 
 f)eim 
 
 £eirri 
 
 Gen. 
 
 {>ess 
 
 |>ess 
 
 {>eirrar 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 
 /j 
 
 Nom. 
 
 |>au 
 
 |>eir 
 
 t»8er 
 
 Ace. 
 
 j)au 
 
 t>a 
 
 {>aer 
 
 Dat. 
 
 |)eim 
 
 £eim 
 
 J)eim 
 
 Gen. 
 
 j)eirra 
 
 |>eirra 
 
 J>eirra 
 
 7 
 
98 
 
 
 
 PRONOUNS. 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 J)etta 
 
 fessi 
 
 fessi 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 fetta 
 
 fenna 
 
 fessa 
 
 
 Dat. 
 
 fessu 
 
 fessum 
 
 fessari 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 fessa 
 
 fessa 
 
 fessarar 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 fessi 
 
 fessir 
 
 fessar 
 
 
 Ace. 
 
 fessi 
 
 fessa 
 
 fessar 
 
 
 Dat. 
 
 fessum 
 
 fessum 
 
 fessum 
 
 
 Gen. 
 
 fessara 
 
 fessara 
 
 fessara 
 
 That sa, su, do not properly belong; to fat has been al- 
 ready remarked; that this last was originally perfect is seen 
 from the Germ, das, der, die, and it is also found perfect in 
 the Lettish tongues. This word is now used as the def. art. 
 before the adj. Sja is an obsolete form of the common gend. 
 
 The particle arna is wont to be added to this word in all 
 its cases, to express the Swed. det der, det hdra, Engl, that 
 there, (a vulgar strong demonstrative); but instead of fat arna 
 a8 farna is more commonly said, and instead of sa arna often 
 svarna. For fessari, fessarar, are found in old writers fessi 
 and fessar, which corresponds more with the Angs. Sax. 
 
 Hitt is inflected like sitt , except that it never takes the 
 accent; we say consequently hinu, hins, pi. hin, hinum, hinna, 
 etc., see also rule 171. 
 
 Samt or sama is declined as a regular adj., as are also 
 slikt, fvilikt, fessligt, but only as indef. Svoddan (soddan) 
 is indecl. and belongs properly to the new tongue. 
 
 219. Besides these, hann, hun, is also sometimes used 
 as an art. with Proper Names, e. g. hann SigurSr, hun Ragn- 
 hildr ; and also wiih the names of animals (horses, hounds etc.), 
 but this also seems to belong the later tongue and every 
 day speech. 
 
 220. Relatives and interrogates are for the most part 
 the same words, thus; hvort (hvart) which, whether, when the 
 question is of two things or persons ; hvert (hvort) when more 
 than two are spoken of ; \i\i\ikt, what like, of what kind. Hvort 
 
PRONOUNS. 
 
 99 
 
 makes in the ace. masc. hvorn (for hvoran), und hvert inserts 
 j when the ending begins with the vowel, thus ; 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Norn. 
 
 hvort 
 
 hvorr 
 
 hvor 
 
 hvert 
 
 hverr 
 
 hver 
 
 Ace. 
 
 hvort 
 
 hvorn 
 
 hvora 
 
 hvert 
 
 hverjan 
 
 hverja 
 
 Dat. 
 
 hvoru 
 
 hvorum 
 
 hvorri 
 
 hverju 
 
 hverjum 
 
 hverri 
 
 Gen. 
 
 hvors 
 
 hvors 
 
 hvorrar 
 
 hvers 
 
 hvers 
 
 hverra r 
 
 Plur. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Norn. 
 
 hvor 
 
 hvorir 
 
 hvorar 
 
 hver 
 
 hverir 
 
 hverjar 
 
 Ace. 
 
 hvor 
 
 hvora 
 
 hvorar 
 
 hver 
 
 hverja 
 
 hverjar 
 
 Dat. 
 
 hvorum 
 
 hvorum 
 
 hvorum 
 
 hverjum 
 
 hverjum 
 
 hverjum 
 
 Gen. 
 
 hvorra 
 
 hvorra 
 
 hvorra 
 
 hverra 
 
 hverra 
 
 hverra. 
 
 Besides this hvert, which is used with subst., there was 
 in the oldest tongue another form in the sing., which was 
 used absolutely, viz, hvat neut., and hver common, which are 
 thus declined. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Common. 
 
 Norn. 
 
 hvat 
 
 hver (hvar?) 
 
 Ace. 
 
 hvat 
 
 hvern 
 
 Dat. 
 
 hvi 
 
 hveim 
 
 Gen. 
 
 hvess 
 
 hvess. 
 
 
 Thus answering to f>at, and the Germ, was, wer, but of 
 these cases only hvat what is met with absolutely in common 
 speech, and hvern both absolutely and with subst. instead of 
 hverjan, which is quite obsolete. 
 
 221. To hvort , hvert, and hvat, helzt or sem helzt is 
 added to express the Swed. ehvad eho or hvad som heist, 
 Engl, who, or what, so ever. In like manner is added annat, 
 thus hvort-annat the one, the other, (Dansk hinanderi), hvert 
 or hvat-annat one another, (Dansk hverandre). Sitt is placed 
 first, thus sitthvort, sitthvert, sitthvat, each his own, each one's. 
 The words are commonly separated, but sitt is always 
 placed first answering to the subject, e. g. f)eir lita sinn 
 hverja att, they look each to his own side. 
 
100 PRONOUNS. 
 
 From these words many actual compounds are also made, 
 thus, hvort-tveggja doth, utrumque, which has a double declen- 
 sion. The first part being indefinite and the last definite; e. g. 
 pi. hvor-tveggju, hvorir-tvcggju, hvorar-tveggju etc. now how- 
 ever hvoru-tveggju is commonly said in all the cases : in like 
 manner annat-hvort either the one or the other , (alterutrum), 
 both parts of which are declined in the usual way. Hvorugt 
 (hvorigt) neither the one nor the other (neutrumj, is declined 
 like an indef. adj. Serhvert, serhvat each, inflects its last part 
 as usual. Hvert-eitt, hvat-eitt one and all, inflect both parts ; 
 as also sumt-hvert, sumt-hvat somewhat, but here the masc. 
 sing, must be excepted which is sumhverr. Eitthvert, eitthvat, 
 Germ* etwas, on the other hand inflect only their last part, with 
 the exception of the nom. and ace. sing. ; thus in the masc. 
 einhverr, pi. einhver, einhverir, einhverjar. 
 
 222. The following particles however are only relatives; 
 er (old es) or eS is indecl. and denotes with adv. which ex- 
 press time, place, etc., an idea of relation, e. g. |>a er then 
 when (quum), f)ar er there that, where, (ubi) |>ar e5 since 
 (quoniam). In connection with |>at it expresses which, who, 
 e. g. in Sturluson: Fjolnir var son Yngvifreys, |>ess er Sviar 
 hafa blotat leingi si'San. Fjolnir was son of Yngvefrey, whom 
 the Swedes have long since worshipped. Sem which, is pro- 
 perly a comparative conj. but is used by new writers in the 
 same way as the above. Hann also is used as a relative, 
 e. g. (Revel. XXII. 17.) Hverr hann f>yrstir, sa komi ! og 
 hverr hann vill, sa meStaki vatn lifsins gefins! 
 
 223. Interrogative particles are, hversu ho?v , hve (hvo), 
 and especially in new writers hvat (hvaS), e. g. hversu gamall 
 maSr er-tu ? how old art thou ? hvenser kemr hann ? when 
 comes he ? hvaS kostafti f)aS mikiS ? how much did that cost ? 
 HvaSa ansvers to the Swed. hvad for, Engl, what hind, e. g. 
 hvaSa maSr er £aS? what sort of a man is that? Old writers 
 commonly used hvat manna? or hvat (af) monnum? and from 
 this hvat the new hvaSa has perhaps been formed. 
 
PRONOUNS 
 
 lOt 
 
 224. The so called Indef. Pronouns, are, besides those 
 already mentioned (221.) as formed from hvort hvat, chiefly 
 these: annat the one, the second, another, {alterum, secundum, 
 aliud), which is inflected like the word galit, thus ; 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Norn, 
 
 annat 
 
 annar 
 
 onnur 
 
 Ace. 
 
 annat 
 
 annan 
 
 aora 
 
 Dat. 
 
 6Sru 
 
 oSrum 
 
 annarri 
 
 Gen. 
 
 annars 
 
 annars 
 
 annarrar 
 
 Plural, 
 
 
 
 
 Norn. 
 
 onnur 
 
 a5rir 
 
 aorar 
 
 Ace. 
 
 onnur 
 
 aSra 
 
 aSrar 
 
 Dat. 
 
 oorum 
 
 oorum 
 
 oSrum 
 
 Gen. 
 
 annarra 
 
 annarra 
 
 annarra, 
 
 It has the same form when the article is added, e. g. hit 
 annat the other, second, (Dansk det andet) but when the 
 question is of two, no article is used, e. g. het annar Ve, annar 
 Vilir, the one hight Ve, the other Vilir. Nockut (nockurt) some 
 thing is declined like ockart; sumt, sumr, sum some, like an 
 indef. adj. 
 
 225. Eitt, einn, ein, one, each one, atone, something, {unam, 
 singulum , solum, quoddam) is declined like sitt , and also in 
 the pi. when added to pi. subst.; e. g. ein skaeri a shear, 
 einir skor a pair of shoes , einar buxur a pair of breeches ; 
 It is also declined definitely, especially when it means alone, 
 e. g. f)at eina that alone (id solum). Neitt naught, is also de- 
 clined in the same way, but only indefinitely; it is used only 
 in connection with another negation, e. g. ecki sa ek neitt, / 
 did not see aught, vulg. / did not see naught. Another ne- 
 gative deriv. from eitt is ecki (for eitt-gi) ; It is thus inflected; 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fem. 
 
 Norn. 
 
 ecki 
 
 eingi 
 
 eingi 
 
 Ace. 
 
 ecki 
 
 eingan 
 
 einga 
 
 Dat. 
 
 eingu 
 
 eingum 
 
 eingri 
 
 Gen. 
 
 einskis 
 
 einskis 
 
 eingrar 
 
102 PHONOUNS- 
 
 Plural. Nom. eingi eingir eingar 
 
 Ace. eingi einga eingar 
 
 Dat. eingum eingum eingum 
 
 Gen. eingra eingra eingra. 
 
 The word is compounded of eitt and the negative part, ending 
 -gi, ki, the same perhaps as that with which hvorugt is formed. 
 In the dat neut. einu-gi is also found, and in the gen. eingis; 
 einkis; the reason of einskis is that both parts of the word 
 have been thrown into the gen. (thus eins-gis). In those cases 
 where the ending does not contain i, au is also found for ei, 
 e. g. aungu, aungum, aungri, etc. In the masc. pi. also aung- 
 vir , aungva , etc. By an old orthography eng was written 
 for eing, and ong for aung in all cases. Finally in the new 
 tongue this word has been changed into eckert, einginn, ein- 
 gin, and in the neut. pi. eingin, the other cases have all kept 
 their old shape. 
 
 226. Mangi no one (Germ. Niemand, Lat. nemo), is used 
 only in poetry ^ and has in the nom. and ace. manngi, gen. 
 mannskis; it scarcely ever occurs in any other case. 
 
 227. To these indef. numerals, as they are also called, 
 seem to belong allt, allr, oil, all, which is declined indef., as 
 also nog, nogr, nog, enough; margt and fatt may also be added, 
 of which mention has been made above. 
 
 228. The indef. person one {man), has no peculiar word 
 to express it in Icel.; it is denoted 1. Often by the 3^ pers. 
 sing, of verbs without any pronoun, e. g. ok heyrSi {)at siSan, 
 and that one heard afterwards ; and it was heard after tear ds ; 
 2. Often also by menu in the pi., as in English men or they 
 is said; e. g. er menn toku at drecka, when men (they) took 
 to drinking. 3. And sometimes in later times by maSr in 
 the sing. 
 
 The impers. there, it, is expressed in Icel. by f>at even 
 though the verb stand in the pi., e. g. f>at eru margir, sein, 
 there are many who etc. But it is perhaps more right to say 
 
NUMERALS. 
 
 103 
 
 J>eir eru margir they are many. Some also write far er, far 
 em, but this seems to be a Danism (der er, Engl, there are.) 
 
 229. The numerals or proper definite reckoning words are 
 here, as in other tongues, chiefly cardinal and ordinal; the 
 easiest way of obtaining a view of them is to arrange them 
 side by side: 
 
 Cardinals. 
 
 Ordinals. 
 
 eitt, einn, 
 
 ein 
 
 fyrsta i, a, 
 
 tvo, tveir, 
 
 tvaer 
 
 annat, annar, oniiur 
 
 frju, frir, 
 
 frjar 
 
 {mftja, 81, Sja 
 
 fjogur, fjo 
 
 rir, fjorar 
 
 fjorSa, i, a, 
 
 fimm 
 
 
 fimta 
 
 sex 
 
 
 setta (sjotta) 
 
 sjo (sjau) 
 
 
 sjounda (sjaunda) 
 
 atta 
 
 
 atta (attunda) 
 
 ni'u 
 
 
 niunda 
 
 tiu 
 
 
 tiunda 
 
 ellifu 
 
 
 ellefta 
 
 tolf 
 
 
 tolfta 
 
 frettan 
 
 
 frettanda 
 
 fjortan 
 
 
 fjortanda 
 
 fimtan 
 
 
 fimtanda 
 
 sextan 
 
 
 sextanda 
 
 saul j an (seytjan) 
 
 sautjanda (seytjanda) 
 
 atjan 
 
 
 aijanda 
 
 nitjan 
 
 
 nitjanda 
 
 tuttugu 
 
 
 tuttugasta 
 
 tutfugu ok 
 
 eitt etc. 
 
 tuttugasta ok fyrsta 
 
 frjatiu 
 
 
 t>ritugasta 
 
 fjorutiu 
 
 
 fertugasta 
 
 fimtiu 
 
 
 fimtugasta 
 
 sextiu 
 
 
 sextugasta 
 
 sjotiu 
 
 
 sjotugasta 
 
 attatiu 
 
 
 atlatugasta 
 
 niuliu 
 
 
 nitugasta 
 
 hundraS (tiuiiu) 
 
 hundraSasta 
 
104 
 
 NUAIEKALS. 
 
 Cardinals. 
 
 hundred ok tiu (ellifutiu) 
 tvo hundred (etc.) 
 fmsund. 
 
 Ordinals. 
 
 hundradasta ok tiunda 
 tvo hundradasta 
 {msundasta. 
 
 Instead of sautjan sjautjan is also found, and instead of 
 {>rjatiu etc. j)ijaligir and f>rjatigi, etc. 
 
 230. The first four are declined; eitt has been already 
 treated of; bsedi both has a great likeness to tvo, but since 
 each of them has peculiarities of its own they shall be here 
 exhibited at length, 
 
 Nom. 
 Ace. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 tvo 
 
 tvo 
 
 kju 
 
 frju 
 
 Masc. 
 tveir 
 tvo (tva) 
 
 Fern, 
 tvser 
 tvser 
 
 Neut. 
 
 baebi 
 
 bsedi 
 
 fjogur 
 fjogur 
 
 Masc. 
 badir 
 bada 
 
 badum 
 beggja 
 fjorir 
 fjora 
 
 Fein, 
 badir 
 badar 
 
 Dat. 
 Gen. 
 Nom. 
 Ace. 
 
 tveim 
 
 tveggja 
 
 |>rir 
 
 |>rja 
 
 f)rjar 
 frjar 
 
 fjdrar 
 fjorar 
 
 Dat. 
 Gen. 
 
 JDrim 
 friggja 
 
 L 
 
 
 fjorum 
 fjogra. 
 
 
 For tveim and £rim (J>rem) are also often found tveimr, 
 j)rimr (or Jmmur tribus), and |>remr is also written. The rest 
 up to hundred* are indecl., above 100 they areMeclined in two 
 ways. If they stand absolutely (without subst. ) both the 
 numeral, which denotes how many hundreds or thousands are 
 meant, as well as these words, hundred*, fmsund, themselves 
 are declined, e. g. eitt hundred' er oflitit, one hundred is too 
 little, einu hundradi, eins hundreds, tvo hundred, tveim hund- 
 rudum , tveggja hundrada etc. But if they stand in connection 
 with a subst. then only the actual numeral is inflected, which 
 agrees with the subst., while hundred and Jmsund remain un- 
 changed in the nom. sing, or pi. if the subst. be in the pi. ; 
 e. g. ecki fa3r madr store jord fyrir tvo hundrud dali. A man 
 does not get much ground for 200 dollars; af premr hundrud 
 
NUMERALS. 105 
 
 dolnm veror rentan tolf dalir a ari. Of 200 dollars the in- 
 terest is 12 dollars yearly; {>at er fjogra hundruS (or |>usund) 
 dala virSi, that is worth 400 (4,000) dollars. 
 
 231. Our forefathers often reckoned by the great hundred, 
 (120) in Iceland, stort or tolfraatt hundraft, opposed to the small 
 100 smatt or tirsett; in this case tiuti'u was put which for 100 
 and ellifutui for 110, answering to which 1 have not met with 
 any ordinals. The case is the same with jmsund. In regard 
 to inflection hundraS is, as remarked above, a regular neut. 
 and {msund also, yet this last often occurs in old writers as 
 fem., e. g. tvser fmsundir manna ; at the present day it is always 
 neut. at least with subst., e. g. hann gaf tvo fmsund dali fyrir 
 f>at. Similar subst. are par (pi. por) a pair, tugr a number 
 consisting of 10, tylft, one of 12, skockr 10,000; million, has 
 also been taken into the tongue in later times; but for the 
 numbers after this, the Icelanders have again formed peculiar 
 expressions, viz, tvimillion, billion, fjrimillion trillion, fjormil- 
 lion, quadrillion. 
 
 232. Of the ordinals fyrsta is properly the def. fem. of 
 the adj. fyrra, fyrst, which wants the pos. (207.) Annat has 
 already been treated of (224), J>ri5ja inserts,/ throughout, but 
 in other respects is declined as a regular def. adj.; all the 
 rest are inflected as adj. in the def. form. 
 
 233. The ordinals under 20 are formed from the card., 
 in such a way that Sa, (ta) is added to those which end in 
 a cons., and undi and -ndi to those in a vowel; atta and ellefta 
 make no exception to this rule, for atta and ellifu seem in 
 the oldest times not to have had a vowel after them; comp. 
 Germ, acht, eilf, and as far as the latter word is concerned, 
 the Icel. word tolf itself, and Germ, zwolf. 
 
 Ordinals over 20 are all formed in -asta, and these not 
 from their respective card, but from temporals in -tugt, tugr, 
 tug. 
 
 234. Of temporals the Icelanders have many kinds, e. g. 
 from nott night comes einnaett (masc. einnsettr) one night old, 
 
106 NUMERALS. 
 
 [)rina;tt, etc., neetrgamalt nightold is also said , and from vetur 
 winter^ year, veturgamalt winter old, yearold; tvsevett masc. 
 tvaevetr two winters old, |>revett, etc. ; but it is only from a 
 few numerals that such words can be formed ; on the other 
 hand it is a common custom to express these relations by the 
 gen. pi. of cardinals, and subst., e. g. tveggja, f)riggja-natta; 
 fjogra- fim- sexvetra ; tveggja-atqvseSa-orS dissyllabic words, 
 f>riggja-J)umlunga-naglar three inch nails fjogra-blaSa-form, 
 four-leaf-furm, 4% atta- tolf sextan- blaSa- form 8y»>, 12mo 
 16m». priggja- manna -nefnd triumvirate, tiu-manna - nefnd 
 decemvir at e , etc. From 10 and the others peculiar adj. are 
 formed , which are used both of age , measure and the like, 
 answering to the Latin in arium , these are tvitugt , tvitugr, 
 tvi'tug, 20 years old, 20 fathoms long, etc. (Lat vice narium) ; 
 f)ritugt, fertugt, fimtugt, sextugt, and sjotugt. Above 70. they 
 are formed in -raett, rseSr, rseo", e. g. attaraett octogenarium, 
 nirsett, tirsett, etc. 
 
 235. Of adverbs which express the Engl, time, (Swed. gang), 
 the Old Norse has only two namely, tvisvar twice, and f)risvar 
 thrice, all others are expressed by the word sinn time, in 
 the dat., e. g. einu sinni, once, fjorum sinnum 4 times, fimm 
 sinnum 5 times, etc. Tveim sinnum, })rim sinnum, or tvisvar 
 sinnum, fnisvarsinnum are also said, the last of which how- 
 ever are tautological. "The first time" and such like phrases 
 are expressed by the same word in the ace. sing, and the art. 
 hit, which is sometimes left out, e. g. (hit) fyrsta, annat, f)rioja 
 sinn: Instead of sinn skipti is also used; (hit) fyrsta skipti 
 etc., and for hit the prep, l is often put, e. g. i fjoro*a sinn, 
 or skipti, etc. 
 
 236. Distributives are found only from the first four, e. g. 
 eitt, einn, ein (singulum), which when it has this meaning 
 makes in the ace. masc. einan; tvennt , jjrennt, fernt (masc. 
 tvennr, j>rennr, fern). From these are formed the subst. eining 
 oneness prenning threeness, trinity, (like the Latin trinitas.) 
 Besides the Icelanders use two modes of expression instead of 
 distributives, they either repeat the card, with ok between, 
 e. g. tveir ok tveir, }>iir ok jm'r, fimm ok fimm etc., or throw 
 
NUMERALS. 1 07 
 
 the card, into the dat. adding the word saman, e. g. sex, tin, 
 hundru&um, {nisundum, saman, which last answers very nearly 
 to the Swed. hundratals, etc. 
 
 237. Mulliplicatives are formed in -fait, -faldr, -fold, 
 e. g. einfalt simple, tvofalt twofold, J)refalt threefold, ferfalt 
 fjorfalt, fourfold, fimmfalt fivefold, hundracifalt hundredfold, 
 etc. From these again verbs in -falda are formed, e. g. tvo- 
 falda to double, |>refalda to treble, ferfalda (fjorfalda), fimm- 
 falda, margfalda to multiply, etc. 
 
 238, From the ordinals between three and twelwe, subst. 
 are formed, which express how great a quantity, these are: 
 f>ri?jjungr a third part, fjorSungr, fimtiingr, settungr fsjottungr), 
 sjound, altungr, niund, tiund, and tolfiungr, for from ellefta the 
 word would be too long; instead of that from tvo or annat 
 helmingr (helfingr) is formed from haflt, halfr , half. From 
 these again spring verbs which denote division into so many 
 parts, or the subtraction of some such part; e. g. helminga to 
 halve, JuiSjunga to part into three, trithe , tiunda to tithe, or 
 give tithes. Some of these words how r ever have taken, like 
 fjerding, atting, etc., on the continent, a more limited sense in the 
 new tongue ; new subst. therefore have been formed with 
 partr which is added to the ordinals, so that both words are 
 declined in their own way, e. g. einn {)riSjipartr a third, ek 
 helt einum JmSjaparti / got a third part; hann feck tvo 
 {>riSjuparta he got two thirds. So also fjorSipartr, fimtipartr, 
 elleftipartr, tuttugastipartr , hundraftastipartr, etc. From these 
 no verbs can be made, but in their stead, at tviskipta, f)ri- 
 skipta, fjorskipta, fimskipla, etc. are used. 
 
108 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 Of Verbs. 
 
 239. The Icelandic verbs, like the Greek, Latin, Swed. 
 and Dansk, have two forms, active and passive, and in each 
 the four usual moods; indie, conjunct., imperat., and infin.; 
 but only two tenses can be expressed by inflection of the 
 word, viz, the present and the imperfect; though the pres. is 
 also often used for a future , as in Angl. Sax. and other lan- 
 guages. The other tenses are formed by means of auxiliary 
 verbs as in Engl. In the three moods above named, numbers 
 and persons are distinguished; but the pers. pron. are com- 
 monly added, because the difference between the persons, es- 
 pecially in the pass., is not everywhere definite and clear. 
 The participles are as usual the pres. act., which has often 
 also the meaning of a fut. part pass.; and the past part. pass, 
 the neut. of which in the indef. form is always at the same 
 time a supine; from this supine a new pass. sup. may be 
 formed, as in Swed. by a new pass, ending; which however 
 commonly occurs only in the neut., seldom in the other gend. 
 and cases as a complete part. 
 
 240. The infin. always contains the original vowel of the 
 verb, and it seems therefore most right to name the verbs after 
 this mood; but at the same time the conjug. of the verbs is 
 seen more plainly^ though not quite surely, from the 1st pers. 
 pres. and this is doubtless the reason why Bjorn Haldorson 
 in his Dictionary always arranges them under this form. Of 
 the other jtenses the pres. and imperf. indie, together with 
 the past part, or supine, are the most important, because all 
 the rest can be derived from them. 
 
 241. The inflection of verbs has much resemblance in 
 all Gothic tongues; that division of them therefore which is 
 the right in one of these languages, is also right for all the rest. 
 
VERBS. 109 
 
 This division however shews itself most plainly of all in 
 Icelandic, since this tongue seems in general to lie nearest 
 to the common spring; thus we instantly discover a ground of 
 division in the pres. ind. , which separates all verbs into two 
 main classes, the one of which always ends in the pres. in a 
 cons., the other commonly in a vowel; the one is always 
 monosyll. in the pres. with change of vowel, the other is in- 
 variably polysyllabic; and most frequently keeps its vowel 
 unchanged; the one ends in the sup., and past part. pass, in 
 it, inn , in, the other in t, dr, d, so that they are distinct 
 from each other in all their root tenses. The latter answers 
 to the so called verba pura in Greek, and the 1st, 2nd, and 4th ? 
 conjug. in Latin, the former to the verba impura in Greek, and 
 the 3rd conjug. in Latin. The Mceso Gothic and Anglo -Sax., 
 have the same main division of the same verbs; as also the 
 new Teutonic tongues, Germ, and Dutch, though Adelung 
 counted all impure verbs as irregular ; but they are in Iceland, 
 at least very nearly as regular as the verba pura, though 
 they follow quite different rules. Here too, as in the nouns, 
 the so called pure are conjugated in a simpler way; the im- 
 pure being more artificial and harder in their method of inflec- 
 tion, and this perhaps has given rise to their being looked 
 upon as irregular. 
 
 Simpler Class. 
 
 242. These two main classes are again divided into se- 
 veral subordinate ones by the imperf.: The first main class 
 has the imperf. either in afii or 57 (di, ti), without change of 
 vowel; or in U (di, ti), with change of vowel in its first syll. 
 It is thus divided into three subordinate classes, of which the 
 first has the vowel «, as is clearly seen in the 1st pers. pres. 
 imperf. and in the imperat.; the second the vowel i, which 
 also comes out plainly in the 1st pers., though in the imperat. 
 it has been thrown away by contraction; the third has no 
 vowel in the 1st pers. pres. but seems originally to have had 
 u 7 because this ending has been thrown away in many cases in 
 
110 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 the Old Norse, e. g. in the fem. sing, and neut. pi., of subst. 
 where u seems to have given rise to the change of vowel, 
 which was afterwards kept though the ending itself fell away, 
 This 3r d class distinguishes itself also by change of vowel in 
 the imperf. For the rest the inflection in all three classes is 
 nearly exactly the same, and only the formation different. 
 They are therefore rightly reckoned under one and the same 
 conjugation, though Baden, Botin, Sjoborg, and others have 
 in the new tongues assumed the several classes in this main 
 division, to be so many separate conjugations, but those of 
 the more artificial, as a single one,, or as irregulars; a mistake 
 which is general in almost all grammars of the East - Euro- 
 pean tongues; the characteristic tenses will be easiest seen by 
 a comparative table. 
 
 Pres. 
 
 Indie. 
 
 Imperf. 
 
 Sup. 
 
 Infin. 
 
 
 1st Class ek 
 
 elska 
 
 elskafti 
 
 elskat 
 
 elska 
 
 to love 
 
 2 nd Class ek 
 
 renni 
 
 rendi 
 
 rent 
 
 renna 
 
 to make to run 
 
 3m Class ek 
 
 tern 
 
 tamdi 
 
 j tamit 
 \ tamda 
 
 temja 
 
 to tame. 
 
 243. The agreement of these conjugations with those of 
 the Angl. Sax. and Moesogothic is evident, however different 
 the arrangement assumed by various writers may be; they 
 answer to one another in the following way. 
 
 Icel. Anglo Sax. Mosso Gothic. 
 
 1 spjalla -afti 1 spellian -ode 3 spillon -oda to talk, spelt 
 
 2 hafa -Si 2 habban -ha?fde 1 haban -aida to have 
 
 3 ssekja sokti 3 secan, sohte 2 sokjan -ida to seek. 
 
 To these in Greek the verbs in «o, so, oa 
 in Latin the 1st, 4tn, and 2»d conjug. thus; 
 
 answer, and 
 
 Icel. 
 
 1 ek bera borafii 
 
 2 mik dreymi-r dreymdi 
 
 3 ek |>egi f>agSi 
 
 Latin. 
 
 1 (fora-o foravi) 
 
 4 dormi-o dormivi 
 
 2 tace-o tacui. 
 
 In the Lettish tongues the same division is plainly the only 
 right one, and it may be also in the Sclavonic and Finnish. 
 
SIMPLER CLASS. 
 
 Ill 
 
 244. As examples in all the three regular classes of the 
 simpler class, kalla to call, brenna to burn, and telja to tell, 
 {reckon) will be exhibited ; 
 
 
 1st Class. 
 
 2nd Class. 
 
 3rd Class. 
 
 Indie. 
 
 
 Active 
 
 
 Pres. Sing. 
 
 1. ek kalla 
 
 brenni 
 
 tel 
 
 
 2- fm kallar 
 
 brennir 
 
 telr 
 
 
 3. hann kallar 
 
 brennir 
 
 telr 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. ver kollum 
 
 bremium 
 
 teljum 
 
 
 2. |>er kalliS 
 
 brenniS 
 
 teliS 
 
 
 3. feir kalla 
 
 brenna 
 
 telja 
 
 Imperf. Sing. 
 
 1. ek kallaSi (a) 
 
 brendi (a) 
 
 taldi (a) 
 
 
 2. fm kallaSir 
 
 brendir 
 
 taldir 
 
 
 3. hann kalla5i 
 
 brendi 
 
 taldi 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. ver kolluSum 
 
 brendum 
 
 toldum 
 
 
 2. j)er kolluSuS 
 
 brenduS 
 
 tolduS 
 
 
 3. fyeir kolluSu 
 
 brendu 
 
 toldu. 
 
 Conjunctive. 
 
 
 
 
 Pres. Sing. 
 
 1. ek kalli 
 
 brenni 
 
 teli 
 
 
 2 {m kallir 
 
 brennir 
 
 telir 
 
 
 3. hann kalli 
 
 brenni 
 
 teli 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. ver kollum 
 
 brennum 
 
 teljum 
 
 
 2. f)er kalliS 
 
 brenni'5 
 
 telid 
 
 
 3. f>eir kalli 
 
 brenni 
 
 teli. 
 
 Imperf. Sing. 
 
 1. ek kallaSi 
 
 brendi 
 
 teldi 
 
 
 2. ]bu kalla&r 
 
 brendir 
 
 teldir 
 
 
 3. hann kalla^i 
 
 brendi 
 
 teldi 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. ver kollucaim 
 
 brendum 
 
 teldum 
 
 
 2. |>er kolluSuft 
 
 brenduo* 
 
 telduS 
 
 
 3. J)eir kolluSu 
 
 brendu 
 
 teldu. 
 
 Imperat. 
 
 kalla- (ou) 
 
 brenn- (du) 
 
 tel- (du) 
 
 Infin. 
 
 at kalla 
 
 brenna 
 
 telja 
 
 Part. 
 
 kallandi 
 
 brennandi 
 
 teljandi 
 
 Sup. 
 
 kallat 
 
 brent 
 
 talit. 
 
11 z 
 
 i 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 
 1*t Class. 
 
 2nd Class. 
 
 3rd Class. 
 
 Indie. 
 
 
 Passive. 
 
 
 Pres. Sing. 
 
 kallast 
 
 brennist 
 
 lelst 
 
 
 kallast 
 
 brennist 
 
 telst 
 
 
 kallast 
 
 brennist 
 
 telst 
 
 Plur 
 
 kollumst 
 
 brennumst 
 
 teljumst 
 
 
 kallizt 
 
 brennizt 
 
 tellzt 
 
 
 kallast 
 
 brennast 
 
 teljast 
 
 Imperf. Sing. 
 
 kallaSist 
 
 brendist 
 
 taldist 
 
 
 kallaSist 
 
 brendist 
 
 taldist 
 
 
 kallaSist 
 
 brendist 
 
 taldist 
 
 Plur. 
 
 kolluftumst 
 
 brendumst 
 
 toldumst 
 
 
 kolluSuzt 
 
 brenduzt 
 
 tolduzt 
 
 
 kolluSust 
 
 brendust 
 
 toldust 
 
 Conjunctive. 
 
 
 
 
 Pres. Sing. 
 
 kallist 
 
 brennist 
 
 telist 
 
 
 kallist 
 
 brennist 
 
 telist 
 
 
 kallist 
 
 brennist 
 
 telist 
 
 Plur. 
 
 kollumst 
 
 brennumst 
 
 teljumst 
 
 
 kallizt 
 
 brennizt 
 
 telizt 
 
 
 kallist 
 
 brennist 
 
 telist 
 
 Imperf. Sing. 
 
 kallaftist 
 
 brendist 
 
 teldist 
 
 
 kallaftist 
 
 brendist 
 
 teldist 
 
 
 kallaSist 
 
 brendist 
 
 teldist 
 
 Plur. 
 
 kolluSumst 
 
 brendumst 
 
 teldumst 
 
 
 ko!lu5uzt 
 
 brenduzt 
 
 telduzt 
 
 
 kolluSust 
 
 brendust 
 
 teldust 
 
 Imperat. 
 
 kallastu 
 
 brenstu 
 
 telstu 
 
 Infill. 
 
 kallast 
 
 brennast 
 
 teljast 
 
 Part. 
 
 (kallanSist) 
 
 (brennandist) 
 
 (teljandist) 
 
 Sup. Pass. 
 
 kallazt 
 
 brenzt 
 
 talizt. 
 
 245. This Class is the most numerous and simplest of all, 
 the common vowel change of a, whenever it occurs, is the 
 only thing to which heed must be paid. The Supine in at is 
 the neut. of the Part. pass, which is regularly declined as 
 
SIMPLER CLASS. 
 
 113 
 
 well indef. kallat, kallaSr, kolluS, as def. kallaSa, kallaSi, 
 kallaSa , but the Sup. Pass, kallazt of this class is found 
 only in the neut.; farther examples for practice are: 
 
 pjona to serve 
 
 njdsna to spy out 
 
 herja to herry 
 
 skoSa to look 
 
 tala to talk 
 
 hata to hate 
 
 baka to hake 
 
 rita to write 
 
 oetla to aim sofna to sleep 
 
 kosta to cost syndga to sin 
 
 kasta to cast tiSka to be wont 
 
 hota to threaten blakta to quiver 
 
 hljoSa to sound vernda to guard 
 
 sauma to sew hugs a to think 
 
 safna to gather sagla to saw badly 
 
 sauna to prove lakra to dribble. 
 
 1»* Class. 
 
 246. This class also is simple and regular, without change 
 of vowel , and in all its inflections like the foregoing, from 
 which it distinguishes itself only by having the vowel i in 
 the pres ; as also by having no vowel in the pret. before 
 the ending, and by ending in the imperative in the character- 
 istic letter itself. 
 
 It also contains many words, nearly all with weak vowels 
 in the chief syll., and for the most part deriv. from subst. or 
 adj. Those of which the characteristic is a hard cons, or s 
 take t for d in the pret.; those with S receive dd, and those 
 with g or k after a weak vowel insert j where the ending 
 begins with a vowel; but those with g or k after o insert v 
 in the same cases, e. g. 
 
 deyfa 
 
 -i, Si 
 
 to deafen 
 
 teygja 
 
 -gi 5 
 
 gSi 
 
 to entice 
 
 aefa 
 
 -i, Si 
 
 to practice 
 
 vasgja 
 
 'Sh 
 
 gSi 
 
 to spare 
 
 erfa 
 
 -i ? Si 
 
 to inherit 
 
 vigja 
 
 •Sh 
 
 gSi 
 
 to hallow 
 
 laera 
 
 -i, Si 
 
 to teach 
 
 byggja 
 
 SSh 
 
 bygSi 
 
 to build 
 
 gera 
 
 -i, Si 
 
 to make 
 
 hryggja 
 
 -SS 1 '? 
 
 gSi 
 
 to trouble 
 
 kemba 
 
 -i,di 
 
 to comb 
 
 syrgja 
 
 Sh 
 
 gSi 
 
 to sorrow 
 
 steypa 
 
 -i,ti 
 
 to pour 
 
 heingja 
 
 -&9 
 
 gSi 
 
 to hang 
 
 gapa 
 
 -i, ti 
 
 to gape 
 
 leingja 
 
 -&> 
 
 gSi 
 
 to lengthen 
 
 kippa 
 
 -i, kipti 
 
 to snatch 
 
 fylgja 
 
 •&> 
 
 gSi 
 
 to follow 
 
 leysa 
 
 -i, ti 
 
 to loose 
 
 veikja 
 
 -ki, 
 
 kti 
 
 to weaken 
 
114 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 missa -i, misti 
 
 to miss 
 
 f)eckja -cki, ckti 
 
 to know 
 
 prfSa -i, pr^ddi 
 
 to adorn 
 
 merkja -ki, kti 
 
 to mark 
 
 reita -i, Iti 
 
 to pluck 
 
 Jeinkja -ki, kti 
 
 to think 
 
 hitta -lti ? tti 
 
 to find out 
 
 fylkja -ki, kti 
 
 to set in 
 array 
 
 birta -ti, ti 
 
 to reveal 
 
 stockva -ckvi, ckti 
 
 to sprinkle 
 
 All those which have the characteristic letters gl, fl, gn, 
 and fn, take d in the imperf. e. g. sigla to sail, sigli, sigldi, 
 stefna to stem stefni, stefndi; efla to strengthen, hefna to 
 revenge, nefna to name, rigna to rain, etc.; but those which 
 have pn, kn, or the like, belong to the 1st class; those also 
 which have m for their characteristic take d, e. g. dreyma to 
 dream, mik dreymdi / dreamed, skemma to laugh away, skemdi. 
 Those which have t after a cons, take no new t or d in the 
 imperf., e. g. vacnta to wait , vaenti, velta to overthrow velti, 
 festa, to fasten, festi, lypta to lift, lypti, which in all these 
 is also the 1st pers. pres. 
 
 It seems impossible to give any sure rule for those which 
 
 have r5, Id, nd, I, 11, n, or mi, as their characteristic, because 
 
 some take d, others t, and some both, but d, seems more 
 
 common in old writers, t (dt) in new, e. g. 
 
 girSa 
 
 i 
 
 girSi 
 girdti 
 
 lenda 
 
 i 
 
 lendi 
 lendti 
 
 haela 
 
 
 heeldi 
 
 maela 
 
 
 maelti 
 
 to gird 
 
 to land 
 
 to praisi 
 to speak 
 
 fella feldi to fell 
 
 stilla stilti to still 
 
 sfna sfndi to show 
 
 rsena raenti to plunder 
 
 to praise kenna kendi to teach 
 
 nenna nenti to set ones, 
 mind on. 
 
 247. Monosyllables in a add i in the pres, Si in the im- 
 perf. and 5 in the supine, e. g. spa to foretell, ek spai, spaSr, 
 hefi spaS; so also stra to straw, ma to wear, ga to take heed 
 etc. Yet the pres. is sometimes found without i, e. g. hann 
 forsmar or forsmair he scorns. 
 
 248. Some are irregular in the pres. conjunctive, where 
 they change the vowel; others in the supine which they form 
 after the 1st class in at («5>, these want the part. pass. Most 
 
SIMPLER CLASS. 
 
 115 
 
 are irregular in both respects alike, some in other ways 
 most important of these are : 
 
 the 
 
 Infin. 
 
 Pres. 
 
 Imperl-'. 
 
 Conjunct. 
 
 Sup. 
 
 
 vaka 
 
 vaki 
 
 vakti 
 
 vekti 
 
 vakit 
 
 to wake 
 
 flaka 
 
 flaki 
 
 flakti 
 
 flekti 
 
 ilakit 
 
 to crack 
 
 hafa 
 
 hefi 
 
 hafSi 
 
 hefSi 
 
 haft 
 
 to have 
 
 na 
 
 nae 
 
 na5i 
 
 nseSi 
 
 naS 
 
 to near 
 
 |)VO 
 
 (J)va) f)vse 
 
 J)Vo5i 
 
 {)vs&5i 
 
 J)vegit 
 
 to wash 
 
 Ija 
 
 ljse (le) 
 
 left 
 
 m 
 
 led 
 
 to lend 
 
 (ske 
 
 skeftr 
 
 skeSi 
 
 skeSi 
 
 skeS 
 
 to happen) 
 
 vara 
 
 vari 
 
 varSi 
 
 or varaSi 
 
 varat 
 
 to wear 
 
 f)ora 
 
 fori 
 
 {)0r5i 
 
 J>yr5i 
 
 ]3orat 
 
 to dare 
 
 t>ola 
 
 |>oli 
 
 |>oldi 
 
 f>yldi 
 
 folat 
 
 to bear 
 
 tdra 
 
 tori 
 
 torSi 
 
 torSi 
 
 tdrat 
 
 to live poorly 
 
 una 
 
 uni 
 
 undi 
 
 yndi 
 
 unat 
 
 to be content 
 
 duga 
 
 dugi 
 
 dugSi 
 
 dygSi 
 
 dugat 
 
 to be enough 
 
 triia 
 
 trui 
 
 truSi 
 
 try5i 
 
 truat 
 
 to trow 
 
 vela 
 
 veli 
 
 velti 
 
 velti 
 
 velat 
 
 to cheat. 
 
 Of these vaka has a double form in the part, pass., viz 
 vakinn and vaktr; ske, which belongs to the new tongue and 
 is impers., has also in the pres. sker; vara to warn is regul- 
 arly inflect, after the 1st class, as also duga to be good ; for 
 trySi trySi is both said and written, which is more regular but 
 very rare; truadr trusty , retttruadr righttr 'owing , orthodox is 
 used as an adj.; of vela a part. pass, veltr, is found, and of 
 lifa lifinn in the poets. 
 
 All those which in the pres. indie, change their vowel 
 take again in the pi. the vowel of the infin. ; which however 
 in the I s * pers. is again changed it if be a, e. g. 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 The same takes place in all verbs of the following class. 
 as well regular as irregular. 
 
 8* 
 
 1. 
 
 hefi 
 
 nae 
 
 veld 
 
 2. 
 
 hefir 
 
 naer 
 
 veldr 
 
 3. 
 
 hefir 
 
 naer 
 
 veldr 
 
 1. 
 
 hofum 
 
 naum 
 
 voldum 
 
 2. 
 
 hafio" 
 
 naiS 
 
 valdiS 
 
 3. 
 
 hafa 
 
 na 
 
 vaida, 
 
116 
 
 VERBS 
 
 3"' Class. 
 
 249. This class distinguishes itself by having no final 
 vowel in the pres., and by changing the chief vowel in the 
 imperf.; after this vowel it has a simple , seldom a double 
 cons., and never position as its characteristic; the first syll. 
 has also commonly a simple vowel, and the part. pass, has 
 most often a second form (194.), e. g. def. hit talda, hinn 
 taldi, hin talda, indef. talit, talinn, talin. The imperf. takes t 
 only where the characteristic is k, p, or t, in other cases d 
 or S by the common rules; further examples are; 
 
 berja 
 
 ber 
 
 barSi 
 
 berSi 
 
 barit 
 
 to smite 
 
 dvelja 
 
 dvel 
 
 dvaldi 
 
 dveldi 
 
 dvalit 
 
 to dwell 
 
 velja 
 
 vel 
 
 valdi 
 
 veldi 
 
 valit 
 
 to chose 
 
 venja 
 
 ven 
 
 vandi 
 
 vendi 
 
 vanit 
 
 to wean, accustom 
 
 lemja 
 
 lem 
 
 lamdi 
 
 lemdi 
 
 lamit 
 
 to beat 
 
 leggja 
 
 legg 
 
 lagSi 
 
 legSi 
 
 lagt (lagit 
 
 ) to lay down 
 
 vekja 
 
 vek 
 
 vakti 
 
 vekti 
 
 vakit 
 
 to ?vaken 
 
 |>ekja 
 
 |>ek 
 
 |>akti 
 
 J>ekli 
 
 f)akit 
 
 to thatch {cover) 
 
 qveSja 
 
 qve*S 
 
 qvaddi 
 
 qveddi 
 
 qvadt 
 
 to take leave 
 
 gleSja 
 
 gle5 
 
 gladdi 
 
 gleddi 
 
 gladt 
 
 to gladden 
 
 hvetja 
 
 hvet 
 
 hvatti 
 
 hvetti 
 
 hvatt 
 
 to whet 
 
 krefja 
 
 kref 
 
 krafSi 
 
 krefffi 
 
 krafit 
 
 to crave 
 
 glepja 
 
 giep 
 
 glapti 
 
 glepti 
 
 glapit 
 
 to lead astray 
 
 spyrja 
 
 spyr 
 
 spurSi 
 
 spyrSi 
 
 spurt 
 
 to ash, speer 
 
 hy\ja 
 
 hyl 
 
 huldi 
 
 hyldi 
 
 hulit 
 
 to hide 
 
 stynja 
 
 styn 
 
 stundi 
 
 styndi 
 
 stunit 
 
 to groan 
 
 rymja 
 
 rym 
 
 rumdi 
 
 rymdi 
 
 rumt 
 
 to roar 
 
 tyggja 
 
 tygg 
 
 tugSi 
 
 tygSi 
 
 tuggit 
 
 to chew 
 
 tyfcja 
 
 lyk 
 
 lukti 
 
 lykti 
 
 lukt 
 
 to shut to 
 
 rySja 
 
 ryS 
 
 ruddi 
 
 ryddi 
 
 rudt 
 
 to root out 
 
 %tja 
 
 flyt 
 
 flutti 
 
 flytti 
 
 flutt 
 
 to carry 
 
 t>ysja 
 
 i>ys 
 
 Jmsti 
 
 Jysti 
 
 |)USt 
 
 to rush on 
 
 tfja 
 
 if 
 
 luSi 
 
 w 
 
 lud (luit) 
 
 to hammer 
 
 So also ftyja to fly in new writers, but in old with change 
 of vowel, imperf. ftySi, part ftyit. Some have two forms in 
 the infin. and pres. fcreyja or fcra to long for, heyja or ha to 
 
SIMPLER CLASS. 
 
 117 
 
 give (battle)^ aeja or a to graze, taeja or ta to card wool, the 
 imperf. is commonly JraSi, etc. 
 
 250. The four following do not change their vowel; 
 
 setja 
 
 set 
 
 setti 
 
 setti 
 
 sett 
 
 to set 
 
 selja 
 
 sel 
 
 seldi 
 
 seldi 
 
 selt 
 
 to sell 
 
 skilja 
 
 skil 
 
 skildi 
 
 skildi 
 
 skilit 
 
 to separate 
 
 vilja 
 
 vil 
 
 vildi 
 
 vildi 
 
 viljat 
 
 to will. 
 
 The last takes beside vill (for vilr) in the 2nd and 3rd pers, 
 pres. in old writers, in new vilt in the 2nd 5 and vill in the 
 3iti- for the infin. vilja vildu is also found. These six are 
 irregular, which in the pres. seem to belong to the 2nd class. 
 
 i>y k J a 
 
 yrkja 
 
 ssekja 
 kaupa 
 segja 
 Jegja 
 
 f>yki 
 
 yrki | 
 
 saeki 
 kaupi 
 
 segi 
 
 fotti 
 
 fjaetti 
 
 f)6tt 
 
 to think 
 
 orti 
 
 yrti 
 
 ort 
 
 ) to write verse 
 )to work 
 
 (yrkti 
 
 yrkti 
 
 yrkt) 
 
 sotti 
 
 saetti 
 
 sott 
 
 to seek 
 
 keypti 
 
 keypti 
 
 keypt 
 
 to bug 
 
 sagc)i 
 
 segSi 
 
 sagt 
 
 to sag 
 
 jpagfti 
 
 f)eg5i 
 
 fa gat 
 
 to be silent, 
 
 New writers often use f)6kti, orkti, sokti, j>aekti, etc., 
 t>egja makes in the imperat. |>egi peace, be silent! 
 
 251. Words with r, or s, for their characteristic remain 
 in new writers alike in all three pers. sing, pres.; in old 
 writers rr, ss, are often used in the 2nd and 3id pers. e. g. ek 
 spyr, |m spyrr, hann spyrr, etc. 
 
 252. The following are also irregular in the pres., where 
 they become monosyll., and like the imperf. of the 2nd con- 
 jugation: 
 
 
 ( ami 
 
 unni 
 
 ynni 
 
 unnt 
 
 to grant 
 
 unna 
 
 \ unni 
 
 unti 
 
 ynti 
 
 
 to love 
 
 kunna 
 
 kann 
 
 kunni 
 
 kynni 
 
 kunnat 
 
 to be able 
 
 muna 
 
 man 
 
 mundi 
 
 myndi 
 
 munat 
 
 to remember 
 
 munu 
 mundu 
 
 mun 
 man 
 
 mundi 
 
 ( mundi 
 mvndi 
 
 wanting 
 
 will, would 
 
118 
 
 VKRIJS. 
 
 skulu 
 sky Id u 
 
 j ska! 
 
 skyldi 
 
 skyldi 
 
 wanting 
 
 shall, ought 
 
 fmrfa 
 
 |>arf 
 
 jDUlfti 
 
 I>yrfti 
 
 fmrft 
 
 to be needful 
 
 eiga 
 
 a 
 
 atti 
 
 aetti 
 
 alt 
 
 to own 
 
 mega 
 
 ma 
 
 matti 
 
 maetti 
 
 matt 
 
 to be able 
 
 knega 
 kna 
 
 kna 
 
 knatti 
 knaSi 
 
 knsetti 
 
 (knatt) j 
 (knaS) | 
 
 to be able 
 
 vita 
 
 veit 
 
 vissi 
 
 vissi 
 
 vitat 
 
 to know 
 
 From skulu there is also found a pres. conj. skyli in old 
 Poets. Tbe adj. kunnt, kunnr, kunn known, skylt, skyldr, 
 skyld, bound, as also skylit, skylinn, skylin, together with 
 vitat, vitaSr, vituS, fixed, may be regarded as part, pass.; 
 knega and kna are merely poetical expressions. 
 
 These words are thus declined in the pres. 
 Sing. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 So also are inflected, 
 
 ann f)arf ma 
 
 man mun kna. 
 
 New writers however use nearly without exception the 
 endings i5, a, in the 2nd, and 3rd pers. pi. of all these. 
 
 1 
 
 kann 
 
 skal 
 
 a 
 
 veit 
 
 2. 
 
 kannt 
 
 skalt 
 
 att 
 
 veizt 
 
 2. 
 
 kann 
 
 skal 
 
 a 
 
 veit 
 
 1. 
 
 kunnum 
 
 skul um 
 
 eigum 
 
 vitum 
 
 2. 
 
 kunniQ 
 
 skuluS 
 
 eigu5 « 
 
 viliS 
 
 3 
 
 kunna 
 
 skulu 
 
 eigu 
 
 vita. 
 
 253. In addition the following are irregular in a peculiar 
 
 way 
 
 nua 
 
 n? 
 
 neri 
 
 nuit 
 
 to rub 
 
 sniia 
 
 sn^ 
 
 sneri 
 
 snuit 
 
 to turn 
 
 rda 
 
 ra3 
 
 reri 
 
 roit 
 
 to row 
 
 groa 
 
 grae 
 
 greri 
 
 groit 
 
 to grow 
 
 soa 
 
 sae 
 
 seri 
 
 soit 
 
 to sow, scatter. 
 
 The last is obsolete and dissolved into two words, viz, 
 soa to scatter is regular after the l«t class, and sa to sow, 
 regular, like spa and the other monosyll. of the 2nd class. 
 
MORE COMPLEX CLASS. 119 
 
 More complex class. 
 
 254. This division ends always in aeons, in the 1st pers. 
 pres. indie., in the imperat., and in the imperf.; but in the imperf, 
 the vowel is changed at the same time, and by this change 
 of sound it is divided again into subordinate classes. Of such 
 classes five have been commonly adopted, but it seems clearer 
 and more right to assume six, three of which keep the same 
 vowel in the sing, and plur. , of the imperf., while the rest 
 take a new vowel change in the plur. of the imperf. \ the former 
 have commonly the same vowel in the supine as in the infin. 
 the latter always one different from that in that tense. 
 
 The character of these six classes in their Principal tenses 
 may be seen from the following table ; 
 
 1. spinna spinn spann pi. spunnum spynni spunnit to spin 
 
 2. drepa drep drap — drapum draepi drepit to slay 
 
 3. bita bit beit — bitum bid bitit to bite 
 
 4. lata laet let — letum leti Jatit to leave 
 
 5. brjota brft braut — brutum bryti brotit to break 
 
 6. grafai gref grof — grofum graefi grafit to dig. 
 
 They distinguish themselves solely by the formation of 
 their tenses, in the inflection itself they are all entirely alike, 
 and it thus seems impossible to assume that they make more 
 than a single conjugation. 
 
 255. This division answers exactly to that which is also 
 right in the German tongues , "though different writers have 
 exhibited it in different ways. In my Angl. Sax. Grammar I 
 have followed the same, but Zahn in his edition of Ulfilas, 
 and Adelung in his Germ. Grammar, differ a little from this 
 scheme. 
 
 Icel. 
 
 Angl. Sax. 
 
 
 Zahn 
 
 Adelung. 
 
 1. bind 
 
 1. binde 
 
 4. 
 
 binda \ 
 
 1. gebe 
 
 ( 3. greife 
 | 2. lasse 
 
 2. gef 
 
 3. grip 
 
 4. laet 
 
 2. gife 
 
 3. gripe ) 
 
 4. laete j 
 
 3. 
 1. 
 
 giba j 
 greipa 
 
 5. m 
 
 6 gref 
 
 5. buge 
 
 6. grafe 
 
 5. 
 
 2. 
 
 biuga 
 graba 
 
 4. biege 
 
 5. grabe 
 
120 VERIJS. 
 
 Though these verbs answer to the so called impure verbs 
 in Greek, and to the 3m conjug. in Latin, they do not how- 
 ever agree nearly so much with these tongues as those 
 of the former division ; the reason of this is that the 2«^ Di- 
 vision in the Gothic tongues is not arranged, as in the Thra- 
 cian, after the characteristic letter, but after the vowel of the 
 1st syll., of which fact, it is easy to convince oneself on 
 comparing, e. g. kjosa to chose with blasa to blow, 
 at kjosa k^s kaus kusu kysi kosit 
 
 at blasa blaes bles blesu blesi blasil. 
 
 These have the same characteristic but are nevertheless 
 formed quite differently. If on the other hand we compare 
 kjosa with brjota, and blasa with lata, we then see that they 
 are formed exactly in the same way, though they have quite 
 different characteristic letters , because they have the vowel 
 of the chief syll. in common. This vowel however need not 
 be entirely the same; e. g. fljuga, to fly, luta to bow, bend, 
 etc., are inflected exactly like kjosa; this is the reason why 
 it seems surer to ground the division on the vowel of the 
 imperf., than on that of the infm. But in the Latin it is seldom 
 that any change of vowel takes place , where also only the 
 characteristic letter and not the vowel of the chief syll., comes 
 into consideration; e.g. Icedo is inflected like ludo and plaudo ; 
 veko like iraho , lingo, like jungo, etc. For these reasons 
 the two divisions cannot exactly answer to each other, though 
 numbers of words are the same in both tongues , e. g. ala 
 alere, eta edere, vada vahere, ek ber. fer-o etc. 
 
 256. Farther the more artificial Division changes the vowel 
 of the sing. pres. viz , a, o, to e : a, 0, to ce, ii ? jii, jo to y, 
 au, to ey; and this in all cases; the other vowels e, i, ei, etc. 
 remain always unchanged. This change of vowel takes place 
 in all the three pers. sing., not as in the German tongues only 
 in the 2>"i and 3m ; The actual chief vowel of the verb therefore 
 is not to be found with certainty in the 1st pers., but in the 
 verbs must be sought in the infin. see (240.). Those of which 
 the characteristic letter is /*, n, or 5, double it in the 2nd and 
 3m pers. in old writers, but in new are like in all 3 pers. 
 
MORE COMPLEX CLASS. 
 
 121 
 
 (251). They are also often found with 8, d, or t, added to 
 the 2nd pers., e. g. at ausa, to sprinkle, ek eys, |>u eyst, or 
 eyss, hann eys, or eyss. In the pi. the actual vowel always 
 returns, which however, if it be a, is again turned into o in 
 the 1st pers. by means of the ending um. Of all these points 
 examples are also found in the irregular verbs of the simpler 
 division see 248. 
 
 257. As examples of all these regular classes in the 
 more artificial division, brenna to burn, gefa to give, gripa 
 to gripe, seize, lata to let, leave, frjosa to freeze, fara to fare, 
 journey may serve. 
 
 
 1st Class. 
 
 2nd Class. 
 
 3rd Class. 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 
 Active. 
 
 
 Pres. Sing. 
 
 1. brenn 
 
 gef 
 
 grip 
 
 
 2. brennr 
 
 gefr 
 
 gripr 
 
 
 3. brennr 
 
 gefr 
 
 gripr 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. brennum 
 
 gefum 
 
 gripum 
 
 
 2. brenniS 
 
 gefiS 
 
 gn'piS 
 
 
 3. brenna 
 
 gefa 
 
 gripa 
 
 Imperf. Sing. 
 
 1. brann 
 
 gaf 
 
 greip 
 
 
 2. brannt 
 
 gaft 
 
 greipt 
 
 
 3. brann 
 
 gaf 
 
 greip 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. brunnum 
 
 gafum 
 
 gripum 
 
 
 2. brunnu5 
 
 gafuS 
 
 gripuS 
 
 
 3. brunnu 
 
 gafu 
 
 gripu 
 
 Conjunctive. 
 
 
 
 
 Pres. Sing. 
 
 1. brenni 
 
 gefi 
 
 gripi 
 
 
 2. brennir 
 
 gefir 
 
 gripir 
 
 
 3. brenni 
 
 gefi 
 
 gripi 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. brennum 
 
 gefum 
 
 gripum 
 
 
 2. brennift 
 
 gefiS 
 
 gripiS 
 
 
 3. brenni 
 
 gefi 
 
 gripi 
 
 Imperf. Sing 
 
 1. brynni 
 
 gaefi 
 
 gripi 
 
 
 2. brynni r 
 
 gaeiir 
 
 gripir 
 
 
 3. brynni 
 
 gaefi 
 
 gripi 
 
122 
 
 VERS. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. brynnum 
 
 gaefum* 
 
 gripum 
 
 
 2. brynnuS 
 
 gaefuS 
 
 gripuS 
 
 
 3. brynnu 
 
 ga3fu 
 
 gripu 
 
 Imperat. 
 
 2. brenn-du 
 
 gef-5u 
 
 grip-tu 
 
 Infin. 
 
 brenna 
 
 gefa 
 
 gripa 
 
 Part. pres. 
 
 brennandi 
 
 gefandi 
 
 gripandi 
 
 Sup. act. 
 
 brunnit 
 
 gefit 
 
 gripit 
 
 Sup. Pass. 
 
 wanting 
 
 gefizt 
 
 gripizt 
 
 
 4tn Class. 
 
 5tu Class. 
 
 6th Class. 
 
 Indicat. 
 
 
 Active. 
 
 
 Pres. Sing. 
 
 1. Iset 
 
 fitfa 
 
 fer 
 
 
 2. lsetr 
 
 ftys-t 
 
 fer-S 
 
 
 3. lsetr 
 
 frfs 
 
 fer 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. latum 
 
 frjosum 
 
 forum 
 
 
 2. latiS 
 
 frjosiS 
 
 fariS 
 
 
 3. lata 
 
 frjosa 
 
 fara 
 
 Imperf. Sing. 
 
 1. let 
 
 fraus 
 
 for 
 
 
 2. lezt 
 
 fraust 
 
 fort 
 
 
 3. let 
 
 fraus 
 
 for 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. letum 
 
 frusum 
 
 forum 
 
 
 2. letuS 
 
 frusuS 
 
 foruS 
 
 
 3. letu 
 
 frusu 
 
 foru 
 
 Conjunctive. 
 
 
 
 
 Pres. Sing. 
 
 1. lati 
 
 frjosi 
 
 fari 
 
 
 2. latir 
 
 frjosir 
 
 farir 
 
 
 3. lati 
 
 frjosi 
 
 fari 
 
 Plur. 
 
 1. latum 
 
 frjosum 
 
 forum 
 
 
 2. latiS 
 
 frjosiS 
 
 fariS 
 
 
 3. lati 
 
 frjosi 
 
 fari 
 
 Imperf. Sing. 
 
 1. leti 
 
 frysi 
 
 faeri 
 
 
 2. letir 
 
 frysir 
 
 faerir 
 
 
 3. leti 
 
 frysi 
 
 faari 
 
 Plur, 
 
 i. letum 
 
 frysum 
 
 faerum 
 
 
 2. Ielu5 
 
 frysuft 
 
 faeruS 
 
 
 3. letu 
 
 frysu 
 
 faeru 
 
MORE COMPLEX CLASS. 
 
 123 
 
 Imperat. 
 
 lat-tu 
 
 frjos-tu 
 
 far-Cu 
 
 Infin. 
 
 lata 
 
 frjosa 
 
 fara 
 
 Part pres. 
 
 latandi 
 
 fjdsandi 
 
 farandi 
 
 Sup. act. 
 
 latit 
 
 frosit 
 
 farit 
 
 Sup. Pas. 
 
 latizt 
 
 {wanting) 
 
 farizt. 
 
 The passive is formed here, as in the simpler division, 
 from the active by adding st, before which r falls away, but 
 dj and /, which also fall away, are replaced by z, for s, e. g. 
 gripst throughout in the sing., gripumst, gripizt, gripast, in 
 the pi.; laezt in the sing., latumst, latizt, latast in the pi. etc.; 
 but many of these which are neut. take no pass., e. g. ek 
 brenn, ek frys, etc. 
 
 1« Class. 
 
 258. This class has also in consequence of the cons, some 
 small variations , which may be seen from the following ex- 
 amples ; 
 
 renna, 
 
 renn, 
 
 rann, 
 
 runnum, 
 
 rynni 
 
 runnit 
 
 to run 
 
 vinna, 
 
 vinn, 
 
 vann, 
 
 unnum, 
 
 ynni. 
 
 unnit, 
 
 to win 
 
 vinda, 
 
 vind, 
 
 vatt, 
 
 undum, 
 
 yndi, 
 
 undit, 
 
 to hoist \ wind 
 
 hrinda, 
 
 hrind, 
 
 hratt, 
 
 hrundum, 
 
 hryndi, 
 
 hrundit, 
 
 to hurl down 
 
 finna, 
 
 firm, 
 
 fann, 
 
 fundum, 
 
 fyndi, 
 
 fundit, 
 
 to find 
 
 drecka^ 
 
 dreck, 
 
 drack, 
 
 druckum, 
 
 drycki, 
 
 druckit 
 
 to drink 
 
 stinga, 
 
 sting, 
 
 stack, 
 
 stungum, 
 
 st^ngi, 
 
 stungit, 
 
 to pricks sting 
 
 springa, spring, sprack, sprungum 
 
 , spryngi 
 
 , spriingit 
 
 , to split 
 
 skella, 
 
 skell, 
 
 skall, 
 
 skullum, 
 
 (skylli, 
 
 skolit), 
 
 to ring 
 
 velta, 
 
 velt, 
 
 valt, 
 
 ultum, 
 
 yiti, 
 
 oltit, 
 
 to roll 
 
 gjalda, 
 
 geld, 
 
 gait, 
 
 guldum, 
 
 gyidi, 
 
 goldit, 
 
 to pay 
 
 skjalfa, 
 
 skelf, 
 
 skalf, 
 
 skulfum, 
 
 skylfi, 
 
 skolfit, 
 
 to shake 
 
 svelgja 
 
 ? svelg, 
 
 svalg, 
 
 (sulgum) 
 
 sy 1 ^ 
 
 svolgit, 
 
 to swill 
 
 svella, 
 
 svell, 
 
 svall, 
 
 sultum, 
 
 sylti, 
 
 sollit, 
 
 to swell 
 
 vella, 
 
 veil, 
 
 vail, 
 
 ullum, 
 
 yffi, 
 
 ollit, 
 
 to boil 
 
 svelta, 
 
 svelt, 
 
 svalt, 
 
 sultum, 
 
 sylti, 
 
 s oltit, 
 
 to fast, starve 
 
 |)verra, 
 
 f)verr ? 
 
 |)varr, 
 
 (Jmrrum). 
 
 fcyiri, 
 
 f)orrit, 
 
 to lessen 
 
 verSa, 
 
 ver$, 
 
 var$, 
 
 urftum, 
 
 yr8i, 
 
 ornit, 
 
 to become 
 
124 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 snerta, (snert) snart, (snurtum snyrti) snortit, to touch 
 
 hverfa, hverfj hvarf, hvurfum, hvyrfi, horfit, to diminish 
 
 verpa, verp, varp, urpum, yrpi, orpit, to lay {eggs) 
 
 bjarga, berg, barg, (burgum) byrgi borgit, to help 
 
 bresta, brest, brast, brustum, brysti, brostit, to burst 
 
 sleppa, slepp, slapp, sluppum, slyppi, sloppit, to slip away, 
 
 let slip 
 
 detta, dett, datt, duttum, dytti, dottit, to fall 
 
 spretta, sprett, spratt, spruttum, sprytti, sprottit, to start up 
 
 Those which have n next to the chief vowel take in the 
 sup. u, the rest o. 
 
 The rule that v falls away before o, u, and y, is some- 
 times neglected, particularly if a cons, go before; but very 
 few indeed are found actually irregular; valda to carry along, 
 makes veld, vald, and in the sup. valdit; in the pi. imperf., 
 and imperf. conjunct., I have never met with it; of snerta on- 
 ly snerli is perhaps found in the pres., which Bjorn Haldorson 
 gives, but it is besides the actual pres. of another verb, which 
 makes snerti in the imperf., and is declined after the 2"J class 
 of the 1st division. 
 
 
 
 
 2nd 
 
 Class. 
 
 
 
 259. This class 
 
 is not so 
 
 numerous; farther examples are ; 
 
 qvefta 
 
 qveQ 
 
 qvaS 
 
 qvaftum 
 
 qvaeSi 
 
 qveSit 
 
 to sing 
 
 biSja 
 
 bi8 
 
 ba5 
 
 baSum 
 
 bseSi 
 
 beSit 
 
 to pray 
 
 geta 
 
 get 
 
 gat 
 
 gatum 
 
 gseti 
 
 getit 
 
 to beget, talk of 
 
 siija 
 
 sit 
 
 sat 
 
 satum 
 
 sseti 
 
 setit 
 
 to sit 
 
 lesa 
 
 les 
 
 las 
 
 lasum 
 
 laesi 
 
 lesit 
 
 to read 
 
 troSa 
 
 treS 
 
 tra5 
 
 traSum 
 
 traeSi 
 
 troSit 
 
 to tread 
 
 koma 
 
 kem 
 
 qvam 
 
 qvamum 
 
 qvaemi 
 
 komit 
 
 to come 
 
 sofa 
 
 sef 
 
 svaf 
 
 svafum 
 
 svaefi 
 
 sofit 
 
 to sleep 
 
 drepa 
 
 drep 
 
 drap 
 
 drapum 
 
 drsepi 
 
 drepit 
 
 to slay 
 
 reka 
 
 rek 
 
 rak 
 
 rakum 
 
 raeki 
 
 rekit 
 
 to drive • 
 
 Some take a in the sing, of the imperf., or are irregular in 
 other respects, these are in particular. 
 
 
MORE COMPLEX CLASS. 
 
 125 
 
 eta 
 
 et 
 
 at-um 
 
 seti 
 
 elit 
 
 to eat 
 
 vega 
 
 veg 
 
 vag-um 
 
 vaegi 
 
 vegit 
 
 to kill 
 
 Jiggja 
 
 %g 
 
 lag-um 
 
 la3gi 
 
 legit 
 
 to lie 
 
 f>iggja 
 
 frggj 
 
 f)ag-um 
 |>a5i,Sum 
 
 faegi 
 
 f>egit 
 
 to receive 
 
 sja 
 
 ser 
 
 sa-um 
 
 ssei 
 
 se5 
 
 to see. 
 
 Instead of traS traSu , IroS tr65u , are now commonly said 
 by the 6th class; and for qvam, qvamu, qvaemi; kom, komu, 
 ka3mi. Those with the characteristic g usually lose it in pron. 
 and writing, in the imperf. indie; thus we often found la-u, 
 J)a-Uj va-u and in new writers vo, or by the 6t& class 
 vo-u, vog-u. 
 
 260. To this class belongs also the auxiliary verb vera 
 to be which is irregular in the pres.; it is thus inflected. 
 
 
 Indie. 
 
 Conjunc. 
 
 Imperat. 
 
 Pres. Sing. 
 
 ek em (er) 
 
 se 
 
 veri 
 
 
 |>u ert 
 
 ser (ser*S) 
 
 ver-tu (verir) 
 
 
 hann er 
 
 se 
 
 veri 
 
 Plur. 
 
 ver erum 
 
 seum 
 
 verum 
 
 
 |>er eruo" 
 
 seu5 
 
 verio* 
 
 
 |>eir eru 
 
 seu 
 
 vera 
 
 Imperf. Sing. 
 
 ek var 
 
 vaeri 
 
 Infinitive. 
 
 
 fm vart 
 
 vasrir 
 
 Pres. vera 
 
 
 hann var 
 
 vseri 
 
 Pret. ha fa verit 
 
 
 ver vorum 
 
 vserum 
 
 Part. 
 
 
 |>er voru5 
 
 vseru5 
 
 verandi 
 
 
 |>eir voru 
 
 vaaru 
 
 verit. 
 
 The pres, conj, is taken from another imperfect verb, and 
 the pres. imperat. seems originally to have been the conj. of 
 vera; for vorum etc., vorum is also used, old authors write 
 varum. 
 
 261. Those which have changeable characteristics form 
 the supine like the first class, e. g. 
 
126 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 nema 
 
 nem 
 
 ( nam 
 ( numdi 
 
 nam-um 
 or naemdi 
 
 naemi 
 
 numit 
 numda 
 
 to learn 
 to deprive 
 
 skera 
 
 sker 
 
 skar 
 
 skarum 
 
 skaeri 
 
 skorit 
 
 to shear, cut 
 
 bera 
 
 ber 
 
 bar 
 
 barum 
 
 baeri 
 
 borit 
 
 to bear 
 
 stela 
 
 stel 
 
 stal 
 
 stalum 
 
 StCeli 
 
 stolit 
 
 to steal 
 
 fela 
 
 fel 
 
 j fal 
 I fol 
 
 falum 
 folum 
 
 faeli 
 
 falit 
 
 folgit. 
 
 to hide arvat 
 
 
 
 
 3'<< Class. 
 
 
 
 262. This class is very regular and simple, it has in all 
 pres t, and in all pret. i, except in the sing, imperf. indie, 
 where it takes ei; farther examples are; 
 
 rib'a 
 
 ri5 
 
 reio 7 
 
 riSum 
 
 riSi 
 
 ri<5it 
 
 to ride 
 
 qviSa 
 
 qviS 
 
 qveiS 
 
 qviSum 
 
 qviSi 
 
 qviSit 
 
 to fear 
 
 h'ta 
 
 lit 
 
 leit 
 
 litum 
 
 liti 
 
 litit 
 
 to look 
 
 bita 
 
 bit 
 
 beit 
 
 bitum 
 
 biti 
 
 bitit 
 
 to bite 
 
 drifa 
 
 drif 
 
 dreif 
 
 drifum 
 
 drifi 
 
 drifit 
 
 to drift 
 
 Jjrifa 
 
 |)rif 
 
 Jreif 
 
 f)rifum 
 
 J)rin 
 
 fcrifit 
 
 to tend, snatch, 
 
 siga 
 
 sig 
 
 seig 
 
 sigum 
 
 sigi 
 
 sigit 
 
 to sink 
 
 stiga 
 
 stig 
 
 steig 
 
 stigum 
 
 utigi 
 
 stigit 
 
 to climb, rise 
 
 vikja 
 
 vik 
 
 veik 
 
 vikum 
 
 viki 
 
 vikit 
 
 to yield 
 
 svikja 
 
 svik 
 
 sveik 
 
 svikum 
 
 sviki 
 
 svikit 
 
 to cheat 
 
 skin a 
 
 skin 
 
 skein 
 
 skinum 
 
 skini 
 
 skinit 
 
 to shine 
 
 risa 
 
 ris 
 
 reis 
 
 risum 
 
 risi 
 
 risit 
 
 to rise up. 
 
 In old writers rita to write, and rista to carve {runes) go 
 with this class , but new writers use rita and inflect, it after 
 the 1st class of the simpler division; and rista after the 2«d class 
 of the same; qviddi also is found for qvei5. 
 
 4<a Class. 
 
 263. To this class comparatively few verbs belong, the 
 most important are the following; 
 
 grata graet 
 rafta raeS 
 biota blaet 
 
 gret-um 
 
 re5-um 
 
 blet-um 
 
 greti 
 
 reSi 
 
 bleti 
 
 gratit to weep 
 
 raSit to advise 
 
 blotit to offer, worship 
 
MORE COMPLEX CLASS. 
 
 127 
 
 blasa blaes 
 
 falla fell 
 
 halda held 
 
 leika leik 
 
 bles-um 
 
 fell-um 
 
 helt heldum 
 
 lek-um 
 
 blesi 
 felli 
 heldi 
 leki 
 
 blasit 
 fallit 
 haldit 
 leikit 
 
 to blow 
 to fall 
 to hold 
 to play. 
 
 In addition all those in iga of the 3rd class belong to this 
 class also ; we may thus also say. 
 stiga stig ste-um ste-i stigit to rise 
 
 hniga hnig hne-um hne-i hnigit to fall, stoop. 
 
 These are irregular; 
 ganga geing geek geingum 
 
 hanga 
 
 fa 
 
 heita 
 
 hangi 
 fa3 ~ 
 heiti 
 
 heck 
 feck 
 het 
 
 heingum 
 feingum 
 hetum 
 
 gemgi 
 heingi 
 feingi 
 
 geingit 
 hangit 
 feingit 
 
 heti heitit 
 
 to go 
 to hang 
 to get , take 
 to he called. 
 
 Biota now commonly goes with the 1st class of the sim- 
 pler division; ganga makes in the imperat. gack- (tu). It is 
 
 indifferent whether we write geck 5 geingum 
 geingum without the accent. (81.). 
 
 etc., or geek 
 
 
 
 
 bth 
 
 Class. 
 
 
 
 264. This class is 
 
 > like the 4th very 
 
 regular and numerous; 
 
 sjofta 
 
 sp 
 
 sau<5 
 
 su5um 
 
 sy5i 
 
 so5it 
 
 to seeth 
 
 bjdSa 
 
 bf$ 
 
 bauS 
 
 butSum 
 
 bySi 
 
 boSit 
 
 to bid 
 
 njota 
 
 "ft 
 
 naut 
 
 nutum 
 
 nyti 
 
 notit 
 
 to enjoy 
 
 brjota 
 
 bvft 
 
 braut 
 
 brutum 
 
 bryti 
 
 brotit 
 
 to break 
 
 Ijosta 
 
 \fst 
 
 laust 
 
 lustum 
 
 lysti 
 
 lostit 
 
 to strike 
 
 s^ngja 
 
 s^ng 
 
 saung 
 
 sungum 
 
 s^ngi 
 
 sungit 
 
 to sing 
 
 rjufa 
 
 r^f 
 
 rauf 
 
 rufum 
 
 ryfi 
 
 rofit 
 
 to rive 
 
 kljufa 
 
 ktyf 
 
 klauf 
 
 klufum 
 
 klyfi 
 
 klofit 
 
 to cleave 
 
 drjup 
 
 dr^p 
 
 draup 
 
 drupum 
 
 drypi 
 
 dropit 
 
 to drop, drip 
 
 krjupa 
 
 kr^p 
 
 kraup 
 
 krupum 
 
 krypi 
 
 kropit 
 
 to creep 
 
 fljuga 
 
 fife 
 
 flaug 
 
 ilugum 
 
 flygi 
 
 flogit 
 
 to fly 
 
 sjiiga 
 
 s^g 
 
 saug 
 
 sugum 
 
 sygi 
 
 sogit 
 
 to suck 
 
 rjuka 
 
 r^k 
 
 rauk 
 
 rukum 
 
 ryki 
 
 rokit 
 
 to reek 
 
 Ijiika ) 
 luka j 
 
 tyk 
 
 lauk 
 
 lukum 
 
 lyki 
 
 lokit 
 
 to lock, shut 
 to pay 
 
 luta 
 
 tft 
 
 laut 
 
 lutum 
 
 lyti 
 
 lotit 
 
 to bend. 
 
128 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 Some have a simple o in tie pres. . but are otherwise 
 quite regular, e. g. 
 
 sockva sock sock suckum syckvi sockit to sink 
 stockva stock stock stuckum styckvi stockit to leap 
 
 6<* Class. 
 265. This also contains not a few verbs , though it is 
 
 less regular than the foregoing. 
 
 vafta 
 
 ve$ 
 
 68-um 
 
 (aeCi) 
 
 vaSit 
 
 to wade 
 
 hlaSa 
 
 hle5 
 
 hloS-um 
 
 hlaeSi 
 
 hlaffit 
 
 to lade 
 
 skafa 
 
 skef 
 
 skof-um 
 
 (skaefi) 
 
 skafit 
 
 to scrape 
 
 ala 
 
 el 
 
 61-um 
 
 reli 
 
 alit 
 
 to feed, nourish 
 
 
 
 ( hof-um 
 
 (haefi) 
 
 hafit | 
 
 
 hefja 
 
 hef 
 
 1 hafSi 
 ( stir-urn 
 
 hefft 
 saeri ) 
 
 haf »a j 
 
 to heave, lift, 
 
 sverja 
 
 sver 
 
 ( svarfti 
 
 i 
 sverSi ) 
 
 svarit 
 
 to swear 
 
 vefa 
 
 vef 
 
 6f-um 
 
 («fi) 
 
 ofit 
 
 to weave 
 
 draga 
 
 'dreg 
 
 drog-um 
 
 draegi 
 
 dregit 
 
 to draw 
 
 taka 
 
 tek 
 
 tok-um 
 
 taeki 
 
 tekit 
 
 to take 
 
 aka 
 
 ek 
 
 tik-um 
 
 (aeki) 
 
 ekit 
 
 to drive 
 
 sla 
 
 slae 
 
 sltig-um 
 
 slsegi 
 
 slegit 
 
 to strike 
 
 fla 
 
 flae 
 
 flog-um 
 
 (flaegi) 
 
 flegit 
 
 to flay 
 
 hlaea 
 
 hlae 
 
 hlog-um 
 
 hlaegi 
 
 hlegit 
 
 to laugh. 
 
 The following are irregular. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ( do-um 
 
 dsei 
 
 dait ) 
 
 
 deyja 
 
 dey 
 
 \ deySi 
 
 deyfti 
 
 dautt j 
 
 to die 
 
 standa 
 
 stend 
 
 stoSum 
 
 staeSi 
 
 staSit j 
 stadt 1 
 
 to stand. 
 
 Dautt and stadt are properly adj., in the masc, dau5r, 
 staddr, like the Swed. words dod, stadd. The imperat. of 
 standa is stattu; some take the vowel u in the pi. imperf. and 
 form from this the imperf. conj. by changing u into y; these 
 always take in the sup. the same vowel as in the infin., they 
 are the following: 
 
MORE COMPLEX CLASS. 
 
 129 
 
 vaxa 
 
 vex 
 
 6x 
 
 uxum 
 
 yxi vaxit to wax, grow 
 
 auka 
 
 eyk 
 
 jok 
 
 jukum 
 
 juki aukit to increase 
 
 ausa 
 
 eys 
 
 jos 
 
 jusum 
 
 jysi ausit to sprinkle 
 
 hlaupa 
 
 hleyp 
 
 hljop 
 
 hlupum 
 
 hlypi hlaupit to run, urge 
 
 Ma 
 
 1* 
 
 bjo 
 
 bjuggum 
 
 (bjyggi ) 
 
 jbyggi bult t0 dweU 
 
 hoggva 
 
 hogg 
 
 hjo 
 
 hjuggum 
 
 hjyggi hoggvit to hew. 
 
 The first four may also form a regular pi. of the imperf. 
 from the sing, oxum, jokum, josum, hljopum, but the imperf. 
 conj. has only the single form in y. 
 
 266. The cause of the many vowel changes which are 
 found in the 2nd main Division is doubtless , as is the case 
 also to a certain extent in Greek and Latin , that one and 
 the same verb had different forms in different dialects , of 
 which one has been kept in some tenses, the other in others; 
 this is proved partly from the old kindred tongues, where 
 similar forms are sometimes found complete, partly from the 
 analogy of other words ; e. g. the Icel. finna seems to have 
 besides another form viz, finda, whence we have an imperf. 
 pi. fundum, imperf., conj. fyndi, supine fundit, and this form 
 is actually found complete and regular in the Angl. Sax. fin- 
 dan, finde, fand, fundum, fande, gefunden. The word sla seems 
 also to have had another form with g (slaga) from which all 
 the pret. are formed, slog-u, slaegi , slegit; this can also be 
 concluded from a composition with, draga, dreg, drog-u, draagi, 
 dregit, as also from the Germ, schlagen, schldgt , schlug, 
 schluge, geschlagen. 
 
 In like manner the Icel. imperf. seri sowed, seems to be- 
 long to the Latin pres. sero (serere), and again the Latin imperf. 
 sevi and part, satus to the Icel. pres. see (sa or s6a), whence 
 also the Icel. part. sa5r (saftur); just as the Latin crevi seems 
 to be the pret. of the Icel. pres grae, and auxi, auctum, from 
 Icel. at aukan etc. Derivative Subst. also sometimes confirm 
 this dualism of form, e. g. slattr a blow (comp. Germ schlacht) 
 for slagtr, from the form slaga; as drattr for dragtr, from 
 draga, d<5ttir for dogtir etc., together with the word slag 
 
 9 
 
130 VERBS. 
 
 Germ, scklag, which is formed from the old infin. just as fall 
 from falla, stand from stand a, kaup from kaupa, etc. 
 
 Yet in the assuming of such forms care must be taken 
 not to go too far, and confound the changes which euphony 
 requires, with these forms; e. g. from batt (imperf. of binda) 
 we must not assume any verb batta, just as little as from 
 feck any fecka, or of gack, statt (imperat), gacka, statta, or 
 the like, for it is the common working of euphony to change 
 ngk into ck and ndt into tt, as springa sprack, etc. Just as 
 in Greek for example we must not assume any miQo\xai for 
 the future n&iaopat (of rca'tf/Q, because it it the usual process 
 of euphony to put siq for evrq, or evQ$, e. g. rvQQeiq (for 
 tvqQsvt^) etc., and besides there is the form nhQco, subst. 
 itivdoq, pret. nsitdvSa. It is also probable that the vowel in the 
 Old Norse tongue as in other languages was always changed 
 in certain verbs in a certain way; and it is only therefore in 
 the irregular verbs that such forms can be assumed with any 
 show of truth. But to carry this inquiry farther lies beyond 
 the province of Grammar, which should only describe the forms 
 and inflections actually existing in the language. 
 
 The formation of lenses. 
 
 267. The inflection of the Icelandic verbs is very simple, 
 and like the old Swed. and Dansk; the formation also is 
 simple and irregular. The 2«d Division has always a mono- 
 syll. pros, which ends in the characteristic letter itself, and 
 changes the vowel in the usual way; the same would perhaps 
 be also the case with the pres. of the 3^ class of the 1st Di- 
 vision, which is also monosyll., but it has always the vowels 
 e, or g, which do not admit of any farther change. 
 
 The 3rd pers. pi. of the pres. is always the same as the 
 infin., and in general the pi. of the pres. has the same charac- 
 ter, as the infin., as well in regard to the vowel in the chief 
 syll. as to the insertion of j and v, (247.) 
 
 268. All tenses in the conj. are formed from the corres- 
 ponding ones in the indie, only with the change of ending, and 
 
FORMATION OF TENSES. 131 
 
 in the imperf. with change of vowel, in those cases where the 
 vowel of the indie, was changed, but still with a power of 
 changing it again. 
 
 Hence it follows that the pres. conj. has always the same 
 vowel and same character with regard to j and v as the 
 infin. because the pi. pres. indie, has also these. Farther that 
 the imperf. conj. in the 1st and 2nd classes of the 1st Division 
 is always the same as the imperf. indie., because these classes 
 have no vowel change in the indie, and can take none in the 
 conj. except in some few irregular verbs , and in these also 
 the endings are alike; but in all other verbs the imperf. conj. 
 is different from the imperf. indie, because either the vowel 
 or the endings, or both, are unlike. The vowel changes by 
 which the imperf. conj. is formed from the pi. imperf. indie, 
 are always the common ones of o into e 9 ,'u, into y 7 u^ into y, 
 a and 6 into ce. 
 
 269. The past part, is always formed in the l s t Division 
 from the imperf. by change of ending ; t being placed instead 
 of i in the neut. or sup. , and r in the masc. ; the fern, takes 
 no new ending but distinguishes itself by vowel change if the 
 word contains a. Yet in this case heed must be paid to all 
 that has been remarked 185. and 186., particularly that d al- 
 ways falls away before /, but is kept before other cons. The 
 part, of monosyll. verbs on the other hand differ from the 
 monosyll. adj. mentioned in 188., viz they receive no tt in 
 the neut., but on the contrary form the neut. (i. e. sup.) in the 
 same way as the fern, simply by throwing away i. The third 
 class has commonly the double part. (194); the shorter form 
 is always formed from the imperf. indie, in the same way as 
 those of the 2nd class; the longer not only throws away the 
 ending (i), but also the characteristics of the imperf. 5, d, or 
 t, and places in their stead ify inn^ in; this is at bottom just 
 the same as the shorter form, or more properly, both are only 
 separate modes of pronouncing the original form it (for idf), 
 i§r, iS, which in the one case has been contracted 9 so that 
 the vowel has fallen away* while in the other 3 has been 
 changed into n (91.) after a weak vowel; which is very 
 
132 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 common in the Old Norse. We can thus understand how both 
 these forms can be used reciprocally to supply one another as 
 euphony requires, and also see how these part, in it, inn, in, 
 correspond with the Latin in itum, itus, ita, e. g. 
 tamit domitum 
 
 tamior (5ur) domitus 
 
 tamiS domita. 
 
 Of these forms the Icel. sup. always chooses that in it 
 when it occurs, and thus the verbs which have monosyll. 
 sup. want entirely the longer form. 
 
 In the second main Division the part is almost always 
 formed in it, inn in, (for ffit, iftr, i§) ; here too the contracted 
 form is sometimes found , when it is commonly used as 'an 
 independant adj. Monosyll. part of monosyll. verbs take, like 
 those of the 1st Division, no t in the neut. (or sup.). For the 
 rest these part, are not always formed from the imperf. pi., 
 which only holds good of the 1^, 3*d, and 5tn classes; in the 
 2nd ? 4th ? and 6t& they come from the infin. , though sometimes 
 with change of vowel, which will be best seen from the ex- 
 amples given 258 — 265. Only sup. pass, are formed from poly- 
 syll. sup., never new complete part., but from the monosyll. actual 
 pass. part, or reciprocals in all genders are sometimes formed; 
 all that is here said may be seen from the following examples. 
 
 From kallaSi comes 
 
 kallat 
 
 kallaor 
 
 kolluS 
 
 — brendi — 
 
 brent 
 
 brendr 
 
 brend 
 
 — taldi — 
 
 talit 
 
 taliSr 
 
 taliS 
 
 which again becomes either 
 
 talit 
 
 talinn 
 
 talin 
 
 or 
 
 tali 
 
 taldr 
 
 told 
 
 from riiSi plucked of wool 
 
 ru8 
 
 ru5r 
 
 ruS 
 
 or 
 
 riiit 
 
 ruinn 
 
 ruin 
 
 — qvaddi 
 
 qvadt 
 
 qvaddr 
 
 qvodd 
 
 — spurSi 
 
 spurt 
 
 spurSr 
 
 spurS 
 
 — maSi — 
 
 maS 
 
 maSr 
 
 ma5 
 
 lcSi — 
 
 leS 
 
 le5r 
 
 le5 
 
 — fundu — 
 
 fundit 
 
 fundinn 
 
 fundin 
 
 — slitu ^- 
 
 slitit 
 
 slitinn 
 
 slitin 
 
 — klufu — 
 
 klofit 
 
 klofinn 
 
 klofin 
 
PERSONAL ENDINGS. 
 
 133 
 
 But from lesa — 
 
 lesit 
 
 lesinn 
 
 lesin 
 
 — halda — 
 
 haldit 
 
 haldinn 
 
 haldin 
 
 — ala — 
 
 alit 
 
 alinn 
 
 alin 
 
 or — 
 
 (alt 
 
 aldr 
 
 old) 
 
 sja pres ser 
 
 sed 
 
 seor 
 
 seS 
 
 or 
 
 sed" 
 
 sen 
 
 sen 
 
 from amint comes 
 
 amin^t 
 
 aminztr 
 
 aminzt 
 
 — lagt — 
 
 lagzt 
 
 lagztr 
 
 logzt 
 
 — sett — 
 
 sezt 
 
 seztr 
 
 sezt 
 
 But from el skat only 
 
 elskazt 
 
 
 
 — barit — 
 
 barizt 
 
 
 
 — spunnit — 
 
 spunnizt 
 
 
 
 — gent — 
 
 gefizt 
 
 
 
 etc. There are, generally speaking, very few verbs which 
 can form complete part, pass, from their monosyll. sup., and 
 these seem to belong properly to the new tongue. From sup. 
 in st, sup. pass, are not readily formed, because in such a 
 case they must end in szt, or stst, which it is nearly impossible 
 to pronounce, yet they may be used, e. g. uppleyszt, etc. 
 Thoroughly neut. verbs can take no sup. pass, at all, e. g. 
 from sofit sofizt can not be formed y any more than verizt 
 from verit. 
 
 270. The formation of the pass, is in other respects so 
 simple and regular that is does not need farther description: 
 st is added in all cases, but before this r, t, d, and 5, fall 
 away, which last however is supplied by z for 5. So also 
 m is turned into n before st, but this is not general, at least 
 not in old writers (152). 
 
 Of the personal endings. 
 
 271. In the endings of the verbs several changes have 
 taken place at various times, thus the 1st pers. often ends in 
 old writers in a, when the 2nd ends in ir; accordingly (a) in all 
 pres. conj. as ek vitja, vilja, dsema, muna, hljota, bera, etc.; (b) 
 in all imperf. indie, of the 2nd Division, e. g. ek elska5a, s^nda 
 vilda, hugfta. etc.; (c) in all imperf. conj, both of the simpler 
 
134 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 and more artificial Division; e. g. ek herjaSa, brenSa, heffia. 
 maeta, vaera, laega, feinga, etc. 
 
 272. The first pers. pi. of the pres. and imperf. conj. ends 
 in old writers in im, e. g. kallim, leitim, hafim, eigim, takim 
 vexim, nefndim, vaerim, laekim, and the like. 
 
 273. The 3rd pers. pi. of the imperf. conj., like the 3rd 
 pers. pi. pres., often ends in i (for u), e. g. J>eir elskaSi, saetti, 
 rynni, taeki; new writers use tsekjo, feingju, etc. 
 
 274. The endings urn, u$, and i§ in the pi. throw away 
 the last cons., when the pron. comes immediately after, e. g. 
 
 ver ? viS skulum mi skulu ver , vi5 
 
 {>er , J>i5 munuS nu munu J)er , |>i8 
 
 |>er , J)i5 takiS taki $er , £iS! 
 
 This is also sometimes found even when the pron. is left 
 out, e. g. fai mer, give me {that). But this distinction is often 
 neglected by new writers. 
 
 275. The pron. are sometimes compounded with the verbs, 
 e. g. vitjag, (or viljak, vitjac) for vitja ek, (eg); this happens 
 in particular with the 2»d pers. pron. jm, which is compounded 
 with all imperat. so that the accent falls away, e. g. elska'Su, 
 sjaSu see thou, gacktu go thou, etc., according to the character 
 of the foregoing letter. This pron. is also compounded with 
 most monosyll. pres., yet so that the vowel falls away entire- 
 ly, and 8, d, or t, only is kept, when the pron. stands before, 
 e. g. |)u lest thou reddest, |>u kannt thou canst, vilt willt, serS 
 seest etc.; but should the pron. stand after the verb, e. g. in 
 questions, the vowel remains lestu, kanntu, villtu, serSu, seest 
 thou? Some authors write the imperat. separately gack {du, 
 sja J)u, etc., but since we cannot write kann |>u , vil Jm, nor 
 in common speech say gack Jni, but by old custom gacktu, 
 this change of orthography seems needless and wrong. 
 
 276. The imperat. has properly only the 2nd pers. sing., 
 all the other pers. are supplied by the pres. conj., and take 
 in the 2»d pers. pi. almost an optative signification. 
 
AUXILIARY VERBS. 135 
 
 277. The imperf. of the second Division, like the mono- 
 syll. pres., add t in the 2nd pers. with a vowel cchange in the 
 1st (252.), in which case the same change takes place which 
 happens to t in the neut. of adj., viz that it is doubled after 
 a diphthong, and with d before it assimilated to tt, e. g. from 
 liggja, la, latt, from standa stoS, stdtt; but after /, st, is added, 
 and in stead of tst, zt, is written, e. g. liita imperf. laut, 2 nd 
 pers, lauzt, different from laust imperf. of ljosta to smite, or 
 the neut. of the adj. laus loose. This t comes from the 2nd 
 pers. jm, and when this pron. should come immediately after u 
 only is added (without accent) to the ending t, e.g. lattu, stottu, 
 lauztu, for latt j>u, or la jm, etc.; at the present time st, is 
 commonly put in all imperf., instead of t, thus brannst, gafst, 
 etc. The old writers often added k, e. g. to the first pers. 
 taken from the 1st pers. pron. ek (ec, eg), so that the imperf. 
 also in the sing, distinguishes all three pers. by their ending, 
 e. g. letk, lezt, let; fork, fort, for. This k is used also in the 
 first main Division, e. g. kallaftak, brendak, taldak, as also in 
 all imperf. conj. letak, faerak; and in all pres. when the sound 
 allows it, e. g. kallak, hefik, telk, laetk, ferk, etc. 
 
 Auxiliary Verbs. 
 
 278. Two tenses only can be expressed by actual inflex- 
 ion, all other relations therefore must be periphrased by means 
 of auxiliary verbs, which are consequently very numerous : mun 
 and skal, form the fut.; the former contains a kind of predic- 
 tion how any thing will turn out , and may be rendered in 
 English by will, it is likely, 1 dare say, e. g. vi5 vorum faeddir 
 a einni nott, ok mun skamt verfta milli dau5a ockars. We 
 were born in one night, and it will not be long between our 
 deaths, it is not likely we shall die far apart.; Nu skal ek 
 senda J)eim sending. Now shall I send them a (little) keepsake. 
 After both these words the auxil. verb vera is commonly left 
 out, g. g. f>at mun retlara^to will be better, it is likely to 
 be better; fmri skulu ok talin nofn f)eirra. Tfierein shall their 
 names also be rekoned (told). In this way especially are 
 formed all fut, pass, with past part, instead of the infin., which 
 
13G VERBS. 
 
 is explained by supposing an ellipse of vera. The word skal 
 is besides often used, with infin. act., where the new tongues 
 prefer to employ the fut. pass., which may be accounted for 
 by an ellipse of maftr one, e. g. J)a skyldi brenna alia dauSa 
 menn. Then should {one) burn all dead men, or then should 
 all dead men be burned. 
 
 279. Hafa and vera form the perf. and pluperf. ; the 
 former is usual in nearly all active verbs, as in Swed.; vera 
 is more common in the pass, and some few neut.; e.g. Olver 
 sagSi J)a atburSi, er £ar hofou orSit. Oliver told the things 
 which had happened there ; Egill haf5i geingit yfir skog 
 nockurn. Egil had gone over (through) a certain wood. This 
 verb is also often used with a past part, agreeing, like an 
 adj., in gender and case with the object (instead of the un- 
 changed supine), e. g. er |>eir hofSu feldan hofSingja liftsins. 
 When they had felled the chiefs of the people. Hafa is also 
 always used with sup. pass. Er j>eir hdfSu vifttalazt. When 
 they had spoken together, pat hefir umbreyzt siSan, That has 
 since been changed (or changed itself). Nu hefi ek komizt at 
 raun um. Now have I come to the proof about (it); or now 
 have I become convinced of it ; so also Nu em ek at raun 
 kominn um f>at. Vera with at and the infin. of other verbs 
 denotes a thoroughly definite time, e. g. ek em at skrifa, var 
 at skrifa, I am just going to write, I was just going to write. 
 
 280. A thoroughly past time, which we express by laying 
 an emphasis on the auxiliary verb, is periphrased in Icel. by ek 
 er buinn, ek var buinn, followed by the infin. with at, e. g. ek 
 er buinn at skrifa / have (already) written, I have done my 
 writing. 
 
 281. Besides the above many other verbs are used to 
 determine the sense of others (i. e. as auxiliaries), e. g. ek verS 
 at, I gel leave to; ek htyt at, I must , (infin. hljota); ek a, 
 |>u att at, I have to, thou hast to, or 7, thou must, (infin. eiga); 
 ek astla at / mean to; or ek ma, I may, have power, (infin. 
 mega ) ek tek at / take to , I begin ; ek fae with supine or 
 part. I can, I have leave to, (infin. fa) etc. 
 
AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 137 
 
 282. The Pass, form is often in the old Norse a proper 
 reciprocal, while on the other hand the condition of suffering 
 is often (as in Germ.) expressed by a periphrase in which 
 vera and verSa are used; thus; 
 
 
 Indicative. 
 
 
 
 Pres. 
 
 ek 
 
 em 
 
 elskaftr 
 
 
 Imp erf 
 
 ek 
 
 var 
 
 elskaSr 
 
 
 Perf. 
 
 ek 
 
 hefi 
 
 verit 
 
 elskad'r 
 
 Pluperf. 
 
 ek 
 
 hafSi 
 
 verit 
 
 elskaftr 
 
 Fut. 
 
 ek 
 
 mun 
 
 (ver5a) 
 
 elskaSr 
 
 — 
 
 ek 
 
 skal 
 
 (verSa ) 
 
 elskaSr 
 
 
 ek 
 
 mun 
 
 elskast 
 
 
 
 ek 
 
 skal 
 
 elskast 
 
 
 
 ek 
 
 verS 
 
 elskaftr. 
 
 
 These fut. are used in connection with pres., but if the 
 context be in the past time, then ek mundi, skyldi, var5, etc., 
 are said. 
 
 Other kinds of verbs. 
 
 283. Those verbs are called impersonal which are used 
 only in the 3rd pers. and are coupled with an indefinite subject; 
 these again are of many kinds; (a) the subject is either alto- 
 gether indef., when it is wont to be expressed by |>at it, e. g. 
 |>at |>rumar it thunders, J>at dagar it dawns, j>at ber viS it 
 (sometimes) happens); (b) or the verb becomes to a certain 
 degree, as in Latin, personal by drawing the subject towards 
 it as a dependent case, so that some require the subject to 
 be in the ace, e. g. mik langtar, / long, mik |)yrstir / thirst, 
 mik rekr / am driven {a wreck on the waves), mik uggir / 
 fear, etc.; (c) others throw the subject into the Dat., e.g. mer 
 ofb^Sr it is horrible to me, mer vill til, it happens to me, 
 mer verSr a / provide for myself. Passive verbs in particular 
 are thus used impersonally with the subject in the dat., when 
 they contain the idea of chance; mer heyrist / hear, come to 
 hear, mer skilst J understand, mer skjatlast or sk^zt / make 
 a mistake, mer leiSist I am weary, it is wearisome to me, 
 
1 38 VERBS. 
 
 etc. Some of these are also used with the indef. subject it 
 {>at, or both with it and the dat. though in different construc- 
 tions, e. g. |)at tekst varla. It will scarce be lucky, f)er tekst 
 varla at, it will scarcely be lucky for thee — , J>at tokst 
 honum |)d it turned out lucky, for him at last. 
 
 284. Those are called reciprocals, the subject of which is also 
 the object of the action, they take the object in all cases like 
 other verbs, e. g. ek fyrirverS mik / am ashamed of myself 
 ek for5a mer I take myself off hann skammast sin he is ash- 
 amed of misself, etc. Those which require this object in the 
 dat. are often expressed by the simple pass., and can then take 
 another actual object near them in the ace, e. g. ek forSast 
 fjendr mina / get me away from my foes. 
 
 285. Deponents, or such as have only the pass, form, are 
 not numerous in Icel. most of them go along with the first 
 Division, e. g. ek andast 1 breathe my last, ek dirfirst 7" am 
 daring; all these kinds of verbs arc for the rest inflected in 
 the common way, after the Division and class to which they 
 belong, so far as the nature of each will permit. 
 
 286. Whether verbs are transitive (active) or intransitive 
 (neuter) has not the least influence on their inflection, the only 
 remark to be made is, that when a trans, is formed from an 
 intrans. the latter commonly belongs to the more artificial, the 
 former to the simpler Division, e. g. rjuka to reek, reikja to 
 smoke, risa to rise up, reisa to raise up. 
 
139 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Of the Particles. 
 
 287. Under this denomination are commonly included those 
 classes of words which are not inflected , viz adverbs , prepo- 
 sitions, conjunctions, and interjections, but for the very reason 
 that they are unchangeable, such words cannot be reckoned 
 as belonging to the theory of inflection. To enumerate them 
 is the part of a Lexicographer, while the description of their 
 origin and structure belongs the theory of the formation of 
 words. It only remains therefore in this place to speak of the 
 comparison of adv., the only kind of inflection which these 
 words allow. 
 
 288. The adverbs commonly end in the comp. in ar, and 
 in the superl. in ast, the former of these endings is entirely 
 adverbial, for adj. end in the neut. comp. in ra , while the 
 latter is common to adverbs and the neut. of adj. in the indef. 
 form, e. g. 
 
 vi5a viSar vmast widely 
 
 hsegliga haegligar haegligast easily 
 
 tilt tiSar tiSast closely 
 
 opt optar optast often 
 
 sjaldan sjaldnar sjaldnast seldom. 
 
 Many irregular adj. (207.) are as adverbs regularly com- 
 pared, e. g. 
 
 norSast northerly 
 
 austast easterly 
 syftst (sunnast) southerly 
 
 vestast westerly 
 
 yzt (utarst) without 
 
 innst within 
 
 efst up 
 
 neftst beneath 
 
 norSr 
 
 norSar 
 
 austr 
 
 austar 
 
 suSr 
 
 sunnar 
 
 vestr 
 
 vestar 
 
 ut 
 
 utar 
 
 in 
 
 innar 
 
 uppi 
 
 ofar 
 
 niCri 
 
 neftar 
 
140 PARTICLES. 
 
 289. Some adv. have also a shorter comp. in r(ur) e. g. 
 betr, skar, verr, meir, miSr (minnr), fyrr, heldr, naer, fjaer (firr). 
 The superl. of all adv. are like the neut. superl. of indef. adj. 
 
 290. Some have a double comp., sometimes with a differ- 
 ence of meaning: fremr and framar from fram, superl. fremst and 
 framast, si5r less and siSar latter, sizt least, si'Sast last, leingr 
 longer, is used only of time like leingi , leingra (neut. of the 
 adj.) on the other hand is said only of place; so also skemr 
 (from skemt) shorter, only of time, skemra only of space. 
 
 The word meir (meirr) is added to some comp. of adj. to 
 give them further strength, e. g. naer meir more nearer, seinna 
 meir more latterly, siSar meir farther more, etc. 
 
THIRD PART. 
 
 The Formation of words. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 General View. 
 
 291. The doctrine of the formation of words forms a very 
 important part of Grammar; it is here properly speaking that 
 we learn to discover the gender , inflection , and origin of 
 words , as well as their affinity and fundamental meaning, in 
 so far as these are not dependant on arbitrary custom , but 
 based one some actual ground and rule in the language; and 
 here also we are enabled to form an idea of the richness of 
 the tongue and its internal completeness. The inflections can 
 without difficulty be very exactly expressed by particles, e.g. 
 all the 5 very complex declensions of the Latin are replaced 
 by the two prep, a and de in French and Italian; all the 
 personal endings of verbs , are replaced by three , or at any 
 rate by six, monosyll. pron. in Dansk; the new tongues seem 
 to have gained more in simpleness ease and clearness, than 
 they have lost in terseness and freedom in inversions , and 
 have thus a compensation for their loss; but want of deri- 
 vative syll. and restraint in composition can be repaired in no 
 other way than by the adoption of foreign words , which make 
 the tongue uneven, irregular, and characterless; they are be- 
 sides a heavy burden fer the understanding, because we have 
 then to remember a number of separate words without any 
 
142 FORMATION OF WORDS. 
 
 reciprocal connection, and which have no apparent ground for 
 their meaning in the language itself; this forms a great hindrance 
 to the instruction of the people in nations which speak a very 
 mingled language, because the common people do not under- 
 stand the language which the learned write, and are thus exclu- 
 ded from literature; e.g. each and every Greek comprehended 
 instantly without difficulty the words darqoloyioi, xofiifnfs (aVr^) 
 Qikococpia, Qvaixy, just as every Icelandic peasant at once under- 
 stands the words stjornufrseSi, halastjarna, heimspeki, natturu- 
 fraeSi, while the words astronomic hornet, filosofi, fysik, contain 
 to a Swedish ear no ground at all for their meaning; they 
 are therefore comprehended by no Swede, who has not learned 
 and fixed each of them separately in his memory, besides the 
 other simple words stjerna, star, Icira, lore, vishet, doctrine, 
 wisdom, etc., which must also be remembered. 
 
 The rules for the formation of words therefore contain 
 one main Division of the language , wholly independant in it- 
 self, and opposed to the theory of inflection; the latter teaches 
 how old words are changed, the former how new ones are 
 framed, or in other words, how [the greater portion of the 
 tongue, viz, all which is the result of the peculiar character 
 and cultivation of a nation, has arisen; and consequently how 
 the poets and philosophers of later times should procceed, if 
 they aim at imparting new ideas to the people, because a 
 similarity in formation with that which is already known is 
 the only way by which a new word can become intelligible. 
 It is accordingly very inconvenient, nay perhaps wrong, only 
 to bring forward , as has been hitherto the custom , a few 
 scattered incidental remarks on this head in the first part of 
 treatises on Grammar, and we will here consider this interesting 
 side of the Old Norse by itself and for its own sake. 
 
 292. The formation of words happens in two ways, by 
 Derivation or Composition, in the former case the word is 
 formed by means of change of vowel, alteration of the ending, 
 or the addition of one or more syll. which in themselves have 
 no meaning; in the latter on the other hand by coupling to- 
 gether two are more separate words in one new one, which 
 
DERIVATION. 143 
 
 takes a single chief tone. In both these respects there is 
 much likeness between the Iceland, and the Swed. and Germ. 
 Yet it often happens that what is denoted in one tongue by 
 compos, is expressed in another by deriv. just as one of them 
 sometimes uses inflection, where another has deriv. or compos. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 Derivation. 
 
 293. The purpose of Derivation is either to alter the 
 meaning of a word, make it better or worse, etc.; which takes 
 place especially by some addition to the first syll.; or to 
 change to class of a word, i. e. make a verb out a subst. etc., 
 this happens partly by a change of vowel within, but chiefly 
 by change in or addition to the final syll., because inflection 
 acts mainly at the close of a word, and the ending must there- 
 fore be suited to that class of words, the inflections of which 
 will be taken by the word in its new shape. These deriv- 
 ations accordingly divide themselves into several kinds after 
 the separate classes of words, into which they serve to trans- 
 fer words. 
 
 Prefixes. 
 
 Some of these give the word a negative, deteriorative, 
 or contradictory meaning: 
 
 294. O- has, (a) a negative meaning, especially before 
 adj., e. g. okunnr unknown , okunnugr unknowing ', ignorant, 
 omissandi indispensable, oboSinn unbidden, olses which cannot 
 read, osjaldan often, not seldom, ovida not wide spread; (b) 
 a deteriorative or contradictory meaning, chiefly before subst. 
 and verbs , e. g. ,6hof insatiability , omak uneasiness, ofriSr 
 war, oraS ill counsell, obsenir cursings, ogaefa ill lush, ofrelsi 
 villenage , thraldom, omaka to trouble, vex, onyla, to make 
 useless. 
 
144 FORMATION OF WORDS. 
 
 295. Mis- has partly (a) like 6 a negative meaning, mis- 
 attr or dsattr discordant , but more often that of deterioration. 
 e. g. ojafn uneven, misjafn unlike, bad, misfoknast, to mislike, 
 displease, misfyrma to mishandle. But this syll. has besides 
 two peculiar meanings: (b) a difference, unlikeness, e. g. 
 misstor of different size, mislangir of unlike length, mislitr 
 pied; he is said to have mislagSar hendr, who is at one time 
 too strict, at another too lenient, misdauSi is the term for two 
 persons death when the one overlives the other; (c) a mistake 
 or fault, c. g. misgaungur wrong-ways, bypaths, mismseli slip 
 of the tongue, misminni slip of the memory, misgrip mistake, 
 misgjora or misbrjota to misbehave, misbruka to misuse. 
 
 296. Van- brings along with it, (a) partly the idea of 
 want, e. g. vanfser, weak, wanting strength, growth, van- 
 heilsa, weakliness , vanefni impotence, poverty ; mik van- 
 hagar urn, / want, it fails me, vantro want of faith, and also 
 wrong belief; (b) partly the idea of something wrong silly, 
 sorry, e. g. vanfylgi sorry support, vanga carelessness , van- 
 helga to profane, vanviroa to defane. 
 
 297. Var- is an old derivative syll. of the same meaning 
 as the foregoing, e. g. vargefin badly wedded, who has made 
 a misalliance, varmenni coward, varliga, contr, varla, scarcely, 
 
 298. Tor- denotes a difficulty, e. g. tornsemr slow of wit, 
 torfaeri difficulty, torkenna to make hard to know, tortyna to 
 destroy, torsottr hard to attack, torfeinginn hard to hold. 
 
 299. For is properly an old proposition from which the 
 more recent fyrir for, fore, has been formed; it gives a word 
 ( a ) the same meaning as this prep., e. g. forfaoir forefather, 
 fornioSir foremother, mother of a race, forspar soothsaying, 
 second sight, formali foreword, forsjall foresighted , forseti 
 president, forraS command, orvindis before the wind, for- 
 streymis, before the stream, with the stream, fortolur, persua- 
 sions , (b) the idea of something unlucky or unpleasant, old 
 Engl, for in forlorn etc.; e. g. fordaema to condemn, forbaenir 
 curses, forsending a perilous undertaking , (laid on any one 
 with the view of his perishing in it) forbjoda to forbid, also 
 
DERIVATION. 145 
 
 to lay under a ban; (c) it is also often added to verbs and 
 subst. formed from them without denoting any clear modifi- 
 cation of meaning, e. g. foreySa to lay waste , foreySsla lay- 
 ing waste, formerkja to perceive , formyrkva to make dark, 
 formyrkvan darkening darkness; yet this is not used so often 
 as the redundant for in Swed., and for in Dansk, e. g. fbr- 
 bka, is in lcel simply auka to increase, forstora, stsecka to 
 make greater, forkorta, stytta to shorten, forldnga, leingja to 
 lenghthen, etc.; in the new tongue however such deriv. are 
 rather more common than in old writers , e. g. forbetra to better, 
 fortelja to foretell, relate. 
 
 300. Or- (or er-) comes also from a preposition, viz ur, 
 in old writers often or (or), and denotes (a) a separation, e. g. 
 orvaenta to despair, erlendis abroad, ormagna out of strength 
 weak, orvita out of ones mind, orvasa imbecile, (said of those 
 who cannot stir for age); (b) an extreme or very highdegiee, 
 e. g. orsluttr very short, orlitill very little, ormjor very thin, 6r- 
 fatsekr very poor, etc. But it is especially used with adj., 
 which denote a want, or negative property. 
 
 Other derivative syll. express an extension or limitation 
 in time, space, or degree. 
 
 301. Al- comes from the adj. allr all , and denotes the 
 highest possible, entirely unlimited, degree, e. g. alvitnr all- 
 knowing, almattugr almighty, algjor perfect, alheill quite hale, 
 almennr common , public, almenningr, the common people , the 
 public. 
 
 All- of the same origin, but of quite different meaning; it 
 expresses very nearly the Engl, right or very, e. g. allgoSr 
 right good, allvitur right clever, allvida right often, close, all- 
 mikill right much, very much. 
 
 302. Of- {too much), e. g. of at gluttony, ofdryckja drun- 
 kenness, ofnautn both these vices at once, ofriki tyranny, of- 
 mikill too great, ofgamall too old, ofsnemma too soon, of- 
 seint too late, ofsaekja to persecute, 
 
 10 
 
146 FORMATION OF WORDS. 
 
 Ofr- denotes a very high degree, but is more often used 
 with adj. of negative meaning, e.g. ofrlitill, ofrungr, very little, 
 young, etc., which are also, and perhaps more correctly ac- 
 cording to the pronunciation, written, ofr litill, etc., in two 
 words; but in subst. and verbs, e. g. ofrefli overmight , of 
 selja to hand over, the two are actually joined together in 
 one word. 
 
 Afar- has the same meaning and use, e. g. afarreiftr very 
 wrath, afaryrSi big words, threats, afarkostir illtreatment. 
 Hence the Germ. Aber in Aberglaube, etc. 
 
 303. Fjol- answers to the Germ, viel, Angl. Sax. feala, 
 many, from it are formed the lcel. comp. and superl. fleira, 
 flest, but the pos. never occurs except as a deriv. syll., e. g. 
 fjolmennr populous, full of men, fjolbygSr thickly inhabited, 
 fjolmenni throng of men, fjolyrSa to prose, fjolkunnugr much 
 hnowing, skilled in spells, fjolk^ngi sorcery. 
 
 The opposite to this is expressed by far (paucus, few) 
 in compos., e. g. famennr having few men, fakunnatta ignor- 
 ance, boorishness, etc. 
 
 Besides the above the lcel. have a number of strengthen- 
 ing particles and adverbs, the most important are: geysi 
 (hagligr) hugely {clever), (liter, fiercely clever,) furSu (ilia) 
 wondrous {ill); bisna (vel) monstrous {well); aeSi leingi a 
 weary time; daindis vaent bravely well; which are each in 
 themselves independant words j da-litill very Itttle , sai-kaldr 
 biting cold, span-n^r brand-new, spick and span, are properly 
 compounds of datt brave, sart grievous, spann a chip, shaving. 
 
 304. Si- {unceasing, unbroken), e. g. sifella an unbroken 
 row, sifeldr continuous, sifeldliga continuously, sif)yrstr alway 
 thirsty, siglansandi ev er gleaming , sisofandi eversleeping. Si 
 is also sometimes found as an independant adv., e. g. in the 
 expression, si ok ae for ever and ever. 
 
 305. Sjald- seldom, e. g. sjaldse<5r rare, seldomseen, sjald- 
 feinginn scarce to get, sjaldgaefr seldom given. 
 
DERIVATION. 147 
 
 306. Gagn- {through), expresses a very high degree; e.g. 
 gagnsaer plain, which can be seen through, gagnlaerSr throughly 
 learned, gagnfordjarfaSr thoroughly spoilt, like the Swed. 
 genomgod, etc. 
 
 Some Prefixes denote a relation in the comparison of 
 several objects. 
 
 307. Sam- (together) e. g. samfeSra children of the same 
 father, sammaeSra children of the same mother, samborinn, 
 born of the same father and mother, samnefnari namers together, 
 samsinna to agree together, samheingi connection, sampycki 
 agreement, samfagna to rejoice together, sampinast to be a 
 fellow sufferer, samborgari fellow burgher, sambjoSa to be of 
 one mind with, samdsegris on the same day, samstundis at the 
 same hour. 
 
 The opposite to this is denoted by sundr (sunder), and 
 by sir (one's self) in compos, e. g. sundrmaeoYi having another 
 mother (in Hamdismal)^ sundrborinn born asunder, of different 
 stock, sundr{>ycki disagreement, strife. Ser on the other hand 
 is used most often in a bad sense , e. g. servitr selfwise, 
 sergoSr overbearing, selfwilled, serplaegni avarice, greediness. 
 
 308. And- and bnd- (against), e. g. andviSri foulwind, 
 andstyggiligr abominable , andstygS horror, andlit face, coun- 
 tenance, andspajnis overagainst, andstreymis against the stream, 
 ondverSr turned towards, foremost, at the beginning, (opposed 
 lo ofanverSr at the end. This deriv. syll. is besides often 
 opposed to for-, e. g. forstreymis with the stream, andsselis 
 against the sun, forsselis in the shade. 
 
 309 Awb- gives an idea of ease, and is thus the strict 
 contradictory to tor- f298) 3 e. g. auSnaemr easy to learn, auS- 
 kendr easy to be known, auSfeinginn easy to hold, auSskilinn 
 easy to skill, (distinguish), auStrua easy of belief, credulous, 
 auoVirSiligr easy to value, of little worth, auSseSr plain, easy 
 to see, auSveldr easy to bear. 
 
 310. Frum- denotes any thing original, e. g. frumefni 
 groundstuff, (Germ. Urstoff,) frnmmdSir first mother (Eve,) 
 
 10* 
 
148 FORMATION OF WORDS. 
 
 frumgetinn firstbegotten , frumsmiSi an original ', first work, 
 frumrit original writing. 
 
 311. Endr- (again), e. g. endrbot reform, endrgetning, 
 newbirth, endrgjalda, to pay bach, endrlifga to bring to life 
 again, revive. Endr is sometimes found as an independant 
 adv., e. g. in the expression endr ok sinum , Swed., under- 
 stundom, now and then, off and on. 
 
 312. Some derivative syll. are applied only to pron. and 
 adv., and are therefore not met with in many words: 
 
 ffv- asks a question, e. g. hvilikr? What like? Of what 
 kind? H-, S- and p- have a definitive sense, as hann he 
 hingat hither ; sa he, svo so, £vilikr such like, {>angat thither. 
 
 N- denies, but is used only in the words ne neither, nei 
 nay, no, (ecki) neinn no one, no (one at all.) 
 
 313. Others are taken from pron. especially numerals, and 
 have a more extended use; such are: 
 
 Ein- which signifies (a) alone, e. g. einseta loneliness, the 
 life of a hermit, einlsegr all of one piece; (b) extremely, e. g. 
 einharSr extremely hard, hardy, einbani a famous manslayer. 
 
 Tvi- two e. g. tvieggjat sverS twoedged sword, tvidraegni 
 discord, tvib^li two households under one roof 
 
 pri- three Jm'strendr threecornered, fmhyrningr a triangle. 
 
 Fer- or fjor four, ferhyrndr four corner ed , fjorfaettr four- 
 footed; the rest are compounded from cardinals without any 
 change at all, e. g. sexfsettr sixfooted, etc. 
 
 Einka- which limits the object to one only, may also be 
 reckoned here, e. g. einkaleyfi privilege, einkahondlum single 
 dealing, monopoly, einkamal secret agreement, secret discourse 
 einkavinr bosom, friend ; though it seems to be sometimes used 
 as an independant word, e. g. einka sonr only son, einka 
 dottir only daughter. 
 
DERIVATION. H9 
 
 Terminations. 
 
 1. Which form substantives. 
 
 Persons are denoted by the endings : 
 
 314. — i which expresses (a) an agent, e. g. brefberi a 
 letter carrier, post , leiStogi guide, hertogi hostleader, duke, 
 vazberi w ater carrier , bani baneman, slayer, spellvirki one 
 that harms, robber, meinsvari one forsworn; these words seem 
 often to come from subst, though one would suspect them to be 
 more properly formed from verbs, e. g. arfi heir, poet, son, from 
 arfr heritage, felagi fellow from felag fellowship, raSgjafi rede- 
 giver, counseller, from gjof a gift, drottinsviki traitor, from 
 svik; (b) a countryman, e. g. Joti a Jute, Jamti a man of 
 Jdmtland (a Province in Sweden) JuSi a Jew, Tyrki a Turk. 
 
 Some of these are formed with the endings- bid-, byggi, 
 and verl, which last however is most common in the pi. 
 verjar,* e. g. Fjonbui a dweller in Funen , JaSarbyggi one 
 from Jdder in Norway, Romverjar Romans. 
 
 (c) This derivative syll. is used also of things without 
 life; e. g. bruni burning, uppruni rise, headspring, kuldi cold, 
 bogi bow, don slowness, sloth, auki increase, hiti heat, dau5- 
 death. Many of these words, have in Swed. kept the ace. endi 
 ing a, but at the same time been changed into fern., e. g. penni 
 pen, Swed. penna, skuggi shade, vili will, logi fire, angi 
 steam, savour, skari crowd. 
 
 Words in -hugi (from hugr mind, temper), denote partly? 
 turn of mind, partly the person who has it, e. g. elskugi love, 
 and lover, varhugi wariness, fullhugi a man of high soul, a hero. 
 
 315. -a forms (a) also subst. denoting persons, e.g. hetja 
 hero, kempa champion, skytta shot, bowman, mannseta man- 
 eater, cannibal, etc., which are all fern., though they are pro- 
 perly used of males; (b) actual fern, answering to the masc, 
 in i, or r, e. g. asm", fern, asna she ass, vinr, fem. vina female 
 
 * From this ending are derived many names of peoples in varii, 
 uarii, oarii, as well as names of countries in varia in histories 
 of the middle ages; e. g. Vidoarii, Cantuarii, Bavaria etc. 
 
150 FORMATION OF WORDS. 
 
 friend, gu8 fern. gySja goddess, Finnr a Lapp, Finna a Lapp 
 woman', (c) many abstract subst. from adj., fita fatness, from 
 feitr fat, birta brightness, from bjartr bright, bliSa mildness from 
 bh'Sr ?ra/#, seigja toughness from seigr, deigja moistness from 
 deigr moist; (d) a kind of diminutives from other subst., e.g. 
 f>ekja from |>ak « thatch, roof, hella a /7a£ stone, from hallr 
 sfo/je , smioja a smithy from smiSr smith; ( e ) Subst antiva 
 actionis from verbs, e. g. saga from segja, sala selling from 
 selja, krafa craving from krefja, fyrirstaSa hindrances from 
 standa fyrir fo s/arat£ before, seta sitting from sitja to sit, 
 £vaga « c/0m£ from J)va, upprisa uprising, from risa, suSa seg- 
 thing , cooking, from sjdSa, gusa sprinkling from gjosa to 
 sprinkle. Some are formed like infin., e. g. eiga owndom, 
 property, ganga going, brenna burning. 
 
 316. -r often forms a substantive denoting an agent from 
 verbs, e. g. vottr witness from votta to witness, vorSr warder, 
 smior, workmaster , smith, lagabrjotr lawbreaker, criminal', 
 Sometimes also these subst. denote lifeless things, e. g. skar- 
 bi'tr snuffers, (b) This ending also forms masc. subst. from 
 adj., e. g margr a quantity, nogr sufficiency, sannr sureness, 
 Danskr a Dansk, frfzkr a German. These are not masc. of 
 adj., but real new subst., which is proved by their taking the 
 final art, and being inflected like other subst.; e. g. Ek faerSi 
 honum heim sanninn urn J>at, I brought home to him the truth 
 of that. Einginn ma viS margnum , no one has power against 
 the many. Danskrinn The Danskman, at sla spanskinn to 
 smithy (a kind of game). Under this head may also be reck- 
 oned the termin. -nautr, Germ, genoss, which comes from 
 njota to enjoy, use, imperf. naut., and denotes, (a) a sharer, 
 partaker, e. g. forunautr fellowtraveller, legunautr bedfellow, 
 biidunautr fellowlodger, raSunautr colleague, or adviser; (b) a 
 thing which some one else has had before, and which a man 
 has either had as a gift, or taken by force, from him. These 
 words, w r hich become a kind of Proper Names, are formed with 
 -nautr , which is added to the name of the former owner in 
 the gen., e. g. dreckinn Halfdanarnautr, the dragon (ship) 
 Halfdan once owned, Gusisnautr arrows which belonged to 
 the Finnish Prince Gusir. 
 
 
DERIVATION. 15t 
 
 The word smiSr forms many compounds which answer 
 very nearly to Germ, words in -macher, Swed. makare, Engl. 
 smith, maker, or builder, e. g. skipasmiSr shipbuilder , sko- 
 smiSr shoemaker, jarnsmi^r ironsmith, ljdSasmiSr versemahev, 
 poet, 
 
 317. -ir forms likewise (a) the names of persons, e. g. 
 hirdir herdsman, lagabaetir legislator , one who amends the 
 laws, etc.; (b) and also the names of things which have some 
 reference to such persons, e.g. visir guide, leiSarvisir guidance, 
 f>errir drought (see 77.) 
 
 318. -ari is used still oftener, (a) of persons, e. g. pren- 
 tari printer, malari painter, skrifari writer, secretary, borgari 
 burgher, Brimari a Bremen man; (b) of things, e. g. pundari 
 a pair of scales, steelyard, kjallari cellar, 
 
 319. -andi is formed like the pres. part. , but inflected 
 differently (68.), and is used most often in the pi. of pers., 
 e. g. eptirkomendr successor, inbyggjendr indweller; and in 
 the sing, of things, e. g. addragandi motive (69.). Some how- 
 ever of these sing, in -andi are met with as fern, in old writers, 
 e. g. qveSandi singing, but they are commonly masc. 
 
 320. -ingi forms only names of pers., e. g. erfi'ngi heir, 
 raeningi robber, morft'ngi murderer, heiSingi heathen foSurleys- 
 ingi one fatherless, aettingi relation. 
 
 321. -ingr denotes (a) a sufferer, e. g. lograeningr one 
 robbed of his rights, skiptingr changeling , an idiot. niftrset- 
 ningr a poor person placed in another man's house for sup- 
 port ; (b) a person, and also a thing, of a certain character, 
 e. g. spekingr a wise mom, logvitringr lawyer, andfastingr anti- 
 podes , ferhyrningr a square. Names of Peoples in particular 
 are formed with this ending from names of countries in ey r 
 land, etc., e. g. Faereyingr Ferroislander, Orkneyingr, Islendingr 
 Sjalendingr Seelander, NorSlendingr a man from the north of 
 Iceland, AustfirSi'ngr one from the east in the same island, 
 from fjorSr a firth; but most great and old nations are on 
 the other hand called commonly by shorter names, whence 
 
152 FORMATION OF WORDS, 
 
 the name of the country is taken, e. g. Irar Irishmen, Irland 
 Ireland, Skotar Scots, Skotland, Gautar Goths, Sviar Swedes, 
 or these also, especially in the sing, where these short names 
 are seldom used, are replaced by adj., e. g. fr^zkr (mafir) 
 German, J)^zkir Germans, Saenskr or Svenskr (maor) Swede, 
 Gerzkr (maSr) Buss, pi. Gerzkir, from the old name GarSariki: 
 now Russar and Russland are also said. 
 
 322. -ing is the fern, ending answering to the above, e. g. 
 drottning queen, kerling carline, old woman. 
 
 323. -ungr also forms (a) names of pers. especially pat- 
 ronymics, e. g. spjatriingr and flisjungr a cockscomb, Skanungr 
 a man of Scania, brseSriingr cousin on the fathers side, syst- 
 rungr on the mothers, Skjoldungr Scylding, Volsungr Washing, 
 etc.; (b) but is also used of the names of things, e. g. fm'8- 
 jungr a third fart, fjordungr a fourth part, (238), (mmlungr 
 a thumb, buSlungr a pile of wood, graSungr and grioungr 
 a bull. 
 
 324. -aldi forms deteriorative words though not many; 
 e. g. glopaldi blockhead, ulfaldi (ulfbaldi) camel, ribbaldi a 
 ribbald , turbulent man , hrimaldi some thing begrimed with 
 soot, |mmba!di a sloven. 
 
 325. -Ungr serves to form (a) diminutives; e. g. baekh'ngr 
 hookling, little book, verklingr a little work, ritlingr a little 
 writing, yrmlingr a wormling, tinglingr youngling, frumb^lingr 
 a new settler; (b) patronymics, e. g. knytlingr (from Knutr, 
 Canute) Ynglingr (from Yngvi), Oldinbyrglingr a king of the 
 Oldenburg line, Rerlingr a Carlovingian, whence again Kerlin- 
 galand. 
 
 326. -ill, -ull also form a kind of dimin. , e. g. kistill a 
 little chest, bledill a litte leaf, boggull bundle, sendill mess- 
 enger, biSill woer, friSill sweetheart, eckill widower, poet. 
 
 327. -/« is the corresponding fern, termination, e. g, 
 hrisla twig, wand, hnytla a little knot, pyttla pipkin, small flask^ 
 (from pottr), or a little spring, from (pyttr), 
 
DERIVATION. 
 
 153 
 
 328. -hi, forms masc. dimin., e. g. sveinki a little hoy. 
 also the dimin. of the mans'name Sveinn, Svend, Brynki dimin. 
 of Brf njolfr. 
 
 329. -ha, the corresponding fern, termin., e. g. Steinka 
 from Steinun, blaSka the leaf of plants , graenka grass, harka 
 hardness, halka slipperiness, etc. 
 
 330. -ynja, forms some fern., e. g. asynja Asynja, Goddess, 
 apynja she ape, vargynja she wolf and the like. 
 
 331. -inna, seems borrowed from the Germ, inn, and be- 
 longs to the new tongue, e. g. ljonsinna lioness, keisarainna 
 Emrress, hertogainna Duchess, greifainna Countess. 
 
 332. For the most common domestic animals there are 
 separate names, given to the male and female, and sometimes 
 for the young ones, as well as several distinctions of age; 
 e. g. graShestr stallion, hrysa, meiri mare, as also kapall, faer- 
 leikr, both of which words are masc. ; foli a young horse, fyl 
 a foal; graSungr, griSungr, tarfr, boli, bull; k^r cow, qviga 
 heifer, kalfr calf; |)randr boar, goltr boar pig, gilta a breeding 
 so?v, sfr sow, gris porher; hrutr ram, a sheep; hafur hegoat, 
 geit shegoat, kiSlmgr hid, hundr hound, tik bitch, tyhe; kottr 
 and ketta cat, kettlingr hitten, bliki eyder drake, seSr, seSikolla 
 eyder ditch; hani coch, hsena hen, haensni epicene, andriki and 
 ond, drake and duch ; duriki or dufusteggr, and dufa, male 
 and female dove ; steggr is used also of the male of other 
 birds and beasts. Where such subst. are not to be found, the 
 male is for the most part distinguished by the adj. hvatr (mas, 
 masculus,) and the female by blauSr (femina, feminina.) 
 
 The following express a quality or condition: 
 
 333. -i, this ending forms deriv. in all three gend.; (a) 
 abstract neut. in i are declined by the 4 th deck, but are very 
 seldom used in the pL, e. g. sansogli truthfulness, riki realm, 
 power, gae5i goodness; advantages. It is chiefly those derived 
 from subst. that are neut.; they receive most often a dimin. or 
 collective force; e. g. from bol dwelling, comes baeli lair, den, 
 stye; from verk comes virki an outworh; from vottr wittness 
 
154 FORMATION OF WORDS. 
 
 vsetti evidence, fjolmenni populous?? ess, famenni fewness of in- 
 habitants, f)^fi a place full of hillocks, foreldri forefathers ; 
 many of these however are only used in composition, e. g. 
 miSnsetti midnight, hadegi midday, illgresi weeds, storrsefti dar- 
 ing deeds, svikrsefti snares, treachery, iltyrmi venomous snakes, 
 lauslyndi fickleness, illvirki illdoings , langlifi longlife, from 
 nott, dagr, gras, raft", ormr, lund, verk, lif. 
 
 To this place belong also those in dsemi (from domr) which 
 denote a province, opposed to domr (343), which denotes the 
 office of the ruler himself, e. g. biskupsdsemi bishoprick, herto- 
 gadsemi dukedom, einvaldsdsemi monarchy, keisaradsemi empire. 
 
 -neyti, (Germ, genossenschaft) formed from those in -nautr, 
 e. g. foruneyti fellow wayfaring, suite, motuneyti foodsharing. 
 
 -Imti, from adj. in -latr, e. g. rettlseti righteousness, ranglaeti 
 unrighteousness, lauslseti lightness, siSlseti modesty. 
 
 -ley si, from adj. in laus, e. g. sakleysi innocence, gtidleysi 
 atheism, sin, f)eckingarleysi ignorance, vitleysi madness. 
 
 These words must not be confounded with those in -leysa, 
 which are fern., and denote a result, working, or a peculiar 
 expression of character, e. g. vitleysa a stupidity, silly ness, 
 malleysa grammatical fault , hafnleysa a havenless place, etc.; 
 other deriv. in -i and -a stand in the same relation to one 
 another, e. g. bleyta mud, bleyti soaking, (i bleyti in soak) 
 and the like. 
 
 Masc. in -i have been already spoken of (314). Fern, in -i 
 are formed chiefly from adj., and denote an abstract quality; 
 e. g. hreysti strength, speki wisdom, prffii grace, sanngirni 
 fairness, hviti whiteness, bleySi cowardice. To these also fern, 
 in -a are often opposed, which denote a concrete or personi- 
 fied quality; e. g. sorta ink, hvita curds, bleySa a milksop; they 
 are opposed also by others in -n or -ft, -d, -t, e. g. Pfsi de- 
 sire, but f^sn an impulse, skynsemi wisdom, reason, but skyn- 
 semd cause, ground. Those in -i which denote the quality 
 itself, are not used in the pi., but those in -a, -n, -d, which 
 denote its separate expression, are often met with in that 
 
DERIVATION. 155 
 
 number, e. g. bleySur cowards, tysnir impulses, skynsemdir 
 causes, 
 
 Tolhis class belong also those in -semi from adj. in -samr, 
 e. g. nytsemi or gagnsemi profit, gain, frsendsemi friendship, 
 miskunsemi mercifulness. 
 
 -visi, from adj. in -vis; this ending denotes (a), partly a 
 quality, e. g. rettvisi righteousness, prettvisi dishonesty ', hreck- 
 visi wickedness, Isevisi faithlessness; (b), partly a science, mal- 
 visi philotogy, bunaSarvisi economy. 
 
 -fr<eU, {wisdom, science) is the common word for express- 
 ing the Swed. Idra (Engl, lore), e. g. malfrseSi the science of 
 grammar, guSfrseSi theology , guSdfraedi mythology , Theogony, 
 mselingarfraeSi mathematics, alyktunarfrseSi logic, salarfrseSi psy- 
 chology , natturufrseSi physics; all these are fern, and declined 
 by means of the final art. alone (160). FornfrseSi antiquities, 
 archeology, is in the neut. pi., as also fraefti when it is used 
 alone as an independant word. 
 
 -speki, also serves to form some names of sciences, e. g. 
 logspeki jurisprudence, heimspeki philosophy etc. 
 
 334. -ni, forms, (a) fem. subst. from adj. in -inn, e. g. 
 forvitni curiosity, from forvitinn, kristni Christianity, Christen- 
 dom, from kristinn, heiSni heatheness, (heiSinn) hlySni obedience 
 (htySinn); (b) and also from other words which have no n, 
 e. g. blindni blindness, (figuratively) from blindr blind, einfeldni 
 simplicity, (einfaldr), arvekni wakefulness, (arvakr), einlsegni 
 strait forwardness , candour, (einhegr), raSvendni integrity ra5- 
 vandr, naqvsemni carefulness, accuracy, (naqvaemr) beiftni begg- 
 ing, request, umgeingni conversation, company. 
 
 335. -erni, forms neut. subst. which denote a relation, 
 especially kinship, e. g. faSerni fathership, or fatherhood, bro- 
 Serni brotherhood, setterni kinship, liferni mode of life, lunderni 
 temper. 
 
 336. -indi, denotes a like concrete quality, e. g. harSindi 
 hard times, scarcity, sannindi truths, proof rettindi rights, jus- 
 tice, dr^gindi sparing, stinginess, tiftindi tidings, bindindi self 
 
156 FORMATION OF WORDS. 
 
 denial^ visindi wisdom, know/edge, h'kindi fikelyhood . haegindi 
 convenience^ etc Most of these are used only in the pi. 
 
 337. -di, also forms neut. e. g. eldi fattening, food, (from 
 ala) erdi wood for an oar (ar), skseSi shoeleather (skor), qvendi 
 female sex, woman, (from qvan, qvon), ferSi from fara is used 
 only in compos, e. g. siSferSi morality, skapferSi way or turn 
 of thought, kynferSi kindred, framferSi treatment, behaviour. 
 
 The ending -ferli has nearly the same meaning, e. g. viga- 
 ferli frequent murders, trial for murder, malaferli lawsuit, 
 sottarferli sickness, skapferli turn of thought. 
 
 338. -ildi in like manner, e. g. seigildi anything tough, a 
 sinewy piece of meat, f)yckildi something thick, thick hide, 
 fiftrildi a butterfly, from fjoSur feather. 
 
 339. -aid, e. g. kafald snowstorm, snowdrift, folald foal, 
 kerald jar, rekald wreck, all that drifts on the sea, gimald 
 chink. 
 
 340. -an, e. g. oaran bad year, scarcity, overran foul- 
 weather, likan idol, image, giman crack. These go along with 
 heraS (4 th decl.) and must be strictly distinguished from fern, 
 in an, or un, which are inflected like andvarpan. 
 
 341. -si, masc, and -sa, fern, are used only in a few in- 
 stances, e. g. vansi fault, ofsi pride ; galsi rude noisy mirth, 
 glossi gleaming, (from gloa), kalzi (k&lsi) , jest, playful talk, 
 skysza (skyssa, skysta) a mistake, oversight. 
 
 342. -leikr, -leiki, masc, e.g. kserleikr love, frodleikr know- 
 ledge, margvisligleikr manysidedness , multiplicity, eginligleikr 
 quality, property, sannleikr truth, oclauSleikr deathlessness , 
 saetleikr sweetness, moguligleiki possibility. 
 
 343. -domr, masc, e. g. konungdomr kingdom, jarldomr 
 earldom, sjukdomr sickness, manndomr manhood, villudomr 
 heresy, visddmr wisdom etc. 
 
 344. -skapr, masc, e. g. fjandskapr foeship, dreingskapr 
 bravery, honour, hofft'ingskapr princely temper, munificence. 
 
DERIVATION. 157 
 
 This ending seems to come from the neut. subst. skap mind, 
 temper, which is perhaps the reason why so many of the 
 words formed in this way are neut. in the new tongues; e.g. 
 Swed. Landskapet, Sdllskapet , and Dansk. venskabet, etc., 
 but in Iceland, selskapr fellowship, vinskapr, friendship etc. 
 without exception. 
 
 345. -und, forms some few fem., e. g. vitund knowledge, 
 tegund kind, tiund tithe, niund ninth part, sjound seventh part, 
 a number amounting to seven; to this class belongs perhaps 
 also fmsund, at least it is fem. in old writers. (231.) 
 
 346. - dtta, fem., e. g. vinatta friendship, veSratta weather, 
 viSatta width, stretch, baratta struggle, difficulty, kunnatta 
 knowledge* 
 
 347. -usta (-asta), fem., e. g. pjonusta service, hollusta 
 faithfulness, orrusta battle, fullnusta fullness, kunnusta craft, 
 witchcraft* 
 
 348. -ska, fem. denotes (a) a quality, e. g. bernska child- 
 ishness, illska malice, wickedness, heimska foolishness, dirfska 
 boldness, samvizka conscience; (b) a language, e. g. hebreska, 
 s^rlenzka, arabiska, griska, franska, eingelska, f)^zka, islenzka, 
 faereyska. 
 
 The ending -menska, forms abstracts from most subst. in 
 -mafir and -menni, e. g. gdftmenska integrity, stormenska mag- 
 nificence; many of these express a business or doing, e. g. 
 rekamenska the guthering of wreck, driftwood, sjomenska sea- 
 being, (one who is drifted with a view toward fishing) vinnu- 
 menska the relation of a servant, pulsmenska toil, overwork, 
 karlmenska spirit, bravery etc. 
 
 349. -eskja, fem., e. g. manneskja mankind, vitneskja 
 knowledge, forneskja old time, heathenesse, sorcery, harSneskja 
 harness. 
 
 Some express a doing, action, or suffering these are in 
 particular : 
 
158 FORMATION OF WORDS. 
 
 350. Monosyll. subst. neut. formed from many verbs 
 solely by throwing away the ending -a; e. g. tal talk, kail 
 call, gap gape, {)or daring, raft rede, counsel, fall fall, hlaup 
 a course, tak a hold, slag blow, drag drawing ; those which 
 come from the 3 rd class of the 2 nd Division, change i into i, 
 e. g. bit bite from bita, stig step from stiga, skin shine, sheen, 
 from ski'na, those of the 5 th class change jo into o, e. g. bo5 
 bidding, message, not &5e, advantage, brot break, rof bursting, 
 lok c/ose, skot s^ot; or perhaps they are more rightly derived 
 from preterites or part.; others take the same vowel as the 
 imperf. pi., e. g. drap hilling, Aug flight (volatus.) 
 
 Those of which the vowel is o or ei are fern., e. g. gjof 
 gift, qvol torture, dvol delay, for journey, reiS roYfe, dreif 
 spread, and the like. 
 
 Many deriv. from verbs are also masc, but these are 
 easily known by the ending -r, e. g. skortr lack, shortness, 
 litr hut, sultr hunger, stingr sting, dryckr drink, stockr spring, 
 gangr time, go, gratr weeping, brestr weakness, stigr path, 
 vefr web, 
 
 351. -8r, £?r, £r, masc, e. g. skurftr wound, burSr burden, 
 stuldr tffo/i?, fundr finding , \ oxtr growth; and in -tir if a diph- 
 thong goes before, e. g. slattr blow, drattr drawing, draught, 
 |)VOttr (for fvattr) was^, washing, mattr might 
 
 352. -ft, -e?, -£, fern., e.g. ferS faring, journey , byg5 ?^V^- 
 bourhood, vaegS mildness, fylgd following, girnd desire, hefnd 
 revenge , hvild res^ andagift ^/"^ of mind, wit, {>urft /jeed, 
 scarcity, vigt weight, etc. This ending serves also often to 
 form abstract subst. from adj., e. g. leingS length, sveingd 
 hunger, stserS greatness, hae5 height, smseS smallness, vidd 
 width, breidd bread, farsseld happiness, J)yckt thickness, d^pt 
 deepness, nekt nakedness. 
 
 Here also belong those in -seme? from adj. in -samr, e. g. 
 skadsemd scathe, nytsemd &5e, profit. (189). 
 
 353. -5/, -s#, neut. kensl kenning, knowledge, smyrsl saAj?, 
 skr^msl o j?e£ feosf, {)^ngsl weight etc. (137). The word 
 pisl pain, torture, is fem. 
 
DERIVATION. 159 
 
 354. -elsi, neut., reykelsi incense, stifelsi strengthening, 
 fangelsi jail, and some few others which belong properly to 
 the new tongue. 
 
 355. -sla, fern., e. g. reynsla experience, vigsla consecra- 
 tion, hallowing, tilbeiftsla prayer, hrseSsla dread, utbreiftsla 
 outspreading, veizla banquet, feast. 
 
 356. -ingr, -ningr, masc, e. g. gjornfngr doing, reikningr 
 reckoning, snum'ngr twisting, undirbuningr making ready, var- 
 ningr wares, vinningr winnings. 
 
 357. -ing, -ning, fem., e. g. refsmg beating, bygging buil- 
 ding, sigling sailing, afleifting train, dissuasion, tilhneiging ben- 
 ding, velly sting pleasure, bevisning proving, jatning confession, 
 fyrirgefning forgiveness, lagasetning lawgiving. This ending is 
 for the rest by no means of the same force as the preceding, 
 but denotes the action itself, the former on the other hand the 
 result or product, sometimes even the person, e. g. ysting 
 curdling, but ystingr curds, veiling, cooking, vellingr pap; in 
 the same way a distinction should be made between setningr 
 and setning; skilningr and skilning (reason) etc., settleiSingr an 
 adopted person, but attleiSing adoption, vikingr a searover, 
 but viking a roving voyage. 
 
 358. -ung, fern., seldom occurs, and is perhaps only a var- 
 iation of the foregoing, e, g. hormung grief, from harmr sor- 
 row, djorfung daring, launung stealth, hadung, scorn, insult, 
 lausung levity. 
 
 359. -naftr, -d6r (-nu8r), masc, e. g. lifnaftr life, hernaSr 
 ,war, foray, bunaSr tools, implements, sparnaSr sparing, skil- 
 
 na5r separation, metnaftr reputation, honor, trunaSr faithfulness, 
 kostnaftr cost, fagnaSr or fognuSr joy, feasting, jafnaSr or jof- 
 nuftr proportion, fairness, manaftr or manuSr month 135. 
 
 360. -stur, forms partly masc*, e. g. bakstur baking, rek- 
 stur driving; partly neut., e. g. hulstur holster, blomstur, flow- 
 er, fostur fostering, fosterchild, lemstur bruise. 
 
 361. -orb, neut., e. g. metorS honour, worth, banaor5 fame 
 of slaying a foe, death, loforS vow, promise, gjaforS betrothal, 
 legorft adultery, prop, the character of an adulterer. 
 
160 FORMATION OF WORDS. 
 
 362. -dagi, masc, e. g. bardagi slaughter, battle, svardagi 
 swearing, spurdagi renown, skildagi, maldagi an agreement, 
 dauSagi death, mode of death, which must in no wise be con- 
 founded with dauSadagr deathday. 
 
 363. -n, fern. , e.g. athofn undertaking, business, (at hafast 
 at to have in view), heyrn hearing, spurn asking, spiering, 
 sogn saying, skirn baptism, lausn loosing, vorn guard, eign 
 owndown, auSn waste, wilderness, fysn lust, desire; but svefn 
 slumber is masc. 
 
 364. -an, -un, fern., e. g. verkan, work, preSikan preach- 
 ing, undran wonder, ctyrkan or d^rkun worship, eggjan egging 
 on, urging; frjofgan fertilising, ^rselkan thraldom, the being 
 enthralled, 162. 
 
 2- Which form adjectives. 
 
 365. ~t, in the neut., (or -r in the masc), forms many 
 adj. from subst. and verbs, where however heed must be had 
 to what has been remarked in rule 186 seq.; e. g. almennt 
 (almennr) from maSr, sart (sar) sore from sar wound, sore, vert 
 (verSr) from verSr worth, nftt (nfv) from mi, blib'malt (bli'5- 
 mall) soft -tong teed, from mal speech. In this way very many 
 adj., having partly an act. partly a pass, signification, are 
 formed from verbs with the vowel found in their iinperf. conj., 
 e. g. laest (lses) which can read, or be read, from lsesi, im- 
 perf. conj. of lesa; fsert (fser) which can do, or be do?ie, from 
 faeri imperf. conj. of fara; the signification meant is often fixed 
 by a composition, and many adj. are never used but when 
 so compounded; e. g. fjarlaegt farlying, distant, mikilvsegt 
 weighty, fmngbsert heavy, sjalfbyrgr independant, able to help 
 oneself The active meaning is however more common, be- 
 cause the pass, is denoted by the ending iligt, e. g. kesiligt 
 readable, bseriligt bearable. Some on the other hand take the 
 vowel of the pres., e. g. einhleypt (einhleypr) unwedded, vaz- 
 helt (vazheldr) waterproof onftl (on^tr) useless, hverft (hverfr) 
 deft, shifty, gjaldgeingt (gjaldgeingr) current, sterling. 
 
DERIVATION. 161 
 
 366. -ugt, -igt, denote (a) an intrinsic quality, e. g. gofugt 
 noble , verftugt worthy, kroptugt strong, naftugt gracious, 
 merciful, oflugt vigorous, robust, malugt talkative. These are 
 used especially of persons, and commonly add the ending 
 -ligt, when any lifeless thing is signified, e. g. gofugligt ex- 
 cellent ; (b) an external condition, especially dirt, stains, e. g. 
 sotugt sooty, bl66ugt bloody, mjolkugt milky, harugt hairy, 
 moldugt mouldy, full of earth. In -agt only heilagt holy is found ; 
 •igt is common in old authors e. g. bloSigt. 
 
 367. -it, (-inn, -in.) denotes; (a) a disposition or turn 
 of mind e. g. hlyd'it obedient, i5it industrious, but these occur 
 most often in the personal gend: as |)rsetinn quarrelsome, hygginn 
 thoughtful, kostgaefinn careful, gaumgaefmn heedful, gleyminn 
 heedless, mannblendinn affable, sociable, frifinn thrifty, bsen- 
 raekinn prayerful , devout, guSrsekinn godfearing ; (b) a mate- 
 rial , e. g. gyllit golden, silfrit silvern , steinit stony, sendit sandy* 
 
 368. -alt, -ult, -ilt, -It, denotes a condition, or character, 
 e. g. sannsogult truthful, stopult unsafe, svikult or svikalt 
 crafty, tricksy, Jogult or Jjagalt silent, taciturn, gamalt old, 
 heimilt rightful, fyckbylt close-peopled , forsjalt foresighted. 
 
 369. -anda, (-andi), is properly the ending of the pres. 
 part, but is often used to express a pass, ability, or possibility, 
 expecially in negative sentences; e. g. ecki er truanda it is 
 not to be believed, omissanda needful, oteljanda countless, 
 ogleymanda not to be forgotten, ofolanda or oliSanda un- 
 bearable. 
 
 370. -samt, (-samr, -som), expresses a disposition or 
 quality, and is consequently most usedin the personal genders 3 
 friSsamr peaceable, nytsamr useful, rosamr quiet, still, gaman- 
 samr playful, athugsamr thoughtful, starfsamr toilsome, dili- 
 gent, vinnusamr the same, abatasamr gainful. 
 
 371. -lutr, (-latr, -lat), of the same force; e. g. mikillatr 
 highminded, storlatr the same, f>acklatr thankful, rettlatr 
 righteous, £ralatr stiffnecked. 
 
 11 
 
162 FORMATION OF WORDS. 
 
 372. -ligt, denotes, (a^ something like, the Engl, -ly, like, 
 e. g. hofSi'ngligt princely, hermannligt warlike, warriorltke, 
 greiniligt plain, clear', these are especially formed from subst., 
 which are often put in the gen., especially if the gen. 
 ending is a, u, i, or ar, e. g. keisaraligt, imperial, riddaraligt 
 knightly, upprunaligt original, skuggaligt shady, hetjuligt 
 herolike, heimspekiligt philosophical, prfSiligt glorious, elegant, 
 ffsiligt desirable, soguligt remarkable, otoiuligt not to be told, 
 vem.Vgt essential, vetrarligt winterlike, skammarligt shameful ; 
 sometimes also to the gen. in s, e. g. frseligt thrallish slavish, 
 svinsligt swinish; (b) a passive ability, possibility (365); these 
 are formed chiefly from verbs, e. g. geingiligt fit to go on, 
 passable, walkable, hlaegiligt laughable, byggiligt habitable; 
 especially in -anligt from part, in -anda, -audi (369), e. g. 
 otnianligt incredible, obsetanligt irreparable, osegj anligt not 
 to be said; still some have an active force, e. g. mefttaeki- 
 ligt adopting and acceptable; (c) a kind of diminutive adj., 
 or new adj. used of things, formed from those applied to 
 persons (366), e. g. roskt rash, roskligt which seems to be 
 rash, |>arft needful, jbarfligt that which cannot be done 
 without, necessary , bliSligt friendly; this ending is joined to 
 almost all adj. in -samt, e. g. friSsamligt peaceful, nytsamligt 
 profitable; some are found only with this double ending 
 -samligt e. g. syndsamligt sinful. 
 
 373. at, (afir), -t (Sr, dr, tr,) expresses that a person or 
 thing is provided with something, and seems to be the parti- 
 cipial ending of the 1st, as it, inn, in (367) is of the 2«d con- 
 jugation, e. g. hugaSr spirited rettruadr right trowing, othodox, 
 hungraftr hungry, rafkraptaSr electric, haerSr hairy, hyrndr 
 horned, einhendr or einhentr onehanded. 
 
 -kynjat, expresses the Germ, -artig e. g. leirkynjat clay- 
 like, jarnkynjat ironlike etc. 
 
 374. -ski, (skr), expresses in particular some thing or 
 pers. belonging to a region, or country, e. g. helvizkt hellish, 
 irskt Irish, enskt or eingelskt English, gauzkt or (gautskt) 
 Gothic, Norskt Norse; -neskt is sometimes added to the root, 
 
DERIVATION. 163 
 
 e. g. jarSneskt earthy >"* himneskt heavenly, eyslneskt Esthnish. 
 Esthonian, s&xneskt Saxon, eingilsaxneskt Anglosaxon, gotneskt 
 Gothic, tyrkneskt Turkish. From names of countries in -land 
 they are formed in -lenzlct e. g. islenzkt, hollenzkt, s^rlenzkt 
 Syrian, utlenzkt outlandish, innlenzkt inlandish. From names 
 of peoples in -verjar the ending becomes versJct e. g. rom- 
 verskt, nor5verskt northern, |>^oVerskt or ^fzkt German, sam- 
 verskt Samaritan. The form -ts&£ so common in the new 
 tongues is found only in a few new and spurious words, e. g. 
 hebreskt egypzkt (egyptskt) Egyptian; yet barbariskt and 
 poetiskt (otherwise skaldigt) are found. 
 
 375. -ott (ottr, ott), denotes an outward form; e. g. 
 kringlott circular, hnottott globular, rondott striped, kollott 
 oval, without horns, stordropott (regn) great-dropped (rain). 
 
 376. ~rmnt, {rami, rcen), denotes a tract, e. g. norrsent 
 Norse, northern, austracnt from the east, suorsent, vestraent, 
 fjallraent from the hills (montanum) is said most of winds : 
 Substantives are formed from these in -ra?na e. g. norraena 
 north wind, also the old Norse tongue. 
 
 377. -leitt, (-leitr, hit), from lita to see denotes a likeness 
 in appearance, especially in hue, e. g. haleitt lofty, majestic, 
 griinleitt grimlooking, rauSleitt ruddy, hvitleitt whity, graenleitt 
 greenish (e. g. of the sea). 
 
 378. -vert, (-verSr), answers to the Germ, -vdrts, Swed. 
 varies, Engl, wards, and denotes a position, e. g. utanvert 
 outward, austanvert eastward, sunnanvert (Frackland) the 
 south of France, a vestanverSu Einglandi er furstadaemit Bret- 
 land , In the westward part of England lies the Principality 
 (of) Wales. 
 
 379. -vwnt,(-vanri), from van hope, expectation, and sometimes 
 vaenligtj e. g. banvaent deadly, (of which a man may die), 
 lifvsent on which a man can live, uggvaent dreadful, skaSvaent, 
 from which scathe is to be looked for, harmful, orvaent not to 
 be expected, geigvsenligt fearful. 
 
 11* 
 
164 FORMATION OF WORDS. 
 
 380. -a, -i, form many indecl. adj., the last part of which 
 are taken from some subst. e. g. JafnsiSa evensided, paralel, 
 afsinna mad, landflotta banished , einskipa oneshipped , with 
 only one ship, sjal/ala selffeeding (of cattle) bjargJ)rota helpless, 
 destitute, heyfrota hay less, which has no more hay (195). 
 
 3. Which form Adverbs. 
 
 381. -a, is the most common ending by which adj. are 
 made into adverbs, as gjarna willingly, viSa widely, ilia badly; 
 it is particularly applied to all adj. in -liyt e. g. saemiliga 
 decently, fairly, hofSmgliga like a prince, greiniliga minutely, 
 ogleymanliga eternally, etc. Those adj. which (by rule 372.) 
 add -ligt to some shorter ending, form adv. only from the longer 
 form in -liyt, e. g. gofugliga nobly, bravely, nytsamliga use- 
 fully, etc. Many adj. with other endings, which do not take 
 -liyt, form nevertheless adverbs in -liga, e. g. J>acklatliga 
 thankfully, haleitliga solemnly, majestically, erfiSliga pain- 
 fully etc. This -liga which thus may also be regarded as an 
 independant deriv. syll., is sometimes contracted into -la, e. g. 
 harla (for harSIa, harSliga) very greatly, gjorla plainly, closely, 
 varla (for varliga from var- (297) hardly, aria early, siSla 
 slowly, lately. 
 
 382. -an also forms adv. from some adj., e. g. siftan 
 since, gjarnan willingly, saran hardly, heavily, but this seems 
 to be properly the ace. sing. masc. because other ace. are 
 also used in the same way; e. g. (roa) mikinn (to row) 
 stoutly, strongly, (stynja) Jmngan to sigh heavily, (rida) roskvan 
 to ride boldly, apace, harSan hardly, and the like: In this 
 way also subst. and adj. are used together, e. g. alia reiSu 
 already , alia gotu to the very end, until, alia jafna all 
 through, continually, alia tima always, ever, langa tima 
 long time. Of all the subst. thus used to express adv. 
 in conjunction with other words, none undergoes so many 
 changes as vegr way; sometimes it is put in the ace. without 
 the art., e. g. (a) annanweg otherwise, f)annveg thiswise, 
 hvernveg how, in what way; sometimes v falls away, thus 
 
DERIVATION. 165 
 
 Jjanneg, hverneg; but since eg is an uncommon ending, f>annig 
 hvernig, einnig also, evenso, are usually said* veg may be 
 also contracted to ug (og), thus we find |>annug, : hvernug: again 
 the article is sometimes adjoined, aungvangveginn in no wise, 
 nockurnveginn in some way or other; but even here v may 
 be thrown away, thus nockurneginn , einneginn like wise', or 
 the whole ending eginn is contracted to in, Jannin thus, 
 hvernin , einnin. 
 
 In like manner the ace. (or nom.) neut., is used in Icel., 
 as in other tongues, e. g. mest mostly, chief y, trautt hardly, 
 with difficulty, eflaust doubtless, orrustulaust warlessly, peace- 
 fully, and many more. 
 
 The Dat. also often expresses an adverbial sense, e. g\ 
 (grata) hastofum to weep loudly , stundum sometimes, tiSum 
 often, laungum long (and many times), storum greatly, 65ru- 
 visi otherwise, einkum especially. 
 
 So also the gen., e. g. loks, loksins finally, allskonar 
 allskyns all kinds, samastaSar in the same place, annarstaSar 
 elsewhere, allstaSar everywhere, J)arstac5ar in that place, there, 
 I cssa heims in this world, annars (kostar) otherwise, allskostar 
 in all respects, utanlanz abroad, vestanlanz in the westland 
 (i. e. the west part of Iceland). 
 
 Prepositions also with the cases governed by them, often 
 express adverbial ideas, e. g. a braut, 1 hurt, 1 burlu, a-way, 
 i meSallagi midling , moderately, i betra , bezla lagi, well 
 enough, very well, at sonnu quite right, at mestu leiti for the 
 most part, at minsta kosti at least , at undanfornu aforetime, 
 me5 ollu alltogether, meS |>vi at since, as, tilfriSs content, 
 tilforna heretofore, til baka back, backwards, til hli'tar very 
 much, considerably. In this way many comp. prep, and conj. 
 are also formed, e. g, (til) handa einum for some one, a hendr 
 |>eim against them, a moti against, i sta5 instead of, i gegn 
 against, fyrir innan within. 
 
 383. -an is however an actual adverbial ending, e. g. 
 meSan, a meSan meantime, a5an lately, sjaldan seldom. Those 
 adv. in particular are formed in this way which denote a 
 motion from a place, e. g. heiman from home, heSan hence, 
 
166 FORMATION OF WORDS- 
 
 innan out, from within, utan in from without, neSan up from 
 beneath, ofan down from above. The distinction between ofan 
 and ni5r is nearly the same as that in Germ, between ker- 
 unter and hinunter, but between neSan, upp, and the rest this 
 distinction does not seem to be observed. 
 
 384. -i (at a place), e. g. uppi above , niSri below, inni, 
 uti, frammi before, and the like. 
 
 385. -r (to a place), towards, suor southward, noror, niftr, 
 aptr back wards backagain; many of these words express also 
 a being in a place, e. g. komingr var \k austr i Vikinni, the 
 king was then in the east in the Bay. 
 
 386. -at (to a place), but is found perhaps only in the 
 words hingat hither, f>angat thither', whither? is expressed 
 by hvert? 
 
 387. -na defines adv. still more closely, e. g. svona just 
 so, nuna just now, herna just here, J>arna just there, eilifljgana 
 for ever and ever. 
 
 388. -is is the common ending for forming adv. from 
 subst. with the usual vowel changes, e. g. jafnsiSis side by 
 side, jafnfsetis step for step, framvegis and framleiSis forthwith, 
 furthermore, ardegis early (in the day) somuleiSis likewise, 
 optsinnis ofttime, innbyrSis mutually, utbyrSis overboard. 
 
 4. Which form Verbs. 
 
 389. -a is often added without any change in the root 
 of the old word , though the signs of the sexes always fall 
 away from subst. adj. and prom, e. g. ofunda to envy, daga 
 to dawn, heila to heal, |ma to thou Fr. tutoyer Germ, dutzen, 
 sea to say ay, sveia to say fie ! miklast to look big, give ones- 
 self airs, rikja to reign. The change which takes place in 
 the two last, viz , that the syll. il (in mikil) is contracted, and 
 that i (in riki) turned into j, is the same as that which 
 occurs in the inflection of these words when a vowel fol- 
 owsj and is not therefore caused by the derivation. These 
 
DERIVATION. 
 
 167 
 
 verbs belong to the 1st class of the 1st conjug.; yet some in 
 ja must be excepted, formed from neut. in i, which belong to 
 the 2nd class. 
 
 390. The vowel of the chief syll. is often changed in the 
 same way as it would be, if an i followed, that is, from 
 hard to weak \ e. g. nefna to name (nafn) , fella to fell (fall) 
 vexa to wax, grow , (vax) rettlaeta to justify (rettlatr), leysa 
 to loose (laus-t) deyda to Mil (dautt, dauSr), girnast to yearn 
 after, (gjarnt), dirfast to dare (djarft), gista to lodge, treat 
 as a guest (gestr), rigna to ram (regn) stySja to stay, prop, 
 stoS, mseta to meet (mot), basta to pay a fine, atone (bot), 
 synda to swim (sund), brynna to water (brunnr); should the 
 last cons, be simple, j is often inserted (by rule 88.) e. g. 
 heygja to lay in a barrow (haugr), eygja to be ware of, see? 
 (auga), qvelja to quell, plague, (qvol), temja to tame (tamt) ? 
 Isegja to humble (lagt). All these ? which receive a vowel 
 change, are inflected after the 2nd class of the 1st conjug., 
 those only excepted which in their chief syll. have e, y, or 
 soft i, with a single cons, following, and the ending^, which 
 belong to the 3rd class. In this way many transitives are 
 formed according to the 1st conjug. from intransit. according 
 to the 2nd conjug. (286), especially from the imperf.; some 
 times however there is little difference between the meaning 
 these verbs, e. g. 
 
 renna to run 
 svelta to hunger 
 skjalfa to quake 
 spn'nga to split 
 
 sitja 
 
 h'ggja 
 
 sofa 
 
 ri5a 
 
 to sit 
 to lie 
 to sleep 
 
 pi. 
 
 to ride 
 
 rann, 
 
 svalt, 
 
 skalf, 
 
 (sprack), 
 
 sat, 
 
 Oag) ? 
 
 svaf, 
 
 svafum, 
 
 reiS, 
 
 rfsa to rise up reis, 
 bfta to bite beit, 
 grata to weep (gret), 
 
 renna 
 
 svelta 
 
 skelfa 
 
 sprengja 
 
 setja 
 
 leggja 
 
 svefja 
 
 svaefa 
 
 reida 
 
 reisa 
 beita 
 
 a-raota 
 
 to let run 
 to starve 
 to frighten 
 to blow up 
 to set 
 to lay 
 to still 
 
 to lull to sleep 
 to carry on 
 horseback 
 to raise up 
 to bait 
 lo trouble 
 
 rendi. 
 
 svelti. 
 
 skelfSi. 
 
 spreng'Si 
 
 setti. 
 
 lag<5i. 
 
 svaf^i. 
 
 svaefSi. 
 
 reiSdi 
 
 reisti, 
 beitti, 
 greet ti 
 
168 
 
 FORMATION OF WORDS. 
 
 falla 
 
 to fall 
 
 (fell), 
 
 fella 
 
 to fell 
 
 feldi. 
 
 hanga 
 
 to hang 
 
 (heck), 
 
 hcingja 
 
 to hang up 
 
 heingd'i. 
 
 brjota 
 
 to break 
 
 braut 
 
 breyla 
 
 to change 
 
 breytli. 
 
 drjiipa 
 
 to drop 
 
 draup, 
 
 dreypa 
 
 to sprinkle 
 
 dreypti. 
 
 smjuga 
 
 to sneak 
 
 smaug, 
 
 smeygja 
 
 to sneak in 
 
 smeygSj 
 
 sockva 
 
 to sink 
 
 sock, 
 
 sockva 
 
 to make to sink sockti. 
 
 sverja 
 
 to swear 
 
 Bor, 
 
 saera 
 
 to adjure 
 
 saero'i. 
 
 hlaea 
 
 to laugh 
 
 hldg, 
 
 hlaegja 
 
 to amuse 
 
 hlaegSi. 
 
 hlaupa 
 
 to run 
 
 ( hl Jop) ? 
 
 hleypa 
 
 to make to run 
 
 , hleypti. 
 
 bua 
 
 to dwell 
 
 pl.bjuggu 
 
 » byggja 
 
 to build 
 
 bygdi. 
 
 Some of these are the same in the infin., but still they 
 must not be confounded together, because they are clearly 
 and definitely distinguished throughout their inflections, e. g. 
 sleppa slepp slapp sloppit to slip away 
 sleppa sleppi slepti slept to let slip, loose. 
 
 Brenna to burn, (ardere) (244.) and brenna to burn 
 (comburere) may serve for complete examples in all persons 
 and forms. 
 
 391. -na denotes that the subj. assumes a certain charac- 
 ter, e. g. vakna, sofna to wake, to sleep, blikna to turn pale, 
 (blench) (bleikja to bleach) stikna to be roasted (steikja), 
 hitna to grow hot (heita), bratJna to melt (braeSa), brotna to 
 break, be broken, kolna to grow cold (kaela), sortna to blacken 
 (sverta), J>agna to grow silent, kafna to choke (qvefja, kaefa), 
 versna to grow worse, batna to grow better, folna to grow 
 ashy pale (from folr the hue of death), rooiia to redden, losna 
 to becomeloose. 
 
 392. ^la forms dimim or frequentatives , e. g. rugla to 
 turn upside down, disturb, from rugga to remote, togla to 
 chew over and over, (from tyggja) , sagla to saw clumsily, 
 to saw in vain (saga), staglast a to bawl out for (stagast a) 
 japla to champ (jappa), biSla to woo, (biSja), miola to share, 
 lmuSla to knead together in small lumps (e. g. pills) from 
 hno&i to knead, hvaifla to water, setgla to delay, put off. 
 This ending took its rise perhaps from subst. or adj. in ull, 
 ill, il, ill etc. e. g« baekla to put out of joint (from baekill), 
 
DERIVATION. 169 
 
 heila to plane (from hefdl) which last might be reckoned 
 besides among those in 289. 
 
 393. -ra, klifra to clamber (from kli'fa) haltra to limp, 
 hlidra to give way, latra to be tired out, skakra to totter, 
 svolgra to swallow. 
 
 394. -sa, forms frequent; e.g. hugsa to think over, hreinsa 
 to rinse, bopsa to yelp, jasza to say aye repeatedly, hrifsa 
 (til sin) to clutch, snatch to one's self, bifsa, to jog, sway to 
 and fro. etc. 
 
 395. Some frequentatives are formed without any def- 
 inite ending by a double consonant within the word (a the 
 sign of the infin. being added) e. g. fvsetta to wash (from J)va), 
 t>agga to be silent (from |>egja), totta to suck out, (perhaps 
 from toga), skoppa to run, spring (from skopa). 
 
 396. -ta gives a transitive force, e. g. jata to acknow- 
 ledge, assent, neita to deny, bugta (sik) to bow ones' self, blakta 
 to waft, fan, heimta to fetch, lykta to shut, gipta to give 
 away {in marriage) (gefa), skipta to shift (skipa) ypta (oxlum) 
 to shrug (ones shoulders). This ending -ta seems to come 
 from the part, of the 1st conjug. in at , t ; just as the ending 
 -na (391) takes probably its rise out of the part. pass, of the 
 2nd conjug. in it, inn, in. In this way at any rate the dif- 
 ference in meaning may very well be accounted for, because 
 the 1 st conjug. contains properly verbs transit., while the 2»d 
 chiefly intransitives. 
 
 397. -ga gives a transitive force, and is used especially 
 in forming verbs from adj., e. g. frjofga to fructify, endrlifga 
 to enliven, refresh, fjolga to multiply, blomgast to put out 
 bloom. Some of these verbs seem to come from adj. in -ugt. 
 e. g syndga to sin (syndugt) , auSga to enrich (audugt), 
 bloSga to dabble with blood (blodugt). 
 
 398. - ka has the same force , and is perhaps only a 
 variation of the above , e. g. aumka to pity, seinka to delay \ 
 put off, iSka to worship, drive (a trade) tiSka to use, to be 
 wont, bliSka to soften, minka to lessen; this is formed from 
 
170 
 
 FORMATION OF WORDS. 
 
 the comp. minna; as others come from short comp. the r of 
 which, if a vowel goes before, is assimilated with k into cl\ 
 e. g. haeckja to raise (haerra), stsecka to enlarge (staerra), 
 mjocka to make thinner (mjorra) ; yet these words have some- 
 times an intransit. meaning. All these deriv. (391—8) belong 
 to the 1st cl. of the 1st conjug. with the exception of some few 
 in -ta, which follow the 2™* class. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Composition, 
 
 399. In the Old Norse tongue, as in Greek, the composi- 
 tions are uncommonly free and extended; by these the want 
 of many deriv. is supplied , e. g. those which express a ma- 
 terial, origin j region, as also an increase, diminution and the 
 like. Subst. are compounded with other subst. and with adj., 
 seldom with verbs; adj. with subst., and other adj., seldom 
 with verbs; pronouns are very rarely compounded, but if ever 
 generally with adv., or subst. in order to form adverbs; verbs 
 are not compounded with subst. and adj. unless they undergo 
 a previous change, which at the same time alters them into 
 nouns; particles, especially adv. and prep, are often joined to 
 other words, yet only in so far as that they are set before 
 them in order to determine or modify their meaning. This 
 unfitness of the pron., verbs, and particles for composition, is 
 that which sets a bound to such couplings of words in all 
 European tongues , otherwise we should be able , like the 
 Greenlanders, to say our whole meaning or sentence, in one 
 single hugely long and endlessly compounded word. All com- 
 position in our tongues serves to form new words, deno- 
 ting one simple idea, not to siring together old ones each re- 
 taining its separate force; e. g. aderlata to let-blood , aderlat- 
 ning bloodletting , etc., denote one single thing, towards ex- 
 pressing which the two words ader and later lose their former 
 
COMPOSITION. 1 71 
 
 independance, and are as it were fused togeiher into a single 
 word; but "du har ju ofta aderlatit honom" thou hast often 
 let him blood" or the like, such it is imposible for us to 
 string together, because neither du, honom or han, nor ju, or 
 ofta allow of any composition. 
 
 400. The last member in a compound word is usually 
 regarded as the chief part, and of subst. and verbs this may 
 rightly be said , in so far as by chief word that is not meant 
 on which the thought should be especially fixed, but that which 
 has the most extensive meaning , and is therefore limited or 
 determined by the first part. But in the case of adj. it is 
 hard to say which is the chief word, because comp. adj. may 
 be often inverted without changing the meaning in the least, 
 e. g. harfagur and fagurhaerSr, fairhaired. So much is certain, 
 that the last part always shows to what class of words the new 
 word belongs, and that its inflection is always joined to the 
 end, e. g. gdSvild goodwill ', eldfimt combustible , in the gen. 
 g6Svild-ar, eldfim-s. If therefore a subst. comes to stand last 
 in a comp, adj., it must take the inflective ending of an adj. 
 viz, t, r, etc., e. g. berbeint barefooted, langorSr longworded, 
 wordy, 
 
 401. H and v at the beginning of the last part often fall 
 away in compos., e. g. likamr (likami) from hamr shin, hide, 
 external appearance, Norftralfa Europe, from halfa quarter of 
 the globe, Viljalmar for Vilhjalmar, gulln'ngr goldring , for 
 gullhringr; Noregr for Norwegr, hverneg for hvernveg how? 
 So also the article (17 J.) 
 
 Composition of Substantives. 
 
 402. Very many are comp. with other subst. and with 
 adj., suffering no other change of the first part than throwing 
 away the sexual ending, and consequently without any 
 change at all in case the first part has no such sexual sign; 
 e. g. Kyn-qvisl a pedigree, vagn-slod wheelrut , sol -skin 
 sun-shine, jafn-maki co-equal, kalf-skinn calfskin, stein-spjald 
 stone-table, mi5-sumar mid-summer, sma-fena5r small-cattle. 
 
172 FORMATION OF WORDS. 
 
 403. If the first pari be an adj., it is nevertheless some- 
 times put in the nom., keeping its sex sign, and retains in 
 such cases its complete inflection in all the endings like the 
 subst., e. g. heilagr-domr halidome, reliques, (otherwise helgi- 
 domr), lendrmaSr vassal (lensmaSr), miftrmorgun midmorning 
 (i. e. six dclk A. 31.) , Mikligaror Constantinople , Miklaborg 
 Mecklenburg, BreiftifjorSr Broadfjord (in Iceland) j)ri(5ipartr, etc. 
 in the ace. helgandom, MiklagarS, J>ri5japart, etc. 
 
 404. If the vowel of the word be changeable b, it is al- 
 ways turned into a, e. g. mja<5drecka meadbowl, lastvar wary 
 against vice, jarSeldr subterranean fire, handtaka to lay hold 
 of, etc. This takes place therefore in all subst. of the 6<i» 
 deck, and in most of those of the 7th and 8th. 
 
 405. Euphony however, or the relation of ideas among each 
 other, often require the 1st part to be put in the gen.., especially 
 where this part is as it were the object, or owner, of the last, 
 e. g, rikisstjorn government, fofturbroSir father sbr other, andar- 
 drattr breath, breathdr awing, solarfall sundown, pipuhattr pipe- 
 lid, lagabrot lawbreaking , staeckunargler microscope, vag- 
 nasmiSr coachmaker, gatnamot crossway. 
 
 406. Sometimes the first part takes the ending -u instead 
 of -a, which if it is to be referred to any case, must come 
 from the dat. pi.; but it seems more right to regard it as a 
 mere effect of euphony, and it might, if it did not belong ex- 
 clusively to the new tongue, be compared with those Greek 
 compounds in which the 1st part ends in o, e. g. manudagr 
 Monday, liolsetuland Holstein. In old writers manadagr and 
 llolsetaland are found. 
 
 The same form is used in deriv. e. g. forunautr follower, 
 motuneyti fellowship in food, matuligt suitable, fit; in old 
 writers mataligt is also found from mati gen. mata measure^ 
 moderation. 
 
 407. Still more common is the ending i, especially if the 
 1st part be an adj., or verb, e. g. villij)j65, a wild, savage 
 folk, villisvin wildboar, and the like, which must not be con- 
 founded with those in -w, which come from subst. in -a, e. g. 
 
COMPOSITION. 173 
 
 villima^r wildman\ but villumatfr heretic, from villa , error, 
 bewilderment^ brenniforn burnt - offering , from the verb at 
 brenna, to burn, but brennuvin brandy, from the subst. brenna, 
 brennu burning. Whenever a verb is compounded with a 
 subst. or any other word, and stands in the 1st place, it always 
 takes this form in -i, by which it is as it were changed into a 
 subst., though this subst. never occurs but in composition, 
 e. g. kennimaftr priest, clerk, kennivaldr hierarchy, priestrule, 
 laerifaSir father of the church, spennikraptr elasticity, supple- 
 ness, fyllisvi'n guzzler, drunkard. 
 
 408. Fern, in -i, which are otherwise unchangeable in the 
 sing. (160.), sometimes take -s, when they stand first in comp. 
 or deriv., e. g. hraesnisfullr flatterer, hypocrite, hrySnismerki 
 mark of obedience, gsetnislaus careless, beiSnisliga imploring. 
 
 409. The names of regions, quarters of the heaven, and 
 climate, often throw away the ending -ur in compos., e. g. 
 Norftymbraland Northumberland, Austindiun, suSaustr, (other- 
 wise landsuSr) south east; yet, Austurriki, East realm, Aust- 
 ria, Sufturalfa Africa, are met with; besides essential -ur 
 never falls away in any subst., e. g. silverbiiinn silvermounted, 
 akuryrkja tillage, fjaSurfe barndoor fowl. 
 
 410. Instead of the long gen. in - ar, that in -5 is some- 
 times used in compos, particularly in Prop. Names , e. g. 
 Magnus-ar, but Magnusson, Sigurftsson etc.; though this holds 
 good chiefly of modern surnames. It is a more remarkable 
 peculiarity, that when a comp. word, the first part of which 
 is of two or three syll., is again compounded; it is commonly 
 contracted so that the first part becomes monosyll.; e. g. Svar- 
 faSardalr is a dale in Iceland, which has its name from one 
 SvarfaSr gen. SvarfaSar, the history of the dwellers in this 
 dale is called Svarfdaelasaga the story of Svarfdale ; lysthus 
 pleasure house, but lysthusqvaeSi pleasurehouse song, NorSur- 
 land, but NorSlendingr a Northlander, and Nordlenzkt North- 
 landish', SuSurland, but Sunnlendingr, and Sunnlenzkt; utan- 
 lanz, but utlendingr and litlenzkt, innanlanz, but innlendt, inn- 
 ienzkt etc. 
 
174 FORMATION OF WORDS. 
 
 Composition of Adjectives. 
 
 411. In the compos, of adj. the first part commonly 
 undergoes the same changes as the same member in comp. 
 subst. The following additional remarks may however be 
 made; many adj, are comp. of two others, in which case the 
 last is always the chief word, e. g. sannheilagr truly -holy ', 
 storgjofull openhanded, who gives great gifts, lauslyndr fickle, 
 many are so comp. that the last part is a subst. which has re- 
 cieved an adjectival form solely on account of the compos. 
 f>rihdfftaor threeheaded , langorSr wordy, rangeygdr skeweyed, 
 fagurhaerdr fairhaired, skammlifr shortlived. 
 
 412. In many cases therefore where we are now forced 
 to turn subst. into adj. (a change which otherwise never 
 occurs), the old Norsemen effected this in a simpler way like 
 the Greeks, by placing the adj. last, e. g. halslangr longnecked, 
 sviradigr thicknecked , daunssetr sw eet smelling , smeckgddr 
 goodtasted, vongoSr hopeful, varaftyckr thick lipped, nefmikill 
 bignosed, foSurvondr hard to feed, skiSfaer skilled on snowshoon. 
 In this way the part, are always placed last, e. g. sottbitinn 
 sichnessnipped , dead of a sickness, rySgeinginn rust eaten, 
 storgerSr boastful, efablandinn doubtful, alvorugefinn , careful, 
 serious, wary, m^rarkendr swampy, oljukendr oily, jarnsleginn, 
 ironmounted , ironshod. 
 
 413. Some comp. adj. compare their first part, e.g. hatt- 
 virSandi, haestvirSandi highworthy, highest-worthy, mikilshattar 
 important, meirshattar more important, mikilvasgr weighty, 
 mestvaegr or mikilvaegastr most weighty , h'tilvsegr of little 
 weight, minstvsegr of very little weight. 
 
 Composition of Verbs. 
 
 414. Subst. in compos, with verbs do not constitute the 
 actual object of the action, but denote something connected 
 with the same, or explanatory of it, e. g. krossfesta to crucify, 
 halshoggva to behead, handhogga to cut off the hand, or5- 
 leiniija to talk ?vordily, auglysa to make plain, proclaim , etc. 
 
C031P0SITI0N, 175 
 
 These are however not numerous, any more than verbs comp, 
 with adj. as rangsnua to distort, tarn askew, sannfsera to 
 persuade, kunngjora to make known, etc. Those comp. with 
 other verbs, e. g. brennimerkja to brandy mark with a brand, 
 are however the rarest of all. 
 
 415. Adv. and prep, on the other hand are compounded 
 with verbs in numberless instances, as in other tongues, e. g. 
 afraSa to dissuade, inntaka to take in, utreka to drive oat, 
 fraskilja to part from, etc. 
 
 There is a remarkable kind of compos, in Icel. and 
 Angl. Sax. which does not impart a single whole idea, since 
 the parts do not properly belong the one to the other, but, 
 when only for the sake of the construction, the prep. is taken 
 from the subst., unless this be left out, and added to the verb ; 
 especially when the latter stands last in the sentence, e. g. 
 i-vera to be in, af-trua to trow of (anything whatever). These 
 ought perhaps to be written separately, for if at or the auxil. 
 verb be added, it is usually put between them, e. g. J)eir er 
 mer J)6lti 1 Jmrfa at vera, which methought ought to be there- 
 in ; this point therefore belongs more properly to syntax. 
 
 Some indefinite subst. and adj. of this kind, which do not 
 contain one complete idea, are nevertheless actual compounds 
 or derivatives, e. g. (g65r) veSurdaga a (fine) day, (litit) 
 matland a land bringing forth (little) food, (ilia) limaftr one 
 who has (illmade') limbs, (vel) settadr (well) born. If no 
 defining word stands along with them, they are commonly 
 taken in a good and strengthening sense. 
 
 Words commonly used in Composition. 
 
 416. The words used in composition, as may be seen 
 from what has been said above, are very numerous, but it 
 will not perhaps be thought superfluous, to adduce in addition 
 some of those most commonly added to other words in order 
 to express a certain definitive though subordinate idea. 
 
176 COMPOSITION. 
 
 417. Thus hofufi- head is often used first in compos.; 
 e. g. hofufteingill archangel, hofuftprestr highpriest, hofuftgrein 
 chiefpiece. This kind of compos, however by no means 
 always answers to those in the new tongues, e. g. aSal- 
 orrusta mainbattle, Swed. hufvudbattalj, atriSisord chief word, 
 meginhaf great sea, ocean, meginfyod* flower of a nation. 
 
 Pjod- forms a kind of augmentatives with the idea of 
 excellence ; e. g. fnoSkonungr king over a whole great people, 
 JyoSskaldr a great skald, poet, |>j65spekingr great philosopher, 
 JyoSgata highroad. 
 
 Stor- is used in endless comp. with subst. adj., and adv., out of 
 which it forms augmentatives, e. g. storeign great possessions, 
 slorhrer great buildings, storgr^li great stones, from grjot, 
 slordeila great strife, stormenni great man, storti'Sindi great 
 tidings, storrikr very powerful, storauSugr very wealthy, stor- 
 gjofull one who gives great gifts, stormikill very great, stor- 
 illa very ill. 
 
 Smd- (from smdtt , smdr, smd), forms diminutires, e. g 
 smasveinn little page, smaqvikindi small beasts, smamey little 
 maid, smakonungr Mngling, small lung etc. In the same way 
 as these two words, are also used mikil- and litil, marg- and 
 fa-, but they occur less frequently, e. g. mikilmenni a tall, 
 commanding man, litilmenni little, insignificant, person, marg- 
 vitur much knowing, favitur little knowing. 
 
 Nf- (from nftt, ?ifr, nf), expresses our new or newly, 
 e. g. n^kjorinn newly chosen, n^mindaftr newmade, nystaftinn 
 upp newly risen up, n^mseli news, etc. 
 
 God- e. g. g65gjor5r good fare, goSverk good works, 
 godfus wellmeaning, goSfrsegr having a good name. 
 
 Ill- e. g. illgjorS ill doing, illmenni badman, illviftri bad 
 weather, illgresi weeds, illfiis illmeaning, spiteful. 
 
 418. Of words used last in compos, the most common are : 
 
 -maftr, joined to genitives and denoting, (a) a man of a 
 certain character, gafumaSr a gifted man, genius, mselskumaSr 
 a talker, J)jonustuma5r serving man, motstoSumadr with slander, 
 gleSimaSr a merry man, i^rottaniatfr one distinguished in 
 
COMPOSITION. 177 
 
 athletic sports, bo&smaftr a bidden guest, a guest, liturnarmafir 
 a painter; (b) a dweller in a certain region, e. g. Asiumenn 
 Asiatics, Austurrkismenn Easterlings , Austrians , Trojumenn 
 Trojans, ParisarmaSr a man of Paris, Strassborgarmenn 
 Strasburghers , borgarmaSr burgher, townsman, lanzmadr a 
 native (especially opposed to vikingar searovers), and by no 
 means to be confounded with landi which means landsman, 
 countryman; (c) one of a certain party , e. g. fjandmaSr 
 foeman, boandmaSr one of the peasant party, konungsmaSr 
 kingsman, royalist, which last must be clearly distinguished 
 from konungmaSr king, kingly person, 
 
 -kona forms fern., which answer to the foregoing masc. 
 e. g. fydnustukona handmaid, motstoSukona withstanding 
 woman, einsetukona hermitess. 
 
 -land, the Icelanders seldom use any name of a country 
 that is not comp. with -land, -riki, or the like, e.g. Indialand, 
 Jorsalaland Palestine , Polinaland , Prussaland , Flaemingj aland 
 Flanders, Valland Italy, ( this often means France in old 
 writers), Serkland Barbary (Saracenland), The words -heimr, 
 riki, and veldi are added to the gen. pi. of the name of the 
 people, e. g. Vanaheimr the home or land of the Wends 
 (Sclavonians) , Frankariki the realm of the Franks, S via veldi 
 the rule of the Swedes; but -land often to an abbreviated 
 form, which is perhaps the sing., e. g. S^rland Syria, Grick- 
 land Greece, Frackland Finance, Eingland, Skotland etc. (110. 
 178. 321.) 
 
 -borg, a town is seldom named without being comp. with 
 -borg -staftr -kaupdngr, or some other Icelandic appellative ,e.g fl 
 Trojuborg Troytown, Kartagoborg , Jorsalaborg or Jorsalir 
 Jerusalem, Akursborg Acre, Atenuborg Athens, Parisaborg 
 Paris , Nioaros Trondjem , Kaupmannahofn Copenhagen, 
 Stockholmr. 
 
 -efni denotes (a) one who is about to be something, 
 koniingsefni kingsheir. crownprince, biskupsefni one who will 
 be bishop, prestsefni a priest elect, magsefni future son in 
 
 12 
 
178 FORMATION OF WORD3. 
 
 law , k^refni a calf which wilt be sometime or other a cow ; 
 (b) an object for any sense, e. g. hlatursefni any thing laugh- 
 able, sorgarefni any thing to sorrow over, 
 
 -list forms the names of arts or practical sciences, e. g. 
 malaralist art of painting , now konst or kunst (contracted 
 from kunnusta) is also used in such cases. 
 
 -horn forms diminutives, e. g. ritkorn a little writing, 
 pamphlet, profkorn a small proof stundarkorn the twinkling 
 of an eye, karlkorn mannikin, piltkorn a little boy, barnakorn 
 baby, my dear child, (Dansk Bornlille.) 
 
 -fullr, e. g. hjalruarfullr superstitious, lotningarfullr worship- 
 ful; -mikil and -rikr are also used in like cases, e. g. 
 abatamikill advantageous, avaxtarmikill very fruitful, gaezkurikr 
 very good, all good, (used of God) bl65rikr fullblooded 
 plethoric, etc. 
 
 -laus forms negative adj. e. g. saklaus guiltless, huglaus 
 spiritless, vopnlaus weaponless ; these adj. are often used in 
 the neut. as adv., e. g. the word interregnum, is thus expres- 
 sed , fm var konunglaust, hofSinglaust, pafalaust etc.; in regard 
 to the subst. formed from this in -leysi and -leysa see rule 
 333. -litill is used nearly in the same way, e. g. avaxtarh'till 
 bearing little fruit etc. 
 
 -gjarn denotes an inclination, e. g. metnaSargjarn greedy 
 of honour, drottnunargjarn eager to reign, namgjarn teachable, 
 fegjarn avaricious, miitugjarn corrupt, ready to take bribes, 
 JDraelugjarn strifeloving , hence are formed abstract subst. 
 in -girni. 
 
 -vis denotes a quality in general, e. g. daunvis quick- 
 scented, sharpsighted, prettvis crafty, deceitful, stelvis thievish, 
 hvatvis petulant, saucy, la? vis faithless, 
 
 419. Many more might be reckoned up, which form 
 whole classes of comp. words, e. g. subst. -kyn, kind, kin, 
 
COMPOSITION. 179 
 
 -tag way, manner, -goQr, -illr, -scell etc. But they are easy 
 to master, and it would be endless to describe them all. I 
 need only remark, that however extended and unlimited com- 
 position may be in the old Norse, the chief word, or that 
 which contains the general idea, must always be placed last 
 in subst.; the genius of the language not admitting in the 
 least such words as lKizoKora\x6^. 
 
 12* 
 
FOURTH PART. 
 
 Syntax. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 General view* 
 
 420. The true Icelandic syntax is distinguished in general 
 by simpleness, strength, and regularity; it seldom employs 
 long or complex periods , but rather short and loose sentences, 
 commonly connected by oh or enn (i. e. but) etc. e. g. in 
 Egils' Saga, Bjorn het hersir, rikr maSr 1 5ogni, er bjo a 
 Aurlandi. Hans son var Brynjolfr, er arf allan tok eptir foSur 
 sinn. Synir Brynjolfs voru |>eir Bjorn ok por5r; f>eir voru 
 menn a ungum aldri, er J>etta var tiSenda. Bjorn var farmaSr 
 mikill: var stundum i viking, enn stundum 1 kaupferftum. 
 Bjorn var hinn gerfiligsti ma5r etc. Or the following from 
 SverriV Saga, Eysteinn erkibiskup hafSi {>at sumar komit vestan 
 af Einglandi snemma, ok hafSi verit J)rja vetur i Einglandi fra 
 stoli sinum, ok {>a saettist erkibiskup vi5 Sverri konung, ok 
 for hann urn sumarit nor5r til stols sins. 
 
 421. Nevertheless the construction is more free than in 
 the new tongues; because the many and clearly distinguished 
 cases, genders, and other forms, render it easy to find out 
 what words are to be taken together. The chief word can 
 therefore be placed at will in the place where it will have 
 most effect; and in this way many circumlocutions of the 
 new tongues are avoided; so that the construction is made 
 
SYNTAX. 181 
 
 shorter and more powerful; e. g. Sagt er j>ar ok fra dauSa 
 hvers {>eirra ok legstaft , there is it said both of the death of 
 each of them , and of their restingplace (grave). Faii }>eir! 
 aptr munu j)eir koma. Let them go! they will (soon) come 
 back. Manninn skapaSi gud" seinast. God shaped man last. 
 
 Again the numerous inflections of words require the 
 greatest accuracy in writing and speech, because they must 
 always answer to each other in the strictest way, according 
 to the natural relations of the words in the sentence, just as 
 in Greek and Latin, and perhaps even more strictly; at least 
 we here find no such exceptions as in Greek and the Eastern 
 tongues, where the verb and its subst. are sometimes put in 
 different numbers; e. g. Haralds saga hins harfagra , the story 
 of Harald the fairhaired ; here all three words must stand in 
 the gen. masc, as it is not enough to say as in Swedish, Harald 
 den harfagres historia, where only the adj., because it comes 
 last , takes the posses, sign 's. So also Saga Olafs komings 
 ens helga Haraldssonr. (ftseS ek) at fm fair Haraldi fraenda 
 J)inum annat konungsriki. Sem ecki leyfir oss at vera oldiingis 
 hirftulausum urn vora egin velferft. 
 
 422. This regularity has been perhaps the reason why, 
 in order to avoid monotony in the endings when several words 
 in the same case follow immediately one after the other, it is 
 usual to separate them by inserting some expression with a 
 different close, or which stands in another case; e. g. gott 
 verk ok astsamt, a good work and a lovely. {>a tdk pdrarinn 
 til mals Nefjdlfsson. Fair munu lastalausir lifa efta glsepa 
 (viz, lausir), instead of, Fair munu lifa lasta eSa glsepa-lausir, 
 Few will lire without backbiting or without sin. Hoggva £at 
 eSr meida etc. This is again extended much farther, in fact 
 almost to every case where two words belong together, even 
 though they may be of different kind and case; in questions 
 and answers in particular, the adv. is separated from the word 
 to which, or with which, the answer is made; e. g. hva5 
 kostar f>a8 mikiS? how much does that cost? hvaS ertu gamall? 
 how old art thou? Sva vara {>ar ljon stdr sera uxar. There 
 were lions as big as oxen. 
 
182 SYNTAX. 
 
 423. One ramarkable peculiarity of the old Norse is that 
 the oratio obliqua is often suddenly changed for the or alio 
 directa, viz, when the most important portion of a persons 
 speech comes; e. g. J)a sogftu iEsirnir at hann (Fenrir) mundi 
 skjott slita mjott silkiband , er hann hafSi fyrr brotit stora 
 jarnfjotra; "enn ef |>u fser eigi {>etta band slitit J)a skulum 
 ver leysa |>ik" Then said the JEsir that he must be able to 
 snap asunder in a trice a limp silken band, he who had be- 
 fore burst great iron fetters, "But if thou'rt unable to 
 break this band, then will we loose thee. In the same way, 
 and still more commonly, number and person are changed in 
 one and the same period , viz , when at one time the chief 
 person is more thought of, at another all who share in the 
 matter; e. g. Sverrir rei5 vi5 500 manna til bus Simunar i 
 Skriksvik; toku f>ar upp buit, enn brendu baeinn, ok fjorutiu 
 nauta let hann reka a Vermaland. "Sverrir rode with 500 
 men to Simon* s house in Skriksvik; they pulled down the 
 house, but burned the hamlet, and he let forty head of cattle 
 be driven into Vermland." 
 
 424. The common order is otherwise quite simple and 
 natural; the subject with the words which define it are put 
 first, then the verb with the adverbs belonging to it, and last 
 the object with whatever is joined to it; e.g. Sverrir konungr | 
 samnaSi nu saman | ollu liSi sinu , which may however be 
 changed in manifold ways, according to the meaning of the 
 speaker, as well as the connection with the foregoing or fol- 
 lowing clauses in the context. 
 
183 
 
 CHVPTER XIV. 
 
 Syntax of Substantives. 
 
 425. Titles are generally placed, as in Latin, after the- 
 Proper name, e. g. Sverrir konungr, Eirikr jarl, Guttormr 
 herlogi, Otta kaisari h.nn mikli, Ari prestr, Vastes drotni'ng. 
 Herra and Sira however (together with Fru and Madama, 
 Frauken and Jungfru) are put before the name, e. g. Hra 
 Karl, Sra jdn, because they are not the names of any actual 
 dignity. Herra is used in old Norse of kings, bishops, and 
 knights, Sira on the other hand exclusively of priests. 
 
 426. Genitives and possessives are usually placed after 
 the nouns to which they answer; in later times however it 
 has become somewhat more common to set them first. The 
 rule may perhaps be best laid down thus, that they are placed 
 before when emphatic in the sentence, but afterward in all 
 other cases, e. g. Ger5u f>at fyrir hennar sakir, do that for 
 her sake! BroSir hans var kominn ao*r. Er |>eir fundu Gunn.- 
 hildi mdQur sina. 
 
 427. Where we in the new tongues (i. c. Swed. and 
 Dansk) merely place two subst. side by side, of which one 
 denotes a part of, or serves to measure, the other, the IceL 
 requires that the name of the substance should either be 
 put first, and as it were compounded with the other word; 
 or also, if it be not a subst., or for any other reason be not 
 suitable for compos. , that the name of the substance be set 
 last with the prep, af, e. g. gefSu mer ofurlitiS pappi'rsbL$. 
 Swed. gif mig ett litet stycke (blad) papper. Give me a little 
 piece of paper Hann kastaSi kokubita fyrir hundinn , han 
 hastade en bit brod (kaka) for hunden. He cast a piece of 
 cake to the dog. Af barkarslyckjum |>eim r af de stycken 
 bark , from the pieces of bark. Korntuiman kostar 20 r. dr. 
 En tunna spannmal kostar 20 r. dr. A tun of rye costs 20 
 
184 
 
 S YIN TAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 rixdollars. LitiS af saft'rani a litte saffron. Einn knefi af 
 rusinum eftr korennum a handful of raisins or currants. 
 NB. The English language uses sometimes the lcel., some- 
 times the Swedish idiom. 
 
 428. Subst. which serve to fill up a description, are 
 put in the dat. where we use by or in, and in the gen. where 
 we use of Mann het Ormr rettu nafni, he hight Ormr by his 
 right name. Hvat heitir fat oSrum orftum? what does that 
 mean in other words? Hann fotti mikillar natturu vera. 
 
 429. A subst. which marks the length of time, or travel, 
 is put in the ace, e. g. komingr la far halfan manuS , (the) 
 Icing lay there half a month, peir dvoldust far litla hn'S, they 
 dwelled there a little time. peir foru margar fingmanna- 
 leiSir *, margin* milur. They fared many miles. Hann for 
 landveg, sjoleiSina etc. The only exception from this rule is 
 the phrase. He went on his way, hann for ferSar sinnar (in 
 the gen.) as in Germ, er zog seines Weges. 
 
 430. If on the other hand such words only stand as de- 
 finitives with some comparat., prep., or adv., and thus do not 
 immediately denote the measure, they are commonly put in 
 the dat. e. g. halfum manuSi seinna, half a month later. Hem- 
 lngr andaSist vetri sidar. 290 arum eptir Noa fl65. SegSu 
 fat, Eldir! sva at f& einugi feti gangir framar. 
 
 431. A word denoting a means, instrument, manner, etc. 
 is es put in the dat. without a prep., e. g. berja i grjdti hel, to 
 slay with stones. Steig for fa fram 65rum fseti. Thor stepped 
 then forward with one foot, pess varir mik at f u maelir feig- 
 um munni. Var fat eiSum bundit. Sigldi Kiitr liSi sinu su5r. 
 
 * A finginannaleiS contains one third of a degree after the 
 common reckoning 
 
185 
 
 CHAPTER XV, 
 
 Syntax of Adjectives. 
 
 432. Both the def. and indef. form of adj, are used as 
 vocatives, e. g. guo* minn goSr! blessaor minn! barnit gott! 
 hiisinoSir goS! ek vilda, goSr dreingr, at jm geingir inn i 
 stofuna. Nu Jon litli! piltar litlu. But if both subst. and adj. 
 be put in the def. form, then the sense is general and collec- 
 tive, e. g. goSa barnit, the good child, or good children, 
 
 433. When adj. stand as subst., the Icelanders put them 
 most often in the indef. form; e. g. danskir the Danes, is- 
 lenzkir the Icelanders, peir gjorSu allt f>at flit (gott etc.) vid* 
 hann sem |>eim var moguligt. 
 
 434. When an adj. answers to two subst., of which one 
 is masc. , the other fern., it is put in the neut., even though 
 one or both subst. be left out, and only understood from what 
 goes before, e. g. Enn er |>au (viz Grimr oc Loptsena) voru 
 bum, oc byr gaf, heldu J>au tveim skipum austr meS landi, 
 (Orvar Odds Saga. ch. 1.) 
 
 435. Descriptive adj. govern the dat., e. g. fagur sfnum, 
 litill vexti, fair of face, little of growth, likr oSrum monnum. 
 Words which define or strengthen compaiat. are also put in the 
 dat., e. g. hverjum manni hserri, taller than any man. Hverri 
 konu fegri. Ljosalfar eru fegn cnn sol sfnum, enn Dockalfar 
 svartari biki. The Lightekes are fairer than the sun to look on, 
 (in face), but the Darhelves svarthier than pitch. Gylf. ch. 17. 
 prifljiingi styttra. Var J)a korn eingum mun betra. Ok er sja 
 (fotr) J) vi Ijotari at af er ein tain, peim mun heldr sem, so 
 much the more as. Instead of this |>vi or {>eim mun, the 
 particle at with the comparat. is also used; e. g. menn voru 
 |>eir at vaskaii. Eingi maSr mun Eirik kalla at meira koming 
 J)6 at hann drepi einn bondason (210). No-tnan will call Eric 
 any more a king, though he slay a peasants son. There 
 
186 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 are besides many adj. which govern the dat. as in Greek and 
 other tongues, but which it is hard to bring under any rule. 
 Vanr J>essu starfi. Reior einum. Feginn |>vi. 
 
 436. The super!, on the other hand is strengthened by 
 the gen.* e. g. Hann var allra manna vitrastr. He was of all 
 men wisest. Hun var allra qvenna fn'Sust. Er sva sagt at 
 Egill geingi fyrstr manna i borgina. Hann var f>eirra a?5str (210). 
 
 437. Adj. which denote a measure take to them the 
 name of the measure in the gen.; e. g. halfar annarar alnar 
 langr, one ell and a half long. Fimm qvartila og J>riggja jmm- 
 lunga har. Five quarters and 3 thumbs high , fnjad'u ara 
 gamall (otherwise |>ritugr). There are also other adj which 
 govern the gen. but which can hardly be brought under any 
 rule, e. g. ver5r, verougr ills dauSa. pa urSu f)eir f>ess varir. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 Syntax of Pronouns. 
 
 438. Where in other tongues a personal pron. is joined 
 to a Prop. Name by the conjunct, and , the Icelanders leave 
 out and, but on the other hand throw^ the pron. into the Dual 
 or PL, in the same case as the Prop. Name; e. g. Eyjdlfr var 
 opt viS skip um sumarit, ok attu f>eir HreiSar mart saman i 
 vinfeingi. Eyjolfr was often at the ship during the summer 
 and Hreidar and he had many dealings together in friendship. 
 Viga Glums Saga. ch. I. Einka gripi vil ek J>er gefa, er ver 
 hoium mikinn tranaS~a=haftr-fraeiidr. i. e. / and my friends, 0* 
 forefathers. Viga Glums Sag. ch. VF. Vinatta ockar Hakonar 
 konungs stendr grunnt. Mine and king Hakons friendship 
 stands in a tottering state. Enn vsentir mik at fundr vor 
 Bagla veroi. / still hope that mine and the Baglarna's meet- 
 ing will come about. Instead of a Prop. Name a title may 
 also be used in the same way, e. g. Skildu {>eir jarl mefi 
 
SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 187 
 
 vinatlu. He and the Earl parted in friendship. If on the 
 other hand no definite person be spoken of, to which the 
 pron. can refer., J>eir in the pi, agreeing in case with a Prop. 
 Name in the sing., forms an idiom exactly expressing (he 
 Greek 'ot itsqi with a Prop. Name; and may be rendered in 
 Engl, by N. N. and his party ', friends, or the like, e. g. £eir 
 Sigurdr logo*u fram. peim Hakoni byrjaSi seint. 
 
 439. Hann and hun are always used personally, and sa, 
 su invariably as demonstratives, and not as in the new ton- 
 gues personally in the common gend.; e. g. JarSarmergr er 
 blendingr af kalki og leir, ef hann er lagSr ut til viSrunar 
 verSr hann aS dupti. Meiningin kann aS vera sumum auSsen, 
 J)6 eigi se hun {>at ollum. pat, sa, su, again are used of a 
 entirely unknown, and hitherto unmentioned person or thing, 
 where we place a before the relative, e. g. Hann var girftr 
 sverSi j)vi er hann kallafti Lang. i. e. He was girded with a 
 sword which he called Long. Hann sagSi henni at J>ar var 
 mao*r sa er skomm faerSi at |>eim. HeiSrekr barSist vid 
 konung |>ann er Humli het. MeS |>eim haetti sem ver faum 
 ecki skilit, i. e. In a way which we cannot understand, par 
 e5 gu5 hvorki vill ne getr fmngat oss til gofts meS {>eirri 
 makt, sem ver getum ecki rooti staSit. 
 
 440. How the indef. personal one (Swed. and Germ. 
 man) is expressed, has been already spoken of (228.). It may 
 however be added, that where we use one in a sentence which 
 describes how one should set to work in any matter, the 
 Icelanders prefer to throw the clause into the passive, in- 
 verting the form; e. g. f>a tunnin er skipt 1 vissa parta, er 
 einn partrinn latinn dbrukaSr, svo hann er hvorki sleginn ne 
 beittr. When the land is divided into certain parts, one part 
 is left waste, so that it is neither mown nor grazed. NB. The 
 English uses either idiom, though the passive perhaps is 
 more common. 
 
 441. The pron. one another, and the one — the other. 
 are seldom expressed in Icel. by pron. (221), but usually in 
 a shorter way by the simple passive, or reciprocal form of 
 
188 SYNTAX OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 the verb, e. g. er f>eir voru bunir hlaupast {)eir at. When 
 they were ready {armed) they run one against the other. 
 P^ramus og Tisbe J>au untust i ar. Pyramus aud Thisbe they 
 loved one another of yore. 
 
 442. Instead, of the possess, pron. the dat. of the person- 
 al, are commonly used with subst. denoting any part of the 
 body, and which are governed by a prep.; e. g. Fell akarn 
 nockut 1 hofud mer? Gylf. 45. Fell an acorn on my head? 
 Enn er hendr hans voru lausar leysti hann bond of fotum ser. 
 So also, J)6rolfr fell fram a fsetr konungi. 
 
 With the gen. of other words also the gen. of the pers. 
 pron. are used instead of possessives; e. g. J>at stendr i sjal- 
 fra vor valdi. 
 
 443. The article is properly hit, yet often also f>at, and 
 sometimes both are used at once in order to make a greater 
 impression. Hinn is placed before adj., which then stand in 
 the def. form, ; e. g. hit garnla, hinn ungi, hinn vaena, even if 
 a subst. be added, as in Dansk; e. g. Hit gamla skip, Hinn 
 ungi maor, Hver er su hin vama m»r? who is that fair maid? 
 or it is joined to the end of subst. In the last case if an 
 adj. go before, it may either stand in the def. form, e. g. 
 unga stulkan, the young damsel, ace. unga stulkuna etc. which 
 is more common ; or the art. may be placed before it here 
 also, so that it is used twice, as in Swed., e. g. hinn ungi 
 maSrinn, hina ungu stulkuna Braut f)ar hit goSa skipit, enn 
 hit minna skipit helzt; or lastly the adj. is put indef. , e. g. 
 heilagr pafmn the holy Pope. Which last however seldom 
 occurs. 
 
 After genit., posses, pron., and pres. particip., the adj. is 
 often put in the indef. form, contrary to the custom of the 
 new tongues, e. g. Efla vort egiS og annara sannarligt gagn. 
 Farther your own and others true welfare. Gud gaf i dau&in 
 sinn eingetinn son. John III. 16. Eptirfylgjandi snoturt rit. 
 
 444. Partitives commonly govern in Icel., as in Latin, the 
 genii. ; e.g. }>eir unnu baoir veik eins hinna. Sa3iningr var {>eirra 
 
SYNTAX OP PRONOUNS. 189 
 
 ellifu mestr. Ek veit eigi hvart nockur varr mundi. / know 
 not whether any of us will etc., Hver f>eirra which of them? 
 or each one of them. In these cases the partitive is often put 
 in the neut. sing., if it be of adjectival nature, e. g. Mart 
 manna. Fatt manna. Hvat i jn-otta muntu vilja birta fyrir oss? 
 
 But these words are also often set in apposition, where 
 of is used in the new tongues, e. g. Heima menn Skallagrims 
 foru til leiks margir. Many of Skallagrims house folk fared 
 to the sport. Gjora mattu hann svo kseran f)er sem |>u vilt, 
 eSa fleiri J>a fraendr. Jesus utsendi tvo si'na lserisveina. Ma 
 fmo* sja af sumu fjvi er f)eir hafa skrifad. petta er ein su 
 Jrfngsta byrSi sem a biianda folki liggr. Eitt hit saklausasta 
 ok spakasta d^r. Verst eitt-hvert, something of the worst. 
 peir letu eingan meS lift brottkomast, |>ann en a karfanum var. 
 
 445. Numerals commonly stand as adj. in appos.; but 
 sometimes as subst. with the genit., e. g. in Sturlusons Yngl- 
 inga Saga. ch. 29. pa lifSi hann tiu velur, sva at hann matti 
 eiki ganga, {m blotaSi hann (aptr) ok lit'Si hann |>a enn tiu 
 vetra. 
 
 446. Great numbers are read in the same order as the 
 figures are written; e.g. 8325, read, atta {msund Jujii hundriiS 
 tultugu og fimm. Yet the date of the year is usually reckoned 
 for the sake of brevity after the centuries; e. g. 1817 read 
 aljan hundruS og sautjan. 
 
 447. Every other , every third year etc. is expressed in 
 an inverted order, e. g. annat, J)riSja, fjorSa, hvort ar. So 
 also with the art. e. g. At hvila hinn sjounda hvern dag. It 
 tiunda hvert ar. 
 
 448. Halft is used as in Swed., i. e. it is put before the 
 ordinal, which it lessens by half e. g. halft fjorda hundra8. 
 350, half the fourth hundred ', half onnur alin an ell and a 
 half Hann var |>ar varla halfan annan dag. He was there 
 barely a day and a half. 
 
 Halft has the same force when joined to words denoting 
 a persons' age, however singular the custom may now seem; 
 
190 SYNTAX OF VERHS. 
 
 e. g. fnitugr 30 years old, halffmtugr is consequently, 25 years 
 old, as also halffertugr 35, halffimtugr 45, halfsextugr 55 etc.; 
 which expressions must not be confounded with the Dansk 
 word halvtreds i. e. 50, halvfjers 70, and halvfems 90. The 
 cause of this difference is, that the Icelanders reckon by tugr 
 (10), but the Danes by tyve (20), from 50 to 100 inclusive. 
 The Icel. halffm'tug is therefore 2^ times 10zz25; but the 
 Dansk halvtreds (or halvtredsinstyve 2| times 20zz50. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 Syntax of Verbs. 
 
 449. The verb is often put before the subj., though no 
 question is asked \ but most often when the sentence is de- 
 pendant on, or connected with, another going before it. e. g. 
 pa var sagt J)rselunum til um {>etta kaup; letu J>eir korn fram 
 ok malt ok seldu Asbirni. Siglir fwrarinn J>a a haf lit. 
 
 450. An adv. belonging to a verb is placed before the 
 subst. , as near to the verb as possible, as in Swed., e. g. 
 Hann vatt upp segl. Hratt fram skipi. The case is the same 
 with prep, which stand as adv.; e.g. f)a rendu at skipin Olafs. 
 Matvseli, sem {>ena til at feita med fugla. In these cases great 
 care must be paid against taking the prep, along with the 
 subst., by which the sense of the clause would be entirely 
 destroyed. If the clause be auxiliary, in which the verb stands 
 last, the prep, is commonly compounded, or at least coupled, 
 with it, e. g. Sverrir konungr haf&i viSset fessi snoru, er 
 |>eir setluSi hann i-vei8a. KlaeSi, er jarl hafSr i-farit. Mart 
 raeddu menu fyrir konungi um si5u f>eirra Egils, ok fannst J>at 
 a konungi, at honum var h'tt at skapi slikt, er hann |>6ttist 
 af-fretta i. e. (af J)vi, af siSum |>eirra Egils). This often hap- 
 pens though the verb does not stand last, e.g. at meiSa folk, 
 er l-eru kasta lanum. Margir hofftu ftyit, J>eir er aSr hofftu 
 
SYNTAX OF VERBS. I 9 J 
 
 spurn af-haft urn ferftir Bagla. pat mun ek af-kjosa, er yo'r 
 mun fyckja litil mannligra (i. e. of fessu, af f essum kostum). 
 
 If neither the verb nor the prep, have any object in the 
 clause, the prep, is placed before the verb, though in the 
 new tongues it stands last; e. g. Ok fordi fa einginn amoti 
 at msela, and then none dared to speak against (it), 
 
 451. In narrative style, as in other tongues, the pres. is 
 often used for the imperf. , which tenses are however often 
 suddenly interchanged in the same sentence; e. g. for steig 
 fram oSrum faeti at far er Skrfmir la og tystr i hofu3 honuin ? 
 enn Skr^mir vaknar ok spyrr hvert laufsblaS felli etc. Gylf. 45. 
 Th or stepped with one foot forward thither where Skrymir 
 lay, and dashes (his hammer) against his head, but Skrfmir 
 wakes and asks whether a leaf fell etc. 
 
 452. Sometimes the verb is not guided by the actual 
 subject, but by the predicate, if this last come between; e. g. 
 far er enn sa slaSr er Himinbjorg heita. Hann a far riki er 
 f niovangar heita. 
 
 453. Particip act. in -anda, -andi, contain also the idea 
 of the fut. part, pass., and thus answer to the Latin pres. part, 
 in -ans, -ens, -ntis, and the fut part. pass, in -andum, -endum, 
 both in signification and form; e. g. varla er triianda, it is 
 hardly to be believed. Er nu gott berandi bor5 a horninu. I 
 strax nefnanda brefi. 
 
 454. The pres. conj., which also serves to supply the 
 optat. (276.), often gives a strength and terseness in expres- 
 sion which can hardly be conveyed in the new tongues, e. g. 
 Latum hann fara slika for. Let us make him come as badly 
 out of it. Minnumst a fat, Let us think of that. AfklaeSumst 
 f essum ham. Let us throw o/f this garb. 
 
 455. The passive is in the Old Norse. 1. reciprocal. 
 (282.). Ingi konungr frelsaSist (i. e. frelsaSi sik) me5 flotta, 
 King Ingi saved himself, got clear off, with the fleet. Hann 
 let ei kugast (i. e. kuga sik) til fess at taka viS kristni. At 
 lata eigi skirast (i. e. skira sik), not to let himself be baptised, 
 
192 SYNTAX OF VERBS. 
 
 2. a mutual action, o. g. Er f)eir voru bunir hlailpast {>eir at. 
 When they were ready 1hey run against each other. The 
 proper pass, meaning on the other hand is rather expressed 
 by a periphrase as in Germ., e. g. f>a var {>ar flutt 1 vist 
 ok onnur faung. Then was brought thither food and other 
 neadful things. Ok var J>ar gjor ssettin, and then atonement 
 was made, 
 
 456. The ace. with the infin. is a very common constrnc- 
 tion in Ice!.; e. g. |>er qvaSut solina fara skjotar, dixistis 
 solem celerius procedere. If the ace. be a personal pron. and 
 the same person the subj. in the sentence, it is omitted, and 
 the verb put in the pass.; e. g. Ek sagSist (i. c. sagSi mik) 
 ecki trua })vi. Hann qveftst (i. e. qveSr sik) Gestr heita. 
 Hann qvaSst (qvad* sik) aatla. Hann lezt (let sik) mundu, he 
 let it be understood he would. It is besides remarkable that 
 if any adj. or the like, answer to the ace. left out, it is not- 
 withstanding put in the norm, e. g. {>eir qvadust allir til J>ess 
 skyldir. peir qvadust J>vi fegnir ver5a. 
 
 457. The double genit. of the Greeks, and the double 
 ablative of the Latins, are expressed in Icel. by two dat. and 
 the prep, at, e. g. At {m gjdrvu, hoc facto. At endaSum 
 sjukdominum. 
 
 458. Some verbs, which in the new tongues take a simple 
 infin. after them, require in Icel. the infin. with at; thus kunna, 
 and fora to dare, e. g. Einginn {)eirra kunni at st^ra skipi. 
 Where we have the simple infin. with a prep, before it, the 
 Icelanders commonly insert |>at in the case required by the 
 prep.; e. g. Eg get eigi betr utmala5 })etta, en ine5 {m at 
 segja fra hversu, etc. Ek vil gefa honum orlof til |>ess at 
 fara heim til Skotlands. / will give him leare to fare home 
 to Scotland. 
 
 459. Here, as in other tongues veibs govern various 
 cases; but it is hard, or perhaps impossible, to give sure 
 rules, as to which govern one, and which another case. The 
 reason of this government is doubtless that certain prep, are 
 left out; sometimes indeed these expressions are found at full 
 
SYNTAX OF VEBBS. 193 
 
 length, e. g. fylgja (me5) einum; but since the cases are so 
 positively defined, there was no need on most occasions to insert 
 the preposition. A verb is often joined to several subst., of 
 which one denotes the actual object, another the person in 
 view, a third some casual circumstance, etc. These must be 
 well distinguished , because they are usually put in different 
 cases. 
 
 460. Most transitivesj the object of which is immediate 
 and direct, govern the ace ; e. g. sla, drepa, elska, iSka, taka^ 
 leggja, reisa, fella, bera, grata einhvern, to ?veep for any one, 
 byrja soguna to begin the tale, and numbers more. 
 
 461. Many verbs which have the signification of setting 
 a thing in motion , without sharing in it oneself, govern a 
 dat.; e. g. snua, venda, kasta^ fleygja (to sling, properly 
 to cause to fly}-, skjota , leggja spjoti to stick with a 
 spear , sla ollu i vind to make light of, to neglect, 
 hleypa fyrir lokunni, to shoot the bolt against, lypta , hefja, 
 sa, dreifa to spread, scatter , drey pa to drop, pour, stock va 
 to make to spring, sdekva to sink etc. So also fara and 
 koma, when used transitively, e. g. Hann kom A'sum opt i 
 vandrseSi. Ef hann fer minum ra5um fram. So also many 
 which mean to govern, change, destroy, help, protect, etc. 
 ra5a sigri, st^ra skipi, bjdSa gestum, valda bagganum to be 
 equal to the burden, bregma biii to change one's house, breyta 
 to change, steypa dvinum si'num, hrinda (imperf. hratt) einum 
 i eldinn, umturna, granda, ey5a, farga, tapa, t^na to lose, 
 eyra, hlifa, |>yrma, hjalpa, bjarga, duga, skyla etc. 
 
 462. Those principally govern the genit. which signify to 
 desire, wish, and the like; such often take the pers. to them in 
 the ace. and the thing in the genit.; e. g. beida, biSja einn nockurs, 
 spyrja hann ra5a, fregna, krefja, dska, afla to earn, gain, leita, 
 raSa, bi"5a, gseta , to take care, get a to talk of, njdta, 
 unna, etc. In the case of these words the pers. who is the 
 obj., must be carefully distinguished from that for the sake 
 of which the action is undertaken; e. g. bioj a einn friSar to 
 ask some one for peace, but bidja einum frioar ask for peace 
 for some one. 
 
 13 
 
194 SYNTAX OF VERBS. 
 
 It' the name of a person be placed with this verb in the 
 genit the meaning" becomes to woo, e. g. jEllar {m at biSja 
 hennar. Dost thou mean to woo her. In the same way fa is 
 used with the gen., when it means to get to wife. e. g. Hann 
 feck Jeirrar konu er porun het. He got to wife a woman 
 hight Tliorun. 
 
 463. When the verbs which govern the dat. are thrown 
 into the pass., they become impersonal and keep the object 
 in the dat; e.g. at safna liSi, pass, var Jm liSi safnat. BregSa 
 sverSi, pass., Tyrfingr varS manns bani, hvern tima er honum 
 var brugSit. Tyrfingr was a marts hane every time use was 
 made of it. Skipta akri , pass, akrinum hafSi skipt verit meS 
 landinu. These often do not become actual pass, but only 
 impersonals act. in Icel., though in the new tongues they must 
 be expressed as passive; e. g. ljuka to end, close, svo \fkv 
 her hverju hestajringi. Such is the ending of every horse fight. 
 Slitr nu verzlu j)essari. Eptir urn daginn skaut upp likunum. 
 In a corresponding w T ay many verbs are used which govern 
 the ace. as an impers. act, where the new tongues require 
 the pass., or some other personal verb, e. g. f>vi haerra sem 
 reykinn lagSi i loptit upp. Jarl setti dreyrrauSan. Bra honum svo 
 vi8 at hann ger5i folvan i andliti. He became so changed, that 
 he was pale as death in his face. 
 
 464. Of the conj. it must especially be remarked, that 
 the pres. is used without a conjunction when the clause may 
 be filled up with if or in case; e. g. Se Jmt svo, {>a lset ek J>at 
 vera. If that be so, then I will let it be. i. e. it will do very 
 rvelL Vili hann ecki meS goSu, J>a komdu til min. Komi hann 
 ame5an eg er burtu etc. The imperf. is used nearly in the 
 same cases, the chief difference being that when the imperf. 
 is used it is hardly expected or hoped that the thing will 
 happen; e. g. vseri Jmt svo, £a vseri }>at sok ser. Were that 
 so there would be something in it. Ksemi hann ameSan eg 
 er burtu, (sem ecki mun ver'Sa ) Should he come (ivhich 
 will scarce be), while I am away. This way of turning the 
 sentence is especially used in very polite requests; e. g. in 
 letters. Maetti eg sja lmu fra y5r urn J)etta mal, f)etti mer 
 
SYNTAX OF PARTICLES. 195 
 
 \rat ofrvsent. VilduS f)er gera svo vel, f)a vaeri eg y8r mikit 
 skuldbundinn. For the rest J)6 J)6tt, although, and svo so, 
 so that, together with at after verbs which do not express a 
 thorough certainty, always govern a conjunctive, e. g. Eg veit 
 at hann var f)ar. / know that he was there, but, Eg held 
 hann hafi veriS ]bar. / thought he had been there. Enn J)6 
 svo vseri. Hann vek ser vi5 svo |>u sseir {>a! betr. He mov- 
 ed himself so that thou might est see that better, 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 Particles. 
 
 465. With verbs expressing a journey or short stay, the 
 Icelanders almost always add some adverb expressing the 
 region, which in the new tongues is altogether redundant, 
 e. g. Gunnhildr gerSi ferS sina su5r til Romarborgar. Erlingr 
 jarl var J)a i vikinni austr. 
 
 Sometimes the place , whence or whither the journey is 
 made, is not mentioned by name, but the adv. only is used; 
 in these cases it must be retained and translated, or else 
 supplied by the name of the place itself; e. g. Sunnan langt 
 ur heimi , Out of the far distant southern world, pegar hann 
 kom austr, When he came to the East. 
 
 466. It is also remarkable that an affirmative answer is 
 made to a negative sentence, when the negation is meant to 
 be assented to or strengthened; e.g. po J)icki mer mikit undir, 
 at J)er rjufit eigi |>essa ssett: Sva munu ver {>a gjora, segir 
 Skarpheomn. Leyfa mun ek, ef J>er prettift hann i ongu; |>eir 
 qvaSust sva gera mundu. 
 
 467. Where the case alone is not sufficient to determine 
 the relation of ideas , prepositions are brought in to help the 
 meaning; these require, as in Latin and Greek, certain cases^ 
 
 13* 
 
196 
 
 SYNTAX OF PARTICLES. 
 
 which they are said to govern; some prep, govern several 
 cases, according to their different meanings. 
 
 468. The following govern the ace. alone. 
 Um. (of) about, concerning umhverfis. round about 
 
 ingum. ) 
 ringum. J 
 
 krim 
 
 ikringui 
 
 litum. 
 
 innum. 
 
 l'gcgnum. 
 
 round about 
 
 out, outwards 
 in, inwards 
 through 
 
 umfram. 
 
 framyfir. 
 framundir. 
 fyrir norSan 
 
 besides 
 
 over and above 
 
 until, upto 
 
 to the north of 
 
 and several such like compounds; e. g. fyrir sunnan fjall 
 south of the mountains, fells, fyrir handan ana beyond the 
 river, fyrir titan baeinn outside the town. Um and of, are some- 
 times found in old poetry with the dat. 
 
 469. 
 
 These always govern 
 
 the Dat. 
 
 
 af 
 
 utaf 
 
 fra 
 
 of 
 
 of (a material) 
 from 
 
 hja 
 
 framhja 
 a samt 
 
 with (apud) 
 past, by 
 together with 
 
 ur 
 
 litiir 
 
 uppiir 
 
 framur 
 
 undan 
 
 out of 
 out of 
 
 beyond, above 
 above 
 away from 
 
 gagn vart 
 (til) handa 
 a hendr 
 a moti | 
 i moti \ 
 
 over against 
 for, (pro) 
 against 
 
 against 
 
 aundan 
 
 before hand 
 
 gegn, i gegn 
 
 against, (contr 
 
 The frequent compounds with fra, e. g. yfir-fra over- 
 against, austr-fra east fro , litifra away from, etc. are actually 
 adv., and seldom govern any case unless they are used sep- 
 arately as two words, so that the prep, takes its usual mea- 
 ning, e. g. upp-fra aloft, above, but upp fra J>vi from this 
 time forth. 
 
 470. The following govern only the Genit. 
 
 a milli a meSal. between, among. til. to. 
 
 i stao". instead of an. without, (sine). 
 
 i sakir. j utan. without, beyond. 
 
 (fyrir) sokum [ by means of. innan. within. 
 
 [ vegna ) auk. besides. 
 
SYNTAX OF PARTICLES. 197 
 
 So also those comp. with megin, e. g. baou megin arinnar 
 on both sides the river, oornmegin on one (or the other) side, 
 hinumegin on the other side, beyond, fessumegin, hernamegin, 
 on this side, ollnmegin on all sides; which are however often 
 used as adv. , and besides comp. with the prep vi5 , e. g, 
 hernamegin vi5 ana on this side of the river. Badum megin etc. 
 are also found. 
 
 471. The following govern both the ace. and dat. 
 
 a, uppa 
 
 1 
 
 meft 
 
 on, upon, 
 in, to. 
 with. 
 
 §L a. a 
 
 after. 
 
 before. 
 
 under. 
 
 vi5 
 
 with, at. 
 
 yfir 
 
 over. 
 
 The main rule in leek, as in other tongues, is that these 
 govern the ace. when they denote motion to, the dat. when 
 they express rest at, a place; e. g. fat stendr mer sifeldliga 
 fyrir augum. pegar ek leiddi honum fyrir sjonir. But since 
 they do not always refer to a place, this is not enough to 
 give a clear notion of their application. The following points 
 should therefore be attended to. 
 
 472. A' governs the ace, (a) when it has the meaning 
 to a place, e. g. stiga a skip, go on board, bera a tuninn, 
 to carry dung to a field; (b) when it means against, in, at, 
 e. g. faera a vindinn to go against the wind, renna a lyktina. 
 pat er a folinn that is up hill, is steep , ( opposed to undan 
 faeti; (c) when it means in a certain way, e. g. a J)ann halt, 
 a J>a lei5a, a hinn kantinn, a aSra (hfna) si'Suna, a hsegri hli$- 
 ina on the right side. So also hann la a bakit he lay on his 
 back , if a bakinu were said , the meaning would be upon the 
 back (of some one else), a norrsena tungu, a bok fessa let ek 
 rita; (d) when it means in regard to , e. g. j>at vex mi5r a 
 haeSina. DauSa-vatn er goSar j>rjar fingmannaleiSir a leingd, 
 enn halfonnur a breidd; (e) w T hen it denotes an indef. time, or 
 when something is wont to happen in general, e. g. kulda- 
 stormar ganga a vorin. Sjalfraedi er busmala hollast a sumrin 
 (sumrum) 
 
198 SYNTAX OF PARTrCLES. 
 
 So also., a vcturna, a haustin, a nsetr, nretrnar, a qvdld-in, 
 morgna a sumardag, vetrardag, during the summer, winter, 
 and also of a fixed day in the week, e. g. a laugurdaginn 
 kemr, on Saturday, a sunnudaginn var, on Sunday. 
 
 It governs the dat. when it means at a place, e. g. fat 
 stendr a hafum hoi, a oftrum staS segir harm; (b) when used 
 of a definite time when anything actually happens, a hvorju 
 qvoldi, a hvorri nottu, a ari (hvorju), a fyrsta ari, a Jjeim al- 
 dri , a dagmalum at 9 o'clk in the forenoon, a hadeginu at mid- 
 day. So also of a certain day in the week in distinction from 
 other weekdays e. g. a laugardegi on a Saturday, a sumar- 
 degi on a summerday. For the rest the use of this prep, with 
 regard to time is uncertain, and seems partly to depend on 
 euphony, e. g. a vorin, a haustin, are said, but a sumrum, 
 vetrum, without the art.; both a sumur and a sumri are 
 said, etc.; (c) when it means about, of, with or by, in a figur- 
 ative sense e. g. fa Recking a einhverju. Eg er a feirri tru. 
 Hann lifir a maiaferlum he lives by lawsuits. Hun hefir aSra 
 meoTerS a kum, naepum, etc. 
 
 Uppa in like manner is used, though rarely, with the dat. 
 if the meaning be upon, e. g. |>a fer tiininu aptr uppa grasvoxt. 
 Hann st65 uppa murnum. 
 
 473. I' governs the ace. when it means (a) to a place, 
 e. g. kom fessi saga a5 hausti i Tiinsberg. For J>ann tift 
 mart norSmanna i Miklagar5. Vseringjar attu at fara i herfor 
 nockra; (b) when used of time, e. g. i fann tima at that time, 
 i gamla daga in days of yore, i annat ok frioja sinn for the 
 second and third time, yet i fessari tiS is also said in the 
 dat.; i J)vi bili in the mean time, i feirra svipan at the same 
 time. 
 
 It governs the ace. when it means at, in, or the like, 
 e. g. konungr var fa ecki i baenum, fat stendr i oftrum kapit- 
 ula. Ok i J)eim alia feirra eptirkomendr. This prep, also is 
 comp. with many adv., thus , uppi up in , liti out in, without, 
 inni within, framm i, etc. 
 
SYNTAX OF PARTICLES. 199 
 
 474. MeS takes the ace. when one brings along with one 
 some lifeless thing , or some one who must unconditionally 
 follow, e. g. Ecki hefir hann komit meo* bokina enn. pa foru 
 menn amoti honum meo* mann fjotraSan. 
 
 It requires the flat, when it denotes (a) an instrument 
 e. g. fjotraSr mef5 hleckjum myrkranna; (b) when it means 
 with, among, e. g. Gott })ykir mer meS j)er at vera. Landinn 
 var skipt me5 f>eim; (c) when it means along e. g. Sur5r meS 
 landi southwards along the land ; (d) or 3 along with e. g. 
 Hann geek lit mef5 konu sinni; (e) or by means of \ Hann synSi 
 meo* hugpr^Si sinni at etc. peir geingu amoti honum med* 
 miklum veg, and in such like phrases. 
 
 475. Vio* takes the ace. when it is used of place, or 
 answers to the Swed. vid, Engl, at, by, with, e. g. vi'5 baemn, 
 vio* garSinn, vio* ]petta fognuou j)eir allir. Var hann gd'o> vid* 
 Jn'g? Eg taladi leingi vid* hann. Hvat5 er {>ao* at reikna 
 viS hitt? 
 
 It requires the dat. when it means against, e. g. gaeta 
 sin vio' einhvorju. Hann tok vid* Birni, Skotar eru lausir a 
 velli, ef vid* J)eim er horfl. pat er gott vid morgum sjuk- 
 domum. That is good against many sicknesses. Mig velgir 
 viS f)Vi. 
 
 476. Eptir takes the ace. when it expresses the Latin 
 post, after, but the dat., when it may be rendered by se- 
 cundum, according to, along with. e. g. Eptir midjan morgun. 
 Eptir minn dag. Eptir J>eirri reglu. Eptir anni. 
 
 477. Fyrir governs the acc v (a) when it is used of time, 
 before, fyrir timann before the time, litlu fyrir vetur; (b) when 
 it means instead of for, e. g. at gjalda fyrir einhvern. Hann 
 sendi mann fyrir sig; (c) or,, by means of, by, veida salu- 
 holpinn fyrir truna, to be saved by faith ; (d) when used of 
 the price of anything, e. g. Hva'S gafstu fyrir baekrnar? what 
 gavest thou for the books? Hann seldi fyrir tvo n'kisdali alls; 
 (e) when it means a??y kind of relation, e. g. Ecki er J>at 
 gagnligt fyrir born, pat er gott fyrir k^rnar. 
 
200 SYNTAX OF PARTICLES. 
 
 It governs the dat. , (a) in (he meaning of before, in the 
 presence of, {coram), e. g. Moyses talaSi fyrir GySingum. 
 peir hafa staestu viromg fyrir honum; (b) of those for whom 
 anything is intended; e. g. fella er fyrir haendum skrifat. Hol- 
 urnar fyrir fraeinu; (c) when used of any hindrance, e. g. Hann 
 |>oroi ecki fyrir hundinum. Mao> er hvergi ohultr fyrir dauS- 
 anum. Eg gat ecki veriS 1 frigi fyrir honum. 
 
 478. Undir with the ace. has the meaning of (a) until, 
 about, of time or number; e. g. f)ao" var komiS undir dagmal. 
 It was almost 9 o'clk A. M. undir jol until Christmas. Undir 
 f>at not far from that, nearly as much; (b) when it means 
 under e. g. Hann fleygfti J>vi undir borSift. 
 
 With the dat. it means (a) rest at a place, e. g. pat 
 fannst undir borSinu. That was found under the table. Hann 
 la undir ruminu He lay under the bed ; (b) when it means 
 under, subordinate to, dependant on, e. g. pat er ecki undir 
 fm konu't, ek vil ecki eiga undir fvi. Eg a ecki undir 
 honum etc. 
 
 479. Yfir governs the ace. when it denotes (a) motion 
 to a place; e. g. Hann festi f>at upp yfir dyrnar He fastened 
 that up oner the door. Hann hljop (stock) yfir garomn. He 
 ran {sprang) over the fence. Sa domr man ganga yfir alia; 
 (b) when it means more than, over, e. g. Hann svaf aldrei 
 yfir sex stundir, He never slept over six hours. Hann lofar 
 yfir sig; (c) when it means about, concerning, e. g. utlegging 
 yfir textann. Exposition of the text. Registur yfir salmalogin 
 Register of the Psalmtunes. 
 
 It governs the dat. on the other hand, when it expresses 
 (a) rest in a place, e. g. fat sitr yfir dyrunum; (b) power, 
 sway over, e. g. hafa vald sitt viS yfir einhvorjum, to have, 
 show, his power over anything. 
 
 480. The prep, at (a5) alone governs three cases, the 
 ace, dat. and genit.; with the ace. it means (a) behind, after. 
 (a persons death) e. g. 
 
SYNTAX OF PARTICLES. 201 
 
 Afl ok eljun, Power and strength, 
 
 allt hit goSa, all the good things, 
 
 er Arngrims synir, which Arngrirrts sons, 
 
 at sik leifSu. left behind them. 
 
 Geek hann meir al f)at, after that he went farther ; and 
 on Runic stones; N. N. let reisa stein at feSur sinn; but this 
 use is now obsolete; (b) when it has the force of a or ike 
 with the comparat. e. g. Eingi mun Eirik kalla at meira mann, 
 None will call Eric a better man, Ecki mun hr65r J)inn at 
 meiri, J>6tt ek mselti berara. Ma5r at verri. Unless perhaps 
 the adj. is more rightly taken as standing in apposition to 
 what goes before , and at explained as put absolutely for at 
 frvi, 1 J) vi tilliti. 
 
 The common construction of this prep, however is with 
 (he dat. It means either (h) to a place, (Germ, nach) e. g. 
 J>a5 er laung dagferft fra Skogum aS Odda. pegar J)eir komu 
 at honum; or (b) at a place. (Germ, zn) e. g. at Uppsolum 
 at TJpsala. Hann bjo at Mosfelli; or (a) away from a place, 
 (Germ, her), e. g. a5 austan, a5 utan, aS heiman; (d) of a 
 material into which something is changed; e. g. veroa aft 
 steini to be turned into stone, gera a5 aungu to make into 
 nothing, annihilate, fad kemr honum aS litlum notum. In this 
 way many adverbial expressions are formed, e. g. aft gagni, 
 at gamni smu for his joke , aS fullu og ollu , aS nauSsyn- 
 jalausu, aS forfallalausu, aSniestu, aftvisso, surely, aS eilifu, etc.; 
 (e) of a time to come, viz, when the same thing which now 
 is, will return again for the next time, e. g. a5 sumri, a5 
 vetri, aS morgni, aS ari, i. e. next summer, next winter, 
 which are said when the foregoing summer and winter are 
 still passing. 
 
 This prep, is construed with the genit. when it means 
 with any one, in his house, (Germ, bei), e. g. BoS skyldi vera 
 at Mar5ar. peir gistu at Bjarnar, etc. which is perhaps best 
 explained by understanding husi or some such word. 
 
 481. Instead of naming a house, or town, and sometimes 
 even a country in the nomin. the Icelanders often use a prep. 
 
202 ELLIPSES. 
 
 with the dat., e. g. sa baer het a Steini that house hight Stone, 
 Hann gjorSi bu at bse j)eim , er at Tjorn heitir. par er heitir 
 i Ripum, i Arosi. So also, J)ar er heitir 1 Danmorku. In the 
 land that is called Denmark. 
 
 482. The prep, is not often repeated in the last clause, 
 when it has been already expressed in that which goes before, 
 e. g. PortaeSin er oSruvisi en bloSseSarnar i {>vi, at innan i 
 hennar pipum iinnust ecki J)ser vaengbloSkur (i. e. valves) sem 
 f)eim (i. e. i J)eim). Heraf sja menn J)aS eins stora varuo* J)arf 
 a5 bruka i J>vi a5 hindra ecki eSr aptra J)essum svita, sem 
 eptir natturligum haetti kemr atS enduSum sjukdomum, sem hinu 
 (i. e. i hinu), aS orsaka ecki svita i |>eirra upphafi. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 Of Ellipses. 
 
 483. A word is often omitted in a construction when it 
 is so common as to be easily understood. This takes place 
 with kostr, choice, alternative, resource, e. g. Ok er sa til, at 
 sigla undan, The only choice is to sail away. Sa mun mi 
 grsenstr at segja satt. Now the best (resource) will be to speak 
 the truth 
 
 484. The third pers. of the verb is often used without 
 a subject, when this is unknown , unimportant, or easy to 
 supply; e. g. Sva segi'r i Voluspa (viz skaldit). This takes 
 place in particular, when the same subject has been shortly 
 before expressed; e. g. Margir eru svo fatsekir, a5 bagt eiga 
 me5 a5 kosta uppa viSar-kaup. The unimportant pron. {>at 
 sa , sii , or hann, hun are omitted both as subject and object, 
 when the true subj. or obj. which they supply, have been 
 already named; e. g. Bjorn setti fram skip sitt ok bjo (viz 
 f>at) sem akafligast. SiSan sneiS karkr hofuft af jarli ok hljop 
 i brott meo* (viz })at). Si'dan let Olafr konungr leiSa hann i 
 
ELLIPSES. 203 
 
 brott, og hoggva hofuft af (viz hommi); Even though another 
 case be required than that which has been named; e. g. Nock- 
 urt hsefi er {36 til fess., og skeSr (viz j>a8) all natturliga. Hun 
 grof sig nio> i rumi5, og la viS dauoa (viz henni la viS). 
 
 485. Of verbs vera is most commonly omitted, e. g. 
 As trior sag5i Glumi at hautarfjoidi Sigmundar va?ri kominn i 
 tun, "enn ek hefi eigi fraleik til at reka (Viz hann) i brott, enn 
 verkmenn (viz eru) at vinnn. (Viga-Glum's Saga. ch. VII.) 
 Astridr told Glum that Sigmund's cattle were come into the 
 fields "But", said she, "I have not strength enough to drive 
 them away, and the workmen (are) at work, peir sogou far 
 faungin (viz vera), enn fa fraelta (viz vera), er attu, enn 
 bruSgumann (viz vera) a kafi. This especially takes place 
 after the auxil. verbs mun and skal in the fut. (278), e. g. fa 
 mun hann kominn (viz vera) til ASalsteins konungs. Far aptr 
 Haleyingr! sa (viz kostr) mun (viz vera) fer hinn bezti. 
 
 Vero"a also is often omitted in a clause , when it has been 
 expressed in the one before, though the context may require 
 another form than that already used, e. g. verSa |>aer (gind- 
 irnar) se sterkari, og ordugra (viz verSr fat) at veita feint 
 motstoou. 
 
FIFTH PART. 
 
 Prosody. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 Metres. 
 
 486. The Icelandic poetry does not distinguish itself 
 like that of Greece and Rome, by a system of feet but has 
 an arrangement of its own, in common with the other old 
 Gothic nations. This system consists chiefly (1) in the number 
 of long syll., (2) in alliteration. Nearly all Icelandic poems 
 are (3) divided into strophes (erendi, visa), which commonly 
 contain eight verses or lines (orS, visuoro"). These strophes 
 are again divided into two halves (visuhelmingr), and each 
 of these again into two parts (visufjorSiingr), which form a 
 fourth part of the whole strophe, and contain two verses be- 
 longing together, and connected by alliteration. 
 
 Alliteration, 
 
 487. Alliteration (Letter-rhyme) is regarded as the most 
 essential part of Icelandic versification, it is found in all kinds 
 of verse, and in every age; for some few abortions of modern 
 times, in which those laws have been set aside, which the tongue 
 and nation, — nay the whole Gothic family — have laid down, 
 under the guidance of nature, and undeviatingly followed since 
 
ALLITERATION. 205 
 
 the earliest times, do not deserve to be taken into consideration. 
 The nature of Alliteration is this, that in the two lines be- 
 longing together (visu fjorSiingr) three words occur beginning 
 with the same letter, two of which must be in the first line, 
 and the third at the beginning of the second. These corres- 
 ponding initial letters are called rhyme-letters (IjoSstafir*); the 
 third and last of these is called the chief letter, (hofuSstafr) 
 because it is regarded as ruling over the two others which 
 depend on it, these have the name sub-letters (studlar). All 
 rhyme-letters must be found in accented syll., and no more 
 words in the two lines should begin with the same letter, at 
 least no chief word which takes its tone on the first syll. e.g. 
 
 .Farvel /agnaSar Farewell ye fields 
 
 fold ok heilla ! of mirth and bliss. 
 
 The rhyme-letters here are f that in the word fold is the 
 chief letter, farvel and fagnaftar on the other hand contain 
 the sub-letters. 
 
 Should the chief letter be compounded; especially if the 
 word begin with sk, st, sp, the sub-letters must be the same, 
 so that in such a case, a simple s, or s with some other cons, 
 as a subordinate letter, would be regarded as a fault; but 
 this rule is not attended to so strictly with bl, br, gl, gr, 
 /?, fr y etc. though it is considered more correct and beautiful 
 if the three agree thoroughly in all points. If the verses are 
 very short (as in the metre called fornyrdalag) one sub-letter 
 only is often found in the first line, e. g. 
 Se sp\6ti J)vi If that spear 
 
 er sjoentu vz'Sar spanned by the wide 
 
 ^reipar HelvarSar gripe of Hellswarder 
 viS ^renitre jafnat, were matched with the pine. 
 
 * This is doubtless the right form of the word which comes from 
 ljoS song^ verse , (Germ. Lied}, from which Poets also are 
 called ljoSasmiSir {song smiths) \ but this word is commonly 
 confounded with hljoSstafr vowel, from hljoo 7 sound , (Germ. 
 Lauf) , though the two words are wholly different both in 
 meaning and formation. This observation has been communicated 
 to me by the learned Icelander Mag. H. Scheving. 
 
206 ALLITERATION. 
 
 Here only one sub-letter is found in both places, but this 
 is compounded (sp, gr,) in both instances, as in the chief 
 letter. 
 
 488. Should the chief letter be a vowel, the sub-letters 
 must also be vowels, yet all three if possible different, the 
 rule being here just the contrary to that laid down for con- 
 sonants; e. g. 
 
 Aunepi skal ek so wngri Neer shall I love, 
 
 imx\?L silki-gunni any maid however young, 
 
 exrn, so at «/tar finni hereafter, however she be, 
 
 annarri enn {)ik, svanni! other than thee my maid. 
 
 Here u is the chief letter in the first place , au and u the 
 sub-letters, being all different according to the rule. In the 
 second place a is the chief letter, e and y sub-letters, being 
 again different vowels. The words ek, in the first, and at 
 and enn in the last lines, are not reckoned as faults because 
 they are unimportant words, and, especially the two first, quite 
 toneless; enn on the other hand at the beginning of the third 
 line has a tone and might be rendered "henceforth" or "at 
 any time", and its vowel is therefore counted as an essen- 
 tial sub-letter. 
 
 J and v, which in the old tongue were not distinguished 
 from i and u, are not reckoned as forming any hindrance 
 against vowel alliteration. Sometimes also h is found before 
 one of the sub-letters. 
 
 489. In short verses (chiefly of the metre called fornyr- 
 dalag) one or more short and toneless words are often found, 
 which are indispensable to complete the meaning, and are 
 introduced before the chief syll. in the second line; these the 
 Icelanders call malfylling i. e. filling up of the sentence; these 
 are never reckoned in the metre of the verse, but considered 
 as something as it were apart, e. g. 
 
 Urn arsti'S milda In the mild season 
 
 J>egar ofanfallnir what time rain-showers 
 
 regnskiirir /at a from above falling 
 
ALLITERATION. '107 
 
 /ond oil groa, make all the field green, 
 
 og sprcttandi blom. and springing flowers 
 
 af Mindi vakir, awake from sleep, 
 
 og J)rutnir knappar and swelling buds 
 
 freySan dag qveSja. hail the wished for day. 
 
 Here in the first couplet o is the chief and a the sub- 
 letter; the u in um is not to be counted as any sub-letter 
 because it is altogether toneless, while J>egar is a case of 
 malfylling and therefore also without tone. In the two next 
 lines / is the rhyme letter, in the third couplet bl is the allit- 
 erative letter with af for malfylling; and in the fourth |>r with- 
 out it. 
 
 490. The sub-letters in the first line have not so definite 
 a place as the chief letter, and therefore though short syll- 
 ables are sometimes found in them before a long one, they 
 are not called actual cases of malfylling; but still these are 
 not taken into account , for as a general rule all Icelandic 
 verses begin with a long syllable, in other words, they are 
 either trochaic, dactylic, or spondaic, and very often of a mixed 
 kind, which depends solely on euphony, because the old Norse- 
 men , like the present Icelanders, never arranged their verses 
 after distinct feet; e. g. in the last quoted strophe, um in the 
 first line , and og in the fifth and seventh , are a non-essential 
 malfilling of the same kind, or a superfluous addition to the 
 metre. In addition in the longer (octosyllabic) kinds of verse 
 it is a rule with regard to the sub-letters, that the second 
 should stand in the middle, or at least both in the last half 
 of the first line; but they are hardly ever placed, the one at 
 the beginning, the other at the end of the line; because there 
 would then be too great a space between them, making the 
 alliteration less plain ; e. g. in an impromptu of Paul Vidalin in 
 the name of his brother the Bishop. 
 
 Ecki smackast ^orunum via To my lips wine has no taste, 
 
 visitazian aldrei dvin the visitation never ends, 
 
 Migrinn ftygr ^eim til |)in my mind flies home to thee, 
 
 /yartans allrakaerasta min! dearest of all to my heart! 
 
208 QUANTITY. 
 
 Here the sub-letters have their proper and common place 
 in the two latter lines, in the two former the one which is 
 allowed them for the sake of change. 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 491. Long (langar) and short (skammar) syll. are used 
 in the same way in poetry, as in prose (30. 52); the only 
 difference being that spondees are pronounced somewhat more 
 lightly in every day speech, almost like trochees, while in verse 
 each separale syll. is heard more clearly and sharply in its 
 natural length; e. g. odaudligir deathless, is sounded in daily 
 talk almost like two trochees, but in poetry as a spondee and 
 trochee, or as two spondees. 
 
 492. In poetry especially in the longer and more regular 
 kinds of verse, the following are long, (1) the first syll in 
 the word which has the chief tone, or in an essential part of 
 compounds, e. g. 6 in odauSligr, y and e in fyrirgefa; (2) 
 those syll. which end in a double cons, or two separate cons., 
 which answers to the Greek and Roman position, e. g. ofund 
 envy, which forms a spondee; (3) those which contain a diph- 
 thong, or accented vowel, e. g. tsekifaeri chance, which forms 
 two trochees; (4) the chief syll. in dissyllabic flexional or 
 derivative endings, e. g. ari, ugr, ligr", aSi, adr, andi. But 
 the three last quoted cases are properly doubtful, unless they 
 are joined with the one named first. 
 
 Most monosyll. words are doubtful, especially pron. and 
 particles, the quantity of which depends on their place and 
 weight in the context, e. g. ek, nu, viS, etc.; and also the 
 first syll. in comp. or deriv. words, the second syll. of which 
 has been the beginning of the chief word before it was com- 
 pounded, e.g. osjaldan^ forsilfra; In common talk however it 
 is always long, the endings, r, w\ i, u y a, are short; e. g. 
 tekr ? fagtir, geisli, valdi, angu, hjarta, reiStlliga. Yet even 
 these may be used as long or common if several cons, follow 
 immediately after and form a position. 
 
ASSONANCES. v 209 
 
 Assonances. 
 
 493. Another important part of versification , though not 
 extended to all kinds of verse like alliteration and syllabic 
 quantity, is Assonance, (Icel. hending, Dansk linierim) or Line- 
 rhyme, this is of two kinds, whole and half assonance. Whole- 
 assonance (or perhaps consonance Tceh aSalhending) consists 
 in the occurrence in one and the same line of two syll, the 
 vowels of which and the following cons, agree entirely to- 
 gether after the Icelandic manner (54); e. g. sum-ir gum-ar, 
 merk-i sterk-a, and the like. It is called half-assonance (skot- 
 hending) when the vowels are different, and only the following 
 cons, the same in both cases; e. g. in the words stir5-um and 
 nor5-an, var5 and for5-a etc. 
 
 The flexional endings r and s after cons, are not reckoned 
 as forming part of an assonance, so that e. g. bjarts and hjarta 
 are a perfectly correct whole-assonance, and a5r ftySi also a 
 good half-assonance. But it must always be clear and inton- 
 ated syll. which answer to one another in this way. 
 
 494. Both kinds are commonly used in one and the same 
 kind of verse, in such a way as that the first line of the 
 couplet, which contains the sub-letters, takes the half-asson- 
 ances , the second with the chief letter the whole-assonances, 
 and so on throughout the whole strophe, e. g. 
 
 FastorSr skyli /?r5a The king that would be rich 
 
 in men 
 
 fengs&W vera fyengiM, should always keep his word, 
 
 Hafir #eit at r/w/a to break thy plighted faith 
 
 beseems 
 
 hjalftur mognuSr ! f>er aldvi * thee never thou mighty man f 
 
 * The construction is simple, FastorSr skyli firda feng-ssell fengill 
 vera. Hjaldur mognuSr! aldri hsefir J)er at rjufa heit. Firdar 
 is a poet, word for people, warriors, fengill the same for 
 king, and hjaldur for war, strife, mognudr comes from maga 
 strength, bellipotens. 
 
 U 
 
210 RHYME. 
 
 In this there are half-assonances in the first and third 
 lines viz orS-r firfr-a, hsefir and rjufa; in the second and fourth 
 whole-assonances, feng and Jeng-ill, hjald-ur and ald-ri. 
 
 Rhyme. 
 
 495. Final-rhyme also plays an important part in the Old 
 Norse poetry; but like assonance only in certain kinds of verse. 
 It has in Icel. the same name as assonance, viz hending, and like 
 it is divided into whole and half-rhyme ; the sole difference be- 
 tween the two being that the rhyme requires, if it be monosyll. 
 that the final cons, should agree, and if it be dissyll. that the 
 following final vowels in both words should be also the same, 
 which does not come into consideration in the case of asson- 
 ances because these are all monosyll.*, though they are most 
 often found in dissyll. words. 
 
 Whether the final-rhyme be monosyll. or dissyll., is some- 
 times regarded as an immaterial variation which makes no 
 change in the melody, e. g. in Skaldhelga-rimr : 
 
 Katla feck i knerri setur 
 kaupmenn satu 1 Noreg vetur 
 gumnar bjuggu Grsenlands far 
 geek hun |>angat sem farmann vat\ 
 
 Ferftast will hun flaustri i 
 farmann tok ei skjott a f>w 
 st^rimanni stoltar fljoft 
 steypti 1 kjoltu miklum sjofS. * 
 
 Here the first strophe begins with dissyllabic, the second 
 w r ith monosyllabic rhyme. As an example of half-rhymes. 
 I will quote the following strophe out of Stellurimur. 3. 
 
 * Knerri dat. of knorr ship, setur i. e. place, far ship, farmann 
 nom. for farmaoi' travelling merchant Flaustri dat. of flaustur 
 ship, tok ei skjott a f)vi answered slowly to this, flj65 
 woman, the construction is; stoltar fljoo" steypti miklum sj65 
 i keltu (a) st^rimanni, kelta i. e. bosom. 
 
RHYME. 211 
 
 Old , ef skalda-^kjur fae eg 
 
 ecki sparaS, 
 mselir, Jegar mitt ser qveriS 
 mikiS skald hefir j>etta veriS! 
 The folk) if but bombastic words 
 
 I do not spare, 
 says, when it my work has seen, 
 a poet great this man has been. 
 
 Here the first line is unrhymed, the second, only half as 
 long, is on the other hand half-rhymed with the two last, which 
 are whole-rhymed, because sparaS has the same cons, at the 
 end of each syll. as qveriS and verift, but unlike vowels. 
 
 In old Poetry only the two lines bound together by allit- 
 eration rhyme; never as is often the case with us the first 
 and the third, and the second with the fourth, or in short 
 any other variation, by which the rhymes belonging together 
 are separated. 
 
 CHAPTER XXL 
 
 Of the different kinds of verse. 
 Division. 
 
 496. In the last chapter we considered the various ar- 
 rangements by which the Greek feet were supplied in the 
 Old Norse; it is the different employment and connection 
 of these, that form and distinguish the several kinds of 
 verse, which are very numerous (100 at least being enumer- 
 ated), because these arrangements may be almost endlessly 
 varied. The Old Norsemen gave each a separate name, but- 
 did not divide them into fixed classes, which however is in- 
 dispensable in order to obtain a general view of the subject. 
 
 14* 
 
212 NARRATIVE VERSE. 
 
 Olafsen assumes four head classes, without however giving 
 any definite ground of division. Since agreement in sound, or 
 a regular repetition of the same sound , constitutes a chief 
 feature in the Norse versification, it is best in my opinion to 
 adopt three chief kinds of verse in the old poetry, answering 
 to as many modifications of this characteristic feature. The 
 first has only alliteration, and may be named Narrative verse, 
 ( fornyrftalag ) because it approaches most nearly to daily 
 speech. The second has assonance besides alliteration, and 
 may be named Heroic verse (drottqvsefti, in which may be 
 included Olafsens third kind toglag), this was chiefly used in 
 eulogies on Kings and Saints. The third has rhyme besides 
 alliteration, and seems to be most fitly named Popular verse, 
 (runhenda), because it is most commonly used in popular songs. 
 We will only briefly consider each of these chief kinds be- 
 cause it would require far too much space to describe- and 
 give examples of each separate variation. 
 
 Narrative Verse. 
 
 497. FornyrSalag is considered as the oldest kind of 
 Norse verse; all the songs in the Poetical Edda belong to 
 this class. It has also the name of Starkaftarlag, which how- 
 ever may perhaps be more rightly considered as the first kind 
 of verse under this general class.; it takes its name from the 
 old StarkaS, of whom it is said that "Hans qva?5i eru fornust 
 |>eirra er menn kunna", (His songs are the oldest of those that 
 men know), and under it are comprised several unimportant 
 distinctions in the Skalda. It is the freest of all kinds of 
 Norse verse, has the longest "malfylling", and often only one 
 sub-letter. Its chief characteristic is that each line has two 
 long syll., or two resting points for the voice, but some short 
 syll. must follow after these. In general one or two short 
 belong together, sometimes even three short to one long syll., 
 according as euphony may allow. Each strophe has regularly 
 eight lines. As an example the 20th strophe of the GuSrunar- 
 qviSa in the Edda may serve; 
 
NARRATIVE VERSE. 213 
 
 Sakna ek 1 sessi / miss at the board 
 
 ok sseingu and in my bed 
 
 miiis malvinar, my friends discourse : 
 
 valda megir Gjuka! this is Gjiikes sons' world 
 
 Valda megir Gjuka Gjiikes sons have wrought 
 
 minu bolvij my mischance , 
 
 systur sinnar their own sisters 
 
 sarum grati. bitter tears. 
 
 i ' It is sometimes also found in irregular divisions of ten, 
 twelve, or more lines; e. g. in Rigsmal, or without any proper 
 distribution into strophes, e. g. in the Translation of Paradise 
 Lost. This kind might be called continuous Starka^arlag. 
 
 498. In this kind of verse the lines may be quite dif- 
 ferent , both in length and cadence , without overstepping the 
 rule, but since poetry expressed by song requires regularity, 
 this freedom has been very rightly restricted by poets. The 
 second line of the couplet is the most regular, and has most 
 commonly four syll. arranged as two trochees, the first on the 
 other hand is either like the second, or has still oftener five 
 syll., sounding as a trochee and dactyl ^ though both lines are 
 varied with great freedom in StarkaSarlag; but another more 
 regular kind of verse in this class has the first of the two 
 lines either trisyll.. and all three syll. commonly long, or ends 
 at least with a monosyll. intonated word, by which means it 
 obtains a cadence quite different from other trochaic lines. 
 Olafsen calls this knept, or st^ft i.e. "shortened" fornyrSalag. 
 In this kind of verse the Ynglingatal, as w T ell as Hakonar- 
 qvi5a, are composed; together with EgiPs Sonar -torrek, and 
 Arinbjarnardrapa; e. g. I will quote the 8th strophe of the 
 last named, which describes how Egil recieved the head (life) 
 of Eric Blodyxa. 
 
 Vi5 |)vi tok; I tooh hold on it, 
 
 en tiru fylgSu but with the gift followed 
 
 sog svart-leit swarthued seas (eyes) 
 
 siSra bruna; of bushy brows, 
 
 ok sa mu8r, and the mouth 
 
214 NARRATIVE VERSE. 
 
 er mina bar which brought forth 
 
 HofuS-lausn * my heads' ransom 
 
 for hilmis kne. before the lungs 3 knee. 
 
 499. Another very old kind of Fornyr&dag verse, is 
 LjoSahattr, which has six lines in each strophe, the two first 
 of these, as well as the fourth and fifth, are connected by al- 
 literation, and are altogether of the same character as those 
 in StarkaSarlag; but the third and sixth are isolated, and 
 have another cadence, and at least two rhyme letters; they 
 have also most commonly three resting points, pauses, or 
 long syll. , besides the accompanying short ones, e. g. the 
 45th strophe out of Hafamal: 
 Feiztu ef {m #in att, Knowest thou that thou a friend 
 
 hast 
 fmnns fm vel truir, whom thou well trustest, 
 
 Ok viltu af honum goit gcia: and willt thou get good from him: 
 gefii skaltu vi5 J>ann blanda, thou shallt mingle thy heart with 
 
 him, 
 ok $jofom skipta, and exchange gifts, 
 
 /ara at /mna opt. and fare oft to find him. 
 
 The Hafamal, Lokaglepsa, Grougaldur, S61arlj65, and many 
 more, are composed in this kind ;of verse. The third (and 
 sixth) line may also be altogether like the two preceeding, 
 in which case it is also joined to them by alliteration, so that 
 it has only one rhyme-letter, which does not answer to the 
 fourth line but to the first and second, e. g. 
 
 pat er |)a reynt That is then proved 
 
 er |>u at runom spyrr when thou askest of runes 
 
 enom reginkunnom which every man knows. 
 
 It sometimes happens also that the strophe has nine lines 
 or only three; this is however an variation allowed for the 
 sake of change and no new kind of verse. 
 
 * This is my emendation which I hope will be allowed to pass 
 by Norse philologists. In Eigla hefd is written for hof5, which 
 seems only to be an abbreviation wrongly read, and destroys 
 both the sense and verse. 
 
NARRATIVE VERSE, 215 
 
 500. Sometimes StarkaSarlag and LjoSahatfr are mingled 
 together in the same poem, e. g. in the Hakonarmal, and 
 Getspeki Heidrekskoniings, I will here quote the 7tu and 
 8tii strophes of the last named as an example. 
 
 Hverr er sa hinn hvelli, Wlio is the shrill one, 
 
 er geingr harftar gotur, that treadeth hard ways, 
 
 ok hefir hann fser fyrr um farit : and hath trod them before : 
 
 mjok fast kyssir, very close he kisseth, 
 
 ok hefir munna tva, and mouths hath he twain, 
 
 geingr a gulli einu. he stirreth for gold alone? 
 
 Heiftrekr Mngr Now king Heiftrekr 
 
 hyggftu at gdtul think on the riddle! 
 
 God er gdta \in Good is thy riddle, 
 
 gestr Hindi ! thou blind guest! 
 
 getit er \eirrar. yet is it solved. 
 
 Geingr hamar a hammer goeth 
 
 a gl65 Vinar, for the seas glory (gold), 
 
 kveSr vi5 hatt, loud is his voice, 
 
 ok kemr a steSja. as he comes on the stithy. 
 
 The first of these strophes is in LjoSahattr, in its common 
 form, but the refrain is in StarkaSarlag; the second strophe 
 on the contrary has the refrain inLjoShattr, consisting of thiee 
 similar lines, and the actual answer in StarkaSarlag. 
 
 501. These kinds of verse, especially LjoSahattr, answer 
 very exactly to the Hexameter of the Greeks and Romans, 
 and are beyond a doubt the same verse in their element and 
 origin; so that three Icelandic lines go to one according to 
 the Greek arrangement *. But both nations have changed the 
 original rude form, each after its own way; The Icelanders 
 have furnished all the three members with alliteration, the 
 Greeks on the other hand have limited the number and posi- 
 tion of the short syll. according to a scale of feet. It is in 
 consequence of this, that we are neither able always to ar- 
 range Fornyrftalag as Hexameters, nor Hexameters as Fornyr- 
 
 * This interesting observation has been communicated to me by 
 Prof. Fin. Magnussen 
 
216 HEROIC VERSE. 
 
 Salag; very often however this may be done without exercis- 
 ing the least violence ; e. g. in the verses already quoted, 
 
 Goo" er | gata |)in | gestur | blindi! | getit er | |)eirrar. 
 
 So also in the Edda.* 
 
 Vesaell | maftur ok | illur | skapi | hlser at hvi | vetna. 
 Ut skyldi | senda | allar | vsettir | griSa at | biSja. 
 
 As an example of the agreement of the Greek Hexameter 
 with the FornyrSalag, the beginning of the Odyssey may serve : 
 
 "Ao^a (Liot evvEKS, n\clyyQ'rj, iizh 
 
 tiovaa, jroXu'r^ojrov, T^diy^q isgov 
 
 6$ fxccXa noKKd, TUToTiied gov BKegcte, 
 
 Hence we may see how idle it is, to seek, like some 
 German scholars, the Icelandic assonances in the Latin Hexa- 
 meter; when the Hexametr answers to that class of Icelandic 
 verse, which never has assonance or rhyme, except in a few 
 cases where they have accidentally slipped into the poem. 
 
 Heroic Verse, 
 
 502. This class has a more definite syllabic measure, 
 with no "malfylling"; and has thus in general a more regular 
 structure , and more evident agreement with the Greek and 
 Roman metres. Another main characteristic is assonance, the 
 second line of the couplet in particular has commonly whole as- 
 sonances, the first sometimes whole, sometimes none, most 
 commonly only half assonances. It seems best to divide this 
 class into three main kinds, according to the length the lines: 
 the first consist of four or five syll. , the second of six, the 
 third of eight; for the different position and relation of the 
 assonances seems to be a less essential feature. 
 
 503. Those lines are called Toglag, which have less 
 than six syll. in each line, and these are again subdivided 
 into several variations. Some have all their lines of like 
 length: One of these has four syll., two of which are long, 
 
HEROIC VERSE. 217 
 
 and two short, in such a way that they form two trochees. 
 Another has four syll* three of which are long, with con- 
 sequently the cadence of a spondee and trochee. A third has 
 four long syll. with no short one, unless it be r (ur) that 
 enters into the line. 
 
 All these have no kind of malfylling, but they are usu- 
 ally linked together with so much art in the assonances, that 
 it would be impossible to apply them to poems of any consi- 
 derable length ; they are therefore only found in a few separ- 
 ate strophes, as curiosities in Sturlusons Hatlalykill. More 
 important are the Toglag verses of five syll., in which the 
 Rafnsmal is composed, and which is very like Adonic verse, 
 except that the middle syll. is always long, so that the first 
 foot must either be reckoned as an amphinacer or as a trochee, 
 when the second would become a dactyl, being thus an in- 
 version of Adonic verse; this kind of toglag never ends in a 
 monosyllable. 
 
 Others have lines of uncertain length, being of four or 
 five syll., two of which in particular have the chief tone , and 
 contain the assonances; this is the Toglag properly so called, 
 after which the Knutsrlrapa , and several other laudatory poems 
 were arranged. As an example the following strophe of the 
 Knuisdrapa may serve: 
 
 Ok bdru i byr Blue sails at the yard 
 
 b\d segl x\6 rd bore with fair breeze 
 (dfr var ^oglings for) (dear was the kings journey) 
 
 drelcar landre&a: the ships of the chiefs: 
 
 enn |>eir er Jeomu but the ships that came 
 
 kiliv vestan til, away from the west, 
 
 urn lei§ HftvL glided safe over 
 
 Lmafjarffar hrim Limfjords swell. 
 
 Another very melodious kind of Toglag is quoted by 
 Olafsen out of the Skalda, under the name of Haghenda. This 
 has lines of unequal length; viz, the first consisting of three 
 trochees, and a long syll., the last on the contrary of a spondee 
 
218 
 
 HEROIC VERSE. 
 
 and a trochee. It is most likely however that no poem of 
 any length is to be found in this kind of verse. 
 
 504. Drottqvrefti has three trochees, or properly spon- 
 dees in each line; but dactyls may also be used in the two 
 first places, e. g. in the following verses out of Njala. ch. 59: 
 
 Her verftr fyraung a \ing\. Here is a throng in the meeting, 
 
 \>6f gengr langt or hofi, the noise goeth far beyond bounds, 
 
 sift man saett meS Jyo'Sum late will atonement be made 
 
 sett; leiSiz mer fyettet: with men; this wearies me: 
 
 raskligra er rekkom better is it for men 
 
 rjoSa vapn i bloSi to redden arms in blood, 
 
 vist tern ek graSinn geysta readily would I still the hunger 
 
 gjar/ia ylgjar harni of the greedy wolfs young. 
 
 In this kind of verse are composed Geisli, Vellekla, 
 Bersoglis visur, and many drapur as they are called, of which 
 however only a few have come down to us in a perfect state. ; 
 and in addition many unconnected strophes in the Sagas, in 
 which an important event in life, or a strong emotion excited 
 on such an occasion, have been clothed for the sake of keep- 
 ing them in memory, and if possible of preserving them ever- 
 lastingly. Sometimes also these verses are the inventions of 
 the writer of the Saga in order to give his narrative more 
 truthfulness. 
 
 505. These loose strophes are often full of artificial and 
 overdrawn circumlocutions , together with confusing and arbi- 
 trary transpositions of words, because they are for the most 
 part to be considered as impromptus, in which the author, 
 perhaps into the bargain no poet by nature, has often fallen 
 into difficulties. Some of this art belonged also to the taste 
 of the age, and a great part of the difficulty must be laid to 
 the account of later copyists, who have often not understood 
 the poets expressions, and corrupted the text by their care- 
 lessness. As a help I may observe (a) that the sense very 
 seldom extends itself beyond the four lines which make half 
 a strophe; and (b) that at the same time there is often in these 
 four a parenthesis, sometimes two, which must first be picked 
 
HEROIC VERSE. 219 
 
 out and separated when we wish to resolve these verses ; 
 (c) that w T e must also collect and lay aside the words which 
 belong to a periphrasis; and (d) during all these operations 
 pay great care to case and other inflections, as well as to 
 the manner in which they are wont to be combined in the 
 Old Norse. The neglect of these rules has often misled trans- 
 lators, e. g. Geisli 12. (In the 3rd Part of the Heimskringla) 
 which runs as follows: 
 
 Sighvatr fra ek at segSi / know that doughty Sighvatr 
 
 soknhvatr komings daSir, sung the lung's deeds , 
 
 spurt hefir old at orti the world has heard how Ottar 
 
 Ottar af gram drdttar: told of the peoples' king: 
 
 |>eir hafa J>engil Msera they that hight first of scalds 
 
 (|)vi er s^st frama) If stari, have sung of Norway's ruler, 
 
 (helgum lyt ek) er heto {for his valour is proved) 
 
 hofuS-skald firar (jo(ii). / bow to the holy (king). 
 
 The construction of the last half is: J)eir, er firar helu 
 hofutskald, hafa tystan Msera Jengil ! |>vi er s^st frama (hans) : 
 ek \ft helgum jofri. But this has been altogether misunder- 
 stood in the Copenhagen Edition, because the parentheses 
 have not been distinguished; so that sfst is construed, cont- 
 rary (o grammatical rule, with jofri, and lyt (veneror) con- 
 founded with htyt (cogor) as will as Msera gen. pi. of Maeri, 
 i. e. the province More (as in the following strophes, jprsenda, 
 Kauma, H6r5a etc.) with the verb Msera to sing. 
 
 For the rest this verse, which consists of Greek feet linked 
 together by assonance and alliteration, cannot be in its nature 
 harder either for a poet or reader than our new kinds of 
 verse, in which feet are combined with rhyme. 
 
 506. This kind of verse admits of many variations in 
 the assonances, as well as in their position and relations, e.g. 
 In the LoSbrokarqviSa which has assonance only in the two 
 last lines of the strophe, viz; half in the first, and whole in 
 the last, which however is not accurately observed. This 
 song has besides ten lines in each strophe, of which the first 
 is the refrain, and the second serves to connect this with the 
 
220 
 
 HEROIC VERSE. 
 
 strophe; viz it fills up the alliteration of the refrain, and thus 
 belongs to it in mechanical construction, and doubtless also in 
 singing, but with regard to meaning it always belongs to the 
 strophe itself; e. g. the 24th strophe. 
 
 Hjuggom ver med hjorvi. 
 Hitt s^niz mer raunar 
 at forlogom fylgjom, 
 farr gengr af skop noma, 
 eigi hugfta ec Ello 
 at aldurlagi mi'no, 
 |>a er ec bloSvali brseddac, 
 oc bor5 a log keyrftac; 
 vitt fengom Ja vargi 
 verS i Skotlands fjorfiom. 
 
 We hewed with the sword. 
 It seems to me certain 
 we follow our fate, 
 few fall from the Nomas degree, 
 I trowed not that Ella 
 should rule oer my death 
 as I fattened the ravens, 
 and drove oer the sea', 
 wide gave we the wolf 
 
 food in Scotlands friths, 
 
 507. Liljulag differs from DrottqvaeSi solely in having 
 eight syll. instead of six in each line, that is, it has four tro- 
 chaic spondees, which may also be exchanged for dactyls ex- 
 cept in the last place. By way of an example, the first stophe 
 of the Catholic Ode Lilja, from which the verse has its name, 
 is here quoted. 
 
 Almattugr gu5 allra stetta, 
 yfirbjofomdi eingla ok |)j6Sa, 
 
 ei Jurfandi staSi ne stundir, 
 sla5 haldandi i kyrrleiksvaldi : 
 senn verandi uti ok inni, 
 
 uppi ok nion ok Jar i miSju, 
 
 lof se |>er urn aldur ok aefi 
 
 eining sonn l Jrennum greinum! 
 
 God Almighty oer all beings, 
 thou that swayest angels and 
 
 peoples, 
 needing not time nor place, 
 holding state in power of love: 
 being at once without and 
 
 within, 
 above and below and eke i' 
 
 the middle, 
 praise be to thee for ever and 
 
 ever, 
 Oneness true in three members. 
 
 * Valr is falcon, but blooValr raven, and is put here in the 
 Ace. pi. Braeda to feed (from brad) here stands in l s i pers. 
 imperf. 
 
POPULAR VERSE, 221 
 
 Popular Verse. 
 
 508. Runhenda is more regular than narrative, yet more 
 free than heroic, verse: like the first it allows of malfylling, 
 yet of a shorter kind , and consists like the latter of tolerably 
 regular spondees, dactyls, or trochees, connected by allitera- 
 tion and final rhyme. 
 
 The strophes are of eight lines , and each of these com- 
 monly of the same length. This class may also be divided 
 into several kinds, according to the number of long syll., viz, 
 into those which have two, three, or four long syll., or resting 
 points. Those with three such are most common, e. g. 
 
 Munat gramr vi5 mik The Mng will not toward me 
 
 (venr hann gjofli sik) {so the scald hopeth) 
 
 (Jess mun grepp vara) spare rings of gold; 
 
 gullhring spara. (to munificence he is wont) 
 
 Segi siklmgr mer Let the Mng tell me 
 
 ef hann heyrSi ger whether he eer heard 
 
 d^rligra brag? a better song? 
 
 |>at er drapulag! that is a drapa-verse! 
 
 Egil Skallegrimson's "Ransom for his head" is in this kind 
 of verse, whence it may be seen that it is very old, older at 
 least than Christianity in the North. It is needless to adduce 
 any examples of the other kinds. 
 
 Refrain. 
 
 509. In the old songs, especially in the drapur, a kind 
 of refrain (stef) is commonly found, consisting of two or 
 four lines, which belong to a regular strophe, and are only 
 repeated at the end of a new division of the song; such a 
 division is called stefjabalkr, stefjamal, they were sometimes 
 of like, sometimes of unlike length, according to tke natural 
 character of the matter. 
 
222 REFRAIN. 
 
 510. Another kind of refrain is the viSqvrefri. as it is 
 called, consisting of two or more lines, separate from the 
 strophe, and which are repeated at the beginning or end of 
 each strophe, either throughout the whole song, or in some 
 portion of it: the refrain was sometimes changed two or three 
 times in the same poem; for the rest it is written in all kinds 
 of verse, and therefore needs no fresh description. 
 
 511. In strophes ascribed to ghosts, or Gods, or which 
 contain anything mysterious, gloomy, and sublime, the last 
 line was often repeated with some slight variation. In the 
 Skalda a verse of this kind inLjoSahattr is quoted, which has 
 the name of galdralag; but it is found in many other kinds of 
 verse, e. g. in Njala chap. 79. one is met with in DrdttqvaeSi; 
 and in chap. 176. another in Fornyrftalag, where the two last 
 lines are repealed , so that it is rather to be regarded as a 
 kind of refrain than as any peculiar kind of verse. 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 Hinds of Poetry. 
 
 512. The various poems were naturally of quite different 
 length; yet they were all, in the Edda at least, unconnected 
 songs, each forming a whole in itself; these belong therefore 
 to the Lyrical, or Epic branch of Poetry. Of the actual dram- 
 atic or didactic the Old Norsemen seem not to have had the 
 least idea. 
 
 513. The separate songs consist in general, taking an 
 average number, of 30 or 40 strophes, sometimes also 50 or 
 60; and some few, to which the poet wished to give an es- 
 pecially commanding appearance, contain 100 strophes. It is 
 remarkable enough that this, making a total of 800 lines, is 
 also the sum of the longest of Homers Rhapsodies, and thus 
 seems to be the natural limit which a separate song can not read- 
 ily overstep without at once tiring both the poet and reader. 
 
MODERN POETRY. 223 
 
 514. A song in general, or a lay, is called qvaefti, popu- 
 lar songs, fornqvsefti; but these are for the most part, if not 
 entirely, translations from the Dansk, and of small poetic 
 worth; a magical song galdur, and a bitter personal satire or 
 lampoon nift, Laudatory poems were of two kinds; a short 
 eulogy, or song of thanks, much the same as a poetical letter, 
 was called flockr; it was presented to Earls and Princes, 
 but seldom to Kings, because it was thought too insignificant 
 for them; it was made up indeed of several strophes but not 
 of divisions marked off by refrains : The longer and more state- 
 ly kind of these poems were the drapur. Sometimes also 
 more detailed songs relating the deeds of departed Princes 
 recieved this name; they were commonly in DrottqvseSi or 
 Runhenda; and consisted of several divisions separated by a 
 refrain; they were also used in honour of God or the saints. 
 
 Of a song in fornyrftalag, the words qvi5a, mal, lj65, of 
 an elegy the word gratr, are also used in compos, with the 
 name of the chief person. The separate verses (visur, stokur) 
 have been already mentioned; Psalms properly so called, 
 (salmar) and lays (rimur) belong to later times. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 Modern Poetry. 
 
 515. The poetry just described has in the main kept 
 itself alive until the present day. In all Icelandic poetry al- 
 literation is still found, and the lines are best scanned by the 
 long syll. because the strict Greek and Roman metre has never 
 been introduced. FornyrSalag is still used in long poems 
 without rhyme , for which purpose it seems extremely 
 well fitted from its similarity to the Hexameter, its freedom 
 and its simplicity ; e. g. in the excellent translation of 
 Milton, and Popes "Temple of Fame". Heroic verse is now 
 
224 MODERN POETRY. 
 
 less frequently used, because all objects for its use have dis- 
 appeared from among the people. 
 
 On tho other hand the popular verse has gained the upper 
 hand, since it is used in religious poetry, rhymes, and small 
 pieces of verse; in short it is the only kind which is is still 
 accompanied by song. It is distinguished by alliteration and 
 final rhyme, and a trochaic cadence. The following innovations 
 have been adopted from foreigners; (a) the having lines of 
 unequal length, (b) the having more or fewer lines than four 
 in the half strophe, which (c) is reckoned as a whole verse 
 in song, (d) to interchange the final rhymes, and not to confine 
 oneself to making the two lines connected by alliteration, and 
 immediately following one another, rhyme together. One kind 
 in particular has become general having six lined verses, with 
 four long syll. in each line; the first line rhymes with the 
 third, the second with the fourth, and the two last with each 
 other. As an example I will quote a passage from Eggert 
 Olafsens' didactico descriptive poem, BunaSarbalkr (on the 
 countrylife of Iceland), which has been translated into Dansk 
 verse by Prof. Magnusson; viz the beginning of the 3<"<* song. 
 
 Vaent er at kunna vel aS bua, 
 vel aS fara meS herrans gjof, 
 
 hans verkum ser i hag aS sniia 
 honum Jacka fyrir utan tof, 
 
 enn ser og oSrum gjora gott, 
 
 gleSjast og forsma heimsins spott. 
 Fair is it well to keep ones' house, 
 well to apply the gifts of God, 
 to understand to use his works, 
 to give him thanks without delay, 
 to do good to ones' self and others, 
 to joy, and scorn the world's reproach 
 
 516. Though the words in the tongue begin invariably 
 with a long syll. and are thus either trochaic or dactylic, it is 
 nevertheless very easy both in Icelandic, and the new Nor- 
 thern tongues to throw them as it were into iambics or an- 
 
MODERN POETRY. 225 
 
 apsests by placing a short monosyllabic word before. This 
 occurs also very often in Old writers, but in them the short 
 syll. is either "malfylling" or altogether accidental, because 
 the Old Norsemen never purposely arranged their verses after 
 feet. In New writers , who have accustomed their ear more 
 to feet, iambic verses are found though very rarely; e. g. 
 the following disjointed strophes of Mr. Attorney Peterson. 
 
 pa eymdir striSa a sorgfullt sinn, 
 og svipur motgangs um vanga ri5a, 
 
 og bakivendir f)er veroldin, 
 og vellyst brosir a5 fu'num qviSa; 
 
 |>eink allt er knottdtt, og hverfast laetr, 
 
 sa hlo i dag er a morgun graetr. 
 Alt jafnar sig. 
 When anguish wars in thy heavy breast , 
 and adverse scourges lash thy cheeks, 
 and the world turns her back on thee, 
 and pleasure mocketh at thy pain : 
 Think all is round and light to turn, 
 he weeps to-morrow who laughs to-day, 
 Time makes all good, 
 
 517. The rimur, as they are called, when they are sepa- 
 rate, answer to what we call ballads; but in common several 
 such belong together and form a great poem, in which the 
 life and deeds of some old hero are celebrated; this is thus 
 a kind of national Epos, which arose about the time of the 
 Reformation, and has maintained itself in great favour among 
 the people of Iceland up to the present day. Among many 
 such the Ulfarsrimur in sixteen songs are considered best. 
 A beautiful satirical poem in this form has been composed by a 
 poet still alive, Mr. Attorney Sigurd Peterson, under the title 
 of Stellurimur in eight songs. Each song or rima should be- 
 gin with an introduction in 8 or 10 strophes ( i. e. half- 
 strophes) which is called mansaungr, love song, and is com- 
 monly very artificial, being fall of Eddaic periphrases, some- 
 times hardly intelligible, and containing most often an invoca- 
 tion to Odin or Bragi; sometimes also a kind of connection 
 
 15 
 
226 MODERN POETRY. 
 
 with the preceeding song. The final verse in each song is of 
 the same artificial character. The metre is invariably rimhenda 
 with rhyme, yet it is varied so that it is seldom that two 
 rimur in the whole poem have precisely the same form of 
 verse, and never two following immediately the one after the 
 other. By way of example a few verses of the Stellurimur 
 are here quoted. 
 
 From the 1st rima. 
 
 Havelborni heyrSu mer 
 herra AsgarSs-bua ! (i. e. Odin) 
 ef mig styrkja eitt-hva$ fer, 
 a Jig skal eg trua 
 
 From the 2nd rima. 
 
 Ecki neinum manni mein 
 mm er lyst aS bjofia 
 aft skemta mer og durum er 
 efniS stirfrra Ijooa. 
 
 From the 3rd r ima (to Odin concerning the hero) 
 
 Veittu honum tvennum tolf 
 enn tioast |>rennum 
 i hoggi aS steypa Hels ao* inni, 
 svo hann ei Ulfari verSi minni! 
 
 From the 4tn rima. 
 
 Vaknid* f)i5, sveinar! vakni5 fno", fljoo"! 
 varpiS J)i5 Jmngum rockurmdS! 
 skemtan bjooa Skollvaldsker 
 er skumandi standa a borSi her. 
 
 i. e. Odins drinking horn which stands foaming on the board, 
 that is, the verses which I sing, awakens you and bids you 
 be merry. 
 
SIXTH PART, 
 Of the Dialects. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIY. 
 
 Historical View. 
 
 518. All the northern tribes of Gothic offspring, formed 
 in ancient times one great people, which spoke one tongue, 
 that namely which I have now striven to describe. Even then 
 it is natural to suppose, variations in speech were to be met 
 with, but the orthography was arranged on the same prin- 
 ciples, and these peculiarities in speech were so unimportant, 
 as not to deserve the name of Dialects. Even now, when 
 the Old Norse has been entirely destroyed and shattered to 
 pieces in Scandinavia, the difference between the new tongues 
 is scarcely greater than that between the Old Greek Dialects, 
 when allowance is made for the fact, that the alphabetical 
 system, which was always the same among the Greeks, is 
 differently arranged in Swed. and Dansk, e. g. Swed. vill 9 
 Dansk vil, Swed. van, Dansk ven, Swed. heist, Dansk bedst, 
 hafvet, Dansk havet, ga, Dansk gaa or gaae etc. ; have all 
 precisely the same sound however differently they may be 
 presented to the eye. 
 
 No such deviations were found in the Old Norse, or if 
 any they were very few and indefinite, not distinguished by 
 
 15* 
 
228 DIALECTS. 
 
 country or people; but in the words themselves and their 
 forms the indentity is still more striking. On the older 
 Runic stones altogether the same tongue is found in all three 
 kingdoms, and in the oldest laws of each people very nearly 
 the same. 
 
 This tongue occurs first under the denomination Donsk 
 tunga, because Denmark in the oldest times was the mightiest 
 kingdom , as it was the first in which the tribes were collected 
 and bound together into an united realm; whence also the re- 
 ligion of Odin 5 and in all probability along with it the art of 
 writing and poetry, spread itself over Sweden and Norway. 
 But the Old Norse began also first to decay in Denmark, and 
 therefore took the name Norraena, because it was probably 
 spoken best and most purely in Norway. This realm was 
 also at one time the most powerful in the North, but in it too 
 the tongue soon fell into decay, so that already before the 
 Union of Calmar it was materially changed both in Sweden 
 and Norway; then arose the name islenska, which the tongue 
 has kept until the present day. 
 
 519. From the three Northern realms, especially from 
 Norway, sprung the Icelanders, and so carried with them the 
 old tongue and poetry, both which they cultivated with so 
 much care, that in all three countries their superiority in these 
 respects was universally acknowledged; kings maintained Ice- 
 landic poets at their courts , and caused their histories to be 
 written by Icelanders. To this period the great mass of 
 histories and poems is to be ascribed, which may be called 
 the Classical Literature of Iceland, e. g. The Edda, Heims- 
 kringla, Knytlinga, Sturlunga, Njala, Eigla, Gretla, and many 
 more, of which more than half still lie hidden in M. S., or 
 have been edited without learning, criticism, or taste. * 
 
 * This state of things has happily undergone a great change since 
 the work of Rask was written, thanks to the unwearied efforts 
 of individual Philologists like him, and the combined exertions of 
 that praiseworthy body the Society of Northern Archaeologists 
 at Copenhagen. [Translator's note.] 
 
DIALECTS. 229 
 
 But in Iceland also the Old Norse had its periods. A little 
 before the Reformation the Literature and language were at 
 their lowest ebb. $ since that event they have been cultivated 
 anew, and the last half of the 18th century, and the begin- 
 ning of the 19th, have been particularly distinguished by a 
 happy striving to approach the purity, simplicity, and taste of 
 the old time. To this period belong I ViSalin's Huspostilla, 
 who for his pure and nervous style has been called the Ice- 
 landic Cicero. Judge ViSalin's legal Treatises, and Commen- 
 taries on obscure words in the Old Icelandic Laws, Attorney 
 Jon Espolins Continuation of the Sturlunga down to the pre- 
 sent day. The writings of the Royal Society for Icelandic 
 Literature. Those of the Icelandic Society for the Diffusion 
 of Knowledge, among the writers of which Bishop H. Finson, 
 and Councillor M. Stephensen, are the most distinguished. The 
 new Icelandic Literary Society also which has not yet published 
 any original work. Among celebrated Poets, a class of writers 
 in which Iceland has never been deficient, the last Catholic 
 Bishop may be selected, as prominent in the Later Literature, 
 as well as Hallgrimr Petursson, StefTan Olafson of Vallanesi, 
 the abovenamed Pall ViSalin and Eggert Olafsson; together 
 with the following poets now alive, Sra. J6n"porlaksson , As* 
 sessor P. Grondal, Attorney Sigurd Petursson, and Prof. Finnr 
 Magnusson in Copenhagen. 
 
 520. From the North the same tongue was spread over 
 the Ferro, Orkney, Shetland, and Western Isles, and from 
 Iceland to the East Coast of Greenland; but the Old Green- 
 land has been now for a long time lost, and since the Scot- 
 tish Isles were joined to Scotland, the Old Norse language 
 has given way to the New English. On the Ferro Isles a 
 Dialect is still spoken, which comes very near to the Icelan- 
 dic, but is of little interest, since it has no Literature, except 
 some popular songs, which however have not been printed 
 up to the present time. * 
 
 * These ballads were published with a Dansk translation by Lyng- 
 bye, Randers 1822. 
 
230 OLD POETIC DIALECT. 
 
 Since therefore the language of the three Northern realms 
 has altered itself by degrees, and this period of transition 
 seems to belong to the History of the formation of the new 
 Scandinavian tongues, and since the old tongue on the Islands 
 is either extinct, or become insignificant Dialects without Lit- 
 erature. It remains only to consider the Oldest and Poetic 
 Dialect of the Old Norse, together with the modern language 
 in Iceland itself. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 The Oldest and Poetic Dialect 
 
 521. It has been customary among all nations to retain 
 the old tongue longest in poetry, partly perhaps because it 
 was familiar to the people in their older songs, partly because 
 it gave the diction a kind of venerable appearance, partly 
 perhaps for the greater freedom thus gained, by having a 
 choice between more words and forms, which indeed might 
 be very needful as a counterpoise to the restrictions which 
 the construction of the verse lays upon the poet. 
 
 Among the poets therefore most Archaisms are found, for 
 it is absurd to suppose that these writers ever ventured on 
 changes in their diction altogether arbitrary, which would have 
 drawn down on them ridicule instead of admiration. In addition 
 most of these poetic idioms are met with in the oldest prose 
 writers in Icelandic, or in other kindred tongues, so that both 
 classes of writers may be considered under one head, 
 
 522. In old writers are often found: 
 
 o for u in endings, e. g. ttingo, tungor, tungom, kollom, 
 kollooom, kollo'dot, kollooo, kolloo", etc. 
 
OLD POETIC DIALECT. 231 
 
 r for ur essential, e. g. norSr, veSr, akr, vetr, vitr; but not 
 often for ur of the pi. from fern, in -a; e. g. sogor 
 not sogr for sogur. 
 
 m for <B throughout, where the root form has 6, e. g. boeli 
 from bol, beer for baer from bua, bjo, (73). It is 
 also confounded wit au and ce which comes from 
 a, though wrongly. 
 
 m for e, and cei for ei, e. g. aef, vsela, seiga, seila. 
 
 ey for -b, e. g. geyra, eyx^ eyrindi, gleygyr, steyckr, keyr 
 for kjor. 
 
 an for o. For this change see 29. In old M. S. simple o is 
 often found for o; in words which are sometimes 
 spellt with au, sometimes with o, we may be al- 
 ways sure that the right sound it o. 
 
 ang, eng, ing, ong, ong, for ang, eing, ing, ung, aung, and 
 eyng , e. g. ganga, lengi, hringr, konongr, fong, etc. 
 of which change much has been said above (73,78)* 
 
 o for vd, e. g. orr, ou, oro, koSo, for varr, van, varo, qvaSo. 
 
 The oldest pronunciation of a was a (an), which 
 
 is proved by assonances and rhyme, e. g. 
 
 Skemungagramr hdnum. 
 
 Flestr maSr of frd hvat fylkir vd. 
 
 See farther on this point 13. 
 u* t y, for ve, vi, e. g. ondurSr, ondugi, dogurftr, kykr, kyk- 
 
 vindi, tysvar, for ondverSr, ondvegi^ dagver^r, 
 
 qvikr, qvinkindi, tvisvar. So also yrkja (for virkja) 
 
 from verk. 
 
 o for a. Thus the pronounciation a in the new Northern 
 tongues, was already a dialect in the oldest times, 
 though it is very rarely found in Old Norse wri- 
 tings, e. g. o for a a river, (Swed. a) boro for 
 baro they bore, fom for fam (Swed. fa) few. 
 
 <e, ce, for jd, jo, e.g. sser forsjar, sjor (Swed. sjo) sea. snaer 
 for snjar ; snjor (Swed. sno) snow, raefr and rjafr 
 
232 OLD POETIC DIALECT. 
 
 roof, slaefu for sljofu Fafnisb. 30. slaeforum for 
 sljofad Lokagl. 22. 23. tae5 or te3 for lja5 V61- 
 undarq. 16. 
 
 e for 6 and vice versa , e. g. neqvi for nockvi, kerit for 
 kjorit, igognom for igegnom, koinr for kemr, (Germ, 
 komt) ofri, ofztr, for efri, efstr. 
 
 The vowels a and u often fall away at the end of words 
 after another vowel, especially if it be accented, e. g. trja for 
 trjaa, bra for braa, etc. Sa gen. pi. for saa, fam for faum, 
 Gro for Grou, se for seu, and many more. 
 
 523. With regard to the cons, many peculiarities are 
 also found. 
 
 H often falls away before the hard cons., e. g. lutr, Ijop, 
 ringr, ok-reinn, nifr> etc. for hlutr etc. , but before j and v it 
 never falls away. 
 
 C is often used for k by the Angl. Sax. orthography; 
 e. g. Cristr, cor, scip, scegg, fecc, (though not cv for lev, or 
 qv) but especially at the end of words , e. g. oc, ec, mic, etc. 
 which are now written with g. 
 
 E is often used for J 9 particularly before a and o, after 
 the Angl. Sax. fashion, e. g. earn, sealfr, earl, be65a, feorSr 
 beorn. 
 
 8 for nn 9 e. g. viSa for vinna, breftr. fiSr, kuftr, etc., of 
 which mention has been made above. 
 
 T for 5 at the end of words after a vowel, e. g. hofut, 
 kollut, standit upp! 
 
 P for f before a hard cons.; e. g. ellepti , tolpti, J)6r- 
 tilpsson. 
 
 p seems sometimes to have been used as an abbreviation 
 for dd y and z for 55, e. g. nap-gofugr for nadd-gofugr, (naddr 
 is pointy arrow , spear) Gizur, Ozur, Pjazi, bleza etc. 
 
 Besides these, many variations of particular words are 
 found, which it is hard to bring under any rule, e. g. glikt? 
 glikligt, for likr likligt, gnaga fornaga, ollungis nowoldungis, 
 
OLD POETIC DIALECT. 233 
 
 skillingr now skildingr, vsetta for vsenta, Girkir for Grickir, 
 leyfa for lofa to praise, etc. Sometimes also the assonances 
 have compelled the poets to force some words a little , thus 
 we find e. g. ata for atta (1 owned) Heimskr. II. ch. 48. lattr 
 for latr the lair of seals, heiSengja for heiSingja, riSari for 
 riddari. 
 
 524. Inflection itself has also its peculiarities, thus the 
 vowel change of a into o is sometimes neglected before the 
 ending u, e. g. skjaldo for skjoldu , even in the sing. acc« 
 skjald, dat. skjaldi, herjaSu for herjuou etc. 
 
 525. Words in -andi (2nd decl. 122) are often thus de- 
 clined in the pi. 
 
 N. A. eigendr or eigendor 
 Dat. eigondom or eigandom 
 Gen. eiganda. 
 
 and these forms are also used when they stand as actual 
 particip. or adj. 
 
 526. Instead of faSir fo<5r also occurs, ace. and dat. fe5r, 
 gen. foSurs. From broSir is found in the gen. and dat. brceSr 
 (braufr) Volsungaq. 21. and Sturluson's Hak. Adalst. 20. 
 
 527. It has been already remarked (158) that many fern, 
 of the 7th decl., especially those of which the vowel is 0, 
 took of old ar for ir in the pi., e. g. farar, sakar, gjafar, 
 fjaSrar, hallar, attar, etc. as well as that elfr, byrSr, merr, 
 heiSr etc. were anciently used for elfa, byrSi, meri, heiSi, (159). 
 
 528. Those words of the 8tu decl. which end in n, s, r, 
 assimilate the pi. ending r with the final cons., e. g. 
 
 bon, pi. baenn, gas, pi. gaess, 
 
 brun, pi. br^nn, tonn, pi. tenn. 
 
 In the same way like assimilations are found also at 
 the end of other words. (93, 139, 189, 256.) It is however 
 seldom that sr within the word becomes ss in the inflection 
 of adj., e. g. vissa for visra, fussi for fusri. 
 
234 OLD POETIC DIALECT. 
 
 529. Adj. in -igt, -ugt, (366) are contracted in old writers 
 as well as those in -alt, -ult, and if the characteristic letter 
 be a hard cons., the g of the ending is changed into k, e. g. 
 oflgir ok astgir (Volusp. 17.) 
 
 Meingar J)3er urftu 
 J)6 hinn mattki GuS 
 skapti skirliga. (Sol. 10.) 
 
 Even the comparat. and superl. are contracted in Old 
 writers, for which see 200. 205. 
 
 530. From the comparat. a peculiar dat. pi. is found in 
 -rum, -urum, instead of the unchanging -ri, -ari, e. g. taldr 
 me5 hmum stserrum monnum , af minnum sokum, enum slasf- 
 orum, etc., which now only takes place in the two irregular 
 words fleira and meira in the dat. pi. of the indef. form fleirum 
 (meirum) and in the dat. sing, meiru. 
 
 531. As an irregular superl. bazt baztr, is often met 
 w r ith for bezt beztr, but not bozt in the fern. 
 
 532. The old forms of the pronouns ec, mic. var etc. 
 have been already mentioned, we may remark in addition 
 okr (ocr) for ockr, and iS and er in the 2nd pers., for J)iS and 
 |>er in the pi., which last forms were doubtless of later origin, 
 by the addition of j) from the sing. The Swed. and Dansk 
 forms /, as well as the Germ. Ihr, answer to the old form; 
 e. g. Hvi i5 iEsir tveir? Lokagl. 19. Ollut er (ye were the 
 cause). From hann honum is also found in the dat., fern, 
 hon (hon). 
 
 533. It has been already remarked (215) that the dissyl- 
 labic possessives are regularly declined in old writers, great 
 care must therefore be taken not to confound their fern, with 
 the dat. of tke personals, e. g. yckur (vestra amborum), yckr 
 (vobis ambobus). 
 
 For mitt, minn. etc. the gen. of the pers. min, J)in, sin, 
 are sometimes used unchanged, especially by later poets. 
 
OLD POETIC DIALECT. 235 
 
 For vart the old poets have another word in all the cases, 
 the ending of which begins with a vowel, e. g. osso, ossom, 
 ossa, pi. ossir, which is the Germ, unser, [and more especially 
 the English us.~\ 
 
 534. From f)etta Jvisa is found in the dat., masc. fersi, 
 dat. Jeima. 
 
 535. Of the old relatives hvart, hvarr, and hvat, hvar, 
 mention has been already made (220); I will here only add 
 an example of hvar in the fem. , viz " hal ber old hvar " Ha- 
 fam. 54. For hvat hot is found, at least in compounds, hot- 
 vetna any whatever, alL Hafam. 49. and in the masc. hor for hvar 
 Solarl. 27. is a variation which is strengthened by comparison 
 the Swed. ho, Dansk hvo. 
 
 The old es (for er) is often contracted with other words 
 e. g. sas, f)anns, sus, Jars, hvars, for sa er etc. 
 
 536. For nockut old writers often use nockart, nacqvart, 
 nackvat. From ecki, engr, ongr, ace. engi, are used in the 
 masc; fem. ong, aung, (e. g. SigurSarq. Fafn. 2. 26., and 
 Hafam. 99,) 
 
 The negative ending -gi, after a hard cons. -Jci, is also 
 compounded with many other words, but never with verbs, 
 e. g. hittki, Jatki, hvargi, gen. hvarkis, for hvorugr neither', 
 sjalfgi fem. (non ipsa.) pagi, svagi , sefa, or sefagi, never. 
 Masc. subst. throw away their r in this case e. g. Ulfgi, 
 Loptki, vaettki also vettugi, whence the gen. vettugis, Vol- 
 usp. 8. 
 
 537. Most of the peculiarities in the old inflection of 
 verbs have been already mentioned, along with the common 
 ones, with which they are often confounded; some verbs have 
 peculiar obsolete forms or methods of inflection, e. g. gerva, 
 styrkva, j>r6ngva, s^ngva, skepja (skapti, skaptr) f)ickja, (in 
 all three pers. of the pres. f)icki) tjoa (tjoSi, tffti); instead of 
 gera, styrkja, Jreyngja, s^ngja, skapa, Jyckja, tja. And farther: 
 
 skynda skyndi, do skyndr 
 
 hjalpa helpr halp holpinn 
 
236 
 
 OLD POETIC OIALFCT= 
 
 fregna 
 
 fregn 
 
 frag-o 
 
 
 freginn 
 
 sveipa 
 
 
 sveip 
 
 
 sveipinn 
 
 blikja 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 bliko 
 
 — 
 
 blanda 
 
 blendr 
 
 blett 
 
 blendo 
 
 blandinn 
 
 (fryngja) 
 
 M n S r 
 
 })raung 
 
 ^rungo 
 
 f)rungiim 
 
 (styngja) 
 
 styngr 
 
 slaung 
 
 slungo 
 
 slunginn 
 
 mala 
 
 melr 
 
 mol-o 
 
 
 malinn 
 
 skepja 
 
 — 
 
 skop-o 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 %ja 
 
 flfv 
 
 flo 
 
 flugo 
 
 frfiSr (ftyinn) 
 
 fljuga 
 
 ftygr 
 
 £16 
 
 flugo 
 
 floginn. 
 
 Springa is also found in the sense of springing, leaping, 
 and has then sprang in the iraperf. (Skaldhelgarimor.) pi. 
 sprungu, conj. spr^ngvi (Saemundar Edda). Heitr a regular 
 present from heita, instead of heitir is also found. (In Orvar- 
 odds, and Jomsvikmga Sagas Cod. Perg. No. 7. 4to.) From 
 sja set is also met with instead of sjaio", se instead of sja and 
 senn instead of sen or seor. 
 
 538. The verbs of the 2nd and 3rd class of the 1st con- 
 jug, are often found in old writers with 5 (f>) instead of t, d, 
 in the imperf. and past part; e. g. merkSi, J>ek|)i ? glapfji, 
 skilSi, dreymSi. In this case / is never doubled, or when it 
 is, t or d are always used; e. g. villdi, skylldi, this has 
 therefore been an actual variation of inflection. The same 
 holds good in derivation, e. g. eycS, fj615 or fjolfti etc. 
 
 539. In the third class, a second, infin. is found with the 
 same vowel as the imperf.; e. g. dvala, gla5a, for dvelja, 
 gleoja; lama, duna, huga, for lemja, dynja, hyggja are still 
 used, and are regularly inflected by the 1st class, 1st conjug. 
 For the particip. in -#, -i$r, -£5 see 269. 
 
 540. The imperf. conj. of the 3rd class 1st conjug., and 
 of the 2"d conjug. is sometimes found with no change of 
 vowel; e. g. ut {)ii ne qvomir for kaemir Lokagl. 27., komia 
 for ecki ksemi (Grdttas.) JDrungvi for Jpr^ngvi etc. 
 
 541. From the auxil. verb vera the following variations 
 are found in old writers; es for er, 3rd pers. pi. 'ro for ero, 
 
OLD POETIC DIALECT. 237 
 
 after r or a vowel, imperf. vas, infin. vesa, conj, sja for se 
 From this form comes the Icel. vist, stay, entertainment, food % 
 The German tongues have also retained the 5 in the verb 
 itself. 
 
 542. For the old endings, a in the 1st pers. for i, im in the 
 1st pers. pi. for urn, and i, 3rd pers. pi. imperf. conj. for u 
 see 271—273. For u, i, instead of um, iti, 05, 274. For the 
 composition of the l«t and 2nd pers. pron. with the verb in the 
 sing. 275. 277. This last occurs very often in old writers; e.g, 
 emk for em ek, vask for var ek, hyck for hygg ek; draptu 
 fortu etc. In passives or deponents the 1st and 3rd pers. pron. 
 in the ace. mic, sic, is used, the vowel being thrown away 
 mc, sc, both in a dat. and ace. sense; e. g. sii eromc lick, 
 for su er mer likn, Lokagl. 35.; this takes place especially in 
 depon. verbs, thus in an active sense, e. g. ec oumc I fear 
 (me), ec sjamc I see, and' is formed like a pi. The simple 
 1st pers. of the pi. in w, together with the usual pass, in 
 urns, umz, umzt, is also found instead of this, e. g. bjoSum. 
 J bid, (otherwise we bid) , ek aetlums / intend, my intention 
 is, hoiluSumz, |)6ttum etc. 
 
 The ending sc for sic is besides extended in common 
 speech to all the pers., because its origin was forgotten, after 
 the vowel had fallen away, and sc, had been changed into z 
 or st ; e. g. lata eggjasc, (eggjast) to let himself be egged on, 
 hann lagSiso he laid himself down , sasc viS boendr hasca for 
 sausc, saust, and this again for sau ser in the dat. 
 
 543. The verbs, like the pron., have a negative ending 
 of their own, viz, at (or a if a cons, follow, and t if a vowel 
 go before, which is however often neglected). It is added to 
 all inflections, except the 2nd pers. pi. in 5, t. In the first 
 two pers. of the sing, it is besides united to the pronominal 
 ending, though this pron. is commonly repeated, either as an 
 independant w T ord, or in a new contraction, e. g. em-k-at 
 aint I, I'm not, but commonly emkat ek, emkattak, or emka-k ; 
 ert-at-tu thou'rt not; er-at he is'nt; erum-a (eru-t the're not); 
 and in the imperf. varca ec, var-attu, var- at, varoma (varo-t). 
 
238 
 
 OLD POETIC DIALECT. 
 
 The 3«*«i pers. pi. seldom occurs negatively in those cases 
 where it might be confounded with the others in a positive 
 sense. Farther examples are: 
 
 qveSkat ec, sitca ec, munca ec, seka ec, {>ori-g-a ek 
 
 
 skallatu, 
 
 £u serat, munattu, 
 
 
 ver5r-at, 
 
 hni'gra-flygra, 
 
 munat samir-s 
 
 
 vinna-t 
 
 bita-t, vitu-5 
 
 knego-S 
 
 Pres. Conj 
 
 at ek 
 
 stoovigac 
 
 
 
 at {m 
 
 qveljat, at Jm 
 
 qve8ir-a 
 
 
 
 skriSi-a 
 
 renni-a, verdit 
 
 
 at allir 
 
 muni-t 
 
 
 Imperf. 
 
 
 mundi-g-a ek, 
 
 hugdattac 
 
 
 |)U 
 
 skyldira , 
 
 ma?ltira 
 
 
 
 na^t 
 
 rauSit sic 
 
 
 
 J)orcIu-t 
 
 foro-8. 
 
 Imperat. 
 
 kjos-at-tu, 
 
 gratattu. 
 
 fegjattu 
 
 segit-a Voluspa. 21. 
 The Infin. and Particip do not occur with negative forms. 
 
 544. Besides the common auxiliary verbs the poets use 
 a number of others, as periphrases for the pres. and imperf. 
 the most common are, gera , na , kna , ra5a , vinna , geta , lata 
 the five first with the infin. the two last with the past parti- 
 cip, e. g. hann gerSi, naSi, knatti, reS, or vann hoggva, or 
 hann gat, let hoggvit, i. e. hann hjo he hewed, [something like 
 the use of gan in Old Engl, he gan hew]. 
 
 545. In the formation of words the old tongue has very 
 few peculiarities. 
 
 -a$r, -ufir masc, is an ending which forms subst. expres- 
 sing an agent, e. g. sal-vor5u8r housekeeper, indweller , men- 
 glotuSr necklace-destroyer , one who shares out gold, hjaldur- 
 mognuftr who is able to carry on war, vigfra-madr a mighty 
 man of war. 
 
 -nir, (Swed. ndr in konstndr etc.) is used in many Prop. 
 Names, e. g. Skirnir, Sleipnir, SkiSblaSnir, Glitnir., Vitnir a 
 wolf etc. 
 
OLD POETIC DIALECT. 239 
 
 -la for liga, in adverbs is a common contraction in old 
 writers, e. g. skjotla hastily, hljoSla softly, stilly, (381). 
 
 A few strengthening prefixes may also be remarked here, 
 which seem to have been originally independant words, though 
 ihey are now only met with in compos. ; the most impor- 
 tant are; 
 
 gin- e. g. ginheilagr right-holy, (Angl. Sax. gin-) 
 
 gamban- e. g. gambansumbl glorious-drink , gambanreifti 
 fiercely wrath, gambanteinn holy conjuring rod, (Angl. Sax, 
 gomban treasure,) 
 
 fimbul- e. g, fimbulljoS fine song, fimbulfambi a great oaf 
 (Dansk en Tjambe). Fimbulvetur the dreadful winter before 
 Ragnarock. 
 
 The negative o is often written u in old works, which 
 has been retained since in Dansk, e. g. uheill, uvitr, etc. 
 
 546. With regard to Syntax, the frequent ellipses of 
 small words may be remarked; e. g, illt qveSa (viz, |>eir or 
 menn |>at at) argan eggja. 
 
 HirS eigi fm (viz um) 
 
 Hogna reiSi. 
 
 Oc var5 hinn vorftr 
 
 vestallz (viz at) liggja. 
 
 Ohultir megum (viz ver) her 
 
 yfir-drottna. 
 
 Gengo Jeir (viz, til) fagra 
 
 Freyjo tuna etc. 
 
 547. The prepos. eptir and undir, are often met with on 
 Runic stones in the forms ept and und, Til is used, like the 
 Germ, zu, to express too much, e. g. heldr til mikill far too 
 much, gar zu gross. Of and um are used reciprocally, and often 
 added to verbs, sometimes even to other words, as expletive 
 or emphatic particles , without any actual change of sense. 
 As prepos. they are used both with the dat. and ace. e. g. 
 i Gol um Asom gullinkambi etc. In this case the meaning seems 
 
240 OLD POETIC DIALECT. 
 
 to be over. Of is probably also the root of yfir. Instead of 
 fyrir for is also found, which is the root-form, and has been 
 kept in Dansk, as also fur and fyri when a cons, follows yr, 
 or is found for ur, meSr for meft, viftr for vi5, at, against. 
 
 548. Among the old poetic conjunct, the following de- 
 serve to be remarked; allz since, as, (Germ, ah) with the 
 indie; siSr that-not with the conj.; heldr for that, with conj.; 
 sizt since, after that (Lokagl. 17). The negat. is often ne 
 before the verb , as in Angl. Sax. and Russ. , e. g. at £er 
 msela ne megaft. 
 
 549. It would take as much space as it would be diffi- 
 cult to describe or bring under rule the poetic inversions, be- 
 cause they consist in their very nature in departures from 
 all rule. As a very common kind I may remark, that ok 
 with the last clause of a sentence is very often put before 
 that which should be joined to it by the conj., e. g. 
 
 baru yxn oc attu 
 enni-tungl, |>ar er gengu 
 firir vin-eyar vi'Sri 
 vall-rauf, fjogur haufut. 
 
 The construction here is, yxn baru fjogur hofuS oc atta 
 enni-tungl, jpar er geingu fyrir vin-eyjar vidri vall-rauf, i. e. 
 The oxen bore four heads and eight eyes, {brow-moons), when 
 they went before {drew) the wide reft-field of the dear isle. 
 
 550. Besides these grammatical peculiarities the poetic 
 language has many verbal variations from the common Icel. 
 prose. These consist partly of peculiar words (okend heiti,) 
 partly in poetic periphrases (kenningar), drawn, some from 
 nature, some from mythology and the oldest Norse and Ger- 
 man History. To enumerate and describe these would be to 
 write a separate Dictionary. Until such a separate work shall 
 bave been compiled, very valuable explanations on the matter 
 are to be found in the Skalda, Olafsen's "Norse Poesy", as 
 well as in the Index to the Landnama, Njala, Edda, and the 
 Solutions of the verses in Eigla. 
 
241 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 The modern Tongue* 
 
 551 . It has luckily been the custom in late times to approach 
 nearer and nearer to the purity simplicity and taste of the 
 old writers, both in style and orthography. The Grammar 
 indeed was never materially altered since the language receiv- 
 ed a settled form in the Sagas; but in the middle Ages the 
 Orthography was much corrupted, and at one time threatened 
 to ruin the whole structure of the tongue. In order to feel at 
 home in the worser M. S. written with German letters, as 
 well as in the older Icelandic Editions, it is needful to have 
 a knowledge of the most important of these changes, now 
 happily laid aside, in the old orthography, which was beyond 
 measure suited to the genius of the language, is found in 
 good M. S. and in the Copenhagen Editions, and has been 
 applied in the preceding pages. 
 
 552. Thus e was used for i in endings, e. g. fader; 
 lande, daler, hrafnenn, honden, maklegt, sagde, etc., which 
 is however wrong, because e is sounded like a (Engl, a), 
 A sound inadmissible in these cases; according to this rule 
 we ought to write ven, hemen, etc. 
 
 eig for eg when i follows, e.g. deigi, dat. ofdagr, f)eigja, 
 seigja, etc., but in this case g would be redundant, just as if 
 we were to write havfa, livfa, etc., where f would be re- 
 dundant. Besides by this rule a multitude of words different 
 both in origin and meaning would be confounded, e. g. deigi? 
 deigr, weak, seigr tough, vegir ways, and veigar drinks in 
 the dat. and gen. pi., with many more. 
 
 16 
 
242 THE MODERN TONGUE 
 
 Double instead of accented vowels, e. g. fee, foor, saa, 
 sijda. nuu, though y was never doubled. 
 
 ie for e, e. g. hier, giefa, fiell, together with giae^ kia?, 
 for gas, kae, e. g. kiaer, giaefr, etc. 
 
 The first makes it impossible to recognize the word, and 
 confuses its position in Dictionaries; the last is altogether 
 redundant, since g and k always have the sound of gj, Jcj, 
 before ae. 
 
 In the same way ie or ji was used for i (39), and ur for r 
 without regard to its being essential or not; e. g. madur, 
 brudur, godur_, geingur, nidur, and all such; but that this is 
 wrong may easily be shown, e. g. by a comparison with all 
 the verbs, which have an actual vowel before r in the 2nd 
 and 3rd pers. pres., all these retaining it in the 1st pers., hann 
 elskar, ek elska, hann segir, ek segi. Accordingly hann gein- 
 gur, tekur, etc., ought to become in the 1st pers. geingu, teku, 
 which never happens, but hann geingr, ek geing, hann tekr, 
 ek tek, are thoroughly analogous. 
 
 That u is not any essential vowel in this case is plain 
 from the fact that words, which otherwise insert j before a, 
 e, and z/,, never do so before this ending; e. g. at fremja to 
 carry out, farther, ver fremjum, |>er fremiS etc.; but in the 
 pres. sing, hann fremr, ek frem, (never hann fremjur). Farther 
 this ending never brings about that vowel change within the 
 word which u requires, e. g. taka, ver tokum, but hann tekr 
 (never tokur). The ending -ur is only right in subst. and 
 adj. having essential r, and perhaps in those words of the 
 6th dec!., which have u in the ace. pi., together with the pi. 
 of fern, in a. 
 
 d for 5 contrary to sound , and the old universal custom 
 all over Scandinavia, until the Reformation. 
 
 bl for /7, e. g. abl, gabl; but that this is wrong seems 
 clear from those in which f and / meet together by compos- 
 ition, e. g. henll plane , at hefla; so also hefja, hafinn, 
 hafSir etc. (36). 
 
THE MODERN TONGUE. 243 
 
 gt or ckt for kt, e. g. agt for ackt or akt, lygt or lyckt 
 for lykt, digta or dickia for dikta,, etc.; but the first is a 
 Danism which makes against the analogy of vakt, inntekt, etc. ; 
 the latter superfluous, because kt forms a position, which al- 
 ways makes the preceding vowel short and sharp, gt may 
 however be defended on etymological grounds in those few 
 cases where the root-form has g without a position, e. g. vigt 
 from vega, magt and megtugr from mega, magn, etc. The old 
 Norsemen however wrote these words with k, e. g. Bishop 
 J6n Areson; 
 
 Ef ek skal daemdr of danskri slekt 
 og degja svo fyrir kongsins mekt; 
 
 But in root-forms it should always be writter kt, e. g. prakt, 
 lukta, dikta, akta, forakta etc. 
 
 ft for pt, e. g. eftir, aftur, etc. but then we ought also to 
 write klifti, kifti, etc. which would make it impossible to re- 
 cognize many words. 
 
 The use of Capital Letters for all subst. contrary to all 
 old use in Icelandic and most other civilized tongues. 
 
 553. As real improvements on the other hand in the 
 later orthography may be remarked, the laying aside of au 
 and av instead of b, which make the reading of old books 
 very hard; as well as of // in vildi, skyld> aldur, old, and the 
 like. Again the distinction of j and v from i and u before all 
 vowels, and the abandonment of z for s in many genit., and 
 for st in the pass., it being only retained for ts, ds, §s, tts, 
 where t, d, S and tt ought not to be heard at all; i.e. chiefly 
 in case sk , st or some similar position follow, e. g. gezka, 
 islenzkt, bezt, elzt, styzt, and in all 2nd pers. pi. pass., as in 
 all supines of the same voice. 
 
 554. In the inflections themselves scarcely any change 
 has taken place , which has not been already mentioned. 
 Words in -ir of the 5th decl. are now commonly thus de- 
 clined (144). 
 
 16* 
 
244 
 
 THE MODERN TONGUE. 
 
 Singular. Norn. Laeknir. Plural. Lasknirar 
 
 Ace, laeknir. l.x'knira 
 
 Dat. leeknir, laeknirum 
 
 Gen. laeknirs. laeknira. 
 
 But this ending is often interchanged with -art e.g. laekn- 
 arar, Iseknurum, etc. 
 
 The word fotr (fotur) is often used in the pi. (faetr), as 
 if it were fern, fsetrnar. 
 
 From some masc. suhst. r has been cast away, e. g. in 
 the Prop. Names. Fridrek. Hinrik, Isfjoro'; as also in poetry, 
 lofSungj ddgling, etc. for lofSiingr, doglingr (king), together 
 with mann for ma5r. 
 
 Some fern, especially those in ~ing , taka u in the ace, 
 as well as the dat. e. g. gyllingu-na, meyju-na; but the true 
 old form gyllmgina, mey-na, may also be used. 
 
 -t in the neut., and in general when it is not radical, but 
 merely a final syll., standing after a simple (accented) vowel 
 or e, has in the later tongue become 8 (not d); e. g. hiisiS, 
 fmS, hvaS? hiS goSa, annaS, nockuS, galiS, haldiS, aft, feS, etc.; 
 which change is however hardly perceptible in sound, because 
 the old pronun. was with a long and almost toneless vowel, 
 e. g. |>at not |>att^ and agrees very well with the Latin id, 
 aliud, quod, ad, and the like. This orthography also occurs 
 occasionally in the oldest M.S. 
 
 In cases where it is radical ? e. g. fat, net, fit, it is not 
 changed, not even if a cons, or diphthongic vowel go before, 
 e. g. hvert, snart, fatt ? ljott, lit, etc. The old form of the 
 prep. a5, viz, at, is still however retained in certain compounds, 
 e. g. athygli, atqvaefti, atvinna, atorka, etc. 
 
 k or c, has, in accordance with t> become g, in the pers. 
 pronouns, e. g. eg, mig, J)ig, sig, as also the words ok, og 
 mjok, mjog. This too is a scarcely perceptible change in 
 sound; because the vowel is also long, so that the old pronun. 
 was ak , mek, \ek> sek, ak, by no means eck, mick, ock; 
 
THE MODERN TONGUE. 
 
 u& 
 
 while the new is with hard $r, ag, eg, meg, ag, not at all aj, 
 mej, according to the Swed. pronunciation. This change also 
 agrees very well with the Latin ego; eg and mj 6g are found 
 besides in the oldest M. S. After a vowel, and at the be- 
 ginning of a sentence eg is commonly said. 
 
 Instead of |>enna fennan is now said, and for £etta often 
 f)ettaf5, for fmu, f)aug is sometimes heard. 
 
 Some later verbs belong, as in Swed., partly to the 1st, 
 partly to the 2nd class f the 1st conjug, e. g. 
 
 J>ena, Jenar, fenti, $ent, J)enaS, 
 
 meina, meinar, meinti, meint, 
 
 forlika, forlikar, forlikaSi., forliktr, forlikaSr. 
 
 From hafa, eg hef, fm, hann hefr, are often used in the pres. 
 
 555. In the formation of words, the following particles, 
 at least in careless daily speech, have been adopted from 
 other tongues; 
 
 be- e. g. besaekja, bestilla^ begera, behalda, 
 
 an- e« g. antaka, anmerkning, ganga-an, 
 
 for- e. g. forgylla, forsylfra, forsigla. 
 
 -heity neut. pi. e. g. serligheit, VeleSlaheit, HaaeruverS- 
 
 ugheit, Velborinheit, etc. 
 -istij masc. juristi, sofisti, qvartisti, etc. 
 -fer&ngt, siSferSugt (liferni) rettfei5ugt. 
 
 -era, traktera, koniirmera, reformera , and many more 
 (with deep e French e). 
 
 556. All good authors now strive to do away verbal 
 Danisms and careless idioms, and to replace them by good 
 old j or newly formed and genuine, words, e. g. 
 
 vigtugt by mikilvsegt. bescehja by ssekja heim. 
 
 slutning — alyktan. behalda — halda. 
 
 bokfyrycJejari — prentari folgilla — gylla- 
 
 anmerltning — athugagrein. juristi — lagamaSr. 
 
 reformera — endrbaeta. teolog — guQfraeSismaSr. 
 
246 THE MODERN TONGUE. 
 
 Should these efforts continue , and be aided by a thorough 
 study of the old works , the Icelandic will have lost next to 
 nothing of her old glory, but will have won much by greater 
 stability in grammatical forms, as well as by the enriching 
 of the literature with many excellent poems, treatises, and 
 translations on subjects to which the old Norsemen paid 
 little attention; e. g. Satires and Plays, as well as by minor 
 works on matters of Economy , Natural History , Mathematics 
 and Physics. 
 
EXTRACTS 
 
 IN PROSE AND VERSE 
 
 BY WAY OF PRAXIS. 
 

 EXTRACTS. 249 
 
 Gylfaginning. Ch. 34. P. 33. 
 
 Ulfinn faeddu 1 JEsir heima, oc haf5i Tyr einn djarfleik * 
 til at ganga at ulfnum, oc gefa honum mat. En er guorn sa 8 
 hversu mikit harm ox 4 hvern dag, oc allar spar 5 savgSu 6 at 
 hann inundi vera lagSr til skaSa Jeim; {>a fengu 7 Mait |>at 
 ra5 at |>eir gerSu fjotur allsterkan 8 , er J>eir kavlluSu lseding 9 , 
 oc baru hann til ulfsins, oc baSu hann reyna afl sitt vi5 fjotr- 
 inn: en ulfinum J)6tti ser J>at ecki ofrefli 10 , oc let J)a fara me9 
 sem |>eir vildu; it fyrsta sinn er ulfrinn spyrndi vi$, brot- 
 na8i 11 sa fjoturr, sva leystiz hann or lsedingi. pvi nsest gerfhi 
 ililsirnir annan fjotr halfu sterkara 12 > er J)eir kavlluSu droina 13 , 
 oc ba5u enn ulfinn reyna f>ann fjotr, ok tavldu hann verSa 
 mundu agsetan mjoc at afli 14 , ef slik storsmiSi 15 msetti eigi 
 hallda honum. En ulfrinn hugsaSi at J>essi fjoturr var sterkr 
 mjoc, oc J>at meS at honum hafSi afl vaxit si'5an er hann braut 
 laeding, kom f>at i hug at hann mundi verSa at leggja sic i 
 haettu 16 ? ef hann skyldi frsegr 17 ver5a, oc let leggja a sic 
 fjotrinn: oc er iEsir tavlduz bunir 18 , J)a hristi ulfrinn sic 19 , 
 
 1 brought up. 2 daring. 3 the Gods saw. guSin neut pi. 4 ox 
 imperf. of vaxa to grow, wax. 5 spar pi. of spa spaedom, sooth- 
 saying. 6 savgQu for sogoTi a very favorite mode of spelling in Old 
 Norse. 7 fengu 3 rd pers. pi. imperf of fa to take. 8 a very strong 
 fetter. 9 laeding i. e. that which overcomes by stealth. 10 not above 
 his strength. u broke. 12 half as strong again. 13 droma tight 
 squeezing. 14 he would become very famous for strength. 15 stor- 
 smioi great smiths' work. 16 thought that he must be ready to ex- 
 pose himself to risk. 17 renowned, 18 told him they were ready. 
 19 hristi sic shook himself. 
 
250 EXTRACTS. 
 
 spyrntJi vi5, oc laust 20 fjotrinum a jorSina, sva at fjaerri ilugu 
 brotin; sva drap 21 hann sic or droma. pat er siSan haft fyrir 
 orStak 22 , "at leysi or lsedingi", eSa "drepi or droma, fa er 
 einn hverr lutr er akaflega sottr. 23 Eptir fat ottuftuz 24 iEsir- 
 nir at |>eir mundu ei fa bundit ulfinn , fa sendi AllfavSr 25 
 svein 26 fann er Skirnir er nefndr, sendimaor Freys 27 , ofan 1 
 Svartalfaheim 28 til dverga nockra , oc let gera fjdtr fann er 
 Gleipnir heitir 29 . Hann var gjor of sex lutum 30 , af dyn kat- 
 tarins 31 , oc af skeggi konunnar, oc af rotum bjargsins 32 ? oc 
 af sinom bjarnarins, oc af anda fisksins, oc fogls hraka 33 ; 
 oc fottu 34 vitir ei aor fessi tiSindi, fa mattu nu finna skjott 
 her savnn daemi 3 % at ei er logit at fer: set munt fu hafa at 
 konan hefir eigi skegg, oc engi dynr ver5r af hlaupi 36 kat- 
 tarins, oc ei eru rzetr 37 undir bjarginu, oc fat veit triia mm 38 
 at jafnsatt 39 er fat allt, er ec hen* sagt fer, fott feir se 40 
 sumir lutir er fu matt 41 ei reyna. pa mselti Gangleri 42 : fetta 
 ma ec at visu skilja 43 at satt er, f essa lutir ma ec sja, er f u 
 hefir nu til daema tekit: en hvernig u var5 fjoturinn smiSaor? 
 Har 45 svarar: fat kann ec fer vel segja; fjoturinn var5 slettr 
 or blautr sem silkiraema 46 , en sva traustr 47 oc sterkr sem nu 
 
 20 laust imperf. of ljosta to dash; for the government of the 
 subst. in the dat. see rule 461. 21 drap imperf. of drepa to strike, 
 dash. 22 orStak proverb. 23 sottr hard, toilsome. 24 were afraid. 
 
 25 more properly AlfaSir. i. e. Father of all, a name of Odin. 
 
 26 svein lad Engl, swain. 27 Freyrs' messenger. 28 down from 
 above into the home of the Black Elves. 29 hight Gleipnir orGleyp- 
 nir i. e. the swallower from at gleypa. 30 six things. 31 footfall 
 of cat. 32 root of stone. 33 spittle of bird. 34 fottu for fott f li. 
 35 savnn dsemi. neut. pi. for sonn d?emi true proofs. 36 running 
 springing. 37 pi. of rot. 38 and my good faith is my witness. 
 39 equally true. 40 se 3 rd pi. conj. of vera to be. 4t matt 2 nd pers. 
 sing. pres. of mega to be able, see rule 275. 42 Gangleri i. e. the 
 way-worn man, the name taken by Gylfi during his visit to Asgard- 
 43 to distinguish , understand , Old Engl, skill. 44 how, in what way. 
 45 Har, i. e. The High One, the name of one of the three kings 
 with whom Gylfi talked in Asgard. ^ The fetter was made smooth 
 and soft as a silkenstring. 47 trusty. 
 
EXTRACTS. 251 
 
 skalltu heyra. pa er fjoturrinn var faeror 48 A'sunum f avck- 
 u5u f eir vel sendimanni sitt eyrindi 49 ; fa foru iEsirnir lit 
 i vain fat er Amsvartner 50 heitir, 1 holm f ann er Lf ngvi 51 
 er kallaor, oc kavlluSu meS ser ulfinn, s^ndu 52 honum 
 silkibandit, oc baSii hann slita, oc qvoftu vera nokqvoro 53 
 traustara en h'kindi faetti 54 a- vera firir digrleiks sakar , oc 
 seldi 65 hverr avSrum, oc treysti nieS handa alii, oc slit- 
 naSi ei, en fo qvo5u feir uliinn slita mundo. pa svarar ulf- 
 rinn. "Sva litz mer 56 a f enna dregil 57 , sem onga fra?g5 68 mu- 
 nac 59 af-ljota; fott ec slita 1 sundr sva. mjott band, en ef fat 
 er gert meo* list oc vsel 60 , fott J>at s^niz h'tit, fa kemr fat 
 band ei a mina fostr. pa savgSu iEsirnir at hann mundi skjott 
 sundrslita mjott silkiband, er hann hafSi fyrr brotit stora jarn- 
 fjotra 61 , "en ef fu fser ei f etta band sh'tit, fa muntu ecki 
 hraefta mega goSin 6 ~, enda 63 skulum ver fa leysa fie. Ufrinn 
 svarar. "Ef f er bindit mic sva at ec faec ei leyst mic 64 , fa 
 skollit 65 f er sva at mer mun seint verSa at taka af y5r 
 hjalp 66 ; ufiiss 67 em ec at lata f etta band a mic leggja. En 
 heldr en per fr^it mer hugar 68 , fa leggi einn hverr havnd 
 sina i munn mer at veSi 69 at f etta se falslaust gert. En hverr 
 A'sanna sa til annars , oc f otti nu vera tvav vandrseSi 70 , vildi 
 engi sina havnd framselja, fyrr en Tfr let fram 71 havnd sina 
 
 48 past. part, of fsera to bring. 49 eyrindi errand; mark the 
 dat. and ace. after f acka to thank. 50 Amsvartner i. e. the black 
 lake of pain. 51 L^ngvi i. e. sown with heath. 52 syndu showed. 
 53 for nockru dat. sing. neut. of nockut. 64 psetti imperf. sing of 
 fykja to think, seem. 55 passed it. 56 it seems to me. 57 dregil 
 band. 58 no glory, onga ace. sing. fern, for einga. 59 munac i. e. 
 mun-a-c I will not. 60 guile. 61 iron fetters. 62 then thou wilt not 
 be able to cause the Gods fear. 63 but. 64 so that I cannot get 
 myself loose. 65 skollit for skolliS 2 nd pers. pi. pres. from skolla 
 to show oneself, to behave. 66 that it will be late to me ere I get 
 your help, it will be late ere I have to thank you for your help. 
 67 unwilling, loath. 68 rather than ye should doubt my bravery 
 69 as a pledge. 70 two evils . a choice of two evils, tvav for tvo. 
 71 let forward, put forth. 
 
252 EXTRACTS. 
 
 liaegri. 7a , oc leggr i niunn lilnnum. En er u'iVimi spyrnir, [>a 
 hari5naSi bandit, oc f vi liardara cr hann brautz urn [t\i skarpara 
 var bandit* fa hlogo 73 allir nema Tfr, hann let 74 havnd sina. 
 
 Gylfaginning. Ch. 49. P. 63. 
 
 pa maelti Gangleri : hafa nokqvorr meiri tiSindi orSit 1 meS 
 Asunum? allmikit frekvirki 2 vann porr i f essi ferS. Har 
 svarar. Vera mun at segja fra f eim tiSindum er meira J>6t- 
 ti vert Asunum 3 , En fat er upphaf 4 fessar savgu 5 at Baldr 
 en goSa dreymdi drauma stora oc haettliga 6 um lif sitt. En 
 er hann sag5i Asunum draumana , fa baru f eir saman raS 7 
 sin_, oc var fat gert at bei8a griSa Baldri 8 firir allzkonar haska 9 : 
 oc Frigg toe svardaga 10 til f ess at eyra n skyldu Baldri elldr 
 oc vatn, jam oc allzkonar malmr 12 ? stein ar,, jo rSiiij viSirnir 13 ? 
 sottirnir 14 ? d^rin i5 , fuglarnir, eitr 16 ? ormar 17 . En er f etta var 
 gert oc vitat, fa var fat skemtun 18 Balldrs oc Asanna at 
 hann skyldi standa upp a fingum 19 , en allir aSrir skyldu 
 sumir skjota a hann , sumir havggva til 20 ? sumir berja grjdti 21 . 
 En hvat sem at var gert sakaSi hann ecki 22 , oc fotti f etta 
 avllum mi kill frami - 3 . En er fetta sa Loki Laufejarson, fa 
 h'kaSi honum ilia er Baldr sakaSi ecki. Hann geek 24 lil Fen- 
 
 72 right. 73 pret. of at lae or hlse to laugh. 74 lost. 
 
 1 Past. part, of verSa to become, happen. 2 a glorious deed 
 wrought with toil, alluding to Thor's vengeance on Midgards 1 worm. 
 3 which seemed more worth to the iEsir. 4 beginning. 5 for f es- 
 sarar sogu. 6 perilous. 7 rede, counsel. 8 gri5a gen. pi. neut. peace, 
 security. Baldri. dat. of the pers. 9 harm. 10 an oath. n spare. 
 12 ore. 13 trees. 14 sicknesses. 15 beasts. Germ. Thier. Eng. deer. 
 16 poison. 17 worms i. e. snakes, as in the Engl, blind-worm. 
 18 the sport. 19 in their assemblies, meetings. 20 hew at him. 
 21 throw at him with stones. 22 he took no hurt. ^ great further- 
 ing, great gain. 24 imp erf. of ganga to go. 
 
EXTRACTS. 253 
 
 salar 25 til Friggjar, oc bra ser 1 konu liki 26 : pa spyrr Frigg 
 ef su kona vissi hvat iEsir hofftuz 27 at a Jnnginu. Hon sag'Si 
 at allir skutu at Baldri ^ oc J>at at hann sakafti ecki. pa mselti 
 Frigg. "Eigi munu vapn eSa viSir granda 28 Baldri; ei5a hefi 
 ec pegit af avllum J^im." pa spyrr konan: "hafa allir lutir 
 eiSa unnit 29 at eyra Baldri ? " pa svarar Frigg. '• Vex viSar. 
 teinungr einn 30 firir austan Valhavll, sa er Mistilteinn 31 kail- 
 aor, sa J>otti mer ungr at krefja eift'sins. pvi naest hvarf konan 
 a hraut 32 ; en Loki toe Mistiltein, sleit upp oc geek til Jungs. 
 En HavSr st65 utarlega 33 i mannhringinum , Jm'at u hann var 
 blindr; J>a mselti Loki viS hann: hvi sk^tr J>u ecki at Baldri? 
 Hann svarar: Jm'at ec se 35 ei hvar Baldr er, oc J>at annat 36 
 at ec em vapnlaus. pa mselti Loki: gerSu J)6 i liking an- 
 narra manna, oe veit Baldri saemd 37 sem aSrir menn; ec mun 
 visa J>er til hvar hann stendr 38 ; skjot at honum vendi J>es- 
 sum 39 . Havftr toe mistilteininn , oc skaut at Baldri at tilvisun 
 Loka : flaug skotit 1 gognum 40 hann, oc fell hann dauSr til 
 jar5ar, oc hefir J)at mest ohapp verit unnit me5 goSum oc 
 mavnnum 41 . pa er Baldr var Tallinn, J)a felluz 42 avllum Asum 
 orStavk 43 oc sva hendr at taka til hannz ; oc sa hverr til an- 
 nars, oc voru allir meS einum hug til J)ess er unnit hafSi 
 verkit : en engi matti hefna , J)ar var sva mikill griSa-staSr 44 . 
 En J)a er iEsirnir freistuSu 43 at maela , f>a var hitt J>6 fyrr at 
 gratrinn 46 kom upp, sva at engi matti avorum segja meS or5- 
 
 25 gen. pi. of Fensalr , i. e. the deep , or nether Halls , the 
 Palace of Frigg, the Goddess of the Earth and wife of Odin. 
 26 and turned himself into the likeness of a woman. 27 hofSuz at 
 used to do, chiefly did, from hofu6\ 28 hurt. 29 granted, given, 
 past part, from unna. 30 There grows one tree-twig. 31 mistletoe. 
 32 next to that the woman went on her way. 33 without, on the 
 outside. 34 because. 35 pres. of sja to see. 36 J)at annat another 
 thing, in the next place. 37 honour. 38 I will show thee where- 
 about he stands. 39 with this wand. 40 for i gegnum .through. 
 41 and that is the greatest mishap that has been done to Gods and 
 men, or, that has befallen etc. 42 failed. 43 speech. 44 that was 
 so holy a place. gri'(5a-sta5r asylum, sanctuary. 4 * tried. 46 a 
 weeping. 
 
254 EXTRACTS. 
 
 unum frii sinum harmi 47 . Enn OSinn bar j)eim mun verst 
 {>enna skaSa i8 , sem hann kunni mesta skyn 49 , hversu mikil af- 
 taka oc missa Asunum var i frafalli 50 Baldrs. En er go'Sin 
 vitkuouz 51 ? j>a mselti Frigg oc spurSi, hverr sa vaeri meS Asum , 
 er eignaz 52 vildi allar astir hennar oc hylli, "oc vili hann 
 riSa a helveg 53 ? oc freista ef hann fai fundit Baldr, ocbjoda 
 Helju litlausn bi , ef hon vill lata fara Baldr heim i AsgarS. " 
 En sa er nefndr HermdSr enn hvati 55 sveinn OSins, er til 
 j)eirrar farar vard 56 : pa var tekinn Sleipnir hestr OSins , oc 
 leiddr fram, oc steig Hermdor a J>ann hest oc hleypti braut 57 , 
 
 Skaldskaparmal. Ch. 35. P. 130. 
 
 Hvi er gull kallat haddr Sifjar l ? Loki Laufeyjar son 
 hafSi £at gert til Isevisi 2 at klippa har allt af Sif; en er pdrr 
 var$ jpess varr 3 . Tdc hann Loka oc mundi lemja hvart bein 
 i honum % aSr hann svarSi Jess, at hann skal fa af Svartalfum, 
 at f)eir skulu gera af gulli Sifju hadd, |>ann er sva skal vaxa 
 sem annat har 5 . Eptir |>at for Loki til jpeirra dverga er heita 
 Ivalda synir, oc gerSa J>eir haddinn oc SkiSblaSni 6 oc geirin 7 
 er 05in atti., er Gungnir heitr. pa veSjaSi 8 Loki hofSi sum 
 vi5 Jrnnn dverg er Brockr heitir, hvart brdSir hannz Sindri 
 mundi gera jafngdSa gripi frja 9 sem Jessir voru. En er £eir 
 
 47 woe. 48 But Odin as was likely bore this scathe worst of 
 them. 49 as he could best judge. 50 falling away, loss. 51 came 
 to themselves. 52 gain for his own. 63 and (tins said she he shall 
 have) if he will ride on the way to Hell. 54 a ransom. 55 the 
 brisk. 56 was ready to undertake the journey. 67 and galloped 
 away. 
 
 1 Sif s hair. Sif was the wife of Thor. 2 out of wantonness. 
 3 ware. 4 and was about to break every bone in him. 6 which 
 shall grow just like other hair. 6 SkiSblaftiir Freys' ship. 7 the 
 spear. 8 wagered. 9 three precious things equally good. 
 
EXTRACTS. 255 
 
 komu til smiSju, f£ lagSi Sindri svinskinn i aflinn 10 , oc baft 
 blasa Brock; oc letta eigi n fyrr en hann taeki fat or aflinum 
 er hann lagSi 1. En f egar er hann geek or smiSjunni, en hinn 
 bles, fa settiz fluga ein a hond honum oc kroppaSi 12 , en hann 
 bles sem a$r, far til er smiSrinn tok or aflinum, oc var fat 
 golltr 13 , oc var burstin u or gulli. pvi nsest lag5i hann i 
 aflinn gull oc ba5 hann blasa , oc hsetta 15 ei fyrr blaestrinum 
 en hann qvsemi 16 aptr; geek a braut: en fa kom ilugan oc 
 settiz a hals honum, oc kroppaSi nu halfu fastara i7 , en hann 
 bles far til er smiorinn tok or aflinum gullhring fann er 
 Draupnir heitir. pa lagSi hann jam 1 aflinn, oc baS hann 
 blasa, oc sagfti at onytt mundi verSa 18 ef blastrinn felli: fa 
 settiz flugan milli augna honum, oc kroppaSi hvarmana 19 , en 
 er bloSit fell 1 augun, sva at hann sa ecki, fa greip hann til 
 hendinni sem skjotaz 20 , meSan belgrinn lagdiz ni5r, ocsveifSi 21 
 af ser flugunni, oc fa kom far smi5rinn, oc sagSi at nu lagSi 
 nser at allt mundi on^taz er i aflinum var 22 , fa tok hann or 
 aflinum hamar, feck hann fa alia gripina i hendr broSur si'num 
 Brock, oc ba5 hann fara me5 til AsgarSz oc leysa vefrjuna 23 . 
 En er feir Loki 2i bam fram gripina, fa settuz iEsirnir a 
 domstola, oc skyldi fat atqvseSi standaz 25 , sem segSi OSinn, 
 porr, Freyr. fa gaf Loki Odni geirinn Gungni, en por haddin 
 er Sif skyldi hafa, en Frey Ski5bla5ni, oc sagSi skyn 26 a 61- 
 lum gripum, at geirinn nam aldri staSar i lagi 27 , en haddrinn 
 var holdgroinn 28 f egar er hann kom a hofuS Sif, en Ski5- 
 blaSnir hafSi byr 29 f egar er segl kom a iopt , hvert er fara 
 skyldi, en matli vefja 30 saman sem duk oc hafa 1 pung ser ef 
 fat vildi. par bar fram Brockr sina gripi, hann gaf 05ni 
 
 10 a swines' skin into the furnace. u not to leave off. 12 stung 
 it. 13 a boar-pig. 14 bristles. 15 stop. 16 for ksemi. 17 twice as 
 hard. 18 it would be useless. 19 the eyelids. 20 then he laid 
 his hand to the place as quickly as he could. 21 brushed away. 
 22 and said that now it was nigh but that all that was in furnace 
 had been spoilt. 23 settle the wager. 24 feir Loki. i. e. Loki and 
 he. comp. rule 438. 25 and that decision was to be abided by. 
 26 and told the nature. 27 never missed its aim. 28 would take root 
 and grow. 29 fair-wind. 30 fold. 
 
256 EXTRACTS. 
 
 hrfoginn, oc sagdi at ena niunda hverja nott mundi drjupa af 
 honum atta hringar jafnhofgir 31 sem hann; en Frey gaf hann 
 goltinn, oc sagSi at hann matti renna lopt oc lavg, nott oc 
 dag meirra en hverr hestr, oc aldri varS sva myrkt af nott 
 eoa i myrk-heimum 3 % at eigi vaeri serit ljost 33 J>ar er hann 
 for, sva \fsti af burstinni: pa gaf hann por hamarinn oc sagSi 
 at hann mundi mega Ijdsta sva stort sem hann vildi hvat sem 
 firir-vaeri 34 , oc eigi mundi hamarrinn bila 35 , oc ef hannvyrpi 38 
 honum til J>a mundi hann aldri missa, oc aldri fljugja sva 
 langt at eigi mundi hann ssekja heim hond 37 ; oc ef hann vildi, 
 J)a var hann sva litili at hafa matti 1 serk ser 38 ^ en {>at var 
 tyti a 39 at forskeptit 40 var heldr skarnt. pat var domr Jk \ Sfa 
 at hamarinn var beztr af ollum gripum, oc mest vavrn 44 i firir 
 Hrim-jmrsum, oc daemSu j>eir at dvergrinn aetti veSfeit 42 ; fa 
 bauo" Loki at leysa hofu5 sitt, dvergrinn svarar,, sagSi at J)ess 
 var engi von 43 . Taktu mik J)a, qvao" Loki, en er hann., vildi 
 taka hann, £a var hann vifts fjarri 44 ; Loki atti skua, er hann 
 rann a lopt oc log. pa ba5 dvergrinn por at hann skyldi,. 
 taka hann, en hann geror sva; J)a vildi dvergrinn havggva af 
 Loka hofu5% en Loki sagSi at hann atti hofuft en ei halsinn. 
 pa tok dvergrinn J)veng 45 oc knif oc vill sti'nga rauf a vavr- 
 rum Loka 46 , oc vill rifa saman munnin, en knifrinn beitecki 47 . 
 pa ma3lti hann at betri vaeri }>ar air 48 broSur hannz, en jafn- 
 skjott 49 sem hann nefndi hann, f)a var J)ar alrinn, ocbeithann 
 vavrrarnar; rifjaSi hann saman vavrrarnar, oc reif or aesunum 50 : 
 Sa |)vengr er mudrinn Loka var samanrifjaSr heitir Vartari 51 . 
 
 31 of equal weight 32? in the regions oi darkness. 33 light 
 enough. 34 he might dash it as hard as he pleased on whatever 
 came before him. 35 fail. 36 vyrpi pret. conj. of verpa to throw. 
 37 that it would not come back to his hand. 38 in his shirt. 39 but 
 that was a fault about it. 40 the haft. 41 and had the greatest 
 defence in it. 42 should have the wager. 43 that of this there was 
 no hope. 44 far away. 45 thong. 46 and will bore holes in Lolas' 
 lips. 47 took no hold on him. 48 awl. 49 quick as thought. 50 and he 
 tore through the holes. 61 a word of doubtful meaning perhaps de- 
 rived from vavr (varis) a lip. 
 
EXTRACTS. 257 
 
 Grsenlendi'nga Patt Ch. 4, Antiq. Americ, P. 47. 
 
 pat haffti gerzt til tiftinda meftan a Graenlandi, at porsteinn 
 l EireksfirSi hafSi kvongazt 1 ok fengit GuSriSar porbjarnar- 
 dottur, er att hafSi porir austmaSr 2 , er fyrr var frasagt. Nu 
 ffstibi 3 porsteinn Eireksson at fara til Vinlands eptir liki 
 porvalds^ broSur sins, ok bjd 4 skip hit sama, ok valdi bann 
 li5 at afli ok vexti, ok hafSi me5 ser halfan fmSja tog manna 5 , 
 ok GuSriSi, konu sina; ok sigla i baf, J)egar |>au eru biiin, ok 
 or lands^n. pau velkti 6 uti allt sumarit, ok vissii eigi, hvar 
 J)au foru; ok er vika 7 var af vetri^ {)a toku |>eir land i Lysu- 
 ■^Si a Grsenlandi i hinni vestri byg5. porsteinn leitaSi Jjeim 
 am vistir^ ok fekk vistir ollum hasetum 8 sinum; en hann var 
 vistlaus 9 ok kona hans. Nii voru |>au eptir at skipi tvo nok- 
 kurar naetr; f>a var enn ting kristni a Grsenlandi 10 . pat var 
 einn dag, at menn kvomu at tjaldi " f)eirra snemma; sa spurSi, 
 er fyrir |>eim var 12 , hvat manna vaeri i tjaldinu. porsteiu 
 svarar "tveir menn," segir hann, "e5r hverr spyrr at?" "por- 
 steinn heiti ek, ok er ek kallaSr porsteinn svartr; en f>at er 
 eyrindi mitt hingat, at ek vil bj65a ykkr baSum hjonum 13 til 
 vistar til min." porsteinn kveSst vilja hafa umraeSi u konu 
 
 1 Passive of kvonga to marry. 2 whom Thorir the Easterling 
 had had to wife. By austmaor Norwegian is meant because that 
 country lay east of Iceland. 3 was desirous. 4 got ready. 5 25 
 men. see rule 448. 6 velkti pret. of velkja to be tossed about. 
 7 one week. The Old Norsemen reckoned the beginning of winter 
 from the 14tii of October. 8 rowers. 9 without a lodging. 10 at 
 that time Christianity was still young in Greenland. u tent. 13 who 
 was their leader. 13 ye two husband and wife, hjon neut. pi. means 
 a wedded pair. 14 advice. 
 
 17 
 
258 EXTRACTS 
 
 sinnar, en hun ba8 hann rafta, ok nu jatar 15 hann ftessu. "p& 
 mun ek koma eptir ykkr a morgin meo* eyki 16 , £viat mik 
 skortir ekki 17 til, at veita ykkr vist, en fasinni 18 er mikit 
 meo* mer at vera, f)viat tvo eru viS |)ar hjon, ~f)viat ek er 
 ein{>ykkr mjok 19 ; anann sid" 20 hefi ek ok, enn J>er hafit, ok 
 setla ek |>ann f)6 betra er £er hafit." Nu kom hann eptir |>eim urn 
 morgininn meS eyki, ok foru |>au meSporsteini svarta til vistar? 
 ok veitti 21 hann J)eim vel. GuSriSr var skorulig kona at sja 22 , 
 ok vitr kona, ok kunni vel at vera me5 okunnum 23 monnum. 
 pat var snemma vetrar , at sott 24 kom i lift porsteins Eireks- 
 sonar, ok andaftist f)ar margir forunautar hans 25 . porsteinn 
 baS gera kistur at likum J>eirra, er onduSust, ok faera til 
 skips, ok biia |>ar urn 26 : "{mat ek vil lata flytja til Eireks- 
 fjarSar at sumri 611 h'kin. Nu er J)ess skamt at biSa 27 , at 
 sott kemr 1 h^b^li 28 porsteins, ok to kona hans sott fyrst, 
 er het Grimhildr; hun var akafliga mikil 29 , ok sterk sem kar- 
 lar, en J)6 kom sottin henni undir 30 . Ok bratt 31 eptir j>at tok 
 sottina porsteinn Eireksson, ok lagu f)au bseSi senn 31 ; ok an. 
 daSist Grimhildr, kona porsteins svarta. En er hun var dau5, 
 |>a gekk porsteinn fram or stofunni eptir fjol 32 , at leggja a 
 likit. GuSriSr maelti J)a: "vertu litla hn'S i brott 33 , porsteinn 
 minn!" segir hun; hann kvaS sva vera skyldu. pa mselti 
 porsteinn Eireksson: "me5 undarligum hsetti er mi um hus 
 freyju vora 34 , |>viat nu orglast hun upp vid* olnboga 35 , ok 
 f)okar 36 folum sinum fra stokki Z7 , ok J>reifar 38 til skua sinna.' 
 Ok i J)vi kom porsteinn bondi inn, ok lagSist Grimhildr niSr i 
 
 15 says yea. 16 with draught-horses. 17 for nothing falls short 
 to me. 18 tedious, stupid. 19 very self-willed. 20 custom, religion. 
 21 treated. 22 GudriSr was a grand woman to look on. 23 strange. 
 24 sickness. 25 and many of his fellow-voyagers died. 26 and to 
 lay them up there. 27 now it happened after no long time 
 28 dwelling-house. 29 hugely big. 20 and yet the sickness mastered 
 her. 31 straitway. 31 at once. 32 after a board. 33 be thou but a 
 little time away. 34 It goes now after a strange fashion with our 
 house-mother. 35 for she props herself up with her elbows. 36 thrusts. 
 37 bedstead. 38 feels. 
 
EXTRACTS. 259 
 
 |>vi, ok brakaSi 39 pa 1 hverju tre 1 stofunni. Nu gerir porsteinn 
 kistu at liki Grimhildar, ok fserSi i brott, ok bjo urn 40 ; hann 
 var baeSi mikill maSr ok sterkr, ok |>urfti hann pess alls, a5r 
 hann kom henni burt af baenum. Nu elnaSi 41 soltin porsteini 
 Eirekssyni, ok andaSist hann. GuSriftr, kona hans, kunni pvi 
 litt 41 . pa voru pau oil i stofunni. GuSriSr hafSi setit a stoli 
 frammi fyrir bekknum 42 , er hann hafSi legit a, porsteinn bonol 
 hennar. pa tok porsteinn bondi GuonSi af stolinum i fang 
 ser 43 , ok settist i bekkinn annan meo" liana, gegnt u liki por- 
 steins, ok taldi um fyrir henni marga vega, ok huggaSi 45 hana, 
 ok het henni pvi 4 6 , at hann mundi fara meS henni til Eireks- 
 fjaroar meS liki porsteins, bonda hennar, ok forunauta hans; 
 "ok sva skal ek taka hingat hjon fleiri, segir hann, per til 
 hugganar ok skemtanar 47 ; a hun pakkaSi honum. porsteinn 
 Eireksson settist pa upp, ok maelti: "hvar er GuSriSr?" prja 
 tima maelti hann petta, en hun pagSi 48 ; pa maelti hun vi5 
 porstein bonda : " hvort skal ek svor veita 49 hans mali e5r 
 eigi?" hann baS hana eigi svara. pa gekk porstein bondi 
 yfir golfit, ok settist a stolinn, en GuSriSr sat i knjam honum; 
 ok pa maelti porsteinn bondi "hvat viltu nafni 50 !" segir hann. 
 Hann svarar, er stund leio* 51 : "mer er ant til pess 52 y at segja 
 GuSri5i forlog 53 sin, til pess at hun kunni pa betr andlati 
 minu 54 , pvi'at ek er kominn til goSra hvildastaSa 53 ; en pat er 
 per at segja GuSriSr! at pii munt gipt vera fslenzkum manni, 
 ok munu langar vera samfarar ykkrar, ok mart manna mun fra 
 ykkrkoma^ proskasamt^ bjart okagsett, ssett okilmatvel 56 ; munu 
 pit fara afGrsenlandi tilNoregs, ok paSan til I'slandis ok gera bu 
 a Tslandi; par munu pit leingi bua, ok muntu honum leingr 
 lifa 57 ; pu munt utan fara, ok ganga su5r 58 , ok komo ut aptr 
 
 39 it cracked. 40 and buried it. 41 rose to its pitch. 41 could 
 not bear up against that. 42 before the bench. 43 into his arms. 
 44 over against. 45 cheered her. 46 and promised her. 47 amusement. 
 48 but she held her peace. 49 svor veita, give an answer. 50 name- 
 sake. 51 when a time had gone by. 82 I am eager for this. 
 83 fate. 84 my death. 55 resting-places. 86 strong, bright and famous^ 
 sweet and wellsavoured. 57 and thou Shalt live longer than he. 
 88 and go southward, i. e. to Rome. 
 
 17* 
 
260 EXTRACTS 
 
 til Pslands til bus fnns, ok Ja mun f>ar kirkja reist vera 89 , 
 ok muntu Jar vera, ok taka nunnu vigslu 60 , ok |>ar muntu 
 andast." Ok Ja hnigr 61 porsteinn aptr, ok var buit urn lik 
 hans , ok faert til skips, porsteinn bondi efndi 62 vel viS GuS- 
 riSi allt Jat er hann hafSi heitit. Hann seldi urn vorit jorS 
 sina ok kvikfe 63 , ok for til skips meS GuSriSi me5 allt sitt; bjo 
 skipit, ok fekk menn iil, ok for si'San til EireksfjarSar. Voru 
 nu likin jorSuS at kirkju. GuSriSr for til Leifs 1 Brattahli5, en 
 porsteinn svarti gerSi bu i EireksfirSi, ok bjo Jar, medan hann 
 lifSi, ok Jotti vera hinn vaskasti maSr 64 . 
 
 Porfinns Karlsefnis Saga. Ch. 3. Antiq. Americ. P. 104. 
 
 I' Jenna tima var hallseri 1 mikit a Graenlandi; hofSu menn 
 fengit litit fang, Jeir er i veiSiferSir 2 hofSu farit, en sumir 
 ekki aptrkomnir. Sii kona var Jar i bygo" 3 , er porbjorg het; 
 hun var spakona 4 , ok var kollut litil volva 5 ; hun hafSi att 
 ser 9 systur, ok voru allar spakonur, en hun ein var Ja a 
 lift, pat var hattr porbjargar um velrum, at hun for at veiz- 
 lum 6 , ok buSu Jeir menn henni mest heim, er forvitni var a 7 
 at vita forlog sin e5a arferS 8 . Ok meS Jvi 9 at pork ell var 
 Jar mestr bondi, Ja Jotti til hans koma at vita, nser letta 
 mundi oarani Jessu, sem yfir sloo\ B^Sr porkell spakonunni 
 heim, ok er henni Jar vel fagnat, sem siSr var til 10 , Ja er 
 vi5 Jesshattar konum skyldi taka 11 . Var henni buit hasseli, 
 ok lagt undir hana hsegindi i2 ; Jar skyldi i vera hsensna frSri. 
 En er hun kom um kveldit, ok sa maSr er moti henni var 
 
 59 be raised, built. 60 the hallowing of a nun. 61 falls back. 
 62 fulfilled. 63 live-stock. 64 the shiftiest man. 
 
 1 Scarcity. 2 to the fisheries. 3 district. 4 spaewife. 5 little 
 prophetess. 6 to feasts. 7 who had curiosity. 8 how the year 
 would turn out. 9 me'3 Jvi because. 10 as the custom was. u taka 
 vi8 to receive. u a cushion. 
 
EXTRACTS. 261 
 
 sendr, $d var hun sva buin, at hun hafSi yfir ser tuglamot- 
 tul 13 blan, ok var settr steinum allt 1 skaut ofan 14 ; hun hafSi 
 a halsi ser glertolur 15 , ok lambskinns kofra svartan 16 a hofSi, 
 ok vi5 innan kattskinn hvit, ok htin hafSi slaf 1 hendi , ok 
 var a knappr 17 , hann var buinn meS mersingu 18 , ok settr 
 steinum ofan urn knappinn; hun hafSi um sik hnjoskulinda 19 , 
 ok var |>ar a skjoSupungr 20 niikill, ok varSveitti hun Jari 
 tofr 21 sin, J>au er hun Jmrfti til froSleiks 22 at hafa 3 hun haf8i a 
 fotum kalfskinnsskua loSna 23 , ok 1 Jvengi langa, ok a tin- 
 knappar miklir a endunum 24 ; hun haf5i a hondum ser kattskinns 
 glofa, ok voru hvitir innan ok loSnir. En er hun kom inn, 
 J>otti ollum monnum skylt at velja henni 25 ssemiligar kveSjur; 
 hun tok Jvi, sem henni voru menn geojaSir 26 til. Tok por- 
 kell bondi i hond henni, ok leiddi hana til Jess saatis, sem 
 henni var buit. porkell baS hana Ja renna Jar augum yfir 
 hju ok hjorS 27 , ok sva hib^li, Hun var famalug 28 um allt. 
 BorS voru upptekin um kveldit, ok er fra Jvi at segja, hvat 
 spakonunni var matbuit; henni var gerr grautr a kiojamjolk 29 , 
 ok matbuin hjortu 30 or ollum kykvendum, Jeim er Jar voru 
 til; hun hafSi mersingarspon 31 ok knif tannskeptan tvihol- 
 kaSan 32 af eiri, ok var brotinn af oddrinn 33 . En er borS voru 
 upptekin, Ja gengr porkell bondi fyri porbjorgu, ok spyrr 
 hversu henni Jikki Jar um at litast^ eSa hversu skapfeld 34 
 henni eru Jar hibyli e5a hsettir manna, eSa hversu fljolliga 35 
 hun mun vis verSa Jess, er hann helir spurt hana^ ok mon- 
 num er mest forvitni at vita. Hun kallast ekki munu segja, 
 fyrr enn um morgininn eptir, er hun hafSi aor sofit um ndttina. 
 
 13 a kirtle or mantle laced with ribbons. 14 all down to the 
 bosom. 15 glass-beads. 16 a black cap. 17 there was on it a knob. 
 
 18 also messing, Germ, messing, a metallic compound , brass , latten. 
 
 19 a girdle of bark. 20 purse of skin. 21 magic apparatus. 22 witch- 
 craft. 23 rough , shaggy. 24 with long strings in them, and at the 
 end of these great tinknobs. 25 velja henni to hail her. 26 affected. 
 27 family and flocks. 28 of few words. 29 gruel of goatsmilk. 30 the 
 hearts. 31 a latten spoon. 32 and a knife of brass with an ivory 
 haft surrounded by two rings. S3 the point. 34 pleasing. 35 quickly. 
 
262 
 
 EXTRACTS. 
 
 En um morgininn at &liftimm degi 86 var henni veittr ea* urn- 
 biiningr 37 , sem hun |>urfti at hafa til at fremja seioinn 38 . Hun 
 bao* ok fa ser konur, j>ser er kunnu fraeSi 39 fat, sem til seio- 
 sins f>arf, ok varSlokkur hetu 40 , en £aer konur fundust eigi; 
 |>a var leitat at um bsein, ef nokkur kynni; fa segir GuoriSr: 
 "hvarki em ek fjolkunnig 41 ne visindakona 42 , en £6 kendi 43 
 Halldis, fdstra mm **, mer a I'slandi fat kvaeor, er hun kal- 
 laoi vardlokkur." porkell segir: "fa ertu happfroS 45 ;" hun 
 segir: "fetta er fat eitt atferli 46 , er ek a?tla i ongum atbeina 
 at vera, fviat ek em cristin kona." porbjorg segir: "sva 
 maetti verSa at f u yrSir monnum at li5i her um 47 , en f u vaerir 
 fa kona ekki verri 48 enn aSr; en viS forkel mun ek meta 49 
 at fa fa luti til er hafa f arf." porkell herSir 50 nu a GuSriSi, 
 en hun kveftst gera mundu, sem hann vildi. Slogu fa konur 
 bring um hjallinn 51 , en porbjorg sat a uppi; kvao* GudriSr 
 fa kvaeSit sva fagurt ok vel, at engi f)6ttist heyrt hafa med* 
 fegri rodd 52 kvaeSi kvedit, sa er far var hja. Spakonan fak- 
 kar henni hvaeSit, ok kvaS margar f aer nattiirur 63 mi til hafa 
 sott, ok fikkja fagurt at heyra, er kvseQit var sva vel flutt, 
 "er ao*r vildu vi5 oss skiljast ok enga hlySni oss veita; en mer 
 era nu margir f eir hlutir auSs^nir 54 , er aSr var ek duliS ok 
 margir aorir 55 . En ek kann fer fat at segja, porkell! at hal- 
 laeri fetta mun ekki haldast lengr enn 1 vetr, ok mun batna 
 arangr, sem varar 56 ; sottarfar fat, sem a hefir legit, man ok 
 batna vanu braSara 57 . En fer, GuSrior! skal ek launa i hond 
 
 36 as the day was going down. 37 preparation. 38 to fulfill her 
 enchantment. 39 art. 40 is called varftlokkur. i. e. a charm to draw 
 together guardian spirits, from vorSr gen. varSar custos, audlokka 
 allicere. 41 skilled in spells. 42 wise woman, i. e. sorceress. 43 from 
 at kenna to teach. 44 foster-mother. 45 of lucky wisdom. 46 the 
 only matter. 47 for a help in this matter. 48 no worse. 49 ask. 
 80 pressed hard. 51 round the raised seat, this word also means the 
 pedestal on which the images of the Gods stood. 52 voice. 53 na- 
 tures i. e. spirits. 84 plain. 85 which were hid before from me and 
 many others. 86 and the scarcity will grow better as the spring 
 comes on. 87 the sickness also which has lain on you, will also 
 grow better sooner than you think. 
 
EXTRACTS. 283 
 
 lidsinni j)at 58 , er oss hefir af |)er staftit; |>viat fun forlog em 
 mer nii allgloggsae 59 ; fm munt gjaforo* 60 fa her a Graenlandi, 
 f)at er saemiligast er, J)6at f)er verSi J>at eigi til langgaeSar 61 , 
 |>viat vegar Jnnir liggja ut til Pslands, ok man Jar koina fra 
 |>er baeSi mikil sett ok goo", ok yfir Jinum kynkvislum skina 
 bjartari geislar, enn ek hafa megin ti! at geta slikt vandliga 
 set 62 , enda far |m nu heil ok vel dottir!" Si5an gengu mean 
 at visindakonunni, ok fretti Ja hverr Jess, er mest forvilni 
 var a at vita. Hun var ok goS af frasognum, gekk f>at ok litt 
 i tauma er hun sagSi 63 . pessu naest var komit eptir henni af 
 oorum bae; for hun Ja Jangat. pa var sent eptir porbirni, 
 fm'at hann vildi eigi heima vera, meSan slik hindrvitni var 
 framit 64 , VeSratta batnaSi skjolt, sem porbjorg hafSi sagt. 
 
 Yiga-Gldms Saga. Ch. VL 
 
 Nu er at segja fra utanfero* Glums. pegar hann kom vi5 land, 
 for hann uppa Vorz til Vigfuss, ok er hann kom at baenum, sa 
 hann Jar mikit fjolmenni ok margskonar skemtan ok leika *. Ok 
 Jat Jottiz hann sja, at Jar mundi a ollum lutum stormenska 2 
 vera. En Jar sem hannsamarga menn merkiiiga, Ja vissi hann 
 eigi , hvar Vigfuss mundi vera fraendi 3 hans. pat mark hafSi 
 hann til hans, at hann sa mann mikinn ok vegligan 4 , i ond- 
 vegi 5 i skautfelldi 6 blam, ok lek ser at spjoti gullreknu 6 . 
 Gekk siftan at honunr, ok qvaddi hann, en hann tok vel qveoju 
 hans. Vigfuss spurSi, hvat manna hann vaeri, en hann qvazt 
 
 58 for that help. 59 *quite clear. 60 betrothal, marriage. 61 hap- 
 piness for a long time. 62 than I have power to see such things 
 accurately. 63 and what she said was not far wrong. 64 when such 
 contradictions, i. e. superstitious rites were going on. 
 
 * and many kinds of games and sports. 2 magnificence. 3 kins- 
 man. 4 dignified. 5 in the first seat. 6 cloke. 6 with a spear the 
 shaft of which was adorned with gold. 
 
264 EXTRACTS. 
 
 vera I'slenzkr ok Eyfirzkr 7 . pa spurfti Vigfuss at Eyjolfi 
 magi 8 sinum ok AstriSi dottur sinni, en hann qvaS hann and- 
 auSann, en AslriSur lifir. Vigfuss spurSi: hvat barna feirra 
 lifSi? en Glumr sagSi honum til syskina 9 sinna, en si5an sagSi 
 hann honum, at far var einn son feirra kominn fyrir hann. 
 En er hann sago*i fat , fa rettiz ecki af urn talit viS hann 10 . 
 Glumr ba5 hann visa ser til ssetis " \ en Vigfuss qvazt ecki 
 vita hvat satt vaeri af f vi , er hann sagSi : ok visaSi honum 
 til saetis a hinn oseSra beck utarliga 12 : ok veitti honum litla 
 virding. Hann var famalugr ok osiSblendr 13 , fa er aSrir menn 
 drucku eor hofSu aftra gledi, fa la hann ok hafoi felld ahofSi 
 ser, ok J)6tti hann far fol eilt u . par var veizla buin at vetr 
 nottum 15 ok gert Dysa-blot 16 , ok allir skylldu f essa minning 
 gera. Glumr sitr i rumi sum, ok gengr eigi til; en er aleid 
 qvolldit ir ok menn voru komnir, fa var eigi svo mikil gledi 
 sem likligt mundi f ickja fyrir fagnaSar sakir ok vina fundar 18 , 
 er far voru margir saman komnir. pann dag er menn hofftu 
 komit til bodsins 19 , hafSi Glumr eigi utgengit moti monnum, 
 ok baud engum at sitja hja ser, eSa i hans rumi. Ok er 
 menn voru komnir undir borS 20 , fa var sagt, at sa maor 
 var kominn at baenum meS tolfta mann , er Bjorn het ok 
 kallaSr Jarnhaus 21 , hann var Berserkr mikill ok var f vi 
 vanr at koma til manboda fjolmennra ok leitaSi far orfta 
 vi5 menn, ef nockr villdi fat msela, er hann matti a figgja 23 . 
 
 7 a man of Eyfjord. 8 son in law. 9 of his brothers and sister, 
 this word, which is preserved in the Swed. syskon, means all the 
 children of the same father and mother. 10 then the conversation 
 with him (Vigfuss) was not carried farther. n begged him to as- 
 sign him a seat. 12 on the lower bench on the outside. 13 a man 
 of few words and averse from conversation. u and he was thought 
 there to be a fool. 15 as the winter nights came on. 16 Sacrifice 
 to the female Genii, comp. Edda Ssem. III. 317. 17 but when the 
 evening was closing in. 18 and the meeting of friends. 19 to the 
 bidding. 20 and when men were sat down to the board. 21 Iron- 
 skull. 22 a great Baresark , so called from their going to battle 
 without defensive armour. 23 which he might pick a quarrel 
 out of. 
 
EXTRACTS. 265 
 
 Ok skoraoi menn til holmgaungu 24 . En Vigfuss baft" f ess , 
 at menn skylldi vel stilla orSum sinum. Ok er fat minui 
 laeging 25 enn taka meirra illt af honum. Ok hetu menn 
 honum g65u um fat. En Bjorn geek i skalann inn, ok leitaoi 
 orSheilla vi5 menn 26 , ok spurSi a enn seSra beck enn yzta 
 mann, hvart hann vseri jam snjallr honum 27 , en hann qvaQ 
 fjaerri fvi fara. Si5an spurSi hann hvern of oSrum, far til er 
 hann kom fyrir ondvegit: ymissa 28 orSa leituSu menn ser, en 
 J)ar kom niSr 29 at engi kvaz, jam snjallr honum. En er hann 
 kom fyrir Vigfuss, fa spuroi hann^ hvar Vigfuss vissi slikra 
 garpa vanir 30 . En hann lez eigi vita hans jafningja. pa mselti 
 Bjorn: "vel er svarat ok hyggiliga 31 , sem van var,, at fii ert 
 virdinga maSr mikiJl, ok gengit leingi at oskum lif fitt, ok 
 engi hnecking 32 komit vegs fins ok soma 33 . Nti er fat vel, 
 at ek farf eigi annat vid* J)ik at maela en gott eitt; en spyrja 
 vil ek fik, ef fu fikizt jamn viS mik?" Hann svarar: "fa er 
 ek var ungr ok 1 vikingu 34 , ok vann nockvut til frama, nu 
 veit ek eigi hvart ek msetta fa viS fik jamnazt, en nu halfu 
 siSr 35 , at ek em gamall ok orvasi." 36 Bjorn sn^r a brott 
 fadan, ok ferr utar me5 oorum beck; ok spyrr en, ef feir 
 fikjaz jam snjallr honum, en feir qvoouzt eigi jam snjallir 
 honum. pa kom hann at far er Glumr la i pallinum 37 . "Hvi 
 liggr sja maSr sva" qva5 Bjorn, "en silr eigi?" Sessunautar 38 
 hans svara, ok veita honum orSa fulllingi 39 : ok qvaSu hann 
 svo ovitran, at ecki mark maetti a fickja, hvat hann maelti. 
 Bjorn spyrnir a hann faeti sinum ok maelti, "at hann skylldi 
 sitja upp sem aorir menn," ok spurSi: "ef hann vaeri jam snjallr 
 honum?" En Glumr qvad* hann ecki furfa at eiga vi5 
 
 24 and he challenged men to single combat, holmganga, so called 
 because the combatants used to settle the dispute on some small 
 island whence there could be no escape. 25 a less disgrace. 26 and 
 demanded fair words of men. 27 whether he were equally brave as 
 himself, jam for jafn. 28 different. 29 but it came at last to this. 
 30 where Vigfuss knew that such mighty men ( as himself) were to 
 be looked for. 31 thoughtfully. 32 hindrance. 33 honour. 34 and led 
 the life of a sea-rover. 35 but now much less by half. 36 feeble. 
 37 on the bench. 38 his companions on the seat. 39 help. 
 
266 EXTRACTS. 
 
 sik 40 , ok kvaz eigi vita um snilli hans, "ok vil ek af fvi 41 
 engu vid* fik jamnaz, at uta I'slandi mundi sa rnadr kallazt 
 fol, sem fann veg laetr, sem fii laetr 42 : en her hefir ek vilad 
 alia bezt orSum stilla 43 ." Hleypr upp siSan , ok at honum, 
 fm'fr ** af honum hjalminn, ok siSan hnyckir 45 hann upp elldi- 
 stocki 46 , ok keyrir a milli herda honum 47 , ok tylr kappinn 48 
 Bjorn vi5; ok fegar annat, ok hvert at oSru 49 , svo at hann 
 fell; ok fa er hann villSi a faetr faeraz, fa lauzt hann i hofuo" 
 honum. Ok let sva far til at hann kom lit fyri dyr. En fa 
 er Glumr villdi til ssetis, er Vigfuss kominn a golfit, ok allir 
 feir, ok fagnaSi fa vel fraenSa sinum, qvaS hann mi hafa raun 
 til gert, at hann var hans settar. "Skal ek nu virda fik sem 
 ockr somir 50 :" lezt fat til hafa geingit 1 fyrztunni at honum 
 s^ndiz hann eigi brad gerviligr 51 "Villdaek Jess at bida, er 
 fu fa?r5ir fik meo* skorungskap 52 i fina aett:" leidir nu hann 
 til saetis hja ser. Glumr qvazt f iggja mundu fat saeti f ott 
 fyrr vaeri. Annan dag eftir er sagt andlat 53 Bjarnar. Vigfuss 
 baud Glumi, at taka riki eptir sik ok virdmg, en Glumr qvazt 
 |)iggja vilja, en fara fo ut fyrst til Pslands, at eigi eignaSiz 
 |>eir foSr-leifd hans 54 , er hann ann eigi at njdta, qvazt aptr 
 munu koma sem fyrst. Vigfuss qvazt setla 55 fat forlog Glums 
 at auka sina aett ok soma a I'slandi. At sumri laetr Vigfuss 
 biia skip til handa Glumi, ok gefr honum farmin a 56 , ok mikit 
 fe i gulli ok silfri, ok maelli: "svo segir mer hugr um at 
 viS sjamzt eigi si'San: en enka gripi 57 vil ek fer gefa, felld 
 ok spjot ok sverS: er ver hoftim mikinn trunad a haft fraendr 58 ; 
 ok meoan fii att gripina, vaentir ek, atfii t^nir eigi, virdingu 59 : 
 en fa em ek hraeddr um, ef f li logar 60 f eim." Sidan skiljazt 
 |)eir. 
 
 40 that it was no business of his to meddle with him. 41 for 
 this. 42 who goes on in the way in which you go. 43 but here I 
 have learned best of all to hold my tongue? 44 tears. 45 snatches. 
 46 a brand. 47 and dashes it between his shoulders. 48 the champion. 
 49 and one (blow) after another. 50 as is also seemly. 51 not suf- 
 ficiently manly. 62 boldness. 63 death. 54 his heritage. 55 foresaw. 
 66 lading in it. 57 things of rare price. 58 see rule 438. 59 that 
 thou willt not lose in honour. 60 if thou partest with them. 
 
EXTRACTS. 
 
 267 
 
 Hamars Heimt from Saeiimnd's Edda. 
 
 1 . Reidr var |>& Ving-porr 1 
 er harm vacnaQi,! 
 
 oc sins hamars 
 um-sacnaSi : 
 scegg nam at hrista a , 
 scavr 3 nam at (tyja 4 , 
 re5 Jarftar burr 
 urn at £reifaz 5 . 
 
 2. Oc hann |>at orSa 
 allz fyrst urn qva5: 
 heyro*u nu, Loki! 
 hvat ec um-maeli, 
 
 er engi veit 
 
 jaroar hvergi 
 
 ne upphimins: 
 
 A'ss er stolinn hamri 6 ! 
 
 3. Gengo |>eir fagra 
 Freyjo tuna, 
 ok hann {>at or5a 
 
 allz fyrst um-qvao": 
 muntu mer, Freyja! 
 fjaSrhams lja r 
 ef ek minn hamar 
 maettac hitta? 
 Freyja qvao": 
 
 4. po munda ec gefa |>er 
 f)6tt or gulli vaeri, 
 
 oc f)6 selja 8 
 at vasri or silfri. 
 
 5. Flo j>a Loki, 
 fjaSrhamr dundi 9 , 
 uns 10 for utan kom 
 Asa garSa, 
 
 oc for innan kom 
 Jotna heima. 
 
 6. prymr sat a haugi u 
 J)ursa drottinn I2 , 
 
 * Thor the hurler. 2 his beard he can bristle, scegg for skegg, 
 a mode of writing borrowed from Angl. Saxon, and followed through- 
 out this song. 3 hea( i. 4 to shake, .conf. Rigsm. 32. 34. 5 Earth's 
 son fell to throwing his hands about. 6 the God has been robbed of 
 his hammer. Deus est malleo spoliatus. 7 wilt thou lend me (thy) 
 feathery suit. 8 hand over. 9 gave a din from at dynja. 10 until. 
 11 on a hillock , or mound. 12 Lord of Giants. 
 
268 
 
 EXTRACTS. 
 
 greyjom 13 smom 
 gullbavnd snori 14 5 
 oc mavrom 15 sinom 
 mavn jafnaSi. 
 
 prymr qvao": 
 
 7. Hvat er meS A'som? 
 Hvat er meS A'lfom? 
 
 hvi ertu einn kominn 
 i Jotunheima? 
 
 8. I'llt er meS A'som, 
 illt er nieS A'lfom, 
 hefir pu HlorriSa 16 
 hamar um-folginn 17 ? 
 
 9. Ek hefi Hlorrioa 
 hamar um-folginn 
 atta ravstom 18 
 
 for jorS neSan: 
 hann engi maSr 
 aptr um-heimtir, 
 nema faeri mer 
 Freyjo at qvsen 19 . 
 
 10. Flo pa Loki, 
 fjaorhamr dundi: 
 uns for ulan kom 
 Jotna heima, 
 
 ok for innan kom 
 
 A'sa garSa. 
 
 11. Maetti hann por 
 
 mi5ra garSa 20 , 
 ok hann pat orSa 
 allz fyrst um qva5: 
 
 12. Hefir pu erindi 
 
 sem erfiSi 21 ? 
 segSu a lopti 
 laung tiSindi: 
 opt sitjanda 
 savgor um-fallaz 2 % 
 oc liggjandi 
 tygi um-bellir 23 . 
 
 13. Hefi ek erfiSi 
 oc erindi: 
 
 prymr hefir pinn hamar 
 pursa drottinn; 
 hann engi maSr 
 aptr um heimtir, 
 nema 24 honum faeri 
 Freyjo at qvsen. 
 
 14. Ganga peir fagra 
 Freyjo at hitta, 
 
 oc hann pat orSa 
 allz fyrst um-qvaS; 
 
 13 hounds, dat. pi. comp. Engl, grey-hound. 14 for sneri pret. 
 of siif to twist. 15 horses , Engl. mare. 16 a name of Thor, meaning 
 the fierce thunderer, or he that careers in thunder, comp. Edda 
 Saem. III. 437. 17 hidden away. 18 eight leagues. 19 Freyja to wife. 
 20 Thor met liim in the middle of the yard. 21 hast thou the object 
 of the errand as (thou hast) the toil. i. e. hast thou taken thy toil 
 to some purpose. 22 fail, are broken off. 23 brings forth lies. 
 24 save. 
 
EXTRACTS. 
 
 269 
 
 Bittu J)ik Freyja 
 briiSar lirri, 25 
 viS scolom aka 2Q tvav 
 1 Jotunheima. 
 
 15. Rei5 varS |>a Freyja 
 oc fnasaSi, 27 
 
 allr A'sasalr 
 undir bifSiz 28 : 
 staucc |>at it micla 
 men Brisinga 29 . 
 "Mic veiztu verSa 
 vergjarnasta 30 
 ef ec ek 31 me5 f)er 
 i Jotunheima." 
 
 16. Senn voru JEsiv 
 allir a f)ingi, 
 
 oc Asynjor 
 allar a mali: 
 ok af fat reSo 
 rikir tifar 32 , 
 hve f eir Hlorrifta 
 hamar um-saetti. 
 
 17. pa qvaS f>at HeimSallr 
 
 hvitastr A'sa; 
 vissi hann vel fram 
 sem Vanir aSrir 33 : 
 ^bindom ver por fa 
 bruSar lini,, 
 hafi hann it mikla 
 men Brisinga!" 
 
 18. Latom und hanom 3i 
 hrynja lucla 35 , 
 
 oc kvenvaSir 39 
 
 urn kne fail a, 
 
 en a bijosti 
 
 brei5a steina, 
 
 oc hagliga 
 
 um havfuS typpom 37 ! u 
 
 19. pa qva5 fat porr 
 
 fruSugr 38 A'ss: 
 "mic mu no iEsir 
 argan 39 kalla, 
 ef ec bindaz lset 
 bruSar lini." 
 
 25 bind thyself Freyja in bridal veil. 26 drive. 27 snorted. 
 28 quaked under. 29 that the great flaming necklace sprang up. How 
 Freyja got this famous gaud may be seen at the end of Rasks Edi- 
 tion of the Prose Edda pp. 353. 57. 30 fondest of men. 31 pres- 
 of aka to drive. 32 the mighty Gods. 33 he knows well before liim 
 like other Vanir. These Vanir were a powerful race once at feud 
 with the iEsir but afterwards reconciled with them, so that some 
 of them were received into the number of the iEsir. Heimdall was 
 one of these. 34 hanom for honom. 35 let us make keys ring under 
 him. i. e. hanging at his waist. 36 womens clothes. 3T and dress 
 his head neatly in a topknot, typpom from at typpa to dress a 
 woman's hair up in a peak, from toppr Engl. top. 38 stern. 39 cow- 
 ardly. 
 
270 
 
 EXTRACTS. 
 
 20. pa qvaS fat Loki 
 Laufeyjar sonr 
 
 fegi fu, porr 
 
 feirra orSa: 
 
 fegar 40 muno Jotnar 
 
 A'sgarS bua, 
 
 nema f u finn hamar 
 
 fer um-heimtir. 
 
 21. Bundo feir por fa 
 briiSar h'ni, 
 
 oc enno mikla 
 meni Brisinga; 
 leto und hanom 
 hrynja lucla, 
 oc kvenvaSir 
 um kne falla> 
 en a brjosti 
 breiSa steina, 
 oc hagliga 
 um havfuS typto. 
 
 22. pa qva5 fat Loki 
 Laufeyjar sonr: 
 
 "mun ec ok me5 fer 
 ambott 41 vera , 
 viS sculom aka tvav 
 i Jotunheima." 
 
 23. Senn voro hafrar 
 heim um-reknir 42 3 
 
 scyndir at scavclom, 
 scyldo vel renna 43 : 
 bjorg brotnoSo 44 ? 
 brann jorS loga, 
 ok 45 OSins son 
 i Jotunheima. 
 
 24. pa qvaS fat prymr 
 pursa drottinn: 
 "standio* upp, Jotnar! 
 
 ok strai'5 becci 46 ; 
 nu faeriS mer 47 
 Freyjo at qvsen, 
 NjarSar dottur 
 ur Noatunom. 
 
 25. Ganga her at garSi 
 Gullhyrndar kfr, 
 
 oxn alsvartir 
 Jotni at gamni 48 ; 
 fjol5 a ec meiSma 49 
 fj615 a ec menja, 
 einnar mer Freyjo 
 avant f iccir 50 ." 
 
 27. Var far at qveldi 
 um-comit snimma 51 , 
 ok for Jotna 
 avl framborit: 
 einn at uxa ? 
 atta laxa 52 , 
 
 40 straitway. 41 female slave. 42 forthwith the he-goats were 
 driven home. 43 hurried to the traces (shackles) they were about 
 to run well. 44 rocks were shivered. 45 pret. of aka. 46 and strew 
 the bench. 47 now bring me. 48 for the Giant's passtime. 49 store 
 have I of treasures. 60 of Freyja alone methinks I have want. 
 51 that even it was come together early, i. e. the guests met to- 
 gether early. 52 eight salmon. 
 
EXTRACTS. 
 
 271 
 
 krasir 53 allar, 
 Jaer er konor scyldo; 
 dracc Sifjar verr 54 
 said J>rju mjaSar 55 . 
 
 27. pa qva5 pal prymr 
 pursa drottinn : 
 
 "hvar sattu bruSir 
 bita hvassara 56 ? 
 sa-c-a 57 ec bruSir 
 bita breiSara., 
 ne inn meira mjod* 
 mey um-drecka." 
 
 28. Sat in alsnotra 
 ambatt for 58 5 
 
 er orS um-fann 
 vio* Jotuns mali: 
 "at vsetr 59 Freyja 
 atta nottom, 
 sva var hon oSfus, 
 i Jotunheima 60 ." 
 
 fricci mer 6r augom 
 eldr of-brenna." 
 
 30. Sat in alsnotra 
 ambatt for, 
 
 er orS um-fann 
 viS Jotuns mali : 
 "svaf vsetr 64 Freyja 
 atta nottom, 
 sva var hon 65Tus 
 i Jotunheima/' 
 
 31. Inn com in arma 65 
 Jotna systir, 
 
 hin er briiSfjar 66 
 
 biSja {)or8i : 
 
 "latto J)er af havndom 67 
 
 hringa rauSa, 
 
 ef ])U avSlaz 68 vill 
 
 astir minar, 
 
 astir minar 
 
 alia hylli." 
 
 29. Laut und lino 
 lysti at cyssa 6I , 
 en hann utan stavcc 
 endlangan sal 62 . 
 "hvi ero avndott 63 
 augo Freyjo? 
 
 32. pa qvao* £at prymr 
 pursa drottin, 
 "berit inn hamar 
 bruSi at vigja 69 , 
 leggit Mjollni 
 i meyjar kne, 
 
 53 side dishes, dainties. 64 Sifs man i. e. Thor. 55 toree gal- 
 lons of mead. 56 bite more keenly. 57 I never saw. 68 the allcun- 
 ning slave sat before him. 69 eat naught. 60 so eager was she for 
 Jotunheim. 61 he stooped under the veil desirous to kiss. 62 to the 
 very end of the hall. 63 angry. Gi slept naught. 65 the dire. 
 66 bridal fee. 67 yield from thy hands. 68 obtain. 69 to hallow the 
 bride. 
 
272 
 
 EXTRACTS. 
 
 vigit ocr saman 
 Varar hendi 70 !" 
 
 33. Hlo Hlorrtfa 
 hugr 1 brjosti, 
 er harShugaSr 71 
 hamar um-J)ecSi 72 . 
 prym drap hann fyrstan, 
 pursa drottin, 
 oc aett Jotuns 
 alia lamol 73 . 
 
 34. Drap hann ina avid no 
 Jotna systor, 
 bin er bnioTjar 
 of-beSit hafgi: 
 hon scell um-Iaut 
 for scilh'nga 74 3 
 en havgg hamars 
 for hringa fjol5: 
 sva com OSins son 
 endr at hamri. 
 
 70 hallow us togethe r with Vars' hand. Var , Var , Vavr , or 
 Vor was one of the Asynjor, and ruled over affairs of love; see 
 Gylf. 35. 71 hard-tempered. 72 knew. 73 shivered in pieees. 7i she 
 got ringing blows for shillings, there is a play upon the words 
 here for scilling comes from at skella to ring, chink. 
 
A Hin a r foniu runir 
 
 Y fe ske ep F 
 
 II ur rain U, V,Y (oj 
 
 V fnns giant p 
 
 1 1 T os mouth (d ) 
 
 K reicT car K 
 
 X kaun swelling K, G 
 
 T kagl kail H t (j) 
 
 r r naud fetters N 
 
 A 1 ar crok A 
 
 I is ice - I, J ( e) 
 
 i sol (knesol) sun, S , Z 
 
 \ t .:... tyr Tyr T, B 
 
 l> hjarkarL birch-mast P , P 
 
 I l^jSr moisture L 
 
 Y ma dr man M 
 
 A yr 1)0 w - r ( ur ) final? (y J 
 
 B Stun&nar runir C Oekta runir 
 
 PR VY\ 1 |(.K) l *l .* 
 
 V Y B G E D P C X JE ■ 
 
 D (iiphthongie vowels E simple vowels 
 
 d \, i.e., ( 'e), i , o , vl , y aei i o u y 
 
 F old characters 
 
 a, ij, (oo) ,11;, ftp), a), £, J p d, f 
 
 d, L, o , d, jj , an, az , f> o, f 
 

 
 
 
 
 tf> 
 
 
 
 
 ''-ۥ 
 
 
 A' 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 „ v v ^ 
 
 
 
 V* ^ 
 
 * A* 
 
 
 ^ *■ 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 *" ^ ^ 
 
 L ' 8 « <^ 
 
 Deacidified using the Bookkeeper pr< 
 Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxid 
 Treatment Date: Sept. 2006 
 
 PreservationTechnoli 
 
 v" A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESE 
 
 f^ii v© 1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive 
 
 Cranberry Township, PA 16( 
 
 Cranberry Township. PA 1606 
 (724) 779-21 1 1 
 
 r- 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ,v 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 /^ 
 
 vOo, 
 
 
 "O \V- "O- >, 
 
 
 f o 
 
 &*** 
 
 
 ^0 
 
 ,"6 ^p 
 
 ■ V 
 
 \ v ^