NORTH CAROLINA GKOLOGICAX SURVEY. J. A. HOLMES, STATE GEOLOGIST. BULLETIN No. 6. TIMBER TREES AND FORESTS OF NORTH CAROLINA. BY GIFFORI? PINCHOT W. W. ASHE. WINSTON: M. I. & J. C. Stewart, Public Printers. 1897. X k ^^^' SLP 12 1907 D. of a h ^^ \p ^ ^ N> '^ t4 A. CONTENTS. PAGE. Illustrations 7 Board of Managers 9 Letter op Transmittal 11 Preface 13 Key for the Determination of Larger Forest Trees 17 Timber Trees of North Carolina 33 Magnolia foetida ; magnolia 33 Magnolia glauca ; white bay 34 Magnolia acuminata ; cucumber tree 35 Magnolia macrophylla ; great-leaved magnolia 36 Magnolia tripetala ; umbrella tree 37 Magnolia fraseri; mountain magnolia 38 Liriodendron tulipifera; yellow poplar 39 Asimina triloba ; papaw 41 Grordonia lasianthus ; loblolly bay 42 Tilia americana ; basswood 43 Tilia pubescens ; southern lin 44 Tilia heterophjlla ; lin 45 Ilex opaca; holly 46 Cyrilla racemiflora ; cyrilla 47 Aesculus octandra ; buckeye 47 Acer ppicatum ; mountain maple 48 Acer pennsylvanieum ; striped maple 49 Acer barbatum ; sugar maple 50 Acer saccharinum ; silver or white maple 51 Acer rubrum ; red maple 52 Acer negundo ; boxelder 53 Robinia pseudacacia ; yellow locust 54 Robihia viscosa ; clammy locust 55 Cladrastis lutea ; yellowwood 56 Gleditschia triacanthos ; honey locust 56 Cercis canadensis ; redbud 57 Prunus pennsylvauica ; wild red cherry, 58 Prunus serotina ; wild black cherry 59 Aiuelanchier canadensis; service tree 60 Liquidambar styraciflua ; sweet gum 61 Cornus florlda ; dogwood 63 Nyssa sylvatica; black gum 63 Nyssa aquatica ; tupelo gum 65 CONTENTS. PAGE. Oxydendron arboreum ; sourwood 66 Kalmia latifolia ; laurel 67 Rhododendron maximum ; great laurel 68 Diospyros virginiana ; persimmon 68 Mohrodendron carolinum ; snowdrop tree 70 Fraxinus americana; white ash 70 Fraxinus pennsylvanica ; red ash 72 Fraxinus pennsylvanica, var. lanceolata ; green ash 73 Fraxinus caroliniana ; water ash 73 Persea borbonia ; sweet or red bay 74 Sassafras sassafras ; sassafras 75 Ulmus americana ; white elm 76 Ulnius alata ; winged elm 77 Ulmus fulva ; slippery elm 78 Morus rubra ; red mulberry 79 Celtis occidentalis ; hackberry : 80 Platanus occidentalis ; sycamore 81 Juglans cinerea ; white walnut 82 Juglans nigra ; black walnut 83 Hicoria minima ; bitternut 84 Hicoria aquatica ; water hickory 85 Hicoria ovata ; shag-bark hickory 86 Hicoria alba; white hickory 87 Hicoria glabra ; pignut 88 Quercus alba ; white oak.... 1 89 Quercus minor ; post oak 91 Quercus lyrata ; overcup oak 92 Quercus prinus ; chestnut oak 93 Quercus michauxii ; swamp chestnut oak 95 Quercus virginiana ; live oak 96 Quercus rubra; red oak 97 Quercus texana ; Texas red oak 9S Quercus coccinea ; scarlet oak , 99 Quercus velutina ; black oak 101 Quercus catesbsei ; fork-leaf black jack oak .- 102 Quercus digitata ; Spanish oak 103 Quercus marilandica ; black-jack oak 104 Quercus nigra; water oak 105 Quercus laurifolia ; laurel oak 106 Quercus brevifolia ; upland willow oak 107 Quercus imbricaria; shingle oak 107 Quercus phellos ; willow oak 108 Castanea dentata ; chestnut 109 Fagus ferruginia ; beech Ill Ostrya virginica ; ironwood 112 Carpinus caroliniana; hornbeam 113 Betula lutea ; yellow birch 113 CONTENTS. 5 PAGE. Betula nigra ; river birch 114 Betula lenta ; cherry or sweet birch 115 Salix nigra ; black willow 116 Populus grandidenta ; aspen 117 Populus heterophylla ; cotton wood 118 Populus monilifera; Carolina Cottonwood 118 Thuja oceidentalis ; arbor vitte 119 Cupressus thyoides ; white cedar. 119 Juniperus virginiana ; red cedar 121 Taxodium distichum ; cypress 123 Pinus strobus ; white pine 123 Pinus tseda ; loblolly pine 125 Pinus rigida ; pitch pine 126 Pinus serotina ; pond pine 127 Pinus virginiana ; scrub pine 128 Pinus pungens ; Table Mountain pine 129 Pinus echinata ; short-leaf pine 130 Pinus palustris ; long-leaf pine 131 Picea nigra; black spruce * 133 Tsuga canadensis ; hemlock 134 Tsuga caroliniana ; Carolina hemlock 135 Abies fraseri ; balsam 136 Sabal i3almetto ; palmetto 136 Forests op North Carolina 141 Forest divisions 141 The coastal plain region .*. 141 The Piedmont plateau region 141 The mountain region 142 Forests of the Coastal Plain Region 143 Maritime Forests 144 Soils of the maritime division „ 144 Condition of the forests ^ 145 Forests of the Pine Belt 147 Forest trees 147 Distinctive growth 148 Physical characteristics of the pine belt 148 Changes in the kind of forest growth 149 Forests op the Pine Belt Uplands 149 Long-leaf Pine Woodland ! 151 The pine barrens 152 Soils of the pine barrens 152 Conditions of the forests of the pine barrens 153 Possibilities of the pine barrens 155 Level pine-woodland 156 6 CONTENTS. PAGE. Supply and utilization of long-leaf pine 158 Treatment required by the long leaf pine forests 159 Loblolly Pine Woodland 161 Condition of the forests 163 Merchantable loblolly pine timber 163 Forest industries 164 Forest protection 164 Reproduction of loblolly pine forests 165 Sylvicultural treatment of loblolly pine 165 Transitional Forests 168 Forests of Lowlands op Coastal Plain 169 Oak flats 170 Merchantable timber on oak flats 173 Sylvicultural treatment 173 Grum and cypress swamps 178 Merchantable timber of gum and cypress swamps 174 White cedar or juniper swamps 175 Condition of unlumbered swamps 176 Treatment of white cedar swamps 178 The pond pine pocosins 179 Forests of the Piedmont Plateau Region 181 Forests of the Piedmont lowlands , 183 Improvement of the forests of the lowlands 185 Forests of the Piedmont uplands .-...' 186 Soils of the Piedmont uplands 187 General condition of the forest -.., 187 Eastern pine belt of the Piedmont plateau 188 Forests of the e^stern granite areas 189 Treatment required by forests of eastern granite areas 199 Forests of eastern red sandstone belt 191 Improvements of the forests of the sandstpne belt 193 Forests of the slate soils 194 Deciduous forests of the Piedmont plateau 196 Forests of the compact red loams or red clays 196 Improvement of the forests 198 Forest of the loose gray loams 199 Condition of the deciduous forests of the Piedmont plateau 303 Western pine belt of the Piedmont plateau 304 Merchantable timber of western Piedmont pine belt 306 Improvement of forest 207 Forests of Mountain Region 308 Forests of lower mountains 209 Distinctive growth 310 Table mountain pine division 310 ILLUSTRATIONS. 7 PAGE. Merchantable timber of Table mountain pine division 211 Improvement of the forests 212 Short-leaf and pitch, pine forests 213 Condition of the pine forests 214 Improvement of the forests 215 White pine forests A 215 Condition of the white pine forests 216 Merchantable timber of white pine forests 218 Improvement of the white pine forests 218 Forests of the higher mountains 219 Soils of the higher mountains 220 Forest trees of the higher mountains 220 Condition of the forests 221 Merchantable timber of the higher mountains 222 Forest industries of the mountain regions 222 Forests of the mountain summits 223 Plate I. ./ iii: iv/ / / y VII VIII XI XII XIII xiv: xvr XVI/ XVII. / v^ 1/ XVIIL XIX."^ xxy, XXI. "^ y XXII. xxiii: ILLUSTRATIONS. Forest view looking towards Grandfather mountain. Frontispiece. Liriodendron tulipifera; yellow poplar 89 Tilia heterophylla ; lin 45 Acer barbatum ; sugar maple ,.. . 50 Prunus sei'otina ; group of wild black cherry trees 59 Fraxinus americana ; white ash 71 Quercus alba; white oak 89 Quercus virginiana ; live oak 96 Quercus rubra; red oak 97 Quercus nigra ; water oak 105 Castanea dentata ; chestnut 109 Betula lenta ; cherry birch 116 Juniperus virginiana ; red cedar 121 Pinus strobus ; white pine 124 Pinus tseda; loblolly pine 125 Pinus serotina ; pond pine 127 Pinus palustris; long-leaf pine 131 Picea nigra; black spruce 133 Tsuga canadensis; hemlock. 134 Sabal palmetto; palmetto 137 Dredge cutting logging canal in eastern cypress swamp 173 Mixed hardwood and piue forest of Piedmont plateau region 193 Mixed hardwood forest of mountain region 221 8 ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE. Figure 1. -Map showing distribution of cucumber tree and magnolia... 33 3. Map showing distribution of white bay and mountain mag- nolia 34 3. Map showing distribution of umbrella tree and great-leaved magnolia 37 4: Map showing economic distribution of yellow poplar 40 5. Map showing distribution of basswood, lin, and southern lin 43 6. Map showing relative abundance of sugar maple 50 7. Map showing relative abundance of yellow locust 54 8. Map showing economic and botanical distribution of wild black cherry and distribution of wild red cherry 59 9. Map showing relative abundance of sweet gum 62 10. Map showing distribution of black gum and tupelo 64 11. Map showing distribution of persimmon 69 12. Map showing distribution of white ash and water ash 71 13. Map showing distribution of American elm 76 14. Map showing distribution of winged elm 78 15. Map showing distribution of black walnut and white walnut 83 16. Map showing distribution of shag-bark hickory and water- bitternut 86 17. Map showing relative abundance of white and pignut hickories 88 18. Map showing relative abundance of white oak 90 19. Map showing distribution of post oak 92 20. Map showing distribution of overcup oak 93 21. Map showing distribution of chestnut oak and swamp chestnut oak 95 22. Map showing distribution of red oak and Ifve oak 97 23. Map showing distribution of turkey oak and Texas red oak 99 24. Map showing relative abundance of scarlet oak 100 25. Map showing distribution of black oiik and laurel oak 101 26. Map showing distribution of Spanish oak 103 27. Map showing distribution of water oak 105 28. Map showing distribution of shingle and willow oaks 108 29. Map showing distribution of chestnut and chinquapin 110 30. Map showing distribution of river birch, cherry birch, and yellow birch 115 31. Map showing distribution of pitch pine and white cedar 120 32. Map showing relative abundance of red cedar 121 33. Map showing distribution of white pine and cypress 123 34. Map showing economic distribution of loblolly pine 125 35. Map showing distribution of pond pine, hemlock, and Carolina hemlock 127 36. Map showing distribution of scrub pine and Table moun- tain pine 128 37. Map showing economic distribution of short-leaf pine 130 38. Map showing economic distribution of long-leaf pine 132 '\ BOARD OF MANAGERS. GrOVERNOR D. L. RussELL, ex officio Chairman Raleigh. CHARiiES McNamee Biltmore. J. Turner Morehead Leaksville. J. A. Holmes, State Geologist Chapel Hill LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. Chapel Hill, N. C, June 19th, 1897. To his Excellency, Gov. D. L. Russell, Chairman Geological Board, Raleigh, N. C. Sir : — I beg to submit for publication as Bulletin 6 of the Geo- logical Survey series, a report on the timber trees of North Car- olina, by Mr. Gilford Pinchot, and a report on the forests and forest conditions in North Carolina, by Mr. W. W. Ashe. Mr. Pinchot has prepared his portion of this bulletin free of charge for services, and I regard his paper as one of the most valuable which has been prepared for the survey. There is already a large demand for copies of this bulletin ,- even in advance of its being published, and its distribution will serve to answer a number of inquiries from many portions of the country, concerning the timber supplies in North Carolina. With great respect, I beg to remain. Yours obediently, J. A. Holmes, State Geologist. PREFACE. The present Bulletin was planned as a part of the North Caro- lina forest exhibit at Chicago. It was begun before the opening of the World's Fair, but, for reasons which need not be recited here, remained unfinished. Since that time it has been continued under stress of other work as opportunity arose, and has readied it present condition only after long delays. It is intended, first, to present a succinct statement of certain salient characteristics of the more important trees of North Caro- lina. The forest flora of no other State is more varied, nor in many ways so interesting as this. Partly for this reason, and partly for the uses of this Bulletin in identifying trees through- out the State, a close restriction to those species which are of present value for lumber has not been maintained. The second part of the Bulletin, a short account of the various forest regions of the State, is contributed entirely by Mr. Ashe, whose acquaintance with the woodlands of North Carolina is so much more extensive than my own that I have thought it best not to attempt to edit his MS. in any way. In all matters of punctuation, capitalization, and nomenclature, I have preferred to follow the established usage of the Geological Survey throughout, rather than depart from it in a few cases w^iere my individual preference might have been difterent. The material contained in the accounts of the various trees has been gathered chiefly from various publications, assisted by such personal observations as I have been able to make, or as have been contributed by different observers. I have to express my indebtedness in particular to Prof. Sargent's magnificent "Silva of North America," to Dr. Curtis' "Trees of North Carolina," and to Dr. Chapman's "Fbra of the Southern States." Other authorities have been consulted in the course of preparation, but these are the principal ones. 14 PREFACE. The silvicultiiral notes, largely tentative in character as they must necessarily be, are intended to refer only to the bearing of each species in JSTorth Carolina. Besides Mr. Ashe, to whose notes I am indebted for the descrip- tions of the root systems and for other material, and myself, many others have joined in the work, but it would carry me too far to acknowledge their services in detail. I must ask them to accept this general expression of my sincere appreciation of their assist- ance. GiFFOED PiNCHOT. New York, Nov. 26, 1896. KEY FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE LARGER iNORTH CAROLINA FOREST TREES. BY WILLIAM WILLARD ASHE. KEY FOR THE DETERMINATION 4 OF THE LARGER NORTH CAROLmA FOREST TREES. By W. W. Ashe. The analytical key given below for the determination of the larger forest trees is based on those characters which are most accessible and can be obtained throughout the greater part of the growing season. A short explanation of some of the terms used is given, which may be of some service. Opposite leaves are two leaves placed opposite one another, one on either side of the twig. Alternate leaves are leaves not so placed in pairs along the twig. The leaf stem is the stalk on which the leaf stands and by which it is fastened to the twig. A simple leaf is one whose leafstem is attached directly to the twig ; a compound leaf, one formed of numerous separate small leaves, or leaflets, which are attached at the end of a common leafstem or along either side of a com- mon leafstem. The leaflets along the leafstem can be arranged opposite each other or alternately. A hud is placed on the twig at the bottom of each leafstem. It is generally a small brown prominence or spur formed of over- lapping scales. Those buds at the end of the twig are larger than those below, and the usual reference is to the end or terminal bud. Buds do not reach their full size and color until about the middle of July^ but they can be clearly seen as soon as the leaves and twig are mature in spring. Most buds are placed on the twig just above where the leafstem joins it ; some buds, however, are concealed in a cup hollowed out of the base of the leafstem. It is important to know where the bud is, as compound leaves are 2 18 KEY FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE determined in this way, the small leaflets which make them hav- ing no buds where they join the leafstem, which otherwise might be taken for the twig. The Uoig is the growth of the season. Most trees have the buds and the leaves, which grow from the same point, scattered rather regularly along the twig, only one or rarely two being at the end ■of the twig ; the oaks, however, have from three to five such buds and leaves crowded at the end of the twig, besides those on the stem below, and this characteristic grouping of the buds is used to separate these trees from all others. Two of the magnolias have their leaves and buds so grouped, but on account of the large size of the leaves these will not be confused with the oaks. The figures in parenthasis refer to the page on which a more lengthy description will be found. I. CONIFERS, TREES WITH LIMBS, CHIEFLY EVERGREEN AND RESIN-BEARING, WITH LEAVES RARELY xV INCH BROAD. (1) LEAVES OVER ONE INCH LONG, NEEDLE-LIKE, FROM 3 TO 5 COLLECTED IN A SHORT SHEATH.— i^tJie*. (a) Leaves 5 together; bark of small limbs whitish or gray. (p. 123.) WHITE Pine. (&) Leaves 3 together. Leaves 10 to 15 inches long ; bud at end of the twig covered by many ragged, silvery bracts, (p. 131.) ., Long-leap Pine. Leaves 6 to 10 inches long ; bud small and resinous; cone or burr cylindrical, 5 to 6 inches long. (p. 125.) .'. Loblolly Pine. Leaves 4 to 8 inches long; small bud resi- nous ; cone top-shaped ; trees of eastern swamps. " (p 127.) Pond or savanna Pine. Leaves 3 to 5 inches long ; cone top-shaped ; western trees on dry ridges or rarely in deep swamps; buds resinous, (p. 126.) (Northern) Pitch Pine. (c) Leaves 2 together, rarely 3. Leaves about 4 inches long ; cone less than 2 inches long; young twigs covered with a whitish or i»inkish bloom; buds not resin- ous ; large and common trees, (p. 130.) Short leap Pine. Leaves about 2 inches long ; cone %\ inches long ; small trees with curving branches, and thin scaly bark on old trunks, (p. 128.)-Jersey OR SCRUB Pine. Leaves about 2 inches long ; cone large with stout hooked prickles on the ends of the scales ; a rare tree, occurring chiefly along the Blue Ridge, (p. 129.) Table-mountain Pine. LARGER NORTH CAROLINA FOREST TREES. 19 (2) LEAVES FLATTENED, RARELY 1 INCH LONG, SCATTERED SINGLY ALONG THE TWIG ; FRUIT NOT A BERRY. (a) Large and common trees of eastern swamps ; not evergreen ; the end of the twig falling off in the autumn. Leaves spreading in two rows, one on either side of the twig. (p. 132.) Cypress, Leaves, appressed to the twig, in many rows on all sides of it ; smaller tree than the above, growing in pine barren ponds Pond Cypress'. (&) Trees of the mountains ; evergreen. Fruit a small burr or cone, about 1 inch long or less. Leaves white beneath, in two rows, one on either side of the twig; growing along mountain streams, (p. 134.) Hemlock. Leaves scattered on all sides of the twig ; scales of the cone larger than the last and spreading ; rare trees, chiefly along the Blue Ridge, (p. 135.) .'. Carolina Hemlock. Fruit a larger, cylindrical cone, 2 to 4 inches long ; trees of high mountains. Leaves green, nearly round, scattered on all sides of the twig. (p. 133.) Black Spruce. Leaves in one row on either side of the twig, white beneath ; trees with white, smooth bark, found on the highest mountains, (p. 136 ) Carolina Fir or Balsam. <3) LEAVES SHORT, SCALE-LIKE, LESS THAN ^-INCH LONG ; TWIGS OF THE YEAR GREEN. — Cedars. Spray, that is a bunch of twigs, flattened ; fruit a (Juniper. small cone ; trees of eastern swamps, (p. 119.) White Cedar or Twigs round ; fruit a small, blue berry ; (often bearing large, hard, brown excrescences on twigs); dry soil. (p. 121.) Red Cedar. Twigs, as well as the spray (bunch of twigs) flat- tened ; fruit a small cone ; rocky slopes of the Blue Ridge, also extensively cultivated, (p. 119.) Arborvitae. IT. BROAD-LEAF TREES ; TREES WITH LIMBS ; LEAVES FROM i OF AN INCH TO 10 INCHES BROAD, CHIEFLY DECIDUOUS. (1) LEAVES COMPOUND AND PLACED ALTERNATELY ALONG THE TWIG. (a) Leaflets placed alternately along the common leafstem, 7 to 11 in number; flowers white; fruit a dry pod ; S. W. mountains ; rare. (p. 56) Yellowwood. (&) Stout thorns at the base of each leafstem and each leaflet ; leaflets dotted with translucent dots; bark warty and thorny; sandy sea coast Prickly Ash-. iTaxodiuni disticliuiu imbricaria (Xattall) As.^e, Haadbojk: of Nordh Carolina, p. 43 (1896). 2Xantlioxyluin carolinlanum. Lam. 20 KEY FOR THE DETEEMIN A.TION OF THE (c) Twigs angled, frequently bearing two flat- tened thorns at the base of each leafstem ; leaflets not toothed, opposite on the leafstem, over 11 in number ; flowers white ; fruit a , dry pod ; bark furrowed, not thorny, (p. 54.) Yellow Locust, {d) Twigs round, stout ; frequently compound thorns scattered over limbs and trunk ; leaves, frequently twice compound, with rather small, toothed leaflets ; fruit a long, dark brown, pulpy, many-seeded pod. (p. 56.) HONBY LoCUST. (e) Twigs sticky or clammy ; fruit a dry pod ; Macon county, also cultivated ; a shrub or in cultivation a small tree. (p. 50.) Clammy Locust. (/) Twigs smooth, bearing prominent brown buds ; leaflets sharply toothed, smooth ; flow^ers w^hite, small, in large clusters ; fruit small, red and berry-like ; bruised bark on twigs, bitter and scented like cherry bark; highest mountains Mountain Ash^. {g) Twigs not thorny or sticky ; usually from 2 to 4 buds above each leaf-scar ; sharply toothed leaflets opposite on leafstem, over 3 inches long, 5 to 13 in number ; fruit a nut, with a husk dividing in 4 ipeirts.— Hickories. Leaves and leafstems smooth, not hairy; leaflet 6 to 7 : buds scaly. Leaflets 5, smooth ; no resinous particles on lower surface ; nut not angled, with a thick shell and thin husk, often pear- shaped ; bark not scaly, (p. 88.) PlGNUT. Leaflets very large, 5 or 7, smooth, but thickly dotted beneath with resinous pai-ticles; twigs, smooth, shining, pur I)le-brown ; nut angled, w^hitish or mealy, rather thin-shelled ; the husk greenish-brown, roughened with min- ute prominencies, often splitting-to the base; large trees with shaggy or loose (HlCKORY^. bark ; common, (p. 88.) Red heart or Smallnut Leaflets 5, smooth ; nut white, small, sharply angled, with thin, white shell and thick husk, the fruit globular ; bark very shaggy ; trees of dry or rocky (Hickory^. ridges Small or Carolina Shagbark Leaflets 5 to 11, downy or hairy beneath ; buds scaly. Leaflets 5 or 7, soft-velvety beneath ; nut with thick husk and thin, white (Hickory. shell; trees with shaggy bark. (p. 86.)....Sha& OR Scaly-bark Leaflets 5 to 9, soft-downy beneath ; twigs and buds very stout ; nut brown, oblong, thick-shelled ; husk thick ; large trees of low grounds, with shaggy bark ; infrequent Large Shagbark Hickory*. iPyrus americana, (Marshall) De CandoUe. 2Hlcoria odorata, (Marshall) Sargent. sHicoria carolinas-septentrioiialis, Ashe. Notes on the Hickories, Chapel Hill, N. C. (4896.) 4Hicoria laciniosa, (Michaux flls) Sargent. LARGER NORTH CAROLINA FOREST TREES. 21 Leaflets 7 to 11, rough-hairy beneath ; nut thick-shelled, with thick husk ; bark of tree rough but not shaggy, (p. 87.) White Hickory. Leaflets scurfy beneath with silvery particles ; leafstem and midribs hairy ; nuts thick-shelled, the husk usually adhering to it ; bark very rough ; small trees on sandy soil ; throughout except high mountains Sand Hickory^ Leaflets 7 or more, and leafstem, often smooth ; nuts thin-shelled and bitter ; husk thin and adhering to the nut ; end buds, long, yellow, without scales (naked). Leaflets 7 to 11, soft-velvety or smooth- ish beneath ; nut large, very thin-shelled and bitter; husk thin. (p. 84.) Bitternut Hickory. Leaflets 9 to 13, smooth ; nut small, very thin-shelled and bitter; confined to the lower Cape Fear section, (p. 85.) Water (bitternut) Hickory. {h) Leaflets smaller, over 11 in number ; fruit a nut with a husk or rind which does not split at all on the mature nut ; pith brown, cham- bered. — Walnuts. Leaflets soft-velvety ; fruit nearly round, (p. 83.) Black Walnut. Leaflets clammy or sticky ; fruit oblong, (p. 84.) White Walnut. (2) LEAVES compound AND PLACED OPPOSITE ON THE TWIG. (a) Leaflets 5 or 7, spreading from the same point at the end of the leaf-stem ; fruit 2 or 3 brown nuts in a yellow or brownish husk. (p. 47.) Buckeye. (&) Twigs and buds green and shining ; leaflets 3 or 5, coarsely toothed; fruit with 2 wings, (p. 53.) Boxelder. (c) Twigs stout and brown ; buds brown and scurfy ; fruit with a single wing.— Ashes. (1) The very broad wing entirely surround- ing the seed ; leaflets 5 to 9, green both sides ; eastern, (p. 73.) Water Ash (2) Fruit narrowly winged at one end only ; leaflets 7 to 9. Leaves whitened beneath ; twigs either smooth or velvety, (p. 70.) White Ash. Twigs, buds and green lower surface of leaves velvety ; fruit narrowly winged, (p. 72.) Red Ash. Twigs and leaves smooth ; leaves bright green beneath, sharply toothed, (p. 73.). GtREEN Ash. (3) LEAVES SIMPLE AND PLACED OPPOSITE ON THE TWIG. (a) Leaves entire, thin, oblong, large, over 2 inches long, downy beneath ; flowers, slender, droop- ing, white; fruit plum-like Fringe Tree^ {b) Leaves evergreen, thick, smooth, pointed, 3 to 5 inches long ; fruit large, 1-seeded ; rich hummocks along the coast. Devilwood or Oliver iHicoria villosa (Sarg.) Ashe. 2Chionantlius virginica, Linnaeus. aQsmanthusamericanus, (Linnaeus) Bent tiam & Hooker. 22 KEY FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE (f) Leaves toothed, obloug, small, 2 inches long; buds small and acute, or large, round, and flattened from the top ; flowers seeming soli- tary, large and white ; fruit a cluster of red berries ; twigs purple or green, (p. 63.) Dogwood. [d) Leaves oblong, 1+ to 3 inches long, toothed or entire-margined; buds, long-stalked, rusty- scurfy ; flowers white, small, in flat-topped clusters; fruit black or bluish, containing a seed grooved on the side ; small trees or shrubs several kinds of Black Haws K (e) Leaves broader and short, 3 to 51obed; fruit with wings. — IlajJles. (The three first fre- quently gi-own as shade trees.) Buds red, blunt ; leaves white beneath, generally with 3 shallow lobes ; very common; wings of fruit I- inch long. (p. 52.) Red Maple. Buds red, blunt ; leaves white beneath with 3 to 5 lobes; wings of fruit more than 1 inch long ; cultivated, (p. 51.) White Maple. Buds brown, acute ; leaves over 2 inches wide, green or white beneath with 3 lobes, each lobe 3-notched ; large trees with rough, hard, shaggy bark ; fruit H inch in length, (p. 50.) Sugar Maple. Leav-es as in the sugar maple, but only half the size ; fruit less than one inch long ; small trees with smooth gray bark, branching near the ground ; rocky river banks in the counties drained by the Yadkin and Catawba rivers White-bark Maple*. Small trees of the high mountains, above 3,000 feet, with striped branches, green twigs and large, smooth, 3-lobed leaves ; long, stalked, purplish buds. (p. 49.). -Striped Maple. Small trees of the highest mountains, over 4,000 feet, with i3urplish twigs and 3-lobed leaves, velvety beneath, (p. 48.) Mountaia" Maple. (4) LEAVES SIMPLE AND ALTERNATE OR SCATTERED ALONG THE TWIG. (a) Leaves mostly I'ather large, 3 or more inches long, nearly as broad as long, more or less heart-shaped. , (1) Small ti-ees ; leaves smooth and with entire edges; fruit a pod; flowers in early spring, bright red. (p. 57.) Redbud. (2) Larger trees, with leaves triangular, smoothish, finely toothed on the mar- gins ; buds resinous when crushed. — Cottonwoods. Trees of eastern swamps ; leaves 3 Species of Viburnum. 2Acer leucoderme, Smal], Bui. Tor. Hot. CI., xxii, p. 367. LARGER NORTH CAROLINA FOREST TREES. 23 finely toothed; leafstemflat ; twigs angled, (p. 118.) Cottonwood. Trees of lowgrounds, eastern and middle sections ; leaves finely toothed ; leafstem round, (p. 118.). .Carolina Cottonwood. Trees on dry slopes of the Blue Ridge ; leaves, about 2 inches long, coarsely toothed; leafstem flat- tened, (p. 117.) Aspen. (3) Mostly trees on the mountains or cool banks; flowers white, in early summer; fruit a small, dry berry ; leaves sharply toothed ; twigs with large buds and inodorous bark. — Lins or Lindens. Leaves thin and neai'ly smooth, green both sides ; found chiefly around high mountains, (p. 42.) Basswood. Leaves thickish and white beneath, (id. 45.) Lin. Leaves thickish, velvety beneath ; found chiefly on cool hummocks near the coast, (p. 44.) Southern Lin. (4) Small trees of rich woodland ; bark ill- scented when broken ; fruit, ripening in summer, a black, edible berry; often cultivated, (p. 79.) Mulberry. (&) Leaves about as broad as long, 2 to 5 inches long, not heart shaped in outline; buds scat- tered ; large and common trees except last. Leaves large, with a broad notch at the top, lobed on the sides ; large buds flat- (Yellow Poplar, tened; in rich woods and along streams, (p. 39.)--Tulip-tree OR Leaves small, deeply 5-lobed : crushed buds resinous scented ; twigs often with corky wings ; fruit a rough ball, about 1 inch in diameter hanging by a stem 2 to 3 inches long. (p. 61.) Sweet Gum. Leaves 3 to 5-lobed, white beneath with soft wool ; leafstem covering the bud ; trunk of tr. e smooth and whitish above; fruit a rather smooth ball, about 1 inch in diameter, hanging by a slender stem ; mostly along streams, (p. 81.) Sycamore. Leaves with sharp spines along their edges, thick, evergreen, dark green ; trees with smooth gray bark. (p. 40.) Holly. (c) Leaves large, 4 to 30 inches long, oblong in outline, not toothed or lobed; flowers large and white. — Magnolias. Leaves thick, evergreen, over 6 inches long, brown-hairy beneath ; Brunswick (Magnolia. county, and frequently cultivated, (p. 33.) Evergreen Leaves smaller, white beneath; bark white and smooth ; buds silky ; eastern swamps White Bay. Leaves 4 to 6 inches long, greenish beneath ; bark furrowed ; buds silky- hairy ; mountains Cucumber Tree. 24 KEY FOE THE DETERMINATION OF THE Leaves large, 10 to 30 inches long ; buds silky; rare; western, (p. 36.) GtREAt-leaved Magnolia. Leaves 10 to 15 inches long, with a deep notch at the bottom, often collected at ' ■, • the end of the twig ; buds not hairy ; high mountains, (p. 38.) Wahoo or Mountain Magj^olia. Leaves 10 to 20 inches long, pointed at each end, collected at the ends of the twigs; along streams, (p. 37.) Umbrella .Tree. {d) Leaves longer than broad.. 2 to 8 inches long ; twigs mostly brown, with from 2 to 5 buds crowded at the top, other buds scattered below ; fruit an acorn, i. e. a nut with the base enclosed in a scaly cup. — Oaks. (1) Leaves not at all lobed or toothed, except on vigorous shoots, wedge-shaped or tri- angular or long and narrow in outline ; •leafstems short. — Water Oaks and Willow Oaks. *1) Leaves^green on both sides. Leaves 4 to 6 inches long, triangular in outline, thick; buds large; twigs thick ; acorn large, f inch wide ; small trees ; bark rough, black, (p. 103.) Black-jack Oak: Leaves narrowly triangular, 2 to 8 inches long ; twigs slender ; buds small and blunt ; nut small ; trees with smoothish gray bark ; eastern, (p. 105.) Water Oak. Leaves very narrow, pointed ; twigs slender ; in the middle and eastern parts of the State, usually in wet places, (p. 108) Willow Oak. Leaves paler beneath and downy ; banks of streams along the Blue Ridge and to the westward, (p. 107) Shingle Oak. *2) Leaves whitened beneath, 2 to 5 "inches long ; extreme east. Leaves very narrow ; acorn small, globose, whitened ; small trees on dry (Willow Oak. sandy soil. (p. 107.) Barren or Upland Leaves broader, evergreen; large trees, on the coast, with a long acorn, (p. 96.) Live Oak. (2) Leaves more or less lobed, the divisions tipped with a bristle. — Bed Oaks and Black Oaks. *1) Leaves with a leafstem less than 1 inch long. Leaves broad, 3-lobedat the top. (p. 103.) Black-.jack Oak. Leaves narrow, i to 1 inch broad, with shallow lobes; on the sea coast, (p. 106.) Laurel Oak. Leaves about 2 inches wide with 3 ■ lobes at the top or shallow lobes on the sides ; mountains Lea'S Oak^ • Leaves green and smooth on both sides with many long, often curved iQuercus leana, Nuttall. LAEGER NORTH CAROLINA FOREST TREES. 25 lobes ; acorn large ; cup with coarse, spreading scales ; small trees with (jack or Sand Oak. rough, gray bark; on pine barrens, (p. 102.)..Fork-I;EAf Black- *2) Leaves with a long and slender leaf- stem, 1 to 3 inches long, green beneath. Leaves over twice as long as broad, the lobes acute; rare ; middle section Bartram's Oak^. Leaves broader, generally not twice as long as broad with many lobes on each side ; large trees. §) With deep and rounded hollows be- tween the lobes of the leaves ; large trees. Light gray bark on limbs ; nut half • covered by the cup ; common on dry, stiff or gravelly soils ; twigs brownish, (p. 99.) SCARLET Oak. With dark gray bark on branches ; only base of nut covered by the cup ; rare ; along streams of the middle counties ; twigs steel-gray. (p. 98.)..Texas Red Oak. §) With shallower, acute hollows between the lobes of the leaf. Leaves downy beneath ; cup cover- ing half of the large nut ; bark rough and black, (p. 101.) Black Oak. Leaves smooth beneath ; cup very shallow ; bark striped, dark, and light gray ; western, (p. 97.) (Northern) Red Oak. "*3) Leaves wliitened beneath ; leafstem slender ; nut small, globular, (p. 103.) Spanish Oak. <3) Leaves more or less lobed or toothed, the divisions rounded and not bristle- tipped ; leafstems less than 1 inch long ; bark gray, furrowed or shaggy.— White Oaks and Chestnut Oaks. Leaves deeply 5 to 9-lobed ; nut nearly covered by the cup ; in the eastern swamps, (p. 92.) Ovbrcup Oak. Leaves deeply 5 to 7-lobed ; cup • ono-half the length of the acorn ; small trees, common on dry soil. (p. 91) Post Oak. Leaves 7 to 9-lobed ; cup of acorn shallow ; large trees ; light gray bark; common, (p. 89.) White Oak. Leaves thick with many, rounded, shallow lobes ; bark deeply fur- rowed ; dry soil ; western ; acorn very large, (p. 93.) ...RocK Chestnut Oak. Leaves thin, velvety beneath, with many rounded, shallow lobes ; bark shaggy ; swamps and river banks eastward, (p. 95.) Swamp Chestnut Oak. (e) Leaves more than 3 inches long, sharply toothed on the sides and with prominent, iQuercus heterophylla, Michau.x. 26 KEY FOE THE DETERMINATION OF THE straight veins ; buds scattered along the twig, as are the leaves. (1) Buds oblique to the axis of the twig; fruit edible, brown nuts enclosed ia a prickly burr. Leaves over 6 inches long, green both sides, (p. 109.) Chestnut. Leaves about 4 inches long, white- downy beneath Chinquapin^ (2) End bud long and slender, silky, brown ; twigs unpleasant scented ; leaves about 10 inches long ; fruit when ripe yellow and pulpy, (p. 41.) Papaw. (/) Leaves about 4 laches long, veins not straight and prominent, evergreen, thick, smooth, dark green, irregularly toothed, sharply pointed ; flowers large, white ; fruit a woody capsule ; small tree of eastern swamps with a straight trunk, not forking and narrow, conical. top. (p. 42.) Loblolly Bay. (g) Leaves generally less than '6 inches long (with exceptions under ij^ 1 and 2), and scattered along the twig as are the buds. (1) LEAVES NOT TOOTHED ON THE MARGIN, 2 TO 5 INCHES LONG. Leaves and twigs aromatic ; fruit a deep blue berry on a red stalk. Leaves evergreen, thick, dark green, hairy beneath, as is the brownish twig; eastern swamps, (p. 94.) Red Bay OR Sweet Bay^ Leaves as in the above, but smooth beneath, as are the twigs ; sandy sea coast....... Smooth Red Bay. Leaves often 2 or 8-lobed ; bark aromatic : fields and fence rows ; twigs green -. Sassafras. Leaves and twigs not aromatic; fruit various. Leaves thickish, smooth, evergreen, narrowed at the base; fruit many small capsules ; small trees or shrubs with smooth, thin, brown bark ; eastern swamps, (p. 47.) Cyrilla. Leaves 2 to 4 inches long ; bark not aromatic; fruit a small blue berry ; common throughout the State, (p. 63.) Black Gum. Leaves 4 to 6 inches long ; rarely • coarsely toothed ; fruit a blue berry i inch long ; deep eastern swamps, (p. 65.) Tupelo GtUM. Leaves about 2 inches long, thick, evergreen, pointed ; flowers white ; fruit a black one-seeded cherry ; twigs bitter; Smith's Island MoCK ORANGE^ iCastanea pumila, Linnaeus. zPersecl borbonia pubescens (Pursh) nom. nov. : P. pubescens, Sargent, Sylva, vii, p. 7 (189.5). sPrunus caroliniana, (Miller) Alton. LAKGER NORTH CAROLINA FOREST TREES. 27" Fruit when ripe roundish, yellow, pulpy and edible ; astringent when green, the 4-lobed calyx persistent at its bade ; seed several, flat ; flelds. (p. 68.) Persimmon. (3) LEAVES LOBED, OR TOOTHED ON THE MARGIN. Fruit pulpy or fleshy, as in apple or cherry. Leaves often lobed ; twigs armed with stout thorns ; fruit a small sour apple one inch in diameter, yellow when ripe; flowers iDink, sweet-scented. 2 kinds of Crab Applet Leaves variously lobed or toothed, twigs often armed with long slender thorijs ; buds very small ; flowers white, about 4 inch in diameter in large, flat-topped clusters, in spring ; fruit, berry-like, orange or red. In clus- ters ; small trees with bark of trunk scaly or pealing off in thin sheets or scaly several kinds of Red (Haw) Thorn'^ Leaves silky-hairy beneath ; the edible red fruit sulall and berry-like ; bark smooth and white, (p. 60.) Service Tree. Bark of trees bitter to taste ; leaves smooth, finely and sharply toothed ; fruit one -seeded. Fruit a black cherry ; floAvers in a drooping raceme at the end of the twig; frequent, (p. 59.) Wild Black Cherry. Fruit a red cherry ; flowers in slen- der, long stemmed clusters along the sides of ihe twig ; occurs only on highest mountains, (p. 58.) "Wild Red Cherry. Flowers in long-stemmed clusters along the sides of twig ; fruit red or yellow when ripe, about i inch long ; seed flattened ; small trees, some- times with thorny branches ; flelds, waste places or along streams 2 kinds of Wild Plum*. Bark of tree often with corky out- growths ; fruit a small 1-seeded sweet berry ; leaves thin and nearly smooth, tapering to a sharp point, unequal sided; chiefly along streams, (p. 80.) Hackberry. Fruit various, either a nut or dry. A. Leaves over three times as long as 'broad. Leaves green beneath and not hairj^, finely toothed, long and narrow, \ to J inch broad ; twigs brittle, yellow or red ; com- mon along streams and wet places, except in the coastal plain where it is largely replaced by the next. (p. 116.) Black Willow. iPyrus coronaria, LiiinEeus and C. angustifolia, Alton. 2 Species of Cratsej^us. sPrunus americana, Marshall and P. angusrifolia, MarshaU. 28 KEY FOK THE DETERMHSTATION OF THE Like the above, but the larger leaves, though smooth, whitened beneath; eastern ....Ward Willow^. Leaves whitened beneath with a fine down, at least when young ; later smooth but white ; twigs mostly red and purple ; small slender trees, along streams, chiefly western and central CtLAUCOUS Willow^. Twigs with no bud at the end, tipped by a hard point or white flowers or fruit ; leaves 3 to 4 inches long, finely toothed, smooth, acid when chewed, (p.' 66.) Sourwood. A. Leaves less than three times as long as broad. Terminal bud over i inch long ; fruit a 3-angled nut, bark of trunk smooth, light ' gray; leaves straight-veined, (p. 111.) Beech. Small trees with smooth, light gray bark, fluted trunk, beech-like leaves and hop- like clusters of fruit ; bud short ; very common along streams, (p. 113.) Hornbeam. Leaves 3 to 4 inches long, sharp-pointed, downy beneath, as is the leafstem ; flow- ers, white, bell-shaped, in drooping clus- ters ; fruit about i inch long, 3-angled, the angles winged ; usually small trees with striped green and brown branches ; along streams and cool hollows in the mountains, (p. 70.) Snowdrop-tree. Bark of small limbs peeling off in thin papery layers ; flowers in catkins in spring ; fruit cylindrical in shape, 1 inch long, covered with green bi'acts, each with a seed at its base within. — Birches. Layers of bark red or pinkish ; leaves pale beneath ; common along streams, (p. 114.). ...River Birch. Layers of bark silvery white; trees of highest mountains ; leaves green be- neath, (p. 113.) Yellow Birch. Bark of twig having the taste of winter- green (or peppermint) when chewed; flowers and fruit of the above ; trees of cool mountains, (p. 115.) Sweet or Cherry Birch. The remaining native forest trees all have have small leaves, from 1 to 2 inches long long, green both sides and flnely and . sharply toothed. They are either elms or elm-like in the appearance of their foli- age, and it is difficult to give accessible leaf-characters for their identification. Twigs yellowish or light brown ; buds minute, sometimes clustered ; fruit a small scaly nut ; bark smooth, dark gray ; confined to the lower Cape Fear section Planer Trbe^. Fruit in hop-like clusters; small iSalix longipes warclii (Bebb) nom. nov. ; S. nigra wardi, Bebb, Bui. U. S. Nat. Mus. No. jxxii, p. 114. 2Salix discolor, Muehlenburg. spianera aquatica, Grmel. LARGER NORTH CAROLINA FOREST TREES. 29 (beam OR Ironwood. (p. 113.) HOP-HORN- trees, with shaggy, brown bark, growing on rich hillsides ; western. Remaining large trees ; fruit a winged seed falling in spring before the leaves appear ; exten- sively cultivated for shade trees. — Elms. Twigs very hairy; the leaves broadly oval, rough and hairy ; twigs gummy when chewed ; infrequent, (p. 78.).... Twigs smoothish ; leaves over 2 inches long, but slightly rough ; bark on large trees mostly scaly, (p. 76.) White Elm. Twigs smoothish; the leaves about 3 inches long ; bark on large trunks firm and furrowed ; the bark of twigs often corky winged, (p. 77.-) Winged Elm. .Slippery Elm. III. PALMS; TREES WITHOUT LIMBS; Imited in this State to the Palmetto, a small tree with unbranched stena about 10 inches in diameter and a small crown of evergreen leaves two feet or more in breadth ; found only along the coast to the south of Cape Hatteras. (p. 136.) -Palmetto. TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA BY GIFFORD PINCHOT TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA By Gifford Pinchot Mag-nolia foetida, Sargpiit.* (MAGNOLIA.) A large pyramidal tree, with gray or light brown bark covered with small thin scales, reaching a height of 90 and a diameter of 4J feet. It occurs southward from the mouth of the Cape Fear river, rarely more than fifty or sixty miles from the coast, to Mosquito inlet and Tampa bay, Florida; along the Gulf coast to the val- ley of the Brazos river, Texas ; in western Louisiana and southern Arkansas, and on the bluff's of the lower Mississippi, where it reaches its best development. MAP OF KOSTH CABOLIBTA SCALE MOUNTAIN ^GION /__ PIEDMONTJ LEGEND. Distributron of the CUCUMBER TREE (Magnolia acuminata, L.) Distribution of the MAGNOLIA (Mag- nolia foetida, Sarg.) In JN^orth Carolina, where it grows to an average height of 50 to 70 feet, it is found rather sparingly in Brunswick county, in the southeast corner of the State (fig. 1), growing in the rich, moist soil of river swamps. It reproduces itself rather slowly in the latitude of this State, *MagnoUa grandiflora, Llnnteus. 34 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. and young seedlings are very rarely found in the forest, although the tree flowers and matures fruit not only regularly but, for the most part, abundantly as well. The long thick leathery evergreen leaves are downy underneath, and remain upon the tree for two years. The fragrant creamy- white flowers are very large and conspicuous, often 7 or 8 inches across. The oval fruit is rusty brown in color, 3 to 4 inches long by Ij to 2i inches broad. The winter-buds are thickly covered with dark rusty hairs. The roots, finely divided, penetrate the- soil to a moderate depth. The wood is moderately hard, close-grained, not strong, easily worked, not durable in contact with the soil, and is as valuable as that of the other magnolias ; creamy-white in color; the thick sapwood nearly white. Although well suited for cabinet work- and interior finish, the wood is little used except for fuel. Magnolia glauca, Linaseus. (white bay. sweet bay. swamp bay.) A slender tree, with gray branches and light brown small-scaled bark, reaching a height of 70 and a diameter of 3? feet. It occurs in deep, wef swamps as far north as Massachusetts, where it is reduced to a low siirub, and extends from New Jersey MAP OF NOKTH CAKOLINA COASTAL PLAIN R_EG'OM _^ ^ LEGEND Distribution of the WHITE BAY (Magnolia glauca, /..) Distribution of the MOUNTAIN MAGNOUA (Magnolia iias^Ti,JVali.) southward, generally near the coast, to Florida, where it reaches its best development, and southern Texas. It is not found in the CUCUMBER TREE. 35 Appalachian mountains. In the South Atlantic and Gulf states it forms, with the loblolly bay and red bay, low, almost impene- trable thickets on tbe borders of pine barren ponds and shal- low swamps, and reaches its best development in the interior of Florida. In North Carolina, w^here it attains an average height of 12 to 25 feet, it is confined to wet lands or the margins of bodies of fresh or salt water in the eastern part of the Piedmont plateau and in the coastal plain region (fig. 2, p. 34), although not common in the former. In the coastal plain region theie are two well-marked forms, dependent upon the quality of.the soil ; one, a tree of some size, the other rarely over 10 feet in height. With the white cedar it forms a large part of the grow^tb of the "juniper ])ays.'" Sometimes after the white cedar has been cnt, and usually after these swamps have been burned, thickets of this bay appear. Seed is borne abundantly every year. The rate of growth is fairlj^ rapid, especially in youth. Trees of all ages sprout freely from the stumps, and shoots usually appear after a tree has been killed by fire. The oblong leaves, which are pale green above and white beneath, are partly deciduous in this State, especially toward the Piedmont plateau. The j)ure white fragrant flowers bloom in May, and the dark red iruit is oval, smooth, 2 inches long, and li inches broad. The winter-buds are thickly covered with fine hairs. The tree has a superficial root system. The wood is soft, light, close-grained, and not strong; light brown in color; the thick sapwood creamy-white. It is occasion- ally used for broom handles and woodenware. A tonic and diu- retic is obtained from the bark. Magnolia acuminata, Linnaeus. (cucumber tree.) A tall slender tree, with furrowed dark brown bark broken into numerous thin scales, reaching a height of 90 and a diameter of 5 feet. It occurs from western New York through southern Ontario to 36 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. southern Illinois, and southward along the Appalachian moun- tains to southern Alabama and northeastern Mississippi. It grows sparingly in central Kentucky and Tennessee, and in portions of Arkansas, and roaches its best development in the mountains of Tennessee and the Carolinas. In North Carolina, where it attains an average height of 60 to 80 feet and an average diameter of 3 to 4 feet, it is found on moist, fertile soil in the mountains, and rarely as far to the east of the mountains as Stanly county. (Fig. 1, p. 33.) Seed is produced frequently but seldom abundantly. Though young seedlings are common, many of them are quickly crowded out by other species when the mature trees are removed. Smaller trees sprout from the stump to a limited extent. The rate of growth is rapid. The rather broad, pointed leaves aie bright green above and slightly paler below. The yellowish-green flowers appear towards the latter part of May, and the dark red fruit is oblong, 2i to 3 inches long by 1 inch broad. The winter-buds are densely cov- ered with silky white hairs. There are numerous deep lateral roots and, rarely, a taproot. The wood is soft, satiny, light, not strong, close-grained and durable ; light yellow-brown in color ; the thin sapwood often nearly white. It is used for water pipes, troughs, flooring and cabinetmaking. This tree has been cut to a large extent in most of the mountain counties except Alleghan}^, Graham, Mitchell, Clay, Watauga, Yancey, Macon, and Swain. Magnolia macrophylla, Michaux. (great-leaved magnolia.) A spreading tree, with thin smooth, light gray bark divided into minute scales, reaching a height of 50 feet and a diameter of 20 inches. It occurs from the sheltered valleys about the base of the Alle- ghany mountains of North Carolina and southeastern Kentucky, to middle and western Florida and southern Alabama, and through northern Mississippi to the valley of the Pearl river in Louisiana, UMBRELLA TREE. 37 and in central Arkansas, reaching its Lest development in northern Alabama. MAP OF NORTH CAltOLINA SCALE OF MIlU l ^/.-..^'^^^\.L^.^-'^^'°Sr,:^^^f^ ^ \ LEGEND Distribution of llie UMBRELLA TREE (Magnolia tripetala, L.) Distribution of the GREAT-LEAVED MAG- NOLIA (Magnolia macrophylla, Michx.) In North'Carolina, where it attains a height of 15 to 30 feet, it is found in Lincoln county and to some extent on the French Broad river about Asheville. (Fig. 3.) It bears seed in large quantities at frequent intervals. Few years pass without some mast. Young seedlings are, however, uncom- mon in the dense woods. Young trees sprout vigorously when cut. The leaves are very large, from 20 to 30 inches long and.9 to 10 inches broad, and are clustered at the summit of the branches. The white fragrant flowers are also large, and the bright rose-col- bred fruit is broadly egg-shaped and 2i- to 3 inches long. The large winter-buds are covered with thick silky white hairs. There are strong lateral and numerous fibrous roots. The w^ood.is hard, close-grained, light, and not strong; light brown in color ; the thick sapwood light yellow. It has no com- mercial value. Magnolia tripetala, Linnaeus. (uatBRELLA TREE.) A small tree, with irregular branches, and smooth, light gray bark marked with numerous small blister- like excrescences, reach- ing a height of 10 feet and a diameter of 18 inches. 38 TIMBEE TREES OF NOKTH CAROLINA. It occurs along the Appalachians from Pennsylvania to central Alabama, and extends in the south Atlantic states nearly to the coast, and westward to middle Kentucky, Tennessee and north- western Mississippi, and central and southwestern Arkansas. It reaches its best development among the Smoky mountains of Ten- nessee and North Carolina. In North Carolina, where it attains a height of 25 to 35 feet, it is found on rich, moist, deep soil throughout the State (fig 3, p. 37), but is nowhere common. The production of seed is frequent and abundant, and seedlings are found wherever a group of mature trees occur. It is easily propagated by shoots from the stump. The large thin, oblong leaves are clustered at the ends of the branchlets. The conspicuous white fiowers, about 5 inches in diam- eter, appear in May. The bright rose-colored fruit is egg-shaped, 3i to 4 inches long. The large purple winter-buds are covered with a w^hitish bloom. The wood is light, soft, weak, close-grained ; brown in color ; the heavier sapwood creamy-white. It has no commercial value. Magnolia fraseri, Walter. (mountain magnolia. WAHOO. INDIAN BITTERS.) A slender tree, with regular and wide-spreading or contorted branches, and dark brown, smooth or minutely scaled bark. It reaches a height of 40 feet aT}d a diameter of 18 inches. It occurs from the mountains of southwestern Virginia to south- ern Alabama and western Florida, and westward through east Tennessee and northern Mississippi to the valley of the Pearl river. It grows in the valleys of mountain streams, and reaches its best development on the tributaries of the Savannah river, and on the slopes of the Black and Big Smoky mountains. Locally abun- dant, it is the least widely distributed of the American magnolias. In this State it occurs in all the counties west of the Blue Pidge and in the western parts of those immediately east of it. It is most common in Ashe, Mitchell, Yancey, Swain, Macon, Transyl- vania, and Burke counties. (Fig. 2, p. 34.) N. C. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. BULLETIN 6. PLATE II. YELLOW POPLAR YELLOW POPLAR. 39 Seed is produced nearly every year and young seedlings are abundant in the woods. Cattle are very fond of the young plants. Old trees are apt to be hollow at the butt and not uncommonly throughout the trunk. The large leaves, which are crowded at the end of the branch- lets, are smooth, glossy, pointed at the apex and eared at the base. When fully expanded the beautiful cream-colored flowers often measure 8 or 9 inches across. The bright rose colored fruit is oblong, i to 5 inches in length and IJ to 2 inches broad. The large winter-buds are purple. The wood is light, soft, weak, close-grained ; light brown in color; the thick sapwood creamy-white. It has no commercial value. Liriodendron tulipiftsra, Linnaeus. (yellow poplar, tulip tree, whitewood.) A large tree of the first commercial value, w^ith a small pyram- idal head and brownish-gray bark, reaching a height of 190 and a diameter of 10 feet. The trunk is straight and cylindrical, and in the largest specimens often free from branches to a height of from 80 to 100 feet. (Plate 11.) It occurs from Rhode Island to southwestern Yermont, west to the southern shores of Lake Michigan, and south to northern Florida, southern Alabama and Mississippi, and southeastern Mis- souri and the adjacent parts of Arkansas; reaching its best devel- opment on the tributaries of the Ohio and the lower slopes of the high mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee. It grows habitually in deep, rich, moist soil. Although widely distributed, it is seldom the predominant tree in the forest. In North Carolina, where it reaches an average height of 60 to 100, and an average diameter of 3 to 4 feet, it is found in all parts of the State. (Fig- -l, p. -10.) In the coastal plain it occurs on fertile soil with sweet gum, black gum, swamp chestnut oak, and water oak, or on peaty foil with the white cedar (juniper).* Throughout this section the trees are apt to be hollow ; there is a larger amount of sapwood, and the timber is inferior in quality to that in the middle and w^estern sections. In the Piedmont pla- *Cliarn8ecj'paris thyoides, L. 40 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. teau it is found in ravines and on north hillsides, and is largely used for cabinetmaking and interior woodwork. It is most abun- dant, attains its greatest size, and forms its finest timber on the lower mountain slopes in the counties west of the Bine Kidge, where trees 8 to 10 feet in diameter and more than 150 feet high are occasionally found. Throughout this region it is the chief building material. Trees growing in the open mature seed in abundance nearly every year; forest trees less frequently. Young seedlings are common in the woods and grow rapidly if not heavily shaded. Cattle eagerly devour young plants.. Although trees over four feet in diameter are often hollow at the butt, it is uncommon to fi.nd the trunk unsound throughout. The quality of the timber is seldom injured by wind shakes. The leaves are smooth, bright green, 4 lobed, with a deep rounded incision on either side and a broad shallow notch at the apex. The greenish-yellow tulip-shaped flowers appear in May, and the fruit is a narrow, light brown cone. The dark reddish winter buds are covered with a whitish bloom. The wood is light, soft, brittle, not strong, close and straight- grained, easily worked, and does not split or shrink easily ; yellow or brown in color ; the thin sap\yood creamy-white. The yellow poplar is one of the most useful, as well as one of the largest, of American deciduous trees. It is largely used for construction, inte- PAPAW. 41 rior finish, boat building, shingles, pumips, and woodenware. A tonic and stimulant is made from the inner bark of the root. Large quantities of poplar have been sawed in the last few years in eastern North Carolina and used in the manufacture of crates, trucking boxes, etc., but there is still a great deal of tim- ber standing in the counties north of the Neuse river. The mer- chantable poplar has been cut for the most part in the midland counties. It has been estimated that about 500,000,000 feet of merchantable yellow poplar is standing in the mountains of west- ern North Carolina. This is principally in Ashe, Alleghany, Watauga, Mitchell, Yancey, Haywood, Transylvania, Swain, Gra- ham, and Macon counties. Asheville is the chief seat of the manufacture of poplar lumber ; a iireat deal is manufactured also at Dillsboro, Magnetic City, and Cranberry. Between 12,000,000 and 13,000,000 feet of poplar was sawed for shipment during 1892 in the counties west of the Blue Bidge, and half as much more for local use. Asimina triloba, Dunal. (PAPAW.) A shrub or low tree, with slender spreading branches and dark brown bark marked with large ash-colored blotches, sometimes reaching a height of 40 and a diameter of 1 foot. It occurs from w'estern New York and the northern shores of Lake Ontario, southward to central and eastern Pennsylvania, westward to southern Michigan, southern Indiana and eastern Kansas, and south to middle Florida and eastern Texas. It is comparatively rare toward the Atlantic seaboard, but very com- mon in the Mississippi valley, reaching its best development along the tributaries of the lower Ohio river and the streams of central and southern Arkansas, where it grows in deep rich and rather moist soil, sometimes to the exclusion of other trees. In North Carolina it occurs in all parts of the State, and is most abundant in the northeastern and middle sections on somewhat swampy or alluvial lands, where it reaches an average height of from 10 to 15 feet. It is rare in the sand barrens of the south- 42 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. eastern part, and altogether wanting in the high mountains. It reproduces itself freely. The large deciduous leaves are sharp pointed at the apex and contracted at the base. The flowers, which are nearly 2 inches across, are a dull deep red at maturity. The edible fruit is dark brown, almost black, oblong, rounded, 3 to 5 inches long by 1 to IJ inches broad, and from 6 to 12 ounces in weight. The pointed winter-buds, J of an inch in length, are covered with rusty brown hairs. The wood is light, soft, weak, coarse-grained, spongy, with the annual layers clearly marked ; light yellow in color ; the thin sap- wood somewhat lighter. Gordonia lasiantbus, Ellis. (bay. bull bay. loblolly bay.) A medium size tree, with a narrow, compact head, and dark red-brown scaly bark, broken into regular shallow furrows and parallel rounded ridges. It reaches a height of 75 and a diameter of 2 feet ; or is rarely a low shrub. It occurs from the southern part of Virginia to southern Flor- ida and westward to the valley of tiie Mississippi river. It is most common in Georgia and eastern Florida, reaching its best development in damp situations. In North Carolina it occurs in the coast region, where it reaches a height of 50 to 70 feet, and a diameter of 18 to 24 inches. It bears some seed nearly every year, and full seed years are frequent. Young seedlings are common throughout the range of the species. The thick dark evergreen leaves are oblong, pointed at the apex and narrowly contracted at the base. The fragrant white flowers appear late in summer; and the fruit is a woody, egg- shaped capsule. The narrowly pointed winter-buds are covered with pale silky hairs. The wood is light, soft, close-grained, not strong or durable; LIN. BASSWOOD. 4a light red in color; the tliick sapwood lighter. It is occasionally used for cabinetmaking ; and the bark has been locally employed in tanning. Tilia americana, Linnaeus. (baSSWOOD. LIN. LINDEN.) A tall tree, with slender, often pendulous branches, and thick, furrowed, light brown bark covered with small, thin scales. It reaches a height of 130 and a diameter of 4 feet. It occurs in rich soil from northern New Brunswick to the south- ern shore of Lake Winiiipeg, and southward through the Atlantic states to Virginia, along the Appalachian mountains to Alabama and Georgia, and to eastern Texas. It reaches its best develop- MAP OF NORTH CAROLINA SCALE LEGEND "■■' '-/X Area in which the LIN and BASSWOOD occur rarely. (Tilia heterophylla, Vetif. and T. americana L.) Area in which the .LIN and BASSWOOD are common. Western limits of the distribution of the »«'«'' SOUTHERN LIN (Tilia pubescens, Aii.) ment along the northern tributaries of the lower Ohio river. One of the most common trees of the northern forest, it formerly occu- pied exclusively large tracts of the richest land. In North Carolina, where it attains a height of 50 to SO and a diameter of 1 to 4 feet, it is found more or less widely distributed in the mountains and in the upper part of the Piedmont plateau along the slopes of mountain spurs and. higher hills, while in the lower Piedmont and coastal plain regions it is found sparsely distributed as a smaller tree. (Fig- o.) Basswood bears seed very abundantly every 2 or 3 years. The young growth is eagerly devoured by cattle. Specimens over 2 44 TIMBER TUBES OF NOETH CAEOLINA. feet in diameter are usually hollow at the butt and not uncommonly through the entire stem. Stumps of trees which have been cut or blown down sprout vigorously. Windfalls are frequent. The large thick roundish leaves are sharp-toothed, narrow- pointed at the apex, and unevenly heart-shaped at the. base. The clusters of small white flowers are borne on an oblong, leaf-like bract, and the fruit is egg shaped, about I inch in length and cov- ered with short gray wool. The dark red winter-buds are stout, egg-shaped, and pointed. The root system is a Met work of strong lateral roots. The wood is soft, straight-grained, not durable; light brown in •color ; the thick sapwood hardly distinguishable. It is largely used for lumber, and, under the name of whitewood, in the manufact- ure of woodenware and furniture, for carriage-making, and for the inner soles of shoes. It is extensively used for paper pulp, and occasionally the inner bark is made into coarse cordage and matting. In this State it is not sawed into lumber to any considerable extent, but large numbers of trees are cut in the winter that cattle may feed upon the buds and twigs. It is much prized by apiarists because the clearest honey and whitest comb are made from its flowers. Tilia pubescens, Aiton. (southern LIN. LINDEN.) A slender tree, with a large oval crown, slender gray branches, and rough dark bark, reaching a height of 60 and a diameter of 2 feet. It has been found as far north as Long Island, and it grows in cool, moist situations on the coast of North and South Carolina and Georgia, in northern Florida, Louisiana, and Texas. It is not a common tree. In North Carolina, where it reaches a height of 50 to 60 feet, it occui's on deep, sandy, fertile soil, usually on the margins of swamps or streams, in the coastal plain region. (Fig- 5, p. 43.) In the Piedmont plateau region it occurs rarely, if at all. A large proportion of the seed, which is borne frequently and in abundance, is unproductive, and seedlings are uncommon. It sprouts very freely from the stump. N. C. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. BULLETIN 6. PLATE III. LIN OR BASSWOOD LIN. LINDEN. 45 The leaves are covered beneath with a thin, rusty down. The flowers are smaller than in the preceding species, and the dry glo- bose fruit is small, pubescent, and nsnally one-seeded. The winter- buds, which are covered with a short, fine pubescence, are of a dark reddish-brown color. The Southern lin has numerous usually deeply seated lateral roots. The wood is similar to that of Tilia americana, of which this tree has been considered a variety. Tilia heterophylla, Ventenat. (lin. . LINDEN.) A tree, with slender branches forming a pyramidal head, and furrowed bark broken into short thin light brown scales, occa- sionally reaching a height of 60 and a diameter of 4 feet. (Plate III.) arrowing in moist soil, often over limestone rock, it occurs from Pennsylvania southward along the Appalachians to northern Ala- bama and central Florida, and westward to middle Tennessee, Kentucky, and southern Indiana and Illinois; and reaches its best development on the mountain slopes of eastern Tennessee. It is not common. In this State, where it reaches an average height of 40 feet and an average diameter of 12 to 18 inches, it is most common in the mountains, (fig. 6, p. 43), and occurs sparingly in the Piedmont plateau and coastal plain. It is much more abundant in North Carolina than Tilia americana, and bears seed more frequently and generally in greater quantity. It is readily propagated by shoots. Unless protected the low growth is almost immediately eaten by cattle. The linden borer, Saperda vestita. Say, bores into the sapwood of the standing tree. The leaves are generally larger than those of Tilia americana, and are covered on the lower side with a silvery white down. The flowers appear earlier in the spring, and the round fruit, f inch in diameter, is covered with short gray down. The egg- shaped winter-buds are bright red, covered with a whitish bloom. 46 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. The wood is soft, li2:lit, straight-drained, not durable; light brown in color; the thin sapwood hardly distinguishable. Com- mercially it is not distinguished from the wood of Tilia americana. Ilex opaca, Alton. (holly,) A small tree, with short, slender branches, w^hich form a pyra- midal head, and roughened light gray bark, reaching a height of 50 and a diameter of 4 feet. At the north it grows in dry gravelly soil ; at the south, in rich, moist situations. It occurs from Massachusetts to Florida ; in the valley of the Mississippi from southern Indiana to the gulf of Mexico; and through Missouri, Arkansas and Louisiana to eastern Texas. It is common south of the Hudson in fertile bottom lands, except in the Appalachian region and just west of it, where it is exceedingly rare ; and reaches its best development in southern Arkansas and eastern Texas. In this State, wdiere it grows to an average height of 30 feet, and an average diameter of 12 inches, it is common except in the mountains. Specimens growing in the coast region are much larger than those found farther inland. Fertile trees generally bear seed every year, although not with uniform abundance, and young growth is common in open spots. Old trees do not sprout from the stump as readily as young ones. The oval evergreen leaves are thick, leathery and armed with spiny teeth. The flowers are small but conspicuous from their number. The round fruit is about i inch in diameter, dull red or rarely yellow in color, and remains on the tree during the winter. The winter-buds are short, blunt or pointed, the narrow-pointed scales slightly hairy on the margins. The holly has a tap-root and numerous lateral roots. The wood is light, tough, not strong, very close-grained ; nearly white in color ; the thick sapwood somewhat lighter. It is easily worked, takes a beautiful polish and is much used for cabinet- making, interior finish, and turning. IRONWOOD. BUCKEYE. 47 The merchantable holly has been largely cut in the northeast- ern counties; trees large enough for commercial use still remain, however, scattered through counties on the coast. Cyrilla racemiflora, Linnaeus. (iRONWOOD. LEATHER WOOD. BOXWOOD.) A slender tree, with numerous wide-spreading branches, and bright red-brown scaly .bark, reaching a height of 35 feet and a diameter of li inches ; or often a broad bush. It occurs in various situations from North Carolina southward rear the coast to middle Florida, and westward to eastern Texas, reaching its best development o"n the coast of the gulf of Mexico. In this State it is found usually along streams and swamps from Hertford county southward, its western limits passing through Halifax, Wake, and Anson counties. It usually produces seed very abundantly every second year, and young trees and seedlings are common on the borders of swamps and pine barren ponds. Trees are frequently hollow through the entire stem, even when quite young, generally as the result of a broken branch. The small thick oblong leaves are partly evergreen in the extreme eastern part of the State. The numerous whitish flowers appear in slender racemes in the early part of summer, and the very small fruit is broadly egg-shaped. The narrow-pointed winter- buds are covered with chestnut-brown scales. The roots are lateral and superficial. The wood is heavy, hard, weak, close-grained ; light brown in color; the sapwood a little lighter; and is not used in North Carolina. Aesculus octandra, Marshall. (buckeye. sweet BUCKEYE.) A large straight tree, with small, rather pendulous branches 48 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. and dark brown seal}' bark, reaching a height of 90 and a diam- eter of 4 feet, or towards its southern or southwestern limit reduced to a low shrub. It grows in deep fertile soil from Pennsylvania southward along the Alleghanies to northern Georgia and Alabama, and westward to southern Iowa and Indian Territory and western Texas, reach- ing its greatest development in the Alleghany mountains of Ten- nessee and North Carolina. In this State it occurs as a tree in the mountains, and in the Piedmont plateau, where it is reduced to a mere shrub. Trees growing in the open produce seed nearly every year; forest trees less frequently. Seedlings are common except in deep shade, especially in the Piedmont plateau. Young trees grow rapidly if sufficiently exposed to the light. The buckeye stem-borers, Steganoptycha claypoleana, Fernald, and Proteoteras sesculana, Riley, penetrate the leaf-stems and twigs. Trees over 2 feet in diameter, particularly in very damp situations, are apt to be hollow or affected with dry rot. The leaves are composed of 5 to 7 elliptical, pointed, sharply toothed leaflets. The yellowish flowers appear late in spring in large erect clusters, and the fruit is 2 or 3 inches long, with the reddish-brown seeds Ih to 2 inches broad. The winter-buds are large and scaly. The wood is light, soft, compact, and difficult to split; creamy- white in color; the sapwood hardly distinguishable. Although one of the commonest trees in the high mountains, it has but few uses; the softness of the wood and the fact that it decays rapidly when exposed to the weather or in contact with the soil, excludes it from construction. It is sometimes used with linden for ceil- ing and other interior work. Acer spicatum, Lamarck. (mountain maple, swamp dogwood.) A small bushy tree, with slender upright branches and reddish- brown bark, reaching a height of 30 feet and a diameter of 8 inches. • * STRIPED MAPLE. 49 It occurs in the shade of other trees, from the valley of the St. Lawrence westward to northern Minnesota and the Saskatchewan region, and southward to northern Georgia; reaching its best development in the mountains of JSTorth Carolina and Tennessee. In this State, where it is usually a shrub 6 to 10 feet high, it is confined to cold, damp places in the high mountains. It bears seed about every third year ; seedlings are not common ; but young sprouts are very abundant around old trees, which latter are usually hollow. The leaves are 3 or rarely 5-lobed, coarsely toothed and downy beneath. The greenish-yellow flowers are in erect, slender clus- ters. The fruit is bright red in July, turning brown late in the autumn, and is rather more than an inch across. The winter-buds are sharply pointed. The root system is superficial. The wood is light, soft, close grained, compact; light brown in color; the sapwood being much lighter. The mountain maple does not grow large enough for commercial use. Acer pennsylvanicLim, Linnfeus. (striped maple, swamp dogwood, deerwood.) A small tree, with slender, upright branches, and roughened reddish-brown bark. It reaches a height of 40 feet and a diameter of 10 inches, but is often much smaller, and shabby in habit. It occurs from the valley of the Saguenay river westward to northeastern Minnesota, and southward to northern Georgia. It is common in the northern Atlantic states, but reaches its best development in the mountains of Tennessee and the Carolinas. In this State it is confined to the coldest and dampest parts of the high mountains. Seed is produced annually or once in two years. Small trees are very sensitive to fire, but when burned sprout readily from the stump. The leaves are large, 3-lobed at the end, and sharply toothed. They are much eaten by cattle.. The greenish flowers occur in loose, drooping racemes, and the winged fruit is smooth, f inch in length. The bright red winter-buds are stalked. The wood is light, soft, and close-grained ; light brown in color ; 4 •50 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. the thick sapwood of 30 to 40 layers of annual growth, still lighter. It is not used in North Carolina. Acer barbatum, Michaux.* (sugar maple, sugar-tree, eock maple.) A large tree of great commercial value, with a broad round top when old, and light gray-brown deeply furrowed bark, reaching a height of 120 and a diameter of 4 feet. (Plate IV.) It grows in rich woods, often forming extensive forests, and is most abundant in the mountains. It occurs from southern New- foundland to the Lake of the Woods, southward to northern Ala- bama and western Florida, and westward to Minnesota, eastern Nebraska, Kansas and Texas ; reaching its best development in the region of the great lakes. It occurs throughout this State, growing to an average height of from 50 to 80 feet and a diameter of 2 to 3 feet, but is most com- mon in the mountains. It is a small tree in the Piedmont plateau and reduced to a mere shrub in the coastal plain region, where it is confined to borders of streams and swamps. (Fig- 6.). The sugar maple bears seed about every third or fourth year. Seedlings are very abundant in the woods, and bear dense shade remarkably well ; they spring up quickly in thinned woods, also, and where lumbering has been in progress. *Acer saccharinum, Wagn. K/C. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. BXilitETtN 6. PLATE IV. SUGAR MAPLE SILVER MAPLE. 51 Glycobins speciosns, Say, a borer destroys the trees by girdling them or penetrating the wood, and young specimens are killed by a timber beetle, Corthylus punctatissimns, Zimm., which enters and mines the stem at or near the surface of the ground. The leaves are 3 to 5-lobed, with rounded notches, heart-shaped at the base, smooth above, and glaucous beneath The greenish- yellow flowers occur in umbel-like clusters, appearing with the leaves in the spring. The winged fruit is an inch in length. The purple winter-buds are pointed, i inch in length. The sugar maple has a tap-root and numerous strong lateral roots. The wood is heavy, hard, strong, close-grained, tough, and takes a good polish. The heartwood is light brown ; the thin sapwood, of 30 or 40 layers of annual growth, somewhat lighter. It is more valuable than the wood of any other American maple, and is largely used as fuel, for interior finish, furniture, and turnery, in sliip-building, for the handles of tools, saddle-trees, shoe-lasts, shoe-pegs. Curled and bird's-eye Tnaple are highly prized for cabinet work. Maple sugar is produced chiefly from this tree, and its ashes make a valuable fertilizer. Acer saccharinum, Linnaeus.* (silver maple, maple, soft maple.) A large tree, with upright main branches and pendulous branchlets, and reddish-brown scaly bark, reaching a height of 12*) and a diameter of 4 feet. It grows in rich soil, and is most common west of the Alleghany mountains. It occurs from New Brunswick to Ontario, southward to western Florida, westward to eastern Dakota, eastern Nebraska, the valley of the Blue river, Kansas and the Indian Territory, reaching its best development in the basin of the lower Ohio river. 'In this State, where it is not very common, it occurs in the upper part of the Piedmont plateau and in the mountains along streams and in cool situations, and attains a height of 30 to 60 and a diameter of 1 to 2 feet. *Acer dasycarpum, Ehrh. 52 TIMBEK TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA.- Yonn^ growth is frequent on moist land, where the forest cover is light, and in old fields. It produces seed at irregular intervals, and for the most part, not abundantly. Trees under a foot in diameter sprout freely from the stump. Very large specimens are apt to be hollow. The deeply cut 5 lobed leaves are pale green above and silvery white beneath. The crowded clusters of greenish-yellow flowers appear before the leaves in early spring, and the pale chestnut- brown winged fruit is prominently netted- veined, and from IJ to 3 inches in length. The short thick winter-buds are covered with bright red scales. The silver maple has a small tap-root and numerous strong lateral roots. The wood is hard, strong, close-grained, compact, easily worked, and rather brittle ; faintly tinged with brown, with thick sapwood composed of 40 to 50 layers of annual growth. It is sometimes used for cheap furniture and flooring. Maple sugar is occasion- ally made from this tree. Acer rubrum, Linnseus. (red maple, sw^amp maple, maple.) A slender tree, with upright branches and dark gray flaky bark, reaching a height of 120 and a dian)eter of 4ri feet. It grows in low, moist situations, from Quebec and the Lake of the Woods southward to the Indian river, Florida, and w^est to the easte!rn parts of Dakota, Nebraska, Indian Territory, and Texas; and reaches its best development on the lower Ohio and its trib- utaries. In this State it occurs in swamps and low grounds, from the coast to the mountains, but is most abundant in the coastal plain. There is a large production of seed about every second year; young trees are always common in damp woods and along streame. Old trees sprout from the stump less rapidly than younger ones. The leaves are smaller and not so deeply cleft as those of the silver maple. The flowers, which appear early in spring, are bright scarlet or, less commonly, dull yellowisb-red. The winged fruit is scarlet, dark red or brown, J to 1 inch in length ; it ripens BOXELDER. 53 early in summer and sprouts immediately on falling to the ground. The short winter-buds are blunt and covered with thick dark red scales. The red maple has numerous strong lateral roots. The wood is very heavy, close-grained, easily worked, and not very strong. It is light brown in color; the thick sapwood, some- what, lighter. But little has been cnt in North Carolina. It is employed mainly for interior Unish, furniture, gunstocks and similar uses. Maple sugar is occasionally made from this species, the sap being mixed with that of the sugar jnaple ; and there does not appear to be any marked difference betvv^een the sap from the two species, except that that from the red maple contains a smaller per cent, of sugar. Acer negundo, Linnaeus.* (boxelder. ashleaf maple.) A tree, with a short trunk, and light gray or brown, deeply furrowed bark, reaching a height of 70 and a diameter of 4 feet. It ranges from Yermont to Florida; extending northwest and west to Lake Winnipeg, and the eastern slopes of the Rocky moun- tains ; and southward to Texas, New Mexico and Arizona. It grows on the banks of streams and lakes and the borders of swamps, reaching its best development in the valleys of the tributaries of the lower Ohio river. In good soil it grows rapidly. In North Carolina it is rare in the coastal plain region, but common in the Piedmont plateau and west to the mountains, attaining an average height of 15 to 25 feet. The leaves are composed of from 3 to 5 or rarely, sparingly toothed leaflets. The yellowish-green flowers occur in drooping clusters, usually appearing before the leaves; the sterile and fer- tile flowers on separate trees. The winged fruit is 1 J to nearly 2 inches long, with the thin netted-veined wings diverging at a very sharp angle. The winter-bads are covered with pale down; the lateral buds blunt, the terminal bud acute. The light, soft, weak, close-grained wood is creamy-white, with a thick and hardly distinguishable sapwood. It is sometimes used for interior finish, * Neguudo aceroides, Moeucli. 54 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. cheap furniture, woodenware, cooperage and paper pulp. Maple sugar is occasionally made from this species. Robinia pseudacacia, Linnaeus. (locust, black locust, yellow locust.) A slender tree, with erect brittle branches forming an oblong head, and deeply furrowed dark brown bark. It reaches a height of 80 and a diameter of 4 feet. It occurs from Pennsylvania to Georgia along the Appalachian mountains, growing with hickory, black walnut, ash, white oak, and the chestnut ; and reaches its best development on the western slopes of the mountains in West Virginia. It has been natural- ized in most of the states east of the Rocky mountains. MAP OF NORTH CAKOLINA MTKe^^ .. 00AST_AL_PLA1N__REG|0N_ LEGEND Area in which the YELLOW LOCUST is in- digenous (Robinia pseudacacia, Z.) Area in which the YELLOW LOCUST has been extensively naturalized. In this State it occurs on the lower ridges of the mountains, and probably for some distance east of the Blue Ridge. (Fig. 7.) Forest trees bear seed only once in three or four years. In the open the production of seed is more frequent and seedlings, which are short-lived in the shade, more common. The locust is readily propagated by root suckers, and trees as large as one foot in diameter sprout from the stump. The growth is rapid in youth ; in mature trees much slower. When cut in the forest^ it is usually succeeded by oaks and chestnut. Old trees are apt to be hollow at the butt, and frequently in the upper part of the stem, from the entrance of water where the brittle limbs have been broken off. CLAMMY LOCUST. 55 A borer, Oyllene robinise, Forster, destroys the value of large trees or kills them entirely, and bark beetles often kill the young plants. The timber is also attacked by the larvse of Xylesthia clemensella, Chamb. The leaves consist of from 7 to 19 thin ovate leaflets. The white flowers appear in April in large drooping clusters, and the bright red-brown fruit is a stout pod 3 to 4 inches long. The minute naked winter-buds are inconspicuous. The locust has numerous superficial lateral roots. The wood is heavy, hard, clo:^e-grained, and very durable in contact with the soil ; brown or light green in color ; the very thin sapwood, of 2 to 3 layers of annual growth, pale yellow. It is extensively used in ship building and for treenails, construction, posts, and other purposes where durability in contact with the ground is desired. It is excellent fuel, and is altogether one of the most valuable timbers of the American forest. The bark of the root is tonic, purgative, and emetic. Large quantities of locust have been cut in Jackson, Macon, Swain, and Rutherford counties. Robinia viscosa, Ventenat. (clammy locust.) A small tree, with slender spreading branches and smooth dark brown bark, reaching a height of 40 feet and a diameter of 12 inches. It occurs in the high mountains of the Carolinas, and has be- come extensively naturalized east of the Mississippi. In this State it is found on Buzzard ridge in Macon county, growing as a shrub only a few feet high. It has not been seen growing wild in any other locality since the time of Michaux. The twigs and leaf-stalks are covered with a sticky substance. The rose-colored flowers are in short rather compact clusters and the fruit is a pod 2 to 3i inches in length. The minute winter- buds are covered up in the scars of the leaves of the previous season. 56 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. The wood is heavy, hard, close-grained, and brown in color ; the thin sapwood light yellow. Cladrastis lutea, Koch. (yellow W(^0D. virgilia. chittam.) A tree, with branching trunk, wide-spread pendulous branches, and smooth silvery gray or light brown bark, reaching a height of 60 and a diameter of 4 feet. It occurs in central Kentucky, central Tennessee, on the moun- tains of eastern Tennessee and in North Carolina, and is one of the rarest and most local trees of eastern North America. It grows generally in rich soil, and reaches its best development near Nashville, Tenn. In this State, where it is found in Swain, Clay, Macon, and Cherokee counties, it has an average diameter of 18 inches and a height of about 40 feet. Large numbers of pods are borne about every second year, but they contain many abortive seeds. Seedlings are common near old trees, when cattle are excluded. Numerous sprouts come up around old trees and about live stumps. In Clay county a" large part of the foliage of yellow wood is often destroyed in the early fall by the leaf miner insect. The leaves are composed of 7 to 11 broadly oval entire leaflets placed alternately along the leaf stalks. The white flowers are borne in long terminal drooping racemes. The fruit is a pod IJ to 4 inches in length. The lustrous brown downy winter-buds are in fours, superposed, and crowded together to form a cone. The superficial lateral roots are long and very tough. The wood is heavy, very hard, strong and close-grained ; bright clear yellow in color; the thin sapwood almost white. It takes a good polish, is used for fuel and gunstocks, and yields a clear yellow dye. Gleditschia triacanthos, Linnaeus. (honey locust.) A large tree, with slender spreading branches and dark rough deeply fissured bark, reaching a height of 140 andadiameter of 6feet. REDBUD. JUDAS TREE. 57 It occurs from Pennsylvania westward to eastern Nebraska, Kansas, and. Indian Territory, southward to northern Alabama, Mississippi, and Texas, reaching its best development in southern Indiana and Illinois. It has been naturalized east of the Alle- ghany mountains, growing in moist fertile soil, or less commonly on dry gravelly hills. The honey locust is scarcely known as a forest tree in Noi'tli Corolina. Specimens of it, however, are found commonly on farms and along fences in the Piedn.ont plateau, and sparingly in the other sections. It bears some seed every year and a large amount every third year. Seedlings, which are frequently found on dry ground under old trees, grow very rapidly. Sprouts are common about young spe(umens and appear quickly around the stumps of felled trees. The leaves consist of numerous small, oblong, rpiiiotely toothed leaflets, and are sonietimes doubly pinnate. The inconspicuous greenish flowers are in small spikes, and the fruit is a dark brown pod, often 10 to 18 inches in length. The minute winter-buds occur three or four together. ^'^ery sharp and rigid three-forked or simple spines, 3 to 4 inches long, and bright chestnnt-brown in color, are very plentiful on some individuals and nearly or quite wanting in others. The honey locust hns long superficial roots. The wood is hard, strong, coarse-grained, and very durable in contact with the ground ; red or bright red brown in color; the sap wood, of 10 to 12 layers of annual growth, thin and pale. It is largely used for fencing, for the hubs of wheels, and somewhat in construction. Cercis canadensis, Linnaeus. (rEDBUD. JUDAS TREE.) A small tree, with a short trunk, bright red-brown furrowed bark, and smooth light brown or grsij branches, reaching a height of 50 feet and a diameter of 12 inches. It is found from New^ Jersey to Florida, Alabama and Missis- sippi, Indian Territory, Louisiana and Texas, growing on the bor- 58 ■ TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. ders of swamps and in rich bottom lands ; and it reaches its best development in southern Arkansas, Indian Territory, and eastern Texas. In North Carolina, where it attains a height of 15 to 25 feet, it occurs in the coastal plain and Piedmont plateau regions. The dark green glossy leaves are broadly ovate, pointed at the apex, and truncate or heart-shaped at the base. The conspicuous bright purplish-red flowers are in clusters along the branches, and appear before or with the leaves in early spring. The fruit is an oblong compressed many-seeded pod, from 2 J to 3 J inches long. The winter-buds are blunt and chestnut-brown in color. The wood is rather coarse-grained, heavy, hard, and not very strong. Its color is a rich dark brown, tinged with red ; the thin sapwood lighter. Prunus pennsylvanica, Linnaeus. (wild red cherry, fire cherry, bird cherry, peruvian.) A small tree, with slender branches, a narrow head and smooth reddish-brown, or in old trees, dark red-brown scaly bark. It reaches a height of 30 to 40 i'eet and a diameter of 12 to 18 inches ; but at its northern and western limits it is a low shrub. It occurs from ISTewfoundland to British Columbia, south through the northern states to Pennsylvania, Michigan, Illinois, and Iowa, on the eastern slopes of the Pocky mountains in Col- orado, and along the Alleghany mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee; and readies its best development on moist, rather rich soil, in the Big Smoky mountains of Tennessee. It often takes possesifion of groiind which has been cleared by fire. In North Carolina it is confined to damp situations on the slopes of high mountains, above an elevation of 3,500 feet. (Fig 8, p. 59) It bears seed in great abundance, and usually every year. After spruce or Carolina balsam, or sometimes beech and maple forests, have been burned, a growth of fire cherry often springs up, but it is apt to be replaced by the original growth in about forty years, which is the average length of life for this tree. The oblong, sharply pointed leaves are finely toothed, shining N. C. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. BULLETIN 6. PLATE V. A GROUP OF WILD CHERRY TREES WILD BLACK CHERRY. 59 green and smooth on both sides. The white flowers appear late in the spring in numerous clusters, and the fruit is small, round and bright red. The light, soft, close-grained compact wood is light brown in color ; the sapwood a clear yellow. Prunus serotina, Ehrhardt. (wild black cherry.) A tree of the first commercial importance, with small horizontal branches and dark red-brown scaly bark, reaching a height of lOO feet and a diameter of 5 feet. (Plate Y.) It occurs from Nova Scotia to Tampa Bay in Florida, and west- ward to the Missouri river in Dakota, eastern Nebraska and Kan- sas, Indian Territory and Texas, and is found also in southern New Mexico and Arizona, and in parts of Mexico, Central and South America. It rtaches its best development on the high slopes of the Alleghany mountains. It was once common in all the Appa- lachian region, growing with the white oak, the white ash, the green ash, the sugar maple, the yellow buckeye, the hickories and the black birch. MAP OF NORTH CAKOLINA ctr^i^«,.-^^c2^!L^.LL^-:ffS^i Area in which the WILD BLACK CHERRY occurs as a small tree of little commercial importance (Prunus serotina, Ehrh.) Area in which the WILD BLACK CHERRY occurs as a large tree of the first economic importance. rjTT??] Distribution of the WILD RED CHERRY ''•'''•' (Prunus p ennsylva nica, L.) In this State, where it attains an average height of 60 to 80 and a diameter of 2 to 3 feet, it occurs through all parts of the State^ but is less common in the coastal plain, where the soil and climate are not so favorable to its growth. It reaches its best dimensions on the rich cool slopes of the mountains. (Fig. 8.) 60 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. Forest trees bear fruit abundantly about every third or fourth year; trees growing in the open more frequently. Seedlings are ■common in moist, rather open situations. In the higher monn- tains, where only it grows large enough to be of economic impor- tance, trees over three feet in diameter are apt to be hollow or red- hearted. Old trees are often shaky. After lumbering, the black <}herry is frequently followed by birch, ash, spruce, and maple. Clisiocampa americana. Stretch, the tent caterpillar, destroys the young trees by denuding them of their foliage. The leaves are oblong, smooth, taper-pointed, and finely-serrate with short incurved teeth. The flowers appear in late spring in long, slender, drooping racemes; and the fruit is bitter, nearly black when ripe, and from J to J inch in diameter. The blunt oi pointed winter-buds are bright chestnut-brown. The wood is light, strong, rather hard, with a close straight grain ; light brown or red in color; the thin sapwood, of 10 or 12 layers of annual growth, yellow. It takes a beautiful polish, and no other North American wood is more suitable for cabinet-mak- ing and fine interior finish. The largest and best trees in all parts ■of the country have already been cut. The bark yields tonics and sedatives. There are only a few bodies of fine trees still standing in west- ern North Carolina. They are situated principally in Mitchell, Yancey, Swain and Macon counties. Auielanchier canadensis, Medicus (service TREE. SHAD BUSH. WILD CURRANT.) A small tree, with a tall trunk, sms-ll spreading branches, and pale red-brown scaly bark, reaching a height of 50 feet and a diameter of 18 inches. It occurs from Newfoundland along the shores of the Great Lakes, southward to northern Florida, and westward to Minnesota, eastern Nebraska, eastern Kansas, Louisiana, and southern Arkan- sas ; reaching its best development in the mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee. In the coastal plain region of North (^arolina it is hardly more than a shrub, and is known as wild currant. It reaches its largest SWEET GUM. 61 size on the shaded slopes of the mountains, where it is called service tree. About every third year this tree bears fruit in large quantities ; during intermediate years, sparingly or not at all. Seedlings are common in moist and shady woods. The leaves are small, finely toothed, acute at the apex and rounded or heart-shaped at the base. The white flowers appear in drooping racemes in early spring. The sweet edible rounded fruit is dark purple when ripe, and from -3- to i inch in diameter. The pale chestnut-brown pointed winter-buds, I inch long, are covered w4th slightly hairy scales. The service tree has numerous superficial lateral roots. The wood is heavy, exceedingly hard, strong and close-grained ; dark brown in color ; the thick sapwood, of 40 to 50 layers of annual growth, lighter. It takes a good polish, and is occasionally used for the handles of tools. In North Carolina the wood has few uses ; large numbers of trees, however, are cut every year for the fruit. Liquidambar styraciflua, Linnseus. (sweet gum. red gum.) A large tree, with straight cylindrical trunk, dark deeply fur- rowed bark, and branches often winged with corky ridges. It reaches a height of 140 and a diameter of 5 to 6 feet. It occurs from Connecticut to Missouri, south to Central Florida and westward, through Arkansas and Indian Territory, to Texas, reaching its best development in the bottom lands of the Mississippi basin. It is common in low wet situations. In this State, where it attains an average height of about 60 and an avera2:e diameter of 2 to 3 feet, it is common in moist situ- ations from the coast to the mountains. (Fig. 9, p. 62.) West of the Blue Kidge it is sometimes found south of the French Broad river. It is in the coastal plain that it attains its largest dimen- sions, growing frequently in deep swamps with the black gum and cypress, to a diameter of 5 or 6 feet and height of one hundred feet. 02 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. Sweet gmn bears fruit annually or every other year, but much of the seed is abortive. Youno; seedlings are common on damp hillsides and bottom lands that have been cleared, they are also LEGEND I Area m which the SWEET OUM attains largest size and is most abundant ' (Liquidambar styraciflua, L.) ^Aroa in which th.> SWEET GUM is less =3 abundant and reaches a smaller size. frequent in damp pine woods, where, however, they seldom develop into large trees. Af:er sweet gam has been cut a thick growth of the same species usually springs up together with yellow pop- lar, white oak and maple. The largest specimens are frequently hollow at the butt. ^This tree sprouts freely from the stump. The smooth shining leaves are deeply 5 to T-cleft with sharp pointed finely toothed divisions. The inconspicuous flowers occur in early spring.. The fruit is a long-stalked, globular, dry, rough head, hanging on the tree through the winter. The acute ovate winter-bnds are dark brown in color. The sweet gum has a very large and long tap-root, as well as long superficial roots. The wood is heavy, hard, not strong, rather tough, close-grained, and liable to warp and shrink ; bright brown in color ; the sap- wood nearly white. It takes a good polish and is used for floor- ing, clapboards, cabinet work, veneering, barrels, and street paving. The balsamic exudation is sometimes employed in cases of catarrh and as an ointment. Only an inconsiderable quantity has been sawed in the State, DOGWOOD. BLACK GUM. 63 but it is now being largely used for the manufacture of crates baskets, veneering, barrels, etc. Cornus florida, Linna-us. (dogwood, flowering dogwood, boxwood.) A small tree, with flattened spreading top and rough blackish bark, reaching a height of 40 feet and a diameter of 18 inches. It is common in rich woods from southern Kew England west to southern Ontario, and south to Florida and eastern Texas. In this State, where it reaches an average height of 12 to 20 feet, it occurs throughout. In the coastal plain it forms a lower story under the long-leaf pine. In the Piedmont plateau and mountain region it grows under oaks, hickories and yellow poplar. Dogwood generally bears fruit abundantly every year, and young seedlings are common in open woods, and in mixed coppice woods on moist soil. AVhen once started it bears a deep shade. The acute ovate leaves are opposite and often somewhat clustered toward the ends of the branchlets. The flowfers occur in a head surrounded by 4 white bracts, which make the cluster appear like a single large flower, and the bright red oval fruit grows in bunches. The awl-shaped leaf-buds, as well as the twigs, are pur- plish and covered with a whitish bloom. The rounded flattened grayish-brown flower-buds replace the terminal buds on the fertile branches. The dogwood has numerous long lateral roots. The wood is hard, heavy, strong, close-grained, and tough ; brown in color ; the sapwood lighter. It takes a beautiful polish, and is extensively used for turnery, wood engraving, the bearings of machinery, the hubs of wheels, barrel hoops, shuttles, spindles, etc. The bark yields a tonic. Large quantities have been cut in the eastern and central sec- tions of the State, along the railroads, and manufactured into spindle, shuttle, and shoe-last blocks, but the supply has by no means been exhausted. Nyssa sylvatica, Marshall. (black gum. sour gum.) A large tree, with horizontal branches and short spur-like lateral 64 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. braiichlets, reaching a height of 100 and a diameter of 5 feet. The bark' is deeply cut, liglit brown, often tinged with red, or, as in some large specimens in the coastal plain region of this State, scaly or nearly smooth, dark brown or black. It occurs from Maine and Yermont to central Michigan, and southward to Tamj^a bay, Florida, and the Brazos river, Texas. In North Carolina, where it has an average height of 50 to 60 feet and an average diameter of about 2 feet, it occurs in the swamps and wet lands of the coastal plain and Piedmont plateau, and in the mountains up to an elevation of 3,000 feet, along dry ridges with red and white' oaks and chestnut. In the eastern sections, with the sweet gum and water ash, it forms a large part of the growth of the deeper swamps, and there reaches its largest size within the State. (Fig. 10.) It produces seed plentifully once in two or three years, and young seedlings appear in moist open woods and on cypress lands after lumbering. Large trees are apt to be hollow at the butt and frequently through the whole stem. The black gum sprouts readily from the stump. The rather thick shining leaves are oblong, pointed and usually entire. The greenish flowers, which appear after the leaves in spring, are inconspicuous, and the bluish-black oval fruit is about J-inch long. The dark brown conical buds are slightly thicker than the smooth flexible twigs. The black gum has deeply seated lateral and numerous superficial roots. TUPELO GUM. 65 The wood is heavy, strong, soft, very tough, and hard to split and vs^ork, inclined to check, and not durable in contact with the soil ; light yellow or nearly white in color ; the thick sapwood lighter, often hardly distinguishable. It is used for the hubs of wheels, rollers in glass factories, ox yokes, and piles. Yery little has been cut in tliis State for lumber. In the last few years, however, it has been coming into use as a cheap mate- rial for boxes and trucking barrels. Nyssa aquatica, Marshall. (tupelo gum.) A large tree, with dark brown, deeply farrowed, or, in old speci- mens, scaly, smoothish bark, reaching a height of 100 and a diameter of 4 feet. It occurs from southern Virginia to Georgia, through the Gulf states to Texas, and through Arkansas and southern Missouri to Illinois; reaching its best development in the cypress swamps of western Louisiana and southeastern Texas. In this State it is confined to the deep swamps of the coastal plain, where it grows with cypress, water ash and black gum, attaining a height of 80 and a diameter of 4 feet above the trumpet-shaped base. (Fig. 10, p. 61.) Seed years are frequent. Young trees are common along moist? deep swamps, in open woods, and iu spots where the cypress has" been removed. The large swollen butt, S to 15 feet in diameter, is usually hollow, and there is frequently also a hollow in the top of the stem, where a branch has been broken ofi". The middle of •the trunk is nearly always sound. The leaves are larger than in the preceding species, dark green and smooth above and somewhat downy below. The yellowish- green flowers appear in March and April. The oblong fruit is dark purple and an inch or more in length. The smooth light brown terminal buds are nearly round, the lateral buds minute. The twigs are slightly angular, light brown and smooth, and much thicker than those of the black gum. There are numerous lateral and superficial roots. 5 66 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. The wood is light, soft, not strong, close-grained, compact, uuwedgeable,and light brown or nearly white in color. It is used for turning, woodenware, broomhandles, and wooden shoes. The roots are sometimes used as a substitute for cork for net floats. The wood has only a few local uses in North Carolina. Oxydendron arboreum, De Candolle. (SOURWOOD. SORREL TREE.) A small tree, with pendulous branches and deeply furrowed gray-brown bark, reaching a height of 60 feet and a diameter of 20 inches. It grows usually in rather dry soil, and occurs from western Pennsylvania along the Alleghany mountains to western Florida and Mobile bay, westward to middle Tennessee, and through the northern portions of the Gulf states to western Louisiana. It attains its best development in eastern Tennessee. In North Carolina, where it reaches a height of 50 to 60 feet and a diameter of 12 to 15 inches, it is rare (and usually a shrub) in the coastal plain, not uncommon in the Piedmont plateau, and most abundant in the lower parts of the mountains. It reaches its largest size on the eastern slopes of the Blue Ridge. The sourwood bears seed prolifically and for the most part every year. Young seedlings are usually very abundant, espe- cially in rather dry woods which have been thinned. Sprouts grow readily from the stump, but do not attain a very large size. Trees over 10 inches in diameter are usually hollow. The small rounded fruit is in large loose clusters. The oblong pointed leaves are acid, whence the name. The flowers and fruil? occur in loose drooping panicles, 7 to 8 inches long. The red win- ter-buds are very small, and the flexible twigs are mahogany-red in color. The sourwood has numerous lateral roots. This tree is especially prized on account of the delicious transparent honey made from the flowers. The wood is heavy, hard, very close-grained, compact, brown in color; the sapwood somewhat lighter. It takes a beautiful LA.UREL. IVY. 67 polish, and is used for the handles of tools, bearings of machin- ery, etc. Kalmia latifolia, Linnaeus. (laurel, ivy. wicky.) A small evergreen tree, with short crooked branches, and dark reddish-brown furrowed bark, the narrow ridges separating into long scales. It reaches a height of 40 feet and a diameter of 20 inches. It occurs in rich woodlands from New Brunswick and Lake Erie to western Florida, and through the Gulf states to western Louisiana and the valley of the "Red river, Arkansas ; reaching its best development in the southern Alleghany mountains, where it often forms dense impenetrable thickets. In this State, where it grows to an average height of 10 to 15 feet, it is most abundant in the mountains, but occurs in the Pied- mont plateau, and extends into the coastal plain region. The laurel bears seed every year, and for the most part in abundance. Young seedlings, in all stages of growth, are com- mon in moist open places in the mountain region, and above 3,000 feet on rather dry soil. The fires which are frequent on these dry ridges are very destructive to both young and old plants, but the laurel sprouts so freely from the stump that it often takes exclu- sive possession of areas subject to repeated fires. The evergreen leaves are thick, smooth, entire, acute at the apex and contracted at the base. The white or pink fiowers are produced in conspicuous clusters at the ends of the branches, and the rounded fruit set with sticky hairs is ripe in September. The winter-buds are small, oblong, and greenish. The roots consist of many large knots and burls, from which strong lateral roots diverge. The wood is heavy, hard, strong, brittle, close-grained, and com- pact, brown in color; the sapwood somewhat lighter, and the broad medullary rays darker. It takes a good polish, and is used for the handles of tools, in turnery, and for fuel. The leaves, from which an ointment is made, are supposed to be poisonous to cattle. The root-burls, sometimes called ivy grubs, are used in 68 TIMBER TEEES OF NORTH CAROLINA. turnery. Large quantities are taken out at Cranberry, Elk Park, and many other places in the mountain counties. Rhododendron maximum, Linnaeus. (rhododendron, laurel.) A small tree, with spreading top and grayish-brown scaly bark, reaching a height of 40 feet and a diameter rarely exceeding twelve inches; or more frequently a tall straggling shrub. It occurs from Nova Scotia and Lake Erie south through ISTew England, New York, and along the Alleghanies to northern Georgia ; reaching its best development on the steep rocky banks of streams in the southern Alleghany mountains. It is never found on limestone soils. In North Carolina, where it grows to an average height of 8 to 12 feet, it is very common in the mountains, often forming impenetrable thickets, and occurs in ravines in the Piedmont counties as far east as Surry and Gaston. Rhododendron usually produces seed every year, and young seedlings are common in moist open spots. Numerous sprouts appear around old trunks and around the stumps after cutting. Several stems generally grow from the same burly roots. The thick leathery evergreen leaves are acute at the apex and narrowed toward the base. The flowers are pale rose-color or white, dotted with yellowish-green spots, and are produced in large compact clusters at the ends of the branchlets. The dark red-brown fruit is a dry capsule, half an inch long, and encloses many seeds. The buds are large, scaly and conical. The wood is heavy, hard, strong, brittle, close-grained, com- pact, light clear brown -in color; the sapwood lighter. It is occasionally employed in turnery, for tool handles, etc. A decoc- tion of the leaves is used for rheumatism, sciatica, etc. Diospyros virginiana, Linnaeus. (persimmon.) A small tree, with slender branches forming a rounded top and rough, dark brown, gray or black bark, reaching a height of 115 and a diameter of 2 feet. PERSIMMON. 69 It occurs commonly in old fields from southern Connecticut to southern Ohio and southeastern Iowa, south to Bay Biscayne, Florida, southern Alabama and Mississippi, and west to southern Missouri, Arkansas, eastern Kansas and Indian Territory, and the valley of the Colorado river, Texas ; and reaches its best development in the lower Ohio basin. In this State, where it reaches an average height of 30 to 40 feet and an average diameter of 18 to 20 inches, it is found throughout, except in Ashe, Watauga, Mitchell, and Yancey counties and in the higher mountains. (Fig. 11.) MAP OF NORTH CAROLINA 'i^ LEGEND Distribution of the PERSBIMON (Diospyros virginiana, Z.) Fertile trees bear fruit in abnndance annually or every second year. Seedlings are common near the old trees in damp soil, and in old fields when protected from fire. Young plants are short- lived in deep shade. The rather thick smooth shining leaves are oval, dark green above, pale and often downy below. The yellowish flowers are small and inconspicuous, the male and female usually produced on separate trees. The edible fruit is rounded, about one inch in diameter, and orange-red when ripe. The winter-buds are small, egg-shaped and pointed. The persimmon has thick fleshy black stoloniferous roots ; it has a taproot as well as numerous long lateral roots. The wood is heavy, hard, strong, very close-grained, compact; the heartwood, seen only in very old specimens, dark brown to nearly black in color ;- the thick sapwood lighter brown with dark spots. It takes a good polish, and is used for shoe-lasts, plane 70 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. stocks, shuttles, large screws, mallets and the shafts of wagons. A decoction for diarrhoea, hemorrhage, etc., is made from the fruit, from which persimmon beer is also produced. Large quantities have been cut in North Carolina near the rail- roads. Mohrodendron carolinum, Britton.* (snowdrop tree, silverbell tree.) A tree of medium or small size, with reddish-brown, broadly ridged bark, and bright biown smooth branches striped with pale shallow longitudinal fissures, sometimes reaching a height of 90 and a diameter of 3 feet. It occurs commonly in rich soil along streams from the moun- tains of West Yirginia to southern Illinois, southward to middle Florida, central Alabama and Mississippi, and^through Arkansas to western Louisiana and eastern Texas; reaching its best devel- opment in the southern Alleghany mountains. In this State, where it reaches an average height of 15 to 25 feet, it is found in the Piedmont plateau as far east as Surry and Mecklenburg, and thence westward it is not uncommon, especially along the upper portions of the water courses. The silverbell tree produces seed every tw^o or three years and young plants are common in damp shady woods. Specimens over one foot in diameter are apt to be hollow. The thin leaves are finely serrate, light green above, pale, and slightly downy below. The flowers, which appear with the leaves in spring, are white, bell-shaped, and are borne by slender drooping stems. The large dry fruit, about IJ inches long, has four wings and contains a bony nut. The hairy winter- buds are small, obtuse, and dark red or light brown. The wood is light, soft, close-grained, compact, light brown in color; the sapwood lighter. It has no uses in North Carolina. Praxinus americana, LinnEeus. (white ash.) A large tree of the first commercial value, with stout, apright *Halesia tetraptera, Linnajus. N. C GEOLOGICAL StTRVEY, BULLETIN 6. PLATE VI. WHITE ASH WHITE ASH. 71 or spreading branches and grayish furrowed bark, reacliing a height of 120 and a diameter of 6 feet. (Plate VI.) It grows in low, rather moist soil, from Nova Scotia to northern Minnesota, southward to .northern Florida, central Alabama and Mississippi, and west to eastern Nebraska, Kansas, Indian Terri- tory, and eastern Texas ; reaching its best development in the basin of the Ohio river. In North Carolina, where it grows to an average height of 50 to 80 and a diameter of 2 to 3 feet, it occurs throughout the Stale. (Fig. 12.) MAP OF NOKTH CAROLINA SCALE COASTAL PLAIN REGION _ LEGEND Distribution of the WHITE ASH (Fraxinus -americana, L.) 0=0=0=0 Western limits of the WATER ASH (Fraxinus caroliniana, Mill.') The white ash produces seed abundantly about every 3 or 4 years, though individual trees along streams, or when isolated, bear more frequently. The young seedlings, which are not com- mon, stand shade well, and are usually found in moist situations, often at a considerable distance from the parent tree. Large trees are usually sound, but somstimes have large heart-cracks. In the mountains a mixed growth of oaks, lin, and buckeye replace the white ash after lumbering. The timber is attacked while still standing, especially when growing in swamps, by Fatua denudata, Harris, the ash sesia. The leaves are composed of 5 to 9, usually 7, stalked leaflets. The inconspicuous flowers appear before the leaves in spring, Hhe male and female on separate trees, and the narrow-winged fruit is IJ to 2 inches long. The rust-colored winter-buds are. covered 72 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. with short hairs. The ash has numerous deep-seated lateral roots. The wood is heavy, hard, strong, coarse-grained, tough, becom- ing brittle with age ; the heartwood brown ; the sapwood nearly white. It is extensively used for agricultural implements, wagon- making, handles, oars, cabinet and interior work, and by ship- wrights, turners, and coopers. Large quantities have been sawed in the mountains of this State, chiefly for lumber and furniture. Asheville, Dlllsboro, and Elk Park are important centres for the manufacture of ash lum- ber. In 1892 about 8,000,000 feet was sawed in the mountain counties and shipped mainly to Cincinnati and Philadelphia. About as ranch more was manufactured during the same year in other parts of the State. A large amount of white ash is still standing in the mountain region and in some of the river swamps of the eastern counties. Praxinus pennsyvanica, Marshall. (red ash. ash.) A tree of medium size, with stout, upright branches and slightly furrowed dark gray or deep |brown bark, reaching a height of 60 feet and a diameter of 20 inches. It occurs in rich moist ground from jSTew Brunswick to south- ern Ontario and northern Minnesota, and southward to northern Florida and central Alabama; attaining its best development in the northern Atlantic states. It is rare west of the Alleghany mountains. In this State, where it grows to a height of 50 to 60 feet, it is confined to the Piedmont plateau. The red ash produces seed about as often as the white ash, but seedlings are less common and confined principally to the neighborhood of water courses. Numerous sprouts spring up after cutting, but do not develop into large trees. Birch, white oak and red maple usually form the growth after lumbering. The leaflets are 7 to 9 in number, obscurely toothed, narrowed at the apex into long, slender points, lustrous on the upper sur- GKBEN ASH. WATER ASH. 73 face, and downy beneath ; the leafstalks also covered with a silky down. The male and female flowers appear on separate trees late in spring, and the narro^N- winged fruit is like that of the white ash, except that the end of the wing is usually more rounded. The dark, russet-brown rounded winter-bud is downy. The red ash has numerous lateral and superficial roots. The wood is heavy, hard, strong, brittle, close-grained and com- pact, rich brown in color ; tlie sapwood light brown streaked with yellow. It is used for paper pulp and for the same purposes as that of the white ash, to wdiich it is inferior. Fraxinus pennsylvanica var. lanceolata, S.irgent. (gkeen ash. ash.) A tree of medium size, with slender, spreading branches and gray or dark brown bark, rarely exceeding 60 feet in height and 24. inches in diameter. It occurs in low, rather moist soil, from Vermont to northern Florida, w^estward to the valley of the Saskatchewan river and the Rocky mountains of Montana, th^ Wasatch mountains of Utah and the eastern and northern ranges of Arizona. It is most abundant in the Mississippi basin. It is not a common tree in North Carolina, and is confined to the upper part of the coastal plain and to the Piedmont plateau, where it reaches a height of 60 and a diameter of 2 feet. The leaflets are smooth and ])right green on both sides, and narrower, shorter, and often more sharply toothed than those of the red ash. In the West the species and variety are connected by many intermediate forms. East of the Mississippi river the trees are quite distinct. The wood is heavy, hard, strong, brittle, rather coarse-grained; brown in color; the thick sapwood lighter. It is inferior in quality to the wood of the white ash, but in this State is not dis- tinguished from it commercially. Fraxinus caroliniana, Milkr. (water ash.) A small tree, with slender branches which form a narrow top, 74 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. and light gray furrowed bark, reaching a height of 40 feet and a diameter of 12 inches. It occurs in deep river swamps from southeastern Virginia near the coast to Florida, westward through the Gulf states to the valley of the Sabine river, Texas, and southwestern Arkansas. It is also found in Cuba, In North Carolina, where it reaches an average height of 30 to 40 feet, it is confined to the deep swamps of the coastal plain region. (Fig. 12, p. 71.) It bears seed abundantly every year or two. Trees in deep swamps have swollen butts w^iich are usually hollow, but as a general rule the upper part of the stem is sound. The leaves are composed of from 5 to 7 larsre, long-stalked leaf- lets. The male and tpmale flowers appear in February and March upon separate trees. In the fruit the wings extend to the bottom of the seed, and are sometimes three in number. The winter-buds are chestnut-brown in color. The water ash has numerous deeply seated lateral roots. The wood is light, soft, not strong, brittle, close-grained, and compact ; the heartwood nearly white, sometimes tinged with yel- low ; the sapwood lighter. It is of less value than that of many of the other ashes. In the eastern section of North Carolina it is largely manufac- tured into lumber. The best logs are usually sawed into furni- ture squares. Persea borbonia, Spiengtl. (red bay. sweet bay.) An evergreen tree, with dark brown-green branches and deeply furrowed reddish bark, reaching a lieight of 70 and a diameter of 3 feet. It occurs in low rich soil from southern Delaware south to Bay Biscayne and Cape Romano, Florida, and through the Gulf states to southern Arkansas and the valley of the Brazos river, Texas, near the coast. SASSAFKAS. 75 In this State it is a small tree or shrub, and occurs in the coastal plain region. Old trees over 8 inches in diameter are frequently hollow. The oblong entire evergreen leaves are 2 to 3 inches long and, like the twigs, have an aromatic odor when bruised. The flowers are small and in close panicles, and the fruit is an ovate 1-seeded deep blue drupe. The small dark brown winter-buds and dark twigs are downy. The red bay has a lateral root system. The wood is heavy, hard, very strong, brittle, very close-grained, and compact; bright red in color; the sapwood much lighter. It takes a beautiful polisJi, and was formerly somewhat used in ship- building, interior finish and cabinet work. Sassafras sassafras, Karsten. (SASSAFRAS.) A large tree, with green or yellowish-green branchlets and fur- rowed gray bark. It sometimes reaches a height of 90 and a diam- eter of 7 feet, but is reduced to a shrub at its northern limit. It occurs from eastern Massachusetts and southwestern Ver- mont, west through southern Ontario and central Michigan, to southeastern Iowa, eastern Kansas, and Indian Territory, and south to middle Florida and the valley of the Brazos river, Texas ;. reaching its best development in southwestern Arkansas and Indian Territory. In this State, where it rarely exceeds 40 to 50 feet in height, it is most common in the coastal plain and Piedmont plateau regions, and rare on the higher slopes of the mountains. Seed is produced at frequent intervals, and young seedlings are common in old fields when protected from fire. Sprouts spring readily from the stumps of young trees and from the spreading roots, and in many cases become large trees. The leaves are very variable, being ovate and entire, or 2 to 3-lobed. The greenish-yellow clustered flowers appear in early spring, the sterile and fertile on separate trees, and the oval fruit is blue in color, with a thick reddish stem. The egg-shaped win- ter-buds are large. 76 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. The wood is light, soft, weak, brittle and coarse-grained, very durable in contact with the soil, and apt to check in drying. It is slightly aromatic. The heart wood is dull orange-brown in color; the thin sapwood light yellow. It is used in boat building, fenc- ing, cooperage, and for ox yokes. An aromatic stimulant is derived from the bark of the root. Ulmus americana, Linnaeus. (AMERICAN ELM.) A large tree, with short spreading or long pendulous branches ^nd scaly dark brown trunk, reaching a height of 120 and a diam- eter of 11 feet. It occurs in rich moist 'soil from southern Newfoundland to the northern shores of Lake Superior and the eastern slope of the Rocky mountains, south to Florida, and west to Dakota, central -Nebraska, Indian Territory, and Texas ; reaching its best develop- ment in the northeastern United States, In this State, where it reaches an average height of 60 to 70 and diameter of 4 to 5 feet, it occurs abundantly in most of the swamps Distribution of the AMERICAN (Ulmus americana, L^ -of the coastal plain and extends westward as far as Guilford and Mecklenburg counties. (Fig. 13.) It is smaller and much less common toward its western limit. . WINGED ELM. 7T Seed is borne generally every year in abundance, and young plants are common in damp open places. The American elm does not sprout readily from the stump. A larva of a longicorn beetle, Saperda tridentata, Oliver, loosens the inner bark and channels the surface of the wood so as fre- quently to kill the tree. The American elm also suffers severely from canker-worms, Paleacrita vernata. Peck, and Eugenia sub- signaria, Huebner, and the imported elm-leaf beetle, Galeruca scanthoraelsena, Schrank, all of which feed upon and destroy the foliage. The leaves are usually smaller and less rough than those of the slippery elm. The small greenish-brown flowers are in numerous, lateral clusters and appear early iti spring. The flattened oval winged fruit is hairy on the margin, and ripens and falls before the leaves appear. The buds are smooth, rather small and acute. The American elm has long, well developed lateral roots. The wood is heavy, hard, strong, tough, rather coarse-grained,, compact, and difficult to split ; the heartwood light brown ; the sapwood lighter. It is used for wheel stocks, saddle-trees, flooring,, and cooperage, and is exported for boat and ship-building. In ISIorth Carolina the wood of this tree is not much used, and very little of it has ever been cut. Ulmus alata, Michaux. (winged elm. wahoo. cork elm. southern elm.) A small tree, with slender branches and close finely ridged light brown bark, reaching a height of 50 and a diameter of 2 feet. It occurs on dry gravelly or often on moist soil from southern Yirginia, through the middle districts to western Florida, south- ern Indiana and Illinois, south to the Gulf coast, and southwest through southern Missouri, Arkansas, and the eastern portion of Indian Territory and Texas ; reaching its best development in southern Missouri and Arkansas. 78 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. • In this State, where it reaches an average height of 30 to 45 feet, it grows along swamps and streams, and is nowhere uncommon except on the mountains. (Fig. 14.) MAP OF NORTH CAKOLINA LEGEND Distribution of the WINGED ELM (Ulmus alata, Mickx.) The winged elm bears seed abundantly at intervals of 2 or 3 years, and young plants are frequent along streams or swamp land. The leaves are smaller than those of the American elm and the brown twigs more slender. The small clustered flowers are on slender foot-stalks, and the oval winged fruit is deeply notched, and hairy on the margin. There are numerous long superficial lateral roots. The wood is heavy, hard, not strong, very close-grained, com- pact, nnwedgeable ; brown in color ; the sapwood lighter. It is used for hubs, blocks, and tool handles. Ulmus fulva, Michaux. (slippery elm.) A tree, with deeply furrowed dark brown bark and dark gray- brown branches which form a broom-shaped crown, reaching a height of 135 and a diameter of 4 feet. It occurs, in rich soil from the valley of the lower St. Lawrence river to northern Dakota, and south to northern Florida, central Alabama and Mississippi, and the valley of the San Antonio river, Texas. In this State, where it reaches an average height of 30 to 50 BED MULBERKY. 79 feet and a diameter of 12 to 18 inches, it is most plentiful in the Piedmont plateau, less so among the mountains, and is found occasionally in the coastal plain region. The slippery elm produces seed at rather irregular intervals of 2 to 4 years, and for the most part not abundantly. Young seed- lings are rare except in damp, somewhat shaded places near the parent tree. The thick ovate oblong coarsely toothed leaves are very rough on the upper surface and downy beneath. The flowers occur in lateral clusters on short foot-stalks, and the flat-winged fruit is round, but not fringed. The rounded reddish-brown winter-buds are hairy. The slippery elm has numerous deeply seated lateral roots. The wood is heavy, hard, strong, very close-grained, compact, and durable in contact with the soil. The heartwood is dark brown or red ; the sapwocd lighter. It is used for wheel-stock, fencing, railroad ties, sills, and in shipbuilding. The muci- laginous inner bark is medicinal. Morus rubra, Linna?us. (red mulberry.) A tree, with dark brown, much-broken bark and smooth gray branches, reaching a height of 65 and a diameter of 7 feet. It is found generally in rich soil from western Massachusetts and Long Island, N. Y., through southern Ontario, central Michigan, and the Black Hills of Dakota, eastern Nebraska and Kansas, south to southern Florida, and the valley of the Colorado river, Texas ; reaching its best development in the basins of the lower Ohio and Mississippi rivers. In this State, where it grows to an average height of 30 to 50 and an average diameter of 1 to 2 feet, it is found throughout, being most abundant on the Piedmont plateau and very rare in the mountain region. 80 TIMBER TKEES OE NORTH CAROLINA. The red mulberry bears large quantities of seed every year or every other year, and seedlings are found on moist soil through the forests of the Piedmont plateau region. Numerous sprouts come up after cutting. The broad, heart-shaped, pointed leaves are rough above and downy below. The flowers are inconspicuous, and the deep red or purple fruit is sweet and edible, with an agreeable, slightly acid taste. The winter-buds are large, reddish, smooth and conical. The wood is light, soft, not strong, rather tough, coarse-grained, compact, very durable in contact with the soil, light orange- yellow in color ; the sapwood lighter. It takes a good polish, and is largely used for fencing, cooperage, snaths, and, at the South, for ship and boatbuilding. The leaves have been used for feeding silkworms, but are not well adapted for that purpose. Celtis occidentalis, Linnaeus. (hackberry.) A large tree, with bark often much roughened by small ridges, and fiexuous, smooth, brown branches. It reaches a height of 130 and a diameter of 5 feet, or sometimes is reduced to a low shrub. It occurs in rich bottoms or on dry hillsides from the valley of the St. Lawrence river west to eastern Dakota, south through the Atlantic region to southern Florida, and to Texas ; being most abundant and reaching its best development in the basin of the Mississippi river. In this State, where it reaches an average height of 50 to 70 feet and a diameter of 18 to 20 inches, it is found throughout, except in the high mountain counties, as Ashe, Watauga, Mitchell, and Yancey, and attains its greatest size and abundance in the alluvial swamps of the coastal plain. It bears seed plentifully and as a rule every year. Seedlings are common near old trees and along river bottoms. The leaves are ovate, toothed, taper-pointed, and smooth at maturity. The greenish flowers are inconspicuous, and the HACKBERRY. SYCAMORE. 81 rounded, pnrplish-red fruit, from i to 3 inch in diameter, is sweet and edible. The wood is heavy, rather soft, not strons-, coarse-grained, com- pact, clear light yellow in color; the sapwood, lighter. It takes a good polish, and is largely used for fencing, and occasionally in the manufacture of cheap furniture. Platanus occidentalis, Linna?us. (sycamore, button wood.) A large tree, with deep brown smooth bark, scaling off in thin, brittle plates, leaving the tree a mottled polished white, or with bark uniform and rough. It reaches a height of 130 and a diam- eter of nearly 1-1 feet. It occurs in ricii moist soil, generally near streams, from south- ern Maine and the northern shores of Lakes Ontario and Erie west to eastern Nebraska and Kansas, south to northern Florida, central Alabama, Mississippi, and southern Texas ; reaching its best development in the bottom lands of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. It is a very common tree. In this State, where it reaches a height of 90 and a diameter of 5 or 6 feet, it occurs throughout, growing to its best size along the alluvial swamps of the Piedmont plateau. It is least abundant on the coastal plain. The sycamore bears fruit in abundance and usually every year, and seedlings are common along streanis. Old trees are gener- ally hollow at the bntt. It sprouts very freely from the stump, and is easily propagated from cuttings. The growth is very rapid. The large broad leaves are angularly lobed and toothed, downy when young, and smooth at maturity. The male and female flowers occur in separate small spherical heads with slender stems. The fruit is a globular head one inch in diameter, hanging on the tree through the winter. The short, broad, pyramidal buds are formed beneath the swollen base of the leafstalks. The sycamore has numerous long running roots. The wood is heavy, hard, not strong, very close-grained, com- 6 "82 TIMBER TEEES OF NOETH CAEOLINA. ipact, difficult to split and work; brown in color; the sapw^ood llighter. It decays rapidly in contact with the soil or on exposure, and w^arps and cracks badly in drying. It is used for ox ybkes, butchers' blocks, for interior finish, and in the manufacture of fur- niture, and very largely for tobacco boxes. Juglans cinerea, Linnseus. (m'hite walnut, butternut.) A large tree, witli dark granite-gray furrowed bark and light gray smoothish branches, reaching a heiglit of 115 and a diameter of 3 feet. It occurs ill rich woodlands, from southern New Brunswick, the valley of the St. Lawrence river and Ontario, to Dakota and Nebraska, southward to Delaware, Missouri, and Arkansas, and along the Alleghany mountains to Georgia and Alabama ; reaching its best development in the basin of the Ohio river. In North Carolina it occurs thi'ough tlie mountains and spar- ingly 'through the upper. part of the Piedmont plateau, but i"s nowhere common. In certain cool, rich mountain valleys it attains a height of 70 and a diameter of 3 feet. (Fig. 15, p. S3.) The white walnut bears fruit abundantly only every 2 or 3 years, and young seedlings are uncommon. Young trees sprout freely from the stump; old ones less readily. The lealiets are 11 to 17 in number on the sticky leafstem, rounded at the base, taper-pointed, sharply toothed, and downy on the lower surface. Tlie sterile ilowers are in large green cat- kins, the fertile flowers small and iiicons{)icuous. The brown fruit is 2 to 8 inches long, very sticky, and contains an edible nut. The naked winter-buds are light brown, blunt, and covered with soft down ; the terminal buds large and conspicuous, the lateral buds much smaller, two or three together above each leaf- scar. There are numerous strong superficial lateral roots, while the taproot in specimens over 10 inches in diameter is poorly developed. The wood is light, soft, not strong, coarse-grained, compact, and easily worked ; light brown in color ; the sapwood, lighter. It BLACK WALNL^T. 83 takes a beautiful polish, receives paint well, and is used for interior finish, cabinet work, panels of carriages, and occasionally for the lower framework of buildings. The inner l)ark yields a yellow dye, and is employed as a mild cathartic. Juglans nigra, Linnaeus. (black walnut.) A large tree, of the first commercial value, with a small oval crown and rough very dark brown bark, reaching a height of 150 and a diameter of 10 feet or more. It occurs from western Massachusetts to eastern Nebraska and Kansas, and south to northern Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and the valley of the San Antonio river in Texas; reaching its best development in the rich bottom lands of southwestern Arkansas and Indian Territory, and on the western slopes of the southern Alleghany mountains. ^__ LEGEND p= Distribution of the BLACK WALNUT I (Juglans nigra, i.) .;>".-;:; Distribution of the WHITE WALNU .'"'""' (Juglans cinerea, Z.) In this State, where it grows to an average height of 40 to 50 feet, it is most abundant on the Piedmont plateau, but is found throughout. (Fig. 15.) Forest trees bear seed abundantly only every 3 or 4 years, and young seedlings are not common except near mature trees in low fertile rather open lands or in fields and meadows which border streams. The growth is very rapid until a large size is reached. 84 TIMBER TREKS OF NORTH CAROLINA. especially when the soil is good and the light conditions favorable. Only small trees send up from the stump shoots, which attain a large size. The leafstalk is slightly downy but not sticky ; the leaflets 15 to 23 in number, smooth above and somewhat downy beneath. The fruit is round, greenish-yellow when ripe, about 2 inches in diameter, and contains a nut with an edible kernel. The large terminal buds are covered with a light brown tomentum and the lateral buds are above tlie leaf scars as in the preceding species. The black walnut has a well-developed taproot and numerous strong lateral roots. The wood is heavy, hard, strong, rather coarse-grained, liable to check, easily worked, and durable in contact with the soil ; rich dark brown in color ; the thin sapwood much lighter. It takes a beautiful polish, and is used for cabinet making, interior finish, gunstocks, and in boat and shipbuilding. The husk of the fruit yields a dye. The black walnut has been largely removed from the counties west of the Blue Ridge, where it reaches its largest size in this State. Considerable quantities are still standing, however, in the Piedmont region, and in the coastal plain region it has not yet been entirely removed. Hicoria minima, Britton.* (bitternut hickory, red-heart hickory.) A tall and slender tree, with a broadly pyramidal crown, rather smooth, firm, gray bark, and lighter smoother branches, reaching a height of 120 and a diameter of 4 feet. It occurs from southern Maine to the valley of the St. Law- rence river, westward through Ontario, central Michigan and Minnesota, and the eastern parts of Nebraska, Kansas, and Indian Territory, and southward to western Florida and eastern Texas; reaching its best development in Pennsylvania and Ohio. In North Carolina it grows to an average height of 80 and a diameter of 2 to 3 feet, and occurs in moist, cool situations, on *Carya aniara, NuttaU. WATER HICKORY. SHAGOBARK HICKORY. 85 loamy or clay soils in all parts of the State, but is abundant only in the mountains, where it is tiie largest and most common hickory. The fruit is borne plentifully at short intervals, and seedlings are frequent in the mountains, especially in moist open woods. The leaves consist of 5 to 9 small, narrow, acute, smoothish leaflets. The dark green fruit is rounded or slightly egg-shaped, with a very thin husk, opening half way down when ripe. The shell of the white, smooth nut is so thin that it can be broken with the fingers. The kernel is intensely bitter. The yellow winter- buds are small, elongated, and slightly rounded or pointed. The wood is heavy, very hard, strong, and tough, and checks bad4y in drying ; dark brown in color ; the sapwood lighter, or often nearly white. The wood is inferior to that of the other hickories, but is used for hoops, ox yokes and fuel. Hicoria aquatica, Britton. (WATER-BITTERNUT HICKORY. WATER HICKORY. SWAMP HICKORY.) A tree, with rough, somewhat furrowed bark, reaching a height of 100 and a diameter of 3 feet, or generally much smaller. It occurs from Virginia through the coast region to Florida, along the Gulf shore to Texas, and northward to southern Illinois ; reaching its best development on the lower Mississippi and Yazoo rivers. In this State, where it is confined to the coastal plain, it grows to an average height of 40 to 50 teet. (Fig. 16, p. 86.) Young seedlings are uncommon in this State, and are found only on alluvium, and then usually in spots where trees have been cut. There are 7 to 13 smooth, pointed, slightly toothed leaflets. The fruit is roundish, with a thin husk 4-parted to the base. The thin-shelled, 4:-angled nut contains a very bitter kernel. The flat- tened winter-buds are covered with a rusty down. The water- bitternut hickory has a poorly developed taproot and numerous stronsT lateral roots. 86 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. The wood is heavy, soft, strong, rather brittle, very close- grained, and compact ; the heartwood, dark brown ; the sapwood lighter, often nearly white. The timber is of an inferior quality, and is chiefly used for fencing and fuel. It is rare in North Caro- lina, an.d, from the difficulty in getting it out of the swamps, it is little used. Hicoria ovata, Britton. (shag-bark hickory, shell-bark hickory, scaly-bark hickory.) A large tree uf great commercial value, with pendulous branches, and grayish-brown bark separating from the trunk in long strips. It reaches a height of 150 and a diameter of 4 feet. It occurs on rich hillsides and on sandy ridges from the valley of the St. Lawrence river to Michigan and southeastern Min- nesota, southward to western Florida, central Alabama and Mississippi, and westward to eastern Kansas, Indian Ter- ritory, and eastern Texas; reaching its best development west of the Alleghany mountains. A common tree. LEGEND Distribution of the SHAG-BARK HICKORY (Hicoria ovata, Briit.) py| Distribution of the WATER-BITTEENUT HICKORY (Hicoria aquatica, ^rt«.) In this State, where it attains an average height of 60 to SO feet and an average diameter of 15 to 20 in.jhes, it occurs throughout but is nowhere comn^on, and least so in the coastal plain region. (Fig. 16.) * Carya alba, Nuttall. WHITE HICKORY. 87' Seed is borne frequently and in larc^e quantities, but seedlings are not common except in tbe Piedmont plateau, and young trees- are infrequent in second-growtb woods. The leaves are large and composed of 5 to 7-pointed, rather coarsely toothed leaflets, the lower pair small and narrow, the upper pair and terminal leaflet very large, broad and inversely egg-shaped. The barren flowers are in slender, pendulous, green tassels, three on a common stalk. The minute fertile flowers are in groups of 2 to 4 together on the ends of the shoots. The thick husk of the nearly globular fruit separates into four distinct pieces, and the nut is white, sweet, edible, and 4-angled. The large, yellowish-brown, scaly buds are egg-shaped. The shag-bark hickory has numerous lateral roots and a strong taproot which is developed in early youth. The wood is heavy, very hard and strong, tough, close-grained, compact, and flexible; light brown in color; the thin and more valuable sapwood nearly white. It is largely used for agricultural implements, carriages, axe and tool handles, baskets and fuel. Hicoria alba, Britton.* (W^HITE HICKORY. BIG-BUD HICKORY. MOCKERNUT.j A tree, with dark ashen-gray, deeply furrowed bark, reaching a height of 108 and a diameter of 4 feet. It occurs from southern Ontario to the eastern parts of Nebraska, Kansas, and Indian Territory, southward to central Florida and the valley of the Brazos river, Texas. It grows on rich hillsides or in low river bottoms, and is very common in the Gulf states and throughout the South. In North Carolina, where it grows to an average height of 60 feet and a diameter of 18 to 20 inches, it is common throughout the State. (Fig. 17, p. 88.) The white hickory bears fruit frequently and in abundance. Seedlings are common near old trees and in second-growth woods, and often in dry or moist uplands a considerable part of the forest is composed of young trees of this species. Yuong *Carya tomentosa, NuttaU. 88 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. trees, when cut down or killed by fire, send up numerous sprouts from the stump. Late spring frosts are very injurious to this species, frequently checking the growth of the new twigs and at times killing the tree. The leaves are very large and consist of 7 to 9 leaflets, the lower surface of which, as well as the recent shoots and leafstems, are downy when young. The fruit is oval, nearly round or slightly pear-shaped, and IJ to 2 inches or more in length. The husk splits nearly to the base when ripe. The thick -shelled, somewhat 6-angled nut contains a small and unusually sweet kernel. The winter-buds are large, round, and covered with downy, hard, grayish-white scales. The wood is heavy, very hard, strong, tough, very close-grained, and flexible, and checks in drying. The heartwood is rich dark brown ; the thick sapwood nearly white. It is used for the same purposes as the wood of the shag-bark hickory. (Page 86.) Hicoria glabra, Britton. (pignut.) A large tree, with an oval head and firm, close, rough, gray bark on the trunk, and smoother, lighter bark on the branches. It reaches a heii>;ht of 130 and a diameter of 5 feet. It occurs on dry liills and uplands from southern Maine to southern Ontario, southern Michigan, Minnesota, the eastern parts jsr. C. GEOLOGICAL StTRVfeY. BULLETIN 6. PLATE Vlt. WHITE OAK PIGNUT WHITE OAK. 89 of Nebraska, and Indian Territory, and sonih to western Florida and southern Texas ; reacliinsj its best development in the lower Ohio basin. In this State, where it reaches an average height of 70 to 80 feet, it is found throughout. It is not a common tree in the mount- ains, and is rare in the coastal plain region ; but along with the white hickory it is fairly abundant in the Piedmont plateau region. (Fig. 17, p 88.) The pignut bears fruit frequently and in large quantities, and young growth is common near tlie parent trees and through sec- ond-growth w^oods. The leaves are long, with 5 to 7 smooth leaflets. The smooth, tapering twigs are smaller than in the two preceding species. The fruit is pear-shaped or rounded, with very thin husks splitting about halfway to the base. The rather thin-shelled nut, about J inch in diameter, contains a small sweetish or slightly bitter ker- nel. The polishei brown wnnter-burls are egg-shaped and pointed or rounded It has numerous lateral roots and a taproot which is developed early in the life of the tree. The wood is heavy, hard, vei-y strong, and tough, flexible and close-grained, and checks ii-i drying ; dark or light brown in color ; the thick sapwood lighter, often nearly white. Its uses are the same as those of the shag-l)ark hickory, to the wood of which species for some purposes it is preferred. ' . Quercus alba, Linnaeus. (white oak.) A large tree, of great economic value, with large spreading branches and a bark which is either light gray, slightly rough- ened, and in the older trees, loosens in large tiiin scales, or is gray, firm, and deeply furrowed. It reaches a height of 150 and a diam- eter of 8 feet. (Plate YII.) It occurs on all soils from northern Maine to the valley of the St. Lawrence, westward through lower Michigan to southeastern Minnesota, and southward to St. John's river and Tampa bay, Florida, and the valley of the Brazos river, Texas ; reaching its 90- TIMBER TKKES OF NORTH CAROLINA. best develojDment on the slopes of the Alleghany mountains, and in the valley of the Ohio river and its tributaries. It is a com- mon tree in a considerable portion of the central and eastern states. In North Carolina, where it attains an average height of 70 to 80 and an average diameter of 4 to 5 feet, it occurs throughout, and is common everywhere except in the northeastern part of the State and on the sandy soils of the southeastern section. It is most plentiful on the Piedmont plateau. (Fig. 18.) Large quantities of seed are produced about once in three years. The acorns germinate in all kinds of soil and frequently seed up old fields. Young seedlings are common in all situations, and bear well either the deep shade of the old tree or full expos- ure to the sun. Young white oaks are apt to form a large part of the new growth after the removal of the yellow poplar, short- leaf pine or the white oak itself. In many parts of the original forest, on poor soil, white oak is the predominant tree, and it generally forms a large part of second growth of mixed hard- woods. Small trees sprout freely and vigorously from the stump. Individuals o"ver 3 inches in diameter are not easily killed by fire. Large trees are rarely hollow. Though a large number of insects live on the white oak, it is not seriously injured by borers or insects which attack the leaves or twigs. A weavil frequently destroys the acorns. The leaves are acute at the base, with T to 9 blunt, rouii<1ed, usually entire lobes. The male flowers are in long slender threads. POST OAK. 91 the female very minute. The acorns, usually in pairs, have rounded saucer-shaped, rough, warty "cups, and brown, sweet, edible nuts. The small blunt winter-buds are smooth, as are the liglit brown or gray slender, twigs. The white oak has a taproot and numer- ous deeply seated lateral roots. The wood is strong, very heavy, hard, tough, close-grained, liable to check, and very durable in contact with the soil : brown in color ; the sapwood lighter. It is used for shipbuilding, con- struction, cooperage, carriages, agricultural implements, railway ties, fencing, interior finish, cabinet-making, baskets, fuel, etc. It is altogether one of the most important timbers of the United States. In North Carolina it is largely used for fuel, clapboards, fenc- ing, ties, and staves. It has been manufactured into lumber for local uses only. Large quantities of merchantable timber still stand in the mountain counties and in many of the counties of the Piedmont plateau. The bark is used extensively for tanning, but is less highly valued than that of the chestnut oak. Quercus minor, Sargent. (post oak.) A tree, wdth rough hard gray bark, and numerous spreading branches, reaching a height of 100 and a diameter of 5 feet ; or on the Florida coast reduced to a low shrub. It occurs generally in poor soil from Massachusetts south to northern Florida, and west through southern Ontario and Michi- gan to eastern Nebraska, Kansas, and Indian Territory, and into central Texas, and is very common in the Gulf states west of the Mississippi. In this State, where it grows to a height of 50 and a diameter of 4 feet, it occurs in greatest numbers and attains its largest size in the Piedmont counties. Here it forms with the white oak a large part of the second-growth in the forest and in old fields. It is not common in the transmontane counties. In the eastern section it frequently forms, on the margins of swamps, a lower story beneath the willow and water oaks. (Fiff. ID, p. !>2.) The post oak bears fruit abundantly e/ery "2 or 3 years, and «2 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. young plants are common in thinned and second-growth woods, bearing well both deep shade and ' strong light. It does not MAP OF NORTH CAROLINA COASTAL PLAIN REGION _ LEGEND Distribution of the POST OAK (Quercus minor, Saro-.) sprout as freely as white oak. Although in favorable situations the growth is rapid, in general it grows more slowly than the white oak. The leaves are stiff, leathery, rough above, whitish and downy below, and divided into 5 to 7 roundish ■ divergent lobes, the upper lobe large and often double. The acorns, borne on short foot-stalks, are small and sweet, and seated in deep, grayish, smooth-scaled cups. The winter-buds are small, rounded, smooth, and dark brownish-red. The wood is heavy, hard, close-grained, compact, checks badly in drying, and is very durable in contact with the soil; dark or light brown in color ; the sapwood lighter. It is used for construc- tion, cooperage, shipbuilding, fencing, railroad ties, /uel, and occasionally for carriage stock. Large quantities have been cut in the Piedmont section for staves, and it is extensively used throughout the middle and eastern counties for posts, ties, etc. Quercus lyrata, Walter. (OVERCUP OAK. SWAMP POST OAK.) A large tree, with rough flaky gray bark, and smooth gray small often pendulous branches, reaching a height of 100 and a diameter of 3 feet. It occurs in wet soil, from Maryland southward near the coast. ROCK CHESTNUT OAK. 95 to western Florida, westward through Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, to the valley of the Trinity river, Texas, and through Arkansas and southeastern Missouri to middle Tennessee, south- ern Indiana, and Illinois ; reaching its best development in the valley of the Red river and adjacent portions of x\.rkansas and Texas. It is rare in the Atlantic states. In North Carolina it occurs on the oak flats of the coastal plain, and in the alluvial swamps of the rivers as far inland as Anson, Orange, and Nash counties. (Fig. 20.) The overcup oak bears acorns plentifully at intervals of 3 or -i years, but young seedlings are infrequent. The fruit is devoured by swine, and the young plants are destroyed by browsing cattle. MAP OF NORTH CAROLINA COASTAL PLAIN REGION LEGEND Distribution of the OVERCUP OAK (Quercus lyrata, IVa//. The leaves are oblong, crowded at the ends of the branchlets, and 7 to 9-lobed, the divisions acute or blunt, entire or somewhat toothed. The large subglobose acorn is nearly covered b}- the scaly, thin, rugged, fringed cup. The light chestnut-brown winter- buds are small and egg-shaped. The overcup oak has a tap-root and many rather deeply seated lateral roots. The wood is heavy, hard, strong, tough, close-grained, and inclined to check, and very durable in contact with the soil; rich dark brown in color ; the sapwood lighter. It is used for the same purposes as that of the white oak. Yery little of this timber has- ever been cut. Quercus prinus, Linnaeus. (rock chestnut oak. chestnut oak. buck oak.) A large tree, with deeply furrowed dark gray bark, and a 94; TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. broadly oval crown, reaching a height of 100 and a diameter of 4 feet. It occurs from southern Maine to the shores of Lake Champlain, Quinte bay, Ontario, and the valley of the Genesee river, New- York, south to Delaware, and through the Appalachian mountain region to northern Alabama, extending westward to central Ken- tucky and Tennessee. In North Carolina it is found on dry soil and on the tops of ridges westward from Franklin and Montgomery counties. It reaches its best development on the slopes of the lower mountains at an elevation of 2,000 to 4,000 feet, where with other oaks and the chestnut it constitutes a large part of the forest. Above 4,000 feet it grows on the driest and rockiest ridges, often forming extensive groves of pure forest. In the Piedmont plateau region a smaller form is found, which seldom reaches a diameter of one foot. (Fig. 21, p. 95.) The rock chestnut oak bears acorns very plentifully nearly every year, or in the deep woods every seco!id _year. Young trees in all stages of growth are common in open woods on dry rocky mount- •ains or in abandoned fields. In Lincoln and Union counties the chestnut oak forms a considerable part of the regrowth after the removal of mixed hardwoods and the short-leaf pine. Only the smaller trees sprout from the stump. Many of the large speci- mens growing upon dry soil are hollow at the butt as a result of frequent fires. Borers often penetrate the lower parts of the stems of small trees which occur on dry ground, but trees in damp situations are nearly always sound. The leaves are upon short stems, usually broadest toward the extremity, and with 6 to 13 large rounded teeth on each side. The acorns are large and oval, with thick, warty cups. The large blant winter-buds and the twigs are smooth. The numerous, branching roots penetrate deeply into the soil. The wood is heavy, hard, strong, rather tough, close-grained, durable in contact with the soil, and inclined to check in drying; dark brown in color ; the sapwood lighter. It is largely used for fencing, railroad ties, and fuel. The bark is rich in tannin. SWAMP CHESTNUT OAK. 95 A lar^e amount of bark is peeled in Buncombe, Burke, McDow- ell, and Wilkes counties to supply local tanneries, and much timber has been cut in Lincoln county for charcoal. Large quantities of chestnut oak still remain, however, in all the western counties. Quercus michauxii, Nuttall. (basket OAK. cow OAK. SWAMP WHITE OA K. SWAMP CHESTNUT OA K.) A large tree, of great economic value, with gray rather scaly bark and stout branches, reaching a height of 120 and a diameter of 7 feet. It occurs from Delaware, south through the lower and middle districts to northern Florida, thence through the Gulf states to the valley of the Trinity river, Texas, and through Arkansas to southeastern Missouri, to central Tennessee and Kentucky, and the valley of the lower Wabash river ; reaching its best develop- ment on the rich bottom lands in southeastern Arkansas and Louisiana. It is common in the Gulf states. MAP OF NORTH CAROLINA COAST AU PLAIN REGION _ LEGEND Economic distribution of the ROCK CHEST- NUT OAK (Quercus prinus, i.) Distribution of the BASKET or SWAMP- CHESTNUT OAK luercus michauxii, A'«//.) In this State (fig. 2L) it is found in swamps of the coastal plain and Piedmont plateau regions, and on the bottom lands of the Cape Fear and Eeuse rivers, attains a height of 100 and a diame- ter of 6 feet. Abundant production of seed occurs at intervals of 2 to 3 years. Seedlings are common in wet open spots on damp hill sides in the 96 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. Piedmont plateau region. Sprouts grow readily from the stnmp, but seldom reach a large size. The leaves are rather rigid, downy beneath, and with large reg- ular, rounded teeth. The large sweet edible acorns are set in shallow cups which are roughened with acute coarse scales. The brown winter-buds are large, smooth, and pointed. There are many deep lateral roots. The wood is heavy, hard, very strong, tough, close-grainedy compact, easily split, and very durable in contact with the soil ; light brow^n in color ; the sapwood darker. It is used for agricult- ural implements, cooperage, wheel stock, baskets, fencing, fuel, and construction. In the eastern counties a small quantity of the timber has been cut for local uses. Quercus virginiana, Miller.* (live oak.) A large evergreen tree, with dark, deeply furrowed bark and gray branches, a short body and a flat or spreading top, reaching a height of 60 and a diameter of 7 feet; in the interior of Texas often reduced to a shrub. (Plate VIII.) It is found near the coast from Virginia to southern Florida and along the Gulf coast to Mexico, extending through western Texas and the valley of the Ked river, the Apache and the Gaud- alupe mountains, and into Mexico, at elevations of six to eight thousand feet, and in the island of Costa Pica; reaching its best development in the south Atlantic states. In North Carolina it occurs near the coast on deep sandy soil with the water and willow oaks, American olive, and southern lin. North of Cape Hatteras it is a rare tree but south of that point it becomes more abundant until, at the mouth of the Cape Fear river, it forms with the palmetto a considerable part of the maritime forest of Smith's island. (Fig. 22, p. 97.) The growth, particularly in youth, is very vigorous. Young seedlings are common near old trees. Small trees sprout readily from the stump. The evergreen leaves are thick, leathery, oblong and obtuse, *Quercus virens, Alton. g o w J3 - > o > o i! -n O O 2 N. c. Geological srTBVEY. StJLLETIN 6. PLATE IX. RED OAK RED OAK. 97 smooth above, and hairy beneath. The fruit, which is borne upon a lon^ stem, is an oblong, dark brown, or black acorn set in a top-shaped, downy cup. The roots are spreading and rather deeply seated, and can bear sea water, at least if covered only dnring high tide. The wood is very heavy, hard, strong, tough, close grained, compact ; it takes a beantiful polish, but is difficult to work ; light brown or yellow in color ; the sapwood nearly white. It is used for shipbuilding, and the bark is occasionally employed for tan- ning. It is not abundant enough in North Carolina to be of com- mercial importance. Quercus rubra, Linnaeus. (ked oak.) A laro;e tree, with dark brown furrowed bark, nearly black on large trunks, and rather smooth branches which form a large oval or round head, reaching a height of 150 and a diameter of 7 feet. (Pla'te IX.) It occurs from Nova Scotia, southern New Brunswick, and eastern Minnesota, w^estern Iowa, eastern Kansas and Indian Territory south to northern Florida, southern Alabama and Mississippi, and western Texas, reaching its best development north of the Ohio river. A common tree. MAP OF NORTH CAROLINA LEGEND Distribution of the RED OAK ),uercus rubra, Z.) Distribution of the LIVE OAK (Quercus virginiana, Mill.) In the coastal plain region of North Carolina it is rare ; somewhat more common in the Piedmont plateau on shady hillsides and 7 98 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. moist land ; and most abundant in the mountains where it is frequently 130 feet high and 6 or 7 feet in diameter. (Fig. 22.) At high elevations it is often found wath the chestnut oak on dry ridges, and there attains an average height of 60 to 70 feet. In the Piedmont plateau it is often confounded with the black oak. It bears acorns plentifully about every second year, though two seed years in succession are not unusual. Young seedlings are common in the woods and endure heavy shade well, but need a light cover for rapid growth. Young trees are very sensitive to fire. Only small specimens sprout well from the stump. After lumbering the regrowth usually consists of the same species mixed with chestnut oak, scarlet oak, white oak, and chestnut. The tliin, glossy leaves are oblong, wedge-shaped at the base, and usually dilated toward the end, with 5 or 6 lobes on each side separated by rouiided, ratlier shallow notches. The thick, oblong, broad-based acorn is dark brown and seated in a shallow small- scaled cup which is either short-stalked or sessile. The ovate pointed winter-buds are dark brown and smooth. .The tap-root develops early in life, and after tiie plant is well started a system of large lateral roots is formed. The wood is heavy, hard, strong, coarse-grained, and inclined to check: light brown or red in color; the sapwood somewhat darker. It is used for clapboards, cooperage, interior finish, and the manufacture of furniture. The bark is occasionally used for tanning. Large quantities have been cut in North Carolina for local use, but a great amount is still standing in the western counties. Quercus texana, Buckley. (TEXAS RED OAK. SWAMP RED OAK.) A large tree, with a narrow pyramidal crown, shallow-furrowed striped gray and black or mottled bark, and smooth gray branches, reaching a height of nearly 200 feet and a diameter of 4 to 8 feet. It occurs from Iowa south to Texas and east to the eastern part of Virginia and central Georgia; reaching its greatest devel- opment on the alluvial lands of the lower Mississippi river. It grows to a greater height than any other American oak. SCARLET OAK. SrOTTED OAK. SPANISH OAK. RED OAK. 99 In North Carolina, where it attains an average height of 50 to 70 feet, it is locally found from Lincoln county eastward to Person county, growing on the rich, moist loams of river swamps or on f!E£-"l?AL^^*^^?^-:<^' ^°*^L^"Z"*- -"- ' L..^.._.. - LEGEND Distribution of the TURKEY or FORK- LEAVED BLACK-JACK OAK (Quercus catesbaei, A/icAx.) jSf^ Known distribution of the TEXAS RED OAK (Quercus texana, Bud.) damp hillsides, associated with the yellow oak, swamp white oak, red and willow oaks, and elms. (Fig. 23.) Throughout North Carolina it reproduces itself slowly, and 3^oung seedlings are rarely found in the forest, although it flowers regularly and matures fruit every two or three years. The small thin light green leaves, deeply lobed on the sides, are smooth on both surfaces, except for large tufts of brownish hairs beneath in the axils of the primary veins. The leaf-stem is nearly as long as the leaf. The oblong or cylindrous acorn is borne in a shallow cup, which like the acorn, is generally smooth. The long acute sharply angled winter-buds are smooth, as are the steel-gray twigs. The strong lateral roots lie near the surface. The wood, heavier and stronger than that of the northern red oak, is coarse-grained and porous, reddish-brown in color; the thick sapwood light brown. It is superior in working qualities to that of the northern red oak or any other of the American red and black oaks. In North Carolina, on account of the infrequent occurrence of the tree, the wood is put to no specific uses. Quercus coccinea, Muenchhauseu. (scarlet oak. spotted oak. SPANISH OAK. RED OAk). A slender tree, wdth a short trunk, smooth dark gray or black 100 TIMBER TREES OE ]VORTH CAROLINA. finely ridged bark, and smooth gray branches which form an oval top, reaching a height of 175 and a diameter of 4 feet. It occurs from Maine to Ontario, Minnesota, and JSTebraska, and south to iSTortli Carolina ; reaching its best development in the lower Ohio basin. It is usually confounded with the black oak. In North Carolina, where it attains a height of 80 and a diam- eter of 3j feet, it occurs sparingly in the coastal plain on sandy loam,, but is more common in the Piedmont plateau on gravelly loam growing with the post oak, white oak, and short-leaf pine. In the mountains, at an elevation of 2,500 to 3,500 feet, it is one of the commonest trees. (Fig- 24.) The scarlet oak bears acorns plentifully every 2 or 3 years, and young plants are common through the woods in many of the west- ern counties. Only young trees sprout readily from the stump. Trees over 3 feet in diameter are usually hollow or red-hearted, dry rot causing the defect. The thin smooth leaves are on long slender stems and deeply cut into long lobes by broad round notches. They turn to a brill- iant scarlet in the autumn. The small oval acorns are strongly pointed and half-imbedded in a deep coarsely-scaled cup. The slender, slightly angled winter-buds are pointed, and, like the slender twigs, smooth and reddish. The root system of older trees is distinctly lateral, many of the roots being superficial, or frequently exposed. BLACK OAK. 101 The wood is heavy, liard, strong, and close-grained ; the heart- wood light brown or red ; the sapwood rather darker. The lum- ber, if used at all, is confounded with that of the red oak. The bark is sometimes used in tanning, but is inferior to that of the black oak. It is rarely used in this State except for coarse staves and shakes, and for fuel. Quercus velutina, Lainai-ck.* (black oak.) A large^tree, with rough or deeply furrowed nearly black bark, grayish branches, a long clear trunk, and an oval crown, reaching a height of 160 and a diameter of 6 feet. ].t is very common on dry or gravelly uplands from Maine to Minnesota, eastern Nebraska, Kansas, and Indian Territory, and south to western Florida, and eastern Texas. It reaches its best development in the valley of the lower Ohio river. In Xortli Carolina (fig. 25), where it attains an average height of 80 to 90 and an average diameter of 4 to 5 feet, it is most abun- dant in the upper part, and occurs very sparingly, if at all, in the lower. MAP OF NORTH CAROI/INA ' MILES LEGEND 1 Area in which the BLACK OAK is one of the ! dominant trees (Quercus velutina, Zaw.) \ Area in which the BLACK OAK is a sub- ; ordinate tree. 'Distribution of the LAUREL OAK ' (Quercus laurifolia, Mic/tx.') II Uniik Nulc C'.v It bears fruit abundantly at intervals of 2 or 3 years, and seed- lings are common under the light shade of the parent tree. Black oak forms a large part of the second growth mixed hard- *Quercus tiuctoria, Bartram. 102 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. wood forests in the middle and the lower part of the Piedmont -plateau. Large trees are often hollow or red-hearted. The forest tent caterpillar, Clisiocampa disstria, Huebner, is often destructive to the foliage, and much injury is also caused, especially to young trees, by the oak pruner, Elaphldion villosum, Fabricius. The leaves are inversely egg-shaped, thicker and less deeply cut than those of the scarlet oak, and usually darker in color and less polished. The small acorn, nearly half enclosed in a thick scaly cup, contains a yellowish and very bitter kernel. The buds are thick, pyramidal, and downy. There are many deeply penetrating lateral as well as superficial rnnning routs. The wood is heavy, hard, strong, not tough, coarse-grained, lia- ble to check in drying; bright brown tinged with red in color; the sapwood much lighter. It is used for cooperage, construction, etc. The bark is largely used for tanning. Quercitron, a valua- ble yellow dye, is derived from the inner bark, which has astrin- gent medicinal properties. It has been cut extensively throughout the Piedmont plateau for building material and cooperage, and locally the bark has been employed to a considerable extent in 'tanning. Quercus catesbaei, Michaux. (fork-leaved BLACK-.IACK OAK. SAND BLACK-.TAOK OAK. SCRUB OAK. TURKEY OAK.) A small tree, with oval crown, numerous irregular drooping branches, and deeply farrowed black bark, reaching a height of about 50 and a diameter of 2 feet. It occurs upon barren sandy hills and ridges from Gates county, N. C, to central Florida, and along the coast to eastern Louisiana. In this State (fig. 23, p. 99) it is common south of the Neuse river in the pine barrens, where it has a height of about 20 feet and a diameter of S inches. Fork-leaved black-jack oak, generally bears fruit annually, and seedlings are very abundant on dry sandy soil. Its growth is rapid, but in North Carolina the tree seldom lives longer than 40 SPANISH OAK. RED OAK. 1<»3 years. It grows frequently with the long-leaf pine, and often replaces it after lumbering. The rather leathery, broadly oval leaves are deeply lobed. The large ovoid acorn is half enclosed in a short-stalked, thick, top- shaped cup. The winter buds are large, conical and covered with brownish down. The root system consists of deep lateral roots. The wood is heavy, hard, strong, close-grained, compact, and light brown in color ; the sapwood somewhat lighter. It is largely used for fuel. The ash is rich in alkali and the bark in tannin. Quercus dig^itata, Sudworth.* (SPANISH OAK. RED OAK.) A tree, with a large spreading top, nearly black rough bark, and smooth dark gray branches, reaching a height of 100 and a diameter of 6 feet. It occurs from southern jSTew Jersey south to middle Florida^ through th(3 Gulf states to the Brazos river, Texas, and through Arkansas and southeastern Missouri to central Tennessee and Kentucky, southern Illinois and Indiana ; reaching its best devel- opment in the South Atlantic and Gulf states. In North Carolina where it attains an average height of 70 to 80 and a diameter of 3 to 4 feet, growing on dry heavy soils, it is very common throughout, (lig. 26,) although rather less so toward the mountains. LEGEND Distribution of the SPANISH OAK (Quercus digitata, Sad.) Acorns are borne in abundan(;e every 3 or 4 years, and young * Quercus cuneata, Wangenheiin and Q. falcata Micliaux. 104 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLIJSTA. seedlings are plentiful in rather dry open woods. On the dry, rocky uplands of the counties in the middle part of the State, a considerable pai-t of the second growth is composed of this species. Trees over 3 feet in diameter are generally not sound at the heart. Coppice shoots are very abundant around the stumps of smaller trees. This tree is sensitive to late frosts. The leaves are divided into 3 to 5 prolonged, mostly narrow, bristle-tipped lobes, and are downj^ on the lower surface. The short-stemmed fruit consists of a small globose acorn half enclosed in a somewhat top-shaped cup. The light brown winter-buds are covered with a light reddish down. The Spanish oak has, in addition to many deeply penetrating. lateral roots, numerous long superficial running roots. The wood is heavy, very hard, strong, not durable, coarse- grained, and checks badly in drying; light red in color ; the sap- wood lighter. It is used for cooperage, construction, and very largely for fuel. The bark is rich in tannin. A large amount of Spanish oak timber is still standing in the Piedmont plateau region, where it is one of the most common trees. Quercus niarilandica, Muenchhausen.- (black-jack oak.) A small tree, with rough black bark, and drooping irregular branches, reaching a height of 60 and a diameter of 2 feet. It occurs from Long Island, New York, to Wisconsin, southern Miniicsota, eastern Nebraska, Kansas, and Indian Territory, and south to Florida and Texas; reaching its best development in southern Arkansas, and eastern Texas. In North Carolina, where it has an average height of not more than 25 feet, it is found upon barren clay or loam soils, gravelly for the most part. It occurs in all sectioiis, but is rare in the more elevated mountain counties. It bears fruit plentifully about every other year; and seedlings are abundant near the parent trees and in second growth woods. The large thick wedge-shaped leaves are smooth on the upper and covered with a rusty pubescence on the lower surface. The *Quercus nisra, Liniifeus. N. C. GEOLOGICAL, SURVEY. BULLETIN 6. PLATE X. WATER OAK AVATER OAK. 105 small globular acorn is half enclosed in a top-shaped, coarse- scaled cup. The conical, bright brown winter-buds are covered, like the angular twigs, with a light gray down. The buds are frequently injured by late frosts. The black-jack oak has a lateral root system. The wood is heavy, hard, and strong, and checks badly in dry- ing ; dark red-brown in color; the sapwood much lighter. It is little used except for fuel. Quercus nigra. Linn«>us.-- (water oak.) A small tree, with a large spreading top, dark rough bark at the base of the stem and smoother gray bark above, reaching a height of 80 and a diameter of -i feet. (Plate X.) It occurs from Delaware through the coast and middle districts to Florida and Texas, and westward to Missouri and Indian Ter- ritory ; reaching its best development in the maritime pine belt of the eastern Gulf states. A common tree. In this State, where it reaches an average height of 40 to 50 feet and an average diameter of 12 to 20 inches, it is abundant on moist soil, usually bordering swamps and streams, in the coastal plain region and some parts of the Piedmont plateau region. (Fig. 27.) MAP OF NORTH CAKOLINA COASTAL PLAIN REGION _ LEGEND Distribution of the WATER OAK (Quercus nigra, Z.) It is one of the commonest trees on the oak fiats about the swamps of the coastal plain. *Quercus aquatica, Walter. 106 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. The larger, crown-forining limbs are often broken, and the steni' is very frequently hollow or red-hearted. The trunk is apt to be covered with adventitious shoots. Even large trees send up numerous sprouts from the stump. The growth is generally rapid. The leaves are generally deoiduous, although, on the coast, many remain green during the winter, especially on vigorous shoots. They are thick, smooth, narrowed at the base, and rounded, or 3-lobed and bristle-tipped at the extremity. The small globular-ovoid acorn is set in a very shallow cup. The winter- buds are small and conical, upon slender flexible polished brown twigs. The lateral snperlicial roots are large and well developed. The M'ood is heavy, hard, strong, coarse-grained, and compact; rather light brown in color ; the sapwood lighter. It is used only as fuel. Quercus laurifolia, Michaux. (laurel oak. WATER OAK. WILLOW OAK. PIN OAK. TURKEY OAK.) A tree, with dark brown minutely roughened bark, and smoother and lighter branches which form an oval crown, reach- ing a height of 100 and a diameter of -i feet. It occurs from North Carolina southward near the coast to Mosquito Inlet and Cape Romano, Florida, and along the Gulf coast to Mobile bay; i-eaching its best development on the Flor- ida coast. A very common tree. In North Carolina, where it grows to a height of 60 to 70 and a diameter of 3 feet, it is found on sandy loam in the coastal plain region on oak flats bordering swHmj)s, and in the Piedmont plat- eau usually on damp soils aloJig streams. (Fig. 25, p. 101.) It bears fruit plentifully once in -3 or 4 years, and in the coastal plain, in moist open woods, seedlings are abundant. The leaves are thick, smooth, and rounded at each end. The small globose or slightly oval dark brown acorns are set in some- what pointed very short stemmed cups. The twigs are smooth, slender, and dark brown, thf^ buds pointed and lighter colored. The numerous lateral roots generally do not penetrate very deeply into the soil. UPLAND WILLOW OAK. TURKEY OAK. BLUE .lACK. l07 The wood is heavy, very strong, hard, coarse-grained, and inclined to check in drying ; dark brown in color ; the sapwood lighter. It is sometimes, although rarely, used for clapboards and coarse staves. Quercus brevifolia, Sargent.* (upland WILLOW OAK. TURKEY OAK. P.IATE JACK.) A small tree, with large oval crown, rough dark gray bark, and slender drooping branches, reaching a height of 50 feet and a diameter of 18 to 20 inches. It occurs on sandy barrens and dry ridges from North Carolina near the coast to Cape Malabar and Pease creek, Florida, and westward along the Gulf coast to eastern Texas. In this State, where it has an average height of 30 feet and a diameter of 10 inches, it is found in the pine barrens of the coastal plain region. Immediately along the coast it sometimes reaches a larger size. It bears fruit abundantly and at frequent intervals, and seed- lings and young trees are common on the dry pine barrens. The oblong entire leaves are bristle-ti}>ped and covered with a w4nte down on the lower surface. About one-third of the small globose hoary acorn is covered by a stemless shallow cup. The winter-buds are small and oval. The wood is heavy, hard, strong, close-grained, and compact ; light brown in color; the sapwood darker. It is used only for fuel. The bark yields a fine yellow dye. Quercus imbricaria, Michaux. (shingle oak.) A slender tree, with dark gray, rough or rather smootli bark, and smooth, light gray branches which form a large spreading top, reaching a height of 100 and a diameter of 4 feet. It occurs from Pennsylvania westward to western Missouri and northeastern Kansas, and south to northern Georgia and Alabama, *Quercus cinerea, Michaux. 108 TIMBER TBEES OF NORTH CAROLINA. middle Tennessee, and northern Arkansas ; reaching its best devel- opment in the basin of the Ohio river. In this State, where it attains an average height of 40 to 50 feet and an average diameter of 12 to 15 inches, it is confined to the mountains and western part of the Piedmont plateau, where it is usually found along streams on alluvial loams. (Fig. 28.) LEGEND Distribution of the SmNGLE OAK (Quercus imbricaria, Michx^ Distribution of the WILLOW OAK (Quercus phellos, L) Seed years are frequent and young seedlings are common, near the parent tree, on moist valley lands in the mountains. The oblong lance-shaped leaves are entire, pale downy below, and tipped with an abrupt sharp point. The acorn is nearly globular and about one-third to one-half enclosed by a cup which is covered with broad whitish closely appressed scales. The brown winter-buds are acute and small-scaled. The wood is heavy, hard, rather coarse-grained, and checks badly in drying; light brown in color ; the sapwood much lighter. It is occasionally used for clapboards and shingles, and in con- struction. Quercus phellos, Linnseus. (willow oak.) A tree, with large spreading crown, rough dark brown bark, and smooth branches, reaching a height of 80 and a diameter of 4 feet. It occurs from Staten Island, New York, south near the coast to *t. C. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 6ulLetin''i6. plate xi. CHESTNUT CHESTNUT, 109 northeastern Florida, tlirongli the Gnlf states to eastern Texas, and through Arkansas to southeastern Missouri, Tennessee, and southern Kentucky. In this State, where it reaches an average height of 50 to 60 and an average diameter of 2 feet, it occurs in large numbers in the coastal plain region and, scatteringly, in the Piedmont plateau region, in moist situations. (Fig. 28, p. 108). The willow oak forms a considerable portion of the second growth hardwood forests on the moist sandy loams of the coastal plain region and young trees are common along the streams of the Piedmont plateau. Young trees sprout vigorously from the stump. The leaves are narrow, lance-shaped, pointed at each end, thick, entire or nearly so, and downy when young. The acorns are small, globose, and set in a shallow flattened cup. The buds are small, pointed, smooth, and light brown ; the twigs slender. The willow oak has numerous spreading lateral roots. The wood is heavy, strong, not hard, rather close-grained, com- pact ; light brown in color tinged with red ; the sapwood a lighter red. It it somewhat used for the felloes of wheels, clapboards, and in construction. Castanea dentata, Borkhausen. (chestnut.) A very common large and valuable tree, with deeply furrowed dark gray bark, and smooth light gray branches which form a large spreading crown, reaching a height of 120 and a diameter of 13 feet. (Plate XL) It occurs from southern Maine, southern Ontario, and southern Michigan, southward to Delaware and middle Tennessee, and along the Appalachian mountains to northern Alabama, reaching its best development on the western slopes of the southern Alleg- hanies. In North Carolina, where it is confined to the mountain region (fig. 29), it reaches an average height of 50 to 70 and an average diameter of 5 feet, but in favorable locations it sometimes attains the largest dimensions given above. 110 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA-. Abundant production of seed occurs about every other year. Young plants are plentiful in moderately open woods and in old fields. The young trees are decidedly light-demanding and die quickly in deep shade. Specimens over 5 feet in diameter are generally unsound. After lumbering a growth of the same species, together with oaks, (generally the white, scarlet and black oak) springs up. The cliestnut enters largely into the composition of most second growth hardwood forests in the extreme western counties. It sprouts very freely from the stump and the shoots often grow to be large trees. The stumps retain their power of sprouting for many years. The trunk is sometimes attacked by the chestnut borer, Arliopalus fnlminans, Fabricius, and the nuts by the chestnut weevil, Balaninus car3'atrypes, Boheman. The thin oblong leaves are straight-veined and serrate with coarse sharp teeth. The yellowish-green sterile flowers are in large spreading bunches of catkins, appearing in the middle of the summer ; the fertile flowers are inconspicuous. The fruit consists of 2 or 3 flattened dark brown shining edible nuts enclosed in a light brown prickly bur. The winter-biids are small and ovate. A tap root is early developed. Later, strong deeply seated lateral roots are formed. The wood is light, soft, not strong, coarse-grained, easily split, very durable in contact with the soil, and liable to check and warp in drying; brown in color; the sapwood lighter. It is used for cabinet-making, interior finish, railway ties, fencing, and • BEECH. Ill posts, and is well adapted for charcoal. An extract from the leaves is used medicinally. # The chestnut is very common in the mountain counties of North 'Carolina at an elevation of 2,500 to 4,500 feet, and is sawed extensively for local uses. Pagus ferruginea, Aiton. (beech.) A tree, with round or oval crown, smooth light gray bark, and ■delicate branchlets, reaching a height of 110 and a diameter of 4 feet. It occurs from Nova Scotia and northern Wisconsin, south to western Florida and eastern Texas; reaching its best development on the bluff formations of the lower Mississippi basin. In this State, where it attains an average height of 50 to bO and an average diameter of 2 to 3 feet, it is found sparingly and of small size in the coastal plain region, more commonly and of larger growth in the Piedmont plateau, and most abundantly and ■of greatest size in the mountain region. The beech bears seed plentifully every 4 or 5 years, or along streams or in sheltered hollows more frequently. Young seedlings are common in damp shady woods, especially above 3,000 feet ele- vation. Towards the summits of many high mountains it forms, -with, birch and sugar maple, nearly the entire growth. The young- trees are capable of enduring deep shade. The leaves are thin, smootii, and straight-veined, each vein end- ing in a large tooth. The sterile flowers occur in small heads upon drooping silky stems, and the fertile flowers are often in -pairs on the summit of short stalks. The fruit consists of a prickly bur, enclosing two triangular sharp-ridged edible nuts. The brown winter-buds are long, slender, and pointed ; the twigs small and smooth. The root system consists of long superficial roots which are frequently exposed. The wood is very hard, strong, tough, very close-grained, not durable in contact with the soil, and inclined to check in drying; 112 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. dark or lighter red in color; the sapwood nearly white. It takes a beautiful polish, and is used for chairs, shoe-lasts, plane-stocks^ handles, and for fuel. The bark is sometimes used for tannings and a valuable oil is derived from the nuts. The wood is little used in North Carolina except for fuel. Ostrya virginica, Willdenow. (hop hornbeaji. ironwood.) A small tree, with smooth dark brown branches, brownish finely furrowed bark, and an oval head, reaching a height of 50 and a diameter of 2 feet. It occurs from the Bay of Chaleur to northern Minnesota, south to eastern Texas, and along the Appalachian mountains and Piedmont region to western Florida ; reaching its best develop- ment in southern Arkansas. In North Carolina, where its average height is 20 to 30 teet, it occurs only in the Piedmont plateau and mountain regions. In rich spots near the summits of sonie of the high mountains, at an elevation of 4,500 to 5,200 feet, it forms small patches of almost pure forest or grows in mixture with the sugar maple and service tree. The hop hornbeam bears seed at frequent intervals. Small trees sprout freely from the stump. Numerous adventitious branches grow from the trunks of older trees. It is a slow growing tree and can endure deep shade even in youth. Trees over 12 inches in diameter are very often hollow. The thin leaves are oblong-ovate or elliptical, finely pointed,. sharply toothed, smooth above and somewhat hairy beneath. The male flowers occur in drooping cylindrical catkins, the female in short and slender ones. The fruit is hop-like and is made up of from 12 to 20 seed vessels each containing one hard pointed nutlet. The prominent winter-buds are dark brown and cone-shaped. The hop hornbeam has a tap-root and deeply penetrating lateral roots. The wood is heavy, very strong, hard, tough, very close-grained, compact, light brown in color, or often nearly white, like th6 YELLOW BIKCfl. BITTEK BIRCH. ] 13 sapwood. It is used for posts, levers, mill cogs, wedges, mallets, and the handles of tools. Carpihus carolitiiana, Walter. (hornbeam, iron wood, blue beech, water beech.) A small tree, wnth a short smooth dark bluish-gray or slate- colored trunk, marked by irregular longitudinal ridges, smooth gray branches, and a round or flat spreading crown, reaching a height of 50 and a diameter of 3 feet. It occurs from Nova Scotia to northern Minnesota, southward to central Florida, and through Iowa, Kansas, and Indian Terri- tory to eastern Texas ; reaching its best development on the west- ern slopes of the southern Appalachian mountains, and in southern Arkansas, and in eastern Texas. In I^s'orth Carolina, where it grows to a height of 25 feet and a diameter of 14 inches, it is found along water-courses throughout the State. It bears seed, at least in the Piedmont plateau, very frequently, and young growth is common along streams where the trees stand thinly. The best growth takes place under moderate cover, though the tree adapts itself to a wide range of light and shade. The leaves are oblong or elliptical, rounded at the base, sharply toothed, and slightly hairy on the veins beneath. The male flowers are in drooping cylindrical catkins. The fertile spikes are terminal, long-stemmed, and 6 to 12 flowered. The angular nuts are solitary and at the base of a 3-lobed leaf-like scale. The win- ter-buds are small and acute ; the twigs slender. The roots are superflcial. The wood is heavy, very strong, close-grained, and inclined to check in drying; light brown in color; the thick sapwood nearly white. It is used for levers, the handles of tools, etc. Betula lutea, F. A. Michaux. (yellow birch, bitter birch.) A tree, with spreading branches, and silvery yellow bark which scales oft' in thin sheets, reaching a height of 95 and a diameter of 4 feet. 114 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. It is common from Newfoundland to the western shores of Lake Superior and Rainy Lake, south through the northern states to Delaware, and southern Minnesota, and along the Appalachian mountains to the high peaks of North Carolina and Tennessee; reaching its best development in soutliern Canada and the north- eastern United States. In this State, where it attains a height of 80 to 90 and a diam- eter of 2 to 3 feet it is coniined to the high mountains, where, in damp woods, it is not uncommon. (Fig. 30, p. 115.) Seed is produced abundantlj' every 2 or 3 years, and young trees are common in damp shady woods at high elevations. It grows rapidly when the light conditions are favorable. Speci- mens over three feet in diameter are usually hollow. The leaves are elliptical or ovate, coarsely toothed, and hairy on the midrib beneath. The male catkins are cylindrical and pendulous ; the female short and nearly erect, which, when mature, form an egg-shaped cone, li inches long, made up of stiff tough 3-lobed scales and containing winged seeds. The flowers appear in early spring before the leaves. The prominent winter- buds are smooth and conical. The undeveloped male catkins are formed in the fall and are conspicuous during the winter. The yellow birch has a tap-root, which usually forks and takes a lat- eral direction, and several strong lateral roots. The wood is heavy, very strong, hard, very close-grained, com- pact ; light brown in color; the heavier sapwood nearly white. It takes a beautiful polish, and is used for furniture, veneering, button and tassel-moulds, spools, pill and matcli boxes, the hubs of wheels, flooring, and fuel. Betula nigra, Linnaeus. (river birch, red birch, black birch.) A tree, with a short trunk, a large, spreading top, reddish- brown furrowed bark on the stem, and on the branches reddish- white bark which separates in thin papery layers, reaching a height of 80 and a diameter of 3 feet. It occurs in moist situations from Massachusetts southward through the coast and middle districts to western Florida, and CHEKEY BIRCH. BLACK BIRCH. 115 westward to western Iowa and eastern Texas; reaching its best development in the south Atlantic states and the basin of the lower Mississippi river. In this State, where it reaches an average height of 40 to 60 and an average diameter of 1 to 2 feet, it is found along streams and on the borders of swamps fronj the coast to the monntains. (Fig. 30.) MAP OF NORTH CAKOLINA COASTAL PLAIN REG ION ! Distribution of the CHEERY BIRCH (Betula lenta, Z.) Distribution of the YELLOW BIRCH (Betula lutea, Michx.f.) It bears seed at frequent intervals, and young growth is com- mon on alluvial soil near the edges of fields and along streams. Young trees when cut send up numerous sprouts. The leaves are acute at each end, doubly-toothed, bright green above, and glaucous beneath when young. The fruit is an oblong spike (with woolly, 3-lobed bracts), containing the small rather broadly-winged seeds. The river birch matures its seed early in summer. The winter-buds are oval and dark brown ; the twigs brown, and downy when young. The root system consists of deeply penetrating lateral and running roots. The wood is light, rather hard, strong, close-grained and com- pact ; brown in color; the sapwood much lighter. It is used fur furniture, woodenware, wooden shoes, ox yokes, etc., and cask hoops of inferior quality are made from the branches. Betula lenta, Linnaeus. (CHEEEY BIECH. BLACK BIECH.) A tree, with reddish-brown rough bark on old trees, smooth 116 TIMBEK TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. dark bark which resembles that of the cherry on the branches and on young trees, and a large oval crown, reaching a height of 80 and a diameter of 5 feet. (Plate XII.) It occnrs from ISTewfonndlaod and the valley of the Sagnenay river w^estward through Ontario to the islands of Lake Huron, southward to northern Delaware and southern Indiana, and along the Alleghany mountains to western Florida, and westward to middle Kentucky, and Tennessee. In North Carolina, where it reaches an average height of 60 to 80 and an average diameter of 2 to 2? feet, it is confined to the mountains. (Fig. 30, p. 115.) It produces seed once in 3 or 4 years. Young seedlings, which are common in damp cool woods, are short lived if very heavily shaded. Old specimens, over 2 feet in diameter, are often unsound. Young trees sprout from the stump. The ovate or oblong-ovate leaves are finely pointed, heart- shaped at the base, and sharply and irregularly toothed. The fruit is cylindrical or elliptical, with rounded ends, 1 to li inches long, and made up of small closely set scales. The buds are con- ical and pointed. The cherry birch has a superficial root system, although in 3'oung grow^th there is a prominent tap-root. The wood is heavy, very strong and hard, close-grained, com- pact ; dark brown in color; the sapwood light brown or yellow. It takes a beautiful polish, and is nsed for furniture and fuel, and in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick for shipbuilding. Birch beer is made from the sap of this species. In some parts of North Carolina considerable quantities of cherry birch have been cut for lumber. Salix nig-ra, Marshall. (willow, black avillow. eiver willow.) A small tree, with a large oval crown, dark rough bark on the trunk, and smooth light brown bark on the spreading branches, reaching a height of 50 and a diameter of 2 feet, or towards its southeastern limit a mere shrub. It occurs along streams from New Brunswick and Lake Superior south to Florida and Texas, and in the valleys of the Sacramento river, California, and the Colorado river, Arizona. N. C. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. BULLETIN 6. PLATI-: XII. CHERRY BIRCH POPLAR. ASPEN. LAKGE-TOOTHED ASPEN. 117 In North Carolina it is found from the coast to the mountains, growing on loamy soils along streams, and reaches a height of 30 feet and a diameter of 15 inches. It is rare in the high moun- tains, but in the Piedmont plateau is much more abundant. Seed is borne abundantly and at frequent intervals, and seed- lings are common on bottom lands. Trees of all sizes sprout from the stump. It is easily propagated from cuttings. The smaller branches and twigs are often injured by a saw tly, Cimbex americana. The leaves are narrow, lance-shaped, toothed and tapering at the ends. The flowers appear in early spring in drooping catkins, the male and female on separate trees. The fruit is a pendulous catkin, made up of small capsules containing minute seeds which are clothed with long silky hairs. The roots are very fibrous and tough. The light, coarsegrained wood is soft, not strong, and brown in color ; the sapwood much lighter. The bark is some- times used medicinally. , Populus grandidenta, Michaux. (poplar. ASPEN. LARGE-TOOTHED ASPEN.) A tree, with a short body, pyramidal crown, and rather smooth gray bark, reaching a height of 80 and a diameter of 2i feet. It occurs in moist situations from ISTova Scotia and New Bruns- wick westward through Ontario to northern Minnesota, south through the northern states, and along the Appalachian moun- tains to North Carolina, extending westward to middle Kentucky, and Tennessee. In th*is State, where it reaches an average height of -10 feet and an average diameter of 12 inches, it is found in the upper part of the Piedmont plateau, but is not very common. Although it bears seed frequently, young seedlings are uncom- mon. The rate of growth is uniformly rapid. The trunk is attacked by several borers and the leaves are often stripped off by caterpillars. The leaves, which are borne on slender flattened stems are roundish, with 5 to 9 large blunt teeth on each side. The flowers 118 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. appear before the leaves in spring in drooping cylindrical catkins, the sterile and fertile on separate individuals. The fruit is a catkin consisting of small dry capsules with minute seeds, coated with cottony down. The buds are conical and slightly downy. The wood is light, soft, not strong, close-grained, and compact; light brown in color ; the sapwood nearly white. It is used for wood pulp, and occasionally for turnery and woodenware, Populiis heterophylla, Linnaeus. (cOTTONWOOD.) A rare and local tree, with oval-oblong crown, dark gray bark, and lighter colored branches, reaching a height of 90 and a diam- eter of 3 feet. It occurs on the borders of river swamps from Connecticnt, gen- erally near the coast, to Georgia and western Louisiana, and in Arkansas, Tennessee, Kentucky, Illinois, and Indiana, reaching its best development in the basin of the lower Ohio river. In this State, where it attains an average height of 70 to 80 feet, it is fonnd in the rich swamp lands of the lower Cape Fear river, and probably elsewhere. The leaves are ovate, serrate with blunt incurved teeth, and downy on the veins beneath. The wood is light, soft, not strong, close-grained, compact ; dull brown in color ; the thick sapwood lighter. Populus monilifera, Alton. (CAROLINA POPLAR. CAROLINA COTTONWOOD.) A large tree, with dark brown rough bark and oval crown, reaching a height of 170 and a diameter of 8 feet. It occurs from Vermont to Florida, and westward to Montana, Colorado, and JSTew Mexico, growing in low moist soil. It is com- mon in the West. In this State, where it reaches an average height of 60 to 70 feet, it is rare, ard is found in the Piedmont plateau. It bears seed frequently in North Carolina but never abund- WHITE CEDAR. JUNIPER. 119 antlj. Young trees are common on bottom lands along streams. Stumps over 18 inches in diameter sprout freely in the open. The leaves are broadly ovate, and serrate with large incurved teeth. The winter buds are conical, shining brown, and of mod- erate size. The Carolina poplar has numerous strong lateral roots. The wood is very light, soft, not strong, close-grained, com- pact, liable to warp, and hard to season ; dark brown in color ; the thick sapwood nearly white. It is used for paper pulp, pack- ing cases, fence boards, and fuel. Thuja occidentalis, Linnj«us. (arbor vit.e.) An evergreen tree, of pyramidal habit, with a rapidly tapering trunk furnished with numerous small branches at irregular inter- vals, reaching a height of 6() and a diameter of 5 feet, or at its sonthern limits reduced to a very small tree or shrub. It occurs from New Brunswick, to Lake Winnipeg, south to New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Minnesota, and along the Appalachian mountains to North Carolina, growing on wet soil. It is very cotnmon in the North. In tliis State, where it is but a shrub or small tree, it is con- fined to the mountains. The small blunt-pointed or awd-sliaped leaves are thictkly pressed along the branchlets in 4 rows. The flowers are very minute. The light brown cones are f inch louii;, and each of the 6 to 12 oblong rounded scales protects 2 seeds. The wood is very light, soft, not strong, brittle, and very durable in contact with the soil; light brown in color; the thin sapwood nearly white. It is used for fencing, telegraph poles, railroad ties, and shingle?^, and sometimes for cabinet work and building. An oil distille:! from the leaves has been used in pul- monary complaints. Cupressus thyoides, Linnaeus.* (white cedar, juniper.) A slender evergreen tree, with numerous short spreading *Ctiamaecyparis sphaeroiclea, Spach 120 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. branches which cover the greater part of the trunk and form a conical head, and reddish-brown deeply furrowed or loose bark reaching a height of 90 and a diameter of 5 feet. It occurs in deep cold swamps from Maine along the coast to northern Florida and Mississippi, and is rare west of Mobile bay. In tills State, where it reaches an average height of 40 and an average diameter of 2 feet, it grows in wet sandy, often peaty, soils in the coastal plain region, extending westward to Wake and Anson MAP OF NORTH CAROLINA SCALE Of MILES SO ^HWf^; Fio. 31. .-fi^^^. LEGEND l-^p} Distribution of the PITCH PINE (Pinus rigida, MiH.) Distribution of the WHITE CEDAR or JUNIPER (Cupressus thyoides, L.) counties. (Fig, 31 ) It frequently occurs in pure forest, or with the white bay, or scattered in small clumps, in cypress and gum swamps. The juniper bears seed very plentifully nearly every year. Seedlings are common near the parent trees, but usually die under deep shade. Fire is very destructive to trees of all ages, and extensive areas of valuable timber have been burned, particularly in the Dismal Swamp. In many swamps large quantities of fallen trees, sound and lit for lumber, lie buried at various depths. The leaves are very small, ovate-pointed, awl-shaped, and closely appressed in 4 rows. The male and female flowers are separate but on the same plant ; the male catkins cylindrical, the female globose. The cones are very small and globular, with thick scales bearing 2 or more seeds at the base. The juniper, at least in peaty swamps, has a poorly developed tap-root or none at all, and long strong superficial lateral roots. The wood is very light and soft, not strong, close-grained, com- If. c. Geological sitrvey. stJLLETijsr 6. piiAtfi xm. RED CEDAR J RED CEDAE. 121 pact, easily worked, and very durable in contact with the soil ; light brown in color : the sapwood lighter. It is used for boat- building, woodenware, cooperage, shingles, interior finish, tele- graph posts, fence posts, railway ties, and in the manufacture of lampblack. Charcoal for gun power is made from the smaller trunks. The original growth, in most accessible jnniper swamps of this State, is being rapidly removed. There still remain, however, large quantities in Dare, Tyrrell, and Gates counties and in the Dismal Swamp, which are yet inaccessible. Juniperus virginiana, Linnseus. (red cedar.) An evergreen tree, with pyramidal head, numerous crowded drooping branches, and dark brown shaggy bark, reaching a height of 100 and a diameter of 6 feet, or at its northern and western limits often reduced to a low shrub. (Plate XIII.) It is one of the most widely distributed North American trees, and occnrs in all parts of the United States except western Texas, California, and Oregon ; reaching its best development in the valley of the Red river, Texas. In North Carolina, where it grows to an average height of 30 to 40 feet, and an average diameter of 10 to 13 inches, it is found MAP OF NORTH CAROLINA SCALE OF MILES Area in which the RED CEDAR is infre- quent or altogether wanting. throughout, but is rare and of small size in the high mountain counties. (Fig. 32.) 122 TIMBEK TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. The red cedar bears seed abundantly nearly every year. Yonng- trees frequently form a large part of the growth on dry rocky fields and hillsides, particularly in the Piedmont plateau region. Young growth is often overtopped and crowded out by faster growing pines and oaks, although it can live in deep shade for a long time. Small specimens are very sensitive to fire. It is very free from the attacks of insects and from all fungal diseases. The leaves are small, entire, scale-like, and sharp-pointed or obtuse. The flowers are small and inconspicuous, and the fruit is a small ovate smooth berry, dark purple, and covered with a glau- cous bloom. On deep loamy soil the red cedar has a well devel- oped tap-root and numerous deeply seated lateral roots. Tlie wood is light, soft, not strong, brittle, very close and straiglit-grMined, compact, easily worked, and durable in contact with the soil ; dull red in color; the thin sapwood nearly white. It is used for posts, sills, railroad ties, interior finish, cabinet making, woodenware, and for lead pencils to the exclusion of all other woods. The wood is odorous, and an infusion, of the ber- ries is used medicinally. Taxodium distichum, Ricliard. (cypress, bald cypress.) A large tree, of great commercial value, with deciduous leaves, a small flat spreading or pyramidal top, and deeply furrowed or loose reddish-brown bark, reaching a height of 150 and a diameter of 13 feet. It occurs in Wfr situations from Delaware to Florida and Texas, and in Arkansas, Kentucky, Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana ; reach- ing its best development in the south Atlantic and Gulf states. It is coniition and forms extensive forests. In Xorth Carolina, where it reaches an average height of 60 to 100 ajid an average diameter of 5 to 7 feet it occurs in the coastal plain region (tig. 33), where it is one of the most common trees along streams and swamps. It is found on a variety of soils between a heavy mud-alluvium and a light sand or rarely on peaty soil. Although seed years are frequent, young plants are not common. WHITE PINE. 12a A growth of gums usually follows the cypress after lumbering. Large specimens have swollen butts which are often hollow. The MAP OF ?,-OKT.U CAKOLINA SCALE MOUNTAIN , .-r^,-ri _^ JtiSPN i PIl^DMONT gi-/n\EAU LEGEN •>:-;-<• Distribution of the WHITE PINE (Piims sti-obus, Z.) Area's CD-ila,ining merchantable CYPRESS (Taxodium distichum, Rich' Botanical distribution of the CYPRESS. timber has frequently small hollows and rotten spots scattered through apparently sound logs. The leaves are deciduous, flat, linear, and in two rows on the slender branchlets. The male and female flowers are borne on the same tree; the male in drooping flexible catkins, the female in ovoid catkins, singly or in small clusters. The fruit is a small dark brown globular cone with thick scales. There are many deeply penetrating lateral roots, and long superficial roots from which the "cypress knees" grow to a height of one to foun feet. The wood is light, soft, close and straight-grained, not strong,, compact, easily worked, and very durable in contact with the soil; light or dark brown in color; the sapwood nearly white. The lumber is known commercially in two varieties, the black and white cy}.ress, of which the former is heavier, harder, and more durable. It is used for construction, cooperage, railroad ties,, fencing, shingles, water pipes, and interior flnish. Much of the cypress has been removed along the larger streams and fr^n the more accessible swamps in the northeastern counties for the manufacture of lumber and shingles. Large quantities,, however, are still standing in the State. Pinus strobus, Linnaeus. (white PINE.) A large tree, of the first commercial importance, with horizontal 124 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. l)ranches, and rough furrowed dark grayish-brown bark, reaching ■a, height of 170 and a diameter of 11 feet. (Plate XIY.) It occurs from Newfoundland to the Winnipeg river, south through the northern states to Pennsylvania, Michi2;an, Illinois, Iowa, and along the Appalachian mountains to Georgia; reach- ing its i)est development in the region of the Great Lakes. In this State, where it attains an average height of 60 to 70 ^nd an average diameter of 2j feet, it is confined to the mountains. It grows for the most part at an elevation of 1,500 to 3,500 feet, «,nd is found along the Blue Pidge, and scatteringl j in the coun- ties west of it. (Fig. 33, p. 123.) The white pine bears seed at intervals of from 2 to 4 years. Seedlings are common in open woods, and in old fields on dry poor soil. It prefers a sandy loam, but is found on clay and on sandy soil. It grows usually on rich land or on high dry stony ridges, and often forms large patches of nearly pure forest. The growth is slow for the first 4 to 7 years, tlien very rapid for 40 to 60 years, after which it again grows slowly. It is a long-lived tree, sound specimens having been found 350 or 400 years old. Specimens under 10 inches in diameter are sensitive to fire. In the northern states the grub of the pine borer or sawyer, Monohamnus confusor, Kirby, attacks the sound timber, though less frequently than that of decaying trees. The white pine weevtl, Pissodes strobi. Peck, causes a great deal of injury by entering and destroying the leaders. This species is also subject to the attack of the grubs of various bark beetles. The leaves are soft, slender, in fives. The male catkins are oval, the female long-stalked and cylindrical; the cones long, narrow, slightly curved, and tapering to a point. The seeds are small, smooth, and ovate, with thin wings about 1 inch long. The roots, which are remarkable for their durability, usually do not penetrate deeply into the soil. The wood is light, soft, not strong, very close and straight- grained, compact, easily worked ; light brown in color ; the sap- wood nearly white. It is used for lumber, shingles, laths, build- ing material, cabinetmaking, interior finish, matches, wooden- ware, and domestic purposes, and is altogether one of the most N. C. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. BULLETIN- fi. PLATE XIV. A GROUP OF WHITE PINES I }J. C. GEOLOGICAL StJEVBY. BUI.LF.TTN B. PLATB! XV. A GROUP OF LOBLOLLY PINES LOBLOLLY PINE. NORTH CAROLINA PINE. 12& nsefnl timbers of the United States. Its threatened exhaustion is therefore a serious matter. Pinus taeda, Linn^us. (loblolly pine, old field pine. short-leaf pine. swamp PINE.. SLASH PINE. ROSEMARY PINE. NORTH CAROLINA PINE.) A large and valuable tree, with a long clear stem, a large ovoid crown, and reddish-brown bark divided into fiat rectangular plates, reaching a height of 150 and a diameter of 5 feet. (Plate Xy.) • It occnrs from Delaware to Florida and Texas, generally near the coast, and north to the valley of the Arkansas river ; reaching^ its best development in eastern North Carolina. »<^ MAP OF NORTH CAROLINA SCALE LEGEND. Areas containing merchantable timber of the LOBLOLLY PINE (Pinus taeda, L^ Areas from which the merchantable timber of LOBLOLLY PINE has been largely removed. Ene'd W Amuiican Bank ^ In this State (fig. 34), where it attains an average height of 50 to 70, and an average diameter of 2 to 3 feet, it is found on a great variety of soils and situations" from the sea level to an elevation of 1,000 feet. The original growth is on moist deep soil, but the second growth has sprung up largely in old fields, often replacing the long-leaf pine on the moister loamy lands. It bears seed generally every year, and abundantly once in 2 or 3 years, but much of the seed is imperfect. Seedlings are very common on rather moist soil in abandoned fields. The rate of growth, under sufficient light, is very rapid. The slender light green leaves are usually in threes, with 126 TIMBER TKEES OF NOKTH CAEOLINA. rather long close sheaths. The cones are ovate-oblonor and 3 to 4 inches long ; the scales terminate in short rigid spines. This species has a tap-root and many strong deeply penetrating lateral roots. The wood is light, not strong, brittle, very coarse-grained and not durable ; light brown in color, the very thick sapwood orange or often nearly white. It is used for lumber and fuel. Turpentine is sometimes obtained from this tree. Pinus rigida, Miller. (pitch pine, black pine.) A tree, with an oblong crown, spreading branches, a cylindri- cal, and often crooked stem, and rather flaky dark reddish-brown bark, reaching a height of 80 and a diameter of 3 feet. It occurs from New Brunswick to the northern shores of Lake Ontario, sonth through the Atlantic states to northern Georgia, and westward to West Virginia and Kentuck}'. A very common tree. In this State, where it reaches an average height of 50 to 70 feet and an average diameter of 18 to 24 inches, it is found in the western part of the Piedmont plateau region and in the moun- tain counties south of the French Broad river. (Fig. 31, p. 120.) It grows on dry, often sandy or gravelly ridges, mixed with the short-leaf and scrub pines. It produces seed often and in abundance, and the seedlings, which require a good deal of light, are common' in dry open situ- ations, and in old fields. Young trees sprout from the stump to some extent, but the sprouts are short-lived. The resistance of the pitch pine to fire is exceptionally great. The rigid flattened leaves are usually in threes, from short sheaths, and 3 to 5 inches long. The cones are ovate and from 2 to nearly 4 inches long, the scales armed with a short recurved spine. The wood is light, soft, not strong, brittle, and coarse-grained ; light brown or red in color; the thick sapwood yellow or often N. C. GfeOLOGiCAL SURVEY. BULLETIN 6. PLATE XVt. POND OR SAVANNAH PINE POND PINE. SAVANNA PINE. 12' nearly white. It is used for fuel, charcoal, and coarse lumber. It has been sparingly cut for lumber in North Carolina. Pinus serotina, Michaux. (pond pine, savanna pine, swamp pine, pocosin pine.) A small tree, with a short cylindrical trunk, numerous short branches, and smooth dark brown bark broken into rectangular plates, reaching a height of SO and a diameter of 3 feet. (Plate XYI.) It occurs on low peaty or wet sandy soils of the worst quality, from North Carolina to Florida, near the coast. In this State, where it reaches an average lieight of 40 to 50 feet, it is common in the small swamps of the coastal plain, and MAP OF NORTH CAROLINA SCALE OF MILES LEGEND Distribution of the POND PINE (Pinus serotina, Mickx.) Distribution of the HEMLOCK (Tsnga canadensis, Carr. pistribution of the CAROLINA HEMLOCK ' (Tsuga caroliniana, Engdm.) ntXolcCn.K.V is occasionally found in the Piedmont plateau region. (Fig. 35.) It bears seed frequently, and young growth is common on wet soil near old trees and mixed with the second growth of loblolly pine. A great deal of the seed will not gern'iinate. It is more sensitive to lire than the loblolly pine. Old specimens are often hollow or red-hearted. The leaves arc in threes, 5 to 8 inches long, somewhat shorter and from shorter sheaths than those of the loblolly pine. The cones frequently remain on the tree several years before dropping their seed. They are round-ovate, 2 to 3 inches long, with scales rounded at the apex and have a small weak prickle. :i28 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. The wood is heavy, soft, not strons?, brittle, coarse-grained; dark orange in color; the thick sapwood pale yellow. In some sections of the State the pond pine is manufactured into lumber with the loblolly, from which it is not distinguished commercially. Pinus virginiana, Miller.* (jersey pine, cedar pine, spruce pine, scrub pine.) A slender tree, with a short stem, very numerous limbs which form an open oval or conical crown, and red-brown frequently scaly bark, reaching a height of 120 and a diameter of 3 feet. It occurs from New York, generally near the coast, to Georgia, and westward to Kentucky, and Indiana ; reaching its best devel- opment west of the Appalachian mountains. In this State, where it grows to a height of 20 to 40 feet and a diameter of 12 to 15 inches, it occurs sparingly in the Piedmont plateau on gravelly ridges with the short-leaf pine, and along the foot and on the spurs of the Blue Ridge much more abundantly, mixed with the white and pitch pines, or sometimes forming small patches of pure forest. It is also found west of the Blue Ridge. (Fig. 36.) MAP OP NORTH CAROLEVA SCALE OF MILES LEGEND Distribution of the JERSEY or SCRUB" PINE (Pinus ■virginiaiLa, Mill.) Distribution of the TABLE MOUNTAIN. PINE (Pinus pungenSi Mickx./,) Eng'd I'v American Bank Vote Ca. W.Y. Seed is produced plentifully once in 2 or 3 years, and seedlings are very common, particularly in old fields, together with those *Pinus inops, Alton. TABLE MOUNTAIN PINE. 129 of the short-leaf pine. The rate of growth is very rapid, but the tree is short-lived. The leaves are short, 2i to 3 inches long, rigid, in short sheaths, and usually in twos. The cones are light brown, solitary, curved, and oblong-conical, the scales armed with a rigid prickle. The root system is inclined to be somewhat heart-shaped, with a well developed tap-root. The wood is light, soft, not strong, brittle, close-grained and durable ; light orange in color ; the thick sapwood nearly white. It is used for fuel, water pipes, and pump logs. In North Caro- lina it is used in the manufacture of charcoal, and to some extent for fencing. Pinus pungens, Michaux. (table mountain pine.) A tree, with rough reddish-brown bark and a large spreading crown, reaching a height of 60 and a diameter of 3j feet. It occurs along the Alleghany mountains from Pennsylvania to Tennessee, where it reaches its best development. A common tree, sometimes forming pure forest. In North Carolina it attains an average height of 30 to 50 feet, and an average diameter of 12 to 20 inches, and is found only along the Blue Ridge and the ranges immediately eastward on the driest, most barren ridges, usually associated with the pitch pine, and the chestnut and scarlet oaks. It is most abundant in the southeastern parts of Macon and Jackson counties. (Fig- 36, p. 128.) It bears seed abundantly ; seedlings are common in open woods near the old trees, and in abandoned fields. The leaves are 2 to 2i inches long, stout, and generally in twos. The light yellow very compact cone, 3 inches long and 2 inches broad at the base, has very broad strong sharp spines, 1-6 inch long, bent toward the top of the cone. The wood is light, soft, not strong, brittle, coarse-grained ; light brown in color; the thick sapwood nearly white. It is used for charcoal and to some extent in construction. 9 130 TIMBER TKEES OF NORTH CAROLINA. Pinus echinata, Miller.* '(short-leaf pine, yellow pine, spruce pine, rosemary pine. heart pine.) A tree of commercial importaHce, with a long clear stem, a 'broad oval ciown, and brownish-red bai'k broken into rectangular plates, reachinji: a height of 100 and a diameter of 4j feet. It occurs from Ncm^ York to Florida and Texas, through Arkan- sas to Indian Territory, Kansas, and Missouri, and in Illinois; reaching its best development in Louisiana, Arkansas and Texas. In North Carolina, where it grows to a height of 70 to 90 feet and a diameter of 2 to Si feet, it is found throughout, and enters into the composition of most upland forests. It appears less com- monly in the coastal plain region, being especially rare south of the Neuse river. (Fig. 37.) The short-leaf pine produces some seed annually, and bears abun- dantly about once in three years. Seedlings are common on well- drained soil, occupying abandoned iields and often growing in mix- ture with the loblolly pine. The rate of growth in youth is very rapid. On high exposed situations it is sometimes thrown by the wind. The dark green slender leaves are usually in twos, from a long sheath, and 3 to 5 inches long. The cone, smaller than that of the other North Carolina pines, and armed with slender short *Pinus mitis, Michaux. N. C. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. BULLETIN 6. PLATE XVII. A GROUP OF UONG-UEAF PINES LONG-LEAF PINE. 131 spines, is rarely 2 inches lono;. It has a strong tap-root and sev- eral lateral roots. The wood varies greatly in quality and in the amount of sap- wood. It is heavy, hard, strong, and generally coarse-grained ; orange in color; the sapwood nearly white. It is much used for lumber, for which purpose it is only inferior to that of the long- leaf pine. In the middle sections near tlie railroad it has been largely removed. Large quantities still remain, however, in Stanly, Cabarrus, Randolph, Caswell, Davidson, Surry, Wilkes, Alexan- de,r, Iredell, Yadkin, Cleveland, Rutherford, and Caldwell coun- ties. The amount sawed in this State in 1894 probably was be- tween 50,000,000 and 60,000,000 feet, board measure, the larger part of which w^as for local use. On account of its tendency to spring up in old iields and open woods, and rhe excellent quality of its timber, the short-leaf pine is probably destined to assume very extensive economic importance in the future. Pinus palustris, Miller. (long-leaf pine.) A tree of the first commercial value, with a long slender trunk free from branches, a small round head, and thin bright red- brown thin-scaled bark, reaching a height of 95 and a diameter of 4 feet. (Plate XVII.) .. It occurs from Virginia to Florida and Texas, rarely beyond 150 miles from the coast, and reaches its best development in northeastern Texas on the gravelly uplands of the valleys of the Sabine and Trinity rivers. In Xorth Carolina, where it reaches an average height of 70 feet and an average diameter of 15 to 20 inches, it is found (fig. 38) in pure forest from the Neuse river southward, occupying all the highest and driest sandy lands from the coast to within a few miles of Troy, in Montgomery county, and Rockingham, in Rich- mond county. Only along its western limits does it occur associated to any extent with other trees. The long-leaf pine formerly extended in an almost unbroken forest to Virginia, but it has been either 132 TIMBEK TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. entirely cut out or so much thinned that it is of little commercial •value north of the Neuse liver. The loblolly pine has for the most part taken its place, except on very dry and sterile soils. MAP OF NORTH CAROLINA SCALE OF M LES COASTAL PLAIN REGION _ **-v ks'i %M^^" LEGEND Areas containing merchantable milling ber of LONG-LEAF PINE (Pinus palustris, Mill.) Areas from which the milling timber of LONG-LEAF PINE has been largely removed. EngM I'Y Amcdcnn I The long-leaf pine bears seed very abundantly only at long and irregular intervals. A fair production of seed occurs about once in 5 years, while in the intermediate years the yield is small and localized. After a seed year the young plants are very abun- dant throughout the woods, but are killed in large numbers either by forest fires, by the dense shade, or .by swine rooting them up to devour the sweet tender roots. Young trees are very sensitive to fire. After the first four or five years trees in the open grow very rapidly u'.itil about 15 years old, particularly in height, after which time the growth is slow. When the long-leaf pine is cut or burned, and prevented from reproducing itself on account of fires and swine, the loblolly pine often follows on damp soils, and scrub oak or fork-leaved black-jack oak on high dry sandy lands. The timber loss by fire on long-leaf pine lands in 1893 amounted to not less than $100,000. At rare intervals extensive tracts are destroyed by bark beetles. Scattered trees are injured in locali- ties where the dead tops have been left in the woods after lum- bering. Beetles attack trees which have been injured by turpen- tine operations, which often so weaken them that many are thrown by the wind. In 1893 the losses, principally through this cause, amounted to between ten and fifteen million feet, board measure. The leaves are 10 to 15 inches long, in threes from long sheaths, N. C. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. fettLLBTlN'S. PLATE XVttt. BLACK SPRUCE BLACK SPRUCE. HE BALSAM. LASH HORN. TAMARAC. 133 and clustered on the ends of the thick scaly branchlets. Tiiey remain on healthy trees about 3 years, but on boxed trees only about two. The sterile flowers are rose colored, appearing about the first of April, and the large silky winter-buds are white. The cones are light brown, cylindrical or conical-oblong, 6 to 10 inches long, and have thick scales armed w4th a stout blunt spine. A tap-root is developed in early life and is often forked. The root system of old trees tends to be heart-shaped with the lateral roots penetrating deeply. The wood is heavy, hard, strong, tough, coarse-grained, and durable; light red or orange in color; the thin sapwood nearly white. It is widely used for construction of all kinds, interior finish, fencing, railroad ties, etc. Turpentine, tar, pitch, rosin, and spirits of turpentine are obtained alnjost exclusively from this species. The largest bodies of standing long-leaf pine are in Moore, Montgomery, Cumberland, Robeson, and Bladen counties, and probably not more than 50,000 acres still remain unboxed. Wil- mington has for a long time been an important centre for the manufacture of lumber from this species, and much has also been cut in the Aberdeen district in Moore and Cumberland counties. Picea nigra, Link. (black spruce. HE BALSAM. LASH HORN. TAMARAC.) A tree, with spreading branches which form a conical crown, a long cylindrical trunk, and dark brown scaly bark, reaching a height of 90 and a diameter of 4 feet. (Plate XYIII.) It occurs trom Newfoundland to Hudson bay, the mouth of the Mackenzie river, and the eastern slopes of the Rocky moun- tains, and south through the northern states to Pennsylvania, Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota, and along the Appalachian mountains to North Carolina. In this State, where it is confined to the upper slopes of the highest peaks, above an elevation of 5,000 feet, from Elk Knob in Ashe to Clingman's Dome in Swain county, it forms pure forest or toward the summits is mixed with Carolina fir and 134 TIMBER TREES OF NORTH CAROLINA. beech, and reaches an average height of 40 to 50 feet and an average diameter of 1 5 to 20 inches. In favorable localities at its lower limits, it attains a height of nearly 100 and a diameter of 4 feet. It bears seed in abundance, in this State, only at long and irreg- ular intervals. Young growth, however, is common in the thick woods. Great quantities of spruce have been destroyed by bark beetles, notably in Maine and in the Adirondack mountains of New York. A bud worm, Tortrix fiimiferana, Chniens, which attacks the shoots and tbliage, is one of its most deadly enemies. The dark green needle-shaped rigid leaves ai'e scattered on all sides of the slio;htlv downy branchlets. The cones are ovate or ovate-oblong and 1 to \\ inches long, with thin roundish scales. The wood is light, soft, not strong, close and straight-grained ; light red, or often nearly white in color ; the sapwood lighter. It is used for construction, shipbuilding, piles, posts, railroad ties, etc. Spruce beer is made from this species. The largest bodies of spruce, in North Carolina, are on the Black mountains in Yancey county. Grandfather mountain in Watauga, the Balsam mountains in Haywood, and the Great Smoky mountains in Swain county. Tsuga canadensis, Carriei-e. (hemlock, spruce pine.) A large tree, with a large conical crown, numerous spreading branches, and dark red-brown deeplj^ furrowed bark, reaching a height of 110 and a diameter of 6 feet. (Plate XIX.) It occurs generally on northern slopes from Nova Scotia to northern Wisconsin, and south to Delaware, Michigan, central Wisconsin, and along the Appalachian mountains to Alabama ; reaching its best development in the high mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee. In North Carolina, where it attains an average height of 70 to 80 and an average diameter of 2 to 3 feet, it is common in the mountains in cool ravines along streams on loamy or rich vegeta- N. C. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY BULLETIN 6. PLATE XIX. HEMLOCK CAROLINA HEMLOCK. HEMLOCK. SPRUCE I'TNE. 135' ble soil, associated with cherry birch, yellow birc^h, and the Khododendron. (Fig. 35, p. 123.) It bears seed frequently, and young seedlings are coninion in the shade of the old trees. The hemlock is very free from the attack of injnrions insects. Tall trees in exposed situations are often thrown by the wind. The dark green leaves are linear, flat, obtuse, two-ranked, and whitish beneath. The cones are small, oval or oblong, with the scales smooth and entire. The hemlock has numerous spreading lateral and superficial roots. The wood is light, soft, not strong, brittle, coarse and crooked- grained, difficult to work, liable to windshake and splinter, and not durable ; light brown or often nearly white in color ; the sap- w^ood somewhat darker. Commercially two varieties, the red and the white, are recognized. The coarse lumber is used for construction, outside finish, and railroad ties. The bark is extensively employed for tanning, and yields a powerful astrin- gent. Canada or hemlock-pitch is made from this species. A good deal of hemlock has been cut near Cranberry for the bark, and large quantities of logs have been floated down the branches of the Tennessee river from Graham and Swain coun- ties to Knoxville, Tenn. Tsuga caroliniana, Engelmann. (CAROLINA HEMLOCK. HEMLOCK. SPRUCE PINE.) A tree, with conical crown, numerous branches upon two-thirds of the stem, and rough thick red-brown bark, reaching a height of 50 to 70 and a "diameter of 2 to 3 feet. It is found locally along the eastern Appalachian mountains from the Saluda mountains, South Carolina, to Ashe county in North Carolina, where it occurs on clifl's along the South Fork of the New river, near Elk Cross-roads, and on spurs of the Blue Ridge; also in the gorge of the Doe river in Carter county, Tenn. (Fig. 35, p. 123.) It grows on dry and rocky ridges, rarely form- ing pure forest. 136 TIMBER TKEES OF NORTH CAROLINA. The Carolina hemlock bears seed frequently, but usually not in ■abundance. Seedlings are common in dense woods. The leaves are longer and more scattered than those of the ■common hemlock, to which the tree bears a general resemblance. The cones are larger, drooping, and with spreading scales. The coarse-grained brittle wood is light and soft ; light brown tinged with red ; the sapwood nearly white. Abies fraseri, Lindley. (balsam.) A tree, with conical crown, numerous spreading branches, and light gray rather smooth bark, reaching a height of 80 and a diameter of 2 feet. It occurs on moist slopes at an elevation of 5,000 to 6,500 feet, upon the mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee, often form- ing considerable forests. In this State, where it reaches an average height of less than 40 feet and an average diameter of 12 to 15 inches, it is common on the highest summits of the mountain region, but it does not occur below 4,000 feet. It usually forms pure forest, but is found mixed Mnth the black spruce, and to a less extent with beech and the birches. It bears seed at rather long intervals, but seedlings are com- mon under the shade of the old trees. The growth in youth is rapid. The leaves are somewhat two ranked, linear, flattened and obtuse, and remain on the trees for several years. The cones are 1 to 2 inches long. The wood is very light, soft, not strong, coarse-grained ; light brown in color ; the sapwood nearly white. It is little used. A thin, clear liquid called turpentine or balsam, derived frotn blisters on the bark, is used for cuts and sores. Sabal palmetto, Loddiges. (palmetto.) An endogenous tree, destitute of branches, with a small oval or N. C. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, BULLETIN 6, PLATE XX. A YOUNG PALMETTO. A GROUP OF PALMETTOS. SMITH'S ISLAND. PALMETTO. 137 globose head formed of the lara^e round leaves, and rough furrowed dark brown bark, reaching a height of 40 and a diameter of 3 feet. (Plate XX.) It oc"Jurs from Smith Island off Cape Fear river. North Caro- lina, to Key Largo, Florida, and along the Gulf coast to the Appalachicola river ; reaching its best development on the west coast of Florida, south of Cedar Keys. In North Carolina, it is found on deep sandy or loamy soil with the live oak, American olive, and water oak, and attains a height of 30 feet and a diameter rarely exceeding 18 inches. Its rarity renders it of little commercial importance. The leaves are large, fan shaped, palmated, and borne on stems 18 to 24 inches long. The flowers are small, greenish, and in small clusters, and the fruit is a small rounded drupe. The wood is light and soft ; light brown in color ; the iibro- vascular bundles hard, dark, and difficult to work. It is imper- vious to the attacks of the teredo, very durable in water, and is largely used for piles and wharves. The inner portion of the young plant is edible, and is often pickled. FORESTS OF NORTH CAROLINA. BY WILLIAM WILLARD ASHE. THE FORESTS OF NORTH CAROLINA. By W. W. Ashe. FOREST DIYISIONS. North Carolina can be divided topographically into three well- marked divisions : 1. The coastal plain eegion, or coastal division lying to the eastward and extending inland from the coast for a distance of one hundred to one hundred and fifty miles, has an aggregate area approximating 24,000 square miles. Its surface is that of a gently undulating plain of slight elevation (ten to fifty feet above sea level) and more nearly level surface eastward, and becoming more elevated (three hundred to five hundred feet) and rolling along its western border. The upland soils are sandy loams and loams, rarely stifl', moderately fine and even-grained. To the north of the Neuse river loams and loose loams are the more frequent upland soils; to the south of this river they are more sandy. In the more eastern portion of this region, in the vicinity of the coast, are numerous and extensive swamps, due either to insufiicient surface drainage, or the presence beneath the surface soil of impermeable strata. Their soils are silty and clayey, and com- pact ; or sandy and loamy, and loose; over limited areas they are peaty ; where they border the larger streams, that have their head- waters beyond the coastal plain region, they are silty with a small admixture of vegetable matter. In this region the normal annual temperature is about 61°F. ; and the normal annual rainfall about fifty five inches. 2. The Piedmont plateau region, extending westward from the coastal plain, lies parallel to the Atlantic shore, and to the Blue Hidge, the eastern base of which marks the region's western bor- der. It is an extended peneplain, one hundred and fifty to two hundred miles in width, and has an area of about 22,000 square 142 . FORESTS OF NORTH CAROLINA. miles. In the east its surface is rolling, but adjacent to the larger streams, and toward the western limit, it becomes more hilly and rugged, and in places even mountainous, being penetrated by- spurs from the Blue Eidge. It has an average altitude above sea- level of 850 to 900 feet, bnt rises at the highest peaks to a little over 3,000 feet; along its extreme eastern border it is not over 400 to .500 feet. On the uplands the soils may be described in gen- eral terms as loams, sandy in some places and clayey in others, formed by the decay of slates, gneisses, granites, and other crys- talline rocks. Along the numerous streams the soil is usually a fluvial deposit : a rich dark-colored loam, containing a vary- ing proportion of vegetable matter. The Piedmont plateau region has an average temperature of about 58.5° or 59° F., and an annual rainfall of about fifty inches. 3. The mountain region embraces an irregular and mountain- ous table-land, which lies between the escarpment of the Blue Ridge on the east and the Great Smoky mountains on the west. Numerous cross-chains, separated by narrow valleys or broader river basins, connect these two mountain ranges. The region has an average altitude above sea level of about 3,500 feet , but rises (at Mt. Mitchell) to 6,711 feet. It has an area of nearly 6,000 square miles. Although the mountain slopes are often steep, the soil is usually fertile, being a loam of varying physical character but generally rich in humus, open or porous and easily cultivated. The average temperature for the region probably approximates 50° F., varying from 57.8° F., at Hot Springs, to an estimated tem- perature for the summit of Mt. Mitchell of less than 38° F. ;* the normal annual precipitation is about 57 inches. The rainfall throughout the State is about evenly distributed through the seasons ; more falls, however, in July and August, and less in October and November, than at other seasons. There are few late spring frosts ; and only occasionally are there early autumn frosts before the wood has ripened at the end of the growing season. *Climatology of North Carolina, N. C. Agr. Exp. Sta. Kept., Raleigh, 1892; p. Mi. FORESTS OF THF COASTAL PLAIN REGION. . 143 Coinciding in general with the three topographic divisions described above are three well-marked forest divisions. That lying to the eastward will be called the coastal plain forest region. It includes the northern part of the great southern mari- time pine belt whicli, more or less interrupted, but retaining its characteristic arborescent growth, extends from eastern Virginia to eastern Texas. It corresponds to the Lonisianian zone of the biologists. The second forest division will be considered as the Piedmont forest region. The forests of this region are typical of the hill- country of the South Atlantic and (S-ulf states, and corresponds to the Carolinian zone of the biologists. The most western division will be considered as the mountain fovest region. It forms almost the southern portion of the Appa- lachian forests which extend from northern Alabama to Pennsyl- vania and New York, and is the Appalachian life zone of the biologists. On the higl er mountains, but on no peaks under 5,000 feet elevation, occur isolated groups of forests, which are referred by the biologist to a more northern zone, the Canadian ; bnt these forests are not important enough, or sufficiently exten- sive in this State, to require more than a slight description. FORESTS OF THE COASTAL PLAIN REGION, The forests of the coastal plain region are characterized by a dominant growth of pines" on the uplands, except over limited areas where broad-leaf evergreen trees are dominant ; and conifers of several species, associated v/ith broad-leaf trees, maiiy of them evergreen, on the lowlands. The variations in the character of the forests of the coastal plain region are the result of tlie influences of three factors : (1) The maritime conditions, due to the proximity to the ocean and sounds, which perceptibly affect the composition of the forest only in the immediate vicinity of the coast; (2) elevation above the sea level, which is so slight as to cause evident effects only along the western limits of the region ; (3) differences in the soils, to which is largely due the distribution within the region of tlie *Pines occurring over the larger portion of this region all have '^ leaves to the sheath. 14:4 • FOKESTS OF NORTH CAROLINA. economic forests. The influence of the two first factors is through the temperature and relative humidity of the locality affecting the length of the growing season, the average annual temperature, and the amount of heat, or the extremes of heat or cold. The conjoined effects of these factors separate the forests of the coastal plain region into three parallel zones or belts : (1) The maritime forests, lying to the eastward along the coast, and under the influence of the sea; (2) the forests of the pine belt; (3) the transitional forests lying along the western border of the region. MARIT-IME FORESTS. The maritime forests, extending northeast and southwest along the entire coast-line, rise from high-water mark, cover the narrow islands, the so-called banks skirting the coast, and on the main- land extend inland for a sliort distance, fringing the margii],s of the numerous streams, bays, and inlets about as far as tidal effects occur. This area is only a few hundred square miles in extent^ having a lengtii of about two hundred and fifty miles and a breadth in this State rarely exceeding four or five. THE SOILS or THE MARITIME DIVISION. The upland soils of the maritime forest belt are of sand or ex- ceedingly loose sandy loams, in .a few places calcareous or limy ; being sea beaches, or the remnants of former beaches lying within the existing one, and bordering the sounds and the narrow inlets. There is scarcely a difierentiation into soil and subsoil, except occasionally in the larger proportion of organic matter contained in the superficial layers. Both upper and lower layers are identical in consistency, formed of large-sized and even-grained sand, with a small proportion of lime, in the form of calcium carbonate, from the weathering and disintegration of marine shells. The land surface rises usually only a few feet above high tide, though in a few places there are altitudes of 40 feet or more. Where the soils are fine-grained they are continually moist from water' suspended by capillarity ; where coarser and porous, they are soon dry, superficially, even soon after rains. The surface is CONDITION OF THE FORESTS. 145 rolling, and in a few i:)laces there are hills with broad rounded crowns, where the force of wind and surf has lifted the loose sand high above the general level. CONDITION OF THE FORESTS. The forests of this maritime area are composed chiefly of broad-leaf evergreen trees: water oak, laurel oak, live oak, devilwood, mock-orange, smooth sweet bay, palmetto, yaupon and myrtle, with a single resinons species, the red cedar; while broad- leaf deciduous trees are represented chiefly by the southern lin, prickly ash,* buckthorns, planer-tree and water hickory, but these are not abundant, and are nearly confined to the alluvial soils or those richest in organic matter. The laurel oak and live oak are the most characteristic trees, being common throughout, and not being found in this State farther inland; although to the southward, following the isothermal, they occur far from the coast. Other trees whicn in this State are limited in their distribution to the maritime forests, are the devilwood, mock-orange, smooth sweet- bay, palmetto, planer-tree and magnolia. The water hickory, found on the banks of the larger streams, extends a few miles farther inland than most of these trees, and the same may possibly be true of the planer-tree ; while the water oak, red cedar and one species of buckthorn extend to within the Piedmont plateau region. The growth of the original forest where it is yet preserved is from 40 to 60 feet in height, the trees short-boled, the crowns large and spreading, interlaced into a dense canopy. Water oak, laurel oak, live oak, red cedar, smooth sweet bay, holly, and mock- orange, in relative abundance about in the order named, consti- tute from one-half to over three-fourths of the growth. Where culling has been carried on occasional loblolly pines have gained a foothold, or abundant-seeding species like yaupon, red cedar and the laurel oak have greatly multiplied. Beginning at the Yirginia line and passing to the south, there is a constant increase in the number of species present, so that while only a few species are represented beyond the Albemarle sound the number reaches a maximum in this State at and around *See p. 19. 10 146 FORESTS OF NORTH CAROLINA. the mouth of the Cape Fear river, where at least two species find their northern limits. This enables the maritime forests to be roughly separated into two divisions : one lying to the north of Cape Hatteras, which point may be considered to mark the divis- ion between the two ; and the other to the south of this cape. In the northern division, water oak and live oak, and red cedar form nearly the entire arborescent growth ; while in the southern, with these occur the laurel oak, mock-orange, and, but irregularly dis- tributed, the palmetto, devilwood, and magnolia. The palmetto is confined to Cape Hatteras and Smith's Island, the magnolia to the coast region of Brunswick county. Where the soils are more moist, the growth is largely of water oak and laurel oak, holly, smooth sweet bay, and mock-orange, with occasional lins, or other kinds of oaks in addition to those named above, which form a dense upper story ; beneath them are small shade-bearing trees or shrubs. The forest floor is good and the humus deep. Where the soils are drier, either from greater coarseness of the sand or from being more elevated above sea level, red cedar, live oak and prickly ash, enter more largely into the composition of the forest, the trees being smaller in size and with shorter boles. On the driest soils, the growth is restricted to scattered groves of red cedar, half shrubby forms of the live oak, thickets of plum and yaupon, and other shrubs which rapidly propagate by means of root-shoots and snckers. Probably not over one-half of the area is wooded ; the remaining portion is naked, only a small part of it being under cultivation. In places along the coastal islands, and this is particularly true to the north of Cape Hatteras, there are great stretches destitute of all tree growth, the soil being a coarse beach-sand, the surface of which rises into parallel ridges which reach a height, in places, of 70 or more feet above sea level; and this sand, being fixed by no network of plant root-fibers, and containing no binding ingredient, is constantly shifting under the impact of the winds. Some such areas were originally forest-covered, but once cleared, and the humus, which was slightly cohesive, destroyed, the constant move- ment of the sand before the winds, which have piled it into shift- ing dunes, has prevented a general growth of any kind from secur- FORESTS OF THE PINE BELT. 147 ing a foothold. Fishermen's houses have been destroyed by these moving dunes and their sites obliterated, and others are menaced by them. Considerable areas of forest have been destroyed by the roots of trees being deeply covered with sand or the entire forest buried, thus increasing the extent of the shifting dunes. Occa- sional clumps of prickly ash and devilwood, which put forth adven- titious-roots from the young twigs as they are partly covered by the sand, or thickets of shrubby live oak, plum, and shrubs which sucker freely, maintain themselves in some places for many years. All oaks, except the youngest, are killed by such moving dunes. Ked cedar, holly, palmetto, mock-orange and myrtle, not rooting from the young wood, are quickly destroyed by the covering of sand. A maritime dune, over two miles in length and twenty feet in height, is now moving across Smith's Island, which lies at the mouth of the Cape Fear river. Starting in the southwest part of the island, and moving to the northward, it has already destroyed the forest along the southern edge of the island. Commercially these forests are unimportant except where they produce, on some of the islands, a limited number of red cedar posts. Their protection is worthy of consideration, however, ap they act as a safeguard in preventing the formation of inlets which would impair existing water-ways. THE FORESTS OF THE PINE BELT. These forests extend from within a few miles of the sea coast inland to near the western limits of the coastal plain region, and embrace the greater ])ortion of the economic forests of the region as well as cover the greater part of its area. FOREST TREES. The pines growing in this pine belt are the long-leaf, the lob- lolly, the pond and in some places the short-leaf. They are for the most part confined to the uplands, and form the dominant growth with broad-leaf trees beneath them, or occur as a pure growth. Other coniferous or resinous trees found are the cypress, white cedar, and red cedar, all of which in the original forests are 148 . FORESTS OF NORTH CAROLINA. confined to the lowlands. The broad-leaf trees are chiefly water oak, willow oak, Spanish oak, swamp chestnut oak, overcup and post oaks, and such smaller species of oak as upland willow oak and the black-jack oak, which, though very abundant, are at present economically of little value; sweet gum, water gum and tnpelo, elms, red maple, hackberry, hickories (chiefly the white, shagbark, and bitternut), and dogwood. The larger broad-leaf trees, with the cypress and cedars, are con- fined to the lowlands and better class of soils, pines superseding them on the drier or impoverished soil of the uplands. DISTINCTIVE GROWTH. The difterence between the^e forests and those of the maritime division are marked : The latter are composed mostly of broad- leaf evergreen species; tiie former are composed largely of pines and broad-leaf deciduous trees. A few trees are common to both forests. Thus the water oak is a conspicuous tree in both ; but the red cedar is infrequent or altogether wanting over the larger part of the area of the pine belt. The smooth sweet bay of the maritime belt is represented in the pine belt by the closely related sweet bay. (See p. 26.) PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PINE BELT. The surface of this part of the coastal plain region is gently rolling, there being, particularly to the eastward, areas of large extent almost level, but along the western border, especially in Harnett, Moore and Richmond counties, it is hilly and broken. The area is nearly as great as that of the coastal plain forest region, and the altitude above the sea level is about the same as was given for that, being from 10 or. 15 feet along the eastern bor- der to 150, and even 300 feet, in Moore county, along the west- ern border. To the eastward, in the neighborhood of the coast, where the drainage is insutficient to remove the rainfall, there are extensive areas of lowlands or swamp, mostly forest-covered ; while west- ward, where the fall permits more thorough drainage, the swamps are restricted to narrow borders contiguous to the streams. The FORESTS OF THE PINE BELT UPLANDS. 149 entire swamp-area of the region aggregates nearly 4,000 square miles. THE CHANGES (N THE KIND OF FOREST GROWTH. The changes in the condition of the forest growth are dne almost entirely to variations in the character of the soils : porosity, fertility, the amonnt of moisture contained in them, and to the distribution of the soil-moisture during the growing season. The extremes of moisture encountered are from wet, or even inundated soils throughout the growing-season, to dry soils for the greater part of the year, except immediately after a rain. In fertility the range is between compact and line-grained " mud " alluvium, containing in abundance all the elements of plant-food, to almost pnre sand ; in porosity, from coarse-grained sand of great depth, to compact shallow top-soils with impermeable substrata. Some soils are almost destitute of humus, while others are constituted largely of decaying or decayed vegetable matter. Such extremes of soils are often in juxtaposition, there being no easy gradation from one to the other, so that the contrast and line of demarcation between the two, and the respective arborescent growth which they support, is sharply and distinctly defined. The forests of the pine belt are separable into two groups : those of the uplands, on which the long- leaf and loblolly pines are the dominant trees ; and those of the lowlands on which white cedar, cypress, or broad-leaf trees are the most abundant. THE FORESTS OF THE PINE BELT UPLANDS. Forests of pine covered, at least in their original distribution, all, of the uplands, there being only a few local areas on which broij-d- leaf trees were not subordinate to them. To the north of the Tar river, except on the porous and highly silicious soils where pure and uninterrupted forests of long-leaf pine occurred, the original forests were composed of alternating belts of short-leaf and loblolly pines; the short-leaf pine, with a subordinate growth of broad-leaf trees, largely oaks, dominating along the crests and on the drier and more gravelly soils, as occasional trees of this species still standing now testify; while on the lower, moister, loamy 150 FORESTS OF NORTH CAROLINA. soils grew the loblolly pine, forming a ruling pure growth or coordinate with broad-leaf trees. To the north of the Roanoke river the long-leaf pine probably formed only two extensive forests: one on the sandy area extending north and south through Gates county, the other on " long ridge," an elevated body of sand lying to the south of the Dismal Swamp. To the south of the Roanoke river, the areas of sandy soils with the accompanying growth of long-leaf pine were more frequent, extensive bodies occurring in Halifax, Bertie, and Edgecombe counties; while in Wayne and JSfash counties, to the north of the Neuse river, began the forests of this tree, which extended with their continuity scarcely b oken except by the water courses, west to the oak uplands of the Piedmont plateau and southwestward to the Gulf of Mexico. Within this area, only adjacent to the swamps were there at the iirst settlement of this country more than scattered trees of the loblolly pine. The iniiuence of man in changing and modifying the distribu- tion of these trees in the two hundred years that have followed has been enormous. To the north of the Neuse river the long-leaf pine has nearly disappeared. Occasional solitary trees are still to be found among other kinds of pines, or broad-leaf tiees, and on the sand hills of Wayne county, and in the flats of the great Dover swamp, groups of a few trees yet occur; but their commercial value as forest trees in this section has passed away. The short-leaf pine has as thoroughly disappeared from the counties lying to the north of the Tar river as has the long-leaf; the loblolly pine with an .accompanying growth of small broad-leaf trees has succeeded both. jA.t the present time the forest of the uplands are separable into two divisions with distinct arborescent growth : (1.) That in w^hich the long-leaf pine is the dominant economic tree : the long- leaf pine woodland. (2.) That in which the loblolly pine is the dominant economic tree : the level pine woodland. In the present aspect of the forest there is no sharp line of demarcation between the two, but a ditferentiation is made for simplifying their consideration, as there are large areas, particu- LONG-LEAF PINE WOODLAND. 151 larily to the south of the Neiise river, on which the two trees occur side by side forming about equal proportions of the woods, but in such places the loblolly pine is in process of supplanting the long leaf pine, and such woodland will be considered from a sylvicultural point of view, as being more suitable for the growth and development of the loblolly than the long-leaf pine. The commercial timbers of each kind now on these lands will, how- ever, be considered. LONG-LEAF PINE WOODLAND. The area on which the long-leaf pine is the dominant tree, or where it yet exists side by side with the loblolly pine, extends from near Bogue sound in Carteret county, southward along the great sand bank lying between the sounds and the swamps ; from the borders of the Dover swamp northward to Enfield in Halifax county, and Nashville (within the transitional division) westward to Cary (in AVake county), Sanford (in Moore county), and the east- ern edge of Montgomery county, and the southeastern corner of Anson county. To the northeastward of this area, wherever the soil was suitable, the long-leaf pine has been replaced by the lob- lolly ; but on limited areas of sandy soils, occasional specimens of the former species yet stand, unsurrounded by other large forest trees, but showing that its fellows once tenanted the entire soil. Such areas will be fully described in considering the pine barrens. Along the great sand hills just wnthin the sounds, the long-leaf pine occurs in open forests of small trees, now largely removed ; further inland, on the praries and hillocks in the swamps and the wet-soiied downs of the coast of Brunswick county, clumps of larger trees grow at intervals; on the loams in the basins ot the Black and Northeast Cape Fear rivers, and on similiar soils in Columbus, Bladen, and Robeson counties, the long-leaf and lob- lolly pines are found together; while northward to northern Wayne, and westw^ard to Wake and Anson counties, it forms, where unlumbered or not destroyed, a nearly pure growth of medium- sized trees. Leaving out of consideration the few trees disseminated through 152 FORESTS OF NOETH CAROLINA. the swamps on hillocks, the long-leaf pine occnrs on two classes of soils : (1.) The sands of the pine barrens, which include the drier forest lands between the sounds and the great swamps, and the greater areas of dry sandy soils lying in the western parts of the coastal plain. (2.) The loams of level pine woodland which are at present in most places the debatable ground between the long-leaf and lob- lolly pines, and are, in certain sections, largely occupied by the latter species. Such areas on which the loblolly pine is now dom- inant will be described in considering that tree. In the forests on both kinds of soil dissimilar changes in their composition are in progress, the result of nearly the same factors THE PINE BARRENS. The largest detached areas of pine barrens are the long ridge, l3'ing to the south of the Dismal Swamp, the areas in Gates and Green counties, the one to the north of tlie Neuse river in Craven county, narrow strips lying north and south in Pender and Dup- lin counties, a great part of ISTew Hanover county, considerable areas in the southern part of Bladen, the middle and southern parts of Wayne and Columbus, and a narrow belt lying between the vast coastal swamps and the coast in the counties of Bruns- wick, Onslow", and Carteret ; while a single large body extends from the northern part of Sampson, the southern and central parts of Harnett, northern and eastern portions of Bladen, and northern Robeson counties throughout Cumberland to the western sections of Moore and Richmond counties. SOILS OF THE PINE BARRENS. The soils are of almost pure sand, containing very little clayey ingredients ; loose, coarse-grained, dry on the surface, even soon after a rain, fresh below, but becoming dry to a considerable depth, and usually with no diflferentiable subsoil. But in the smaller areas there is a top-soil of sand, often shallow, especially around the edges where stiffer loams form a more fertile subsoil. Geologically the}^ are of recent date. FORESTS OF THE PINE BARRENS. 153 The distinctive arborescent growth of these lands is the long- leaf pine and several small scrub oaks ; the fork-leaf black-jack oak, barren willow oak, and forms of the post oak. CONDITION OF THE FORESTS OF THE PINE BARRENS. Generall}' the pi-ie forests of the barrens resemble a two-storied high forest, there being an upper story of this pine, about 70 or 80 feet in Reight, with a rather thin cover, even where uninjured by fires or unlumbered ; beneath the pine an open growth of the scrub oaks from 10 to 15 feet in height, or in places nearly clear. As the cover of the pines becomes thinner, the scrub oaks beneath them become more numerous. The floor is poor, and there is but little humus; it is grassy with coarse tufts of the wire grass of broom grasses or covered with shrubs. There is no young growth of the long-leaf pine or any valuable tree. Practically all of the pine has been tapped for its resin, crude turpentine, the amount of round-timber standing, which has not liad the trunk excorticated in the process of turpentining, being less than 50,000 acres. Not only has the greater portion of the timber been sa boxed for turpentine, but, after the original faces have been scarified as high as possible, and the trees allowed to rest a few years, additional boxes have been cut between the former ones. Many trees, thus weakened by the deeply cut boxes at the collar of the trunk, windfall, and the loss of timber from this cause has been enormous. The resin-covered surfaces wh^re tapped for turpentine are highly inflamable, and tires passing over the dry herbage spread to the trees and frequently destroy them. This description represents the forests where they are in the best condition, but it is now realized in only a few places in North Carolina. The greater portion of the forests have been culled for many years, so that there are extensive areas thinly stocked, a few pines to each acre standing in thickets of scrub oaks; or there are large areas of abandoned turpentine orchard, aggregating probably 700,000 acres, but yet containing a small amount of timber suita- ble for saw logs. There are extensive areas lying within these forests from which the timber has been so thoroughly removed by 154 FORESTS OF NORTH CAROLINA. fires, lumbering, and a reckless system of turpentining that the lands maj' be classed as waste, there being on them neither mer- chantable trees nor yonng growth of any species which will, in the course of time, yield timber. Nearly all of the Avaste land in the eastern counties lies in the. pine barrens, the larger ai-eas being in Wayne, Sampson, Bladen, Brunswick, Harnett, Cumberland, Moore, and Richmond counties. The entire area of waste land is about 400,000 acres. • The waste lands are due to the failure of the long-leaf pine to reproduce itself to any considerable extent in tliese vast areas. Their present condition has been gradually matured, and the causes which have produced it may now be seen in operation in nearly any unprotected wood of long-leaf pine, where there is no young growtli of this tree. The scanty reproduction is due largely to the fires which in many places pass over the land every year consuming the dead herbage, the wire grass and the leaves of the scrub oaks, and destroying the slow growing young pines, which by the end of the fifth year have only reached a height of 3 to 5 inches above the ground ; the infrequent seeding of the old trees ; the enormous destruction of the seed by hogs and fowls when there is a seed-year; the further depredations niade by hogs digging up the plant to get the root. It is doubtful if the partial shade of the scrub oaks is sufficient to interfere seriously with the developmeiit of the young plant, as great as are its requirements for sunlight and warmth. The tailure of the forests of long-leaf pine to reproduce them- selves naturally, except to a limited extent, on any part of the pine barrens, has already been treated of in a previous report of the Geological Survey. It is a matter of importance, as the land m ;ts present state represents a great amount of capital lying idle which might be made productive to the owner, and give employ- ment to labor engaged in handling or manufacturing forest products. It is absolutely essential that the demands necessary for its growtli be accorded it — immunity from destruction by fires, protection against the depredations of stock, particularly hogs, both to the seed and the young plant, and protection against the POSSIBILITIES OF THE PINE BARRENS. 155 encroacliiiient of more rapid-growing pines or broad-leaf trees, on soils where snch will grow. POSSIBILITIES OF THE PINE BARRENS. The pine barrens, on account of their impoverished soils, are incapable of sustaining a wood of a large-sized broad-leaf species. The loblolly pine seems incapable of naturally securing a foothold in these sands, as nowhere in the forest does it follow the long-leaf pine as that tree is removed ; and on the limited areas of old fields where it has appeared spontaneously, it seems unable to attain a large size or perfect development, the boles being short and crowded with limbs, the crowns large and spread- ing, the wood in the standing tree, even the sapwood, often evinc- ing at an early age signs of decay. These are, in fact par excel- lence the long-leaf pine lands. No other tree for timber use is capable of attaining even a moderate development on this soil. The least exacting of the larger forest trees of the State, both in 'regard to soil-moisture and fertility, it is able to secure by means of its deep-seated taproot, which often penetrates the layers of sand to a depth of ten or twelve feet, the mineral elements necessary for its development, and reach on the most barren soils a height of 50 to 70 feet and a diameter of 14 to 16 inches. On the pauperized soils of the barrens lyiug near the sounds, the pine is unable to become more than a middle-sized tree 50 to 60 feet in height with a diameter of about 16 inches ; on the deep and poor sands of AVayne, the northern part of Bladen, and portions of Sampson counties the conditions of development are similar to or only a little better than those prevailing near the coast, and continue so to the westward through Cumberland, Harnett and Richmond counties, until in Moore and Montgomery counties the loose sands become confluent with the late drifts derived from the sandstones containing clayey particles and a loamy subsoil, where a better growth can be secured. But on many of the smaller areas of sandy soils, where the taproot of the tree is able to penetrate the sand and reach a stifier subsoil, the tree reaches 156 FORESTS OF NORTH CAROLINA. •a larger size, a height of 70 to 90 feet and a diameter of 16 to 20 inches. LEVEL PINE WOODLAND. The surface of these lands, (also see page 161), is very nearly level, slightly rolling, or sloping toward the streams ; the soils loose, or moderately compact loams, or sandy loams with some- what firmer yellow or gray, loamy or stiff loamy subsoils ; mostly fine-grained, moist or fresh but well-drained. As they become more moist and more loamy the loblolly pine occupies them, espec- ially over the large areas to the north of the Tar river. The larger areas on which the long-leaf pine is yet standing are in Edgecombe, Johnson and Wilson counties ; the basin. of the ]^ortheast Cape Fear river from the southern part of Wayne ; in Dare and Hyde counties. The forests of Bean- fort, Washington and Martin counties have, however, been nearly exhausted. In Pitt, Edgecombe, and Green counties exploitation is well advanced in the loblolly pine forests near the railways and water conrses, while the greater part of the timber has been removed from Pamlico and Carteret counties. The unlnmbered pine lands of Beaufort county lie in the northeastern part of the county ; those of Craven in the southwestern part. Bordering the swamps in Duplin, Onslow and Pender counties are large nnlumbered areas of loblolly pine growth, chiefly where this pine has superseded the long-leaf pine ; and in Brunswick, Columbus, Robeson and Bladen counties, along Brown and Green marshes and the flats of Lumber river and its tributaries, are still large quantities of merchantable timber. There are smaller bodies of timber, rhough scarcely more than is suflicient for local use, in AVilson, Nash, Johnson, and the eastern parts of Wake and Anson counties. FOREST INDUSTRIES. The loblolly pine is tapped for turpentine only to an inconsid- erable extent, but the lumber industries of all of the towns to the north of the Neuse river and of most of the sea-board towns to the south of it, are entirely dependent on this pine for their logs. The chief seats of the manufacture of loblolly pine lumber are Newbern, Washington, Elizabeth City, Edenton, Plymouth and Wilmington. The annual cut of logs amounts to about 560,- 000,000 feet, boad measure, less than two-thirds of which is man- ufactured in this State. The loblolly pine is not used for railyway ties, or sleepers of any sort placed next to the earth. Bail way ties for local use are made from the post oak growing beneath the pine. The dogwood is converted into shuttle blocks. No use is made of the small red oaks and other small trees which constitute the remainder of the forest. FOREST PROTECTION. The loblolly pine requires little protection compared witli the long-leaf pine. The seed is small and is not seriously destroyed REPRODUCTION OF LOBLOLI.V TINE FORKSTS. 165 by animals or in other ways. Tt falls during the late autumn and winter and sprouts during the following; spring and by the end of the first season the seedlings have reached an average height of about seven inches. After that they grow at a rate of about eigh- teen inches a year for seven years, so that specimens four or five years old are too high to have any but the lower branches scorched by a fire consuming only the leaves and herl)age. The thick bark, too, is a great protection to even small trees. Since they grow on moister soils and form a deeper shade than the long-leaf pine which prevents the growing of grass there is less danger from fires. ISTot being boxed or worked for turpentine the mature trees are less apt to be destroyed by fires. Where growing on drier soils the growth of the loblolly pine is not so rapid later in life as in the early years and the scars left in the natural shedding of the limbs do not so quickly heal over, many of the trees being affected by fungus diseases which gain access through such openings. REPRODUCTION OF LOBLOLLY PINE FORESTS. In old fields and clearings within the area of the distribution of the loblolly pine a spontaneous growth of loblolly pine quickly appears, the light, winged seed being dispersed by the wind for a considerable distance, sometimes hundreds of yards, from the seed- bearing trees. The production of seed begins at an early age with isolated specimens, sometimes, when they are under ten years old, but later with those whose crowns do not receive full sunlight, and continues uninterrupted for a great many years. There is seldom a year when some trees in a locality tlo not mature cones, since the trees grow under such diverse conditions of soils and moisture. The cones, which require two seasons to develop, open and the seed are distributed during the autumn and winter after they have ripened, some remaining unopened until the succeeding spring. The seed retain their germinativ'e power' for several years, but usually germinate the first spring- after falling to the ground or after being planted. SYLVICULTURAL TREATMENT OF THE LOBLOLLY PINE. The selection system of cutting, to 90 feet in height. In some localities the pine forms as much as one-fourtli of the entire growth ; nsnall}', hoM'ever, nuich less. The loblolly pine which is associated with the broad-leaf trees in these transitional counties, is very largely second growth. The long-leaf pine jias been extensively culled in AVake and ISTash counties, and but little mercdiantable timber of that species remains ; in Montgomery county, however, the forests are still intact. The long-leaf pine is failing to reproduce itself in these forests for the same reasons tha't were given for its scanty reproduction in its competition with the loblolly pine ; here, the competition is with broad-leaf species. All the transitional forests lie within the Piedmont plateau region, the forest soils being derived for the most part from crys- talline rocks, and are more fertile of at least better suited for tree growth than most of the soils in the coastal plain on which the long-leaf pine is found growing. FORESTS OF THE LOWLANDS OF THE COASTAL PLAIN. These forests occur on lands which are swampy or inundated during at least a part of the growing season, and are naturally separable into four divisions which differ in the character of the dominant economic growth : (1.) In which numerous broad-leaf trees, chiefly oaks, constitute the greater portion of the growth — the oak flats. (2.) In which gums and cypress constitute the chief growth — the gum and cypress swamps. (3.) In which the white cedar occurs — the white cedar swanips. 170 FORESTS OF NORTH CAROLINA. (4.) In which the pond pine forms the greater portion of the growth or is the largest tree — pond pine pocosins. OAK FLATS. The oak flats border most of the gnni and cypress swamps, lying between the gum and cypress swamps and the level ])ine lands. The}' constitute abiut one-fourth of the swamp area, or 1,000 square miles. The soils are damp or moist usuall}' deep loams, or more often sandy loams, generally inundated during spring, with a good humus and a fair intermixture of vegetable matter in the top-soil. Their growth is entirely of broad- leaf trees, in places with occasional loblolly pines disseminated among them, but the white and water oaks are charncteristic. Water and wMll'ow oaks skirt the flats. Swamp chestnut oak and overcup oak, Spanish oak, and occasional white oaks form a great part of the growth of the interior; with them, elms, red maple, cottonwood, and more or less sweet gum and water gum. These form an upper story 80 to 100 feet in height, and of considerable density; beneath them are many small trees, post oak, hornbeam, and haws. AVhore not suppressed by browsing cattle, or the shade is not too dense, youijg seedlings of most of the trees are represented. All of the trees endure a light shade in youth ; the willow and water oaks least, the white and overcup oaks the deepest and for the longest period. In most localities pasturage is regularly practiced, this woodland being esteemed the best grazing-ground for cattle during the spring and summer, and the young growth of tender broad-leaf species is systematically suppressed. Pine and the more vigorously sprouting and rapidly growing species and those seeding most abundantly — cottonwood, water oak and willow oak — largely replace windfalls and culled specimens. The seed of the swamp chestnut oak, overcup and white oaks are largely destroyed by hogs ; the seed of the other oaks to a less extent. There is so little undergrowth, and these woods are so damp, that fires rarely pass through the flats or do any serious damage. Much of the best white oak, the several species, and Spanish oak, OAK FLATS. 171 has been culled for making staves or for large-sized timber — tun timber — for shipbuilding, water and willow oaks or pine having replaced them. The soils, being fertile, extensive areas have been drained and put under cultivation. Where such areas are aban- doned the loblolly pine with sweet gum, and if seed-bearing trees be very near, water and willow and Spanish oaks establish them- selves ; the pines first and most abundantly, the others later and in less numbers. If not thoroughly drained, the oaks will in time supersede the pine or a portion of it. Where the soil of the oak flats becomes at all peaty yellow pop- lar occurs, but only occasional trees among the others. It is most frequent in the series of counties facing the sounds. In a few places in the vicinity of the coast, or near large bodies of water where the air is especially humid, there is a considerable intermixture of beech with the oaks. In connection with the oak flats may be considered the greater part of the alluvial bottom lands bordering the larger streams that have their headwaters beyond the coastal plain region. These fluvial soils are silty, a mixture of the finest clayey and sili- cious particles, with a varying proportion of decomposing vege- table matter intermixed. The silt becomes finer and the soils more compact as the coast is neared. On the more elevated parts of these bottoms where the periodic overflow is neither too fre- quent, or the rise of the water too deep, there is a mixed growth of broad-leaf trees. Variations in the kind of trees occur accord- ing to the depth and frequency of the overflow. Where the soils are drier the water and willow oaks, white oak and the Spanish oak with shagbark hickory form most of the woods; where wetter, ash, cottonwood, and hackberry are largely intermixed, these being replaced on the wettest soils by sweet gum, water gum and tupelo with cypress and some cot- tonwood and swamp ash. The white oak and ash have been extensively culled from tliese swamps, and merchantable cypress has been largely removed. These woods, when oaks predominate in them, are practically under the same conditions and require about the same system of management as will be indicated for the oak flats. The white 172 FORESTS OF NORTH CAROLINA. and Spanish oak are to be favored at the expense of the other less valnable kinds of trees, which if left alone are apt to take their place. On the alluvial lands the species usually succeeding the oaks are the light-seeded sweet gum, cottonwood, sycamore, and, to a less extent, hackberry and loblolly pine. MERCHANTABLE TIMBER ON THE OAK FLATS. The largest areas from which the M^hite oak has not been severely culled lie in Bladen, Onslow, Jones and Pamlico coun- ties. They will cut to the acre from 40 to 60 cords of mixed hard- woods. Where culling of white oak has long been practiced water oaks have graaually replaced them, in a great measure at least. These forests yield excellent white oak timber and some *' red" oak (Spanish oak) of large dimensions, and suitable for milling purposes ; yellow poplar and cottonwood for paper-stock ; a limited amount of red maple, and large quantities of white oak railway ties. SYLVICULTURAL TREATMENT. The seed of such species as it is desirable to reproduce should be protected from hogs, and cattle should be excluded from all young growth, until it is too large for them to injure. The most valuable trees occurring on the oak flats are the sev- eral species of white oak and the Spanish oak, and forest manage- ment should have for its object the increasing of the proportion of these, and preventing the water oaks and other less valuable spe- cies from supplanting them. On large areas where indiscriminate culling has to a great extent removed ihe species of white oak, less valuable trees have already followed, and bat little can be done in the way of natural regeneration to raise the standard. Artificial re-introduction of the white oaks is necessary. This can be accomplished by thin- ning the existing wood of the least desirable species or by remov- ing decrepit specimens, and underplanting with acorns, preferably with those of the swamp chestnut oak, since in the latitude of this State that is the most vigorous-growing species and reaches the largest size on such soils. Or, the swamp chestnut oak or THE GUM AND CYPRESS SWAMl'S. 173 other desired species, can be introduced gradually beneath such breaks in the cover as are occasioned from time to time by wind- falls or by cnlling. If the underplanting is done by seeding, and where acorns are abundant or can be cheaply obtained this is the pieferable way, being less expensive than raising young plants in nursery rows and then transplanting, the acorns should be gathered in the autumn, as soon as they have fallen ; if they are to be kept for spring plant- ing they should be deeply packed iri fresh sand on the north side of a barn or some other cool situation. If the acorns of the chest- nut oak are allowed to lie on the ground too long after falling, particularly if the w^eather is moist and warm, a great part of them will have begun to sprout and then cannot well be kept over winter. Tlie acorns of this oak are more difficult to keep over Avinter than those of any other, and they retain their germinative power for the shortest time. For these reasons it may be advisa- ble to sow in the autumn, though some of the acorns may be car- ried off by squirrels and mice, and there is a possibility that such as do not sprout and take root in the autumn, as most of them, however, will, may be carried off by high-water. The oak flats and the narrow alluvial .bottoms are the only lands in the coastal plain region which are capable of producing a growth of large-sized broad-leaf trees, and for this reason they assume a greater impoitauce than their limited area would other- wise seem to justify. Whatever in the way of yellow poplar or oak timber suitable for saw-logs, or of hickory for mechanical purposes, is to be grown in the coastal plain region must come either from the oak flats or the alluvial bottoms. THE GUM AND CYPRESS SWAMPS. The gum and cypress occupy the deepest parts of nearly all the swamps which have a sufficiently porous soil to permit the pene- tration of the deeply seated cypress roots and which are not sub- ject to drying out in the late summer : and even though the sur- face may be very dry in dry seasons, if the subsoil be well watered and porous, these trees may still flourish. (Plate XXI.) 174 FORESTS OF NOKTH CAROLINA. They seem to be rather indifferent to the quality of the soil, attaining a large size and comparative thick growth on even the sandy soils, provided they are well watered. The presence of a deep hnmns which has been uninjured by fire has undoubtedly much influence. On the sedimentary alluvial soils the growth is from 110 to 125 feet in height, and it is somewhat less on sandy soil. The body of the wood is formed of sweet gum, water gum and tupelo, with these more or less cypress, which however seldom constitutes as much as one-fourth of the entire growth. Beneath these are small water ash, and young trees of species represented in the dominant growth, in all stages of development. The trees are all shade-enduring in their youth and, probably with the exception of the water gum, all shade-demanding in the earliest seedling stages. It is not often that fires do damage to these swamps, as through the winter and spring they are too wet to burn ; but sometimes in dry autumns the underwood is destroyed with great loss. The injury inflicted by browsing cattle is slight. MERCHANTABLE TIMBER OF GUM AND CYPRESS SWAMPS. The supply of cypress suitable for making either board or shin- gles is nearly exhausted. In the Pamlico peninsula several large bodies are yet intact ; scattered trees still stand along most of the larger streams: Roanoke, Tar, Neuse, Northeast and Cape Fear rivers; smaller bodies are yet to be found in many of the other swamps, such as those surrounding Lake Waccamaw, Big Swamp in Bladen county, and others. Except in the few places where the forests have been un lum- bered the cover is broken and irregular from the removal of the mature cypress. The thickets of water and sweet gums growing beneath them have rapidly pushed upward to take the place of the cypress on its removal. While the timber of the cypress is of the most excellent quality, its natural powers of reproduction are so limited and the accre- tion of the trees after the height-growth is made is so slow that the outlook for extensive reproduction is far from encouraging. WHITE CEDAR OR JUNIPKR SWAMPS. 175 Although the cypress does not discriminate in regard to mineral fertility of soil, it is so exacting in regard to moisture that the area which is really adapted for its best growth for timber is exceedingly limited. The trees growing on the margins of tlie swamps, and in swamps where the moisture is very unequally dis- tributed through the growing season have a far larger proportion of sap than those in the deep swamps and are often seriously affected with hollows. • Although young cypress trees in all stages of development are to be seen scattered through the forests, their number, in com- parison with the competing sweet and water gums is insignificant. Their height-growth, however, is rapid until the trunk begins the formation of the characteristic short, flattened, spreading crown. After the attainment of the height-growth, the diameter growth, tlie stage of most rapid accretion, is sutficiently rapid. The trees at this stage have a diameter of from 14 to 18 inches, and are from 80 to 100 years old, and are still largely sapwood. The diameter-growth after this becomes gradually less, until in some of the oldest and largest trees there are as many as thirty rings of annual growth to an inch of diameter. The length of time required to reproduce the forests which are tiow being util- ized will not be less than 200 or 250 years, and many of the large trees in the existing forests are over 300 years old. For most of the purposes, too, for which the timber is used, that of the more rapid-growing white cedar is equally as well adapted. The area of such swamp land suitable for the growth of cypress is not far from 300,000 acres, while the area of gum swamp is over 1,200 •square miles. WHITE CEDAR OR .rUNIPER SWAMPS. The woodland in which the white cedar is the dominant tree occupies small shallow swamps, " bays "; or not infrequently there occur groups of a few trees disseminated through gum and cypress swamps, or more rarely in beech and yellow poplar flats where the soil and moisture-conditions become favorable for the develop- ment of the white cedar and less favorable for that of the larger broad-leaf trees. 176 FORESTS OF NORTH CAROLINA. The most extensive bodies of such swamp lie in the vicinity of the coast in the threat Dismal Swamp ; in the counties of Dai'e and Hjde ; and the Pamlico peninsula, where the cedar occurs in small groups in a morass, the growth in which varies a great deal as the amount of mo^'sture in the soil becomes greater or less. There are other large bays in Pamlico county, and on the tiats surrounding and contiguous to Lahe Waccamaw. Smaller bodies are scattered along the sandy bottoms of the Chowan river, and occupy small l)ays in Jones and Bladen counties, and the shallow flats bordering the clear- water streams, in Bladen, Cumberland, Richmond, Harnett and Moore counties. On the State's northern border white cedar occurs at an altitude of 100 feet above sea level ; in Moore and Richmond counties, at twice that elevation. Its further distribution to the westward is checked by unfavorable soil-conditions. The total area of white cedar swamp does not exceed 200,000 acres. The white cedar is confined to sandy or peaty soils. In the maritime counties it occurs chiefly on peaty soils, often underlaid by marls ; in the more inland and southern counties it is found along the sandy beds of small streams or the contiguous sandy flats subject to frequent overflow; or it occupies small depressions in the sandy soils of the long-leaf pine forests forming the juniper bays. It shuns the heavy alluvial soils. CONDITION OF UNLUMBERED WHITE CEDAR SWAMPS. On the peaty soils of the best character, especially where lying above beds of loam or marl, white cedar is associated with yellow poplar, the gums and bays, wherever the amount of moisture and the undecomposed organic constituents become too great for the growth of the oaks. On somewhat better soils it forms dense clumps of nearly pure growth where openings occur in the cover of the dominant story of yellow poplars and gums. In the depres- sions in the pine barren sections in the white cedar or juniper bays it constitutes, with the white bay and the red bay, the greater portion of the growth, forming a dense wood 60 to 70 feet in height, the crowns of the trees closely interlocking above, their trunks thick, straight and slender ; beneath them, and in their CONDITION OF UNLUMBERED WHITE CEDAR SWAMPS. 177 deep shade, are almost impenetrable thickets of young trees and shrubs. The forest floor is a tiiick humus or is deeply bedded in sphagnum. On the sandy flats bordering the streams, trees of white cedar occur scattered in a rather open growth of small gums and bays, and reach a height of 30 to 50 feet and a diameter of 15 to 20 inches; the humus is thin and the undergrowth thickets of small bushes. In most localities the cedar swamps have been exploited, or the removal of the cedar is now^ in progress. Except where yellow poplar forms a portion of the wood, the white cedar is the only valuable tree, and it alone has been removed, all specimens usually being removed that have a greater diameter than S inches at the stump. Where the greater part of trees are cedar, the cutting is nearly clean, and the few small trees that are left, having very slender stems, are snapped off" by the tirst severe storm ; where there are more broad-leaf trees present, these aflord protection to the young growing-stock too small to cut. The bays and gums that are left make rapid growth after lumbering, and for some time retain undisputed possession ; the extremely small white cedar seedlings beneath them, although at flrst making slow growth in the shade, Anally re-assert themselves, make rapid height-growth and break through the cover above them, and struggle with the broad-leaf species for the light. If the swamps are burned, as is freqnently the caseafter lumbering,and the burning is not so deeply in the soil as to injure the roots of the broad-leaf trees, they will sprout vigoronsly from stool and root ; the fire-tender white cedar, however, will be entirely destroyed, and only after a great many years will it again be introduced by wind-sown seed. If the soil is peaty, and is very deeply burned, its ability for supporting a growth of white cedar may be entirely ruined. Only a small proportion of the area of the cedar swamps has been deforested for agricultnral uses, such areas being the best drained of the peaty soils with yellow poplar as a part of the growth, and such cleared lands lie chiefly in Dare and Pamlico counties and those counties which penetrate the Dismal Swamp. Agriculturally these lands are among the most productive in the State. A few other areas may in time be drained and reduced to 12 178 FORESTS OF NORTH CAROLINA. tillage, but most of the soil, both where peaty and sandy, is unsnited for agricnltural purposes, and the permanency of the growth of white cedar on it should be accepted as an assured fact and pro- tection and management bestowed on it accordingly. Fires, in dry seasons, when the peaty soil or deep humus becomes thoroughly dry, sometimes spread from the pine lands, or from farms, to the white cedar swamps and inflict severe damage, destroying not only the youiig growth, but much of the old, and burning up the soil as well. Extensive areas of unlumbered forests still exist in Dare and Tyrrell counties, and smaller in Gates, Jones, and Brunswick. Smaller bodies occur in Bladen, Cumberland, and Harnett counties, from which the largest specimens have been culled for telegraph and light posts. TREATMENT OF WHITE CEDAR SWAMPS- The white cedar is one of the most valuable trees growing in the coastal plain region. The demand for its timber, on account of its lightness and resistance to decay on exposure to moisture, is far in excess of the supply. Though exacting in regard to soil, its preferences are for such lands as are unsuited for agricultui'al uses. Its sylviciiltural treatnHMit is beset with no ditiiculties, and its ra]>id growth ofteis inducements c>f early returns to whoever produces it. Where culling can be practiced, and only the largest stocks removed, the largest yields of timber are secured, since the young trees which are too small for use can continue their growth uninterrupted, sheltered \)j specimens with firm trunks which can protect them from the wind. In only a few places, however, will economic considerations permit this, as the cost of cutting road- ways, laying trams and making sound road-beds, which has to be undertaken to remove this timber, is so great that the cutting to the smallest size that can be utilized is often justifiable. Where the soil is sufficiently wet, not so much shade is demanded by the very young plant to protect it from the sun; where drier, more shade is necessary. As seed-bearing years are frequent, and the light, slightly winged seed are borne in abundance, modified forms of clean cutting can TREATMENT OF WHITE C^EDAK SWAMl'S. 179 be carried on which will allow regeneration beneath the shade of the parent trees. After the laying out of the system of roads, a preparatory cutting can be made in which most of tlie larger specimens can be removed, being selected as uniformly as possible so as to distribute the light below evenly. Then two, three or four years later all of the remaining trees which can possibly be utilized can be removed, waiting though until after there has been a sutficiently large yield of seed to produce a thick stand of seed- lings in the light shade caused by the breaking of the cover of old trees. The young seedlings the second year after they have sprouted will be able to endure full sunlight. There is no doubt but that the area of white cedar growth can be u)uch extended by introducing it artificially in localities which have a suitable soil, but liave a growth of bays and large gums, which by their somewhat superior growth have natural) v been able to exclude the white cedar. The ])roportion of it can also be increased in situations where it already grows by removing competing species, — bays and gums, and permitting the cedar by natural seedings to take their place. Artificial propagation must be by seed, and as has been sug- gested, must be carried on :n the shade of some other tree to protect the young seedling from too ra])id evaporation during the first summer and autumn while the root-system is as yet comparatively undeveloped, shallow, and insufficient to supply water as rapidly as it passed ofl" by transpiration. The seed, which are borne in small l)erry-like cones, are very small and slightly winged. The cones should be gathered in the early autumn, before they have opened or fallen, and while the seed are yet in them, kept through the winter in a place where they M'ill not dry out, and planted the next spring by sowing broadcast beneath the trees that are to serve as protection to the young plants. THE POJSD PINE POCOSINS. These, as the name implies, have the pond pine as the distinc- tive growth. With it are the white bay, red bay, and loblolly bay, and less frequently small black gums and loblolly pines. During certain seasons of the year these pocosins are swamps 180 FORESTS OF NORTH CAROLINA. or semi-swamps. When tliey occupy the summits of the divides between watersheds, as is the case with some of the largest, they are poorly drained and often wet. They include two classes: (1) Those having a primarily pauperized soil of coarse sand, or of finer sand, silty, and more compact. (2) Those having an impervious stratum of clay, silt or hard-pan underlying the top- soil and preventing percolation of the water to underground streams or its exit by subsoil drainage. The latter may have soil rich in nutritive elements though eminently unproductive. During winter and spring such soils are saturated ; during sum- mer and autumn, from inability of subsoil moisture to rise to the surface through the impervious layer, they are exceedingly dry. The largest areas of such swamp lie in Bladen, Craven, Jones, Pamlico, Tj'rrell and Washington counties ; while a considerable portion of the Dismal Swamp, in the northeastern corner of the State, has a soil and growth of this character. The forest, even in the best condition, is exceedingly open and thin, there being an irregular growth of pine 40 to 60 feet in height, the mature trees averaging about 14 inches in diameter, and a denser underwood of small white bay, red bay and loblolly bay, almost impenetrable on account of the thicket of the gall- berry, huckleberr}^, and species of Andromeda and similar shrubs beneath them. Where the soil is of better quality, either more fertile, or because the impenetrable substratum is deeper beneath the surface, there is more pine, often a considerable part of it being loblolly, and the underwood is less dense. Where the soil is least fertile there is least pine and a denser thicket of shrubs. Next to the long-leaf pine the pond pine is less exacting in regard to fertility of soil than the other pines, growing, in many places, on the soils which if dry the long-leaf pine would occupy. The young plants of the pond pine will endure a considerable shade for many years. When young specimens are accidentally broken, eaten off by cattle, or top-killed by fire, they sprout freely. During dry seasons conflagrations sometimes consume the shrubby underwood, destroying much of the timber. When the pines are thus burned out, the white bay puts forth abundant suckers, forming dense thickets, and the red bay numerous shoots ; FORESTS OF THE PIEDMONT PLATEAU REGION. ISl the pine, however, in time returns. Although seed-years are fre- quent, the crop is usually small. The cones remain attached to the limbs for a long period, often retaining the seed for several seasons. The seed retains its germinative powers for many years and may sprout the spring of the first or second season after fall- ing to the ground. As the trees do not grow in thick stands, they fail to clear their stocks until of a large size. Through the dead branches and knot-holes many rot-causing fungi find entrance. Many large trees are unsound from this cause. Thi^ pine produces very little merchantable timber, though if fires are kept from destroying them the yield would not only be larger but of a better quality. In a few limited districts a con- siderable part of the saw-logs are from this species. It is chiefly of importance on account of the large areas in the State on which it occurs as the only timber tree. FORESTS. OF THE PIEDMONT PLATEAU REGION. The difterences in the character of the forests of the Piedmont plateau region are the results of the influence of variations in the quality of the soils, and in the altitude of the surface above the sea level. The precipitation is nearly the same in all sections of the region, and there is very little difl'er- ence in the relative humidity between even extreme localities within its limits; so these factors exert only unimportant influ- ence. The variations in elevation, too, are so gradual through- out the greater part of the region as to afi'ect only slightly the composition of the forest, except when those of extreme distances are compared ; but on the southeastern border, on the abrupt rise marking the transition to this region from the coastal plain, these forests contain certain species which are representa- tive of the latter region, the distribution of some trees extending even much further to the westward ; while other species charac- teristic of the sylva of the higher mountains penetrate from the northwest far to the eastward, but usually occur only around the spurs of the Blue Ridge or the isolated peaks situated beyond them in the Piedmont plateau. The forests of the eastern lowlands of 1S2 FORESTS OF NORTH CAROLITSTA. the Piedmont plateau contain the greater number of species that are representative of the sylva of the coastal plain. The distribution of the economic forests, however, is deter- mined largely by the character of the soils. The forests of tlie lowlands are of relatively small extent and importance; while those of the uplands are extensive and yield nearly all the tiinber suitable for construction. THE FORESTS OF THE PIEDMONT LOWLANDS. The lowlands of the Piedmont plateau region instead of embrac- ing broad swamps are confined to narrow borders of sedimentary origin along the streams. Their forest growth is comjiosed entirely of broad-leaf species except in the eastern border coun- ties, where occasional loblolly i)ines are found mixed witli the hardwoods. The lowland forests may be divided into (1) those in the hol- lows and bordering the smaller streams, where the soils are sandy loams containing a large proportion of organic constituents : and (2) those contiguous to the larger and more slowly flowing si reams' which are bordered by flats having silty soils, containing more clayey ingredients and less vegetable matter than those of tlie l»ot- toms of the smaUer streams. These two classes of forests and soils, sharply defined where a small stream flow^s into a large otic, gradually pass the one into the other in ascending the rivers. The changes in the character of the growth along the larger streams take place gradually as the changes in the composition of the soils, there being usually, no abrupt transition in the kind of growth of different j)ortions of the some swamp, as occurs in the swamps, of the coastal ])lain region. Many species, abundant along the lower edge of the region, the southeastern, become less frequent as the streams are ascended ; others, less common to the eastward, increase in number as the soils become more loamy and the Blue Ridge-is approached. The loamy alluvial lands contiguous to the smaller streams have in all parts of the region very nearly the same kind of growth: beech, red oak, and white oak, maples and yellow^ poplar, whrle witli these are associated maiiy smaller trees: the hop hornbeam, FORESTS OF THE J'lEDMoNT LOWLANDS. 183 nmbrella-tree and dogwood, which sometimes are sufficiently numerous beneath the deep shade of the more lofty trees to form a thin underwood. As these soils, iiowever, become nt all silty the sweet gum and black gum, overcup and swamp chestnut oaks, and other trees which are more representative of the forests along the larger streams gradually become cons])icuoiis : >u])- planting. first the beech and red oak, then the white oak and yellow poplar, and finally entirely taking their place. The body of the forest on the silty or mud alluviniu of the larger streams is generally formed of sweet gum and black gum, bitternut, overcup oak and swamp chestnut oak. sycamore and hackberry. Of these trees the black gum, bitternut and syca- more are uniformly distributed throughout, although nowhere abundant or forming a conspicuonsl}^ large portion of the growth; they extend beyond the contines of the Piedmont plateau and enter into the composition of the forests of the moun- tain region. The elms, hackberry, and sweet gum, on the other hand, become smaller in size and less frequent to the westward, until on the table-land west of the Blue Ridge they become rare trees, occurring only in the basin of the French Broad river and along the larger streams to its southward. The overcup oak is found westward but little beyond the limits of the loblolly pine in Granville county, but in Anson county it makes a broad sweej) to the wist, and extends up the valley of the Yadkin riv< r, as far as the eastern parts of Davie and the southern portions of Yadkin counties ; while the swamp chestnut oak extends west to the Broad river in Cleveland county and north to Granville and Davie. To the eastward it is the red maple which is the (diaracteristic maple, while the sugar maple occurs with it in cooler places as the alti- tude increases, extending down to about 500 feet at)ove the sea level. With these trees in the eastern border counties occurs the loblolly pine; and very often as far to the west as Lincoln county the water and willow oaks*are found ; less frequently the Texas red oak, and in a few places the big shagbark hickory. On the extensive flats of the Neuse and its tributaries, and on other streams in this portion of the State, though to a less extent, the shag1)ark hickory becomes one of the most conspicuous and 184 FORESTS OF NORTH CAROLINA. abundant trees, while with it in a few localities is found the small shagbark. Beneath the taller trees, no matter what kind, especially where the cover is somewhat open, are the hornbeam with the thorns and haws, and often papaw. To the eastward a few broad flats occur, the soils of which remain moist or even wet, but are rarely inundated, and these are covered with a growth of water oak, overcup oak and willow -oak, and fringed with white and black oaks. The broad fiats of Little river in Union", Stanly and Anson counties, and those along some other streams in the same section of the State, are of this description. All open banks where there is full sunlight are lined with river birch and black willow ; and some fiats which are subject to frequent and periodic overflow are covered with compact groves of willow or birch ; or if the inundation is more prolonged, and this is particularly apt to be the case eastward, with thickets of small ash and elm. Besides these lowlands may be added the mud or clay deposits in depressions on the crests of ridges, usually found in sections where the soils are shallow, often where slates are the country rock. They are very wet during rainy weather, and for some time afterwards, as there is little subsoil drainage ; but during the sum- mer and autumn become exceedingly dry. The growth on such deposits is usually entirely of willow oak, black-jack oak and more or less post oak. Many of these bottoms with a loamy soil, particularly where the growth was the white oak and poplar, representing some of the most fertile land, have been cleared. Some, however, after being cleared, have been found untenable on account of the overflow- ing, and have been finally abandoned. Such lands are usually covered quickly by heavy thickets of birch, sycamore and elm, while maples and gums, whose seedlings grow well in a shade, soon appear l)eneath them. Where lumbering has been going on along these bottoms or staves gotten out, the debris, which is carried off by the streams, often collects at shallow points so as to block the. channel of the FORESTS OF THE PIEDMONT LOWLANDS. 185 stream, and back tlie water for some distance above, killing most ■of the mature trees which may be on the adjoining bottom, as well as a greater part of the 3'onng growth, by Hooding their roots. Dense and fast-growing thickets of elm and ash, and rarely black gum, appear in such places, and continue unmixed until the bed of the swamp is sufficiently raised to allow other trees to grow. The oaks on all of these bottoms show very little young growth, if the water oak to the eastward and the swamp chestnut oak in some localities be excepted. Where oaks and other trees have been culled, chiefly maples and sweet gums have taken their places, so that the promise of the bottom lands for the future is not bountiful, nor do they now contain any large supply of mer- chantable timber. IMPROVEMENT OF THE FORESTS OF THE LOWLANDS. The forests of the bottom lands have in nearly every instance been excassively damaged by constant pasturage. The white oaks have in consequence not reproduced as abundantly as other species whose foliage and seed are not so largely interfered with by stock. To the eastward and along the stiffer-soiled bottoms the overcup oak and swamp chestnut oak are the most worthy of •extensive reproduction ; to the westward and along the smallei ■streams where the soils are more loamy the white oak is more desirable. Protection must be accorded these in same way as -was indicated in the case of the oak flats of the coastal plain region, :and regeneration should be secured in the same way. Abandoned fields and closely culled spaces on the wetter soils ■of the bottom lands are quickly sown in a mixed growth of light- ■seeded trees, chiefly birches, willows and sycamore, and among them soon appear ash and elms and other species demanding a light shade. Sometimes, especially along fence rows, black walnuts appear, and these are worthy of protection. In open or thin places in the woods, on the drier bottoms, this tree could well be exten- sively introduced artificially. In the western and northern part of the Piedmont plateau it will reach a large size, but as with 186 FORESTS OF NORTH CAROLINA. other broad leaf trees, it must be kept in a thick stand until the- height -o'rowth has been nearly CDmpleted to secuie clean stems. FORESTS OF THE PIEDMON r UPLANDS. The upland forests of the Piedmont plateau region are of broad- leaf s|iei-ies and pine, or of belts ot« broad-leaf trees with pine- alternating with belts of broad-leaf trees without pine, there l)eing no area- in tlie original forest, if some shallow granitic soils be possible exceptions, which produce a pure growth of either a broad-leaf or coniferons tree. The se({ueMce of Ijelts. with and without ]>in(% continues unchanged in this State to the U'trth westward as far as the east- ern boundary of the nn>utitaiii region in Surry, AVilkes, Caldwell, and Burke counties; and to the southwest, crossing the Blue Bidge, and with the ditlerence between the pine and no-pine belts more accentuated from the effect: of elevation, occurs to northern (-Jeorgia and eastern Tennessee. • This succession of forest belts, or the ]>resence or absence of pine in the woods, depends on the variations in the cliHracter of the soil, as to texture, as well as in mineral constituents, and di-aiiuige. The belts of soil, following or coinciding with the geological terraines, lie. in general, northeast and southwest coui'ses, though the interposition of dykes, ])articularly gi'anite dykes, to the eastward, has produced more limited belts Iving at various angles to thefe ; and not infrequently this occurs when the order of the rock strata has been interrupted by the mere change in the direction of the outcrop. While in the original forest the areas of dissimilar growth are coextensive with certain classes of S(,)ils, and the sani'- is more or less true of the aftergrowth in culled and coppiced woodland, in t!ie great body of second growth seed- ling woods the efl'ects of these ditferences in soil are largely obscured or altogether lost. Tlie most radical change which is taking place in the great body of the woodland is the change of growth from pine and mixed hardwoods to pure pine, by abandoned fields being seeded in pine,, the place of these fields being supplied for agricultural purposes by farther encroachment on the hardwood areas. But where the SOILS OF THE PIEDMONT UPLANDS. 187 relative proportion of the pure pine cjrowth is already large, it is more desirable to reclear these old fields, on account of the ease with which these pine lands are made tillable, from the great absence of lateral roots in the pine growth and the quickness with which the stumps and roots decay in the sap trees, if cut in the spring when the beetles attack them, and the presence of the sap invites fungus diseases. The body of the upland forest is composed of oaks with more or less hickory, and in places with short-leaf pine scattered among them. Other trees of industrial importance enter but slightly into their composition. This is the composition of the oi-iginal forests as they now stand. The second growth, on the other hand, which in local cases is an exceedingly important element in the woodland, has pine fur xliv forest ls the eastern edge of Cabarrus county into Rowan, and the dissemination in the old fields has probably been from the trees on these knolls and those growing along the hills of the Haw and the Deep rivers, as the scrub pine is not found at other places in this division in the original forest. Probably as much as one-third of the area of this division is in wood, and over one-half of the wood is regrowth. A greater por- tion of the regrowth, over a third at any rate, is pine and cedar. There are besides large areas of waste lands, with almost no tree growth of any kind, or exceedingly thinly stocked with pine or oak, chiefly post oak, black-jack oak, and Spanish oak stool- shoots. There is almost no merchantable heart-pine suitable for milling. The local bodies of regrowth pine which are now large enough for small sized saw-logs will yield only sap lumber, and are not gen- erally utilized on this account; but there are large quantities of pine suitable for fuel. There is not very much oak, either white or red oak, which is suitable for lumber. What there is lies chiefly in Orange, Person, and Davidson counties; but there are smaller bodies in other places. Smaller white oak and post oak, suitable for railway ties, in most places is not abundant, many sections not producing enough to supply the local demand. Hick- ory, however, is relatively more abundant, not having been so largely culled for local use; numerous spoke and tool-handle fac- 204 FORESTS OF NORTH CAROLINA. tories are now utilizing this. Tliere are few saw-mills, and nearly all of the building material used by the larger towns is brought from other sections of the State. THE WESTERN PINE BELT OF THE PIEDMONT PLATEAU. Lying to the west of the compact red and gray loams are fine- grained and mostly sandy loams, usually red or reddish in color with a thin surface soil, usually less fertile than the compact red and gray loams and less suitable for tree-growth. This division extends from the central part of Rockingham, Iredell, and the central part of Rutherford counties northward and westward to the base of the Blue Ridge and its outlying spurs. A few local areas of compact red loams occur, and the original timber on these soils was entirely of broad-leaf trees. The surface of the entire division sloping eastward from the escarpment of the Blue Ridge is broken and rugged. The culmi- nating points of the divides between the rivers which here find their head waters are low mountain chains running irregularly east and west. These mountains and the groups and isolated peaks, lying still further to the east, the Sauratown and Crowder moun- tains, and Kings mountain have an arborescent growth similar to that on the eastern slope of the Blue Ridge, and their woods will be considered in connection with that (p. 210). Here, however, it may be well to say that the woods on the north slopes yet contain some merchantable yellow poplar in •some of the hollows, with ash, northern red oak, and white oak. The woods on tlie southern slopes, and this is especially true of the South mountains, the Sauratown and King's mountain, and the broad water-shed between the Green and Pacolet rivers, have been many times burned, and pine timber has been very badly damaged while tie and tan-bark oak has been greatly thinned or reduced to stool-shoots. The forests of this division are of pine mixed with broad leaf trees, of which the scarlet oak is the most abundant. It is espe- cially common on gravelly soils and has associated with it the Spanish oak, post oak, white oak and, to a less extent, the black oak, while along all high and sandy crests and rocky slopes the WESTERN PINE BELT OF THE PIEDMONT PLATEAU. 205 chestnut oak becomes a tree of economic consideration. There is not so much hickory as in tlie oak forests of the central portion of the state this group being represented chiefly by the pignut, white, and some smallnut. The sourwood becomes even more conspicuous than in Davie and Guilford counties, and along the hollows and -northern slopes there is some yellow poplar, ash and northern red oak. These woods are in a far more uniform condition than those lying to the eastward and are mucli less broken. There are broad expanses of woods, formed of pine mixed with broad-leaf trees, with the cover entire or somewhat broken, and dotted with small groves of pure pine, either the short-leaf or the scrub, in old fields ; or there are extensive areas of culled or coppiced woodland adjacent to the farms and small towns. Throughout some portions of the division cattle have been excluded from the woodland for periods of from five to ten years, but most parts are yet pastured. The forest floor is generally poor, the underwood thin or entirely absent, and the cover of the mature trees open. The original forest is from 70 to 80 feet in height, though in many places it will not be over 60 feet where the soils are thin and poor, while in hollows and on cool slopes many trees will measure over 100 feet in height. Considering the division as a whole, the trees stand in relative abundance about in the follow- ing order: short-leaf pine, scarlet oak, black oak, white oak, sourwood, chestnut oak, post oak, Spanish oak, and white hickory. These form considerably over three-fourths of the growth. Less abundant and forming the larger portion of the remainder of the growth are the dogwood, pignut, chestnut, black-jack oak, black gum, and small-nut hickory, scrub pine, and red maple. The culled woods show an increased" proportion of young pine ; while scarlet oak, chestnut oak, and sourwood are increasing in both culled and coppice woods, the scarlet oak more rapidly than any other oak. Its young growth often forms thickets in the open spaces where trees are removed in culling ; and in coppiced woodland it reproduces rapidly both by seedlings and stool-shoots. It is chiefly on the drier sandy and rocky soils that the chestnut 206 FORESTS OF NORTH CAROLINA. oak is spreading most rapidly under culling, especially where the cutting is heavy or where the woods are coppiced ; so that large areas where fuel is regularly cut show a growth which has dete- riorated, so that while it formerly consisted of mixed oaks and hickory, now it is of scarcely other trees than the scarlet and chestnut oaks. Both of these trees, however, are well-suited for coppice-cutting on account of their rapid growth, vigorous sprout- ing, and the long persistence of the stools. The increase of the red maple in culled woods is also rapid. Under the protection of the light shade so afforded maple seed- lings can be found on all classes of soils from the driest to the most moist. On the moister soils they seem to be incorporated as a permanent part of the growth ; but where the soils are dry they grow more slowly and are overtopped by the oaks when eight or ten inches in diameter, put up sprouts from around the base of the trunk, the main stem becomes weakened and dies. In like manner many seedlings of the yellow poplar appear ; those on the drier soils soon succumb ; those on the moister persist for a long time, if on a north slope even becoming large trees. Black gum seedlings, which are frequent on the drier soils, con- tinue to grow for many years, but the specimens never become more than small-sized trees. The regrowth in the old fields is uniformly pine, except in a few local areas of compact red loams, where it may be red cedar or scrubby broad-leaf trees as well as pine. The pine in old fields is usually the short-leaf; but in some sections it is the scrub, especially where adjacent to the mountains, or where thickets of that pine occurred in the original growth, as along steep river hills or the thin soils near granite knolls, the so-called " flat-rocks." Leps frequently white pine forms the old field growth, and then only at the base of the mountains where mature trees of this species occur. Beneath pine regrowth of all kinds, unless the cover is exceedingly heavy, sourwood, red maple and dogwood appear. MERCHANTABLE TIMBER OF WESTERN PIEDMONT PINE BELT. The forests of the western pine belt now yield more timber than those of any other part of the Piedmont plateau region, and MERCHANTA.BLE TIMBER, WESTERN PIEDMONT PINK BELT. 2»»7 ■exploitation is not so far advanced in them as elsewhere. There are many mills sawing pine and soft woods in Wilkes and the northern part of Alexander counties; mills cutting hardwoods at Hickory, Morganton, Lenoir, Old Fort, Thermal Springs and at other localities, while mills sawing pine are scattered through the entire territory. Several local tanneries obtain their bark supply, chiefly chest- nut oak and white oak bark, from the immediate neighborhood, but they have removed only about one-half of the available amount in the South mountains, and that in the Brushy moun- tains and on the slopes of the Blue Ridge has yet scarcely been touched. The largest tanneries are at Morganton and Wilkesboro. The largest areas containing merchantable pine lie in Caldwell, Burke, Alexander, Wilkes, and the northern parts of Cleveland and Rutherford counties. Some white pine of a low grade is fur- nished by the counties lying along the base of the Blue Ridge. It is locally used for building material, but far the greater part of the lumber manufactured is utilized in making shipping boxes for local cotton and woolen mills. The northern pitch pine occurs through here above an elevation of 1,300 feet, usually growing with the short-leaf pine and distinguished from it under the name of " black pine" ; and along the mountains, above an elevation of 2,000 feet occur occasional specimens of the Table- mountain pine, which finds its eastern limits on the rocky sum- mits of King's'mountain in the southeast and the Sauratown moun- tains in the northeast, though in the intervening territory between these two mountains and the ridge of the Brushy and the South mountains it is not known to occur. All of these pines afford merchantable milling timber. The scrub pine is abundant on the shallow soils of the mountains and along the Blue Ridge, fre- quently forming small patches of unmixed growth. The milling oak timber is the white, some Spanish, red and black oak ; there is a great deal of white and chestnut oak tie timber, but not so much post oak as farther eastward, the scarlet oak largely taking its place. IMPROVEMENT OF THE FOREST. These forests are capable of yielding short-leaf pine, which will 208 FORESTS OF NORTH CAROLINA. on the best soils attain a height of 90 ±eet, and on the poorer a height not exceeding 70 feet ; and many of the soils, on account of their poorness, are much more snited for a growth of pine than of more exacting broad-leaf trees. The white and chestnut oaks grown on the crests of the hills will make trees large enough for railway ties and tan-bark but scarcely larger ; on the moister npper slopes the black and white oaks attain sizes which make them suitable for milling-timber ; on the cooler and moister lower slopes the white oak, northern red oak and yellow poplar attain moderately large dimensions and form good timber. The Spanish oak generally reaches only a small size and is often defective; and the same is true of the scarlet oak. Sourwood large enough to be of value commercially is usually defective. The white pine will certainly do fairly well in a few localities along the western limits of the division, and though at this low elevation it fails to clear the stocks, at least in the forest specimens, as it does at a higher elevation, it is worthy of being protected on account of its rapid growth. Thickets of pure growth will probably form cleaner shafts than where single specimens appear in mixed woods. The broad-leaf trees require such care as was indicated for those of the compact red loams (p. 198). The white pine can be treated in the same way as will be given for the groves of that tree occurring in the high mountains (p. 218). FOKESTS OF THE MOUNTAIN REGION. The differences in the character of the forests of the mountain region are not determined so largely either by the kind of soil or by the amount of moisture contained in it as are those of the Piedmont plateau and coastal region. Within short distances among the mountains there are wide variations in elevation. With increased elevation a rapid lowering of the average annual temperature takes place, and a proportional shortening in the growing-season ; increase in the rain-fall and relative humidity, and a decrease in evaporation both directly from the soil and through transpiration. The effect of these factors in limiting the distribution of certain species is more evident than that of the soils; though, between certain limits of elevation, changes in the FORESTS OF THE LOWER iSIOUNTAINS. 2<>9 character of the soil intliience the kind of growth. It is donbt- fal, how^ever, if chang'es of soil in the larger mountain masses above 5,000 feet elevation produce any change at all in tlie kind of trees, the number of species being limited to those whose hardi- ness of crown or foliage and short growing-season render capable of withstanding the sudden changes of temperature to which they are subjected toward the summits of the higher moun- tains. At high elevations certain trees are to be found both along dry ridges and in cold swamps ; the white and pitch pines and black gum ; and, choosing les^ noticeable extremes of soil, are the red oak, hemlock, beech, birches, and sugar maple. The forests of the mountain region are separable into tliree zones or belts lying at different elevations. These may be described as follows : (1) The forests of the lower mountains ; (2) the forests of the higher mountains; (3) the forests of the moun- tain summits. THE FORESTS OF THE LOWER MOUNTAINS. The forests of the lower mountains lie between 1,500 and 3,000 feet elevation. They occupy the eastern and southern slopes of the Blue Ridge and its outlying spurs, and the minor chains of the Brushy and Sauratown mountains which penetrate or lie within the Piedmont plateau region ; and to the westward of the Blue Ridge they occupy the hills and lower mountain slopes about to the maximum elevation given above. Oaks, W'hite, chestnut, black, scarlet, red and shingle, with some hickory, chiefly white, bitternut and rarely the shagbark and small- nut, with the chestnut and occasionally dogw^ood, are the chief broad-leaf trees. The pines are the short-leaf, pitch, Table moun- tain, scrub (Jersey) and the white. These form a story of vary, ing density, but never constituting over one-halt of the trees, slightly above the broad-leaf trees ; or are coordinate with them and fewer in number. As the quality of the soil improves, either as regards fertility or constant proportion of moisture, and the indi- vidual specimens composing the broad-leaf element reacii a larger size, the pines become fewer in number, restricted in kind to those attaining the greater size, the white and short-leaf, and are con- 14 -210 FORESTS OF NORTH CAROLINA. fined to the more rocky and shallow or sandy-soiled crests, and eventually are crowded out; either because the broad-leaf trees overshade the mature light-loving pines, or because their shade becomes too deep for the growth of the young plant. DISTINCTIVE GROWTH. The forests of the lower mountains approach in the character of their economic trees those of the western gneisses of the Pied- mont plateau. The pines, except the short-leaf and the scrub (Jer- sey) are usually kinds which are not frequent in any part of the Piedmont plateau region; the chestnut oak becomes frequent; the post oak and Spanish oak do not occur at all over the larger part of the area; and the red oak, shingle oak, and chestnut oak become conspicuous and valuable trees. The forefts of the lower mountains are separable into three divisions : (1) that in which the Table mountain and pitch pines are tlie dominant resinous trees ; (2) that in which the short-leaf, pitch, and scrub pines are dominant ; (3) that in wiiich the white pine is the dominant tree. TABLE MOUNTAIN PINE DIVISION. The area in which the Table mountain and pitch pines are the important pine timber trees embraces the eastern and southern slopes of the Blue Ridge, with the outlying spurs, from Georgia to Virginia, and the groups of the Brushy, South and Sauratown mountains. With these pines is to be found the short-leaf pine, which becomes more abundant as the elevation decreases and the soil become deeper and less rugged. Tiie slopes of this range are steep ; the soils are shallow loams or sandy loams, eroding rapidly under denudation, and, w^hen cleared, restocking slowly on the ces- sation of cultivation. The broad-leaf trees which are associated with the pines are chiefly the scarlet and chestnut oaks and the chestnut. These form alow, open growth, seldom exceeding fifty or sixty feet in height. There is no underwood, and if is only occasionally that young trees are found, and these are for the most part stump or stool-shoots from trees tlie tops of which have been TABLE MOUNTAIN PINE niVISION. 211 killed by the frequent fires which ravage these forests. Old trees, particularly oaks and chestnuts, show many defects from these fires, chiefly short and limby boles and hollows. Pasturing cattle and ranging swine are regularly practiced ; firing is done to improve the grass crop and secure young stool-shoots in tiie spring ; and to clear oft' the litter before the fall of chestnuts and acorns in the autumn. Locally, white pine occurs. Their Ijoles, how- ever, are short, limby and frequently defective, the heartwood being subject to the attack of Trametes pini, which caused defective stocks. The Carolina hemlock, the bark of which possesses the same tanning properties as that of the hemlock, is confined for the most part to the eastern slope of the Blue Ridge. Locally abundant, it is found at intervals along this mountain chain, to the west of it on rugged cliffs along the north and south forks of the Estatoe river in Mitchell county ; the South Fork of New river in Ashe county ; the gorge of the Doe river ; and in tiie southeastern parts of Macon and Jackson counties, and in one locality over forty miles to the cast of this range, the Sauratown mountains. In the deep, narrow' hollows which indent the eastern slopes of the Blue Tiidge, the black walnut grew more abundantly and reached a larger size tharr elsewhere in this State ; brrt it has been largely removed, and there are now only a few small trees. Of the locust, yellow poplar, and white oak which grew with it, onl}' the white oak is still standing in large quantities. The timber irr the hollows, where there are few pines and but occasional hem- locks, has been less dairraged by fires than that of the drier and more exposed slopes. Browsing cattle, however, have checked the growth of most of the young broad-leaf trees. MERCHANTABLE TIMBER OF THE TABLE MOUNTAIN PINE BELT. There is now comparatively little merchantable timber lying along the Blue Ridge. Locally there is w^hite pine, and yellow pine of several species suitable for milling purposes; and in the hollows some yellow poplar, white oak and chestnut suitable for lumber. White oak and chestnut oak railway tie-timber is abun- dant, and large quantities of white and chestnut oak tan l)ark are 212 FORESTS OF NORTH CAROLINA. obtainable. Lumber mills obtaining their logs from these forests are in operation at Lenoir and Hickory, and smaller mills else- where. A tannery at Morganton depends on these forests largely for its oak bark. Fires have damaged these forests more than those of any other part of the State except the pine woods of the southeastern counties. The forests cover nearly the entire area. The farms are few and confined almost entirely to the narrow allnvial bottoms; a few clearings have been made on the more gentle slopes or broader ronnded crests. Some bottoms have been permanently damaged by washing during floods and the deposition of a heavy mnd sedi- ment on the surface of the loams. Old fields are seeded chiefly by the short-leaf, scrub and northern pitch pines ; less frequently by the white. Sometimes they are all mixed. Such second growth is, however, inconsiderable. The forests are capable of producing pine — short-leaf, and some ■white — together with chestnut oak on the slopes and crests; while walnut, yellow poplar, white oak and locust reach a large size in the hollows. IMPROVEMENT OF THE FORESTS. A complete cessation of the present annual firing is necessary, not only to insure the possibility of a vigorous stand of young trees, but to aff'ord protection to the standing stock. Pasturage should not be permitted in such portions of the^forest as contain young growth that can be injured. Hogs must be excluded after seed-years of nut-bearing trees. As there is now very little mer- chantable timber on the ridges, all management should have for its object the improvement of the general- condition of the forest, regarding both density and preference for the more valuable kinds of trees. Few of the trees on the ridges will form large merchant- able stocks ; their utilization extends only to small pine milling- timber, oak railway ties, oak and Carolina hemlock tanbark, small' chestnut and locust timber for posts and construction. The trees naturally growing here are light-demanding, except the chestnut, the white oak and white pine, all of which will endure some shade ; the chestnut the deepest and the longest, the white pine least and for the shortest time. SHORT-LEAF AND PITCH PINE FORESTS. 213 The chestnut, chestnut oak and the wliite oak can be relied on for reproduction from stump and stool-shoots, the chestnut sprout- ing most vigorously and from the largest-sized stumps, and the white oak least vigorously and from the smallest stumps. The locust frequently sprouts from small stumps, also from suckers under a thin cover. SHORT-LEAF AND PITCH PINE FORESTS. The area in which the short-leaf and pitch with the scrub (Jersey) pine are the dominant resinous trees, embraces the basin of the French Broad river in Buncombe and Madison counties, the river-hills of the Swannanoa, those of the French Broad in Hen- derson county, and the lower hills in Haywood, Swain, Jackson, Macon, Cherokee and Graham counties, lying below an elevation of 2,800 feet above sea level. The surface of this area is broken and rugged, the. hills often steep, between them, along the rivers and smaller streams, lying narrow alluvial tracts. The lowest elevations are found on the eroded slopes of the Asheville basin and along the waters of the Little Tennessee river, where at the lowest limits the altitude is not over 2,000 feet. The upland soils are stiif, mostly even-grained loams, rarely sandy. Although generally deep and derived from disintegration i7i situ of gneiss, or, in Cherokee and Graham counties, slates, they are, on the whole, not fertile ; those of the lowlands are rich sedimentary loaais with much vegetable matter along the smaller streams ; alons; the larger streams are loams similar to those on the smaller ones, but more sandy and less fertile. The hills erode rapidly on their shoulders when unprotected. (31d fields, however, are generally quickly seeded in native grasses, which form a retentive turf, and after a longer time pines appear. The short-leaf, pitch and scrub (Jersey) pines are the character- istic conifurs. The broad-leaf trees which grow with them are chiefly the wliite, black, scarlet and chestnut oaks, chestnut, and hickory. Of these the white oak is first in numbers and import- ance. It forms from .1 to .5 of the entire forest, being most abundant along the slopes; black oaks and pine superseding it towards the crests ; other broad-leaf trees toward the bottoms. 214 FORESTS OF NORTH CAROLINA. The pines form from .1 to .3 of the forest, being in greatest abundance in the Asheville basin and at the lower elevations. CONDITION OF THE PINE FORESTS,. The short leaf and pitch pine forest covers a little more than one-half of the area, and is largely of these pines mixed with broad- leaf trees less than one-twentieth of the forest being pure pine regrowth in old fields. It is divided chiefly among small farms. On the uplands it is decidedly irregular, the cover broken by the indiscriminate removal of mature trees, the young growth beneath representing all ages. Where pastured and burned the forest floor is poor and the young growth not abundant. On the best soils these trees attain an average height of from 60 to SO feet; on the poorer and along the sandier crests from 50 to 70 feet, the pines being the taller on the poorer soils but being overtopped or equaled in height by the broad-leaf trees in more fertile situations. The density is generally less than three-fourths of what it should be, natural reproduction being prevented b}' excessive and injudicious lumbering, pasturage, and burning. In many places the mature pines have been largely removed, oaks taking their places, but where there has been no burning many- young pines are to be seen. The milling poplar and oak have been largely removed ; poplar^ from its shade-demanding requirements, the fact that the young plants are eagerly sought for by browsing cattle, and the removal to a great extent of the seed-bearing trees, is reproducing itself only to a limited degree ; the chestnut, the white oak, black oak, and scarlet oak more freely. AVhere the woodland has been protected for a great many years the mature timber shows little damage from lires or the effects of pasturing; there are only a few localities, however, where this is the case. Black oaks and chestniits often have hollows from fires ; more rarely pines and white oak. The merchantable timber still standing is chiefly valuable as a source of supply for the numerous farms to which the woodland is attached and the small towns lying near them. At present the forest is about exhausted, so far as the milling WHITE PINE FORESTS. 215 pine and yellow poplar is concerned. Oak and chestnut, thoiiii-h chiefly of a small size, are still to be obtained. The forest is capable of yielding milling timber, fuel, ruilwuy ties, and fencing, for most of which a local market can be f(»und. IMPROVEMENT OF THE FORESTS Protection from Are and cattle should be afforded where this is not already done. Defective trees, or those of inferior kinds, which are interfering with young growth beneath them should be removed. Proximity to farms will generally allow this to be done as such wood can be made use of as fuel. The gro\vth shonld be allowed to thicken np to restore the hnmns and give the requisite shade. Most of the land here is too broken to permit clean cuttings without danger of great injury to the soil. Pure growth of pine, on the gentler slopes could, however, be cut without danger r>f excessive washing. Naturally the forest requires selection cut- ting. The pines and yellow poplar require reproduction in all cases from seed. To supply smaller wood for fuel and farm use most of the broad leaf-trees can be reproduced from stool-shoots. Fields are seeded by pines and to some extent by locust : rarely by nut-bearing trees. The yellow poplar will propagate in thin woods on a damp soil as the seedlings require some shade. The short-leaf is the most valuable of the pines, and thougli at lirst not the most rapid-growing, the Jersey or scrub out growing it, should be protected at the expense of the others if it is intended to permit the trees to reach a large size. WHITE PINE FORESTS. The woodland in which white pine is the dominant coniferous tree is not extensive, but lies in isolated, small bodies along the crest, and southern and eastern slopes of the Blue Ridge, or on the low hills on the west. The most extensive forests containing white pine lie in the southeastern part of Ashe county, extending, though interrupted, 216 FOKESTS OF NORTH CAROLINA. lip the valley of the South Fork of New river into Watauga county; in the upper valley of the Linville river in Mitchell county ; in the valley of the French Broad river in Transylvania county ; and in the southern parts of Macon and Jackson coun- ties, at an elevation »of 2,800 to 3,800 feet above sea level, exten- sive forests seldom being found above the higher limit, or perfect individual development attained below the lower. The total area of white pine forest is not over 200,000 acres. In a few places on the southern slope of the Blue Ridge, par- ticularly along the headwaters of the Elk, Yadkin, and Roaring rivers in Wilkes and McDowell counties, and the upper valley of the Johns river, the white pine is associated with yellow pines as well as with deciduous trees, but the trees are generally short- boled and neither so large nor tall as those growing at a higher elevation to the west of this range. Single specimens or small groups of trees are locally dispersed in the broad-leaf forests throughout the mountain counties between the limits of altitude given above. Their value, how- ever, is potential rather than actual, since, growing on the thin- soiled crests of ridges and failing to develop clear shafts, they lack the essential requirements of timber trees ; but, as possible sources for the dissemination of seed either in denuded land or in thinned woodland, especially where pastured, their utility may become great. Such groups of trees are to be found in Alleghany, Madison, Haywood, and Graham counties, besides in portions of other counties in which bodies of more compact growth occnr. The white pine is generally associated with white, black, red, and less often, scarlet and chestnut oaks, chestnut, and hickory, when growing along the crests or Hanks of rolling hills, on coarse, often porous, gravelly, loamy soils; or less frequently with liem- lock, sweet and yellow birch, red oak, and pitch pine along moist or wet fluvial deposits on fertile, loamy soils. CONDITION OF THE WHITE PINE FORESTS. In some localities these forests have been extensively culled or lumbered ; in others, their integrity is as yet scarcely broken. Where they have not been dismembered two groups of trees are CONDITION OF THE WHITE I'INK FOUKSTS. 217 represented : white pine, forming an upper group, from 100 to 150 feet in height, and usually .1 to .3 of the growth ; beneath this, a group of deciduous trees of varying height, but rarely over 90 or less than 70 feet, composed chiefly of white, black, and chest- nut oak, and chestnut. Of these, white oak is the most abun- dant. Where lumbered they are irregular; occasional decrepit white pines overtopping the deciduous growth, which, however, has been cut into only locally ; but where around settlements both pine and hardwoods have been culled the entire cover is broken and thin. One of the eflfects of pasturing forest lands is that while 3'Oung plants of deciduous trees have been destroyed, pines have increased ; but where burning is practiced, sourwood, scarlet oak, white oak and other vigorous and free sprouters have propagated most rapidly, while pines have diminished. In a few places a heavy underwood of the great laurel, less commonly of laurel (ivy), grows beneath the deciduous trees, form- ing a thicket 10 to 15 feet in height, with many (;rooked stocks rising from the same burly roots. Where this underwood is pres- ent the deciduous growth above is usually more open, but brows- ing cattle have inflicted less damage on young growth of tender- leaf species, and flres are less frequent ; the humus is thick and the soil unimpaired. There are only few farms in tlie area of white pine forest; probably less than 20 per cent, of the total acreage being under cultivation. In Ashe and Watauga counties the forest is divided chiefly among small farms ; in Mitchell and Macon are large areas thinly settled. On the farms the woodland has been more largely cnlled and pastured, and its density will seldom be above two- thirds of the normal condition. A few groves of vigorous young pines have sprung up in the fields from the self-sown seed of neighboring forest trees ; but such groves are not common. Young pines are increasing in the woodland only to an inconsiderable extent. Much of the bottom land on which this pine grows has already been deforested, and it is probable that all of it will eventually be brought under 218 FORESTS OF NORTH CAROLINA. cultivation, as tlie soil is of superior quality and stands tillage better than that of the adjacent hills. The forests on the hills, however, should be regarded as permanent, and care bestowed on them accordingly. • Larger pines, being protected by their thick bark, are damaged only to a sliglit extent by tires ; yoamg ones while the bark is yet smooth are more readily scorched and injured and sometime killed. Oaks and chestnuts show hollows from the effects of fires,, particularly along ridges and in dry woods. MERCHANTABLE TIMBER OF THE WHITE PINE FORESTS Extensive areas of nnlumbered forest still exist in Transylvania, Macon and Mitchell counties. The standing trees will yield fairly good lumber, though it is seldom that over two cuts, 16 feet in length, from which clear boards are obtainable, can be secured from one tree. Smaller bodies yielding a larger proportion of knotty timber are standing in AVilkes, McDowell, and Caldwell counties. Lumbering is in progress in Mitchell, Caldwell, and Wilkes counties. IMPROVEMENT OF THE WHITE PINE FORESTS. At the higher altitudes these forests are capable of producing^ pine milling timber of good quality, large chestnut and oak tim- ber, ties and fencing. At present there is no local market. Below 2,000 feet the pines fail to clear their sto