■ ■ Class. AJ 127 147 ^ 210/ 466 591 i NICARAGUA ARGENTINE. W4 BOLIVIA WAR S PRESIDENT S fLAG COSTA RICA URUGUAY U S REVENUE ft. ACHT ENSIGN l/> 5. i PARAGUAY ENEZUELA. WAR MOROCCO UNITED STATES FLiiC DOMINICAN. REPUBLIC HONDURAS ^HAWAII. SANDWICH IS. FRENCH. COCHIN CHINA GERMANY. MERCHANT ITALY ROYAL STAN DARL PRUSSIA], txERCHa FLAGS OF GREAT BRITAIN ROYAL STANDARD RUSSIA IMPERIAL STANDARD PORTUGUESE. MER. PORTUGAL DENMARK DANISH, MERCHANT BRITISH, UNION JACK BELGIUM jjisomtrsMl SPANISH. MERCHANT MONTENEGRO TURKEY. WAR ROUMANIA TUNIS, WAR ■TRANSVAAL TRIPOLI, MERCHANT FLAGS OF THE COMMERCIAL QOOS CODE AND ANSWERING PENDANT CHINA, IMPERIAL EGYPT. WAR '• ' i'k A-i. CHINA. MERCHANT ' KINGDOM OF SI AM AUSTRO-HUNGARY IMPERIAL ORANGE. FREE STATE PERSIA. MERCHANT THE NATIONS GREEK PK1ESTESS AND LADIES. (pp. 22.) SCULPTURE — ARCHITECTURE — PAINTING. 1. — Primeval Man. INTRODUCTION. §1. FTER God had in the beginning created heaven and earth, (so runs the book of Genesis) had adorned the heavens with sun, moon, and stars, clothed the earth with vegetation and filled it with living creatures, he created man in his own image and appointed him, by endowing him with intelligence and speech, to be the Lord of the whole earth. Pure and strong in body and in soul, continues Holy writ, the first pair came from the creator's hand: and they lived in Paradise, their original home, a life of innocent happiness, until tempted by the serpent, they tasted of the forbidden tree of knowledge, and for their disobedience of the divine command lost their unconscious purity and their state of blessed- ness. Adam and Eve with all their posterity were henceforth doomed to live a life of toil and hardship, " to eat their bread in the sweat of their face." The vehement impulses of a wild and untamed nature plunged the young races deeper and deeper into sin and error, until at last, a great flood (the deluge) swept the human family from the earth, sparing none but Noah and his family, who saved themselves and many animals besides, in an ark. Noah's posterity, biblical tradition informs us further, increased so rapidly that the later races, derived from his three sons, Shem, Ham, and Japhet were compelled to seek for homes in the neighboring lands. There they began to build the tower of Babel, the top of which was to reach the sky and be for them an everlasting sign. This presumptuous enterprise God brought to nothing by confounding their speech and thus separating them from each other. They migrated to the four quar- ters of the earth, peopled the three continents, Asia, Africa, and Europe, grouping (23) 24 THE ANCIENT WORLD. themselves, according to their different languages, into tribes and nations. To this geographical distribution of the human family may be ascribed the corporeal differences that appeared in the course of time. Especially noticeable are differences in the color of the skin and the form of the head : hence the division into three great trunk races, the white (Caucasian), the yellow (Mongolian)? the black (Ethiopian), and two branch races, the dark brown (Malay), and the copper-colored (American). The latter, however, may be regarded as sub-divisions of one and the same race, seeing that the Unity of humanity (as a distinct species) is maintained by science also. _^ MEN DURING THE STONE AGE. 2. — Primeval Modes op Life. § 2, As the habitations of men differed, so too their modes of life and their occupations. The inhabitants of steppes and deserts, where fertile spots for pasture were to be found only here and there, devoted themselves to pastoral life and moved as Nomads with their tents and herds from place to place, changing their abode with the seasons. These Nomads were the first to tame and to train animals, to discover the value of their wool and hides as clothing, and of their milk and flesh as food. They employed them too in various forms of labor. The inhabitants of the plains learned the arts of agriculture and of peace. But the rough and hardy mountaineer gave himself up to hunt- ing, or urged by violent and powerful impulses, found delight in strife and war. The former united to his tilling of the soil the life of the herdsman and in the course of time distinguished the private acre from the tribal land and secured to each one his property, his field, his hut and his herd by laws and legal rights. Hence the pursuit of agriculture has been designated as the great gateway to society. The settlers along the sea-shore and the river- banks discovered soon the advantages of their situation. They carried on navigation and commerce, acquired property and riches, and built for themselves beautiful dwelling houses and cities. Meanwhile the inhabitants of the more inhospitable coasts eked out by fishing a joyless existence. Commerce, and the intercourse of races, resulting from it, was a powerful stimulus to the progress of mankind. The inhabitants of fruitful plains and richly watered valleys carried on an inland trade ; the inhabitants of the MEN DURING THE BRONZE AGE. 26 THE ANCIENT WORLD. sea-coast a trade by ships. To the former belonged the caravan trade of Asia and Africa. , In the beginning this commerce was all barter (ware for ware) ; but man soon began to prize especially the noble metals, to mint them into coins and to use them as a more convenient medium of exchange. The inhabitants of cities invented, industries of many sorts, and cultivated arts and sciences thus enriching and beautifying their lives and perfecting the human mind. 3. — Political Organization — The Caste System. § 3. In the course of time, peoples divided into civilized and uncivilized according as disposition and intercourse favored the development of intellectual power or natural obtuseness, and isolation from their fellow men hindered mental progress. The unciv- ilized peoples are either wild hordes, under the control of one chief who possesess abso- lute power of life and death, or wandering Nomadic races under the guidance of a chieftain, who as father of the family, exercises the rights of a prince, judge and high priest. Neither these Nomadic tribes with their patriarchal institutions, nor the wild races that wander in Africa's unknown sand-deserts, in Asia's mountains and steppes and in the primeval forests of America have a place in history. This is concerned only with civilized races, who have united together to found an organized common- wealth and who by morality, by law, and by mutual concessions have reached a peace- ful communal life and intercourse. A state organization may be a monarchy, or a republic. Monarchy is where one ruler stands at the head of the government. This single ruler is called, according to the extent of his territory, emperor or king, duke or prince. And his authority passes as a rule according to the law of primogeniture to his nearest heir. A republic or free state is one where the authority resides in an elected magistracy consisting of several members. When these magistrates are chosen from a circle lim- ited by birth or wealth, the republic is aristocratic. But when the people, as a whole, make the laws and choose the responsible leaders of the government it is democratic — In many states of antiquity the freedom of the individual was limited by the insti- tution of caste. By this is meant a strict separation of men according to birth, posi- tion, and occupation which passes down from father to son and which permits no admixture, and no passage from the one class into the other. The two first castes embraced the priests who alone possessed the knowledge of religious doctrines and usages, of civil laws and customs, and the warriors whose duty was to bear arms and to protect the land. These two divisions shared with the king the right to rule and enjoyed many privileges. The peasants, merchants and artisans formed the third caste and this branched out again into numerous sub-divisions. These caste regula- tions were often the consequence of violent conquests; hence in most of the caste states there existed a despised class doomed to the meanest occupations, leading a wretched life, and treated by the ruling classes with the utmost contempt. India has maintained her system of caste most rigidly and for the longest time, but Egypt also had caste like separations based upon condition and occupation. 4. — Religious Life. § 4. The manner of life and the political society of antiquity were not more manifold INTRODUCTION. 27 than the religions and the forms of worship. The idea of a personal God, creator, and sustainer of the universe was reached in antiquity only by one small people, the Israelites, who worshiped no other God than the God of their race, Jehovah, i. e. The Eternal One. All other peoples worshiped many gods, adoring either the sun and the celestial bodies or worshiping as divine beings the forces and the elements at work in nature. All polytheistic religions, however much they differ, are included under the term heathenism. The Supreme Being was not thought of as spirit, and wor- shiped in spirit and in truth, but conceived of by the ancients either in human shape, or as particular divinities in which were manifested his different powers and attributes. -> " — s\jy , si 1 r&- i ~~^^~-S~*X^\ " Pan. VCLCAN. Neptune. Ceres Jdpitek. Molvs. MYTHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. Serapis. Osiris and Isis. Thanatos. Bachhus The particular divinities they represented sometimes by gods made of metal, of stone, of wood, of clay. To these were erected temples and altars ; to these were offered sacrifices partly to appease their wrath, partly to obtain their favor, partly to thank them for their beneficent providence. The sacrifices were of many kinds, according to the culture of the people. The Greeks who conceived of their Gods as a nobler kind of human beings instituted for them cheerful festivals. At these they consumed, in friendly society, the offered fruits and the sacrificed animals from the small gift of the firstling of the flock, to the great sacrifice of a hundred oxen called the Hecatomb. 28 THE ANCIENT WORLD. The barbarous or semi-barbarous peoples stained their altars with human sacrifices hoping to move the heavenly powers by the greatest and most valuable of gifts, to induce them to be gracious to beseeching mortals or to be reconciled if they were angry. The Phoenician and Syrian tribes laid the dearest that they possessed, even their own children as expiatory offerings in the arms of a red-hot idol called " Moloch " — To be sure the idol was intended to be the visible sign of an invisible thought or invisible power, but among the people it lost its higher meaning and they gave their adoration to the lifeless image. Only priests and sages knew this deeper sense, but they did not share it with the people. On the contrary, they veiled it in mysteries and cherished it as the private property of their order. For this purpose they invented many legends, stories, and fables of the gods whom they served, clothed them in poetic forms and thereby founded mythology or the doctrine of the gods. In this the deeds and fates of different divinities and their relations to mankind are represented, not in clear intelligible speech but veiled in enigmatical suggestions, allegorical narratives, and pictorial utterance. A people possessed of creative imagination and inclined to the. divine developed naturally a rich mythology. In these sacred myths is reflected the inner life of the youthful races. They have become therefore a copious source of art and poetry. And although these legends of the gods made the people to abound in superstition, yet their solemn worship with its mj^sterious ceremonies and its symbol- ism in the consecrated spaces of the temple, held the people in awe and in holy dread of the gods. To make their faith yet firmer, the greater temples and more sacred places were provided with an oracle which kept alive the feeling of the nearness of the gods, and a belief in their interference in the affairs of men. To these the people came in critical moments to obtain knowledge of the future and helpful advice, which was imparted to them in obscure and ambiguous utterance. Thus the human mind, in its search for divine truth, was continually led astray and held in bond- age now by blinding ceremonials, now by the worship of a lifeless law ; thus the Visible and the Sensual absorbed without satisfying, the yearning of the human heart for the supernatural powers. / bacchanalian festival. From an Attic Sarcophagus. A. EASTERN RACES. 1. ORIENTAL LIFE. SIA called from its situation the Orient (Land of the Rising Sun) is the cradle of the human family. The garden of Eden is to be sought among the blooming landscapes that extend along the sheltered slopes of the Himalaya Mountains, " those mighty snow palaces," the pinnacles of which are hidden in the clouds. In the East arose first those great States and cities from which other lands have taken a part of their civil institutions, of their religious systems and of their culture. In the East, where the camel lives, " the Ship of the Desert," originated that colossal in- land commerce, the caravan trade, which has exer- cised so marked an influence upon the course of human progress. The difficulties and dangers of long journeys through regions but little known, and much frequented by robber tribes, compelled the oriental merchants to organize themselves into armed bodies and to escort their heavily laden camels and beasts of burden from place to place. These caravans gave occasion for the building of markets and cities, of ware-houses and inns ; they brought the dwellers in distant parts into communication with each other, so that with the products of the soil, the culture, the religious usages and the political institutions of different countries were also exchanged. In the East originated likewise all the forms of religion ; the belief in one God developed among the Jews, renewed and purified in Christianity and finally so potent in Mohammedanism, and also the heathen religions in all their manifold variety, with their powerful priesthoods, their sacrificial service and their ceremonial life. For the relation of man to the heavenly powers has been for the Oriental a subject of eager and profound study, and has led him to results beyond which no other nation has ever gone. (29) 80 THE ANCIENT WORLD. In the East, however, political life was less manifold than religious, revealing far less variety of constitutions and of governmental forms. The Nomads had chieftains who exercised a patriarchal authority ; the Caste- States gave extraordinary privileges and powers to the priest and warrior classes. Both combined to create despotism, the absolute sovereignty of the prince, which endowed the ruler with the patriarchal power of the Nomad chief and the religious sanctity of the Caste-kings. Thus the royal authority in the east reached gradually such a height, that the king was worshiped as a god. To the despot his subjects ap- peared as slaves, without personal rights or property. The king disposed as he pleased of the goods and lives of his subjects. He gave and took, at his own will, and could be approached only upon bended knees. Like the immortal gods he lived in luxury and pleasure, surrounded by servants who performed his commands and satisfied his desires. All the wealth and splendor of the earth was lavished upon him. These forms of government, in which laws and human rights do not exist are without vitality and enduring elements of progress ; hence all the eastern states became the prey of foreign conquerors, their early culture being thereby lost or arrested. The nature of the Oriental is inclined rather to contemplative quiet and to enjoy- GREAT WALL OF CHINA. ment than to activity. Consequently the eastern peoples never attained to freedom or to self-government ; on the contrary, they submitted passively to native tyrants or sighed under the yoke of foreign conquerors. By means of their intellectual EASTERN RACES. 31 powers they reached quickly a certain degree of culture and politico-military civiliza- tion, only to abandon themselves quickly to idle enjoyment, until they sank gradually into sloth and weakness. This weakness was furthered by the oriental custom of polygamy which undermined the family, the source of all domestic morality, strength and virtue. The art of the Orient is wonderful in the colossal dimensions of the buildings and the irresistible patience and perseverance displayed in their completion ; but these lack the harmony and symmetry and beautiful utility to be found in the works of a free people. The creations of their art and their industry show a skilled handicraft, attained and maintained by the compulsion of caste and guild, rather than creative genius and spontaneous activity. Servitude hung like a leaden weight upon every form of oriental life. 2. The Chinese. § 6. The Chinese have no part in the life of history, yet they meet us at its threshold. The development of the human race has followed the daily course of the Sun. In all probability therefore the peoples of the extreme East were the first to emerge from the condition of semi-barbarous tribes. The great empire of China, " The celestial middle Kingdom," has been inhabited for thousands of years by a race of Mongolian origin, which possesses unchanged the culture and the institutions of hoary antiquity. In China everything is regulated by ancient laws and forms ; there freedom is unknown. This lack of a progressive devel- opment is due partly to the persistent character of the people which clings to the ac- customed and the inherited; partly to the isolation of the kingdom from other nations, because of mountains, seas, and the great Chinese wall, nearly 1500 miles in length ; partly to the exclusion of foreigners from the realm and partly to its political institu- tions. For the Emperor, " The Son of the Sky," the sacred Lord, the divinely re- vered sovereign, is possessed of unlim- ited authority, so that he and his man- darins, a numerous body of privileged scholars and officials, hold the enslaved, despised, and oppressed people firmly to the ancient customs and prevent all in- novation. The Chinese thus deprived of the experiences of foreign nations have fallen behind them in general cul- ture, although they were acquainted ages ago with the compass, gun powder, the art of printing, and although they have displayed at all times a wonderful industry and laboriousness. Even their industrial art cannot compare with that of the western nations in spite of their early invention of writing-materials, their early manufacture of porcelain, their skill in weaving silks, and in the carving of wood and ivory. Agriculture, which stands CHINESE MANDARIN. 32 THE ANCIENT WORLD. CHINESE TEACHER. under the immediate protection of the Emperor (who tills and ploughs himself a par- ticular piece of land) is the oldest and most honored occupation ; it constitutes the organizing and ennobling element in the life of the Chinese State and people. Next to the corn and rice-fields, tea and silk-culture are the pride of the land and the source of great wealth. Silk culture is under the immediate care of the empress. Chinese education aims not at the development of in tellectual powers but at the learning of what the fore- fathers knew and practised, and of what serves to pro- duce civic virtue, obedience to the laws, reverence for magistrates and parents. The education, government and habits of the Chi- nese render them cowardly and inactive and rob them of all sense of honor and of strength. Yet they have the utmost conceit of their superiority, regarding all flPHI other nations with arrogant contempt. Their written language, consisting not of letters but of symbols or pictures is so difficult and clumsy that many years are required to learn to read it merely. As lawgiver and founder of their religion, of their civil and social in- stitutions the Chinese revere an ancient sage Confucius, (Kong-fu-tse) who collected the early teachings, laws, histories and traditions of Confucius the people, arranged them into boo jr. c. a system and thus gave to an- cient custom fixedness and strength. 3. The Hindus. § 7. Southwards from the snow covered heights of the Himalayas stretches a fruitful, favored land with a temperate climate ; a land rich in precious products of every kind, and traversed by the Indus, the Ganges and other mighty rivers. Here the Indians or the Hindus have dwelt from immemorial time, and their ancient greatness is attested by many buildings yet extant, ruins of cities and of temples, by wonderful monuments in Scripture and in stone, and by countless historical reminiscences. The Hindus were descendants of the Ar- yans, who migrated from the highlands of Thibet and subdued the less powerful aborig- ines of the southern country. As long as they dwelt in the land of the five rivers, close to the holy river Sarasvati, the Aryans, divided into many branches, led a pastoral life under the guidance of their chiefs and kings, worshiping the powers of nature with songs and sacrifices. But as they wandered eastwards toward the Ganges and the IMAGE OF CONFUCIUS. EASTERN RACES. 33 Tamouna, they exchanged their primitive customs for the institutions of caste, to which they gave the severest form. The first and most honored caste was the Brah- mans ; these were priests richly endowed with goods, honors and privileges. They were counted holy and inviolable ; could be punished in body for no crime ; were free from taxation, constituted the royal council and held most of the offices. Next to the Brahmans stood the warriors (Kschatrija) who for pay and certain advantages assumed the protection and defence of the land. The peaceful character of the people and the isolation of this land made enemies uncommon and wars unfrequent. Conse- quently the warrior class degenerated and the priests acquired easily the first rank. The kings, however, belonged to the warrior caste. Tillers of the soil, merchants and artisans constituted the third caste ; these despised Vaisja were heavily oppressed by taxes and forced levies and so plundered by of- ficials that in spite of the great fertility of the soil they lived in pov- erty and wretchedness. The slave class, Sudra, were excluded from all honors and rights, and could not even have a share in the religion and the sacred books of the Aryan Hindus, which latter called themselves the twice-born. The most despised class in India was the Pariah class, or Tschandala, from whom it is said our Gipsies are descended. These are the dark-skinned posterity of the savage aborigines, who are looked upon by the other Hindus as the offscouring of humanity, and treated by them with profound contempt. They may not dwell in cities, towns, or villages, or even in their vicinity ; whatever they touch, becomes un- clean, and whoever sees one of them, is defiled by the sight. Mixing of caste by mar- riage is strictly forbidden ; any one guilty thereof is cast out as unclean and abandoned to contumely. This rigid division into castes, which was upheld by the Brahmans as a divine arrangement of society, hindered all further progress and arrested the early culture of the race. §8. Religion, Literature, Art. The Hindus believed in a divine first being, from whom the visible and invisible world have proceeded, and to which they will, after long periods of time, return. The centre of their religion was the doctrine of the transmigration of souls and of regener- ation. According to this doctrine the human soul has been chained to an earthly body as a penalty ; the goal of human effort must be reunion with the divine soul of the universe. Life on earth is a term of punishment and probation, to be shortened only by holy conduct, by prayer and sacrifice, by penances and purifications. If man LOW CASTE HINDUS. 3-1 THE AXCIEXT WORLD. neglects these holy duties and, fulling away from God, sinks deeper into evil, his soul enters after death into the body of a baser creature, to begin anew its weary pilgrim- age. But the soul of the sage, the hero, the penitent ascends through the shining stars toward the eternal spirit whence it came and into which it will be finally ab- sorbed. Man, say the Brahmans, reaches the end of his creation by unbroken con- templation of the divine and separation from the earthly. Hence they exalted con- templation and reflection above an active life, withdrew themselves from the lower classes, read and pondered the holy scrip- tures of the Veda, inflicted upon them- selves penances and tortures, gave alms, ^ performed ablutions, did every sort of • ceremonial dutj', that thej* might get > nearer to the deity. The Brahman may not kill an animal < or injure one, or eat of its flesh, unless it be a sacrifice ; for the soul of a man ruay dwell in the body of a beast. In the old- est times, when the Hindus still lived in the land of the five rivers, they worshiped i the powers that prevailed in nature, Indra •the lord of the sky who governs sunshine and rain with the clouds and the winds, > Varuna the God of the air and many other deities. Alongside these natural deities they worshiped quite early a mysterious divine force, called Brahma, which had power over these nature-gods. After the Hindus gave themselves up to the con- templative life of the Ganges Valley, this idea of Brahma took the first place in the Hindu religion, as the soul of the world, the fountain of all being, Indra and other nature-gods dropping to the rank of world guardians merely. About the middle of the sixth century before Christ the doctrine of Prince Buddha "The Awakened" spread through the land. Buddha preached the equality of all human beings, eternal rest in death without a second birth, and love and mercy toward all men as the chief virtue. Numberless cloisters were built in many places above the relics of the great teacher to which flocked disciples eager to escape the world. To the weary and beavy laden ne had promised a release from the suffering of this present time through the practice of virtue and fraternal love, and the redemption of their souls in "Nirvana," AN OLD FAKIR OF BENARES. EASTERN RACES. 35 and they heard it gladly. The Hindus possessed creative imagination and great mental powers. This is displayed especially in their literature. Many of their writings are thousands of years old; all of them are in the sacred Sanscrit language and irrepar- ably connected with religion and the doctrine of the Gods. The four books of Veda are the source of the religion of the Brahmans, and are held in the highest reverence. They con- tain partly hymns and prayers, partly rules for sacrifice, partlj r doctrines and precepts ; they are studied and explained by the Brahmans. Next to the Vedas stands " The Laws of Manu" a collection of very ancient maxims, traditions, and binding customs. Besides these the Hindus possess a multitude of poetic writings, distinguished for their imagery, their deep feeling and religious awe. Many of these works were brought to Europe by the English conquerors of India and then translated HINDU REPRESENTATION OF THE UNIVERSE. BRAHMA, VISHNU AND SIVA. by scholars into European tongues. The most famous are two great epic poems, the oldest portions of which belong probably to the tenth century before Christ. One of these is the Mahabharata, in which the conflicts of two races of heroes, Kuru and Pandu are celebrated, and Mama j ana which sings of the triumphal march of the divine 86 THE ANCIENT WORLD. hero Rama to South India and Ceylon. A third production is Sakontala, a charming drama of a later period. Indian art is also inseparably connected with the Hindu relig- ion. Particularly remarkable are the rock-hewn temples and grottos, the most famous of which are at Ellora in the middle of India, at Salsette, and the Island Elephanta near the citj r of Bombay. Here are grottos, temples, dwellings, passages and galleries with statues and in- scriptions, hewn for miles out of and through the rocks. Thousands of hands must have worked patiently and persistently for ages to complete this wealth of artistic and difficult achievement. These products of art together with the products of her looms, and her pearls, diamonds, ivory, spices, made India even in ancient times the goal and centre of the caravan buddha. trade and sea traffic ; they . made India also the desire of the conqueror. To the latter she fell an easy prey, because of the divisions of caste, the poverty of her political development, and the lack of energy and of independence among her people. ENTRANCE TO CAVES OF ELEPHANTA. EASTERN RACES. 4. — Babylonians and Assyrians. § 9. In the fruitful regions watered by the Euphrates and Tigris, and in the grassy terraces of Mesopotamia (Mid-river-land), there dwelt in ancient times races of unknown origin, which are now designated by the name Sumerianor Accadian. They were .the fathers of astronomy, and the inventors of cuneiform writing. These ia>l~ a^uaf-i-ii A*- illicit V— ^ftzT -tj£xp (TsJt^-^JT-E*^ CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTION. aborigines were subjugated by the Chaldseans, a primitive people, that pushed forward from the eastern highland of Elam into the lower valley of the Euphrates, adopted the culture of the Sumerians, and dwelt for centuries in the land, which was consequently called Ohaldsea. During the dynasty of the Cassi, Babylon, the ancient temple-city was made the capital of the kingdom. Of Nimrod, who is mentioned in the Bible as " a mighty hunter before the Lord," and designated as the founder and ruler of Babylon, there is no mention in the inscrip- tions. But the name of Sargon I., is sur- rounded with legendary splendor. He is cele- brated as the conqueror who pressed forward to the east and to the west, and as the ruler who made his Semitic warriors acquainted with the culture of the Sumerians. Among the small Semitic kingdoms that existed near Babylon, between the Euphrates and the Tigris, Assyria, which lay toward the north, acquired, gradually, a decided superiority. It was in all probability, a colony of old Babylo- nia, to judge from the likeness of the two peo- ples, in their writing and in their religion. The reputed founder, Assur, is a mythical being suggested by the name of the land. The] Assyrians became the dominant people soon after they made the favorably situated city of Nineveh the capital of their kingdom. The names Ninus and Semiramis, so prominent in oriental legends, are only allegorical, mythological abstractions. Semiramis, who carried on the government after the murder of her husband, Ninus, is pictured in the mythical tradition as a heroic woman of great beauty and luxurious habits ; who marched victoriously as far as India, who adorned Babylon with gardens, and her kingdom with splendid highways, bridges, canals and public buildings. Her name became so celebrated in the East that all great ASSYRIAN WARRIORS AND ARCHER. 38 THE ANCIENT WORLD. >Kji (Beconstruction.) creations of the human hand, all the wonder- ful works of human boldness and human strength, were ascribed to her. - But her successors were incapable and weak. Ac- cordingly, the old Assyrian kingdom fell into decay, until in the ninth century, after great internal struggles, the throne of '▼^"^"\s Nineveh came into the possession of a new royal line. War-like" kings now turned their arms to the South and to the West, subjugated Babylonia, and conquered the Syrian land to the Mediterranean Sea. At the same time, they adorned the walls of their palaces with the pictures and descrip- tions of their deeds, the deciphering of which, by the scholars of our time, has brought new light into Assyrian history. All Western Asia, from Iran and Armenia to Syria and Palestine, bowed beneath their scepter. Tiglath Pileser II (mentioned in the Tigiatn piieset- rr., Book of Kings as Phul) compelled the princes of Damascus, of b. c. ?*5-i!ii. Hamath and of Samaria, to pay him tribute. Still more powerful was saimanussar it., the skillful general Sargon II, who succeeded to the throne after the b. c. res-las. short reign of Salmanassar IV. He conquered Samaria and carried sai-aon n., the Israelites into captivity ; he besieged the commercial city of Tyre, «. c. »22-305. overcame the Philistines of Gaza and Ashdod, and threatened Lower Egypt. The Medes and the rebellious Babylonians trembled at his sharp-edged sword. When Sargon Avas murdered, his son, Sennacherib, ascended the throne. He, though as energetic and as warlike as his father, failed of success ; his campaign against Judah EASTERN RACES. 39 Bbem BbWkI' Jfttliiii ^^p^^^^^^^^K ; 'S ; ^'>:3H| ffi^^RH iilSSllffiSs L>__ =/ 2E5 ~~~~-J^ f Sgim I^W^^^^B :^l» " - tBIS i ^%^lf*'l^8w i lBj i^HpiWC: .'- ' ". -I^.S';-' *:SS; <> ;r: ; u *"' : ' ' tgl -.,-." i"-4 "° '-':> ^^fe'^w*^- MP-&^ ^ftKi^Sif hPbPp^ ■■■■ -- 3|fcI$BsiI3BBEt; 3BE H HjwPfP^P^ ■^^■0% " '• "- - ''H ■ iL ■ill ' ' .ISms ■ bbbb«P - « huh mm miMmm:, mm/mm - W ' ' ~^-'i - 'i-'%& : «a' --■', '' ''I'lllf Hi'Ji'i S*Hf f s** mSfti- *fffll a * • . . \ > '-^^-V ^£ - ^ 20 ' i ^^ -^V^:--. J_'. ' ■ / ■il-'. l !:LJ \ : \ \ -V- ^?^k- ■-' \ 1-s^^ 1 - — -~'-^0^~~^r^- ' : : .'^ r: :': . .; ' ~Xi.; ; -^ ' '•' ' '■— '•'&? *' '"■'" •■ ~<- ' ' i-lfff . £[ '" -.'1 - " '- f- -3. *> "'4 "^^^"^x* 3 ^ - = 1 : ' i ^m:>- ■=,,' -'-"*Wl" ■' ',*V*, v j ' . ' ","* ,^*"% -=,-:; ^Ip : : ;'fT^'C'CiC r Cr13Si. . IStl* "• ■■:.' ' ,'?-■:. £& >Sgg, -. B^^^tffWI 5 '" ' " ^SSHffli^&S ■-. , . .'.'. *%*,;">h \ ' ■ /;-^ii- '/"rtY- '■'% .^SmE M 'i | ■' -ii ■'" .v^sa. • :- _j,J - 'SfSi:ih- ■ ^--tkJMSs several branches, stood the ancient • state, the capital of which was the citj^ jienes, about of Memphis. Its sup- b. c. aooo. posed founder was cheops, about Menes. Cheops and b. c. 25oo. Mceris are the most Mmrts, about famous names in the b. c. saoo. succeeding list of kings. The first was builder of the great pyra- mid, 450 feet high, upon which 100,000 men are said to have labored forty years. The second was famed for the great lake that bears his name, and winch was doubtless used to regulate the overflow of the Nile. Shortly after the death of Mceris (so the Egyptians say), wandering tribes from Syria and from North Arabia invaded the country, sub- Mout dued the kingdom, and b.c. moo. governed with cruel violence, the tributary race * Tlie name Pliaraoli is derived from Pei'aa " great house ' Sublime Porte. This tyranny of the that is, palace, a designation that reminds ns of the 48 THE ANCIENT WORLD. Hyksos or shepherds, lasted for five centuries, until finally the kings of Upper- is. c. xsso. Egypt (Thebes) accomplished the deliverance of the land. The hundred-gated Thebes now became the residence of the Pharaohs, among whom Rameses the Great, whom the Greeks called Sesostris, was the most famous. He sesostt-is, compelled Ethiopia to paj r tribute, and pushed, with his victorious 130G-J32S. armies and chariots, into Syria, Asia Minor, and Mesopotamia. He adorned the kingdom witli royal palaces and temples, the grandeur and splendor of which may yet be seen in the broken columns, and in the colossal fragments of statues and sculptured walls. Eameses-Sesostris became, in subsequent years, a half mythical name, about which clustered the mighty deeds of father and son for a whole century. But the power of Thebes vanished also. The kings of Ethiopia trampled Upper Egypt with their iron feet; and the rulers of Assyria lorded it in Lower Egypt, collecting from their governors and sub- ject-kings, an oppressive tribute. Not until after the time of Assurbani- pal did this period of Assyrian tyranny, called "the domination of the twelve," come to an end. Psammetichus of Sais, with the help of Ionian and Karian mer- cenaries, acquired, in the seventh century, pos- session of Upper Egypt. To secure his throne more firmly, he made Egyptian war chariot. an alliance with the Greeks, and colonized Egypt with Hellenic mercenaries. This b. c. fito-eie. innovation embittered the people, and 200,000 of the priest and warrior caste emigrated to Nubia, and founded there the priestly state, Meroe. This was an imitation of the kingdom of the Pharaohs in Thebes, as is shown by the monuments that still strew its former site, upon the Upper Nile, and lie scattered over desert plains, which are here and there broken by groups of palm trees. Necho and Amasis are noteworthy successors of Psammetichus. jfecuo, The former was the founder of the Egyptian sea-power and b. c. Gie-eoo. navigation. The canal begun by Rameses, from the Nile to the Red Sea, was continued by him, and the southcoast of Africa was explored by Phoenician sailors, under his command. The latter favored Hellenic culture and Psam m etich its. EASTERN RACES. 49 Amasis, furthered the emigration of Greek merchants, who brought into Lower v. c. sii-siie. Egypt riches and luxury, so that Sais could rival with its works of art and monuments, both Thebes and Mem- phis. But the days of its glory were numbered. Amasis was hardly laid to rest in the temple court at Sais, when the Persian king, Cambyses, invaded Egypt with his army. In the bloody bat- tle of Pelusium (Suez), Psammetichus lost his kingdom to the Persians, who now ruled over it for two centuries. The Egyptian people, however, would not mix with their conquerors ; they preserved their customs, institutions, and religious usages, and also their hatred for every- thing foreign. 6. Phcenicians. § 14. On the narrow strip of coast, between the Mediterranean Sea and the Cedars of Lebanon, dwelt the sea-faring and trading race of Phcenicians. Of their numerous cities, Sidon and Tyre were the Egyptian king in war chariot, and warriors. most important. They were too active and energetic to endure either the system of caste or of depotism, like other oriental races. On the contrary, each city, with its adjacent territory, formed an independent com- munity, at the head of which stood an hered- itary king, whose power was greatly limited by aristocratic families, and by priests. These independent communities formed a union, of which at first Sidon, the market place of the nation, and afterward Tyre was the head. Opposite the coast city of Tyre lay a rocky island with its fortified harbor, its great ware- houses, and its ancient temple of the guardian deity, Melkart. Industry and inventiveness characterized the Phcenicians. They manufac- tured glass, discovered dye stuffs, and invented letters. They were distinguished for their metal work, their weaving, and their architec- ture. Sidonian garments, Tyrian purple. Phoenician glassware, vessels of ivory and gold, were sought for in all the cities of antiquity. The favorable situation of the country led them to the sea; the cedars of Lebanon furnished them wood for shipbuilding. The Phoenicians, with their handsome ships, visited the coast-lands and the islands of the 4 EGYPTIAN QUEEN AND LADIES. 50 THE ANCIENT WORLD. Mediterranean Sea, not onty to carry their own products, but to obtain the products of the distant East, spices, incense, oil, wine, corn, and slaves. The}' established manufactories and dye-houses, opened up mines, ventured out into the unknown seas of the North, pur- chased tin at the British islands, and amber from the inhabitants of the Baltic ; and entered up- on daring voyages to South Arabia, East Africa, and India. Be- yond doubt, the Phoeni- cian sailors were in the service of the Egyptian king Necho, in a three years' voyage from the Red Sea around the African coast; and ven- tured farther than any other people of antiqui- ty. The Phoenicians united the Orient with the Occident; they founded colonies at Crete and Cyprus ; they built factories on the island of Sicily ; they made the splendid har- bor of Malta a station for their western route, and built on the oppo- site coast, upon a pro- montory which they converted into an island, by means of a canal, the commercial city of Utica. This city of North Africa, a country rich in olives, date-trees, and grape vines, was built to resemble the mother city Tyre. For the Tyrians delighted in island-colonies containing a castle and a sanctuary, which offered a secure haven for their ships, and a safe landing place for their goods, and united the neighboring coast into a twin cit} r . In like manner they founded the city of Gades (Cadiz), at the pillars of Hercules, uniting it also with the coast. This city Phoenician scene at court. (Paul Phillippoteaux.) EASTERN RACES. 51 with the sanctuary of the Tyrian god Melkart (Hercules), was the support and the emporium of the Spanish trade, where the ships of Tarshish, mentioned by the prophet Jonah, landed, in order to convey the treasures of the land, so rich in metals, to their Eastern home. But the most famous colony of the Tyrians was the new city of Carthage, on the coast of North Africa, which soon eclipsed the mother country by its commercial greatness, its wealth, and its marine power. A woman of royal race, Elissa or Dido, is said b. c. sso. to have founded Carthage, with a num- ber of noble emigrants from Tyre. The story of the ox-hide used at the founding of the city, marks the character of the Phoenicians, whose cunning and astuteness were renowned in all antiquity. EARLY PHOENICIAN COIN. Phoenician fleet. {Paul Phillippoteaux.) Their religion was of less consequence to the Phoenicians, than to other oriental races. The worship of Moloch required cruel human sacrifices, and that of Baal and Astarte obscene usages and festivals. § 15. The warlike races of Western Asia sharply tested the bravery and the patriotism of the Phoenicians. When the Assyrian Sargon subdued and made them tributary, the richer citizens of Tyre removed to the neighboring rocky island, where, hitherto, only their sanctuaries and their warehouses were to be found, and defended Island Tyre for five years with triumphant success. And the Tyrian navy soon ruled COIN OF TYRE. 52 THE ANCIENT WORLD. b. c. 500. the sea a second time. Even the Babylonian Nebuchadnezzar, who con- quered the Phoenician mainland, and deported the inhabitants of old Tyre, like the Jews, to the interior of his kingdom, was unable to shatter the courage of the island city. Defended by its position, by its enormous walls and breakwaters, it defied all attacks. But these repeated blows wore away the energy of the Tyrians, for when the Persians b. c. 5-to. afterward subdued the lands of Asia Minor, even Tyre lost her freedom and her independence. Phoenicia became a Persian province ; the colonial cities in the West fell away, and joined of choice, or by compulsion, the city of Carthage. The Greeks acquired the trade in the iEgean Sea, and the Phoenician colonies in Crete, Rhodos, Thasos, and other islands, with their rich ore banks. The oppression of the Persians, in the middle of the fourth century, provoked a revolt, of which Sidon was the leader. It miscarried ; Sidon fell into the hands of the Persian king, and when he ordered the oldest citizens to be executed, the inhabitants set fire to their city, and were burned to death with their treasures. Tyre lasted a while longer. But b. c. 332. when the Macedonian Alexander overthrew the Persian empire, and Tyre ventured to oppose the conqueror, the city was conquered, after a seven months* siege, and cruelly punished. It never recovered from the blow ; its commerce and its marine power withdrew to Alexandria. 7. The People Israel. § 16. While the whole world was worshiping the invisible god-head, in the forces and phenomena of nature, and of the sky ; a people of shepherds, sprung from a Semitic family in Mesopotamia, came to believe in a personal God, who, as creator AJn-ahmm. and ruler of the universe, stands above the changing life of nature. jb. c. 2000. Abraham the Hebrew, one of the patriarchs of this Nomad race, with his herds, his men servants and his maid servants, and his nephew Lot, abandoned his native pastures and settled in the land of Canaan, where they continued their pastoral life ; and where the3 r were called by the original inhabitants Hebrews, that is " the Isaac. strangers from beyond." Isaac, whom Sarah bore to Abraham in his old age, continued the family ; while Ishmael, his son by his servant Hagar, went into the desert, and according to the sacred tradition of the Semites, became the progenitor of the Arabs. Isaac married Rebecca, who bore him two sons, Esau and Jacob. The jracob. mother's cunning made the younger son, Jacob, the chief of the tribe, but could not save him from a long period of trial, before he came to his inheritance. Joseph. Jacob had twelve sons, but as his love preferred Joseph, the child of b. e. isoo. his beloved Rachel, the others, filled with envy, determined to rid themselves of their brother, and sold him to Ishmaelite traders, who carried him into Egypt. In Egypt Joseph resisted temptation, and was rewarded for his virtue, with fortune and wisdom. His skill in the interpretation of dreams, obtained for him the favor of the Egyptian king, and he came to great dignity and honor. He saved the land from famine, and made all the fields the property of Pharaoh, so that the people rented their farms, and cultivated them for a rental of one-fifth the produce. Joseph thus acquired such authority, that it was permitted him to bring his father and his brothers to Egypt, where the rich pasture land of Goshen, in lower Egypt, was given them for a dwelling place. Here, in the neighborhood of Heliopolis, the^y pastured their herds for centuries. Joseph became the darling figure of oriental poetry and tradition. The Hebrews were called Israelites, from Jacob's surname Israel. 54 THE ANCIENT WORLD. § 17. The Israelites at first were happy in the rich pastures of Goshen. But when Joseph died, and new kings governed, who knew nothing of his services, the Egyptians were driven, by their hatred for strangers, and their contempt of shepherds, to great severity and cruelty against the descendants of Abraham. They oppressed them by heavy tasks, and, when they increased rapidly in spite of this oppression, the Egyptians grew afraid, and Pharaoh commanded his officers to drown the new-born male children of the Hebrews in the Nile. Moses would have met this fate, if the Moses, king's daughter had not happened to be walking along the shore when b. c. isoo. he was exposed, and had not pitied and saved the child. He was taken to the Egyptian court, where he was carefully educated and instructed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians. His murder of an Egyptian, whom he saw abusing an Israelite, compelled him, in his fortieth year, to flee into the Arabian desert. Here the great thought came to him, to be- come the savior of his people from Egyptian bondage. Pharaoh refused, at first, to let the people go, but the ten plagues, by which the land was visited, created such terror, that he finally consented to the departure asked for by Moses and his brother Aaron. In memory of their depar- ture, and of the death of the first born of Egypt at the hands of the Lord, the Jews established the feast of the Passover, i. e. Jehovah's passing by the doors of the Hebrews. At this feast they sacrificed the paschal lamb, their loins 'girded for the jour- ney, and the staff in hand. The at- tempt to compel the return of the Israelites, at their crossing of the Red Sea, resulted in the destruction of their pursuers. The waves covered Pharaoh's army, with his horses and his chariots; and Miriam, Moses' sister, and the women of the company, sang a song to Jehovah, with timbrel and dance, because the mighty hand of the Lord had destroyed their enemy, and hurled Pharaoh's wagon and army to the bottom of the sea. "Thou didst blow with thy breath and the sea covered them ; they sank like lead in the mighty waters." § 18. Nevertheless the people hungered for the flesh pots of Egypt, and for forty years Moses led them in the wilderness, in order to strengthen their bodies, and to re- store to them morality, and a sense of freedom; and until a new generation should grow up, possessing the courage and the force to conquer the land, where their fathers had dwelled. During this time, Moses established the religion and the common-wealth of Israel at Mt. Sinai, by the Ten Commandments and other laws. These command- ments were written upon tables of stone, and preserved in the ark of the covenant, MENEPHTAH I. PHARAOH OF THE EXODUS. l[Jf||,;|[W h ir! l 't'"' l|i ^f^ n ! , T l ill" I Ml 1 ii ' ' ' ' '- ' i^l'.^IHlJiU'.iiuuuLii.iu 1 ,!!,,..!.!,, iim :i „i. '.n|ii|Ulml''i i4|||l|i||i|||n,im|^r ; ,i1b J i ; .liJ 56 THE ANCIENT WORLD. JEWISH HIGH PRIEST AND LEVITES. which stood in the innermost sacred precincts of the tabernacle, the moving temple which the Israelites carried with them through the wilderness. To explain these laws, and to conduct the sacrificial service, a priest-hood was ordained ; Aaron was made high priest, and the sacred office was reserved to his posterity. The Levites supported the sons of Aaron as sacrificial priests, teachers, doctors of the law, and physicians. According to the priestly tradition, which ascribed the system to Moses, Jehovah was himself Lord 4 and King. The chiefs and elders of the tribesij carried on, in His name, the administration of| law and of justice, while the high priests and^ the Levites directed in all matters of religion. Sacrifices and festivals (feast of the Passover, feast of Tabernacles) formed the happy bond between Jehovah and his chosen people. Every seventh year was a Sabbath year, and the land remained unfilled. What grew of its own, accord, was given to the poor. Ever}- fiftieth' year was a jubilee year, when all alienated property was returned to its original possessor," in order that the inequality of riches might not be too great. The pastoral life was, at the instance of Moses, exchanged for agriculture, which became the principal occupation of his people. § 19. The great Jaw-giver was not permitted to lead the Israelites into the promised land. From the summit of Mt. Nebo, he overlooked the beautiful plains of the Jordan, and then departed from the land of the living. " His eye was not dim, nor Joshua, his natural strength abated." Before his death he appointed Joshua, b. c. i4:So. the son of Nun, to be his successor; and exhorted the assembled people to hold fast to Jehovah, and to destroy utterly the Canaanites. But the people had hardly conquered the Aniorites, and other tribes, before they grew w r eary of battle, and demanded the distribution of the conquered land. This took j>lace, as Moses had ordered, by lot. And in such fashion that Ephraim and Manasseh received equal shares ; while the posterity of Levi received no land whatever, but certain cities, a tenth part of the produce of the soil, and a share in the sacred offerings. The tribes of Reuben and Gad, with one half of Manasseh, chose the pasture land east of the Jordan, and continued the life of herdsmen. The others settled on the west of the stream, and gave themselves to the culture of grapes, figs and olives, and to the beginnings of city life. § 20. But powerful tribes, like the Ammonites and Philistines, forced upon the Israelites bloody and destructive wars. In their brutality and cruelty they forgot the living God, who had led them out of bondage, and fell away into idolatry, until mis- fortune and defeat brought them to reflection. Heroic men arose, who slew the enemy in battle, and restored the faith and the customs of their fathers. These were me .ftiiinr*. the Judges. The most famous among them were Gideon, Jephtha, jb. c. 1300-1100. Samson, the strong, and the heroine Deborah. Gideon's victory over 58 THE AXCIENT WORLD. the Midianites and Amalekites ; the sacrifice of Jephtha's daughter ; Samson's wild feats, and tragic death in the land of the Philistines, were told to each other by the tillers of the soil, as they sat under the shadow of the palm tree, and by the shepherds encamped beneath the stars. Deborah's triumphal song celebrated, in tones of jubilee, the destruction of Sisera, the Canaanite chieftain, by the hands of the woman Jael. Nevertheless the Philistines conquered the ark of the covenant, the news of which brought sudden death to the high priest Eli. They over-ran all the country, as far as the Jordan, and greatly oppressed the people. Saul, of the tribe of Benjamin, now appeared ; led the people to battle, and strove successfully against the enemy. Samuel. At the same time Samuel, a pious and patriotic priest, renewed the old b. c. 1100. covenant between the Israelitish people and their God, and restored the Mosaic laws to their former influence. He established schools of the prophets, in which young men were taught the national laws and traditions, were instructed in eloquence and poetry, in music and in song. These schools of Samuel produced the inspired preachers, who, in the Bible, are spoken of as prophets. The champions of freedom, religion, and virtue, they had the greatest influence upon the development and perfection of the religious ideas of the people, and especially . their conceptions of God. § 21. Samuel's sons did not walk in the way of their father, but denied the people justice. The Israelites now demanded a king, who should lead them to battle and to victory. Samuel sought in vain to dissuade them, pictur- ing the sorrows and oppression of kingly rule in the darkest colors. They persisted, and compelled him to anoint their chosen leader saui, Saul, a man of great stature, b. c. ioso. skilled in war, and victorious in battle. He broke the yoke of the Philistines in the West, and the Ammonites in the East, and gathered great spoil. But he put his trust in his army, and obeyed not the commands of Jehovah, as spoken by the mouth of his prophet; he was therefore rejected, and the shepherd boy David, of the tribe of Judah, was secretly anointed by Samuel. David was re- nowned among the king's captains for his bravery, and for his devotion to the priest- hood, as well as for his skill upon the harp. Saul was now troubled " by an evil spirit from .the Lord; " envy, a premonition of his destiny, and a suspicion of his ambitious plans, united to drive the king to a hatred of David, to whom his own son Jonathan was entirely devoted. David, however, escaped the snares of the king, and when Saul flung himself in despair upon his own sword, after losing the battle at Gilboa, David was gradually recognized by all the tribes as king. Although he composed the beauti- ful psalm on the fallen heroes "who were swifter than eagles, and stronger than lions " he nevertheless destroyed root and branch of the whole family of Saul. § 22. David's reign is the brilliant spot of Jewish history. By successful wars JEWISH KING AND WARRIORS. SAMSON SLAYING THE PHILISTINES. (Gastave DorL) (pp. 59.) 60 THE ANCIENT WOULD. Bnvia, he extended the kingdom to the South, and to the East ; he made the b. c. io3o. Syrian city Damascus, " the eye of the Orient," his foot-stool, and broke forever the power of the Philistines. He conquered Jerusalem, with its strong tower Zion, from the Jebusites, chose it for his residence, brought thither the ark of the covenant, and thus made it the centre of Jewish worship. David was also a great poet, as is seen in his wonderful Psalms ; and in spite of his many sins, in spite KING SOLOMON. ( Gustave Bore.) of his crime against Uriah, 'whom he robbed at once of wife and of life, he remained " the man after Jehovah's heart " ; since he made good his transgressions by great virtues and services, by repentance and contrition. The end of his reign was marked by the rebellion of his favorite son Absalom, who was led astray by evil council. Trusting to the favor of the people, which his father had lost by his cruelty, the popular son death of saul. (Gudave Dore.) (pp. 61.) 62 THE AXCIEXT WORLD. (Ideal Reconstruction.) sought to obtain by force the royal crown. David abandoned the capital, and fled across Jordan, followed by the curses of his enemies ; but success soon came back to the cunning king. Absalom was slain in his flight. Solomon the Wise completed the work Solomon. of his father. David was About b. c. 1000. great in war, but his son was glorious in the arts of peace: he adorned Jerusalem with splendid buildings, and erect- ed the famous temple upon Mt. Moriah, which excited universal admiration for its wealth of gold and ornament of every kind. But Solomon departed, in man} r ways, from the laws of Moses. He took part in the great commercial undertakings of the Phoenicians, and piled tip great treasures, which increased his love of luxury and sensuality. He procured for himself foreign wives, to whom he permitted idolatry in which he himself took part. His admirable wisdom, his skill in answering difficult questions and solving riddles, although still admired in the legends of the East, did not protect him, while living, from great folly. His extravagance caused the taxes to be so oppressive, that a re- bellion took place during his life time. This was put down, and the leader, Jeroboam, Jeroboam. compelled to fly. But when Solomon's son, Rehoboam, threatened xeiioboam. to reject the demands of the people, ten tribes fell away from HAULING THE CEDARS OF LEBANON FOE THE TEMPLE. (GllStdVe Bore.) {pp. 63.) 64 THE ANCIENT WORLD. him, and chose Jeroboam to be their king. Only Judali and Benjamin remained faithful to the house of David. § 23. This gave rise to two unequal kingdoms ; the kingdom of Israel, composed of ten tribes, with the two capitals Shechem and Samaria; and the kingdom of Judah, composed of two tribes, with its capital Jerusalem. As the latter city contained the ark of the covenant, and was therefore looked upon by the Levites, and many pious Israelites, as the true capital, Jeroboam erected in the South and the North of his kingdom, idolatrous pictures, and commanded the people to sacrifice, as in the ancient OBELISK OF SHALMANESER, FROM NINEVEH. (British Museum.) times, upon the mountain tops, — a sin of which all his successors were guilty. One of Aiiab, nboHt the mightiest of them was Ahab, whose wife Jezebel, of Tyre, intro- b. c. ooo. duced the blasphemous service of Baal, and raged cruelly against all who would not bow before him. She hunted for the life of the prophet Elias, and compelled him to take refuge in the wilderness, and at Mt. Carmel. Through her daughter Athaliah, who was married to the king of Judah, the foreign religion was brought into this kingdom also, and protected by the court. As a consequence, there was strife and civil war between the two kingdoms, whereby both were weakened, and driven to form alliances with foreign nations. They drove out the Prophets, who EASTERN RACES. 65 boldly prophesied the destruction of the commonwealth, if the worship of Jehovah was driven out by the worship of idols. But persecution only increased their courage and power. In the deserts and in the wilderness, amid privations and chastisements, their faith grew stronger, and their inner vision became more clear. When Ahab re- jrehu. about ceived his death wound, in fight against the king of Damascus, Jehu, b. c. sgo. his captain, with the help of the prophet Elisha, and of the servants jotm, about of Jehovah, ascended the throne of Samaria. Athaliah was miir- b, c. s5o. dered : Joaz became king of Judah, and restored the worship of Je- hovah. But these religious quarrels weakened the people. The prophets Joel, Hosea, jreioboam, about and Amos proclaimed their woes in the days of Jeroboam II, when the b. c. soo. kingdom of the ten tribes was enjoying its last prosperous days; and the prophet Isaiah was creating, by his patriotic activity, a great religious and national revival, at the very time that foreign armies were threatening Jerusalem, and the land of Judah. § 24. The Assyrians, under Tiglath-Pileser and Shalmaneser IV., invaded the kingdom of Israel ; and when the king concluded an alliance with Egypt, in order to escape the payment of tribute, the Assyrian king, Sargon II, invaded the country again with his veteran army, conquered Samaria, and carried the king, with the greater b. c. ?io. part of his people, into Assyrian bondage. They received new dwell- ing places along the rivers of Armenia, and in the cities of the Medes, while foreign people from the Euphrates migrated to the green hills of Samaria. From their inter- marriage with the few remaining Israelites came the Samaritans. Judah existed 130 years longer. It became tributary to the Assyrians, after the fall of Israel; but when these went to war with the Egyptians, the king of Judah took part with the latter, and refused to pay tribute. The Assyrian king, Sennacherib, marched against, and besieged nesehiah, Jerusalem. But the pious king Hezekiah, the friend of Isaiah, occupied jb. c. vss-eoo. the throne. A sudden plague so decimated the Assyrian army, that the king did not venture to meet the approaching Egyptians, but abandoned Jerusalem jjraiiosse/i, and returned to Nineveh. Isaiah's prophecy was fulfilled. Neverthe- b. c. Gas-Bio. less, King Manasseh fell into idolatry, and persecuted bitterly the servants of Jehovah. " The sword devoured the prophets, like a raging lion;" The josian, servants of Jehovah, led by the prophet Jeremiah, used, therefore, the b. c. 63S-GOS. reign of the pious young king Josiah, to re-establish the Mosaic law, and the theocratic state. They discovered and introduced the second law, Deuter- onony, or the fifth book of the Pentateuch. But the struggle against Nineveh brought sore distress to Palestine. Josiah received his death wound in the battle of Megiddo, fought against the Egyptian king Necho, who wished to conquer Canaan. And then came Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon, the conqueror of the Egyptians. He entered jb. c. 597. Jerusalem, robbed the temple, led the king and the chief inhabitants into captivity, and sorely oppressed those that remained. This induced the last king Zedekiah, who trusted in Egyptian support, to attempt once more the fortune of arms, but without success. Nebuchadnezzar burnt temple and city, slaughtered the citizens, b. c. sss. and led away the blinded king, with the greatest part of the people, into the Babylonian captivity. Jeremiah had sought in vain to prevent this reliance of the king upon Egypt, " the rotten reed," and had urged the people to bear the yoke of the Chaldeans, that Jehovah had laid upon them, for their chastisement. He now be- 5 66 THE ANCIENT WORLD. took himself to Egypt, where he bemoaned the fall, and the destruction of his country. The Jews, in Babylon, returned to the God of their fathers, and found favor in his b. c. 538. presence. For when Babylon was conquered by the Persians, some of them were permitted, by Cyrus, to return to their homes. These came back under the lead of Zerubbabel, and began to rebuild the temple. The Samaritans, whom they care- fully avoided, sought to prevent their undertaking, and procured an edict against jb. c. sis. further building. And this was not resumed until the days of Darius. When Artaxerxes ruled over Persia, another company led by Ezra and Nehemiah, returned to b. c. 4Si. the old home, rebuilt the city, and restored the Mosaic laws. Misfortune had taught them that their only salvation was in the faith of /m- ~^ m *FTT' , their fathers, hence they avoided most carefully, Jewish shekel. (Time of Ezra.) ' J ,._.,, , from this time forward, the worship 01 idols, and all contact with the idolatrous heathen ; but their new " city of God " was a city of priests, in which a slavish service of the law took the place of the religious enthusiasm of former times. b, Hebrew Literature. § 2±. The literature of the Jews, like their history and their institutions of state, relates to the worship of Jehovah. This literature is divided into the historic, poetic, and prophetic writings. The historic books contain the history of the founding of the theocratic kingdom, and the origin of the law. These books are strictly national, and constitute a religious epic. The poetical writings are partly lyric, like the Psalms, to which David gave a distinctive character, although comparatively few of the existing collection were written by him ; and partly didactic, like the book of Job, or the book of Proverbs. The Psalms mirror the religious thought of the Jewish people, yet not with the same energy as the warning, rebuke and prophecies of the inspired prophets. Salvation is to be found in obedience to the divine command. Ruin comes to the dis- obedient. In their tribulations, the avenging hand of God is manifest, and the only means to avert his wrath is sincere repentance. But this repentance is not sacrifice, or prayer, or fasting, but an upright walk, and a pure life. The stream of their thoughts was, to the prophets, the mind of Jehovah, "the burden of the Lord," laid upon them. They warned, they threatened, they commanded, they foretold in his name, and by his spirit. The most important of the prophets lived in the time of the Assyrian wars; among these, Isaiah is the mightiest. The sciences, and the plastic arts, had small place among the Jews ; their nature was unartistic, and their severe monotheism hindered the development of sculpture and of painting. 8. Medes and Persians. § 25. Media and Persia are two lands in which rough mountain regions, full of picturesque beauty, alternate with fertile pastures and rich arable prairies. They were formerly inhabited by races, who derive their origin from the primitive Zends, who dwelt still further to the East. The founder of their religion was an ancient sage Zoroaster, who deposited the revelation given him in the sacred book Zenda- vesta. He taught that the Supreme Being was a dual being, a god of light, Ormuzd, rebuilding the temple. (Gustave DorS.) (pp. 67.) 68 THE ANCIENT WORLD. ANCIENT PERSIAN COIN. and a spirit of darkness, Ahriman. Both have hosts of similar spirits under their control, who carry on perpetual war with each other, striving for dominion over man and the world. The god of light will finally conquer, evil will disappear, and the human race will enter into , blessedness. The Magi, a powerful body of priests, sym- bolized this doctrine in a solemn worship. The god of light was symbolized, and worshiped in the sun and in fire. The spirit of darkness was kept aloof by sacrifices and prayers, by absolutions and purifications, by resisting and destroying evil in the outer world, and in the human breast. § 26. For a long time the Medes endured the dominion of foreign races, but they finally took courage and struggled heroically for freedom. Warlike kings soon succeeded in destroying this newly acquired freedom of the people, and established over them an unlimited rule. At the same time the'se kings subjugated the neigh- boring races, among them the kindred people of Persia, who for centuries had pas- tured their herds, hunted and fought, in the beautiful Farsistan, the land of horses. But this dominion was of short duration. Astyages, the last of the Median kings (Herodotus tells us), had a vision, which the soothsayers interpreted to mean that the .istuaoes ahout son of his daughter would rule over Media and Asia Minor. When b. c. 375. his daughter, who was married to a prince of the subject Persians, Cave birth to her son Cyrus, Astyages gave him to his courtier Harpagus, with the t jg=g ; commmand to put him to death, in order that the Persians might not acquire power over the Medes. Harpagus entrusted the murder to a shepherd, who ; instead of killing the child, brought him up as his own son. But the boy made known his royal nature even in his play, which caused him to be brought to the king, and to be recognized. Astyages, set at rest in his mind by the soothsayers, caused Cyrus to be educated according to his rank, and when he grew up, sent him to Persia to his parents. Here the thought seized him of delivering the brave but subject race from Median bondage, and of setting forth with the Persians to victory and conquest. His powerful mind, and his commanding nature, excited the wonder of the Persians, and they followed him eagerly; he attacked the Medes, and Harpagus com- mander of the royal army, because he had been shamefully treated by the king, deserted with his troops to Cyrus. cytus, Astyages, betrayed and conquered, abandoned the throne to his for- jb. c. ass-ass. tunate grandson, who became the founder of a universal kingdom, that embraced all the civilized countries of Asia. § 27. About the same time Lydia, the capital of which was Sardis, was governed CYRUS THE GREAT. CBCESXJS ON THE FUNERAL PYRE. (H. Vogel.) (pp. 69.) 70 THE ANCIENT WORLD. by king Croesus, whose name has become proverbial, because of his exceeding riches. cyrus ami He was the friend and ally of Astyages, and was therefore attacked by criesus. Cyrus. Deceived by an ambiguous oracle, Croesus crossed the river Halys to attack the Persians, but suffered defeat and retreated in haste to his capital. b. c. r,4t>. Cyrus pursued him, conquered Sardis, and commanded that the captive King should be given to the flames. Croesus was already tied to the stake (so the story goes), when the recollection of the Athenian sage Solon saved him from de- struction. This great statesman had visited Sardis, and been welcomed by the king. Croesus led him proudly through his treasure vaults, and showed him all his riches ; and then asked him whom he counted the happiest of mortals. But Solon, instead of naming Croesus, named the Athenian Pallas, for he had sufficient property, handsome and well-behaved sons and grandsons, and had fallen in victorious battle against the enemies of his country, and had been buried by the Athenians, at the spot where he fell. When Croesus pressed him further, he named two lads, Cleobis and Biton, sons of a priestess in Argos. For he said, when the mother of these lads needed to go to the temple to a sacrifice, and the oxen were not at hand, the lads had yoked themselves to the wagon, and pulled it to the temple. The mother thereupon beseeching the gods to give her boys the best of all rewards, they fell asleep in the temple and never woke again. When Croesus expressed his displeasure that Solon did not count him as fortunate as a common citizen, the latter replied, '"'call no man fortunate till he dies ! ' These words came back to Croesus, first when his favorite son Attys was brought home dead from the hunting field, and now a second time, in his distress, and he cried " Oh, Solon, Solon ! " His outcry excited the curiosity of the Persian king, who asked for an explanation, and struck by the truth of Solon's words, he set Croesus at liberty, and held him afterward in high honor, consulting him in all his undertakings. § 28. Cyrus conquered next, the Babylonian kingdom. The Babylonians were holding a great feast, and exulting in their invinci- bility, when the Persians cut through the channel of the Euphrates (the water of which they had diverted from its course), entered the city, slew the king Nabonetos (Belshaz- zar), in his palace, and conquered b. c. 538. the country. This brought Syria, Palestine and Phoeni- cia under the dominion of the Per- sians, and the captured Jews re- ceived from Koresh (Cyrus) " the anointed of Jehovah " permission to return home. " How art thou fallen from heaven, O Lucifer, son of the morning ! " cried at that time the voice of the prophet, exulting in the destruction of Babylon; "How art thou cut down to the ground, which didst weaken the nations ! " Shortly after this, Cyrus undertook a campaign against the Massagetae, a Nomad tribe near the Caspian Sea. By a stratagem he captured a great part of the hostile TOMB OF CYRUS. &1 &; p 15 o a I THCIN A^YT(JDMe , T'\ ,r rOYTrOCXpe'+M^YTON MTOTHCKOTTHCTOVX-OAAWOrO MOPKXI TCDN KXC \ KG 03 NTU3N MeTTCYTOY^ ICTTH N KOlA.A^A^HNCXVH"rOYT"OI-|NTOTTeAIOKJ C^^HM61HNerK6NV]>TOYCKXIOINONH N Ae i epe yctto y ©Y TO y y*4" ic t°Y uxte \koth CeNTONABpAh KMeiTTeN* eYAOPHMeNOC EARLY GREEK WRITING. retained their old inhabitants. The Dorians gradually conquered Argolis, La- conica, Messene, Sicyon, Corinth, and Megara. They even invaded Attica, ana threatened Athens ; but were compelled to retreat, by the bravery and sacrificial THE GREEK WORLD. 87 cotrus, death of the Athenian king, Codrus. An oracle had declared that b. c. ions. victory would fall to the side whose king was slain. The Dorians for- bade their warriors to attack Codrus. But the Athenian king, who had also heard the oracle, exchanged his royal garment for a shepherd's dress, and glided unrecog- nized into the enemy's camp, where he immediately provoked a conflict, and found the death that he sought. The Dorians, despairing of victory, at once abandoned Athens, and satisfied themselves with Megara. The Athenians declared that no one was worthy to wear the crown, after such a kingly hero, and accordingly abolished the royal dignity. The former inhabitants of the Peloponnesus had various fortunes. The bravest and strongest of them founded the Ionic colonies on the west coast of Asia Minor, and on the islands Chios, Lesbos and Samos. These were soon s.o renowned for the fertility of their soil, for their commerce, their industry, and their skill in naviga- tion ; for their prosperity and their culture, that they even eclipsed the mother country. Others remained at home and submitted voluntarily to the Dorians, paying them tribute and excluded from every share in the government of the state, although they were permitted to retain their personal freedom and their property. And a third class were compelled to submit by force of arms, and reduced to serfdom and slavery. The former were called, in Laconica, Period (countrymen, or Laeede- COIN OF EPHESUS. the temple of diana at ephesl's. {Restored.) monians), to distinguish them from the Spartans. The latter were called Helots. In the other states, in Argos, Corinth and Sicyon, the noble families of the Achaians were admitted to equal political rights with the Dorians. S 40. Colonies. The Ionian colonies formed, after a time, a confederacy of twelve cities ; of which the most important were Miletus, Ephesus, with the famous temple of Artemis (Diana), Phocfea, Colophon, and the iEolian Smyrna. They had repre- sentative councils, and festival assemblies, at the temple of Poseidon, on the promon- 88 THE ANCIENT WORLD. tory of Mycale. The twelve ^Eolian cities, north of Ionia, and the six Dorian cities to the south, together with the island Rhodes, had similar religious communities, and annual meetings, but each city was an independent community, with its own laws and magistracy. Halicarnassus, the birth-place of the historian Herodotus, was the most important city planted by the Dorians. In the course of time, the colonies and the mother country sent emigrants to the shores of the Hellespont, and of Propontis (Sea of Marmora), and of the Euxiue (the Black Sea). The most important of these were Cyzicus, Byzantium (Constantinople), at the golden horn, Sinope, and Cerasus the land of cherries. There were flourishing colonies, also, on the coast of Thrace and Macedonia, Amphipolis, Olynthia, Abdera. And the number of Greek settlements in Lower Italy was so great that the inhabitants spoke Greek, and the whole country was THE PYTHIA ON THE TUlluD. called Magna Grsecia. Among these the most famous were the Spartan trading city Tarentum, the strong Crotona, and the ancient Cumae, the mother city of Naples. The charming island of Sicily belonged, for the most part, to the Greeks, who founded there, many rich- cities, of which the greatest, most powerful, and most cultivated, was the commercial city of Syracuse, a Corinthian settlement. Opposite Rhegium, the city of Messina was founded, at the foot of Mt. .(Etna. The Ionian cities of Catena, Gela, and Agrigentum, were also Greek. Cyrene rivaled Carthage on the North coast of Africa, and Massilia, in South Gaul, was a nursery of culture, and a model of civil order, for the rough tribes of the vicinity. All these cities carried on a great com- merce, from the products of their land, and the fabrics of their art. The surrounding country was beautifully eulfcivated, and adorned for miles with villas and with parks. They exercised beneficial influence upon the conduct and culture of the natives, but THE GREEK ^ r ORLD. 89 gradually degenerated, because their great wealth and culture developed luxury, sensuality and sloth. The colonies maintained friendly relations with the mother state, by which they were planted, but were free and independent : they retained the manners, ordinances and religious usages of their forefathers, and reverenced them witli filial piety. 2 The Time of the Law-Giveks and Sages. a. Hellenic Life. % 41. Greece never formed a single state, but was divided into a multitude of independent communities. From time to time the mightiest of these obtained the over- OLYMPIAN GAMES. lordship (Hegemony). For instance Sparta, Athens, Thebes. But language, man- ners, and religious institutions united all the Greek tribes into one people. They called themselves Hellenes, and all other races Barbarians. They were a talented people, capable of great development, remarkable for their beauty of face and of form, and they reached a height of culture to which no other people has yet attained. Their love of freedom, and their manly energy, led them to found many independent com- munities, to which they were attached with devoted patriotism, and which they de- fended with their heart's blood, until party spirit strangled their nobler feelings and their love of unity. Activity and industry developed a universal prosperity ; and a beautiful country, under a cneerful sky, with a healthy, happy climate, filled them 90 THE ANCIENT WORLD. with the love of life, and an indestructible vivacity. They needed little, and their fertile soil, and favorably situated land, gave it to them without great effort; they had few cares and sorrows, and every free man had leisure enough for intellectual enjoy- ments, for poetry, art, and science. The ordina^ employments, required by the neces- sities of life, were avoided by the Greeks, as fit only for slaves and strangers. Their notions of rights were exceedingly strict ; according to these, only the citizen of the state could share in the protection of the laws, and exile was regarded by them as a punishment equal to death. Yet their religious maxims awakened and nourished in them the feelings of fraternity and humanity. The sacred bond of hospitality united cities, families, and individuals. Pious awe protected the suppliant, when he was oppressed by a fatal consciousness of guilt. The herald was looked upon as holy and inviolate, even in the midst of battle. In Athens there was an altar in the market place, sacred to Sympatlvy ; and she had a home also in the hearts of the people. § 42. Certain institutions connected with religion were common to all, or to several Greek tribes. The most important of these was the Amphictyonic council, or temple-union ; a court of arbitration composed of dele- gates from twelve Greek states, whose duty it was to protect the national sanctu- ary in Delphi, and to prevent the wars between the differ- ent states from becoming too cruel and destructive. It was a union of cities and of states, upon a religious foun- dation, the like of which existed also in other parts of the Greek world. Next came the Delphic oracle, with its rich temple. This was a community of priests, which restrained violence, by the power of humanity, and brought all the activities of public life under the influence of religion and morality. In every important undertaking, especially at the planting of new colonies, the Delphic Apollo was consulted. The ambassadors first sacrificed at the navel stone, after which the laurel-crowned priestess Pythia ascended the golden tripod, placed above the abyss in the dark chamber of the temple. The vapor that ascended soon wrought her into ecstacy, during which she uttered words that were written down and handed to the ambassadors, for their interpretation. These oracles were obscure, and frequently ambiguous and enigmatical. The temple at Delphi possessed great estates; numerous tenants payed tribute to the priests, who were also enriched b\ r sacrificial offerings, and votive gifts. The third bond that held together the Greek states and tribes were the games, musical and athletic contests, that took >t.Tl^SSt\wVi. THE WRESTLERS. (FlorenZ.) herodotus keading his HISTORY. (H. Leutemann.) (pp. 91.) 92 THE ANCIENT WORLD. place periodically at famous sanctuaries, in connection with sacrificial service. The Pythian games were dedicated to Apollo, and took place at Delphi : the Isthmian games to Poseidon, in the. pine forests of the Isthmus : the Nemean were dedicated to Zeus, and took place at Nemea near the Peloponnesian city Cleonae. But the Olympian games were the most famous of all. These took place every four years, in the plains of Olympia in Elis, and during their continuance, in the sacred months of the Summer time, there reigned " the peace of the gods." They consisted especially in running, wrestling, fighting, throwing the diskos or spear, and in chariot racing. The olive branch which was given to the victor, was not only an honor for the recip- ient, but for his family and his native city. The works of artists, poets, and authors were first published at these national festivals. It is related that Herodotus, the father of history, read parts of his work at a great sacrificial celebration, and inspired the greatest of all historians, Thucydides, to a glorious emulation. The temple of Olympian Zeus, and the colossal statue of the king of the gods, both works of the Athenian artist Phidias, belong to the most wonderful achievements of Greek art. Zeus is represented in a sitting posture, and the statue was beautiful with gold and ivory. A victory in an Olympic game was the greatest distinction in all Greece. The returning victor was brought home in a festal procession, and conducted to the temple of the protecting deity amid the songs of victory, which were composed by the best known poets, like Simonides and Pindar. And in the temple the happy event was celebrated with a thank offering, and a jo}-ful banquet. The Greek calendar was reckoned by Olympiads, and thus we discover that 776 B. C, marks the beginnings of the Olympic festivals and games. OLYMPIAN VICTOR, PRIEST AND KING. •> l S b. Lycurgus, Law-Giver of the Spartans (about B. C. 884). § 43. The manners of the Dorians gradually degenerated in their new home. An unwarlike spirit threatened to prevail, and the hatred between victors and vanquished troubled their peace, and brought confusion into their state. This induced a patriotic s.c.sse. Spartan of royal blood, Lycurgus, to restore and reestablish the old Doric maxims, and thereby to pacify his own people, and at the same time to make them superior to the other states. He made a journey therefore to the island Crete, distinguished for its good laws. For the Doric inhabitants of the island had preserved, their original customs and institutions. After making himself acquainted with the state of things among the Cretans, he returned to Sparta and established the remarkable constitution and manner of life which in the course of time assumed the following form. THE GREEK WORLD. 93 a. The Constitution of the State. All authority was in the hands of the Dorians, who devoted themselves exclusively to the use of arms, to war and to governing the state. In the popular assemblies they chose the council of the ancients (Gerousia), who were charged with the executive and the judicial authority, and also the five Ephors, who at first watched over the order of the city, but subsequently had the supervision of public life, and the conduct of officers, and acquired such power that they even called the kings to account. The Council of Ancients consisted of twenty-eight cit- izens, who must be at least sixty years old. This was presided over by two Spartan kings, who belonged to the family of, the Heraclidte and received their dignity by inheritance. They possessed less power than honor at home, but in war were always leaders, and unlimited in their authority. This dual monarchy suggests the inference that the old Achaian inhabitants united with the newly arrived Dorians in a common government. The whole constitution was based upon an equality of property. All the land of Laconica was divided, so that the nine thousand Spartan familes received nine thousand indivisible estates or farms, which passed always to the oldest son. The thirty thousand families of Periceci were provided likewise with estates of smaller extent. The Helots, however, had no land- ed property. They must till the land of the Dorians as serfs, and deliver to their mas- ters a fixed portion of the crop in grain, wine, oil and the like. Savage and defiant as they were, the Helots bore the yoke of slavery with great repugnance, and were always ready to rebel against their lords. Hence it was permitted to the Spartan youth, in order that they might acquire cunning and skill, and contribute to the safety of the land, to murder any Helots suspected of rebellious purposes, thus pre venting their increasing number from becoming dangerous. In threatening times the Helots were impressed into military service and, if they distinguished themselves, rewarded with a limited right of citizenship. b. Manner of Life. In order that the Dorians might preserve the rights that they acquired at birth, the state took charge of the physical and intellectual education of the young. Weak or crippled children were exposed, immediately after birth, in a ravine of the Taygetus (which means probably that they were abandoned to the Periceci). The healthy chil- dren were taken from home, when they reached their sixth year, to be educated by the state. The body was trained to great endurance, and the mind to a belief in Spartan law and Spartan greatness. The laws and moral maxims of the state were learned HELOTS. 94 THE ANCIENT WORLD. by heart, and gymnastic exercises were constantly enforced. The Spartan was no less famous for his cunning and astuteness than for the pithy brevity of his speech, which was distinguished by the word "Laconic." Bat his feelings and imagination were not excited. Science and eloquence were neither treasured or encouraged ; but the seri- ous Doric poetry, united with the dance, and with music, served to awaken and to keep alive the love of country and the love of war. Even Doric art, especially architecture, was distinguished for its energy and majestic simplicity, rather than for the beauty and the grace that marked the Ionic buildings. The men were divided, according to their age, into table companies (Syssitia) ; as a rule fifteen united volun- tarily at a single table. Their meals were extremely simple, and each of the company contributed to the expense ; but the royal table was supported by the state. The so- called black blood soup, and a beaker of wine, made up the dinner ; for dessert they had cheese, figs, and olives. The king sat at the head of the table and received a double por- tion, so that he might entertain a guest. Luxury of every sort was avoided Their houses were rude and without comfort, and only the ax and the saw were used in their construction. Money coined of precious metal was excluded from the state, so that no one should have the means wherewith to purchase unnecessary pleasures ; rough iron coins served in daily life as a medium of exchange. And in order that no Spartan should accustom himself to foreign delights, they were forbidden to travel, and foreigners were not permitted to stay any length of time in Sparta. Hunting and the exercise of arms were the chief employments of the adult Spartan. The cultivation of the .soil was given over to the Helots ; trade and industry to the Periceci. The entire life of the Spartan was directed to war. In the city, he lived as in camp, and the time of war was for him a time of festival and joy. Clad in their purple mantles, the long- haired Spartans marched to the field, to the sound of the flute, and adorned them- selves before the battle as though going to a festival. The strength of their army was in their heavy-armed infantry (Hoplites), which consisted of many subdivisions ; and could execute, without confusion, many movements and manouvers. The mem- bers of the same table stood beside each other in battle, united in death as in life. The Spartan ranks never yielded or wavered ; the Spartan conquered or he fell ANCIENT LAW SCROLL. THE GREEK WORLD. 95 with his face to the foe. Strict obedience, and the subordination of the younger to the elder, was the soul of the military education and institutions of Sparta. Indeed the city itself was a temple of honor for old age. § 44. These laws, termed " rhetria " by their author, were confirmed by the Delphic oracle. Thereupon, Lycurgus made the Spartans swear that they would alter nothing in them, until he returned from the journey that he was about to make. He then traveled to Crete and never returned. The consequences of his laws appeared imme- diately. The disciplined Spartans overcame, not only their neighbors the Messenians, with whom they had two long wars, but they acquired, in a short time, the overlord- mrst xessenian ship of the whole Peloponnesus. They forced the Messenians to pay war, jb. c. tribute, after they had reduced their strong castle Ithome, and after 730-no. the Messenian hero Aristodemus had, in his despair, stabbed himself SOLON DICTATING HIS LAWS. (H. Vogel.) at the grave of the daughter, whom he had sacrificed in vain to the gods. But the secona Messenian severity and the scorn of the Spartans soon provoked the Messenians way, b. c. to a second war. Aristomenes their leader by his bravery and his 6?o-63o. cunning was at first successful, and the Spartans sued for peace. But the Dorian poet, Tyrtaeus, whom they brought from Athens, freed them from their despondency ; with his war songs he kindled afresh their national pride, their sense of honor and their manhood, and with his ordinances he renewed their discipline and their reverence for the old Doric maxims and authority. The Spartans renewed the fight, overcame their enemy, taking Aristomenes prisoner. A part of the Messenians emi- 96 THE ANCIENT WORLD. grated to the island of Sicily, the others were reduced to slavery. Sparta now pos- sessed control of the peninsula, and only once was their overlordship threatened. King Phido, of Argos, of the eighth, or possibly of the seventh century before Christ, united the northeast states of the Peloponnesus and the island iEgina, and arrayed them as a rival against the city on the Eurotas river. e. Solon the Lawgiver of the Athenians. (600 B. (7.) § -±5. After the glorious death of Codrus, the royal dignity was abolished and an archon appointed, who performed the royal functions during his life-time, but without the royal title and rank. He was chosen by the chiefs of the noble families (Eupatridaj), b. c. toes. who constituted his council of state. At first onty members of the family of Codrus were eligible to this office, but gradually Athens became an aristo- b. c. 75-t. cratic community, in which the office of archon was opened to all of the noble families, the term of service being fixed at ten y^ears. And finally nine arch- b. c. ess. ons were chosen annually, in order that as many as possible might share in the honor. These archons presided over the government of the city, the religious affairs, the army and navy, the making of laws, and the administration of justice. The nobility having acquired all the power of the state, excluded the common citizens (Demos), from all participa- tion in executive or judicial functions ; and, as the laws were unwritten, there was no lack of caprice, partiality, and injustice. This induced the citizens in their assembly to demand a written code of laws : the nobility refused for a long time to accede to the desires of the people, but when finally compelled to abandon their opposition, they entrusted one of their number, the severe Draco, with Draco, About the composition of the laws; and he made them so severe that they b. c. eae. were said to be written in blood. Every offence was punished with death ; extenuating circumstances were not considered ; fear and terror seemed to him the only r means of improvement and of obedience. But the discontented people were not to be brought again into bondage. Bitter struggles ensued ; and party feeling became so strong that the state was brought to the verge of destruction. At this soion. jb. c. sa ■*. juncture Solon, one of the seven wise men, who was greatly revered as a poet and the friend of the people, became the savior of his country. He divided the Attic people, according to the income of their land, into four classes, and framed a new republican constitution, according to which the assembly of the people possessed the supreme authority, the power to pass laws, to choose magistrates and judges, and to name the council of four hundred. But that the nobility might not forfeit their power entirely, certain privileges were accorded to them and to land-owners of the AREOPAGUS. THE GREEK WORLD. 97 first class. They alone could be elected archons, and these archons, if they performed the duties of their office satisfactorily, constituted the court of Areopagus, which Solon made the guardian of the laws, of the constitution, and of the public morals. This council, which held its session on Mars Hill, consisted of the most important citizens: it supervised the education of the young and the conduct of the inhabitants, to the end that morality and discipline might be preserved, and luxury, ostentation, and sen- suality be kept away. Along with this new constitution, Solon established the so-called relief law (Seisachthia). This remitted to the poorer citizens a part of their debts, abolished personal bondage in payment of debt, and relieved the smaller farms from their mortgages. Solon, like the Spartan Lycurgus, made his fellow-citizens swear to alter nothing in his laws until he returned from his journey : but he fixed the period of his journejr at ten years. He then set out for Egypt and Asia, but returned again to his native city, and, in his old age, he still sought by earnest poems to keep the people in -^ the way of virtue, of justice, and of freedom. d. The Tyrants. § 46. In the beginning, all the Greek states were ruled by kings, who possessed a patriarchal authority as high priests, judges, and generals. But gradually the noble and rich families, who were at first only members of the king's council, acquired the upper hand, and used some favorable opportunity to get rid of the kings, and to found an aristocratic repub- lic, in which they themselves conducted the government. This soon became, for the people (Demos), very oppressive. But as the nobility alone bore arms, and were practiced in war, it was difficult to deprive them of their power. This happened only when some ambitions noble separated himself from his companions, and became a leader of the people. Neverthe- less, democracy did not immediately supplant aristocracy, but the popular leaders (demagogues) obtained, in most states, sole personal authority. They were termed tyrants, by which we are to understand, not arbitrary princes, but the sole rulers, of a community, in distinction from the asymetes, wlib were sometimes clothed with extraordinary authority in critical situations, by the joint act of the council and of the people. Several of these tyrants possessed great gifts as statesmen, and conducted splendid administrations. To satisfy the people, to whom they were indebted for their elevation, they erected magnificent buildings and encouraged navigation, commerce, and colonization. Their wealth enabled them to surround themselves with artists and poets, and to give the people great religious festivals. Their splendid courts con- tributed to the welfare of the cities. But the dominion of the tyrants did not last. The noble families sought in every way to overthrow them, and were supported by the Spartans, who every where promoted aristocratic institutions. Moreover, the sons EGYPTIAN KING AND COURTIER. 93 THE ANCIENT WORLD. of the tyrants often forgot their indebtedness to the people, and by their cruelty and despotism, precipitated their own downfall. § 47. The most famous tyrants were Periander of Corinth, Polycrates of Samos, jpewmirfer, and Pisistratus of Athens. The two first are known to us in poetic b. c. coo. legend. Periander, a sagacious prince, who elevated his native city to the first rank in commerce, and encouraged art and poesy, had for his friend the bard and musician, Arion of Lesbos, who lived a long time at Corinth, and celebrated the sacrificial festivals of the isthmus, in his enthusiatic choral songs. Arion journej'ed through Italy and Sicily, giving displays cf his art, and acquiring great wealth, and then set out for Corinth. The sailors, eager for his wealth, determined to cast him into the sea. Arion offered them all his treasures as the price of his life, but they, afraid of Periander's wrath, determined to stand to their pur- pose. Seeing that every chance of safety had vanished, Arion began to sing and to play, and then sprang, in his singer's robe, into the waves. But the melodies which he sang had so charmed the dolphins, that one of them carried the singer on his back to the shore. Arion hastened to Periander, who arrested the guilty polycrates, sailors, and punished them with exile. B.c.sao. The ring of Polycrates is a legend no less famous. The rich and mighty ruler of Samos, who with his soldiers and sailors, oppressed the noble races of the beautiful island, and who united oriental splendor with Hellenic art at his brilliant court, suc- ceeded in everything that he undertook. His friend, King Amasis of Egypt, was anxious lest he bring down upon him the envy of the gods, and wrote to him to sacrifice the dearest that he had, in order to reconcile the heavenly powers. Thereupon Polycrates cast a precious and finely wrought ring, that he held most dear, into the sea. The Gods, however, scorned his sacrifice, for in a few daj r s a fisherman brought a great fish that he had captured as a present to the ruler, and when the fish was opened they found the ring in its entrails. When Amasis heard this he feared that athenia parthenos. ( Copy of Polycrates would come to ill fortune, and refused fur- Phidias 1 Minerva.) ther relations with him, that he might not be com- pelled to bemoan his friend when inevitable fate destroyed him. And so it happened. For Polycrates was enticed by the Persian satrap to Magnesia, in Asia Minor, and there nailed to the cross. But the tyrant most renowned was Pisistratus, who was able, even in the life time pisistratus. of Solon, to make himself sole ruler of the city. He wounded himself, b. c. soo. and then pretended that assassins sought his life, and asked the people THE GREEK WORLD. 99 for a body guard of fifty men, and for the possession of the castle. And although his enemies succeeded in driving him twice from the city, he came back each time. The first time by an agreement with Megacles, who pretended that the goddess Pallas Athene brought him back to the city. The second time by a victorious battle in the open field. He revenged himself upon his enemies by exiling many of them, and by b. c. say. oppressive taxation. And at his death left the dominion to his son Hippias and Hipparchus. Pisistratus, and Hippias also at first, governed with great renown. Agriculture, industrial art, and commerce greatly prospered. The poems of Homer, which had hitherto existed only in the memories of the rhapsodists, were now committed to writing. Artists of all kinds found generous patrons. The city was adorned with temples and public buildings, and the poet Anacreon lived at the court of Hippias. But when Hipparchus, a sensual and dissolute man, was murdered at the Pan-Atheneaic festival by two Athenians, Harmoclius and Aristogiton, in revenge for an insult, Hippias gave free course to his vio- lent nature. His cruelty and severity alienated the people from him, and gave to the Alcmseo- nidee an opportunity to return from their exile, and, with the help of the Spartans, to expel the tyrant. When his children had fallen into B.c.sto. the hands of his enemies, Hip- pias capitulated, surrendered the castle and fled to Asia Minor, to seek from the Persians the means of restoration. Soon after his departure, a democratic republic was established in Athens by the Alcmteonid, Cleisthenes. Hitherto the four hundred members of the council had been chosen from the four ancient family districts, and the preference had been given to the landed nobility. These districts were now abolished, and thus the old family connections were destroyed. In their place Cleisthenes intro- duced ten new districts, each composed of ten small wards. This was a geographical and political arrangement, which led to the equality of all the citizens, to new names and to new protecting deities. The larger districts were called Phyles. The council of five hundred was chosen annually by them, — fifty members from every district, without regard to rank or property. An executive committee, composed of fifty members of the council called Prytanes, conducted the government for thirty-six days, residing, during this time, in the town hall (or Prytaneum), and supported at the public expense. They presided also at the assemblies of the people. From each of the ten districts, six thousand citizens were chosen b} r lot to serve as judges (Heliasts). The archonship and the Areopagus continued to exist, but only as officers of honor, without important functions. PERSIAN NOBLE AND WARRIORS. The Seven Wise Men. § 48. Periander of Corinth, Solon of Athens, Thales of Miletus, the creator of 100 THE AXCIEXT WORLD. Greek philosophy, were the most famous of the seven Greek sages. Their principles have been handed down to us in short proverbs like '-Do everything with reflection" (Periander), " Moderation in all things," (Solon), " Know thyself," ^Chilo of Sparta). P!/Hm fl «i««, One of the most important men of this time was Pythagoras of Samos, b. c. sso-500, the founder of the Pythagorean society, which had many adherents, and was highly esteemed in Crotona and other cities of Lower Italy. The members of this community led a temperate and morally-strict life, lived together in unity and devotedly revered their famous master. They were expert in mathematics and in music, and P\-thagoras himself, was the inventor of the Pythagorean proposition con- cerning the square on the hypothenuse of the right triangle. e. Lyric Poetry. § 49. The courts of the Tyrants led a merry life. Poets and bards were alwaj-s welcomed. As the epic poem was too serious, an easier, and a gayer sort of poetry came into vogue, called lyrical, because sung to the accompaniment of the lyre. Wine and love were the themes of these lyrics, and the}' were intended to drive away sorrow and care. Anacreon, of Teos in Ionia, who lived at several courts, and died at Athens Anacreon, in his eightieth year, was the most famous singer of such songs which, jb. c. 5S9-47S. after him, are called Anacreontic. But other famous poets found, in the brevity of life and the transitory nature of all earthly things, an occasion for sorrow and melancholy; and these produced the elegy in which the hexameter and the pen- tameter verse were united to form a distich. Simonides of Keos was the most famous shnoniiies, of the Elegiac poets. The lyric poems, in which the poet took a higher flight, and celebrated some sublime object in solemn strains, were called Odes. Sappho of Lesbos, famous for her love and her self-destruction, and the Theban Pindar, carried the ode to perfection. In later times, every short poem was counted lyrical even though it could not be sung to music. Satires especially became quite popular; the inventor of these was Archilochus of Paros, who converted lyrical poetry into a about b. c. too. sharp weapon against personal enemies. Fables were invented by jesop. auout .^Esop, a Phrygian slave, whose life is veiled in such obscurity, that jb. c. 5oo. the stor}' of iEsop is itself a fable. The Gnomic poetry, or the poetical Theootiis, proverb, comes from Theognis of Megara, the fiery hater of the Demo- b.c. 370-400. crats, bv whom he was driven from his home. B. C. 556-J6S. Stij>joho. about B. C. 300. Binu'ar, B. C. 518-441. A.rehilocliU8. II. THE GLORIOUS DAYS OF GREECE. 1. THE PERSIAN "WARS. HE Greek colonies, on the coast of Asia Minor, had been con-' quered by Cyrus. Accustomed to a life of freedom they bore the Persian j-oke, but could not shake it off, because the noble Greeks who were appointed princes of the different cities, and therefore attached to the court of Susa knew how to maintain their people in obedience. One of the mightiest among them was Histiaeus, Prince of Miletus. He had been with Cyrus in his campaign against the Scythians, THE GREEK WORLD. 101 MILTIADES. and had been commanded to guard, with his Greeks, the bridge across the Danube. But when the news arrived of the misfortunes of the Persians, he was advised by Mil- tiades of Athens, who, as possessor of great estates on the Thracian peninsula, paid heavy tribute to the Persians, to destroy the bridge, and to abandon the king and all his army to destruction. Thus the Greeks might regain their freedom. But Histia^us would not carry out the project. Yet his fidelity was mistrusted, and he was ordered to Susa by Darius, ostensibly to receive the reward of his great services, but really to be watched bj- the suspicious king. This situation of mingled favor and restraint be- came unendurable to the Greek soldier. He longed to return to his native country, and, when he was not permitted to leave Susa, he secretly induced his relative Aristogoras of Miletus, to provoke an uprising of the discontented Greeks, so that he might find opportunity to return. The plan succeeded. Miletus and the other Greek colonies were soon in arms. Sparta, and other states of the mother country were appealed to for help, but only Athens responded. Darius wished to restore the exiled Hippias, then residing in Asia Minor, and hence the action of the Athenians. The little city Eretria also sent a small number of ships. The rebellion succeeded finely at first ; the Greeks conquered and burned Sardis, the capital of Asia Minor, and the rebellion spread through all Ionia. But the Persian Governor defeated the land army at Ephesus ; the Greeks quarreled with each other, and the superior numbers of the -b. c. 4S7. enemy gave them the victory, in a sea fight at Lade, and led to jb. c. -tos. the capture and destruction of Miletus. The Milesians were either put to death or led into slavery. Aristagoras fled to the Thracians, by whom he was killed ; Histiaeus, who, upon being sent to Ionia, had joined the rebels, was taken prisoner and crucified. Ionia came again under Persian rule, and Darius swore to take bloody revenge upon the Athenians and the Eretrians, because they had sup- ported the rebellion. § 51. Maidonius, the son-in-law of Darius, proceeded with a navy and an army along the b. c. 4,93. Thracian coast, while Persian heralds demanded, of all the Greek states, water and earth, as tokens of submission. But his ships were driven, by a storm, against the promontory of Athos, and the Thracians de- feated a part of his army so that he was com- pelled to return to Asia without accomplishing his mission. iEgina, and most of the islands, gave the heralds water and earth ; but when they demanded them of Sparta and Athens, they were put to death, contrary to all tradition and inter- national usage. Enraged at this insult, Darius despatched a second fleet under Datis, an older general, and the young Artaphernes. This fleet sailed through the Archipelago, subdued the Cyclades, and then attacked the city of Eretria. The citizens resisted bravely, but were betrayed to the enemy, who razed the city to the ground and carried off the inhabitants to Asia. The Persians then marched through COIN OF SARDIS. 102 THE ANCIENT WORLD. the island burning and destroying all before them, and, guided by Hippias to the coast of Attica, encamped in the plains of Marathon. The Athenians sent to the Spartans beseeching help. But an old religious law forbade the Spartans to depart for war be- fore the full moon. So the Athenians, without waiting for them, marched valiantly against the enemy. The most noted of their ten generals was Miltiades, who had served formerly in the Persian army, and was thoroughly acquainted with their mode of warfare. Ten thousand Athenians, and 1000 Platseans, who had joined the former of their own accord, attacked the tenfold stronger army of the Persians. Miltiades had chosen for the conflict a place unfavorable for the Persian horsemen, and, in the battle of Marathon, he com- sept. 12. pletely routed the Persian army. b. c. 49o. The camp, with all its provisions, fell into the hands of the victors ; the Persians rushed to their ships and sailed away. But the Grecian sentinels saw from the heights, with con- sternation, that the fleet was sailing around the promontory Sunium, and steering to the West, evidently intending to surprise the undefended city. The adherents of Hippias had doubtless suggested this to the Persians, and a flashing shield, elevated upon the mountains, was to serve as a signal. Their cavalry, and a part of the army* had probably embarked, before the battle, for this very purpose. Miltiades acted promptly. Leav- ing Aristides with his men to guard the battle- field, he hastened, with the main army, to the city, and arrived at Athens, just as the Persians were about to land. At the sight of this band of heroes, Datis and Artaphernes abandoned their purpose and sailed awa} r . Hippias died on the return voyage. Great, however, was the fame of the Athenians, who were the first to prove themselves worthy of the democratic freedom which they had just achieved, and centuries afterward, patriotic orators used the victoiy of Marathon to inspire the Athenian people. Beside the burial mounds, which are } r et visible upon the plain of Marathon, the Athenians erected a monument to the champions of Greece, who had hurled to the ground the power of the gold-clad Medes and Persians. They erected also, a separate monument for Miltiades. The day after the battle two thousand Spartans arrived to help the Athenians. The3 r visited the battlefield, praised the heroic deeds of the Athenians, and then returned home. § 52. Miltiades, the savior of Greece, did not long enjoy his fame. He per- suaded the Athenians to man a fleet, in order to conquer the islands of the .^Egean b. c. jss. Sea, which had submitted to the Persians. But as the attack upon Paros miscarried, he was accused before the people, of having deceived the Athenians by de- lusive promises. When the trial took place, he had not yet recovered from a wound received at Paros, and had to be carried into the courthouse on a stretcher. The pen- GREEK GENERALS. daric coin. (Persia.) THE GREEK WORLD. 103 alty of death, proposed by his enemies, was not inflicted ; but he was condemned to pay the costs of the war. Before he could get together the sum of fifty talents ($50,000), he died. His large- minded son, Cimon, paid the fine, and gave his father an honorable burial. Aristides, surnamed the Just, and Themistocles, were two Athenians of extraordinary abilities. Both had fought bravely at Marathon, and both sought to make the city great, but in different ways. Aristides would use no means to accomplish his ends, which were not entirely honorable and just. He followed his conscience, and saw no salvation for the state, except in the land-holding population and in the land army. Themistocles, an ambitious man, who could not sleep for thinking of the glory of J Miltiades, was less conscientious. He considerec only the advantage and the greatness of the city, I and frequently resorted to cunning and to decep-j tion. Moreover, he thought that the safety of! Athens la} r in her " wooden walls," that is in her ships and sailors. Abler than Aristides, he soon acquired greater popularity with the people, and in order to carry out his plans unhindered, he procured the banishment of the themistocles. (Vatican, Home.) forty oared greek boat. ( Vase Painting). b.c. 483. straightforward Aristides, by the so-called "potsherd" judgment* (Ostracism ; the name scratched upon a potsherd). § 53. Great preparations for a new invasion of Greece were being made, when Darius died. His successor, Xerxes, a man puffed up with pride and flattery, took up his father's plan of revenge upon so large a scale that, according to tradition, he col- lected an army of 1,700,000 men, and a fleet of more than twelve b.c. 481. hundred ships. Having completed his preparations, and suppressed an uprising in Egypt with great success, he col- lected all his troops at Sardis, and then marched confidently across Ilium to the Hellespont. It was a motley army of all nations and all tongues, clad in various costumes and carrying all kinds of weapons, with which the Persian king crossed over two pontoon * Tliis was an arrangement by means of which every citizen who became so prominent as to endanger the equality of the citizens and the democratic constitution could be banished for a space of time, usually for ten years, without preju- dice to his rights or to his honor. To be ostracised was not a punishment but a political defeat. XERXES. 104 THE ANCIENT WORLD bridges not far from Abydos. Seven days, without interruption, were required to cross the Hellespont, and the army was followed b}' an endless procession of servants, of wagons filled with women and chambermaids, men servants and maid-servants, bag- gage, ornaments, and the like. The heavy armed Persian on his fiery horse, the half naked Arab on his camel, the tribes of East Iran with bow and battle-ax, the troops from Asia Minor, and the troops from the Caucasus with willow-work shields and wooden helmets, the Ethio- pians in the skins of panthers and of lions, were all to be seen in this amazing army. From the Hellespont they marched across Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly ; the fleet meanwhile sail- ing along the coast, in order to supply the army with whatever was needed. That the ships might not be shattered again at Athos, Xerxes em- ployed Greek and Phoenician laborers to blast it and dig it away. Thessaly sub- mitted without a blow. Boeotia, Argos and some of the smaller states were glad to offer earth and water. With threats the enemy came still nearer. The Greeks now showed what could be done by union, courage, and patriot- is j THE GREEK WORLD. 105 ism. At the urging of Themistocles they quicklj r established a union, proclaimed a general peace, and placed themselves under the lead of Sparta. In July, at the time b. c. •*.«.©. of the Olympic games, Xerxes appeared at the pass of Thermopylae, which was held by the Spartan king Leonidas, with three hundred Spartans and a few thousand allies. When commanded to surrender his arms, the Spartanleader answered, "Come and take them," and when told that the multitude of the enemy was so great that their shots and arrows would darken, the sun, another answered, "So much the better, then we shall fight in the shade!" For several days, the Persian king tried in vain to force a passage ; thousands of his soldiers fell victims to the bravery of the Greeks. Even the ten thousand immortals, the flower of the Persian army, must yield to Spartan strength. But a Greek traitor conducted apart of the Persian army, by a foot-path across the summit of the Oeta, so that they could fall upon the rear of the Greeks below. Hear- ing of this, Leonidas dismissed the troops of his allies ; but he him- self, with his three hun- dred Spartans along with seven hundred citizens of Thespise, who refused to leave him, chose to die a hero's death. Attacked from both sides, they .fought with leonine courage, until overcome by numbers, and worn out by fighting and from wounds, they perished utterly. Only the Thebans who had been compelled to take part in the fight, were treated mercifully ; but even these were marked with the stamp of the royal slaves, and sent home in dishonor. Leonidas and his heroic band were celebrated ever afterward in song, and a bronze lion marked the place where the Dorian hero had fallen. Boeotia and Phocis were now easily subdued, and the Persians pressed forward into Attica and reduced Athens to ashes. The old warriors who garrisoned the castle, after a brave resistance, were put to death. All citizens capable of bearing arms, were serving in the APOLLO BELVIDERE. 10G THE ANCIENT WORLD. fleet. Women, children, and property had been, at the suggestion of Themistocles, carried to Salamis, iEgina, and other cities. A messenger was dispatched in haste to Susa, with the news of the triumph of the great king. A single accident disturbed his pleasure. A portion of the Persian army had marched to Parnassus, to rob and to destroy the sanctuary of Delphi. But when the warriors were clambering up the steep paths of the gloomy region, invisible hands hurled at them fragments of stone and rock, so that many were killed, and the others fled in terror. The Delphian's did not fail to ascribe the salvation of their temple to the intervention of their mighty god. RETURN OF THE GREEKS FROM SALAMIS. § 54. Themistocles now became the savior of Greece. The united fleet of the Greeks had sailed from the promontory Artemisium, where it had fought successfully for several clays, into the Saronian Bay, whither the Persian fleet had followed. Eury- biades, the leader of the Spartan fleet, had determined to withdraw with the Pelopen- nesian ships, and to carry on the fight near the Isthmus of Corinth, in order to have the protection of the land force that was stationed there and covered by a wall. Themis- tocles regarded this plan as dangerous, and so he cunningly enticed the Persian king to attack him in the narrow waters, where the hostile ships would be hindered by their b. c. iso. own numbers. Thus happened the sea fight of Salamis, in which the THE GREEK WORLD. 107 Greeks were completely victorious. In despair, Xerxes beheld from a neighboring eminence, the destruction of his fleet and informed, through the cunning of Themisto- cles, that the Greeks intended to destroy the bridges across the Hellespont, he hastily retreated with the greatest part of his army through Thessaly, Macedonia and Thrace. But thousands of his warriors perished from hunger, cold, and fatigue, and great throngs were drowned in the river Strymon, by the breaking of the ice. § 55. Xerxes left three hundred thousand picked soldiers under the command of Mardonius in Thessaly. These invaded Attica when the Athenians refused an offered alliance, and compelled the citizens, who besought the Spartans in vain for speedy help, once more to emigrate to the huts of Salamis. But when finally the Spartans sent a Peloponnesian army across the isthmus, in answer to the beseechings jb. c. 470. and threats of the Athenians, the battle of Platsea was fought by the Greeks under the command of the Spartan Pausanias, assisted by the Athenian Gen- eral, Aristides. The Persian army, though three times as strong, was completely de- feated and only 40,000 Persians returned across the Hellespont. The others, among them the brave commander Mardonius, were slain ; some in the battle, some at the storming of their camp, and some in their flight. The booty was immense. Upon the altar of "liberating " Zeus, the sacrificial fire flamed high. On the same day the Persians suffered a second defeat at Mycale, on the coast of Asia Minor, where they had drawn their ships ashore, and sur- rounded them with a fence of willow-work and reeds. Here too a Spartan was the leader, but the bravery of the Athenians and of the Milesians, made him successful. The camp and fleet of the enem} r were captured and destroyed by fire, and the sword of the Greeks made terrible havoc among the frightened and flying Persians. MF.DEAN AND PERSIAN NOBLES. 2. — Athens Overlordship (Hegemony) and the Periclean Age. § 56. After the battle of Platsea the war was waged chiefly at sea. As the Spartans possessed fewer ships, the command gradually passed over to the Athenians, who had behaved moreover, during the whole war, with much bravery and magnanimity. The treason of the Spartan General Pausanias also furthered the leadership of the Athenians. Certain noble Persians, among them relatives and friends of the king, had been taken prisoners at the capture of Byzantium (Constantinople). These were sent by Pausanius, without the knowledge of his allies, to their royal master. Pretending that they had escaped secretly, they carried, really, a message to Xerxes, from the Spartan General, that he would help him to conquer all Greece, if the king would give him his daughter in marriage, and make him governor of the Peloponnesus. When Xerxes agreed to this, the ambitious man became so arrogant that he disregarded en- 108 THE ANCIENT WORLD. tirely the Spartan laws and modes of life; clothed himself in fine raiment, spread a splendid table, and was accompanied and served by Persian staff bearers. At the same time his tyran- nical nature made the Spartan authority everywhere unpopu- lar. The Spartans, when informed of his conduct, recalled him ; but their author- ity among maritime- states was so weak, that they voluntarily gave up the chief con- trol, although they maintained in form their right to com- ri mand. Pausanias : still carried on in 3 Sparta secret com- ; munication with the - Persian king, but his 2 treason was exposed by a slave. He fled AT>otlt B. C. 411. tO a temple as a suppliant, but the enraged Spar- tans closed the tem- ple gates upon him, and compelled him to die of starvation. §57. While Pau- sanias w r as thus de- stroying the power of his country, the three Athenian command- ers were contributing greatly to the pros- perity of their native city, by their remark- able, though various ■ talents. Themistocles surrounded Athens with a strong wall, and built the splendid harbor of the Piraeus, 110 THE ANCIENT WORLD. which was afterward united by Cimon and Pericles with the main city, by a long double wall. This brought upon him the irreconcilable hatred of the Spartans. For they did not wish Athens to be fortified, and consequently they charged Themistocles with complicity in the treason of Pausanias ; — this too at a time when his enemies had succeeded in ostracising him for ten years. Themistocles s.c.4ji. now fled to Asia. The Persian king gave him an honorable wel- come, and three cities of Asia Minor for his maintenance. But when the king urged him to assist in subduing Greece, he is said to have taken poison rather than become the betraj'er of his country. His ashes were secretly deposited by his friends in Grecian soil, aud centuries afterward his posterity possessed consid- erable rights in Magnesia. Aristides, by his integrity, contributed greatly to the prosperity of Athens. The confidence reposed in his chai'aeter induced the Greek b. c. -too. islands and maritime cities to make an alliance with the Athenians, in which they pledged themselves to contribute money and ships for the prosecution of the war. A treasury was established at Delos, and the manage- ment of this common treasure as well as the leadership of the union fleet, was given to the Athenians. But the fur- nishing of ships soon became a burden to the small states, and they compounded for it bj r higher contributions. This gave the Athenians the wished-for opportunity to increase their navy, and to bring many islands and smaller maritime states under their control. Their naval superiority enabled them to bring the allied treasure to Athens, and to deposit it in the sanctuary of Pallas Athene. They could also treat their allies as tributary subjects. Aristides died so poor that the state provided for his funeral, and for the education of his children. § 58. Cimon, the son of Miltiades, and Pericles con- tributed no less to the greatness of Athens. The first, by b. c. *aa. his successful enterprises at sea, for he had a 'double victory in Asia Minor over the fleet and the army of the Persians. This closed the war, and brought about the so-called peace of Cimon, which secured independence to all the Greek cities and islands. He enlarged the territory of the Athenian state, and expended his large fortune in the adornment of "the city, where he laid out the beautiful gardens and the famous portico known as the Academy and the Stoa. In his time, Sparta was sorely b. c. -tas. afflicted by a terrible earthquake. The greater part of the city was destroyed, and in the midst of the distress, the Messenians and Helots took up arms to conquer their freedom. In their extremity the Spartans appealed to Athens, and Cimon, who had a great preference for their institutions, succeeded in getting an army sent to their assistance. But the suspicious Spartans sent it back, which so b. c. 403. offended the Athenians, that they ostracised Cimon, and gave to the Messenians the maritime city Naupactus, when they were obliged, after a ten years' b. c. 4ss. struggle, to give up their mountain fortress, Ithome. At the battle B.C.4S7. of Tanagra, the Spartans and their Thessalian allies, obtained some pericles. (British Museum,. London.) THE GREEK AVORLD. Hi advantages over the Athenians who would not permit the banished Cimon to fight in their ranks. But the brave conduct of his old comrades, who threw away their lives in the struggle, convinced the Athenians that Cimon was a true patriot. So they called him back, and obtained a new victory at Grape mountain, (Oenophyta). This established their overlordship in all Greece. Cimon died on the island of reticles, Cyprus, in the year 449, in the midst of a new campaign against about b. c. -iso. the Persians. Pericles was so distinguished for his talents, his culture, his eloquence and his military skill, and exercised such an influence upon the com- munity, and the people of Athens, that the years of his activity are known as " The Age of Pericles." He adorned the state and city by the erection of temples and great buildings (Parthenon, Propylseum). He encouraged the arts and sciences, he invited men of genius, like the great artist, Phidias, into his hospitable home, where Aspasia, of Miletus, presided with grace and dignity; he procured for everyone means and opportunity to perfect and to distinguish himself, and created a taste for art, lit- erature, and poetry in the lowest classes of the people. Though noble and rich by birth, he was a man of the people, and devoted to democratic principles. To him was due the ordinance that every Athenian citizen, who served in a court of justice, or who was present at the popular assembly, or served in the army or the navy, should receive a daily stipend. He made generous distribution of money among the needy masses. ' He arranged for splen- did festivals, plays, and processions for the pleasure of the people, and he brought the Athenian state to such a degree of culture, that almost all citizens were capable of holding office, and hence the arrangement by which nearly all public places were filled bj' lot, was less dangerous in Athens, than it would have been in any other city. At the same time Pericles preserved for Athens her rank among the other states ; Athenian ships ruled the iEgean sea, making the Islanders tributary to the city, and bring- ing to it immense sums of money. The statue of Pallas Athene in the Parthenon, wore a garment of beaten gold. Athenian armies fought victoriously against b. c. **?. Thebans and Spartans, until the fatal battle of Coronea ended their good fortune. In this battle the Athenians were beaten b.c. 445. hj Boeotian aristocrats and fugitives. Many were slain, many were captured, and Pericles was compelled to save the city from destruction by a hasty peace. ALCIBIADES. 3. Peloponnesian War. (431-404.) § 59. This peace of Pericles was of short duration. The prosperity of the Athen- ians filled Sparta with envy and dislike. The arrogance and severity*- with which Athens treated her subjugated allies, especially the island _- too. freedom and, though at times obscure and difficult, are bold in thought Aristophanes, and sublime in style, reverent of the gods and of ancient customs, B.C.4B2-3SS. and inspired with a sense of human dignity. Seven tragedies of Sophocles have also been preserved (Antigone, (Edipus, Electra). These reflect the age of Pericles, its refinement and intellectual intercourse ; they are, accordingly, the unapproachable models of beauty and harmonious completeness. Of Euripides we inherit nineteen pieces (Medea, Alcestis, Iphigenia). These belong to the period of 124 THE ANCIENT WORLD. HERODOTUS. ( Visconti. ) the Sophists. Feelings are more prominent and varied ; the speeches abound in cun- ning phrases, epigrams and popular common-places, and the emotions of the spectator are adroitly played upon bj- scenes of suffering and lamentation. The creative energy and genuine pathos of ^Eschylus and Sophocles are atoned for in Euripides, by de- tailed descriptions, by excessive sensibility, and by smooth and ornate diction. Aristophanes brought comedy to perfection. He mocked the faults and follies of his time with pungent and daring irony, for he did not hesitate to produce his contemporaries on the stage. In the " Frogs," he attacked the weeping Euripides and his pathetic dramas; in the "Clouds'" he attacked Socrates, whom he repre- sents as the worst and absurdest of the Sophists ; and in the " Knights " he did not spare the mighty Cleon and the greedy demagogues of Athens. The Chorus of the Greek Drama is a lyric comment upon the action of the play ; " but passing beyond the immediate scene, deals with the past and the future, with distant periods and peoples, with humanity and with life, discussing the great results of existence, and uttering the teachings of wisdom." (Compare Matthew Arnold's "Poetiy is a Criticism of Eife.") The leader of the chorus stood with his troop in front of the stage ; the chorus expressing in rhythmic movements, and to the sound of music, the feelings and the impressions produced upon the spectator, by the unfolding drama. The splendid theatres which were erected in many places, were masterpieces of architecture, and contributed greatly to the elevation of the drama. A wealthy citizen of Athens could do nothing more popular than to produce a new play, or a richly decorated chorus at his own expense. § 72. The prose literature of the Periclean age is quite as wonderful as the poetry. Plato's dialogues are the sub- pinio. lime thoughts of a rich and creative mind, jb. c. j«»-34s. clothed in the noblest speech and forms of HeroaotHs. exposition. Herodotus, of Halicarnassus> jb. c. 450. described in candid and eloquent simplicity, the conflicts of the Greeks with the Persians, interweav- ing with his narrative many traditions of the Oriental and Hellenic races. He had traveled widely, and conversed with the scholars and priests of all the lands, the history of which he narrated. He described, with singular accuracy, what he saw with his own eyes, though he repeats many fabulous stories learned from priests and poets. He wrote for the people in simple and hearty phrase. He tells how the Greek love of freedom, intelligent self-reliance and organization, proved victorious over Oriental servitude, undisciplined mobs and Asiatic pageantry. The deities are the directors of human affairs; history is the result of provi- dential foresight ; victory belongs not to the proud and the arrogant, but to the humble and patient. For Herodotus "the course of history is the judgment of the gods." The books of Herodotus, tradition tells us, inspired the patriot Thucydides DEMOSTHENES. THE GREEK WORLD. 125 b. c. ±?o-±ot. to his immortal work. Banished from Athens, for his late arrival at the battle of Amphipolis, he devoted the years of his exile to the composition of the history of the Peloponnesian War. His "thought- weighted " sentences made his work intelligible to the cultured only. In Herodotus, we have the calm and fulness of the epic, in Thucydides, the vivid brevity of the Drama. The History of the Peloponnesian War closes with the twenty-first year of its duration. Thucydides did not survive to see the ruin of his be- loved Athens. He was murdered in 402, just after returning from his exile. But Xenophon took up the xenopuon, incompleted task. Lucid, fluent, and dobic capital. b. c. j/s.r>«. picturesque in style, he had neither the depth or the historical fidelity of him, who gave us the immortal characterization of Pericles. An admirer and eulogist of the Spartans, especially of Agesilaus, Xeno- phon, in his narration, is resolutely and deliberately partial, so that the great Thebans, Pelopidas and Epaminondas are thrown into the shade. His history ends with the battle of Mantinea. Xenophon wrote also a pedagogical biography of the elder Cyrus, a kind of romance, in which he represented the founder of the Persian monarchy as a model regent. It is really a political pamphlet, — an attack upon the instability of ionic capital. republican government and a eulogy of royal rule. § 73. Oratory also reached its highest development in Athens at this time. Elo- quence was in the beginning a gift of Nature, an inborn talent. But at the time of the Peloponnesian war it was treated as an art. Schools of oratory were established, where the Athenian youths who wished to devote them- selves to public life, to the management of the state or to the pleading of causes, were taught the principles of persuasion and the rules of delivery. Ten Attic ora- tors have bequeathed to us written orations. The isocrates, greatest of these was Isocrates, who b. c. 43G-33S. was distinguished not only for the per- fection of his style, but for his great success as a teacher. The most famous of his pupils was Demos- thenes, who struggled with incredible energy against Demosthenes, natural disabilities, until he became b. c. 3ss-333. the greatest orator of antiquity. He knew how to excite, to enchain, and to inspire his lis- teners. His delivery was dramatic, and his transitions corinthian capitai from the serious to the sarcastic, swift and powerful. Witty and pathetic by turns, his invective was often terrible. He was a patriot and a statesman, true to his convictions and resolute in his policy. In his twelve philippics, he urged the Athenians to a war against Philip of Macedonia, of whose purpose to undermine the liberties of Greece, he was con- {From the Choragic Monument of. Lysicrates.) 126 THE ANCIENT WORLD. vinced quite earty. His rival iEschines adhered to the Macedonian king, and when the Athenian people bestowed upon Demosthenes a golden crown, iEschines sought, in a splendid oration, to procure the repeal of their edict. This gave Demosthenes opportunity, .A.\f/i/jif-x. in his great ora- f js. c. 3i4. tion " On the Crown," to crush his enemy so completely, that he was obliged to retire from Athens, and to close his daj's as a teacher of oratory in the island of Rhodes. §74. Architecture, sculp- ture and painting reached their perfection in the period be- tween Pericles and Alexander the Great. Thej T assumed an importance, and reached a per- fection among the Greeks, un- known in any other period or to any otherupeople of human history ; they were interwoven with the whole life of the peo- ple ; the feeling for art was a gift common to all classes, and their encouragement an essen- tial element of public policy. In their architecture, symmetry and harmony so pre vailed, that every building formed a beautiful whole. The chief decoration of their public build- ings were the columns, distinguished into three classes, by their capitals ; the strong plain Doric, the slender Ionic, with its curled capital, and the richly decorated Corinthian. These were used princi- pally at the entrances of their temples, and in their porches and corri- dors ; but the private dwellings of the Greeks were small and insignifi- cant. The great sculp- tors were Phidias, Sco- pas of Paros, Praxiteles of Athens, and Lysippus ; and their masterpieces, some of which have been preserved, VENUS OF MILO. ATHENIAN YOUTHS RIDING IN PROCESSION. Phidias.) {Frieze of Parthenon. THE GREEK WORLD. 127 are still regarded as unapproachable. The polytheistic service, with its statues and temple decorations, was favorable to the arts, but not more so than the universal artistic instinct of the people. A famous man was usually honored by the erection of a statue, or the placing of his bust upon a pedestal ; and the cities vied with each other in adorning their streets and public places with works of art. The beautiful bodies of. the Greeks were never distorted by ugly costumes, and their gymnastic exercises gave the sculptors opportunity to study the naked body in every variety of posture. The Apollo Belvedere, the Laoeoon group, the Medicean Venus, the Venus of Milo, and countless other statues and reliefs are splendid proofs of Greek genius. The famous painters were Zeuxis, Parrhasius and Apelles. But of their pictures we have none. A few copies of them are to be seen upon Grecian vases, and in some decorations in the remains of ancient buildings. Music, dancing, and dramatic art were likewise cultivated by the Greeks, especially in connection with their religious festivals. III. THE MACEDONIAN PERIOD. I. Philip of Macedonia (360-336). O the North of Greece lies the rough mountain land of Mace- donia. The inhabitants, thereof, were slightly mixed with Hellenic blood, and had, in the course of time, adopted Greek military cus- n. c. 3oo. toms and been admitted to the Olympic games. The kings who dwelt at first in ^Egse, and afterward in Pella, traced their origin to the Heraclides in Argos. The people were warlike, fond of fighting and hunting, of tournaments and carous- ings. Two years after the death of Epaminondas, Philip came to the Macedonian throne, a prince, who united the sagacious skill of a statesman, to the genius of a great soldier. He loved and honored Greek culture, but held firmly to the customs of his people, and even shared in the drunken carousals of the native nobility. And yet he was generous, astute, treacherous and intriguing. He possessed a well-equipped army, eager for fight, and dreaded, especially, because of its peculiar line of battle, called the phalanx. §76. Philip's efforts were directed to the subjugation of the discordant Greek states. His watched-for opportunity came with the sacred wars. The Thebans, eager to absorb the neighboring Phocis, charged before the Amphictyonic council that the Phocians had taken possession of lands belonging to the temple at Delphi. The council condemned the accused to pay a heavy fine, and when they refused, delivered them to the The- bans for punishment. The angry Phocians there- upon seized the temple of Delphi, carried off the treasures therein deposited, purchased with them a great arm}', and resisted the Thebans successfully for ten years, invading Bceotia and even capturing some cities. The Thebans wearied and wasted by the strife, turned for help to Philip of Macedon. He responded at once ; conquered Thessaly, and urged his way through MACEDONIAN COIN. 128 THE ANCIEXT AVORLD. Thermopylae into Phocis. Philomelus and Onomarchus, the Phocian leaders,- were slain and the entire people subjugated. They were expelled from the Amphictyonic council as an accursed race, and Philip was admitted to their place; their cities were destroyed ; the inhabitants carried off into slavery or kept at home as serfs. § 77. Philip had already brought the Grecian colonies in Macedonia under his control, and in the neighborhood of Amphipolis, a region rich in gold mines, he had LAOCOON GROUP, VATICAN. built the city of Philippi. He conquered the proud Olynthia, and punished it severely by the loss of property and liberty. But he attained his cherished object by the b. c. 339-338. Locrian war. The Locrians, like the Phocians, seized a piece of land belonging to the temple at Delphi and were punished by the Amphictyonic council. They refused to pay the fine. ^Eschines of Athens then moved in the council that the Macedonian king be entrusted with their punishment. Philip hastened forward < Hi ». a dictator, who outranked the consuls and possessed absolute authority in the city and in the field. Dictators were named for six months only and when the danger was over laid down their extraordi- nary office. The appointment was made by the Con- sul in the hour of midnight, amid solemn religious ceremonies. § 100. Tarquin, unable to regain his royal dignity betook himself to Cumae where he died. The state was b. r. 405. now in the hands of the Patricians, who no longer fearing the return of the royal family ceased to conciliate the Plebeians and oppressed them by the severest debtor laws. The Plebeians were re- quired to pay heavy ground rents for their little prop- erties and to serve in the army without pay, furnishing their own equipments. While they were on a cam- paign, their fields were unfilled. Bad harvests pro- duced poverty, and to escape impending misery they borrowed money of the rich Patricians at eight and ten per cent. Unable to pay promptly, they became the property of the creditors, who sold them and their chil- dren as slaves, or kept them on their own estates as bondsmen. As there was no law to protect the un- fortunate debtor, the Plebeians emigrated to the sacred mountain five miles from Rome, intending to found a b. c. 4o*. new city. The Patricians sent Menenius Agrippa to them, to persuade them to return. Agrippa told them the fable of the belly and its members, how by their strife the whole body was endangered, and he promised them relief. The Plebeians were coaxed back, and obtained at first five, and afterwards ten tribunes or protectors. These while in office were sacred and inviola- Jfe fijBwg^nMii CORIOLANUS. 160 THE ANCIENT WORLD. ble ; they could forbid the execution of all senate-decrees and consular edicts that seemed to injure the welfare of the Plebs, and if this failed they could suspend the col- lection of taxes. The Roman people regarded always with pride this bloodless seces- sion. Soon afterwards a famine broke out in Rome, and when finally ships laden with corn arrived from Sicily, the proud Patrician Coriolanus moved in the Senate that none should be distributed to the Plebeians from the public store-houses until they had consented to abolish the tribunes. The Plebeians thereupon placed their ban upon him in the great assembly and compelled him to fly. Thirsting for revenge he persuaded the Volscians to follow him in an attack upon Rome. Devastating all be- fore them, they marched to the twenty fifth mile stone, when the mother and sister of Coriolanus came out to intercede for the city, and induced him to withdraw. The b. c. 401. angry Volscians are said to have killed him ; but the captured cities they retained. b. The Fabians, Cincinnatus, the Decemvirs. § 101. These quarrels of Patrician and Plebeian so weakened Rome that her enemies took one territory after the other from her control. The Plebeians, who had won the former battles, showed no disposition to shed their blood, in order to make- their oppressors richer and mightier. They sometimes even suffered themselves to be defeated, when a cruel Patrician was their leader. This happened in a war against the Veii, where one of the Fabii commanded. And the shame of this event so changed the disposition of that family, that they took up the cause of the Plebeians, and then b. c. 477. marched out with them against Veii. They came back from many campaigns victorious and loaded with booty, but returning again to attack the enemy, they were so thoroughly defeated, that only one survived the destruction of his race. As the Veii preyed upon the Roman territory from the North, so the Volsci and the JEqui invaded it from the South. The latter, who occupied territory reaching almost to Rome, attacked the Romans at Mt. Algidus with such success, that these would have been taken into captivity, but for Cincinnatus. For when the Senate learned of the danger of the army, Cincinnatus was named Dictator. The great Patrician had become so poor, through various misfortunes, that he possessed only a small property b. c. 458. on the left bank of the Tiber. He was plowing in his field when the call of the Senate reached him. He placed himself at the head of the #ij fan youth, hastened to the scene of danger, and surrounded the enemy in the night. The iEqui were forced to surrender their arms, their baggage, their horses, and their beasts of burden, and to pass under the yoke formed of three spears. § 102. Bitter quarrels broke out between Plebeian and Patrician about equality of rights. The Plebeians demanded agrarian laws, a written code, and a share in the offices. The Roman commonwealth was in possession of great tracts of land, the use of which was given to the Patricians, on condition that they paid a tenth of the produce into the state treasury, and in addition, a sum of money for the shepherds on the pas- ture lands. But the Patricians came to look upon this as their own property, culti- vated it through their clients or slaves, paying neither the tenth part of the produce nor the wages of the shepherds. From time to time the Plebeians demanded land laws? ROME. 161 whereby they also could obtain a part of the public land. But their demands were always stoutly resisted. The consul, Spurius Cassius, a meritorious and famous man, b. c. 4so. who offered the first land law, was hurled from the Tarpeian rock, and his house reduced to ashes. § 103. The administration of justice was exclusively in the hands of the Patri- cians. Their judgments rested upon traditions and unwritten customs, and were often arbitrary and unjust. The Plebeians consequently demanded fixed and written laws. After a stubborn resistance on the part of the Patricians, the tribunes of the Plebeians succeeded in sending ambassadors to Southern Italy and to Athens to study their laws, THE DEAD VIRGINIA. ( H. Vofjel.) and to select from them those that seemed adapted to the conditions of Rome. Upon their return, both classes agreed that all officers should give up their places, and that ten Pat'jcians should be given absolute authority, and charged with the formation of a nen _ude. These (Decemvirs) performed their task with great ability, and their jb. c. 431-450. laws were received with such applause by the assembly of the people, that the Decemvirs were appointed for a second year, so that their work might be perfected. But the reappointed Decemvirs now abused their unlimited power. During the second year of their dominion they fined, imprisoned, exiled, and exe- cuted so many of the Plebeians as to draw down upon them a bitter hatred. Siccius Dentatus, an old hero of the people, was murdered at their command, and at the close 11 162 THE ANCIENT WORLD. of the second year they continued themselves in office, without the authority of the assembly. But the popular hatred first broke forth when Appius Claudius, one of the most powerful of these Decemvirs, claimed the beautiful Virginia as his slave. She was the daughter of Virginius, a leader of the Plebeians, and the bride of a former tribune, Lucius Icilius. In the midst of a great crowd Claudius beard the case in the Forum. One of his clients declared that Virginia was his escaped bond-maid. Hardly b. c. «». had the wicked judge declared in his client's favor, when the father rushed to his daughter, and drove a dagger through her heart. The people surrounded the dead body of the beautiful virgin, the Plebeian army marched into the city and camped on the Aventine Hill, and demanded, with threats, the banishment of the Decemvirs and a return to the old order. When the Senate and the Decemvirs hesi- tated, the people were advised by an old tribune to do as their fathers did, and abandon the city. Immediately the armed men formed in line, and marched through the city and to the gate ; men and women, old and young, followed in their train. Their departure broke the stubbornness of the Patricians. The Decemvirs were compelled to abdicate. Appius Claudius killed himself in prison, one of them was executed, and the rest were banished. But the laws of the twelve tables remained in force, and became the basis of the Roman code. § 104. The Plebeians compelled, soon afterward, another concession. Marriages b. c. 445. between Patrician and Plebeian were legalized, and the children of such marriages protected in their rights. But when the Plebeians demanded a share in the consulate, the Patricians declared that they would rather abolish the office b. c. jjs. entirety. This led to the creation of military Tribunes with consular power. These were commanders of the army and chief magistrates, chosen by each of the two classes. Occasionally the Patricians were strong enough to prevent the elec- tion of Plebeian consular tribunes. And sometimes they were bold enough to elect consuls. But this arrangement lasted, notwithstanding these infractions, for nearly a hundred years. To mollify the Patricians two Censors were appointed, whose duty it was to make out the census list, in which all Roman citizens were designated, accord- ing to wealth and rank, as Senators, Knights, or Burgesses. They were also charged with the building of temples, streets and bridges, and with the oversight of public morals. Breaches of decency and of the public peace the}' punished with disfranchise- ment and loss of rank. c. The Taking of Rome by the Gauls and the Licinian Laics. (389 366.) § 105. By a new arrangement, the citizen soldier now received pay during a cam- paign, and the troops were able therefore to stay longer in the field. As a consequence, the Romans extended their territory in the South, and under Camillus conquered the b. c. 39«. Etruscan city of Veii, whose inhabitants were either slain or carried into captivity. This was a death blow to the power of Etruria. The haughty com- mander became unpopular, through his ostentatious triumph and his unequal distribu- tion of the booty. The Tribunes of the people called him to account, but rather than appear before them, he went into voluntary exile, just at 'the moment when the city most needed him. § 106. For at this time the Gauls crossed the Apennines, and besieged the Etrus- can city, Clusium. The inhabitants sought help of the Romans, who sent ambassadors THL GAULS IN ROME. (pp.UZ.) 164 THE ANCIENT WORLD. to confer with the enemy. When these weTe unable to persuade the Gauls to raise the siege, they took part in the fight and slew one of the Gallic chiefs. This so enraged the Gauls, that they marched at once upon Rome, and defeated the Roman army so «. c. 300. utterly at Allia, that onty a few fugitives escaped from the field. The day of the battle was forever afterward marked black in the Roman calendar, and kept as a day of penitence and prayer. Rome was abandoned by the women and children, and occupied at once by the Gauls. They set fire to the empty city, murdered the eighty old men who had remained behind to appease the gods by their blood, and then surrounded the capitol to which the soldiers had withdrawn. Under the command of Marcus Manlius, this gar- rison resisted so stubbornly that the enemy finally agreed to retire for a thou- sand pounds of gold. Their chief, Brennus, to increase the sum, threw his sword into one scale, and a doubtful story relates that Camillus, with a troop of fugitive Romans, pur- sued the retreating enemy and took away their booty. a roman triumph. § 107. The Roman people were so disheartened by this invasion, that they talked of removing to the abandoned city of the Veii. With difficulty, the Patricians suc- ceeded in persuading them to remain. And to prevent a return to such a plan, the houses in Veii were destroyed, and Rome was hastily rebuilt with narrow and crooked streets and small dwelling houses. But the Patricians reclaimed their ancient priv- ileges, and proceeded to execute the debtor laws with the old severity. The savior of the capital, Marcus Manlius (Capitolinus), took the part of the oppressed and impover- ished Plebeians. This brought upon him the hatred of his own class. They accused b. c. 3s.». the hero of aiming at kingly power, condemned him to death, hurled him from the Taipeian rock, razed his house to the ground, and stamped his memory with infamy. This cruelty however aroused the Plebeians from their apathy. Two courageous and talented tribunes of the people Licinius Stolo and Lucius Sextius pro- is. e. 37?. posed the following laws: Consuls should be again elected, of which one should always be a Plebeian. No citizen should have on lease, more than five hun- dred acres of the public land, the rest to be distributed in small portions to the Ple- beians as free-hold farms. The interest of debts already paid should be deducted from the capital, and the remainder should be collected in three yearly installments. Against these proposals, the Patricians struggled mightily for ten years. But the firmness of the two tribunes led to their adoption, and to the abolition of Patrician n. c. 3«e. privilege. The pontifical offices, the new judicial dignity of Praetor, and some other positions were left to their exclusive control. But only for a short time. Just before his death, Camillus dedicated a sanctuary, at the foot of the capitol, to Concord. This was a monument of the settlement of the ancient quarrel ; and Rome now entered upon a period of civic virtue and of heroic greatness. ROME. II. ROME'S HEROIC AGE. 165 THE SAMNITE WARS AND THE FIGHTS "WITH PYEEHUS. §108. OVING swarms of Gauls still worried the Romans. Titus Manlius and Marcus Valerius distinguished themselves in fighting these, and the Romans now skilled in war, attacked the neighboring tribes. The Samnites, who dwelt among the Apennines, resisted most stub- bornly, and with these they were compelled to fight with little interruption, for more than fifty years. The war was begun by the inhabitants of Capua and the Campanian plains. Samnite free- booters had captured the Etruscan colony of Capua, but had rapidly degenerated in this city of pleasures. The Samnites in the mountain attacked these effeminate Samnites of the plain who, unable to defend themselves, turned to Rome for help. The Romans refused at first, but when the Capuans acknowledged their authority, they marched against the Samnites and defeated them at Cumae. And a second army of b. c. 342. the Samnites suffered such losses at the Caudine passes, that 40,000 of their shields were collected on the battle field. § 109. The Romans were now threatened by their former allies, the Latins. These refused to acknowledge any longer the supremacy of Rome, and demanded equality, and a share in the Senate, in the consulate, and in the other offices. b. c. 3 jo. The Romans rejected their demands, concluded a hasty peace and alliance with the Samnites, and turned their arms against the enemy nearer home. As the hostile armies stood near Vesuvius, the Consul, Manlius Torquatus, forbade all single combats. His own son disobeyed, and was condemned to death by the stern father ; his comrades however celebrated the memory of the young hero by a great funeral banquet. The battle of Vesuvius was decided in favor of the Romans, but chiefly by the self-sacrifice of the Plebeian Consul, Decius Mus. He had himself de- dicated to death by a priest, and then clad b. c. t io. in white, he rushed on horse-back into the midst of the hostile throng. After the battle the Latins, the Volscians, the JEqui, and the Hernici were admitted to an alliance with the Romans. They were allowed to rule themselves, but were required to serve in the Roman armies. The brazen prows (rostra) of the Volscian ships, taken in this campaign, were used to decorate the tribune of the orators in the Roman Forum. § 110. The Samnites now grew jealous of the Romans, and boundary quarrels samnian warrior. ( Vase Picture from Paris Louvre.) 166 THE ANCIENT WORLD. b. C..321. brought on another war. This was advantageous for the Romans, until they recklessly marched into the Caudine passes. Here they were surrounded b. c. 321. by the enemy under Pontius, and compelled to pass under the yoke. But the Senate refused to ratify the compact that the Roman consuls had made with Pontius, and delivered the two consuls, Veturius and Posthumius, in chains, to the Sainnites. The Samnites refused to receive them and even spared the hostages in their hands. But they attacked Rome once more. The new Roman commanders, Papirius and Fabius, did their utmost to wipe out the shame of the former defeat, and were so successful that the Samnites were compelled to seek foreign help, first from b. c.3io-3os. the Etruscans, and then from the Sabellians. But the energy of Rome increased with the number of her enemies. The Samnites were compelled to make terms. But the peace was of short duration, for the Samnites united with the Ura- brians, the Gauls, and the Etruscans, to carry on a third war, and in order to be near their new allies, they abandoned their own wasted territory and went to Umbria. But 'the battle of Sentinum, where the younger Decius Mus followed the example of his b. c. 293. father, destroyed the last hope of the allies. Shortly afterward the great Samnite commander, Pontius, fell into the hands of the Romans; he was led in chains to the city on the Tiber, and suffered a violent death in prison. Once more b. c. 2oo. the Samnites attacked the Romans, but in vain. Curius Dentatus in- flicted upon them a second defeat, in which the Samnite youth drenched the battle- field with their blood. The Samnites and their allies were compelled to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome, and to serve as allies in the army of their victors. The Romans planted military colonies in the subjugated lands, but treated the vanquished with sagacious clemency. § 111. During the Samnite wars, the rich and cowardly Tarentines behaved with great duplicity, and when a Roman ambassador offered them an advantageous treaty, they rejected it with scorn. The Romans therefore, as soon as the) r were mas- ters of the Samnites, marched against lower Italy. The Tarentines sought help from Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who gladly seized the opportunity, to increase his renown and his conquests. He was a worthy antagonist, — a man of courage and of noble bearing, although his army was made up of men from every nation. Partly because b. c. 2SO-279. of his famous line of battle, and partly because of his elephants, Pyrrhus was victorious in two battles ; and when he made preparations to attack Rome, the Senate seemed desirous of peace. But the blind Appius Claudius had him- self carried into the Senate to protest against such conduct, and persuaded them to send Pyrrhus word that no peace could be agreed upon, until the enemy left Italy ; " that Rome would never make peace with a victorious foe." The wisdom and digni- fied bearing of the Senate, which seemed to the ambassadors of Pyrrhus, like "a gathering of kings," the integrity and simplicity of the Roman generals, Fabricius and Curius Dentatus, and the courage and the discipline of the Roman legions, excited the admiration of the King, who hitherto had known only the degenerate Greek world. Not long after this Pyrrhus was called, by the Syracusans, to Sicily, to defend them against the Carthaginians ; but as he was preparing to take possession of the beautiful island, he was compelled by the Sicilian Greeks to depart. He marched once more to Tarentum, but was soon defeated so completely by the Romans, under B.c.27s. Curius Dentatus, at Maleventum (ever afterward called Beneventum), ROME. 167 that he hastened to get back to Greece. Some years afterward Pyrrhus was killed in battle at the city of Argos. And about the same time Tarentum was made tributary to Rome, having lost her fleet and a part of her art treasures. The conquest of lower Italy soon followed. The vanquished peoples were compelled to recognize the sov- ereignty of Rome, either as allies or as subjects ; and the depopulated cities were col- onized with Romans, to whom all others were subordinated. The city on the Tiber was now in control of Italy. The renown of Rome had reached the Orient, and the Egyptian king, Ptolemy Philadelphus, sent a splendid embassy to the Senate, seeking an alliance with the Roman people. 2. The Punic Wars. a. The First War With Carthage (B. 0. 264.-241.) § 112. Carthage, a commercial city on the north coast of Africa, had been b. c. sso. founded centuries before by Phoenician wanderers, and had reached great wealth and power through the enterprise and the intelligence of her inhabitants. The Carthaginians carried on an extensive trade with all the countries bordering on the Mediterranean. They planted colonies in southern Spain and in Sicily, and grew so rich that the suburbs of their city was like a garden, and decorated with numerous splendid villas. But civic freedom, mental culture, and nobility of purpose, were un- known to these rich traders. The administration of law and of justice was in the hands of a plutocracy. Art and literature were hardly cultivated ; their religious worship was stained by human sacrifices, and their falsehoods and cunning were so well known, that Punic faith was a proverbial expression for treachery and strategem. For a long time the Carthaginians fought with the Syracusaus for the possession of Sicily; and when Dionysius, the son of a mule driver, but a young and daring warrior, b. c. 4oa. made himself sole ruler of Syracuse, and established, with the help of b.c. 367. a mercenary army, a despotism in the city, the Carthaginians rapidly gained ground. His son, Dionysius the younger, was a cruel and sensual prince, who b.c. sev. was driven from the city by the Corinthian hero, Timoleon. After b. c. 3jj. he had liberated Syracuse, Timoleon won the victory of Crimesus, whereby a limit was set to the progress of the Carthaginians. But another bold adventurer, Agathocles, originally a potter by trade, made himself tyrant of Syra- cuse ; and renewed the war, which was conducted with such varying fortune, that Syracuse was besieged by the Carthaginians, and Carthage by the army of Agathocles at the very same time. Agathocles, however, conquered the North coast of Africa b. c. 300. and assumed the title of king. But his army was soon annihilated, and he himself compelled to escape secretly to Syracuse, where he re-established his authority by r murder and cruelty. He was finally poisoned, and so excruciating was the pain he suffered, that the hoary tyrant consented to be burned to death. b. c. 289. A period of chaos followed. The Campanian mercenaries (Mamer- b. c. ass. tines) of the dead tyrant took possession of Messina, murdered or banished the population, plundered and devastated the whole island. In their extrem- b. c. 27o. ity, the Syracusans chose the brave and popular Hiero for their king. In alliance with the Carthaginians, Hiero attacked the Mamertines, and besieged their city Messina. The Mamertines thereupon turned to Rome for help. §113. The more honorable citizens of Rome opposed an alliance with the Mam- 168 THE ANCIENT WORLD. ertine robbers ; but the Senate could not resist the temptation afforded them by this opportunity to conquer the rich and beautiful island of Sicily, although they perceived that the jealous Carthaginians, who were already in possession of the castle of Messina, would resist them to the last extremity. The Roman re- inforcements soon succeeded in driving the enemy from the walls of the city, in b. c. 363. forming an alliance with Hiero of S3'racuse, and in depriving the Carthaginians of the important city Agrigentum. The Romans thereupon proceeded to build a fleet, according to the model of a wrecked Carthaginian ship. With this fleet they attacked the Carthaginians, and by means of grappling bridges, whereby the hostile ships could be invaded and the fight made to resemble a land fight, they won their first naval battle at Mylae, near the Liparian islands. This victory of the Consul, Duilius, so elated the Romans, that they determined to deprive the Carthaginians of the dominion of the Sea, and sent their Consul, Regulus, with a fleet and a great army, to Africa. Regulus marched victoriously to the gates of Carthage, supported by the recreant cities and tribes of North Africa. The Carthaginians sued for peace, but the haughty conqueror insisted upon such hard conditions, that thej r determined upon a desper- ate resistance. They in- creased the number of their mercenary troops, and intrusted the conduct of their defence to the skilful Spartan, General Xanthippus, who defeated the Romans so completely at the harbor city of Tunis, that only two thousand of their army escaped. The' others were either killed or taker, captive. Among the captives was the Con- b. c. ass. sul, Regulus. The recreant cities were terribly punished by the Cartha- ginians. Enormous contributions in money and cattle were levied upon them, and three thousand Numidian chiefs and civil officers are said to have died upon the cross. § 114. This blow was followed by a series of calamities. Two Roman fleets were wrecked by storm, and the Romans compelled for years to abstain from naval warfare. And even on the land they ventured no great battles. They feared the elephants which had been so decisive at Tunis, and which they themselves had not learned to use. Gradually, however, they recovered their strength and courage. They made a b.c. 25i. successful attack from Palermo, drove back the Carthaginians and cap- tured their elephants. The Carthaginians, it is said, thereupon sent Regulus to Rome to negotiate an exchange of prisoners, exacting from him beforehand, an oath that he would return to captivity if the negotiation failed. Regulus dissuaded the Senate from the exchange, because he said it was injurious to Rome; and then, true to his oath, returned to Carthage. The Carthaginians were so enraged, that they killed the mag- nanimous man with cruel tortures. Victory wavered for many years. Appius Clau- ROMAN BOAKD1NU BK1DOK. 170 THE ANCIENT WORLD. B.e.1149. dius, who, in spite of unfavorable auspices, entered upon a battle at Drepanum, was defeated on sea and land. Finally the Carthaginian General, Ham- ilcar Barcas, took possession of the citadel Eryx, from which he was able to watch all the movements of the Romans. This endured as long as Drepanum was sufficiently provisioned, but as soon as Rome, in consequence of patriotic enthusiasm, was pro- REGULUS DEPARTS INTO CAPTIVITY. vided by wealthy citizens, and by the use of the temple treasures, with a fleet of 200 b.c. 24,1. vessels, the Romans were able to blockade the town. And the consul Lutatius Catulus so completely defeated the Carthaginian navy at the iEgean islands, that they consented gladly to a peace, in which they gave up Sicily and the fortresses which they had so long defended, and agreed to pay an immense sum to defray the expenses of the war. EOME. 171 b. The Second Carthaginian War. (218-202.) § 115. The Carthaginians refused to pay their mercenar}*- troops their stipulated b. c. mo. wages. This led to a terrible war that lasted through three years. b. c. 237. Meanwhile the Romans transformed Sicily, the granary of Itahy, into the first Roman province. They took possession also of Corsica and Sardinia, not how- ever, without severe struggles with the half barbarous inhabitants. They took away the island Corcyra and a few cities along the coast, from the pirates of Illyria. Their b. c. aae. hardest fight, however, was with the Cisalpine Gauls. These had b. c. 333. come down from the Alps and from the valley of the Rhone, and had fallen upon Etruria. The Romans defeated them in two bloody battles at Telamon, b. c. 325. on the Etrurian coast, and at Clastidium, on the river Po. They then b. c. 333. took possession of the fertile tracts of land on both sides of the Po, and united them with Rome by two great highways, known as the Via Flaminia and the Via JEmilia. Cisalpine Gaul from this time was governed as a Roman province. 116. The Carthaginians, meanwhile, had been making conquests in South Spain. At first under the brave Hamilcar Barcas, and, after his death in battle, under the sagacious Hasdrubal, They built New Carthage, and thereby awakened the fear and the jealousy of the Romans. Hasdrubal was therefore compelled to sign a treaty, in which he recognized the Ebro as a boundary beyond which Carthage must not extend her conquests. The Romans at the same time formed an alliance with the rich and powerful trading city of Sagun- tum, which is held to have been a Greek colonj 7 . Hasdrubal was soon murdered. He was succeeded by Hannibal, the son of Hamilcar, then in his twenty-fifth year. Hannibal combined the sagacity of his predecessor with the boldness and the genius of his father, and, as a boy, had sworn on the household altar eternal hatred to the Romans. He began his career by a few successful battles with the Spanish tribes, and then b.c. 319. starting a quarrel about boundaries, he attacked Rome's ally Sagun- tum. He was warned, in vain, by Roman ambassadors, to abandon the siege. He referred them to the Senate of Carthage, but meanwhile, after eight months labor, compelled the city to surrender. To speak more truly, he entered the city, which the inhabitants had transformed into a burning ruin. For when the last hope of saving the city had departed, they gathered their possessions together in the market place, set them on fire and then plunged into the flames, except a few who perished by the sword of the enemy, or under the embers of their burning houses. The Roman embassy in Carthage thereupon demanded the surrender of Hannibal. The senate hesitated and vacillated. Quintus Fabius, saying that he carried in his bosom peace and war, bade them choose. They demanded war with a loud voice. Opening the folds of his toga the Roman exclaimed " take then war ! " Thus began the famous war of Hannibal, a mighty war of races, which was to determine whether the Greek-Roman culture of the west, or the Phoenician-Semitic culture of the east, should shape the development of mankind. § 117. In the spring of the year 218 B. C. Hannibal crossed the Ebro, subdued the HANNIBAL. 172 THE ANCIENT WORLD. tribes of that vicinity, and then, with an army of 90,000 foot soldiers, 12,000 horsemen and thirty-seven elephants, crossed the Pyrenees. At the same time his brother, Hasdrubal, with a mixed army and a considerable fleet, held Spain in his control ; Hannibal marched through South Gaul, conquered a passage across the Rhone, and B.e.ms. began the immortal passage of the Alps. (Probably by the Little St. Bernard.) The soldiers, as they ascended, fought continually with the wild inhabitants and with the snow and ice. They forced their way across the walls of rock, and along the edges of terrible ravines, without shelter and without rest. The half of the army and all the cattle perished on the way. But his losses were soon made up when Han- nibal, after fourteen days, arrived in upper Italy. The consul, Cornelius Scipio, was QUINTUS FABIUS DECLARES WAR. defeated and severely wounded in a cavalry fight on the Ticin us river. His colleague, the heedless Sempronius, in spite of the wonderful bravery of his tired, hungry soldiers, was defeated utterly in the battle at Trebia. And this decided the Gallic tribes, on both sides of the Po, to attach themselves to Hannibal. After a short rest in Liguria, he began the difficult march across the Apennines. On this march he lost one b. c. 2it. of his eyes by inflammation. He now devastated Etruria, and at Lake Trasimene he fought the Consul Flaminius. The latter by his rashness brought upon himself a complete defeat, in which he perished, and his warriors were either slain or drowned in the lake. The fight was so hotly contested that an earthquake, which tore up the ground beneath the combatants, remained unnoticed. The way to Rome now ROME. 173 stood open to the victor, but the defiant courage of the Latin and Italian population of middle Italy, and the courageous bearing of the senate, made the Carthaginian general hesitate to press forward, with his exhausted troops, into the heart of the enemy's country. Driven back from the walls of Spoletium, he concluded to march along the HANNIBAL CROSSING THE ALPS. east coast of the Mediterranean toward Apulia, and to detach from Rome the people of lower Italy. § 118. Hannibal was now confronted by a man whose prudence and sagacious strategy caused him many difficulties. This was the Dictator, Fabius Maximus, the dilatory (cuncator). Fabius avoided an open battle, but pursued the enemy step by 174 THE ANCIENT WORLD. step, taking advantage of every unfavorable position. In Campania, where he occupied the mountain heights, he forced Hannibal into a position so dangerous, that the Carthaginian escaped only by a strategy. He tied burning branches to the horns of oxen and, by driving them through the mountains, was able to deceive the Roman general. Nevertheless the Roman people murmured at the dilatory conduct of the- war, and by their senseless urging, induced the Consul Tarentius Varro to venture a battle against the judgment of his colleague, iEmilius Paulus. . This resulted in the b. c. 2te. terrible defeat of the Romans at Cannae, where the number of the slain was so great, that Hannibal is said to have collected three bushels of gold rings taken from the arms of the dead knights. These he sent to Carthage. BATTLE OF CANN^. Parties were Among the captured, was the noble Mm\- lius Paullus. This battle-day of Cannae, like that of Allia, was marked black in the Roman calendar, and observed as a day of penance and pra} r er. The invincible senate preserved, in the midst of disaster, its courage and compos- ure. All who had fled at Cannae were declared dishonored, and expelled from the army, and the return- ing consul was thanked by the sen- ate, because he had reconciled, and vied not despaired of the salvation of the republic with each other in patriotic devotion. § 119. Hannibal deemed it unwise to march at once against Rome with his weak- ened army, so he went into winter quarters in the rich and luxurious city of Capua. But his rough warriors were so weakened by the pleasures of the city, that they lost all zest for fight. The Romans, on the contrary, were uncommonly active, preparing to put fresh troops in the field in the early spring. Hannibal received no reinforcements from Carthage. Two successful engagements filled the Romans with courage, and made it possible for them to chastise the cities in Lower Italy and Sicily, which had gone over to Hannibal after the battle of Cannae. Marcellus sailed across to Sicily and besieged Syracuse, but this was so bravely and successfully defended by the people, with the help of the ingenious mathematician and scientist Archimedes, that Marcellus was b. c. 214. able to conquer the city only after three years of tremendous effort. Ter- b. c. 212. rible, however, was the revenge of the Romans. The soldiers murdered and plundered. Archimedes„was clubbed to death. The works of art were carried to Rome, and the glory of Syracuse was destroyed forever. Capua suffered a like fate. 176 THE ANCIENT WORLD. Two Roman legions surrounded the city. The inhabitants besought Hannibal for help. The latter marched to the gates of Rome, hoping that the Romans would abandon the siege in order to save their capital. The excitement in Rome was almost wild, when the flames of the neighboring cities announced the coming of the enemy, and the terrible phrase " Hannibal is at the gates," never disappeared from the mem- ory of the people. Nevertheless, only a part of the troops left Capua for Rome. Han- nibal was compelled to retreat, and the starving Capua compelled to surrender. Twentj'- b. c. mi. eight Capuan senators died by their own hands ; ' fifty -three were be- headed ; the citizens were reduced to slavei\y, and their property divided among for- eign settlers. The treasures of Capua were carried to Rome, all rights were abolished, b. c. 2o». and Roman prefects ruled the city. Two years later, Tarentum came again into the power of the Romans. Fabius Maximus, " the shield of Rome," led the inhabitants into slavery and took possession of their treasure, but did not disturb the statues of " the angry gods." Terror soon led the recreant states back to Rome, and Hannibal's situation without money, without reinforcements, and without provisions, jb. c. 20s. became, with every day, more critical. His victory at Venusia, where Marcellus, " the sword of Rome," fell into an ambuscade, was the last successful deed of the great Carthaginian. § 120. Hannibal's only remaining hope was Spain, now that he was abandoned by his ungrateful country. His brother, Hasdrubal, was there. He had successfully resisted the Romans for a long time, until confronted by the young and able Corne- lius Scipio, who so pressed him, that he could no longer remain, and therefore determined to unite with his brother, who had called him to Italy. Crossing the Alps, b. c. sos. as Hannibal had done, he arrived in upper Italy, and, moving along the coast of the Adriatic Sea, he pushed forward to the camp of his brother, who was confronted in lower Italy by the Consul, Claudius Nero. The consul now resolved upon a daring plan. Unper- ceived, he slipped away to Umbria, formed a union b.c. sos. with his colleague, Livius Salinator, at- tacked and destroyed the army of Hasdrubal, near the river Metaurus, before Hannibal received news of his brother's arrival, the Romans having captured all the Carthaginian messengers. Hasdrubal's bloody head, .„ . x which the returning consul hurled into the Carthaginian Cornelius sctpio. [Africa nun.) ° .,-,■,. i , camp, was the first notice that the distressed general received of his impending fate. § 121. But Hannibal in adversity revealed the true greatness of his military genius. Without aid from abroad, meanly supported by his native city, abandoned by his Italian allies, except the few cities which, like Crotona, were afraid of Punic gar- risons, or of Roman vengeance, he maintained himself nevertheless against a superior foe, with the remnant of his army, for several years. Meanwhile Cornelius Scipio con- quered Gades, the last bulwark of the Carthaginians, and, having completed the con- quest of Spain, returned victorious and laden with booty, to be rewarded with the 178 THE ANCIENT WORLD. Roman consulate by his grateful fellow-citizens. But he soon grew tired of the cap- ital where he had many powerful opponents, and where the constitution and the laws hampered his imperious will. Moreover, his soul thirsted for activity, and the applause of the people spurred him on to new enterprises. The cautious Senate refused to sanction his plan of a campaign in Africa, but appointed him governor of Sicily. Scipio opened a recruiting camp in- Syracuse. The Roman warriors, who had fled from Cannee, and many other volunteers, hastened to his standard, and many cities made contributions, in order to provide his army with all the requisites for a great expedi- tion. Scipio then set sail across the Mediterranean, and with the help of the Numicl- ian king, Masinissa, the Romans surprised the camp of the Numidians and Cartha- ANCIENT UTICA. b. c. aoj. ginians, not far from Utica, set fire to their tents of straw and wooden huts, and defeated the united enemy with great loss. Masinissa had formerh r fought against Scipio, but changed sides when his neighbor, Sj'phax, of West Numidia, a friend of Carthage, robbed him of his kingdom and of his beautiful bride, Sophonisbe, the daughter of Hasdrubal, and compelled him to flee to the desert. Syphax fell into the hands of Scipio in a second battle, and was carried prisoner to Rome, where he soon perished miserably. His stolen wife, Sophonisbe, hoped to escape the vengeance of the Romans by a speedy marriage with Masinissa, but, when threatened with captivity, she preferred the cup of poison which was given her by Masinissa. After such blows as these, Carthage had but one remaining hope, Hannibal and his Italian ROME. 179 army. With mutterings and tears, the hero abandoned the land of his glory, in obedi- ence to the call of his country. He sought in vain, in a personal interview with Scipio, to make a treaty of peace. Scipio refused and the battle of Zama followed, which, in b. c. ao3. spite of the bravery of the veteran soldiers and the skilful disposition of the Carthaginian general, ended in his defeat. Hannibal now advised peace on any terms. The Carthaginians were compelled to promise to begin no war without the consent of the Romans, to give up all claim to Spain, to surrender their war ships, and to pay a large yearly tribute. After burning the Carthaginian fleet, and conferring the kingdom Numidia upon his friend Masinissa, Scipio (henceforth Scipio Africanus) returned to Rome, where a splendid triumphal procession awaited him in the decorated streets. Hannibal, on the contrary, was compelled to abandon his native country, and as a persecuted fugitive, carried his hatred for Rome to the court of the Assyrian king Antiochus. c. Macedonia Conquered Corinth and Carthage Destroyed. (B. C. 146.) § 122. Macedonia and a part of Greece was at this time gov- erned by King Philip III., a young man of intelligence and wit, and attractive man- ners, but faithless, sensual, and wicked. He had formed an alliance with Hanni- bal, and made war upon the Romans and their allies in Greece and Asia Minor. Consequently, after the Punic wars, the Romans turned their arms against him. They sent Quintius Flaminius, a man who delighted in Greek art and literature into Greece, to stir up the Hellenic b. c. 107. cities to rebellion. The Macedonians were attacked and defeated at Dog's Head (Kynoskephala), a Thessalian range of hills not far from Pharsalus. Philip was compelled, by this defeat, to acknowledge the independence of Greece, to surrender his fleet and a large sum of money, to give up all his foreign possessions, and the right of waging war. In order to flatter the vanity of the Greeks, Flaminius announced, in the most ostentatious manner at the Isthmian games, the liberation of b. c. 196. Greece from Macedonian rule. But the Romans soon sought to exer- cise dominion over the Hellenic states. The warlike iEtolians therefore placed them- selves at the head of several Greek tribes, as the Achaians had formerly done, and BATTLE OF ZAMA. 180 THE ANCIENT WORLD. appealed to the Syrian king, Antiochus III. Antiochus, at whose court Hannibal was a guest, followed their call; but he wasted his time in banquets and debauchery, in- sulted the Macedonian king, his natural ally, instead of attacking the Romans at once and with united energy. The Romans marched swiftly into Thessaly, stormed Ther- mopylae, and compelled the Assyrian king to retreat to Asia. He was followed thither b. c. too. by a Roman army under Cornelius Scipio, the brother of Africanus. At Magnesia a sanguinary battle was fought, in which Antiochus was utterly defeated. He was compelled to purchase peace by ceding to Rome all his European possessions, and all the lands of Western Asia this side of the Taurus. In addition he paid an CAPTURE OF THE CARTHAGINIAN FLEET BY THE ROMANS. enormous sum of money. The iEtolians were also subjugated and punished with heavy fines. Hannibal, to escape the Romans, fled to King Prusias of Bithynia. b. c. is3. When the latter could no longer protect him, he took poison to escape his enemy. He had faithfully kept the oath of his boyhood in a struggle of fifty 3'ears. His great antagonist, Scipio, died about the same time on his estate in Lower Italy far from Rome, from which his enemies had driven him ; and to fill up the measure of this fateful year, Philopcemen also was compelled to drink the poi- soned cup. § 123. Perseus, the wicked son of Philip III., persuaded his suspicious father to HOME. 181 b. c. 181. murder his noble son Demetrius, who was well disposed to the Roman people. Remorse soon carried the unhappy father to his grave. And as soon as x. c. no. Perseus ascended the throne, he began a new war which led to his overthrow. His immense, riches made it possible for him to have'made great prepara- tions, but his avarice and stubborn conceit made him an easy prey to the skillful and b. c. ies. experienced Roman general, iEmilius Paulus. Perseus was defeated TITUS Q. FLAMINIUS PROCLAIMING LIBERTY TO THE GREEKS. (II. Vogel.) at the battle of Pydna, and fled with his adherents to the island of Samo-Thrace, but they were compelled to surrender themselves unconditionally to Octavius, the com- mander of the Roman fleet. And the king with his treasures, his captive children and friends, was led in triumph through the streets of the city of the world. To all his pleadings the Romans answered, "Free yourself from shame," but he had not the courage to take his own life. He died a captive at Alva. Macedonia was divided into four districts, which were granted republican government. A thousand noble 182 THE ANCIENT WORLD. b. r. no. Achaians ("among them the great historian Polybius) were carried as hostages to Rome. Twenty years later a pretended son of Perseus (false Philip as he was called) raised the standard of rebellion against Rome. This gave the Romans the wished- for opportunity to convert Macedonia b. c. ijs. into a Roman province. Metellus soon over- came the pretender, but he had hardly left the conquered land, when the Achaian league took w arms, hoping to break 5 the yoke of Roman £ bondage. Metellus § marched to meet « them and had defeat- § ed them in two bat- 2 ties, when he was suc- b. c. mi. ceeded by Mummius, a rough and uncultivated war- rior, by whom the splendid city of Corinth was stormed and burned to the ground. The Corin- thians were either slain or sold into captivity; the works of art destroyed, sold, or carried off to Rome ; Greece con- verted into a Roman province, and, under the name of Achaia, made subject to the governor of Macedonia. A phantom of their former freedom and self-government ROME. 183 was conceded to the Greek cities, but only a phantom. Roman oppression and Roman taxation soon destroyed the prosperity of the once flourishing cities, and quenched the love and liberty and the patriotism of former centuries. The Spar- tans became mercenary soldiers, the Athe- nians wandered about as artists and scholars, actors and dancers, and poets. The Romans patronized them and despised them. § 124. Carthage meanwhile returned coin of perseus. tf » ner former prosperity. The jealousy of Rome revived, and Cato concluded his famous speeches invariably with the declaration "-Carthago delenda est." "Carthage must be destroyed." Trusting to Roman protection, the Numidian king Masinissa enlarged his territory at the expense of Carthage, provoking boundary quarrels and invasions. Rome declared these inva- sions a breach of the treaty, and declared war. The Carthagi- nians pleaded for mercy, and delivered b. c. i4o. to the Romans three hun- dred hostages, their arms and their ships. Nevertheless the sentence was pro- nounced, " Carthage must be torn down." The citizens were permitted to build a new town ten miles distant from the sea, but they determined rather to be buried under the walls of their houses, than to abandon their ancient and beloved home on the sea. A daring courage, a patriotic enthusiasm seized all ranks and ages. The city became a camp ; temples were con- verted into forges and armories. Even the veteran legions of Rome were powerless in BATTLE OF PYDNA. 184 THE ANCIENT WORLD. the presence of this enthusiasm. Frequently defeated, their condition was extremely critical, when the younger Scipio, the talented son of vEmilius Paulus, and the adopted son of Scipio, became consul and dictator. He finally succeeded in con- B.c.iia. quering the starved and pest-stricken city. But only after a des- perate resistance, and six clays of murderous conflict in the streets. The rage of the embittered combatants and a terrible conflagration destroyed the majority of the pop- ulation. A desperate band of Roman deserters, who with the general, Hasdrubal, and his wife and children, defended the temple of " The god of rescue," despairing of their lives, set the building on fire, expecting all to perish in the flames. But Hasdrubal did not share the heroic feeling of his wife ; he escaped and sought mercy from the Romans. Fifty thousand inhabitants escaped the sword, but they were sold into slavery, or doomed to long imprisonment by the victorious Scipio, henceforth known as the younger Africanus. "Let Carthage be leveled to the ground," was the decree of the Roman senate. " Let the barren site be torn up by the plow, and the soil be cursed forever." For seventeen days the fire raged, and the proud mistress of the Mediterra- nean became a pile of ashes. " Where the indus- trious Phoenicians had wrought and traded for five centuries, Roman slaves now pastured the coin of . oexandek <■. ■■ : > herds of their absent masters." The subject territory was henceforth known as the Roman province, Africa. d. Roman Culture and Manners. § 125. The acquaintance of the Romans with Greece wrought great changes in Roman culture, Roman morals, and Roman habits of life. The works of Grecian art and literature, taken from the plundered cities, produced a taste for culture, and awakened new feelings and new ideas. A powerful party, at the head of which were the Scipios, Marcellus, Flaminius, and others, favored Hellenic philosophy, poetry and art, patronized Greek scholars, poets and philosophers, and sought to bring to Rome not only the art treasures, but the mind and the language of the conquered people. Roman poets appeared who followed Grecian models. Plautus and Terence piantus, b. c. 18*. wrote comedies, and the latter was patronized by the younger Scipio and his friend Lselius. Twenty comedies of Plautus and six of Terence have been Terence, b. c. iso. preserved, and have been frequently imitated by modern dramatists. The Romans, however, were practical people ; their thoughts were directed to the art of war, to the administration of the state, and to jurisprudence. The common people had more pleasure in parades, in gladiatorial fights, and fights with wild beasts, than in the productions of art or the gifts of the Muses. But the richer classes introduced into their homes the elegance and refinement of Greek life, clothed themselves in fine raiment and gave luxurious banquets. They adopted too the social politeness of the Oriental, his sensual pleasure, his lust of the eye and lust of the mind. As a conse- quence the ancient morals, discipline, simplicity, moderation, and fortitude began to disappear. This led M. Porcius Cato to form an opposition party, in order to resist these innovations. As censor, he proceeded with the utmost severity to put down Greek philosophers, Greek orators, Greek festivals, Greek religious usages and every ROME. 185 kind of luxury' and sensual splendor. Cato also composed writings upon agriculture the basis of Rome's ancient greatness, and upon the old Italian races, whose simplicity and moral purity he contrasted with the degenerate manners of his own time. Yet METELLUS IN GREECE. Cato's own example, for he himself learned Greek in his old age, shows that strict ad- herence to the ancient and traditional, must succumb to the progressive tendency of a new epoch. 186 THE ANCIENT AVORLD. III. ROME'S DEGENERACY AND THE PARTY STRUGGLES OF 126. THE REPUBLIC. 1. NtTMANTIA, TIBERIUS, AND CAIUS GKACCHUS. HE Roman dominion was increasing, but Roman virtue, Roman pa- triotism, the sources of their greatness, were as rapidly decreasing- The rich and the noble formed a new aristocracy, which, like the earlier Patrician, appropriated to itself all dignities and offices. To increase' their inherited glory by victories and triumphal processions, they sought continually for new wars, in which they could be conspicuous. And in order not to diminish the riches upon which the power of the family was based, and yet at the same time to enjoj' every pleasure and delight, the provinces were plundered and their clients were oppressed. The Optimates, the men of the new nobility, were made pro-consuls and pro -praetors in the conquered lands. Surrounded by a mob of secretaries and officials, they looked far more to their own advantage, than to the happiness of the people of the provinces. The richer members of the order of Knights farmed out the taxes, paying into the state treasury a definite sum, and then, by means of tax- gatherers, doubling and tripling this a m o u n t . Hungry tradesmen and money-lenders took the little that was left by the officials and the tax-gatherers, so that a generation was long enough to de- stroy the prosperity of a Roman pro- vince. A law existed, it is true, which gave the outraged people the right to accuse their oppressors at ROMAN LADY AND SLAVE. DEAD GLADIATOR HAULED TO THE SPOLIARIUM. (A. Wagner.) ROME. 187 the close of an administration and to require a restoration of their property. But the judges all belonged to the aristocracy or the plutocracy. Accordingly the guilty went scot-free, or were condemned to pay a small penalty or banished from Rome for a brief period. Occasionally a pro- vince sought to shake off the yoke, and to conquer freedom in battle. The first example of such an uprising was given by the inhabitants of Spain, the Lusitanians, who dwelt in what is now Portugal, under their brave leader Viriathus, and the heroic Spanish race who dwelt in and around Numantia. Viriathus was murdered by a band of faithless con- spirators, but the Numan- tians defied the Romans for five years, and com- b. c. 130. pelled from the Roman Consul, whom they surrounded in the mountains, the recognition of their independence. But the Senate refused to confirm this agreement. The Consul, stripped of his decorations and with his hands tied behind his back, was delivered to the enemy, and the war re- sumed. But the brave mountaineers were not yet conquered. The younger Scipio now took the field, and having restored the ancient discipline, was able, with his army, to compel the surrender of b. c. 133. Numantia. The intrepid citizens died by their own hand, rather than endure the taunts of the victors. Scipio (henceforth Numantinus) destroyed the empty city, whose ruins still look down upon posterity, the glorious monument of a noble struggle for independence. THE TAKING OF CARTHAGE. 188 THE ANCIENT WORLD. § 127. The new nobility not only filled all the offices, excluding all newcomers from positions of high honor, but possessed all the public land, and rapidly absorbed the small freeholds by purchase, usury, intrigue, and even violence. This brought about a great inequality of fortune. The free-hold farmers, the strength of ancient\ Rome, disappeared entirety, while the Aristocrats accumulated great estates, which were cultivated by hordes of slaves. These were known as latifundia. Throngs of beggars, composed of men and women, hunted from house and barn by cruel land- lords, wandered through Italy, the picture of human misery. Tiberius Gracchus, son b. c. 133. of Cornelia, and grandson of the great Scipio Africanus, now rose up as the protector of oppressed povert}'. He proposed to renew the Licinian laws so that no one should jjossess more than 500 acres (jugera) of the public land. The rest to be distributed in small por- tions among the needy families. He was met with a storm of hatred. The Aristo- crats found another tribune of the people to veto the proposal of the tribune Tiberius, And as, by Roman law, the tribunes must be unanimous, the proposal was de- feated. But Tiberius Gracchus urged the people to depose his colleague, and thereby violated the sanctity of the office. His enemies accused him of intending revolu- tion ; he lost gradually the favor of the people, and at an election of tribunes, he, with 300 of his adherents was slain by the Optimates and their supporters. The peo- ple who had abandoned him, honored his memory by the erection of his statue. § 128. Caius Gracchus, the younger brother, was as brave, as determined, and far more talented. He jb. c. 123. renewed the proposal of Tiberius, and with it proposed a distribution of grain at fixed prices, to the poorer citizens. His extraordinary eloquence and his humane efforts, created for him a powerful fol- lowing among the people, whose pressing misery he sought to relieve by building highwaj"S, by public works, and by the founding of colonies on the African coast. As he marched through city and land, no one ventured to oppose him, especially as the great Scipio ROMAS DANCING WOMAN. TRIUMPHAL QUADRIGA. ROME. 189 Africanus ^Emilianus had beeu found one morning murdered in his bed. But when the tribune of the people, urged by his violent friend, Fulvius Flaccus, proposed to give the right of Roman citizenship to the allies, in order to strengthen his following and his power, the Aristocrats, in their terror, determined to destroy him. As in the case of his brother, a tribune was won over, Livius Drusus .vetoed his proposals, and made the people believe that this 'increase of Roman citizens was a blow directed at them- selves. He promised them also many advantages, if they coin of tryphon. {Syria.) would support him in his contest with Gracchus. A terrible fight took place between the two parties, the Aristocrats, with the consul Opimius at their head, and the adherents of Gracchus and of Fulvius. Fulvius and 300 of his companions were slain, and their corpses thrown into the Tiber ; Gracchus escaped to a grove beyond the river, and perished at the hands of a faithful slave, who plunged, as his master commanded, a sword into his breast. The laws and CORNELIA AND THE GRACCHI. (H. Vogel.) a. c. 121. ordinances of Gracchus were abolished ; his party friends punished with death, imprisonment, and exile. The Aristocrats were once more the rulers of the republic. They declared the memory of the Gracchi infamous. But the people paid the noble brothers an increasing tribute of reverence. The Times of Marius and Sylla. § 129. The Jugurthine War. — The Aristocrats disgraced their rule by greed 190 THE ANCIENT WORLD. ROMAN CHAIR OF STATE. and bribery, by the defiance of every feeling of justice and of honor. Jugurtha the cun- ning, skillful, and ambitious grandson of Masinissa of N'umidia, took advantage of this moral degeneracy and corruption in Rome, and killed two sons of his uncle, who had been made joint rulers with him. He took possession of their states, the sovereignty of which the Romans had guaranteed them, and by bribing influential Senators, he was able to remain in pos- session of his plunder, and to heap crime upon crime. Finally the anger of the peo- ple compelled the Senate to send an army to Africa ; but the Numidian king, by brib- ery and corruption, produced such disorder in the army, that the}' were beaten in the first encounter and compelled to pass under the yoke. This disgrace so embittered the Romans, that the Senate was compelled to take measures for s.cioa. the punishment of the insolent king. Metellus was sent with fresh troops to Africa. He restored discipline to the army, and victory to the Roman standards. But the people were so embittered against the aristocracy, that they were determined, at eveiy cost, to drive them from control. To this end they needed a bold leader from their own circle, and they found one in the ambitious Caius Marius, a man of ignoble birth, but brave, enterprising, endowed with great military ability, and filled with hatred for the rich and the aristocratic. The rough warrior despised all culture and refinement. And, smarting from an insult which he had received from the haughty Metellus, was eager for revenge. He offered himself as consul, was elected b. c. tor. by the popular party, succeeded in having Metellus pushed aside, and himself entrusted with the conduct and completion of the Jugurthian war. The energetic Marius and his severely disciplined armj r , soon proved too strong for Jugurtha, with all his cunning and expedients. He was conquered, and driven to take refuge with Bocchus, king of Mauritania. But this faithless and vacillating prince b. c. tos. delivered him to Cornelius Sylla, who was next in rank to Marius. The " Son of the desert " was carried in triumph to Rome, imprisoned in an under- ground cell of the capital, and starved to death in his " Chilly bathroom," as he called his dungeon, upon entering it. § 130. The Cimbrians and Teutonians. The African war was not yet ended, when the Cimbrians and Teutonians appeared on the Roman frontiers. These northern races were of gigantic size and strength, and were marching forward with their women, children, and property, to conquer for themselves new homes. They were clad in skins of beasts and in iron armour, and carried enormous shields, long swords and heavy b.c. 113. clubs. They first attacked the Romans in Karinthia. The latter had ROME. 191 expected to lead them into an ambuscade, but were defeated in a bloodj- battle, after which the barbarians marched through Gaul, plundering and ravaging. Within four years, they annihilated five consular armies in the valley of the Rhone and on the shores of Lake Geneva. At this juncture, Marius, whom the Romans had re-elected b. c. loa-ioo. repeatedly to the consulate, contrary to the law, appeared as the savior of the republic. His army, recruited from all classes and tribes of Italy was proof against fatigue of every kind. Marius exercised the strictest discipline, compelled his soldiers to endure all manner of hardships, and to perform every kind of labor. The Teutons returning from an expedition into Spain, and marching toward Upper Italy, en- countered Marius at Aqua; Sextite, and were defeated with terrible slaughter. The Cim- b. c. 102. brians, who had meanwhile broken through the Tyrol, and the valley of the Etsch, into upper Italy, abandoned themselves to the pleasures offered them by that rich coun- try: and were suddenly overwhelmed by Marius and his colleague Lutatius Catulus, near Ver- cellae. The rough courage of these Germans, who slaughtered themselves and their children, b. c. 101. rather than enter into slavery, made the Romans tremble. Small remnants of the Cimbrians sought shelter in the Venetian Alps, and in the mountains of Tyrol, where their posterity remain to this very day. The battle of Vercellre gave new strength to party quarrels, as the Democrat, Marius, demanded for himself the glory of the day, which, in the opinion of the Aristocrats, belonged to Catulus. § 131. The War Against the Allies. Marius, the savior of Italy, the pride b. c. too. and the hope of the popular party, was rewarded with a sixth consulate. The Aristocrats now gathered about Cornelius Sylla, an ambitious statesman of military genius, who united in himself the culture of the Aristocrat and the vices of the people. His was a strong mind in a strong body. Under his leadership, the Aristocrats made rapid progress in opposition to the Democratic party. The illegal conduct of Satur- ninus, the tribune of the people, who, secretly, supported by Marius, distributed corn to the poo'r, and lands in Gaul and North Africa to the soldiers of Marius, was the prelude of a terrible party -struggle, which became more threatening with every clay. The exile of the haughty but blameless Metellus, who refused to execute the decree of the people, was intended to deter the senators from all opposition. By r deeds of mur- der and outrage, Saturninus prolonged his period of office, and obtained for his com- panion, the infamous Glaucia, the consular dignity. Marius now grew ashamed of his allies and abandoned them. This gave the Optimates the courage to oppose their antagonists. The lawless conduct of the factions now destroyed all public order, and the popular excitement broke out in insurrection and street-conflicts. The Democrats n. c. oo. were beaten ; their leaders, with many of their adherents, were murdered bv the aristocratic youths, who tore the tiles from the roof of the capitol to hurl upon INHABITANT OF GERMANY AT THE BEGIN- NING OP OUR ERA. 192 THE AXCIENT WORLD. their heads. But the mass of the people and their Italian allies, continued their disor- der and violence. Livius Drusus, the younger, sought to mediate between the Senate and their opponents, and proposed to help the poor by land laws, colonization, and dis- tribution of corn; and to satisfy the allies by conferring upon them the rights of citizen- ship. But the Aristocrats refused to listen to him ; he was attacked in his own house, just b. c. at. as he was dismissing the crowd that had escorted him home, and he died in a few hours. The murderer was not discovered, and the proposed laws of Drusus came to nothing. The cheated allies, who were enthusiastic for the plans of Drusus, now rushed to arms, determined to conquer equal rights or independence. The Sabellians, the Samnites, and the Marsians declared their independence of Rome, formed an Italian league, b. c. Boss. and proclaimed Corfinium, under the name of Italica, the capital of the new union. Veteran armies took the field. In Rome the people put on mourning, armed the freed-men and gave equality of rights to the Latins, the Etruscans, and the Umbrians. And after wavering fortunes and many bloody battles, the Romans succeeded in conquering the enemy. The proud anti-Rome, Italica, sank back to its former obscurity. But the danger was yet so imminent, that the Romans deemed it prudent to concede the rights of citizenship to all their allies. But they divided these new citizens among eight tribes only, so as to limit their political power. § 132. The First War Against Mithridates. Hardly were the allies pacified, when the Romans were attacked from the East by a brave and able prince, Mithridates, king of Pontus, on the Black Sea. He sought to unite into one great league, the Asiatic and Greek states, which were brought to despair by the oppression of Roman tax-gatherers, and to conquer independence from Roman rule. Faithless and cruel, but strong, energetic, and invincibly courageous, the king of Pontus was the most important enemy of the Roman people ; and against him, they defended them- selves like the lion of the desert against the hunter. In western Asia, at the command of Mithridates, on one terrible day, all men who wore the toga, 80..000 in number, were put to death. At the same time, the king took possession of Roman territory, and sent an army into Greece to protect the Athenians, the Boeotians, and others who had joined him. The Roman Senate thereupon gave Sylla the command of the war against him. Sylla had distinguished himself in the war against the allies, and had been chosen consul. jb. c. ss. But Marius, with the help of the eloquent tribune, Sulpicius, and of the " New citizens " obtained a decree of the people, according to which he was him- self entrusted with the conduct of the Mithridatic war. The two messengers who brought this edict into Sylla's camp, were stoned to death by the angry soldiers, and ROMAN CENTURION. GERMAN WOMEN DEFENDING THEIR WAGON CASTLES. (A. de NeuVllle.^ 13 (pp. 193. ) 194 THE ANCIENT WORLD. Sylla marched straightway to Rome. He drove Marius, with eleven of his companions, into exile as traitors to their country, restored the authority of the Senate, arranged for the safety and the order of the city, and then resumed the campaign against Mith- ridates. Marius escaped manifold dangers, and found his way to Africa. § 133. The First Civil War. Sylla first stormed Athens, which atoned for its rebellion by a terrible massacre. He then plundered the temple of Delphi, and con- b. c. se. quered the army of the king of Pontus in two battles. He marched through Macedonia and Thrace to Asia Minor, and compelled Mithridates to make a b. c. 84. peace, in which Rome once more acquired control of Western Asia, and in addi- tion, a large sum of money and the entire navy of the Pontian king. The rebellious cities and districts were punished severely by fines and confiscation. Flavius Fimbria, the adherent of Marius, who had defeated Mithridates before Sylla's arrival, was now threatened by the latter, and abandoned by his soldiers. The cruel de- stroyer of new Ilium, thereupon took his own life, in a temple at Pergamos. Marius mean- while had left the ruins of Carthage, and re- turned to Italy. He gathered about him a band of desperate men, and allying himself with the Democratic leaders, Cinna and Serto- rius, marched to the gates of Rome. The city weakened by hunger and discord, soon surren- dered, and Marius gave his vengeance free course. Mobs of rough soldiers plundered and murdered on every side. The leaders of the Aristocratic party, the most respected and renowned Senators and Consulars, were slain, their houses plundered, their property confis- cated, and their corpses abandoned to dogs and vultures. Marius then had himself chosen consul for the seventh time, and thus reached the goal that had been promised him by an oracle in his youth, and toward which he had struggled restlessly for many years. The ex- citement, in which his own rage and his fear of Sylla's prosperity and revenge had b. c. se. brought him, chased all peace from his soul. He abandoned himself to drink, and a violent fever soon put an end to his life. Two years afterward Cinna was slain in a soldiers' quarrel. § 134. In the year 83 before Christ, Sylla landed in Italy and marched b. c. S3. immediately to Rome. In Lower Italy he defeated several times the Democratic consul, besieged the younger Marius in the fortified city of Prasneste, driving him to suicide ; and then in a bloody battle near the gates of Rome, defeated the Marian party and the rebellious Samnites. Marius, before his departure from EAGLE ON ROMAN STANDARD. ROME. 195 the capital, had put to death the venerable Pontifex Maximus, Scsevola, and other chiefs of the opposition party; and Sylla, to revenge them, slaughtered four thousand prisoners in the Circus Maximus, in the presence of the trembling Senate. 100,000 b. c. sa. human lives had already perished in the civil war, when Sylla " the fortunate," as he was called, published the proscription lists, upon which stood the names of those Romans who were to be plundered and murdered. All ties of blood, of friendship, of gratitude, and piety were thereby torn asunder. Sons attacked their fathers, slaves their masters ; terror and outrage everywhere prevailed. Sylla was b. c. sa. proclaimed dictator and published the Cornelian laws, by which the whole authority of the state came into the hands of the Aristocrats. The power of the b. c. 79. tribunes was broken ; the administration of justice, and the system of taxation, entirely reorganized. These arrangements completed, Sylla resigned his dictatorial office and retired to his estate, where he soon died, either from a hemor- rhage or from a terrible disease, brought upon him by his mode of life. His corpse was brought to Rome and committed to b. c. 7s. the flames with magnifi- cent funeral ceremonies. He was without faith, but not without superstition ; he relied upon his star and his own strong mind, but silenced the voice of his conscience by a scrupulous observance of religious rites. 3. The Times of Cn^eus Pompeius and of Txjllitjs Cicero. § 135. The death of Sylla did not restore peace to the shattered commonwealth. The proscribed and persecuted Democrats gathered about their brave b. c. 75. and upright leader Sertorius, and fought successfully against the Roman armies in Spain. Supported by the natives, whose favor Sertorius had been able to win, they thought of §§} establishing a republic, independent of Rome ; and not until Sertorius had been murdered at a banquet by his jealous comrades, was Pompeius (who had gladiatobs. {From an Antique early joined the party of Sylla and was now regarded Mosaic.) as j tg cn i e f) arj l e to suppress the insurrection. His good-natured manners and conciliatory character made him a successful mediator. Half hero and half adventurer, his chivalrous bearing captivated the popular imagi- nation, and aroused the enthusiasm of the army. pompey. {Palazzo Spada, Borne.) 196 THE ANCIENT WORLD. § 136. When Pompey returned to Italy from Spain, he was confronted by a new enemy, the insurgent slaves. Seventy gladiators escaped from Capua, broke open the b. c. 72. slave prisons in Lower Italy, and sounded a cry for a war of freedom. In a short time their number had increased to fifty thousand. At their head stood the bold Thracian, Spartacus. Their first intention was to return home. But after con- quering two Roman armies that had undertaken to bar their way, they were filled with the hope of destroying the Roman power, and of revenging themselves for their ill- treatment. The peril of Rome was great and imminent, but lack of discipline and harmony divided the slaves, and led to senseless expeditions. The consul Marcus Cras- sus was consequently able to surround the poorly armed bands in the mountain forest DEATH OF SPARTACUS. (H. Vogel.) of Sila, and, having isolated them, to conquer each group singly. Spartacus, with a part of his army, forced a passage to Lucania, but was defeated, after a heroic resist- b. c. vi. ance, in a bloody battle at the river Silarus. The power of the insur- rection was now utterly broken. All prisoners were put to an excruciating death. A few remnants of the army succeeded in reaching Upper Italy, but were annihilated by Pompeius. The two victors were rewarded, the following 3 r ear, by an election to the consulate, and vied with each other for the favor of the people, by their lavish expenditures. § 137. But Pompey acquired his chief renown in Asia, where he carried to a suc- cessful termination, the war against the pirates and a second war against Mithridates. The pirates had their homes in the barren mountain regions of southern Asia Minor: ROME. 197 from these they made plundering voyages over the Mediterranean, devastating the is- lands and the coast, kidnapping aristocratic Romans, in order to obtain great sums as ransoms, and interrupting everywhere commerce and travel. Pompeius was therefore b. c. 97. intrusted, by the Gabinian law, with a dictatorship over the seas, islands and shores of the Roman commonwealth and provinces. In three months he scoured the whole Mediterranean sea, driving out the pirates ; then conquered the fortified castles and cities of their own land, and deported the prisoners to the Cilician city, Soli, which was after- ward called Pompeiopolis. Hardly was this accomplished, when the Manilian law entrusted, to Pompeius, the conduct of the second Mithridatic war. § 138. For the king of Pontus, encouraged by the discord at Rome, had b. c. 7-t. taken up once more his former plans of conquest and of inde- pendence. He besieged the wealthy island city of Cyzicus, which was friendly to the Romans ; but was so thoroughly defeated by Lucullus, that he hastened back to Pontus. Crassus pursued him and conquered Pontus, whereupon Mithridates sought protec- b. c. 72. tion and help from his son-in-law Tigranes, king of Armenia. The latter led into the field, near his splendid capital Tigranocerta, an enor- mous army, among which, the steel-clad riders with their lances, were regarded as invincible. Lucullus, on the contrary, commanded a force so small that the king spoke of it as too large for an embassy, and too small for an army. Nevertheless b. c. 6o. Tigranes was defeated, and Lucullus was about to subjugate the whole kingdom and to carry the Roman eagles into Parthia, when the legions, discontented because of many hardships, broke into mutiny. Lucullus thereupon returned to his riches and his pleasure-gardens, B.c.G7. while Pompey left Italy to take command of the b. c. ««. rebellious army. He conquered Mithridates, in spite of the re-enforcement that the latter had gathered, in a nocturnal battle on the Euphrates. He then reduced the Armenian king to Tmn* T f & S AN " ES, i sub J ectior1 ' and compelled the war-like tribes of the Caucasus to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome; and finally proceeded to n.i-.ot. Syria, and brought to an end the dominion of the Seleucids. Mithri- dates, bereft of nearly all his lands, attacked by his own son Pharnaces, abandoned A SUPPER AT LUCULLUS'. 198 THE ANCIENT WORLD. CICERO. by his soldiers, and deserted and betrayed by his oppressed subjects, took poison and perished with his wives and daughters ; not however, before a sentinel, taking pity b. c. 63. upon the writhing prince, had helped the poison with his sword. A laurel-crowned messenger brought the news of the death of his greatest enenry to the Roman commander in his camp at Jericho. Pompeius organized his conquests into three provinces, gave some of the more distant lands over to the authority of tributary kings, and then returned to jb. c. ««. Rome, where he celebrated his victory with a two days' triumph, having filled the treasury of the commonwealth with enormous riches. § 139. During the absence of Pompeius, his friend and adherent, Tullius Cicero, had won for himself the name of " Father of his Country." Cicero, the child of unaristocratic parents, had so distinguished himself by his talents, his energy, and irreproachable life, as to be elected consul. In Athens and Rhodes he had devoted himself to Greek learning, especially to eloquence and philosophy, with such zeal and success, that he could be compared as a statesman and orator to Demosthenes. Although vain and weak, he possessed civic virtue, patriotism, and a strong feeling of justice. During his consulate, a conspiracy was b. c. 63. formed by Catiline, a man of aristo- cratic birth, but stained by a vicious life, and loaded down with debt. He and his fellow-conspirators intended to murder the consuls, set fire to Rome, overthrow 7 the constitution, and, in the consequent confusion to get control of the city, by the help of the soldiers of Sylla, and the mob, and then to estab- lish a military dictatorship. But the vigilant Cicero brought to naught their wicked undertaking. In his four orations against Cataline, he unmasked the jb. c. an. bold traitor in the Senate, and forced him to fly to Etruria, where he and his soldiers were defeated by the consular armies. The courage of the traitors was worthy of a better cause. Five of his fellow-conspirators died a violent death in prison. 4. The Times of Caius Julius Caesar. § 140. — The First Triumvirate. Sylla's suc- cess spurred ambitious men to imitation ; each sought to be the first, and to get possession of the commonwealth. Pompey possessed an almost royal authority, and was resting upon his laurels, while his great rival, Caius Julius Csesar, gradually acquired strength. Caesar was at once orator and writer, statesman and soldier. His liberality made him popular, and his ambition spurred him on to great achievements. In order to overcome the party of ROMAN DAGGERS. ROME. 199 s.c.eo. old Republicans, led by Portius Cato, the younger, Caesar made an alliance with Pompeius and Crassus. This was called the triumvirate, and the three men pledged to each other mutual help, and with the support of the popular party, ruled the commonwealth, without regard to the wishes of the senate. They procured the confirmation of the arrangements made b) r Pompeius, in Asia, cunningly removed Cato from Rome, by entrusting him with an honorable mission, and instigated the Tribune, b. c. ss. Clodius, to provoke the banishment of Cicero, because he had executed the companions of Cataline without legal authority. Caesar then obtained the govern- orship of Gaul, where he conducted a long war, and, not to «. c. se. be disturbed in his enterprises, he renewed the triumvirate for two years longer. Pompeius received Spain as his province, governed it, however, by subordinates, I exercising at Rome a dictatorial power. Crassus, the richest man in Rome, greedily chose the distant Syria, with its b. c. S3. treasures, but was conquered in the desert of Mesopotamia, by Parthian horsemen, and after the death of his son, Publius, and the greater part of his troops, was V... : M overtaken as a fugitive and killed. The exulting victors ^fc^— ^ — gloated over his corpse, and stuffed his pallid mouth with gold. The Roman standards fell into the hands of the enemj'. Of the splendid army that had crossed the Euphrates, the half remained on the battle-field, and 10,000 prisoners were carried into the far East, and sold as slaves. Only a small remnant was rescued by the legate, Cassius, who conducted them with difficulty to Syria. § 141.— Cesar's Gal- lic Wabs (B. C. 58-50). Gaul (now France), and Helvetia (now Switzer- land), were anciently inhab- itated by the Celts. These were divided into small states and tribes, which were governed by a nobility and a priesthood of Druids. Gaul had already become a Roman province, when the Helvetians, crowded by the Germans, determ- ined to leave their bar- ren mountain country, and to seek new homes in southwest Gaul, on the river Garonne, and the slopes of the Pj'renees. To prevent this, Caesar marched to Gaul. He conquered the Helvetians at Bribacte (near Autun), and compelled them to return to their wasted homes and villages. Novia Donum (now Nyon), on the shore of Lake Geneva, became a Roman boundary fort. Caesar turned then CESAR CROSSING THE RHINE. 200 THE ANCIENT WORLD. toward Germany, conquered the German chieftain, Ariovistus, who had been called b.c.ss. by the Sequani to help them against the JEdui, and had settled in East Gaul with his rough warriors, where he oppressed both peoples with his arbitrary rule. Caesar defeated him in the valley of the Rhine, and compelled him, with the remnant of his army, to recross the river. Ariovistus, soon after this defeat, died of his wounds. Caesar b. c. SS-S3. then sub- dued the Belgians, the Nervii, and other Gallic tribes, crossed the Rhine twice, in order to ter- rify the inhabitants of the German forest, and to restrain them from hostile incursions into Gaul. Caesar's Commentaries upon the Gallic War, are the records of this expedi- tion. But the Roman General had no thought of permanent conquest in Germany, or in Brit- ain, on the coast of which b. c. .-,.-,..-, i, lie land- ed twice. He wished to show, only, that the arm of Rome reached across the Rhine and the Channel. After a few fights with the Celtic inhabitants of Britain, he sailed back, to complete the subjuga- tion of the Gallic tribes ; for their unsteady and vacillating nature led them to constant change. They rebelled the mo- B.c.59. ment Caesar left them. Not until he had put down the last uprising in Alesia, was he able to convert the land that bordered pn the Rhine into a Roman province. Vercingetorix, their last leader, was led in triumph through the streets of Rome, and beheaded at the foot of the capitol. The religion of the Druids, VERCINGETORIX SURRENDERS TO C^SAR. DRUID PRIEST OFFERING HUMAN SACRIFICE IN THE SACRED GROTTO. '(A. de. Neuville.) (pp. 201.) 202 THE ANCIENT WORLD. with its gloomy human sacrifice, gave place to the Pagan gods of the Greek and the Roman. §142. The Second Civil War. (B.C. 49-48.) Meanwhile party strife in Rome had degenerated into robbery and murder. Powerful leaders fought in the streets, and at the places of election, against each other, with armed adherents ; and the insolent Clodius was b. c. 59-so. murdered by Milo, a friend of Cicero, on the Appian Way. Bribery was so shameless that, without it, nothing could be accomplished. The Senate and the old Republicans adhered to Pompeius, and offered him the consulate. He used this great power to the disadvantage of Caesar, of whose renown he was envious. At his instigation, the Senate ordered Csesar, at the close of the Gallic War, to lay down his CAESAR CROSSING THE RUBICON. command, and to dischai'ge his troops. Curio and Antonius, two tribunes of the peo- ple, who proposed this decree, and demanded that Pompeius also should surrender his b. c. 4,0. authority, were driven from the city. They fled to Csesar's camp, and urged him to come forward as the protector of the violated rights of the people. After some hesitation Cassar crossed the Rubicon, the boundary river of his province, and marched against Rome. The die was cast ; Pompeius. terrified from his apathy and careless confidence, did not venture to await him in the capital. He hastened with his few troops, and a great train of Senators and Aristocrats, to Brundusium ; and when the victor approached this city, he hurried across the sea to Epirus. Csesar did not pursue him, but returned to Rome. He took possession of the state treasure, and then pro- ROME. 203 ceeded to Spain. An indecisive battle was fought at Ilerda, between the Pyrenees and the Ebro, but, by his subsequent movements, Caesar so crowded his adversary, that Pompey was forced to an agreement, in consequence of which, his officers were dis- charged, and his common Pi^pM^^ > ►3 F 6 ►d W SJ CO >■ fcH soldiers transferred to the victor. Caesar, on his way home, besieged and con- quered the city of Massilia, which had closed her doors against him ; and after punishing the citizens, marched to Rome, where he was proclaimed dictator, b. c. its. and elected consul for the following year. He then crossed the Ionian Sea to attack Pom- peius in person. The de- cisive battle of Pharsalia soon took place, in which Caesar's veterans, although opposed by double their numbers, won a brilliant victory. With a few faith- ful comrades, Pompeius fled to Egypt, where he was murdered. Ptolemy, hoping to win Caesar's favor, ordered him to be killed, as he landed in Pelusium. His body was cast unburied on the shore. §143. Caesar followed Pompeius into Egypt. He shed tears of sympathy, when he heard of the fate of his great antagonist, and refused to reward the in- stigator of the murder ; for when he was chosen arbitrator in the quarrel between Ptolemy and his beautiful sister Cleopatra, he decided in favor of the latter. This brought him into war with the King and the Egyptian people, — a war that detained him nine months in Alexandria, and brought him into great danger. When the citadel, in which he defended him- 204 THE ANCIENT WORLD. self with wonderful skill, with a part of its great library, burst into flames, he withdrew to the neighboring island Pharos. But not until re-enforcements reached jb. c. 4t. him, and Ptolemy had been drowned in the Nile, could he invest Cleo- patra with the government of Egypt, and march out to fresh victories. The battle which he fought and won from Phar- naces. the son of Mithridates, is famous from the letter in which he immortal- ized it, " I came, I saw, I conquered," (veni, vidi, vici). After a short stay in Rome, he sailed for Africa, where the friends of the republican constitu- b. c. 46. tion, and the adherents of Pompeius had assembled a great army. In the bloody battle of Thapsus, Caesar annihilated the hopes of the Re- publicans ; thousands covered the' field BALLISTA. ( Time of Ceesar.) of battle ; many of the survivors committed suicide, among them the noble Cato, who in death remained true to the principles that he had maintained through life. A four days triumph greeted the victor on his return to Rome. He soon left the city, how- ever, for Spain, in order to attack his last enemies, who had gathered around the sons jb. c. 4a. of Pompeius. In the terrible battle of Munda, where both sides fought with the courage of desperation, and where Caesar's fortunes and life were in the great- est danger, he succeeded finally in destroy- ing the last remnants of the Pompeian and Republican parties. One of Pompey's sons was killed in his flight ; the survivor became a pirate, and died ten years later, at the hand of a murderer. § 144. Caesar now returned to Rome, as lord and master of the commonwealth. He was greeted as the " Father of his Country," and chosen dictator for life. The soldiers and the people he sought to win by his lib- erality, and the Aristocrats, by offices. He furthered commerce and agriculture ; beauti- fied the city with temples, theatres, and parks; protected the provinces against the oppression of officials ; reformed the calendar, and established many good and useful institutions. But his evident desire for the title and the dignity of a monarch, his increasing haughtiness, his contempt of the Senate and of republican forms, brought about a conspiracy. His favorite and flatterer, Marc Antony, offered the " Imperator " at a banquet, the kingly crown, and in spite of the affected displeasure with which Ceesar refused it, his inward satisfaction and the pur- pose of his party were easily recognized. At the head of the conspiracy stood Marcus JULIUS CAESAR. o 33 ■< o ft o I* a p < P = Eh > o z c . the widow of Drusus, and manifestly in- tended to depose Tiberius himself, the senate was commanded to put him to death. Tiberius, bowed down with age and illness, started for Rome, but in lower Italy he became unconscious; and some of his companions hailed his great-nephew Caligula as emperor. Tiberius, how- 3VA.. it. ever, revived, whereup- on the frightened friends of Caligula smothered him to death with pillows. Tiberius was in his seventy-eighth year. § 154. His successor, Caligula, was the unworthy son of the noble Ger- manicus, and the high-minded Agrippina Caligula, 37-4.1 A.. It. CLAUDIUS. Claudius. 41-S4 A. B. COIN OF CALIGULA. He was a bloodthirsty tyrant, who delighted to sign death-warrants, a see them executed; a mad spendthrift, who projected the absurdest buildings ; a haughty braggart, who celebrated triumphs over Germans and Britons whom he had hardly seen, and decreed himself divine honors; aglutton, whose table swallowed up enormous sums. Cer- tain noble Romans, tired of executions, confisca- tions, and outrage, formed a conspiracy, in consequence of which, two captains of the guards murdered the crazy tyrant in the imperial palace. The Praetorians then dragged his uncle, the feeble Claudius, from agrippina the younger. livia. his hiding place, and set tiberius. (Onyx Gem.) him trembling on the throne. He soon became the plaything of courtiers and of women. His favorites, especially the freed men Narcissus and Pallas, obtained ROME. 221 the most important offices, and great riches at the expense of the people, while his wife Messalina abandoned herself to wanton lust. The emperor finally decreed her execu- tion, and then married his wicked niece, the younger Agrippina, who soon hurried the weak old man out of the world, in order to place her son, Claudius Nero, on the throne. § 155. Nero, at the beginning of his reign, showed great gentleness. He wished that he had never learned A-e»-o, to write, that he might not sign a death .»j-«.s .1. ». warrant. But in a little while his mild- ness turned to cruelty. He persecuted and executed and COIN OP LAODICEA. confiscated even among his own adherents and relatives. His step-brother, Britani- cus, died of poison at the imperial table ; his mother he tried to drown, and when she escaped, he delivered her to the hands of assassins ; his virtuous wife Octavia, daughter of Claudius, was banished to a lon'ely island, where she died a violent death. The poet Lucan, the author of the epic Pharsalia, and the philosopher Seneca, the teacher of Nero, were driven to destruction. Urged on by courtiers and courtesans. Nero committed incredible crimes and follies. Plays and processions, in which he himself took part as singer and musician, luxurious banquets and wild expenditures of every sort, consumed the revenues of the state. A great conflagration at Rome was said to have been kindled, bj r the despot, so that he might sing " The Burning of Troy " from the roof of his palace. And then, to divert the popular hatred from himself, he charged the crime upon the Christians, who suffered consequently the most terrible persecution. The rebuilding of the city, and Nero's Roman lictor, emperor and noble. golden house on the Palatine, so increased taxation, that an insurrection followed ; and when the Spanish legions, under Galba, approached the capital, Nero fled to his 222 THE ANCIENT WORLD. villa, and had himself put to death by a freedman. In him expired the house of Augustus. § 156. The aged Galba was too miserly to satisfy the greed of the Praetorians. T.hey proclaimed Otho oaiba, emperor, and mur- otno, dered Galba and his vitelline, appointed successor. as- nn ,1. ip. At the same time Vitellius marched, with his legions, from the Rhine to Italy, and con- quered the armies of his adversary. Otho, and many of his adherents, died by their own hand. Vitellius was a glutton of vulgar mind, who spent his short reign in riotous ban- quets and violent oppression. His conduct embittered the Syrian and Egyptian legions, which finally pro- claimed, as emperor, their brave com- mander, Flavins Vespasian. The legions were joined by the troops in Mces'ia and Dnlmatia. As Vespasian's army ap- proached the gates of Rome, a brief civil war occurred, in which the temple of the TITUS FLAVIUS VESPASIANUS. THE COLOSSEUM AT ROME. ROME. 223 capital was destroyed. But Vitellius was killed by a mob of brutal soldiers, who cast «».-!. b. his mutilated body into the Tiber. The hardened people, in the midst ROMAN SOLDIERS ATTACKING A CITY. of these cruelties, pursued their wonted pleasures, and abandoned themselves to the silliest superstition. DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM. 4. The Flavians and the Antonines. § 157. Vespasian is the first of the good emperors. He restored the discipline 224 THE ANCIENT WORLD. COIN OF VESPASIAN. Vespasian, of the arm}' and of the Praetorian guards, abolished the treason- eo-70 a a. courts, improved the administration of justice, and filled the state treasury by economy and sagacity. He built the temple of peace, and the Colos- seum, whose ruins still excite the admira- tion of the traveler, brought back the Batavians of the lower Rhine to their obedience, and enlarged the borders of the empire, by the conquests of Judea and of | Britain. § 158. The oppressions of the Roman officers who governed Judea, especially the cruelty and greed of Gessius Florus, drove Jerusalem the people finally to rebellion. They fought with the courage of des- nestroyea, peration, but were conquered by the Roman legions and forced into voA.n. Jerusalem, which was besieged at first by Vespasian, and then after- ward by his son Titus. The crowded city was so wasted by pestilence and starvation, that thousands plunged into the grave. Titus offered pardon in vain ; rage and fanatacism urged the Jews to a desperate strug- gle. They defended their tem- ple, until the magnificent build- ing broke into flames, and death in every form raged among the vanquished. The victory of Titus was followed by the com- plete destruction of Jerusalem. Among the prisoners that fol- lowed the victorious chariot of the Roman, was the Jewish his- torian Josephus. The triumphal arch of Titus still standing in Rome, shows pictures of the Jewish sacred vessels, that were carried to the city. The Jews who were left at home, suffered terribly from Roman rule. But sixty years after the destruction of Jerusalem, Hadrian established a pagan colony on its sacred soil, which was called Alia Capitolina ; and erected on the heights, where the temple of Jehovah had been built by Solomon, a temple to Jupiter. The exasperated Jews, led by the fanatical Simon, " son of the star," took arms [|ffpj^T'/T| ^ 133-135 a. d. again to prevent this insult. In a mur- derous war of three years, in which half a million inhab- ,,.,., ii,! Jewish coin. (Head of Titus.) itants were slaughtered, they were conquered by the Romans. The survivors wandered out in throngs. The land resembled a desert, and head of titus. (From a coin.) ROMAN SOLDIERS FIRING THE TEMPLE AT JERUSALEM (pp. 225) 226 THE ANCIENT WORLD. HADRIAN. the Jewish commonwealth came to an end. Since then the Jews lite scattered over the whole earth, faithful to their customs, their religion, and their superstition ; but wholl}^ separate from other peoples. Subsequently, the exiles were allowed, once a year, on payment of a certain sum, to weep over the ruins of their sacred city. § 159. During the reign of Vespasian, Agricola, the father-in-law of Tacitus, conquered Britain as far as the Scotch highlands, and introduced Roman institutions, cus- toms, and speech. Britain remained subject to the Romans 400 years. The religion of the Druids yielded gradually to Roman paganism, and the foreign civilization struck root in the land. But the warlike strength of the people was weak- ened by this contact with the Romans, so that the Britains were unable to resist the rough Picts and Scots, from whom the wall, erected by Hadrian, was not suffici pv, t to protect them. § 160. The plain but powerful Vespasian was succeeded by his son Titus. The faults and sins of his youth were laid aside by the new emperor, and he earned f 'imself the splendid name " Love and Delight of the Human Race." 7» a., b. During his reign, Herculaneum and Pompeii were destroyed by the eruption of Vesuvius. Pliny, the elder, lost his life in this eruption, as we learn from a letter of his nephew to the historian Tacitus. The excavations made at these buried cities, especially at Pompeii, have been of immense importance to our knowledge of antiquity, and to the art of our own times. § 161. This noble prince was followed, unfortunately, by his cruel son, Domitian, a morose and gloomy tyrant, who found pleasure only in fights of wild-beasts and of gladia- tors. Finally, at the instigation of his wife, the beautiful, brilliant, but immoral Domitia, he was murdered by the companions of his lusts and cruelties. Nerva, an aged Senator, xei-o, now ascended the »n uo.i.n. throne. He adopted the energetic Roman soldier Trajan, who was born in Spain, and appointed him his successor. Trajan earned for himself, by his domestic government, the surname of " The Best," and by Trajan, his warlike deeds, the fame of the greatest of emperors. He estab- os-iiT/A. n. lished justice, facilitated commerce by the building of highways and harbors, (Civitavecchia) adorned Rome with public buildings, temples, and COINS OF HADRIAN. ROME. 227 a new forum, where the senate and the people erected, to his honor, the still existing column of Trajan. At the same time he conquered the war-like Dacians on the Danube, founded the province of Dacia, and settled it with Roman colonists. In the East he made war upon the Parthians, conquered Babylon and other cities, and transformed Armenia and Mesopotamia into Roman provinces. The country, from the sources of the Danube to the Black forest, was given to Gallic and German colonists, and protected against hostile invasions by a pale and trenches. It was called Titheland, because the inhabitants gave a tenth part of the corn, fruit, and cat- MAUSOLEUM OF HADRIAN. tie that they raised, to the Roman government; and the ruins of several cities and the excavated antiquities, show that they shared in Roman culture. The most important cities in Titheland were Constance on the lake, Baden-Baden (Aquas Aureliae), at the foot hills of the Black Forest, and Ladenburg on the Neckar. Trajan honored culture, and loved the society of intellectual men like the historian Tacitus. Pliny, the younger, was honored by him with a consulate, and appointed governor of Bithynia. The latter, in a solemn panegyric, described for posterity (pp. 228.) DESTRUCTION OF pompeii. (H. Le Bovx.) (pp. 229.) 230 THE ANCIENT WORLD. the excellencies and the achievements of his imperial friend. The correspondence between Pliny and Trajan, give valuable notices of the care with which the emperor managed the adminstration of the provinces. § 162. Trajan's relative and successor, Hadrian, paid more attention to the defence, than to the extension of the imperial borders, and found more pleasure in art, and literature than in war. He was a sagacious and cultivated statesman, eager to increase the royal power, but vain and easily flattered. His love of knowledge and of art, led natulan, him to undertake long journeys at first to the East, where he spent miss a. d. much time in Gi'eece, Asia, and Egypt, and then to the West, to visit Gaul, Spain, Britain, and the regions of the Rhine. Among the writers, artists, and orators of his court, the most import- ant was the Greek Plutarch, the author of the contrasted biographies of Greek and Roman generals and statesmen. These are especially cal- culated to excite admiration for the heroic deeds, and the lofty purposes of antiquity. The ruins of his villa at Tiber, his colossal monument, the mound of Hadrian in Rome, and numerous remains of buildings and of statues, bear witness to Hadrian's love for art. His favorite Antinous, who was drowned in the Nile, he commemorated in many statues and monuments. § 163. Hadrian's adopted son, Antoninus Pius, was an ornament to f the throne. He avoided war, because Antoninus r-ius, he would "rather iss-ieiA..n. preserve one citizen than kill a thousand foes."' He watched over the adminstration of justice, founded schools, and relieved poverty, so that his reign was the golden age of the empire. His suc- cessor, Marcus Aurelius, the philosopher, was as distinguished in war as in peace. He protected the Eastern frontiers against the Parthians, drove the German tribes Morai* Aureiitts, of the league of the Marcomanni back across the Danube, and tot iso a. i>. defeated the Quadi in their own land. When, sometime afterward, they broke across the frontiers once more, he undertook a second campaign against them, and died at Vienna, before it terminated. . He was a simple, strong man, who re- mained faithful, even on the throne, to the severe morality of the Stoics. His wife Faustina, the unworthy daughter of the pious Antoninus, and his adopted brother and co-regent Lucius Varus, were, by their vices, in striking contrast with the Emperor. He furthered culture and useful institutions : his noble maxims and purposes are re- MARCUS AURELIUS. ROME. 231 corded in his meditations, which he composed in the Greek language, and dedicated to himself. Monuments and statues preserved to posterity the memory of the wise and good prince. His bronze equestrian statue, and the Antoninus column, still adorn the city of Rome. § 164. The Roman empire rejoiced at this time in the highest civilization, morally corrupt as the people had become. Arts and sciences flourished in the courts of the emperors, and in the palaces of the rich, and among all classes. Commerce and industry prospered, and the dwell- ing houses in the popu- lous cities bore witness of refinement and opu- lence. In Rome and in the more important cities of the provinces, schools were estab- lished. The ruins of buildings, highways, and bridges, which we find in Italy and in many provincial cities, the statues, sarcophagi, and altars, with their carv- ings and inscriptions, and the porcelain and bronze vases of artistic form, which are found buried in the earth, all give proof of the artistic feeling and the culture of the imperial age. But morality, nobility of soul, and strength of character, were no longer imposing, and freedom was an un- known good. The peo- ple, no longer hardened by war and agriculture, became weak and fond .of luxury. They re- joiced in the barbarous fights of wild beasts and gladiators in the amphitheater, and abandoned themselves to the pleasures of the baths, with which the emperors provided the capital, in order to draw away the citizens from serious things. Perseus lashed MARCUS AURELIUS LIBERATES THE CHIEF OF MARCOMANNI. {From Arch in Cajntol, Home.) 232 THE ANCIENT WORLD. the degenerate race with the scourge of his satire, and sought to restore the old energy, morality, and simplicity. The brilliant Juvenal unveiled, in his faithful and realistic perseno, pictures, the deeps of crime and wickedness, to which his contempor- 34,-astA. n. aries had fallen. And the Greek Lucian in his witty writings, mocked all existing philoso- phy, religion, andiife, hoping thereby to destroy the old and to make room for something newer and nobler. But all these wrote in vain ; a higher power alone could save the decay- ing world. This power had already appeared, but the blinded Romans rec- ognized it not, be- cause it came not in the glory of dominion but in the garb of humility. Jurispru- dence also reached great perfection in this period. The intricacy of public and of private life, and the lack of fidelity and honesty among the people, compelled the working out of legal rights in all their Roman chariot race. (A. Wagner.) The jurists of this age, Gaius, Papinian, Ulpian, and Juvenal, loo A. JO. Iiiician, f goo a. d. relations. Paul us, are the classics of Roman legal lore. 5. Rome Under Military Rule. §165. Commodus, the son and successor of Marcus Aurelius, was a furious ruffian, of great size and strength, whose only pleasure was in fights Comtnotlus, Wittl 1SO-192 A. D. Wild animals and with gladiators, who went himself into the bull fight in the Colosseum. {A.Wagner.) arena, who oppressed the people in every way, until he was finally murdered by 234 THE ANCIENT WORLD. a naumachia, or mock sea fight. (A. Wagner.) pertinaoc, by those about him. Pertinax, a really able ruler, soon died a violent 103 a. n. death. After his murder, the Praetorian guard became so insolent that septimitis severus, they sold the imperial throne to the highest bidder. Septimius Severus 103-211 a., it. was the first to restrain the violence of the soldiers by his implacable severity, and to re- . store the authority of the monarch. He was a rough warrior, who overcame his two rivals for the throne, and extended the em- pire by conquests in the East, where he deprived the Par- tisans of Mesopota- mia. He protected the Britons, by a new line of intrenchments and fortifications, against the Picts and Scots, but he robbed the senate of its re- maining power, and put his whole confidence in his army. He thus became the founder of military rule. To commemorate his deeds in Mesopotamia, he erected the triumphal arch, which is still to be seen at the entrance of the Forum. § 166. Septimius Severus died at York (Eboracum), in Bri- tain. His cruel son, Caracalla, true to his father's teachings, favored only the soldiers, treating all other men with con- tempt. He murdered his brother Geta, who, by his father's will, was to share the throne with him ; he put to death his teacher, the great jurist Papinian, be- Curacalla, GLADIATORIAL COMBAT. (A. Wagner.) cause the latter refused to justify the murder. In order to increase 2H-211' a. m». the taxes, and to obtain great sums of money to defray his great ex- penditures, he gave the right of citizenship to all the freedmen in the Roman empire. ROME. 235 The colossal ruins of the " Antonine baths " with their arches, halls, and chambers, are still standing in the south of Rome ; — a speaking witness to this great extravagance. Heuogahoius, He was finally murdered. His successor Heliogabalus, a priest of the 218-222 .*. d. Syrian sun-gbd, was a weak and cruel profligate, who introduced the service of Baal into Rome, and thereby destroyed the last remnant of old Roman morality. The " God of Emesa," a black conical stone set with precious jewels, re- ceived a sanctuary on the Palatine hill, and was worshiped by Syrian women in sensual dances, while the Roman senate, arrayed in Asiatic costume, performed the temple service. The wanton weakling was finally killed by the Prsetorians, who circus maximus, eome. ( G. Rehlender.) Aiexantier severus, gave the throne to his cousin, Alexander Severus. The latter was a 222-23S a..b. man of pure morals, who listened to his intelligent mother Mammsea, a woman favorably inclined to Christianity. But Alexander proved too weak for his difficult circumstances ; before his eyes the Prsetorians murdered their prefect, the great jurist Ulpian, over whose severity they were greatly embittered. Artaxerxes, on the Eastern frontier, overthrew the Parthians, and established the new Persian kingdom of the Sassanides. These now invaded the Roman provinces. They re- vived the old Persian worship of the sun, and of fire, and sought to awaken in their people patriotic feeling and national ideals. 236 THE ANCIENT WORLD. § 167. The murder of the Emperor and of his mother, by rebellious soldiers at 235 a. n, Mayence, brought the empire into such confusion, that twelve emperors ROMAN BALLISTA. were made and unmade in twenty years. Philip Arabs who, like Alexander Severus, 244-24» .-t. n. was a friend of the Christians, sought to make his reign memorable by a great festival, in honor of the thousandth anniversary of the founding of the city. 24»-25i a. n. His successor Decius, a stern senator, and a man of old Roman morality and religion, persecuted the Christians, but was killed by the Goths, a German race, who had marched to the lower Danube, and were making incursions by land and water into the Roman empire. After his death, the dissolution of the em- pire seemed so near, that the historians of ctaiuemis, that time speak of the 253-2es a. a. period during which Gal- lienus reigned in Rome, as the time of the thirty tyrants. The East was invaded by the new Persians, and the northern front- iers were threatened by the German tribes. 2GS-270 a. d. Claudius II. a skillful em- peror, conquered the Goths in Pannonia, but perished from the plague. § 168. Aurelianus now became the restorer of the empire. He conquered the 27o-27s a. x>. disobedient generals, marched against the kingdom of Palmyra which had been founded by Odanathus, in a Syrian oasis, and governed, after his death, by GERMAN STANDARD BEARER AND ROMAN GENERAL. \ V IP'lifl / «£ <*!£ ■HE 11% MM Wmm HJWWijW MJ»"' Hi ft ' ii llilljl'l Ij'l'j I , I l8fll llillll "*$^ ' ! ' l - !$$ _iflH R REVOLT OF THE PRAETORIAN GUARDS . (H. Leutemann.) (pp. 937. ) 238 THE AXCIENT WORLD. the beautiful and heroic queen Zenobia. HUMAN WARRIORS. The " City of Palms " beautif liI for art, and noted for its science and its commerce, was destroyed, and Zenobia led captive to Rome. Her teacher and counselor, the philosopher Longinus, died a violent death. The ruins of Palmyra still attract the interest of travelers. In the North, Aurelian restored the Danubian frontiers, but gave the province Dacia to his enemies, and transplanted the inhabitants to the right bank of the river. And to protect the capital from a sudden attack, he sur- rounded Rome with a circular wall. § 169. Aurelian was murdered by his soldiers. Tacitus, his successor, was killed in a campaign against the Goths. Tacitus, Probus then came to the ars-sje a d. throne. He extended and completed the frontier wall, from the _. prohits, Bavarian Danube to the 27e-g82 a., jo. Taunus. The traces of this wall are yet visible, and are called by the people "The Devil's Wall." He ARCH OF CONSTANTINE. (Rome.) ROME. 239 planted vineyards along the Rhine and in -Hungary, and improved the military ser- cai-us, vice. But he too, was murdered by his soldiers ; and his successor, 3S3-2S3 a. n. Cams, in a campaign against the Persians, was killed either hy a stroke Diocletian, of lightning or an assassin's knife. Diocletian, the wise and skillful gst-aos a. ». Dalmatian, who by his bravery and intelligence had climbed from slavery to the command of the army, now ascended the throne. § 170. He abolished gradually all republican forms, and took away from the senate all political power. He then divided the empire, with a view to its better de- fence. He assumed for himself •the title of Augustas, or chief em- peror, and ruled, in person, the East together with Thracia. His lieutenant, Galerius, with the title " Csesar," governed the Illyrian provinces. Maximianus received also the title Augustus, and the government of Italy, Africa, and the Islands, while his son-in-law Constantius (Chlorus, the Pale), governed as " Caesar " the Western provinces, Spain, Gaul, and Britain. Diocletian ruled the empire for twenty years, and restored it to strength and prosperity. But he was misled into a bloody persecu- tion of the Christians, and thus stained the later years of his memorable and valuable life. The sword of persecution still raged among the disciples of the cruci- fied Saviour, as Diocletian abdi- 3os.-i.j9. cated the throne, in order to pass the last years of hi§ life at his country house in Dalmatia, in peaceful leisure, and to forget the confusion of the world, in the decoration of his palaces and of his gardens. But 313 a. n. the storms that broke over the empire found their way to his retreat. His wife and daughter were murdered in the East, and he himself seems to have shortened his own life, in order to escape shameful outrage. § 171. A time of confusion and of civil war followed his abdication, and not until Constantine, the son of Constantius Chlorus, took upon him the government of the West, was this confusion ended. His mother Helena had won him over to Christianity, and, under the banner of the cross, he defeated the cruel Maxentius not far acM.B. from the Milvian bridge, and when his adversary was drowned in the CONSTANTINE IN BATTLE. (A de Neuville.) 240 THE AXCIENT WORLD. Tiber, he marched into Rome. From here he governed the West, while his brother-in- law, Licinius, governed the East. But his ambition soon occasioned a new war, in which Licinius lost the kingdom and his life. Thus Constantine became the sole ruler 325.-1. j». of the Roman empire. He immediately issued the decree of Milan, in which he protected the confessors of Christianity from further persecution. Never- theless, he caused throngs of captives to be thrown to the wild beasts, and put to death his wife Fausta, his noble son Crispus, and other relatives. Conclusion. If we cast a glance back over antiquity, we easily perceive that our intellectual life and our culture struck root there. The East gave us our religious ideas ; Greece gave us immutable models and rules for art ; and Rome, by her jurispru- dence, established human society in national, municipal, and private life, with such care and intelligence, that the overwhelming authority of Roman law is still perceptible in all the governments of the civilized world. MEDAL OF CONSTANTINE. saracenic arms. (Muse

at inn even the frontiers of Italy. In this crisis Gratian, the son of Val- 3M-3S3. entinian, chose the intrepid soldier Theodosius, then living in exile upon his estate in Spain, to be the ruler of the West. Theodosius soon brought the war- with the Goths to an end. A part of the enemy he settled in the lands south of the Danube, the rest he took as mercenaries into the as3. Roman army. Soon after this Gratian, the chase-loving pupil of the poet Ausonius, was murdered in an uprising. Theodosius thereupon, having defeated vaieHtitiian the leader of the rebellion, Maximus, the governor of Gaul, in open 3S3-.102. battle, made Valentinian the younger, whose beautiful sister he had married, the ruler of the West. But nine years later Valentinian was the sacrifice of a conspiracy, of which Arbo- gast the Gaul was the leader. Theodosius took the field against Arbogast and his anti-emperor Eugenius and defeated them at Aquileja. Arbogast took his own life and Eugenius was murdered just as he flung himself in the dust at the feet of the Emperor. theodosius. (Gold Medal.) Tltcodosiits 399-395. -V- ~v» 90s ( pp. 250. J the huns. (A. de Nevville.) THE MIGRATION OF RACES. 251 Theodosius now united East and West, for the last time, under one scepter. He was a powerful but passionate prince ; in Thessalonica, for example, he put to death 7000 citizens to revenge the murder of the governor lrj' an angry mob. For this he was made to do penance by the fearless bishop Ambrose of Milan, and performed it willingly. This submission of the Emperor Theodosius was an acknowledgment of the intellectual and moral power of Christianity, which was able to punish and to re- strain the misuse of imperial power. " Thus the church became the protector of pop- ular liberty and saints assumed the parts of tribunes of the people." Theodosius was a zealous champion of Catholic Christianity. ' He prohibited and persecuted A nanism, forbade sacrifices and predictions and permitted the pagan tem- ples to be plundered and destroyed. The sacred fire of the Vestals now expired, the Oracles and Sibyls were struck dumb ; the pagan Gods perished before the belief on the crucified Saviour. Only among the dwellers in remote country districts and mountain regions did the pagan faith and sacrificial service continue for any time, either openly or secretly, and it was soon despised by the cultivated as the religion of boors, (Pagani). At his death Theodosius bequeathed the East with Illyria to his son Arcadius, Arcaaius a youth of eighteen, dependent upon his counsellor Rufinus of Gaul. 305-40S. To Honorius, a boy of eleven only, he gave the West, but placed him Monavius in charge of the sagacious statesman and skillful soldier, Stilicho. 3»5-*aa The Empire remained, from this time on, divided. The ruler of the West resided at Ravenna. 2. West Goths, Burgtjndtans, Vandals. § 171. Envy and jealousy of Stilicho drove the treacherous Rufinus to entice the daring Alaric, king of the West Goths, to attack the provinces of the Western empire. Ravaging and murdering bands devastated Thessaly, Middle-Greece and the Peloponne- sus, trampling to ruin the remnants of Greek culture until they were surrounded by the armies of Stilicho in Elis and forced to retreat. Shortly after this Alaric, • -ton. who had been appointed meanwhile by the East-Roman court, the commander and gov- ernor of Illyria, invaded Upper Italy, devastated the banks of the Po, but suffered such losses in v. Ai i -^l ci-v i INROAD OF BARBARIANS. two battles with Stilicho that he was compelled to return to Illyria and to wait for better days. Hardly 403. had he disappeared, when mighty throngs of heathen Germans, Van- dals, Burgundians and Suevi under Duke Radagais broke into Italy, destroying cities and ioi>»mws, nick-named by his enemies, Copronymus (the dung-heap), followed his 741-775. father's example. He covened a council, which condemned the worship of images as an "invention of the devil," and punished the incorrigible with death and ieo. iv. exile. Leo, the Fourth, belonged also to these image-breaking emper- 775-7SO. ors. But after his sudden death, his widow, Irene, called another church i,-e>ie son. council, which repealed the former action, and restored the images to the churches. But this ambitious and passionate woman put out the eyes of her own son, and then drove him into poverty. She carried on the government for five years with energy and audacity. It is said that Karl the Great, was arranging a mar- riage with her, in order to unite the East and the West, when she was driven from the throne by a conspiracy. She died at Lesbos, in poverty and wretchedness. Leo, the S13.SS0. Armenian, and his descendants made another attempt to remove the images from the churches. This, however, was not so violent, and was brought to an end by the empress. Basilius, the Mace- se7. donian, began a new dynasty, that ruled for two centuries, and brought new strength to the empire. The decrees against images were not recognized in the West, yet a church council, con- vened by Karl the Great, at Frankfort, con- demned the abuse of images in the church. 9. The Slavs. §189. b. The Slavs were called Wends by the Germans. They are one of the great families of Europe ; the Germans, Bomans, and Celts being the other three. They lived for centuries on the wooded heights of the Carpathian mountains, whence they were driven by Asiatic hordes into other lands, to seek new homes. Some migrated northward, and settled in the plains and steppes, where the Scythians and Sarmatians had for ages pastured their Hocks and herds. Others moved to the South and West, and occupied the lands va- cated in the great migrations of the fifth century. Bussians and Boles, the Wends of Moravia and Bohemia (Czechs), and those of Silesia, are of Slavonic origin. The Slavs in modern Germany are for the most part merged with the Teutons, whose ancestors settled in Bomerania and Frussia. Other tribes occupied the lands between the Danube and the Adriatic Sea, Dal- matia, Bosnia, Croatia ; and Macedonia, Greece, and the Beloponnesus were invaded by them. In language, customs, and origin they were closely related, but divided into countless separate groups. Their religion was a worship of idols, connected with human sacrifices. It was based upon the reverence for beneficent, and their dread of the maleficent powers of nature. Swantowit was the chief God of the West Slavs. BYZANTIN1AN EMTRESS AND PRINCESS. 266 THE MIDDLE AGE. His temple was at Arkona, on the island of Riigen, in the Baltic. Thither went all the Wends of the Oder and the Elbe, to worship his four-headed image. Perun, the god of thunder and lightning, was the supreme god of the East Slavs. Czernabog, the wicked head of the black deities and spirits of the under world, was another to whom they sacrificed. The Slavs are lively and excitable, possessing, also, many domestic virtues and amia- ble social qualities. They soon forget in songs and dances, the cares and burdens of life ; but when excited, easily exceed the limits of modera- tion. In former centuries, they were %Jj^ counted bloodthirsty, vindictive, and ^Ss faithless. Proud of their nationality, fe$ yet they easily adopted foreign man- ners and characteristics. The pas- sion for culture, and for ideal exis- tence, they did not share with the Roman and the German races. The Roman lands occupied by the Slavs were. turned into waste places, while those conquered by the Germans blossomed into beauty and fertility. Oppressed by the Germans and treated as slaves, they have returned hatred for contempt. Devoted to pastoral and agricultural life, they are notable in war, chiefly for their cavalry. In their morals they incline to the Orient, and woman is by no means regarded as she is among the Germans of the West. mohammed. (Ideal.) III. MOHAMMED AND THE ARABS. §190. RABIA FELIX (Happy Arabia), is the southwest district of Arabia. It is fruitful in coffee, frankincense and costly spices. Here used to live a people capable of great culture, and powerful in their haughty independence. They worshipped nature and the stars ; a black stone in the Kaaba at Mecca was their national holy of holies. The Koreishites were the guardians of the Kaaba, and to it came throngs of pilgrims every year, who made it famous for its fairs and festivals and poetical contests. The Arabs had grown rich through commerce and caravans and the breeding of horses. They delighted in poems and leg- juohnmmed ends. It was among these Arabs that Mohammed was born in the year sj/.caa. 571. He came of an honored priestly family among the Koreishites. He grew up a merchant, and made many journeys in the caravan trade. In his THE MIGRATION OF RACES. 267 travels and at Mecca, the meeting-place of the Semitic races, he found opportunity to observe the morals and the inner life of men. He thus became convinced that the religion of the Christians and Jews was greatly superior to that of the Arabs. His marriage with the rich widow, Kadijah, made him independent; he withdrew from the bustle of life, and began to ponder how he could redeem his people from their low estate. The wait- ing of the Jews for a Messiah, the promise of Jesus to send a com- forter, so wrought upon his mind, that he came to feel and to pro- claim, " I am he of whom the world has need." His epileptic seizures favored his belief, that he had in- tercourse with angels, and visions from on high. § 191. Mohammed was just forty years old when he began to cry : " There is but one God, and Mohammed is his Prophet." But except his wife Ayesha, his father- in-law Abu Bekr,his uncle Ali, and a few other relatives and friends, he found none to believe in his mis- A threatened outbreak com- o sion pelled him, indeed, to flee from Mecca to Medina (Hidschrah, jmij/ is, 022. Hegira. The* first year of the Mohammedan Calen- dar). At Medina he found adher- ents, with whom he made excur- sions, and through whom he finally conquered from the Koreishites, the liberty of returning to Mecca. His revelations (from the angel Gabriel) were ecstatic utterances, frequently adapted to existing cir- cumstances. These were collected, two years after his death, into the Koran, which is divided into Suras. This is the law and the gospel of the Moslems. Mecca recognized Mohammed as a prophet, and his doctrine, Islam, soon spread over all Arabia. In it he combined fun- damental doctrines of Judaism and 268 THE MIDDLE AGE. SIGNATURE OF MED. MOHAM- Ohristianity, with many maxims sanctified by long usage, and peculiarly grateful to the Oriental mind. Ablutions, prayers, fasts, pilgrimages to Mecca, and the giving of alms, he ur- gently inculcated. He retained the rite of circumcision, prohibited strong drink and pork, and permitted polygamy. A chief commandment was to propagate Islam, and to compel its acceptance, if need be, by fire and sword. Human life and human fate are determined from eternity; death and misfortune reach no one, save by the pre-existing will of God. " To battle ! " therefore cried the prophet's disciples " Paradise is full of pleas- ure for us ; there, waited on by black-eyed virgins, we shall o3tf. gaze upon the face of God." In the eleventh of the Hegira, Mohammed died. Mecca, where he was born, and Medina, where he is buried, remain to this hour the sacred resorts of thronging pilgrims. The Prophet united seriousness and dignity iu conduct and bearing, with a cheerful and engaging nature, and a handsome person. He was gentle simple and domestic in his habits, but rather too susceptible to the love of women. § 192. Ali, husband of Mohammed's only daughter Fatime, hoped to be his successor (Caliph). But Avhile he was weeping over the Prophet's corpse, Abu A.bu BeKr, Bekr, the father of Mohammed's artful 632-034 wife, managed to make himself the I Caliph. The simple, energetic Omar followed him. The enthusiastic Arabs carried their new doctrine beyond the bounds of Arabia, Moslems (Musselmen, Saracens) conquered Palestine and Syria, entering as victors 034-044. Jerusalem, Antioch and Damascus. Khalid "The Sword of God," and the cunning Amru, led the hosts. Persia yielded after a series of bloody battles. The last king Jezdegerd fled, like Darius before Alexander, with the holy fire into the mountains. There he fell by the hand of an assassin. Eastward now the Arabs aso. marched, carrying Islam into India. The worship of the Sun died out before it, and it became the prevailing religion of the East. The new cities Basra, Cufa, and Bagdad became the centres of commerce, and the seats of luxury and splendor. Amru marched from Syria to Egypt, conquered Alexandria (destroying the great library), and reduced Memphis to ashes. Cairo arose from the camp of the Moslem general, and the gospels were pushed aside by the Koran. § 193. Omar was stabbed by a Persian slave. «.i.i-«.-,«. ger of the Koran, obtained the caliphate. Twelve years later, he be- came the victim of a conspiracy, and Ali at last ascended the chair that belonged to him. But the family of the murdered Othman, the Ommiads, opposed him, provoking a civil oei. war, in which Ali perished and all his house. The Ommiads obtained the caliphate, and transferred the seat of power to Damascus. They conquered Cyprus, Rhodes, and Asia Minor, and besieged Constantinople. Greek fire saved the COIN OP RHODES. COIN OF CYPRUS. Othman, the collector and arran- 8* O ffij M < b5 o H g H rotect pilgrims. After the loss of Palestine, they removed to the island of Rhodes. This they defended 1522. heroically against the Turks, but being compelled to surrender it, received the island of Malta from Charles V. b. The Knights Templar were established by French knights, to defend the Holy Sepulchre against the infidel. Donations and legacies made them enormously rich. After the loss of their possessions in the Holy Land, they settled in France, abandoned themselves to unbelief and superstition, and the order was abolished. c. The Order of German Knights was founded by Frederick of Swabia. Its activity in Palestine was small, its renown came from its achievments on the Baltic Sea. Called to protect the germs of Christian life upon the banks of the Vistula, these Teutonic Knights conquered, after bloody struggles, the whole country, for German life and morals and culture. Kulm, Thorn, Elbing, Konigsberg were founded by them. The forests were cleared, the lands were tilled, but the old freedom vanished. The knights of the order governed the lands, the peasants became serfs. The Assassins were a fanatical sect of Mohammedans, founded by the prophet Hassan. They lived in Parthia and in the mountain heights of Syria, and were remarkable for their absolute obedience to the "Old Man of the Mountains." What- ever deed was required of them, they executed it with cunning and boldness, and mocked at martyrdom. They had rich booty in this life, and expected to enjoy much beauty in the life to come. They were a terror alike to Christian and Saracen. §.228. 3. During the crusades many serfs obtained their freedom. This gave rise to a yeomanry in Europe. The cities, too, increased in power and importance ; commerce flourished, and industries developed rapidly. 4. The crusades increased the power and the influence of the clergy, and the wealth of the church. For legacies and donations to monasteries and the clergy, THE MIDDLE AGE. 319 became quite common, and many estates were purchased by them for a mere song. Moreover, religious zeal was intensified into fanaticism. This led to the persecution of the Waldenses and Albigenses, sects that preserved the apostolic simplicity in their religious life and worship. Provence and Languedoc were the homes of the Albigenses (from the city Alby). Here they lived under a beautiful sky ; prosperous citizens, with their free institutions, and daring poets who attacked the clergy with humor- moo. ous liberty. Innocent III. excited the Cistercian monks to preach a crusade against them, and their rich count, Raymond of Toulouse. Troops of savage warriors, led by fanatical monks brandishing the cross, invaded the once prosperous land, destroying the cities and castles, murdering guilty and innocent alike. Raymond withstood his enemies heroically ; but when Louis VIII. took up arms against him, the i2g». Count yielded, and gave up the larger part of his possessions. But the twenty years' war had converted the land into a desert, and silenced the troubadours for ever. SIEGE OF WEINSBERG. The peasant republic of Stedinger was attacked for the same reason, by Count man. Oldenburg, at the instigation of the Bishops of Bremen and Ratzeburg. The peasants fought desperately, but were overcome by numbers and by horsemen. Their lands were ruined, their herds destroyed, men, women and children slaughtered. §229. 2. The Hohenstatjfens. (1138-1254.) The emperor Lothar died on his way back from Italy. His son-in-law, Henry the Proud, ii37. claimed the imperial throne, but the great power of the House of Guelph, which ruled over Bavaria and Saxony, and whose possessions extended from the Mediterranean to the Baltic, together with the unpopularity of the haughty Duke, led the German princesto elect Conrad of Hohenstaufen, at the diet of Coblentz. But Henry was in possession of the imperial insignia, and refused his allegiance. Conrad therefore declared him to have forfeited both his dukedoms, and placed him under the 320 THE MIDDLE AGE. Conrad III., 1138-1152. imperial ban. This renewed the conflict between the Hohenstanfens and the Guelphs, and led to a destructive civil war. At the siege of Weinsberg, it is said the cry of Guelph and Ghibelline was heard for the first time. These cries were subsequently the names of parties. The castle was surrendered to BARBAEOSSA ASKING AID OF HENRY. ii4o. king Conrad, but the garrison is said to have been saved by the cun- ning and fidelity of the women. The war lasted till the death of Henry the Proud. This was followed by a truce, but a permanent peace was not established until his son, THE 3IIDDLE AGE. 321 Henry the Lion, received back the two kingdoms of Saxony and Bavaria, from Con- rad's successors. Austria however was separated from Bavaria, and raised to an in- dependent dukedom with great privileges. Conrad was a brave and pious man, but the war against the Guelphs, and the crusades undertaken by him hindered his use- fulness for Germany. Just as he was preparing to go to Rome to be crowned, his life was taken from him. He had guided the choice of the princes to his high-minded and powerful nephew of Swabia, who was counted the flower of knighthood, and whose splendid qualities the king had learned to know during the crusade. Frederick I. Fretirick gave to the empire peace and order within, and authority and safety jBaibaiossa, abroad. The dark-skinned Italians called him Barbarossa, on account itsg-iioo. of his blond hair and his reddish beard. But the blending of justice and severity in the imperial mind of this powerful man awakened, everywhere, rever- ence and obedience. § 230. Frederick led six armies into Italy. The Lombard cities, especially Milan, had abolished the rights of counts and bishops in their community, and were about to establish small republics. Full of patriotism, and thirsting for liberty, they established a powerful militia, chose civil magistrates and judges, and sought to escape the imperial authority. When Frederick, according to ancient custom, held his review us*. near Placenza, and called upon the princes and cities of Upper Italy to do him reverence, Milan refused. Frederick was unable to punish Milan, but he sought to alarm it by the destruction of some smaller cities. He then received the Lombard crown at Pavia, and the imperial crown at Rome. The latter was his reward lias. for his surrender of Arnold of Brescia. This celebrated monk was a scholar of the famous Abelard. He wished to restore the church to apostolic simplicity ; he denounced the temporal possessions, and the luxury of the clergy, and declared the temporal power of the Pope to be contrary to Holy Writ. The Romans, excited by his sermons, renounced the authority of the popes and established a republican consti- tution. But Hadrian IV., who had risen from an English beggar boy to the papal chair, punished the disobedient city with ban and interdict. The Romans thereupon lost courage ; they abandoned Arnold to his fate, he tried to escape, but was captured and delivered to the Emperor, and then to the Pope, and was burned to death, at the chief gate of the city. The Romans, conquered by the German soldiers, were com- pelled to give up their new institutions, and to submit to the authority of the Pope. § 231. When Frederick returned to Germany, the Milanese turned upon and destroyed the cities that were true to the Emperor. Frederick marched into Italy a second time. He called upon the jurists to determine his sovereign rights (regalia), ii5s. according to the Justinian code, and when Milan still refused to obey, he declared vengeance against the rebellious city. A violent war issued in the success of the Emperor. Milan was besieged for a ) r ear and a half, and compelled to sur- ii63. render. The banner wagon of the city was broke to pieces, and the citizens compelled to humble themselves before their conqueror. The walls and most of their houses were leveled to the ground, and the inhabitants compelled to settle in four sections, separated from each other. The other Lombard cities, frightened at the fate of Milan, consented to receive the imperial governors (Podesta). But Frederick was soon entangled in a violent quarrel with the imperious Pope Alexander III., for he had recognized Victor IV. as the legitimate head of the church ; Victor having 21 322 THE MIDDLE AGE. been chosen by some of the cardinals, and by the church council in Pavia. Alexan. der excommunicated the Emperor and the Anti-pope, and supported the Lombards, who were enraged at the oppression and extortion of the imperial governors. The Lombard league was formed, to which almost all the cities of Upper Italy adhered. Thereupon, Frederick marched to Rome, compelled Alexander to fly to France ; and as Victor IV. had died meanwhile, he procured the election of another anti-pope, Pascal III, But a nee. pestilence attacked his army, and carried off the flower of the Ger- man knighthood; among them his best friends, the Archbishop Rainald of Cologne, iio7. and Duke Frederick of Swabia. With a fragment of his army, the Emperor hastened to Pavia, whence he returned home, barely escaping captivity in his nes. flight. This apparent judgment of Heaven increased the courage and the strength of the Lombards. They built the fortified city of Alessandria, which bears the name of the Pope, drove out the imperial governors, and so completely or- ganized their defence, that Frederick was compelled, for a long time, to leave the Italians alone, especially as affairs in Ger- many required great attention. § 232. But finally Frederick Barba- rossa marched with a great army once more across the Alps. But the siege of Alessan- iiij. dria lasted so long, that he feared to lose all the fruits of the cam- paign, and therefore determined to give bat- tle against the advice of his friends. Hemy the Lion, however, abandoned him in his ex- tremity; for this prince thought more of his own advancement, than of the plans of the emperor; and he was, moreover, angry with Frederick, because the latter had in- duced Duke Guelph to sell the Guelph estates to the house of Hohenstaufen. Although Frederick fell at his feet, at Lake Como, beseeching his assistance, Henry refused to be ap- ure. peased ; and the Germans were defeated in the battle of Legnano, where the Milanese "death legion " performed miracles of valor. The Emperor himself was miss- ing for some days, but so great was the regard for his greatness, that the Pope and ii77. the Lombard league willingly accepted the offered peace. At a meet- ing in Venice, Frederick and Alexander agreed to a six years' truce, and this finally led ii83. to the peace of Constance. By this time Alexander was ackowledged as the rightful head of the Church : Frederick was relieved from ex-communication, and the cities of the league were secured in their rights and franchises. The Emperor or his representative were to confirm the magistrates elected by the citizens, and to have the power of life and death; but civil justice and the administration of city affairs was left to the communes. The citizens were to take the oath of allegiance, and to pro- vide the imperial armies with the necessary supplies. Emperor and Pope gave each other the kiss of peace, in front of St. Marks' church in Venice. Thereupon the Ger- KNIGHT, DUKE AND KNIGHT TEMPLAR. THE MIDDLE AGE. 323 ust. man ruler led the horse of the Vicar of Christ through the cheering throng. Representatives from the cities were admitted to an equal participation in an assembly of princes for the first time in this notable congress at Venice, and the cities of Upper Italy were soon renowned as free republics. Before Frederick left Italy, he accomplished the betrothal of his eldest son Henry with Constance, the heiress of the Norman kingdom, and Naples, and Sicily. § 233. The news of Frederick's reconciliation with the Pope, struck Henry the Lion with terror. He had extended his dominion among the Slavs of Pomerania and Mecklenburg, and among the Frisians of the Baltic. He had attacked the peasant republic in Holstein, and acquired for himself a great kingdom. He had opened up new mines in the Harz, founded cities and bishoprics, and invited colonists from the Nether- lands. But his deed of violence against princes and prelates were so well-known, that the bronze lion which he had erected in front of his castle in Brunswick, was as much the emblem of his robbery, as of his strength. When Frederick returned, he heard complaints of Henry from all sides. This gave him the desired opportunity to summon Henry to judgment; and when Henry re- fused to appear, he was placed under ban and nso. deprived of his two dukedoms, Bavaria and Saxony. Bavaria was given to the Wittelsbachs. Saxony went to Ber- nard of Anhalt, and to the other princes and bishops; much of it to Cologne. But the " Lion " could not be tamed without a dev- astating war. For a long time he with- es o stood all his foes ; he destroyed Halberstadt, and carried off the Bishop ; he took Count Ludwig of Thuringia, and his brother, pris- oners, and subdued the nobles of Westphalia. Not until Frederick marched against him in person, and compelled Liibeck into submis- sion, and threatened the Duke with a siege, list. did Henry yield to his great antagonist. He retained for himself and for his family, Brunswick and Lunenburgh. usi. Frederick having overcome all his enemies, celebrated a splendid national festival in Mayence, in honor of two of his sons; and then departed on the nso. crusade, in which he lost his life. But Barbarossa still lives in story, and in later times; the resurrection of the Ger- man empire in its ancient strength and glory, has been connected with the legend of his return to life. § 234. Henry the Sixth, his son, possessed his father's strength and energy, but uemy vi. lacked his nobility of character. He was greedy, stern, and cruel. The iioo-iiov. songs of the minnesingers, which delighted his youth, soon ceased to charm his heart ; his soul was full of great plans, but the gloomy sternness of his coun- tenance terrified the Italians, like the " blood-red northern light." His life was a con- tinual contest. When the Norman king died, Henry sought to take Naples and Sicily, GERMAN DUKE AND LADIES. 324 THE MIDDLE AGE. as the inheritance of his wife, Constance ; but the nobles, fearing this foreign master opposed him and elevated a native nobleman, the brave Tancred, to the throne. Henry marched immediately with his army across the Alps. In order to obtain the imperial crown, he abandoned the faithful Tusculum to the vengeance of the Romans. The city 1191. was leveled to the ground. A part of its inhabitants took refuge in Frascati, but the King did not overcome Apulia as quickly as he had expected. His army wasted away with pestilence, his wife was carried captive to Sicily, and he him- self returned home to confront new foes. Henry the Lion had returned to Brunswick, and taken up his former plans. But the energetic Emperor soon overcame his ene- 1193. mies. By the capture of Richard Lion-heart, of England, he deprived the Duke of a powerful support, and obtained the means for a new expedition against ii9*. Naples and Sicily. Tancred was dead. Henry the Lion soon followed ii9s. him. The emperor hastened into Italy, destro} r ed the Norman army, and Syracuse and Palermo. His rage and vengeance were terrible. He filled the prisons, with noblemen and bishops, putting out the eyes and tearing out the tongues of some, ii9->. hanging, burning, and burying others alive. Henry died in his thirty- second year, and his wife Constance, soon followed him to the grave. Pope Innocent ii98. Ill became guardian of their two-year old son Frederick, and made the Sicilian kingdom a fief of the papal see. The friends of the Hohenstaufens- Philip of sivabia. thereupon elected Philip of Swabia, while the Guelphs elected Otto, ii9?-i298. the son of Henry the Lion, to be king. Philip was a man of gentle manners, pure habits, and pious disposition. Otto was a rude, violent and daring knight. The South recognized Philip. The North followed Otto, and a ten years' otto iv. war ensued, during which violence and lawlessness prevailed. In a 1191121s. single year, sixteen cathedrals and three hundred villages were burned 1298. to the ground. Philip was murdered by Otto of Wittelsbach, either from private revenge or inconsequence of a conspiracy. Otto IV, who was now ac- 1209. knowledged generally as king, and who married Philip's daughter, laid the murderer under ban. He fled to the Danube, where he was slain; and his family castle was torn down. § 235. Innocent III. soon provoked the passionate emperor to a bitter quarrel. This pope was a great statesman. He followed the policy of Gregory VII., maintain- ing that the church was higher than the state, the spiritual greater than the temporal head; that consequently all princes must recognize the Pope as their sovereign liege lord, and judge. During the civil war in Germany, he had supported Otto, and won from him the promise to confirm all the donations that had been made to the papal chair, and to give up the imperial claims to Rome and to Middle Italy. This of course would secure the independence of the papal state. Otto came to Rome to be crowned, but after his coronation, he asserted his imperial rights anew, and even invaded Lower Italy in order to regain the kingdom of Sicily, and to shake off the authority of Rome. Innocent excommunicated him, and sent the young Frederick to Germany, in order to 1210. kindle anew the fight between Guelph and Ghibelline. The latter party received the beautiful, hopeful lad with joy. Otto took part as the ally of John i2i4. of England, in the war against Philip of France, and suffered a great 1215. defeat in Flanders. Thereupon Frederick II., of Hohenstaufen, was acknowledged generally asking of Germany, although Otto IV. did not die till 1218- THE MIDDLE AGE. 325 1330. Frederick, after having his young son Henry elected king, returned to Italy, and received the imperial crown in Rome. But the new emperor was a free- Fvedertckxi. thinker, who had been educated in the wisdom of Arabia. He had a mis-1250. strong inclination for Islam and for oriental life, and he soon became a mighty enemy of the Pope. As king of Upper and of Lower Italy, he threatened the temporal power of the papacy ; and as a free-thinker, he threatened the authority of the church. Consequently, Innocent and his successors struggled hard to separate the dominion of Naples and Sicily from the German crown and the imperial dignity. § 236. Frederick II. delayed so long to carry out his promised crusade, that he was i33s. excommunicated by Gregory IX. The next year he started without waiting to be freed from the papal ban. Thereupon the Pope not only baffled all his undertakings in Palestine, but attacked his possessions in Lower Italy. This hastened Frederick's return. He drove back the papal armies and threatened the papal state, until Gregory was quite willing to make peace, and to free him from excommunication. Frederick now gave his whole attention to the welfare of his states ; he deposed his misguided, disobedient son Henry from the Ger- i23s. man throne, and placed his younger son Conrad in the vacant kingdom. He issued edicts to repress the robberies of the knights, and to establish enduring peace throughout the land. He gave to Sicily a new constitution, he favored com- j merce, industry, and poetry. But in an evil hour he \ attacked the Lombard cities, in order to compel them SBSllR n\ to acknowledge his imperial rights. This attempt produced a terrible war of parties and of principles. Frederick made an alliance with the Ghibellines, and with the inhuman tyrant Ezzelino of Verona ; he brought into the field his faithful Saracens and his 133* hireling soldiers, and conquered the allied army of the Lombards at Cortenuova. Most of the cities now submitted to his sway. When, however, he sought to compel the Milanese to unconditional surrender, and gave i23o. Sardinia to his son Enzio, the Pope renewed the excommunication, supported the Milanese, and stirred up everywhere enemies against the Emperor, ac- cusing the latter of infidelity and of blasphemy. Frederick retorted and answered in- 124,1. suit with insult. Finalty Gregory sank under the weight of his hun- dred years, and Frederick seemed to be master of the situation. § 237. Fieschi, a Genevese Cardinal, was now elected pope. He assumed the 1343. title of Innocent IV. Frederick, when congratulated that the new pope was his friend, replied, " I fear I have lost a friend among the cardinals, and shall find an enemy in the papal chair, for no pope can be a Ghibelline." And he was right. In- nocent made a few efforts for peace; then escaped secretly from Rome, and called a 1245. church council in the city of Lyons, on the borders of the German and the Roman world. Here he renewed the ban against the Kaiser as a blasphemer, a statue OF Frederick ii. {Roman Gate at Capita.) 326 THE MIDDLE AGE. secret Mohammedan, and an enemy of the church. He declared him to have forfeited his dignities and crown ; he released his subjects from their allegiance, and threatened all the Emperor's adherents with the curse of the Church. The flames broke out in all the 1240. lands of the empire. The papal party elected another emperor, Henry 1247. of Thuringia ; and when Henry was defeated at Ulm, and died at the Wartburg, Count William of Holland was induced to accept the royal title. But the imperial cities, and the secular princes, remained steadfast to Frederick's son Conrad. § 238. Italy meanwhile was devastated by the war between the Guelphs and Ghibellines. The hot blood of the vindictive southerners produced incredible cruel- ties. Family fought against family, city against city. Ezzelino, the leader of the Ghibelline nobles, committed unspeakable outrages against the Guelph cities. Fred- erick's majestic form long remained upright ; the number of his enemies only in- 1248. creased his courage. Even his great losses at Parma could not break his spirit. But when his son, Enzio, fell into the hands of the Bolognese, who held him prisoner for more than twenty years, when his private secretary, Peter of Vinea, proved a traitor, and as he was led to execution, beat out his brains against a church pillar, the Emperor broke his heart. He was just about undertaking a new campaign i2so. against Upper Italy, as he died in the arms of his beloved son Manfred. He was in the fifty-sixth year of his age. Frederick united fine culture with great bravery and beauty of person. Surrounded by splendor and pleasures of every sort, he might have been happy, had he learned to tame his passions and to moderate his desires. His manner of thought, his customs, and his life, were repugnant to the ideas of his time and to the maxims of his church ; moreover, he abandoned himself unre- servedly to sensuality and to doubt. Dante places him in hell, among the daring doubters who rage against heaven, and for a punishment are placed in fiery sepulchers. § 239. Innocent IV. now returned rejoicing into Italy; first, however, stirring up the whole world by his letters against the godless family of the Hohenstaufens. He declared Naples and Sicily to be fiefs of the papal see, and excommunicated Fred- erick's sons, Conrad IV. and Manfred, because they defended their paternal inherit- 1254. ance. Conrad conquered Naples, but soon passed into the grave. His chivalrous half-brother, Manfred, defended Lower Italy with German and Arab warriors, and was so successful that most of the cities acknowledged him, and the 1254. Guelph troops were obliged to withdraw. This brought Pope Inno- 1258. cent the IV. to his grave. Manfred then won another victory, and was crowned in Palermo king of Sicily. He now ruled like his father, in the magnifi- cent castle by the sea. The Ghibellines were victorious also in Upper Italy, until i25o. their leader Ezzilino was made prisoner at the battle of Cassano, and died of his wounds at a castle in Milan. Rome now saw that the papacy could not succeed by its own strength. Pope Urban IV. therefore made an alliance with the French, and offered Sicily to the energetic but cruel Charles of Anjou, brother of the 1205. French king Louis IX. He was to have it on condition that he con- quered it with the help of the Guelphs, and that he paid a yearly tribute to the papal court. Charles landed at the mouth of the Tiber, and was received by the new Pope Clement IV. and the clerical party, as a second Judas Maccabseus, who would smite hip and thigh the accursed heretic and Mahommedan chieftain. Manfred opposed him DEATH OF EMPEROR FREDERICK II. IN PALERMO. (A. Zick.) (pp. 327.) 328 THE MIDDLE AGE. is«e. . bravely, but was betrayed by the Italians at the battle of Beneventum. He plunged into the midst of his enemies, and died the death "of a hero. § 2i0. The battle of Beneventum broke the power of the Ghibellines. Naples 'HBw% Hn?- 5 vdKBBIi^illH Kn DEATH OF MANFRED. and Sicily fell into the hands of the conqueror, who made them feel all the sufferings of the vanquished. The friends of the Hohenstaufens were punished with death, the THE MIDDLE AGE. 329 dungeon and exile, and their property was given to the French and Guelph soldiers. In their misery, they called the youthful Conradin to Italy. This son of Conrad IV. had the lofty spirit and the heroic mind of his ancestors. He left his German home with his friend Frederick of Baden, and a few devoted soldiers, to reconquer the inherit- ance of the Hohenstaufens. The Ghibellines received him with transports of joy ; he marched victoriously through Upper and Middle Italy, and made a triumphal entiy execution of conradin at Naples. ( The last of the Hohenstaufens.) into Rome, which the Pope abandoned as he approached. At the capitol he received the acknowledgment of the eternal city, and then he marched to Naples. His first engagement with the enemy gave him the advantage, but in his eagerness he fell into an ambuscade, in which his troops were killed or dispersed. He himself was taken 1208. prisoner along with his bosom friend Frederick. Charles of Anjou 330 THE MIDDLE AGE. had them both beheaded. King Enzio died a prisoner at Bologna. The sons of Man- fred languished in prison to satisfy the implacable Charles. Margaret, the daughter of Frederick II., was so ill-treated by her husband, Albert of Thuringia, that she es- caped in the night time from the castle of Wartburg, and fled to Frankfurt. As she fled (the legend declares), she embraced her eldest son with such violence, that she bit him in the cheek, and he was known afterward as " Frederick with the bitten cheek.' . Charles of Anjou raged against all the adherents of Conradin. One of these, John 1282. of Procida, swore to have revenge. At his instigation, the Sicilian vespers took place. All the French of Sicily were murdered by the inhabitants, and the island was then surrendered to the courageous son-in-law of Manfred, Peter of Aragon, by whose help the inhabitants repulsed all the attacks of Charles, and founded an independent kingdom. A war ensued between Peter and Charles, which neither of them survived. Frederick the Second, son of Peter, was crowned king of Sicily, but Naples continued under French rule for two centuries. 3. Mediaeval Life. § 241. The social conditions of the middle ages resulted from the blending of Feudalism. German and Roman institutions. To this mixture we give the name of feudalism. When the Roman provinces were conquered, the victors took possession of a great part of the conquered land in such fashion, that the king took all the state property, but gave a part of the land to his comrades, with the obligation to follow him to battle attaching to it. The remainder was left to the former inhabitants. But in order to bind the freemen firmly to his throne, the king gave to some of them parts of his own share with a life tenure. Such gifts were called fiefs. The giver was the liege-lord, the receiver a vassal. In like manner, the richer land owners endowed those without property with, parts of their possessions, or with parts of their fiefs, and thus they too acquired vassals. Bishops and abbots also gave fiefs to knights upon condition that they would protect their cloister, or that they would perform military service. The feudal system thus formed a chain of dependence and fidelity, which bound together mediaeval humanity, in a most complicated fashion, and greatky limited freedom of person and of property. The crown vassals gradually conquered for themselves the heredity of their fiefs, and became so powerful that they confronted the kings as equals. Rich land holders gradually acquired the property of the poorer class, so that they belonged to the nobility, while the small free holders fell into rela- tions of dependence, and cultivated their former property as tenant farms, for which they paid a rent. Their condition grew worse and worse, until the land population fell into serfdom, were chained to the soil, and given up defenseless to the will of the master. All who lived in dependence, or in serfdom, were obliged to make contribu- tions, or to render services to the lord of the castle ; to give him tithes of their fruits and wine and flocks, or to give him money on particular occasions, or to give him gratuitous labor. These were called feudal burdens, and grew more oppressive and more manifold every 3^ear. § 242. There ' were three classes in the middle ages : the military class, the ciiivaii-u- teaching class, and the working class. The military class included the nobility and the knights, with their vassals and servants. Knighthood was based upon birth, and upon the education of the page. He was required to earn his spurs THE MIDDLE AGE. 331 by a feat of arms, before he could be received into the company. The main purpose of chivalry was fight ; sometimes to prove one's strength or fidelity, sometimes to de- fend one's personal honor, sometimes to protect religion and the clergy, sometimes to protect women as the weaker sex. The latter led to the minnesingers, the soul of chivalry and of mediaeval poetry. Tournaments, in which a noble maiden gave the prize to the victor, kept alive the feeling for chivalry, and that no false knight should slip in under the disguise of his armor and his helmet, the coat of arms was intro- duced to signalize the name and family of the champion. § 243. The teaching class included the clergy, both the secular priests and those Hierarchy. of the cloister. They alone were in possession of culture, and had the power to determine man's salvation. Hence they acquired a great dominion over the ignorant, credulous, and religious people of the middle ages. The Pope ruled not only in religion and the church and among the clergy, but he sought authority over secular princes and kingdoms, and regarded the imperial crown as his fief. The chief clergy frequently occupied important state offices, and archbishops and abbots ob- tained gradually such great estates, that they resembled princes. Proud cathedrals arose, that were decorated with the achievements of every art. A happy life in a beautiful house seemed to be the privilege of the superior clergy. The episcopal authority, which originally covered all the relations of spiritual, moral, and social life, was more and more limited by the Roman supremacy. The appointment of arch- bishops and bishops became gradually the exclusive right of the church, althpugh these were originally appointed by the secular princes. The episcopal courts were more and more limited, as the court of Rome assumed jurisdiction over all important questions, and placed many cloisters and monasteries directly under papal control. All appointments, appeals, and dispensations must be paid for, and thus much money flowed constantly to Rome. Legates were appointed to oversee the churches in for- eign lands. The papal authority thus became absolute, until it was dangerous to op- pose it. Every antagonist of existing ecclesiastical arrangements was treated as an enemy of the church, and punished accordingly. These punishments were of three degrees, excommunication, which struck the individual ; the interdict, which struck a city or a state, depriving it of worship and of all spiritual and ecclesiastical services ; and the crusade, with the accompanying inquisition, in which whole populations were given over to destruction. The power of the papacy was especially furthered, first by the false decretals, attributed to Isidore of Spain, a collection of church laws and decisions pretending to come from the first four centuries, but belonging really to the ninth ; secondly, by the growth of monasticism ; and thirdly, by mediaeval scholasti- cism. § 244. (1) Monasticism originated in the east, where the contemplation of divine Monasticism. things and solitary life is regarded as more meritorious than energetic action. So many chose this calling, that at the end of the third century, the Egyp- tian Antony, who had cast away his riches, and chosen the desert for his residence, gathered together the isolated hermits into a communal life, and his pupil Pachomius, accustomed them to a life in monasteries or cloisters. Regulated by definite ordinances, 52». the system spread gradually to the west. Benedict, of Nursia, in the sixth century, founded Monte Cassino in Lower Italy. This was the first cloister with definite rules for all its members, touching raiment, food, modes of life, and spiritual 332 THE MIDDLE AGE. exercises. This order of St. Benedict was introduced into all the lands of the west, and many monasteries were erected. The sites of these were usually in picturesque places, and the inhabitants of them took a three-fold vow of chastitj-, poverty, and obedience. These monks cleared the forests, and transformed the moors into blooming fields. They furnished an asylum to the persecuted and the oppressed. They en- nobled the souls of men, by proclaiming the gospel ; they trained the hearts of the young to morality and refinement ; they preserved from destruction the remnants of ancient literature and science. Many of the Benedictine cloisters, like St. Gall and Fulda, were the nursing places of culture, of science, and of art. When the Order of St. Benedict degenerated, the cloister of Clugny in Burgundy was established in the tenth century, with a view to stricter discipline ; and Clugny became the centre of a great confederacy of more than 2000 monasteries, most of which were very wealthy. But this order likewise became gradually less strict ; consequently the Cistercian order was founded in the eleventh century, and in the beginning of the twelfth, the Order of Premontre. The Carthusian monks went farthest in the practice of renunciation. They lived a life of solitary and silent confinement ; their food was meager and coarse ; they clothed themselves in hairy garments, inflicted upon themselves frequent scourg- ings, and lived a life of uninterrupted prayer. § 245. The mendicant orders were founded in the thirteenth century. Francis Franciscans ana of Assisi, the son of a rich merchant, gave up his property, clothed Dominicans. himself in rags, and went begging and praying through the world. His fiery zeal soon procured him adherents, who cast away their money and property, fasted, prayed, chastised themselves, and satisfied their meager wants from voluntary gifts and alms. The Order of Franciscans, or Minorites, spread rapidly through all lands, and soon divided into several branches. Dominic, a cultivated Spanish noble, founded the Order of Dominicans or preaching monks, whose aim was the purification of the faith and the destruction of heresy. The conversion of the Albigenses among whom the Dominicans lived for a long while, was the first task of this order. The Dom- inicans were likewise bound by a vow of poverty and renunciation. The courts of inquisition, with their terrible tortures and punishments, were committed to this order. The severity with which they exercised their authority in Hesse and Thur- 1333. ingia, so excited the people, that they slew the judges of heresy and put an end to the persecution. The mendicant monks were the most powerful sup 7 port of the papacy. In return for their fidelity, the Pope endowed them with great privileges, and relieved them from the jurisdiction of the local bishops. The Francis- cans were the favorites of the common people, in whose sorrows and joys they shared ; the Dominicans dedicated themselves to the sciences, and gradually got possession of the universities. The greatest doctors of the church belonged to the Order of St. Dominic. § 246. (2) The working class included the inhabitants of the country and of the cities ana Munic- city, who pursued the arts of peace. The tillers of the soil were, ii>ai Life. for a long time, the only working class of Germans. These were not free, and had no part in public life. But the Saxon emperors and the Hohen- staufens exerted themselves to build cities : and many of the country people settled in them, so that the third estate came to consist of burgesses and peasants, and acquired gradually various rights and privileges. The German cities were divided into imperial prelates pastime. (Ferd. Kriller.) (j>p. 333.) 334 THE MIDDLE AGE. cities and land cities. The imperial cities were directly subject to the Emperor, and were represented in the imperial diet. The land cities belonged to the territory of a secular prince or of a bishop. The imperial cities were the oldest, the richest, and the most powerful ; and it was in them that the municipal life of the Middle Age was especially developed. The municipalities acquired gradually by donation, purchase, or freedom, certain rights of sovereignty ;■ for example, the right to administer justice, to coin money, to lay taxes, to collect customs. The citizens of the German imperial cities, especially in the south, consisted originally, as in ancient Rome, of patrician families, of artisans and culti- vators of the soil who, as clients, possessed no share in these civic rights. The officers and aldermen of the city were chosen from the Patricians ; but gradually the lower classes resisted the dominion of the patrician families. To this end they organized guilds. These artisan guilds, the strength of which was to be found in the strong arms of the workmen, soon acquired such power, that they not only conquered every- where civil rights for thems&lves, and a share in the city government, but in many cities, the aristocratic element was expelled by a democratic government of guilds. In times of war, these guilds marched to the field with their own banners under the lead of the guildmaster, and protected their freedom against foreign enemies as bravely as they conquered and maintained it at home. Prosperity and power gave them social happiness ; and this was manifested in dances, May festivals, and pastimes of every sort. § 247. The literature of the Middle Age was of three kinds of theological writ- ings, the most important of which were composed by the scholastics and the mystics. The schoolmen were the philosophical theologians, who made Christian doctrine the subject of their thought and investigation. They used the logic of Aristotle, and in- vented a multitude of terms and formulae, and came at last to empty explanations and demonstrations, and to the absurdest subtleties. Their works astonish us by their acuteness, by their fine distinctions, by their skill in reasoning, by their learning, and their amazing industry. Thomas Aquinas, the Dominican, and Duns Scotus, the Fran- ciscan, were the most famous school-men of the thirteenth century ; and the scholastics were all divided into Thomists and Scotists. Emotional natures refused to be satis- fied with the dry reasoning of the school -men. They opposed therefore, to the philosophy and logic of scholastic Christianity, a religion of feeling, of poetry, and of imagination. iionaventura. Bernard of Clairvaux who lived in the twelfth century, and f 1274. Bonaventura, who lived in the thirteenth, were the beginners of this tendency ; but it reached its full development in the Mystics. These imitated the life of Christ, sought to overcome the wickedness of the world by chastising the flesh and destroying the lusts of the sense, and struggled after a union with God, at once complete and direct. Mysticism has greatly influenced literature and life, and although this doctrine of humility and self denial weakened the energies, and this excitement of emotions led frequently to fanaticism, nevertheless its influence upon a rude and obtuse humanity was singularly beneficial. The " Imitation of Christ " by the Domincan monk Tauler, of Strasburg, and the little "Book of Eternal Wisdom " by Suso, of Constance, were of great authority. But the most powerful influence exerted by the Mystics, was through the brotherhood of common life in the Netherlands, to t *«»*. which Thomas a Kempis belonged, the author of the famous book of THE MIDDLE AGE 335 devotion known in all languages, and read by all Christians, the " Imitation of Christ." The Flagellants were allied in part to the Mystics. When the conflicts between Guelph and Ghibelline rilled Italy with wickedness and crime, the cities of the Peninsula were startled by throngs of penitents, who marched through the land singing penitential songs, and lashing their bare backs until the blood flowed, in order to obtain forgive- ness from God. The same thing took place in Germany and other countries in the i34o-i3y the French and Italians. They managed to get Martin V. elected to the papal chair. 1*17. Martin was a moderate man, quite willing to abolish certain abuses, and to satisfy certain princes, if thereby the cry for a reformation could be stifled. 348 THE MIDDLE AGE. CITIZEN AND PEASANTS. John Huss had also been summoned to this council. Provided with a safe conduct, Huss repaired to Constance, but was immediately arrested and accused of heresy. The pale slender man, whose soul of fire seemed to consume his body, defended him- self with dignity and enthusiasm, but his judges were his enemies; his friends appealed i4i5. in vain to the imperial safe conduct. The council would keep no faith with heretics, and demanded unconditional retraction. The Bohemian reformer refused to retract, and suffered death with the forti- tude of a martyr. Jerome of Prague was i4i6. burned at the stake a year afterward. " No sage," wrote iEneas Silvius, " has shown more courage on his death bed, than these Bohemians at the stake." § 265. But these cruelties drove the Hussites to a terrible war. The cup which was refused them in the sacrament, was chosen for their standard (hence the war was called the war of Utraquists.) Thej 7 exacted a terrible revenge of the priests and the monks, who refused it to them. The Pope {15th Century.) eX communicated them, but they stormed i4,i». the state-house at Prague, and murdered the city counsellors ; and when Sigismund became king of Bohemia, the whole nation took arms to hinder his taking possession of the land. John Ziska, a man of great skill in war and great elo- quence became their leader. The Hussites defeated three imperial 1422. armies ; they burned the Bohe- mian churches and clois- ters. Ziska became blind, but still led his soldiers to victory, and was the terror of his enemies. After his death, his followers divided. The radicals continued the Holy War, devastated Sax- siege of Constantinople. ony, and levied tribute 1424. upon Brandenburg and Bavaria. Finally peace was made, but i42e-i43o. Bohemia was utterly ruined. A small party, dissatisfied with the concessions made to. the Catholics in the peace, separated from the other Hussites, and formed the Moravian brotherhood, a sect poor, peaceful, but bravely true to the Bible. THE MIDDLE AGE. 349 § 266. The Council of Basel was called by Eugene IV. This pope hesitated for council of Basel, a long time, then finally consented to resume the work of reform. i-tia-14-to. But the conferences at this council soon began to threaten the papal power. The assembly being composed largely of the inferior clergy, they dimin- ished the revenues which the Roman see was drawing from the churches, and limited the power of the pope in appointing bishops and other dignitaries. Pope Eugene became so anxious, that he removed the council to Ferrara and thence to Florence. Many, however, remained in Basel, and these chose another Pope, Felix V., declaring, ALBRECHT ACHILLES FIGHTING THE SWABIANS. like the council of Constance, that they were higher than the pope. Eugene, encour- aged by the people and the princes, who feared another Schism, excommunicated the disobedient members of the council, and rejected their edicts. To overcome the re- sistance of the Germans, he won to his side the private secretary of the Emperor Frederick III. This able man, tineas Silvius, induced the weak emperor to consent to i4js. a concordat, that left the church in the old state, and perpetuated the abuses and the exactions of former times. Finally the council acknowledged Eugene's successor, Nicholas V., as the rightful Pope, and then dissolved. 6, Germany under Frederick II., and Maximilian I. § 267. The Luxemburg family expired with Sigismund. His son-in-law, Al- 359 THE MIDDLE AGE. Albreeht JT., 1437-1430. m$. S*t-S ^-SSS ALBEHT III breeht II., of Austria, obtained the imperial crown, which henceforth remained in the House of Hapsburg. Albert's energy was taken up entirely with Bohemia and Hungary. His Frederick in., nephew, Frederick III., was 1440-1493. his successor ; a prince with- out princely qualities, who met the many misfortunes of his long reign with obtuse indifference. The Turks conquered Con- stantinople, and ravaged the Austrian fron- tiers; Hungary and Bohemia chose kings of 1453. their own ; Charles the Bold, of Burgundy, extended his kingdom to the Rhine ; Milan and Lombardy were separated from the German empire ; the German princes ruled independently, and carried on their feuds without interference. In Bavaria, Duke Ernest of Munich, drowned his daughter-in-law Agnes of Augsburg, in the Danube ; in Swabia, 200 villages and towns were reduced to ashes ; Saxony and Thuringia i44o. were devastated by a five years' war ; the regions of the Rhine and the Neckar were ravaged by the quarrels of princes. In short, Germany was everywhere a scene of confusion and of bloody quarrels. § 268. This condition produced at last a wish for a better constitution of *he empire. The princes however would make no sacrifices of their pretended rights. They dreaded any increase of imperial authority. But Berthold of Mayence, the patriotic arch- bishop, succeeded in bringing about an un- Maximiiian i., derstanding between Maxi- 1493-isia. milian, and the princes and the representatives of the free cities. At 1495. the Diet of Worms it was agreed to proclaim a peace, and to prohibit, by severe punishment, every private resort to arms. The empire was divided into ten dis- tricts, in each of which a court of justice was established. A tax was decreed for the support of the empire and of the army. Yet these reforms really increased the power of the princes, so that they could manage their states as unlimited rulers. The Swiss league refused to acknowledge the imperial courts, 1499. and to furnish soldiers for the KNIGHT IN FULL ARMOR AND LADY. {Early 16th Century.) THE MIDDLE AGE. 351 imperial army. And when Maximilian attacked them, he was defeated by them and compelled to acknowledge the independence of Switzerland. § 269. Maximilian marks the transition from the Middle Age to the Modern Era. He was a mighty hunter, a brave warrior, and a gallant knight. His romantic inar- riage with Mary of Burgundy, his wars in the Netherlands and in Italy, wear a mediaeval character. But Italy was already astir with the beginnings of a finer state- craft and a marvelous intercourse of nations, and alive with the signs of discovery and of invention that heralded a new epoch. VI. HISTORY OF THE OTHER EUROPEAN STATES IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 1. FRANCE UNDER THE CAPETIANS. (987-1328.) § 270. HE first successors of Hugh Capet possessed little power and terri- tory. The dukes, counts, and barons, of the provinces, regarded the king as their equal, and conceded to him the first rank, so far only as they acknowledged him to be their feudal lord. These feudal rights of the king, the noblemen were obliged to support ; otherwise their own subjects might become disloyal. The posses- sions of the great vassals were for the most part independent estates, and were no closer to the French crown than the western lands on the Seine, the Loire, and Ga- ronne, that belonged to the English kings, and the eastern lands on the Rhone and the Jura, that belonged to the German empire. The Capetians sought of course to increase the royal authority, and in their efforts were both fortunate and sagacious. Fortunate because most of their line were so long lived that almost always a grown-up son suc- ceeded to his father ; sagacious, because the first kings made their eldest sons co- regents, so that when the father died, the government underwent no change. The most important of the French kings were Louis VII., who undertook the second Crusade ; Philip Augustus, who took Nor- mandy from the English king John ; and Louis VIII., who increased his territory in the south by the war against the Albigenses. But the government of St. Louis and of Philip the Fair had most influence upon the fortunes of France. The former improved the administra- tion of justice, and brought about the acknowledgment of the royal courts as the highest in the laud. The latter improved the government of the cities, Philip ie Bei, giving to the citizens many rights and privileges, and calling represen- tatives from the cities into the states-general. As the cities increased in power, they needed more and more the protection of the kings against the landed nobilitj', and were more and more ready to pay lib- erally for this protection. The cities voted always with the king in the states general. The clergy also stood as a rule with the crown, and gave gener- pmirp v., ously from time to time to defray the royal expenses. At the same i3ie-i322. time they sought to protect the ancient freedom of the Gallican I. o it is VII., 1131-11SO. Philip II., 11SO-1223. Xiouis Till., 1223-1S2G. IiOitis IX., 123G-1270. (the Fair,) 1285-131-1. Louis X., 1314-131G. 352 THE MIDDLE AGE. church against the attacks of the Roman pontiff. The breath of modern history in- chariesiv., forms the whole policy of Philip the Fair. After the death of his i32g-i32s. three sons the French throne passed to the house of Valois. line, paid this, were 5. France under the Valois. (1328-1539.) § 271. Philip VI. of Valois inherited the French throne, but Edward III. of England asserted his claim as the son of a daughter of Philip jp/i«7y> vx., the i3ss-i3so. Fair. He assumed the title of King of France, and made war upon Philip. The Salic law forbade inherit- ance by a female but Edward no regard to The English victorious at a-ecy 13-to. Crecy, and Calais fell into their hands. Philip died very soon after this, and his son, John John the Oooil, the 13SO-136J. Good, came to the contested throne. Eager to wipe out the memory of Crecy, he attacked the English army, which was command- ed by the Black Prince, Edward's heroic son. But John was defeated at Poi- tiers, and carried a prisoner to Loudon. During his absence, battle of bouvines. (Vierge.) Charles, the Dauphin, Poitiers, i3so. conducted the government. The citizens of Paris, enraged at the op- pressive taxes, and the insolence of the nobility, rebelled under the leadership of Marcel. Some of the Dauphin's council were murdered in the palace, and the city fell into the hands of the insurgents. The uproar spread rapidly, and a peasant war ensued. battle of crecy. (A. de Neuville.) {pp. 353. ) 354 THE MIDDLE AGE. i3ss. Great devastation followed, and many deeds of violence, until the citizens and the peasants were conquered by the French nobility. Marcel fell in a street fight in Paris, and his adherents suffered cruel punishment. After the rebellion i3eo. had been put down, France and England agreed upon a treat} r , in which Calais and southwest France were given to England, and a large ransom paid for John. Edward III. abandoned his claims to the French throne. But the ransom EBNVABB, THE BLACK PRi NCE ia«4. money could not be collected, so John returned voluntarily to his captivity, and died in London. § 272. John's son, Charles V.. healed the wounds of the country. His rule was chmies v., mild and gentle ; he quieted the angry feeling of the people by his (tne wise) sagacity, his bravery, and his justice. He won back from the English i:t»i-i:tso. all their conquests except Calais. But his feeble-minded successor, CAPTURE OF KING JOHN AT MAUPERTAIS. (A. de Neuville.) (pp.855.) 356 THE MIDDLE AGE. 1377. Charles VI., brought France once more to confusion. Two powerful! diaries vi., parties confronted each other at court, headed respectively by the Duke 13SO-U23. of Burgundy and the Duke of Orleans. Each struggled for the regency, while the citizens every where rebelled against oppressive taxation, and demanded an ex- tension of their rights. This was a period of popular uprisings everywhere. In Ger- many, the cities were fighting against the nobility ; in Switzerland, the freemen against their lords ; in England, the people under Wat Tyler and other leaders, had risen up i38g. against the King, while in Flanders, citizen and peasant were attacking nobility and court. But a lack of unity among the insurgents deprived them of the victory, and the uprising was followed by a diminution of popular privilege. The part3 r of the Duke of Burgundy favored the people, but that of Orleans stood by the nobility. § 273. Henry V., of England, took advantage of these circumstances to renew the war against France. He demanded back the former possessions, and when these his. were refused him, he marched by Calais into France, and defeated the French army at Agincourt. The French army was four times as large as the English, yet it was utterly destroyed or captured. The way to Paris lay open to the victory. Party-rage was at its highest point. Popu- lar uprisings, and deeds of violence were the order of the day. The Burgundians, who were in alliance with Queen Isabella, pro- i4io. voked an insurrection, in which Count Armagnac, the head of the Orleans party, and many of his followers were put to death. In revenge, John of Burgundy was murdered by the friends of the slaugh- tered count. This induced his son, Philip the Good, and the Queen to ally them- selves with Henry V., of England. Isabella gave him her daughter in marriage, and secured to him and his posterity the French throne. In a short time the whole of northern France was in the hands of the Eng- 1122. lish ; but in the midst of his triumph Henry died. In the same year Charles VI. ended his life of insanity, and his son, Charles VII., came to the throne. But this made little change in the situation. The English and their French support- ers, declared the infant king, Henry VI., the lawful ruler of France, and under the leadership of the king's uncle, the Duke of Bedford, besieged Orleans. § 274. It was in this crisis, that the Maid of Orleans, a young girl of Don Remy ciiaries vii., in Lorraine, came to the rescue of her country. She believed that i422-nie. she had been called by a heavenly vision to restore the courage of the i42o. King, and of his soldiers. Clad in steel, with a helmet upon her head, and swinging the banner of the Holy Virgin before her, she marched at the head of" FtlENCH LADY AND GENTLEMAN. {Middle of Hth Century.) joan of arc, wounded at Orleans. (A. de Nevville,.') (pp- 357.) 358 THE MIDDLE AGE. the army, and with her inspired exhortations, awakened "the religion of monarchy" in the masses of the people. The city of Orleans was saved ; Charles VII. was crowned at Rheims; and the English were deprived of most of their conquests. The belief in her heavenly mission gave the French courage and self-reliance, but created among cathedral at rheims. (Built by Robert Coucy 13th Century.) their enemies fear and hesitation. This continued until Joan of Arc fell into the zj/3. hands of her enemies. She was arraigned before an ecclesiastical court in Rouen, condemned for blasphemy and witchcraft, and burned at the stake. THE MIDDLE AGE. 359 Louis XII., l-tOS-1515. Has. But the English lost one province after the other, and when at last Philip of Burgundy was reconciled to the French king, Calais was their only posses- Mae, sion on French soil. Paris opened her gates and received Charles with rejoicing. This weak king, who was governed by women and favorites, ruled France for twenty-five years, and his reign was one of peace. He was followed by Louis xi., Louis XI., a cruel cunning statesman, who acquired absolute authority i4ei-i4:S3. by his tyranny and his treachery, and greatly enlarged his kingdom. He deprived the nobility of their great privileges, united gradually all the great fiefs to the crown, and then, with the help of the Swiss, overthrew Charles the Bold, and took possession of Burgundy. Distress and fear followed him to his lonesome cas- tle, where he lived the last years of his diaries via., life. Charles VIII., and 14S3-U9S. Louis XII. acquired Brit- tany, but wasted the strength of their land in expeditions to Italy. The beautiful country of the Apennines was a "sepul- chre " for the French, as it had been for the Germans. But during the reign of the popular king Louis XII., great progress was made in civic freedom, social order, and the establishment of legal rights. 2. England. § 275. Henry II., of Anjou, the great- Heni-u a., grandson of William the liB^-iiso. Conqueror, was the first of the Plantagenets on the English throne. This family had great possessions on the Loire and the Garonne, and as Normandy belonged also to England, the whole west of France was in the power of these Ange- vin kings. This produced many conflicts, monument to joan of arc in rouen. as the kin g s of France asserted feudal rights (Erected on the spot on which she was burned.) over tllese territories which the English kings would not concede. Henry II. was a powerful and intelligent ruler, of violent disposition, but of great talents. He de- voted himself especially to the improvement of the law and of courts of justice. His tie*. " Constitutions of Clarendon " were intended to limit the power of ecclesiastical courts, and to compel the clergy to submit to the royal authority in tem- poral affairs, without an appeal to the pope. But Thomas a Becket, the archbishop of Canterbury, rejected the articles of Clarendon, and deposed all clergymen who sub- mitted to them ; and when he was threatened with judicial proceedings, he appealed to Rome and fled to France. He remained several years in a cloister of Burgundy, whence he excommunicated the adherents of the King. Pope Alexander III., however, 360 THE MIDDLE AGE. nae. brought about a reconciliation, but Thomas had hardly returned to Canterbury, when he proceeded with his old severity against the clergy, who had ac- cepted the constitutions of Clarendon. This provoked the King to say, " Who will rid me of this proud priest ? " Four of his faithful knights stole away secretly from his camp, hastened to Englaud, and murdered the Archbishop at the steps of the high altar. This pollution of the church, with the blood of a murdered bishop, created into. universal horror, and gave the papacy complete victory in England. The murderers were punished, the constitutions of Clarendon abo- lished, and Thomas a Becket canon- ized as a saint. Thousands of pil- grims journeyed to Canterbury, in*. and the king, some years afterward, knelt at the grave of the martyr, and bared his back to the scourges of the pious monks. § 276. Richard Lion -heart and jtiehara i., John Lackland sur- 1199-H90. vived their father. jo/i.i, The first, though iioo-i2ie. distinguished for his bravery and knightly achieve- ments, brought no happiness to England, and John was defeated in all his undertakings and con- flicts. His nephew Arthur, he ordered to be put to death in prison, whereupon Philip Augustus of France, as his liege lord, summoned him to a court of peers. John refused to appear, whereupon the 1203. French king seized Normandy, and the family lands of the Plantagenets, on the Loire and the Garonne. When he quar- reled with the Pope as to who should be archbishop of Canter- bury, England was laid under an interdict : his subjects were re- leased from their allegiance, and JOHN SWEARS VENGEANCE AGAINST THE BARONS. (A. de Neuville.) the king of France was urged by the Pope to the conquest of England. John thereupon stooped so low as to present the crown of England to the Pope, and to take it back from the hands of the legate of Innocent III. as a papal fief, agreeing to pay an annual tribute of a thousand marks. Innocent thereupon relieved him of the interdict, and forbade the expedition of the French king. The English people were outraged at this conduct of the King's, and at his mi*. defeat at Bovines, brought about largely by his cowardice. They THE MURDER OF ST. THOMAS A BECKET. (pp. 361.) 362 THE MIDDLE AGE. hated him too for his arbitrary conduct, and his unscrupulous cruelty. They rcse against him, therefore, and compelled him to sign his name to the Magna Charta, which i9i5. is the foundation of the English Constitution. This charter secured to the clergy the right to elect their bishops, to the nobility relief from feudal obliga- tions, and to the freemen of the cities protection against oppressive taxes, delays of Hem-y in., justice, and arbitrary imprisonment. Henry III. reigned for many years, i2ia-i2m. and though the condition of the realm during the half century of his rule was deplorable, it greatly furthered the progress of constitutional liberty. His lavish rewards to his favorites, the extortions of the papal legates, and the Italian clergy, so injured the prosperity of the land, that nobility and people rose in re- bellion. Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, was the leader of this rebellion. He imprisoned the King and the royal family, until the evils were partly removed and new privileges secured. Westminster Abbey was built during the reign of Henry, who was a lover of the fine arts, and furthered architecture and many forms of industry. § 277. Edward I. succeeded to his father jEiitvai-a i. Henry III. His reign is memor- 1272.-130?. able for a series of bloody wars. 12S3. He annexed Wales to his king- dom, and introduced into it the English consti- j| tution and civil law, and gave the title of Prince of Wales to the heir of the English throne. Another war took place in Scotland, where Robert Bruce and John Baliol contended for the Scottish crown. Edward, who was chosen arbitrator, decided in favor of Baliol, who was ready to call himself a vassal of the English king. This provoked the Scotch to arms. Under the lead of William Wallace they marched against the English; the low lands of Scotland ran red with the blood of heroes. Wallace was taken prisoner and beheaded. The coronation stone of the Scottish kings at Scone was brought to London, and still adorns West- minister Abbey. All Scotland, as far as the highlands, was overrun by Edward's victorious troops, and yet the Scotch maintained their independence. Robert Bruce the younger, the grandson of the former contestant, after many vicissitudes, obtained the Scottish throne, which continued in his house Eatvaia n. until it finally passed over to the related family of Stuarts. Edward 1307-1327. II. had none of his father's energy. He made no conquests abroad, and was unable to maintain peace and order at home. The nobles took up arms against him, killed his favorites, and looked on quietly as the Queen and her paramour Mortimer drove the unlucky monarch from his throne, and compelled him to die a Eaivara in. wretched death in prison. But when Edward III., his son, came of 1327 1377. age, he punished their wicked deed by the execution of Mortimer and the banishment of the Queen, to a lonesome castle. § 278. Edward III. ruled with ability and renown. He limited the power of the THE BLACK PRINCE. THE MIDDLE AGE. 363 pope by measures in which he was ably supported by John Wyclif, and he gave to many cities the right to send deputies to Parliament, as had been done by some of his predecessors. But Parliament was now divided into two houses. The House of Peers, consisting of the great nobles and the bishops, and the House of Commons consisting of the landed gentry and the representatives of the cities. Without their consent no taxes could be levied, and no laws proclaimed. The war with the French, which has been already described, was greatly to the advantage of the English. It brought them into close relations with the industrial people of Flanders, whereby English industry, the niehai-a ii. source of her modern greatness, made extraordinary progress. But 1377-1390. Richard II., the grandson of Edward III., had an unquiet and unhappy reign. A popular insurrection was with difficulty suppressed, and then only by the resolute swiftness of the king himself, and when Richard ban- ished the originator of these troubles, his cousin Henry of Lancaster, the latter formed a powerful party, which deposed the King. Richard died of starvation, in a distant castle in York- shire, while Henry of Lancaster took possession of the English throne. This Henry iv. Henry IV. of Lancaster 13901-113. was distinguished for the sagacity and the bravery, by means of which he secured the crown to him- self and his posterity. The Earl of Northumberland and his son, Percy, known as Hotspur, rebelled against 14,03. him, but were unsuc- cessful. The Lollards or disciples of Wyclif were persecuted to satisfy the clergy, many of them being imprisoned in a gloomy dungeon, which was known as Lollards' tower. Henry of Lan- Heuru v. caster was followed by 14,13-1-122. his brave son Henry V., whose youthful frivolity and subsequent nobility of character have been portraj'ed by the great poet Shakespeare. He made great conquests in France, all of which were lost during the reign of his son Henry VI., who was the unhappiest prince that ever occupied a throne. § 279. The sixth Henry lost the French crown through the activity of Joan of Henry vi. Aye, when he was but one j'ear old. But the Wars of the Roses robbed 142a »4ei. him of his English possessions. Richard, Duke of York, great grand- son of Edward IIL, believed that his title to the English throne, was better than that of Henry. He formed a powerful party and lifted the banner of rebellion. As the em- blems of the House of Lancaster were red, and those of the House of York, white roses, WILLIAM SHAKSPEARE. 364 THE MIDDLE AGE. this civil war is always called the War of the Roses. In the beginning, Richard was defeated by the troops of the Queen, who decorated his head with a paper crown, and then planted it upon one of the roofs of York. But Richard's eldest son Edward, revenged his father's death. He got possession of the throne and maintained it through many vicissitudes, until Henry VI. closed his wretched life in the tower, and his son had been put to death. But the blood-stained crown brought the t:ii„a,. '■- ■'■■''•;■'" ■ nJSS ;fiw '■. 18.10 . : .^tei^j ~\ ^^SSKmwSm W$ yfcv,' '|f| "^p^''' - 1 &:> :^&m v ;■;:.; %*r'i ^^-^'•c.-- ! '.. ..-'■'■■' ■■"".•. .'V..".'*i — W- ----'- i£ft^^^ ". V/' ;.v r ' 388 THE MIDDLE AGE. Russians bore the yoke of the Golden Horde, and Hungary and Poland recovered but slowly from the awful visitation. § 304. The Moguls pushed the Ottoman Turks from their homes about the Cas- pian Sea, and drove them toward Asia Minor. These were warlike nomads of Moham- i2»». medan faith, who were urged by their priests to fight against the Christians. Othman pushed into Bithynia, chose Prusa for his residence, and main- tained his conquests against the indolent Greeks and their western mercenaries. His- successors selected the handsomest and strongest lads from among the conquered Christian peoples, and trained them up in the Mohammedan faith and to military life. aiurati i. Out of these they made a splendid infantry, called janissaries. Murad (Auuirath i.) I. reduced all Asia Minor ; then crossed into Europe, and subdued 1301-13S0. the country from the Hellespont to the Hsemus. Adrianople was BATTLE OF mCOPOLIS. taken, adorned with splendid mosques, and chosen to be the residence of Murad and Bajaset. the capital of his empire. His son, the energetic but violent Bajazet, t.tsu-no.t. continued the victorious course of his father so successfully that he was called "the Thunderbolt." He conquered Macedonia and Thessaly, and all Greece to thesouthern extremity of ancient Laconia. Then finally the West took up arms against the dreadful foe. Sigismund of Hungary, John of Burgundy, the flower of French knighthood, and of the German nobility, 100,000 strong, marched to the lower Danube. But at the battle of Nicopolis the Christians, in spite of their bravery, THE MIDDLE AGE. 389 1396. were utterly defeated. Many noblemen and knights fell into the hands of the Turks, from whom they were ransomed only b} T great sums. Ten thousand prisoners of lower rank were butchered by Bajazet. § 305. But an unexpected enemy now blocked the course of the powerful victor. The Mongolian ruler, Tamerlane, a descendant of Genghis Khan, who had determined to restore the fallen kingdom of his great ancestor. At the head of a horde of herds- men, he left his capital Samarcand, determined to subdue all the races from the Chi- nese wall to the Mediterranean Sea. He marched victoriously through India and Persia, destroyed Bagdad and Damascus, took Syria from the Mamelukes, and filled Asia Minor with cruelty and terror. Clouds of smoke, piles of ruins, and heaps of dead bodies marked his victorious track. Grinning skulls were his trophies. Bajazet santa sophia. ( Constantinople.) now raised the siege of Constantinople, and marched to meet the conqueror of the 14,02. world. A fearful battle was fought at Angora, which resulted in the victory of the Moguls. Bajazet was taken prisoner and died the following year. But Tamerlane's world — empire fell to pieces as rapidly as it had been created. § 306. Murad II., the grandson of Bajazet, restored its former strength to the luunui ii. shattered empire, and reconquered the lost territories in Asia and (Amuratn ii.) Europe. He reduced the eastern empire till it comprised only Con- i-iin-1451. stantinople and a few adjacent districts, and made this tributary to his throne. Thereupon John Palseologus determined to obtain the help of western Europe, by a union of the eastern with the Romish church. To this end, he, with 390 THE MIDDLE AGE. the patriarch and many bishops, proceeded to Rome, and thence to the council of i±3». Florence. After a long, violent discussion, an ambiguous treaty was agreed upon, which was however rejected by the zealots of botli churches. This made the separation worse than before. Yet the Pope urged the Christian princes to a crusade against the Turks, and persuaded Hungary and Poland to attack the Otto- man empire. Laclislaus, kiug of Hungary and Poland, and the heroic Hunyad, of Hini«ioire«. Transylvania, crossed the Danube but were terribly defeated at the im. battle of Varna. The head of the young king was carried about on a pole by the exulting Turks. § 307. After the death of Murad II., his blood-thirsty son, Mohammed II., be- Mohammea ii. came sultan of the Ottoman empire. Determined to make Constant- JJ5/-/JS/. inople his capital, he besieged the city, and after fifty days of desper- ate resistance, it was compelled to surrender. As the Turks stormed the walls, the last emperor, Constan- tine Palseologus, in whom survived the antique Roman heroism, the love for freedom, religion, and countrv, rushed to the thickest of the fight 1453. and fell gloriously in the defence of the imperial city. But the old seat of Byzantine splendor became the residence of the Sultan. The church of St. Sophia was trans- formed to a Mosque, and the crescent was planted upon the ruins of Christ- ian civilization. The fall of Con- stantinople was followed by the con- quest of Greece, and by the subjec- tion of the lands of the Danube. Pope Nicholas V., and Pope Pius II., tried in vain to arouse the slumber- ing religious energy of the West to (solomon i. the splendid.) new cmsades . Only a few disordered i4S6. companies marched under the Franciscan monk Capistrano, to the relief of. the heroic Hunyad in Belgrade. But the West could not be inspired again to a general war. Yet in the mountains of Albania and Epirus, the heroic i4oi. Scanderbeg maintained until his death, an independent dominion, and Hungary was saved by Hunyad's victory at Belgrade. But the battle of i52o. Mohacs, brought the half of Hungary along with Buda into the hands of the Turks, while Solomon the Magnificent, wrested the island of Rhodes soiomo.. from the knights of St. John, and then marched to the gates of the spie^a. Vienna and carried terror into all Europe. Solomon gave to the isso isee. Turkish empire its greatest extent, and its utmost strength. His do- minion included Syria and all of Asia to the Tigris, Egypt, and the north .coast of Africa, with the pirate states of Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli. Solomon died at a great ■HHHfHfl s§S«£fi Hi Hi a O « ir,-is-i?. love of art and science, for chivalrous bearing and for his courage ; famous also for his despotic government, bis love of pleasure, and his fondness for beautiful women. Francis and Charles hated each other with deadly jealousy. Each wished to be the first prince of Europe, and each eagerly sought the imperial crown. Charles was the victor, and Francis became his determined foe, seeking by every means to weaken his authority. This produced four wars, of which Milan was 1515. the chief occasion. The battle of Marignano threw this beautiful dukedom into the hands of the French. But Charles claimed it as an imperial fief, and marched a great army into Italy. At that time wars were conducted with hireling soldiers and no nation could stand up against the Swiss and Germans. Their muskets & P4 frl El y no means so far from the system of Calvin as that of Luther. caivin, Calvin had laoo-issj. fled from France to Geneva, in which Farel had already begun the preaching of reform. At the latter's earnest entreaty, he remained in Geneva, where he exercised a powerful influence upon the constitution, relig- ion, nibrals and culture of the city. He was a man of lofty intelligence and moral power ; severe with himself and severe with others ; opposed to every earthly pleasure, he governed men purely by a strong will. In his doctrine he followed Zwingli, although in his views of predestination and grace he went bey r ond him, and even beyond Augustine. Like Zwingli he desired to restore the simplicity of primitive Christian worship. Pictures, decoration, organs, candles, crucifixes he banished from the church. Worship consisted in prayer, preaching and the singing of psalms. Sunday (or the Sabbath) was the only church festival. The constitution of the Calvinistic church was republican in form. The congregation elected elders who administered discipline, chose its own clergymen, watched over the morals of the people, and the relief of the poor. Clergymen and elders together formed the Synods which Legislated for the churches. The Calvinists forbade the theater and the dance, and JOHN CALVIN. 428 THE MODERN AGE. the pleasures of society, and consequently their teaching took no such root in the higher classes as in the others. § 342. Calvinism extended from Geneva into southern France. Its adherents were soon so numerous that they could enter upon a desperate struggle with the rul- ing church. The French court wavered for a while, but political reasons decided it to HENRY VIII. stand by the Roman hierarchy. The so-called reformed faith was forbidden. Cal- vinistic preachers were burned at the stake, the followers of Calvin were nick-named Huguenots, and persecuted with great bitterness. From France and Switzerland, Cal- vinism spread into the Netherlands, and in the northern provinces became victorious after a desperate struggle. In Scotland the new teaching was opposed by the court and the clergy, and many of its confessors were committed to the flames. Mary of Guise, the queen regent, was eagerly devoted to the Roman church, and in conjunc- tiop with Cardinal Beaton did her utmost to root out heresv. But the Cardinal was THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 429 murdered by a mob of conspirators ia his own house. The regent, after a three years struggle against the reform, passed to another world, and John Knox, who had been a iso/. pupil of Calvin in Geneva, conquered Scotland for the reform teach- ing. The confession of faith, the form of worship, and the Presbyterian constitution of the Calviuists, were introduced into Scotland, the mass forbidden as idolatry, and the church property confiscated. Cloisters and cathedrals were destroyed in an out-, CARDINAL THOMAS WOLSEY. break of blind rage. The Scottish church soon came to be called the Presbyterian. The Puritans of England held the same principles, but they were compelled to yield to the adherents of episcopacy. Numerous sects started into existence, which received their development on the free soil of North America. b. The Founding of the Anglican Church. § 343. England at first met the adherents of Luther with bloody persecution, and 430 THE MODERN AGE. Henry viii,, king Henry VIII., by his learned treatise againstthe German reformer. 1SOO-1S4?. acquired from the Pope the title of "Protector of the Faith.'" But Henry's adherence to the Pope was changed into hatred, when Clement VII. refused to declare void his marriage with Catharine of Aragon, the aunt of the Emperor Charles V. The king was partly moved by doubts of the validi.ty of his marriage with the widow of his deceased brother, and partly by his desire to marry the beauti- ful Anne Boleyn. Af- ter waiting many years for a decision from Rome, he grew weary of delay and determined upon the separation of the English Church from the papacy. He re- moved Cardinal Wolsey from office, made Thomas Cranmer Arch- bishop of Canterbury, is33. and rest- ing upon the opinions of English and foreign un- iversities, he declared his marriage with Cath- arine to be null and void. He then compelled the clergy to recognize him as the head of the Eng- lish church, and induced parliament to pass stat- 15.14. utes abol- ishing the authority and the power of the pope in England. He dis- solved the monasteries, turning monks and nuns hungry and help- less into the world, and confiscated their property partly in favor of the crown, and partly in favor of his friends. The institutions of the Catholic Church were for the most part untouched, and the statutes of the Six Articles (called by the people is3o. The Bloody Articles) commanded upon penalty of death the observ- ance of celibacy, of auricular confession of monastic vows, and of the mass, and re- quired all to believe in transubstantiation, and the witholding of the cup. Bishop Fisher and Sir Thomas More (once lord-chancellor and author of Utopia) died on the THOMAS MORE TAKING LEAVE OF HIS DAUGHTER. (A. Zick.) 432 THE MODERN AGE. scaffold because they refused to acknowledge the King as the head of the church. The Pope excommunicated Henry and his adherents, at the moment when the dissolu- tion of the monasteries provoked a rebellion in the North of England. Henry replied by executing the friends and relatives of the English cardinal Pole, who had published the bull of excommunication, and by handing abbots and monks over to the executioner. § 344. The rejected Catharine soon d-ied in exile. But Anne Boleyn did not long 1536. survive her. Hardly was the second wife beheaded by her jealous hus- band, when the beautiful Jane Seymour died in child-bed. Henry then married Anne of Cleves, but neither her face nor her manners pleased the King, so he put her away and Cromwell, who had brought about the marriage, fell into disfavor, and was soon 1540. beheaded. Catharine Howard, Henry's fifth wife, expiated her unfaith- 15^2. fulness upon the scaffold, and Catharine Parr, who was eagerly devoted to the Reformation, escaped death only by her great intelligence. Even on his own death-bed Henry signed death warrants. burning heretics. (A. de Neuville.) § 345. Edward VI. was but ten years old when his father died. This necessi- Edwarti ri,. tated a regency, in which the Duke of Somerset and Arch-bishop Cran- 1547-1543. mer exercised the greatest influence. The first became Protector of Eng- land, ursurped the whole authority of the state, and greatly favored the plans of Cranmer for the establishment of the Anglican church. Cranmer proceeded with care and mod- eration to blend together Catholic and Protestant elements. " The Book of Common Prayer " was composed in English from the old English missals. Festivals and the worship of the saints were abolished, the Lord's Supper was administered in bothforms, the clergy were allowed to marry and the Confession of Faith, or the thirty-nine articles, were brought into substantial harmony with the confessions of the continental reform- ers. The episcopal form of government, the use of the surplice, and other features of the English Church, lean to the Roman Catholic system. But the king and not the pope was made the head of the church, archbishops and bishops being appointed by THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 433 isb2. him. Somerset by his tyranny made himself many enemies, who finally accomplished his execution. The Duke of Northumberland succeeded him and governed the realm even more absolutely. He persuaded Edward on his death-bed to alter the last will of his father, and to name as his successor Lady Jane Grey, a grandniece of Henry VIII. But hatred for Northumberland, and for his son Dudley, the husband of Lady Jane, brought about a reaction in favor of Mary. By the declaration MARY TUDOR. that she would disturb no one in matters of belief, the people were brought to her sup- siary Tudor, port, and placed her upon the throne. Northumberland died upon the 1553-1SS8. scaffold. Dudley and Lady Jane languished for a time in prison, and then were executed. Lady Jane was the most cultivated woman of her time, beauti- ful, pious, and singularly intelligent. § 346. Mary did not keep her promise. Brought up in the Catholic faith, for which her mother suffered, her chief thought was the restoration of the papal power. She induced her parliament to abolish the reforms of Edward VI., restored the former 28 434 THE MODERN AGE. religion of Rome, and arranged with Cardinal Pole, whom she had appointed Arch- bishop of Canterbury, measures to root our heresy. The bishops who resisted were dejjosed ; Cranmer, Latimer and Ridley were burned to death at Oxford, and the flames of martyrdom were kindled throughout the realm. Not to attend the mass was a capital offense. Crowds of fugitives crossed the channel and sought protection in ELIZABETH. Germany and Switzerland. Persecution became hotter when Mary married Philip of Spain. But her sorrow over the evident dislike of her husband shortened her days. The people called her Bloody Mary, but she was only a gloomy, unfortunate and dis- xnixabetii, appointed woman. Her half-sister Elizabeth, the daughter of Anne isss-i603. Boleyn, exchanged her cell in the tower for a royal palace, and by the THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN AGE. 435 ises. Act of Uniformity restored the church establishment of Edward. The book of common prayer and the thirty-nine articles were made obligatory, and the court of High Commission appointed by the Queen to supervise the affairs of the church. The returning fugitives hoped to induce her to adopt the principles of Calvin, but Elizabeth had no mind for the simplicity of the puritan forms, or for their notions of church government. This led to the separation of some of the Puritans from the An- glican church, and to the gradual development of a Presbyterian party inside the estab- lishment. The separatists were persecuted and driven from the kingdom into Holland. Presbyterians inside the church organization first made their power felt under the Stuarts. 436 THE MODERN AGE. c. Gnstavua 1'asa. 1523-1500. The Reformation in the Three Scandinavian Kingdoms. § 347. Christian II., the last king under the Union of Calmar, so embittered the christian ii., nobility by his cruelty that the insurrections broke out in Sweden and i5i3-i523. Denmark. These led to the dissolution of the union, and to the intro- 1559. duction of the evangelical church. In Sweden, Gustavus Vasa was the author of this ecclesiastical and political change, and the founder of a powerful dy- nasty. He had been taken to Denmark by Christian II. as a hostage, but he escaped to Liibeck, where he was protected and furnished with money with which to liberate his native land. In the very year in which the massacre of Stockholm filled Sweden i52o. with terror, Gustavus landed on his native shores. He escaped a thous- and dangers by his own resolute courage, and the fidelity of his coun- trymen, and although the agents of Christian pursued him everywhere,* he was able to gather about him a band of peasants who defeated the Danish troops ism. and their allies, and soon took possession of Upsala. The glory of his name, and the cry of freedom soon brought him adherents from every section. Lii- beck supported him with troops, cannon, and money, so that he compelled the Danish garrison to 1533. leave the kingdom, and having been chosen king by the Swedish diet, he entered Stockholm in triumph. The new monarchy was at first elective, but twenty years later the diet de- clared the crown hereditary in the male line of Vasa. The 154,4. royal estate, how- ever, had been so wasted by the Danes, that the dignity of the crown required increased revenues. The Reformation furnished a welcome opportunity. The people, instructed in the new doctrine by the brothers Petri, ac- cepted it willingly, a»d the diet confiscated the estates of the clergy, inasmuch as i52i. they had taken part with the Danes, and showed no interest in the independence of their country. Gustavus then gradually introduced the Reformation everywhere, and took from the church the largest part of her revenue. The nobility, in order to enrich themselves, supported his undertaking. The bishops, after a long resistance, recognized the new order of things, and were allowed to remain as superin- tendents of the church, but dependent upon the king and limited by consistories. § 348. Denmark, meanwhile, had also undergone a great change. Frederick I. Fretierick i., of Schleswig-Holstein had been acknowledged as king by the no- 1523-1533. bility and the people, and had strengthened himself against his rival, Christian II., by encouraging the evangelical teaching. While Frederick was conced- ing to the Protestants equality with the Catholics, and arranging for the independence of the Danish church, Christian II. had gone over to the Emperor and Pope, and with christian in., their help was making an attack upon Denmark. But he was captured 1534,-1559. and imprisoned for sixteen years in a gloomy tower. Christian III., the OLD SWEDISH LEATHER CANNON. THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 437 son of Frederick, completed ■ the victory of the Lutheran church in Denmark. The clergy forfeited most of their estates to the crown and the nobility, while the bishops became wholly dependent upon the government. In Norway the new church was es- tablished by the peasants, but in Iceland the bishops and their adherents fell with arms in their hands. The Swedish and Danish nobility acquired, by the Reformation, great wealth, power, and privileges. § 349. Gustavus Vasa established the welfare of S.weden by good laws, and by the encouragement of commerce and of industry. But his sons experienced a bitter Erie xiv., fate. Eric XIV. was so violent and so suspicious that he at last became iseo-ises. insane. He murdered several members of the Sture family with his own hands, and the nobles all quaked with fear. They therefore formed a conspiracy under the lead of his brothers, as a result of which Eric was imprisoned and put to joaii in., death. His brother, John III., succeeded him. His first wife, the 15GS-1502. daughter of the Polish king, was a bigoted Catholic, and she in con- nection with a Jesuit, who lived in Stockholm secretly as an ambassador, induced to the King to restore the ancient faith, and to bring up the young prince Sigismund as a Catholic. But the Swedish people earnestly resisted the Catholic ceremonies and John repented the undertaking, especially as his second wife worked for the evangelical sio>sm>tna, church. But his son Sigismund, who was also king of Poland, suffered isos-ieoo. greatly through his Catholic education. When the Swedish diet made the evangelical Lutheran religion the sole religion of Sweden, Sigismund refused to obey. His uncle Karl was appointed Protector of the Realm. Sigismund defended his rights with arms. But he was conquered and given the choice to renounce the papacy and retain his kingdom, or to send his son to Sweden to be educated in the Lutheran religion. Sigismund refused to send his son, so Karl IX. obtained the crown, and a new law of succession secured it to his offspring. § 350. This provoked a war between Sweden and Poland. Under Gustavus Kari ix., Adolphus, the son of Karl, this war resulted to the advantage of xeoo-iaii. Sweden. Livland, and other provinces, were lost to Poland, whose power now steadily decreased. The Polish nobility resisted all attempts to reform the church or to reorganize the state. A few persecuted religionists found protection and toleration in Poland, and the " dissidents," as the adherents of the new doctrines were called, acquired, after many struggles, religious liberty and civil equality. This how- ever they were unable to retain. Yet opinions which were rejected by the reformers found toleration in Poland, especially the Socinians, a Unitarian sect that rejected the mystery of the Trinity. d. The Catholic Church. § 351. Spain and Italy were not without traces of the Reformation, but the nature of the people, and the severity of the Inquisition hindered the progress of Reform. Among the confessors of the new doctrine were scholars and writers like Peter Martyr who were compelled to seek safety in foreign lands. Some adopted principles which iss3. were rejected by the reformers as false doctrine. Socinus, already mentioned, was an Italian and Servetus, who was burned, was a Spaniard. The leaders of the Catholic church did not give up the idea of suppressing the new doctrine ; wherever they could, they sought to obtain this end by force, and where 438 THE MODERN AGE. the use of r force was impossible, they did their utmost to prevent the preaching of the- Hadrian VI., P V t e S taut 15X2-1S23. beliefs. Al- most all the popes, even Hadrian VI., .and Paul III, who earnestly de- sired to reform the church, were exceedingly severe pniii in., against the. 1534-15-to. Protestants. Paul IV, a gloomy octo- genarian monk, so pro- voked the people by his- cruelty, that on the day paui xv., of his death J555-1559. they muti- lated his statues, and burned down the house of the Inquisition. The Council of Trent began its third session under Pius IV., in January, 1562. pins iv., The decrees tsBo-iBos. of this coun- cil are the fundamental doctrines of the Catholie church. The confessions of faith of the ancient councils were declared in- fallible, and the creed of the church expressed in a most indefinite form. Pure ethics were re-established, church discipline i m- Dec. 4, ise3. proved, and the clerical order brought under closer supervision. The Council of Trent com- pleted the development of the Roman Catholic church, and in three cen- aregoi-y XIII., tUl'ieS DO 1572-isss. subsequent council was called. Greg- ory XIII. reformed the calendar by passing from' TRIAL BY WATER. THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 439 IGNATIUS LOYOLA. the fourth of October to the fifteenth. He also ordered the singing of a Te Deum when he received the news of the massacre of Saint Bartholemew. The greatest pope of the century was Sixtus V. He began life as a shepherd boy, became a Franciscan, status v., then an inquisitor, afterward a cardinal, and finally head of the isss-is90. church. He was a powerful ruler, maintaining order with great se- verity, and erecting great buildings, and excavating the monuments of antiquity from the ruins of ancient Rome. § 352. The Jesuits or " Company of Jesus," were the chief support of the popes in their efforts to arrest the reformation. This powerful order was founded by Igna- 15-to. tius Loyola, a Spanish nobleman, a sol- dier, a dreamer, an organizer and an enthusiast. Led to renounce his military career oy a wound that crippled him for life, and by reading the lives of the saints, he made a painful pilgrimage to the Holy Sepulcher. Commanded to return and to get an education, he studied with incredible perseverance, at Salamanca and Paris, and then sought and found six companions who would join him in the con- quest of the world for Mary and her Son. They took three vows, poverty, chastity and obedience, and then offered themselves unconditionally to the Pope. The new order was, after much difficulty, recognized and sanctioned Ignatius was its first general, and Laynez, one of the six recruits, perfected its remarkable constitu- tion. This constitution was alto- gether unique. The general in Rome, commands the " provin- cials " or the commanders of the provinces, and these in turn com- mand subordinates in different ranks and degrees. The watch- word of the company is obedience. The members of the order are guarded vigilantly, and all the ties that bind them to the world are sundered. Candidates must serve a long probation, during which their qualities and inclinations are carefully studied, so that each one may be appointed to his proper work. Some are sent to the cloister, others trained to science ; some un- dertake the instruction of the young, the ablest subtlests are sent to courts and palaces, and those endowed with eloquence are used as preachers at home, or sent as missionaries to foreign lands. Privileged by the popes in a most extraordinary way, and enriched by donations and legacies, the Jesuits acquired a various and powerful influence. Their chief end was the overthrow of Protestantism and the suppression of SPANISH GALLEASS OF THE 16tH CENTURY. 440 THE MODERN AGE. o eh z < hi B EH El < B — Eh intellectual freedom. This they sought in different waj's ; by persuasion to bring the adherents of the new faith back to the ancient church, by the confessional in which they urged princes and influen- tial persons to oppose the Reformation, and to limit the freedom of belief; by educa- tion of the young, in which they sought to gain the rising gen- eration for their principles. But the order soon became the object of popular hatred, because it destroyed religious peace, and taught strange doctrines of morality. The teach- ing that "the end justifies the means," is not to be found just in those words among Jesuit max- ims, but the doc- trine that words and oaths when uttered have no validity, "if the mind thinks other- wise," was used by them in a most destructive fashion. 5. The Age op Philip II., (1556-1598) and op Elizabeth (1558-1603). § 353. Philip- II. of Spain was a morose and misanthropic prince, who had three aims : — the increase of his dominion, the extermination of Protestantism, and the destruc- tion of popular liberties and rights. To reach these, he sacrificed the happiness of na- tions, the welfare of his kingdom, the love of his people and of his family. His half- i57i. brother Don Juan, who conquered the Turks at Lepanto, was sur- rounded by the King with a web of falsehoods, trickery and espionage, so that all his THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 441 undertakings were baffled and he himself hurried to his grave. Philip's son, Don Carlos, died in the dungeons of the Inquisition. By means of this terrible court, and his frequent autos dafe, he succeeded in destroying every trace of heresy in Spain and Naples, and robbing the people of their freedom. But he destroyed at the same time the greatness of both countries. When, however, he undertook to bend the Nether- lands to the same yoke, he provoked that memorable contest from which freedom rose triumphant. After a reign of forty-two years which was the grave of Spanish great- ness, Philip succumbed to a terrible disease. He left a land loaded with debt and wasted with cruelty. The Duke of Alba was a cruel instrument of his tyrannical commands. Master and servant have received the execration of mankind. a. Portugal United with Spain. § 354. Portugal shared the fate of Spain. Both lands were oppressed by a pow- erful priesthood, supported by an absolute king. The rights of the people were destroyed, their in- telligence blunted, their heroism reduced to slavery and their prosperity brought to an end. A mourn- ful fate united Portugal to Spain. King Sebastian undertook a campaign against Sebastian the unbelieving Moors in North iss7-is7s. Africa. On a terribly hot day in August, he attacked the army of the enemy in the plains of Alcassar, and suffered a complete de- feat. Ten thousand Christian warriors were left upon the field of battle. Among the missing was King Sebastian, although his body could not be discovered. The crown of Portugal became vacant and Philip II. sent Duke Alba to make good his claim. The Portuguese favored Antonio, another claimant, but the latter was too feeble to maintain his pretended rights against the Spaniards. He was forced to fly, whereupon Lisbon and the whole land submitted to Philip. The Portuguese were under Spanish rule for ir.so-ioio. sixty years, and until the rich and influential Duke of Braganza acquired the throne. But meanwhile the Portuguese sea-power had fallen into decay and their foreign possessions passed to other hands. chamber of horrors. (Niirnburg.) b. The Fight for Freedom in the Netherlands, § 355. The Netherlands had of old possessed important chartered rights and liberties. Among these was the right to determine their own taxes, to an indepen- dent judiciary, to a domestic army, and to native born officials. Charles V. had often violated these rights, but the fondness of the Emperor for the people of the Netherlands, among whom he was born and whose character he loved, warded off hostilities. Philip, on the contrary, was a haughty Spaniard who looked upon the Netherlands as a subject province, and frequently attacked their ancient privileges. 442 THE 'MODERN AGE. He appointed his half-sister Margaret of Parma, a woman of masculine mind to issa. be regent in Brussels. He surrounded her with a cabinet council in which Cardinal Granvelle presided, and he marched a Spanish garrison into the land. But the Netherlander, many of whom inclined to evangelical teaching, were most outraged when the King, in order to preserve the ancient teaching, increased the laws against heretics and determined to create fourteen new bishops. This was a prelude to the introduction of the Spanish Inquisition, and Gran- velle, who was to be the Metropolitan of all these sees, had already the title of " Grand Inquisitor." The patriotic paily with William of Orange and Count Egmont at their head, urged the King to respect the institutions of the land, to modify the laws against heresy, and to permit liberty of belief. But Philip answered that he would " rather die a thousand times than permit the slightest change in re- ligion." § 356. The adherents of the new church were to be found among the common people only. The nobility clung to the old faith, but were nevertheless determined to oppose the Inquisition. Four hundred of them signed the so-called Compromise, and November, lses. petitioned for the suspension of the Inquisition. When they presented this to the Regent she was greatly dis- turbed. One of her counsellors said to her she should not be alarmed at these " beg- gars." The phrase was adopted as the watch- word of their league. They called them- selves beggars, (Gueux) and wore around their necks a medal with the likeness of the king, and the inscription " faithful to the king, though he make us beggars." The petition met with no success. The heretics were deprived of liberty, property, and life ; nevertheless the new teaching spread every- where. Psalms were sung ; the people went in throngs to hear the field-preachers ; monks and holy objects were hooted on the streets. And finally the people of Ant- ises. werp and Brussels broke into the churches and the cloisters, tore down crucifixes, and destroyed sacred images and pictures. Moderate men regretted these excesses, and aided in their punishment. Order was soon restored, and Margaret her- self advised gentleness and mercy. But her suggestions were despised. Philip de- Mba. termined to send the Duke of Alba with a Spanish army into the iset-1573. Netherlands and to compel the people by severity and force. § 357. The news of Alba's arrival drove the Netherlanders to flight. William of Orange, a calm, sagacious man. resolute, energetic and silent, bent before the storm and retired to Germany. He sought in vain to persuade Egmont to do likewise. But Egmont trusted to his great services and remained. Alba was no sooner arrived, than he arrested Egmont and Count Horn on a charge of high treason, and beheaded them MOORISH KINGS. a. r. o o PS o &=) w w « C5 O m 444 THE MODERN AGE. xsas. with eighteen other noblemen in the market place of Brussels. They were tried by "the Council of Insurrection," called by the Netherlauders the Bloody Council. This tribunal punished with incredible cruelty all who believed the new doctrine, and all who fought for ancient rights and institutions. The regent Margaret, indignant at these cruelties, resigned . her position and returned to Italy. But Alba erected a citadel in Antwerp, and maintained a reign of terror for six years. In utter disregard of law, he laid a tax upon the land, and distributed it so unequally as to cut the root of commercial prosperity. This oppression and the inhuman cruelties of the Spanish troops at last created such an uproar, that Madrid determined to recall Alba. The news that the sea-beggars had conquered Briel, that the northern provinces had THE CITIZEN'S GUARD VIEWING THE BEHEADED BODIES OF COUNTS EGMONT AND H0KN. {Louis Gallart.') is72. united together, and that William of Orange had been made Stadt- holder, convinced the Spanish court that Alba's methods were after all a failure. mt4.. When he left the Netherlands the nothern provinces established Cal- vinism as the religion of the country, accepted the Heidelberg catechism, and founded a university in the city of Leyden. § 358. Alba's successors, Zuniga and Requesens, abolished the council of insur- is?3-is5«. rection, and sought to restore the authority of Spain hy milder meas- ures, but the hatred of the people for the foreign soldiers prevented reconciliation. mi*. Even the Spanish victory, in which the two brothers of Orange were the iconoclasts. (A. de Neuville.) (j>p. 445.) 446 THE MODERN" AGE. slain, produced no effect. Don Juan was now entrusted with task. But before he arrived the troops broke out in mutiny Orange was therefore able to unite all the provinces in a league for the expulsion of the Spanish army, and Don Juan was not able to restore the shattered power of his brother. Alexander Farnese of Parma, next 1570-1578. the difficult and murder. 157G. murder of the duke of guise. ( Vierge.) 1578-1592. assumed command. Like Don Juan he sought to separate the southern from the northern provinces. Thereupon William of Orange united the 1579. northern provinces in a closer union. This union was the foundation of the united states of the Netherlands. The southern provinces were so discordant that Parma succeeded in suppressing the insurrection in many places, and in bringing several cities to obedience. Philip now directed all his hatred against Orange. He THH HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 447 declared him an outlaw, and offered great rewards and a patent of nobility to who- ever might deliver him alive or dead. Several attempts were made to assassinate him, and finally the ball of a fanatic named Gerard stretched him dead in the city of Delft. The 1584. murderer was seized and ex- ecuted, and the northern provinces elected his son Maurice to take the place of Will- iam the Silent. § 359. The hat- red of Catholics and Protestants for each other in the western states of Europe was now greater than ever. The Catholics placed their confi- dence in Philip of Spain, the Protes- ants were support- ed secretly or op- enly by Elizabeth of England. She sent Leicester with an army to the Netherlands, she supported the French Huguenots against the Catho- lic league and the Jesuits, and when issi. her own life was threatened by fanatics, she signed the death warrant of Mary Stuart. Philip now determined to chastise heretical England and its excommunicated Queen. He as sembled the invincible Armada, consisting of 130 war-ships, and sent it under 448 THE MODERN AGE. the command of Medina Sidonia to subjugate England and the Netherlands. But the "Invincible Armada " was conquered by the storms of the sea, and by the skill and bravery of the English. What escaped the calamities of the channel was shat- tered on the shores of Scotland. It was a fatal blow. When Sidonia returned to Spain, Philip murmured, "I sent you against men and not against the storms and cliffs." Spain's superiority at sea was broken, and the independence of the Netherlands was secured. For, although the war lasted twenty years longer, the Spaniards were unable with all their bravery and skill to subjugate the land. Maurice of Orange proved to be a is»s. splendid leader, and the northern states fought successfully for their freedom. Shortly before his death, Philip transferred the Netherlands to his daugh- ter Clara, with the condition that if she died childless, the land should return to Spain. But the united states of Holland would not consent to the plan ; they con- iooo. tinued the war after Philip's death. Finally, Henry IV. of France, negotiated a truce that secured their independence, religious freedom, and their col- osal trade with the East Indies. But the independence of the united states of Hol- land was not formally acknowledged until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The southern provinces (Belgium) continued for a century witli Spain, and then passed to Austria. § 860. Commerce, Constitution, Religion. Holland emerged from the struggle prosperous and powerful. The Dutch established their East India company in 1602, and opened up direct communication with India, at the same time depriving the , Portuguese of many settlements. Batavia, on the island of Java, became the center of their profitable trade. The constitution of the United Netherlands, which was perfected by their great statesman, Olden Barneveld, was that of an aristocratic republic. A general court composed of representatives of the seven provinces, constituted the legislative body. The high council with the Stadtholder at its head, conducted the government, but the army and navy were commanded exclusively by the Stadtholder. The arts and sciences prospered greatly, and philology, especially, was carefully studied at the Dutch universities, while the Dutch painters rivalled the great Italian masters. But Prostestant Holland did not escape re- ligious dissension. A quarrel about predestination and the relation of church and state, divided the country into two parties ; a strictly orthodox one, to which Maurice of Orange and his following belonged, and a moderate one, of which the champions were Olden Barneveld and Hugo Grotius. The latter would have subordinated the into. church to the state but the Synod of Dort decided in favor of the former. Olden Barneveld, in spite of his great services, died upon the scaffold ; and Hugo Grotius, the historian of the " War for Liberty," and the founder of international law, was sent to prison, from which he was rescued by the cunning and fidelity of his wife. France during her Religious Wars. § 361. King Henry II., a stern adversary of the Huguenots, died from a wound Henry ii., received at a tournament in 1559. His weak and sickly son Francis x5±7-i559. II., succeeded him. He was married to the beautiful Mary Stuart, of 29 execution op heretics, xviTii century. (A. de Neuville.) (pp. 449.) 450 THE MODERN AGE. Francis n, Scotland, on which account her uncles, the Guises, had great influence isso-isoo. at court. They were zealous adherents of the pope, and they used their position to oppress the reformers. This enabled their rivals, especially the Prince of Conde, of the Bourbon family, and the Admiral Coligny, to strengthen themselves by an alliance with the Huguenots. Party hatred increased with every clay ; each sought to conquer by the help of the King. The Diet of Orleans was looked upon by both parties as the fitting moment for the execution of their plan. The Guises ob- tained the upper hand ; the Huguenot chiefs were already imprisoned, when the sudden death of the King changed the face of affairs. Catharine de Medici, the queen diaries ix. mother of Charles IX., was now supreme and the Bourbons recovered i5eo-is74. their influence at court. The Guises returned to Lorraine, and Mary Stuart sorrowfully and reluctantly set sail for Scotland. § 362. This departure of the Guises brought toleration to the reformers. The Duke of Guise, embittered at this concession, formed an alliance with powerful noble- men for the maintainance of the ancient faith, and returned to Paris. As the Duke i56-i. and his train passed a barn in Vassy, they found some Calvinists engaged in worship. These they massacred without mercy. Instantly a cry for vengeance rang through the land. France was divided in two hostile camps that fought each other with the utmost bitterness. Horrible cruelties were committed, and the kingdom shaken to its foundation. The Catholics obtained help from Rome and Spain, the Huguenots were supported by England, and obtained soldiers from Germany and Switzerland . An indecisive battle was fought at Dreux ; 1503. Duke Francis, of Guise, was murdered at the siege of Orleans. A short truce followed, in which religious toleration was secured for the Calvin- ists. But the truce was soon violated. The parties iset. again confronted each other, fully armed. But in spite of the bravery of the Huguenots at the battle of St. Denis, the Catholic party maintained control, because Catherine de Medici cast in her fortunes with the ancient church. Several bloody engagements took place in the vicinity of La Rochelle ; Cond^ was assas- isM>. sinated, and finally the treaty of St. Germain was agreed upon, in which the Calvinists were guaranteed the exercise of their religion. Oonde's nephew, Henry of Navarre, now joined the Huguenots, but the soul of the reform party was Coligny, who stood by Prince Henry's side as leader and counsellor. § 363. After the peace of St. Germain Coligny became a favorite with the young king. The Admiral sought to persuade Charles IX. to make war upon Spain, and in order to establish a permanent reconciliation of the two parties, the King urged a mar- riage of his sister Margaret with the young prince Henry. This angered the Guises, who believed that Coligny had plotted the murder of Duke Francis of Guise, and they determined upoii revenge : as Coligny was returning home one evening a musket ball shattered his arm. The Guises now allied themselves with Catharine de Medici, and her third son, Henry of Anjou, and all three agreed to destroy the Cal- vinistic leaders at the approaching wedding. The Queen Mother, who was opposed to MARY STUART. assassination oe marshal d'ancre. (A. de Neuville.) (pp. 451.) 452 THE MODERN AGE. a war with Spain, and hated the Admiral, was quite willing to have Coligny removed. This was the origin of the massacre of St. Bartholemew, on the 24st of August, 1572. The signal bell was rung at midnight ; Coligny was the first sacrificed ; the assassins then scattered into all parts of the city, filling the houses and streets with corpses. The butchery lasted for three whole days, and was imitated in several cities. The lowest estimate places the number of murdered Huguenots at twenty-five thousand. The King, to whom the plan was communicated just before its execution, shot with his own hand at the fugitives that fled the palace. When the Guises were called to account for the bloody deed, Charles assumed the entire responsibility, and justified the horror with a story of a Huguenot conspiracy. Many Frenchmen abandoned their county in horror and sought protection in Switzerland, in Germany, and in the Netherlands. Henry, of Navarre, saved his life by a compulsory recantation. But as soon as he was in safety, he returned to his former faith. § 364. Two years after the massacre, Charles IX. passed away, tormented by ter- ^dP 5 s. ^'MlfShW st. babtholbmew's night. (A. de Neuvitle.) 1314. rible dreams. His brother Henry, who had been for a year the elected king of Poland, escaped secretly from the rough regions of the Vistula, in order to Henry in, obtain the crown of France. He was a weak and pleasure-loving i3T4-i5so. prince, without seriousness and without energy. He liked to shut himself up with his favorites and his lap-dogs inside his palace, and to forget the storm that raged without. And when the fear of judgment disturbed his conscience, he sought comfort in superstitious devotion, in pilgrimages and processions, and scourg- ings. That he might enjoy more undisturbed the pleasures of the capital, he granted to the Huguenots, religious freedom and equal rights with the Catholics. The latter, enraged at these concessions, formed the holy league under the leadership of Henry jtsre. of Guise, and in alliance with Philip II., of Spain. Priests and monks and Jesuits especially, worked zealously to obtain members for the new union. The vacillating and faithless King, now went over to the Catholic zealots, assumed the headship of the league, and abolished the religious peace. Henry HI., was childless ; THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 453 its*. so too was his younger brother, the Duke of Anjou. This made the Bourbon Henry of Navarre, after the death of Anjou, the nearest heir to the throne. The prospect of a Protestant king alarmed Catholic France, and gave the league new strength. The King was compelled to proclaim the extermination of heresy, and to confirm all the doings of the union. At first the intention was simply to put aside CARDINAL LORRAINE RECEIVING THE HEAD OF COLIGNT. the Protestant claimant of the throne, but as Henry of Guise increased in power, he reached out his own hands for the scepter, claiming to be a descendant of the Carlings, and to have a stronger claim than the ruling family. A conspiracy was formed in xsss. Paris against the freedom and the life of the King, and when Henry attempted to protect himself with Swiss troops, the people broke into insurrection. They gathered about the Duke of Guise, erected barricades in the city streets, and 454 THE MODERN AGE. attacked the royal troops. The king abandoned his capital to the adversary, and Henry of Guise was now as powerful as the ancient major domus, but this did not isss. satisfy him. He convened a diet at Blois, intending to deprive the Bourbons of the throne, to exterminate Calvinism, to change the government, and to get all power into the hands of the Guises. In this crisis, King Henry III., ventured a bold step. He caused the Duke of Guise and his brother, the Cardinal Louis, to be MURDER OF DAVID RIZZIO. iss9. assassinated, and the most influential leaders of their party to be impris- oned. This produced a terrible excitement throughout the kingdom. Paris renounced the God forsaken King ; the Pope excommunicated him ; revolutionary governments appeared in various parts of France, Henry III., abandoned and despised, saw no other way of safety than to ally himself with Henry of Navarre, and the Huguenots, Civil war flamed up anew, but the league was overthrown. Henry was besieging Paris and threatening to convert it into a pile of ruins, when the knife of a fanatical k |is''-'-'i,''.l 456 THE MODERN AGE. monk put an end to his life. He died on the first of August, 1589, after appointing Henry of Navarre to be his successor. § 365. There was to be a weary struggle before Henr}^ IV. could reach the Hem-if iv. throne of France. Mayenne, the brother of the murdered Guise, as- isso-ieio. sumed the conduct of the league ; Philip II. made the most of the confusion and sent his famous general, Alexander of Parma, with an army into France. Henry won his famous victory at Ivry, and then besieged Paris. The city suffered all the horrors of starvation, but Henry was at last convinced that he could never acquire peaceful possession of the French throne by battles and victories. isoo. " Paris is worth a mass," he said, and entered the cathedral of St. Denis to swear allegiance to the Catholic church. This broke the power of the is»3. league. Paris opened her gates, and received the messenger of peace MAKY STUART INFORMED OF HER IMPENDING EXECUTION. ( G. V. Pilot y.) with joy. The Pope lifted the excommunication, the heads of the league made treaties with the King, and even Philip II. consented to the peace of Vervins. Henry isos. having established peace at home and abroad, issued the Edict of Nantes in which he gave to the Calvinists religious freedom, equality of civil rights, and many other advantages, such as exemption from episcopal jurisdiction, and the possession of certain strongholds. He then sought to heal the wounds of the war by encouraging agriculture, industry, and commerce. Through his friend and minister, Sully, he reorganized the administration and the system of taxation. He became ex- ceedingly popular, but fanaticism only slumbered. As Henry was planning to estab- lish a Christian empire in which all three confessions should be granted equal privi- THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 457 10x0. leges, and by which the power of Austria might be broken, he was stabbed to death by the assassin Ravaillac. d. Elizabeth and Mary Stuart. § 3fi6. England all this while was flourishing, under Elizabeth, in commerce and EUsahetn. industry, in navigation, agriculture and literature. The Queen op- tsss-iooa. pressed the religious inclinations of her people, and suffered no con- tradiction in Parliament, , but she possessed the qual- J ities of a great ruler. Hav- ing a strong mind and a I strong will, schooled by study, and by sharp experi- ence, she saw and chose what was best for her king- dom. She was surrounded with able counsellors, among whom Lord Bur- leigh took the first rank. She was economical and orderly in administration, but she loved dissimula- tion, intrigue and decep- tion. Her character was in sharp contrast with that of Mary Stuart, queen of j Scotland. The beautiful princess had passed her youth in happiness and pleasure. She was amia- ble, cheerful, and full of life, though not free from wantonness and immoral- ity, while Elizabeth was serious and jealous, tyran- nical and often morose. Mary held fast to the Catholic religion and to the papacy, in the midst of a people, who rejected the mass as idolatry. § 367. Her second husband was the Scottish nobleman Darnley, but he behaved ises. so badly that the Queen encouraged the singer Rizzio from Turin, who was also her secretary. Urged on by his jealousy and by false friends, Darnley con- spired with several noblemen to murder Mary's favorite before her eyes. This filled the heart of the Queen with bitterness against her husband. She separated from him ELIZABETH SIGNING THE DEATH WARRANT. (A. Liezenmai/er.) 458 THE MODERN AGE. and gave her favor to Bothwell, a Scottish nobleman. Nor was she reconciled until Darnley fell sick ; then she nursed him with great devotion. But one night during her absence, the inhabitants of Edinburgh were awakened by a terrible explosion. The isar. villa of the King was shattered to pieces and Darnley's strangled corpse was found among the ruins. Bothwell was believed to be the perpetrator ; yet three months later he was Mary's husband. The Scottish nobility rose in rebel- lion. Bothwell fled to the Hebrides, and lived a pirate's life until he was captured by the Danes. Mary was led in triumph to Edinburgh, and then imprisoned in the island castle Loch Levin, where she gave up her crown and appointed her half-brother, Mur- 1508. ray, regent during the minority of her son James. She escaped how- ever, recalled her abdication, gathered an army, but was conquered a second time, and would have been captured also, if she had not fled to England seeking the protection of Elizabeth. § 368. Elizabeth declined to see her until she proved herself guiltless of her husband's murder, and as Mary would not recognize Elizabeth as her sovereign, and consent to a trial, she was detained in England. Her presence however threatened Elizabeth's safety. The Duke of Norfolk, who sought Mary in mar- riage, lost first his liberty and then is72. his life. The Dukes of Northumberland and West-more- land rebelled, hoping to set Mary free and to restore the Catholic Church. But Northumberland died upon the scaffold. Mary was suspected of complicity with his designs. She was placed under the strictest guard, and all attempts of foreign courts to procure her liberty were fruitless. The troubles in Scotland and the re- ligious wars of the continent appeared to make her imprisonment necessary. At this juncture Babington, who was supported by Spain, formed a conspiracy to murder Elizabeth, and to place Mary upon the English throne. The plot was discovered ; the guilty conspirators died upon the scaffold. And as Mary was proved to have knowledge of the conspiracy, she also was found guilty, and Elizabeth was petitioned by Parliament not to interfere with the course of the law. Elizabeth signed the death warrant : Feb. 7, i5S7. Burleigh saw to its swift execution. Mary was beheaded in the nine- teenth year of her imprisonment and the forty-fifth of her life. She died with forti- tude and true to her faith. Elizabeth complained that her ministers had executed the judgment against her commands, and punished her private secretary Davison with JAMES I. THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 459 SB z fine and imprisonment, because he had surrendered the death warrant to Lord Bur- leigh. § 369. The Pope and Philip II. expressed great horror when they learned of Mary's fate. The . ' former hurled his anathema at the heretic Queen, and called upon the Cath- olic powers to avenge the death of Mary. The latter sent the " Invincible Ar- mada " to England, expecting to subdue the islanders and the Netherlanders at the same time, and to establish a Catholic empire in the north- west of Europe. But the destruction of the Spanish fleet in- creased the renown of England and her queen, and laid the foundation of the marine power and commercial greatness of the British empire. Industry and coloni- zation now began in earnest. The cele- brated navigator Francis Drake and other heroes of the ocean discovered the element which Britan- nia was to rule. Ire- land alone proved fatal to Elizabeth's enterprises. Henry VIII. had made of it a kingdom, and sub- jected it to the eccle- siastical laws of En- gland. But only the British settlers shared in the Reformation ; the native Irish and 460 THE MODERN AGE. their clergy remaining true to the papal system. Elizabeth tried to unite the island more closely in church and state to England. But she was opposed by the Earl of Tyrone, chief of a warlike clan, who obtained help from Rome and Spain. The Earl of Essex was sent by the Queen, whose favorite he was, to govern Ireland, but instead of defeating Tyrone, he made a disadvantageous treaty with him. This cost Essex the favor of the Queen, and when he entered into a plot with King James of Scotland to compel Elizabeth to name James as her successor, he was imprisoned and beheaded in the Tower. The death of her favorite and the loss of her popularity so embittered the last daj r s of the Queen that she passed many sleepless nights tossing upon the pillows, an in the seventieth year of her life ended her unhappy existence. On her death-bed she appointed James of Scotland, son of Mary Stuart, heir to the English throne. Culture and Literature in the Century of the Reformation. § 370. Civilization in the sixteenth centmy made rapid progress in all lands. Schools were improved, universities in- creased in number, art and literature cherished and supported. The works of antiquity, which were everywhere translated and explained, awakened new ideas and formed new tastes ; the intel- lectual activity, that resulted from the ecclesiastical and religious conflicts, furthered general culture and intensified literary culture ; the eager interest in intellectual treasures led to wonderful creations in art and science. Germany and Italy, especially, were nurseries of culture. (1.) Germany, in her numerous uni- versities, cultivated especially the study of antiquity ; and under the influence of Melanchthon established the classical school, which has spread through all copenucus, lands. Copernicus, of 1473-1S43. Thorn, demonstrated the error of the Ptolemaic astronomy, and showed that the sun is the centre of the planetary system, and that the earth, like the other planets, not only rotates upon its axis, but revolves around the Kepier, sun. John Kepler, one of the greatest thinkers of all time, investi- /.-.;//«.*«. gated with the inspiration of a prophet, and the imaginative power of a poet, the laws of the solar system. But, misunderstood and persecuted by religious Gaiaeo, bigots, he led a wretched life and struggled for the means of subsist- i564-i64s>. ence. Galileo of Pisa, his great contemporary, fared no better. For he was brought before the inquisition, and compelled to abjure his belief in the motion COPERNICUS. 462 THE MODERN AGE. Newton, 10J3-1I3J. of the earth. What Kepler and Galileo began, was continued by the Englishman, Isaac Newton, who discovered the law of universal gravitation. The Meistersingers were another product of the reformation period in Germany. Hans Sachs, a shoemaker, of Nuremberg, was the most distinguished of these poets of the people. Till Eulenspiegel was a master of burlesque and humorous lyric, while Br„,,at, Sebastian Brandt in his " Ship of Fools," John Fischart in his " Jesuit's mss-1521. Cap," and Thomas Murner in his " Rogue's Guild," brought satirical poetry to didactic power, chastising the faults and follies of the time with wit and righteous severity. " Reynard the Fox," the Low German epic of animal life, gives a vivid picture of court life, where flatterers rule and cunning is mightier than merit, duplicity worth more than virtue. Luther's translation of the Bible made him creator of German prose. And his spiritual songs made him the founder of German hymnology, but the latter received its more perfect form in Paul Gerhard, the hymns of Paul Ger- inou-imo. hard, of Saxony, in which the pious thought and cheerful confidence in God, that distinguished the German people, found simple and touching expression. (2.) Italy was as noteworthy for art and literature in the sixteenth as in ataciiiaveiu, the seventeenth cen- f*5s». tur} r . Machiavelli, of Florence, wrote his Florentine history and his " Prince," which even now excites universal admiration. In the " Prince " Machiavelli portrayed a tyrant, who founds his sovereignty and makes his will supreme law by sagacity and consistent conduct, without regard to morality, virtue, or religion. Freedom and civic happiness are no more considered than fidelity and righteousness. Sagacity alone was valued and success alone desired. Hence the statecraft, which rejects all considerations of morality and humanity, striving Ariosto, only for dominion and for wealth is called Machiavellism. Ariosto i*74-iss3. wrote the charming and numerous poem of " Orlando Furioso," and Tasso, f isos. the melancholy Tasso, in his " Jerusalem Delivered," immortalized the first Crusade in beautiful diction and in harmonious lines. (3.) Spain and Portugal also celebrated, in the sixteenth century, their Cervantes, golden age of art and literature. Cervantes in his humorous romance, 1547-ieie. Don Quixote, sketched the portrait of a man who utterly mistakes the actual world because of the phantoms that fill his brain, and who fights for the cause that has captured his imagination, with such energy and skill, that the name SIR ISAAC NEWTON. GEOFFROY CHAUCER, 1340-1400. SIR PHILIP SIDNEY, 1554-1586. ,v,u ' 1 V vs ' | ■*J ar^SS j* fra, i&M EDWARD SPENCER, 1552-1599. FRANCIS BACON, 1561-1626. EARLY ENGLISH AUTHORS. (pp. 463.) 464 THE MODERN AGE. of Cervantes' hero has become a proverb in every civilized nation. Lope de Vega in vainer,,,,, his " Star of Seville," and Calderon in hisi '■ Life is a Dream," brought looo-iasi. the dramatic poetr} 7 of Spain to its highest achievement. The Port- camoens, uguese Camoens celebrated in his epic poem the glorious period of 1524-1379. eastern discovery. This poem was saved by him from the shipwreck in which he lost all his fortune. Abandoning all else he swam with it to the shore. He became finally so poor that he had to beg for bread. (4.) England, however, produced the greatest poet of all times, William Shakespeare, Shakespeare, wonderful alike in tragic and in comic drama. Julius 1504-1010. Csesar, Henry IV., Richard III., are founded upon historic events. Macbeth, Lear, Othello, deal with the fate and tragedy of individuals. The Summer Night's Dream and the Merry Wives of Windsor are among the best known of his comedies. Hamlet has been discussed by the critics of every generation and of every country. Shakespeare's sonnets reveal a world of feeling, and give us a glimpse in his changeful life. A sovereign of speech, Shakespeare easily found words for the sub- lime, the pathetic, the ridiculous, and the divine. (5.) France, in the sixteenth century, saw the romantic poetry of the Middle Ages displaced by the literature of Greece and Rome. Rabelais in his satiri- nabeiais, fiss3. cal romances mocked, with coarse humor and biting wit, the romantic poetry and its heroes. At the same time presenting in varied pictures the life of the state, the church and of the salon, pictures full of licentiousness and nude realities, Marat, fi544. but with a serious background. Clement Marot, a contemporarj' lyric poet, imitated Horace and Ovid; and Iodelle made the first attempt to introduce the drama into France. The Huguenot poet, Diibartas, wrote the "Week of Creation," which was used by Milton in his " Paradise Lost." (6.) The fine arts made great progress in the sixteenth century, in Italy and Germany. Sculpture and painting declared their independence of architecture, Michael Angela, and influenced by the antique, shaped themselves into freer and nobler i4ts-ise4. forms. In Florence, Michael Angelo became a master in all arts. In naphaei, Rome, the divine Raphael brought painting to a beauty of form and a 14S3-15SO. nobility of expression that has never been equalled, both in oil Titian, i4i7-m7o. paintings, like the Sistine Madonna and the Transfiguration, and in jLeon. an. vinci, frescoes, like those in the Vatican. Titian, of Venice, founded a \isi9. school noted for its coloring. Leonardo da Vinci painted the corregio, renowned "Last Supper" at Milan, and Correggio, of Parma, dis- v tis3j. played a marvelous power to portray the inward life of men and paiestrina, women. Music also made great progress, especially through the 1524-1504. creative genius of Palestrina. Germany, and the Netherlands were no itahens, less famous in these respects than Italy. Rubens, and Van Dyck, and 1577-1040. Rembrandt, were all. renowned for their coloring and boldness of repre- Rcnbranat, sentation, while Teniers touched all the forms of common life with iooo-io> u /«.,». and Lambert, soon conquered. Parliament was dissolved, the old Rump Parliament convened again, and Richard Cromwell compelled to abdicate. But 492 THE MODERN AGE. the Rump Parliament was soon forced to yield to the soldiers, and a committee of safety, under the lead of Lambert, undertook the conduct of affairs. Men gradually began to feel that nothing but the restoration of the monarch}' would re-establish civil order. And General Monk entered into negotiations with Charles Stuart, then living in the Netherlands, though carefully concealing his purpose and his plans. He arrested Lambert, dissolved the committee of safety, and convened a new Parliament. The latter, consisting mostly of royalists, arranged with Monk the restoration of the Stuarts. Pardon and liberty of conscience were the only concessions that Charles was jiiau »», ioeo. required to make, in order to enter triumphantly into London, where he was received with the shouts of the people. But even these conditions he did not fulfill. The regicides, those who had taken part in the trial of Charles I., were sen- tenced to death, and ten of them were executed. But this triumph of the royalists was greatly diminished by the steadfastness with which the regicide Puritans main- tained their principles. Cromwell's corpse was taken from the grave and hanged on a gallows. The Episcopal church was restored and the Presbyterian clergy once more deprived of their livings. c. The two Last Stuarts— Charles II, (1660-1685. ~) James II, (1685-1688.) § 397. The reign of the frivolous and licentious Charles II. was a fatal period for England. Neither the ruin of his father, nor his own trials instructed him or gave him warning. The Plague and the Fire might destroy two-thirds of London, and fill ices. all hearts with sorrow, but the royal court lived merrily. As debts increased, and money became scarce, and Parliament refused to be generous, Charles sold Louis XIV., of France the honor and the welfare of his country and his own religion. At that time it was counted, especially in France, a sign of culture to pass over from the Protestant to the Catholic church. This fashion found imitators in England, also. The Duke of York the King's brother, made a public profession of the Catholic religion, and Charles was himself a Catholic in heart, although he held out- wardly to the English Church, and showed only at his death his real conviction by tak- ing the sacraments from a Catholic priest. But the people adhered to the faith of their fathers. They ascribed the great fire to the Catholics, and immortalized this ig73. charge on a monument : they forced Parliament to pass the Test Act according to which only members of the English Church and confessors of Protestant doctrine could be members of Parliament, officers of the state, or hold commissions in the army. As long as Clarendon, the historian of the English rebellion, was at the *ee:. head of the ministr} r , the King was moderate and law-abiding. But when Clarendon fell into disgrace and became an exile, Charles allowed himself all manner of arbitrary and illegal conduct. He formed a ministry of talented and un- principled statesmen known as the Cabal, which conducted the government according to the King's wish without regard to the rights of the people. Bribery ceased to be disgraceful when the King himself received annuities from Louis XIV., for supporting the French in their war against Holland. A new conflict arose between King and Par- liament. The more the King sought to be absolute, the more the Parliament sought to maintain the rights of the people and the religion of the country. They even demanded the exclusion of the Duke of York from the royal succession, and Charles was com- pelled to send his brother away, and to form a new ministry in which the Earl of THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 493 ieto. Shaftesbury was prime minister. Under his administration the Habeas Corpus Act, the sacred law of personal freedom, was brought into being. According to this law, no one may be arrested without a written warrant stating the grounds for the arrest, and every prisoner must have a judicial hearing within three clays of his taking into custody. The two political parties of Tories and Whigs originated in these conflicts. The Whigs (Liberals) regarded the state constitution as a contract be- tween the king and the nation, and demanded for the nation in case of its violation the right of active resistance. The Tories (Conservatives) denied that the vojal authority proceeded from the people, and required from the subjects a passive obedi- ence. During the last years of Charles J I., the Tories acquired a majority because the Court took advantage of a conspiracy against the life of the King and of his brother to destroy the chiefs of the Whig party. Lord Russell and Algernon Sidney, two of the noblest and best-beloved men in the realm, died upon the scaffold. Shaftesbury fled miss. to Holland, the Duke of York re-entered into all his rights and offices, and when Charles died with- out lawful heir he ascended the English throne as James II. § 398. James II. was hardly seated upon t h e throne when Monmouth, the natural son of his brother Charles, sought with the help of the Whigs to deprive him of his kingdom. The attempt miscarried. Monmouth died upon the scaffold, and his adherents and defenders were prosecuted with terrible cruelty. The name of Judge Jeffries, who traveled through the counties with his troops of executioners, is written in bloody letters in the annals of England. His easy victory and the fear of the people created in the King the hope of restoring the Catho- lic church. He made the hated Jeffries Lord Chancellor, gave many offices and mili- tary commissions to Roman Catholics, and to those who had recently passed over to Catholicism, and intended by an edict of toleration to abolish the test acts. But Parliament would not consent to the edict of toleration. James therefore declared that the crown could dispense with the law. The English people for a time made no resistance to the King, hoping for speedy relief since the aged monarch had no male children and his two daughters were married to Protestant princes ; the elder, Mary, J a nit's II., 1985-1988. JAMES II 494 THE MODERN AGE. to William of Orange, and the younger, Anna, to a Danish prince. But the unex- pected birth of a Prince of Wales destroyed this hope, and the people determined to help themselves with the assistance of William of Orange. Scores of dissatisfied Britons passed over to the Hague. The Whigs made an alliance with William and promised him the help of the Protestant nation. James did not perceive the storm that had gathered about his head, until William with his army landed on the British coast. The King appealed in vain to his army and his people, and promised the aboli- tion of his unconstitutional measures. The ground on which he stood was under- mined with treason, with hypocrisy and perjury. For the Stuarts had taught the nation little else. A part of the army went over to William. The voice of the people spoke against James. The King thereupon sent his wife with the Prince to France, z>ec. less. threw the royal seal into the Thames, and fled from the land of his fathers. He lived for the future in St. Germain supported by a pension from Louis XIV. § 39J. The flight of James enabled the English people to declare the throne vacant. The}' excluded the Catholic line of the Stuarts from the succession, and gave the crown to William and Mary, but in- structed by past events they established in Fei>. iaso. the Bill of Rights the an- cient privileges of the people, without how- ever attempting to undermine the royal authority. The Scotch recognized the new order, and received back their Presbyterian system. But the Catholic Irish supported by France and by James II., were not sub- dued until the blood}' battle of the Boyne, where the aged Marshal Schomberg led the forces of William against King James himself. After the death of Mary, William reigned a short period alone, but he died childless in early manhood, and James II., did not long ^inie, survive him. Mary's sister i702-i7i4. Anne now became the Queen of England, and during her reign Scotland and England were united so that Scottish representatives voted in the English Parliament. The Scottish Parliament was abolished, but the Scottish judicial system no?. and the Scotch law were left in force. Anne died without issue. She survived her husband and all her children, and after her death the English crown fell to George the Elector of Hanover, the grandson of Elizabeth, wife of the unfortunate Frederick V., so conspicuous at the beginning of the Thirty Years War. Two at- tempts of the Stuarts to overthrow the House of Hanover, and to get possession of the English throne ended in disaster. 3. The Age of Louis XIV. a. Richelieu and Mazarin. % 400. When Henry IV. was murdered in 1610, his son Louis XIII., was but FRENCH NOBILITY IN COURT COSTUME. (17th Century.) CINQ MARS AND DE THOU LED TO EXECUTION. (A. de Neuville.) ( pp. 495. ) 496 THE MODERN AGE. Louis xiii., nine years old. During this minority, his mother, Marie de Medici- 1010-10*3. was regent, and her Court was filled with Italian favorites who en- riched themselves with French property, and offended by their insolence the national pride. The French nobility took arms and filled the kingdom with insurrection. When Louis XIII. assumed the government, he permitted the foreign favorites to be- iers. murdered and executed, and even banished his mother from the court. But the people were not a whit better off. The new favorites were no more virtuous- nor talented than the old. Hence the nobles of the realm and the injured Huguenots rose once more against the government and plunged the land into confusion. This- gloomy condition of affairs did not come to an end until the Cardinal Richelieu entered 103*. the royal council, and began to exercise an almost absolute authority. Yet the King never loved him, the Queen and nobility in- trigued continually to accom- plish his overthrow, cabals and. conspiracies were constantly created to destroy him. But the greatness of his intellect- conquered all obstacles, and he worked steadfastly to increase the power of France abroad, and to strengthen the power of the kingdom at home. To ac- complish the first he sought to weaken the House of Hapsburg, and entered into alliances witli the enemies of the Emperor in Germany and in Italy. He kept alive the Thirty Years War, although he oppressed the Huguenots under his own authority. He broke the power of the nobility and of the bu- reaucracy, and overcame the Huguenots, who in the south and west of France had acquired an almost independent position, with their fortresses, their militia and their great privileges. He conquered in three wars the most important of the Huguenot cities, and deprived them of their fortifica- tions. He then besieged Rochelle for four months, and at last captured this bulwark lezo. of the Calvinists, robbed them of their political privileges and their in- dependence, but granted them religious freedom and equal rights with Catholic sub- jects. This disarming of the Huguenots took from the rebellious grandees, their strong- est support ; as a consequence they soon succumbed to the power of the Cardinal. The boldest of them were executed or exiled ; even the Queen mother and her second son, the Duke of Orleans, were obliged to leave the country and the Duke of Mont- CONDE. CARDINAL RICHELIEU AND FATHER JOSEPH. (A. de Neuville.) (pp. 497.) 498 THE MODERN AGE. morency, who belonged to one of the most renowned families of France died by the hand of the headsman. A like fate destroyed the Count of Cinq Mars, who formed with the Queen and many nobles a conspiracy against the mighty Richelieu. The Capuchin Father Joseph, a man of great intelligence and diplomatic skill, was the Cardinal's chief agent at home and abroad. The French Parliaments which laid claim to a peculiar sovereignty, were supplanted by extraordinary courts of justice. The officers in the province, were weakened and limited by the appointment of royal in- spectors,- who were dependent only upon the government. § 401. In the year 1642 Richelieu died, hated and feared by the nobility and the nee. 4, ie-ts. people, but admired by many contemporaries and by posterity. Louis XIII., a Prince without virtues and without crimes, dependent alike upon his favor- ites and his foes, soon followed him to the grave. Anna of Austria, the haughty domineering sister of the King of Spain, now became regent. She gave her confidence to the Italian Mazarin, the disciple of Richelieu, and consequently found violent opposition among the nobility, and in the Parliament which sought to recover its former power and posi- tion. The people longing to escape the burden of taxation, and led by the brilliant Cardinal De Retz supported the opposition, in order to drive Mazarin from the court, and to compel the adoption of a new system. This led to the io-ts-ios3. violent civil war known as the war of the Fronde. Mazarin was compelled to leave the country, but the confidence of the Queen was so unshaken, that he ruled France from Cologne as unconditionally as he had ruled it in Paris. His exile moreover was of short duration. Louis XIV. reached his major- ity in 1651. Turenne the leader of the royal ? troops conquered his adversary, the great Conde, in the suburbs of Paris, and Mazarin returned „ . . . , . . . ' _ _ nobleman and officer. (17th Century.) triumphant, proclaiming by his return the vic- tory of absolute monarchy. For six years longer Mazarin enjoyed the respect of France and of Europe. Cardinal De Retz was obliged to keep away from France, first however atoning for his rebellion in the dungeon of Vincennes. Conde after brave but fruitless struggles, sought safety in Spain but was recalled by the young King and granted back his estates. Mazarin's nieces were endowed with French wealth and married to conspicuous noblemen. Parliament abandoned its resistance, after the King appeared before them in hunting costume and whip in hand, demanding their obedience with the declaration "I am the state" ("L'etat c' est moi"). The peace of xov. v, »«.-»». the Pyrenees between France and Spain was the last work of Mazarin. He left behind him an immense fortune, a valuable library and many art treasures, splendid palaces and gardens. His death came opportunely, for Louis was beginning to grow weary of him and longing to take the reins of government into his own hands. THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 499 b. Louis XIV. and His Wars of Conquest. § 402. After Mazarin's death, Louis XIV. appointed no prime minister, but surrounded himself with men who ac- complished only his will, and had no other aim than to increase the renown and the splendor of their King. In his choice of these men, Louis displayed the insight of a great ruler. Colbert was the great promoter of French industry and commerce, and his generals Turenne, Conde, and Vauban exceeded in talent, knowledge and skill, the statesmen and warriors of all other countries, as much as Louis XIV. himself excelled in kingly authority and the qualities of a statesman all princes of his time. The age of Louis XIV. is the golden age of the French monarchy, and the court of Versailles, where the royal residence was established, was every where praised and admired as a model of good taste and of fine culture. But, as the King US was chiefly concerned with his own pleasure and renown, hts government LOUIS XIV AT THE AGE OF 41. became the grave of freedom, of morality, and of manly character. Court favor was the aim of all effort, and flattery was the surest road by which to acquire it. Virtue and merit found at the last but little recognition. § 403. Louis XIV. wished to cover his name with the glory of war, and at the same Spanish war. time to increase the territory of ieo7-ittos. his kingdom. The death of the Spanish king, Philip IV., gave him the oppor- tunity to set up a claim to the throne, and to invade the Spanish Netherlands. An alliance of England, Holland, and Sweden compelled him to shorten the campaign, and to give up the mayiaas. greater part of the conquered territory. Yet a number of Flemish cities were annexed to France, and converted by Vauban into invincible fortresses. As the victorious course of the haughty King had been arrested principally by the exertions of Holland, Holland was made to feel his revenge- He brought OFFICER AND MUSQUETEER OF THE FRENCH wrta " muc S 5 guard, over Sweden to his side, purchased the triend- 500 THE MODERN AGE. ship of the English king by annuities and mistresses, and made an alliance with the Elector of Cologne and the Bishop of Minister. He then began a second war which was directed at first against Holland, but which lasted seven years and involved nearly all the European states. The French army marched rapidly into war. wuh the heart of Hoiiana. Holland. 16I2-/C79. The leaders of the republic had paid more attention to their navy than to their army, and their great cities fell almost undefended into the hands of their enemies. French dra- goons approached with- in ten miles of the capi- tal. The frightened Dutch begged humbly for peace but were not heard. But while the French arm}' was besieg- ing the Dutch fortresses, the ruling party, to whom the whole calam- ity was ascribed, were overthrown by the pop- ular party of Orange. John and Cornelius De Witt were murdered, to™. and the government transferred to the soldier and states- wiiiiam in. man, Wil- io-i2-ito-z. liam III., of Orange. This able general immediately awakened courage and patriotic enthusiasm among the Dutch. They broke down their dikes, and made their inundated land inaccessible to the French. The walls of Groningen defied the attacks of the enemy, and the daring march of the French across the frozen waters to attack Amsterdam was suddenly arrested by a thaw. This saved Holland : for now the great Elector of Brandenburg, Frederick William, came to the rescue and induced the Emperor Leopold to enter the war. The French were compelled to divide CAPTURE OF AUSTRIAN BATTERIES AT LANDAU. ( Vierge.) 502 THE MODERN AGE. THE GREAT ET-ECTOR. 1074. their forces and to send their main army along the Rhine. The Span- iards also joined the alliance against France. § 404. But the strength of the French increased with the number of their foes. Turenne devastated the Palatinate, then crossed the Rhine and ravaged Franconia. The German princes were disunited. The Austrian minister of war was in the pay of the French king and betrayed the plan of the campaign to the enemy. The Austrian generals were incompetent. If the Great Elector had not saved the honor of Germany the triumph of France would have been complete. Louis XIV. had induced the Swedes to invade Brandenburg, but before the Swedes were prepared for an attack, June as, io75. the energetic Frederick Wil- liam broke in upon them, and in the battle , | of Fehrbellin inflicted upon Sweden a crush- ing defeat. This battle was the beginning of the greatness of Prussia. A month later Turenne, the greatest general of his time, jrHiynv. was killed at Sassbach, and the French compelled to re-cross the Rhine. The war lasted three years longer and was especially destructive to the lands along the Moselle and the Saar. When, how- ever, the English Parliament required their king to withdraw from the French alliance and to support the Dutch, Louis determined to bring the war to an end. In the peace of Nym- io7o. wegen the Dutch recovered all their lost lands and cities. Spain however, was required to give up the Franche Comte and many fortified places. The German Empire lost the city of Freiburg and the dukedom of Lorraine, and the Great Elector was compelled to surrender to Sweden the territories and the cities in Pomer- ania, that he had conquered with such difficulty. The high-minded prince yielded to the hard neces- sit3 r , with the prophecy that an avenger would proceed from his loins. § 405. The timid submission of the German princes increased the pride and the greed of Louis XIV. He claimed that a number of districts, which had belonged at one time to the territiries ceded to him in the peace of Nym wegen, ioso. were also included in the treaty, and he seized a multitude of cities, villages, castles and mills, in a word whole districts on the left bank of the Rhine, and sent. test. at last took possession of the free city of Strasburg. The free citizens were disarmed and compelled to take the oath of allegiance to their foreign monarch GEORGE DERFLINGER.. THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 503 on their knees ; the Strasburg Minster, the glorj' of German architecture, was given over to Catholic worship. Italy also suffered from the violence of the King, especially Truce ofuegens- Milan and Genoa. Austria, Spain and Germany yielded without re- hut-a- sistance to these outrages, and made a twenty years' truce with the A.u a . is, tea*. French king, on condition that he would make no more reprisals and attempt no further extension of his frontiers. e. Austria s Extremity and Victory. § 406. During all this time the Emperor Leopold was kept busy in the east of his kingdom. In Hungary, the oppression of the Protestants, the quartering of soldiers upon the people, and the acts of violence against certain noblemen had produced dan- *oe,t. gerous insurrections, and the Turks had renewed their former plans of conquest. The Austrian authorities hoped by their severity to put down the rebellion : iG7t. they executed the leaders and __ violated the chartered rights of the nation. - - ' ------ _ But these arbitrary proceedings exasperated the Hungarians all the more, provoking their love of freedom and their warlike impulses. Emmerich Toekoeli, an energetic nobleman, 1074. whose estate had been confis- cated, raised the standard of rebellion, and was soon at the head of a powerful army with which he drove the Austrians from Hungary. Louis XIV. furnished him assistance, and the ios2. Porte, which recognized him as the tributary king of Hungary, sent a great army to his aid. Devastating all before them 1683. the Turks approached the walls of Vienna. The Court fled to Linz : the capital of Austria seemed lost: but the courage of the citizens, and the incompetency of the Ottomans in conducting a siege, enabled the city to withstand all attacks for sixty days sept, is, ios3. until the army of Charles of Lorraine united with the Polish army under the heroic king John Sobieski, and relieved the distressed city. The Turks were defeated in a bloody battle at the gates of "Vienna. They retreated hastily^, leaving enormous booty in the hands of the victors. Hungary was then conquered, Toeko- eli compelled to fly, and Ofen, which had been in the hands of the Turks for 146 years, was taken from them. The Hungarian nobility were deprived of their ablest leaders, ios7. and a reign of terror established in the land. The Emperor Leopold then abolished the elective monarchy and overthrew the Hungarian constitution. Hun- gary was converted into a hereditary possession of the Hapsburgs. The Turks made great efforts to recover what they had lost, and the blood of Christians and of Turks flowed in streams about the walls of Belgrade. But Charles of Lorraine, Prince Eu- gene and Louis of Baden, the Austrian commanders held aloft the standard of victory. JOHN SOBIESKI. 504 THE MODERN AGE. 1099, By the treaty of Carlowitz, Transylvania and all the land between the Danube and the Theiss were surrendered to Austria. d. The Orleans War. {1689-1697.) § 407. To assist the Turks in their war against Austria, Louis XIV. provoked the so-called Orleans war. When the Elector Carl died without male heirs, and his land passed over to the Catholic line of Pfalz Neuburg, Louis XIV., in the name of his brother, the Duke of Orleans (who had married the sister of the Elector) laid claim to all his estates; and when his claim was not allowed, lie sent his armies to the Rhine. To make an invasion of France impossible, he commanded the regions of the Rhine to be e-ms2. the creator of the absolutism of the Czar, as he destroyed the family register, upon which the noble families based their claims. § 419. Peter the Great. What his ancestors had begun, was brought to com- THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 517 peter the Great, pletion by Peter the Great. He made great journeys through Europe, leso-tms. acquainting himself with the institutions of cultivated nations, and with the advantages of organized government. He thereupon determined to transform the Russian empire from an Asiatic to a European state. To this end he promoted the immigration of foreign artisans, sailors, and officers, notwithstanding the prejudices of his own countrymen. He studied ship-building in Holland and in England, visited the workshops of artists and of manufactures, and studied the construction of mills and machines. An uprising against the innovations and the foreigners was suppressed and skillfully used by the Czar, to transform his military system. The guilty were terribly punished, being hanged or beheaded or broken on the wheel, and as the Czar participated in person in these executions, it was manifest, that the new culture had not readied his heart. He compelled his subjects to wear the European costume, but he himself remained a barbarian in JOHN S0B1ESKI. polish winged cavalry in battle. ( W. Camphausen.) morals, opinions, and methods ; abandoned to drink, savage in his passions, and terri- ble in his wrath. § 420. Poland under Frederick Augustus the Strong. While Russia was growing 518 THE MODERN AGE. Frederick niighiter, Poland was nearing the edge of ruin. When John Sobiesk At,gust n. (king) died, there ensued a violent contest for the crown, which ended 109J-U33. in the election of Frederick Augustus of Saxony, a prince famous for his gigantic strength, and for his dissolute life. He was proclaimed king of Poland i6»j. after he had gone over to the Catholic chnrch. But the Polish nobility had so diminished the authority of the crown, that the state was rather an oligarchy than a monarchy. The nobles alone possessed civil rights, the peasants were serfs, and the artisans and merchants were in everything subordinate to these feudal lords. And the elected king was nothing more than the administrator of the decrees of the nobles. § 421. Charles XII. was but sixteen years old when he ascended the Swedish diaries xn. throne. Accordingly, the rulers of Russia, Poland, and Denmark ieo7-i7is. thought it would be easy to deprive Sweden of her conquered land. Peter the Great, wished to establish himself on the Bal- tic ; Augustus the Strong wanted Livo- nia ; and the Danish king, Frederick IV., sought to acquire Schleswig. They concluded an alliance with each other, and llll Frederick Augustus ' marched with a Saxon army to the frontiers of Livonia, while the Russians besieged Narva, and the Dan- ish king attacked the Duke of Holstein. But the young King, indignant at the unrighteousness of his enemies, crossed with his brave army to See- i->oo. land, beseiged Copenhagen, and so frightened the Danes, that Frederick IV. gave up his allies, and promised to compensate the Duke of Holstein. Charles now 1101. turned upon his other enemies. With 8,000 men he defeated 80,000 Russians at Narva, captured many cannons and much ammunition. He then marched into Poland, defeated the Saxon and Polish armies, conquering one state after the other. The citizens of Warsaw surrendered with trembling hands the keys of their capital, iio2. and paid the contributions that he levied upon them. The fruitful regions of the Vistula, and the Polish cities of the Baltic were soon in the power of the Swedes. Charles required the Poles to set aside their king, Frederick Augustus, and to choose another. They struggled desperately against this decree, but Charles compelled them to obey, and the choice fell upon Stanislaus Lesczinski. § 422. Campaigning in the south of Poland was difficult, on account of the CHARLES XII. RELIEVING NARVA. THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 519 swamps and the poverty of the country, yet Charles XII. succeeded even there. He then marched across Silesia into the heart of Saxony, which suffered terribly from the ravages of the Swedish army. The inhabitants of the plains fled into the cities, and the royal family sought protection in the neighboring kingdom. Augustus, to save his land from ruin, gave up the Polish crown, renounced the alliance with the Czar, sept. noa. and surrendered the Russian ambassador Patkul to the Swedish king. Charles had Patkul broken on the wheel, and in spite of the peace, occupied Saxony for a whole year, the land suffering terribly from his exactions, and at the same time from the extravagance of the court at Dresden ; for while the estates of the realm consented grudgingly to the enormous taxes, and the wretched peasant was starving, Augustus the Strong was maintaining a splendid court, and spending enormous sums upon his festivals. Charles XII. was a strong contrast to the dissolute Elector. Charles was every inch a soldier ; he drank no spiritous liquors, and shared with the common soldier all the hardships of the cam- paign. He ate common food, wore common clothing ; the same dress in summer and win- ter ; a long military coat, and great cavalry boots. He loved the sound of the battle, the whistling of balls, and the neighing of the war-horse. He cared nothing for operas and concerts and court festivals. § 423. While Charles XII. was wasting time in Saxony and Poland, Peter the Great was planning to conquer the Swedish posses- no3. sions on the Baltic. He built the fort at Cronstadt, drained the marshes on the Neva, and laid the foundations of St. Peters- burg. Moscow and other cities were compelled ._„ to furnish noblemen, merchants, and artisansi^ for the new capital. And even foreigners were g^ induced to emigrate thither. Charles XII. now »/ determined to attack Moscow, and to press into the heart of Russia. It would have been P0LISH LANCER and armored cavalryman. far wiser to have marched to the Baltic, and to have exterminated these new crea- 110s. tions. But the Swedish king choose the way to Smolensk. No Rus- sian army opposed him, as he waded, with his army, through the deep rivers, and traversed the pathless swamps. In an evil hour he determined not to wait for his general Lb'wenhaupt, who was on the way to him with fresh troops and supplies, but allowed himself to be persauded by the old Cossack, Mazeppa, to march into Ukraine. Liiwenhaupt, attacked by the Russians, escaped only by the loss of all his artillery and his supplies, and with great difficulty united the remnant of his army with the forces of the King. The autumn rains were followed by a terrible winter ; many of the juiy s. no». veterans perished by cold, and thousands lost their hands and feet. Finally Charles beleagered Pultowa, but his cannon were not heavy enough to reach the city, and Peter arrived with a great army. The battle of Pultowa followed, in which the Swedish army was utterly routed. All their supplies and ammunition were 520 THE MODERN AGE. captured by the enemy, and the surviving leaders and soldiers were taken prisoners. Charles XII., the proud conqueror of three kings, became a helpless fugitive, who, only after desperate efforts in the shelterless and famine stricken Steppes, escaped with two thousand companions into Turkish territory. LO'wenhaupt collected the rest of the fugitives ; but retreat was impossible, for lack of food and artillery ; so he surrendered with sixteen thousand men. Not a man of them ever saw his home again. They were scattered through the empire, and died either in the mines of Siberia or as beggars on the highways. § 42i. Charles XII. was honorably treated by the Turks. In his camp at Ben- 1110. der, he was maintained in sover- eign state, as the guest of the Sultan. But the thought of returning home vanquished, and without his army, was unendurable to his proud soul. He tried to induce the Turks to make war upon Russia, and spent time and strength, and exhausted f every means to gain the Turks for his plans. But meanwhile, his three antagonists re- newed their former al- liance. Frederick Au- gustus took possession of the Polish kingdom : Peter the Great extend- ed his conquest to the Baltic, and the King of Den m a r k occupied Schleswig. Prussia and Hanover also joined the alliance, and invaded the German territories of Sweden. Only with difficult)^ was it possible for the brave general Stenbock, with his small army of peasants, to defend the fortified coast cities ; but mi. finally Charles XII. seemed about to achieve his wishes. A Turkish army entered Moldavia, and surrounded the Russian czar, forcing him almost to sur- render. But his wife Catharine, (once a slave of his minister Menschikoff), managed to bribe the Turkish Vizier and, by his help, to conclude a peace. Charles XII. CHARLES XII. OF SWEDEN. PETER THE GREAT AFTER THE BATTLE OF PULTAWA. ( fp. 521.) 522 THE MODERN AGE. foamed with rage at this failure of his cherished plan, yet he persisted in his purpose, and remained at Bender until the Sultan withdrew his support, and commanded him to leave the Turkish dominion. He took the money given him for his journey, and remained at Bender nevertheless. . Finally the Janissaries stormed his camp, set fire to his tent, in which he defended himself with leonine strength, and finally took him prisoner. He remained ten montfis in captivity, and consumed his strength in childish obstinacy. Not until he was told that his German possessions had fallen into the November, tit*, hands of his enemies, did he abandon Turkey, and set out for . Stralsund on horseback, where he arrived after fourteen days' continuous riding. § 425. Stralsund was defended by the brave Swedes, with the utmost courage. nee, ins. But at the end of a year, the city was compelled to surrender, where- upon all Pomerania and the island of Riigen came into the hands of Prussia. But the obstinate king, Charles, would make no peace. He coined copper dollars to pay the expenses of new equipments, and without waiting for the result of negotiations with the Russian emperor, he invaded Norway to chas- tise the King of Denmark, for his violation of the treaty. One of his armies perished with cold, hunger, and fatigue. With the other, the King marched to the south ; but at the siege of ins. Friedrichshall, he lost his life. The Swedish nobility now usurped all authority. They excluded the rightful heir, Frederick of Holstein, and conferred it upon the younger mo. sister of Charles XII.,' Ulrica Eleanora, and her husband Frederick, of Hesse Cassel. Sweden was no longer a monarchy, except in name. All power lay in the hands of the imperial council of nobles. Baron von Goersz, the minister of Charles, was cruelly executed, and a number of treaties speedily confirmed, in which Sweden gave up all her foreign possessions, except a small part of Pomerania. § 426. But Russia emerged from the struggle a mighty European power. The acquisition of Esthonia and Livonia, and other Swedish provinces, was for Russia the beginning of a new epoch. So long as Moscow was the capital, the eyes of the Czar were directed to Asia, with whose inhabitants and customs the Russians had greater sympathy than with the European. But now that Petersburg had become the seat of government, and had been adorned by great buildings and parks, Russia had become a European empire. The restless activity of the great Czar, produced a complete trans- formation. Commerce and navigation were promoted b}' the building of highways, canals, and harbors. Manufactures and mining were especially favored, and an acad- emy of sciences was founded. The internal administration, especially the police sys- tem, assumed new form, so that the imperial power was increased, and that of the nobility diminished. One of the most important innovations of Peter the Great, was TURKISH PASHA AND NOBLEMAN. (16th & 17th Centuries.) '"•'; ".•"■ ;: . "■> CO ^3 Hi hJ 527 .) MARIA THERESA BEFORE THE ASSEMBLY. (P. PhilUppoteCLUX.) 528 THE MODERN AGE. the story goes) with her infant son Joseph in her arms, at a diet in Pressburg, and by her eloquent appeals, and her promises of favor, produced such enthusiasm among the Hungarian magnates, that they broke forth in the cry " Vivat Maria Theresa rex ! " The Tyroleans likewise exhibited their ancient fidelity. A might}*- army soon marched to the field, drove the Bavarian and French troops before them, and marched, plunder- j««. sj, nig. ing and ravaging, through Bavaria. While Karl Albert was being crowned emperor at Frankfort, the Austrians were invading his capital, Munich. They robbed him of Ids possessions, and compelled him to take refuge with the French. § 435. At the same time an Austrian army invaded Bohemia, and attacked the j-uitf, 11*2. French. To deprive them of the assistance of Prussia, Maria Theresa ceded Silesia to Frederick II., and in a short time the largest part of Bohemia was in the hands of the Austrians. The French commander Belle-Isle, with a considerable army, was shut up in Prague. But the French Marshal, by a daring movement, escaped to Eger in the middle of winter. In the following spring Maria Theresa was crowned in Prague, and at the same time she obtained a powerful ally in George II., of Hanover and England. The French were driven across the Rhine, and Saxony came over to the side of Austria. § 436. The victory of the Austrians, at the battle of Dettingen, alarmed Fred- jiuie hi, ii4:3. erick II., and he began the second Silesian War against Maria Theresa. As ally of the Emperor, he invaded Bohemia, while Charles VII. recovered Bavaria and re-entered Munich. But only to die. His son, Maximilian Joseph, renounced all claims to the Austrian succession, and gave his vote in the election of emperor to the husband of Maria Theresa, who was crowned emperor in Frankfort as Francis I. Meanwhile Frederick II. had lost nearly all Silesia to the Austrians. But his splendid June 4, ii45. victoiy at Hohenfriedberg restored to him his advantage. He and his generals won repeated victories ; the old Dessau defeated the Saxons ; Frederick marched into the abandoned Dresden, and Maria Theresa consented at last to the peace of Dresden, in which she once more ceded Silesia to Frederick, the latter acknowledg- ing her husband, Francis I., as German emperor. § 437. But though the war was ended in Germany it continued in the Nether- lands. The French were under 'the lead of the talented Marshal Saxe, and acquired complete possession of the Austrian Netherlands. They made conquests in Holland also, but, exhausted by the war, all longed for peace, and finally the treaty of Aix la Oct. 1148. Chapelle was concluded, in which the Austrian hereditary lands were given to the Empress Maria Theresa, except Silesia and some Italian possessions. The former fell to Prussia, and the latter to Philip of Parma. The other states returned to the old conditions, and France obtained from the expensive war nothing but military glory. b The Seven Years' War. (1756-1763.) § 438. Maria Theresa, smarting from the loss of Silesia, used the eight years of peace that now ensued, to form alliances with other European powers. Elizabeth of Russia, angered by Frederick's mockery, and eager for the Prussian possessions on the Baltic, was easily won. Augustus III. of Saxony was also ready to punish the great King, who spoke of him always with contempt. But the masterpiece of Austrian diplomacy was wrought out by the Austrian minister, Kaunitz, at Versailles. For he 530 THE MODERN AGE. induced France to give up its ancient policy of weakening the House of Hapsburg, and to unite with Austria against Prussia. Louis XV. had given himself up completely to his lusts and to his favorites. The proud and virtuous Maria Theresa condescended so far as to send a flattering letter to the Marquise De Pompadour, the King's all-power- ful mistress. The Pompadour and her creatures brought about an alliance between France and Austria, which was intended to deprive Frederick of his possessions, and to reduce the King of Prussia to the rank of an Elector of Brandenburg. SEYDLITZ AT ROSSBACH. § 439. Frederick, apprised of all these movements, determined to anticipate his enemies. He invaded Saxony, occupied Leipzig and Dresden, and established a Prus- Auguat, 1750. sian administration. The taxes and revenues of the land were con- fiscated, ammunition, arms, and artillery, carried off to Magdeburg; and to justify his undertaking, Frederick published documents, in which he exposed the plans of his enemies. The Saxon army were forced to surrender at Pirna on the Elbe. Frederick October. compelled fourteen thousand prisoners to enter the Prussian service, but at the first opportunity they fled to Poland. As Frederick continued to levy money and recruits in Saxony, war was declared upon him by the German empire. MARSHAL BAXE IN THE BATTLE OF FONTENOY. (A. de NeilVllle.) (pp. 531.) 532 THE MODERN AGE. And the aristocrats of Sweden joined their foroes to crush him. England alone, be- cause threatened by France in America, and anxious about Hanover, supported Frederick. A few German states, Hanover, Brunswick, Hesse Cassel, and Gotha also adopted his cause. § 440. The next spring Frederick marched with his main army into Bohemia, while his-allies attacked the French, who- were between the may o, ns7. Rhine and the Weser. The battle of Prague was, for Frederick, a dearly purchased, but a brilliant victoiy. The fruits of it however June s. were lost the next month, by a defeat at Kolin, which the Prussian King suffered at the hands of the Austrian Field marshal Daun. And to make matters worse, the French won a ■rteitf. great victory at Hastenbeck, over Frederick's allies, and proceeded to take up winter quarters in Saxon}-. The Prince of Soubise, a favorite of the Pompadour, had already advanced jp to the river Saale, when Frederick attacked him • »ov. s, « S9 . suddenly, and defeated him in the ™ EDER1CK william vox seydlitz. battle of Rossbach. The imperial army fled at the first encounter, and the French soon followed. Seydlitz, the leader of the Cavahy, had particularly distinguished 2>ec. s. himself. A month later Frederick defeated Daun in the battle Leuthen. But the war great!}- dis- tressed all Germany. Hanover, Brunswick, and Hesse Cassel suffered especially from the forced contribu- tions of the Duke of Richelieu. § 441. William Pitt had now become the ruling spirit in the Eng- lish ministry, and Frederick, after the battle of Rossbach, had become the idol of the English people. Pitt determined therefore to support him generously with money and with troops, and to give him the choice of a commander. Frederick appointed Ferdinand of Brunswick who, in liss. early spring, drove the French across the Rhine, and secured North Germany from their invasions. Meanwhile the Russians had marched to the Oder, and as Bestuscheff had behaved mysteri- ously during an illness of the Czarina Elizabeth, he was banished, and his command given to Fermor. The latter occupied East Prussia, and then invaded Brandenburg. WILLIAM PITT. THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 533 Frederick thereupon executed a masterly movement to the Oder, and defeated the August as. Russians in the murderous battle of Zorndorf. He then started to relieve his brother Henry in Saxony, but was surprised by Daun's superior army, October 1*. and lost all his artillery and many soldiers. Nevertheless he formed a junction with Henry, and drove the enemy once more out of Silesia and Saxony. § 442. But his strength was nearly exhausted. With difficulty he filled up the gaps in his army, and found money and supplies to continue the war. Maria Theresa on the other hand was constantly receiving armies and subsidies from Russia and BATTLE OP LEUTHEN. France. To prevent a junction of the Russians and the Austrians, Frederick marched auo- l*, I?™- to the Oder; but after defeating the Russians, he was himself utterly routed by the Austrians, under their able general Loudon. "All is lost," he wrote to his minister, " save the royal family ; farewell forever." Dresden and nearly all of Saxony was lost to Prussia, but the discord between Austrians and Russians prevented their making use of their victory. Meanwhile the allies, under Ferdinand of Bruns- Aug. i, i75o. wick, had defeated the French army at Menden, driven them across the Rhine, and saved Westphalia and Hanover. 534 THE MODERN AGE. § 443. Frederick was now compelled to act on the defensive. The loss of able officers and veteran soldiers could not even be supplied by Frederick's military genius. And to obtain money, he was obliged to debase the currency and to collect oppressive rune, t?eo. taxes. The Austrians now oc- cupied Silesia. ' Wheieupon Frederick aban- doned Saxony, and b} r his victory at Liegnitz, recovered Silesia. But the Austrians and Rus- sians* is. sians occupied Berlin, and de- vastated Brandenburg. Daun entrenched him- self upon an eminence not far from the Elbe, and resolved to pass the winter in Saxony. Frederick attempted to storm his camp, and in jrov. 3, i7oo. the battle of Torgau, he con- quered Saxony, and was able to make his winter quarters in Leipzig. But this victory over Daun cost him fourteen thousand of his bravest soldiers. § 444. In the year 1761 Frederick seemed lost. For when George III. ascended the Eng- lish throne, the English refused to continue the war. Silesia seemed lost to Austria, and the province of Prussia to Russia. But in the hour of Frederick's extremity, the Czarina jran. 5, lses. Elizabeth died, and her nephew Peter III., a passionate admirer of the Prussian king, obtained the Russian crown. This transformed the situation. Peter made a treaty with Frederick, and the Rus- sian army joined the Prussian forces. The alliance however did not long endure. Peter's innovations in church and state pro- voked the Russians, and his treatment of his wife Catharina provoked her to a comsjjiracy. jhjj; ii, ilea. The Czar was murdered, and Catharina II. usurped the throne that belonged to her son Paul. The new Czarina recalled her troops from Prussia, but she confirmed a treaty of peace that had been made with Frederick. AUSTUIAN GENERAL AND OFFICER. (1760-1775.) Illll And the Russian general, before his departure, ^11=' helped the Prussian King to another victor}-. § 445. The German jieople were now in desperation; their lands were wasted, their »-«>»., iio2. industry had perished, their prosperity was gone. Even Austria was so shattered, that Maria Theresa no longer op- posed the termination of the war. A truce was agreed upon, and in the next February the long desired peace was agreed upon, in Hubertsburg. Bj- this treaty Silesia was secured to Frederick, and Canada given to England. For the French HANS JOACHIM VON ZIETHEN. Feb. IS, 1103. THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 535 had been defeated in Quebec by the brilliant and heroic achievements of General Wolfe. o. The German Umpire and Frederick's old age. § 446. The German empire had sunk into disrepute, and was not even represented in the negotiations at Hubertsburg. The authority of the empire was a mere shadow, and the income of the emperor but a few thousand guldens. Four hundred and fifty GEORGE IIT. hereditary or elective princes and republican municipalities ruled in German) 7 , and left to the emperor nothing but the confirmation of agreements and the determination of rank. In war, German princes were frequently with the enemy, Bavaria almost always taking part with France. The Diet, which held its sessions in Regensburg after 1663, had lost all respect, as the sessions gave rise to nothing but debates,* and these debates even were more concerned with trivial matters, than with the interests of the people. The judicial system of Germany was no better than the imperial administration. The 536 THE MODERN AGE. HUSSAR OFFICER AND CAVALRY GRENADIER. (Prussia, 1760.) imperial court in Wetzlar was so slow, that years elapsed before a case could be de- cided. And while the archives accumulated, the parties often died. ■ The judges were open to bribeiy, and every attempt of the Joseph n. emperor to improve the sys- ijco-ijoo. tern, met with the success- ful resistance of those immediately con- cerned. The lower courts made it almost impossible for the common man to obtain justice; the poor and the weak were help- less against the injustice and the oppression of the cunning and the strong. It was the golden age of lawyers and advocates. § 447. But while the empire was sink- ing, Prussia was rising 'to greater power and prosperity. The wounds of the Seven Years' War were healed by the King as rapidly as possible. He subsidized the farmers and the manufacturers in Silesia and in Brandenburg, remitted their taxes for a number of years, and relieved the lot of the peasant. He furthered the cultivation of the land, the care of forests, and the opening of mines; established colonies in waste places, and did his utmost to encourage in- dustry and commerce. In his court expenses he was simple and economical, and the finances were so well regulated, that the treasury was soon relieved. Not until his later life, did Frederick adopt oppressive and severe measures. He then made a monopoly of coffee, tobacco, and salt, and in order to hinder smuggling, he appointed a multitude of French custom house officers, whose insolence made them hated by citizen and peasant. Church and school received the least attention from the King. The schools of smaller places were given to the veterans of his army, while the high-schools were frequently in the hands of French- men. . He cared but little for church and Christianity, although he established toler- ance in his dominions. His nephew and Fretierickir.il., successor, Frederick Wil- itso-110-i. liam II., was a pietist, and issued an "edict of religion" which forbade the clergy departing a hair's breadth from the symbolical books, and which greatly limited HUSSAR AND INFANTRYMAN. THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN EPOCH. 537 freedom of doctrine and of belief. The judicial system however was the object of Frederick's earnest solicitude. Torture was abolished, and all cruel and unusual punishments. Procedure was simplified, and the laws improved. The new code, now known as the Prussian common la.w, breathes the free mind of the great king. Frederick himself personally attended to the administration of justice, spurring on the indolent, and punishing the unscrupulous. Actively at work, from early morning till late at night, he was acquainted with all the circumstances of his kingdom, and as he did not hesitate at times to use his cane, he terrified the lazy and the unjust. In literature, Frederick was certainly unpatriotic, writing his letters and his works in the French language. In fact the character of this nation excited his constant admiration and imitation. French adventurers by the hundred found hospitality in Prussia, and all the regions of Germany were alive with the merry children of France. Parisian barbers and dancing-masters and swindlers were not seldom preferred in the appoint- ments to positions at court, and in the state service. § 448. In his old age, Frederick was compelled to go to war again with Austria. In 1777 the Bavarian line of the house of Wittelsbach expired with Maximilian Jo- seph, and the electorate passed to the next heir, Carl Theodor, of the Palatinate. This prince had no lawful children, and had no love for Bavaria. He was easily persuaded by Joseph II. to recognize the claims of Austria to lower Bavaria, and to surrender these lands, upon the guarantee of certain advantages for his illegitimate children. Frederick II. tried to prevent this, at the diet of the empire ; and when this failed, he lits-i-iso. marched an army into Bohe- mia. This led to a war, in which the fight- ing was chiefly on paper, for both parties tried to prove themselves in the right, by learned treatises. Finally Maria Thersa 3iay is, mo. agreed to the peace of Teschen, in which the difficulty was peaceably adjusted. But some years after her death, Joseph II. made a second attempt to get possession of Bavaria, offering Belgium in exchange. This too Frederick sought to prevent. He established an alliance of princes to which most of the princes of Germany belonged. This alliance greatly increased the authority of the Prussian king. 'Meanwhile the empire neared its dissolution. Every prince was struggling for unlimited power ; every one had his little court, in which he imitated Versailles in splendor and expenditure, in morals and manners, in language, literature, and art. OFFICER OF THE GUARD AND GRENADIER. d. The Intellectual Life of the German People. § 449. If the division of Germany into small principalities was disadvantageous to its political power, it was beneficial at least to the development of German art and 538 THE MODERN AGE. science. Many princes were patrons of literature and culture, inviting able men to their capitals and universities, and encouraging poets and scholars to great achieve- ment. In the second half of the eighteenth century, at a time when Germany was losing its political significance, literature, poetry, science and intellectual life in gen- eral readied a high degree of excellence. This was especially true of poetry. uniiet; «a». Haller, in his didatic poem, " The Alps " described the scenery and Magedoin, 1354. the people of his native country. Hagedorn, in his political " Nar- cfeiieit, neo. ratives," and Gellert, in his " Fables and Stories," imitated the ele- gant ease of the French, while they likewise revived the old German hymns. Klopstock, Klop- 1124-1S03. StOCk wrote his Messiah, and by his odes, awakened in the peo- ple a feeling for Christianity, and a love for freedom. What he did in poetry, his great contemporaries, Se- Bach, iiso. b a s t i a n Hanaei, liso. Bach and George Frederick Handel, did in music. Handel's Oratorio "The Messiah" can be called a great Christian epic in Leasing, " tones.' 1120-iisi. Lessing the great thinker and critic, revealed, in his " Hamburg Dra- maturgy " the weak- ness of the French dramatic literature, and showed, by his own plays, " Minna von Barnhelm," " Emilia Galotti," and " Nathan the Wise " the path to genuine dramatic art. At the same time, he pointed out. in his Laocoon, the true relations of poetry and of plastic art. His contem- porary, John Winkelman, reached the same result by different methods. Not the least of Lessing's contributions to modern his controversial writings, touching the Wolfenbiittel fragments. Herder, a man of great brilliancy and poetic eloquence, discussed the origin of language and of poetry, pointed out the beauties of oriental lore and the deep significance of popular songs, among the differ- ent races. He published also his " Ideas toward the Philosophy of Human His- GOETHE. Winkelman, culture were Jfei'fler, im-iso3. THE HERALDS OF THE MODERN AGE. 539 wieiand, tory," Avhich gave a mighty impulse to further investigation. Wie- u33-isis. land, in his romances, taught, in easy language, a wise enjoyment of life, a doctrine especially grateful to the higher classes. At the same time, he renewed in his " Oberon " the romantic poetry of the Middle Ages. These three writers trans- formed the prose language of Germany. Lessing contributed strength, precision, and lucidity ; Herder, inspiration and imagination; Wieland, ease and grace. And these aoetne, three were followed by the greatest genius of the century — Goethe, ii4o-is32. in whose creations are mirrored, not only his own intellectual life, but the mental movements of the German people. In the seventies, when the youth of Germany were despising the rules of art and of traditional morality, and praising the products of unbridled genius ; when they were adoring the songs of the people, and worshipping Ossian and Shakespeare, the " Sorrows of Werther," a romance in letters, and the dramatic picture " Gotz von Ber- lichingen," aroused a storm of enthusiasm. After Lessing and Winkelman had awak- ened in Germany a taste for antique art, Goethe produced his classical dramas " Tasso " and " Iphigenia," composed in antique spirit and form, and alive with the impressions that he had received in use. his journey to Italy. His tragedy of " Egmont " reveals his nature and his powers in a different manner, especially in its pictures of popular life. His idyllic poem " Hermann and Dorothea" touches the exciting period of the French revolution and the sufferings of the emi- grants. His romance of "William Meis- ter " which portrays the life of the theater and his novel of " Elective Affinities " both belong to the new romantic time, which found delight in the miraculous the mysterious, and the supernatural. £CHILLERINHIs30th YEAR - (L.vonSimonavoitz.) In his " Truth and Poetry " Goethe pictured the course of his own life and cul- ture. And in his collossal dramatic poem "Faust," he gave to posterity a picture of his innermost soul. The mighty storms that passed through the political world, schaier, directed the thoughts of men to history. Frederick Schiller produced 175B-1SOS. his historical dramas, in which he represented the stormy periods of domestic and foreign history, and by his enthusiasm for freedom, countiy, and human happiness, he struck the chord that responds most surely in the popular heart. His three first tragedies, " The Robbers," "Cabal and Love," and " Fiesco," belong to the stormy period of his youth. With " Don Carlos " he began a new and nobler period. During his residence in Jena, as professor of history, he busied himself with the " Thirty Years' War," with the " Revolt of the Netherlands; " and with his Eulogy of " Wallenstein." He also wrote the "Song of the Bell," a charming picture of human life, in its joys and sorrows. In the days of his illness and misfortune, he composed 540 THE MODERN AGE. " Maria Stuart," "The Maid of Orleans," the "Bride of Messina" and his splendid drama "William Tell." Schiller and Goethe became intimate friends, in spite of the differences of their natures ; and their united activity marks the highest point in the achievements of German poetry. § 450. But theology, philosophy, history, the science of education, all shared this powerful impulse. Protestant theologians investigated the Bible, and expounded the ificfifer. Christian doctrine, each according to his bent. Some, like Lavater of i7j*-tsoi. Zurich, sought to maintain the world, in the strictest belief, and to establish the conviction that man could reach God only by prayer. Others, like mcoiai, 'Nicolai, desired to make the human mind the supreme judge in divine 1733-isa. things, and declared everything contrary to reason to be mere super- stition. The farmer were called supernaturalists, the latter rationalists. A third party, Stolhevu, 17SO-1S19. ter of feeling, Rant, 112-1-1709. Fielite, 17G2-181J,. of which the philosopher Jacobi, and the poet, Count Stolberg, were the leaders (like the mystics of the Middle Age) made religion a mat- But the greatest revolution was wrought in philosophy. Kant, the great thinker of Konigsberg, in his " Kutick " expounded a system that soon made its way into all sciences, and excited and dominated the learned world of Germany. His disciple, Fichte, passed from the critical idealism of Kant, to pure idealism, declaring, in his "Doc- trine of Knowledge," that the ME or the EGO was first and original. In his system of morality, Fichte made freedom and self-activity the aim of moral effort, and by his " Addresses to the German Nation" he became renowned among his contemporaries, sciieiiing, and to posterity. Fichte's pupil, Schelling, blended his idealism with natural philosoph}', and Hegel, in his dialectics, created a S3'stem that exercised a powerful influence upon the intellectual development of Germany. Spittler wrote history with precision and clearness, and John Mueller, of Switzerland, began a new era of historical composi- tion, by his learning and his artistic skill in presentation. Basedow, inspired by Rousseau of France, was the forerunner of Pestalozzi and Froebel. He established a model school at Dessau, and was followed by Campe and Salzmann, who expounded and improved the methods of teaching, upon which Pestalozzi founded his system of education and of school life. 177S-1S5-1. Hegel, 1770-ls.ll. Spittler, 1752-lSlO. yjtiellei; 1752-1S09. Base€low, 1723-1790. Pestftloszi, 1746-1827. \ 7fv /< J KANT. J. H. PESTALOZZI. J. G. FICHTE. (541) {pp. 542.) BATTLE OF I SLY. (1844.) A. THE HERALDS OF THE REVOLUTION. 5 451. I. THE LITERATURE OF ENLIGHTENMENT. ►RANGE in the course of the eighteenth century, was shaken to its foundations by the prevailing litera- ture. Men of genius and of great endowments yet full of prejudice attacked religious belief and the institutions of the church, with sharp and skeptical criticism; assailed the medieval constitution of the state, and declared the existing conditions and forms of society to be antiquated abuses. Starting with the actual wrongs in the church, in the state, in the administration of justice and in social arrangements, they gradually undermined organized society and rendered unstable all laws and traditional usages; seeking to destroy ^^ the prescriptions, privileges, and prerogatives of rank and, to ntake room for freedom and personal merit, they weakened also reverence for ancient maxims and rights and for legitimate authority ; fighting against supersti- tion, prejudice, and traditional opinion, they confused both faith and conscience, destroyed in the hearts of men their reverence and regard for sacred inheritance, and expected to see the happiness of the world bloom forth amid the ruins of the existing order. This was especially the case with Voltaire, Montesquieu and Rousseau. For their writings, adorned as they were with the magic of beautiful diction and poetic form, were read by the whole of civilized Europe. Their paths were different but led them to the same results. § 452. Voltaire, a writer of great genius, who had distinguished himself in all the forms of literature, attacked with the weapons of sharp wit and keen intelligence, all prevailing opinions and existing institutions without inquiring what should take their place. In his dramatic and epic poems (Mahomet, The Henriad, The Maid of (543) 544 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. Orleans), in his satires and romances, and in his historical and philosophical works, (" Essays upon the Morality and the Intelligence of Nations " " The Age of Louis XIV," "The History of Charles XII") he set forth his views and doubts, his thoughts and criticisms, his investigations and experiences. Religion and Church, Priesthood and popular belief were attacked most violently, and although his mockery and wit destroyed men a prejudice and superstition, revealing the imbecility of the Church in all its nakedness, yet it robbed many of their religious feeling, planting in many souls doubt and unbelief, and voitaire substituting for the ' 1094-ins. law of Christ, cold calculation and selfish egotism as the highest guides for human conduct. Montesquieu, a more serious writer, pointed out what was faulty in the existing order, in the hope of its timely transformation. In the •• Persian Letters " he attacked the church creed and the whole educa- tional and governmental system of France in the mocking manner of Voltaire, and ridiculed in the same fashion the manners and social con- ditions of his contemporaries. In his " Considerations of the causes of the greatness and the decay of the Roman State," he sought to prove that patriotism and self-reliance make a state powerful, while despotism leads it to destruction. His third exhibits the constitution of England VOLTAIRE. work " The Spirit of Laws ItXoHtestiit ie K xoso-i75s. as the best form of government for the people of to-day. Jean Jacques Rousseau, son of a Genevese watchmaker, attacked existing con- ditions with enchanting pictures of a different society. After a youth of poverty and mistake, revealed with startling frankness in his "Confessions," he came, in writing a prize essay upon the " Influence of the Arts and Sciences upon Morality," to the fundamental proposition of all his thinking to wit: Refinement is the cause of all misery and all crime ; nature produces only what is good but all degenerates in the hands of men. Hence the cry must be, " Back to Nature." Shaking from them the fetters of culture, education, and custom, men will soon return to happiness and health, to prosperity and righteousness. His writings are distinguished more for their feeling and power of representation than for depth and truth. The romance entitled «' The New Heloise " contrasts the charms of a natural life with the restraints of THE HERALDS OF THE REVOLUTION". 545 .MONTESQUIEU. actual society; "Emile"is an attempt to base rational education upon nature and parental love, and is an atonement for sending his own children to the foundling asylum. The " Confession of a Savoyard Vicar,'' in which he contrasted a religion of the heart with the prevailing system, brought upon him condemnation and exile. In the " Social Contract," he expounded the equality of. all men as the indispensable condition of every stable government : and an absolute democracy, with legislative popular as- semblies, as the perfect political system. His writings contain, in spite of their fundamental errors and their paradoxes, Boussein many golden truths. iti2-i7rs. His words are the ex- pression of a deep inward feeling; and hence produced immeasurable results. The places trodden by his foot or visited by him in the days of his exile, were reverenced by the next generation. He re-awakened in France the feeling for nature, for simplicity and home ; but also a yearning for the primeval state of liberty and equality, that could be stilled only by the destruction of existing institutions. § 453. The influence of these men throughout Europe was the greater because at that time Paris gav^ the key-note in everything, and the French literature and language were exclusively read and spoken in the higher circles. Princes like Frederic the Great, Gustavus III. of Sweden, Charles III. of Spain, Catharine II. of Rus- sia, the greatest statesmen of all lands, and many influential per- sons were in correspondence with Voltaire and his like-minded con- temporaries. Among these latter were the famous mathematician D'Aiembei-t and philosopher 1717-17S3. D'Alembert and the versatile and equally renowned Diderot. They were the crea- tors of thee Encyclopedia, which gave a eurvey of all human knowl- edge, at once clear, magnificent, and free, yet hostile to every nobler aspiration because it subordinated soul to sense. Quesnay, the court phvsician, published at the 35 D'ALEMBERT. Diderot 1713-17S4. 546 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. same time his physiocratic doctrine, in which he attacked the hitherto prevailing mer- cantile system, and set forth the culture of the soil as the source of national wealth. The " Children of Light " were speedily victorious in all the lands of Europe. Tol- eration in Religion, the disappearance of superstition and prejudice, the reforms of Regents and ministers, the abolition of the order of the Jesuits, were all indications of a nobler time. The Company of Jesus, (§ 352) whose chief object was to hinder the enlighten- ment of the people and who opposed all reforms and innovations, could no longer exist in a period, in which the whole civilized world cared more for humanity and brotherly love than for correctness of creed. When therefore Pombal, the Portuguese minister, i7s». closed the Jesuit colleges and sent the members of the order to Rome, and when all the Bourbon rulers of Europe followed his example, Pope Clement XIV., a sagacious pontiff, abolished the society. This compelled even Maria Theresa, who t7r3. had long maintained the company in Austria, to consent to its dissolu- tion, and the other Catholic lands of Germany obeyed the papal mandate. All obeyed the Pope except the Jesuits themselves. To counteract their influence Adam Weisshaupt, Professor in Ingolstadt, founded the secret society of the llluminati, i77i. the purpose of which was popular enlightenment. But their attacks upon the ex-Jesuits, monks, and clergy were soon arrested by the legal prosecutions begun against them by the Bavarian government. 2. Reforming Princes and Ministers. § 454. French Philosophy and Literature exercised the greatest influence upon princes and governments. The productions of French authors were read and admired in the higher circles of European society, and the young noblemen of Europe were sent to Paris to complete their education. No man of importance could expect rec- ognition, until he had visited the intellectual circles of the French capital. The princes and statesmen of Europe eagerly sought the favor and friendship of French writers and philosophers. It is not wonderful therefore that what was set forth as true in speech and writing, should be applied in actual life. There was consequently an earnest effort to transform old institutions and forms, old customs and privileges. The spirit of the time showed itself in religious affairs, in the principle of toleration, in the abolition of the Society of Jesus, and of the Inquisition ; and in the modification of those maxims and institutions that were especially dangerous to fraternal love and to human rights. But the new epoch was especially manifest in the humanizing of the judicial system ; in the establishment of the equality of all men, with the consequent abolition of the privileges and burdens which had originated in the Middle Age. Serfdom was abolished in many lands ; the claims of feudal service were abandoned; oppressive and dishonorable conditions were removed. New legal codes abol- ished the cruel punishments of former times, such as torture, mutilation, break- ing upon the wheel, etc., and even criminals were conceded some few rights. In political economy the French writers set forth new principles, which were applied in man)' lands. According to these principles, money is the lever of political power. As a consequence, the wise governor will seek, by industry, and the use of natural forces, to produce the greatest possible money income. Agriculture, mining, woodcraft, were therefore encouraged ; commerce, manufactures, and useful inventions promoted. But THE HERALDS OF THE REVOLUTION". 547 on the other hand, the system of taxation was made exceedingly oppressive ; royal monopolies were created, indirect taxes levied, lotteries established, and paper- money issued. About the same time Adam Smith, of Glasgow, published his " Wealth of Na- Aaam smith, tions," a work that created a new epoch in political economy, by main- f i79o. tabling that the source of national wealth was the free development and movement of human energy. § 455. Portugal. The first to reconstruct a state, according to these princi- liso-im. pies, was Pombal, in Portugal, the all powerful minister of Joseph use. Emmanuel. An attempt to murder the King, which was ascribed to the Jesuits, let to the ex- pulsion of the members of this order from Portugal, and to an attempt to educate the people by means of new schools and a circulation of books. The activity of this pow- erful minister extended to all parts of public life ; he employed a German general to reorganize the army ; he furthered agriculture and industry, striving to lift the people Nov. lias. from their filth and ignorance. And when the Lisbon earthquake de- stroyed 30,000 houses, he worked heroically to heal the effects of the great disaster. Bold and resolute, Pombal was also cruel and arbitrary ; the dungeons were filled with his opponents. So when these acquired their freedom, under the reign of the weak Maria ■fisie. Maria, they united to overthrow the minister, and of course the wretched conditions of the earlier time soon returned. § 456. Spain. Aranda, the liberal minister of Charles III. in Spain, made sim- ilar attempts to transform both church and state. And when the Jesuits opposed his Charles in., . innovations, he arrested five thousand of them in a single night, hurried 1159-H88. them on shipboard without distinction of age or rank, and transported them as criminals to the papal states. Their property was confiscated, their schools march, hoi. closed ; the government then adopted measures for the education of the people and to improve the system of administration. German colonists were brought into the land, to cultivate barren sections of the country, and founded the colony called La Carolina. But in the later years of Charles III., the clergy and the Inquisition regained their influence, and destroyed or modified the new insti- tutions. § 457. France. Choiseul, the French minister, was also a friend of advance- ment and of progress, but during the reign of the licentious king, Louis XV., reforms were impossible. When, however, Louis XVI. ascended the throne, he called into his ministry two men, who had both the will and the energy to heal the distresssed State, by thorough-going changes. These two famous ministers were Turgot and Males- liie. herbes. They proposed a new sytem of taxation. Nobility and clergy were to be no longer exempted, and the feudal relations were to be abolished or transformed. Civil rights were to be granted to all, without respect to person, rank, or religion. But their plans were wrecked, by the selfishness of the nobility and the clergy, and the blindness of the Court. § 458. Denmark. Struensee, a German physician, acquired the absolute favor christian vii., of Queen Caroline Mathilda, the wife of Christian VII., of Denmark. tinn-isos. The Queen, who was a sister of George III., of England, raised Struensee to the rank of count and of prime-minister. He was given such complete 548 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. authority, that all orders signed by him had the same validity as those signed by the King, and the all-powerful minister was thus enabled to establish many regulations for the relief of the citizens and of the peasantry, for the diminution of the power of the nobility, and for the improvement of judicial procedure. But he was, after all, a man without firmness, without courage, and without great intellectual power. His relation to the Queen was evilly interpreted, his introduction of the German language offended Danish pride, and the cowardice that he displayed, during an insurrection, made him contemptible. At a court ball Juliana, the stepmother of Christian VII., forced her way to the King's apartments, and induced him to sign his name to a number of war- rants of arrests. Struensee and his friend Brandt were then hurried to prison, and 1771. after a summary trial, were found guilty of high treason, and beheaded. Caroline Mathilda was divorced from the King, and died in prison, where she suffered 1775. three sorrowful years. Juliana acquired the regency, and abolished all the innovations. But when the Crown-prince Frederick came of age, he governed in the name of his father, and called to his assistance a man of great ability and in- tegrity, Count Bernstorff. § 459. Sweden. Adolf Frederick, of Sweden, was so good-natured, that the Aaoif Frederick, oligarchy of the nobility acquired absolute control. The royal council i75i-i77i. conducted all the affairs of state ; and these people sold themselves to foreign powers, and served the courts that paid the largest price. The honor and the welfare of the land was to them of little moment. The two parties among them were known as the " hats " and " caps ; " the " hats " were in the pay of France, and the " caps " in the pay of Russia. They hated each other bitterly, and the royal diet was often the scene of hostile attacks. The King had neither power nor authority. But cmstavus in., when the popular Gustavus III. ascended the throne, he brought over 1771-1792. the Swedish army and the people to his side, and compelled the diet, by force, to consent to a change of the constitution. The executive authority was given back to the crown, and the council was reduced to a consulting body. The King was made commander-in-chief of the arm}', and given the appointment of all civil and military officers. Tax levies, declarations of war, and treaties of peace, i7ss. required the consent of the Estates ; but after some years, Gustavus freed himself from these limitations, and acquired absolute authority. But he used it at first to make great reforms in the administration of the state and of justice, and to advance the welfare of his people. Many of his creations were due, it is true, to a fondness for French customs, and a love of splendor. The founding of an academy, the erection of theatres and opera houses, and the like, caused the impoverished land great expense. His popularity decreased, for his love of the people was vanishing. Finally he made the manufacture of whisky a royal monop- oly, and compelled the Swedes to buy from the royal distilleries. He undertook eustavus in., also a useless and expensive war against Russia, and was thinking of f march, i7B2. a war against France, when a conspiracy was formed, in consequence of which, he was mortally wounded at a masked ball, and died twelve days after. § 460. Kaunitz, the enlightened minister of Maria Theresa, of Austria, abolished many abuses, and introduced many reforms. The military system was reorganized, and the judicial sj'stem was greatly improved. New schools were established, and the finances regulated. But the Empress proceeded cautiously, sparing carefully the THE HERALDS OF THE REVOLUTION. 549 national religion, national rights, and traditional usages. But her noble minded son, Joseph II., in his enthusiasm for freedom and humanity, acted with more speed, and Joseph ix., less sagacity. He undertook a number of reforms that offended the hso-hoo. clergy and the zealous friends of the Church, injured the privileged nobility, and disturbed the national prejudices of the races over which he ruled. He introduced toleration, giving to the confessors of the Lutheran, Calvinistic, and Greek doctrines the free exercise of their religion, and equal civil rights with the Catholics. He then diminished the number of monasteries, using the money thus acquired for the improvement of schools and the erection of public institutions. He limited pilgrim- ages and processions, and hindered the intercourse of his clergy with Rome. Pope ns3. Pius VI. even made a journey to Vienna, to dissuade the Emperor from these undertakings. Joseph received him with honor, but persisted in his plans. His reforms in civil relations were equally important. He established personal freedom by the abolition of serfdom, and civil equality, by the introduction of uniform taxation and equality before the law. His purposes were noble, but he paid too little regard to existing relations, usages, and prejudices. His enemies were able therefore to cast suspicion upon his actions, and to deprive him of the fruit of his reforms. When he attempted to introduce them into the Austrian Netherlands, when he erected a supreme court in Brussels, and sought to transform the University, insurrections broke out, usi. which led to a refusal to pay taxes. The Austrian government was driven from the country, and the Netherlands were declared free and independent. This insurrection was the work of the clergy and the nobility, and a like movement woo. occurred in Hungary also. This broke the Emperor's heart, and hastened his death. The germs of his disease had entered his system during the Turkish war, when, as the ally of Russia, he marched with his army, to the unhealthy regions of the Danube. Joseph's restless activity, the readiness with which he granted access, as well to the lowest as to the highest, and the severity with which he'restrained the arbitrary conduct of his subordinates were never appreciated by his contempor- aries. But posterity has learned to reverence his name, and to recognize the nobility xeopoia ii.. of his purposes and of his efforts. Leopold II., his brother and suc- 1100-110%. cessor, restored the old conditions, and gradually pacified both Belgium and Hungary ; the republicans of the Netherlands were reduced to obedience, at the point of the bayonet. § 461. Catherine II. had a long and splendid reign, during which even unculti- catiiefine n„ vated Russia also felt the spirit of the age. She conducted a corres- nesi-iioe. pondence with Voltaire and his companions, called Diderot to St. Peters- burg, and furthered the sciences and the arts. She improved the administration of justice, and founded academies and schools. But most of her reforms were mere illu- iisi. sions. Her famous journey to the Taurus, where artificial villages and cunningly arranged flocks and festivals along the route, gave the impression that the land was rich in products and in people, is a picture of her entire reign. She was a woman of violent impulses and excitable senses, who followed, in her private life, the wanton manners of the upper classes. St. Petersburg was conspicuous for an immor- ality, an extravagance, and a sensuality even worse than that of Paris. Gregor Orloff, one of the murderers of her husband, obtained both Catherine and the kingdom as his reward. But he was followed by a long line of other lovers, who were all loaded with 550 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. honors a^.d riches. The office of favorite was given by the Empress like any other potemktn, fitot. court position. Potemkin remained in favor longer than any other. For sixteen years he conducted the affairs of state, living during that time in fabulous CATHERINE II. OF RUSSIA. splendor, and openly parading an enormous wealth. He was a man of tremendous energy and boldness, who spared neither money nor human life. The Empress loved him for his barbarous strength, and was little concerned about the sufferings of the OF THE REVOLUTION. 551 i«5. people. The insurrection of Pngatscheff, who gave himself out for Peter III., was soon suppressed. He was betrayed by a bosom friend, beheaded, and then hacked to pieces. 3. The Partition of Poland, and the Wars Between Russia and Turkey. § 462. The elective monarchy of Poland was the ruin of the land. Eyery time the throne became vacant, the nation was divided into parties, bribery prevailed, and the nobility acquired such privileges, that organized government became impossible. The crown was powerless. The royal diet became a byword because of its quarrels ; and all power was in the possession of the armed unions. The nobleman alone was free, and had the right to use arms ; the peasants were serfs and the slaves of abject- ignorance. Commerce and trade were in the hands of avaricious Jews. Foreign powers now began to look, with greedy eyes, upon the helpless Polish kingdom. After F,ed. Aug. in., the death of Frederick Augustus III., Stanislaus Poniatowski, a former fi7»3. lover of the Empress Catherine II., was chosen king, amid the clash poniatowsky, of Russian sabres. Poniatowski knew literature better than he knew liei-wos. men, and could choose pictures better than he could govern a kingdom. f«»s. He was only a plaything in the hands of the Russian minister at Warsaw. § 463. But the Polish dissidents, Protestants, Socinians, and Greek Christians, now demanded the restoration of their civil and religious privileges. Their demands, although supported by Russia, Prussia, and most of the Protestant governments, were rejected by the Polish nobility. The dissidents thereupon united with the liberals ite7. and the discontented, to form the " Confederation of Radom." They sought the help of Russia, and compelled the Polish Diet to grant them religious tol- eration, a share in the offices, and their confiscated churches. Surrounded by Russian troops, the members of the diet gathered beneath the portrait of the Empress Cath- erine, and signed the " act of toleration," and to complete their humiliation, they agreed that no change should be. made in the existing constitution, without the con- sent of Russia. These proceedings outraged the feelings of Polish patriots, and aroused ires. the hatred of the Catholic zealots. These formed the " Confederation of Bar " in order to emancipate Poland from Russian authority, and to deprive the dis- sidents of their restored privileges. France supported them with money and officers. The conflict between the two confederations was hot and bitter. But the Russian armies decided it in favor of the dissidents. Bar and Cracow were stormed, and the Catholics driven into Turkish territory. The Russians pursued them beyond the fron- tier, and did not refrain from murder, conflagration, and plunder, even in a foreign country. § 464. These outrages provoked Turkey to declare war upon Russia, and for six mrst Turkish years, eastern Europe' suffered terribly. The Russians conquered war. Moldavia and Wallachia, and stormed Bender, while the Turks devas- nes-1714. tated Greece with fire and sword, so that whole districts were covered with ruins and with corpses. The Turkish fleet was set on fire and destroyed; Moscow was desolated by a pestilence, and Poland, bj' the raging civil war. The impotence and discord of Poland led finally to its partition. Frederick II. and Joseph II. con- ferred together in person, and Prince Henry of Prussia then visited St. Petersburg to ,i«». .?. «». make terms with Russia. A treaty of partition was agreed upon, by 552 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. which each of these three kingdoms annexed a part of Poland. The diet protested, and proved easily that the pretended rights of the three powers were of no value. The nobles protested, solemnly, before God and the world, against the outrage ; but Rus- sian soldiers compelled them to consent. The fruitful regions along the Vistula passed over to Prussia. Galicia, and the rich mining regions of Wilieka, went to Austria ; and the lands along the Dwina and the Dnieper went to Russia. The establishment of a " Perpetual Council," under the influence of Russia, robbed the Polish king of the last remnant of authority. The Russian ambassador in Warsaw was, from this time on, the real ruler of Poland. Shortly after the partition, Russia made peace with Tur jui u 21, 1114. key, acquiring a free passage through the Dardanelles, and the pro tectorate of Moldavia, Wallachia, and the Crimea. § 465. But Russia was not yet satisfied. She next compelled the Khan of Tar- ii83. tary to lay down his authorit} r , and Potemkin conquered the Crimea and the other lands on the Black Sea. He then colonized the barren Steppes with Germans, and created the commercial city of Odessa. But the happiness and the prosperity of the inhabitants disappeared with their freedom. The once splendid Canvas cities had become gypsy camps, and the stone houses and palaces had fallen to ruins. §466. But this proximity of Russia alarmed the Porte. In a short time another terrible war occurred between Russia and Turkey. The Emperor Joseph joined the Russians, in order to share in spoils of conquests, and the Russians were again second victorious. In the midst of winter, Potemkin and Suwaroff continued Tuikisii war, their bloody and terrible triumph. The way to Constantinople was lisi-iioi. open before them, when England and Prussia suddenly assumed a nee. 23, noo. threatening attitude, and Gustavus of Sweden attacked the Russians by sea and land. Poland also thought the time propitious to reconquer her liberty. may 3, 1191. They dissolved the " Perpetual Council," changed their elective mon- archy into a hereditary kingdom, and framed a new constitution, according to modern ideas, in which executive, legislative, and judicial powers were kept distinct and sep- arate. § 467. This constitution was greeted with the applause of all Europe. Frederick William II. congratulated the Poles, and even Catharine of Russia concealed her vex- ation ; but party spirit and selfishness soon destroyed the good work. Many of the grandees were dissatisfied with the change. They formed a party for the preservation of " Polish freedom " as thej' called the old constitution, and sought the protection of the Russian Empress. Catharine, having just concluded the peace of Jassy with the .ran. 1192. Turks, was glad enough to march her armies into Poland. The patri- ots now appealed to Prussia, but the Prussian cabinet preferred an alliance with Rus- sia, to an alliance with the Poles, especialty as the new constitution was marked with French political ideas and forms. But the Poles did not despair. Thaddeus Kosci- uszko, who had fought in America under Washington, placed himself at the head of the patriots, and marched against the Russians. But discord, treason, dissension, and indecision, baffled all his undertakings. The King, who had hitherto been an enthu- siastic supporter of the new constitution, lapsed into his old weakness, and, alarmed by a letter of the Empress, forbade all further hostilities against the Russians. The patriots were compelled to lay down the sword, and to abandon their native country THE HERALDS OF THE REVOLUTION. 553 in order to escape the cruel mockery of their enemy. The "Perpetual Council" and the old constitution were restored. § 468. But now came a new chapter of violence. In April, 1793, Prussia and ii»3. Russia declared that they felt compelled to confine Poland to narrower limits, in order to bridle the excitement which had spread from France among the Poles, and in order to preserve the neighboring states from the contagion of democ- racy. The Polish diet protested in vain against this new partition. But Russian suiy it, 1103. troops surrounded the place of their assembly, arrested their boldest speakers, and suppressed all opposition. The deputies acquiesced in sullen silence, and bowed to the will of the great powers. By this second partition of Poland, the most important districts of Oct. 14, 1793. the East fell to Russia, and the two cities of Danzig and Thorn, together with greater Poland, were an- nexed to Prussia. The rem- nant of the monarchy com- prised only about one-third of its former territory. § 469. Russia and Prussia now garrisoned the partitioned land, and Catharine's ambassa- dor, the harsh and brutal Igels- trom, ruled in Warsaw with defiant insolence. But the Pol- ish national spirit awoke once more. A secret conspiracy spread its branches over the entire land. Kosciuszko, and the exiled patriots, returned and took the lead of the move- ment, of which Cracow was the centre. As absolute commander of the national forces, Kosciuszko issued a proclamation to the people, in which he set forth the purposes of the conflict, namely — the restoration of the independence of Po- land, the recovery of the stolen territories, and the establishment of constitutional April lr, inn. government. The insurrection soon reached the capital. On Palm Thursday, the Russian garrison in Warsaw was attacked ; partly slain and juartly cap. tured. Igelstrom's palace was set on fire, and four of the aristocratic adherents of Russia were hanged on the gallows. The whole land followed the example of the cap- ital. The King sanctioned the uprising of the outraged nation, and everything prom- ised a successful issue. The Prussians, who had marched to the vicinity of Warsaw, 554 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. were compelled to a hasty and disastrous retreat by the brave generals Kosciuszko, Dombrowski, and Joseph Poniatowski (the King's nephew). § 470. But the success of the Poles, sharpened the enemies' appetite for ven- geance. In accord with Austria and Prussia, Catharine sent her most dreaded gen- eral, Suwaroff, to Poland. Kosciuszko was compelled to yield to the superior force of Oct. 10, i7o:« ***** ^^ta; varieties. The moderates, whose name of Girondists was becoming, with every day, more hateful, strove for a republic, in the sense of antiquity or of the United States of North America. But they were soon overpowered by the radicals and democrats, who desired the overthrow of all existing institutions, in order to establish their new state of freedom and equality. Their watchword was, " He that is not for us is against us," and they sought to put an end to all resistance by terror and by blood. Their strength was in the Jacobins and in the Sans Culottes, the wild bands of revolu- tionists, who were kept in continual ex- citement by songs, festivals, the planting of liberty trees, and the like. The trial of King "Louis Capet " was one of the first acts of the National Convention. An iron chest had been discovered in the Tuileries, full of letters and documents from which, it was clear, that the French court had been in communication with Austria and the emi- grants, and had also been bribing certain members of the Na- tional Assembly, for example, Mirabeau. The King was there- fore charged with be- traying and conspir- ing against the land and the people. De- fended by the noble Malesherbes, Louis appeared twice before the convention (11th and 20th of December), but in spite of his manly -bearing and of his able defense, and in spite of the efforts of the Girondists, he was condemned to death by a small majority. The party of the Mountain, the party of Robespierre, of St. Just, of Danton, of the lame execution of louis xvi. (Vierge.) 668 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. Jan. n, iJ83. Couthon, together with the Duke of Orleans, surnamed " Equality," employed every means to bring about this end. But they would not have succeeded, if they had not first changed the law that required a majority of two-thirds for a con- demnation to death. It was murder clothed in a judicial form. On the 21st of Jan- uary, the unfortunate King ascended the scaffold in the Place de la Revolution. The drum-beats of the National Guard drowned his last words, and " Robespierre's women " greeted his bloody head with the. cry " Vive la republiqne ! " Two crimes were com- mitted simultaneously ; in France the murder of a king, in Poland the murder of a nation. § 484. Dumouriez. Meanwhile, the Prussians had marched through Lorraine into Champagne, but the Duke of Brunswick lost time, reducing unim- portant fortresses ; and as a result, entered the country when the roads were impassable from rain, and when the eating of unripe fruit weakened and destroj-ed his army. Dumouriez sept. 2o, i->»s. occupied the forest, and Kellermann attacked the enemy at Valmy with such success, that the Prussian army determined to advance no further. Six days were lost in negotiations with Dumouriez, and then the German troops retreated to Verdun, without being pursued, and finally abandoned French terri- tory. The Austrians had started from the Netherlands, but had just as little success. After the battle of xov. i, «»*. Jemappes, Dumouriez conquered Belgium and Luettich, whose inhabitants greeted the French as emancipators from the rule of Austria and the Bishop. He then threatened the Dutch frontiers. Meanwhile, General Custine captured the cities along the Rhine, in which French Oct. si, i->92. ideas had found many adherents. The citizens of Maj'ence, abandoned by the Elector, by the Bishop, and by the nobility, received the French troops with enthusiasm. These successes gave the republicans fresh courage, and the European powers great alarm. New armies were raised in all Europe to invade France, and to put down the revolution which was threatening the safety of all existing states. England, where the Tories were in power,, under the lead of the younger Pitt, where the eloquent Edmund Burke was attacking the revolution with great violence, — England took the lead of the " coalition " against France. An Austrian army ap- peared in the Netherlands, drove the French across the Meuse, and defeated Dumouriez march is, 1193. at Neer-Winden. The French commander, angry at the Jacobins, EDMUND BTJRKE. CHARLOTTE CORDAY ASSASSINATES MARAT. (F. LlX.) (pp. 569.) 570 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. because they had so poorly provisioned his army, and had so hampered him with incompetent generals, threatened to overthrow the republic, and to establish a mon- archy. The convention thereupon ordered him to Paris. Instead of obeying, Dumouriez arrested the messengers of the Convention, delivered them over to the enemy, and, with a part of his troops, went over himself to the Austriaiis. About j«i!/, i7»3. the same time Mayence fell into the hands of the Prussians, who were once more approaching the French frontier. § 485. The treason of Dumourriez was used by the Jacobins to overthrow the ROBESPIERRE. Gironde. The Girondists, tired of mob rule, were bent upon converting France into a federal republic like the United States of America. In that way only they expected to break the power of Paris. The Mountain and the Jacobins saw, in the scheme their own destruction, and entered upon a fight for life and death. They accused the Girondists of connivance with Dumouriez ; charged them with attempting to weaken the power of the people, and to destroy the republic, at the very moment when France was threatened by invading armies. But the eloquence of the Girondists put THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 571 to shame all these attacks, and Marat finally urged the radical mob to an uprising against the moderates, and the luke warm traitors. This led to daily insurrections and tumults, which threatened life and property. All honest and moderate people were in continual peril. The Girondists brought Marat into Court, but he was ac- quitted by the Jacobin juries, and carried by the mob in triumph into the Convention. April a*. 1793. The Girondists then procured the appointment of a Commission of Twelve, who should discover and punish the promoters of tumult. When this com- mission arrested the journalist Hebert, the editor of Pere Duchesne, and his con- federates, the furious mob compelled his release, and began the great riot of the 31st. aiay 3i. of May. The rioters made Henriot, a former lackey and police spj', the leader of the National Guard. They then surrounded the Tuileries, where the Convention was in session, and demanded the abolition of the Commission of Twelve and the expulsion of the Girondists. The Girondists displayed in vain all their powers ; the people pressed into the hall, and into the galleries, and shouted for their victims. The majority of the assembly, together with their courageous president, ordered the mob to leave the hall, but in vain. The convention was obliged to yield to the commands of the mob and the Mountain. Thirty -four Giron- dists were arrested, twenty of them however escaped, and called upon the inhabitants of Brittany, Normandy, and the Maritime cities of the South, to rise up against the Jacobins. Oct. 3i. But the other fourteen died juiy 13. upon the guillotine. The mur- der of Marat, by the noble enthusiast Charlotte Corday, and a terrible civil war, were the im- mediate consequences of these violent measures. Roland, Petion,Barbaroux, Condorcet, all died a violent death. Madame Roland also perished on the scaffold, exclaiming, " Oh, liberty, what crimes have been committed in thy name ! " Thirteen members of the convention, who had voted with the Gironde, were also ex- pelled, so that the democrats of the Mountain now ruled the assembly. § 486. The Reign of Terror. The convention was now able to unfold a fearful power and activity. It divided itself into various committees, among which the com- mittee of the public welfare and the committee of safety have acquired a terrible re- nown, by their deeds of blood. A revolutionary tribunal, consisting of twelve^ jurors and five judges, upheld the activity of these committees by their cruel and speedy trials. Fouquier Tinville was the public prosecutor in this terrible court. At the head of the Committee of Public Safety were Robespierre, Couthon, and St. Just. Without regard to human life, they pursued their desperate aim. Whatever ventured to oppose them was stricken down without mercy. This reign of terror made itself felt in three directions : in the cruel persecution of all citizens who were known as MEMBERS OP THE COMMUNE. (1793-1794.) 572 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. " Aristocrats " or Royalists ; in the bloody suppression -of the uprisings in the south and in the west ; and in the powerful war of defence against all foreign enemies. § 487. The Persecution of the Royalists. The municipality of Paris was in the hands of extreme Jacobins and Democrats. All the wards of the city were under the supervison of democratic policemen. A revolutionary army of Sans Culottes stood ready to support the Men of Terror, so that all power was in the hands of the mob and their furious leaders. As in Paris, so also in the provinces, the Jacobins predomi- nated. Their orators and presidents committed the bloodiest crimes against all who would not work with them. A law against sus- pects declared every body to sept. i7. X793. be "an enemy of his country" who showed any sympathy for the mon- archy, or for the priesthood, or for the nobility, and threat- ened him with death. The prisons were filled with thous- ands of so-called aristocrats, and every day, thirty or forty persons were dragged to the scaffold. The base slander of a personal enemy, the ac- cusation of a spy, the hatred of a vagabond, sufficed to bring the innocent to prison and to death. But death lost its terrors, and the pris- ons became meeting places of cheerful companions and powerful intellects. For among the sacrificed, were the noblest and most dis- tinguished men of France. The noble-minded Male- sherbes, members of the Na- marie Antoinette led to execution. {Be la Roche.) tional Assembly, like Bailly and Barnave, scholars and writers like Lavoisier and Andre Chenier, died under the axe ; among them, the sorely tried Queen Marie Antoinette, who, before her judges and on the scaffold, showed a fortitude and a nobility of soul worthy of her birth. Her son died under the severe discipline of a Jacobin, and her daughter, the Duchess d' Angouleme, carried through life a gloomy spirit and an embittered heart. Even Nov. e. 1703. the pious sister of Louis XVI., the gentle Elizabeth, died upon the scaffold. Nor did the Duke of Orleans escape, for Danton's favor could not protect him from Robespierre's cruel envy. Oct. 10. 1793. X.airi's XVII. horn 17S5. ttiefl .Tunc 8. 1795. THE. FRENCH REVOLUTION. 573 6. The Horrors in the South. § 488. When the inhabitants of Normandy and Britten}' rose in defence of the expelled Girondists, the Committee of Public Safety devastated the region be- tween the Seine and the Loire with instruments of terror. Carrier, their agent, crowded together his victims by the hundred, upon ships with trap-bottoms, by means of which they were drowned in crowds. In Lyons, a former priest stirred up the artisans to rob and murder the aristocrats. The rich citizens of Lyons thereupon jiiiv ie. 1193. procured the execution of the demagogue. This enraged the Men of Terror at Paris. An army was sent to Lyons ; the city was taken ; the citizens were shot by scores, because the guillotine worked too slowly ; houses were torn down, and whole blocks blown up with powder. The possessions of the rich were distributed to the mob, and Lyons was to be destroyed from the face of the earth. A similar fate befell Marseilles- and Toulon. The Royalists of Toulon called the English to their help, and made over to them their city and harbor; but the army of the revolution, in which the young Corsican, Napoleon Bonaparte, gave the first proofs of his military genius, overcame all obstacles. Toulon was taken by storm. The English, un- able to defend the city, set fire to their fleet, and abandoned the wretched inhabitants. The wealthy citizens were shot down, and their property distributed to the Sans- Culottes. Bordeaux and Northern France were scenes of similar terror. § 489. The Bloody Scenes in Vendee. But La Vendee, a peculiar district of West France, traversed by hedges and intersected by ditches, was the greatest suf- ferer of all. The people in this district preserved the simplicity of the ancient time. Peasants and tenants were attached to their landlords ; they loved the king, rever- enced the priest and the church, which had been dear and sacred to them from their youth. When, therefore, the National Assembly banished or murdered their priests, when the King perished by the guillotine, when their sons were drafted into the army, the people rose in their wrath to resist the Reign of Terror. Their leaders were from all classes, from the peasants and the nobility ; and at first the}' drove back the armies of the Republic. The Convention then sent a revolutionary army under Westermann, and the furious Jacobins, Ronsin and Rossignol, to suppress the rebellion. These fell like wild beasts upon the inhabitants ; set fire to their cities, villages, barns, and forests, and sought to break the resistance of the Royalists by cruelty and terror. But the courage of the Vendeans was unbroken. Not until General Kleber marched his army against them, did the unfortunate people yield, and then their land had be- come a desert, and thousands had fertilized the soil with their blood. The brave but humane Hoche followed, and offered the weary people peace. His moderation brought them to submission. § 490. Danton s Overthrow. The cruelty of the Jacobins was at last too terrible for Danton and Camille Desmoulins. Danton was weary of murder, and retired with his young wife, for a short time, into the country, to enjoy the wealth which the Revolution had brought him. Desmoulins attacked the three heads of the Committee of Safety in his journal. This enraged the Jacobins, and as several friends and adher- ents of Danton had been guilty of deception and bribery, in connection with the East In- dia Company, and some others had caused offence by their attacks upon religion, the Committee of Public Safety determined to destroy Danton and all his party. The con- vention had altered the calendar and the names of the months, had abolished Sundays i74 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. and holidays, and substituted for them decades and popular festivals. This led several Dantonists, like Hubert, Momoro, Chaumette, and Cloots, to attack Christianity and the priesthood with scandalous fury. They desecrated and plundered the churches, they made a mock of sacred garments and sacred vessels, they paraded in blaspheming crowds through the streets, and finally they determined, in the Convention, to estab- lish the worship of reason in the place of the Catholic service. At a festival in Notre Dame, where the Goddess of Reason was represented by the beautiful Madame Momoro, THE FETE OF REASON. (31. Muller.) they began their new religion. Robespierre opposed all this ; he was neither greedy, nor licentious, nor blasphemous. And he determined to destroy both Desmoulins and Feb, 170-i. Danton. When the former appeared in the Convention, St. Just of- fered a remarkable resolution, in which he divided the enemies of the Republic into three classes, the corrupt, the ultra-revolutionists, and the moderates. The resolution ma,,n 34. was adopted on the 24th of March. Nineteen ultra-revolutionists, among them, Cloots, Hebert and Momoro, the husband of the Goddess of Reason, were THE DANTONISTS ON THE ROAD TO THE GUILLOTINE. (D. Maillard.) (pp. 515.) 576 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. march 31, led to the guillotine. On the 31st of March, the corruptionists were accused before the revolutionary tribunal, and Danton and Desmoulins were dragged into the trial. They demanded to be confronted with their accusers. For three days, Danton's voice of thunder and the tumult of the people made his condemnation im- possible. For the first time in its history, the Tribunal hesitated; whereupon the Convention gave to the Court authority to condemn the accused, without a further April s, 170*. hearing. They were led to the guillotine and beheaded, along with a crowd of rabble. They died courageously, and with noble dignit}\ 7. The Military Achievements of the Republicans. § 491. The First Coalition. Meanwhile the armies of all Europe were marching to the French frontiers. The Dutch, the Austrians, and the English were in the Netherlands. Prussian and Austrian troops had crossed the Rhine. Sardinia was threatening the southeast, and Spanish and Portuguese armies were stationed at the' Pyrenees. The English were striving to destroy the naval power of France, to con- quer her colonies, and to maintain the armies of the continent by enormous subsidies. At first the allies were successful. Alsace and Flanders fell into their hands, and the way to Paris was open. But discord and incompetency hindered their success. There- publicans, on the other hand, suspecting treason in every defeat, sought to compel victory by terror. General Beauharnais, who came too late to save Mayence, was guillotined. So too were Custine and his son. And Hoche was imprisoned, be- xov. 2&-30, 1103. cause he was defeated by the Prussians and other German troops at Kaisers-lautern. The energetic and able Carnot now became a member of the Committee of Safety, and brought unity and combination into the war. A draft was ordered, which compelled everybody to take his part. Freedom still created among the soldiers courage and enthusiasm ; but they were no longer led against the enemy in small divisions, and from their ranks proceeded the greatest generals of modern time. The soldiers of other countries, who fought for pay and not for freedom, were no match for these young warriors : and besides that, the un- dertakings of the allies were frequently hindered by political considerations, and by June 20, ii»4. diplomatic arts. In June, Jourdan compelled the allies to retire from Belgium, and at the beginning of autumn the Netherlands and the Dutch frontiers- iio4--it.-,. were in the hands of the French. In December and January General Pichegru led his half-starved, half-clad army across the ice into Holland, compelled the Stadthokler to fly to England, and founded the Batavian republic. Holland was now allied with France. The French troops were clad and maintained at the expense of the Dutch, and great sums of money were sent to Paris, as compensation for the war. Meanwhile the English took possession of the Dutch ships and colonies, so that the unfortunate country was plundered on both sides. § 492. The Peace of Basel. The French were just as victorious along the no*. Rhine. In October the Austrians and Prussians abandoned the left bank to the enemy ; and the Prussian government, busy with the affairs of Poland, Apra s, lias, agreed to the peace of Basel. In this shameful peace the left bank of the Rhine and Holland were given up to the French, the Rhine was established as the natural boundary of France, and North Germany was separated from the South. The war continued in South Germany, but North Germany was declared to be neutral soil. 37 ROBESPIERRE WOUNDED IN THE HALL OF THE ASSEMBLY. (F. TAx.) (pp.511.) 578 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. The Austrians, however, continued the war. Pichegru was defeated, Heidelberg was ij»5. taken from the French, and Mannheim was partly destroyed, and then occupied 03" the Germans. Clerfait, the Austrian commander, now resigned, and was succeeded b}' the Arch duke Karl, the Emperor's brother, who soon displayed great sept. 3, tioe. military genius. He defeated Jourdan at Wurzburg, and compelled him to retreat across the Rhine. Even Moreau was forced out of Bavaria and Swabia, sept. 10 to oet. but by a masterly retreat through the Black forest, he reached the 24,, noe. Rhine without great loss. The other German princes imitated, for the most part, the example of Prussia, and made peace with France. § 493. Robespierre's Downfall. After Danton's death, the Committee of Safety ruled absolutely, and brought the Reign of Terror to a climax, by their arrests and executions. But the Convention and the people no longer trusted them. The friends of Danton were lurking and watching for an opportunity. When Robespierre i7»4. made an end of the blasphemous worship of reason, his enemies in- creased. The Convention solemnly resolved that there was a Supreme Being, and that the soul was immortal ; and at a festival, in honor of this Supreme Being, Robespierre officiated as high-priest. To his enemies belonged Tallien, Freren, Fouche", and that jhij; a», no*, master of lies, Barere. On the 9th of Thermidor, a struggle for life and death began in the Convention. Robespierre and his friends were not allowed to speak. Their adversaries howled them down, and passed a resolution to arrest and imprison the three chiefs of the Committee of Safety, Robespierre, St. Just, and Couthon, together with their companion Henriot. On their way to the prison, they were set free by the mob. The drunken Henriot thereupon threatened the Convention with the National Guard, while the others hastened to the city hall, but the National Assembly was too prompt for them. A proclamation, cried through the streets, scattered Henriot's army, while the citizens, tired of the Jacobins, rushed to the support of the Convention. The accused were re-arrested. Henriot crept into a sewer, out of which he was pulled with hooks. Robespierre tried to kill himself, but succeeded only in shattering his jaw. They were juiy zs. led, amid the curses and cries of the people, first to the revolutionary Tribunal, and then to the guillotine. Ninety-three Jacobins shared the fate of their leader. The Last Days of the Convention. § 494. The Thermidorians were doubtless animated by personal revenge ; never- theless, the death of Robespierre meant a return to order and moderation. The popu- lar assemblies were gradually restrained, the power of the city council diminished, and arms taken from the mob. Freron assembled about him the young men, who, from their raiment, were known as the " Gilded Youth." These attacked the Jacobins on the street, and in their club. The club was at last closed, and the Jacobin cloister torn down. The Convention was strengthened by the recall of the excluded members and of the Girondists, and then caused the worst men of the Reign of Terror -to be put to death. But when the most active members of the Committee of Safety, Barere, Va- dier, d'Herbois, and others were accused, the Jacobins gathered themselves together, and drove the excited people, who were desperate from famine and poverty, to a ter- THE BREAD RIOTERS IN THE HALL OF THE CONVENTION. (F. LlX.) (j)p. 579.) 580 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. li-12 Germinal, March 31. April 1, tlOS. May HO, 1595. rible insurrection. Mobs surrounded the hall of the convention, cry- ing for bread, for the release of the patriots, and for the Constitution of 1793. But Pichegru was fortunately present in Paris, and came to the help of the convention with citizens and soldiers. The mob was dispersed, and the still more dangerous insurrection of the 20th of May was also suppressed by the courageous president Boissj^ d'Anglas. The mob sur- rounded the convention from day-break till after midnight, demanding the restoration of the Committee of Safety. But the power of the Jacobins was broken. Some died by their own hand, some were deported, and others were beheaded. Meanwhile, the party of the Royalists was increasing, and a new constitution was adopted, in which the executive authority was given to a directory of five persons, and the legislative power committed to a council of ancients and a council of five hundred. The Repub- lican members of the convention, fearing that the Royalists would succeed at the next elec- tion, added a supplement to this constitution, requiring that two-thirds of both legislative councils should consist of members of the Con- vention. The Royalists rebelled against this limitation of the franchise, and provoked an uprising of the sections. The Convention there- upon called upon Napoleon Bonaparte to put down the insurrection, which he did, on the oot. s, nos. 5th of October, 1795, (13th Vendemiaire). This gave to the Republicans of the Convention the upper hand, and to the young Napoleon the command of the Italian army. A few days after his appointment, he March s, iioo. married the widow of Gen. Beauharnais, who had been put to death by the Terrorists. Josephine was the beautiful and ,,,„.,.,,, D graceful daughter of a French officer, Tascher and member op the directory in gala de la Pagerie. Napoleon had been made a c- costume. {1794-1799.) quainted with her by Barms ; he loved her passionately, although she was several j'ears older than he. 8. France Under the Directory (Oct. 26th, 1795— Nov. 9th, 1799.) § 495 Bonaparte hi Italy. The French army on the Italian frontier was in a wretched condition. Suddenly Napoleon appeared, as their commander-in-chief, and in a short time he had made them so enthusiastic, and attached them so firmly to him- self, that thej' followed him into every danger. Where the love of glory was not i7og. powerful enough, the treasures of Italy stimulated their courage. In April, Napoleon defeated the Austrians at Monte Notte, separated them from the Sardinians, frightened the king, Victor Amadeus, into surrendering Savoy and Nice to stay. France, and into permitting the French armies to march through his territory. The kingdom was thus made entirely dependent upon France, and Charles Emanuel IV. surrendered Piedmont also, and retired with his family to the island of (pp. 581.) BONAPARTE ON THE BRIDGE AT ARCOLE. (Enlil Bayard.) 582 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. Sardinia. Napoleon's victorious course soon placed him in possession of all Upper jtiay 10, lints. Italy ; he crossed the bridge of Lodi, marched into Austrian Milan, subjugated the cities of Lombardy, and so terrified the small princes, that they begged for peace, on any terms. Napoleon forced the Dukes of Parma, Modena, and Tuscany, to give him great sums of money, costly pictures, manuscripts, and works of art. These he sent to Paris, and the money was used to subsidize the directory. The octo- Au a . s, 1190. genarian commander of the Austrians, Beaulieu, was now superseded by Wurmser ; but Napoleon defeated him at Castiglione, and then beleaguered him in Mantua. The army sent to his relief was defeated in three successive battles, and the Nov. hob. Austrian army in Italy completely wiped out. This compelled sun. 1197. Wurmser to capitulate. Bonaparte permitted the venerable com- mander to retain his sword, and to march out with a part of his heroic garrison. Pope Pius VI., was so terrified by these successes of the French, that he purchased the Feb. 19, 1191. peace of Tolentino by cessions of territory, large sums of money, and valuable works of art. The Arch- duke Karl was then made commander of the Austrian armies in Italy, but he was soon com- pelled to an inglorious retreat, and pursued by Bonaparte in the direc- tion of Vienna. The frightened Emperor Francis was now per- suaded, by the still more April is, hoi. frightened women of his court, to sign the truce of Leoben, just at the moment when the French army was in great danger from the Tyroleans. At the same time, an uprising of the people in Venice led to the murder of many Frenchmen in Verona and its vicinity. Napoleon revenged his comrades by destroying the Venetian republic. The cow- ardice of the aristocratic counsellors greatly helped him in his work. The French marched into Venice in the month of May, carried off the ships and the supplies of the Republic, robbed the churches, galleries, and libraries of their most precious treas- on, ii, ii9i. ures, and occupied the city until the peace of Campio Formio was signed. By this peace, Austria agreed that Upper Italy should be formed into the Cisalpine Republic. Under the protectorate of France, Belgium was ceded to the French Republic ; the left bank of the Rhine and Mayence were also surrendered ; JOSEPHINE (E. Ronjat.) THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 683 but in return for these, Austria acquired Venice and Dalmatia. The princes, prelates, and noblemen, who lost by this surrender of the left bank of the Rhine, were com- pensated by territories on the right bank. These, and all other points relating to Ger- Dec. 1707. many, were arranged at the Congress of Rastadt, where Napoleon presided in person, and whence he departed to Paris to receive the applause of excited thousands. § 496. G-raechus Babeuf. The Royal- ists. The government of the five directors was hateful alike to the Republicans and the Royalists. The first attempt to over- throw it was made by the Republicans, under the lead of Gracchus Babeuf, who aimed at a new distribution of property, and sought to establish equality of wealth. He was joined by many of the old Jacobins, and they founded the " Union of Equals " which held its sittings secretly, at the hussar, cavalryman and infantryman. (1795.) Mau,i79e. Pantheon. The conspiracy was discovered. Babeuf drove a dagger to his heart ; the others were executed or exiled. The Royalists, on the other hand, k-. succeeded in the elections in bringing' into '■■■ ■ O O the legislative assembly a majority of their friends, among them Pichegru, the former commander of the Rhine army. He was chosen president of the council of five hun- dred, and sought to restore the monarchy. }The Republicans, in the directory and in the legislative chambers, sought, in their anxiety, help from Napoleon Bonaparte. Bonaparte fsent Bernadotte, the cunning, and Augereau, the brutal, into Paris; ostensibly to bring the conquered standards, but really to sup- port the directors against the Royalists. On sei>t. 4, 1707. the 18th Fructidor, Augereau surrounded the Tuileries and arrested the Royalist deputies. Eleven members of the ancients, forty-two of the five hundred (among them Pichegru), and two directors, were thereupon condemned to exile. The Royalist elections were declared invalid, the returned emigrants were banished, and many newspapers suppressed. Nevertheless, the government of the directory -failed to inspire confidence. Commerce, industry, agriculture, were at a standstill, and the GENERAL, LIGHT INFANTRY OFFICER, AND INFANTRYMAN. (1795.) 584 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. state treasury was empty. The paper money of the Revolution, which, during the Reign of Terror, no one ventured to refuse, had now lost all value. Great losses were the consequence. The expenses of war and other outlays, could only be met by forced contributions in the conquered lands. § 497. The Republicans in Italy ; the Transformation of Switzerland. Italy and Switzerland were now made to feel the insolence and the capacity of the Directory. In the winter of 1797 the French provoked republican uprisings in Rome and other parts of the Papal dominions. In suppressing these movements of the mob, a French jFe6., i-.9s. general was killed by the papal troops; thereupon Berthier marched his army into Rome. A liberty tree was planted in the Roman Forum, and the temporal power was taken away from the Pope, and handed over to a republican government, consisting of consuls, senators, and tribunes. Heavy contributions were then levied upon the city, valuable works of art were carried off to Paris, the aged pope Pius VI. was led a prisoner to France, where .tug., ii99. he died the next year, and the car- dinals were severely persecuted. Genoa and Lucca also received democratic constitutions, for which they paid with their treasures of art. But Naples went through a series of changes. The hard hearted Ferdinand it., and cowardly king, Ferdinand, who (i) of Naples, turned over the affairs of state to i7S9-t825. his wife, Catharine, was induced, by the Queen and her friend Lady Hamilton, to send a Neapolitan army, under the Austrian general, Mack, into the papal states. The French were driven out of Rome, and the city occupied by Mack's army. xov. ana Dec., But in a few days, the French re- i79s. turned, drove out the Neapolitans, = and marched to Naples. The Neapolitan court fled F_ to Sicily, after setting fire to their own fleet, and abandoned Naples and the whole country to the vic- costume of citizens. (1796.) tors. The Neapolitan people now rose in insurrec- tion, urged on by monks and priests. Mobs of rabble, uniting with peasants and galley slaves, took possession of Naples, and committed such horrors that the royal governor fled to Sicily, and even Mack sought protection from the French. The French, under Championnet, now forced their way into the desperately defended san,. iioo. city, and erected the Parthenopian republic. All the cultivated, respectable, and patriotic Neapolitans accepted the new order with enthusiasm, rejoic- ing at their redemption from the long oppression of royal and priestly despotism. Switzerland also experienced a compulsory change of constitution. In 1798 the Republicans of Waadtland rose in arms to free themselves from the authority of Berne, and as they were unable to cope with the Bernese, they called upon the French for help. General Brune occupied Berne with a French army, took pos- session of the city treasur}' and the arsenal, and levied heavy contributions upon ■the people. With the help of the Democratic party, the French then converted starch, 1198. Switzerland into an indivisible Helvetian republic. The forests can- THE, FRENCH REVOLUTION. 585 tons, urged on by their priests, refused to accept the new government, and took up arms. But their desperate and courageous resistance was soon conquered. Geneva also was united to France. About the same time, an insurrection occurred in Ireland. A French army under Humbert was sent to support the insurgents, but was forcecl by August, ins. the English to a speedy capitulation, and Ireland was then placed un- der martial law. § 498. The Second War of the Coalition (1798-1799.') These events, and Napo- leon's expedition to Egypt, led to a new coalition of Russia, England, and Austria, against France. Russia, in 1796, came under the rule of Catharine's eldest son Paul, an eccentric prince, who hated the Revolution, who was a warm admirer of the Knights of Malta, of which he was grand-master, and . -. who found a cause of war in Napoleon's tak- ing the island of Malta. England dread- ed the consequences of the Egyptian expedition for her Eastern posses- sions, and scattered money- with liberal hands. Austria was in difficulty with the Direc- tory, because the dwell- ing of the French am- bassador in Vienna had been attacked, and the tri-color had been in- sulted. This war was carried on in Germany, Italy, Switzerland, and the Netherlands all at jirtreh as, i?oo. once. The French were driven across the Rhine by the Arch-duke Karl, and the French ambassadors at Rastadt, as they were leaving the city, were April as. attacked, robbed of their papers, and two of them killed. In Italy also the French suffered defeat. The Russians conquered the Cisalpine Republic ; Morean April 27, 1100. was defeated at Cassano, and MacDonald at Trebia, and Italy was June 11-10, lost to the French at the battle of Novi. This brought the Parthenopian August is. Republic to an end. As the French abandoned Naples, Cardinal Ruffo, jmie 13. with a mob of peasants and vagabonds, stormed the city. The court returned from Sicily, and began at once a terrible punishment of the Republicans in Naples. Supported by Lord Nelson, whose fleet lay in the harbor, the royal government and the priesthood committed outrages worthy of the worst days of the Reign of Terror. When the rabble was worn out with robbery and assassination, the judge, the jailor, and the hangman, set to work. All who supported or furthered the republican insti- tutions, were hunted down. Four thousand of the most cultivated and respected men PIUS vn. (E. Ronjat.) 586 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. and women of the cit}' died upon the scaffold, or in gloomy dungeons. The aged Prince Caraccioli, Ferdinand's former confidant, and Xelsoms friend, was tied to a mast, and then, load- ed down with a heavy- weight, thrown into the sea. The repub- lican government in Rome was likewise destroyed, and the new pope, Pius VII., entered the Vatican. After the conquest of Italy, the Russian commander Suwaroff recrossed the Alps, to drive Massena and the French army out of Switzerland. The Russian army climbed . mountain passes : which had been hith- q erto regarded as in- h accessible to man, 5 fought against nature 3 and against their en- 2 emies with a bravery never surpassed, and yet the French main- tained themselves in Switzerland. Before Suwaroff could unite with his allies, the Russians were de- feated in the battle of Zurich. Suwaroff sept, n«, 21, i?9». led the remnant of his army back to Russia, where he died in sor- 2Uay, 1SOO. TOW, because of the dis- favor of his monarch. The attempt of the English to drive the French out of the Netherlands, was a disastrous failure. The Duke of York, who Oct., lino. commanded the expedition, was utterly incompetent, and bought his BATTLE OF THE PYRAMIDS. (F. LlX.) {pp. 687.) 588 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. way home by a shameful treaty, without considering his Russian allies. This so embittered the Russian czar, that he withdrew from the coalition. § 499. Bonaparte in Egypt and !Syria. In June 1798, Napoleon sailed for the mouth of the Nile : his purpose was to weaken the naval power of the English, and to threaten their possessions in East India. In the hot days of July, he left Alexandria, and marched through the Egyptain desert to Cairo. The distress of the army, under the glowing sun, without water and without sufficient food, was terrible ; 3'et in the juiu 2i, moo. Battle of the Pyramids, the Mamelukes were conquered, and Napoleon entered Cairo. But during his absence, the French fleet had been led away \>y the English hero, Lord Nelson ; and Napoleon was compelled to make preparations for a auo. i, a, iT9s. longer stay. He therefore established a new government, a new sys- tem of police and taxation : and he ordered the scholars and artists who were with his NAVAL FIGHT OFF ABUKIR, AUGUST 1, 1708. (Fr. Weber.) army, to investigate the antiquities and monuments of this wonderful country, to col- lect and to describe the relics of their ancient life Bonaparte and his soldiers were careful to spare the religious feelings of the Mohammedans, their priests, their mosques, and their ceremonies; nevertheless, the fanatical Mussulmans hated the dominion of the Christians. And when the French commander levied taxes and con- tributions upon them, and the Turkish government called upon the Mohammedans to oet. st, ii98. war against the Christians, there arose in Cairo a terrible insurrection. This was not suppressed until six thousand Mohammedans were slain. Napoleon then Feb., 1199. marched against the Turks in Syria, and conquered Joppa, where he massacred at one time two thousand prisoners. He then besieged St. John D'Acre. sratfi.-yiau, 1199. Here Napoleon's fortune proved treacherous for the first time ; the Turks drove back their desperate enemies, while a Turkish army outside the city threatened the besiegers. The latter was soon conquered and dispersed, nevertheless THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 589 Bonaparte was compelled, by pestilence, to give up the siege and lo retreat. He juiy 2*. reached Cairo in June, and the next month defeated the Turkish army at Aboukir. A few days after the battle, he received newspapers recounting the misfortunes of the French in Italy, and news also of the political situation in France. He determined to return. Handing over the command of the Egyptian arm}' to Kleber, he sailed from Alexandria and narrowly escaping capture by the English, soon oct. a, i an/. reached the French coast, and journeyed, amid the acclamations of the people, hastily to Paris. SIEGE OF ST. JOHN d'aCRE. § 500. T7w Eighteenth Brumaire. The Directory had lost all influence. Every- body was convinced that a change of constitution was necessary. The news of Napo- leon's landing fixed all eyes upon him. His daring expedition had increased the ad-, miration of the people for the new Ccesar, and the return of the hero, who"was said to have been exiled by the envious directors, formed the substance of all conversations. Napoleon now determined to place himself at the head of the state. To this end he must overthrow the Directory. He assured himself of the support of the officers and troops stationed in Paris, and then arranged with Sieyes, one of the directors, and with his brother Lucian, the president of the council of five hundred, the plan of operations. This 590 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. was to remove the sittings of the council to St. Cloud, in order to bring the members within reach of the soldiers. Entering the hall, Napoleon sought at first to win the council over to his plans. But when he was met with reproaches and threats, he commanded his grenadiers to empty the hall at the point of the bayonet. The Republicans were com- pelled to yield, and sought safety through the doors and windows. The most defiant of them were carried out by the grenadiers. A commission of fifty persons was then charged with framing a new constitution. This was the Coup D' Etat of the 18th. Brumaire, in consequence of which, Napoleon Bonaparte became First Consul, and in alliance with Sieyes, created a new constitution, which preserved the shadow of a re- public, but was really a military despotism. MADAME ROLAND. C. THE RULE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. I. THE CONSULATE (1800 TO 1804.) § 501 k HE consular constitution distributed the functions of the state as follows: 1 — A senate, consisting of eighty mem- bers, had authority to choose from the names sent from the various departments, the members of the legislative body, the chief executive officers, and the judges. 2 — A legislative body consisting of a tribunate composed of a hundred mem- bers, whose duty it was to examine and to discuss the propo- sitions of the executive, and of a law-making assembly which voted upon these propositions without discussion and adopted or rejected them without amendment. 3 — The executive I consisting of three consuls chosen for ten years, of whom the first consul, Napoleon Bonaparte, exercised actually the executive author- ity, while the second and third consul (Cambaceres and Lebrun) assisted him as counselors. Bonaparte surrounded himself with a state council and a cabinet, for which he selected men of the highest talent and largest experience. Talleyrand, the skillful diplomatist, became minister of foreign affairs ; the astute Fondle - controlled the police system, and Berthier was chief of the general staff. The French law book, the code Napoleon, in the composition of which the ablest jurists of France were engaged, is a striking proof of the ability of the state council. § 502. Makengo and Hohenlinden. The new constitution once established, Napoleon wrote an autograph letter to the king of England and another to the Emperor, offering peace. But this un- usual step met a cold reception. The answers to it spoke of the restoration of the Bourbons, and of the return to old frontiers. The contrast between the apparent candor and magnanimity of Napoleon, and the haughty coldness of the cabinets of London and Vienna filled the French with the enthusiasm of war. The Russian Czar, however, treated Napoleon with more consideration. Paul's love of soldiers and his anger at the Austrians and English, who refused to exchange their Russian prisoners, C591) 592 THE ERA OF REUOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. were cunningly made use of by Napoleon. He sent thousands of these prisoners, newly clad and armed, back to their native country. This won the heart of the chivalrous Czar so that he entered into friendly correspondence with Bonaparte, and broke off relations entirely with his former allies. The first consul now secretly collected a large body of troops near Lake Geneva, and began his daring march across the St. Bernard with the main army, while other divisions were sent by the Simplon, St. Gotthard and other May, tsoo. passes, into Italy. The army marched through mountains of snow and ice past the Hospice of St. Bernard, into the river valley of Dora Baltea. Here the way seemed to be blocked by the Austrian fort Bard. But Napoleon mastered every difficulty. The troops crossed the neighboring mountain by a narrow sheep-path, while the cannon were secretly and cunningly pushed forward under the batteries of the fort. The French arrived, unexpectedly, in upper Italy, at the same moment in which the Austrians compelled Genoa to surrender, and June », isoo. thereby acquired possession of the whole land. But the situation soon changed. Five days after the fall of Genoa the Austrians were defeated at Monte-bello, and shortly after- jrune i4. isoo. wards in the battle of Marengo, where they were beaten in a third attack, after being twice victorious. The troops of General Desaix, who had just arrived from Egypt, and the opportune cavalry charge of the young Kellermann decided the battle, and snatched from the Austrian commander, Melas, his confidently expected victory. Desaix, one of the noblest and greatest men of the Revolutionary era, died a heroic death at Marengo. Milan and Lombarcly fell into the victors' hands. At the same time another French army under Mpreau had penetrated to Bavaria, driven back the Austrians in several engagements and compelled them to an armis- tice ; but the glorious march of MacDonald and Moncey, over the ice-clad Alps, and rei>. a, isoi. Moreau's splendid victory on the bloody field of Hohenlinden com- pelled the Austrians to sign the treaty of Luneville, and to accept the valley between the Adige and the Rhine as the frontier of the French Empire. The treaty also pro- vided for the formation of an Italian republic under the presidency of Bonaparte, and for the compensation of German princes, by secularizing the estates of the church and confiscating the property of imperial cities on the right bank of the Rhine. Two years later an arrangement of German frontiers was agreed to, which was the first *-e&. as, iso3. step toward the dissolution of the German empire, and toward the creation of sovereign kingdoms and dominions. FRENCH GENERALS. (1799-1800.) § 503. The Peace of Amiens. England now stood alone. The Russian Czar Paul had shortly before, in order to gratify his hate, formed an alliance of armed neutrality with Prussia, Sweden, sun THE RULE OF NAPOLEOX BONAPARTE. 593 and Denmark ; and as this gave the English enemies in the Baltic also, they became anxious for rest and recuperation. Negotiations were begun but they led to no result because it was impossible to agree about Egypt. Kleber, angry as he was at Napo leon s departure, had nevertheless main- tained himself suc- cessfully against the English and the Turks, and in the bat- ainrch no, isoo. tie of Heliopolis had defeat- ed an enenry six times his strength. But on the day of the battle of Marengo, he had been assassinated at Cairo by a fanatical Mahommedan. The French arm}? then passed to his incom- petent successor Me- liou who had gone over to Islam. It was speedily reduced to such extremities, that the English hoped to compel its surrender and therefore pro- mvsA CTZTian^LCzr .7 z. """ . m mmML —-'--•— DEATH OF MARSHAL DESAIX. tracted the peace negotiations. Not until the brave English general Abercrombie had fallen at Canopus, were they convinced that it was impossible to conquer the war-like lun.c 21, isoi. French, either by their own army made up of all people or by the worthless Turkish mobs The French troops, twenty four thousand in number, were finally carried to France in English ships, with their arms, their munitions of war, and all their treasures of science and art. The Peace of Amiens followed. The English jua.cn 27, iso*. agreed to surrender the greater part of their foreign conquests arid to turn over the Island of Malta to the knights of St. John. This treaty hastily agreed upon by the English ministry, excited violent opposition among the English people. The press, especially, attacked Napoleon with great violence. The First Consul, who could tolerate neither blame nor contradiction, replied with like vehemence in the French official journal (Moniteur). The feeling thus produced led to a renewal of the war, when the English delayed the surrender of Malta, and the execution of other articles of the treaty. They no longer feared Russia, for the Emperor Paul had suf- fered a violent death. His cruelty, his mad caprices, and his gloomy suspicions had so increased as to leave no doubt of his incurable insanity. A conspiracy was formed among his courtiers, of which Count Pahlen was chief. Paul was attacked in his bed- jwnrcft S3, isot. chamber and, when he refused to abdicate, strangled to death. His 594 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. son Alexander was then proclaimed Czar. "The crown, too nervous to punisn, did not even venture to be angry, or to appear unthankful." The murderers were rewarded with riches and honors. Under such circumstances the peace of Amiens could not last : at the close of the year the English again de- clared war, and Pitt became again prime minister. Meanwhile Napo- leon had reduced Switzerland to dependence upon France, as he had May is, tso3. already subjugated Holland and Italy. By the " Act of Mediation " the constitution of the Swiss republic was so changed that Feh. iso3. the cantons became independent again, but a Landamman and a Diet represented the union. "This furnished the desired 'medium' between unity and isolation." § 504. The New Couet and the Concordat. Bonaparte tried, in the begin- ning, to reconcile the old and the new ; to unite the conquests of the Revolution with the manners and forms of the Monarchy. But his preference for the old conditions was soon manifest in the restoration of the earlier arrangements and usages. At the court of the First Consul in the Tuileries the former costumes and fashions, the ancient forms of etiquette and the elegance of the royal period soon reappeared. Aristocratic bearing, refinement and fine manners were once more the marks of good society. The social tact of his wife Josephine, the beauty and amiability of his step-children (Eugene and Hortense Beauharnais), the handsome forms and striking talents of his sisters, greatly contributed to his success.* ALEXANDER 1. I. Joseph. 1767-1844. 6 Fa'iline— Borghese. i"81— 1825. * FAMILY TREE OF THE BONAPARTES OF AJA.CCIO CORSICA. CARLO BONAPARTE— LETITIA RAMOLINI (fl836 at ROME). 2 Napoleon. 3 Lucian. 4 Elisa— Baeciochi. 1769—1821. 1772— 1S10. 1777—1820. 7 Caroline— Murat. 1782—1839. Napoleon Bonaparte— Josephine Beauharnais (nee Tascher de la Pagerie). 1763—1814. 5 Louis. 1778— 1S16. 8 Jerome. 1784—1860. Prince Napoleon. Eugene. 1781-1824. Hortense— Louis Bonaparte. 1 1837. I Louis Napoleon III. 1848—1852, President of the Republic. 1352— 1870, Emperor. 1 1873, Exile in England. THE RULE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 595 Many of the emigrant nobles were permitted to return and treated with such favor that they soon entered the service of the New Regime. Madame De Stael (Necker's •daughter) collected once more in her salon a company of cultivated and famous men. The vanity of the French also favored Napoleon's plans, and when he established the order of the Legion of Honor, Republicans and Royalists greedily struggled for this new evidence of human weakness. The restoration of the Christian worship in the French .juiv is, isoi. churches was eagerly desired by Napoleon. He abolished the repub- lican festivals, and restored the celebration of Sunday and then proceeded to negotiate with the Pope. This led to the Concordat, whereby the French clergy lost their ancient independence and were made subject to the head of the church and the ruler April is, isos. of the state. The system of education also attracted his attention, especially the institutions for practical knowledge like the polytechnic school of Paris. He made the schools wholly dependent upon the State. In a word Napo- leon wished to govern everything by his own hand and his own will, and thus became the creator of that destructive centralization, which makes local government and self- reliance impossible in France. § 505. Conspiracies. Napoleon had no pleasure in a free state. He limited therefore more and more the political rights of the citizens, prosecuted Jacobins and Republicans (Ideologists he called them), put his trust in his guard and his police, the three-fold strength •of which was wielded by the cunning of Fouche\ Repeated con- spiracies against the life •of the first consul were started, sometimes by { Republicans, sometimes j by Royalists, and these led to fresh restrictions and closer surveillance. The boldest attempt ■of the time was by means of an infernal machine filled with powder and ball, as the consul was driving to the opera house. Napoleon Becemher %±, escaped isoo. through the promptness and presence of mind of his coachman, although many houses were destroyed and several persons killed. In consequence of this a great number of Jacobins were deported, although it was subsequently im "■Hi CHATEAUBRIAND. (E. Ronjat.) 596 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. discovered that the plot originated among the royalists that surrounded the Count D'Artois. The conspiracies became more extensive and more dangerous, when August a, the consulate was conferred upon Napoleon for life, with the authority isoa. to appoint his successor. This result of universal suffrage took away from the Bourbons their last hope, on which account the emigrants risked everything napoleon i. {Chattillori) to destroy Napoleon. George Cadoudal and General Pichegru, a giant in strength, were the agents in a fresh attempt at assassination ; they traveled secretly from England to France, but, with about forty of their confederates, were detected and imprisoned. Before their fate was determined Napoleon was informed that the Duke D'Enghien, the chivalrous grandson of the Prince of Conde, was the soul of all these royalist conspiracies. He immediately ordered the young nobleman, then resident in THE RULE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 597 the town of Ettenheim in Baden to be arrested, hurried to Paris and condemned to march 21, death by a hurried court-martial. In spite of his magnanimous defense, iso4. he was ordered to be shot. All Europe was indignant at this inde- fensible crime ; even the admirers of Napoleon were reduced to silence. The poet Chateaubriand, author of "The genius of Christianity" resigned the office which had been procured for him by Napoleon's sister, Elisa, and retired to Switzerland. Pichegru died in prison a violent death, whether by suicide or murder is unknown. George Cadoudal, with twelve conspirators, ascended the guillotine. General Moreau, accused of complicity with Pichegru's undertaking, and arbitrarily condemned to two years imprisonment, went into voluntary exile in America. II. NAPOLEON AS EMPEROR. (1804—1814.) § 506. 1.— The Empire. HE royalist conspiracy was used by Napoleon for the establishment of an hereditary monarchy. His adherents in the tribunate pro- posed to confer upon Napoleon the imperial dignity ; this was confirmed by the Senate and ratified by a vote of the entire popu- lation. While all hearts were yet throbbing with the recollection siay is, iso4,. of the bloody execution, Napoleon I. was proclaimed Emperor of the French, and at the end of the year was solemnly nee. a, lsoi,. consecrated by the Pope in the church of Notre Dame. The crown, however, was placed upon his own head and that of his kneel- ing consort, by his own hand. This coronation appeared to be the close of the rev- olution, since now all the old institutions, the abolition of which had cost thousands of human lives, gradually re- turned. The new Emperor surrounded his throne with a splendid court, at which the old titles, orders, and grada- tions of rank revived again in different form. He himself, it is true, preserved a military simplicity. But the mem- bers of his family became princes and princesses; his generals became marshals; faithful servants who fur- thered his plans, became great dignitaries of the crown, or were held fast to the new imperial throne as senators with large incomes. The creation of a new nobility with the old titles of prince, duke, count, baron, completed the magnificent structure of CATHEDRAL OP NOTRE DAME, PAR 598 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. an imperial court, that outshone all other courts of Europe. The republican institu- tions gradually disappeared ; the old calendar was reintroduced ; the new nobility was allowed to create entailed estates : the press was put under censorship apd civil freedom more and more restrained. The ruler would endure no criticism. Hence he diminished the number of tribunes to fifty, and in 1807 abolished the tribunate entirely. Obedience now became the sum of patriotic duty. And France stood under a tyranny more powerful than that of the ancient monarchy. But the tyrant was a great man who had saved France from ruin within and without. Therefore men submitted willingly and in spite of the hard conscription, the severe embargo, and the heavy taxation, the people bore their burdens more easily because many achievements of the revolution, like equality before the law, the peasant's right to possess landed property and religious freedom, remained untouched. Industry made great progress ; arts and trades flourished exceedingly ; unusual prosperity was eveiywhere visible. Splendid highways like those across the Alps, canals, bridges, public works of all sorts, are to this da} - the speaking monuments of this extraordinary man. Paris was adorned with magnificent palaces, majestic bridges, and splendid streets. In the Louvre was brought together all that art could show that was great and splendid. The University was established upon a magnificent plan, and made supreme and authoritative in the entire system of education. The glory of the nation made the yoke of the emperor easy. The people forgot the silence of freedom, amid the rattle of musketry and the blare of trumpets. They did not perceive that the arrogant tone of the war bulletin, and the splendid phrases of senators and legislators, eclipsed the truth and destroyed the love of candor. 2. Atjsterlitz, Pressburg, The Rhine Confederation. § 507. The English made the outbreak of a new war with France an excuse for seizing Dutch and French ships ; and invited Russia and Austria to a new coalition may iso3. Napoleon, on the other hand, marched his troops to the Weser in order to occupy Hanover, which at that time belonged to the English king. The people and army of Hanover were determined to risk life and property in the defense of their country, but the selfish nobility and the officials preferred a dis- graceful capitulation, which gave up the entire land to the French, rather than to engage in desperate but honorable struggle. With gnashing teeth the brave army retreated across the Elbe and then disbanded ; arms, munitions of war, and valuable horses fell into the hands of the French, who garrisoned the land with their troops and exhausted it with taxes and contributions. Many patriotic men of the Hanoverian army, entered the English service, and proved their bravery in the German legion on many fields of battle, far from home. The threatening position that Napoleon now assumed toward the entire North, as well as his arbitrary conduct in Holland, Italy, and other lands, caused the remaining powers no little anxiety. The Italian republic was transformed into an Italian kingdom, of which Eugene Beauharnais was made the march 7, isob. viceroy, and to it was annexed the Dukedom of Parma. Lucca was given to Napoleon's sister Elisa. In Spain and Germany also he acted Avith the same self-will, and as a consequence Russia, Austria, and Sweden united with England against France and renewed the war with great energy. Even in Prussia there was a strong party, at the head of which was the high-minded Queen Louise and the brave, THE RULE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 599 energetic, jovial, and talented Pi the coalition against Napoleon possessed the entire confidence of the ir- resolute, peace-loving king. So Prussia re- mained neutral to her own destruction. § 508. While the attention of all Europe was directed to the west coast of France, where Napo- leon was preparing ships of all kinds, and collecting a great army at Boulogne, os- tensibly to invade England, he was ar- ranging quietly for the remarkable cam- paign of 1805. Hav- ing secured the sup- port of the South German countries, he set forth with seven army-corps, crossed the Rhine, and marched into Suabia, while Bernadotte, without regard to the neutrality of Prussia, marched into Prus- sian territory, and pushed on to the Tsar. Frederick William III. was so offended at this violation of his sovereignty, that he assumed a threat- ening attitude toward Napoleon, although not declaring war. With Napoleon were his famous marshals Ney, Lann Oct. 14, isor,. strengthened by ince Ludwig Ferdinand, who urged an alliance with But the three ministers were favorable to France and z O > •-3 > es, Marmont, Soult, and Murat, and his army was the troops of Baden, Wurtemberg, and Bavaria. The 600 Till-: ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. Dukes of Hesse and Nassau also supported him. In a short time the Austrian gen- eral. Mack, was shut up in Ulm, and cut off from the main arm}*. Despairing of relief. Oct. so. the incompetent commander soon capitulated, and twenty-three thou- sand Austrians, (among them eighteen generals), were made prisoners. They surren- dered also forty battle flags, and sixty mounted cannon. Mack was tried by a court- martial, and deprived of his rank and honors. But Napoleon's satisfaction, in his great oct. 3i. victory, was greatly diminished, by the naval victory of the English at Trafalgar, in which the whole French fleet was destroyed, while the English lost their great hero, Nelson. § 509. In Prussia the war party was now in the ascendant. The King renewed his alliance with the Czar Alex- ander, in the garrison church at Potsdam, the two monarchs swearing eternal friendship over the coffin of Frederick the Great. Haugwitz was then sent to Napoleon with threaten- ing demands; but the French btov. it, isos. emperor marched along the Danube, -fighting several bloody battles with the Russians, under Kutusaff and Bagration. He found them harder to conquer than the Austrians, for Murat easily con- jiror. i3. quered Vienna, as the Prince Auersperg failed to defend or to destroy the bridge across the river. The indeci- sion of the Emperor Francis, and the want of harmony be- tween the Austrians and the Russians, enabled the French to defeat the allied army, which they had pursued into Moravia. nee. 2, isos. In the Battle of the Three Emperors' at Aus- terlitz, the winter sun shone down upon Napoleon's most brilliant victory. The Emperor Francis, eager for the close of the war, now sought out Napoleon, and agreed to a truce, in which the withdrawal of the Russians from the Austrian states was dcc. 2G. determined. The Peace of Pressburg soon followed. Austria lost Venice (which was united to the kingdom of Italy), the Tyrol (which was given to Bavaria), and the Black Forest (which fell to Baden). Bavaria and \Yurteniberg were raised to the rank of kingdoms, Baden was made a grand-duchy, and all three made matrimonial alliances with Napoleon. The daughter of Maximilian Joseph of Bavaria, became the wife of the Emperor's stepson, Eugene. Frederica Catherine, of ADMIRAL LORD NELSON. THE RULE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 601 Wurtemberg, married Napoleon's frivolous brother Jerome, who, at the Emperor's command, abandoned his first wife Elizabeth Patterson of Baltimore. While Carl, the grandson of the Duke of Baden, married a niece of the Empress Josephine. The lands along the lower Rhine, with Dusseldorf as a capital, were given to the Emperor's brother-in-law, Joachim Murat. Holland too lost her independence, and Louis Napoleon was made her king. The royal family at Naples was next made to feel the wrath of the great soldier, for during the war, the combined Russian and English fleet had landed at Naples, and had been welcomed by the King and Queen. nee. 21. Napoleon now issued a decree, in connection with the peace of Press- burg, declaring that " the Bourbons in Naples had ceased to reign." The throne was given to Joseph Bonaparte, and a French army marched to Naples to install him in his new dignity. The royal family pleaded and stirred up rebellions, but were obliged to take refuge in Sicily, where they lived under English protec- ts., iso6. tion, till Napoleon's overthrow. The conquered territories of Italy were divided into dukedoms, and given over to French marshals and statesmen, and when, two years later, Joseph was made king of Spain, Joachim Murat succeeded him as king of Naples. After the battle of Austerlitz, the Prussian ambassa- dor, Haugwitz, did not venture to state his instructions to the victorious Emperor, but was induced, partly by threats and partly by appar- ent friendship, to sign a treaty, in which Prussia exchanged certain territories along the Rhine and in Switzerland for Hanover. The King was not consulted, and strove to escape the exchange, but was obliged to submit. The news of this sudden change in the situa- tion so affected the English minister, Pitt, that he died soon after. § 510. The creation of the south German kingdoms dissolved the German Empire. Napoleon determined therefore to establish a Confederation of the Rhine, to withdraw southern and western Germany from Austrian influence, and to bind it to himself. A great number of princes and imperial cities entered into his plan, and a treaty was juiy, tsoe. signed in Paris on the 12th of July, 1806, by virtue of which, Napoleon became the protector of the Confederation, securing to each member of the union the sovereignty of his dominion, in return for the troops that each placed at French com- mand. Dalberg, ruler of a small principality, became Napoleon's viceroy, in the Con- federation, and many small principalities were consolidated, whereby the power of the larger princes was greatly increased. The Emperor Francis II., now abdicated, and withdrew all his states from the German alliance. "The Holy Roman Empire of the Aug. a, isoo. German nation " ceased to have a being, and Francis II. became Francis I., Emperor of Austria. Arndt was brave enough to give expression to the feelings that agitated German patriots, but few ventured to join him, — especially after MARSHAL MURAT. 602 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. Aug. *e, isoe. the publisher, Palm, of Nuremburg, was shot, for refusing to reveal the author of a pamphlet published by him, called " The Humiliation of Germany." 3. Jena, Tilsit, Erfurt. § 511. The wavering attitude of Prussia had angered Napoleon ; he deemed the king's friendship unreliable, and his hostility of little moment. The formation of the Confederation of the Rhine was evidently intended to make Germany as dependent upon the French Empire as Italy and Holland. Prussia sought therefore to counter- act it, by the formation of a Northern Union ; and when Napoleon, by his intrigues, destroyed the undertaking, the King was deeply offended. In the second place, the French Emperor offered to return Hanover to the English, without so much as consult- ing the Prussian government. In the third place, the frontiers were constantly vio- lated by the French commanders. Prussia ventured at last to present an ultimatum, to mobilize her armies, and to break off communications with Paris. § 512. While they were waiting for an answer in Berlin, the French troops, under Napoleon and his marshals, were already in the heart of Thuringia and Saxony. Oct. to, isoa. An engagement* took place at Saalfeld, where the Prussians were Oct. i-t. defeated ; but in the battle of Jena they were completely overwhelmed. This battle determined the fate of the country between the Rhine and the Elbe. The leaders of the Prussian army had neither plan nor council ; in their arrogance, they had expected victory, and had made no arrangement for retreat. The army separated, and was captured in detachments. Blucher alone was able to save the honor of Prussia at Liibeck, although he could not hinder the horrors that attended the storming of the city. Thirteen days after the battle of Jena, Napoleon marched into Berlin, and issued his decrees from the Prussian capital. The Elector of Hesse, who had refused to join the French, was deprived of army and of country, and driven forth a fugitive. The Duke of Brunswick, who had been carried to his home upon a stretcher, had to be carried further into Denmark, in order to die a quiet death. Hamburg, Bremen, and Leipzig were loaded down with war taxes, and the treasures of art and science were carried away from all the leading cities of Germany. Saxony alone was spared. The itec, iso«. Saxon prisoners of war were set at liberty, and the title of king was given to the elector, who was permitted to join the Confederation of the Rhine. Gratitude for his own salvation and the salvation of his people, held Frederick Augustus firmly attached to the French Emperor, in the trying days to come. § 513. The King of Prussia fled to Konigsberg, and in his distress, turned to his friend, the Czar Alexander, who sent a Russian army under Bennigsen to East Prus- sia, to prevent the French from crossing the Vistula. Napoleon then issued a proc- lamation to the Poles, in the name of Kosciuszko, in which the people were urged to take up arms for freedom. The Poles made the greatest sacrifices, and strengthened the ranks of the French with brave soldiers under General Dombrowski. Napoleon Jan. a. isoi. entered Warsaw amid the shouts of the people, but did nothing to satisfy their longing for independence. Murderous battles were now fought on the jpe6. s. isov. banks of the Vistula, but the great battle was that of Eylau, where the courage of the French, Russians, and Prussians alike was sublime and the slaughter appalling. Both sides claimed the victory, and the exhaustion of all was so great, that the war was not resumed till four months later. The Prussian king was anxious for THE RULE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 603 peace, but the negotiations led to no result. Finally, his Silesian fortresses were taKen may. as. by the French, and even Danzig was surrendered. The King then de- spaired of success, and when the French defeated the Russians in the battle of Fried- jr«»e i*. land, and occupied Konigsberg, the allied monarchs determined upon a personal interview with Napoleon at Memel, in which they agreed to the peace of Til- si dom than they had known under the ab- solute monarchy and priestly rule, but the great mass of the peo- ple followed their clergy, to whom the French were a terror. Napoleon's army was strong enough to keep the King and his minis- ters in Madrid, but their authority went no further than the French bayonets. The more distant cities and districts either followed the Juntas, or acted independently, yet Spain, in these stormy years, was really saved by this anarchy, in-asmuch as each city and district must be conquered separately. All Europe looked in astonishment upon the struggle of a people who marched bravely to death for their nationality and independence, for their old customs and religious usages, for their belief and their traditional institutions. The Guerillas avoided open conflict. Their strength con- sisted in surprises and petty warfare, and while the French were wearing out their forces in scattered fights, and besieging well-defended cities, the English began their f]W/AT. JOSEPH BONAPARTE. 606 THE EE.A OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. first successful war against Napoleon. In the beginning, the French arms were victor- stay i-t, isos. ious. The undisciplined troops of the Spanish were defeated at Rio Cecco by Bessieres, but Dupont was forced to surrender his twenty thousand Frenchmen THE DUKE OF WELLINGTON. suiy **. in Andalusia. This great victory filled the Spanish with enthusiasm ; king Joseph abandoned Madrid, the French armies retreated across the Ebro. The THE SIEGE OF SARAGOSSA. ( C. Delort.) (pp. but., 608 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. English, under Wellesley (Wellington) and other generals, would have captured the Aug. 30, isos. entire French army, if the capitulation of Cintra had nuv given to Junot's troops a free passage back to France. § 517. Napoleon himself now marched at the head of an army into Spain to re- deem the French cause. The insurgent troops were soon defeated, so that, after four j> ec . 4, isos. weeks, the Emperor could reinstate his brother Joseph in Madrid. While Napoleon was seeking to win over the Spaniards by mingled conciliation and se- verity, his generals were fighting bloody battles with the Guerillas and the English Fen. ao, tsoo. armies. Saragossa was taken after a desperate resistance. General sun, *s, tsoo. Moore was killed, and although Wellington won the battle of Talavera, he was nevertheless compelled to keep within the boundaries of Portugal. Seville and Andalusia fell into the hands of the French, but the Spaniards would not yield ; the central Junta removed to Cadiz, which defied all attacks; and the Spanish general, La Romana, now escaped from Denmark with his troops, to take charge of the war against Napoleon. The new war with Austria called the Emperor away from Spain, but he left behind him a numerous army, consisting chiefly of German troops. At the close of the Austrian campaign, this was increased to 300,000 men, and under the command of the ablest French generals (Soult, Massena, Ney, Marmont, MacDonald), marched through the peninsula in all directions ; but their victories only intensified the hatred of the Spanish people. Petty warfare became assassination ; the greatest achievements of Napoleon's warriors, their fatiguing marches through mountains and ravines, their sieges and their storms, did not give them possession of the land. Mas- jan-iucay, 1811. sena's daring campaign to Portugal was brought to naught by the sharp-sighted Wellington, who erected the lines of Torres Vedras, against which the French shattered their strength in vain. Massena was compelled to retreat ; the Em- peror removed him in a fit of rage, and gave the command of the Spanish army to Marshal Soult. Meanwhile the Cortes assembled in Paris, and proclaimed a new constitution, known as the Constitution of the Year 12. This destroyed forever absolute monarchy and priestly authority in Spain. But the Spanish clergy made ifc hateful to the Spanish people. § 518. The Russian campaign of 1812 compelled the Emperor to reduce the SjDanish army. Wellington thereupon marched into Spain, supported by the Gueril- jui v an, i8i3. las ; the British armies were soon victorious. Marmont was defeated at Salamanca by Wellington. The English entered Madrid and drove out the French king. Suchet and Soult, brave and rapacious, were still victorious, and Joseph was able once more to occupy his uncertain throne, but the terrible catastrophe of the Russian campaign demoralized the French armies in the Spanish peninsula, and Joseph was compelled once more to leave. After defeating the French at Vittoria, Welling- June xi, i8i3. ton pursued them across the Pyrenees, but was stoutly resisted by Marshal Soult. On the 10th of April, 1813, while the allies were encamping in Paris, the Marshal defended himself against Wellington with great energy at Toulouse, al- though compelled to retreat by superior numbers. Napoleon's overthrow restored Ferdinand VII. to the Spanish throne. § 519. The Imprisonment of the Pope. When the Pope refused to close the harbors of the papal state to the English ships, and to form an alliance with France, Napoleon subjected him to d series of insults, and annexed a part of his territory to the THE RULE OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 609 Italian kingdom. But the steadfast pontiff neither bent nor broke. On the contrary, in the second war against Austria, he allied himself with the enemies of the French em- peror. Napoleon thereupon decreed the abolition of the temporal power of the Pope, may ie, 1800. and when the holy father excommunicated him, he carried him away jiiiw o. from Rome, exiled the cardinals, and annexed the States of the Church to French territory. Pius VII. lived in different cities, until he was finally ordered to reside in Fontainebleau. When he stubbornly refused to fill the vacant bishoprics, or to perform any act of ecclesiastical authority as long as he remained in captivity, and was deprived of the council of the cardinals, Napoleon was compelled to more jr««. 25, is™, arbitrary measures. But the Pope was finally induced, in a personal interview with the Emperor, to make important concessions. Yet the course of events soon released the head of the church, and restored his temporal sovereignty. 5. The Second Austrian War. Hofer. Schill (1809). § 520. Napoleon's violence in Italy and his growing influence in Germany,. startled Austria. The Vienna cabinet determined to try again the fortune of war. The Spanish uprising, the discontent with the European blockade, the movements in North Germany seemed to indicate that the hour of Austria had struck, that now was the time to recover her lost power, and to break the foreign tyranny. But the magic of the Napoleonic name was all too powerful. The princes of the Rhine Confederation still strengthened the French army with their troops, and the soldiers of South Germany poured out their blood for a foreign ruler in a struggle against their own country- men. In April the Austrian armies, under the Arch-duke Carl, marched into Bavaria 1809. and Italy. But Napoleon marched along the Danube, forcing his ene- Api-u 10-2-t, mies across the Inn, and invading Austria for a second time. On the 1808. 10th of May he was at the gates of Vienna, and in three days he en- tered it as a conqueror. Just below Vienna, where several bridges spanned the Dan- ube, the French armies attempted to get across. But in the two days' battle of As- Mati 21-22. pern and Essling, they were compelled to abandon the project. Fifteen thousand French soldiers covered the battle-field, and for the first time, the belief in j«»ie 14,. Napoleon's invincibility was shaken. Not until reinforcements arrived from Italy could the French army get across the river. The Arch-duke Carl was then juiy 5-e. defeated in the great battle of Wagram, and compelled to retreat. The loss on both sides was about equal, but it was plain that the French no longer possessed their former mastery in the field. Nevertheless, Austria concluded hastily juiy m. the truce of Znaim, with a view to permanent peace. § 521. This truce was disastrous to the Tyroleans. These mountaineers held with fidelity to Austria, and had risen to throw off the rule of Bavaria, to which the Tyrol had been ceded in the peace of Pressburg. Confident of Austrian help, they seized their muskets and attacked the French from the heights and defiles of their mountains. Their chief was Andreas Hofer, a man of great strength and bravery, beloved for his piety and his patriotism. A terrible conflict ensued. The Bavarians abandoned the Tyrol, and Hofer took possession of Innsbruck. The truce of Znaim oct. 14, i8oo. made the insurgents irresolute, without ending the struggle. But the peace of Vienna, in which Austria lost 50,000 square miles and 3,000,000 inhabitants, took from the Tyroleans all hope of aid. The Bavarians and the French marched into 39 610 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. Feb. 20, tsto. the country. Innsbruck fell to Bavaria. Most of the leaders fled, but Hofer was captured and shot in Mantua. The Tyrol was divided into three parts. § 522. During the second Austrian war, other parts of Germany attempted to April, isio. shake off the foreign yoke. An attempt was made to overthrow the King of Westphalia. This failed. Mayor von Schill, with a troop of volunteers, sought to stir up the people of North Germany against the French. Schill was driven into Stralsund, whence he expected to escape to England ; but he and his companions the last call to arms. (Franz Def?-egger.) may 31, isoo. were either slain or taken prisoners, and the prisoners sent to the galleys or shot. Duke William of Brunswick was more successful. Scorning the truce of Znaim, he fought his way through hostile lands and armies to the North Sea, and escaped to England. Staps, a lad who attempted to assassinate Napoleon, was oct. 12, iso». seized and put to death. But in Prussia the high-minded Baron Stein was making preparations of another fashion. Patriotic men were now in charge of affairs, and Stein was seeking to elevate both citizen and peasant, the former by in- troducing new municipal institutions, the latter by the creation of peasant freeholds 612 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. and the abolition of serfdom. He introduced also liberty of trade, and abolished many mediaeval privileges. In a word, he established civil equality, which he regarded as the pillar of any permanent throne. Stein's leading principle was the emancipation of energy, the removal of all fetters upon the freedom of property and of person. He sought to promote industry, to awaken the sense of community, and to have all men ££& participate in the welfare of the nation. His reforms made it possible for the Prussian state to recover from the terrible calamity of Jena. Scharnhorst reorganized the army. He intro- ,,-' duced universal service, opened to all the pos- " sibilities of rank, and abolished all degrading ^ punishments. The King, it is true, was soon isos. compelled to sacrifice Stein to the hatred of Napoleon, but Stein's creations remained, and are the foundation upon which modern Prussia rests. His successor, Harden- berg, followed his principles as much as pos- sible, and the " Union of Patriots," to which the noblest men of the country belonged, as '''.^^^sm^^^^^^^^^^^ we ll as tue ne "' University of Berlin, nourished Ferdinand von schill. anf l strengthened patriotic feeling, especially among ambitious youth. § 523. The French Umpire at the Climax of Its Power. Napoleon was now tor- mented by the thought that he was without an heir. He therefore put aside the Em- .Dee. xs, isoo. press Josephine, alleging a defect in their marriage, and wedded Marie Louise, daughter of the Emperor of Austria. On the 2nd of April, 1810, "the daughter of the Caesars," whose train was carried by five queens, became his wife. In the next year, a son was born to the Emperor, who was given the title King of Rome. But Napoleon's pride and ambition drove him to new acts of violence. An- nexations and exchanges of land were without end. The Continental Blockade was the despair of commerce and of industry. When King Louis of Holland sought to pro- tect the rights of his people, he was compelled to abdicate by his angry brother, and July o, isio. Holland was annexed to France. Hamburg, Bremen, Liibeck, the Duchy of Oldenburg, the lands between the Rhine and the Elbe were added to the French empire, which now controlled the entire coast of the North Sea, and numbered 130 departments. And Hamburg was occupied by French troops. Meanwhile, a terrible police system destroyed the last remnant of freedom, threatening every sus- pect with arrest and imprisonment. Caprice, passion, and tyranny, took the place of right and law. Blockade, oppressive taxation, conscription, were the burdens imposed upon the allied countries, while hostile peoples were oppressed with forced loans and quartered troops. 6. The War Against Russia (1812.) § 524. The extension of the French empire to the coast of the Baltic and the taking away of his land from the Duke of Oldenburg, a near relative of the Russian Czar, destroyed completely the friendship between Alexander and Napoleon, which GI4 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. was already greatly shattered by the enlargement of the duchy of Warsaw, and by the intrigues leading to Napoleon's marriage. This ill-feeling was increased when the Russian government issued a new tariff, preventing the import of French goods. Both powers now equipped themselves for the desperate struggle. Russia made peace with the Turks, and formed an alliance with Bernadotte of Sweden, whom Napoleon had grossly injured. The French emperor, on the other hand, made an alliance with Prussia and Austria, and thereby increased his strength considerably. Alexander's demand that the French garrisons should evacuate Pomerania and Prussia, led to an immediate declaration of war. § 525. In May, Napoleon appeared with the Empress in Dresden, where the ism. Princes of the Rhine, the Emperor of Austria, and the King of Prussia, united to do honor to the mighty man who had sum- moned half Europe to the war against Russia. After ten days' delay among the princes, Napoleon hastened to his army of half a mil- lion men. This army was scattered between the Vis- tula and the Niemen, with its thousand cannon and its 20,000 wagons. The left wing, composed oi Prussians and Poles, was commanded by MacDon- ald, and was stationed on the Baltic coast ; the right, which consisted of the Austrians under Schwart- zenberg, and of a French and a Saxon division, con- fronted the Russian Army of the South. The main army, commanded by Napoleon himself, marched into Wilna. The appearance of the French aroused the Poles to wild hope and warlike enthusiasm. The diet of Warsaw proclaimed the restoration of the kingdom of Poland. But this was not to Napoleon's mind. He prohibited an uprising, and declared that out of re- gard to Austria, he could not consent to the re-establishment of the Polish Republic. Nevertheless Polish soldiers followed the imperial eagles, and the Polish people sup- suiu- ported the foreign troops, which were now marching from Wilna to Witepsk. The rains were terrible, and hundreds perished of fatigue. Moscow, the heart of Russia, was Napoleon's goal. But the ways were impassable ; his supplies did not reach him ; the land could not support his troops ; diseases thinned out the ranks of the array, and filled his hospitals with helpless soldiers. § 526. The Russian generals, Barclay de Tolly and Bagration, carried on the MARIE-LOUISE. June. (pp. 615.) RETREAT FROM MOSCOW. ( C. Delort.) 616 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. war in Parthian fashion, avoiding a pitched battle, and enticing the Emperor into the heart of the country. Not until he reached Smolensk, did the troops engage ; where, .4tf». 17, ism. after fighting the whole day, the Russians withdrew in the night, having set fire to the city. In Smolensk, Napoleon called a council of war, and in spite of his generals' advice, he determined upon the conquest of Moscow, where he expected to winter. The Russians, on the other hand, complained of Barclay's inac- tivity, as the ancient Romans complained of Fabius. Alexander consequently ap- pointed Kutusoff to command the army. This general was a native Russian devoted to the Greek religion and to old Russian customs, and accordingly very popular among the masses. He certainly (they thought) would never permit the Holy City of Moscow, with its countless towers and gilded domes, to fall into the hands of the sept. 7, ism. French. He halted the army, and delivered battle at Borodino, where the French maintained possession of the field, while the Russians re- tired in good order. Over 70,000 dead and wounded covered the scene of conflict. Ney, the Prince of Muscovy, was the hero of the day. On the 14th of Septem- ber, the French entered Moscow. The nobility and the wealthy had already left. When the French army inarched through the streets, the}" were startled to discov- er only a few vagrants. But what was their hor- ror, when the city broke into flames, and for four days, all was converted sept, is, i8i2. into a sea of fire! The commander of the city, Rostopt-schin, had ordered the conflagration without the Czar's command, thinking to deprive the grand army of winter quarters, and to compel a disastrous retreat. Forgetting all discipline, the soldiers plunged into the burning houses, to satisfy their greed and their passions. § 527. The Russians were bent upon a war of destruction, yet Napoleon re- mained thirty-four days in Moscow, hoping for peace, and refusing to see that Kut- usoff was holding him off, until the winter-cold might enable him to destroy utterly Oct. a*. the retreating army. Not until October was the command given for the disastrous retreat. After destroj'ing the Kremlin, the army proceeded to Smo- lensk. In November the cold was ten degrees below zero, and later on it reached thirty. Hunger, frost, and fatigue made more victims than the bullets of the Rus- MARSHAL NEY. CROSSING THE BERESINA. (pp. 617.) 618 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. sians, and the lances of the Cossacks. Thousands of starving and freezing soldiers strewed the highways and the fields. Kutusoff issued a proclamation, ascribing the burning of Moscow to the French, thus stirring up the people to bitter hatred against the retreating foe, and compelling the latter to fight at every step. Smolensk was reached by the middle of November, and the army counted at that time but forty thou- sand active combatants. Thirty thousand unarmed stragglers followed in their wake, without discipline, order, or commanders, the picture of misery and horror. Arrived in Smolensk, the expected supplies of clothing, food, and arms were not to be found, while the enemy appeared in ever increasing numbers. Ney, "the bravest of the brave," brought up the rear guard. His passage of the Dnieper, in the night, was BURNING OF MOSCOW. GRAND ARMY LEAVING KREMLIN. ( C. Delort.) one of the boldest achievements recorded in human history. On the 25th of Novem- ber, the army arrived at the river Beresina. Two bridges were erected in sight of the enemy, and the little remnant passed over, amid countless dangers. But eighteen thou- sand stragglers fell into the hands of the foe. How many were drowned in the ice- cold waters of the river, or trampled to death in the rush, no man could tell! At the irov. 2B-29, 1812. passage of the Berasina, Napoleon had eight thousand active soldiers left. Ney was the last man to cross; half of Europe was in mourning. On the 3rd of December Napoleon published the famous twenty-ninth bulletin, which informed the anxious nations, who had been for months without news, that the Emperor was safe, but the great army was annihilated. Two days later, he turned over the com- mand to Murat, and hastened to Paris to levy new recruits. D. DISSOLUTION OF THE FRENCH EM- PIRE AND ESTABLISHMENT OF NEW CONDITIONS. I. THE GERMAN WAR OF LIBERATION AND DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON. §528 HIS is the beginning of the end," Tal- leyrand is reported to have said of the Russian campaign : and the saying soon proved to be true. An oppres- sive conscription filled up the gaps in the French army, but the faith in Napoleon's invincibility had vanished, and the raw undisciplined recruits were of little use against an enemy, exulting in their recent victories and glowing with patriotic zeal. As early as the 30th of December, the Prussian general York, who was stationed on the Baltic coast i8i2. under MacDonald, made an agreement with the Russian commander-in-chief Diebitsch, and with his troops withdrew from further conflict. This act was, to be sure, publicly disavowed in Berlin, but the king's journey to Breslau, where many patriotic men gathered about isi3. him, was the first step toward an alliance with Russia, which was agreed upon in February under the active influence of Stein. The outrageous treatment of Prussia had created such a hatred toward the foreign tyranny, that the King's " Call to Mareh ii. my people " urging them to volunteer against the French, produced an incredible enthusiasm. Striplings and men alike abandoned their ordinary avocations and their homes to take part in the liberation of the Fatherland ; students and teachers left their lecture rooms, public officers their desks, young noblemen the paternal es- (619) 620 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. May 2. May 20. 1813. tate, and seizing musket and knapsack, took their places as privates in the same rank with the artisan, who had just come from his workshop, and with the peasant who had starciiio. exchanged the plow for the sword. The order of the Iron Cross march 2s. founded on the birthday of Queen Louise was a spur to the brave, and i8i3. the proclamation of Kalisch, calling upon them to struggle for the rights, the freedom, and independence of all the states of Europe, filled them with hope and expectation. § 529. The allied monarchs sought the support of the king of Saxony, but Fred. erick Augustus resisted their urgent entreaties ; gratitude for so many proofs of favor and confidence given him by Napoleon and fear of his wrath kept him faithful to the French emperor. He placed his dominions, his fortresses, and his troops at the dispo- sal of his mighty ally, and thus Saxony became the theatre of the war. In the first battle at Liitzen and Bautzen, the French held the field and drove their adversaries across the Oder, but the courage of the young German warriors taught the enemy that another spirit than that of Jena had come upon the Prus- sians. Here Scharn- horst received his mor- tal wound, and among the thousands who lay dead upon the field was Napoleon's friend and favorite Duroc. The death of the latter filled Napo- leon with gloomy fore- bodings, but pride and arrogance carried him forward. In vain did Prince Metternich at- tempt to mediate a peace. Napoleon re- fused to cede the small- est portion of the con- quered land. Austria now declared war upon France. The battle of Dresden followed. Na- poleon was, however, more and exulted to see his old rival Moreau, who had been brought from America by the Emperor Alexander, carried dying from the field. But the fruits of the victory at Dresden were destroyed, first by a victory of Bliicher in the battle of Katzbach ; second by the capture of the French General Vandamme with his whole army, at the battle of Kulm ; third, by the splendid achievements of the united Prussian and Swedish army which prevented the taking of Berlin by the French; '™»M victorious once Aug. 86-23 2813. .lug. 26. -lug. 30. Sep. 6. Mi$e» PRINCE METTERNICH. 622 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. Aug. «j. and fourth, by the engagement at Hagelberg, where the Landwehr beat down the enemy with bayonets and the butts of their muskets ; and a few weeks after this the Silesian army was united with the army of the north, Count York having Oct. s. crossed the Elbe in sight of the enemy and wrung from him a glori- ous victory at Wartenburg. § 530. The princes of the Rhine Confederation now began to abandon Napoleon, Bavaria concluding an alliance with Austria. In October the armies concentrated in front of Leipzig; the Austrians under Prince Schwartzenberg, who commanded the en- tire allied force, the Russians under Barclay, Bennigsen and others; the Prussians un- der Bliicher; the Swedes under Bernadotte. The allied troops numbered three hun- dred thousand men, the army of Napoleon only one hundred thousand. The allies, however, were weakened by the want of harmony among their leaders. Yet Napoleon October developed in vain the genius which had hitherto proved so wonderful. 19, it, is, His bravest generals Ney, Murat, Augereau, MacDonald deployed in i8ia. vain their forces ; the three days battle of Leipzig was the grave of the French empire. After a terrible loss Napoleon abandoned the city on the morn- ing of the 19th of October. The premature destruction of the Elster bridge gave twelve thousand able-bodied warriors into the hands of the victors, to say nothing of the great number of sick and wounded who died for lack of care and in indescribable suffering. Pursued by the allies, the French hastened by forced marches to the Rhine ; their way was blocked by the Bavarians and Austrians, but the dying lion in the battle oct.3o,3i. of Hanau, once more displayed his might, and in a brilliant victory opened for his army the way to the river. Then followed, in quick succession, the dis- solution of the kingdom of Westphalia, the return of the Elector of Hesse and of the Dukes of Brunswick and Oldenburg to their states, the imprisonment of the king of Saxony, and the abolition of the Rhine Con- federation. Dalberg gave up his grand duchy. Frankfort and Wurtemburg, Baden, and Hesse- Darmstadt made treaties with Austria and- turned their troops over to the allies. Only in j^ Hamburg were the French able to hold out. U There they remained till May 1814, exacting from the city the most oppressive contributions. The king of Denmark was punished for his at- ; tachment to Napoleon with the loss of Norway, s=li which, in the treaty of Kiel, was given over to . j«». i4, i8i4. Sweden. The like happened ; : >t§§|| in Italy. The Viceroy Eugene, after a brave i|§|§|§ struggle, abandoned the regions of the Po to the Austrians and joined his father-in-law in Bavaria. The Grand Duke Ferdinand returned to Tuscany, and the sorely tried Pope Pius VII gebhard lebrecht von blucher. received back the states of the Church. Naples alone remained for a while in the hands of Murat, who having quarreled with Napoleon, had allied himself to Austria. § 531. The. allied monarchs, with their ministers and generals, held a council at Frankfort, at which they appointed Stein provincial chief of the conquered lands, and DISSOLUTION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 623 offered the French emperor peace if he would be satisfied with the Rhine as the French frontier. But they were soon convinced by the preparations and conscriptions of Na- poleon that he was determined to try the fortune of war once more. They therefore jran. i, isi-t, crossed the Rhine. On New Year's night Bliicher, with his talented chief of staff, Gneisenau, crossed the river with the Silesian army at various points be- tween Manheim and Coblentz, while Schwartzenberg with the main army marched into THE ALLIED FORCES ON THE ROAD TO PARIS. southeast France through Switzerland. A second Prussian army under Riilow deliv- ered Holland meanwhile and restored the hereditary Stadtholder. The armies of Blii cher and Schwartzenberg united in Champagne and won the battle of La Rothiere, but Feb. t, the difficulty of supporting the two armies compelled their separation, isi4. Schwartzenberg moving along the Seine and Bliicher along the Marne. Napoleon was thus enabled to defeat the army of Bliicher and to force his retreat; then throwing himself suddenly upon the main army he defeated it and drove it back. rev. to. ts. The allies now sued for peace, and if Napoleon had been satisfied to surrender the conquered lands, he might easily have retained the French throne. But his demands increased with his good fortune ; he hindered negotiations with ambiguous and indefinite statements, until Bliicher, his irreconcilable enemy, was able to attack star, t-9, him and put him once more at a disadvantage. The negotiations were .now abandoned and the deposition of Napoleon determined upon. Another engage- 624 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. inent at Arcis convinced the emperor that his diminished and exhausted army was no longer equal to the stalwart ranks of the enemy, and this conviction made him irreso- lute. While the allies were marching upon Paris, and his presence at the capital was highly necessary he wasted his time in bold but useless marches. The heroic fight of Match as. the national guard at Fere-Champenoise was the last splendid expres- sion of the old French military spirit. A few days afterward the enemy stormed Montmartre. Joseph, to whom Napoleon had entrusted the defence of the capital, now blucher's cavalry before paris. ( G. Delort.) abdicated in favor of" Mortier and Marmont, and retired with the empress and the re- gency to Blois. The two Marshals were soon compelled to yield to superior numbers jKarch.31, and the city was surrendered. The allies marched into Paris, and a lsi*. provisional government was established under the presidency of Tal- leyrand. This cunning diplomatist and master of intrigues now began to work in the interests of the ancient royal family, and sought, by urging the principle of legitimacy, to bring about the expulsion of Napoleon and the restoration of the Bourbons.* *TIIE BOURBON FAMILY. THE GRANDSONS OF LOUIS XV. Louis XVI- U793 ■Marie Antoinette t!794 Louis XVIII Count De Provence t!824 Charles X. Count D'Artois 11836 Louis XVII Dauphin tl~95 Marie Therese tl851 Married Due D'Angouleme DucD'Angouleme t!8« Due De Barri Murdered 13 Feb., 1820 Henri V Due De Bordeaux Gomte De Chambord born 1820 H883. DISSOLUTION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 625 2. End of the Napoleonic Rule and the Restoration. § 532. Meanwhile Napoleon remained in Fontainebleau with his guard and his adherents, whose number was increasing daily. But he wavered in his purposes, till the news of Marmont's defection determined him to abdicate in favor of his son ; jLpra 4,181*. this conditional abdication was not accepted by the allied powers, and he could not continue the struggle because his nearest friends like Berthier, Ney and Oudinot had left him in order to worship the new sun. Napoleon thereupon sub- scribed to the unconditional act of abdication as framed by the allies. He received the Island of Elba as his property, with an annual income of two million francs and the right to surround himself with four hundred of his faithful guard. His consort, Marie ENTRY OF LOUIS XVIII INTO PARIS. Louise, received the Dukedom of Parma. On the twentieth of April Napoleon took leave of the grenadiers of his guard in the courtyard of Fontainebleau. On the fourth of May he landed at Elba, and soon afterward, to the rejoicing of the exhausted May so, isi4. nations, the first treaty of Paris was concluded, in which France received Louis XVIII as her king, with a new constitution and the frontiers of 1792. The foreign armies left the French territory, and the Congress of Vienna was convened to establish permanently the new order of things in Europe. § 533. At this Vienna Congress emperors and kings, princes and nobles, and the s<„t. tsn. most famous statesmen of all nations were assembled to rejoice over /nne isis. their victory. The splendor and culture of all Europe was displayed in dazzling festivals, splendid balls and banquets ; and of festivities there was no end. 40 628 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS.. But to establish the new order was no easy task. Beneath all the dazzling festivities surged violent passions which threatened to destroy the work of peace. The restora- tion of the legitimate princes to their lost thrones, and the destruction of the republican constitutions, were two principles upon which all could easily unite. But the ques- tion of the division of the conquered lands, and of compensation for the allies, excited* envy, selfishness, and greed. Prussia de- manded the annexa- tion of Saxony, and Russia that of Po- land ; both demands were violently op- posed. The discord appeared to threaten another war, so that the armies were kept upon a war-footing. These events and the happenings in France at the same time awakened in Napo- leon fresh hopes. For the constitution given to the French people proved a poor defence against the reaction under Louis XVIII. L0UIS XVIIL (K Ron J at ^ The actions of the Bourbons soon showed that "they had learned nothing and forgot- ten nothing." The recollections of the Revolution and of the Empire were as far as possible effaced. The tricolor was exchanged for the Bourbon white. The old aris- tocrats treated the new nobility with scorn and arrogance, crowding them from the court circles, in which the haughty Count D'Artois, and the gloomy and vindictive, Duchess D' Angouleme (the daughter of Louis XVI), exercised the greatest influence. The guards were dismissed and their places filled by well-paid Swiss; the officers of the Grand Army were discharged with half pay; the Legion of Honor rendered con- temptible, by the distribution of countless decorations among the unworthy. Even the compact with the banished Emperor was broken. The clergy and the emigrants, who enjoyed especially the favor of the King, thought only of getting back their lost estates, and tithes, and feudal rights. § 534. A mighty dissatisfaction took possession of the nation. The wish for a change seemed to spring up out of the ground, especially when a hundred thousand French soldiers returned home from their imprisonment or from foreign lands, and spread their enthusiasm for Napoleon into every corner of the country. - Meanwhile Napoleon was kept informed by his adherents, especially by Fouche, Davoust, Maret, and the Duchess of St. Leu, of the mistakes of the Bourbons and of the feelings of the people. He determined to try his star once more. With a hundred men he landed THE RETURN FROM ELBA. " SOLDIERS OF THE 5TH, DO YOU RECOGNIZE ME ? " ( C. Delort.) { P1 ?. 627.) 628 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. mar. 1,1815. on the south coast of France. With cunning and rapidly-distributed proclamations He soon won all hearts. The tri-color appeared everywhere ; the troops sent out to oppose him went over to him ; the citizens of Grenoble battered down their gates as he approached, and C**-:— i. S- Eh o a: A w e g -£ _- c < ~~~. - a To ££. ti= = -•='2 E rt G; w - ~ — w £o^3 »2SBs = tr^l^c; — — K ci » i-4 ci co tj? id tc r^ co -=i*=«<* -v.^4. fe^ ' - w. ■■.''; '-lip!: 1 " WW' ;^l fc^ WiiJS^:! ' ! 7 4 OS z O w o o w M 630 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. sions ; the republic of Genoa was given to Sardinia, and the states of the church were restored. In Spain and Portugal also the old dynasties returned. The duke- dom of Warsaw was united to Russia as the kingdom of Poland, and received from Alexander a free constitution. Prussia received back the territory taken from her in the peace of Tilsit, together with Posen and Danzig, the half of the kingdom of Saxony, and important territories along the Rhine. Austria and Russia appeared inclined, at the beginning, to negotiate with Napoleon and to leave him or his son in possession of the French throne, especially as he prom- ised to observe the treaty of Paris, and not again to disturb the peace of Europe. But Talleyrand's activity and Murat's thoughtlessness determined otherwise. The usurper was proclaimed the " enemy of nations " and given over to public vengeance. Murat had joined the allies, and attacked the viceroy of Italy, but he felt that his conduct ^pyss^ was unnatural, and a corres- pondence was opened be- tween Naples and Elba. Napoleon's landing and triumphal march were, for Murat, the signal for a new uprising. The Emperor warned him to be cautious, but without waiting for the development of affairs, he de- clared war upon Austria, and called the people of Italy to arms. But the battle of Tolentino decided against him. His army was dis- persed, and he fled to South- ern France, while the Aus- trians entered Naples, and restored the exiled Ferdi- nand. After the battle of Waterloo, Murat wandered along the French coasts, then escaped to Corsica, and undertook an expedition into Calabria, to stir up the people against Ferdinand. But he was easily overcome, and paid for his rashness with his death. On the 13th of October this daring soldier, who had risen by valor and fortune, from his poverty as the son of an inn-keeper, to the ruler of the most beau- tiful portion of Italy, was shot to death at Pizzo. § 536. Napoleon's fate was decided earlier. The European powers armed a half million men to meet the returning exile. Napoleon inarched the soldiers, who hurried to him from all sides, into the Netherlands, to meet the armies of Wellington and of Bliicher. He encountered the Prussians at Ligny and forced them back, while Ney, at Quatrebras, withstood the forces of Wellington, consisting of English, Dutch, and Germans. At the battle of Waterloo, victory wavered long in the balance, and not until the Prussians, under Bliicher, arrived, were the French finally defeated. TALLEYRAND. {E. Ronjat.) 632 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. Grouchy failed to cut off the Prussians, or to hold them back, so that the French were finally driven from the field. The old guard, under General Cambronne, fell fighting at Mont St. Jean, their brave commander answering the summons of the enemy with the immortal cry, " The guard dies, but it never surrenders." Soult led Napoleon, pale and confused, from the battlefield. He hastened to Paris, but his old energy and powers of invention seemed to have deserted him. The flight was universal ; all the artillery fell into the hands of the enemy, and only a fourth part of the army escaped from the field. The battlefield of Waterloo had become the grave of the French Em- pire. § 537. The chambers in Paris, at the instigation of Fouche, now demanded the abdication of Napoleon. Reluctantly the broken conqueror yielded to their demand. He abdicated in favor of his son Napoleon II., and fled to Roehefort, intending to go to America. But the English were in pos- session of the harbor, and trusting to the magnanimity of the British nation, he sought the protection of the English ship Bellero- phon. But the statesmen of England had no sympathy for the vanquished adventurer. They determined to send him, as a prisoner, to the island of St. Helena. On the 18th of oet. is, isis. October he arrived at the place of his exile, in the midst of the Pacific ocean. He lived there separated from his relatives, with a few faithful friends, until the 5th of May, 1821. The climate was unhealthy, and the strict supervision under which he was held, fretted away his strong spirit. A disease, inherited from his father, hastened his death. His ashes were brought to Paris in 1842, and buried in great pomp, in the Hotel des Invalides. § 538. After the abdication of Napoleon, Fouche conducted a provisional gov- ernment. He agreed with Wellington and Bliicher, that no one should be punished juin is, isi.-,. for his past deeds or opinions, and then surrendered to them the capi- tal. A few days later, the Bourbons returned to the Tuileries, under the protection of foreign bayonets. The people were quiet and unsympathetic. The armies were dismissed, the Chambers dissolved, and a proscription list published, which deprived some men of their offices, drove some into exile, and condemned others, like Marshal Ney, to death. The allied monarchs resided, for a while, iu Paris, and assisted the Bourbons to establish the new order. Finally a second peace of Paris was agreed Nov. no, isis. upon, in which the French frontiers of 1790 were restored, all the stolen treasures of art and science returned to their former owners, 150,000,000 dol- lars war indemnity paid over to the allies, and seventeen fortresses surrendered to the allied arm}'. These fortresses were to be garrisoned by foreign troops, for at least three years. Labedoyere and Ney were condemned to be shot. This execution of the nee. 7, 1815. famous marshal, was looked upon as a violation of the agreement be- WELLINGTOX. ABDICATION OF NAPOLEON. (pp.633.) 634 THE ERA OF REVOLUTION'S AND RESTORATIONS. tween Wellington and Fouche. Lavalette was also condemned to death, but rescued from prison by his faithful wife. The exiles consisted of the members of the Napole- onic family, the generals and statesmen who were with Napoleon at Waterloo, and fin- ally all the regicides, i. e., the members of the Convention, who voted for the death of Louis XVI. Fouche was included among these, and compelled to leave France. Car- not, Sieyes, and others did likewise. Berthier lost his mind, and threw himself from a balcony of the Castle at Bamberg. E. EUROPE UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNIOH. §539. I. THE HOLY ALLIANCE AND THE POSITION OF PARTIES. | HE Revolution and the military rule of Napoleon had visited European society, from its lowest to its highest forms, with the severest chastisement. Deeper reflection upon the progress of the Revolution, revealed the in- fluence of a higher power, that brings to naught humau pride, and punishes severely human wickedness. Re- ligious feeling entered once again the hearts of men, so that piety and Christian faith were once more dominant in upper circles. The three allied monarchs, Alexander of Russia, Frederick William III of Prussia, and Francis of Austria, under the influ- sept. up, isxs. ence of this feeling, established the Holy Alliance which was joined by all European sovereigns except the Pope and the King of England. The three rulers, without regard to the difference of their creeds, solemnly promised to live ac- cording to the words of holy writ, which commands men to love each other as brothers, to stand by each other in the bonds of a true and imperishable fraternity, to rule their subjects as loving parents, and to maintain religion, peace, and justice. But this ideally beautiful alliance soon became the instrument of a state-craft, which, under pretence of religion, attempted to exalt the absolute sovereignty of the prince and of the government, and to eradicate utterly the doctrine of popular sovereignty and the democratic and constitutional institutions depending upon it. This prostitution of Christianity to the purposes of reaction brought upon the Holy Alliance the reproach of hypocrisy and the hatred of the nations. (635) 636 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. § 540. Princes and governments strove in general for absolute monarchy and unlimited power. The people on the other hand were eager for constitutional forms. In England, where constitutional monarchy had been developed, the representatives of the people had control of the appropriations, had a share in the formation of the laws, and the right to inquire into the administration of the state. Representative government guarantees alike the dignity of the monarch, and the freedom and the rights of the people, and is therefore the best arrangement for a civilized state. Hence the European nations strove for the establishment, or for the extension of these con- stitutional forms of state, and public life was almost exclusively directed to constitu- tional systems and political progress. This led to the formation of two powerful parties of which the one (differently designated " aristocratic," " conservative " or " servile"), was determined to concede to the people the least possible, while the other •(" democratic," " liberal," or " radical ") sought to obtain for them the largest possible measure of right. The former opposed vigorously the introduction of constitutiona =sS^ C?£BS^teig MALTREATMENT OF THE BODY OF MARSHAL BRUNE. ( G. Deloi't.) forms or (where they had been introduced) sought to strip them of democratic ele- ments. The latter aimed to establish and to develop constitutional life, to increase "the rights of the people, and to organize a parliamentary system. The governments were as a rule in the hands of conservatives ; and the liberals were in opposition. Of the five great European powers, England and France only possessed a constitutional system. Russia, Austria, and Prussia, on the other hand, held fast to the absolute monarchy, — the two latter however convening the notables of the land for particular -and provincial affairs. In Germany, Italy, and the Spanish Peninsula, modern history is concerned chiefly with these constitutional struggles, in which sometimes the one and -sometimes the other political principle prevails. 2. France. § 541. The 'French kingdom shaken to its foundations by the events of the Revolution, experienced under the restoration a remarkable change of thought and feeling. The party of extreme Royalists (ultras, or as they were designated by their EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERXICH. 637 opponents " white Jacobins ") became so powerful that the king found it difficult to> maintain the constitutional guarantees. Instead of the free thinking antipathy of former days, the church looked with delight upon a religious fanaticism that passed all. bounds. This union of intense absolutism and religious zeal provoked cruelties that sept. 18X5. surpassed even the bloodiest events of the revolutionary era. At Marseilles, Toulon, Nimes, Toulouse, and elsewhere, furious and fanatical mobs fell upon the Protestants, Bonapartists and Republicans and murdered them by hundreds. In Avignon they shot down Marshal Brune and threw his body into the Rhone. In Toulouse when General Ramel sought to check the outrages of the Royalists he was- sacrificed to the popular rage. Murder, plunder, and conflagration were the order of the day. The murder of the Duke De Berri, the King's nephew, upon whom the hopes of the Bourbons rested, only fur- ies. 13, lsno. thered the efforts of the party of reaction at the head of which stood the Count D'Artois and the Duchess D'Angouleme. The king was compelled to dismiss the moderate ministry of De- cazes, and to consent to a limitation of personal liberty, freedom of the press, and the right of suffrage. The new ministry carried their royalistic zeal to the extreme. The chamber expelled the liberal deputy is23. Manuel for an expression of republicanism, and the army, commanded by the Duke D'Angouleme, crossed the Pyrenees, at the instance of the Holy Alliance, to restore absolute monarchy in Spain. § 542. On the 16th of Sept. 1824, Louis XVIII. closed his life of trial and of change. Bitter experiences had taught him gentleness and moderation ; and the unbri- dled vehemence of the members of his family filled the heart of the dying monarch with gloom}' forbodings of the future. His brother Count D'Artois became king of France. jtiay no, 1825. By his solemn coronation in Rheims, Charles X. appeared to indicate that he intended to govern in the sense of the ancient "Most christian" kings. Accordingly he opened his heart to the nobility and to the clergy, giving out as a watch- word " The throne and the altar." The emigrants received, as compensation for their losses during the Revolution, a thousand million francs. A series of laws in the inter- est of the Church and the Christian religion, attested the purpose of the king to create a mighty breakwater against revolutionary ideas, by the regeneration of France. This- regeneration was to be accomplished by giving back to the clergy their former position of authority, by founding rich episcopates, by furthering the religious orders, and'by clothing ecclesiastical ceremonies with all the new Roman pomp. The Jesuits, who had been reorganized by the Pope, returned to France, albeit secretly. They established unions and sought to get the education of the j'outh into their power. But the king r through these measures, strengthened the liberal opposition, as all the men of philo- charles x. {Charles Duchesne.) 638 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. sophical education, all the friends of light and of Science, turned away from a govern- ment that showed such favor to the men of darkness. While the blinded monarch believed that he could imprison the minds of the people by anachronistic pilgrimages or by intolerant laws and limitations, the new generation was listening eagerly to the bold words and teachings of the enlightened professors of the University of Paris (Guizot, Villemain, Royer-Collard), or reading the bold declarations of the libel press (The Globe, The National, The Constitutional), or rejoicing in B6ranger's "Songs of Freedom " or Courier's " Satires." The writings of Voltaire and of the Encyclopaedists were once more widely circulated, and the older citizens read with enthusiasm the numerous histories and memoirs of the Revolution and the Napoleonic Empire (Thiers, Mignet). 3. — The Constitutional Struggles in the Spanish Peninsula and in Italy. § 543. In Spain and in Italy the new political ideas had not penetrated to the people, for these were under the domination of the Priests. They lived only in the minds of the educated ; and when it became dangerous to acknowledge them they were propagated in secret societies, — by the Free Masons in Spain and in Portugal, and by the Carbonari in Italy. Diminution of the power of the priests, introduction of political freedom, the education of the people, and the development of patriotism, were the chief purposes of these societies. Their power was first revealed in Spain. Ferdinand VII. a treacherous, suspicious man, and a master of dissimulation, was no Mnu to, tai-t. sooner restored, than he overthrew the parliamentary constitution in Spain and brought back the absolute monarchy with all its mischief. Nobility and clergy were once more exempted from taxation, the cloisters, the Jesuits, and the In- quisition reappeared. A dreadful persecution assailed all the adherents of France, all who had held any office under Joseph or rendered him any service whatsoever, and even the chiefs and adherents of the Cortes, and the leaders of the bands who had poured out their heart's blood for king and country, and now claimed as a reward civil freedom and a share in the management of the State. Many of these heroes died upon the scaffold ; others wandered abroad as exiles and fugitives. Those who remained at home locked up their opinions and their dissatisfaction in their silent hearts. A number of court-favorites (Camarilla) consisting of fanatical priests, selfish court- flatterers, and intriguing women captured the confidence of Ferdinand, and urged him to a cruel persecution of all liberals. The administration of the State and of justice became most wretched. The royal treasury, in spite of the most oppressive taxation, was exhausted. The movement of trade and of industry was arrested. The South and Central American colonies declared and conquered their independence and estab- lished a number of republics. The war of Independence in South America is especially connected with the name of the Creole Bolivar, who died in 1830. § 544. On New Year's Day 1820, certain regiments, collected in Cadiz and Jan. i, i8so. destined for South America, broke out in mutiny. Colonel Riego was the soul of this insurrection, but the conduct of it was intrusted to Quiroga, who had just been released from prison. It soon spread over all Spain. The constitution of the year 1812 was demanded everywhere, and the king was compelled to yield, to con- vene the Cortes, and to swear fidelity to the constitution. This victory of the Spanish Democrats inflamed the zeal of their comrades in Portugal and in Italy. Popular up- EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 639 risings took place in Lisbon and Oporto, and the people demanded the removal of Lord Beresford (who governed the land in the name of the king yet absent in Brazil), and also the convening of the Cortes, and the introduction of a constitution like that newly jmi. 2e, last, given to the Spaniards. John VI. returned to Lisbon, and swore to support the new constitution for Portugal and Brazil. In Naples the Carbonari ex- cited a military insurrection, which progressed so rapidly that king Ferdinand was .riiiy i:j, isio. compelled to concede to the Neapolitans the Spanish constitution. William Pepe and Carrascosa, the chiefs of the insurrection, marched into NajDles in triumph at the head of the rebellious troops and their allies, the Carbonari. In Pied- mont also there was a revolutionary uprising against the priesthood, the aristocracy, March iasi. and the monarchy. In consequence of which Victor Emmanuel abdicated in favor of his brother Charles Felix, and the Spanish constitution was intro- duced into the kingdom of Sardinia. § 545. The heads of the Holy Alliance, alarmed at this new revolutionary spirit, at the suggestion of Metternich, determined to put down the liberal movements. At j««. is2i. the Congress of Laibach, at which King Ferdinand of Naples was present as a guest of the other monarchs, it was determined to overthrow by force the constitution of his kingdom, and Ferdinand consented. An Austrian army invaded the ■ri„ i, government, did but little to diminish the misery. Insurrections were the natural consequence, but the working classes received no benefit. On the contrary, they were dispersed easily by military power. The bloody suppression of the uprising lsto. at Manchester by the government provoked great bitterness, and the lower classes began to agitate for political power. They demanded universal suf- frage, annual parliaments, and a secret ballot. They stated their principles in the people's charter, from which they were called Chartists. They failed of their im- mediate aim, but their agitation had great influence upon the repeal of the corn- laws in 1842. §549. In the second place, the political condition of England after the Napoleonic wars was one of apathy. George IV. had no sympathy with the people and trusted entirely to the Tories. The people repaid his indifference with hate, especially when he sought a divorce from his wife Caro- line of Brunswick. Castle- reagh, the boon companion of George, and the sup- porter of a false and faith- less system of politics, finally committed suicide. This greatly affected the is2n. King and drove him to retirement. Meanwhile, Canning, a really able statesman, lifted England once more to great renown. The Princess Charlotte, the bril- liant and amiable daugh- ter of George IV. died without children. He was therefore succeeded hy his wauam iv., brother Wil- is3o-is3-). liam IV., a simple, straightforward sailor. With him the Whigs came into power; their leaders were John Russell, Brougham and Palmerston. The most important polit- i83i. ical measure of this period was the reform of the Parliament, by means of which the rotten boroughs were destroyed, the parliamentary districts rearranged ac- cording to population, and the right of suffrage made dependent upon a definite income. This was a triumph of the middle classes over the aristocracy. It was soon followed by is33, the abolition of slavery in the colonies for which Wilberforce, Buxton and other philanthropists had labored for many years. The slaves in the colonies were given their freedom and the owners were granted compensation. The English there- upon sought to persuade other nations to do likewise, and especially to put an end to victoria, 1831. the slave trade. Upon the death of Willliam IV., Victoria, his niece M4: WILLIAM IV. EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 643 obtained the crown of England. She was married on the 10th of February, 1840 to Prince Albert of Coburg. The first great measure of her reign was the repeal of the corn -laws, after a violent agitation, of which Richard Cobden was QUEEN VICTORIA. the leader. By a gradual process extending from 1846 to 1849 these laws, which laid enormous duties upon foreign breadstnffs, were gradually repealed, and in 1869 644 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. they were finally removed. In a short time free trade, except in wines, spirits, and tobacco, became the settled policy of England. Although Australia, Canada, and other colonies are allowed to impose duty on imports from the mother country. § 550. In the third place, Ireland is the wounded member in the English body politic. The two peoples, unlike in nature, religion, and institutions have never formed one nation, and the old feuds have been kept alive by the landlords, and by the clergy. Ireland is divided into numberless small farms, thousands of them not averaging five acres apiece. The peasants who work these farms are in many cases compelled to pay extravagant rents to their landlords, many of whom they have never seen. On the other hand the English clergymen were in possession of all the revenues of the Irish church, while the Catholic clergy must be supported by the people living in poverty, although the great majority of the Irish people are Catholic. Various uprisings were put down, but the peo- ple continued to rebel. Finally the emancipa- 1829. tion act was passed which admitted Catholics to the English Parliament. Under this act Daniel O'Connell with forty followers en- tered Parliament and began to agitate for the repeal of the union, or the separation of Ireland from England. The failure of the potato crop, the outbreak of pestilence and of famine demanded immediate relief * and O'Connell found it easy to keep the land in an uproar and to unite all his coun- trymen in organizations- to promote repeal. The Catholic clergy supported him and his word became the law of Ireland. He demanded the abolition of the Church tithes, and when Parliament refused, the people would not pay them. The English resorted to violence and were opposed with violence. Mobs of armed men marched through the is33. land to plunder and to kill. A coercion bill was passed, and martial law proclaimed. The church bill for Ireland, with appropriation clauses, was introduced and became a law. This abolished or diminished the tithes, and appropriated a part of the Church revenues for public instruction, but the High Church party and the Tories fought desperately to mutilate the bill and to a great extent succeeded. The High. Churchmen in England were supported by the Orangemen of northern Ireland. Re- SIR ROBERT PEEL. EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 645 ligious and national hate was kept alive, and many Irishmen left their native country and sought new homes in North America. 5. Germany. § 551. Germany departed from the Congress of Vienna weaker and less united than ever. The number of princedoms was, it is true, diminished by more than a hundred, but thirty-eight principalities, which were united in the German union, acquired sov- ereign authority in their domestic affairs. In place of the former diet there was created a Congress of the Union, consisting of ambassadors from the different govern- ments, who met at Frankfort, under the presidency of Austria. But this Congress was without independence, and the German union was an impotent member of the European family of nations, dependent altogether upon the two great powers, Austria and Prussia. And to make matters worse, foreign kingdoms sent ambassadors to Frankfort; Denmark, because of Holstein, and the Netherlands, because of Luxem- burg. Yet the people were not represented at all, although the thirteenth article of the "Act of Union" contained a vague clause about constitutional government, which corresponded but little to the ex- pectations of the people. And when Prus- sia hesitated to grant a constitution, and instead of convening a Parliament, con- vened only provincial councils with secret sessions, the bitterness of the people be- came very great. Austria was governed absolutely, and held apart from Germany. Prussia also was under the influence of Metternich, and allowed herself to be used to carry out his policy. The consti- tutions, which had been adopted in the smaller states, were soon abandoned, and the customs barriers between the different lands made commerce difficult and almost im- possible. § 552. The Liberals who sought for a progressive development of the states, and were full of the hope of German unity, began now to increase. The German youth, discontented with the present, longed for the return of the Medizeval Empire. They established Fraternities at the Universities, and began to proclaim their love of the old-new Fatherland. The spirit made itself felt, especially at the festival of the Wart- burg. A number of professors and students of the University of Jena met at the Oct. is, isii. Wartburg, near Eisenach, to celebrate the 300th anniversary of the Reformation. They made fiery speeches and sang enthusiastic songs, after which they made a bonfire of emblems and books that seemed, in their eyes, to belong to a past age. This festival received its importance, however, from the bloody deed of one iiiaicH 23, i8io. of its members, Carl Sand, who murdered the poet Kotzebne. The latter was accused of betra}'ing his fatherland, but his murder gave occasion to the DANIEL o'CONNEIX. 646 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. sept., isio. Carlsbad decrees, which limited the freedom of the Press, established a central commission for the discovery of political criminals, placed the Universities under strict supervision, and required all the governments of Germany to carry out the decision of the Congress of the Union. The democratic spirit of South Germany stay is, isso. was at the same time suppressed by the decrees of Vienna. Prussia, for a long time the hope and confidence of all German patriots, marched at the head of this reaction. Men like Arndt and Jahn were accused of sedition, deprived of their offices, and watched constantly by the police. The unity of Germany seemed to vanish like a dream. To speak of it even was a crime. Every single state was ruled without regard to the common interests, and although many improvements were made in the Church, and school, and state, the political authority and honor of Germany seemed to have no value in the eyes of German princes. 6. The Struggle for Greek Independence. § 553. But suddenly the news flashed through Europe, that the Greeks had risen in arms against the Turks. Like a breath from a nobler world, it quickened the acropolis at athess. (Modern.) lives of the people held fast by the chains of the Holy Alliance and the policy of Metternich. This movement of the Greeks was headed by Alexander Ypsilanti, a Moldavian nobleman, in the Russian military service. He was helped by a widely ramified society, the secret purpose of which was the separation of Greece from Tur- ziarch, issi. key. In a short time, Morea (Peloponnesus), Livadia (Hellas), Thes- saly, and the Greek islands were in arms. But the expected help of Russia failed them. The Czar Alexander was restrained by Metternich, who compared the uprising of the Greeks with the democratic movements in Italy and in Spain. The Turks foamed with rage, and took a bloody revenge. The patriarch of Constantinople, the head of the Greek Church, was torn from the altar by angry Mohammedans, and hung up at the main door of his church. A like fate befell the Bishops of Ephesus and Nicomedia. Many old Greek inhabitants of Constantinople died a violent death, or were driven to beg their bread in foreign lands. The Holy band of Greeks, under EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 647 June ia. ism. Ypsilanti's lead, was finally destroyed, in the desperate battle of Dra- gatschaii. Ypsilanti fled to Austria, where he languished for many years in prison. § 554. A fearful national war now broke out in all parts of Greece. In the Morea the wild Mainotes rose in rebellion. These were followed by other inhabitants of the Peloponnesus, under Demetrius Ypsilanti, the brother of Alexander. The Greeks in Livadia, and in the island, fought with the courage of their ancestors. The European people looked with sympathy upon the glorious contest, sent them money and men, and did their utmost to sustain their leaders, and to maintain the republic lass. that they had established. While the Princes of the Holy Alliance abandoned the Christian people to the blows of infidels, crowds of sympathizers were moving toward the ancient scenes of glory. The English poet Byron dedicated 1834. his talent, his for- tune, his energy, and his life, to the cause of Greece, and the rich Genevan Eynard supported them with enormous sums of money. In spite of the discord and selfish- ness of the Greek leaders, the in- surgents were victorious, until the year 1825. In that year Turkey acquired a powerful support in Mehemet Ali, the Pasha of Egypt, who had overcome the Mamelukes, and introduced into Egypt western institutions. The Pasha sent his son Ibrahim, with a considerable army, into the Peloponnesus. The discordant Greek bands were una- ble to withstand him ; one city after another fell into his hands. Ibrahim and his inhuman troops marched over corpses and ruins to their victory. The coasts of Greece were cruelly devastated, while the cabinets of Europe sought in vain April 22, i82e. to bring the war to an end was there a change in the situation. MEHEMET ALI PASHA. But not until the fall of Missolonghi The distressed city, unable to hold out longer, made a desperate attempt to break through the ranks of the besiegers.- A third part of the inhabitants were slain, the city was burned to the ground, and all who had remained in it were buried beneath the ruins. A cry of horror went through all Europe, and the governments were driven to activity by the angry curses of their out- raged peoples. § 555. The Czar Alexander had just died, and his brother Nicholas was govern- Bee. i, i82s, ing with a strong hand. In England the high-minded Canning was then in the splendor of his youth, and had not forgotten his early enthusiasm for Greek independence. In France also the government was obliged to listen to the voice of 648 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. friends of Greece, especially when the bloody abolition of the Janissaries, in which June, isne. 15,000 Mohammedans lost their lives, revealed the barbarism and inhumanity of the Turkish empire. At Canning's instance, a treaty was made be- tween Russia, England, and France, in which the three powers pledged themselves to compel the emancipation of the Greeks. A united fleet appeared at once in the Archipelago, and summoned Ibrahim to evacuate the peninsula. When he refused, Oct. 20, tain, the Turkish-Egyptian fleet was annihilated in the naval battle of Navar- ino. But the allies did not know their own minds, and Canning died in the crisis of affairs. The English looked with more favor upon Turkey, and the Sultan now resolved not to let the Greeks go, and behaved so defiantly to Russia, that the latter 1828. declared war. This excited once more the hopes of the Greeks. While the armies of the Ottoman Turks were marching to the lands of the Danube, Ibrahim was compelled, by the French fleet, to abandon Morea. Capo D'Istria of Korfu was now made president of the Greek republic, and the Russians soon compelled the Turks to the sept. 14, i82». peace of Adrianople, in which the independence of Greece was acknowledged. But a long time elapsed before the frontiers could be established, and the Greek fleet was destroyed to keep it out of the enemies' hands. Finally, at a Congress in May, 1832. London, the European powers established the kingdom of Greece, making Otto I. of Bavaria the king. 7. The New Romantic Literature and Art. a. Germany. § 556. The creators and chief pillars of romantic literature and art were a. w. sohieaei, Augustus and Friedrich Sehlegel, and the two poets, Novalis and liei-is-ts. and Tieck. They directed their attention to the forgotten products of romantic literature and, following the example of Herder, collected and elaborated the legends and the songs of the old German time. They introduced the romantic poetry of the Spaniards and of the Italians into Germany by skillful translations, and brought the myth- Tieck.in3.iss3. ology an d poetry of the Orient and of Scandinavia into the circle of their studies. Dante, Shakespeare, Cervantes were splendidly translated. The Sehlegel brothers distinguished themselves by their critical writings, their translations NICHOLAS I. JF. Sehlegel, 1112-1820. Novalis, 1112-1801. JOHN DRYDEN. 1631-1701. JOSEPH ADDISON. 1672-1719 ALEXANDER POPE. 1688-1744. BRITISH POETS. JOHN KEATS. 1796-1821. {pp. 649.) boO THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AXD RESTORATIONS. and their knowledge of the history of literature. Tieck acquired renown for his fables and romances. Novalis, by his melancholy poems and his Fouqiie, fragmentary romances. nrs-1843. Fouque contributed his wonderful story of Undine, while Brentano collected and modernized suckei-t, old German ballads. i7ss-isee. Riickert translated and imitated the poems of the j. Grimm, Orient ; the brothers i7S5-ise3. Grimm helped on the w. Grimm, movement by their in- i7se-is59. vestigations into the Old German language and literature and by their search for popular fables and proverbs. The great his- torian Raumer followed, with the History of the Hohenstauffens. Many writers of the Romantic school joined the Catholic Church, which created great offense among the Protestants. SAMCEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE. 1772—1 S34. SIR WALTER SCOTT. 1771—1832. maud, Uhland and Arndt how- nse-tsag. ever did not join the movement, but followed in the path of Schiller. The party of the Lib- erals and the great mass of the Ger- man people were devoted rather to jean rani these than to the others. i7e3-i825. Jean Paul (Friedrich Richter)stands quite apart from both these schools as the author of the humorous romance, and the painter of the domestic life of Germany, full of wild fancj', of delicate humour, of sub- tlety, and of mysterious suggestion. b. The writers of Italy under- took the lofty work of lifting their nation from the degredation of cen- Mfieti, turies. Alfieri, in his 1749-1S03. dramas, sought to cre- Foscoio, ate enthusiasm forfree- ii7->-i82i. dom and fatherland. Leopardi, Foscolo and Leopardi i708-is37. broke forth in mr/an- ben jonson. 1574—1637. JONATHAN SWIFT. 1667—1745. SAMUEL JOHNSON. 1709-1784. OLIVER GOLDSMITH. 1728-1774. BRITISH PROSE WRITERS. (pp. 651.) 652 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. choly strains to bewail the wretched Feineo, ness of their country. J -180-1SS4. Silvio Pellico and others sought to arouse their compatriots by pictures of a noble past; and stansoni, Manzoni, the most re- 1785-1873. nowned poet of recent Italy, followed the same direction. In Scotland and England, ballads and border tales were collected, and the past exerted a powerful influence upon many men of great genius. The K1M-11.V. greatest of these was tiso-i-ioo. Robert Burns, by birth a peasant, whose poems are full of warmth, strength, sensibility, and scott, vivid power. Walter 1771-1832, Scott began his remark- able career by collecting ballads, con- tinued it with epic narrative, and made himself famous for all time, by his romances, in which he pictured the manners, customs, landscapes THOMAS MOORE. 1780-1852. LORD GEORGE GORDON BYRON. 1728-1824. and character of his own country and of other lands, with unapproachable skill. In England, the Lake school of lrordsworm, Wordsworth, Southe) 7 , 1170-1S50. and Coleridge, created coieiidge, a new development in i77a-is3 ■*. the poetry of nature. Rogers wrote his " Pleasures of Memory," and Campbell his "Pleas- ures of Hope." These were easily Huron, surpassed by Lord i7S8-isa4. Byron, a man of great gifts and of powerful imagination, but full of unrest and of unsatisfied pas- sion. His feelings and observations, his experiences and reflections in his travels through Europe, he has im- mortalized in the two poems, "Childe Harold," and " Don Juan." Beside these he wrote his dramas " Manfred," " Marino Faliero," "Cain," his ballads, and the famous " Hebrew Melodies." THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY. 1800-1859. GEORGE ELIOT. 1819-1880. ... j , „,,,„,,; ,,..,„,,.,, ,.,,,,: ,.; ,.;y , , ,, .;,;■,.; ,-,..,, , , ROBERT BROWNING. 1812-1889. RECENT BRITISH AUTHORS. JOHN RUSKIN. 1819- (pp. 653.) 654 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. Byron was endowed with a rare poetic siieiiey, genius ; he knew all the H9H-182SI. movements of the human soul, all its moods and pas- sions, and knew likewise the words in which to clothe them. But he lacked reverence and love for the moral sublime ; he was without faith in humanity, or confidence in God ; he longed for a better age, and would have died to bring it nearer, but his nature was too turbulent for that steady activity, by which alone the best can be achieved. Thomas Moore, the Irishman, gave to the world, in his "Irish Melodies," a touching expression of the vanished splendor and loveliness of the Em- erald Isle. Yet his chief work is his oriental poem., Lalla Rookh. Shelley was a gifted, noble, but bewildered ! nature. He attracted all too soon the condemnation of his pious coun- CHARLES DICKENS. 1812-1870. PERCY BYSSHE SHELLEY. 1792-1822. trymen, and led a life of inner strug- gle and suffering, until death took him early from a world that gave him little pleasure. And yet his poems reveal glimpses of unearthly beauty, although overshadowed by the gloom that always surrounded his powerful mind. In more recent Tennyson, times, Alfred Tennyson isoa-iso3. has become famous for his " Idylls of the King " and his elegiac poem "In Memoriam." Robert Brotming, Browning has created 1S12-1SS9. a new species of poetic representation in the " Ring and the Book." His dramas and dramatic poems abound in lofty thought and powerful phrase, but are lacking in perfection of form and in musical at- cariyie, tractiveness. Thomas 1705-issi. Carlyle, in his " Sartor Resartus," first made the English ac- quainted with the growing influence 1S12-1SSO. Thackeray, 1S11-1803. JUarian Evans, 1820-1880. EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 655 of German thought, and in his essays and histories, revealed a genius of surpassing power. His " French Revolution " is unique in the literature of the world. A history, a comment, a prose poem, abounding in dramatic pictures, in bursts of mcuens, prophetic irony, in flashes of inspired insight, and yet marked with the narrowness of the Scottish puritan. Dickens and Thackeray, in their novels, have acquired great renown, while about them circle a multitude of clever writers, the most famous of whom are Charlotte Bronte", George Eliot (Marian Evans), and Mrs. Gaskell. Macaulay, in his "Essays" and his "History of England," exalted rhetoric to a throne of power ; Matthew Arnold brought into English criticism the spirit of the great French master, St. Beuve, while Stuart Mill and Herbert Spencer expounded the philosophies of Utilitarianism, and Evolution with lucidity and force. In France the classical literature of the old regime was attacked from three sides, first by Idealism, which began with Rousseau's enthusiasm for nature and reason, found expression st. net-re in the Paul and Vir- 1737-1814 ginia of Saint Pierre, aiadame Roianti, in Madame Roland's 17S4-1793. "Appeal to Posterity,' and in Volney's " Ruins ; " secondly, by the poetry of the revolution, especially in the Marseillaise hymn, and in the" Young Captive "of Andre* Ch^nier. But the new romanticism of Madame de Stael, the daughter of Necker, which was enriched with iiamartine, religious sentiment 1790-iseo. by Lamartine, and culminated in Victor Hugo, was the greatest enemy of classicism. Dur- juad. De staei, ing her exile from 1700-1817. Paris, Madame de Stael made herself familiar with Ger- man literature and German life as she showed in her famous " L'Allemagne," and afterward clothed her romantic ideas ■and her impressions of travel with the poetic form in her romances " Delphine " and " Corinne." Chateaubriand wandered, during the reign of terror, in the forests and wastes of North America, and recorded his impressions in his " Rene " and "Atala." Upon his return to France, he wrote his great work on the " Genius of Christianity," which contributed greatly to the reconciliation of church and empire, Chateaubriand, and to the restoration of religious feeling in France. After the murder 1708-1848. of the Duke d' Enghien, he left the country, and made his pilgrimage to Jerusalem, the fruit of which was the epic poem of the "Martyrs." With the res- toration, this poet began his golden age. He became cabinet minister, ambassador at WILLTAM MAKEPEACE THACKERAY. 1811-1863. 656 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. net™- Hugo, several courts, and defender of legitimate monarchy. Lamartine struck isos-isse. the same chords in his religious and poetic "Harmonies" and found a ready welcome with the French public. He made " A Journey to Syria and Pales- tine," which he described with great charm, and afterward composed his two great poems " Jocelyn," and " The Fall of an Angel." As deputy of the second house, La- martine gradually renounced his royalist opinions, and became the champion of a cos- mopolitan democracy. This led to his history of the " Girondists," which made him so popular, that he was especially adapted to arrest the revolution of 1848. Victor Hugo is famous for his lyrics, dramas, and romances. But he excels as a lyric poet. His " Odes," " Ballads," " Autumn Leaves," and other volumes reveal a sure insight into the souls of men, and a surprising sympathy with all the moods and impulses of the human heart. His dramas however are exaggerated and unnatural, not seldom violating the laws of beauty and of taste. They abound in cruelties and, horrors, in the wild and the im- possible. The best known among them are "Cromwell," " Hernani," " Lucretia Borgia," and " Marion Delorme." After the revolution of 1848, he was chosen a member of the National Assembly, but being an eager republican, he opposed bitterly the plans of Louis Napoleon, provoking his wrath to such an extent that he was compelled to fly, in December 1851, and spent many years in the Isle of Jersey, where he wrote several of his greatest works. Among these are "Les Miserables," a picture of social conditions in France, which has become world-famous. victor hugo. In contrast with this romantic poetry, there arose a liberal school which found expression in the political satires of Courier, and in the popu- Berangei-, lar songs of Beranger. This latter poet gives genuine expression nso-issi. to French character in its nobler phases. He is cheerful, full of life, and yet amiable, noble, and enthusiastic for freedom and for human welfare. A lover of his country and of mankind, and a child of the people, he spoke the natural lan- guage of the heart, and was at once the comfort and the inspiration of the masses. This literary liberalism came to an end with the July revolution. A new power entered the field. The didactic romance, which attacked not only monarchy and hierarchy, but all George Sana, the traditions of society. George Sand was the most gifted and attractive iso4-iHio. of all these writers. Her contemporaries, Eugene Sue and Alexander Dumas, pictured society rather than attacked it. The present school of French litera- EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 657 ture wavers between a poetic and a repulsive realism. Daudet and Bourget represent tlie former, and Flaubert and Zola are the masters of the latter tendency. Russia, during the 19th century, has created a literature of acknowledged power. jpuachhin This began with Alexander Puschkin, whose poetry reflects every phase 1100-1S3-}. of popular life. Turgenieff portraj'ed the dark side of Russian society Twrgenieff, and popular manners, with cutting severity but vivid realism, whde Tol- isis-iss3. stoi has astonished his contemporaries withapower of imagination, a grasp of details, a strength of thought, and an audacity of ideas almost unexampled in our age. Hungarian literature originated in our century, and reached its perfection in Alex- petoefi, ander Petoefi, a poet and a hero who fell fighting for democracy and inde- is'i.-t-is-io. pendence. His songs of wine and of love, and his pictures of travel, are the fruit of many wanderings among shepherds and peasants, gypsies and robbers. Danish poetry was, in earlier times, influenced chiefly by Germany, but Adam Oeh- lenschlager founded a national school, choosing for his themes the old Norse stories. isos-is7s. Hans Christian Andersen, in his fables, attracted readers in all coun- Mbsen bom iss8. tries, and the two Norwegians, Bjbrnson and Ibsen, have been recog- nized as men of surprising genius through their stories and dramas. The greatest poet of Sweden is Tegner. His "Story of Fritjhof "is the national poem of the Swedish people. c. The Fine Arts. Romanticism had a powerful influence upon the development of the fine arts, especially upon painting. It enriched art with new elements, gave a nobler sig- nificance to artistic ideas, unfolded a deeper spiritual life, and prevented absorption in form to the exclusion of mental and moral significance. The two schools, the classic and the romantic, struggled for a while for sole supremacy, but both tendencies were finally reconciled in a natural and powerful realism. The champion of classical art in aienga, Germany was Raphael Mengs, the son of a Saxon court painter, who i72s-ti70. aroused a new love for art by his pictures in oil and in fresco, and although he was by no means a genius, showed the way to a nobler taste. David, itiuiti. the French painter, in his imitation of the antique and his studies of H4&-1825. nature, of models, and of the theatre, revealed the weakness of the classical school ; for he attached so little importance to the imagination and to crea- tive composition. Carstens was more reasonable. Although he studied the antique with great seriousness, he reproduced its forms freely and boldly from memory and imagination. But he found no sympathy among his contemporaries, and wasted away in poverty and disease at Rome. His influence lived on, however, in his successors. overbeck, Overbeck and Schadow were the leaders of the new romantic school. liso-iseo. They devoted their art exclusively to Christian representations, after the manner of the old German and old Italian painters. A greater than either of corneuus, these was Peter Cornelius of Dusseldorf, the founder of the school of US3-1S6J. art at Munich. In 1841 Cornelius was called to Berlin by Frederick William IV., whither he was followed by William Kaulbach, who painted the great Kauibach, frescos of the new museum. In more recent times, the German iso5-is-:4. painters have been noteworthy for the variety of their themes. Piloty, in Munich and his pupil Makart have followed the realistic school of France and Bel- gium, while Anselm Feuerbach has perfected the idealism of the old Italian masters. Defregger has become celebrated for his scenes of Bavarian popular life, while Menzel 42 658 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. and Werner have preserved for posterity the memories of a great time in their national painting. In France and in Belgium painting reached a great perfection. Gerard followed the example of David. Robert was the creator of the historical picture of common life. Horace Vernet immortalized scenes from the army and camp life of the Napo- Deiacroix, leonic time, while Delacroix portrayed Dante and Virgil in their voy- t799-ise3. age to the city of Hell. In Delaroche, the romantic realistic school reached its most powerful expression. In England, Turner produced his landscapes deemed worthy to take their place beside those of Claude Lorraine, while David Wil- kie acquired great renown by his pictures of English and of Scottish life. Architect- ure and sculpture had also their devoted artists. Canova breathed into his statues a canova, certain grace, which, however, was marred at times by a painful effort us? ism}. at effect. The first sculptor of the age was Thorwaldsen, born at Co- penhagen, though his parents came from Iceland. Like Carstens, he was an earnest student of the antique. The old world of gods and heroes was the realm in which Thorwaldsen delighted to dwell, and in which he found the themes for his statues and reliefs. And yet he was too close to actual life to withdraw himself from the tenden- cies of his time, and these tendencies were toward religion and common humanity. Christ, the apostles, and other figures of sacred history, were wrought out by Thor- Thoricaidsen, waldsen with great power. The most famous of his monumental mo-isu. works are the Guttenburg monument in Mayence, the statue of Schil- ler in Stuttgart, and the "Dying Lion" in Luzerne. Though honors and distinctions were showered down upon him, he preserved his simplicity and his love for his friends, having no preference for splendor and society. Dannecker is renowned for his " Ariadne; " Schadow r , father of the painter, for his Victoria at the Brandenburg gate at Berlin ; Raueh for his monument of Queen Louise, and the great group surmounted by the equestrian statue of Frederick the Great at Berlin. Rietschel solved the difficult untivh, problem of clothing statues in the costume of the time, without de- mi-issi. stro}'ing their ideality. Schwanthaler is famous for his statues of Mo- zart and of Goethe, and for the colossal work " Bavaria " in Munich. In musical art, secular music has gradually displaced the supremacy of sacred. aiueh, Gluck gave to the musical drama a new significance, and Mozart mi-iisi. created a number of operas, which, like the dramas of Schiller, are the juosart, pride and the delight of the German people. But Beethoven, in his sym- isse-iioi. phonies and sonnets, revealed the possibilities of music beyond the Beethoven, boldest anticipation of his predecessors or contemporaries. Mendels- mo-ism. sohn, by his oratorios and his songs, and Weber, by his operas, gave Mayan, to their ideas a noble, and at the same time a national expression, i-!32-iso9. while Meyerbeer was a master of ingenious and startling effects. But Mendelssohn, a new epoch of German opera began with Richard Wagner. The 1S09-18*-!. musical-declamatory opera re-appeared. A disciple of Gluck in prin- schubert, ciple, he had no love for simplicity, but strove for the colossal, the ii9i-i828. massive, the over-whelming. No artist has ever had bitterer enemies, or more enthusiastic friends, than the composer of Tannhauser, Lohengrin, and Parsi- lraaner, val. Schubert and Schumann are renowned for their songs, while the 1813-1883. Italians, Rossini and Verdi, have preserved the traditions of their people in the music that they have written in the spirit of Gluck and of Mozart. OlOIOtQlQlOl OlOl O/ K^ O ' O l O 1 O I Q_)_Q 1 O 1 O 1 O 1 O ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■■ ,J n - - " in lOIOIOjOlOIOlOIOIOlO \^Q 1 O 1 O I O'l'O I O V O \ O I O T F. LATER REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS. I. FRANCE. THE JULY REVOLUTION AND ITS CONSEQUENCES. §557. ^^^HARLES X. regardless of public opinion, pushed forward on the path of re- mits/, s, X820. action. The liberal ministry yielded to an ultra-royalist cabinet under Polignac's presidency, and when the chamber expressed dissatisfaction with the policy of the government, the king dissolved it and May, is3o. ordered a new elec- tion. In vain, the men of the oppo- sition appeared in greater numbers, and thus confirmed the distrust of the people toward the new ministry. Charles X. was not to be taught. He thought that the glory with which the French troops were covering themselves in Africa would produce a more favorable sentiment. When jruiy s. the Moniteur pub- lished the famous "Three Ordinances" in which the freedom of the Press was sus- pended, the new chamber was dissolved before it was convened, and the election law juiv 2o-3o. was arbitrarily changed, the July Revolution occurred. After three days' heroic fight in the streets of Paris, the people conquered for themselves, emanci- pation from the Bourbon dynasty and from priestly domination. On the 29th of July, during the hottest of the street fight, a provisional government was established by the deputies of the chamber then present in Paris. Laffitte, the banker, Casimir-Perier and Odilon Barrot carried on this administration until the constitutional party pre- vailed over the republicans, and Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, was named as pro- (659) 660 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. tector of the State. When it was too late, Charles X. offered to take back the hated ordinances, and to appoint a popular ministry. He was compelled to go with his family a third time into exile, while his shrewder relative, Louis Philippe, after swear - Ang. a. ing fidelity to the hastily revised constitution, ascended the throne as king of the French. The restoration of the tri-color and the re-establishment of the CAPTURE OF ALGIERS. (F. Lix). National Guard under La Faj^ette's command, marked the beginning of the new king- dom : a kingdom created by the people. Algiers was retained by the new govern- ment and organized as a colony ; not, however, without long weary struggles with the Mahommedan population and their indomitable chief Ab del Kader. Charles X. died an exile in the year 1836. § 558. The Holy Alliance, already shaken hj the death of Alexander, fell to pieces from the shock of the July revolution, and throughout Europe, movements be- gan which produced a transformation. The French monarchy, it is true, took up a peaceful attitude toward the other states of Europe. The victorious liberals in Paris preferred mediation and reconciliation to conflict and civil strife, and sought to gain the moderates and the undecided for the maintainance of existing conditions. Never- theless the movement was mighty enough to break through, in more than one place, the artificial structure of the Congress of Vienna. Belgium, Germany, Poland, and Italj T , were the scenes of insurrections which it required two years of struggle to sup- press ; and although the influence of Russia, Austria, and Prussia was strong enough to LATER REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS. 661 maintain the old state of affairs in most countries, nevertheless, liberal ideas increased so rapidly, and public opinion became so powerful, that all the measures of the police regime were set at defiance. In western Europe, the influence of England and of France prevailed, and this was in favor of a constitutional system, of civil freedom and of representative institutions. § 559. The revolution in Belgium was the immediate consequence of the events of July in Paris. The Vienna Congress had united the provinces of Flanders and Brabant with Holland, to form a kingdom of the Netherlands, without the slightest regard to religion, language, or national interest. The Dutch regarded themselves as the ruling race. They compelled the Belgians to share their large national debt and their high taxes, tried to force upon them the Dutch language and Dutch laws, and to place the education of the Catholic youth under the control of Protestant au- thorities. And when the press assumed a is3o. hostile tone, the govern- ment proceeded against the journalists with fines, imprisonment and banishment. This led to an alliance between the French Lib- eral party which was working for a free constitution, and the Catholic ultra-mon- tane party, which demanded freedom of in- struction, — an alliance against the Dutch government, which the king in a speech from the throne designated as " infamous." utterance, was so great, that when the news of the Paris Revolution reached Brussels, it set the whole city ablaze. On the evening of the 25th. of August mobs destroyed the printing office of a newspaper of Dutch proclivities, the palace of the Minister of Jus- tice, and the dwelling of the chief of police. To prevent further devastation by the mob, a citizen-guard was constituted, and a citizens' committee, until finally the radical and ultra-montane party combined to form a " national congress." The example of Brussels soon found imitators, so that in a short time the Brabant flag was waving in all Belgium. An attack of the Dutch upon Brussels was repulsed, and the Belgian insurgents now advanced upon Antwerp, in order to take this city also from their hated neighbor. Thereupon the Dutch general, Chasse, withdrew into the citadel, and bombarded the city with three hundred cannon for seven hours. -Indignant at this conduct, the National Congress declared the independence of Belgium, and the exclu- sion of the House of Orange from the Belgian throne. Meanwhile, a conference of the Nov. i83o. five great powers was called together in London, and after long dis- cussion, it came to the conclusion to separate Belgium from Holland, and to establish just frontiers: accordingly Leopold of Saxe Coburg, a relative of the English sovereign, jm»e 1831. who was shortly afterward married to a daughter of Louis Philippe, louis Philippe. (Winther thaler). The dissatisfaction, produced by this royal 662 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. received the Belgian crown. Leopold sought to pacify the liberals by a grant of rep- resentative institutions, and the Catholic clergy, by the complete independence of the Church from the State. In vain the Dutch attempted a second time to subjugate the Dec. lean. seceding provinces. Threatened and opposed by France and England, they were compelled, in spite of the bravery of their army and navy, to abstain from further war. Belgium, however, began at once to prosper, both in its free insti- tutions, and in its rapidly developed in- ustries. § 560. The happy issue of the French and Belgian Revolutions im- pelled the Poles to insurrection. The Vienna Congress had created a king- dom of Poland, and subjected it to the Czar of Russia. The constitution, which provided for a diet, and for a na- tional army, also afforded the people liberty with law; their industry pros- pered, literature revived, while great highways opened up a growing com- merce. But all these advantages were not sufficient to efface among the Poles the desire for the resurrection of their country, and the hope that the French nation would hasten to help their old ally, strengthened them in the belief that the hour of Poland's regeneration was at hand. On the 29th of Novern- isso. ber, twenty armed ca- dets of the Royal School forced their way into the palace of the Viceroy, whom they had sworn to murder, while other conspirators called the people of jf| Warsaw to arms. The Grand Duke barely escaped the fate intended for him, and yielding to the storm, with- drew from the land. A provisional government undertook the conduct of affairs, but the regency, which was composed of Polish noblemen, chose the way of negotiation rather than that of war, and although Chlopicki was soon appointed dictator, and although the hastily summoned diet invested .Prince Radzivil with supreme authority, the situation was not bettered. The aristocracy, dissatisfied with the violence of the democratic and republican clubs, held matters in their hands and hindered all enter- prises by their delay and discord. While the Emperor of Russia was advancing into Jan. us, is3i. Poland with an army of two hundred thousand men, the Diet de- clared the House of Romanoff to have forfeited the throne of Poland; but refused to free the lands of the peasants and to abolish feudal tribute and rejected the proclama- LEOPOLD I., KING OF THE BELGIANS. (Wiline) LATER REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS. 66a tion of a people's war, which was all that could have saved Poland. The Polish army was brave enough in the field of battle. Chlopicki fought like a hero, and Dwernicki astonished the world by his bold retreat into Austrian territory ; jet the Poles were May ae, is3i. defeated by the Russians and ruined by discord, treachery, and the duplicity of the French mediators. Diebitsch, the Russian general, died of the cholera. His successor, Paskiewitsch, crossed the Vistula and advanced upon War- saw. The democrats of the capital, believing that the failure of the revolution was due to treason, began a horrible massacre. A mob headed by soldiers forced its way into the castle, murdered the generals stationed there, and attacked several persons suspected and hated as aristocrats, friends of Russia, or spies. Czartoryski, in whose hands the authority had been placed, fled to the camp of General Dembinski. The Diet now appointed Krukowicki president, with dictatorial power, and thus entrusted the highest authority to the hands of a man who was either a fool or a traitor. When the Russian army approached the capital, the dictator issued the most contradictory orders. The Polish army bravely withstood the advancing enemy, and the heroic deeds of the fourth regiment have been often celebrated in song. But, after a two- days storm, Warsaw and Prague were surrendered to the Russians, after which the sent, e-7, is3i. government and the Diet, with the remaining troops, took refuge in Prussia. Here they were disarmed and held prisoners until Poland was completely subjugated, when they received the promise of an amnesty and permission to return. But thousands of them rejected the mercy of the Emperor, preferring to eat the bread of sorrow on foreign soil, rather than to witness patiently the gradual extermination of Polish nationality. In Poland and Littau court-martials were held, and the mines of Siberia were peopled with their victims. Poland was deprived of its constitution, its Diet, and its royal council, and became a Russian province with a separate adminis- tration, and a separate judiciary. Humiliated Warsaw was ruled with an iron sceptre. The emigrants attempted in vain, by conspiracies and uprisings in Cracow, Galiciaand Posen, to accomplish the rescue of their fatherland. New prosecutions, and the final incorporation of the free-state Cracow into the Austrian monarchy, were the only results of these desperate undertakings. § 561. Germany too was moved mightily by the news of the Revolution of July. The princes, fearing that the French desire for the left bank of the Rhine might pre- cipitate a new war, noticed with anxiety the discord between people and government, and hastened, partly by just concessions, and partly by swift recognition of accom- plished changes, to diminish the discontent, and to prevent a union of the discontented. The uprisings in Hanover and Saxony were appeased by the granting of liberal consti- tutions, and by the abolition of oppressive abuses and limitations. In Brunswick, where the inhabitants had destroyed the castle, and forced Duke Carl to fly, his brother William assumed the government, and pacified the excited people by a reformation of the constitution. In Hesse-Cassel, the elector William II. consented to a liberal con- stitution, but the hate which the people showed to the Countess Reichenbach, his ill- assorted wife, so angered the elector that he made his son regent, and with the Countess and his other treasures, abandoned Hesse ; he lived partly in Baden-Baden, partly in Frankfort, where he died in 1847. In Baden, the freedom of the press was intro- duced; and in the South German legislatures, the liberals acquired the majority, and pressed for changes and reforms in constitution and administration. But the increas- 664 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. ing boldness of the party, in speech and in writing, especially the proceedings at the stay, is39. festival of Hambach, induced a swift reaction. The peaceful character of the July monarchy, and the fall of Warsaw, freed the German princes from the fear that the liberal movements might receive foreign sujjport: and the undertaking of some young enthusiasts to break up the Diet of Frankfort was a welcome performance to the leaders of the reaction. Many were arrested ; prisons and fortresses were filled with political criminals ; France and Switzerland became the homes of numberless German fugitives ; the censorship of the press was re-established ; the publication of books watched with the utmost care ; and the prerogatives of legislative bodies greatly diminished. The party of progress was thus brought to a halt, b} r the violence of its own adherents. Victory belonged to the governments. But they knew not how to use it. For they soon outraged the feelings of the people in many ways, especially June, 1837. when, at the accession of Victoria to the throne of England, the crown of Hanover fell to her uncle, Ernst August, of Cumberland. For he abolished the constitution already granted, and restored the old feudal arrangements, and, not- withstanding the opposition which he encountered on every side, summoned all servants of the state to take a new oath of allegiance. When seven professors of the University of Gottingen refused, he deprived them of their places, and banished them from the kingdom ; so, too, when the assembly of estates lacked a quorum, because so many members refused to attend, their places were filled by members of the minority. These, and similar measures, made a great gulf between the people and their rulers. The "police state" was everywhere dreaded and hated, and the Bureaucracy was the object of universal dislike. In the press, in literature, in poetry, the existing political system was constantly denounced; while among the people, every opposition to the Bureaucrats was heartily applauded. Yet amid all these struggles and divisions, there was one impulse in which all shared, — the longing for national unity, and for a strong German confederation, established upon mutual interests. And this led to the found- 1833. ing of the " customs union," the corner stone of German political unity. (Zollverein). § 562. In Italy, likewise, the July Revolution produced serious consequences, but the hopes of the patriots were soon carried to the grave. The uprisings in Bologna, Modena and Parma, were quickly suppressed by Austrian troops, and the banished regents immediately restored. In the papal states, the papal troops, supple- mented by bandits and convicts, were employed to put down the insurrection. These xuffians raged so furiously, that the Austrian military became necessary to protect the government and the country from their own soldiers. Jealous of Austria, the French ***. 1832. now took possession of Ancona. An attempt to overthrow the Sar- dinian throne, and, with the help of young Italy, to precipitate a revolution, failed ingloriously. A band of fugitives under the lead of the Polish general, Ramorino, a is33. native of Genoa, started from Switzerland to invade Savoy, but with- out success. In Spain the liberals came to the front once more, not, however, through Oct. i83o. their own strength, but in consequence of a disputed succession to the throne. Ferdinand had been persuaded by his fourth wife, Marie Christine, to abolish the Salic law, and to secure the succession to his infant daughter Isabella. This change displeased the apostolic party, which put its entire trust in Ferdinand's sept. 1833. younger brother, Don Carlos. Hardly had the king closed his eyes, LATER REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS. 665 when the Absolutists proclaimed Don Carlos king, and provoked a civil war. They found support in the northern provinces, especially among the rude inhabitants' of the Basque mountains. Instigated by priests and monks, led by brave and enterprising brigands, the Basques drew their swords for the absolute monarch, who had taken refuge in their midst. The Queen regent, Marie Christine, now made overtures to the constitutionals and the liberals, agreeing to introduce a parliamentary constitution, and to permit the return of the fugitives and the exiles. Thus the war of the succession became a war of principles and a civil war. After many bloody battles, the Christinos isao. were successful ; the Carlists laid down their arms, and Don Carlos, with his family and many officers and priests, took refuge in France. General Espartero tsjtt. now quarreled with the queen mother, and this was the beginning of new struggles, constitutional changes and court intrigues. Espartero was powerful 1843. enough to procure Christine's banishment for a time, and to assume the regency. But he was soon put down by General Narvaez, an adherent of the queen mother, and compelled to fly to England. Christine returned and continued to reign until her daughter Isabella readied her majority. Both mother and daughter were controlled by the suggestions of the king of France. 2. The Government of July and the Popular Uprising op 1848. a. The Years of Political and Social Excitement. § 563. The July monarch}', erected as it was' upon the uncertain foundations of popular sovereignty, suffered many attacks. The adherents of the Bourbons and of the Legitimists were joined by the Republicans in their attempts to overthrow the new order. Only the prosperous middle class, anxious to preserve their possessions, and expecting to find salvation in a constitutional monarchy, were satisfied with the gov- ernment of July, and upon these Louis Philippe particularly depended. But when the King dela}'ed to extend the suffrage and to call the less prosperous citizens to take part in political life, the number of his supporters became quite small. Moreover, the King failed to win the hearts of the French. Though possessed of an immense for- tune, he used his high station to increase his riches. As a consequence, he was re- proached with selfishness and greed, and this reproach fell upon his ministers and office-holders. All were looked upon as tainted with corruption, and even the beauti- ful domestic life of the royal family failed of proper recognition. The Legitimists were the first to attack the King and his ministry. But the hate of the people for the Bourbons was yet too fresh for them to succeed. The unfurling of the white flag, Feb., last. at the death of the Duke de Berri, caused an uprising, in consequence of which the palace of the Arch-bishop of Paris was destroyed. The attempt of the Duchess of Berri to arouse the Vendeans also failed. When she was arrested and her Nov., i83n. secret marriage revealed, the romantic charm that clung to the ban- ished royal famil}- gradually disappeared. The Legitimists, with the aged poet Cha- teaubriand at their head, now gave up the hope of placing Count Chambord upon the throne. They called him Henry V., but they could give him neither sceptre nor authority. The Republicans were more dangerous. The uprisings in Lyons and Paris 1831-2-4. were suppressed, and the ring-leaders punished ; but the newspapers were alive with their opinions, and in their secret assemblies they obtained more and more adherents. The National was the much persecuted and much punished organ 666 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. UiMUI\/i of the Republicans, who were soon divided into various factions. The moderates at- tacked the existing constitution, and sought only a transformation of the government ; but the radicals declared that property was theft, and urged war against the wealthy classes, or flattered the working-classes by exaggerating their importance, and de- manding the readjustment of capital and labor, and better wages for the laborer. All this tended to an upheaval of social conditions. Liberty, fraternity, and equality was the watchword, and hatred for the prosperous, was the core of the new doctrine. Communistic and socialistic ideas were proclaimed and extended, and many saw in them salvation from poverty and degrada- tion. Gradually the socialists of France formed an alliance with those of other countries, and thus constituted the Inter- national. These socialists, believing that if the king were put to death, the communistic repub- lic could be easily proclaimed, sought to assassinate Louis Philippe, but he es- caped eight separate attacks with truly wonderful good for- tune. The most ter. rible of these was that of the Corsican, F i e s c h i , who ex- ploded an "infernal machine " in the boulevard, whereby eighteen persons near July, 1S3S. the King were killed. The guilty were punished with death, but assassination continued to be tried. Limitation of the press, of the right of assembly and of personal freedom, were the consequences of these attempts. Louis Philippe was also sorely afflicted by the death of his oldest son, the popular Duke of Orleans, who was thrown from his carriage. § 564. Pope Pius IX. made the papacy the political center of Italy by opportune isjto. reforms. He extended the freedom of the press, improved the ad- ministration of justice, gave the city of Rome a liberal charter, and started the forma- tion of an Italian confederacy. The excitable Italians were filled with new hopes. Jan., is48. Sicily unfurled the banner of independence, and began a mighty H**jA r. DUCHESS DE BERRI. IBIiiljil wSKK. = FIESCHl's ATTEMPT ON THE LIFE OF LOUIS PHILLIPPE. (F. Lix.) {pp. 667.) 668 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. struggle with her oppressors. The King of Naples sought to appease his people by a parliamentary constitution, and compelled other princes thereby to do likewise. The Grand-duke Leopold of Tuscany, and Charles Albert of Sardinia, were among those that followed his example. But the Duke of Modena, an ardent champion of the divine right of princes, escaped the hatred of the people by flight, while in Parma the »ec is, is47. throne became vacant by the death of the Duchess Marie Louise, the little beloved and little respected widow of Napoleon Bonaparte. All this filled the Italians with the hope of national unity and freedom. Only two powers stood in the way of their achieve- ment — the Jesuits and the Austrians — and upon these were poured the glowing hatred of the Italians. Hurrahs for Gioberti, the foe of the Jesuits, and death to the Ger- mans mingled in the cries of " Long live Pionono, the saviour of Italy ! " In Germany the op- position between the government and the people had readied a crisis. The writ- ings of young Ger- many, the songs of the political poets, the boldness of the daily press, the liberal writings of young philosophers and the- popepiusix. ologians, the doc- trines and speeches of the " friends of light " among the Protestants, and of the " German Catholics " among the Catholics, revealed the deep dissatisfaction of the people with the existing state and church. Frederick William IV., who became king of Prussia in 1840, tried to meet this feeling with reforms. He opened the sittings of the courts to the public, issued an edict of toleration, and called the Estates of his is*». Provinces to assemble in Berlin. When the Estates met, the demands of the people for a free press and a free state were supported with such eloquence and with such earnestness, that they could no longer be resisted. Meanwhile, a great 670 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. ■>StU crisis took place in the commercial world. A financial panic robbed thousands of their fortunes, brought multitudes to the edge of starvation. To make matters worse, famine and pestilence visited the regions of industrial activity, and misery spread into every corner of Germany. Uprisings in Berlin, Stuttgart, Munich, and other cities were the consequence. The military and police soon put down the tumults, and a ... ;.• ... .,■:,'...'.:..,'" v rich harvest put an end to the famine ; but it was impossible any longer to overlook the inequalities of fortune which the crisis had re- vealed. The excitement and dissatisfaction with the political institutions of Germany was greatly increased by the infatu- ation of King Ludwig of Bavaria, for the Spanish dancer, Lola Montez, by whom the aged mon- arch was led into ex- travagance and hasty action. The ultra-mon- tane party quarreled with the king's darling, the Countess of Lands- feld, as she was called : and as a consequence, the ministry and the heads of the university were dismissed, and when the students took the part of their profes- sors, the King closed the university, and or- dered the students to depart. An insurrec- Feb., rsjv. t i O II followed. The King GU1Z0T. was obliged to retract, and the Countess Lola was dismissed from the country. Switzerland was in the same decade, the scene of great hostility between Catholics and Protestants, conservatives and radicals. Eight cloisters of Aargau had been abolished, and their estates been confiscated by the government. The Catholic Cantons protested, but without avail. Lucerne now entrusted the Jesuits with the education of her youth, and when the radicals stirred EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 671 up a tumult, a desperate conflict took place between them and the Jesuits. The Catholic Cantons demanded the punishment of the rioters, and a restoration of the is4«. cloisters. When this was refused them, they seceded and formed a separate union. The radicals declared this conduct unconstitutional, and demanded the expulsion of the Jesuits. The Catholic Cantons refused to disband. The government' then attacked them with the sword. The struggle was brief. The government soon conquered Freiburg, when Lucerne and the other Cantons submitted juiy, 1841. at once. Their separate union was dissolved, the Jesuits were expelled, the governments of the Cantons modified, and the costs of the war imposed nee, isjj. upon the Catholics. Austria, France, and Prussia came too late with their mediation, and the failure of France was one of the causes of the revolu- tion. The Swiss used the opportunity to change their constitution. The Federal council, which sits permanently in Berne, was conjoined with the council of the Can- tons, and a national council elected by the people. b- The February Revolution in Paris. § 565. While these events were occuring in Italy and Switzerland, the policy of Guizot was giving great offence to the French liberals. The excitement was increased by a trial of high officials for bribery, and by the murder of the Duchess of Praslin by her own husband. The people were satisfied that a government, upborne by such rotten pillars, was impossible. The cry for reform went through the land, and the re- form desired was universal suffrage. Throughout France reform banquets were the order of the day, and when the Chambers were convened in Paris, a reform banquet was arranged for, to give expression to the popular mind. But the government for- bade the banquet, and the speech from the throne described the movement as one started by hostile or blind passions. The program for the banquet was issued never- theless. But when the government took military measures for its supression, it was abandoned. When the members of the opposition determined to accuse the ministry of a breach of the constitution. The people however were too excited to be thus ap- peased. Mobs of artisans, tramps, students, and street-Arabs marched through the streets crying " Reform ! Down with Guizot ! " The crowds increased with every hour ; the soldiers spared them ; the police were too feeble to put them down ; barri- Feh. is4s. cades were erected and defended. The fight lasted for two days, when the King dismissed Guizot and promised reform. The crowds now marched singing and hurrahing through the streets ; most of the barricades disappeared, and the houses were illuminated. But this did not suit the secret societies. They wanted much more than a change of ministry. The barricades in the northeast part of the city, where the working classes lived, were still standing. About ten o'clock, a crowd of people with flags and torches marched through the Boulevards, singing and shouting. They halted before the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and demanded the illumination of the build- ing. The troops now interfered, but the Colonel commanding was insulted. Suddenly a shot was fired, and the soldiers delivered a volley which killed and wounded fifty- two of the mob. The corpses were placed upon a bier, and carried through the streets by men carrying torches and crying " to arms ; they are murdering us." At midnight, the bells were rung, and the next morning, the 24th, of February, all the streets of Paris were barricaded. A violent struggle soon ended with the victory of the people. 672 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. Louis Philippe abdicated, and fled with his wife to England, whither the rest of his family soon followed. A republican government was established, under the presidency of the aged Dupont de 1' Eure, and in which the poet Lamartine, the leaders of the left, Ledru-Rollin and Arago, and the socialist, Louis Blanc, took part. But the new government did not bring the expected happiness. As the revolution was the work of the working classes, something must be done to better their condition. National workshops were established to provide employment at the expense of the state. The state expenses mounted up with great rapidity, and the number of men out of work increased with every day. The workshops had to be closed ; the working classes thereupon attempted a new revolution, seeking power for the fourth estate. This led June 32, lsis. to the cruelties of June, in which the advocates of the Red Republic dis- FEBRUARY REVOLUTION IN PARIS, 1848. — PROCLAIMING THE REPUBLIC. (B. Adam, and J. Arnold.) graced themselves by their ferocious brutality. They murdered the General Brta and Arch-bishop Affre of Paris, and filled the barricades with the corpses of their enemies. General Cavaignac was thereupon made dictator by the National Assembly. He conquered the insurgents, had crowds of them arrested and deported, and placed Paris under martial law. The National Assembly, under his protection, completed a republican constitution with a single chamber, and a president to be chosen every four years. They would fain have elected General Cavaignac to the presidency, but the Dec. to, 18-ts. nation, blinded by the splendor of the imperial name, chose Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, the nephew of Napoleon, who had twice attempted the overthrow EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 673 of Louis Philippe, and undergone a long imprisonment as a punishment for his reckless enterprise. § 566. The news of the Paris revolution produced an agitation in all Europe. In Germany, Hungary, and Italy, popular uprisings took place, that far exceeded all previous movements in extent and strength. A propaganda was established, with its head-center at Paris, to keep alive the revolutionary feeling, and to spread republican ideas, of a socialistic character. The first effects were seen in Baden. The Grand- duchy had been long distinguished for its political activity, and it now marched for- THE JUNE REVOLUTION IN PARIS, 1848. ward with the banner of progress and of reform. Urgent petitions demanded free- dom of the press, trial by jury, the right to bear arms, and a German parliament. The government of Baden conceded these points, and went even further in the adoption of conciliatory measures. The example of Baden affected other German states. In Wurtemburg and Saxony, the chiefs of the liberal opposition were called to the cabinet. The leaders of the liberal party in South Germany met at Heidel- berg, to consider the welfare of the nation, and issued an appeal to the German people, in which they urged the convening of a National Assembly. But the' agitation was march, 18*8. greatest in the Austrian Empire. An insurrection took place in Vienna, which led to the overthrow of Prince Metternich, who retired to En- 43 674 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. land. The old ordinances were soon dissolved, and the Austrian capital was for a while in a state of lawlessness. Freedom of the press produced a re- volutionary literature. The right of free assembly led to stormy meetings and dem- ocratic clubs. The plans of the revolutionists were greatly furthered by the vast number of unemployed workmen. Demagogues came into Vienna from all quarters, and street fights became the order of the day. The Emperor, with his court, retired to DEFENSE OF THE BARRICADES. xtay, lsis. Innsbruck, and did not return to the capital, until the Constitutional As* s»iy. sembly convened, which entreated him urgently to come back to Vienna. Berlin likewise had her days of March. Reluctantly the Prussian government conceded March, 7. the freedom of the press and other reforms, and promised a transformation of the German union. Conflicts between the soldiers and the people so embittered the latter, that they demanded the removal of the troops and the establishment of a citizen- EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 675 militia. Foreign agitators, especially Poles, increased the excitement and the bitter feeling by their exasperating speeches. Mobs gathered before the castle and insulted March, ts. the soldiers with their threats. A detachment of infantry pushed them back at the point of the bayonet ; two shots were fired, by whom or whence is un- known. These were the signal for a street fight, that raged violently for two weeks. The King finally commanded the military to be withdrawn, dismissed his ministry, and consented to the creation of a citizen guard for the defence of the city and the protec- tion of the castle. An amnesty was proclaimed ; all political prisoners were dis- charged, and all political exiles permitted to return. Three daj's after the proclama- juarch, si. of the amnesty, the King declared that he would govern as a constitu- GERMAN REVOLUTION, 1848. — MEETING OF THE PARLIAMENT. tional monarch, and place himself at the head of a free and united Germany. A con- stitutional assembly was elected by universal suffrage, and a few weeks afterward this assembly began the difficult work of preparing a constitution for the Prussian mon- archy. § 567. Meanwhile all the German states were undergoing great changes. The Congress of the Union had been transformed by a number of Liberal ambassadors, and a committee of seventeen was appointed to sketch a new constitution for the German union. King Louis of Bavaria yielded to public opinion, and abdicated in siarcu, is48. favor of the Crown-prince Maximilian. The Duke of Hesse-Darm- stadt made way for his son. In Hanover and other states Liberals were called into the ministry, and set about democratic reforms, with headlong haste. In some sections 676 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. revolutions broke out, the peasants destroying the rent and tithe-books, and the castles of their landlords. It was not enough for the radicals that a national assembly should frame a new constitution for Germany ; they were determined to found a German re- public immediately, and to that end Hecker and Struve called the people to arms. This movement took place in Baden, but ended in a speedy defeat of the insurgents. The National Assembly began its session on the 18th of May in St. Paul's church at Frankfort. It included the most talented and eloquent men of the German nation. Its first act was to abolish The Congress of the Union, and to establish a new Central Government. After violent debates, it was determined to choose an irre- sponsible executive who should be surrounded with a responsible ministry. The juiy 11, 1848. Arch-duke John of Austria was chosen such chief magistrate and ac- cepted the office ii: July, 1848. (Reichsverweser. Imperial Executive.) § 568 Italy was the scene of similar changes and excitements. The banner of independence was unfurled in Sicily, and for a year a desperate struggle was main- tained against Naples, but without success, il '■} ■-.. ■',- ; i\lC .. J The King of Naples, with his hired Swiss lPS|ig soldiers, subjugated the Sicilians, and then abolished the constitution that he had granted to his people in the hour of his ex- tremity. In Rome the excitement was more than Pope Pius IX. could manage. He promised to grant a constitutional govern- jvof. is, 1848. ment, and convened an as- sembly in the eternal city, but his minister, Rossi, was stabbed to deatii, and the Demo- crats usurped all authority. The Pope fled in disguise to Gaeta, abandoning his capital to the mob, which immediately proclaimed Feb., i84o, a republic and confiscated the property of the church. Mazzini, the head of } r oung Italy, and Garibaldi, the cap- tain of volunteers, were the rulers of Rome. The Pope now appealed to the French. A French army marched to the city, and de- manded the re-establishment of the Pope. This was refused. The French besieged the insurgents. Weeks of bloody struggle elapsed before they entered the city. The suiy 3, is49. Republicans fled, and the old conditions were gradually restored. In Tuscany also the Democrats were successful, and drove the Grand duke into exile. But their success lasted a few weeks only. The greatest change, however, took place in upper Italy. In Milan and Venice the people drove out the Austrian garrisons. The standard of independence was thereupon unfurled in all Lombardy. Charles Albert of Sardinia also attempted to get possession of Lombardy and Venice. He de- clared war upon Austria, and, supported by Italian volunteers, he pushed the Austrian troops to the northern frontiers of Italy. But his success endured for a brief season only. On the 6th of May, the octogenarian field-marshal, Radetzky, defeated him at Verona, and compelled him to seek safety in flight. The next year Charles Albert KADETZKY DE KADETZ. EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 677 attempted the enterprise a second time, but with no better success. In despair he gave up the crown to his son Victor Emmanuel, and fled to Portugal. The young king then made a disadvantageous peace with Austria, but he continued to pursue the path of liberal reform which his father had opened up. Venice, invincible by Ana. us, 18-to. position, resisted for several months the Austrian armies, but finally internal dissensions made it the prey of its former conquerors. Thus everywhere in Italy the old order was re-established. § 569. The storm of revolution continued in German}' and in Hungary, and while the constitutional assembly in Frankfort was deliberating upon a new constitu- tion, a bloody war broke out in Schleswig-Holstein. According to ancient prescrip- tions, the two dukedoms remained united, the succession being restricted to the male line of the House of Oldenburg. But the energetic inhabitants of the dukedoms, foreseeing the extinction of the royal house of Denmark, desired to be annexed to ■Germany, under their own Duke of Augustenberg. The King of Denmark was de. termined, on the other hand, to preserve the integrity of the Danish monarchy. The jwiv, is4o. inhabitants thereupon determined to rebel. Trusting to German help, they established a provisional government, and appealed to the Central Govern- ment at Frankfort. This appeal was answered by the appointment of a governor. The Danes then declared war. German volunteers poured into the country, expecting that the troops of the Union would soon follow. But Germany was without a navy, and the commerce of the North Sea and of the Baltic suffered greatly in the conflict. Russia and England also interfered in behalf of Denmark. The Prussian government Aug., isis. preferred diplomacy to war, and negotiated the truce of Malmo. The assembly at Frankfort accepted this truce with great reluctance, and the German re- publicans thereupon determined to break up the convention, and to proclaim a repub- lic. The federal troops prevented their success, but the murder of members of the •convention by the mob furnished a terrible example of the brutality of political hatred. § 570. This brutality revealed itself in the Austrian Empire. Hungary was struggling for independence. She desired a separate government, in which she should have no part in the military system, state debt, the tax, or the financial legislation of the rest of the empire. But the Slavonic population of Hungary was opposed to this policy of the Magyars, and Jellachich of Croatia, took the field against them. The sept, isis, furious Magyars thereupon murdered the imperial commissioner, Lam- berg. Austrian troops were then ordered into Hungary, but the Democrats of Vienna hindered their departure by furious insurrections, during which they attacked and brutally murdered the minister of war. The Emperor abandoned his capital a second time, going to Olmutz in Moravia. He then empowered Windischgratz to restore order in Vienna. The city was besieged by Austrian soldiers, and defended for three weeks by the people. Finally it was stormed ; martial law was proclaimed, and the ring-leaders of the insurrection were put to death. Among these was Robert xov. », is4s, Blum, a member of the National Assembly at Frankfort, and one of the principal orators of the Democratic party. § 571. Windischgratz now led his victorious army into Hungary. The majority of the Frankfort Parliament thereupon determined, if possible, to separate the rest of Germany from Austria, so that each might erect a new political system, and then en- 678 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. ter into a commercial and customs alliance. Prussia was to be the head of this new- German confederation. Heinrich von Gagern was the principal champion of this plan, and undertook, at the head of a new federal cabinet, to carry it into execution. But it was opposed by the Austrians, by the Catholics and by the Republicans. The Aus- triaus opposed it because thej r were unwilling to be excluded from Germany, the Cath- olics because they begrudged the leadership to Protestant Prussia, and the Republi- cans because they saw in it the postponement of their final triumph. Moreover the king of Prussia had dissolved the constitutional convention that he had convened in Berlin. Worn out by the agitation and excitement, the King had determined upon a -vol. is4s. decisive step. He appointed a new ministry under the presidency of Count Brandenburg, prorogued the National Assembly, fixing its next session at the city of Brandenburg, and when a great number of the deputies refused obedience and declared the collection of revenues unconstitutional, he dissolved the Assembly. At the same time, however, he published a liberal constitution of his own, which provided for a legislative body to con- sist of two chambers, and to be chosen by universal suffrage. § 572. Austria soon followed the example of Prussia. The Emperor Ferdinand abdicated in favor of his youthful nephew, Francis Joseph. The new emperor dissolved the constitu- te, rsjs. tional assembly, pro- claimed a new constitution and a new code of laws. He then proceeded to the subjugation of the Magyars, but they offered a desperate resistance. Excited by the fiery eloquence of Kos- suth, and supported by Polish leaders, like Dembinski, the Hungarians drove out the Austrians and conquered all the fortified places. Gorgey com- manded their army with great skill. Foreign volunteers strengthened their ranks. Hungarian banknotes circulated as money. The independence of Hungary was proclaimed, and a provisional govern- .4j>wr, is*a. ment established, which was conducted by Kossuth. The Austrian authorities soon saw that Windischgratz was not equal to the emergency. He was- recalled, and the brutal field-marshal. Haynau, appointed in his place. And at the same time Austria asked help of Russia. Hungary was now invaded from three sides. From the north Paskiewitsch entered with a Russian army ; from the West, Haynau with Austrian troops ; and from the south, Jellachich with his Croats. The Hungar- ians, however, continued the contest for several months. But quarrels between the Polish and the Magyar leaders, and between Kossuth and Gu'rgey, destroyed their Aug. is-*o. strength. Gorgey, who had been declared dictator, surrendered at Vilagos, while Kossuth and other leaders fled to Turkey. Many were condemned to LOUIS KOSSt'TH. EUROPE UNDER THE CONSERVATIVE POLICY OF METTERNICH. 679 death, many languished away in dungeons, and many were compelled to perform the meanest drudgery of the Austrian army. § 573. The fall of Hungary was the conclusion of the revolutionary movement. For the National Assembly at Frankfort had already come to an end. It had pro- March, ism. claimed the fundamental right of the German people, and had at last framed a constitution. The party of Gagern had prevailed by a small majority. But in order to do so, had compromised with the democratic radicals. The new constitu- tion provided that the king of Prussia should become hereditary emperor of the new Germany. A solemn deputation went to Berlin and offered the imperial dignity to the king of Prussia, if he would accept the new constitution with all its provisions. But the King gave at first an uncertain answer, and afterwards declined the proffered honor. The Prussian estates, which had been meanwhile convened, presented an ad- dress to the King, in which they urged him to accept the imperial dignity and the new constitution. The House of Representatives was thereupon dissolved, the upper chamber was adjourned, and the election laws so changed, that in future, representa- Apra, is4o. fives were chosen, not by universal suffrage, but by electors, divided into three classes, according to their rank and property. § 574. This refusal to accept the new imperial constitution provoked new excite- ment throughout Germany., Insurrections and street fights took place, first in those states that refused to introduce the new government, — in Saxony, in Bavaria, and in parts of Rhenish Prussia. Next in Baden, where the government had accepted the May, isjb. new constitution, a mutiny occurred among the soldiers, and in conse- quence of this, the Grand-duke abandoned the country to the democratic and repub- lican leaders. In the National Assembly at Frankfort, the refusal of the German gov- ernments to accept the new constitution, gave the extreme left increasing influence; the conservative deputies leaving, either voluntarily, or at the command of their gov- ernments. But the Prussian army rapidly conquered peace. Prussian troops sup- pressed the uprisings along the Rhine; they marched into Dresden, and freed the capi- tal of Saxony from the insurgents; they invaded Bavaria and Baden, and suppressed the insurrection just as it threatened to enter Wiirtemburg. The remnant of the j»ie, is49. National Assembly at Frankfort now removed to Stuttgart. They were spoken of as the Rump Parliament, nevertheless they established an executive council of five members, and would have supported the revolution, had not Romer driven them from the kingdom. Meanwhile the Prussians had re-established order in Baden. The republican leaders escaped to Switzerland or to America. Soon after these events, the three kings of Prussia, Hanover, and Saxony, published a new imperial constitu- tion, which was received with great satisfaction by the moderate men of all parties. But Saxony and Hanover soon withdrew, and left Prussia to carry out the plan alone. Austria now intervened, and restored the old Congress of the Union. Prussia, for a while, refused to send a representative. Austria, and the others states, threatened to use force, and the armies were confronting each other, when, at the last moment, the conflict was averted by an agreement made between the Prussian and the Austrian xovemher, isso. ministry. This humiliation of Prussia at Olmiitz, where the minis- ters met, created great bitterness at Berlin, and throughout the kingdom. Various at- jDecembet; isso. tempts were made to establish a more perfect union, but all proved 680 THE ERA OF REVOLUTIONS AND RESTORATIONS. fruitless. Prussia finally gave way, the Old Union was re-established, and the old Congress at Frankfort reconvened. § 575. Affairs in Schleswig-Holstein also Iwrned out badly. In March, 1849, the Germans marched triumphantly to Fridericia, and beleaguered the place. But the garrison was strengthened, the German army was driven back, and the Danes pos- jfwiv, isn>. sessed themselves of the intvenchments and works of the besiegers. A truce followed. Schleswig was placed under neutral authority, and occupied by Prussian and Swedish troops, and the next year, Schleswig and Holstein were handed over to Denmark. But the governor, who had been appointed by the Central Gov- juiy, is5o. eminent at Frankfort, refused to abandon the country. Volunteers streamed in from all sides. The Danes were attacked, but the battle ended in the dis- comfiture of the Germans. The latter continued the war, but Austria and Prussia determined to bring it to a speedy close. They required the governor to give up his authority, and to make room for a government appointed by Denmark and the two German powers. Their wishes were fulfilled. Austrian troops occupied the land from Hamburg to Rensburg, and Schleswig was given over to the vengeance of the Danes. § 576. The constitutional assembly of France finished its labors in May, 1849. A democratic republic with universal suffrage, and religious and civil freedom for everj r citizen, with a single legislative chamber, and a president to be elected every four years, were the leading features of the new system. The new legislature contained many democrats with socialistic tendency. These called themselves The Mountain, and when the French government resolutely opposed socialism at home and abroad, the Mountain attempted to provoke new uprisings in Paris and Lyons. These were speedily suppressed, and many of the leaders driven into exile, or carried off to prison. The socialists now abandoned their plans of revolution, but sought to increase their power in the legislature. To prevent this the National Assembly limited the suffrage, may 3i, i8so. and at the same time issued new regulations for the Press. These measures brought upon the assembly the hatred of the people, and Louis Napoleon getting possession of the army, and the civil officers, prepared to overthrow the con- stitution, and to make himself sole ruler. He won the clergy by great concessions, and when the assembly refused to alter the constitution so as to make him eligible for a second term, Louis Napoleon, with the help of his arm)-, dispersed the assembty, and struck down the parliamentary opposition. The Coup d' Etat was supported b}' St. 2>ece>»be>- it, A maud, the minister of War, Morny, and Maupas, the Minister of tssi, Police. Leading members of Parliament were arrested and banished. Insurrections and barricade-fights took place in Paris, Lyons, and other cities, but were soon suppressed. The president "appealed to the people, and 7,000,000 votes were cast in favor of the new government, which was built upon the plan of the First Consulate. Louis Napoleon was declared president for ten years. He was clothed with royal authority, and the legislative power was made to consist of a senate and a legis- lative assembly. But this was only a temporary device. The empire was proclaimed .December a, the next year, the people voting for it by a still greater majority The iss2. French people, worn out and wasted by revolutions, submitted will- ingly to the new emperor, Napoleon III., who, with the help of police and military, established peace and order with an iron hand. (pp. 682.) ALFRED TENNYSON. RECENT HISTORY. FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE TO THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR. I. THE WESTERN POWERS AND RUSSIA. THE SECOND NAPOLEONIC EMPIRE. HE establishment of the new empire in Franco filled the reactionary and conservative par- ties with new confidence. All fear of rev- olution seemed to vanish, and the aristocratic world abandoned itself once more to the de- lights of social life. The other nations at first maintained an attitude of reserve, fear- ing lest the third Napoleon might follow in the footsteps of his uncle, not only in his methods of internal administration, but in his foreign policy ; that he might revive the Napoleonic ideas and traditions, which he had proclaimed in his writings as the true stand- ards of progressive development. Gradually, however, they came to believe that " the em- pire was peace." The nephew had, to be sure, been sorely tried by fate, and had learned to tame and to control his passions, to conceal his thoughts and his plans, or to wrap them up in ambiguous expressions and diplomatic phrases. Nevertheless " a Napoleon of peace," as Louis Phillipe liked to call himself, he was determined not to become. The " grand nation " had felt itself sorely wounded by the conduct of the citizen-king. For the pride of France was to guide the fate of Europe, to control the course of history, to start new impulses, to speak the emphatic word, to exercise in critical moments the decisive influence. And this (683) 684 RECENT HISTORY. national pride Napoleon resolved to gratify. Recognizing the military character of the French people, he determined to give it every opportunity; and, by cherishing this love of glory, he revived the slumbering sympathies for the Bonapartist dynasty, es- tablished his throne upon strong foundations, and directed the restless and turbulent forces of the people to foreign issues. When the royal families of Europe hesitated '$Bmi. NAPOLEON III. to ally themselves in matrimony with the new ruler, Napoleon offered his hand to the Spanish beauty, Eugenie Montijo, Duchess of Teba, and in doing so he proudly de- jran.ao, issa. clared himself a sovereign "by the grace of the people." His marriage March ie, lsso. and the birth of a prince three years later, were both greeted by uni- versal applause. Napoleon announced, as the fundamental principle of his policy, the right of the people to determine their own destiny ; this involved, in its application, a resort to the ballot-box in every case of political transformation. Savoy and Nice were annexed to France by a popular vote ; the smaller states of Italy were incorpor- ated into the new kingdom by the action of the people ; and in Mexico the establish- ment of an empire was based apparently and ostentatiously upon the popular will. In the Schleswig-Holstein difficulty Napoleon urged a similar solution. Social questions were carefully studied by the Emperor. In Paris he created bakeries, subsidized by FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 685 the city, where the poorer classes could obtain bread at moderate prices. In the valley of the Rhone he provided against inundations, by dykes, and dams, and changes in the bed of the stream ; and he sought everywhere to further agriculture. Splendid public buildings, erected at the expense of the Empire and the Cities, furnished employment to the masses, and at the same time created new streets and healthier dwellings. The great Exposition of art and industry, which was opened in May 1854, and commercial 1854. treaties with different states, greatly increased the trade of France at home and abroad. Unlike his uncle, who had fettered the commerce of Europe by the Berlin and Milan decrees, he unloosed the bonds of the French protective system, and by diminishing or abolishing tariff duties, he made an important step toward free-trade. Notwithstanding the popularity of Napoleon's rule, his enemies remained bitter and numerous. The Legitimists retired from political life, and, owing to the inactivity and the passive nature of their chief, the childless Count Chambord, their hopes for a new restoration faded away. The Orleanists were represented by Guizot, who occupied himself with his memoirs, and his religious meditations, and by Thiers, who, though brought into intimate relations with the Napoleonic family by his " History of the Con- sulate and the Empire," had, nevertheless, become a member of the parliamentary op- position. But the Republicans were much more stubborn in their resistance, and their hatred for the new regime. Many distinguished personalities like Ledru Rollin and Louis Blanc, like Victor Hugo and Quinet, remained abroad, as irreconcilable haters of imperialism, in England, in Belgium, in Switzerland, expecting a new overturn in affairs. And even in France, on many occasions, as for instance, at the burial of the is57. poet, Be"ranger, there were outbreaks of anti-Bonapartistic feelings and opinions. But Napoleon III. was on his guard. He had a vigilant police, a pow- erful army, a splendid guard, devoted generals and officers, who repaid him with fidel- ity and zeal for the advantageous position that he had created for them in the state and in society. A corporation law, drawn with great care, gave the government the right to examine minutely into every form of society and every kind of meeting. The severest measures against the press silenced the opposition, and placed the expression of public opinion altogether under the control of the state. The attack of the Italian, Tune 14, lass. Orsini, upon the life of the Emperor, gave an opportunity for even severer measures. Five districts were created, and Espinasse was made minister of war and police. In a word, the whole empire was placed under martial law ; a military- police terrorism, conspicuous for arrests and deportations, held all minds imprisoned, and filled them with fear and alarm. This system of war, and of terror, was only gradually modified by conciliatory measures, and even then, the free expression of opin- ion in the press, and in the legislature, was greatly limited. The system of centraliza- tion, which placed all power in the hands of the officials, guided and determined every manifestation of public life, and repressed every kind of self-government, in corpora- tions and communities. Not until Napoleon had, through a new military organization, placed the empire iset. in a position to maintain the attitude toward other nations, due to its rank, and to hold in check the hostile elements at home, did he enter into freer paths. iseo. The dismission of Minister Rouher, the adroit champion of imperial absolutism, marks the transition to a constitutional system, with freedom of the press and of public assembly, and of actual participation by the legislative body in public 686 RECENT HISTORY. affairs. Once more the people were called upon to speak their mind at the ballot-box; May s, isio. the parliamentary era was adopted by a vast majority, and Ollivier was called to headthe new administration. But the greatest triumphs of Napoleon were in the field of European politics. Supported by England, he was able to break up the Holy Al- liance, and by waging successful war against Rus- sia, and against Austria, he restored to France her military glor}-, and her controlling position in the affairs of the civilized world. § 578. The English government regarded with anxiet} T , at first, the restoration of the Bona- partist Dynasty, and its traditions, and accord- ingly, began to increase the defences of the na- tion. Harbors and coast-fortifications were placed ^ in order, great additions were made to the nav}' Jg and to the army, and a volunteer soldiery was or- ^-ganized. Indeed all the nations of the continent -§ were angry at England, seeing that political fugi- 5 tives, and exiles from all lands, found a safe refuge -in the island kingdom, from which the} r could sup- 's port the party of revolution in other European states, and from which the}' labored to overthrow 2 existing governments. The British cabinet, how- jQ ever, by its moderation and adroitness, pacified wthe continental powers, without limiting in the . least the ancient freedom of the soil ; and as " events of great importance soon directed the gaze < of the world to other things, a good understand- 6 ing was restored. France and England entered g into an alliance, which was kept alive by repeated § visits between the ruling families and by manv s personal attentions. This enabled the English S nation to move, unhindered, along the pathway of reform and of intellectual progress, which she fol- , v.Wi- ~ , ; - ■ lows with such eagerness and success. The si I , ' lllillif 3sf uEffi'^W World's Fair, in the year 1851, the diminution or abolition of taxes, marine telegraphs and the like, greatly furthered trade and commerce. The law was even-where enforced : the slave trade was op- posed and suppressed ; the rights of seamen and of the merchant marine defended ; Jews were ad- mitted to parliament, and the election laws were so changed, as to include, among the electors, nearly the entire adult male population. But England v/as by no means~~so" fortunate and successful in her foreign policy. This was often one sided : the influence of the country was often frittered away in petty quarrels ; FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 687 nobler policies were often sacrificed to material advantages, to the interests of trade and to national prejudice. With the United States of North America she quarreled continually, and these quarrels became so bitter that several times they threatened war. In the East Indies, the disregard of the religious usages and prejudices of the natives, the injustice and partiality of the courts, the inadequate execution of agree- ments, and of treaties by British officials and by British officers, provoked a rebellion in the army and a national war, which shook profoundly the Anglo-Indian Empire and brought with it most inhuman cruelties. In Delhi, the massacre of English in- i8S7. habitants, by the rebellious Sepoys, was revenged by streams of blood. The treacherous deeds, and the horrible cruelty of Prince Nana Sahib in Cawnpore, EXECUTION OP SEPOY LEADERS IN INDIA. (D. WeinhdUpt.) who had murdered, in the region of the upper Ganges, all his European prisoners re- gardless of age or sex, were punished by horrible executions at the cannon's mouth. Yet the insurrection enhanced the power of England, and led to its firmer establish- ment. The courageous behavior of the European armies in Lucknow, and other places maia Bin. of the rebellious land, the achievements of General Havelock, and other iss8. commanders, gave splendid proof of their superiority and military energy; and the subjection of the Indian empire to the immediate authority of the Queen, after the rebellion was suppressed, opened a new era in the public life of the East Indies. The fidelity with which Queen Victoria supported the parliamentary system in England, united government and people in confidence and affection. Only in Ireland was there disaffection. The Fenians in America sent their agents into the Emerald Isle, to provoke an insurrection, so that the English government was com- pelled to suspend the habeas corpus act, and to declare martial law. The head centre, Stephens, was arrested, but made his escape. Conspiracies, conflagrations, murderous 688 RECENT HISTORY. attacks now kept the English people in continual excitement, and provoked numerous prosecutions, and exceptional police laws. Yet they were not without good results, for the liberal party made earnest efforts, by the disestablishment of the English Church in Ireland, and by a reform in the land laws, to pacify the Irish people. The land legisla- tion, especially, was intended to set limits to the severity, and caprice, of the landlords, and to render possible, the conversion of a tenant farm into a freehold. The death of »ec. 14, isei. the Prince Consort Albert, was a heavy blow not only to the Queen, but to the country ; for the prince had always exercised a conciliatory and wholesome influence upon public affairs, and upon the court circle. Victoria was so heart-broken by her loss, that she withdrew herself, for a long time, from state ceremonies. King />...■. /*«.-». Leopold of Belgium, the prince's uncle, died four years later ; just a few months after the death of the great statesman Palmerston, whose skillful Oct. lses. hand had so often guided the ship of state through storms and difficult situations, and to whose intimacy with Napoleon was especially due the maintenance of the alliance between France and England. A noteworthy episode in English his- tory, was the brief war with Abyssinia. The tyrannical king, Theodore, cast certain missionaries and English citizens into prison, and scorned all remonstrances and re- quests of the London cabinet. Sir Robert Napier was sent, with an armed force, to the Red Sea, to vindicate the national honor, and the rights of nations. King Theodore Apru isos. himself was killed at the storming of the fortress Magdella, and the Abyssinians were glad to accept the terms of the conquerors. § 579. — Russia and the Oriental Question. The third Napoleon consecrated his empire with a war against the same nation which had triumphed over his uncle and the grand army; and in revenging the name of Napoleon he not only flattered French pride, but the religious prejudices of the Catholic clergy. The Revolution had never LORD PALMERSTON. touched the frontiers of the Russian Empire ; even the Poles had submit- ted in silent resignation to the will of the stern monarch in St. Peters- burg ; Austria had invoked his help against Hungary ; Prussia was his faithful ally ; the German princes re- garded him as the strong tower of royal authority ; the people were op- pressed and discouraged, public opin- ion reduced to silence, the party of reaction honored and respected. Nich- olas " sole autocrat of all the Rus- sias " was thus led to resume the conquests of Katherine II., and to bring the principalities on the Danube into closer relations, by the erection of a Russian protectorate. The Turk- ish empire was in a shattered condi- tion. The Russian Czar spoke of it, FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 689 in a confidential conversation, as a " sick man ; " a strong blow might easily be its death- blow. The Czar especially relied upon the great discord between the Christians and Mohammedans, and upon the devotion of the Greek Christians, who looked upon him as the protector of their faith. True the Turkish government was not guilty of oppress- ing its Christian subjects. Christians of all confessions might live undisturbed, if they only paid their taxes. In the lands and cities south of the Danube, the Christians con- stituted a majority of the inhabitants. In Constantinople, and in other cities, they dwelt in particular sections. The government of the Sultan, however, was not always able to restrain the fanaticism of the Mohammedans in the outlying provinces. The Christians were sometimes attacked, robbed, outraged, murdered. Now there existed old treaties, which conceded to the Russian Czar, a certain protectorate over the Christ- ians of Greek confession ; and Nicholas, earnestly devoted to his church, and regarding its extension as his holiest duty, lost no opportunity to meddle in the religious quarrels of the Turkish kingdom. Russian agents were constantly seeking to bind their companions in the faith to the great northern power, and the Russian ambassador in Constantinople spoke as if the Czar were the rightful and acknowledged protector, of Greek Christendom in the East. The Christians of Greek confession by this action of the Czar, not only secured for themselves an advantageous position with Moslems, but they came to regard themselves as the only lawful possessors of the pilgrim-stations in Palestine, especially of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem ; and determined, in their arrogance, to exclude the Roman Catholic pilgrims from the sacred places, or to admit them only under humiliating conditions. Thus the Holy Chapel, at the Sepulchre often became the scene of bloody quarrels, between the confessors of the Eastern and the Western church. Now it happened that France possessed a like protectorate over the Roman Catholics of Palestine. But since the number of Greek pilgrims was much the greater, and the French government was seldom disposed to vex itself about the pilgrim monks in the Holy Land, the Greek Christians had obtained the advantage by the powerful help of Russia and by the weakness of the Sublime Porte. So Nicholas- determined to declare himself the protector of all Christians in the Turkish Empire, and thus to give a legal aspect to actual conditions ; but this would have so degraded the Sultan in the eyes of the Mohammedans, that if it had succeeded unchallenged, it would have precipitated the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. § 580. Events Along the Danube., and in the Baltic Sea. — France and England re- solved to preserve " the balance of power " and came at once to the support of Turkey. The Czar, however, hoped to frighten the Sultan by energetic promptness. Prince Menschikoff was sent to Constantinople as extraordinary-ambassador. Stopping at Sebastopol he reviewed the Russian fleet and army, and then proceeded to the Bos- phorus. He demanded an immediate audience with the Sultan, and entered his pres- March 2, iss3. ence without ceremony and even without respect. His demands were as insolent as his bearing. He demanded for the Czar a protectorate over all Greek Christians. This would have m.ade Nicholas co-regent with the Sultan. When his de- mands were rejected, Menschikoff left the Turkish capital with angry threats. Three weeks later, the English and French fleets anchored in the Dardanelles to watch the July ■>, iss3. course of events. Nicholas thereupon commanded Prince Gortschakoff to cross the river Pruth with two divisions, and take possession of the Danubian prin- cipalities. To gain favor with the Christian po]Dulation, he issued a manifest saying that he came to defend the Holy orthodox faith. Sultan Abdul Medschid replied with 44 690 RECENT HISTORY. a firman, in which he solemnly confirmed their rights, to the Christians of his domin- ion ; and on the 4th of Oct. he declared war upon Russia, unless the latter imme- diately evacuated the Danubian principalities. At the same time Omar Pasha occu- pied the south bank of the Danube with a army. Nicholas Turkish did not cross the river, but the Rus- xov. 30, iss3. sian fleet at- tacked the Turkish squadron in the harbor of Sinope, and destroyed the most of it. England and France, as the allies of Turkey, resented this outrage bj r declaring war upon the Russians. The war now assumed large propor- tions. Prince Paskiewitsch, the most famous of Russian generals, led the Russian ar- mies to Silistria, while* the English forces under Lord Raglan, and a French army under Marshal St. Arnaud appeared in the Dardanelles, and landed at Varna. At the same time Admiral Aug., issj. Charles Na- pier conducted an English fleet to the Baltic to attack Cronstadt and St. Peters- burg. The Russians were unsuccessful at Silistria, and Paskiewitsch retired from the war. The French, in a hasty march to the interior, lost two thousand men from heat, fatigue, and cholera, and the camp at Varna was devas- tated by the pestilence. The expedition to the Baltic had not much more success. Bo- marsund was captured, a few sailing vessels were de- stroyed and a few coast vil- lages devastated. § 581. The War in the Crimea. — After the allies had lost fifteen thousand men, they determined to attack the fortified city of Sebastopol, and to destroy the Russian naval FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 691 power in the Black Sea. North of Sebastopol itself were strong fortifications intended to protect the fleet lying at anchor in the harbor, and beyond these were the heights occupied by Prince Menschikoff, with an army of thirty thousand men. These were sept, no, is**, attacked by the allies and were driven from their position in the Battle of the Alma. Yet Sebastopol was still impregnable. Menschikoff found time to strengthen the city from all sides, a work in which he was greatly aided by the genius of General Todleben. He further added to his inaccessi- bility by sinking seven great ships of war in the harbor. The allies soon perceived that they must wait for new cannon, and instruments of siege ; and meanwhile must go into camp. St. Arnaud fell sick and died upon the ship that was taking him to Constantinople. He was succeeded by General Canrobert. The siege of Sebastopol now began in earnest. The first attempt to storm the works, by a united attack of army and navy, ended in a disas- trous retreat of the allies. Eight Nov. s, 1854. days later the Eng- lish were attacked at Balaklava, famous in poetry for the charge of the Six Hundred. On the 5th of November the battle of Inkerman was fought and resulted in favor of the allies. § 582. The Winter Campaign in Front of Sebastopol. — But the bloody battle of Inkerman effected no change in the situation. A winter campaign, for which no prepa- rations had been made, was inevitable. Not since the Russian campaign of 1812 had an army suffered such misery as the soldiers in the Crimea during the winter of 1854 and 1855. Incessant rains converted the trenches into canals, and the tents were often filled knee-deep with water. Clothing, food, hospital supplies were lacking; men were compelled to serve often without shelter ; diseases of all sorts, especially the cholera and dysentery, carried them away by scores. Sisters of Mercy and English women, particularly Florence Nightingale, made noble sacrifices to alleviate the sufferings of the troops. This misery of the allied armies encouraged the Russian Emperor to hold out. He rejected the four points which had been offered him as a basis of peace, al- though they were supported by Austria and Prussia. Austria, at this juncture, joined Jan. as, isss. the allies, and some weeks later Sardinia made a treaty with France and England, and sent an army of fifteen thousand men to the Crimea. Prussia and the states of the German union adhered to their neutrality. When the new year opened, the war was resumed with redoubled energy. But the Czar Nicholas was not per- mitted to see its close. The news that his army had been defeated by Omar Pasha so itiarcFi a, isss. wrought upon his health, that he died quite suddenly. His son an(f successor, Alexander II., was more inclined to a peaceful settlement of the terrible HH ;V - "GENERAL VON TODLEBEN. 692 RECEXT HISTORY. war. Nevertheless, respect for his deceased father required him to exert all the energy of the nation to bring the struggle to an honorable conclusion. The honor of France, and of the new empire, also de- manded more sacri- fices. So the allies approached with their trenches and their parallels nearer to the city, and Todle- ben created the cele- brated Malakoff tow- er, an almost impreg- nable bulwark. §583. The Issue of the War. The siege of Sebastopol lasted all summer. Meanwhile, a part of % the allied fleet sailed j into the sea of Azof, < and devastated the a harbor towns. Prince | Gortschakoff suc- 3 ceeded Prince Men- 2 schikoff as Russian 2 commander, and Gen- h eral Pelissier s u c - * ceeded Canrobert in command of the French army. "When Lord Raglan was car- ried off by the chol- era, General Simpson took his place, and the Russian admiral, Nachimoff,w r as struck by a bullet, as he was inspecting the forti- fications. Thus death mowed down the au- thors and leaders of the terrible war. On isss. the 8th of September, after terrible slaughter, the Malakoff tower was stormed by the French, and another bul- wark by the English, Gortschakoff still held a strong position upon the north side storming the malakoff, (Sept. 8,1855). (E. Knoetel.) (pp.693.) 694 RECENT HISTORY. of the bay, but the siege of Sebastopol was ended. On all sides the longing was for peace. But not until the Russians had saved their honor, by capturing the Turkish fortification at Kars, was the Czar willing to accept the proposition to call the Con- jaarch 3o, iss6. gress at Paris. After weeks of negotiation, the Congress agreed upon the following : The Ottoman empire should be preserved, the navigation of the Danube made free, the Danubian principalities should be placed under the protection of the western powers, the Christians should have equal rights with Mohammedans, under the guarantee of all the contracting powers, and the Rus- sian naval force in the Black Sea should be limited. Napoleon III., at the close of the Crimean war, was at the height of his power. His minister, Walewski, a natural son of the first Napo- leon, conducted the Congress. All eyes were now directed to the arbiter of Europe, whose happiness at this time was in- creased by the birth of a son, the child of France, given to the world by his Spanish wife Eugenie. § 584. Turkey and Greece. The Sublime Porte came out of the war exceedingly feeble. Neither Abdul Medschid, who died on the 26th of June, 1861, or his brother Ahaui A S is, and successor, Abdul Aziz, could cope with the increasing anarchy and 1SC1-/SJ6. financial misery. The attempts at reform, made by Fuad Pasha, were without enduring success. The chief difficulty, however, was caused by the vassal states. Moldavia and Wallachia united together to form Roumania, and chose a Mol- davian nobleman, Alexander Cusa, as their leader ; and when he proved a tyrant, a rebellion broke out in Bucharest, which brought to the throne a German prince, Carl web., is«e. Anton von Hohenzollern. In Servia the conflicts between the Chris- tians and the Turks became so bloody, that the western powers were obliged to inter- fere so that the sovereignty of the Sultan vanished to a shadow. The next j'ear ises. Prince Michael Obrenowitsch was murdered at Belgrade, and his ALEXANDER II. FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 695 young relative, Prince Milan, was raised to the throne by the National Assembly. King Otto of Greece, in spite of his good will, had, in thirty years, been unable to acquire the affection of the people. During the Crimean war, some, enthusiasts in Athens sought to excite the Greeks to take the part of Russia, but Otto, partly from lack of energy, and partly from fear of the western powers, resisted the urging of the friends of Russia. This conduct deprived him of any respect still existing for him among the Greeks. They believed that with an enterprising man on the throne their "great idea" of a new Greek empire might be realized. They therefore planned the isea. overthrow of the Bavarian dynasty. Uprisings took place in Athens and Corinth, which led to the departure of the king and the erection of a provisional government. But the hope of getting a monarch from a powerful reigning house was not fulfilled. Several princes declined the offered crown. Finally a young Danish isos. prince was chosen at the suggestion of England and proclaimed King of Greece, under the name of George I. But he proved as feeble as the Bavarian Otto. The English government then gave up its protectorate of the Ionic islands, and consented to their union with the Greek kingdom. But the national and religious excitement continued and provoked bloody uprisings and cruel conflicts in the island of Candia (the ancient Crete). King George, by his marriage with a Russian princess, united his people more firmly to the Russians, and trusting to Russian support, the Greeks encouraged the uprisings in Candia. Turkey now assumed a hostile attitude, and Eu- rope was threatened once more with the Eastern question. But a conference at Paris restored the island to the Turks. The visit of the Empress Eugenie of France, the Emperor Francis Joseph of iseo. Austria, and the Crown Prince of Prussia, to the Suez canal, built under the direction of the French diplomatist, De Lesseps, brought the Ot- toman empire a step closer to the civil- ized world of Europe. § 585. Russia under Alexander II. Alexander II. was crowned Czar of all the Russias in Moscow, on the 7th of September, 1856. At his coronation he issued a number of edicts of mercy. He also diminished the standing army, there- by relieving the countrj' of taxation, and setting free much wasted energy for in- dustrial pursuits. Commercial treaties promoted intercourse with foreign lands. A ministry of enlightenment set about improving and increasing the schools. The oppression of the Jews and the non-Greek Christians ceased, and the administration of justice was modified by the introduction of the jury system. But his great reform was the abolition of serfdom, and the establishment of peasant communities upon a landed basis, a measure which began a complete transformation of the social, financial, and economic conditions of the empire. At the same time, the Russian power in FERDINAND DE LESSEPS. 696 RECENT HISTORY. lass. Asia was strengthened and extended. Schamyl, the ancient enemy of the Czar in Circassia, was taken prisoner and held a captive, until he died twelve years afterward. § 586. Parties in Poland. Alexander II. extended his reform to Poland also, where Prince Gortschakoff, the defender of Sebastopol, took the place of the old Prince Paskiewitsch. An amnesty permitted the political fugitives to return home. The judicial and educational systems were reorganized, the University of Warsaw was made a national institution, the peasants were relieved of feudal burdens, the cities were given home government, and an economic society was founded in Warsaw. But the Poles still longed to be a nation, and the patriotic party thought the time was op- portune to restore the " lost country." Russia was weakened by the Crimean war ; France had declared in favor of popular suffrage. A party of national resistance was organized, and secret societies spread through the land. The peasants, mistrustful of the Polish nobility, held apart from the movement. The chief supporters of the National party were in the old cities, es- pecially in the capital, Warsaw, among the educated youth, who. dreamed of a glorious nationality, among the priests who thought the movement favorable to their design, among the dissatisfied Jews who wished for civil equality, and among the emigrants who carried in their breasts as a holy inheritance, a consuming hatred for the destroyers of their beloved Poland. § 587. In February, 1861, the National party began a series of patriotic demonstra- isei. tions. When the Russian military intervened, bloody conflicts en- sued. The imperial government regretted these events, and entrusted to a number of distinguished citizens the maintenance of public order. At the same time, Count Wielopolski, a high-minded Polish patriot, was appointed minister of education and of religious affairs in Warsaw. A Polish state council also was established. But these gifts were not enough for the excited patriots. They desired independence, and the restoration of the ancient Polish republic. Processions, public meetings, the singing of the national hymn by excited crowds, still continued. The authorities dissolved the militia and the economical union, and also increased the severity of the police. But the excitement increased, and in April a conflict took place between the soldiers and the people, in which a number of Poles were killed and •wounded. Warsaw was now placed by the governor in a state of siege ; the demonstrations of the National party were forbidden. The movement was thereupon transferred from the streets to the churches. The national hymns were sung within the sacred walls, and heaven was besought to answer with the restoration of Poland. The death of the old Prince Czartoryski,' the Nestor of the Polish patriots in 1831, was solemnized in Paris by a SCHAMYL. fiwrappi^~~ 3' v sS ■ I '4' Ui ii*! 1 OS CO Si 698 . RECENT HISTORY. great procession and elaborate ceremonies. The state of siege was now extended by the governor over all Poland. The singing of the national hymn was forbidden, and when the churches were filled with the crowds that came to mourn for Kosciusko, the people were dispersed at the point of the bayonet, and the Bishop, with a number of well-known citizens, was sent to prison. But the Emperor hoped to overcome the movement by reforms and conciliatipn. He named his brother, the Grand-duke Con- juiie, i8e2. stantine, as viceroy of Poland, and appointed Wielopolski chief of the civil power. But the population of the city was under the influence of a secret conspiracy ; the Grand-duke and Count Wielopolski were repeatedly assailed by assassins. § 588. The Russian government now determined upon a conscription. On the night of the 14th of January, soldiers entered all the houses of Warsaw, and carried.off the young men for military service. The blow was so unexpected, that few had escaped. The revolutionary party collected the fugitives and the sympathizers with the patriotic fraternities, in forests and remote places, and organized a popular war against the i8«3. Russians. They attacked the imperial troops at different places, and in order to win the peasants for their cause, the provisional government issued a proclamation, in which they promised to secure to the peasants the freeholds of their farms. The watch-word was given for another conflict between the Poles and the Russians. In England and in France the old sympathies for the outraged people were revived, and public opinion declared in unmistakable terms in their favor. European diplomacy developed great activity in favor of Poland, but the sympathies of the western nations did not go beyond these diplomatic notes. Meanwhile the Russian arms were victorious. The proclamation of the provisional government failed to influence the peasants. Instead of a national army, the insurgents had only dis- ordered groups to lead against the Russians. Every band was under a separate leader. General Mieroslawski, the well-known adventurer of 1848 and 1849, had returned to his native country, and been named dictator; but he was defeated by the Russians, fled across the Prussian frontiers, and then basely published attacks upon his compatriots. Langiewicz was nobler, and for a while more successful. But he too was soon com- pelled to fly. Nevertheless, the provisional government was able to keep the kingdom for a long time insecure, and supported by the nobility, by the inhabitants of the cities, and by the clergy, to establish a reign of terror. The members of this government, whom the Russians tried in vain to discover, astonished the world with their activity and their organization. They issued ordinances and laws; they collected taxes; they erected revolutionary tribunals in Warsaw and in the provincial cities. Two govern- ments confronted each other, a government of open violence, and a government of secret terror. But every supply of arms, ammifnition, 'and men, was cut off by the watch maintained upon the Prussian and Austrian frontiers. § 589. The cabinet at St. Petersburg declined all foreign intervention, and re- jected the proposition of the Western powers for a truce. Wielopolski was removed, and General Berg was placed in charge at Warsaw. The Emperor Napoleon made another attempt to convene a European congress, but without avail. Russia proceeded with energetic violence ; resistance was beaten down : the activity of the provisional government repressed ; the voices of the patriots silenced. The Czar then determined to unite the Polish peasantry more firmly to Russia, by giving them free-hold rights VYTYPt.Ct'PHIlA ARMS AND ARMOR OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. Needle Gun. Chassepot. Springfield Rifle. Martini-Henry Rifle. Vitterlin Gun. Wemdl Rifle. Revolver. Cartridge and Ball. Rifle Ball. Bayonet. Officer's Sword. Saber. 13. Cavalry Sabre. 14. Sabre Bavonet. 15, 16, 17, 18. 'Standards. 19. Drum. 20. Cartridge Box. 21. Trumpet. 22. Cuirass. 23. Knapsack. 24. Canteen . 25. Krupp 12-incli Gun and Cartridge. 26. Section of Conical Steel Shot. 27. Ramrod and Wiper. 28. Gatling Gun. 29. Parrott Gun. 30. Siege Gun. 31. 32, 33. Artillery Cartridges. 34. Ar-nstrong Gun. 35. Mortar. 36. Round Shot. 37. Sea-Coast Gun. 38. Krupp Mortar and Carriage. 39 to 56. Modern Military Caps, Hats, and Helmets. (699) 700 RECENT HISTORY. iii their property, and on the other hand, to weaken the nobility and the cities by root ing out the Polish language, by suppressing national peculiarities, and by transplant ing the old families to other regions of the empire. Church property also was con- tses. fiscated, the independence of the Catholic church thus broken, and the Polish clergy stabbed to the heart. The Pope protested, and diplomatic relations be- tween St. Petersburg and Rome were broken off. This Polish uprising chilled the desire of" Alexander to reform his people and his empire, and the attempts to assassi- 18G7. nate him, made by Russians and by Poles, rendered his life sombre and unhappy, while they led to further repression of progressive movements. 2. Germany and the Two Great German Powers. § 590. The German Union. — When the revolution had been suppressed through- out Germany, a reaction took place in church and state. The Jesuits began their itinerant preaching, the hierarchy concluded with each of the governments a Con- cordat. Church unions sprang up, and missions were preached in all corners of the land. Princes and nobles were eager to overthrow or to transform the new institu- tions, that the revolution had established. Liberal cabinets gave way to conserva- tives. Constitutions were purified of their democratic elements, and the daily journals were regulated by laws and severe restrictions. Political assemblies were either sup- pressed or strictly watched. And when the particular governments lacked the will or the strength to arrest political progress, the Congress of the Union interfered. A Central Commission of the Union was charged with the decision of all constitutional iss-t. difficulties, and this commission established a Press Lata for all the states of the Union. In this way, some constitutional provisions were wholly set aside in many states, as in Hesse Cassel, Homburg, and Lippe-Detmold, while others were modified rtr rendered nugatory by bold revision. In some states, as in Hanover and Mecklenburg, the feudal conditions of an antiquated time were restored in the inter- ests of the landed gentry. All this excited great indignation throughout Germany. But the Congress of the Union was supported, in this reactionary activity, by the two great German powers ; although it was no secret, that the humiliating day of Olmutz had made a great gulf between Prussia and Austria. The Restoration of the Con- gress of the Union had been the work of Austria. Prussia had consented only with reluctance. But the majority of the other states stood upon Austria's side. And thus it happened, that for a decade, the German people struggled in vain against the re- action, hoping to save a few remnants of their constitutional rights and liberties. The people desired to be saved from religious and social ruin ; they desired a political sys- tem, in which, notwithstanding the variety of dialects and of states, the German people might act as a whole, and take a position in European politics, corresponding to their greatness, their power, and their civilization. The National Union labored to unite with Prussia, and took the imperial con- stitution of 1849 as the goal of its efforts, while the Reform Union worked for an or- ganization, in which Austria would find a place with Germany and Prussia. The Prussian Government, it is true, showed little favor to the National Union ; but the German princes and rulers encouraged the Reform Union, because they feared more from Prussia than from Austria. When the Emperor Francis Joseph had given a con- stitution to his own people, he thought it a favorable moment to assemble all the Ger- FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 701 man monarchs at Frankfort, to deliberate upon a reform of the German Union. The Prussian king was at that time in bitter conflict with his House of Representatives. But all the other reigning princes accepted the Austrian invitation. The king of is«3. Prussia remained away, the Grand-duke of Baden refused to sign the proposals of reform, and the people refused to be satisfied with the proposed assembly of notables, instead of a national parliament. The only result of the assembly of princes was to make plain that even the rulers had lost faith in the Congress of the Union, and that they were satisfied that some concessions must be made to satisfy the desire of unity so prevalent among the German people. Attempts, too, were made to establish a uniform financial system, uniform weights and measures, and a better mail service. But the great celebration of 1859, in honor of the national poet Schiller, was a striking proof of the feeling of brotherhood and of nationality that had taken possession of all sections of the German family. The hour of redemption was drawing nigh. § 591. Austria.— The struggle of 1848 and 1849 had left the House of Haps- burg stronger than before. The Congress of the Union had been raised from the dead, and the struggle of the German people for a nobler political life had been strangled. Yet not without great sacrifices. The maintainance of a powerful army, the great expenses for police and administration had increased the imperial debt, until all the gold and silver disappeared from daily life, and only paper was in circulation. The imperial credit was ruined. Expenses exceeded revenues by many millions. As everywhere else in Germany, so here too, the reactionary party was determined to bury the achievements of the revolution. By an imperial decree, the new constitution was abolished, and the absolute monarchy restored. The different races had too little sympathy with each other to care for a form of government which they neither under- stood nor desired, and of whose operations they had no experience. But their failure to rebel was no proof of their content. A Hungarian attempted to assassinate the iss3. Emperor. The ancient Hungarian crown, with the crown-jewels, had been discovered and restored to the House of Hapsburg. But it was easier to restore the crown than to conciliate the people. The exiled patriots were too numerous for quiet to reign among their friends. Resistance often reached such a pitch, that an- other insurrection seemed imminent. In other lands, Austria met with resistance, but acted with greater wisdom, for in these the Emperor introduced great reforms, espe- cially in relieving the peasants from the burdens upon their holdings. This produced a social revolution which the government presided over, with many heavy sacrifices, and although the Catholic prelates brought about a Concordat with the Pope, and were able tb maintain it, yet even they were compelled to concede to the Protestants nf both confessions, civil equality with the Catholics, and the exercise of their faith and public worship. But absolute government was no longer possible in Austria. And when the Italian war revealed the utter rottenness of the system, it became clear that only a political regeneration could save the empire from ruin. Finally, after many precious months were wasted in experiments, it was determined to call the people to a share in the making of their laws and to erect a parliamentary system. Austria be- isoi. came a constitutional state in Feb. 1861. Hungary received back her old organization, so far as this was compatible with the new system. The other lands were granted legislatures of their own for home affairs, while the interests, common 702 RECENT HISTORY. to all, were to be cared for by an Imperial Council chosen partly by the emperor and partly by these local legislatures. But it required all the energy of Schmerling, the Prime-minister, to break the resistance of the aristrocracy. In Hungary and in Austria, in Bohemia, Galicia, and other provinces there was a violent opposition to the constitu- tion, so that the elections to the imperial council were incomplete. In Hungary the opposition bordered upon anarchy and terrorism. Finally it was agreed to make two imperial councils, a smaller and a larger council, — the smaller for the German-Slavonic lands, the larger to include the Hungarians also. But even in this form, the imperial constitution was but partially introduced. The Slavs and Magyars opposed an ar- rangement that threatened to give the superiority to the German element in the empire. § 592. Prussia. ■ Frederick William IV., took an oath to maintain the constitu- isso. tion, on the 6th of February, 1850. His reluctance was manifest in all his speeches, and this reluctance influenced all his government. Although unwill- ing to restore the conduct of affairs to the feudal aristocracy, he changed and inter- preted so much away, that the constitution shrank to an impotent bit of history, the ambiguous expressions of which were capable of many interpretations. In one ques- tion only, did Prussia pursue a successful and popular policy, namely, in the reorganiza- zou-verein. tion of the customs union which, in spite of the intrigues of Austria iss3. and her allies, was renewed for twelve years more. Encouraged by the peaceful attitude of the French emperor, Manteuffel, the Prussian minister, pushed boldly forward in the path of reaction. The landed-gentry came to the front of po- litical life, and making alliances with the military and the bureaucracy, they sought to restore the old absolutism and the old privileges of rank. The democracy was dis- couraged. The liberal constitutional party sought to justify its confidence in liberal institutions by correct behavior. During the Crimean war, the Berlin cabinet refused to join the alliance against " the Czar of all the Russias," although the enthusiasm for Russia was hardly strong enough to make them openly take his side. Prussia thus re- mained without influence upon the course of European events. It was an act of courtesy only to invite her to send a representative to the Congress of Paris. A few months after the peace, Prussia was greatly disturbed by an uprising in Neuenburg, in Switzerland. This little territory belonged to the king of Prussia. Through the me- diation of Napoleon, the difficulty was adjusted, and the king of Prussia surrendered jissj. his claim. This was the last political act of the brilliant, but unhappy Frederick William IV. The revolutions of 1848 had embittered his life ; the humil- iation of Russia, and the death of the Emperor Nicholas increased his gloom ; the last dike against the revolutionary deluge seemed to be swept away. In October, 1857, it was plain that the king's reason was affected. His brother, William, be- came regent in October, 1858, a regency that was confirmed two weeks later by both Houses of Parliament. Frederick William then journeyed to Italy, but the out- break of the Italian war drove him home. The next year he lost consciousness entirely, and on the 2nd of January, 1861, he expired. § 593. The New Era. Meanwhile the Prince regent had conducted the govern- ment in a liberal manner. The choice of his ministers, the majority of whom were known as progressive men, furnished a pledge that a new era had begun in the con- stitutional history of Prussia. Prince Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who was minister FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FEENCH EMPIRE. 703 president, being a Catholic, reconciled the members of his confession to the new order of things, while Count Schwerin had the confidence of the entire people. Prince William had not the brilliant qualities of his brother, nor his romantic ideas, but he was practical, straightforward, energetic, and invincibly honest. The press, the legislative cham- bers, eve^ form of society, revealed the influence of the change. A progressive party was formed, and it was hoped that the upper House would soon be made more efficient and more liberal. But when the Prince Regent ascended the throne as King William I., a conflict took place between the all-powerful progressive party and the new mon- William I. t JBorll Starch 23, fS07. Died' Starch », 1SSS. WILLIAM I. arch. The progressives desired a parliamentary government like that of England. This, however, was in conflict with the traditions of the House of Hohenzollern. The King believed himself to have received his crown as a trust from Almighty God, for which he was indeed responsible, but not to any man-chosen parliament. The party of progress refused to further the reorganization of the army, upon which the King's heart was set. This conflict of the ruler with his legislature produced great excite- jwiyi*, isei. nient, which was increased to the highest pitch, when a fanatical stu- dent, Oscar Becker, attempted to assassinate the king in Baden-Baden. At his solemn coronation in Konigsberg, on the 18th of October, 1861, King William declared, with 704 RECENT HISTORY. great emphasis, that " the rulers of Prussia received their crown from God, and that the Houses of Parliament were called to be his counsellors." In March, 1862, the utarcu, isez. House of Representatives demanded an itemized budget, and the con- flict became so sharp that the ministry resigned, and the House was dissolved. But September. is«2. the ne w House was more radical then its predecessor. At this juncture von Bismarck Otto Von Bismarck was called to the ministry. The lower House Bom persisted in its refusal to confirm the King's plans, and was conse- Apriii, isis. quently adjourned from time to time, and then dissolved. Bismarck's appointment was looked upon as a declaration of war. His hatred of the radicals was well-known. His contempt of phrases and of rhetoric was undisguised, and as yet he had given no proof of his extraordinary genius, and no indication of his far- reaching plans. The conflict continued, and became exceedingly bitter. Government and legislature were unreconciled when the war with Austria broke out, and the glorious achievements of the Prussian army created a second new era, in which the old quarrel was completely swallowed up. § 594. Sehlesivig-Holstein. The ancient order of succession in Scbleswig-Hol- stein, restricted it to the first born of the male line. This order was violated by the London treaty of 1852, which gave the sovereignty of these provinces to the Danish prince, Christian von Sonderburg-Glueksburg. As this prince was to be the successor of the reigning king, Frederick VII. of Denmark, the arrange- ment secured the integrity of the Danish monarchy. The estates of Schleswig-Holstein rejected this arrange- ment at the instance of the lawful heir, the Prince of Augustenburg. This created, for the provinces, a state of war. They were occupied by Danish troops, while the sons of the people were transferred to Danish gar- iss-t-isss. risons. During the period of reaction, the Danish government attempted to establish a new constitution that would have made army and navy, custom houses, post-offices and money all Danish. But the German feeling in the two provinces rebelled at this arrangement, and ap- pealed to Prussia and Austria. The German powers thereupon declared that the new constitution was not valid for Holstein and Lauenburg. Denmark struggled against this decision, but when the Congress of the German Union threatened war, Denmark kov. 1858. declared the constitution set aside for Holstein and Lauenburg. but valid throughout Schleswig ; and also that the ministers were responsible to the king only in what related to Holstein. By this arrangement, Schleswig was really incor- porated into Denmark. Holstein refused to accept the separate parliament that was March, 1858. offered her, and demanded her old right of union with Schleswig. The Danes refused to accept this plan. A diplomatic war began, but the Danes could Oct. i. neither be persuaded nor alarmed. Finally the Congress of the Ger- man Union determined upon the use of force. § 595. Just at the moment when the Danish king had determined upon the xov. is, 1893. complete absorption of Schleswig into Denmark, death removed him and TRINCE OTTO VON BISMARCK. (Fr. Skarbina.) FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 705 the "protocol prince," as he was called, Prince von Sonderburg-Gliicskburg, ascended the Danish throne as Christian IX. Frederick of Augustenburg at the same moment proclaimed himself Frederick VIII., Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, and prepared to de- fend his rights. The German people supported him with all their strength. The ex- citement was intense, and all eyes were directed to Frankfort, awaiting the action of the Congress of the Union. Early in December, the troops of Saxony and Hanover Dec. ■>, isg3. crossed the Elbe to occupy Holstein andLauenburg. The Danes with- drew, and as they retired, the people proclaimed their attachment to Duke Frederick of Augustenburg. On the 27th of Dec, at a great assembly of the people held at Elmshorn, he was solemnly declared to be their duke. Hearing this, the Prince left Gotha and hastened to Kiel, where he was received with great enthusiasm ; but he re- frained from every act of sovereignty, awaiting the action of the German Union. Meanwhile the Danes had determined to fight for Schleswig. Relying upon England, they expected to win. But Austria and Prus- sia now joined hands, and demanded the aboli- tion of the November constitution, the cause of all the trouble. Christian IX. rejected these demands. The German powers there- upon refused to be bound by the London treaty, and marched into Schleswig, caring neither for the protest of the German Union or the remonstrance of the English ministry. lse*. In January, 1864, the troops of Prussia and Austria, under Field-marshal Wrangel, entered Holstein. The Prussians, un- der the command of Prince Frederick Carl, and the Austrians led by Gen. Gablenz. The Danish commander, De Meza, determined to give up Schleswig and to retire to the strong entrenchment at Diippel. Wrangel now ordered the Prussian main army, under Prince Frederick Charles to march against Diippel, and the Austrian army to occupy Schleswig. The Danes exerted themselves with unceas- ing energy to convert Diippel into a second Sebastopol. The Prussians determined to April, is. iso4. take the works by storm. On the 18th of April, after a terrible day, in which the Prussians lost twelve hundred men, including seventy officers, the works were in Prussian hands. The fall of Diippel decided the war. The Danes made no further attempt to de- fend the main land. On the 28th of April they embarked, during the night, in great haste and Wrangel was in full possession of the provinces. In May a conference was convened in London, but it led to no result. The war was renewed, but as England refused to assist the Danes, it ended disastrously for Denmark. Prince Frederick June, ns-no, Carl drove them from Alsen. The united armies then forced them to lse*. abandon Jutland. The Danish fleet was captured by the Austrians, and these disasters broke the obstinate spirit of the Danes. King Christian IX., opened direct negotiation with Austria and Prussia. The German Union was not con- 45 PRINCE FREDERICK CHARLES OF PRUSSIA. 706 RECENT HISTORY. suited. The result was a suspicion that Prussia intended to annex the dukedoms, and the treaty of Vienna did not allay these suspicions. It provided that the King of Denmark should cede all his rights to Schle- swig, Holstein, and Lauenburg, in favor of the King of Prussia and the Emperor of Austria. It was soon apparent that Prussia did not intend to give over the con- quered country to the Prince of Augus- tenburg. Other claimants to the throne appeared, and the crown-jurists in Berlin declared that i8e ■*. all rights Aug. i*, ises. had been extinguished by the treaty of Vienna. At Gastein, Austria and Prussia agreed to continue the joint oc- cupation ; Schleswig being governed by Prussia, and Holstein by Austria, while Lauenburg should pass to the Prussian king, for the sum of two and a half million thalers. This agree- ment created great dissatisfaction in Ger- many, as it contained the germs of new conflicts, and created an impossible situa- tion. 3. The Founding of the Italian Kingdom. § 596. Sardinia had twice attempted in vain the liberation of Italy. Radetzky's victories re-established the power of Austria, and the old oppression of the political and intellectual life of the Italian people. Lombardy was filled with soldiers, and held. o R a n xS FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 707 ■ down by powerful fortifications, and Austria stretched out a helping hand to the tyrannical princes of Modena and Parma. The constitution of Tuscany was set aside, and Ferdinand II., king of Naples and Sicily, harried his people with soldiers and with taxes to an incredible degree. Austria protected the Pope also, garrisoning for him the northern part of his territory, and conciliated the clergy with a favorable concor- dat. To break the Austrian power was the eager longing of king Victor Emmanuel, a man of courage and of strong national feeling. Fortunately for him, he was guided by his minister, the great statesman Camillo Cavour. Austria put her trust in the power of bayonets, the influence of the clergy, and the terrors of the police. Sar- dinia, on the other hand, weakened the power of the clergy by liberal and tolerant laws, created a free political life within her dominion, strengthened her armies, and sought to win the favor of the Italian people. Cavour advised participation in the Crimean war, in order to win the support of England and of France, and especially to gain a hearing at the Congress of Paris. He presented to the Congress a memor- ial, in which he showed that there could be no enduring peace in Europe until the in- dependence of Italy was recognized, the tyranny in Naples brought to an end, and Austria compelled to give a liberal constitution to Lombardy and Venice. These de- mands constituted the future program of the Italian party of progress. Unions were formed everywhere to promote national unity. The most active of these, was the National Union, which was founded by Manin and Pallavicino. Garibaldi now returned to Italy, and sought a home with his family in the little island of Caprera. After many wanderings and vicissitudes, he came back to offer his help to the National Union. Mazzini and his friends pursued more extended plans, but they had no dis- position to hinder the work of Cavour and Garibaldi. The purpose of the National Union was to drive out the foreigner, and to unite Italy under the House of Savoy. A mighty excitement soon took possession of the people. The Duke of Parma was murdered on the open street, armed bands marched through Naples, while anarchy and despotism struggled with each other for the possession of Sicily. The Sardinian government had no choice. It must unfurl boldly the banner of Italian independence, and accept the fight with Austria. But the past taught king Victor Emmanuel that he needed a mightier ally than Garibaldi and his Italian volunteers. § 597. Magenta. Orsini's attempt to assassinate the Emperor Napoleon, had a noteworthy influence upon Italian affairs. Orsini confessed that he sought the French ruler's life, simply because he would not save Italy. He had become a hindrance to her freedom, rather than a help. In his earlier days, the Emperor had doubtless been in con- fidential relations with the Italian patriots, and was perhaps himself a member of the Italian secret society. He was now considered a traitor by his former companions. Aug. 5, isss. The same year he had an interview with Count Cavour at Plombieres. Plans were considered for the emancipation of Italy; and the marriage of prince Na- poleon Bonaparte with the princess Clothilde, the youthful daughter of Victor Emman- uel, was to create a firm bond between the two families. The speech of the Emperor to the Austrian ambassador, at his New Year's reception, and the words of the Italian king, at the opening of Parliament at Turin, indicated in plain words that Sardinia would be no longer deaf to the cries of the rest of Italy. The neutral powers sought a pacific solution of the difficulty, but Austria sent an ultimatum to the king of Sar- dinia, requiring him to reduce his army to a peace footing within three days. When 708 RECENT HISTORY. this demand was refused, the Austrian Field-marshal, Gyulai, was ordered to cross the Ticino. This gave the French emperor an opportunity to intervene as the protector of his ally, Victor Emmanuel. Gyulai was dilatory and inactive, so that Sardinia had ample time to collect her troops about the fortified Alessandria, and to form a junc- xay, isr.it. tion with the French army. In May, Napoleon himself appeared in Italy, and although he entrusted the management of the campaign to his experienced generals, Canrobert, Niel, Mac Mahon, and others, yet his presence was a great inspira- tion for his soldiers. The Austrian commander was utterly incompetent. He had lost his opportunity, and must now act on the defensive. After a bloocty battle at Buffalora, the Austrians were utterly defeated in the battle of Magenta. The Aus- trian soldiers fought with great bravery, although they suffered greatly from the scan- dalous robbery of the contractors, who furnished their supplies. The loss of Magenta June 4, isso. brought with it the loss of all Lombardy. Milan was evacuated by Gyulai, and on the 18th of June, Napoleon entered the city, amid the acclamations of the people, with Victor Emmanuel at his side. The Austrians took up a new position on the Mincio, where they were supported by the famous quadrangle, consisting of four strongly fortified cities, Peschiera, Mantua, Verona, Legmigo. § 598. Solferino. These disasters to Austria brought about the overthrow of several Italian governments. Duke Leopold of Tuscany was abandoned by his army and his civil servants, and compelled to leave Florence. A provisional government, under the protectorate of Victor Emmanuel, was immediately established. The Duchess Louisa of Parma, with her young son, hastened to Switzerland, and the Duke of Modena sought protection in the Austrian camp. Everywhere the Italian flag was unfurled, and annexation to Sardinia was desired. In Germany these events created great excitement. Austria endeavored to obtain the support of Prussia and the other members of the German Union. The war now raging along the Po might soon be transferred to the Rhine. For a time it looked as if public opinion would carry the German states to the Austrian side. War preparations were made ; the garrisons were increased, Prussia gradually placed her entire army upon a war footing. But many circumstances combined to dampen this war-like enthusiasm. Russia, angry at Austria for her conduct in the Crimean war, used her influence to withhold the Ger- mans from the strife. England declared, that in case of a war, she would not protect the German merchant ships. The liberal party was not inclined to strengthen abso- lutism and clerical dominion ; and it soon appeared that the German troops generally were in no condition for a war. The Prussian cabinet had not yet forgiven Olmiitz. Prussia's chief duty was to protect herself, and to be ready for possible emergencies ; and she lost all inclination to take part in the war, after France had given the assur- ance that the war would be localized, i. e. confined to Italy. Austria however deter- mined to try once more the fortune of battle. The Emperor Francis Joseph, took the field in person, but with no better success. The Emperor abandoned the "quad- jmic 2j, isso. rangle " and crossed the Mincio, but was defeated at Solferino with great loss, although the Austrians were able to withdraw in good order from the field. § 599. The Peace of Villa Franca. The French people were wild with enthusi- asm for their victorious emperor, yet his position was one of difficulty and of danger. The French army had suffered greatly in the Italian campaign ; the excitement in FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 709 Germany made a hostile movement upon the Rhine quite probable. The Austrians, moreover, were still in possession of the great quadrangle. True, the Emperor Napoleon had said, " Italy free to the Adria," but to realize this watchword might hazard all his for- tunes. The two em- perors therefore ar- jiay a, isso. ranged a peace. Austria abandoned Lombardy to the line of the quadrangle, that is to a line drawn from Peschiera to Man- tua ; Italy was to form a confederacy ■under the presidency of the Pope; the exiled princes might return, if permitted to do so freety by their subjects. But when the treaty of iron. 10, iseo. peace came to be made at Ziirich, only the first of these conditions was maintained. Lombardy passed to the king of Sardinia, while Savoy with Nice, was ceded to France. But the people of Modena, Parma and Tuscany refused to accept their former rulers, and were annexed to Sar- dinia renounced Even Bologna the rule of the Pope, and sought protection from Victor Emmanuel. Switzerland might 710 RECENT HISTORY. protest and the Pope might excommunicate, but things took their own course. Instead of the Italian confederation, with the Pope at its head, Europe was compelled to recog- nize a kingdom of Italy, under the House of Savoy. § 600. Garibaldi. The national and the revolutionary forces in Italy were now united for a common aim, the formation of " One Italy." The territory of Rome was protected from hostile attack by French troops, but the kingdom of Naples and of Sicily was without support. Francis II., the young and inexperienced son of the Ferdinand xi., tyrannical Ferdinand II., occupied the throne, and had under his fittay 33, is™, command a well-disciplined army of one hundred and fifty thousand men. But the tyranny of the Government, which opposed stubbornly all reform, had LANDING OF GARIBALDI AT MARSALA. ( G. Brolilig.) prepared the ground for the secret societies ; and the withdrawal of the Swiss mercen- aries robbed the throne of its strongest support, at the very moment when Mazzini iseo. and Garibaldi joined hands for their daring enterprise. The first up- risings were in Messina and Palermo. In May Garibaldi landed with a few thousand armed men at Marsala. He gathered about him the scattered volunteers, declared himself dictator in the name of Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy, and marched to the capital, Palermo. The population rose as one man, and supported the coming patriots. General Lanza, who was in command of the citadel, opened a heavy fire, destroying a part of the city ; but the action of the English admiral compelled him to yield. The monarchy was now shaken to its foundation, and the glory of Garibaldi spread over FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 711 j»f«e »s, lseo. the world. The King restored the former constitution, called about him a liberal ministry, proclaimed an amnest}', and sought an alliance with Sardinia. But it was too late. Wherever Garibaldi appeared, the land broke into flames. Six fuiy is. weeks after the taking of Palermo, the dictator marched to Messina. The city was soon in his possession. He then landed upon the mainland with five Ana. %i, isao. thousand men. The garrison at Reggio at once surrendered the city and the castle. Everywhere the soldiers disbanded, and the cities and provinces formed provisional governments. Garibaldi marched triumphantly through the South, nowhere meeting resistance. On the 6th of September, Francis II. abandoned his cap- sept.v. ital, and retired to Capua; and on the next day, Garibaldi marched into Naples, amid the acclamations of the delighted population. The Pope fared no better than the King. Garibaldi declared that he would proclaim the kingdom of Italy in its natural capital. The Pope's friends, in the Catholic lands of Europe, ex- hausted every means to save the temporal power of the Pope, but the patriotic en- thusiasm of the Italian people was more powerful than the cries of the clericals. Gen- eral Lamoriciere was induced to take command of the papal army, but when the Sar- dinian troops, under General Cialdini, reached the frontiers of the Pope's dominions, a general uprising took place, and the different cities established provisional govern, ments. The papal troops encountered the Sardinian army and were beaten. Some were taken prisoners, and the entire force was dispersed. A handful retired to Ancona ; but when it was besieged on the following day, both by sea and by land, it sept. 2d. was compelled to surrender. A few days later, Victor Emmanuel ap- peared in the city and assumed command. He thence proceeded to Lower Italy, to complete the conquests begun by Garibaldi. The patriotic general, who saw in Victor Emmanuel, the divinely appointed liberator of Italy, resigned to the King his dictatorial authority, and entrusted to him the completion of his great work, the uniting of Italy under a free and stable government. With the words, " Sire, I obey," he gave up his Nov. v, isoo. command, marching into Naples beside the King, commending his comrades to the especial protection of the monarch, and then returning to his modest estate on the island, Caprera. § 601. Gaeta. War operations now assumed a sharper character. After the xov. a, isoo. capture of Capua, King Francis, with the remnant of his troops, re- tired to the fortress of Gaeta. This was the last refuge of the Bourbon dynasty. The city was heroically defended, and its defence is the one bright spot in the short reign of Francis II., and his noble young wife, Marie of Bavaria. The siege of Gaeta lasted three months. Napoleon sought to free himself from complicity with the pol- icy of the Sardinian king. Like other powers, he withdrew his ambassador from Turin, but he went even further. He sent a French fleet to the harbor of Gaeta, and thus enabled the besieged to supply themselves with food and ammunition. But the cry of the Neapolitan king brought him no armed help; his promises and proclama- tions to the people of the two Sicilys brought him no favor with his subjects. A few reactionary uprisings took on the character of bandit enterprises, and Napoleon, think- ing that enough had been done for the honor of King Francis, called away his fleet. feo. 13, isei. On the 13th of Feb., 1861, Francis and his wife sailed to Pome on a French ship. The next month, Messina passed into the hands of General Cialdini ; the kingdom of the two Sicilys was at an end. And on the 18th of Feb., 1861, Victor 712 RECENT HISTORY. Emmanuel, surrounded by the representatives of all the states that acknowledged his sovereignty, proclaimed himself King of Italy. § 602. The Kingdom of Italy. With the exception of Austrian, Venice, and the papal city of Rome, all the states of Italy were now united in a single monarch}-. The statecraft of Cavour, the resolute courage of Victor Emmanuel, the patriotic self- sacrifices of Garibaldi, the political sagacity of the cultivated classes, had united to achieve this great result ; and even the agitation of Mazzini, and his republican friends, had contributed to the great enterprise. But a difficult task was yet to be ac- complished. Years of rest and of peace must be obtained, to establish and to organ- ize the rapid conquests of recent years, and to procure the respect and the confidence of other nations. I taly, it is true, was not free. Rome was still in other hands. Cavour was urged on every side to rash and dangerous measures. The people clam- _^ ored for Rome and Venice, and were not altogether satisfied with a military monarchy. Even Gari- baldi sympathized with this clamor, and with these suspicions, and was especially provoked at the dilatory policy of Cavour. Yet the great statesman succeeded in reconciling the angry patriot, and in restraining him from inconsid- jujic e, 1861. erate movements. But Count Cavour died too soon for the welfare of the state that he had called into being, and yet with a sublime consciousness that the future of the kingdom was secure. But under his successors, Ricasoli and Rattazzi, the Italian government progressed quietly in the path marked out by him. The European governments gradually recognized the new order. The banditti in Naples were energeti- cally suppressed, even though they were supported from Rome ; and the military strength of the land was increased, at the same time that better laws were passed, and reforms inaugurated. Yet the party of action was not satisfied with this Gradual progress. They longed for Rome and Venice, and the agitators became so violent, that the government was obliged to make arrests and to disband some volun- tary organizations. Among the imprisoned were friends and comrades of Garibaldi, is62. and the latter now determined to march against Rome. He sailed to Palermo, where he soon gathered armed volunteers about his standard. The young men eagerly followed him, especially as the rumor was circulated that the government secretly encouraged the undertaking. But an energetic proclamation of the King warned all Italians to take no part in this heedless movement. Yet Garibaldi was victor Emmanuel. ( Metzmacher.) FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 713 not to be dissuaded. When his way was blocked by the garrison of Messina, he turned aside to Catania, where he embarked with two thousand volunteers, as he said "to enter Rome as a victor, or to die beneath its walls." But he did neither. For although lie landed at Melito, and marched at once into the Calabrian mountains, he came into collision with a detachment of the Italian army at Aspromonte. A skirmish en- Aug, us, iso-i. sued, in which a few volunteers were killed, and Garibaldi was wounded and taken prisoner. A government vessel brought him to Verignano, where he slowly recovered from his dangerous wound. He was an object of sympathy throughout Eu- rope, and there was general rejoicing when the news was published that he was out of danger. After this unfortunate adventure, Italy had a long rest in which to complete sep. ib, ISO*, her inner development. In September, 1864, France and Italy agreed that the capital of Italy should be transferred to Florence, and that the French troops should be gradually removed from Rome. The inhabitants of Turin were bitterly opposed to this change, but it took place in 1865. The Pope was exceedingly angry at the agreement of the two countries, and gave the world, as a Christmas present, the famous encyclical of 1864, in which he condemned the political and religious ideas of his age. He began also to create an army of his own, for the maintenance of his authority. The French troops now began to depart, and unexpected events soon made Venice a part of the Italian Kingdom. 4. The Seven Weeks War. § 603. The conference at Gastein created only a truce. The evident desire of Prussia to annex Schleswig-Holstein found no favor in Vienna. The Austrian cabinet sought the support of the Congress of the Union, and held fast to her joint right of possession. This dissension soon produced trouble in the dukedoms, for while the Prussian governor, Von Manteuffel, established an iron rule in Schleswig, the Austrian j«h. isae. governor, Von Gablenz, administered affairs in Holstein with gentle moderation. The Prussian ministry soon complained that this moderation favored revolution, and was in conflict with the convention of Gastein. But Austria refused to change her policy, especially as the arrival of the Italian general, Govone, in Berlin, created the suspicion that Prussia was seeking an alliance with Italy. War prepar- niarcn, isaa. ations were made. Benedek was placed at the head of the Austrian army north of the Alps, while Arch-duke Albert assumed command in Venice. Prus- sia now made counter-preparations, and the Vienna cabinet then sought the support of the German Union. Prussia made a secret treaty with Italy, and Count Bismarck declared openly that the German Union, as then constituted, afforded so little guaran- xarcii a*, tsae. tee for the future of Germanj^, that Prussia felt compelled to move for iis reform. Finally a day was appointed upon which both Austria and Prussia agreed April %&. to disarm. But before it arrived, Austria declared that she would disarm against Prussia, but not against Italy. This excited hesitation in Berlin and Prussia refused to disarm. Austria then offered to refer the question to the Congress of the Union ; this too was declined by the Prussian ministry. Terrible excitement now spread through Germany. Count Bismarck was the object of bitter hate ; at- tempts were made upon his life, one of which he escaped as by miracle. The European powers proposed a Congress, but Austria declined to participate, except upon condition that none of the states represented i n the Congress should enlarge her territory. 714 RECENT HISTORY. § 604 Early in June the Austrian government brought the Schleswig-Holstein question before the Congress of the German Union, and ordered General Gablenz to convene the estates of Holstein. The Prussian government at once declared this to be a breach of the Gastein conference, and placed her armies in the field. Austria did like- wise, but the condition of her army was worse than it had been even during the Italian campaign. Von Manteuffel was ordered to march into Holstein. Austria thereupon insisted that the army of the German Union should be made ready for war. This motion of Aus- tria was adopted by the Congress, where- upon Prussia de- jrtine 10, istm. clared that the Union was dissolved, and brought forward a plan for a new con- federation, based up- on universal suffrage, and from which Aus- tria was to be ex- cluded. This marked the beginning of a new epoch for Germany. The opposition of the Prussian Parliament continued to criticise lseo. the King and his minister, but, in the hour of danger, the people rallied to the support of their monarch and his measures. The rest of Germany divided into two camps, the Austrian and the Prussian. The first had nothing in common but their dislike of Prussia and of Bismarck; the second hoped to see Germany united under the lead of a powerful yet peaceful state. The thought of civil war was repugnant to all, but the discord of Germany, and the misery of politi- cal plurality, could be healed only after the sword had done its awful work. June, isee. Benedek had stationed his army in Bohemia, forming the arc of a MOLTKE. 716 RECENT HISTORY. great circle on the Upper Elbe. Prussia determined therefore to unite all the states, north of the river Main, in a league under her control. Hanover, Saxony, and Hesse, were summoned to immediate decision. If they consented, they might retain their sovereignty within the constitution of the new union ; otherwise they would be dealt with as enemies. All three refused. The Elector of Hesse was led a prisoner to Stettin. King George of Hanover abandoned his capital and his kingdom to the Prussian army, and sought to break through, with his army, to the south, so as to June, /*««. unite wiih the Bavarians. After desperate fighting, the blind King George was obliged to capitulate. Meanwhile Saxony had fallen also into Prussian hands. The Saxon army had united with the Austrians in Bohemia, leaving the cap- ital and kingdom undefended. Dresden was occupied by the Prussians without resistance. § 605. War in Bohemia and along the River Main. In possession of Saxony, the Prussians could now concentrate their army in Bohemia. Before Benedek could carry out his plan of moving through Saxony into the heart of Prussia, the Prussians had marched three army corps into Bohemia. The first days of July, King William, accom- panied by Bismarck and Von Roon, and his chief of staff, Von Moltke, arrived at the front and took command of the army. He had not long to wait for the decisive moment. On the 3rd of July, the decisive battle of j»iff 3, isoa. Konigratz (or Sadowa) was fought, and won for the Prussians by the opportune arrival of the army of the Crown. Prince. Toward evening the remnant of the beaten army was in full retreat. " The day of Konigratz," said the King of Prus- sia in his order of the day, " has cost heav} r sacrifices, but it is a day of honor for the army, and of pride for the Fatherland." §006. Meanwhile, Prussian generals were marching against the army of the Ger- man Union, which had separated into two divisions, under the command of Prince Charles of Bavaria, and Prince Alexander of Hesse. The former Was in North Franeonia and the latter just north of Frankfort. Falkenstein was ordered to push between the two armies and to defeat them separately. The Bavarians were first compelled to re- treat, whereupon the Prussian general, instead of following them, turned upon the army under the Prince of Hesse. When this army gave way, the Prussians entered Juij i4. Frankfort. The Congress fled and resumed its sessions in Augsburg ; heavy contributions were levied upon Frankfort, and the demands and threats of the conqueror so preyed upon the mind of Fellner, the Burgomaster, that he took his own life. § 607. The defeat of the Austrians at Konigratz opened, for the Prussians, the way into the heart of Austria. The army of the north was dispersed ; Vienna was CROWN PRINCE FREDERICK WILLIAM OF PRUSSIA. FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 717 shaken with excitement. The Emperor, Francis Joseph, thereupon determined upon a surprising move. In Italy, the army of the south, under Arch-duke Albert, had won a j-i«ne 24. splendid victory in the battle of Custozza. iar his advantage The EmDeror instead o against Italy, deter- mined to cede Venice to Napoleon, so as to use the army of the south against Prus- sia, and to win the alliance of France. Napoleon accepted the unexpected pres- ent, explaining that it gave him oppor- tunity to mediate be- tween the warring powers. He sought at first to obtain a truce. But King William declared that he would agree to a truce only upon definite conditions of peace, and Victor Emmanuel was of the same mind. Yet the mediatorial ac- tivity of the French emperor limited the war in Italy to a few skirmishes, and led to negotiations between Prussia and Austria. The Austrian em- peror called the Arch- duke Albert, with the army of the south, to his assistance, and gave to him the chief command. But the rapid march of the Prussians made the defence of the capital impossible. A truce was agreed upon, in which Austria consented juiy ne, tsee. to her own exclusion from the German Union, gave up her claims to Schleswig-Holstein, and consented also to the transfer of Venice from France to Italy. 718 RECENT HISTORY. § 608. This truce was concluded just as the Prussian army was about to enter Aug- 23. Pressburg. Four weeks later, the peace of Prague was agreed upon, in which Austria con- sented to pay the costs of the war, and to accept the changes of boundary insisted upon by Prussia uorth of the river Main. Prussia, on the other hand, agreed to restore his throne to the king of Saxony. Meanwhile the troops of the Union had been earn- ing no laurels. The men of Baden, of Wurtembeig, and Bavaria, fought < July 23.20. bravely 5 enough, but they =, fought in vain. The a south-German gov- tj ernments finally sued 5 for peace, and made a secret treaty with Aug. 13-22. Prussia, in which they agreed to support her in the event of a foreign war, and to continue the customs-union. Hesse-Darmstadt and Saxony were occu- pied by Prussia for a long time. The Grand-duke con- sented, with great reluctance, to the conditions of peace, sept. 3. which compelled him to sur- render Homburg and the province of Upper-Hesse, and to turn over the fortifications of Mayence to Prus- sian soldiers. And in Saxony the Prussians remained until Herr von Beust retired AUSTRIAN MAN OP WAR, FERDINAND MAX, ADMIRAL TEGETTIIOFF IN COMMAND, RAMMING THE ITALIAN IRONCLAD, RE D'lTALIA AT THE BATTLE OP LISSA, 1866- ( pp. 719. ) 720 RECENT HISTORY. oct. at, tsea. from the ministry ; then King John agreed to a peace, in which he was required to pay the costs of the war, to become a member of the North-German Union, and to accept the new military organization. Nothing remained now to hinder the construction of the new North-German Union. § 609. United Italy with her new capital, Rome. The fate of Venice was de- cided at the same time. The Austrians withdrew their troops, and the Italians, under Cialdini, soon stood in the heart of Venice. Garibaldi was at Lake Garda, earning on a petty warfare with his volunteers. Wherever Italian was spoken, there the standard of the King was to be erected. One division of the army approached Trient. A naval j«fj/ »o. force also was collected at Ancona. But in a naval battle at Lissa. the Italian fleet was so utterly defeated, that the Florentine government thought it best juiu as. to accept a peace. Victor Emmanuel gave up his claims to South Tyrol and the Austrians formally acknowledged the kingdom of Italy. An election was or- oct. a. dered in Venice, to determine the question of annexation. As the whole population voted in its favor, Victor Emmanuel entered the city in triumph. In December, 1868, the French troops left Rome, and for the first time in centuries, the beautiful peninsula of Italy was free from foreign soldiers. But Garibaldi and the na- tional party insisted upon the possession of Rome. He invaded once more the terri- tory of the pope, but his enterprise failed, and his men were either killed, dispersed, or taken prisoners. The French troops returned to protect the Vatican, and remained Bee. tseo. until August, 1870. This made it possible for Pius IX. to as- semble a general council in the Vatican toward the end of the year 1869. Here the Jesuits succeeded, in spite of a powerful opposition in the council itself, and in spite of the warning of the temporal powers, in procuring a declaration of papal infallibility in all matters of doctrine and morals. At the very moment in which the council declared the pope to be the absolute authortity in the church, the kingdom of Italy took possession of his dominions, and made an end of his temporal power. The French garrison had embarked hastily to- Beginning take part in the Franco-German war. The Florentine government im- sept., isio. mediately inarched to the papal frontiers, at the same time taking pos- session of Civita Vecchia. The Pope was offered the exclusive possession of the Leo- nine district, on the right bank of the Tiber, but he refused all compromise. The Italians then took possession of the city. A slight resistance was made by the papal troops, but after three hours, the city capitulated. The papal army was disbanded ; the foreign mercenaries were required to leave Italy ; a provisional government was es- tablished, and an election was ordered to decide the question of annexation. The peo- ple voted almost unanimously to make Rome the capital of Italy. The Italian govern- ment declared, in a solemn statute, that the pope should still have the dignity of the sovereign, and should still exercise all his rights and functions as the head of the church, but Pope Pius IX., replied, with the excommunication of Victor Emmanuel. § 610. The North German Union. In Prussia, as in Italy, the year 1866 ended with a reconciliation of the monarch and his people. In his speech from the throne,at Aug. s, isaa. the opening of Parliament, King William asked the House of Representa- tives for an act of indemnity, which was passed almost without objection. The system of administration was then reorganized, according to the constitution, and the conflict peaceably concluded. A royal message announced to Parliament the desire of the FliOM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 721 ministry to annex to Prussia, Hanover, Hesse, Nassau, and the free city of Frankfort. And early in September, the statute of annexation passed both Houses. In France, this unexpected enlargement of Prussia excited great irritation, and for a time it ap- peared as if the imperial government would ask for compensation, by the cession of the left bank of the Rhine, and of Mayence. But it was soon manifest, that not only Prus- sia, but all Germany would defend every inch of German territory with the last drop of blood ; so that Napoleon thought the price of a war too dear for so small an increase of power. He changed his cabinet and the war clouds dispersed. Meanwhile, the dis- possessed princes of Germany absolved their officers from their oaths of allegiance, and thus enabled them to enter the Prussian service. The Elector of Hesse was guaranteed certain estates and revenues. The Duke of Nassau hesitated for a long time, but fin- ally accepted a similar arrangement. But the King of Hanover refused all terms. In the course of the year 1867, the Prussian constitution, judicial and military system, were introduced into the conquered territory. All the lands of Germany, north of the river nee. is, isea. Main, now entered the North German Union, and at the end of the year 1866, ambassadors of all the states met at Berlin to deliberate upon the proposed i89i. constitution for the new confederation. The constitution agreed upon feii. 2-t.-A.pr. 7. by them was submitted to a diet elected by the people. After long de- bates and different amendments, it was adopted by the diet, and then ratified by the legislatures and princes of the different states. It provided that all the states north of the Main, should unite to form a federal union, with the same laws, the same civil rights, the same military system. The army was to be under the command of Prussia; the citizens of the Union were to have unrestricted intercourse with each other, and equal privileges throughout the Union. In all the important features of political and social life, they were to have institutions in common; — the same weights and measures, the same coin, the same postal and telegraphic system, the same industrial and com- mercial laws, the same system of revenue and of military service. A federal council, presided over by a chancellor to be appointed by the king of Prussia, was to consist of representatives of the different states. This federal council was to legislate in connec- tion with a federal diet. The federal chancellor was to be responsible to this diet, the members whereof were to be chosen directly by the people, and to serve without com- pensation. The army of the Union was to be an army of all the citizens, and to be sub- ject to the Prussian military law. The relations of the South German states were to be regulated by particular treaties. During the progress of this reorganization of North Germany, Europe was startled with the news that the King of Holland intended to sell the dukedom of Luxemburg to the Emperor of France. The excitement was supreme, but Napoleon agreed finally to abandon Luxemburg, if Prussia would evacuate the may 1-11, lsot. fortifications, and consent to neutralize the land. Prussia accepted and j«ne, iso7. the war cloud again dissolved. Germany then proceeded quietly to perfect her union. A customs-parliament was called into being, and in a short time north and south Germany were united in the same revenue system. The North Ger- man Diet accomplished a colossal work in the first period of its existence. A new in- dustrial order was created; a new criminal code, new corporation laws, and a new sys- tem of weights and measures. In a word, the legislation of 1868 was almost a trans- formation of the social and economic order of Germany. § 611. But Austria also underwent a transformation. For many years the Hun^ 46 1-22 RECENT HISTORY. garian statesman, Franz Deak, had maintained courageously that Hungary should re- main united to Austria, but should have an independent government, and a constitution based upon the old system of rights, but adapted to existing conditions. He main- tained, also, that Hungary should be territorially protected, by the addition of frontier lands in the south and the east. Not until after the treaty of Prague were the Aus- trians disposed to listen to such wisdom. But in 1867, the duplex kingdom, Austria- Hungary, came into being. Deak, and the imperial chancellor, Count Beust, agreed upon the new constitution, which had been formulated at Pesth, and it was then sanc- tioned by the Emperor Francis Joseph. Hungary received back her ancient rights ; Transylvania, Croatia, and other frontier lands were annexed, and the conditions agreed upon, under which the two king- doms should form one government. The appointment of a new Hungarian ministry, under Count Andrassj', and the solemn •June s, iso7. coronation of Francis Joseph as king of Hungary, completed the reconciliation. A constitutional monarchy had been created, in which the two king- doms were united in military, diplomatic, and economic institutions. An imperial ministry, with an imperial diet, were en- trusted with the work of administration and legislation, and the two nationalities were bound together in mutual respect nee. 21. and pacific co-operation. In Austria proper, great changes took place. The February constitution was restored, and in 1868 the first constitutional ministry was appointed, Prince Auers- perg serving as minister — president, while Count Beust became imperial minister for foreign affairs. FRANCIS JOSEPH I. (1889.) 5. The Spanish Revolution of 1868. § 612. -When the French empire was founded, the court party in Madrid, with the help of the queen mother, Maria-Christina, succeeded in overthrowing Narvaez Oct., tssi. and his cabinet. A concordat was then concluded with the Pope, which made great concessions to the Spanish clergy, and the royal authority tended rap- idly to absolutism. The reaction was greatly assisted by an attack upon Queen Isabella. weh„ iss2. made by an insane priest, Martin Marino. The press was put under sharp limitations, the Cortes dissolved, the constitution altered, and Carlists and cler- icals appointed to the influential places in the state and the army. This brought about a union of all the liberals, the progressives, and the moderates. A change of ministry July, issi. was the consequence. Espartero, Duke of Vittoria, undertook the formation of a new cabinet. Maria-Christina -was escorted by Spanish soldiers across the frontier to Portugal. But ministry succeeded ministry. Espartero, Narvaez, and 0"Donnell, followed each other in rapid succession. The Spaniards, under O'Donnell, FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 723 carried on a successful war against Morocco, and an attempt of the Carlists to get pos- session of the Spanish throne, under Ortega and Cabrera, failed miserably. Ortega was made prisoner and shot. Count Montemolin, the claimant of the throne, was also seized ,ij,,n, isoo. and compelled to renounce his claims. But when O'Donnell left the ministry, Spanish affairs rapidly became worse. The uprisings and mutinies of the democrats, and of the soldiers were, with difficulty, suppressed. The ministry seemed to be without rudder and without sailing orders. Narvaez did his utmost to silence the press, to remove liberal teachers from the universities, and liberal officers from their position in the state. But the opposition grew in spite of his attempted terrorism. i8a*. The opinion had taken deep root that there was no salvation for Spain under a Bourbon dynasty. Republican ideas entered the minds of all classes ; even found access to the soldiers. One party went so far as to clamor for the union of Spain and Portugal under the House of Braganza. The intrigues of the palace, and the ca- prices of the Queen, whose wanton life and superstitious piety made her an object of re- pugnance to the people, finally provoked an outbreak. § 613. Narvaez withdrew, and the government passed once more to the liberals, June isor,. among whom O'Donnell and Serrano had the greatest influence. These sought to conciliate the party of progress by abolishing the tyrannical measures of their predecessors, and by compelling the Queen to remove from court, Father Claret and Sister Patrocinio, the heads of the Camarilla. At the same time, O'Donnell sought amo. isos. the friendship of France. He visited the Emperor Napoleon in his camp at Chalons, and arranged for a meeting of the Spanish and French royal families. But the democrats and progressives were demanding universal suffrage, and the separa- tion of church and state. General Prim was their head and leader. Republican up- jan. i860. risings took place in Catalonia and Valencia, but they came to naught. Prim, with his seven hundred comrades, was pushed across the Portuguese frontier. He retired to England to wait for better times. But military uprisings broke out in Madrid, Salamanca, and other places. The court determined now to put an end to this unrest, Narvaez was recalled, a severe system of military police was adopted, the independence of the cities and of the provinces was abridged, education placed under the control of the clergy, and the Cortes filled with subservient instruments of the crown. Yet in spite of the interference of the ministry with the election, one hun- Bec. 20-30. isoo. dred and thirtj'-seven members of the Cortes petitioned for the abolition of the military-police sj r stem. Thereupon a number of them were arrested and carried to the Canary Islands. Serrano, the president of the Senate, was likewise March 18B7. banished. O'Donnell and other prominent liberals escaped by flight. The Cortes were dissolved, and the opposition editors threatened with death. A reign of terror spread itself over the whole kingdom. The Cortes abandoned all op- position. Narvaez and his colleagues yielded entirely to the Camarilla, and constitu- tional government was reduced to a shadow. The rumor spread that the secularized Teh. a. isos. cloisters were to be restored. The Pope presented Queen Isabella with a golden rose, as a token of his satisfaction with her religious feeling. When Narvaez A»rii S3, isos. died, the new cabinet, under Gonzalez Bravo, continued the reign of terror. Many well-known men were arrested and carried off to the Balearic and Can- ary Islands The Duke of Montpennsier was ordered to leave the country. This was the cap-stone of the reaction. The Spanish nation was embittered with the Bourbon 724 RECENT HISTORY. dynasty, and above all, with Queen Isabella ; but the discord of parties had prevented a general uprising. Now, however, the liberals, the progressives, and the democrats determined to unite in a common movement against the Queen and the hated ministry. sept. ises. They opened communications with General Prim, who sailed secretly to Gibraltar. Suddenly, while Queen Isabella was enjoying herself at San Sebastian, the news spread through the land that Admiral Topete had raised the flag of rebellion in the harbor of Cadiz, and in conjunction with General Prim had issued a proclama- tion, calling upon all Spaniards to forget their differences and to overthrow the tyr- anny. Cadiz, Seville, and other cities immediately answered with an uprising. A second manifest of Prim declared uni- versal suffrage to be the founda- tion of the new social and political regeneration. The Queen sought in vain to ap- pease the storm by a change of ministry, but her armies were defeated not far from Cordova, Oct. 4. ises. and a few days later, the victorious Serrano entered Madrid in triumph. In connection with Prim and Topete, he established a pro- visional government. The chiefs of this government were monarchists, and Serrano would probably have interfered in favor of Isabella, if she could have consented to exile her hated favorite Marfori, or to abdicate in favor of her son, the prince of Asturia. Isabella however was convinced that a longer stay on Spanish soil might prove dangerous. She therefore departed for France, accompanied by her feeble husband, her favorite, Marfori, her confessor. Father Claret, and a numerous train of courtiers. § 614. When the court had departed, the old parties reappeared. While the government held fast to the monarchy, and, like the Belgians and the Greeks in forme? da}-s, looked abroad for a king, the republicans grew stronger in the south, and tht Carlists of the north proclaimed Don Carlos King of Spain, under the title of Charle: VII. The Carlist uprising had little success, but the republicans were, with difficulty, Nov. ises. suppressed by the Government. The election to the Cortes, in 1869, resulted in favor of the monarchists. But whom should they select as king? There were three Bourbon claimants, Prince Alfonso of Asturia, to whom his mother Isa- bellii transferred her rights, Don Carlos, the choice of the legitimists, and the Duke of ISABELLA II. FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 725 Montpensier. But no one of the three had any favor with the people. And the king of Portugal showed no desire for the Spanish throne, nor for a union of the two peoples. The government was accordingly conducted as a republic. The Cortes, after stormy debates, adopted a new constitution, which provided for an hereditary king, with a June i, isao. senate and a house of representatives, and guaranteed to the nation all the fundamental rights of a free people. A regency now became imperative. Mar- shal Serrano was called to this dignity. Prim was made prime-minister, and General Dulce was made captain general of Cuba, in order to reduce that rebellious island to submission. Many attempts were made to procure a monarch. The offer of the crown to the Prince of Hohenzollern was the occasion of a terrible war between France and Germany. Finally the Spanish constitution was crowned by the choice of Nov. isro. Amadeus, the second son of Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy. But bkc. 27. before the chosen monarch entered his new kingdom, General Prim was assassinated. The murderers were never discovered. Possibly the " king-maker" was a victim of republican revenge, possibly of an assassin hired by the legitimist emigrants. II. THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR OF 1870, AND THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. §615. S we have seen alreacty, Fiance desired to annex the grand-duchy of Luxemburg, and sought to pursuade Prussia to give up the left bank of the Rhine. When these projects failed, she offered an alliance, by means of which she. could, herself, get possession of Belgium, while Germany was -to be allowed to incorporate the South-German states into the newly formed Union. At the same time, she sought to hinder the building of the St. Gothard railroad which was to unite Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. As all these plans failed, a trivial cause was made the ground of a terrible war. The Spanish people, as we know, drove out their queen in the year 1868, and were looking for a king. In their extremity they offered their crown to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern. This prince was, throuo-h his mother, nearly related to the Bonaparte family, although he belonged to a collateral branch of the Prussian house. The Emperor Napoleon, who would have been glad to have seen the throne of Spain in the hands of Isabella's son, saw, or pre- tended to see, in the candidacy of a Hohenzollern, an attempt to increase the power and influence of Prussia, and threatened war if this plan was not abandoned. The Prince thereupon declined the Spanish crown, and King William approved his course. j»i» 13, is7o. But the cabinet at Paris was not satisfied. The French ambassador, Benedetti. sought out the aged monarch at Ems, and demanded from him a pledge that he would never justify, in any event, such a disposal of the Spanish crown. The King, indignant at such a demand, refused to receive the ambassador a second time, and this refusal was regarded at Paris as a ground of war. § 616. Worth, Metz, Sedan. The French government hoped and believed that the war would be at least confined to Prussia and France. Indeed, they hoped to 726 DECENT HISTORY. make alliances with the South German states, and the discontented princes of the North-German Union. But in this they were greatly disappointed. When war was juiy 10, is™, declared in Paris, all Germany rose against the French undertaking. In his speech from the throne, King William declared that he relied, with the greatest confidence, upon the unanimity of the German princes of the South and of the North, PRINCE LEOPOLD. and that the patriotism of the German people would not be slow to defend the national honor and independence. Not only in Baden, but in Hesse, in Wtirtemberg, and Ba- varia, the war was accepted as a necessity. The means for its prosecution were imme- diately and enthusiastically voted, and all the armies of Germany united under the banner of the Prussian king, and hurried forward to the field of battle. The " Watch on the Rhine " became a national anthem. Fortunately for Baden, the FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 727 French were by no means prepared for war, and were unable to cross the Rhine. Under the splendid strategy of Count Moltke and his staff, the land to the west of the river became the theatre of war. In the first week of August a skirmish took place at Saarbriicken, where the heir to the French throne received his " baptism of fire." The French army of the Rhine, under the command of Marshal MacMahon, Duke of Magenta, was attacked THE RIDS TO THE DEATH AT THE BATTLE OP SEDAN. (E. Ruenten.) by the Prussians, Bavarians, and other German troops under the command of the Aug. 4-e, is7o. Crown-prince at Weissenbnrg, and completely annihilated at the battle of Worth, while the army of General Frossard was defeated by the army of Prince Frederick Karl in a terrible battle at Spicherer Heights, and driven into the fortified city of Metz. Meanwhile Bazaine pushed further westward, in order to unite with the troops at Chalons. To prevent this the Prussians, under Steinmetz, attacked the 728 RECENT HISTORY. French to the east of the Moselle, while the second army, under Prince Frederick Karl, pushed southward by forced marches to head off the French army. Bazaine felt compelled, under these circumstances, to deliver battle be- fore all the German armies could concen- trate. This precipi- tated the decisive battle at Gravelotte, Aug. 18, 1S70. ill which the French, in spite of their strong posi- tion on the left bank of the Moselle, were completely beaten by the German forces un- der the King's com- mand. The French Emperor and his son succeeded in escaping to Chalons, whither MacMahon had re- tired, with the rem- nants of the army of the Rhine. The bat- tle of St. Privat, where the victoiy was won by the deci- sive action of the Saxons under the Crown-prince Albert, put an end forever to the discord be- tween Prussia and Saxony. The bloody battles in front of Metz forced Marshal Bazaine first to shut himself up within the walls of Metz, and finally to surrender his entire army. But before he capitulated, the Emperor attempted to relieve him by a bold march to the north grave doubts of the success of this enterprise MacMahon had But the regency in Paris, in which FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 729 the Empress Eugenie had the decisive voice, insisted upon its execution. The plan was clear enough to the German commanders. Their army consequently interrupted its march to the west, and moved northward in order to unite with the army of the King Enormous armies were now crowded together in the valley of the Meuse, where the battle of Sedan was Sept. 1-2, ISIO. fought on the 1st of Septem- ber, 1870. The French were so com- pletely surrounded, that Napoleon him- self offered his sword to King William of Prussia, and General Wimpffen, who com- manded the army in place of the wounded Marshal MacMahon, concluded a capitula- tion, in which his whole army of one hundred thousand men, forty generals and five thousand officers, with all the ammunitions of war, cannon, and horses was surrendered to the victor. The lines about Metz were now drawn still closer. Before the end of September, the Ger- man armies were in front of Paris, and the Prussian king took up his residence in the splendid salons of Versailles, where every picture reminded him of the glories of France. §617. The French Republic. But the war now took a new direction. The Emperor Napoleon had hardly reached the rooms at Cassel, in which his uncle Jerome had spent 730 RECENT HISTORY. six merry years, before the imperial government was destroyed by a revolution. The sept. 4, is7o. Empress fled to England, where the imperial prince soon joined her. In Paris "a Government of National Defence" was formed by members of the opposi- tion, and these immediately announced their determination to surrender, "no foot of our land and no stone of our fortresses." The war pursued its course. The memories of the great revolution filled the men of the third republic with the belief that they too would be invincible. A general conscription was ordered like that which, under Carnot, had led to the conquest of Europe. Gambetta, the hot-blooded young lawyer from southern France, organized a reign of terror. The entire male population, to the age of forty years, was called out, and France was converted into a camp. Every defeat was branded as treason. But the guillotine was not called into operation. The French republic unfolded an energy which astonished the world. Paris endured the horrors of a four months' siege, sub- mitting willingly to the greatest hard- ships, and to complete isolation from the rest of the world. Strong armies were collected in the north, and along the Loire, to drive the Germans from the sacred soil of France. Strasburg was surrendered on the 28th of Sep- tember. The starving city of Metz capitulated on the 27th of October. But the spirit of the French was still unbroken ; Bazaine was denounced as a traitor, and even Uhrich, who com- manded at Strasburg. did not escape suspicion. Gambetta, who had escaped from Paris, issued his edicts from Tours and Bordeaux. Even the old Garibaldi left his island, and collected a motley company from all lands and of all tongues, to fight for the independence of France. Many battles were fought ; hunger and cold and disease wasted away the suffering troops ; but they would not nee. m, is7o. give up the fight. Trochu, who was in command at Paris, sought to break through the line of the besiegers, and to reach the armies in the provinces. Gambetta marched armies from all parts of France toward Paris, and sent, at the same time, an army from the south to relieve Belfort, and to break through into Alsace, and across the Rhine to Baden. But it was all in vain. General Werder and his heroic soldiers, defended the mountain passes with a courage and endurance never to be forgotten. § 618. The Neiv German Empire. The true reward for this courage of the German army must be a nobler political existence. The time had now come for the German peo- ples to form one nation. Toward the close of the year, Bismarck, the chancellor of the Union, concluded treaties with the ambassadors of the South German governments, which agreed that the constitution of the North German Union should be introduced into XEON GAMBETTA. £ a S> '' H ' '' ne "'-' fortifications, extending from the ' *fw^lllji Rhine to the English Channel, upon which the French government had labored for two cen- turies, together with the supposed invincible works of Paris, of Strasburg, and of Metz, were all in the hands of German commanders. § 623. The Commune of Paris. On the 1st of March, while the National Assembly at Bordeaux was voting upon the conditions of peace, the German troops marched into the western portion of the French capital. A few days afterward, Versailles was abandoned, and the German Emperor started for home. The treaty between France and Germany was re- ceived by the French population with mixed feelings. The monarchists, the moderate re- publicans, and the people of the provinces greeted the news of peace with thankful satis- faction ; but the radicals, the social democrats,. and the masses of the great cities, exclaimed passionately about cowardice and treason. And the dethroned Emperor added to the confusion and the irritation, by a manifest protesting against the action of the National Assembly, Certain sections of Paris were full of uproar, and the National Guard refused to lay down their arms and to obey the orders of the National Assembly. A number of republican representatives resigned their places, and the excitement became greater when the National Assembly removed the seat of government from Paris to Versailles. The city of Paris now broke into revolution, A central committee of the National Guard proclaimed the Commune of Pakis, and began an armed resistance to the govern- 47 THE GERMANIA MONUMENT ON THE NIEDERWALD. 738 RECENT HISTORY. ment. A terrible civil war ensued. The insurgents murdered two generals, Lecomte and Thomas. They fired upon unarmed citizens ; they levied contributions upon the banks and the railroad corporations ; they declared the property of religious societies the property of the state ; they devastated the home of Thiers ; they imprisoned the arch-bishop of Paris Avith many other conspicuous clergymen and citizens ; they tore down the Vendome column, and set fire to the Tuileries, the Louvre, the Luxem- burg, the City Hall, the ministerial buildings ; in short, plundered and destroyed without thought and without restraint. The Arch-bishop Darboy and many others who had been arrested were cruelly shot. The streets were stained with blood and strewn with corpses, and when the government troops finally suppressed the Com- munists, military courts were established, which excited the world for months, by their condemnations to exile and to death. § 624. The Peace of Frankfort, and the Feeling in Germany. The Germans did not interfere witli the civil war, as both sides carefully avoided the violation of the treaty. The struggle continued, and the negotiations also. At first at Brussels and afterward at Frankfort. A treaty was finally agreed upon, in the latter city, and the news was greeted throughout Germany with great enthusiasm. On the 21st of March, 1871, representatives from all Germany, from the north and from the south assembled in Berlin to deliberate upon the laws, and to determine the form of the new German}' ; io establish a government for Alsace and Lorraine ; and to make provision for the in- valid soldiers, and for the families of those who had fallen in battle. III. HISTORICAL SURVEY. a. RETROSPECT OF LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CULTURE. § 625. Literary Changes. Heine. OMANTICISM, with its enthusiasm for the Middle Age, soon be- came a mere reminiscence. Her apostles cared nothing for the people, and the people cared nothing for Romanticism. But the literature of democracy soon aroused the masses, by its attacks upon all existing institutions of church and state. The Jews were conspicuous in the radical ranks. Ludwig Borne, distin- guished for his diction and critical skill, and Heinrich Heine, a gifted poet, were the most eminent of these Semitic writers. Heine especially at- tracted attention by his pathos, his biting wit, his intellectual swiftness and power, the splendor of his diction, and the singular beauty which broke forth from pages often marred by coarse invective and reckless diatribes. Close upon Heine followed Young Germany, in the person of Karl Gutzkow, Heinrich Laube, and many others. They sought a merry life rather than a nobler one ; the old pagan virtues, rather than the Christian ideals. With a wanton enthusiasm for their mistress, Progress, they scoffed at self-sacrifice, caring more for the forms of art, than for spiritual significance. They lacked the energy and the sagacity for statecraft, yet delighted in politics. Hence their shrewd and effective criticisms of existing social and political conditions. Hence, FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 739 too, the vagueness of their political ideals and their feebleness in constructive re- forms. A group of serious writers came nearer to the popular heart, and wrought mightily as producers of unrest. Herwegh, with his " Poems of a Living Soul," Von Fallersleben, with his " Songs of the People," Prutz, Dingelstedt, Freiligrath, and others, gave expres- sion to the passionate longing of the age for social transformation, for a paradise on earth, for an escape from misery, and a share in material pleasure. Berthold Auerbach, the translator of Spinoza, and the author of " Little Barefoot," Anerhacn, was a Jewish child of the Black Forest. His pictures of German do- lsm-isss. mestic life, among the peasants, and in court circles, are a beautiful Kinkei, 1815-isss!. blending of reminiscences of reality and ideal suggestion. Kinkel is known for his political martyrdom and his lyrical poetry : Hebbel for Hehi>ei,isi3-ise3. his wild, passion- ate, and powerfully repulsive dramas. Emmanuel Geibel is Geiitei, 1SIS-1SS4. the poet of loyalty and conservative feeling ; so too nedwitx, it. isg3. is Oscar Von Red- witz. Paul Heyse is famous for his wej/se, j,. is3o-. novels and ro- mances " Children of the World," " Paradise," and for his dramatic poems, especially the " Sabine Boaenstedt, Women." Franz b. lsio-. Bodenstedt made careful studies of the Orient, which he reproduced in his poems. Riehl Meia, o. 1S23-. is the founder of the later historical novel, which has been brought to perfection by Felix Dahn, in his " Struggle for Rome." Spielhagen and Freytag are renowned for their novels, but tcentei- isto-is74. Fritz Reuter is easily chief of modern German humorists. His Uncle Brosig is as wonderful as Fal- staff, and a world more lovable. The first of Austrian poets in our century is Grillparzer, although his genius re- ceived little recognition during his lifetime. Hamerling, the author of " Aspasia," and Franzos, who wrote the " Struggle for Justice," are also Austrians. Among the dis- tinguished literary women of Germany, in the nineteenth century, were Heine's friend, Rahel, the wife of Varnhagen von Ense, Goethe's friend, Bettina von Arnim, the Count- -ess Hahn-Hahn, Fanny Lewald, and Bertha von Suttner, the author of " Ground Arms." § 626. In theology, De Wette and Schleiermacher sought to reconcile the eternal antithesis of the natural and supernatural. But Strauss and Feuerbach, both disciples ' '. ■": ■;■■' '■;..".■-'■■■::''./. " ; /:#^^^l^^^^^^ ^^j ^^^^^^^;~ *; ■HsUl IBji EH^^^Hj . " ^^H K»s|l§i§ PSiP*' H^K;^ Jj§ Hi '•/ S ■■■' Bar **& m mSKrfmKni Ij vi — ;,A. BBBBaB ALEXANDER VON HUMBOLDT. f40 RECENT HISTORY. schieieimacher, of Hegel, startled the world, the former with his " Life of Jesus," the H6s-is34, latter with his " Essence of Christianity." This led to a reaction, s«»-«mss, i8os.i874. which divided into pietism and strict orthodoxy. The latter was strongly supported by the Prussian government. Baron von Bunsen struck out a freer path, and the liberal elements of the evan- gelical chur jh formed the Protestant Union for mutual help and protection. All ef- forts to enlarge and liberalize the Catholic church were thwarted by the dominant ul- tra montane and Jesuitical influences. § 627. Philosophy found great historians in Ritter, Trendelenburg, Kuno Fischer, lite-isn. and most won- cr>.,,. ^"^"Ci^v ': :::> ":-. derful of all, Edward Zeller. Herbart, the successor of the immortal Kant, at Konigsberg, sought a basis for pedagogy, in a more thorough acquaintance with the workings of the human Sohopetiliauer, SOul; while i:ss-isoo. Schopenhauer produced his famous treatise " The World as Will and Per- ception." But the great triumphs of scientific inquirj^, outside of the physical sciences, have been in the field of history. Von tin, ike, Ranke, Curtius, i?95-isse. Mommsen, Ihne, Waitz, Hiiusser, Giesebrecht are all illustrious names. More recently Harnack, by his mag- nificent work upon Christian dogma, has opened a new epoch in ecclesiastical history. Savigny, with his history of " Roman Law in the Middle Ages," Bluntschli, with his " International Law," and Gneist, with his " Studies in Constitutional History," have added new lustre to Ger- man jurisprudence. § 628. But the natural and exact sciences have surpassed all the others, even Aiex. Humhoiat, history not excepted. Alexander von Humboldt leads the splendid noo-isBo. column, and behind him come Arago of France, and Darwin of Eng- Banvin, isoo.iss2. land. Gauss, the founder of the new mathematics, the astronomers Herschel, father and son, Kirchoff and Bunsen, the discoverers of spectral analysis, voita, ills-ism. Volta, inventor of the famous pile, Mayer, the expounder of the con- servation of energy, Gay-Lussac, the chemist of France, and Faraday, the great scien- CHARLES DARWIN. FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 741 tific genius of England, Helmholtz, master of many sciences, and Virchow, statesman and physiologist, renowned in both spheres. l>. The Technical Inventions of Our Time. § 629. The application of steam to machinery, and the utilization of electricity have transformed the world. James Watt was the first to improve the rude steam pump into an instrument of universal power. Arkwright followed with his power loom. And the two Stephen- sons with the locomotive. Robert Fulton invented the side wheel steamboat, which has developed into the twin and triple-screw steamship, that crosses the Atlantic in less than a week. The Alps are now crossed by four railroads, and the Rocky Mountains by as many. Som- merring and Morse, Joseph Henry, and George Grove, are names illus- trious in the history of the magnetic telegraph, while Bell is associated in- separably with the telephone ; Edison and Siemens with the electric light and the electric motor. §630. Political Economy. Adam Smith was the founder of scientific political economy. His " Wealth of Nations," published in 1776, was an epoch making book. Malthus fol- lowed with a theory of population, exasperatingly true, and Ricardo, with a theory of rent, equally irri- tating and irrefutable. John Stuart Mill synthesized their contributions into a system, and Bastiat, in France, expounded them with optimistic ad- ditions and modifications, and ren- dered them exceedingly attractive by his wit and eloquence. Fichte wrote a treatise, in which he urged a system of national restriction, and List followed him in his opposition to Free Trade. Roscher, of Leipzig, is the chief of the historical school, while Boehm-Bawertz of Vienna, has made an anatysis of value, which has attracted great attention. Karl Marx, in his " Capital," attempted a scien- tific basis of socialism, and his difficult but powerful work is the Bible of the disorgan- izes of the present industrial system. Schulze-Delitzsch founded in Germany a num- ber of co-operative societies, seeking, by practical measures, to relieve and benefit the working classes. A few have followed him, but the multitudes of Germany have fol- lowed Marx and Lassalle. In France, St. Simon and Fourier are the popular idols ; these taught, early in the century, their theories of communal industry, and equal dis- tribution of the products of labor. In Russia, Bakunin urged a system of Nihilism, or GEORGE STEPHENSON. 742 RECENT HISTORY. the. destruction of existing institutions as the beginning of a new social state. In England and America, these doctrines are gradually spreading, and their influence upon the democratic institutions of the two countries is watched with solicitude by students of political development. § 631. The naturalist, the merchant, the missionary, and the journalist have dis- covered the " Dark Continent." Barth of Hamburg, and Vogel of Leipzig, David Livingstone, and Henry Stanley, have won for themselves imperishable renown, by their African journeys. The coasts of Africa are lined with colonies, and the Free DAVID LIVINGSTONE. State of Congo occupies the heart of the continent on both sides of the Congo river. Speke, Grant, and Baker discovered the long-hidden sources of the Nile in great lakes beyond the equator, and the snow-clad mountains by which they are fed. In 1884, Germany founded colonies in Africa, in spite of the savages and the Arabs, by whom the settlers were harassed. The troubles from these sources led to imperial protection in 1889. The Dutch and the English are strong in southern and eastern Africa, but they, too, have serious difficulty with the climate and the savages. § 632. Australia, which was first discovered by Captain Cook more than a cen- tury ago, now consists of a number of English colonies. FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 743 Polar expeditions still have their attractions to the expedition of Dr. Kane, and in recent times Nordenskjold, Weyprecht, Greeley, and others have sought knowl- edge and fame among the ice-bergs and the northern lights. § 633. The First Reichstag of the Neiv Empire and the Political Parties. The creation of the German Empire astonished and perplexed the rest of Europe, especially as it was accompanied with the military overthrow of France. The center of political gravity had been removed from Paris to Berlin, and other nations regarded this change with sus- picion and alarm. Within the empire, there were not a few who were opposed to a consolidated union under the lead of military Prussia. It was plain there- fore, that the empire must fight for its life. In the first debates, a number of representatives showed a desire to re- store the papacy to its old authority as compensation for this restoration of the empire. The leaders of this clerical party were Windthorst of Hanover, and Bishop Ketteler of Mayence The fate of Sir John Franklin led SIR SAMUEL BAKER. They called themselves the "Party of the Center," and gathered about them the discontented of every sort. But the Catholic church itself, was not free from dissensions. When the decrees of the Vati- ittaicu as, ls-si. can Council were published, the great historian, Dollinger, addressed a letter to the arch-bishop of Munich, in which he declared that the new dogma of the infallibility of the pope was contrary to the Holy Scriptures and to the traditions of the Church. If it were adopted by the Catholics of Germany, it would be the begin- ning of a cancer, which would destroy the new empire, as the old one had been destroyed. In most of the German states, great care had been taken in legislation for the schools, and the eman- cipation of the school-system from the church had been partially or wholly completed. When, now, the affairs of Alsace and Lorraine came up for discussion, the clerical party attacked, f44 RECENT HISTORY. with great bitterness, the changes which had been made in the instruction of the young. § 634. After the adjournment of the first Reichstag of the Empire, the great tri- june is, isvi. umphal entry into Berlin took place. The festival was imitated in several of the German capitals, notably in Munich, where the King of Bavaria and the Crown-prince of the German Empire met together, and cemented the union of the south and of the north in an enduring personal friendship. Bavaria joined Prussia also in her resistance to the Ultra-montane clericals. In 1872, Prince Bismarck began the foreign policy which has preserved the peace of the empire for more than two dec- ades. He convinced the other nations that Germany would not be aggressive, but would always be prepared. New fortifications were erected at Strasburg and in Metz, and the military system of Germany was reorganized according to Prussian models. Bismarck sought also the friendship of Austria, and obtained it in spite of the hostil. ity of the aristocracy, of the ultra-montanes, and of the non-German races. In Russia the population was, for the most part, hostile to the new order of things in Germany, while the court was well disposed. This led Bismarck to promote the meeting of the September, ism. three emperors in Berlin, and led further ti the proclamation of a cor- dial understanding between the three great dynasties of central and eastern Europe. may, ism. Nor was Italy neglected. A visit of the Crown-prince and of the Crown-princess of Italy gave opportunity to strengtnen he alliance, to Avhich the House of Savoy was so much indebted. The Scandinavian kingdoms were conciliated, and no pains were spared to heal the wounds caused by the struggle over Schleswig- Holstein. § 635. King Frederick William IV. had been surrounded by a High-Church party, who had helped him in his efforts to strengthen the Catholic church in Prussia. The Catholic clergy were really freer in Protestant Prussia, than in the Catholic states, and they had established everywhere in North Germany their monasteries and congrega- tions. The minister of religious affairs, Von Miihler, was one of the leaders of this reaction, and one of the principle supports of the Catholic party. He was finally January, 1872. driven to resign, and his place taken by Falk, an energetic, bold, and sagacious statesman, who introduced a new school law, which brought the entire sys- tem of instruction under the control of the state, put an end to the dependence of the public schools upon the church, and regulated carefully the part of the clergy in relig- ious instruction, and the moral education of the }'oung. This law was passed by the House of Representatives, but met with violent opposition in the upper House, not only from the ultra-montanes, but from all the forces of reaction. It required all the per- sonal influence of Bismarck and Falk to carry through their proposition. An attempt was made to conciliate the Pope, by sending Cardinal Hohenlohe to represent the Ger- man empire at Rome, but the Pope refused to receive him. It was proposed to abol- ish the embassy, but Prince Bismarck preferred, he said, to regulate the differences of state and church by means of legislation. It was in this connection that he made the famous remark, "We are not going to Canossa ! " At the same time he issued a man- ifest, touching the relation of the temporal government to the election of future popes. The German bishops now united in a declaration against the Chancellor. This pro- duced great excitement, and was soon followed by a law abolishing the houses of the Jesuits, and excluding the members of the order from the German empire. FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 745 § 636. Reforms, in other spheres, met with like opposition. The six eastern prov- inces of the monarchy suffered greatly from remnants of feudal privilege. These, the Prussian government determined to abolish; and introduced for that purpose anew sys- tem of local government. This was adopted by the lower House, but rejected in the upper by a solid phalanx of the nobility. Thereupon the government created twenty- five new members, by whose help the new system was voted through. King William consented to this measure with great reluctance, but it was the only means by which the feudal spirit could be broken. In the beginning of 1873, the Prussian bishops and the Prussian government were in deadly strife. New laws became necessary, by which the rights and liberties of the citizens could be protected against a priesthood armed with such great powers of discipline and excommunication. These laws provided for the scientific education of the Catholic clergy, for the confirmation of clerical appoint- ments by the state, and for a tribunal, in which the conduct of the bishops might be revised. They were passed by the House of Representatives by a great major- ity, but in the House of Lords, the personal power and the impressive eloquence of the Chancellor were both needed to overcome the opposition. These laws, known as the May Laws, embittered the strife between the bishops and the state. § 637. At once the bishops assumed a hostile attitude, issued addresses, memoirs, and declarations, prophesying that neither bishops, priests, nor believers would submit to such laws. They refused to permit the government to inspect the seminaries, in which young priests were educated, and to notify the state when they ap- pointed a priest to a vacant parish, as the laws required. They continued to make their appointments without regard to the laws, whereupon the government forbade their appointees to perform the Church service. This provoked a conflict, which ex- tended throughout the whole kingdom. Many arch-bishops and bishops were sent to prison; many were deposed, among them the two arch-bishops; and in the future, bishops were to be recognized and placed in possession of their revenues, only after taking an oath of allegiance, and promising to obey the laws. The first to take this oath was Bishop Reinkens, who was recognized by the Emperor as bishop of the Old Catholics, after he had been consecrated by the Jansenist bishop, Heycamp, in Rotter- dam. The ultra-montanes now spread the rumor that King William did not sj'mpa- thize with this new legislation, and the Pope addressed to him a letter, in which he expressed the opinion that the King did not approve of these measures, but "if he did, he should remember that they could only undermine his own throne." To this, William I. replied, " that the Holy Father was misinformed of German affairs, if he supposed that the German government was pursuing methods that the Emperor did not approve ; the constitution required that all laws must receive his signature. He regretted that many Catholic clergymen persisted in a course of disobedience, making thereby the use of compulsion necessary. But the religion of Jesus Christ and the truth had nothing to do with this conduct. Moreover, he could not refrain from ex- pressing his dissent, when the Holy Father declared that every baptized person be- longed to the Pope ; the evangelical faith which he, like his forefathers, and the most of his subjects, confessed, did not permit him to accept any mediator in his relations to God, except the Lord Jesus Christ." § 638. A new House of Representatives for Prussia was elected in 1873 ; the clericals appeared with increased strength, but the House, nevertheless, passed the 746 RECENT HISTORY. statute of civil marriage, making a civil ceremony obligatory upon Catholics and Protestants alike. But the bishops and clergy persisted in their opposition, until most of the bishoprics in Prussia were vacant ; the prelates seeking in every way to avoid the application of the laws. The prince bishop, of Breslau, removed to Austria; the Arch-bishop of Posen went to Rome ; and other deposed bishops left the country, in order to escape punishment. The Prussian government closed the vicarages of the disobedient priests, confis- cated the revenues of their parishes, transferred disobedient priests to other parishes, and deprived of citizenship such as persistently disobeyed the laws. The conflict be- tween the Church and the modern State became sharper. The Pope issued a note- worthy encyclical, in which he declared the May laws null and void, and excom- municated all priests who submitted to the government. This led to the refusal of the Prussian state to any longer pay the sums that had been hitherto devoted to the Catholic church, and the constitution was changed so as to abolish the ambiguous clauses, under which the Church maintained her entire independence of the State. A statute against cloisters and religious orders and the various congregations, dissolved the nurseries of ultra-montanism ; and a statute touching church property, placed the management of it in the hands of the laity ; while still another statute gave the old Catholics a share in the property of the Catholic church. § 639. The Reichstag of 1874 contained, for the first time, representatives from Alsace and Lorraine. But the first motion made by any one of them, was a demand that the people of the two provinces should vote upon the question of annexation. At the same session, greater liberty was granted to the press, but the chief event was the passage of a new military law. The government proposed that an annual sum be isjj. determined; which the government might apply without further action upon the part of the legislature. This met with violent opposition. The King feared an outbreak of the old conflict. In the critical moment, Herr von Bennigsen offered a compromise, in which the annual sum asked for was granted for a period of seven years. This compromise was accepted, and a second conflict avoided. But the strug- gle between the Church and the State became all the more exciting, when Kullman attempted the life of Prince Bismarck at Kissingen ; the Prince escaped with a slight wound. In the same year, Count Harry von Arnim, a former friend and ally of Prince Bismarck, was convicted of removing documents from the archives of the Paris embassy. The Count was not satisfied with the policy of the Chancellor toward Rome and France, and doubtless intended to make use of the documents, of which he had taken possession, to the detriment of the Prince. § 640. A reform next began in the evangelical church. Hitherto the power had been in the hands of the High-Church party, — a party distinguished for its narrowness and its intolerance, a party that did its utmost to cripple even the Union, the greatest ecclesiastical achievement since the Reformation. But during the ministry of Dr. Falk, a new constitution was established for the church, based upon the principle of self-government and the predominance of the lay element. A system of synods was created for the districts and the provinces, and a general synod for the whole mon- archy. But the High Church party opposed quite bitterly the new order, and men of liberal views were excluded from all important parishes, and from the theological chairs in the universities. FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 747 § 641. Economic questions now pushed to the front. The Empire required greater revenues, and free trade was becoming unpopular. The Chancellor proposed an increase of the tax upon tobacco, and would have gladly made of tobacco a state monopoly. The more Prince Bismarck busied himself with the subject of taxation, the more he inclined to a system of protection. This led to a reorganization of the cabinet, the chief members of which had been ardent free traders. The Chancellor also pro- posed the acquisition of the railways by the empire, but this met with decided opposi- tion from the other states. The railroads were however gradually acquired by the in- dividual states, even Prussia purchasing most of the private lines. In 1876 a new code of laws was adopted for the empire, not however without a great deal of diffi- culty, and not until it was agreed that the imperial court should have its seat at Leipzig. The internal administration of Prussia was next subjected to a thorough reform, the purpose being to establish local government, and to introduce into the civil adminis- tration the co-operation of the citizens ; in other words to pass from a system of police to a system of self-government. | 642. The alliance of the three emperors produced great anxiety in France, and led to a great increase of the French army. The French were evidently prepar- is7s. ing for " a war of revenge." That peace was preserved was to no small degree the work of the Czar Alexander. To maintain friendly relations with Italy, the Emperor William made a journey to Milan, where the people received oet. isjs. Kaiser White-beard, as they called him, with great delight. Aus- tria, under the influence of Andrassy, was friendly, both to Prussia and to the German empire. Bismarck refrained from any interference with the oriental question, and pursued a policy of caution and of peace. But in 1877 he announced his determina- isjj. tion, to retire, declaring himself worn out with his great labors and fatigues. The Emperor gave him indefinite leave of absence, but would not consent to his resignation. Nevertheless, the nation was greatly disturbed by changes in the ministry, and by a great commercial crisis. Something like a panic was spreading may is?s. through the land, when an attempt was made upon the life of the aged Emperor, by Robert Hodel, a colporteur of socialist writings and newspapers. Prince Bismarck hastily drew up a statute against revolutionary agitators and societies, but it was not accepted by the Reichstag, as existing laws were deemed sufficient. But hardly had the Reichstag adjourned, when a second attempt was made upon the life of the venerable monarch. Hodel was a tramp from the lower classes, but Dr. Nobling, jrwne isis. the second assassin, was an educated man, and doubtless insane ; yet as he had moved in socialistic circles, the socialists were held accountable for his deed. Fortunately the wounds of the Emperor, though painful, were not serious. The Crown-prince acted as regent, and, during his regency, the Reichstag was dissolved. The new assembly was convened in September, 1878, and immediately called to deliberate upon statutes for the suppression of socialism. These statutes provided for something like martial law, and met with violent opposition from the representatives of the people. They were finally passed, but the period of their operation was limited is7o. to three years. The financial crisis and the arrest of industry had produced a strong reaction against free trade. An alliance between the manufac- turers and the owners of great estates agitated for a protective tariff. This led to an- other change of ministry. Falk, the author of the church and school laws, retired, 748 RECENT HISTORY. and with him other liberal ministers ; and the conservatives returned to power. But the people were not in sympathy with the plans of the Chancellor, as was shown in the next election. The ultra-montanes and the liberals returned in greatly increased i88i. numbers. Nevertheless, the session was noteworthy for its attempt at social reform, especially for its statute creating a fund for the relief of sick and in- jured artisans. This statute provided for an insurance fund, to be created by compul- sory contributions. The project for tobacco monopoly was rejected; but the economic unity of Germany was perfected by agreements with Hamburg and Bremen, these 1882. two cities becoming members of the customs-union, although retaining for themselves a limited district, into which all goods entered free of duty. Alsace and Lorraine were also reorganized, ai;d a viceroy appointed to govern them as im- perial provinces. The colonial policy of the Chancellor met with great opposition, al- though he succeeded in obtaining a subsidy for certain steam-ship lines. France at- tempted, at this time, to form an alliance with Russia, but Bismarck maintained a good understanding between the two mon- archs, who met together in the city of Dan- zig, and agreed upon changes in the Russian cabinet, which were a guarantee of peace. Changes in the Austrian ministry brought no change of foreign policy. Austria and Germany continued to be friends. Italy was brought closer by an agreement with the triple alliance ; and the three emperors, with their leading statesmen, met together in friendly intercourse at the Polish town of Skierniewicze, on the Russian frontier. § 643. Revision of the Prussian Church Laws. — The aged Pope Pius IX., after the death of Cardinal Antonelli, became still more subject to the influence of the Com- is-18. pany of Jesus, as Cardinal Simione, his new secretary of state, was a member of the company. But when Car- dinal Pecci became Pope Leo XIII., a. more conciliatory policy was adopted. The death of Bishop Ketteler of Mayence, and the retirement of Minister Falk, made the reaction and the reconciliation easier. The application of the May laws was left to the discretion of the government ; the deposed bishops were recalled ; the scientific education of the. Catholic clergy was no longer insisted upon ; the ecclesi- astical court was abolished ; the establishment of new seminaries for boys was permitted; and the charitable orders and congregations were allowed to return. isso. The Church revenues were restored, and Prussia was once more represented at the Vatican. In response to these concessions, the Pope agreed that notice should be given to the government whenever a priest was appointed to a vacant parish. Bishop Kopp of Fulda, afterward Prince-bishop of Breslau, contributed greatly to the restoration of peace, by his mild and persuausive inter- vention. In fact, the system built up with so much difficulty had crumbled to pieces; POPE LEO XIII. FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 749 the weary struggle had ended in the defeat of the State. The Poles were a strong support of the Ultra-montane part}-, and the Prussian government was compelled to op- pose, with energy, the spread of the anti-German agitation in the eastern provinces. This led to a vote of censure in the Reichstag, but the Prussian House of Representa- tives approved the action of the government, and passed a law for the encouragement of German settlements and the purchase of Polish estates in the eastern provinces. iss4, In 1884 Bismarck proposed that the manufacture of distilled liquors should be made a state monopoly, but the proposition was defeated. In 1886 the isse. the struggle was renewed for the third time, touching the organization of the army. Bismarck asked for increased numbers, and for an appropriation cover- ing a period of seven years. The Reichstag refused to extend the period beyond three years, whereupon it was dissolved, and new elections were ordered, which resulted in issi. favor of the government, and in 1887 the new military law was adopted by a large majority. To meet the expenses required by this legislation, a heavy tax was levied upon distilled liquors. A change was made also 'in the time of military service. The members of the Laudwehr were required to serve to" their thirty-ninth year. And the members of the Land-sturm until the close of the forty- fifth year. Prince Bismarck, in the discussion of the military laws, pointed out the threatening situation of Europe, and developed, with great frankness, the principles isss. of his foreign policies. " We Germans," he said, "fear God, but noth- ing else in the world ! " In 1888 the legislative period for the empire was extended from three to five years, and the Prussian constitution was altered in the same way. The frequent elections had caused so much excitement, and developed so much bit- terness, that it was hoped in this way to subdue the political fever that was consuming the nation. § 644. Events in Bavaria and Brunswick. King Ludwig II. was a prince of noble endowment, and of great patriotism ; but in 1886 his eccentricities developed into insanity. A regency became necessary, and as his only brother, Prince Otto, was isse. also insane, his uncle, Prince Luitpold, was entrusted with the govern- ment. The people were informed by proclamation of the tragic condition of affairs, and it was necessary to break the matter to the King. With difficulty he was per- suaded to go with his physician to the Castle Berg, at Lake Starnberg. Arrived there he went with Von Gudden, his physician, for a walk in the park. His medical at- tendant left him for a moment, but returning, discovered the King in the lake. He plunged in to save him, but the King, with his tremendous strength, held him under the water until h,e drowned, and then drowned himself. Prince Luitpold was for- tunately a sagacious and beneficent prince, whose conduct and bearing enabled Bavaria to pass through this critical period without a revolution. In 1884 Duke William of Brunswick died unmarried, and with him expired the elder House of Guelph. The Duke of Cumberland, son of the deposed King of Hanover, was the next heir to the throne. But the imperial council declared that a government, by the Duke of Cum- iss4. berland was not compatible with the imperial constitution, in as much as he claimed the throne of Hanover, and refused to recognize the imperial consti- tution. The election of a regent was ordered, and the choice fell upon Prince Albert of Prussia. § 645. The Death of Emperor William. On the 9th of March, 1888, William, the 750 RECENT HISTORY. isss. first emperor of the new empire, was gathered to his fathers in the 91st year of his age. A rich life, full of marvelous successes, was thus brought to an end. The recollections of the monarch reached back to the days when Prussia la}' in ruins at the feet of Napoleon. The shame of Jena and Tilsit were his first memories, and yet he was called, in his old age, to lead his people to a pinnacle of greatness, of which the boldest had hardly ventured to dream. He remained to the last simple and straightforward, benevolent and gentle, always industrious, always faithful and con- scientious. His last words were characteristic of his whole life. " I have no time now to be tired." A soldier, to his heart's core, he strove to preserve the peace of the world, and to obtain the blessings of peace for his beloved country. It was reserved for him, after great unpopularity and misunderstanding, to fulfill the dream of the patriots, and to es- tablish the empire, in which united Germany might work out a glor- ious destiny. § 646." The death of the aged monarch was all the more tragic, because of the certainty that his only son was soon to die also. The crown prince was suffer- ing from a cancer of the throat, to cure which, physician s exercised their skill in vain. He was staying at San Remo, when the death of his father called him to the throne. He left the sunny south, travel- ed quickly to Berlin, and assumed the reins of government. Frederick III., the imperial sufferer, bore his pains with composure and fortitude, but his government lasted only ninety-nine days. A proclamation to the people, and a communication to Prince Bismarck, explained the principles by which he would be governed. A universal amnesty was granted. June is, isss. Von Puttkamer, the reactionary member of the ministry, was dismissed for his interference with elections. On the 15th of June, 1888, Frederick died saying, " Learn to suffer without complaining." The imperial and the toj&\ crown passed to his oldest son, William II. When the new emperor opened the Reichstag, and in EMPEROR WILLIAM II. ii^'n ji-ffiS '.M (i»P I i ■- .-'ii '. - -"llftlH • ' 5 ij 11 iHliill pkiiiiniiii ' u l III : '"' 71 1 l''' ;:: iiji B IB ii hamuli IP III FREDERICK III. (pp. 751.) 752 RECENT HISTORY. his speech declared that he would proceed along the path marked out by his grand- father, he was surrounded by nearly all the princes of Germany — at their head the Prince-regent of Bavaria, and the King of Saxony. § 647. The dying advice of William I. related to Russia. A good understand- ing with the Czar, seemed to him essential to the welfare and safety of German}-. This too was the policy of Prince Bismarck. Great therefore was the consternation in Europe, when the distinguished statesman resigned the chancellorship that he had created and made illustrious. The aged Moltke had already retired, but he could no longer " mount a horse." Bismarck, though, was still vigorous. The immediate cause of his retirement is not yet known, but the differences seem to have concerned domestic, rather than foreign policy. General Capiivi succeeded to the vacant position, and Miquel became Minister of Finance. At first it was feared and believed that the changes portended war, especially as Russia and France seemed to be approaching an alliance. But the young Emperor, in spite of startling speeches made at military banquets, has acted with great circumspection in his dealings with other nations. He has renewed, to some extent, the friendship of his grandfather with the Czar, and maintained the triple alliance with Austria and Italy. The army was further increased and strengthened, although the Reichstag had to be dissolved, and new elections ordered, before this could be accomplished. The statutes against the socialists have been modified, a commercial treaty with Russia negotiated, the state of the schools in- quired into, by a convention of distinguished educators, great public buildings and monuments erected in Berlin, and attempts made to improve the condition of the working classes by legislation and royal influence. Prince Bismarck, whose retire- ment has not withdrawn him from public interest, accepted recently (1894) an in- lssj. vitation to the imperial court. His appearance in Berlin produced an ovation, and his formal reconciliation with his sovereign excited the feeling, if it lacked the significance, of a great political event. § 648. Austria. In Feb., 1871, Austria was astonished by the appointment of a isii. ministry notoriously hostile to the new German empire. They prom- ised to establish a " truly Austrian policy. Their plan was to increase the power of the individual legislatures, to make the provinces more independent, and to diminish the rights of the imperial council and the imperial ministry. The predominance of the German element in the west was to be overcome by a federal system, in which the Sla- vonic peoples would have the decisive word. To accomplish this, the legislatures al- ready in session were dissolved, and new elections ordered. At the very moment when the two emperors met together, and the two imperial chancellors were seeking to bind together Germany and Austria, Francis Joseph signed the degree which forced the Germans of Austria to fight for their political existence. " The United States of Austria" did not however manage to get born. When the Bohemian constitution was laid before the Emperor of Austria, he refused to confirm it, declaring that all changes must be made upon the basis of the existing constitution. The ministry at once re- signed. The action of the Emperor was attributed to the influence of Count Beust; great was the surprise, therefore, when he was removed from his position as chancel- lor, and sent as ambassador to London. But as he was not Austrian-born, as he was a Protestant, and did not belong to the old nobility ; as he had abolished the concordat, and entered into friendly relations with the German empire, he had become exceed- FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 7,53 ingly unpopular with the court party, and he was sacrificed to appease their wrath. § 649. Nevertheless, Beust's policy was continued by his successor, Count An- drassy. Prince Auersperg became minister-president of Austria, and the two states- men determined to support the constitution and the empire against the decentralizing issa. influences of the Slavonic peoples. In 1872 a reform bill was passed by both Houses, which gave the election of the imperial council to the people, instead of the state legislatures, and which limited the latter to purely domestic affairs. This bill was bitterly opposed, but supported by Count Andrassy, it received the imperial sanction. The relations of Church and State were regulated no longer by negotiations with Rome. Statutes were prepared, which abolished the concordat, and protected the rights of the State against the Church. These statutes were passed by the imperial coun- is73. cil, and signed by the Emperor. In 1873, Austria was shaken by a financial panic, a consequence of extravagant speculation, and the hunger for riches everywhere prevalent. All classes of the people suffered heavy losses, and many families were completely ruined. The World's Fair, which was opened the same year, could neither conceal nor repair these losses, although it surpassed in magnificence, all that had been done hitherto in this direction in London or in Paris. § 650. The creation of the duplex kingdom Austria-Hungary excited the centrif- ugal forces in the mixed races along the Danube. Not only the Magyars in Hunger, but the Slavs in Bohemia strove for political independence. The creation of Franz Deak found many enemies in the extreme Magyar party. These would fain have broken the bonds that united the two sections of the empire, and have obtained for Hungary a political independence, in which she would have shared nothing in common with Austria, but the personal authority of the Emperor. But Tisza, the leader of this party, found it best to modify his demands, and in 1878 a new agreement was reached, touching the economic affairs of both states. Deak died in 1876. Events in the East made it still more difficult to preserve peace in Hungary, the Magyars lsis. wishing the empire to form an alliance with the Turks, while the Slavs insisted that the empire should co-operate with Russia. But Andrassy carried the government safely through the crisis. His policy was not to abandon the lands of the Balkan to Russia, but to maintain the free navigation of the Danube, and to secure the Austrian frontiers against Slavonic agitators. This led to closer relations with Germany, and Andrassy's successor, Count Kalnoky, pursued the same policy. In isjo. 1879 however a reaction took place. The old federal-clerical party obtained the upper hand. Slavs and Magyars became powerful enough to drive the German language and German literature from the schools, and even the University of Prague was so changed, that lectures were delivered in the Bohemian as well as in the isss. German language. The common-schools and gymnasia in Hungary and Transylvania were threatened with destruction, and a great bitterness broke out among the Germans of the empire. The imperial house was greatly afflicted by the is8o. sudden death of the Crown-prince Rudolph, the only son of the Em- peror. He died by his own hand. § 651. Russia. The Czar Nicholas strove for the dictatorship of Europe, but his son, Alexander II., sought to reform Russia, and to bring it up to the level of other civilized nations. The emancipation of the serfs brought with it great changes of so- 48 754 RECENT HISTORY. cial life. The army too was reorganized; universal service was introduced, and sub- stitutes were no longer accepted. The railroads were increased in number, and car- ried to completion. The system of taxation was improved ; the privileged classes were taxed, and the different classes of society were brought nearer to a civil equality. Great attention was given to the improvement of the laws and of judicial administration, to the development of commerce, of industr}-, and to the education of the 3 - oung. Al- exander II., also desired to alleviate the miseries of war, and to that end convened a congress of statesmen in Brussels, in the year 1874 to determine upon the outlines of international law. But while Russia was pursuing a policy of peace toward the west, it was extending its territory in the distant east. The Khan of Khiva had captured some is73. Russian subjects, and refused to give them up. Russia regarded this as a case of war. The Prince was conquered, and the Russian military authority was established in central Asia. The Russian columns, under General Kaufman, marched to the capital of the country under incredible difficulties and fatigues, and on the 10th of June, 1873, Gen. Kaufman entered the city as a victor. This campaign greatly in- creased the authority of Russia in central Asia, and England looked with anxiety at the Russian advances. In the following year, Russia annexed Ferghanistan. This isso-issi. opened the way to Merv, long regarded as l> the key of India." § 652. The Netherlands and Scandinavia. The Dutch and the Scandinavians have in recent times, little influence upon European politics. In Holland the two sons of William III. died early, and left the king a young daughter, who, according to the constitution, might rule in Holland, but not in Luxemburg. A bitter war took place between Holland and the Sultan of Atchin at Sumatra. The Sultan, trusting to English protection, had inflicted great injury upon the commerce and the colonies of the Dutch. Holland thereupon declared war, but at first suffered great losses. Fin- i8i3. ally she was victorious, and the entire island came into her possession. Belgium, under the enlightened King Leopold II. was disturbed by a violent struggle L,eopoia n. ises- between the liberals and the ultra-montanes. The schools were the bone of contention. Cabinets changed frequently, now composed of liberals, and now of clericals. Repeated labor troubles at the great industrial centres added to the con- fusion and the excitement. In Denmark, under Christian IX. conservative ministries christian ix. have quarreled uninterruptedly with the liberal majorities of the House ise3- of Commons, over the army and the appropriation bills. This has led to frequent dissolutions, changes of ministry, and refusals of supplies. In Sweden, where Oscar II. succeeded Karl XV., in 1872, the main questions have been the reor- oecar ii., is?*- ganization of army and navy, and the reform of the revenue system. Norway, which is almost independent in its legislation and administration, although united to Sweden nominally, has maintained, in recent times, its old dislike to Sweden, and its inclination for republicanism and for independence. § 653. France, Thiers. After the Commune of Paris had been suppressed, the Na- tional Assembly in Versailles presented a picture of confusion and despair. The re- publican form of government was distrusted by the representatives and by the people. Legitimists, Bonapartists, Orleanists, and Republicans of many varieties united to es- tablish a republic, because they could unite to establish nothing else. But this was regarded as a transient expedient, from which each party hoped to emerge a conqueror. The German armies were still in France. The costs of the war were yet unpaid. But FROM THE FOUNDATION" OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 755 Thiers had moderation enough to subdue the passions of the people, and to suppress the cry for a war of revenge. A disturbance of the existing order, it was plain, could lead only to anarchy, and to civil war. Thiers was therefore indispensable. And his threat to retire brought the Assembly more than once to terms. He was thus able to retain, for the government, the appointment of the mayors of the largest cities, and he managed to keep on good terms with the republicans and monarchists. The brilliant success of the national loan showed that he possessed the confidence of the people. ists. The subscription for this loan proved the exhaustless wealth of the na- tion and the splendid credit of France abroad. This enabled Thiers to pay off the war indemnity, and to hasten the removal of the German soldiers from the country, and also to bring order into the National finances, and to fill the empty treasury. § 654. Thiers next proceeded to reorganize the French army. He hesitated to introduce universal ser- vice, and compulsory attendance at school, and the richer and more cultivated classes could, under the new system, escape from service in the army. When Jules Simon introduced a s school law of a liberal character, it was so :. ^ fiercely attacked by the clergy, that it was with- drawn. The increased army required increased revenues. An income tax was decided upon, but as this was extreme- ly unpopular among the wealth}' classes, Thiers determined to return to the old protective sys- tem, which had been abolished under the second empire. The opposition to this was so violent that Thiers and the whole ministry resigned. But it was impossible to agree upon a successor, and a compromise was reached, according to which the revenue laws were adopted with some amendments, and the existing commercial treaties were abrogated. With this increase of revenue, it was possible to reorganize the army. But it soon appeared that the National Assembly no longer represented the nation. The filling of vacancies gradually increased the power of the republicans, but the mon- 1872. archial elements combined to lay aside the republican character of the government, and they baffled all attempts to establish permanently a republican sys- tem. On the other hand, the republicans, with their leader, the fiery Gambetta, were little content with the conservative republic. They demanded new elections, declar- CASIMIR PERIER. 756 RECENT HISTORY ing that the existing assembly had been called to make peace only. Great as were the services of Thiers, he found but little recognition among the violent partisans of either side. The royalists united with the clericals to bring about his overthrow. The Bon- apartists were hunted down by military tribunals. The French were certain that they had been conquered, not by German superiority, but by the treason of their own com- manders. Even Uhrich, the hero of Strasburg, was censured by a military court, but Bazaine was chosen as the chief victim. His surrender of Metz was charged as trea- son, and he was held responsible for all the sufferings of France. For months he was held a prisoner, and then brought to trial in a court-martial, presided over by the Due d' Au- male. But before the trial was begun, Europe was busy with the fate of President Thiers. At the very moment that he was paying off the last installment of the war indemnity, he lost all favor with the French Assembly. When the Emperor, Napoleon III., died in 1873, the sup- porters of the old mon- archy became even more active. Thiers, who had declared for the conser- vative republic, the re- public of "honest men," was forced to rely upon the left, the conserva- tives having gradually abandoned him. But the left had in it a large number of radicals. Thiers' position was rendered more difficult by the opposition of the church. Pilgrimages had been revived ; superstition was rife ; the Protestants were attacked. This conduct of the clericals excited great opposition among the republicans. Gre'vy resigned his position as president of the National Assembly. This was the prelude to the fall of Thiers. When he called the moderate repub- lican, Casimir Pcrier, into his cabinet, the assembly passed a vote of censure. Thiers then sent in his resignation, which was accepted, and Marshal MacMahon was chosen president of the republic. The Due de Broglie, the soul of this MARSHAL MACMAHON. FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 757 intrigue against Thiers, was now charged with the construction of the new ministry. is?3. The schools were left in the control of the clergy, and pilgrimages to miraculous places were organized as national festivals. § 655. The ruling party in the National Assembly next tried to form a fusion of the two Bourbon parties. The Count of Paris traveled to Frohsdorf, in the name of the Orleans branch, to make submission to the Count de Chambord, the head of the family. But the fusion was by no means complete. One party desired the grandson of Charles X. to be called back without conditions ; the other demanded pledges and assurances that King Henry V. would govern as a constitutional monarch. At last they united in a program which recognized the principle of a hereditary monarchy, but reserved the essential rights of a constitutional state, with two legislative cham- bers, and also re- served for France the tri-colored flag. But the Count declared to his friends that he must retain the white standard of the Bour- bons, that he could not become the legit- imate king of the rev- olution. Thus the great scheme, which had cost so much, was shattered to Oct., 1873. pieces ■upon the obstinate •apathy of an aged prince, without am- bition and without -energy. Thus there never was in France a King Henry V. § 656. Reluctantly enough, the monarchists now united to confer upon MacMahon the dignity of president of the republic, for a period of seven years. While Mac- Mahon was thus elevated to the chief magistracy of France, Bazaine was a prisoner, defending his life and his liberty before a military court. He was found guilty, and condemned to death with the loss of his military honors. But his judges united in a recommendation of mercy. MacMahon thereupon commuted the death-punishment to twenty years' imprisonment, upon the island of St. Marguerite, opposite Cannes. Aug., is«. Bazaine's rich Mexican wife successfully planned his escape from the island, and Bazaine died in Madrid, in 1888. § 657. The Duke de Broglie now attempted a change in the constitution, but his plan for a senate found no favor in the eyes of the Assembly, and he was obliged to retire. A period of confusion followed, out of which slowly emerged the party of Republicans, who established the constitution of 1875. This provided for two chain- Up** DUC DE BROGLIE. [58 RECENT HISTORY. bers, a chamber of deputies elected by the people, and a senate of three hundred Fei>., lsis. members, of which seventy-five are elected by the National Assembly, and the others by electoral colleges, in the different departments. The two chambers unite to elect the president for a period of seven years. A president may be re- elected. He is commander-in-chief of the army ; he appoints all officers ; receives all ambassadors ; executes the laws : and appoints his cabinet, which is responsible to the Senate and to the House of Deputies. The elections of 1876 were strongly Republican. A liberal ministry, under Dufaure, came into power, and sought, by opportune reforms, is7g. to promote the national welfare. Waddington, the minister of educa- tion, was especially active to improve the school system. The hierarchy had denied the right of the government to establish universities and to confer degrees, and had acquired this latter right for themselves. Under Waddington it was reclaimed for the state. § 658. The president, swept away by the republican excitement, attempted to conduct the government with the help of the liberals. But the clericals began to in- crease, and to acquire a great influence with him. This produced a crisis with the Assembly. Dufaure retired, and Jules Simon took his place. The clerical conservative party made desperate efforts to restore what it called "the government of moral or- der." The bishops and the Catholic priests declared that it was the duty of France to defend the independence of the pope, and even Pius IX. issued an address, de- scribing himself as a prisoner. The Chamber of Deputies petitioned the government to put an end to this agitation of the bishops, and Jules Simon, in the debate, ex- pressed the opinion that the so-called imprisonment of the Pope was a fable. The result was that Simon was reproached by the president for his conduct, and compelled to resign. A new cabinet was formed, with de Broglie as president. The chamber now declared upon Gambetta's motion that the representatives of the people had no confidence in a cabinet that was not free in its actions, and not determined to govern according to republican principles. A message of the President thereupon prorogued the chamber for a mc^th, in order that "the excitement might subside." Meanwhile the government would maintain the public peace. This was a prelude to a dissolu- isjj. tion. With the cry, " Vive la republique," and with a dignified ap- peal to the people against " this policy of reaction and of adventure " the repre- sentatives dispersed. § 659. Now began a reign of proscription. Republican officials were dismissed by the score ; the state's attorneys were commanded to prosecute the journals for every disturbance of the public mind. Next came the dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies. The liberal members answered with an address to the people, urging them to stand by the republic in the coming election, to take place within three months. The watch-word of the Republicans was "re-elect the three hundred and sixty -three." The agitation was furious, and the excitement reached fever heat. The sudden death of Thiers stirred the heart of the whole nation. His last writing was a defence of the republic, and a refutation of the charges made against the liberals by the conservatives. The government and the clergy strained every nerve to win the victor}', and although only three hundred and twenty Republicans were elected, in October, they were so greatty in excess of the conservatives, that they were able to compel the President either to govern according to the constitution, or to resign his position. Finally, as FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 759 the commercial and financial world became exceedingly restless, Marshal MacMahon determined upon a parliamentary government. He named a cabinet composed entirely of Republicans, in which Dufaure was president. Waddington was minister of foreign affairs, Leon Say minister of finance, and Bardoux minister of instruction. This was the greatest and most dangerous crisis that the republic had encountered, but it was successfully overcome. The executive and the legislative departments were brought into harmony, the appropriation bills passed, and the revenue system perfected. The great Exposition was then determined upon, and laws were passed to prevent the re- currence of arbitrary government. The public schools were withdrawn more and more from the influence of the clergy, and put into the hands of lay teachers. But all this was repugnant to the feelings of MacMahon, and when it was proposed to make changes in the command of the arm}', he resigned and retired to his estates. The two chambers came together and elected to the presidency Jules Grevy, the pres- ident of the House of Deputies. Gambetta was chosen president of the chamber. The aged Dufaure retired from the ministry, giving up his position to his colleague, Waddington. § 660. Gambetta's Ministry and Death. The new cabinet was moderately pro- gressive. Concessions were made to the public demand for an amnesty of the con- demned communists, and a steady resistance was made to the ultra-montane excesses. Ferry, the minister of education, proceeded energetically against the Jesuits, and the other orders of the church. Feny's measures were rejected by the Senate, yet the govern- ment did not lack weapons wherewith to resist these dangerous societies. Gambetta now began a violent agitation for election reform. He proposed to abolish the dis- tricts, and to elect deputies by departments, hoping thereby to destroy or to neutralize local influences, and thus to increase republican strength. The Senate however re- jected the measure, greatly to Gambetta's chagrin. But the elections were so strongly in his favor, that he was made minister president in a cabinet composed wholly of his issi. creatures. His career was brief. The Chamber of Deputies refused to support him, and he resigned in disgust. He died a short time afterward of a wound, the origin of which is wrapped in mystery. § 661. Foreign Entanglements. The Neiv President. France perceiving with jealousy the growth of other powers in the Mediterranean Sea, turned to Tunis for compensation. The Bey was compelled to accept a French protectorate. In Mada- gascar, an island of eastern- Africa, a war broke out, which cost great sacrifices and 1882-1885. brought little glory. The Tonquin expedition was not more fortunate. The French had obtained a footing in eastern Asia, and established a colony in Cochin China. Eager to possess the Red River, they pressed forward, until they came into conflict with the Emperor of Anam, and afterward with China. They succeed- ing in retaining Tonquin, but at great expense. The expedition and its consequences wrecked the ministry of Feriy, and also that of Brisson. § 662. The two chambers united in 1884 to revise the constitution. The repub- lss-t. lie was declared permanent and final. The members of the dynastic families were made ineligible to the Presidency. A new system, for the election of senators, was adopted, and Gambetta's project of election by " list " was agreed to. GreVy was re-elected president, and a new cabinet was formed, in which Freycinet and Boulanger were the chief figures. General Boulanger, the minister of war, had 760 RECENT HISTORY. become exceedingly popular. Many looked upon him as the coming Napoleon, who would soon bury the outworn republic. In 1886 the princes of the former reigning families were expelled from France. But in 1887 a scandal was discovered in the issi. highest circles, which led to the resignation of President Gre"vy. His son-in-law, Wilson, was deeply implicated in a shameful traffic in decorations, offices, and public contracts. Grevy was guiltless, but the people clamored for a sac- rifice. Sadi Carnot, the grandson of the famous general of the revolutionary epoch, was elected to the vacant place. He is a man of spotless reputation, moderate views, and staunch Republican ideas. Floquet, a radical Republican, became the president of the new cabinet. § 663. Switzerland and Italy. The Swiss Confederation was also the theater of violent troubles between Church and State. In Geneva, the home of Calvinism, Mermillod was made bishop by the Pope. This provoked a violent agitation among the Protestants, and the government resolved upon energetic resistance to the ultra- montane aggressions. In Basel and Solothurn, Bishop Lachat excommunicated and deposed a priest, because he would not accept the doctrine of infallibility. Thereupon the cantonal government required him to reinstate the priest, and when he refused, the Bishop was himself deposed. The conflict in Berne was even more violent, but these efforts of the ultra-montanes found little support outside of the German Catholic districts. A revision of the constitution had long seemed necessary to sagacious and patriotic men. The federal authority was too weak ; it was necessary to confer upon the federal government, the control of the army and of the public schools, to establish isitt. justice, and to create a uniform system of revenue. The first proposi- tion for an amended constitution was defeated by the ultra-montanes and the defenders is?*. of states rights, but the second attempt succeeded, and the new con- stitution was adopted. The federal government assumed control of the railways, and the manufacture of distilled spirits was made a federal monopoly. Switzerland also assisted in the building of the St. Gothard railroad, joining with Germany and Italy iss2. to support the company, by which this magnificent work was projected and completed. § 661. Italy and the Vatican. The position of the Pope in Italy, in consequence of the guarantee law, and of the principle of "a free church in a free state," was really more advantageous than that held by him in the days of his temporal sover- eignty. Nevertheless, he spoke of himself as a prisoner, and pleaded poverty. Mean- while, the Italian court took possession of the Quirinal, the foreign ambassadors took up their residence in the eternal city, and the constitutional government developed tranquilly. The names of Victor Emmanuel, Cavour, and Garibaldi appeared in the' public places and in the main streets, while their statues and medallions were seen in isto. many places. The Mont Cenis tunnel was completed and opened for travel about the same time that the Italians entered Rome. This was intended orig- inally to unite Italy and France. But the course of events promoted an alliance be- tween Italy and Germany. The Italian army was strengthened and reorganized, and new fortifications were erected. Thus protected against attack, the government pro- is38. ceeded to abolish the monasteries in the old papal states. In spite of the opposition of the clerical party, and the threats of a new crusade, the statutes were adopted almost unanimously by the lower House, and with little opposition in FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 761 the upper House. While the French were on the point of declaring the Count de Chambord King of France, a ministerial change was taking place in Italy, which seemed to favor the ultra-montanes and a French alliance. General La Marmora published a pamphlet at this juncture, reflecting upon Prussia. Nevertheless, the people clung to Victor Emmanuel, and Victor Emmanuel adhered firmly to the isis. alliance with Germany. But in 1878 the first king of modern Italy was gathered to his fathers, and Pope Pius IX. soon followed him. Leo XIII., the new pope, was more conciliatory. The new king, Humbert, inherited his father's popularity, and also his father's earnest desire to maintain the constitution and the liberties of the people. The land was not free from socialistic agitation, and the people were startled and indignant when the King was attacked by a Neapolitan assassin, and his minister Cairoli severely wounded. The death of the old hero, Gar- isss. ibaldi, liberated Italy from many difficulties. But the party struggles in Parliament led to many ministerial crises that were injurious to the public welfare. Depretis, a patriotic liberal, was entrusted no less than eight times with the constitu- issi. tion of a ministry. When he died in 1887, Crispi, a man of great ability, became minister president and minister for foreign affairs. Touched with the spirit of the time, Italy was active in establishing colonies. One of these brought the government into conflict with King John of Abyssinia, a conflict which lasted several years, and exposed the Italians to serious loss. § 665. Spain. King Amadeus struggled for eighteen months with the Cortes and with the Spanish army, and then resigned his throne. After his departure for Italy, the Spaniards determined upon a republic, in which Castelar, Figueras, and Salmeron were the conspicuous figures. They determined to call a constitutional convention, and to establish the fundamental law of republican Spain. Meanwhile, an executive committee, chosen by the Cortes, should assist the government with their council. The members of this committee desired a conservative republic. Castelar and his companions desired a republic like that of the United States of America. This pro- voked a sharp conflict, and the two parties in Madrid appeared armed. This was a isi3. signal for Figueras to dissolve the executive committee. Serrano and his adherents fled across the frontiers, and the election for the constitutional conven- tion was completed. As the Conservatives stayed away from the polls, the Democrats were triumphant. When the convention met, it started to transform the ancient Span- ish monarchy into a federal republic of thirteen states, each of the latter having a separate government. But while the convention was debating, the land was approach- ing anarchy ; and to make things worse, Don Carlos had marched into the mountain is73. regions of the north, proclaimed himself to be King Charles VII , and demanded the allegiance of all Spain. He soon commanded an army of twelve thousand men, led by bandits and fanatical priests. The Basque population of the Pyrenees, which delighted in civil war and adventure, easily lent itself to the cause of reaction and of religious bigotry. Supported by English moneys, and favored by the French government, Carlos conducted a cruel civil war against the Spanish repub- lic. But affairs in the south and in the populous cities of the coast were no better. The federal republic, for which the Cortes had decided, created some strange illusions, and the population of the south declared their independence of the government at Madrid. In Cadiz, in Malaga, in Carthagena, in Barcelona, the lower classes took pos- 762 RECENT HISTORY. session of the government, and began to attack the lives and the property of the wealthier classes. Castelar's ideal republic became a horrible caricature of the Amer- ican system. The ministry was powerless, the Carlists victorious in the north, the red is?*. republic triumphant in the south. The government was now compelled to make great changes. The centralized monarchy was retained, and the federal sys- tem abandoned ; martial law was proclaimed in the rebellious provinces ; Salmeron re- turned to the government, and soon restored tranquility, except in Carthagena, where civil war continued. Castelar was now convinced that his policy was not feasible. He assumed once more the presidency of the ministry, and clothed with dictatorial power, he proceeded against the insurgents with great energy. Yet the agitation con- tinued in the south for a long time, while the Carlists, secretly supported by the mon- archists of France, extended their power and their influence in the north. And now the Cubans rebelled, seeking to separate "the pearl of the Antilles " from Spain. Castelar steered bravely through this sea of difficulty, though men doubted whether he was strong enough to master the radical and democratic elements in the Cortes. Conse- quently, the men of the revolution of 1868, Serrano, Topete, and others quietly formed a committee, and determined to proclaim a dictatorship, if the socialists made it necessary. § 666. And it became necessary soon enough. Castelar was not able to main- tain his authority against the Carlists and the insurgents. His army was too weak, and his leaders too untrustworthy. Moreover, Salmeron, the president of the Cortes, had no faith in Castelar's policy ; and when the legislative assembly stood by their iss4. president in a vital matter, Castelar resigned. The army now came forward with a proclamation against anarchy. This was brought about by the com- mittee already spoken of, formed by Serrano, Topete, and Sagasta. Pavia, a determ- ined young general, marched into the hall of the Cortes, at the head of a few soldiers, and dissolved the assembly. He then assembled the chiefs of all parties, and urged them to create a new government. Alfonso, the son of Isabella, was too young to ad- mit of the restoration of the monarchy, so a kind of military republic was established. Marshal Serrano became the head of the executive power, and Sagasta, the president of the ministerial council. The Carlists were still powerful in the north. Moriones, the republican general, had been compelled to retire southward, but under the new government, the Carlists were driven back. The thought of a Bourbon restoration be- isjj. came now the topic of discussion. On the 30th of December, 1874, General Campos raised the monarchical standard, and proclaimed Alfonso XII. King of Spain. The army of the east was soon joined by the army of central Spain ; the min- isters protested, but resigned; a new government was formed by Canovas del Castillo. Serrano hastened to France, and the young King entered Madrid in triumph. The new King was little inclined to the ideas of the time, but he saw that it was impossible to rule Spain in the spirit, or by the method of his mother Isabella. Only with the standard of constitutional monarchy could he hope to triumph over Don Carlos. The isie. Cortes were convened to establish a new constitution, while he himself proceeded with the army to put down the insurrection of the north. Don Carlos was defeated, and compelled to abandon Spain. Meanwhile the government and the Cortes were restoring to the kingdom its former character, the Catholic religion was not re-established just as the papal nuncio desired, but a number of Protestant communities in Madrid and in the provinces were dissolved, and the universities FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 763 deprived of their newly acquired liberty. The revenues of the clergy were increased, and the instruction of the children placed in their hands. Foreigners of Protestant confession might practice their religion and erect their schools in Spain, but bigotted officials and bishops reduced these rights to a shadow. Spain was distressed financially, the Cuban insurrection having deprived the mother country xs78. of much revenue, and the insurrection having led to great outlay. In 1878, King Alfonso was married to Marie Mercedes, daughter of the Duke de Mont- pensier. But the young and beautiful queen died a few months after. King Alfonso was at first completely under the influence of Canovas and his reactionary ideas. But growing weary of this tyranny, he turned to the liberals and called Sagasta to the min- istry. In 1885 a Spanish mob attacked the residence of the German minister in Mad- rid ; the Spanish cabinet apologized, but maintained its right of sovereignty over the Caroline islands, which were claimed by Germany. Prince Bismarck offered to refer the matter to Pope Leo XIII. The Pope decided in favor of Spain, 1885. though giving to Germany freedom of navigation and of the fish- eries, and the right to use the island as a naval station. But in 1885 the young King died. It was a great loss to the unfortunate land, for he had shown unusual capacity for government, a clear head, and a strong will. His second wife was Maria Christina of Austria. After his death, she assumed the regency, and soon gave birth to a prince, who, as Alfonso XIII., is the heir of the Spanish throne. § 667. The Eastern War and Russia. The inability of the Sublime Porte to establish peace and to maintain order in the empire, the shattered condition of mukhtar pasha. the Turkish finances, and the abuses in the provinces, were used by Russia to separate to herself the provinces back of the Danube, between the Adriatic and the Black Sea. The deep gulf between the Mohammedan land-holders and the Christian peasantry, naturally furthered the Russian agitation. Sometimes the appeal was made to re- ligious prejudice, and sometimes to race hatred. Insurrections began in Herzegovina, 1875. and in Bosnia. Women, children, and old men fled with their herds and their possessions into Austria and Montenegro, while the young and middle aged men under Mukhtar Pasha, marched against the Turks. Volunteers hurried to them from Servia and Montenegro, and they were soon in possession of all the mountain passes. Austria urged the mediation of the powers. The mediation was without suc- cess. For the insurgents refused to accept the promises made in Constantinople, unless the European powers became responsible for their fulfillment. Meanwhile 764 . RECENT HISTORY. Austria, Russia, and Germany united to restrain the insurgents, and to relieve the in- habitants of Turkey in Europe from their wretched situation. A note was prepared by Count Andrass}% and submitted to the Turkish government. But although sup- ported by all the great powers, it was without practical effect. Hostilities were re- newed with even greater energy. Bulgaria and Prince Milan appeared ready to join the insurrection. The Slavonic population looked to Russia for guidance and for freedom. The three imperial powers were therefore persuaded that further steps were necessary. Bismarck, Gortschakoff, and Andrassy united in a memorandum which was submitted to the Porte. The Turkish government was urged to carry out the prom- ised reforms in the interests of peace, and intimations were given in the memorandum that delay would lead to energetic action, upon the part of Austria, Russia and Germany. § 668. But the uprisings of the Christians and of the Slavs had meanwhile stirred up the fanaticism of the Mohammedans and the hatred of the non-Slavonic races. German and French ambassadors were attacked by Turkish mobs, and even in the cit} r of Constantinople fanaticism attacked the Sultan Abdul Aziz, who, in the eyes of the Moslems, was the source of all calamity, and should therefore be deposed. The softas, or pupils of the priestly schools, marched to the palace, and demanded the re- moval of the Grand- Vizier, Mohammed Pasha. The frightened Sultan yielded, but isie. eager for revenge, he retired to his innermost apartment, when his ministerial council determined to depose him also. The Sultan was attacked at night, and murdered in his own apartment. A few days afterward, two leaders of the revo- lution, Raschid and Hassein Amri, were themselves murdered. These events provoked a terrible excitement, especially in the army. The uprising in Bulgaria was put down amid horrors that drove Europe into excited protest. The rulers of Servia and Mont- enegro, relying upon the help of Russia, had joined the insurrection, and were march- ing against the Turks. But they were not equal to the combat, and in Constantinople they were determined upon resistance, because they expected help from England. The Tory government sent a fleet to the Dardanelles. The war in the west and in the north continued, while Russian and English diplomacy contended with each other in Constantinople. Murad V., the successor of Abdul Aziz, was now deposed, and the crown given to his brother, Abdul Hamid II. The new Sultan was welcomed as "the reformer of Turkey." Meanwhile the Turkish arms were successful. The Russians proclaimed Prince Milan King of Servia, but the Turkish commander Abdul Kerim broke through the Servian army and marched toward Belgrade. The Czar Alexander now assured himself of the support of Germany and Austria, at any rate, of their friendly neutrality. The European ambassadors, eager to avert war, proposed a series of reforms, to be carried out under the supervision of a European army of six thousand men, stationed in the oppressed provinces. To this the Turkish government would not accede. The conference, which had been convened, was dissolved because of this isii. refusal ; the ambassadors left Constantinople, and the Czar Alexander believed that the time had come to follow the voice of his people. § 669. In April the Czar left his capital for the armj r , and the Pruth was crossed at night at three different places. Prince Carl of Roumania declared his kingdom in- dependent, and marched to the field with the Russians. At the same time, Russian troops from Asia crossed the Turkish frontier, and attacked-Ardaehan. The neglect FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 765 of the Turkish commander-in-chief, Abdul Kerim, made it easy for the Russians to cross the Danube, also and to compel the Turks to retreat. Early in July, the Russians were in possession of all the' land from Sistova to Gabrova, so that the Arch-duke, Nicholas, could establish his headquarters at Tinova, and Prince Tscherkaszky could undertake the re-organization of Bulgaria. Nicopolis was besieged and taken. General Gurko next captured the Schipka Pass, and the Russian cavalry were soon X' ABDUL IIAMID. in the vicinity of Adrianople. It looked as if the campaign would be over in a few weeks, and the Russians be in Constantinople. At this juncture, Abdul Kerim and the minister of war, Redif Pasha, were removed from their places and banished. Mehemed Ali was appointed to command the army of the Danube, and Osman Pasha took possession of Plevna and surrounded it with strong entrenchments. The Russian general, Krudener, sought in vain to drive the Turks from these fortifications. He was 766 RECENT HISTORY. forced to retire, after losing eight thousand men. Osman Pasha now surrounded Plevna with a ring of fortifications, which made the city almost impregnable. General Skobeleff displayed great military genius, but not until General Todleben took part in the siege, was any impression made upon the Turkish defences. He determined to GRAND DUKE NICHOLAS. hold them fast and starve them out. It looked as if the catastrophe of Metz would be repeated. But Osman Pasha was a braver soldier than Bazaine. When food and powder failed him, and hunger and disease was waisting his troops, he determined to FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 767 venture all upon a sortie. If he must capitulate, he would capitulate on the battle- field. After a desperate struggle with the Russians and the Roumanians, he was driven back into Plevna, and compelled to surrender. He had defended the city for six long months, and fell covered with glory ; but his fall decided the war. Turkey was in its last gasp. A circular letter to the powers of Europe besought their in- tervention. § 670. The Russians did not delay to make the most of their victory. In spite ism. of the weather and of the winter, they marched forward, surrounded the Turkish troops in the Schipka pass, and compelled then to surrender. Thirty thou- sand men fell into the hands of Russia, Adrianople was takeu, and the Turkish line of retreat cut off. Suleiman Pasha moved southward with the remnant of his army, hoping to escape by sea. The truce of Adrianople was signed by Turkey in despair, and a few weeks afterward the peace of San Stefano was agreed upon, in which Servia, Rou- mania, and Montenegro were declared independent, and Bulgaria was raised to a tributaiy, but otherwise self-existent princedom, with a Christian government and a native militia. Turkey was also required to pay fourteen hundred mil- lion rubles as war indemnity, or if she preferred, to cede to Russia certain territories in Asia. Bosnia and Her- zegovina were to have a government of their own, with reforms guaranteed by the European powers. Bessarabia was to be returned to Russia. Eng- land, angry at the conduct of Russia, demanded a congress, and Russia , thought it best to yield. An assem- bly of notables convened in Berlin, the like of which had not been seen in Europe, since the famous Congress of Vienna represented the three empires SULEIMAN PASHA. Bismarck, Gortschakoff and Andrassy Beaconsfield appeared for England, Waddington for isjs. France, Corti for Italy, Mehemed Ali for Turkey. After violent de- bates, it was agreed that Servia and Montenegro should retain their old boundaries, but Bessarabia remain in the hands of Russia. All confessions were to have equal rights, (even the Jews,) in the new independent princedom. Russia was to retain Batoum, but Bulgaria was shorn of nearly all that was given to her in the treaty of San Stefano. In a word Turkey in Europe was restored. The treaty of San Stefano would have de- stroyed it. Nevertheless the fortresses on the Danube were razed to the ground, and the Danube made free to its mouth. South Bulgaria or East Roumelia, as it has since 768 RECENT HISTORY. c 1=3 n Turke}', without - o z Q S - - been called, remained to Turkey, but its future welfare was guaranteed by the Euro- pean powers. § 671. The Princes of Servia and Montenegro expected to win Bosnia and Her- zegovina, the provinces in which the rebellion began, but they were disappointed. Andrassj r 's policy was to incorporate these provinces with Austria, and this plan met with the favor of the Congress, for the government at Vienna obtained permission to occupy both provinces ; in doing so, however, they encountered a stubborn and a bloody resis- tance. The following year Austria, with the consent of occupied Novi Bazar, prejudice to the sovereign rights of the Sultan. The Albanese formed a league to prevent this, but Turkey, acting in .conjunction with Austria, sent Mehemed Ali to put down the insurrection. He was attacked by the peo- ple and murdered. England was not satisfied to go from the Congress with empty hands. She obtained from Turkey the island of Cyprus, and the prom- ise to introduce reforms into Asia Minor. In return, the English ministry pledged them- selves to support Turkey in retaining her Asiatic provinces. Yet the Congress of Berlin had not established lasting peace. The pan-slavic party was not satisfied. Many said openly that Russia should defy the Congress. The party of peace prevailed, and a separate treaty was made with Turkey, touch- ing the costs of the war and other unsettled questions. The Congress however created a coldness between Petersburg and Berlin. Prince Bismarck was accused of luke-warmness toward Russia, and the Prussian king of ingratitude ; and the meeting 3 S 770 RECENT HISTORY. of the two emperors did not remove the misunderstanding. Bulgaria framed a isi9. parliamentary constitution, and chose the Prince of Battenberg, a nephew of the Czar, as hereditary monarch. The Prince accepted the election after it had been ratified by the European powers and in Constantinople. But the new state had to pass through many crises and parliamentary storms. The well- meaning Prince found his position one of great difficulty and danger. The separation of Bulgaria into North and South Bulgaria was a source of great confusion. The inter- ference of the Russians kept the land in turmoil. Russian generals entered the Bul- garian ministry ; civil and military offices were held by the Russians to such an extent that great jealousy resulted. At last an insurrection broke out in Philipopel. The union of the two Bulgarias, North and South, was proclaimed, and Prince Alexander declared ruler in East Roumelia. This was an open violation of the treatj- of Berlin, but Russia, formerly so earnest in the creation of a united Bulgaria, now looked on quite coldly after the national feeling had turned against Russian interference. But the extension of Bulgaria created anxiety in Servia, and the government at Belgrade de- clared war against the neighbor state, alleging a violation of her frontiers. She was isse. soon glad to make peace, and Prince Alexander reached an understand- ing with Turkey, by which he became ruler over East Roumelia. This completed vir- tually the union of the two Bulgarias, yet in spite of his success. Prince Alexander be- came the victim of a Russian conspiracy ; he was attacked by soldiers and carried into Russian territory. He returned to Sofia and received an enthusiastic welcome from the people, but his humble letter to the Czar received such ungracious answer, that he abandoned all hope of a friendly relation with Russia, and gave up his throne. The iss->. Bulgarian parliament then chose Prince Ferdinand of Coburg to be their ruler, but Russia refused to recognize him, and the Bulgarian confusion contin- ued. § 672. While Russia was thus discontented with the results of the war, she was suffering also from the terrors of revolution. The Nihilists had declared war against all existing institutions in state and society. The mixture of civilization and of bar- barism among the wealthier classes greatly furthered this revolutionary movement. The corruption of the administration and of the aristocracy drove many of the better minds into opposition. Outbreaks among the students, murderous attacks upon those in high place, defalcations and bribery in office, were all proofs of internal disease. The chief of police, General Trepoff, was shot by a j'oung girl named Vera Sassulitsch, and 1878. his successor, General Mesenzeff, was murdered by an unknown hand. Vera Sassulitsch was acquitted by the jury and, with the help of her friends, escaped to Switzerland. Prince Krapotkin fell a victim to a Nihilist assassin. The Czar himself was attacked in the vicinity of his palace, and within two months his life was at- tempted, once on a railway journey to Moscow, and once in the winter palace in St. Petersburg. Finally Count Loris Melikoff was made chief of police, and clothed with the powers of a dictator. For a while peace and safety reigned, and the twenty-fifth year of the reign of Alexander II. was celebrated with great pomp and rejoicing. But this jubilee was the last happiness of his life, and the last pleasant incident of his event- i88i. ful reign. The next year he was mortally wounded by an explosion of dynamite, and carried dying to the imperial palace. The trial of the perpetrators dis- covered an abyss of crime and of conspiracy, which included all classes of Russian so- FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 771 ciety. The Arch-duke Alexander now became czar. Prince Gortschakoff, who had iss3. conducted Russian affairs for thirty years, died not long after. The new reign fluctuated between absolutism and liberalism, between peace and war, be- tween pan-slavonic ideals and alliances with western powers. The old understanding ALEXANDER III. with Germany could not be restored, and in the Baltic provinces a crusade was begun against German speech, German school, and German church. Russia, externally im- mense, and internally diseased, is one of the startling problems of the modern world. § 673. England under Gladstone. England, as we have seen, reaped great advant- 772 RECENT HISTORY. ages from the Napoleonic wars, but, with the exception of the Crimean war, she has, since 1815, kept aloof from continental entanglements. Nevertheless, her neutrality has not been so carefully guarded as to prevent misunderstanding. Her sympathies were evidently witli Denmark, but it did not help the Danes; and Russia took advantage of the Franco-German war to set aside important articles of the treaty of Paris. The sympathies of England were also with the Confederate States of America in the war against the Union, and led to the Alabama question, which was finally submitted to arbi- tration, and decided against Great Britain. This peace policy was not caused alto- gether by a regard for the interests of commerce and of manufacture, but the English army was neither as strong nor as well organized as the armies of the Continent, and the English Parliament was little dis- posed to follow the examples of the mili- tary powers. Indeed the House of Peers was not to be persuaded to abolish the pur- chasing of commissions in the army, so that the evil custom was finally destroyed by royal warrant. And yet the progress that Russia was making in Central Asia, and the increasing confusion in Turkey, made war at any moment possible. More- over, ever since the Khiva war, the English have watched Russia with exceeding jeal- ousy. England likewise has had her con- flicts with the Roman Catholic church, and these conflicts have acquired new signifi- cance .through the Oxford movements, which began in 1833. John Henry Newman, Henry Manning, William George Ward, and other powerful leaders of the Anglican church, became Roman Catholics ; and of late years the ultra-montanes have acquired great influence among the English people. It was hoped that the disestablishment of the English church in Ireland would lead to peace, but the hope was disappointed. The conciliatory policy of Gladstone, in the Irish question, provoked much opposition in England, while it bore but little fruit in the Emerald Isle. The Tories enlarged their influence, and looked confidently to is?-!:. the next election, and their confidence was well founded. In 1874 the Tory leader, Benjamin Disraeli, was summoned by the Queen to form a new ministry. Gladstone retired to private life, to his classical and religious studies. He startled both his friends and his enemies by his powerful attack upon the Vatican decrees. Meanwhile the new minister turned away from domestic affairs, and devoted an attention to foreign politics, unknown in England for many years. § 674. The English in Africa and their Colonial Policy. In her naval and colonial system, England held fast to the traditional policy by which she had become the might- isi3. iestof maritime and commercial peoples. As formerly in Abyssinia, so now in 1873, on the west coast of Africa, she established her power anew with the native Ashantees. The rich coast, which stretches from the Gulf of Guinea to Sierra Leone, and which comprises the " golden shore," has been the scene of commercial activity BENJAMIN DISRAELI, LORD BEACONSFIELD. FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 773 ever since the discoveries of the Portuguese. Different nations have established col- onies, built factories and forts along this coast ; among the rest, Portuguese, Dutch, Danes, and Englishmen. The neighboring negro tribes were subjugated or made trib- utary to the Europeans. Among these, the wild and warlike Ashantees occupied the chief place. In the course of years, the English became most powerful on the " gold coast," but entered into a war with the Ashantees, which threatened to destroy them in West Africa. Finally the savages were compelled to yield. General Wolseley, with strong forces and pow- erful artillery, defeated them in a series of battles. They were weakened by disease and lack of supplies, and finally compelled to retire to their principal city Kumasi. The English now determined to conquer this city, and to attack the King in the heart of his country and of his peo- ple. In spite of the difficul- ties of the territory, inter- sected as it was by swamp and thicket, the march was undertaken and brought to a successful conclusion. The natives fled at Wolseley's approach, and abandoned is?-*. Kumasi, set- ting fire to it as they fled. The King perceived the futility of further warfare, as all the neighbor tribes had joined the English. He sued for peace, renouncing all his claims to the British territory, and agreeing to pay fifty thousand ounces of gold to defray the. costs of the war. The English also com- pelled him to abandon human sacrifice, the traces and monuments of which had filled them with horror. A brilliant reception greeted the governor and his troops when they returned to England. A few years later, the same General Garnet Wolseley sailed again to South Africa to put down the Zulus. These had made war upon the English, under their cruel king, Cetewayo. When the Transvaal republic was incor- porated into the English territory, they claimed a portion of the frontiers for them- selves. They fought desperately, but were finally defeated, and Cetewayo was carried a prisoner into Cape Town. Among the volunteers who fought with Wolseley was isio. the young Prince Napoleon. In a reconnoisance, he met an early death. But the English government found its chief difficulty in Egypt. Ismail Pasha, the Khedive of Egypt, had beggared himself and his country, by mad extravagance and hateful misrule. To escape from his difficulties, he sold his share in the Suez THOMAS CARXYLE. 774 RECENT HISTORY. canal to the British government, and thus brought the canal under the joint control of the English and the French. The European powers now meddled with the administra- tion of the country. This produced great dissatisfaction among the Egyptian people. They attempted, by a military insurrection and a revolution, to escape this foreign in- fluence. Ismail Pasha was deposed, and his feeble son, Tewfik Pasha, brought to the is7o. throne. But the national party, which de- sired the absolute independence of E gyP fc ' grew every day more dangerous. The head of this party was Arabi, who, by an uprising of the soldiers, compelled the Khedive to change his ministers, to establish a new constitution, and to create a par- liament. Arabi himself became the minister of war. The Egyp- tian fanatics now began a tumult in Alexandria, in which the English consul was wound- e d , and many Europeans were murdered. There- upon the English war vessels bom- barded the city, isss. and Arabi withdrew his troops to Cairo. Alexandria, half consumed, was occupied by the English. Arabi was deposed by the Khedive, but as he was sup- ported by his army, he continued to rule the land ; and he would have given the English great trouble, if he and his troops had not revealed an incompetency and a Z - O 02 H FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 775 cowardice that exceeded all expectation. At Tel-el-Kebir, the Egyptian army was utterly defeated by General Wolseley, Arabi himself taken prisoner and banished to Ceylon. England then proceeded to bring the land into closer relations, but the task was exceedingly difficult, es- pecially when El Mahdi, the false prophet, lifted the stan- dard of rebellion in Nubia. The English General Gordon was shut up in Khartoum and isss. lost his life. Her colonial system is the glory of England. All par- ties agree touching her for- eign possessions, especially touching the Indian empire, which is governed with the utmost sagacity. The re- markable journey that the Prince of Wales made to India, in order to acquaint himself, by personal observa- tion, with the vast empire of the East, strengthened the bond between England and her colonies. Upon his re- turn, the imperial title was added to the English crown, a triumph, which brought to Disraeli his title of Lord Beaconsfield. In the years 1878 and 1879, Afghanistan, a frontier land of India, and its great trading cities of Kabul and Kandahar, were the scenes of bloody conflict and rebellion, in which doubtless the Russians played their part. The English finally predominated, but only after a costly and difficult campaign. Burmah too, where the bloodthirsty and insane king, Thibau, spread about him a reign of terror, was conquered in a short campaign and annexed to the British empire. § 675. Yet in spite of these successes, the public opinion of England was opposed to the expensive war policy of the Tories. Parliament and press were soon in opposi- tion. To be wandering abroad, while so many wounds were bleeding at home, created discontent; and the imperial policy of Beaconsfield, which increased only the glory of the administration, was in conflict with parliamentary traditions. The Prime-minister was quick to perceive the public mind. He determined to dissolve the lower House and to order a new election. But irj vain. The majority of those elected were Whigs, Liberals, and Radicals. He saw that his time was out, and he resigned his office. The L^Siso **^j > *~~^' s 776 RECENT HISTORY. Queen summoned Gladstone, the head of the Liberal opposition, to form a new cabinet. isso. Disraeli devoted himself to literature. His romance, Endymion, the background of which is the party life and the political current of his time, was the fruit of his literary activity, and the conclusion of his long life. He died on the 19th. of April, 1881. Gladstone however gave all his strength and experience to the pacification of Ireland. Con- spiracies and secret societies tor- mented the land. Agrarian murders and outrages of all kinds were daily events. The authority of the law had vanished; society was drifting to anarchy. Home rule was the battle cry of the Irish independents. Parnell, the Irish leader in the Eng- lish Parliament, represented the cause of his people, while the land league in Ireland wielded a power | greater than that of the government. Gladstone sought to pacify the country, partly by reform measures, and partly by coercion. An Irish land law was framed, with a view to restore humane relations between the tenant and the landowners. But pacification seemed impossible ; uni- iss3. versal horror spread through the British kingdom, when the state secretary Lord Cavendish, and the under state-secretary Bourke were murdered in Phoenix Park, Dublin. Gladstone was successful in the passage of a reform bill, perfecting the act of 1867. This bill increased the number of electors, and the representation of the cities. To obtain the parliamentary support of the Irish, Gladstone was inclined to grant Home Rule. He proposed a separate Parlia- ment and a separate ministry, some such relation as now exists between Austria and Hungary. But this project of Gladstone appeared to the English people too bold, too violent, and too dangerous. When new elections were ordered, he was defeated and immediately resigned. Lord Salisbuiy now formed a Tory- cabinet, but the tumult in Ireland continued. Frequent conflicts took place between the government and the Irish mal-contents, which became the subject of violent debates in the House of Com- mons. Parnell, after a triumphant defense of himself against the charges of the Lon- don Times, was driven, from public life by an exposure of his private immoralities. This led to a division of the Home Rule party. In 1893 the Liberals returned to power, but early in 1891 Mr. Gladstone was compelled, by increasing infirmities, to re- tire from the ministry and from active life. Lord Roseberry succeeded him as Prime- minister, and Sir. "William Harcourt as leader of the House of Commons. WILLIAM EWART GLADSTONE. § 676. FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. IV. POSTSCRIPT. 1. Germany. 777 flLLLIAM II. succeeded to the thrones of Prussia and the German Empire, June 15, 1888. His father had been greatly beloved, and his tragic death caused sincere and almost universal grief. This sorrow was mingled with anxiety, for the young Emperor was be- lieved to be rash, ambitious, greedy of power, restless, and un- reliable. Field marshal, Count Moltke, resigned the command of the army in August, and Count Waldersee was named as his suc- isss. cessor. In September, the publication of extracts from the diary of the late emperor produced great excitement ; and this was not allayed in the speeches of the ruling monarch, and the conduct of Prince Bismarck. Widespread strikes, in the coal regions of Westphalia, increased the public concern, especially as the Em- peror's movements were so uncertain. Early in the year 1890, the Reichstag rejected Jan. as, is9o. the bill against the socialists, and was thereupon dissolved. In the same year, an International Labor Congress convened at Berlin at the instance of the Emperor ; but the fruit produced was poor and scanty. On the 18th of March, Prince ata,ch is, i89o. Bismarck resigned his posts. He ceased to be chancellor of the empire that he had created, and prime minister of the Prussia that he had saved. General Caprivi was appointed to succeed him, but the excitement in the country was very great. The settlement of the Westphalian strikes relieved the people of one reason for alarm, and the policy of the new chancellor toward the socialists gradually justi- fied itself by its results. Laws protecting the laborer were enacted, and the employ- ment of women and children was regulated by carefully framed statutes. On the other hand, the national pride was soothed by the cession of the little patch of island held by Great Britain, in return for German possessions in Africa. Heligoland be- tsoo. came German territory in 1890. The next j'ear the sequestrated funds of the Roman Catholic church were released, and the accumulated $40,000,000 Feb., isai. appropriated to church uses. Count Moltke died the following April, deeply regretted, because so greatly beloved. Few great soldiers have been so revered ; few have been so simple in their lives, and so little elated by their triumphs. In June, 1891, the triple alliance, between Austria, Italy, and Germany, was re- laot. newed for a period of six years, and when the pass regulations on the French frontier were greatly relaxed, the people began to believe in peace. Con- fidence in the young emperor, and his good intentions, gradually gained ground. The new ministers, however, found their task a hard one. The representatives of iso3. the people, who are divided into numerous factions, opposed their pro- jects, and they were finally forced to appeal to the nation. After a bitter contest, a majority for the new army bill was obtained, and Caprivi still remains in power. Recent events point to a better understanding with Russia, a new commercial treaty is94. having just been completed between the Kaiser and the Czar. And Bismarck, who in his retirement, has been a somewhat savage critic of his successor's f78 RECENT HISTORY. policy, made, in 1894, a journey to Berlin, in which great pains were taken to pro- claim the reconciliation of the monarch and the former minister. 2. France. § 677. The two great events in the history of France, since 1888, are the rise and fall of General Boulanger, and the bursting of the Panama mud volcano. Gen- eral Boulanger managed somehow to get himself adored by a great following. Puffed up with popularity, he defied his superiors, who answei'ed with a court of enquiry. march 30, iss8. The General, though found guilty, was powerful enough to overthrow the existing ministry, and to bring in M. Floquet. In July, the exasperated soldier offered a resolution, demanding that Parliament dissolve ; and when this was rejected almost unanimously, he ostentatiously resigned. A duel with M. Floquet cost him no little blood, and much reputation ; for the soldier was wounded severely, and the lawyer escaped unhurt. Nevertheless, he was re-elected to the Chamber of Deputies, and succeeded in defeating the Floquet ministry, and driving it from power. The Tirard cabinet, which followed, proved equally hostile to his intrigues. And lsse. Boulanger, fearing arrest, fled to Brussels. In August 1889, the Senate, acting as a High Court of Justice, found him guilty of plotting against the state, and sentenced him to imprisonment for life. In the October elections, the Boulangists dwindled to forty-five deputies, and when the hero of unfought campaigns, the great soldier of to-morrow, committed suicide, his party, once so pretentious, per- ished like a dream. If Boulanger had been a man of pith and purpose, instead of an inflated ad- venturer, the Panama Canal excitement would have made him great. For it nearly wrecked the French republic. The Exposition of 1889 had been a notable triumph. In spite of the absence of crowned guests, the capital had rejoiced in multitudes of visitors, and in a brilliant series of fetes and spectacles. The Pope moreover had sig- nified his acceptance of the republic, and the uprising in Paris and vicinity, had been suppressed with ease. The republic had fairly gotten itself established, when the Panama explosion covered it with mud, and threatened to shatter its foundations. In iso2. May, 1892, the company reported that 900,000,000 francs were necessary to complete their undertaking; just before this, the United States had pro- tested emphatically against the control of the canal, by a non-American state. The supposed suicide of Baron de Reinach, led to many startling disclosures, implicating members of the cabinet in gigantic schemes of corruption and bribery, along with senators and deputies, de Lesseps and his son, Eiffel, the great engineer, and many others. Ministry succeeded ministry in quick succession, and desperate efforts were made to implicate President Carnot. Fortunately for France, the latter had clean hands, and the republic survived the crisis. Like Germany, France has returned to the system of protective tariffs, and has negotiated a commercial treaty with the United States ; like Germany she has greatly enlarged her army, until it includes practically the able-bodied men of the nation. Each citizen must serve three years, students of science and arts alone excepted; and the total period of service now covers twenty five years. Like Germany, she has her social troubles also, her strikes, her bomb-throwers, and her anarchists. Nevertheless, the republic is now in the twentj'-fourth year of its FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 779 existence, a fact of no mean significance, in a country which has been without a stable government ever since the revolution of 1789. The first empire lasted only fifteen years, the second just nineteen. The restored monarchy endured but fifteen years, and the Orleans dynasty a scant eighteen. If France can abandon schemes of conquest and revenge, and devote her genius to the triumphs of philosophy, of art, of literature, and of peace, she will resume her place at the head of civilization, and in the van of human progress. 3. Italy. § 678. The aggressiveness of the church authorities led to a statute, making it i88s-is8o. *a penal offense to claim for the pope any sovereignty in Rome. But the difficulties have not been lessened, and the Roman question is still an irritating and a dangerous problem. The chief difficulties of Italy, however, are financial in their character. Cavour covered the infant kingdom with a colossal debt, and the triple alliance involves enormous outlay for military purposes. Crispi, a man of great Jan. 1891. ability, succumbed to the opposition ; who brought in the Marquis di Rudini with a policy of retrenchment, and possible re-action. Rudini proved unequal to the task, and Crispi has just been summoned to his former place. For a brief 1803. period, the relations of amity between Italy and the United States were interrupted by the murder of some Italians in New Orleans. The United States dis- avowed the outrage of the lynchers, and proffered compensation. Similar difficulties, though not quite so grave, have disturbed the relations of Italy and France. Popular outbreaks in both countries have led to diplomatic explanations. But no nation in Europe is likely to provoke a war for trivial causes. Europe is a camp, in which the nations sleep upon their arms. 4. Spain and Portugal. § 679. Trial by jury was introduced into Spain in 1888. In 1890 the Cortes passed the bill, granting the elective franchise to every Spaniard of full age, and in possession of civil rights. Sagasta was succeeded by Canovas del Castillo, and the latter was defeated in 1892, for his course in connection with the municipal scandal in Madrid. Spain has been seriously troubled by anarchistic disturbances, especially in isott. Barcelona, where labor riots have proved quite serious, and required i8»3. the use of military force. The only event in Portuguese history, of great moment, since 1888, has been her difficulty with England ; this resulted in a treaty delimiting and restricting the re- isoi. spective territories and spheres of influence, for Portugal and Great Britain, on the continent of Africa. 5. Austria — Hungary. § 680. Vienna was the scene of ugly riots in 1889; these could be suppressed by the military only. A new army bill provoked a bitter struggle, and led finally to a reconstruction of the Tisza cabinet, and to the ultimate retirement of Tisza as prime minister. In 1891, Count Taafe found himself so hampered by difficulties, that the Emperor dissolved the House of Deputies, and ordered new elections. 780 RECENT HISTORY. The death of the crown-prince, Rudolph, has left the empire in great uncertainty as to the future, and the death of the present monarch is likely to produce a desperate crisis. Hungary is still restless ; the Slavs tend toward Russia : the Germans are dis- satisfied, while the Jews are most bitterly hated. Meanwhile, the empire is seeking to establish her currency upon a gold basis, and to improve her commerce by treaties with Italy and Germany. She clings to the triple alliance, and does so with reason, for she is most in danger, if Russia and France ever combine to crush the Germans and the Italians, and to divide the rest of Europe with each other. 6. Russia. § 681. The great empire of the north is still in the throes of inward revolution. In 1888 the universities were closed by a decree of the Czar ; hundreds of students were imprisoned, and scores of them exiled to Siberia. Count Tolstoi's efforts to alleviate the condition of the peasantry, received however the earnest support of xsso. Alexander III. The Baltic provinces and Finland have been Russified is9o. by harsh and cruel measures, and the Jews have been expelled in droves from Russia. The Trans-Siberian railway was begun in 1891, but the loan of $100,000,000 floated by the government for its construction, produced unusual excitement in finan- cial circles, and led to serious political irritation. The German bankers refusing their support, Russia turned to France, where she proved successful. Famine next afflicted the empire, but, owing to the rigid censorship of the press, and the merciless police regulations of the country, the exact condition of the people could not be learned. Russia quarreled with Turkey about the Dardanelles, but did not go to war, as is»2. she did with Afghanistan, in a dispute about frontiers ; although she finall}' withdrew her forces from the invaded territory, and gave up the contention. During recent years, Russia and France have seemed to have a mutual under- standing, but the Czar, like his grandfather Nicholas, has no liking for republics. is9±. Hence the commercial treaty, recently negotiated with Germany, may indicate a return to the policy that held the emperors, Alexander II. and Kaiser Wil- helm, in bonds of cordial friendship, and soothed the ancient hatred of Slavonian and Teuton. 7. Belgium, the Netherlands, Switzerland. § 682. Belgium has adjusted her boundary disputes with the Netherlands, but isss. has been the scene of much domestic trouble. Anarchistic outbreaks led to an abortive prosecution that disgraced the government, and the laboring classes isoi. resorted to wide-spread strikes, in order to compel, from Parliament, the passage of a universal suffrage bill. Parliament refused to yield, but measures for the revision of the constitution were submitted by the ministry. The elections of 1892 resulted in a victory for the advocates of universal suffrage. Anarchistic outrages continuing, some of the leaders have been at last convicted. But the little kingdom is shaken by frequent agitations, in which the clergy and the socialists are most conspicuous. The liberal ministry, suffering defeat in the first election held under the new constitution, resigned from office. FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 781 The king, becoming physically incompetent to reign, Queen Emma was appointed Oct., isoo. regent, a few days before the king's death. The government of the anti-liberals proved unpopular, and the elections of 1891 drove them from power. The only important enactments of their term were the laws affecting the laboring classes, determining the hours of the labor-day, and regulating work in factories. The liberals, upon their return to office, passed new election laws, isoa. and a new army bill. The canal, connecting Amsterdam with the Rhine provinces of Germany, was opened in 1892, and marks the beginning of closer intercourse between the two peoples. The Swiss Confederation has been sorely troubled by anarchists and political refugees. This led to the expulsion of certain Russian Nihilists in 1889. Then again Wohlgemuth, suspected of being a spy, appealed to Germany after may, is9o. his banishment, and a correspondence ensued, which ended amicably in a treaty between the empire and the Confederation. Ticino, one of the provinces near Italy, revolted in 1890 ; after intense excite- ment, order was restored. A council of conciliation was held at Berne, and amnesty was granted to all the insurgents. The introduction of the referendum, i. e. the sub- mission of new statutes to a direct vote of the people, has done much to quiet party strife in Switzerland, and the people, after years of agitation, are living in compara- tive prosperity and peace. 8. Denmark, Sweden, Norway. § 688. The struggle in Denmark for genuine parliamentary government re- sulted, in 1892, in the defeat of the liberal party. This was due, partly to the alarm- ing development of socialistic tendencies among the radicals, and to the great increase of socialistic strength at the polls, as revealed in the elections of 1890. Important poor laws have been enacted, and the revenue system has been carefully revised. But the constitutional crisis of 1888 may be regarded as overcome, at least for a brief period. Sweden had adopted definitely the system of protection, having passed a corn law, and a general tariff law in 1888, and having overthrown a ministry too lukewarm in its prosecution of protective measures. In 1890, the Gothenburg license system was established in the kingdom, for the better regulation of the liquor traffic. But the great event of recent Swedish history has been the complete reorganization of the Swedish army. The King and his cabinet, alarmed at the rumors of war, and the mighty armaments of neighboring countries, convened the Diet in extraordinary ses- sion, and the measures of the minister of war were adopted in November, 1892. The Norwegians are restless under a Swedish king. Bjornson, the poet, and his followers seek the independence of Norway, and desire a republic. The radicals are in a majority in the Storthing, and the Steen cabinet is in sympathy with them. A resolution passed the house, demanding co-equality of Norway with Sweden, and an independent consular service. This resolution King Oscar refused to sanction. Steen and his colleagues thereupon resigned, and the Storthing adjourned. The King re- fused to give way, but was unable to form a new cabinet. The excitement in Christi- 782 RECENT HISTORY. ania and vicinity increased to an alarming extent. Finally the Storthing renewed its sessions, agreeing to postpone the consular question, if the Steen ministry were re- called. King Oscar consented, but the agitation for independence and for an extension of the elective franchise still continues. 9. Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria, Roumania, Servia. § 684. King George, like King Oscar, has had no little trouble with his cab- inet. Delyannis proved a failure. The financial condition of the kingdom grew rapidly worse under his management, and the King asked him to resign. Delyannis i89i-i8os. refused, and the King dismissed him. The Boule, or legislative coun- cil, sustained the minister, and denounced the conduct of the King. Popular upris- ings followed. The King thereupon dissolved the Boubi, and in the elections that fol- lowed, Tricoupis triumphed by a large majority, and at the King's summons, formed the present cabinet. The chief event in recent Turkish history has been the insurrection of the Yemen tribes of Arabia. After a desperate and bloody struggle, they were finally defeated by the Turkish troops, under Ahmed Fehzy Pasha. Hamid Eddin, the false Iwaum, was killed, and along with him, twenty other chiefs, who acted under him in rebellion against the Turks. King Ferdinand of Bulgaria has not yet been recognized by the Sultan, although his last words upon the subject held out hope to the Bulgarian minister. Russia con- tinues to make trouble, but there is no pro-Russian party in Bulgaria, except that pro- duced by panic or pay. Stambuloff was sustained by the elections of 1890, but all Bulgarian leaders are nationalists when in office. An attempt to murder the ministers led to an exciting trial, in which Russia was seriously compromised by documents that the Russian authorities denounce as spurious. Bulgaria, for a while, threatened Servia with war, but the Sultan intervened successfully. France, too, seemed eager to pro- voke a conflict over the expulsion of a newspaper correspondent from the kingdom, but consented later to be appeased. The farmers and peasants of Roumania have been relieved by a state loan sys- tem. The relations of the country with England had become more intimate, and a diplomatic difficulty with Greece has kept her statesmen busy and excited. In Servia, King Milan and his queen, Natalie, have been the objects of much intrigue and curious legislation. The King agreed to stay away until Aug. 1, 189-4, when the prince attains his majority, but the Queen refused all propositions, and was finally expelled from the kingdom. Servia is in sore financial straits, and a recent con- flict with the metropolitan bishop revealed the weakness of her ecclesiastical system. The regency will soon expire, and fresh troubles probably begin. 10. England. § 685. The county governments of England and Wales have been reconstituted since 1888, and a local government bill for Scotland was enacted in 18*9. Strikes and lockouts, expensive and exciting, have borne witness to the defective character of the existing industrial system of the world. The chief of these was the isso. strike of the London dock laborers, in 1889 ; this resulted in favor of the strikers. FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 783 An anti-tithe war occurred in Wales, in 1890, where a league was formed, which isoo. waged a bitter but unsuccessful opposition to the payment of tithes. The failures in Australia and in South America produced a financial crisis in is93. London, in which the great house of Baring was involved, and in 1893 the action of the Indian government, suspending silver coinage, still further aggra- vated the fever in commercial circles. England has been, however, free from difficul- ties with other nations, excepting with Portugal and the United States. The former related to boundary disputes in Africa ; the latter to the fisheries of Newfoundland, and seal hunting in the Pacific Ocean. In 1893, a court of arbitration de- cided the controversy between the United States and Great Britain, but the two countries are still discussing the details of the court's award. The main feature of English poli- tics however has been, of course, the Irish question. In the summer of 1888 grave charges were made against Parnell, the leader of the Irish party, by the London Times. Parnell vindi- cated himself triumphantly before a committee of investigation, appointed by the House of Commons. But hardly had this trial ended, when the revelations of the divorce courts drove him, after a desperate struggle, into defeat and disgrace and death. The Irish parliamentary party divided into factions, Parnellites and anti- Parnellites, and the cause of Home Rule suffered severely. Mr. Balfour's management of Irish affairs had been bold and par- tially successful; his land-purchase bill, passed in 1891, had meritorious features. Yet the riots of Tipperary, and the continued use of force to accomplish evictions, distressed the liberals of England, and led to their program of 1892, the chief feature of which, was local government for Ireland. The Liberals obtained a majority of forty-two in the parliamentary elections of iso2. 1892, and Mr. Gladstone returned to power. The Home Rule bill passed the House of Commons after a protracted and vehement struggle, but was thrown out by the House of Lords. Mr. Gladstone then turned to other measures, but his growing infirmities compelled his retirement, and Lord Roseberry, the minister of foreign affairs, succeeded him as prime minister. The liberals are still in office, but on the edge of defeat. The retirement of Mr. Gladstone, like that of Prince Bismarck, rounds out an GEORGE TEABODY. 784 RECENT HISTORY. epoch of modern history. The former has created a new England, the latter a new- Germany Gladstone has been a man of peace, of domestic ideals, seeking the glory of England, rather in the concilia- tion of conflicting elements at home, than in startling conquests abroad. Bismarck has been the man of blood and iron, seeking for Prussia the leadership of Germany, and for Ger- many the control of Europe. Glad- stone cared rather for human progress than for national glory ; Bismarck, on the other hand, believed all prog- ress dependent upon the development of the state, and the security and glory of the throne.. The English statesman stood for a conservative democracy, for government by the masses, made stable, not by bayonets, but by enlarged intelligence ; the German chancellor for progressive monarchy, for government by princes, made stable by a mutual fidelity and loyality, the king being the chief ser- vant of the people, and the people the faithful dependants upon his energy and paternal care. Each was an idealist ; each was also a man of practical sagacity, content with the feasible and the possible. Along with Cavour and Lincoln they constitute the con- summate flower of modern statesmanship. RICHARD ARKRIGHT. (pp. 786.) GEORGE WASHINGTON. A. THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. I. THE EUROPEAN SETTLEMENTS. 1. THE SPANISH SETTLEMENTS. a. Florida and New Spain (Mexico and the Califoenias.) k Y a papal bull issued- May 4th., 1493, all newly discovered countries were divided between Spain and Portu- gal ; the line of demarcation, traced by Pope Alexander VI., was subsequently modified by treaty and moved to a point 370 leagues west of the Cape De Verde Islands. This gave Spain all of North and South America except Brazil. But the religious struggles of the sixteenth century made the papal authority, which had never been absolute in political affairs, of less than ordinary moment. Yet this being the period of Spanish great- ness, she was able to establish her power in Florida and in New Spain, which latter included Mexico, New Mexico, Texas, and both Californias. She con- trolled of course the West Indies and ruled all of South America, by her governors, except Brazil; and when Portugal became subject to her neighbor kingdom, Brazil also was under Spanish authority from 1582 to 1640. Florida. — Florida had been discovered by Ponce de Leon, who attempted, isi2. nine years afterward, the founding of a colony. But instead of dis- covering there, as he was told he would, the fountain of perpetual youth, he was mortally wounded by the hostile natives and died soon afterward in Cuba. Ponce de Leon was followed by Pamfilo de Narvaez who perished miserably in a futile search is27. for gold. Ferdinand De Soto, who had been with Pizarro in the con- is39. quest of Peru, now obtained the royal permission to conquer Florida. He and his strange companions, priests and cavaliers, traversed great portions of (787) 667. 788 AMERICA Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, and in the third year of their wanderings reached the banks of "the great river." De Soto died from fever, and his body was sunk in the waters of the mighty stream down which his starving comrades floated to the Gulf of Mexico. Notwithstanding these and other -misadventures, Spain looked with bitter jealousy upon every attempt of her great rival France to gain a foothold in this vast domain ; for by Florida she meant all the country between the Atlantic and New Mex- 1524. ico and from the gulf to the Polar 1*91. Sea. France claimed it through the discovery of Verrazzani : England claimed it through 1565. the discovery of the Cabots; and now iaes. France attempted to colonize it with a settlements of Huguenots, who built Fort Caro- line (hear St. Augustine). These were massacred by Menendez in 1565, a massacre swiftly and thoroughly avenged by Dominique de Gourgues in 1568. Menendez founded St. Augustine, and eigh- teen years later Francis Drake, then at the height of his strange career discovered and attacked the Spaniards at St. Augustine and burned their town. From this time forward conflicts took j)lace between the Spaniards of Florida and the English settlers of the South until Florida was ceded to Great Britain in 1763. In the twenty years of English occupation P0NCE DE LE0N - twenty thousand immigrants arrived who nearly all withdrew when Florida was ceded back to Spain in 1783. In 1821 the Spanish king ratified reluctantly the treaty by which it became the territory of the United States of America. b. Mexico and New Spain. § 668. Cortez withdrew from Mexico in 1510, and New Spain continued under i55o. the sway of her first viceroy Antonio" de Mendoza until 1550. He baptized the natives and wore away their strength by hardships in the mines. Rapacious laws and cruel tyranny depopulated whole towns. Las Casas, the one true friend of the people, appealed in their behalf so urgently that new laws were estab- lished by imperial decree, to mitigate the horrors of the Vice- regal dominion, and Yalasco, the successor of Mendoza, in spite of opposition, executed these decrees with fidelity and some success. He also witnessed the founding of a University at ises. the capital of Mexico. In 1568 the English began to harrass the Spaniards along the coast, and the Span- iards began the torture of the natives with the Inquisition, Ian. which was regularly established in 1571. Pirates on the sea, floods on the land, robbers on the highway, and natives to be christianized kept the Viceroys busy. A nest of English buccaneers was established at Jamaica, and a gang of French free-booters had their rendezvous at coronaao. St. Domingo. Vera Cruz was raided by them in 1681. Meanwhile i54o. the monks and Jesuits had pushed their missions forward into New FERDINAND DE SOTO. THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 789 Mexico, Arizona, and the regions of the upper Pacific coast. Tucson in Arizona is said to be, after St. Augustine, the oldest European settlement in North America. In iiey. 1767 the Jesuits were expelled, but their labors were renewed by the Franciscans and Dominicans, who founded mission stations in upper California. *7«». San Francisco Bay was discovered in 1769, and in 1806 the Spaniards, isoe. pushing northward, encountered the Russians from Alaska pushing toward the South. During all this period Spain ruled the people exclusively in the interest of the BURIAL OF DE SOTO. Spanish crown. Only the Spaniard born in Europe could bear authority in church or state, and no attention was paid to the interests of the Creoles or of the natives. Trade was so restricted, that the products of the colonies could be sold to Spaniards only, and the colonists were allowed to deal in none but Spanish commodities. Tobacco was a royal monopoly; the products of Spain, such as wine and oil, the colonists were for- bidden to raise ; they might not plant sugar-corn, or cultivate the silk-worm, or open up their iron mines. All commodities that came from Spain were subject to oppres- sive import duties. The governor of the province, a born Spaniard, had the privilege of " Repartimientos," that is, he sent to every village a quantity of commodities with fixed prices, which the inhabitants were required to buy. No schools were established ; the agents of the Inquisition were extremely vigilant; and with comparatively few troops the Spanish rulers were able to suppress every at- 790 AMERICA. tempt at insurrection. Nevertheless the population of Mexico increased greatly, and many European arts and modes of life were introduced. 2. New France. a. The French in North America. § 669. The Normans, the Bretons, and the Basques discovered quite early the cod-fish banks of Newfoundland. The Basques had been there before the voyage of Cabot in 1497, and in 1517 fifty Castilian, French, and Portuguese vessels were fishing there at the same time. From that day to this, these fisheries have been an object of contention : at first, between French, English, Spanish, and Portuguese and in later times, between English, French, and American. Francis I. of France, notwithstanding the Papal bull, sought a share of the treas- ures of the New World, and sent out Verrazzano with four ships, which sailed from Dieppe in the winter of 1523. This Florentine navigator reached the shores of what OLD SPANISH GATE AT ST. AUGUSTINE, FLA. is now North Carolina, and coasted the sea-board from the 34th. to the 50th. degree of i534. north latitude. Returning to Dieppe on the 8th of July, 1524, he wrote to the French king the earliest known description of the Atlantic shores of North America. The subsequent fortunes of Verrazzano are unknown, but the rumor of his discoveries led to the expedition of Jacques Cartier, who sailed from St. Malo, is34. April 20th, 1534. Cartier passed through the straits of Belle Isle and sailed up the St. Lawrence to Anti Costi. Returning to St. Malo, he received a fresh- commission ; and with three vessels,. the largest of them not above 120 tons, he steered again for the St. Lawrence which was called by him, the great river of Hochelaga. At Stadecone the Indians told him of their great metropolis Hochelaga, after which they said the river was called. Stadecone and Hochelaga were the Indian names of the now famous sites, Quebec and Montreal. Jean Francois de la Roque, Sieur de Roberval was, upon Cartier's return, made Viceroy of New France, as the newly dis- covered country was called. Cartier as captain-general of a new expedition, preceded him to his vast dominions ; but the colony of Roberval perished from dissensions and THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 791 from famine, and Roberval himself disappeared from history almost without a trace. In 1578, there were 150 French fishing vessels at Newfoundland, but the thrifty sail- ors and merchants of St. Malo had by this time discovered new treasures in the fur- trade, and held it firmly until La Roche, with his band of convicts, attempted a colony which proved ruinous to all concerned. But in the early days of the reign of Henry IV., Aymar de Chastes "resolved to proceed to New France, in person, and dedicate the rest of his days to the service of God and his king." Champlain had just returned from the West Indies, and De Chastes under whom he had served in the Royal navy, offered him a post in the new company. Champlain sought eagerly the king's consent, 1603. and in 1603 embarked with Pont Grave, a Breton merchant, for the Western world. The little vessels in which they sailed were 'of twelve and fifteen tons respectively. But they outrode the rough Atlantic seas and reached Hochelaga, to find hardly a trace of the savage population that thronged about Cartier and his compan- ions sixty-eight years before. When De Chastes died, the Sieur de Monts petitioned the king for leave to colonize La Cadie (Acadia). The region thus designated extended from the fortieth to the forty-sixth degree of north latitude. In spite of the opposition of the sagacious Sully, King Henry appointed De Monts lieutenant-general, with Vice- regal powers, and gave him the monopoly of the fur-trade. He sailed from Havre, tea j. April 7th, 1604, with a motley collection of vagabonds and volunteers ; the latter consisting of noblemen, catholic priests and Huguenot ministers. Pont- Grave was to follow a few days after. De Monts reached and explored the Bay of Fundy, and chose the Island of St. Croix as the sight of his colony. Scurvy soon broke out among his people and, weary of their ill-fated island, they embarked upon a fruitless search for a better habitation. Finally they removed to Port Royal, and De Monts returned to France. For the merchants and fisherman of Brittan and Normandy had at- tacked his monopoly and, in spite of all his efforts, his patent was an- nulled. But Port Royal had been given by him to Pontrincourt, who was resolved upon a New France, and this grant was confirmed by the king. Accordingly in 1610, 1010. Pontrincourt sailed from Dieppe, followed by the Je- suits, whom he vainly tried to elude. In 1613, this colony at Port Royal was attacked by Sam- uel Argall, an English sea-captain, who turned part of it adrift in an open boat and carried the rest of it in captivity to Virginia. This was the beginning of the struggle between France and England for the possession of North America. SAMUEL CHAMPLAIN. 792 AMERICA. Champlain, who had abandoned Port Royal when the patent of De Monts was re- voked, returned to Canada in 1608 once more, at the instance of his former chief, whose fur monopoly had been revived for one year. He founded a city at Quebec (the Nar- teos. rows), ascended the Richelieu river, discovered the Lake which bears ieoo. his name, fought the Iroquois Indians, incurring thereby for himself and his countrymen their unquenchable hatred, discovered Lake Huron, and won for him- self and for France the undying attachment of the Huron Indians, discovered Lake tots. Ontario also, and, crossing the forests of New York to Lake Oneida, penetrated to the heart of the Iroquois settlements. On his way back to Quebec, he umpired a desperate quarrel between the Huron and Algonquin tribes that threatened the destruction of the commerce of New France. Arrived at Quebec, lie found few signs of growth, and much discord and disorder. The Huguenots outside the colony, chiefly merchants from Rochelle, were carrying on defiantly an illicit traffic along the St. Lawrence ; the Huguenots within, although the exercise of their religion was pro- hibited by royal edict, were singing lustily their heretical psalms. Greed and bigotry made Catholic and Huguenot hateful to each other, yet both united in a hearfrv hatred of Champlain. But the latter was no common adventurer; his purposes were high, his energy and fortitude exceeding great; every year he went to France in the interest of the colony, but his efforts both at Quebec and at Paris were altogether fruitless. In 1627 the mighty Richelieu became supreme in France. He, learning of the mis- management in America, annulled all privileges, and created the Company of New France, consisting of a hundred associates, with himself as president. The company bound itself to convey to the colony before the j r ear 1643, at least four thousand per- sons of both sexes, who were to be lodged and fed for three years at the companies' expense, and subsequently to be allotted lands for their support. These settlers were to be French men and Catholics. The Huguenots were excluded forever. But the Huguenots of France were a sore plague to the colony which they were forbidden to enter. The revolt of Rochelle', their strong city, brought the English King Charles into conflict with Richelieu and his royal master. Quebec was approached b}^ an English fleet in command of David Kirk, a Huguenot of Dieppe, who summoned it to surrender. Champlain refused, although the wretched colonists were almost dead from famine. Kirk sailed away, but his brother Louis returned and the starving rem- nant capitulated. But New France was soon restored by the English and Emery de Caen was sent to reclaim Quebec. He landed in 1632 and Champlain. re-commissioned by Richelieu, followed in 1633. The Recollet priests were now virtually excluded, and 1633. the Jesuits who took their places, soon converted Quebec and in fact all New France, into a mission; — a mission to explore the vast interior country, and a mission to conquer the savage tribes for the cross of Christ and the crown of France. 1635. Champlain died on Christmas day, 1635. He is the noblest figure of this early time : his splendid courage was tempered bj r a chastity that excited the wonder of the Huron chiefs ; though credulous he was simply and nobly truthful ; patient always, yet sagacious and daring to the last. For just before he died, he peti- tioned Richelieu for men and means to exterminate the Iroquois. Port Royal was founded in 1605, but the contests of ambitious leaders and the incessant invasions of the English, so retarded the French settlements in Acadia, that tea*. in 1686 the whole population, including thirty soldiers, was only 915. THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 793 toss. Cromwell had it subjugated in 1654, but it was ceded back to France leoo. in 1668. It was attacked again by Sir William Phipps, who sailed from Boston in 1690; and when Phipps in 1692 became the first Royal governor of leas. Massachusetts, Acadia was a part of the domain included in the new charter. But in 1697 it was once more ceded back to France. b. French Discoveries Along the Great Lakes. § 690. Etienne (Stephen) Brule of Champigny was the first white man to pene- iois. trate the region beyond Lake Huron, which he did in 1618. Jean Nicol- ie34. let in 1634 passed through the straits of Mackinaw, and discovered MARQUETTE AND JOLIET DISCOVERING THE MISSISSIPPI. Lake Michigan. But the death of Champlain in 1635, and the ravages of the terrible Iroquois, led to the abandonment of the French trading ports on Lake Huron and Lake Michigan, and there were no further discoveries until after the peace of 1654. In 1659 Groselliers and Radisson learned from the Hurons of a river as large as the St. Lawrence, lying further to the westward, (and, if we may believe Perrot), Father Menard, and his faithful servant Jean Gue"rin, saw the Mississippi twelve years before the great river was seen by Joliet and his companions. Joliet reached the straits of Mackinaw in 1672; there he found Marquette. These two, with five companions, pro- ceeded in birch canoes to the valley of the Fox River and reached the Wisconsin by a short portage. Following its course they entered the Mississippi on the 17th of 1973. June, 1673 ; they descended to the mouth of the Arkansas and then 794 AMERICA. returned up stream to the Illinois. On the west bank of one of its tributaries Joliet discovered a curious mound of clay, sand, and gravel which he called Mont Joliet.* c. Discovery of the Mississippi and Settlement of Louisiana. § 691. In 1672 Count Frontenac arrived at Quebec, governor and lieutenant- general for the king of all New France. Louis XIV. and his great minister, Colbert, had spent great sums in building up the empire beyond the sea. New settlers were shipped annually to the St. Lawrence, until the drain upon France threatened disaster to the army ; wives were supplied by royal bount} 7 ; farms and new houses were given freely to the immigrants. So that when Frontenac assumed control, it was possible lets. for him to form the Three Estates of Canada, which he convoked Oct. 23, 1672. He then set himself to establish a municipal government, with town meet- ings every six months. These were at once abolished by the angry King, and the Jesuits refused at the same time to co-operate with him in his plans to civilize the In- dians. It was in the midst of these and other difficulties, that Frontenac became ac- quainted with La Salle. Each was eager for fortune, fame, and power, and the two ie?7. joined hands. In 1677 La Salle appeared at the court of the Grand Monarch, who authorized him to build and own as many forts as he saw fit, provided it was done within five years. He was to discover the country, and find a way to Mexico. But the King gave him no money. He therefore found it where he could, and in Sept., 1678, he with Tonty, an Italian officer, La Motte, a French nobleman, and thirty men arrived at Quebec. Father Hennepin, the adventurous friar and his- torian of the expedition, came down from Fort Frontenac to meet him. In 1679 La Salle was on the upper lakes, in 1680 on the Illinois, whence he sent Accan to explore the Mississippi, whom Father Hennepin, a Franciscan Monk, volunteered to accompany. i«so-iesi. These penetrated to the country of the Sioux and discovered the Falls of St. Anthonj', as they were called by the mendacious Franciscan. La Salle reached Lake Huron in October, 1681. His experiences had been of the most trying character, test. but his spirit was undaunted. About Christmas time he crossed from Fort Miami on Lake Michigan to the Chicago river. The streams were frozen. Tonty and d'Autry had gone before him. They crossed from the Chicago to the Illinois, and dragging their canoes on sledges, they reached at last open water below Lake Peoria. Trusting to their canoes, they floated clown the quiet river until on the 6th of Feb- ruary ; then drifted into the floating ice that was sweeping down the mighty Mississippi. For a week they could get no further. Resuming their course, they came to the muddy torrent of the Missouri. They passed the Ohio and the Arkansas, and on the 6th of April they arrived at the three great channels. La Salle kept to the west, Tonty took the middle passage, and d'Autry drifted to the east. Tonty was the first to be- hold the mighty bosom of the Gulf. All three united on a spot just above the mouth of the river, where they erected a column inscribed "Lonis le Grand, Roy de France et Apra o, i6S2. de Navarre, rtgne ; le Neuvieme Avril, 16S2." The new country was called by La Salle, Louisiana. In the the map of Franquelin made in 1684, it stretches from the Alleghanies to the Rock}' Mountains and from the Rio Grande to the head waters of the Missouri. * This is forty miles southwest of Chicago, near the city of Joliet, and is the only station marked on Joliet's map that still retains the name he gave it. THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 795 § 692. "Louisiana," wrote Charlevoix, "is the name which M. de La Salle gave to iesz. that portion of the country watered by the Mississippi, lying below the river Illinois." When the discoverer returned to Paris, Louis XIV. dreamed splendid dreams of conquests and colonization, of gold and silver and precious products. He gave La Salle a commission to found a colony, and fitted him out with vessels and other requisites. But the expedition ended disastrously. The voj'agers reached the Gulf of Mexico, but were compelled to land on the coast of Texas. La Salle per- ished mysteriously, and his associates were massacred by the Indians. Pierre le Moyne d'Iberville, a native of Canada, accustomed to adventure and danger from boyhood, was the first to renew the interest of the French court in the settlement of the " Great River." He was provided with a small fleet, and succeeded in finding the entrance to the Mississippi, from the Gulf of Mexico. He chose the ieos. sand banks of Biloxi Bay for his emigrants, about two hundred in all, a choice that proved fatal to their fortunes. No green thing could live on the fine white sand. Supplies had to be brought from France. After the death of Louis XIV., the regent grew tired of the sickly and expensive colony, and sold it, along ni2. with exclusive privileges of trade, to Sieur Antony Crozat. This wealthy speculator hoped to make a fortune from his grant, and for a while worked wonders ; but was finally compelled to assign his rights to the 1717. "Company of the West," the famous " Missis- sippi Bubble," of the canny Scotchman, John Law. The bubble burst ; Law became a fugitive, and almost a pauper. 1718. But during its irridescent glory, the city of New Orleans was founded, and Louisiana became the scene of active emigration. In 1721 the population had reached five thousand four hundred and twenty, of whom six hundred were negroes. In 1731, when the colony reverted to the king, the white population numbered five thousand, and the negroes two thousand. In 1762, the French King presented the colony to his dear cousin, the King of Spain, although the gift was made . . . ° ° HENRY HUDSON. in secret. But it was just in time to prevent its acquisition by the English, when Quebec was captured, and New France passed forever into other hands. 3. The Dutch Settlements on the Hudson and the Delaware. § 693. The Dutch, in the beginning of the seventeenth century, had established a great republic. Their heroic struggle with Spain led them to strike their adversary everywhere, and naturally they bethought them of the lands across the sea. William Usselinx, a merchant of Antwerp, proposed a West India Company, as early as 1592, and ships of the Greenland Company are said to have entered the Hudson and the Delaware rivers in 1598. The scheme of Usselinx was revived in 1606, but political considerations led to its rejection by Oldenbarnvelt, who was then the ruling mind of Holland, and who eagerly desired peace. In 1608 Henry Hudson, an English sailor, was employed by the Dutch East India Company to search for a north-east passage to ieos. the East Indies. He sailed from the Texel in the yacht " Half-moon " in April, 1609. But encountering much ice and fog, he changed his plan into a search 796 AMERICA. for a north-west passage, at about the fortieth degree of latitude. He landed suc- cessively at Newfoundland, Penobscot Bay, and Cape Cod. In August he entered the Delaware Bay, and on September 4, sailed into the " Great mouth of the great river " of New Netherland. The West India project of Usselinx was now organized into a reality. And the Company sent Captain Mey to the South River (Delaware), and Tienpont to the North (Hudson) as directors. Mey erected Fort Nassau, four miles south-east of what is now Philadelphia, and io2e. Tienpont built Fort Orange, where Albany now stands. In 1626 Peter Minuit, the successor of Tienpont, bought Manhattan island from the Indians, for which he gave them about twenty-four dollars. Under the charter of 1621, a council was organized, but in 1629 the States-General' minuit, sanctioned a 1620-1033. new charter of " freedoms and exemptions." The latter however were for the director^ of the Company, and not for the colonists. Vast purchases of land were now made from the Indians, and as rapidly' as possible set- tlers were conveyed to the plantations. The owners of these tracts, the Cortlandts, Livingstons, Schuylers, Van Rensselaer, were called "patroons," and their hold- ings were known as manors. On the South (Delaware) River, the settlements were destroyed by the Indians, but van Turner, revived again under the administration of Wouter Van T wilier , who, i e 33 io3, by his efforts at expansion, brought the colony on the North (Hudson) River into conflict with the English. Van Twiller so abused his position, that he was ^ K ie/t displaced by William Kieft, in 1637. His conduct however led to the isslie^. investigation of the colony by their High Mightinesses, and to a change in its administration. The monopoly of the company was abolished, and the cultiva- HENRY HUDSON IN NORTH RIVER. THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 797 tion of the soil opened up to every migrant. Throngs now flocked to New Nether- land. From Europe came peasant farmers and wealthy educated families, looking for new homes and larger fortunes ; from New England the disfranchised -victims of eccle- siastical tyranny ; from Virginia and the South, the indented servants whose period of bondage had expired. In 1643 eighteen different nationalities were already repre- sented in New Amsterdam (New York). But Kieft's administration was one of tyranny and folly. He provoked an Indian war: he quarreled with the burghers of New Amsterdam; he exposed the colony to a dangerous and ruinous conflict with the people of New Haven. Kieft was succeeded by Peter Stuyvesant, a man of experience and energetic 1sBB W^M sflpb mm ■&::;• DUTCH TRADERS AT MANHATTAN. stuyvesant, courage. The colony was revolutionized and liberalized, the rights of leu-lee*. the settlers to a share in the government freely acknowledged, the car- rying trade thrown open, and morality restored. Stuyvesant remained for seventeen years, and had his means been ample enough, his administration might have been a great success. But hostile Indians drained his resources, and reduced his army to one hundred and fifty soldiers, scattered from Albany to Philadelphia in four little garrisons. He had moreover espoused the cause of Kieft, and thereby incurred the hostility of the settlers. Then came an order to admit only the Dutch to public employment. The people clamored for a general assembly of the towns, to which Stuyvesant consented reluctantly and too late. So 798 AMERICA. i66j. when the English came, as they did in 1664, the colonists insisted upon the surrender, and New Amsterdam became New York. It was retaken by the Dutch coive, in 1673, but after a foolish administration by Anthony Colve, as gov- ie73-iet-i. ernor, it was given back to England, and reorganized as an English province in 1674, although a provincial assembly, with limited popular representatives, was not established until 1684. PETER STXJYVESANT. 4. The Swedish Settlements on the Delaware. § 694. The Swedish settlements in America are only an episode in the occupation of the Dutch. Thej r were projected by Willem Usselinx, the chief founder of the Dutch West India Company, who induced Gustavus Adolphus to institute the Australian Company, with special privileges of trade with America. The death of the great king, and the thirty years' war postponed the settling of New Sweden, but in 1638, Peter Minuit, as commander of a Swedish expedition, sailed up the Delaware Eiver, and purchased land from the In- dians living near the river Schuylkill. A fort was built and called, in honor of the THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 799 less. Swedish queen, Fort Christina. " The country is troublesome to de- fend," wrote Campanius Holm, " both on account of the savages and the Christians, who inflict upon us every kind of harm." By the Christians he meant the English, and especially the Dutch. The latter claimed the regions of the Delaware, and Peter Stuyvesant determined to make good the claim. He sent "a ship well manned and equipped with cannon," to close the river to the Swedes; and when this failed he came from New Amsterdam himself. He did not, however, subjugate New Sweden, until 1655, when he besieged Fort toss. Christina, and compelled the governor to surrender. The Swedish government made futile efforts to recover the colony, from both the Dutch and the English. But no trace of connection with the mother country endured, except the Gloria Dei church, in Philadelphia, which had a Swedish pastor until 1831. 5. The English Settlements on the Atlantic Coast. § 695. The English settle- ments in North America were destined to absorb all others ; planted in the beginning, along a comparatively narrow strip of the Atlantic sea-coast, they have come to include the whole con- tinent, from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico, and from the stormy waters of the Atlantic to the immense expanse of the Pacific Ocean. a. The Southern Colonies. § 696.— The Early English Voyages. — "10£ to hym that found the new isle." Thus reads an entry in the expense account of Henry VII., of En- gland. Sebastian Cabot was meant by "hym," and the "new isle " was St. John, discovered by " hym " in 1497. But not until Hore's ill-fated expedition, in 1536, did voyages to America excite isae. the adventurous spirit of the English gentry. A few years later, Drake and Frobisher prowled along the American coasts. In 1565 Sir Humphrey ises. Gilbert projected a colony in America, in which " to settle such needy people of our own as now trouble the commonwealth, and through want at home, are enforced to commit outrageous offenses, whereby they are daily consumed by the gal- lows." He made two voyages, both of which were unfortunate. In the latter he per- ished by shipwreck, saying as he parted from his friends, " We are as near heaven by SIR WALTER RALEIGH. 800 AMERICA. sea as by land." Walter Raleigh, his half-brother, obtained a patent in 1584. He then iss4. sent out Barlow and Armidas to select a site for his colony. They soon returned with glowing accounts of a country, which Queen Elizabeth is said to have named Virginia. Raleigh was knighted by his royal mistress, and settlers were sent out to Roanoke island. But this plantation perished from Indian hostility and lack of supplies. A second colony failed as wretchedly, and Raleigh, after fifteen years of failure, and a loss of ,£40,000, abandoned hope. § 697. TJie Settlement of Virginia. — No plantations were attempted again, until 1606, when certain London merchants and West-coun- try gentlemen formed the Virginia Company, "to establish plantations in- America." On New Year's ieo?. day, 1607, Captain Christopher New- port, with two ships and a pinnace, carrying one hun- dred and forty-three emi- grants, sailed for Virginia, touching at the West Indies. On May 13, 1607, they selected for their colony, a peninsula, which they named Jamestown. Among the emigrants was Captain John Smith, the son of a Lincolnshire gen- tleman, who had learned war in the Netherlands, been thrown into the Med- iterranean by French pil- grims, fought with a Turk- ish champion in Hungary, been sold into slavery and, escaping from bondage, had traveled through every civilized country of Europe. This remarkable man, to whose writings we owe our knowledge of early Virginia, was put in irons during the voyage, but released at its termination. He then went among the Indians, who held him captive for a while, and then- sent him back to Jamestown. There he was in more danger than he had been from the Indians, and their chief, Powhatan, whose daughter Pocahontas, according to the well known but contested SETTLERS AT JAMESTOWN. 802 AMERICA. lait-itiio. story, saved him from imminent destruction. But he overcame the hatred of his ene- mies, became soon the actual, and finally the titular head of the colony. § 698. In 1609 Lord Delaware was appointed governor, " of the colonies to be laoo-iaii. planted in Virginia." Five hundred emigrants were also sent out by the company. " They were," wrote Smith, "unruly gallants packed thither by their friends to escape ill destinies." Smith unfortunately was injured seriously by the ex- plosion of a powder-bag, and obliged to leave the colony, to which he never returned ; and it was about to disband, when Lord Delaware arrived. But he too was soon sir Thomas Dale, driven home by ill-health. Dale succeeded him and ruled with a high hand, but under his energetic management, the colony prospered. s«»iue{ Aigaii. Argall who was little lttia-iGio. better than a pirate, ruled in similar fashion. Yeardley succeeded Argall, and sir Georae his coming is an rearaiey, epoch in Amercan ieio-i62i. history ; for under the instructions of the re-organized ieio. Virginia Company, the new governor summoned an Assembly op Burgesses from the various hundreds and plantations. This was the first representative legis- lative body in America. The mem- bers of it were elected by the free- men of the settlements, each county returning two. The functions of the Assembly were : 1. To give legal form to the in- structions of the Company. 2. To supplement them by laws of their own. 3. To petition the Company upon certain points. In England, Sandys, the real manager of the Virginia company, and the great mis- sionary, Patrick Copeland, had revived interest in the American settlement, and in the conversion of the Indians. The latter, however, had no desire for religion, and the settlers had no missionary zeal. During the life-time of Powhatan, however, the natives remained friendly to the settlers ; but after his death, under his brother lean. Opechancanough, they nearly exterminated the plantation. In 1624 the patent of the Virginia company was revoked, and the colony reverted to the king, not. without a protest from the colonists. § 699. Virginia Under Royal Rule. — King Charles I. proclaimed a new constitu- 1925. tion for Virginia, May 13, 1625. This provided for two councils, one resident in England, the other in Virginia. Public servants were made dependent on the crown. The House of Burgesses was not even mentioned by the King, that "found his Cromwell." The governors, however, found it wise not to suppress the As- CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 803 sembly, and in 1639, they were bold enough to send the King a remonstrance against the restoration of the Virginia company. They had already offended Charles, by their energy and courage, in a quarrel with Lord Baltimore, but this action of 1639 restored is3o. them to the royal favor. The colony had now become quite prosper- ous, numbering 10,000 souls. These consisted of freemen, indented slaves, and negro slaves, the second class, the bondsmen for a term of years, being more numerous than the Africans. " 20 Negars came in a Dutch man-of-war about the last of August, 1619." But at first the increase of them was slow, and their value small. But they and their value increased with the discovery that cotton, rice, tobacco and sugar flourished, -especially with slave labor. The eleven plantations, of which the colony consisted, INDIAN ATTACK. lay between the York and the James rivers, except one on the eastern shore of the Chesapeake. These were prosperous enough to export food to New England, and to excite the cupidity of hungry office-seekers in the " Old Home." § 700. Sir Wm. Berkeley was appointed governor in 1641. His administration sir wm. Berkeley, was noted for changes in the constitution, and a second Indian M4i-wn. massacre. The latter led to energetic action by the assembly, and the conquest of a peace that lasted thirty years. The former, by exempting councillors from taxation, separated the financial interests of the large planters from those of the general community, and thus created an aristocratic and a popular party. Berkeley, though by no means a fool, thanked God that there were in Virginia, " no free schools nor printing," and hoped " that there would be none there for a hundred years." Unfor- 804 AMERICA. tunately his hope was too well grounded. During the protectorate of Cromwell, Berkeley retired. At first Virginia showed symptoms of opposition to the Common- wealth, but soon yielded to the men that killed the king. The House of Burgesses now increased their power, but about the same time the aristocratic element was re- cruited by the arrival of cavaliers, from England, the Lees, the Washingtons, and others. Nevertheless, when the Governor came into collision with the Assembly in 1658, the Burgesses asserted stoutly, and even strengthened their authoritj\ This House was indeed the worthy ancestor of the House that passed the Stamp Act resolutions. Four times already it had claimed for itself the exclusive right of imposing less. taxes in the colony, and now in 1658, it denied the right of the Governor to dissolve its sessions. It thus prepared the way for Patrick Henry and George Washington, for Thomas Jefferson and Richard Henry Lee. § 701. Bacon's Rebellion. — Berkeley and Harvey seconded the wishes of Charles I. to establish a regular army in Virginia. But the colonists were a ready-made militia. Charles lost his head, and the popular party in Virginia gained in conse- quence. But the restoration sent Berkeley back as the king's governor. The As- sembly acquiesced without a murmur. But the "navigation act " of the protectorate was not repealed. Colonial produce must be exported in English bottoms; no one might establish himself in the colonies as a merchant; certain enumerated staples might be exported, but only to England or to English dependencies ; the colonists were not allowed to receive any goods in foreign vessels. And to make things worse, the statute of 1672 provided that goods sent from one colony to the other must pay the same duties as if sold in England. This drove Virginia to depend wholly upon tobactfb. And every cargo of this product must run the risk of seizure by a Dutch privateer. Discontent was therefore rife among the Virginians. And when the long Assembly, whose members were enjoy- ioie. ing large stipends, continued sitting until 1676, this discontent broke into open murmurs. Moreover official fees were exorbitant, and public office was already private spoil. At this juncture, Charles II. rewarded Culpepper and Arling- ton with large grants of Virginia territory. These grants made all land tenures in- secure. The colonists were alarmed and angry, but an arrangement with the grantees, by which the rights of settlers could be safe-guarded, was nearly completed, when an outbreak of popular rage shook the whole community. This began in a quarrel with the Indians, and developed into a war that involved Maryland as well as Virginia. Berkeley behaved badlj', and the angry colonists demanded a commission for Nathaniel Bacon. Berkeley refused their demand. The Indians, soon after this, murdered Bacon's favorite servant. Gathering about a hundred planters, Bacon invaded the Indian country, but half of his men deserted him. He was short of supplies, and in his exasperation, he burned a village of friendly Indians, murdering the inhabitants. § 702. Berkeley proclaimed him a rebel, dissolving the long Assembly, and issuing writs of election for a new House. Bacon was elected for his own county, but held a prisoner by the Governor. He was soon pardoned, however, and restored to his seat in the Council. The Assembly then attacked abuses. The light to vote was restored to every free man, and the laying of all taxes transferred to the Assembly. One thous- and men were raised, "for carrying on a war against the barbarous Indians," and Bacon was nominated to the command. Suddenly however Bacon disappeared. He-. THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 805 had returned home (dreading perhaps some destructive scheme of Berkeley,) and in four days he was in full march upon Jamestown, with four hundred men. With these living arguments he persuaded Berkeley to give him a commission, and the Assembly to pass an act of indemnity, condoning his previous offences. Berkeley left for Gloucester ; Bacon marched against the Indians. Berkeley again proclaimed Bacon a rebel ; Bacon replied with a manifesto, reciting the grievances of the colonists, and summon- ing a convention of freemen. The convention met; the attendance was large; an oath to support the " rebel " was taken by the freemen present. But Berkeley knew the power of promises. The planters of Accomac should have the confiscated estates of the rebels, and be exempt from all taxes except church dues, if they would only stand by him. And then the servants, and the slaves of the rebels who joined him, should have their freedom for their loyalty. He gathered thus a thousand men. But Bacon be- sieged Jamestown, captured Lady Berkeley, drove her husband away, and set fire to the town. He then went across to Gloucester and to Accomac. But his health gave way, and he died quite suddenly, and the rebellion died with him. Berkeley glutted his ferocity with the death and ruin of his enemies, although the assembly seems to have supported him in his vengeance. The commissioners, sent out from England to inves- tigate the rebellion, found their chief task to be defending the insurgents from the ten. furious Governor, and in 1677 he was recalled to end his days in dis- grace. But the colonists were very angry when the burden of a military establish- ment was put upon them, and material distress sharpened their exasperation. § 703. Lord Culpepper. The grantee of Charles II., regarded in the colony as an ioT.-ies±. enemy and an extortioner, was made governor in 1677, but came to io82. the colony in 1682. His instructions were to restrict the franchise, and to leave only the shadow of self-government. All laws were, in the future, to originate with the governor and the council, then to be submitted to the crown and only when approved, considered by the Assembly. Yet even here one important ex- ception was made: "money bills" were left to the colonists. Culpepper, however, ioi-n liowiini. failed to enforce the royal authority, and was replaced by Lord ies4. Howard, the most pliant of all the useful implements of the Stuarts. His instructions forbade the setting up of a printing press in Virginia. Yet even he recognized the exclusive right of the assembly to impose taxes. Howard was in- structed also to grant liberty of conscience to non-conformists. This was a new policy in Virginia. For the three parishes of independents that existed in the colony in 1642, to whom ministers were sent from Boston, had been persecuted by the Assembly ; the people fined, the ministers banished, and finally all forced to take refuge with Lord Baltimore, in Anne Arundel county. When the English expelled James Stuart, Francis mcHoison. the Virginians got rid of Howard and his greedy tyranny. Francis Nicholson, the new lieutenant governor, opened for the colonists a new era. He told the truth to his superiors in England; he pointed out unsparingly the defects and dangers of the English commercial policy ; he urged the certainty of French encroach- ments, the necessity of colonial union, the dilapidated condition of the forts, and the feebleness of the militia. He re-organized the church, fixing the stipends of the clergy, and providing glebes and parsonages in every parish. With the help of Blair, he es- lioo. tablished the college of William and Mary, where the first class was 806 AMERICA. graduated in 1700, the year in which de Richebourg and his Huguenots arrived in Virginia. § 704. In 1710, Alexander Spotswood, the ablest of all the royal governors, brought the writ of habeas corpus, and received a handsome palace from the grateful colonists. The tobacco-crop was worth, at the time, £20,000 a year. The population was large and varied ; English along the river banks, Germans in the interior, Scotch-Irish in the Shenandoah Valley and on the western frontier. The English planters constituted the aristocracy ; — prodigals when the tobacco market kept them in funds, paupers when the crop failed, or the market fell. Nevertheless, troublesome to Spotswood, because of their political independence. § 705. Governor Gooch granted toleration to the Presbyterians in 1727, Rich- 1733. mond was laid out in 1733, and the Virginia Gazette started in 1736. George Whitefield stirred up both church-men and dissenters a few years later, and in i75i. 1751 Robert Dinwiddie began his struggle with the Virginia aristocrac} r . Governor Dinwiddie needed money to defend the frontiers; the Assembly was stingy and suspicious, voting money only when frightened to it by the shadows and warwhoops of approaching Frenchmen and Indians; and even then they watched Dinwiddie's fingers with their committee of control. § 706. Mart/land. — Sir George Calvert, a favorite of James I., became a Catholic in 1618 ; his conversion cost him all chances of a public career in England, so as a consolation from the King, he obtained a patent, or a grant of land in New- foundland, and the title of Lord Baltimore. The frosts of the North and the persecuting zeal of the Puritans drove him to Virginia, whence he was driven by the hostility of the Assem- bly. He thereupon sought and obtained the grant of Mary- io32. land, and then in the same year, 1632, dying, lord Baltimore. left it to his energetic and sagacious son, Cecilius Calvert. The charter of Maryland made the proprietor almost independent of the crown. The only limitation to this, was a requirement that all places of worship in Maryland should be consecrated according to the ecclesiastical laws of the Church of England. It is plain therefore that the colony was not intended, either by Lord Baltimore or the King, as a stronghold of Romanism, nor were the first colonists exclusively Roman Catholics. Yet they were probably in a majority. They were three hundred in all, mostly artisans and farmers. In 1635, a year after the settlers landed, all the free- men of the colony, met in legislative assembly. In 1638 the freemen, unable to be present at the second assembly, sent their proxies. A conflict broke out almost im- mediately between the colonists and the proprietor, as to who should propose laws, in which the colonists won. In 1639 the Assembly became a representative bod}% and in 1647 it was divided into a House of Burgesses elected by the freemen, and an upper House consisting of the Governor's council, and deputies summoned by the proprietor. § 707. The DisputeWith Virginia. — Claybome. — Kent Island, on Chesapeake Bay, was of especial value to Virginia. Here William Clayborne had established a trading *oa*. post, from which Governor Calvert, the brother of the proprietor, drove him forcibly. In 1625 the King had taken both sides, enjoining Virginia to as- sist Clayborne, and enjoining Harvey, the Governor of Virginia, to support Lord Balti- THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 807 more. Clayborne attacked the Marylanders in 1634, but was defeated. Clayborne then petitioned the King for redress, but Baltimore was finally confirmed in his claims tan. to the Isle of Kent. In 1644 Richard Ingle, apparently a Puritan, joined Clayborne in an attack upon Maryland. But after a brief success, they were driven from St. Mary's, which they had seized and plundered. § 708. The Law Concerning Religion. — The non-conformists, driven from Vir- ginia, took refuge in Maryland. In 1650 their two communities numbered one hun- dred and forty householders. These and the Kent Island malcontents might at any taso. moment make trouble for a Catholic proprietor. Nevertheless, in 1650, the Assembly passed laws to meet the wishes of Lord Baltimore. These laws made it a capital crime to deny the doctrine of the Trinity, punished blasphemy of the Virgin or the saints with fine, whipping, and banishment, but contained a general clause, giving full toleration to all Christians. § 709. Maryland Under the Commonwealth. — When the parliamentary commis- sioners finished their task in Virginia, in 1652, they turned to Maryland. The Gover- nor resisted their demands for a season, but soon yielded. But in 1654, Lord Balti- more reasserted his authority as lord proprietor ; whereupon the commissioners of ^Parliament marched into .Maryland, deposed the Governor, disfranchised the Roman Catholics, convened a parliament of Puritans, and attacked the possessory rights of mss. Lord Baltimore. In 1655 civil war broke out. Stone, acting for Lord Baltimore, set out with two hundred men to attack the Puritans of Anne Arundel. But he was hopelessly defeated. Nearly all were taken prisoners, and four of his chief adherents were put to death. Baltimore however suceeded in persuading the commis- sioners to an agreement containing the following points : (1.) His patent was ac- knowledged: (2.) All disputes were referred to the lord protector; (3.) No confis- cations were to be made ; (4.) The law giving freedom of worship was not to be re- pealed. § 710. The Restoration in England produced no change in Maryland. But un- der the third Lord Baltimore, dissensions began again. Bacon's rebellion in Virginia stirred up the Protestants of Marjdand ; the in- creased activity of the Jesuits added to their dislike of a Catholic proprietor : his boundary disputes with William Penn alienated the Quakers of Maryland. In 1683, less. Baltimore left the colony, and in 1689, upon the news of the expul- i9s». sion of King James II. from England, a revolution took place, which brought Maryland under the direct control of the crown. Under William and Mary the Church of England was established, in 1692. But not until 1700 was any provision made for the support of the clergy. In 1715 the fourth Lord Baltimore be- came a Protestant, and his proprietary rights were revived. But although the city of i«». Baltimore, founded in 1729, was named after him, his power had gone irrecoverably. He had the dignity, but not the authority of his ancestors. Francis Nicholson, whose coming to Virginia meant so much for that colony, was for a time governor of Maryland, and persuaded the Assembly, not only to endow a 1999. free school at St. Mary's, but to extend the system throughout the colony. § 711. The Carolinas. Charles II. of England, after whom the Carolinas and Charleston were named, granted an immense tract of land, in 1663, to Lord Clarendon 808 AMERICA. and seven associates. Like all the English grants, it extended westward to the Pa- cific. Under this patent of Lord Clarendon, there were originally four settlements. 1. A settlement for Virginia on the Albemarle river; this was the germ of ieea. North Carolina. 2. A settlement from New New England near Cape Fear ; this was absorbed into the former. tees. 3. A settlement from Barbadoes, near Cape Fear. 4. An English settlement at Charleston ; this was the nucleus of South Caro- lina. In 1667 John Locke drew up, for the proprietors, a scheme of government called the Fundamental Constitution of Carolina. Under it voters and jurymen must have a freehold of at least fifty acres ; members of Parliament, one of five hundred acres. In short, the government was to be a landed aristocracy, with the proprietors at the head. But these fundamentals were poorly adapted to a growing colony in a new world ; they were inoperative from the beginning. In 1676, contemporaneous with Bacon's rebellion in Virginia, there was a rebellion against the proprietors in " our colon}^ northeast of Cape Fear." § 712. Worth Carolina. The name North Carolina came into use about 1696. In. 1711 another rebellion occurred. But in each case order was re-established without severe measures. The same year an Indian war resulted in the ruin of the Tuscarora i7ia. tribe. In 1713 the Church of England was established by law and nine parishes created, but liberty of conscience was granted to dissenters. North Car- olina, in 1720, had little to attract the settler. Horses and swine abounded, as these required no attention; horned cattle were unknown; even hunting was not practiced; and the slothful inhabitants grew weak by living wholly upon pork. Slavery existed, but was an unmixed evil ; alien debtors were protected, and Edenton was the one cap- ital in the world that had no place of worship. § 713. South Carolina. The colony in the south had quite a different history. Charleston was settled in 1672. It was regularly laid out in large, convenient and uniform streets. The colonists came from England, the Bahamas and Barbadoes, and from Ireland. They were reinforced by Scotch Presbyterians and French Huguenots. The Scotch were attacked by the Spaniards, who were allied with the Indians, the latter attacking the colonists because of their kidnapping and enslavement of the natives. In 1701 the colonists invaded Florida and captured St. Augustine, but were driven away by Spanish vessels; and in 1706 an allied French and Spanish fleet attacked Charleston from the sea. Stout-hearted Governor Johnson, in spite of the yellow fever, refused to surrender and drove the enemy away. But dissensions about religion kept the people apart. A high church party was determined to establish the English church, and to destroy dissent. This was pre- vented, however, by the King's veto of the act of conformity, passed by the Assembly, ins in the fall of 1706. Indians and pirates harassed the colony ; to put them down cost money. A heavy debt was incurred; paper money was issued to dis- charge it. Misery and dissension followed. The few gained ; the many became poor. This bred discontent and rebellion. § 714. In 1719 the colonists renounced allegiance to the proprietors, and over- threw their government. The proprietors took no steps to re-establish their authority, THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 80H and Nicholson, whom we have seen already active in Virginia and Maryland, was ii9o. sent to administer the government in the name of the king. In 1729 the crown and the Parliament of England paid to the proprietors £17,500 for their claims over both colonies, and these became royal provinces. Rice was introduced into South Carolina before the year 1691 ; it made it ultimately rich, and it fastened Negro slavery upon the people. It made a cheap food for the African, who cultivated it so much better than the Europeans. Charleston became a centre of cul- ture and of aristocratic life, for this profitable slave labor enabled the city population to lead a life of leisure; and their position on the sea coast kept them in contact with the European world. " Their co-habiting in a town," wrote Lawson, "had drawn to JAMES OGLETHORPE. them ingenious people of most sciences, whereby they have tutors among them that educate their youth d la mode." And rice-growing being adapted to small holdings, this aristocratic class became quite large. Maryland and Virginia were colonies of large plantations and large slave-gangs. In Carolina thirty slaves was the average number to a rice-plantation. The subsequent history of South Carolina is all involved in the laying out of Charleston, and the introduction of the rice plant. § 715. Georgia. — " The trustees for establishing the colony of Georgia in Amer- ica,''' received their charter in 1732. The objects of their association were benevolent, to provide new opportunities for men who had been unfortunate in England. James Oglethorpe, the soul of the enterprise, when a member of the House of Commons, had discovered that "not a few of those confined, for debt were guilty of no crime," were 810 AMERICA. of respectable families, and might become happy and useful citizens, if given another chance in an American colony. Moreover, be and his associates expected to protect South Carolina from Spanish depredations, and to attract emigrants from among the persecuted Protestants of the continent of Europe. One hundred and fourteen men, women, and children were selected for the first voyage. Oglethorpe conducted the party, but paid his own expenses, and gave his entire time to the enterprise that he had conceived and inspired. The ship "Anne" with her thirty-five families arrived at 1:33. Charleston in 1733. They were kindly received by the governor and council. The king's pilot conducted them to Port Royal, and Oglethorpe pro- ceeded to the Savannah river, and chose the site for the town of the same name. The Indians were treated kindly, and their titles to the land amicably purchased. The settlers were soon joined by Italians from Piedmont, Salz- burgers from Austria, and Moravians from Germany and Bohemia, and finally by fighting Highlanders, under the Rev. John McLeodof the Isle of Skye. Oglethorpe had induced the trustees to prohibit the importation of rum, brandy and distilled liquors, and the use of negro slaves. The colonists peti- tioned long and earnestly for the removal of these restric- tions. In 1736 Oglethorpe nae. brought a second party to Georgia, among whom were John and Charles Wesley. These were to build and occupy a military town on the southern border to be called Frederica. This soon became the rallying point of British colonists on the Spanish frontiers. Oglethorpe, who was made commander-in-chief of His Majesty's forces in South Carolina and Georgia, had his headquarters in the island of St. Simon (Frederica), which he defended long and successfully against the Spaniards. But the General was compelled to draw upon his private fortune to sus- THE MAYFLOWER. THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 811 tain the colony. The colonists clamored for Negroes to work in the swamps ; the Wesleys quitted the province in discouragement ; Whitefield went about begging for his college at Savannah, and the colonists were far from prosperous, or even contented. i74o. The Spanish, threatening to attack them, Oglethorpe invaded Florida, but his expedition proved a failure. Two years later, Savannah was attacked by a Spanish fleet, and five thousand troops. But the skill and braveiy of Oglethorpe put them both to flight. In 1741 the restrictions on the importation of rum and slaves were removed ; the attempts to cultivate silk and the vine were abandoned ; cotton PLYMOUTH ROCK. and rice became the staple products of Georgia, and the colony prospered fairly. In us*. 1754 the trustees gave up their charter, and the colony reverted to the crown. In that year the exports were to the amount of ,£30,000 ; in 1775, they reached £200,000. b. The Puritan Colonies. § 716. Plymouth. — " Some of the strangers among tbem had let fall from them in the ship, that when they came ashore they would use their own liberty, for none 812 AMERICA. had power to command them, the patent they had being for Virginia and not for New England, which belonged to another government, with which the Virginia Company had nothing to do." These are the words of William Bradford. " The ship " was the 1020. Mayflower, in which Bradford sailed to Plymouth Bay, in 1620. The result of this muttering of strangers was the Mayflower compact, which was signed by all the emigrants. It sets forth that for "the glory of God, the advancement of the Christian faith and the honor of the king and the country of England," the sub- scribers have undertaken " to plant a colony in the northern parts of Virginia." These colonists, a hundred and twenty in all, sailed from Southampton, on the 5th of August, 1620. The " strangers " were a few recruits who had joined them in PILGRIMS RECEIVING MASSASOIT. England, the rest were an organized band from the congregation of the Rev. John Robinson in Leyden. This congregation consisted of English independents or sep- aratists, who had fled from Scrooby, England, in 1608. The refugees, after staying a year in Amsterdam, removed to Leyden, where they " continued for many years in a comfortable condition, enjoying much sweet and delightful society and spiritual com- fort together." But the manners of the Dutch, the difficult}' of training their chil- dren, the fear of the dissolution of their beloved society under foreign influences, their desire to recover their citizenship in England, and their "hope of advancing the gospel of the Kingdom of Christ in the remote parts of the world, led them to think of America, and to negotiate with the Virginia Company. The conditions imposed upon the "Pilgrims," as they called themselves, were these. At the end of seven years the 5>»r, THE PILGRIMS AT PLYMOUTH. (pp. 813.) 814 AMERICA. fruits of their toil must be divided equally between the emigrants and the company. 19*7. This partnership, however, did not last, the colonists buying out the stocks of the English holders in their plantation. § 717. In spite of all efforts to reach Virginia, the Pilgrims were forced to land at Cape Cod. The whole party sailed thence to Plymouth, on December 15, 1620, that site being chosen for the settlement. Their first winter would " have discouraged other men whom small things can discourage, or small discontentment cause to wish themselves home again." Pestilence had thinned out the savages who, more- over, had been warned by a returned captive to dread "the white man's God." They formed an alliance with the Indian chief, Massasoit, which was steadfastly and honor- ably observed on both sides. John Carver was the first governor of Plymouth, but as taxi. he died within a year, William Bradford was chosen to fill his place, and re-chosen annually thirty-one out of thirty-six times, he sometimes begging for a rest. Originally the economic system of the Pilgrims was communistic ; all the products of the toil went into a common stock. The experiment failed. In 1623, a portion of land was allotted annually to each householder ; this also proved unsatisfactory. And in 1624 one acre was allotted permanently to each householder, each holding however to be near the town. § 718. This town stood on a ridge about twenty yards from the sea. Two streets crossed each other, and the Governor's house was at their intersection. On a hill behind the town was a building which was at once a fort, a church, and a public store-house. The houses were log-huts. The whole was surrounded by a palisade, and all the entrances, except that from the sea, guarded by gates. The arable land lay to the south, and beyond that the common or everybody's pasture. In 1639 all who became householders were required to obtain the approval of the governor and coun- cil, but before that, " untoward people " had been rigidly excluded. Captain Miles Standish took a leading part in extending the settlement to the North, and in the building of new towns. A representative system followed, the assembly of all the freemen being quietly superseded. A number of private settlements were started up along the shore, among them " Merrymount " where people " frisked like fairies, or rather like furies," round a may-pole, and where strong liquor was drunk early and often. Standish marched against " Merrymount," seized Morton, the head of the offenders, and the Plymouth governor sent him to England. § 719. Other settlements grew into Maine and New Hampshire, and a few were swallowed up by the colony of Massachusetts Bay. The settlers of Plymouth estab- lished stations for the fur trades north of the Kennebec ; these were attacked by the French. They appealed for help to Massachusetts, but without success. Not until i«-i3. 1643 were the Articles of Confederation framed and signed, in which Plymouth became one of " The United Colonies of New England." But it continued won. its separate existence until 1692, when a new charter, sent out by Willian III., consolidated Plymouth, Massachusetts, and Maine into a single province. § 720. Massachusetts Bay Colony. — The humble fugitives from Scrooby sug- gested to certain wealthy Puritans a larger project and a mightier settlement. They procured from the New England Council of the King a grant of all the territory from the Merrimac to the Charles river. The indented coast included in this; grant extends THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 815 about forty-five miles ; inland of course the grant stretched indefinitely westward. One of the six grantees was John Endicott, afterward conspicious as Governor of Massa- chusetts. He was sent out by his associates to spy out the land, and prepare for the i92o. future plantation. In March, 1629, they obtained a royal charter, creating the governor and company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England. This corporation were to elect annually a governor, deputy governor, and eighteen assist- ants, who were to hold meetings monthly. General meetings of the company were to JOHN ENDICOTT. be held four times a year. This was the charter, not of a town or of a state, but of a private corporation. The emigrants consisted of shareholders and non-shareholders, the former receiving two hundred acres for every fifty pounds invested, and fifty for each member of his family, the latter fifty acres, with the same quantity for each servant exported by him. Three ministers were engaged, of whom two, Higginson and Skelton, ended their days in the colony. All three were non-conformists, and graduates of Cambridge, but none was a separatist. There were in all three hundred 816 AMERICA. and fifty emigrants, amply supplied with live stock and what was needed for success. teas. As soon as they arrived at Salem, the settlers established themselves as Puritans, and among their first acts, was to expel two brothers, John and Samuel Browne, who insisted upon using the Book of Common Prayer. The next step was to make the colony an independent commonwealth. This was done by transferring the government of the company to those in America. § 721. Influential and wealthy emigrants now appeared, among them John Winthrop, John Humphrey, and Thomas Dudley. These arriving out, found the colony in great distress, from which they were saved by dispersing into separate settle- ments. Winthrop -had been appointed gover- nor, but the first politi- cal change in the colony was to limit the rights of the freemen : (1), by transferring legislative authority to the gov- ernor and his assistants ; (2), by taking from the freemen the right to elect the governor, and giving it to the assistants. Winthrop was no believer in democracy. " The best part of a community," he wrote to Hooker, "is always the least, and of that least part, the wiser are still less." And his blameless character and great mental ability made him dangerous to popular liberty ; yet Dudley and others were vigilant and zealous of their rights. In 1634 a sharp conflict took place, in which the General Court recovered the full power of elec- i«3j. tion and legislation. And Dudley was elected Governor by a secret ballot. In 1631 a law had been passed, confining the freemen of the colony to mem- bers of the church. Others might be received, and obtain certain civic rights, but they could have no share in general or in local government. Even the captain of the town train-bands must be a church-member, though all the inhabitants might join in his election. JOHN WINTHROP. THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 817 § 722. Roger Williams. — The church of Salem rejoiced in a brilliant, zealous and combative minister, whose peculiarities speedily excited the alarm of leading men. For he maintained that church and state should be separated, that religious acts should not be enforced by civil authority, that the soil belonged to the natives, and that to accept a roj'al patent was a sin. It was an inopportune time for such teachings. Laud and the Privy Council were watching Massachusetts with anxious eyes. Emigrants were not allowed to leave England without taking the oath of allegiance, and promising conformity to the Prayer Book. And " King Winthrop," with his associates, were warned that a governor would be sent out by the crown, and the Church of England established. But Williams, growing more disputatious, exhorted his congregation to renounce communion with all other churches in the colony. They refused, whereupon he withdrew. But John Endicott, " inspired by the notions of Mr. Roger Williams," cut the red cross from the royal colors. For this Endicott was punished by the General Court, and Williams was i«3s. tried the following October. He was sentenced to leave the colony within six weeks, then suffered to stay until spring, if 'he would remain quiet. But for him to propagate his " notions " was as necessary as to breathe. He gathered dis- ciples to form a new settlement on the beautiful shores of Narragansett Bay. The General Court determined to prevent this, ordered him to be seized and sent to England. He escaped, and after incredible hardships, made his way to his new home. § 723. Anne Hutchinson. — In 1636 Henry Vane was elected governor. In the same year Anne Hutchinson brought " two dangerous creeds "to Boston, and the colony was soon divided into two religious parties. Wheelwright, a brother of Mrs. Hutchinson, and pastor of the Boston church, was punished for sedition. His people remonstrated. A council of divines at Newtown condemned the new teachings as un- safe. And the General Court " finding that two so opposite parties could not contain in the same body without hazard of ruin to the whole, agreed to send away some of the principals." Wheelwright and Mrs. Hutchinson refused to go. The former was i«37. banished. The latter was tried, and the report of her trial shows her to have been a woman of extraordinary strength of mind and dignity of soul, brave, less. self-reliant, humble and alive to God. She was excommunicated, banished, and, like Roger Williams, found a home near Narragansett Ba} r . § 724. The colony was making enemies quite rapidly at home and abroad ; the King and Laud were about to lay strong hands upon it, when the Scotch rebellion broke out, that brought king and bishop both to the scaffold. Boundary disputes, danger from the Indians, from the Dutch on the Hudson, and from the French on the north, led Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven to form the confederation of 1643, " to advance the kingdom of our Lord Jesus Christ, and to enjoy the liberties of the gospel in purity and peace." This was called The United Colonies of New England, although Rhode Island and Maine J6J3. were haughtily excluded. By that year twenty-one thousand two hundred emigrants had come out to Massachusetts, Plymouth numbering then about four thousand inhabitants. But the triumph of the revolution in England stayed the tide of emigration for a season. The settlers married early, and their families were large, though many children died in infancy. The man who could find no township 52 818 AMERICA 1 to admit him could not dwell in the colony, and the man who could find no church to receive him could enjoy no civil rights. When a new town was created, a tract of land was vested in seven trustees, who agreed to build houses, and to grant plots of land to all settlers who were not of " exorbitant and turbulent spirit, unfit for civil society." Each received two plots, a home lot in the meadow and a piece of " upland." Original settlers paid a rent of six pence an acre, those coming later a shilling. A meeting house was built at public cost, a minister chosen, and a church formed be- fore the trustees ex- ercised their powers. The township was the landholder, and watched jealously to prevent the exten- sion of individual rights. In 1647 two classes of schools were estab- lished. The elemen- tary school in towns of fifty house-holders, and the grammar school wherever there was a hundred. This was really a sup- plement to the act creating Harvard College, which was in the beginning " A Grammar School." The Cambridge scholars and their Oxford colleagues in- io3o. duced the legislature to grant £400 for the creation of the since famous school. This was followed b} 7 John Harvard's legacy of £700, and two hundred and sixty volumes. In 1638 the first printing press was set up at Cambridge, and the Bay Psalm book was printed the next year. § 725. The Baptists and Quakers. — In 1644, to deny the validity of infant bap- tism, or the necessity of civil magistracy, was made a crime. In 1651 three Baptists WAMPANOAG INDIAN. THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 819 were arrested, immediately upon their arrival, by Governor Endicott. One of them was flogged, and all of them expelled from the colony. In 1656 two Quaker women, Ann Austin and Mary Fisher, were seized and con- xese. fined in jail, their books were burnt, and their persons were searched to discover the marks of witches. After five weeks in prison, they were sent to Barbadoes. These two first victims had done absolutely nothing to pro- voke such treatment. During their confinement the windows of the jail were boarded up, and to communicate with them was made a crime. Eight more arrived a little later, and then the General Court passed a law pun- ishing shipmasters who brought Quakers to the colony, imprisoning and flogging any Quaker who might nevertheless arrive, and making it a crime to import or conceal Quaker books, or to defend Quaker opinions. The commis- sioners of the United Colonies even condescend- ed to entreat Rhode Island to exclude all Quakers, a measure to which "the rule of charity did oblige them." Rhode Island an- swered that, "the Quakers least desired to come where they were suffered to declare themselves freely." And the Quakers justified the statement, for they poured into Massachusetts "to bear their testi- mony." In 1658 a bill imposing upon Quakers fines, scourgings, imprisonment, banish- iass. ment, and death, was passed without opposition by the governor's assistants, but earnestly opposed among the deputies where it succeeded only by a ieso. single vote. Four Quakers were hanged under this enactment, when DEATH OF KING PHILIP. 820 AMERICA. the community revolted and forced the abolition of the law, in spite of Endicott and the men who supported him. The restoration now enabled the Quakers to appeal to King Charles II. The latter ordered Endicott to suspend all further proceeding against the Quakers. This order was sent to the humiliated Governor, by the hand of Shattucks, a Quaker, who had been scourged and banished twice from Massachusetts. The General Court was summoned, and all the Quakers were set at liberty.* § 726. 1675 King Philip, the son of Massasoit, having formed an Indian league, te?5. began a war upon the towns of southern and western Massachusetts, which wrought great havoc. Eliots "praying Indians" adhered to the whites ; Philip la-.e. was finally killed, and his head exposed for twenty years on a pole at Plymouth, and his wife and child were sold as slaves. But the Indians never again attacked the south- ern parts of New England. § 727. The Neio Charter. The cruelty to the Quakers was not the only charge against the colony : they were accused of violating the navigation laws, of coining money without authoritj', and of harboring the regicide judges. And after a ios4. long and stubborn fight, their charter was with- drawn. The agents of Massachu- setts in London were instructed not to consent to any alterations in the qualifications of freemen. The clergy especiall}- bestirred themselves to prevent the de- struction of the theocracj'. For a time it looked as if they might, succeed. Sir Edmund Andros, the first royal governor, was far from popular. When the news of the expulsion of James II. reached Boston, Andros was seized and ies9. imprisoned, and the colony, or rather the theocracy, resumed its sway. But the die was cast. A new charter had become necessary, and one came from ieo2. William III. in 1692. Massachusetts, Maine, Plymouth, and Nova Scotia were consolidated, toleration, except for papists, was established, the religious qualification was swept away, and a property qualification substituted. The towns * This is a bare recital of facts. A comparison of dates, and a study of contemporary defenses of the Governor and his party, will show how flimsy are the modern pleas, in extenuation of this cruelty. SIR EDMUND ANDROS. THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 821 continued to elect the House of Representatives, and the Assembly chose the Council, subject to the approval of the executive. The governor, lieutenant governor, and secretary were appointed by the king, who reserved the right to disallow legislation within three years of its passage. § 728. The Salem Witchcraft. The year of the new charter was the year of the letm. Salem Witchcraft. In 1683-4 Increase Mather had published his " Illustrious Providences." In the fall of 1688 four children of a Boston mason began to mimic the symptoms described in that exciting book, and spoken of so frequently. The same symptoms appeared in Salem in February 1692. In June, Governor Phips ■created arbitrarily a court to try witches, placing William Stoughton at its head. Be- fore October nineteen persons had been hanged, eight lay condemned, others had fled or been beggared, while two hundred were accused and in mortal terror of arrest. No one was safe ; pastors and pastors' wives (even the wife of the Governor) were threatened. A few men of steady nerves and sterling character resisted the delusion from the outset, but Thomas Brattle was the first to protest openly against the pro- ceedings of the court. A reaction set in ; Phips suspended the sittings of his illegal tribunal ; and the power of the Mathers, father and son, who were the chief supporters of the witchcraft persecutions, waned rapidly. § 729. In 1700 the population of Massachusetts was in the neighborhood of fifty thousand and the colony employed two hundred ships, of which twenty were over a hundred tons burden, and sixty more over fifty. Slavery began to spread and to be- come a subject of legislation, and of discussion. Sewall attacked it in his " Selling of •Joseph," as contrary to nature, scripture, and sound policy. Early in the century, Harvard college pnssed from the control of the Mathers, and into liberal hands, which i7oo. led to the founding of Yale college, as a new stronghold for the old orthodoxy. In 1725 the settlement of western Massachusetts was begun, and in 1734 the " Great Awakening in New England " started with Jonathan Edwards, and con- tinued under George Whitefield and his helpers. During this time the colony was in constant danger from the French, and their Indian allies, but the population increased with great rapidity, and Boston became a vigorous town. She sent to sea twice as many vessels as New York, and her ship yards were humming with activity. In 1744. 1744, a hundred sail of transports sailed from Boston harbor, carrying "three thousand two hundred and fifty soldiers of the colony to effect the capture of Louisburg. The conquest of Canada was at hand. § 730. Connecticut. — A movement of Massachusetts farmers to the Connecticut i«34. valley began in 1634. It was at first opposed, but soon acquiesced in by the Legislature, which, however, insisted that the emigrants should remain under the control of Massachusetts. Wethersfield and Windsor were settled in 1635 by peo- ple from Boston ; Hartford in 1636, by the congregation of the Rev. Thomas Hooker, who started from Newtown (Cambridge.) This emigration from Massachusetts was resented by the colony of Plymouth, the Dutch of New Amsterdam, and the Pequod i«33. Indians. The Pequod's were soon exterminated, the Dutch were shut out by the fort at Saybrook, built by John Winthrop, " Governor of the River of Connecticut,' ' -and the settlers from Plymouth were told, by the men of Dorchester, that the territory -which they had bought from the Mohicans and held manfully against the Dutch, was the 822 AMERICA. " Lord's Waste." Reluctantly enough they compromised with these greedy intruders upon their rights ; but Hooker's people had no part in the quarrel" In 1639 the three towns drew up the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, the ie3o. first written constitution known in history. This extraordinary docu- ment is really a declaration of independence, primarily from the authority of Massa- chusetts, but impliedly from any sovereignty save that of God ; for no mention is made of any other sovereign. It established not a theocracy, however, but a com- munity. § 731. New Haven, founded by the congregation of the Rev. John Davenport, in 1638, excluded all but church members from voting and from office ; and in 1644 this colony declared " the judicial laws of God as they were delivered by Moses," binding upon the people. The Connecticut towns however established a genuine re- public, making all citizens politically equal, and they obtained from Charles II. a lean. charter which confirmed their right of self- government. In May 1643, " the Plantacions, under the Government of Connecticut," and "the Government of New Haven," with her "Planta- cions " helped to form the "United Colonies of New England." A curious legend, desti- tute unfortunately of any contemporary record, tells of the hiding of the Connecticut charter in the old oak tree at Hartford. Sir Edmund Andros, in the name of King James II., demanded of the Assembly the surrender of his charter. It was brought in and placed upon the table. iesj. Suddenly the candles were blown out. When they were relighted the charter had disappeared. At the foot of the records for 1687 Andros's proceedings are written out, and beneath this declaration appears the word " Finis." § 732. IVew Hampshire. — The Rev. John Wheelwright, the friend of Anne Hutchinson, when driven from Massachusetts in 1628, settled with several of his ievo. congregation, the town of Exeter, New Hampshire. This name was given to the country by Captain John Mason, a native of Hampshire, England, who held it under a grant from the " Council for New England." Dover was settled as early as 1627, by English colonists ; Londoncleny, the home of the Scotch-Irish flax- leii. spinners, not until 1719. In 1641 New Hampshire came under the jurisdiction and protection of Massachusetts, but in 1679 it became a royal province. Maine— The Popham colony, founded in 1607, ended disastrously ; the region be - FIRST PRINTING PRESS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE.— 1 142. THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 823 tween the Kennebec and Penobscot was settled in 1625, and Portland in 1632. From 1652 to 1820 the territory was controlled by Massachusetts. § 733. Rhode Island. — Roger Williams escaped the perils of the wilderness by the help of his Indian friends. The wigwams of Massasoit received the preacher whom Massachusetts had cast out to the winter storms, and to such food and shelter as he might discover. He and five friends built a cabin on the Seekonk river ; but he was ordered to move on by the authorities of Plymouth. He then crossed the river lower down ; the Indians called out " What cheer," and guided the exile and his party to i63«. the site called by the grateful Christian, Providence. Williams' first thought was to Christianize the Indians, not to colonize the country. In fact, Rhode Island colonized itself, and Williams simply gave it splendid opportunities. First he granted toleration to every form of religious belief, and even to forms of unbelief; and secondly he procured, in 1644, a charter uniting the scattered colonies of Rhode Island into a single province, with the priv- ileges and the rights of self-govern- ment. These scattered colonies in- cluded Newport and Portsmouth, 1938-1039. which had been set- tled by William Coddington, Anne Hutchinson, and others, whom Mas- sachusetts could not well endure. Williams bought the land from his Indian friends. He organized the first Baptist church in America, and in 1640, the government was fairly established. In March, 1647, the As- sembly declared formally, that the government "is a democrat or popu- lar government, that is to say, the freemen, orderly assembled shall make iust laws, by which they will be reg- ulated." None was to be "accounted a delinquent for doctrine," who was not " directly repugnant to the government or laws established." Massachusetts looked on in anger and contempt, foreboding and predicting ruin and divine wrath. Neither came. WILLIAM PENN. c. Pennsylvania. § 734. Most of the thirteen colonies bear the names of English monarchs or princes, for example, Virginia, the Carolinas, Maryland, Georgia, New York. Massa- chusetts and Connecticut have Indian names. Pennsylvania alone is a perpetual re- cess, minder of its noble founder. Penn's Woods were granted to Wm. Penn to extinguish a claim which the distinguished Quaker held against the English king. These woods fronted on the Delaware river, and stretched indefinitely westward. 82-i AMERICA. Emigrants were sent out in 1681, but Penn himself did not sail with his hundred Quakers until the next year. The City of Brotherly Love (Philadelphia) had been planned before the company left England. Originally, Delaware belonged to the Duke of York. Penn purchased it before he sailed and landed at New Castle, October lesa. 27, 1682. Exhibiting his deeds from the Duke of York, he received the submission of the inhabitants (mostly Swedes or Finns). " The Frame of Government " for Pennsylvania had been signed by Penn, April 25, 1682. " Time, place, and singular emergencies," would require, he said, alterations in this Frame. B tit this would form a good foundation. It provided for a governor and freemen : a provincial council consisting of seventy-two members, and an assembly of two hundred. All Christians, except bound servants and convicts, who paid taxes or took up land, were declared freemen. The assembly met December 4, 1682 ; the frame of government and the laws agreed upon in England were adopted ; the Swedes were naturalized, and the Delaware counties included. The next year Penn granted a new ios3. charter " of more than was expected liberty," under which the gov- ernment was administered till 1796. Liberty of conscience was granted, but the ob- servance of the Sabbath was provided for. Plays and games, sports and lotteries were prohibited. Courts of justice were established, but causes of great importance were tried by the Council. Schools were ordained, and the laws were taught to the children. In 1683 the first colony of Germans arrived from Crefeld. These were Mennonite linen weavers, who settled at Germantown, under the guidance of Francis Pastorius. This was the first wave of the great German immigration to America. In 1685 there were in all seven thousand two hundred people in the province, of which the English were not quite the half. § 735. Just before the Germans arrived, Penn met the principal Indian chiefs at iGsa. Shackamaxon, on June 23, 1683. He thus describes the events of the day. " We agreed upon the purchase, and then great promises passed between us of kindness and good neighborhood. Indians and English must live in love as long as the sun gave light. A speech was made to the Indians in the name of all the Sachamakers or kings ; first to tell them what was done, next to change them to live in peace with me, and the people under my government. At every sentence they shouted, and said Amen in their way." In 1685 Wm. Bradford established in Phila- delphia, the first printing-press of the middle colonies. In 1690 paper and woollen mills were started. The Quakers had nine "meetings" (i. e. societies) in 1683. The Baptists bad a church in 1684 or 1685. The Dutch had a church in New Castle, and the Swedes some half-starved clergymen. "For the love of God, me and the poor country be not so governmentish," wrote Penn, from England, whither he re- turned in 1684. But the colonists cared little for their founder or his interest. And the expulsion of the Stuarts led to Penn's arrest, and enforced inactivity in the af- fairs of his province. But in 1694 he was released and restored to his rights, so that in 1699 he visited his "woods" once more.' He suppressed piracy and restricted the slave trade, but could get no money for the fortification of the king's frontiers. In 1702 the Delaware counties were given a separate Assembly, but quarrelling contin- ued among the " governmentish " people. Penn's governors were rather feeble folk, and 826 AMERICA. the proprietor could bring the assembly to terms, only by threatening to sell out to the crown. § 736. In 1721 the Iroquois held a great council with the whites at Conestoga, mi. just after Governor Keith and his councils had determined to grow rich with fiat money. The people never had enough "to do business with." In 1749 a Pennsylvania pound was equal to about eleven shillings. Keith, the last governor appointed by Penn, was more popular with the province, than with Hannah Penn, the widow of the founder ; and when displaced by her, he revenged himself by keeping the province in a turmoil. Governors were in frequent conflict with the Assembly, partly because of their instructions from the proprietors, and partly be- cause of their own or the peoples' folly. In 1757 Benjamin Franklin won his first diplomatic victory. As agent of Pennsylvania, he laid the case of the province be- fore the crown authorities, and the proprietors of Pennsylvania were defeated. The colony was then the most flourishing in America. The free population numbered two hundred and twenty thousand, half of it from Germany; Moravians along the Lehigh, Swenckfeklers on the Schuylkill, Dunkers along the Conestoga, Mennonites in Lancaster. Welsh, Irish, and Scotch came also. Yet so many un- desirable elements arrived, that an act restricting immigration was passed early in 1729. Iron works and forges were started along the Schuylkill river in 1718 ; in 1728 there were two furnaces in blast in Lancaster county. Philadelphia sent out annually a fleet of four hundred sail, and her Quakers grew rich in trading with the West Indies. Yet the country was more alluring than the town ; ample acres were easily acquired, and labor was too scarce and dear to make manufacturing profitable. d. New York and Neiv Jersey. § 737. Under English rule New Netherlands became New York. But the Duke Aug. 27, io64. of York would hear of no provincial assembly till 1683, and when he be- came King James II., would hear of it no longer. But when he lost his crown in 1688, Jacob Leisler took possession of the province to hold it for William and Mary, alleging a plot of Papists to deliver the country to the French of Canada. Leisler believed also in "no taxation without representation," and sought more power for the people. He .and his son were hanged for their zeal, but Papists were disfranchised, priests and Jesuits excluded from the province, and the struggle for legislative authority started on its triumphant course. Sloughter, the first governor under William and Mary, was directed " to call an assembly of free-holders, and to follow the usage of our other plantations in America." Fletcher, who followed him, was a greedy scamp, who pro- tected pirates and plundered the people. Bellamont came next and grew quite popu- lar, but Cornbury stole the public monies, and provoked the Assembly to a quarrel with the crown. In 1731, Rip Van Dam claimed and received the salary of the gov- ernor, having acted in his place. An action was brought against him to compel the restoration of one half, and in order to win it, de Lancey was made chief justice, in place of Lewis Morris, who was summarily removed. Zenger's Weekly Journal there- upon attacked the governor. Zenger, the publisher, was tried for libel, and acquitted through the courage, skill, eloquence, and legal knowledge of Andrew Hamilton, of Philadelphia. His acquittal established the freedom of the press in the colonies, and (pp. 827.) BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. 828 AMERICA. also determined against the right of the king to establish courts, without consulting n-ii. the local legislature. During Clarke's administration, occurred the negro plot of 1741. There was no plot, only a panic. But the accused were hanged or burned to death, or deported, to appease the scared inhabitants of the dirty little seaport. Sir Danvers Osborn came to New York as governor, in 1753. He looked sharply at the assembly, and exclaimed, " What have I come here for?" He then went out and hanged himself. This made de Lancey acting governor, who has been falsely accused of opposing the Plan of Union, agreed upon by the commissioners of all the colonies at Alban) r , in July, 1754. § 738. The population of the province had reached ninety thousand in 1750, but did not extend beyond the Hudson and the Mohawk valleys. New York city, with a population of perhaps twelve thousand, stopped at the present Wall Street,«which takes its name from an old palisaded wall that formed the northern limit of the town. The English conquered New Netherlands in 1664. The territory between the Hudson and the Delaware was then given to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Car- teret. These were bought out by Quakers, who established a colony of religious liberty and civil equality. In 1702 the two Jerseys were placed in the hands of the 1738. king, and in 1738 New Jersey was made a separate province. Complete religious freedom prevailing, members of nearly every sect came to the province. The Queen's College, now Rutger's, was established in New Brunswick, and the College of New Jersey at Princeton, the latter in 1746, and the former in 1756. In 1765 New Jersey had one hundred and ninety-two churches of all denominations, except the Roman Catholic. Schools were probably connected with every church. The governor was appointed by the king. THE ENGLISH CONQUEST OF THE CONTINENT. HE events of the eighteenth century determined the fate of the world for ages, probably, and the chief of these events was the triumphs of Frederick the Great and of William Pitt. The con- sequent failure of France gave India to England, and expelled the French from America. Yet the French and Indian war is too 1JS4-U63. important to be regarded merely as an episode in European history. It was a necessaiy, though not a final step to the formation of the United States of America. The French claimed the valleys of the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi, and rightfully enough. But they claimed also the whole continent west of the Alleghnay and forbade the English to cross the mountains. They had captivated all the Indians, except the Iroquois, who occupied the lake regions of Central New York ; and with the help of their savage allies, they expected to restrict if not to conquer the English settlements. Duquesne, the gov- 1753. ernor of Canada, sent an expedition to occupy the Ohio valley in 1753. Two forts had been already built, when a young militia officer, George Washington by name, arrived to inform the French commander that his forts were built on English territory, and that he would do well to move away. DEATH OF GENERAL BRADDOCK. (P. Philippoteaux.) iPP- 829.) 830 AMERICA. The French smiled blandly, telling the Virginian that their orders unfortunately required them to remain. When Washington reported this to Dinwiddie, he was sent r>o*. back by the governor, with two hundred men, to build a fort at the forks of the Ohio. A large force of Frenchmen moved down upon them, and sug- gested that they also move away, whereupon the Virginians thought it discretion to retire. A few days later, however, the impetuous Washington (he was only twenty- three) attacked the French, and thereby began the war. He was soon at the head of three hundred men, entrenched in Fort Necessity. But now the French turned upon him, and compelled him to capitulate. He was permitted to march out with the honors of war, though obliged to return to Virginia. The first encounter had proved disastrous. § 740. But early in 1755, General Braddock arrived at Hampton Roads, and at a con- ference in Alexandria, Virginia, it was agreed that Braddock should march against Fort Duquesne, Shirley should cap- ture Niagara, Johnson, with an army of provincials, should seize Crown Point, and the troops of New England should fall upon the Acadian Peninsula. But Braddock was defeated and killed, and his frightened troops fled all the way from the juiy », X755. M o n o n g a h e 1 a river (Pittsburg) to Fort Cum- berland. Braddock's death left Shir- ley, the governor of Massachu- setts, the ranking British officer in the colonies. Keeping the bad news to himself, he pushed on to Oswego, through wood and swamp. As his men struggled westward, they heard of Braddock's fate. They were worn out, and food was scarce ; their boats were unfit for lake service, and the expedition against Niagara also came to naught. William Johnson, a young Irishman, who had settled in the Mohawk Valley, had gained a singular influence with the Indians. To him was given command of the army against Crown Point. Most of the men were from New England, and several of them were men of far more experience in war than their commander. Among these were Phineas Lyman, the second in authority, Seth Pomeroy, Israel Putman, and John Stark. Through Lyman's skill and energy, Dieskau, the French general, was defeated ass. and captured. Lyman was not even mentioned in Johnson's report of the fight, but William Johnson became a baronet, and received a grant of £5000 from t#0 MONTCALM. THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 831 Parliament. Lyman urged a forward movement upon Ticonderoga, but Johnson delayed until it was too late, and then marched home again. Montcalm succeeded Dieskau in command of the French. He at once visited Fort Ticonderoga (Carillan), and saw that all was in order. He then hastened to Montreal, gathered together three thousand men, and suddenly appeared at Fort rise. Oswego. The garrison soon surrendered, and were almost massacred by the Indians, who had found much rum among the plunder. Both sides now watched each other, and retired to winter-quarters; the English regulars going to Boston, Phila- delphia, and New York. The Indians and the rangers alone were active. Lake George and Lake Champlain resounded with the savage yells of the French allies, while Captain Rogers and Captain Putnam became famous for their encounters with the red men. § 741. Meanwhile Loudoun had succeeded Shirley in command of the English. But his dispositions and movements were absurd and disastrous. Montcalm attacked 1157, and destroyed Fort William Henry on Lake George, and then retired to Montreal. William Pitt now came to power in England, and Loudoun was recalled. With the prescience of the future, that made him the greatest statesman of his time, Pitt made the colonial officer the equal of the regular, and changed at once the discontent of the provincials into enthusiastic loyalty. He made Colonel Amherst, Major Gen- eral, and sent him to capture Louisbourg ; and he selected invincible John Forbes to attack Fort Duquesne. Abercrombie, however, his choice for the campaign against Crown Point, was a bad misfit. Forbes determined, against the advice of Washington, not to move by Braddock's route, yet he listened carefully to the young Virginian in all other matters. Spending his time " between business and medicine," for he was desperately ill, Forbes pushed forward in spite of the winter and the lack of provisions, and reached Fort Duquesne just in time to hear the explosion of the French mines. i7ss. The starving garrison blew up the fort and fled. He called the place Pittsburg, and marched back to Philadelphia, where he died a few months later. A new fort was built at Pittsburg ; the garrison left there by Forbes was reinforced by Amherst, and the conquest of the Ohio Valley reasonably secure. § 742. Abercrombie meanwhile was disappointing Pitt. He hurled his soldiers uselessly against Fort Ticonderoga, and retreated, though his army was thirteen thou- liss. sand strong. Bradstreet, however, captured and destroyed the French fort, Frontenac, thus cutting off supplies from Fort Duquesne, and helping materially the work of General Forbes. General Amherst now assumed command. He had taken Louisbourg, and immediately sent Prideaux to capture Fort Niagara. Johnson and a body of Indian braves were in the English camp. Prideaux was killed early in iis». the siege, and Johnson, who succeeded him in command, compelled the surrender of the place. Meanwhile Amherst himself was pushing slowly northward, securing his rear, and driving the French before him. He advanced, however, rather slowly, to be of any service to General Wolfe, whom Pitt had sent to take Quebec. " The town-meeting pitted against bureau-cracy," exists only in the brain of the rhet- orical historian. " The Titan that threw the cripple," was not the town-meeting, but the sagacity of William Pitt, in his choice of men, and the conjuncture of circum- stances that supported the courage and the skill of General James Wolfe. Wolfe's fleet sailed from Louisbourg, in June, 1759. Quebec had ample supplies, and the 832 AMERICA. entrenchments were manned by fourteen thousand men, and a number of Indian allies. Gunboats and fire-ships were prepared to support the one hundred and six cannon, the city's chief defence. But the English fleet passed the French guns, which were stationed at the wrong place, and Wolfe landed his army of nine thousand men on the Island of Orleans. Montcalm tried to drive him off, but failed. Wolfe occupied Point Levi, and rained shot and shell into the town, but having divid- ed his army, was in no little danger. Montcalm, how- ever, did not attack him. Wolfe divided his forces again, yet failed to provoke an attack. Then he moved himself, but without suc- cess ; he was obliged to recall his men from sure destruction. Amherst was so slow ! And now a mes- senger came to tell him that Amherst was not com- ing. Nothing remained but an attempt to gain the heights above the town. Wolfe's Cove is a ravine not far from the town, leading to the Heights of Abraham. Three thousand six hund- red men went down the river in boats, with their daring general, at the turn of the tide, while the Brit- ish admiral made a dem- onstration in front of Mont- calm. Wolfe, when hailed by the French sentries, quieted them with his ex- first settlement at Quebec. planations in their own language, and the commander of the French troops, at the top of the ravine, had gone to sleep. In a few minutes the English general stood, with his men, in an open field on the Heights of Abraham, where Montcalm must fight him. The dilatory French general was transformed instantly into an impetuous commander. The French fell furiously upon the English line. Wolfe ordered his grenadiers to charge, himself leading the van. Twice he was struck, but on he rushed. A third shot bore him to the ground. " They fly ! they fly ! " he heard his men exclaiming, as he was borne 53 DEATH OF GENERAL WOLFE. (pp. 833.) 834 AMERICA. dying to the rear. " I die content," he murmured and expired. Montcalm was shot sept, i3. just before he re-entered the town with his panic-stricken troops. „The French held out for a few days, and then surrendered. Not long afterward, Montreal surrendered to Amherst, and on the 18th of September, 1759, all Canada passed to the English crown. § 743. Two episodes connected with the war are worthy of mention. The ex- pulsion of the French from Acadia, and the conspiracy of Pontiac. The genius of Longfellow has given to the former the false coloring of jjersecution ; in reality the English were quite justified in the measures they employed. The uprising of the In- 1763-H05 dian tribes, under Pontiac, wrought great mischief on the frontiers. It was a failure, however, as the plot was betrayed by an Indian girl, to the commander of the fort at Detroit, and Pontiac was forced to sue for peace. By the treaty of 1763, the French gave up all their possessions in North America. The year before, New Orleans and the French territory west of the Mississippi had been transferred secretly to Spain, and was not retransferred to France until 1801. So that of all his vast domain in the New World, nothing was left to the French King, but two little islands near Newfoundland and his possessions in the West Indies. III. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 1. THE STRUGGLE OF THE COLONISTS FOE THE EIGHTS OP ENGLISHMEN. §744. HE English colonies in North America had their own legislatures and as we have seen, these legislatures guarded vigilantly the right of taxation. They had submitted reluctantly to the navigation acts, and the various acts of Parliament restricting their com- merce and their manufactures ; they had more than once contrib- uted voluntarily to the King's service; but they were firmly grounded in the English principle that taxation and representation are inseparable ; in other words, that no taxes could be laid upon a colony without the consent of the colonists themselves, expressed by their representatives. But England was in sore straits for money and for statesmen. George III. has been described by a great English writer as a " meddling maniac." And the worst re- sult of his disordered mind was his choice of ministers. Pitt he could not endure. He made peace to prevent his return to power. He sought for tools, not for advisers ; for marionettes, not men. It was thus he obtained George Grenville for his minister, and lost the American colonies for England. For Grenville resolved to tax the colonies without their own consent. At first he proceeded cautiously, raising the import du- ties at colonial ports, and enforcing the navigation acts with great severity. In pur- suance of the latter purpose " Writs of Assistance " were granted, which empowered the custom house officer to enter any shop or dwelling house, and search for smuggled goods. Now, although the illicit trade of the colonies was large and lucrative, the ob- jection to these harsh and illegal measures came, not simply from the interested THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 835 smugglers, but from the wisest men in the colonies. They held that the navigation and revenue laws were exceedingly unjust, and that they could be made tolerable only by lenient and generous administration. § 745. Nevertheless, Grenville might have succeeded, if he had gone no further. But he determined upon the Stamp Act, a scheme that Sir Robert Walpole had re- lses jected as foolish and dangerous. The colonies sent Benjamin Frank- lin to England with a protest and an offer. They protested against the passage of the Stamp Act, and offered to vote in their colonial assemblies larger supplies to the crown than the Stamp Act would produce. But Grenville and George III. were resolved to pass it, and even Franklin counselled submission. The colonists were of different mind and Patrick Henry introduced into the House of Burgesses of Virginia a series of resolutions, which denied explicitly and emphatically the right of the British Par- liament to meddle with internal taxation. Massachusetts followed with a proposal for a Continental Congress, to be composed nes. of delegates from all the Colonial Assemblies. In October, 1765, this Congress met and repeated the pro- test and the petition of Virginia. § 746. Meanwhile the people of the colonies compelled the Stamp dis- tributors to resign, and vigorously cir- culated non-importation agreements, pledging themselves to import no goods from England till the Stamp Act was repealed. Pitt, who had been ill and absent from Parliament when the act was passed, now returned and declared, " This kingdom has no right to lay a tax on the colonies. I rejoice that America has resisted. Three millions of people so dead to all the feelings of liberty, as voluntarily to be slaves, would have been fit instruments to make slaves of the rest." Pitt's opposition, supported as he was by the great lawyer, Lord Camden, and by Col. Barre, together with the famous examination of Dr. Frank- u?6. lin by a committee of the House of Commons, compelled the repeal of the obnoxious statute, and for a brief season, the colonies were in a tumult of great joy. The ungracious and unwise King persuaded his ministers, however, to put through parliament a declaratory act which Lord Camden denounced as " absolutely illegal." " Taxation and representation are inseparably united," said the future Lord Chancellor. "God hath joined them, and no British Parliament can put them asunder." Pitt now returned to power, in spite of the King, but disease soon drove him out of office, and 'his retirement gave England the worthless ministry of the Duke of Graf- ton and Lord North, the ministry whose stupidity and stubbornness provoked the American revolution, and whose feebleness helped the colonists to their final triumph. § 747. Their first measure, in relation to the colonies, was a revenue bill, im- PATRICK HENRY. 836 AMERICA. posing duties on te.i, paper, glass, paints, and lead. The colonists determined not to import them, and not to import an} r British commodities. The British merchants, profoundly affected in their pockets, petitioned for the repeal of the law. The duties were thereupon taken from all articles, except tea. The Americans would import no tea. The Assembly of New York was dissolved on its refusal to provide quarters for British troops, the Assembly of Massachusetts was dissolved on a petty quarrel with the governor, and Boston was occupied with English soldiers. But the excitement in the colonies, and the remonstrances of colonial legislatures, led to the withdrawal of the troops ; not, however, until an affray between the mob and the soldiers in Boston had dangerously inflamed the passions of the people. DESTRUCTION OF TEA IN BOSTON HARBOR. §748. But the "meddling maniac," King George III., was fretting and fuming over the "fatal compliance of 1766," and lying in wait for an opportunitj r to strike. It soon came. The East India Company sent several cargoes of tea to the colonies. In New York and in Philadelphia, the people threatened vengeance upon an)- pilot that should guide the ships into the harbor; the vessels were obliged to return to England. But at Boston, Hutchinson was acting governor, and Hutchinson, being ab- solutely fearless, got the ships into port, and prevented their return. Thereupon a mob, disguised as Indians, boarded the ships, and poured the tea into the waters of the bay. xov. us, 1373. The wisest patriots of America deplored the outrage, but the King was furious. He wanted, not redress, but revenge and repression. His obedient ministers and subservient Parliament passed the Boston Port Bill, closing the port of Boston THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 837 j«iic t, m-t. against all commerce. They altered the charter to the extent of virtually abrogating the liberties of Massachusetts, and they ordered persons ac- cused of murder, to be sent to England for trial. A fourth statute provided for the sending of troops to America. Four regiments were lis*. sent to Boston ; General Gage was appointed governor, and the people were to taste the sweets of military rule. " If we take the resolute part," muttered the King, " they will undoubtedly be very weak." And then to excite the colonists still further, the Quebec Act was passed, to prevent the Cana- dians from joining with the other provinces. § 749. The colonists, however, were any- thing but weak. All their legislatures, save that of Georgia, elected deputies to a Congress, xj«. which, assembled in Carpenters' Hall, at Philadelphia, on the 4th of September, 1774. This Congress met at the appointed time, and is forever memorable for its ability, its patriotism, and its moderation. The Declaration of Rights, adopted by the Congress, stated, with fullness and yet concisely, CARPENTER S HALL, PHILADELPHIA. BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL. the principles involved in the conflict ; it stated with equal plainness and brevity the determination of the Americans " not to submit to the grievous acts and measures 838 AMERICA. a passed in the last session of Parliament." It claimed for the colonists the rights of Englishmen, and chief among these, the privilege of participation in their own govern- lita. ment. In January, 1775, Pitt, now Earl of Chatham, introduced a bill, which provided for the repeal of all the protested statutes, abandoned the claim to taxation, secured to the colonists their cherished charters, and ordered the recall of the troops. A colonial assembly was ordered to convene, and provide means by which America might contribute toward the payment of the public debt. But the " meddling maniac " would have none of Chatham's wisdom, and the ministry echoed the King's decree. The measure of the great statesman was contemptuously rejected. § 750. The American Congress had advised another assembly for the following May, but before it convened, the king's troops had a conflict with the minute men April to, ii?5. of Lexington, Mass. General Gage had sent some men to destroy the military stores which the patriots had collected at Concord. The British Colonel, Smith, ordered the "minute men" to disperse and fired upon them immedi- ately. Returning to Boston, he found the roads lined with sharp- shooters, and before he reached Charlestown harbor, he lost, in killed, wounded, and missing, two hundred and seventy men. In a few days men poured into Boston from the surrounding counlry ; without arms or am- munition or organization they expected to reduce the British army, and to conquer their free- dom. Ethan Allan and Seth War- ner bethought them of Ticon- deraga and Crown Point. There the garrisons were slender, and the stores were plenty. In May, 1775, they hurried down to Boston with two hund- red captured cannons, and powder enough to make them efficient. The British army had been increased to ten thousand men, and it was supported by the ships in Charlestown harbor. Colonel Prescott was sent to entrench Bunker Hill. The ships opened fire upon his entrenchments, but he and his men continued building their redoubt and breastworks. The British now came over from Boston to take them by assault, but the fire of the colonists was too hot and steady. Three times the veterans June n. advanced before they took the hill. The Americans retired in a body, but General Warren was among the slain. The Americans had proved their valor and their steadiness under attack from British regulars, and the King of England had a sample of colonial meekness. § 751. But Congress had met in May, and this time Colonel Washington had JSUAKL l'UTNAJi. THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 839 attended its sessions in uniform. Hitherto lie had counselled peace and moderation, but now he saw that war was inevitable, and that the time to organize an army had arrived. Upon the motion of John Adams, he was made commander-in-chief of the continental army. Ward, Lee, Schuyler, and Putman were made major-generals, and ten brigadiers were appointed, among them, Gates and Greene. Nearly all these ■fc|g|g^Hf gjBar INDEPENDENCE HALL. officers had served in the French and Indian campaigns, and many of the colonists had also seen hard service. Congress, at the same time, established a post-office department, and issued bills of credit. In a word, it practically severed the cord that bound the colonies to Great Britain. The choice of Washington was an inspiration. Even those who knew him best, like Patrick Henry, had little conception of his greatness. His grave courtesy, his si- 840 AMERICA. lence, and his simplicity of manner, were broken occasionally by outbreaks of startling energy. Few so patient as he, and few so prompt ; defeat could not depress him, nor victory dazzle his judgment. He could endure disaffection and treachery, misunder- standing, and even con- tempt, for the sake of his country. He had but one personal long- ing, to return to his own fireside, the acknowl- edged deliverer of his fellow countrymen ; and in the gloomiest hour of the desperate struggle, his calmness, his clear brain, his restless in- dustry, his singleness of purpose, kept him and kept his cause alive. § 752. Washington went at once to Boston, and took charge of the July 3. militia there collected. There were sixteen thousand of them when he arrived, but lack of food and lack of arms and ammuni- tion, soon discouraged them, and they dwin- dled down to ten thou- sand, with forty-five rounds of ammunition to a man. John Adams and other impatient patriots clamored for action, but Washington had no powder, a trifle of which his impetuous critics did not take ac- count. Yet by his skill and quiet daring, he compelled the British to withdraw to New York, and to concentrate all their forces, British veterans and German mercenaries, under General Howe. Mean- while Montgomery had taken Montreal, and then uniting with a force commni ded by Benedict Arnold, the two had attacked Quebec. But Montgomery was killed. THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 841 Dec 3i, 1775. Arnold was severely wounded, and the Americans were finally com- pelled to retire. 2. The Struggle foe Independence (1776-1783). § 753. And yet there was a party in the colonies opposed to a Declaration of Inde- pendence. Some because they were opposed to resistance, loyal subjects of his majesty, to whom the king was a sacred person, and resistance to Parliament a crime ; some because they had no faith in the success of the colonists, and feared the consequences of royal wrath ; and some because they still hoped that the King would become sane, and the Parliament grow wise. But to all clear- minded and patriotic Americans, the time had come to declare inde- pendence and to appeal to foreign powers for help. Virginia was again the leader. Pat- rick Henry had led off in 1765 with the " Stamp Act Resolves." Richard Henry Lee now moved that the colonies declare themselves free fuiy 4. and in- dependent. The Dec- laration of Independ- ence was drafted by Thomas Jefferson, amended by Franklin and Adams, and solemnly adopted by a vote of the whole thirteen States, on July 4, Aug. a, i77o. 1776. It was signed by all the members of the Continental Congress August 2, 1776. 842 AMERICA. " We the representa- tives of the United States of America," such are the solemn words, " in Congress as- sembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the recti- tude of our intentions, solemnly publish and declare, that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independ- ent states." § 754. Washington found himself on Long Island, and surrounded by loyalists. His army was weakened by withdrawal, and soon defeated by General Aug. X7, me. Howe, whose army outnumbered it, three to one. He retired north- ward, but his troops deserted COPTBIOHT W. HOUSE IN WHICH THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE WAS WRITTEN. ^rcm Tjfe sf^c/uuuL susvr-y ^^fyjfy" M'j *- **"y/"^ u/ofiSH SIGNATURES TO THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. V~> by companies, and he was compelled to retreat with the wretched remnant through New Jersey to Pennsylvania. Sir William Howe, thinking the war prac- tically over, issued a procla- mation, offering jDardon to all who would return to their allegiance within sixty days. Congress fled to Baltimore, and the frightened people clamored for peace. But the great commander, with his feeble force, had planned a daring move. On Dec. us, use. Christmas night he crossed the Dela- ware at Trenton (his bare- footed men stepping upon blocks of floating ice), and captured a body of Hessians stationed on the Jersey side of the river. A few days later, Lord Cornwallis bore down 8.44 AMERICA. upon him with a much stronger force. Slipping away from their burning watch fires, Washington and his men hurried to the rear of the British, and attacked three regiments at Princeton, driving them from the town. Howe, thinking it prudent to keep out of the way of an enemy so active and so ingenious, withdrew to New York. Washing- ton then encamped in the New Jersey Highlands, and tried to organize his men into the semblance of an army. In the Spring of 1777, Howe maneuvered around him, hoping to force a fight. But as Washington would not leave his strong position, Howe embarked his army and carried it to Philadelphia. The Americans hurried southward to intercept him. Howe had landed his men on the Chesapeake shore, and was march- ing northward. Washington met him at Brandywine creek, southwest of Philadel- phia. Here the Americans were forced to retreat, and Howe entered, as conqueror, sept. nit. the city where the Declaration had been proclaimed. But the bulk of the British army was stationed at Germautown, six miles off. Washington pounced down upon them ; but his troops fell into disorder, through a failure of his generals to carry Oct. 3-4, is-ai. out his plans. Nevertheless he succeeded in sav- ing every piece of artillery, and in get- ting away his men. The accounts of the battle impressed the great generals of Europe with a sense of Washington's genius. The plan of the battle was acknowledged to be faultless. Howe too was astonished, and ordered Sir Henry Clinton to send him a reinforcement of " full six thousand men." Count Donop, with twelve hundred Hessians, was sent to capture the fort at Red Bank on the Jersey shore, but they were repulsed with great slaughter. The British fleet reached the city of Philadelphia with difficulty, and only after heavy losses in ships and in men. WASHINGTON PREPARING TO CROSS THE DELAWARE. § 755. Meanwhile great events were happening in the north. The British gen- eral, Burgoyne, had marched with an army of ten thousand men from Canada to the Hudson, with the intention of cutting off New England from the other colonies. He had the Indians to help him, and but a feeble army to oppose him. Schuyler was at Fort Edward; St. Clair was at Tieonderoga, and the news of Indian outrages brought burgoyne's army MARCHING TO SARATOGA. {pp. 845.) 846 AMERICA. the militia of New England in great numbers to the field. Schuyler was superseded by General Gates ; but, fortunately for America, this incompetent commander was supported by Arnold, Morgan, Lincoln, and other able soldiers. As Bur- goyne proceeded southward, he unfolded two wings, the one sweeping Vermont, and the other the Mohawk Valle3 r . The left wing encountered Stark at Bennington, and was utterly destroyed. The right was met by Arnold at Fort Schuyler, and forced back upon the main army, at Saratoga. Lincoln had moved to Burgoyne's rear and cut off his communications with Canada. Sir Henry Clinton had promised to march up from the south, but he performed his promise too tardily to help the British forces. oct. ie, im. at Bemis Heights, on September 19, and at Stillwater, October 7, Burgoyne had been driven to Sara- toga, and was being starved into de- feat, and on October 16, 1777, he surrendered his army of five thou- sand six hundred and forty-two men to the American commander. The entire loss of the British in this ruinous campaign was about ten thousand men. But the campaign was decisive as well as ruinous. LAFAYETTE. Defeated GENERAL ANTHONY WAYNE. § 756. For when the news of Saratoga and of Germantown ar- rived at Paris, the excitement was profound. Vergennes, the French minister, recognized the genius of Washington. The success of the Americans at Saratoga spoke vol- umes for the soldiers of the colonies. Lafayette, the distinguished young nobleman, who had joined Wash- THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 847 ington the year before, was suddenly justified in the eyes of his friends, and Dr. Franklin, who had been sent by Congress to negotiate a treaty with the French king, was then notified that France would acknowledge the independence of the United jFe6. o, ms. States of America, and would also enter into a conditional alliance with them. In a lucid interval, the British Parliament now passed two statutes, declaring that no tax should hereafter be imposed by Parliament upon the colonies, and appointing commissioners to seek a reconciliation. These statutes are the eternal vindication of the action of the colonists, seeing that they formally recognize the principle for which the Americans contended. But Congress and the American people, encouraged by this great success, were de- termined upon independence, and death in removing Chatham, took away the only man in Eng- land who might have averted further conflict. In 1778 France and Spain sent a fleet of sixty ships to ride the English channel, and to threaten the English coast. And not long afterward, the Dutch fleet entered the strug- gle for supremacy at sea. Eng- land, however, was not to be beaten on her native element ; and, in spite of her reverses, she nearly succeeded in over- coming the Americans. For the colonists were destitute of monej r ; the troops were half- clad and half-starved ; the peo- ple were suffering from famine »-^ and commercial ruin ; the camp _ _ >»-» J ^Sd at Valley Forge was the scene #70?W - U^T^^ 1 ^ of disease and privation, of heroic efforts to endure, more wonderful than any efforts to achieve. § 757. Steuben, it is true, had succeeded in converting this raw material of patriotic courage into a disciplined army. But Washington was sorely tried by the Conway Cabal, a conspiracy of certain army officers and members of Congress to make Horatio Gates commander-in-chief of the continental forces. The treason of Charles June as, ins. Lee lost for him the battle of Monmouth, which ought to have resulted in a splendid victory, while Indian massacres in Pennsylvania and New York had car- ried dread into every frontier hamlet. Yet the British, fearing the arrival of a French fleet, left Philadelphia for New York, and they captured Stony Point on the Hudson, 848 AMERICA. thus interrupting communications between New England and the Middle States. Washington, on the other hand, left Valley Forge and returned to Morristown, New Jersey, extending his lines northward to West Point. He watched the British with juiv is, ino. sleepless vigilance, and sent " Mad Anthony " Wayne to recover Stony sept. 22, nso. Point, which he accomplished gloriously. But on September 22, 1780, Washington was struck the severest blow received by him in his trying career, for on that day his trusted friend, General Benedict Arnold, be- came a traitor. West Point was saved and Major Andre, who negotiated with Arnold, was captured and hanged. But Arnold escaped, to re- appear later in attacks iipon Richmond, Virginia, and up- on New London, Connnecti- tsoo. cut, and to die dishonored and miserable in London, a year after the death of his betrayed and once beloved commander. § 758. Meanwhile, the only piece of good news that cheered the hearts of the anxious people came from the sea, where Captain Paul Jones had compelled British sept. 23, 1170. seamen to strike the British flag. The French fleet, from which so much had been expected, failed to take Savannah, which had been occupied by British troops in the winter of 1778. Georgia was prac- ^ tically conquered, and early in 1780, Charleston, South Carolina, was in the hands of Lord Cornwallis, General Lincoln having surrendered it after a brave resistance, lasting forty-two da}'s. With it he surrendered all his army, and South Carolina was easily subdued, many of the inhabitants seeking " protections " from Lord Cornwallis. Yet Marion and Sumter gave the British great annoyance by their partisan warfare, Oct. s, nso. ' and one band of backwoodsmen, under Shelby and Sevier, defeated fe£&J> THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 849 Ferguson with his thousand Tories at King's Mountain. Several of Ferguson's men were hanged as traitors by the angry patriots. The incompetent Gates had been appointed by Congress to oppose Cornwallis. Flushed with the recollections of Saratoga, but forgetting that he had no subordinates a.«„. 19, nso. like those who won for him the victories of the North, he rushed head- long to the battle of Camden, where three-fourths of his army perished. General Nathaniel Greene was now sent with a little army of veterans to save, if possible, the South. Greene led his troops with consummate skill. He sent Morgan to Cowpens, CAPTAIN PAUL JONES, ON THE BONHOMME RICHARD, CAPTURES THE SERAPIS. jr«„. „, i~.si. where he defeated Tarleton and his Tories, returning to Greene before Cornwallis could overtake the nimble Americans. Cornwallis pushed to the north ; Greene retreated before him. Suddenly he halted, and then returned to Guilford Ma,oni S ,x^i. Court House, and offered battle. The British held the field, but Greene had all the advantage of the fight. Cornwallis was obliged to move toward the sea-coast. Greene pushed after him, then swiftly changing his course, marched back to South Carolina and attacked Lord Rawdon. Again he was defeated, but his presence and his fighting courage stirred up the partisans. The inhabitants, tired of the British occupation, rose to arms, and South Carolina was soon recovered to the 54 850 AMERICA. GENERAL FRANCIS MARION. Americans. The conflict became terribly bitter, the British shooting as deserters all found in arms, who had accepted their "protections." § 759. But the war was near- ing its close. Cornwallis was about to enter the famous "mouse- trap." Washington had longed for the chance to strike a final blow. His troops had rebelled at Morristown ; .and he had, with % difficulty, held his little army to- zj^^^mM^^mmt^^i^^^Si~h^ gether, hoping to combine with the French force for an attack upon the British at New York. / But divining the plan of Corn- / wallis, which was to join Phillips ' V'/M and Arnold in Virginia, he pre- pared to crush him by an unex- pected and powerful blow. La- fayette was sent to Virginia, in command of a small force, to hold Cornwallis in check. The French fleet, under Count de Grasse, was induced to co-operate. Lafayette compelled the British to entrench themselves at Yorktown. Here they were blockaded by the French fleet. They had entered the " mouse-trap." Washington deluded Clinton into the belief that he meant to attack them at New York. " If you cannot deceive your own men," said the American general, " j-ou cannot deceive the enemy ; " so his own soldiers believed that they were going to the Hudson. Suddenly they were marched to the Chesapeake Bay, and carried thence to Yorktown. The combined French and American armies were sixteen thousand strong. Cornwallis was soon in sore straits ; he tried a sally, but made things worse. Clinton failed to help him, oa. io, 1181. and there was nothing left but to surrender. The war was practically over. The British had lost a second army, and a further prosecu- tion of the war meant even greater disaster. Greene meanwhile had fought an- NATHANIEL GREENE. JOHN JAY. {pp. 851.) 852 AMERICA. other "defeat" in South Carolina, by which he was able to confine the British to Charleston and the district between the Cooper and the Ashley rivers. After six years of desperate struggle, the British held only Charleston and New York. When the news reached England, Lord North exclaimed, "It is all over!" and resigned. But for the victories of Admiral Rodney over the Spanish fleet, off Cape Vincent, and over the French fleet at the West Indies, England would have lost India and Gibraltar. Like Athens, she was saved by her " wooden walls." § 760. But though peace was conquered, a great diplomatic struggle yet remained. France and Spain, the allies of the United States, were by no means eager to create a colossal republic, and to endow it with the Valley of the Mississippi. Aranda, the Spaniard, and Vergennes, the Frenchman, both contended that the territory north of the Ohio should be given to England, and the vast region to the south should be made WASHINGTON ON THE HUDSON. an Indian territory, under the protection of Spain and the United States. This would dwarf the republic, and give all but a strip of the Atlantic coast to England and Spain. Then, too, the Americans were to be excluded from the Newfoundland fisheries. Fortunately for America, Shelburne had succeeded Lord North. The English, having determined to acknowledge the independence of the colonies, did not seek to mutilate their future. Through the influence and shrewdness of John Jay, who, to- gether with Franklin and Adams, conducted the negotiations, a separate treaty with England was agreed upon, which was not concluded until the consent of France had been obtained ; but about the details of which the French minister was not consulted. This treaty carried the boundaries of the United States to the Mississippi river, per- mitted the Americans to catch fish in Canadian waters, but not to dry them on the Newfoundland coast, required the payment of all outstanding private debts, and pro- THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 853 tected the loyalists from further prosecution and confiscation. Great Britain subse- quently indemnified her loyal subjects in the most creditable manner. § 761. This treaty was signed September 3, 1783. During the two years and more sept. 3, 1*83. which elapsed between the signing of the treaty and the surrender of Cornwallis, guerrilla warfare had been kept up in South Carolina, and on the frontier of New York, and the Indians had been busy with tomahawk and knife. But the regular armies had quietly awaited peace. Washington established his headquarters at Newburg on the Hudson ; Rochambeau, with the French troops, joined him in Sep- tember", 1781. In December of the same year the latter returned to France. But the danger over, the long suffering officers and soldiers began to clamor for their well- WASH1NGT0N S HOME AT MOUNT VERNON. earned pay. It required all the influence and eloquence of Washington "to arrest the feet that stood wavering on a precipice." But he did it grandly, and the officers of the American army " rejected with disdain the infamous proposals contained in a late anonymous address." This address had suggested " an appeal to the fears of the gov- ernment." But on June 21, 1783, two months after this affair at Newburg, a company of Pennsylvania soldiers drove Congress from Philadelphia to Princeton, disgracing the nation, and making the army exceedingly unpopular. Indeed a widespread distrust of the soldiers prevailed. Colonel Nicola had urged Washington to make himself dic- tator. The order of the Cincinnati looked to suspicious minds like the founding of a 854 AMERICA. military aristocracy. And then to pay the promised arrears to officers and soldiers, meant high taxes to an impoverished people. Congress had no money ; French sub- sidies had ceased ; the skill and generosity of Robert Morris could work no more fin- ancial miracles ; paper money had run its course to utter worthlessness. Meanwhile, the one man who was equal to these troublous times, was going home to his simple mode of life. At Fraunces' tavern, near South Ferry, in New York, he took leave of his devoted officers. At Philadelphia he filed his accounts. He had spent out of his private fortune, $64,315. He had received and would accept no pay. In eight years, he had seen his home but once. Threatened with consumption from his early youth, he had shunned no dangers of camp or field. But now journeying to Annapolis, he asked of the Congress there in session, to be allowed to return to private life. But before resigning, Washington had addressed a circular letter to the governors of the several States. In this he urged a stronger union, the payment of the public debt to the last penny, a uniformily organized militia, and a sacrifice of local and sec- tional prejudices. He had saved the cause of independence ; he was now to triumph in a greater task, the formation of a more perfect union. 3. The Struggle for a More Perfect Union. § 762. From 1783 to 1787 the United States were drifting toward anarchy. New York attempted to oppress New Jersey and Connecticut ; Connecticut and Pennsyl- vania quarreled over the valley of the Wyoming, and New Hampshire and New York over the Green Mountains. Congress was unable to protect American citizens : the Barbary pirates demanded money, but Congress could neither pay nor fight. People refused to pay their taxes. Morris, who had beggared himself for his country, ceased to serve a thankless people. Eleven of the thirteen States issued paper money, and clubs were formed to compel its circulation. The State of Franklin (now Tennessee) was in a condition of civil war. In Massachusetts and Rhode Island the quarrels about debt and paper money provoked an agitation so furious as to alarm the country. Rhode Island was spoken of as " Rogues' Island," and everywhere mentioned with contempt. Governor Bowdoin, of Massachusetts, was confronted by Daniel Shays and his barn-burning plunderers, who were determined to arrest all suits for debt. Yet when the leaders were tried and convicted of treason, they were all pardoned and set free by good-natured Governor Hancock. Many sagacious men began to talk quietly of a return to English rule ; but Washington was working industriously for a " More Perfect Union." He corresponded continually with the statesmen of the country ; he furthered every measure, looking to closer relations between the States. "You talk, my good sir," he wrote indignantly, "of employing influence to appease the tumults in Massachusetts. I know not where that influence is to be found ; and if attainable, it would not be a proper remedy. Influence is not government. Let us have a government by which our lives, liberties, and properties will be secured, or let us know the worst at once." The Continental Congress had not agreed upon Articles of Confederation without a struggle ; even the emergencies of war did not bring all the States together until 1781. Congress was a revolutionary body until 1778, and until 1789 a very feeble one. It had no power to compel obedience ; it operated upon States only, and not upon indi- viduals ; the vote required to pass an important measure, practically prohibiting legis- Washington's inauguration. {pp. abb.) 856 AMERICA. lation ; it could not regulate foreign commerce ; and it could not remedy the defects of the existing Articles. But Maryland had refused to ratify the Articles for another reason, and thereby rendered vital service to the nation. " She would not ratify the Articles until she should receive some definite assurance that the Northwestern Terri- tory should become the common property of the United States." Finally the several States yielded their claims in favor of the United States ; — New York surrendering a shadowy right, but Virginia giving up a magnificent possession. § 763. Washington, foreseeing the coming greatness of the West, sought to bind both sections together by canals. He brought about the appointment of a joint com- mission of Virginia and Maryland, which met to consider the project in his own house. The consent of Pennsjdvania became necessary. Washington suggested an agreement upon commerce and currenc}', as well as upon canals. Delaware was next invited. Then Madison moved in Congress a conference of all the thirteen states. His motion was adopted ; the conference met at Annajnolis, on September 11, 1786. Five States only were represented. The outlook was gloomy ; the times were dark ; and nothing came of the conference, but the address written by Hamilton and sent to all the States. Nothing else ; but this was much. For the critical winter of 1786 revealed the defects of the existing system, and the impending certainty of disruption if important changes were not made at once. Madison, acting under the in- spiration of his great chief, prevailed upon the Virginia legislature to appoint delegates to the convention called for by Hamilton's address. Virginia re- sponded, and named a delegation which included Washington. The people sud- denly felt the coming of a great light. Massachusetts changed her mind, and her delegates in Congress now urged the formal adoption of the convention plan. All the States except Rhode Island followed the lead of Virginia, and sent delegates to meet at Philadelphia in May, 1787. These delegates were in all fifty-five. Among them, Washington and Franklin, Hamilton and Madison, Jay and Wilson, Dickinson and Gouverneur Morris, Sherman, Randolph, Wythe, and Rutledge. Four months they sat with closed doors, and were often on the verge of dissolution. But the patient power that held the armies of the Revolution together during the gloomy days at Valley Forge and Morristown, was sept. i7, us*, equal to this new and trying task. In September, the finished work. was sent to the different States for their adoption. But it was greeted with violent opposition in all the States, and narrowly escaped rejection. The opposition in Vir- ginia was led by Patrick Henry, in New York by George Clinton, and for a while Jefferson and Samuel Adams wavered. But over all the stormy agitation brooded SAMUEL ADAMS ALEXANDER HAMILTON. (.pp. 857.) 858 AMERICA. the assuring presence of the man that the people trusted, and the More Perfect Union June, uss. became, in 1788, an established fact of human history. This union was a union of the people of the United States. They united more perfectly in the execution of the laws, creating a president for their due administra- tion ; they united more perfectly in the regulation of commerce, and in the raising of revenues, clothing Congress with authority to legislate on these important topics ; they united more perfectly in the establishment of equal rights for all the citizens ; they united finally in the creation of a supreme court, by which all conflicts between the States might be avoided. They did not unite to establish an absolute democracj' ; on the^ contrary, many devices of the constitution, like the electoral college, were avowedly intended to check popular feeling, and to restrict popular power. Some of its framers expected the constitution to last, at most, a century ; others were even less hopeful. A few anticipated the glory of the future, but all of them " builded wiser than they knew." For precisely the features that seemed most sagacious to their authors, have been discarded with the growth of years, while others, that were the result of circumstances merely, have proved the saving of the nation, and the pro- moters of her progress. IV. THE MORE PERFECT UNION. 1. THE ADMINISTRATIONS OF WASHINGTON AND ADAMS. 1789-1801. §764. | ET many difficulties environed the birth of the new republic. Washington, unanimously elected to the presidency, confronted problems that taxed the abilities of a cabinet, never surpassed in quality. The "new roof" as it was called, excited suspicion and dislike ; many distrusted it, many were determined upon a new convention and a new constitution. A large and powerful party insisted upon amendments. Congress had been brought together with no little trouble, and was not easily persuaded to pass the measures absolutely necessary. Alexander Hamilton, the secretary of the treasury, developed a financial policy that excited great opposition. This provided for the payment of $80,000,000 due to France and to other countries, to the soldiers of the Revolutionary army, and to citizens of the several States. The Continental Congress owed much of it; the various States owed the rest. Hamilton provided for it all. A national bank and a mint were established at Philadelphia, and a simple convenient decimal system was adopted for the whole country. These measures of Hamilton led, however, to the jrwiy s, «»*. transfer of the seat of government to the Potomac, an act that power- fully affected the future of the republic. Only upon condition of this transfer could votes enough be procured to pass the pending bills. § 765. Jefferson, meanwhile, was busied with problems that would have taxed any statesman, but were unusually trying to him. One of these grew out of the treaty of 1783, which neither England nor America had observed very scrupulously. JOHN ADAMS. {pp. 859.) 860 AMERICA. The provisions, touching debts due to English citizens and touching the loyalists, were disregarded by the United States ; the frontier forts were still held by the British. American ships were searched, and American seamen carried off at the command of the English naval officers, and war loomed up quite near. Jefferson had a cordial hatred for England, and yet he spoke for " peace witli honor." The trouble however was not settled by him, but by Washington and Jay. A treaty was negotiated, and finally 170s. ratified in 1795. It provoked a fierce opposition in and out of Con- gress. The President was assailed with abuse and calumny, with caricature and suspicion. But he held firmly to his purpose, and the outcome justified his wisdom. He knew the danger of war and the unreliability of popular feeling, and that the men who clamored for the blood of Britain were not the men who would shed their own to procure it. The other problem that vexed the Secretary of State, grew out of the startling events in France. Jefferson had imbibed French ideas, and loved the French people. He wished for their success in their struggles with European monarchs, and in this the whole country sympathized with him. Washington, always tranquil and sagacious, issued a proclamation of neutrality. Spain and England menaced the country ; the Creek Indians were ready to spring upon the frontier settlements. And yet the people were mad with the fever of a fight for France, and a hatred for the foes of liberty. Fortunately Citizen Genet, who had been sent to the United States to represent the French republic, or rather the " men of '93," was a mischievous dunce and nothing more. He formed Jacobin clubs ; he organized military companies ; he defied the President ; he exasperated Hamilton ; he provoked Jefferson ; and was, at Wash- ington's request, recalled. He had done some mischief. He had frightened John Adams into thinking that "ten thousand people in Philadelphia were threatening to drag Washington out of the house, and effect a revolution."* He widened too the breach between Jefferson and Hamilton, and excited contro- versies, which left their worst traces in the Kentucky Resolutions of 1798. § 766. Knox, the minister of war, had chiefly to face the Indian problem. Wash- ington divided the red men into twoclasses, the good and the bad, the friendly and the hostile. The former he protected by a wise and far-seeing policy. All subsequent trouble with the good Indians are traceable to a departure from his methods. To the bad Indians he showed no mercy. The tribes on the banks of the Ohio made life on moo. the frontiers a terror by their incursions. As there was no regular army, militia must be employed. General Harmar was defeated by the savages ; St. Clair 1101. was surprised and put to flight. " Mad Anthony " Wayne then in- vaded their country at the head of three thousand men, utterly defeating them, and i7S4. threatening to rise from the grave to hunt them down if, after his death, they attacked the whites again. During the second administration of Washington, the Western oounties of Penn- no4. sylvania rebelled against the excise laws. The rude settlers could see no justice in the tax upon the products of their stills. The} T drove out the revenue officers, and defied the government, seven thousand insurgents combining to resist the execution of the laws. The President thereupon called out the militia of four States, * The population of Philadelphia was then about forty-live thousand men, women, and children ! THOMAS JEFFERSON. (pp. 861.) 862 AMERICA. and the insurrection was put down at once, and without bloodshed. The leaders were convicted of treason, but soon pardoned. For Washington, though prompt, was patient, never cruel, and never afraid to show mercy. In 1795 he made a treaty with 1795. Spain, in which he obtained for the United States the free navigation of the Mississippi, and the privilege of landing at New Orleans. In 1796 he declined a re-election. His second administration had been stormy and often unpopular ; he had been assailed in pamphlets and in caricatures ; accused of theft and treachery, of aspirations for a crown, of cowardice and arrogance. There was a brief period, in which he found it almost impossible to get a secretary of state, and when he seemed to have lost not only fame, but the affection of the people. But in 1796 it was plain enough that the clamor came from the noisy, and not from the intelligent ; that the people desired him to remain where he might shelter them with his courageous wis- dom, and guide them to further progress. But he longed for the pleasures of his quiet home, and he deemed it best for the future of the country, that he should abandon, voluntarily and in the strength of his manhood, the responsibility that he had neither sought nor shunned. So he set the example that, through the simple force of his character, has become the unwritten law of the land. The president of the United States serves two terms only. § 767. John Adams and Thomas Jefferson were the candidates for the succes- sion. Adams, a hot Federalist, was chosen by a small majority, but soon quarreled with Hamilton, the acknowledged leader of his party. France was again the cause of trouble. The Convention and the Reign of Terror had been succeeded by the Directory. And the Directory was treating the TTnited States with contemptuous in- solence, rejecting their ambassadors and capturing their vessels upon the slightest pretext. Pinckney, Marshall, and Gerry were sent to the French republic to seek for reconciliation. They were told unofficially that by heavy bribes to the members of the Directory and a heavy loan to the Republic, the difficulties could be arranged. To which America responded " millions for defence but not one cent for tribute." The lios.itoo. navy was increased, arms and ammunition were purchased, an army was recruited, Washington was called from his retirement, letters of marque and reprisal were issued, and the aspect threatened war. The alien and sedition acts were passed in the midst of this excitement, but soon became unpopular. The people, jealous of personal liberty and the freedom of the press, condemned, in calmer moments, statutes so dangerous to both. The letters of marque and reprisal soon bore fruit. Captain Truxton of the frigate Constellation captured the French frigate LTnsurgente, while the privateers captured and brought into port fifty or more armed vessels of the French. But Pres- ident Adams suddenly determined to have peace ; he sent a new minister to France, who found Napoleon Bonaparte in power. The young general was too sagacious not to see the value of America's friendship, and war was easily averted. But this act of Adams disgusted his party, and especially Hamilton, who desired war. After a contest of virulent abuse, Jefferson and Burr received each seventy-three, isoo. and Adams and Pinckney each sixty-five electoral votes. A defect of the Federal constitution was suddenly disclosed. Who was president ? The people had meant to have Jefferson. But the Federalists insisted upon having Burr. This £863) 864 AMERICA. they could (so they thought) accomplish, as the constitution required the House of Representatives to chose, when no candidate received a majority of all the votes. The House balloted thirty-six times ; at last some of the Federalists gave way, and Jefferson was chosen. To prevent the recurrence of such a difficulty, the con- stitution was amended and each elector now votes separately for president and vice-president. 2. The Period of Democratic Rule. 1801-1849. § 768. Parties were already clearly defined. During the administration of Wash- ington, they had existed in a half-formed state. But the anti-Federalists gradually dis- appeared. The More Perfect Union succeeded so splendidly under its great promoter and its first president, that few ventured to continue their attacks. But early in the nineties, Jefferson began the creation of the Democratic or Republican party. He had no sympathy with Hamilton, personally or politically. He believed him bent upon a monarchy, upon the destruction of local liberty, and the creation of a government modelled after that of England. The alien and sedition laws excited him to bitter opposition, and he wrote the Kentucky resolutions in the fever of this excitement. But elected to the presidency, his conduct was happily not always consistent with his theories ; and with him began the long period of democratic rule, broken only by the brief interval of the first Harrison administration. a. Territorial Expansion and the Admission of Neiv States. § 769. The Union, although in possession of a vast domain, was dependent upon Spain for the navigation of the Mississippi, without which the West had no communi- cation with the sea. Louisiana returned, quite unexpectedly, into the hands of France, in 1800. The English threatened to take it. Napoleon, the consul, was glad to sell, and Jefferson was eager to buy. For fifteen millions of dollars he bought all the iso3. territory between the Mississippi river and the Rocky mountains. His purchase included the present states of Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, North and South Dakota, with parts of several others. It doubled the area of the United States, kept both England and France out of the southwest, and sep- arated Florida from the other possessions of Spain. Florida was a thorn in the side of Georgia ; it had become a nest of pirates, runaway slaves, and wandering Indians (Seminoles). After futile attempts to clean it out, it was conquered by General Jack- isia. son, in 1818, and the next year purchased from Spain for five million dol- 1845. lars. No further acquisitions of territory were made, until 1845, when Texas sought admission into the Union. Austin, Houston, and other Americans had made the country independent of Mexico ; and, in spite of opposition, it was annexed by Congress. Shortly after the election of President Polk, Oregon was acquired by discovery and exploration, though the title to it was disputed by Great Britain, and not confirmed until the treaty of 1846, which gave the Union, Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, in all about 250,000 square miles. Boundary quarrels with Mexico soon provoked a war which led to a further ex- tension of the national territory. California and New Mexico fell to the victors, upon the payment of $15,000,000. Thus in half a century the area of the country was quadrupled, and the American flag carried westward to the Pacific ocean. 866 AMERICA. § 770. But this rapidity of acquisition seems a trivial matter, when compared with the swift movements of emigrants, and the sudden development of the country. About the time of the Revolutionary war, settlers pushed. into the southwest, creating the new states of Kentucky and Franklin (now called Tennessee). A movement of greater importance developed Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. The northwest ordinance of 1787 dedicated the territory of that section to perpetual freedom ; a 'similar ordi- nance touching the southwest might have changed the course of American history. Kentucky, which was settled by Daniel Boone in 1769, was admitted to the Union in 1792, Tennessee in 1796. Ohio entered in 1802, Indiana in 1816, and Illinois in 1818. In 1818 the union of the eleven states had become a confederation of thirty, and the population of three millions had become thirty millions. b. Foreign Affairs. War with England. Difficulties with England a?id France. War with Mexico. Indian Wars. § 771. Washington was scrupulously careful to avoid foreign comjjlications ; Adams, at a critical moment, averted war with France. Jefferson desired peace, and bore with patience many insults from the French and English. But he triumphed isoi. easily over the pirates of Tripoli and the north coast of Africa. These freebooters cared neither for man nor God, but Jefferson taught them to respect the American flag. Tripoli agreed, in 1805, no longer to molest the ships and sailors of the United States of America. Far more serious were the difficulties growing out of the wars of Europe. En- gland and France were seeking to destroy each other. Each forbade American ships to trade with the enemy, and the English seized American seamen and forced them to serve under the Union Jack. Jefferson rejected the treaty negotiated with England, by Pinckney and Monroe, in 1806, because it did not formally prohibit the impressment of seamen. Napoleon declared the British coasts in a state of blockade ; England decreed that neutrals should not trade with France or her allies. Napoleon then added the decree of Milan to that of Berlin, confiscating any vessel that submitted to be searched by British captains. Jefferson, not to be outdone, and believing American products es- sential to European life and welfare, urged and succeeded in getting an embargo act, isoo-iso?. closing American ports to every form of foreign trade. It did not ruin Europe ; it nearly ruined America. Finally Congress modified the act, and lim- ited its prohibitions to trade with France and England. Jefferson's successor, Madison, re-opened commerce with Great Britain, or thought to do so. But the British minister mistook his instructions, and the elated Americans fell into anger and despair. Napoleon next deceived the President, trying to involve him in trouble with Great Britain. The people of the United States, being exasperated, were ready to believe lsii. any evil of the English. When the Indians, under Tecumseh, rose against the settlers of the west, England was accused of furthering the plot. When a scamp named Henry brought a package of forged letters to President Madison, as evidence of England's villany, they were purchased for a good round sum, and believed to be genuine, by the credulous haters of perfidious Albion. A young democracy, under the lead of Henry Clay, demanded "sailors' rights and free trade" and began clamoring for war ; and in 1811, active preparations for war were begun. These demonstrations failed, of course, to impress a ministry engaged in a desperate struggle JAMES MADISON. {pp. 867.) AMERICA. with the mighty subverter of monarchies, Napoleon ; and the next June, Congress, unable to obtain from England redress for the past, or pledges for the future, declared war against her. § 772. The priva- teers soon justified the expectations with which this war was begun ; they nearly destroyed the mer- chant marine of Great Britain. The Amer- ican navy was glori- ously successful. The Guerriere was shattered by the frig- ate Constitution ; the ism. Frolic was captured by the Wasp ; the Macedo- nian was next taken by Decatur's frigate, the United States ; and the Java struck her flag to Captain Bain bridge, com- manding the Consti- tution. But on the land the year was one of great disappointment and disaster. Gen- eral Hull marched into Canada ; he was driven back to De- troit, where he was be- sieged and frightened into capitulation. General Van Rensse- laer collected another army on the Niagara river. He sent over one thousand men to capture the Canadian village of Queens- town. The militia however refused to support them, and they too were compelled to surrender. Six weeks afterward, General Smythe made a second attempt, which PERRY'S VICTORY ON LAKE ERIE. (pp. 869.) 870 AMERICA. failed absurdly, and compelled him to resign his command. Dearborn brought up the rear of incompetents. He commanded a large and well-appointed army, and was con- spicuous for inactivity. i8i3. The campaign of 1813 promised, at first, no great lustre to the Ameri- can arms. Proctor, the English commander in Michigan, was obliged to return to Maiden, but Ogdensburgh, New York, was taken by the British. A force of Americans, fall- ing into an ambuscade at Beaver Dams, was com- pelled to surrender. But later in the year, the Americans recovered con- trol of the Great Lakes. Chauncey first launched a fleet on Lake Ontario, and for a while held it in his control. Commodore Perry won a splendid naval victory on Lake Erie. " We have met the enemy and they are ours," was the laconic message in which he announced his mastery of the British and of the upper lakes. Harrison's army could now advance and compel the surrender of most of Proctor's men who had hastily evacuated Maiden. But when he attempted a march upon Montreal, he encountered a British force that compelled him to abandon his undertak- ing. § 773. While the Amer- icans were thus wasting their strength to no purpose along the frontier, the entier Atlantic sea coast was blockaded by English squadrons. The large cities in the East began to tremble, and New England sullenly opposed the war. Suddenly Amer- < a o H M ft < 872 AMERICA. ica was startled by the news of Napoleon's overthrow ; that meant a sending of British veterans fresh from their triumphs to carry on the war in America. But on ist4. July 5, 1814, Gen. Browne fought and won the battle of Chip- pewa in Canada, compell- ing the British to retreat to their intrenchments. The latter, reinforced by troops from England, met the Americans again at Bridgewater; but the battle, though furious, was not decisive. Browne retired to Fort Erie. Drummond, the British general, besieged him. Browne determined upon a sortie, in which he was completely successful. Drummond raised the siege, and the Canadian campaign was over. Meanwhile, Sir George Prevost, the governor of Canada, led an army across to Lake Cham- plain, while a British fleet of sixteen vessels sailed down the lake to meet him at Plattsburg. Ma- comb, with three thousand men, was posted behind the Saranac river ; Mac- donough, with a small fleet, was moored at Plattsburg. The ten thousand troops of Pre- vost were seized with panic, and fled precipi- tate \y, when it was learned that the British ships had struck their colors, after two hours and a half hard fighting. Downie, the British commander, got away with the gunboats, but his larger vessels were all taken. Elsewhere, though, the Americans JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. {pp. 873.) 874 AMERICA. were overwhelmed with disaster. In July the British entered the Penobscot and conquered the country east of the river. In August they entered the Chesapeake, passed the Potomac, and landed a force of five thousand men under General Ross, who marched upon Washington, set fire to the Capitol and the White House, and then hastily returned. British frigates next sailed up the Potomac, and levied contribu- tions upon Alexandria. Gen. Ross then moved upon Baltimore. A fight took place at North Point, in which Ross himself was killed. But as the fleet made little impres- sion upon the fort by their cannonade, and as the militia seemed to be strongly in- trenched, the English determined to abandon the attack. § 774. A treaty of peace was signed at Ghent, December 24, 1814. This treaty left things as they were before the war began ; nevertheless, the right of search has not since then been exercised by England, and was finally yielded. But before the .ran. isis. news of peace arrived in the United States, General Andrew Jackson won his famous victory of New Orleans. The British expected to strike a final and a fatal blow. If they could conquer the entrance to the Mississippi Valley, the republic would be at their mercy. General Packenham made the attack with twelve thousand ^iilSiflllllli men, on January 8, 1815. General Jackson entrenched be- hind earthbanks and cotton bales, held the invaders at bay. Packenham was killed; his forces lost heavily, and soon Ik gave up the fight. The Hartford Convention met just before the battle, to i8i4. decide that the war was a failure, and to ' propose certain amendments to the constitution. It discred- ited New England for many years, being made the subject of frequent taunts and reproaches, in the exciting discus- james monroe. sions between the South and the North. But the war of 1812 was the last armed conflict of the United States with any European power, although the nation has been several times upon the brink of war. During the administration of James Monroe, the Spanish colonies of Central and South America declared their independence. The king of Spain sought desperately to hold them, and looked to Russia and France for help. Canning, the English minis- ter, proclaimed that he had called "the New World into existence to redress the bal- ance of the old." But what Canning did, was only to join President Monroe in the declaration that the continental powers would not be permitted to reimpose the Span- is23. ish j-oke upon the self-liberated lands. In his message of December 2 1823, Monroe warned France and Russia that the United States would regard any at- tempts to extend their authority in America as dangerous to our peace and safety. It is sheer ignorance to speak of the Monroe doctrine as a declaration that Europe must " keep her hands off America." Spain has Cuba, England has Canada. But Monroe, under the advice of John Quincy Adams, gave the continental powers to understand, that any attempt to enlarge their influence, would be unfriendly conduct toward the United States. § 775. While Andrew Jackson was president, the " French Spoliations " caused no little excitement, and for a time it looked like war. The "English Spoliations" were atoned for by the war of 1812, but not until Louis Philippe came to the French throne, did France consider seriously the wrong done to American commerce during ANDREW JACKSON. (pp. S75.) 876 AMERICA. MARTIN VAN BUREN. is3i. the Napoleonic wars. A treat}- was concluded in 1831 providing for indemnity. But when the draft was presented at the French treasury, the appropria- tion had been forgotten, and the draft was protested. The King assured the Presi- dent that the money would surel}' he paid. But kings promise, and' Parliaments refuse. General Jackson exploded with wrath, and recom- mended a law authorizing reprisals upon French property. "I know them French. They won't pay unless they're made to ! " he exclaimed to his famous Kitchen cabinet. But the French were angrier than Jackson. The French minister at Washington received orders to demand his pass- ports ; the American minister received his passports, with out orders, from the government. An apology was de- manded from the President, and preparations were made for war. Jackson stood firm, supported as he was by the ablest men of the country, John Quincy Adams in the lead. England offered her mediation, and the ancient friendship between France and the United States was at length restored. Again the Maine boundary question caused great bitterness, and threatened to i8*st. provoke a war with England. It was finally settled by the Webster- Ashburton treaty, of 1842. This was not the least achieve- is4«. ment of those celebrated men. In 1846 the cry of " Fifty-four forty, or fight " went from Oregon to Maine, and from the Lakes to the Gulf. Great Britain ulti- mately yielded all the territory, south of forty-nine degrees, to the California line, and there was no fight. But the annexation of Texas produced a war with is45. Mexico. Texas had won her independence under the lead of Sam Houston and Stephen Austin. Reluctantly, the North consented to admit this vast slave territory into the American Union, especially with the under- standing that five States might be carved out of its domain. Once, admitted, Texas claimed the Rio Grande river as her boundary line. Mexico placed it on the Nueces river, one hundred miles further east. President Tyler, " his Accidency," ordered General Taylor to move to the Rio Grande. Mexico first ordered, then tried to drive him away. Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma soon made Zachary Taylor illustrious. The Mexicans retreated before the winner of these two battles, and Taylor took possession of Matamoros. § 776. War having been made by the President, Con- stay 13, i84e. gress declared it on May 13, 1846. Taylor took Monterey in September, and with his five thousand men defeated Santa Anna, and his twenty thousand at Buena Vista. General Scott was now ordered to Mexico with a second army. He landed at Vera Cruz, and took the Gibraltar of Mexico ; then pushed forward to Cerro Gordo. isjj. In the late summer of 1847 he crossed the mountains, and marched WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. JAMES K. POLK. 878 AMERICA. down upon the city of Mexico. But first he must conquer the "King's Mill" Molino del Rey, and then the castle of Chapultepec. The capital saw the stars and stripes waving over the ancient palace of the Montezumas on the morning of Septem- ber 14, 1847. Grant, Lee, Sherman, Jefferson Davis, " Stonewall " Jackson, Kearney, in fact nearly all the men afterward distinguished in the civil war, served in Mexico. But among its sacrifices was the favorite son of Henry Clay. § 777. Indian Wars. Reference has been made already to the conspiracy of Te- cumseh. He and his Indians were utterly defeated by General Harrison at Tippeca- noe, in 1811. Three years later, General Jackson marched against the Creeks, and drove them before him. They made a stand at Horse Shoe Bend, on a branch of the Alabama river, where they were routed utterly, and com- pelled to give up the larger part of their territory. In 1818 Jackson drove the Seminoles to bay in Flor- ida, and in 1842 these Indians were finally conquered by General Tajdor, after a desperate struggle that lasted for seven years. Black Hawk, a chief of the West, attacked the emi- is32. grants to Illinois and Wisconsin, but he and his tribe were driven at last beyond the Mississippi river. Thus the Indians were dis- possessed, partly by their own folly, and partly by the energy and the rapacity of the whites, of nearly sixty million acres of land in Geor- gia, Alabama, Missouri, Indiana, Illinois and Michigan. They strug- gled desperately against the west- ward progress of the European set- tlers, provoking a vindictive hostil- it} 7 , from which the wise policy of removing them to Indian Territory subseq\ientlj r rescued them. c. Political Development. The Constitution in Operation. Political Parties. The Tar- iff. Currency Questions. Changes in the States. § 778. Thomas Jefferson founded the old Republican or, as it came to be called in after years, the Democratic party. Madison joined him in 1796, and Aaron Burr soon made the new party triumphant in New York, which has been, ever since, the determining factor in presidential contests. Three causes combined to produce the result. Personal dislike of Alexander Hamilton, the leader of the Federalists ; fear of the centralizing tendencies that were GENERAL WIXFIELD SCOTT. THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 879 so marked in the first decade of the More Perfect Union ; and the great impulse given to democratic principles by the French Revolution. Hamilton, though a statesman of the highest rank, could stoop to the meanest intrigue. He could both efface and de- face himself in the pursuit of lofty purposes and far-reaching plans. It was therefore easy to suspect him of designs that he never cherished, and to attribute selfish and dangerous motives to his most patriotic measures. The centralizing tendencies of Washington's administrations sprang from the instinct of self-preservation. Opposi- tion might, and did annoy and distress him, but his dignity and courage, his sagacity and foresight, lifted the presidential office into commanding authority. John Adams, however, had neither the prestige nor the majestic self-control of his illustrious pred- ecessor. Charges of presidential tyranny made against the "puritan monarchist" found willing ears, — in the North, because the shadow of King George still disturbed the dreams of anxious Republicans; in the South, because the Federal Government might grow strong enough (the planters suspected) to abolish slavery. The paradox of American politics is this dread of tyranny for the whites, and dread of liberty for the negroes. § 779. The Constitution was hardly in operation before the first group of amend- ments passed to adoption. They modified materially the powers of the Federal Gov- ernment, and are perhaps more valuable to-day than they were in 1791. The election of 1800 however, revealed a defect in the instrument, that no one had foreseen. And when Burr received the same number of electoral votes as Jef- ferson, there began one of those disgraceful attempts to defeat the popular will by a resort to constitutional chicanery, which are the perpetual scandal of political strife. The wily young " boss " of the New York democracy, the prototype of the American practical politician, "full of strategems and spoils" had been reluctantly accepted as vice-president by the older Jeffersonians. The angry Federalists, in their hatred of Jefferson, were ready to make Burr president, and would have done so, but for Alex- ander Hamilton, who, little as he liked the Virginia statesman, knew him to be what Burr was not, a patriot, a thinker, and so far as a politician could be "indifferent hon- est." That Jefferson contemplated the use of force, can hardly be doubted now ; that the crisis came near to a great calamit3 r , is equally clear. Jefferson made light of it in after years, but he was always a little jaunty when the danger lay behind him, and a little flighty when he looked it in the face. Elected finally, and inaugurated with isoi.iso9. ostentatious simplicity, he refused to open Congress in person, and sent a written message. But in the Louisiana purchase and the embargo act, he stretched the power of the Federal government to its utmost limit. So too, in the prosecution of Aaron Burr for treason, he did not scruple to employ all the resources of his mighty office, and that Burr escaped punishment for his daring project to dis- member the Union, was certainly no fault of his former ally. Yet the Virginia presi- dents, Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe, never organized the officers of the government into a personal following ; indeed Madison declared, in a famous debate in 1789, that for a president to remove men from office for other than public reasons, would be in- famous, and a proper ground for impeachment. And it redounds to Jefferson's honor, that even the exasperating conduct of John Adams, who occupied the last minutes of his official life in filling offices with his friends and partisans, could not drive him from the practice of his conviction, that to exclude a man from the public service for cour- 880 AMERICA. ageous and conscientious voting, was to transform the Republic into the "spoils" of political hirelings. § 780. The bullet buried by Aaron Burr in the breast of Alexander Hamilton destroyed the Federal party. What little remained of it, after the death of its great leader, perished in the War of 1812. But as Jefferson foresaw, the Democrats split inevitably into factions. Yet when the rupture came, it was not about principles, but about persons ; it was not a quarrel about public policy, but about political methods. Candidates for the presidency had been nominated by a caucus of congressmen ism. Iii 1824 the choice of the caucus was lone foreseen to be William H. DUEL BETWEEN BURR AND HAMILTON. Crawford of Georgia. All the statesmen of the country were then in the Democratic party. John Quincy Adams and Daniel Webster, Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun, Martin Van Buren and William H. Crawford, Thomas H. Benton and Andrew Jack- son. Under such circumstances, a nomination by a caucus of Congressmen, if ratified by the party leaders, meant the selection of a president by less than a hundred men. The country was in no mood for such a travesty of democratic institutions ; the con- spicuous leaders of the party were too numerous and too able to submit to its perpe- tration. To make the situation worse, Crawford, the prospective caucus nominee, be- came a paralytic in the crisis of the struggle. But dying is a hard task for a presiden- tial candidate, or for an outworn political system. The crippled chief was nominated, 56 HENRY CLAY. {pp. 881.) 882 AMERICA. nevertheless. Thereupon conventions in the different states placed Jackson, Quincjr Adams, and Clay before the people. Yet this new birth of American politics took place with painful throes. First of all, the people clamored for the right to choose the presidential electors. In New York the Crawford leaders refused the demand, and lost the state in consequence. And then, none of the four candidates received a ma- jority of all the electors. Owing to the choice of electors in several states by the re- spective legislatures, it is even now impossible to determine who was the popular choice. Andrew Jackson afterward became the most powerful and most popular man in the United States; but he was not so in 1824. Mr. Adams surpassed him in learn- ing, in eloquence, in dignity of character, in all the qualities of a statesman. But the election of the latter, by the House of Representatives, under the influence of Henry Clay, provoked a storm of hatred. Charges of bargain and corruption filled the air, and for the first time in our history, a president was cynically and system- is25-is2o. atically opposed, de- nounced, and vilified, at every step of his administration. These charges found an eas} r credence with the disap- pointed, and soon affected the minds of the great multitude ; cunning politi- cians saw in them the possibilities of future success, and when Martin Van Buren, after the adroitest manipulation, transformed the State of New York into a Jackson stronghold, the fate of Adams and of Clay was settled. § 781. The period from 1823 to 1828 thus became a determining period in the political development of the United States. It developed the State " boss," of which Mr. Van Buren, the pupil of Aaron Burr, was the first suc- cessful specimen ; it destroyed the Congressional caucus, and created the state conventions ; it shifted the interest of presidential elections from public to per- sonal questions ; and it led to that system of " understandings " with party leaders, in the several States, from which have proceeded innumerable woes. When therefore isno-is33. General Jackson was inaugurated in 1829, the " clean sweep " that fol- lowed, was a natural result. "In the first month of the new administration more removals from office were made, than had occurred from the foundation of the govern- ment to that time." Aaron Burr had triumphed. The system introduced by him into the politics of New York and adopted hj Marcy and Van Buren, the system of Sir Robert Walpole and of George III. had been adopted by the hero of New Orleans, and become the working system of the United States of America. " To the victor belong the spoils." Henceforth the ballot box should decide, not between opposing CHIEF JUSTICE JOHN MARSHALL. THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 883 "principles or opposing policies, nor between rival statesmen even, but between rival armies of place-hunters clamoring for spoils. The Democratic National Convention for nominating a president followed in 1832. It was the first-born child of the new system, and its first cry was of course for the renomination of Andrew Jackson. § 782. While the President was thus enlarging his authoritj', the Supreme Court of the United States was establishing firmly the national theory of the Federal Union. Inspired by the powerful mind of John Marshall, that great tribunal expounded for sixty years the paramount sovereignty of the United States, in a series of decisions both lucid and logical. But this action of the Supreme Court followed, and by no BANK OF THE UNITED STATES AT PHILADELPHIA. (NOW CUSTOM HOUSE.) means anticipated the action of Congress. The Federal Congress has been the shaping energy of our political development. For the second statue of the first Federal Congress established the protective system ; and the Bank of the United States soon followed. Thus the industrial and financial system of the entire people were brought, at the very beginning, under Federal control, where they still remain. Internal improvements, at the expense of the Union, were ordered at first with hesitating prudence; to make them now is estab- lished public policy. Congressmen have asserted and acquired power in the appoint- ment of public offices, which the framers of the constitution innocently supposed would be impossible ; and by entrusting their speaker with the appointment of com- 884 AMERICA. raittees have created an officer more powerful for good or evil than any but the President himself. During the period of Democratic rule, anxiety for slavery held in check and sometimes paralyzed these tendencies of Congress to enlarge its authority ; but when slavery could be strengthened or advantaged by a stretch of legislative power, the subtle brain of Calhoun devised at once the means and the excuse. Witness his ex- traordinary suggestions, touching the right of petition, and excluding from the mails the publications forbidden by the various States. § 783. Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun joined hands in 1816 to repair the wastes of war, and to foster infant industries. Later on they parted company upon this and other questions. But the tariff of 1824, Clay's greatest triumph, encountered the massive blows of Daniel Webster. New England and the cotton States opposed it vehemently, and the "American System," as Clay called it, was established by the grain-growing States, the Middle States of the East and of the West and of the South. General Jackson was for the American system in 1824, for incidental protection in 1829, and for tariff reform in 1831. But Clay loaded down the American system with his defence of the U. S. Bank in 1832, and led the Whigs, as he afterward called his ts33. followers, to overwhelming defeat. Yet the next year he proposed and carried through the compromise tariff of 1833, in order to save Calhoun from hu- miliation and political ruin, — an act that brought him no gratitude and great regret. The tariff of 1828, " the tariff of abominations," as South Carolina called it, was greatly modified ; a sliding scale of reductions was so arranged that in 1842 there ism. would be left a general rate of twenty per cent, on dutiable goods. When this year arrived, Clay was once more powerful, and the American system was re-established. In 1844 the position of parties was again beclouded by the legend " Polk, is**. Dallas, and the tariff of 1842." But this legend dissolved in 1846, xs4o. when Mr. Dallas gave the casting vote that carried the abolition of protective duties and established the tariff for revenue only, which lasted until 1861. § 784. The financial system of the country was, as we have seen, established first by Alexander Hamilton. But the Bank of the' United States encountered, from the start, determined opposition. In 1811 Henry Clay defeated an attempt to re- charter it; although in 1816 he and Calhoun joined hands to give it new life. and power, and during the administration of Andrew Jackson, he was its indefatigable champion. The two men were both children of the people, and both men of genius ; Jackson was incarnate courage ; Clay was embodied conciliation. Jackson loved fight, Clay JS33-1S3?. loved victory. Jackson was irascible, incorruptible, self-willed, sus- picious of his enemies, and intolerant of opposition, even from his friends. Clay was imperious, and impetuous, swift to think but swift to change, chivalrous, high-minded, sensitive, passionate, fascinating. The authority of Clay was in his eloquence, his lofty mien, his glowing eyes, the sweep of his gesture, the royal movement of his form, the commanding music of his voice. The authority of Jackson was, in his rugged speech, his defiant deeds, his unflinching adherence to his purpose, his belief that the will of Andrew Jackson was the wish of the people and the decree of the Eternal. But though Jackson loved fight and drifted naturally into collision with other men, he JOHN C. CALHOUN. (pp. 885.) 886 AMERICA. was always wary at the beginning. Clay, on the contrary, was precipitate at the out- set, and conciliatory in the crisis of a great conflict. And to him rather than to Jack- son is due the destruction of the bank. Jackson was ready to make terms ; Clay refused. The re -charter was passed by Congress, but vetoed by the President ; and the government deposits were next withdrawn by a doubtful stretch of executive power. Severed from the government, the bank lapsed into speculation, and finally into complete and ruinous disaster. The deposits that had been withdrawn were distributed among " pet " banks of the various states ; a policy that produced the destructive panic and widespread bank- ruptcy of 1837. Clay and Jackson, the one by his precipitancy and the other by his obstinate dar- ing, had sown the wind ; Van Buren reaped the whirlwind. The specie circular of is3i-is4i. Jackson had discredited the paper money of the banks ; the people- reasoned that if Jackson would not take it for public lands, it could not have much value. Van Buren, however, when he became president, refused to recall this "specie- circular." He convened an extra session of Congress, to stare a deficit and a bankrupt country in the face. The New York "boss" was a man of great ability; cunning, courageous, conciliatory ; a statesman as well as the creator of a political machine. He proposed that the Government transact its own fiscal business ; " collect, guard, transfer, and disburse its own monies." This sub-treasury scheme r which has now been in operation for more than half a cen- tury, was not passed until 1840. Clay saw in it "the ruin of republican institutions," and thundered against it with solemn prophecies; Webster opposed it with more foresight and a calmer wisdom. He discerned in it the beginning of millard fillmore. that government interference with the currency of the- country, which is the constant menace of our commercial life. Overthrown by Clay and his followers in 1841, the system was re-established in i84,e. 1846, and is likely to endure for many years to come. § 785. Meanwhile the States of the North and the West were tending to a broader democracy ; restrictions upon the franchise were swept away ; judges and officers generally were made elective, and foreigners were admitted readily to a share in the- government. Presidential electors, once chosen by legislatures, came to be chosen by the people ; and the State constitutions generally were revised in the supposed inter- est of the larger number. The government of the few, founded by our fathers, was shaped by their sons, acting in the several States, into the government of the many. For the constitution of 1787 was so deftly contrived, that the popular basis of it would broaden or contract according to the action of the different States. (Article 1, sec- tion 2, clause 1). d. Industrial Development. The Grroivth of Cities and of Religious Denominations. § 786. The first invention that powerfully affected American history was the- saw-gin of Eli Whitney, by means of which a slave who could before clean but five or six pounds of cotton in a day, was enabled to clean a thousand. Fulton came next with his invention of the steamboat, which gave new significance to the Hudson and DANIEL WEBSTER. {pp. 887.) AMERICA. the Mississippi, to the Great Lakes and the Gulf of Mexico. The Erie canal was begun in 1817, and finished in 1825, and was speedily followed by canals elsewhere. Light- ing by gas began in 1822, not without bitter opposition from many enlightened citi- zens. Congress constructed a national road from Cumberland, in Maryland, as far as Indiana, to further immigration to the West. But in 1828 an English locomotive made its first trip near Mauch Chunk, in Pennsylvania. Stephenson's " Rocket " aroused the mechanics of America, and the " Arabian " started to run in 1833. The discovery that anthracite coal would burn, was diffused about this time, and began a quiet revolution in domestic life. But most wonderful of all, perhaps, was the inven- tion of farm implements. Thomas Jefferson could handle the violin and the plow with equal skill. Writing in 1788, he indicated the ideas for an improved plow, which were subsequently carried out to perfection by Jethro Wood (1819), Joel Nourse (1842), and James Oliver (1853). But the great triumph of American invention in agricultural im- plements was the reaper of Obed Hus- sey, patented December 31, 1833. The manufacture of this machine began in 1834, and its chief feature has been incorporated in all harvesting machines made since. A patent was granted Cyrus McCormick, June 21, 1834 ; but the reapers built under this patent were not sufficiently practical for the market. Hussey's, however, were immediately introduced, and their inventor continued to build and sell them until his death. Hussey was probably indebted some- what to the invention of Patrick Bell, an Episcopal clergyman, of Scotland, who made a reaper in 1826. These machines worked well, and one of them was used successfully in Madison County, N. Y., in 1834. McCormick began the manufacture of a practical machine at Brockport, N. Y., in 1845, and his subsequent success, in the introduction of the reaper, obscured obvious facts concerning its development. The Pitts brothers were the first American inventors to make a successful thresher. Their patent is dated December 29, 1837. The " Chicago Pitts," as it was called, found a market wherever grain was raised to any extent. Reaper and thresher determined the development of the West, as the cotton gin determined that of the South. While the latter tended to perpetuate slavery, steamboat and locomotive, reaper and thresher, made possible the States and helped develop the freemen that wrought its ruin. Franklin played with the lightning, as Jefferson played with plow and violin. And the impulse given by him to the study of electricity led to the invention of the Morse telegraph, the electro-magnetic, which began to speak in 1844. In the same year the copper mines of Michigan were opened, the Indians retiring KOBERT FULTON. ELI WHITNEY AND THE COTTON INDUSTRY. ( pp. 889.) 890 AMERICA. from Lake Superior, and miners rushing thither. The sewing machine was patented by Elias Howe, in 1846, and the Hoe printing press the following year. These two inventions made possible the elaborate gowns and mammoth newspapers of the present day. In 1848 gold was discovered in California, along the Sacramento river. Streams of adventurers hastened by sea and land to the "diggings;" and California became a free State. § 787. Philadelphia was, in 1790, the largest city in the Union, having a popu- lation of 42,520 souls. Boston, Baltimore, New York, and Charleston, were then her only rivals, though Albany promised to be a city of importance. In 1850 Philadelphia took second place, with a population of 340,045 ; New York had climbed to half a million, and Chicago had bounded into the race with thirty thousand. Six cities re- joiced in more than a hundred thou- sand each, and there were more than thirty growing cities in the Union. The entire population of the nation was 23,191,876, and the centre of population was moving steadily west- ward. Foreign immigration had rapidly increased, owing to the famine in Ireland and the revolutions of 1848. The prospect of home- steads and of liberty, of political equality and free education, brought thousands hither, and these attracted thousands more. § 788. The Religious Denomina- tions. The Church of England, sub- sequently the Protestant Episcopal Church, was deprived of its glebe lands and church property by the Virginia legislature, in 1802. But Trinity Church, in New York city, and Christ Church, Philadelphia, were in better case. Under Hobart, Bishop of New York, that diocese became powerful and commanding ; Griswold, of Massachusetts, accomplished much in New England. The " Oxford movement " begun by Keble, Newman, and Pusey in 1833, has powerfully affected, almost transformed, the Episcopal Church in America. For this ceased to be predominantly low, and became both, high and broad. The Congregationalists of New England divided into many parties : Unitarians, Ortho- dox, Old Calvinists, Hopkinsians, and the like. But by a plan of union formed with the Presbyterians, in 1801, they hindered the extension of their own system and fur- thered dissensions among the Presbyterians. PROF. SAMUEL F. B. MORSE. THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 891 For the Congregational wine fermented in the old bottles, and in 1838 there was a division into Old School and New School bodies. Princeton Seminary, established in 1812, furnished fire and learning for the Old School churches, while Union Seminary, founded in 1836, inculcated the gentler though less consistent doctrines of the New School divines. The Cumberland Presbytery declared its independence of the General Assembly in 1810; while the United Presbyterians combined and perpetuated in America, seces- sions from the Scottish church, dating back to 1688. The Lutherans of the United States formed a General Synod in 1820, and in 1825 the German Re- formed leaders established a seminary at Mercersburg, of which John Nevin and Philip Schaff were the teachers. Here was developed the " Mercers- burg theology ; " here began a trans- formation of the doctrine and worship of the Church in America. The Methodists were troubled little by doctrinal differences : their creed was too simple, their preaching too urgent, and their purpose too direct. But they quarrelled much about church government, about the power of superintendents, the rights of laymen, and the proper attitude toward slavery. Their free churches and free spiritual life, the unstudied eloquence and ceaseless movement of the early preachers, and their insistence upon personal experience, their elastic and efficient organization made them singularly successful. But in 18-44 they divided upon the ques- tion of slavery, and gave the first indi- cation of the " irrepressible conflict " already begun in American life. The Quakers divided upon doc- trine in 1827. The Baptists, never having been one body, could not separate. Mennonites and Dunkards and Seventh-day Baptists came from Germany and Hol- land. The Free Will Baptists organized in New England, in 1827. While Alexander Campbell and his followers were disfellowshipped in 1827, an event that led to the " Disciples," or " Campbellites," as they were variously called. The Roman Catholics established a metropolitan see in Baltimore, in 1808, and a CO \ HENRY DAVID THOREAU. 1817-1862. JAMES FENIMORE COOPER. 1789-1851. WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT. 1794-1878. EDGAR ALLAN POE. 1809-1849. AMERICAN AUTHORS. (pp. 895.) 893 AMERICA. the wealth of classic lore, Hedge of Boston taught them the beginnings of German philosophy, while Dana and Hudson fascinated them by their knowledge of the English drama. Ralph Waldo Emerson is beyond question the most original of Ameri- 1803-1SS2. can writers, full of in. sight and of inspiration, a child of nature and a man of culture, a calm and courageous thinker, a poet with moments of divine rapture, a philos- opher without a conscious sj'stem, responding to all the influences of his time, but always maintaining his integrity and individuality. James Fenimore Cooper pub- lished his " Pioneers " in 1823, and Europeans began to read American books; for Cooper taught both them HS9-1SS1. and his own country- men the resources of American life, HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW. NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE. the picturesqneness of its traditions, and the phases of human character that developed under such unusual conditions. Nathaniel Hawthorne in the " Scarlet Letter " first portrayed the tragedy of guilt, wearing out the lives of men and women in the narrow and sombre surroundings of an old New England town. With a Shakesperian insight into those mysterious influ- laoj-ise*. ences that " shape our destinies, rough hew them as we may," he made his readers stand in solemn awe, and yet wove about them too, the spell of an enchanting humor. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, 1807-1S82. the most popular of American poets, is also the most artis- tic. Oliver Wendell Holmes, the most 1809- intellectual, the wittiest, and the most concise. William Cul. len Bryant abounds in sympathy with THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 897 nature and with noble aspirations, in religious and patriotic feeling, in i-everence for beauty and for God. Longfellow's "Evangeline," Holmes' " Old Ironsides " and Bryant's " Thanatopsis " all belong to this ear- lier period of our literature. Margaret Fuller Ossoli stood almost alone among the women of isio-isso. this time, for her breadth of view, her intrepidity, and her in- tellectual strength. Other literary women appeared, but they were de- voted chiefly to poetic effort. Richard Hildreth wrote a His- iso7.i8as tory of the United States, which has been the guide of every accurate historical writer of American history since its publica- tion. Jared Sparks, once president of Harvard College, edited the works of 119^-1860. Franklin and Washing- HORACE GREELEY. 57 GEORGE BANCROFT. ton, and composed a series of biogra- phies of conspicuous merit. George Bancroft enveloped our isoo-isoi. early history in dazzling rhetoric, where great breadth of view, much philosophic speculation, and vast stores of knowledge were hidden in the glow of flashing phrases. Inac- curacies, however, were not swal- lowed in the flame, and provoked recrimination, and many of Ban- croft's judgments have been reversed by sober investigation. In the South, William Wirt pub- lished the " Letters of a Spy," and his life of " Patrick Henry ; " John P. Kennedy gave a picture of old Virginia life entitled " Swallow Barn," and, Gilmore Simms wrote stories of Southern character and scenery. Edgar A. Poe, the most remarkable of all, produced weird tales and wonderful poems, which 898 AMERICA. have made the memorj r of his early death a perpetual regret. Washington Allston, of South Carolina, is another of those men whose actual achievements are so disap- ttii»-/si:i. pointing. Painter and poet, he lived contented with his visions of the beautiful, and sought neither wealth nor fame. He lived above the world ; was never haunted by the necessity of self-expression, and never hungry for applause. His sonnets and his "Sylphs of the Seasons " are marvelous in diction, rich in fancy and in noble sentiment. A brief reference to the Daily Newspaper must end these suggestions. Francis P. Blair went to the city of Washington in the days of Jackson, and lifted his journal and himself into places of commanding power. William Cullen Bryant gave his vigorous intellect, his lucid style and his incorruptibility to the New York Evening Post. James Gordon Bennett brought a peculiar conscience, an aggressive temper, and a keen scent for news and public opinion to the creation of the New York Herald. George D. Prentice became the ardent friend of Henry Clay, and with his bitiug sarcasm, his rich humor, and poetic diction, won for the Louisville Courier a national reputation. Horace Greeley informed the New York Tribune with his pow- iait-iam. erf ul and unique personality. Rugged mental vigor, imperious and courageous energy, a fondness for paradox and for progress, a hospitality for new and even strange ideas, made the journal, that was founded and conducted by him, the most influential of his generation. Morton McMichael and Joseph R. Chandler gave to the North American, of Philadelphia, decided character and wide-spread influence. Henry J. Raymond created the New York Times, displaying in the conduct of it, amazing energy and great steadiness of conviction. Thurlow Weed, uniting, as per- haps no other man in America, the skill of the practical politician with the journal- istic genius, conquered for his Albany newspaper a place quite unique in American life. The first newspaper in America was the Boston News-Letter, published in 1704, and named apparently in honor of a Boston News-Letter attempted in 1690, but promptly suppressed bj r the authorities of Massachusetts. The next city to enjoy the privilege was Philadelphia, where the Mercurie was started in 1719. The New York Gazette began in 1725, and the Virginia Gazette in 1736. In 1830 the number of newspapers published was eight hundred and fifty-two, of which fifty were'dailies. In 1850 this number had increased to two thousand five hundred and twenty-six. The North American Review, established in 1815, is the ov\j one of the many high-class periodicals attempted in our early history which still survives. Godeys Ladies' Book on the other hand perpetuates a type of magazine once exceedingly pop- ular and powerful, but now almost extinct. It is, however, in these defunct reviews and magazines that the literary development of the American people can best be traced. THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 899 3. The Struggle to Restrict Negro Slavery a^d the War to Preserve' the Union. § 711. From the foundation of "the more perfect union "in 1787 to the election of Abraham Lincoln to the Presidency in 1860, powerful forces tended to separate the United States of America into dissevered sections. The first of these, local jeal- ousies, existed long before the Revolutionary struggle. They had endangered the Colonies in the days of the French and Indian conflict ; they broke out even amid the perils of the war for independence ; they brought the first union of the states to the verge of dissolution, and prevented, almost, the formation and adoption of the constitution of 1787. They were due, partly to the natural disposition of men to prefer their own tribe and their own neighborhood ; partly to real diversities of feel- ings, of interests, of character, and historical antecedents ; and partly to suspicions engendered in ignorance and nourished by selfish and ambitious leaders. A still more powerful tendency to separation originated in Negro slavery. This existed at one time in all the colonies and its existence was everywhere deplored ; Washington, Jefferson, Henry, Wythe, the friend and preceptor of Henry Clay, Ran- dolph and Madison, all of them Virginians, looked upon it with undisguised alarm, hoped for its gradual extinction, and Jefferson especially worked ardently but unsuc- cessfully for its abolition. It was abolished in the Northern States at the beginning of the nineteenth century, although the slave-trade was continued until 1808. But the climate and soil of the South favored slave-labor, and the invention of the cotton- gin made the cotton crop the great staple of southern produce. Slavery took on a new aspect, both economically and morally, in the eyes of the southern people ; the South became wholly agricultural and great plantations became the rule ; slave-holders, though always a small minority of the citizens of the South, became, by reason of their wealth and culture, the ruling power in the political and social life of their section ; the Negroes were of course brought up in ignorance, but public-schools for the education of the children of the Whites were never or seldom established. The North on the other hand became a section of diversified industries ; of com- merce, manufactures, and free-hold farming. In New England, in the free states of the Northwest, in New York and Pennsylvania a system of free schools was established, that brought the power and delight of knowledge within the reach of every intelli- gent child. In the South discussion of the slavery question became gradually unpopular and finally impossible. In the North it was also unpopular at times and in some localities quite dangerous ; yet it was always possible and finally broke forth with unquenchable energy. § 712. That these tendencies wrought so mightily for mischief was due, however, to a political theory of the constitution, and to certain peculiarities in the structure of the Federal government. This political theory was the doctrine of secession, first propounded in a limited form in the Kentucky Resolutions of 1798, which were written by Thomas Jefferson, though not acknowledged by him during his life time. These were subsequently developed and enlarged by Calhoun and others, into the doctrine of State Sovereignty with the derivative right of nullification. The doctrine was urged in 1798 in the interests of a Free Press and of personal liberty ; it was revived in 1830 in the 900 AMERICA. interests of free trade, and in opposition to a tariff declared to be, by Calhoun, whoily in the interests of Northern industry. In the form given to it in 1830 it made at first but few disciples; in 1860, how- ever, it dominated almost exclusively the press, and the public opinion of the South, except in the border states. A few strong men in the cotton states still held to the paramount authority of the Union, but the great mass of Southern citizens believed is3o. their first allegiance to be due to the local state government. The structural defect in our political system was the constitution of the Senate and of the electoral colleges ; each state being represented in the Senats by two senators, no matter how small its population, mere territory came to have undue power. When therefore the rapid increase of the population of the North, due to the presence of slavery in the South, threatened to shift the centre of political power from Virginia northwards, southern statesmen became eager to create new slave states and to acquire, by purchase and by conquests, new territory out of which to make them. The acquisition of Louisiana and of Florida were acts of lofty statesmanship, quite indepen- dent of such considerations, and was as necessary and as profitable to the West as to the South. Yet the new states made from these regions kept the balance of power equal until 1820. The annexation of Texas, the Mexican war, and the increase of territory consequent upon it, the attempts to acquire Cuba, and to get a foot hold in Central America, were all parts of apolicy to extend the political power of slavery;— an exten- sion which would have been impossible if population had not been sacrificed to sectional jealousies in the structure of the Senate, and of the electoral system. Finally the patronage system of appointments to public office begun by Aaron Burr,, in New York, and developed by Andrew Jackson in the Nation, greatly aggravated these evil tendencies. Congress, which the framers of the Constitution had (they thought) carefully separated from executive interference, could not escape this meanest and most dangerous form of administrative influence. An army of office- holders became obedient vassals of the executive will, and a policy, supported by the President, was sure to find adherents wherever there were offices and office-seekers. A national election came to be a fierce struggle for place and emolument, and a change of administration meant for thousands, sharp, immediate, and in many cases, ruinous loss. § 713. How these tendencies co-operated to produce the civil war will appear in the following section — In 1784 Thomas Jefferson proposed in Congress the abolition of slavery in the Northwest territory after the j'ear 1800; he failed of success by a single vote. In 1787 the proposition was renewed and adopted. This action of the old Congress dedicating so vast an area to perpetual freedom was not challenged anywhere. The feeling against slavery both South and North, was too strong at that time to warrant any stubborn opposition. In the first Congress in the New Union, the question of the power of Congress over slavery in the several states was raised by a memorial of the Pennsylvania Abolition Societ} r ; the debate was vehement, coarse, and even indecent. Yet the House declared Congress incompetent to deal with slavery in the several states by the nar- row majority of two only, — the vote standing twenty-seven to twenty-five. After this the question of slavery excited no ill-feeling until 1820. In the mean- THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 901 time, however, threats of disunion were by no means uncommon or confined to a single section. Local independence was too firmly rooted in the American character to disappear immediately, and when- ever a section or a state could not j>re- vail in the National councils, the speedy! dissolution of the Union was predicted, and sometimes the angry prophets strove I mightily to help along the fulfillment of their prophecies. On the Southwestern i frontier and in New England, these tendencies were marked, and the old an- tagonism between New England and] the South came sharply to the surface j in the second war with Great Britain. But when the admission of Missouri as! a slave state was challenged by the free states in 1820, the conflict of feelings] and of interests brought disunion peril-] ously near. At that time there existed neither the disposition nor the power in either section to compel the other to re- main. The Missouri compromise there- fore saved the Union, and postponed the j separation for nearly half a century. Though not begun, it was carried to a successful completion by the eloquent and persuasive Henry Clay. But great changes were at hand. Daniel Webster began in 1830 that exposition of the Consti- tution as an indissoluble compact, which became the intellectual basis of the future passion for the Union. A few years afterward, Andrew Jackson, then president, uttered his famous declaration, " The Federal Union, It Must and Shall Be Preserved," and this -•"',".'■■"'.. was followed by his decisive conduct toward South Carolina when that | state, under the influence of Calhoun, f,\ nullified by ordinance the tariff act , || of 1828. In his proclamation of De- jf 1832. cember 10th, 183S ' appeared the notable words " Our Constitution does not contain that absurdity of giving power to make laws, and another power to resist them ; to s&y that any state may at pleasure secede from the Union is to say that the United States is not a nation." The North hailed this declaration with unanimous enthusiasm, but the South accepted it with misgiving. Outside of South Carolina the motive of the President was W51. LLOYD GARRISON. JOHN' TYLER. ZACHARY TAYLOR. 302 AMERICA. approved, but his doctrine was seri- ously doubted. Jackson's bold de- meanor, the knowledge of his un- flinching courage, the popular en- thusiasm that rallied to his support, the failure of Calhoun's plan to in- volve the other Southern states would have led to the humiliation of South Carolina, but for the interference of Henry Clay with the compromise of 1833, an interference, the wisdom of which Clay seriously doubted in his later years. In 1831 William Lloyd Garrison began the publication of his " Liberator " and the moral attack upon American slavery. This at first attracted not much attention, but in 1833 a National Anti-Slavery convention was held in Philadelphia, and in the same year Great Britain abolished slavery in the West Indies. A slave insurrection in Virginia about the same time increased the alarm of WILLIAM H. SEWAKD. JOHN G. WHITTIER. the slave-holders. They began to demand the suppression of the Abo- lition movement, the exclusion of all anti-slavery documents from the mails, and the punishment by law of all anti-slavery agitators. Neverthe- less petitions were sent to Congress praying the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia, and the great debate was opened, which was destined not to close, until slavery perished as a consequence of civil war. § 714. Calhoun meanwhile propagated eagerly in the Senate and in the Southern States, his theory of State sovereignty, and at the same time developed his plans for the territorial extension of slavery. In xsj* 18-14 President Tyler sent the treaty for the annexation of Texas, to the United States Senate, transmitting with it a mes- THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 903 CHARLES SUMNER. was pushed aside for a while, and in 1847 Calhoun introduced a series of resolutions, affirming that a consti- tution by its own force carried slavery into all the territories belonging to the Union. But in 1848 a Free Soil convention met at Buffalo, in num- bers large enough to prove that the isis opposition to slavery extension was both powerful and de- termined. In 1849 California applied for admission as a free state, for the discovery of gold had crowded the territory with immigrants who had no desire for slavery. And when Taylor, the hero of the Mexican War, a Southerner and a slave-holder, who had been elected to the Presidency in 1848 urged the immediate admis- sion of California, Southern Con- gressmen were angered and surprised. Threats of disunion filled the air. But the conqueror of Buena Vista sage of his own and a dispatch of Mr. Calhoun, his Secretary of State, addressed to Lord Aberdeen. Both these documents stated in undisguised language that the annexation was for the protection of the "domestic in- stitutions " of the United States. This protection of slavery hastened its destruction. For the annexation of Texas led to the war with Mexico, to the conquest of California, and the reopening of all the questions relating to our domestic institutions. Sagacious southern Whigs, like Rob- ert Toombs, warned their country men of the inevitable outcome. But they spoke in vain against the storm of popular feeling. The war was not yet closed when David Wilmot, of Pennsylvania, offered a proviso to a pending bill, that in all territories acquired from Mexico, slavery should be forever prohibited. This proviso MRS. H. B. STOWE. 904 AMERICA. declared emphatically that disunion was treason, and intimated that he would take the field in person against any show of armed resistance. But General Taylor died sud- isso. denly in July, 1850, and the change of the political situation enabled Clay to accomplish a third great compromise. Calhoun, with marvelous astuteness, opposed all compromises, deeming it danger- ous folly in the South to postpone the issue until the North could overwhelm her by sheer force of numbers. Clay on the other hand, who tolerated, but did not love slavery, and who scouted Calhoun's doctrine of the necessity of a political equilibrium between North and South, was ready for almost any sacrifice that would perpetuate the Union. But the compromise failed to satisfy the active elements of either sec- tion. The South resented the admission of California as a free state, and the numerical superiority of the free states in the Senate; the North was exasperated b} r the new fugitive slave law. Attempts to capture alleged slaves provoked riots in Pennsylvania, New York, and Boston ; personal liberty bills were passed in several northern states whereby the law was greatly hampered in its execution. Lowell, and Longfellow, and Whittier stirred the people with their poems ; and the pulpits of the North began to resound with denunciations and defences of slavery, preached to excited congrega- tions. § 715. In 1853 Franklin Pierce, the newly elected president, congratulated the country upon the permanent settlement of the slaveiy ques- tion ; j'et his words had hardly died away before the strife blazed out more fiercely than ever. For in 1854, Stephen A. Douglas introduced the famous Kansas and Nebraska bill. is34. This repealed the Missouri compromise, referring the question of slavery in the territories, to the settlers who organized them into states. The principle of the bill was called by its friends " popular " and by its ene- mies "squatter sovereignty." Immediately upon the pas- sage of the bill the country was divided into hostile camps. FRANKLIN PIERCE. A ° , , . „ . ,, . A fierce struggle began in Kansas between the pro-slavery settlers from Missouri and the free soilers from the North, which attracted the atten- tion of the entire people. This struggle resulted in two distinct constitutions, one ex- cluding and the other including slavery. The Whig Party now dissolved. An attempt to found an American party proved a failure ; and the Democratic party divided into factions. Fierce debates took place in Congress. Chase, and Seward, and Sumner, and Wade astonished the Senate and the South by their opinions and their eloquence, and the anti-Nebraska men of the House emulated their ability and their courage. A violent assault upon Senator Sumner, by a member of the House from South Carolina, startled the entire land; and the publication of " Uncle Tom's Cabin " brought the discussion of slavery into eveiw household of the North. The republican party, made up of anti-slavery Whigs and anti-Nebraska Democrats, was now organized and grew to large proportions in all the Northern states. Its motto was " Free soil for free men," its chief principle, the re- striction of slavery forever to existing limits. Yet, the election of 1856 showed that, isso. in spite of the prevalent excitement, the vast majority of the people shrank from a purely sectional party, and not until the Democratic party was rent in i// o&Csi^c4r'&/ (pp. 905.) 906 AMERICA. JAMES BUCHANAN. twain at Charleston, South Carolina, in 1860, was it possible to elect a Republican to isoo. the presidency of the United States. Abraham Lincoln had a majority of the electors, but the combined popular vote of Douglas, Breckenridge and Bell, left him in the minority of a million in a total vote of four million six hundred thousand.* frt/JifflliBBifc § ^^' ^ ie W ar f or the Union. The Presidential elec- tion of 1860 was peculiar and exciting. That Lincoln would be elected few could fail to see ; but beyond that all was uncertain. Southern leaders pointing to the Dred Scott decision (which had nationalized slavery) asserted the elec- tion of Lincoln to be a violation of the constitution ; point- ing to the persona] liberty statutes of the free States, and to the invasion of John Brown at Harper's Ferry, they declared the North to be bent upon the destruction of their institu- tions, i. e. slavery ; relying upon the Kentucky resolutions, which had been made a part of the Democratic platform in 1856, they proclaimed the constitutionality of secession, and prepared to separate from the Union. Yet a strong love for the Union existed in the South, especially in the border States and in Georgia, and a strong sympathy with the South existed among the northern members of the Democratic and Amer- ican parties. President Buchanan had been the choice of Southern men. In the Ostend conference, he had joined with them in their lust for Cuba ; later on he had furthered their schemes to conquer Kansas. His Scotch-Irish blood was a gentler fluid than that in the veins of Andrew Jackson, while his cabinet had been made up largely of Southern men, known to be in sympathy with the seceders. Lincoln, on the other hand, had little experience in public life, and entered almost suddenly upon the greatest task ever devolved upon the ruler of a free people. Many efforts were made to satisfy the excited peo- ple of the South, in which the newly- elected President bore a manly part * The popular vote was as lollows: Lincoln 1,817,610. Douglass 1.291,514. Breckenridge, 850,022. Bell, 646,124. JOHN BROWN. But South Carolina hastened to pass an THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 907 oeo. 20, isoo. Ordinance of Secession, on December 20, 18G0, the language of which is sufficient to determine forever the relation of negro slavery to the civil war. Seces- sionists were of three classes : (1) Those who desired to destroy the Federal Union ; (2) those who expected to make better terms out of the Union than in it; and (3) those who believed themselves bound to go with their States, though personally op- posed to secession. Under the influence of the former, in January, 1861, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and Louisiana seceded. Texas followed the next month. Delegates were appointed to a convention which met at Montgomery, Alabama, and framed a constitution for the Confederate States of America, which was adopted Feb. 4, 1801. February 4, 1861. A comparison of this document with the Constitu- tion of the United States, is likewise sufficient to determine how far negro slavery was the cause of the war. Directly the States seceded, the State authorities seized the forts and custom houses ; in a word, the pro- perty of the Federal Union. Their senators and representatives with- drew from Congress; many officers resigned from the army and navy. Meanwhile Buchanan and his attor- ney-general, Black, had made a great discovery. Secession they found to be illegal, but the coercion of a State to be also illegal. Nevertheless, such Democrats as Cass and Stanton, who entered the cabinet to fill the places of the seceders, determined to send supplies to Fort Sumter, in Charles- ja». a, 1801. ton harbor. The " Star of the West," however, could not land for hostile batteries, and Fort Sumter was abandoned to the drift of circumstances. § 799. Lincoln reached Wash- ington late in February, changing his route to escape assassination. On the fourth of March he delivered his inaugural ad- dress, for which the people of the country were waiting in multitudes, feverishly impa- tient to know his policy. Zealots were disappointed, but wiser men recognized a tran- quil strength, a calm invincible purpose, in the quiet periods and the lucid reasoning of this first inaugural. Suddenly, just as men began to hope for some escape, Fort Sumter was attacked, and compelled to surrender. The war had begun. President Lincoln April is. called immediately for seventy-five thousand volunteers; a great cry went through the North, and recruits streamed in from every section. But when a Aprti 10. Massachusetts regiment marched through Baltimore, to the defence of Washington, it was assaulted by a mob. The capital of the nation was in imminent peril. JEFFERSON DAVIS 908 AMERICA. Jefferson Davis, the President of the Confederate States, promptly called for men, and they offered them- selves with eager courage. North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas next seceded and joined the Confed- eracy, and Virginia soon followed. Davis commissioned privateers ; Lincoln proclaimed a blockade. Great Britain recognized the Con- federate States as belligerents ; other nations soon did the same. When Virginia seceded, Richmond became the capital of the Confederacj', and the struggle for the possession of the Potomac then began. General Scott, though a Virginian, refused to aban- don the Union, and remained in com- mand of the army. In July, General George B. Mc- Clellan drove the Confederate forces from West Virginia, which soon or- ganized into a separate State. These ADMIRAL DAVID G. IARRAGUT. GENERAL GEORGE II. THOMAS. successes intoxicated the editors of the North, who clamored for a crush- ing victory. The Union army, under July m. General McDowell, sought one at Bull Run, where it de- feated Beauregard ; but Patterson, having failed to detain the troops of Johnston in the Shenandoah Valley, they arrived in time to rout Mc- Dowell's men, and drive them panic- stricken back to Washington. Scott, grown too old for such a task, now made room for McClellan, Ana- 20. who organized the famous Army of the Potomac. No forward movement was made, how- ever, until October, when the disas- ter of Ball's Bluff deepened the anxiety caused by Bull Run. § 800. The Struggle for the 3Iississippi Valley. Fort Henry on the Tennessee, and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland river, were two THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 909 strong forts held by Confederate soldiers. The line of the Confederates extended iso2. through southern Kentucky and into northern Tennessee, and was commanded by Albert Sidney Johnston. Grant was at Cairo (the junction of the Ohio with the Mississippi), commanding fifteen thousand Union men. Buell had a hundred thousand men scattered in many divi- sions through Kentucky. Gen. George H. Thomas, a loj^al Jan. 10. Virginian, at- tacked the Confederates with a portion of Buell's forces, at Mill Spring, Kentucky, and drove them into Tennessee. Commander Foote carried his fleet of gunboats up the river to Fort Henry, and captured Feh. «. it, before Grant could reach it from Cairo. But pushing on to Fort Donel- son Grant, after a desperate Feb. 10. fight, forced Buckner to surrender an army of nine thousand men. Nash- ville was now occupied by Union troops, and Andrew Johnson appointed military governor of the State. Grant then encamped at Pittsburgh Landing, or Shiloh, on the Tennessee river, close to the corners of Tennessee, Missis- sippi, and Alabama. Hither Ain-n «-i. Johnston fol- lowed and surprised him. But the gun-boats gave his forces time to rally ; Buell arrived with fresh troops toward even- ing; Johnston was killed in the fight, and the Confeder- ates were driven from the field. The losses on both sides were terrible, each side losing one-fourth of the men engaged. General Halleck now took command of the Union forces, and forced Beauregard to evacuate Corinth, Mississippi. 910 AMERICA. General Bragg then inarched northward to Kentucky, fought with Buell at Per- ryville, and returning, fortified himself at Murfreesboro, near Nashville. General Rosecrans set out to attack the place, but met Bragg on the way. Three days the bloody strife endured ; for this battle of Stone River was among the fiercest of the war. Meanwhile the Union gun-boats kept the Mississippi clear as far south as Ap,u j. Vicksburg; not, however, until they had conquered Island No. 10, -where the Confederates made a desperate resistance, lasting for a month. Commodore David Farragut had sailed from Hampton Roads in February, 1862. General Butler, with fifteen thousand men, went with him. The troops were landed at Ship Island, but Farragut determined to force his way up the river to New Orleans. His fleet consisted of thirteen ves- sels; each went forward fighting for itself, silencing forts and destroying the ships of the enemy as best it could. They started at two o'clock in the morn- Aprii 33-as. ing of April 23rd, and New Orleans surrendered on the 25th. The Union navy was now in possession of the Mississippi river, for the iron- clad ram Arkansas, built especially to destroy the fleet of Farragut, was de- stroyed near Baton Rouge, and the last hope of the enemy buried in the waters. stay 11. And the gunboats sailing south met the victorious ships of Farra- gut as they pushed toward Vicksburg. § 801. The Struggle for the Poto- mac. McClellan, with an armj r of two hundred thousand men, moved to the isg2. peninsula between the York and the James rivers. McDowell was stationed at Fredericksburg to cover Washington, while General Banks marched up the Valley of the Shenan- doah. The Confederates, under General Joseph E. Johnston, thereupon moved from Manassas Junction to the Peninsula, so as to cover Richmond. Yorktown lay in McClellan 's path; it was besieged and taken in May, 1862, the stay 3. Confederates retiring to their intrenchments close to Richmond. Mc- Clellan then divided his army so as to unite with McDowell at Fredericksburg, while the gunboats of the Union controlled the River James almost to the Confederate capital. Between the two divisions of McClellan's army ran the Chickahominy creek. The May rains swelled this creek to a river, and converted the country to a swamp. Johnston seized his chance. He attacked the weaker section of the Union armj', the jwiie i. section nearest Richmond, at Seven Pines and Fair Oaks. But he was ROBERT E. LEE. THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 911 himself badly wounded, and his army worsted. General Robert E. Lee now took com- mand. Lee had "gone with his State" after a severe mental struggle. He graduated at West Point, served in Mexico, and loved the Union. But state sovereignty con- trolled him, and made him the servant of a doomed cause. His first move was to de- tach McDowell from McClellan. This he did by sending Jackson to the Shenandoah, with orders to chase Banks to the Potomac and to threaten Washington. Jackson, jif«e«. ' the most impetuous soldier of the South, the idolized " Stonewall " of his soldiers, executed his orders with splendid energy. As a consequence McDowell was f rde:ed back to Washington. Lee next pounced upon McClellan, driving him to the James river, fighting the battles of Savage Station on the 29th sei>en Bays' of June, and Mal- Figiitinn, vern Hill on the 1st June as-jruiy i. of July. This was described by McClellan as a "change of base ; " a phrase that concealed a great disaster. For though Lee's attacks were repulsed, the Union campaign had broken down com- pletely. Meanwhile General John Pope made his "headquarters in his sad- dle," in command of the army that covered Washington. In a second Ana- 3o- sept. i. Bull Run battle, Stonewall Jackson routed completely the commander, who had published beforehand, that he had "no lines of retreat." His soldiers found some for themselves, and gathered together finally at Washington. McClellan was now ordered to bring his army back by water which he did in Sep- tember. Lee then crossed the Potomac and started for Baltimore. McClel- se»t. n. Ian intercepted him and forced him to the mountains. Jackson mean- sept. is. while captured Harper's Ferry with twelve thousand men and plenty of supplies. McClellan marched his men across the mountains and forced Lee to a fight at isen. Antietam creek, near Sharpsburg. After the battle, which was furious and destructive, Lee recrossed the Potomac. President Lincoln, at this juncture, is- sept.su. sued his first Emancipation Proclamation. It was a notice that, unless the seceding states returned to the Union, all slaves would be declared free on the 1st of January, 1863. Shortly afterward, McClellan was superseded by General Burnside, who attempted STONEWALL JACKSON. 912 AMERICA. nee. i3. in December to storm the hills of Fredericksburg, a disastrous under- iso3. taking that issued in a terrible repulse. General Hooker next took way s. command, and after some months fought Lee at Chancellorsville. The Union forces lost the battle, but Lee lost "Stonewall" Jackson, whom he named his strong right arm. Jackson's tragic fate (he was killed by his own men blundering in the dark) hovered over Lee's army like an evil omen. For the presence of Stonewall Jackson had seemed to sanctify their cause, while his success filled them with the belief that the God in whom their general' trusted, would not suffer them to be put to shame. stay to. His death at their own hands therefore smote them like a divine judg- ment ; they lost not only their invincible commander, but with him, their faith in the invincibility of their cause. But Lee T, — J"' 1 "' 1 '' "■'"'■'■'■"V 1 — ,'; J'. ' ■•■yi '!' — ,:.';.;■- ■■■,:. '.■':'■ ■:..! moved around the army of Hooker and started for the North. Conster- nation seized the people of Phila- delphia and New York. Washing- ton was hastily covered by Hooker's men, and then a new commander, June m. George G. Meade was given to lead them into Pennsylvania. Lee marched to Chambersburg in Pennsylvania, thence eastward to Gettysburg, where, after three days jaiy 1-2-3. desperate struggle in the decisive battle of the war, he was utterly defeated. On the night of July 3rd, 1863, his routed army re- turned to Virginia, never to fight on northern soil again. § 802. The Struggle for the Mississippi Valley. The Mississippi river was fortified by the Confeder- ates at Vicksburg and Port Hudson. may is. Grant moved his troops down the west bank of the river, and first attempted to isolate Vicks- burg by a canal through the great bend. This plan however foiled. He then moved to the south, and ferried his men in gunboats to the Vicksburg side of the river. Sherman meanwhile made a feint north of the city along the Yazoo. Having crossed the river, Grant marched toward Jack- son, Miss., fighting as he went. He forced himself thus between two Confederate armies, commanded respectively by Pemberton and Joseph E. Johnston. The former was driven into Vicksburg, the latter back to Jackson. Having accomplished this, he Juiu 4. united with Sherman and squeezed Pemberton into surrender. Vicks- burg, with thirty-seven thousand men, was given up on the 4th of July, 1863. Port Hudson surrendered to Banks, who had succeeded General Butler at New Orleans, within a week. Thus the Confederacy was rent in twain. GENERAL GEORGE CI. MEADE. THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 913 Bragg, after the bloody but decisive battle of Murfreesboro, retired to Chatta- nooga, and thence to Chickamauga. Thither he was pursued by Eosecrans, but the > t- E O o K n H «! CO SO Union army was defeated, and would have been annihilated, but for General Thomas sevt. to, no. and his invincible columns. Shut up in Chattanooga, the Union forces were almost starved, when Grant arrived to take command. Hooker brought rein- 58 814 AMERICA. forcements from the east. Sherman joined him also, and here gathered rap- idly a force sufficient for a daring en- terprise. From Lookout Mountain and Mis- sionary Ridge, each half a mile high, the Confederates breathed defiance. But Grant's men fought their way to srov. s4, 25. the heights above the clouds, driving the Confederates before them. Bragg retreated into Georgia, and Longstreet, who had been besieg- ing Knoxville, returned across the mountains to Virginia. § 803. The .Struggle for the Atlan - tie Coast. The war began in Charles- ton Harbor. " Cotton is king ! " cried the South, hoping to hold the coast, and to procure the help of foreign powers. The Federal government at once declared a blockade, and pro- 1 /sISj&j iS^ajjjS^B f^s.. :t; i ;,,, _V^K -■--^ JOHN ERICSSON. ULYSSES S. GRANT. ceeded to capture the strongholds of the South. In August, 1861, Hatteras Inlet and Fort Hatteras Auy. so, isei. were captured by a joint expedition under Commodore Stringham and General Butler. In the following November Port Royal and the islands between Charleston and Savannah fell into the hands of Commodore Dupont. Ship island, at the mouth of the Mississippi river, had been already taken two months before. But the Confederates expected great things of their cruiser, Merrimac, a power- ful iron-clad, which sailed into Hampton Roads, the 8th of March, 1862. With this cruiser they hoped, not only to place the cities of the sea-coast at their mercy, but to end the war right speedily. Nor were their hopes ill-founded. Hardly had the monster entered Hampton Roads, when she attacked and sunk the Cumberland, and as night came THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 915 on, four other splendid ships of war lay helpless before her. But the next morning, when the Merrimac returned from Norfolk to complete her conquest, a queer little creature, looking like " a cheese box on a raft," began to fire at her. The " Moni- Mai-ch », », tor," for 1862. that was the name of John Ericsson's strange craft, seemed to be " full of guns," and the Merrimac's officer reported, "after two hours' firing, I did her as much damage as by snapping my thumb at her every two minutes and a half." The "cheese box " had saved the r= Union. The Merri- %, mac retired to Nor- z folk, and was after- c ward destroyed, to ;> prevent her falling t into Union hands. s Other iron-clads were g built for the defence I of the Atlantic har- g bors, and cruisers c were equipped in England to prey upon the commerce of the loyal States. But the blockade was main- tained strictly enough to prevent a hostile declaration from foreign powers, though England and France were impor- tuned to declare it void. President Lincoln, anxious to sept. is63. reduce Charleston, sent against it a fleet of iron-clads, but without result. It was next besieged by General Gilmore, assisted by iron-clads and gun-boats. Still the city held out. The Atlanta, however, an ironclad built for the defence of Charleston and Savannah, was captured by the monitor, Weehawken, after a few 916 AMERICA. minutes firing. While Charleston was blockaded, Mobile, Alabama, and Wilmington, North Carolina, were practically open. It was determined, if possible, to close them. Farragut fought his way through the tor- pedoes and gun-boats, and passed the forts Aug. s tse-t. of Mo- bile harbor. He then attacked and cap- tured with his wood- en ships the iron-clad Tennessee. The city did not surrender, but the port was closed. Admiral Porter was not so successful in attacking Fort Fish- er. General Butler had gone along with a much vaunted pow- der-boat ; but the ex- pedition failed. Gen- eral Terry, however, captured the fort soon after, and Wilming- ton surrendered the next month. Mean- j«»ie is, iso-t. while the Alabama had been sunk by the Kearsarge, not far from Cherbourg, France; and the Florida captured in Bahia by the Wachu- sett. The Georgia j a in- ia, iso4. was sold to prevent cap- ture, but the Niagara captured her not- withstanding. With Charleston closely blockaded, the Con- federate irou-clads ruined, and the Anglo-Confederate cruisers destroyed, the Union was supreme along the Atlantic coast and the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. For Galveston alone remained to be blockaded. 918 AMERICA. § 804. The Struggle for the Potomac. ( Concluded.') Lee's army, sixty-two thou- sand strong, held the Rapidan river. Grant, whose successes at Vicksburg and Chat- tanooga had made him famous, was now made, by President Lincoln, commander of all the Union armies. Leaving Sherman in the west, he himself, went East, taking Sheridan with him. The Army of the Potomac numbered, when he reached it, one hundred and twenty thousand men. He had never led it before, nor had he ever con- fronted General Lee. The final struggle was at hand. Sherman had been instructed to operate in concert with the Army of the Potomac, in fact to move on the same day. Johnston, who commanded the Confederates in the West, must be kept too busy to help his comrades in the East. Grant sent Butler up the James river to attack Richmond from the neighborhood of Petersburg. Sigel and Hunter, march- ing simultaneously up the Shenandoah Valley to menace the Confederate capi- tal from Lynchburg, he himself, with the main army, undertook to force his way to Richmond, through the Wilderness. The Wilderness is a tangled swamp in- tersected with creeks. Lee had fortified jtt«j/ lse-t. it at every available spot. For two weeks he fought Grant stub- bornly, inflicting upon him frightful losses. Nevertheless, Grant " fought it out on this line, though it took all June 3. summer.'" He flanked and forced Lee to Cold Harbor, where he attempted to cany Lee's defences by assault, but met a terrible repulse. Meanwhile Butler had been " bottled ' up " near Petersburg, and Sigel and Hunter defeated and driven from the Shenandoah. Early was then despatched by Lee to attack Washington. The de- fences of the capital were too strong, but he frightened the authorities. Grant, juiy i2-i3. however, would not relax his grip. He had crossed the James river June is. to attack Richmond from the south. This brought him in front of Pet- ersburg. A line of fortifications, extending to the north of Richmond, and defended by sixty thousand Confederate veterans, blocked his way to the Confederate capital. June is. One attempt only was made to storm this line. A mine was exploded successfully, but the assault, from which so much was expected, failed utterly. Grant however, pushed slowly but surely along to the southwest of these lines, threatening Lee's railroad communications, until he reached a stream called Hatcher's Run. There he halted, for Sheridan was now to strike the final blow. This gallant soldier had been sent to the Shenandoah Valley, where he rescued the victory of Winchester from sept. 19. the jaws of defeat, driving Early up the valley before him. At Lynch- burg he turned to the east and joined Grant, destroying canals and railroad bridges, GENERAL W'M. T. SHERMAN. THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 919 and cutting off Lee's supplies. He then moved across Hatcher's Run to Five Forks, April 2, tses. threatening to shut the Confederates in. Lee was helpless ; his army was too feeble to repel the danger. Grant then ordered his whole line to advance, and Lee retreated to Appomatox Court House. Richmond was abandoned, and the Con- federate government fled precipitately southward. Before Lee could reach Lynchburg, Sheridan had " pushed things ; " getting in between him and Johnston, whom he A Vr n », tses. hoped to join. His retreat cut off, he surrendered his hungry and ex- hausted army on the 9th of April, 1865. Grant exacted no hard terms. The troops, promising to bear arms no longer against the United States, were given their horses to do their spring plowing, and sent to their homes. " I felt like any- thing," wrote General Grant, "rather than rejoicing over the downfall of a foe who had fought so long and valiantly." In a few words, Lee bade adieu to his army after the surrender. He told his brave men, " to return to their homes and become worthy citi- zens." § 805. Sherman and Tfwmas. All eyes were now turned to Gen. Johnston, eager to know what he would do; for the struggle in the West had been full of incident, and was not yet over. Sherman had driven his antagonist southward to Atlanta, Georgia. Incenesd at his retreat, Davis removed Johnston, and appointed Hood to take his place. Hood preferred to fight at all hazards. Johnston fought only where there was a chance to win. Hood soon fought himself out of Atlanta, sept. a, tse4,. and Sherman entered in. Thereupon the fighting General pushed northward into Tennessee. Sherman, thinking Thomas strong enough to take care of Hood and Tennessee also, pushed boldly into Georgia, no one knowing just whither he had gone. But when he Dec. 21. gave Savannah as a Christmas gift to the nation, men learned with as- tonishment of his march through Georgia. In four columns his army had covered a strip of country sixty miles wide, between the Savannah and Ogeechee rivers. His men lived upon the country, and left a waste behind them ; railroads were destroyed bridges burned, and, after a siege of eight days, Savannah was captured. Meanwhile fighting General Hood had reached Nashville, Tennessee, and begun a siege. Thomas, who, like Johnston, preferred to win when he fought, was in no hurry to attack him ; but having finished his preparations, he annihilated Hood's army in the completest GENERAL PHIL. H. SHEEIDAN. 920 AMERICA. nee. 14-in. victory of the war. Johnston now returned to gather an army if he could, and to throw himself across the path of Sherman, marching northward. He got together forty thousand men, and attacked the Union army at Goldsboro, North Car- olina. Sherman defeated him with difficult}', and the two armies were confronting each other, when the news of Lee's surrender reached them. Then Sherman occupied SHERIDAN S RIDE FROM WINCHESTER. April 99, lsos. Raleigh and Johnston surrendered. The next month the Confederates everywhere laid down their arms and the war was over. § 806. Financial Policy. War is an expensive business. How to raise the money needed perplexed the brains of Mr. Chase, the Union secretary of the treas- ury. Treasury notes of various kinds were issued, some bearing interest, others not. These were made a legal tender for all debts except custom duties. These notes were THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 921 promises to pay "dollars on demand " but as "gold dollars" were not paid when de- manded, gold dollars soon commanded a premium, which fluctuated with the fortunes of the war. It was next determined to borrow money by the sale of bonds. These bonds were sold for paper money, but made payable in coin. If the Union survived the struggle, they were a fine investment, bringing the buyer almost double what he paid for them. But Mr. Chase went further, believing it necessary to enlist the capi- talists of the countiy, heart and soul, in the struggle. He proposed the system of Fab. 25, 1803. national banks. These were allowed to issue bank notes, secured by national bonds deposited at Washington. The circulation of the state banks was taxed out of existence. At a single stroke, the variegated and complicated paper money system, prevailing before the war, vanished from our commerce, and a currencj' was furnished, which, when brought to par with gold, would be better than any paper money in the world. During the four years of the war, the Union spent $3,500,000,000 in its prosecution. The expenses of the Confederacy cannot be accurately estimated. §807. Foreign Policy. "One job is enough at a time," said Mr. Lincoln ; and to this policy he steadily adhered throughout the war. When Captain Wilkes stopped the Trent, a British mail steamer, and took from her Mason arov. tit. lsei. and Slidell, two Confed- erate commissioners, to Europe, Mr. Lincoln sagely remarked that Captain Wilkes had no right, at any rate, to turn his quarter-deck into an admiralty court, and thereupon directed the re- lease of the captives. Great Britian jr as less than two thirds of the Senate voted to sustain the charges, he was, after a long trial, acquitted. General Grant accepted Stanton's place, and soon became the conspicuous figure of the country. In 1868 he was nominated for the presidencj' by the Republicans, and elected by a large majority. § 813. As the election turned upon the reconstruction measures of Congress, it looked as if the country had responded to Grant's ex- • hortation, " Let us have peace ! " But the end j was not yet. A fifteenth amendment was next adopted, forbidding any State to deprive any person of a vote by reason of " race, color, or : previous condition of servitude." This made, of course, an enormous addition to the voting population, and brought a strain upon Demo- cratic institutions of the severest kind. And it developed two dangerous elements in the Southern States, the Carpet-bagger and the Kuklux. The Carpet-bagger sought to control the negro, and to use him for corrupt ends ; the Kuklux, on the other hand, terrorized him and attacked the white Republicans. Ultimately, the negroes ceased to vote, or voted with the whites. But this end was reached only after a desperate struggle, in which more than one State government appealed to the President for military support. The Republicans however lost one State after another, and in 1877 the South became " solid " and has remained so ever since. Not only so. The enfranchisement of the negro increased the number of representatives alloted to the seceding States, and consequently their power in the electoral college. And gradually the cry of " Universal Amnesty and Universal Suffrage," urged so vehe- mently by Horace Greeley, brought back to political life most of the ancient leaders of the South. Jefferson Davis remained in prison 1805-180*. two years, but was never tried. He and Robert Toombs refused to return to the old flag; but others took the oath of allegiance, and found their way back to places of power in the nation and the state. ?Pk*»e too formed their combinations to regulate the price of the one thing the}' have to sell, their time and energy. Strikes became both frequent and destructive. The great railroad strikes of 1877 have been succeeded almost annually with labor troubles of some kind ; now in the mines and now in the mills, now on the street cars, now on some great railway-line, now in the coke regions, now in the coal-fields, now in the car shops ; among masons, carpenters, shoemakers, and tailors, men and women and children. The inevitable result has been the gradual diffusion of the belief that the present system is an organized and legalized wrong, to be abolished and reshaped by legislative enactment. S 827. The socialistic ideas, disseminated so rapidly through Europe, began to spread through' America. Marx, though not studied, was quoted and adored. Capti- vating books, like " Progress and Poverty," and " Looking Backwards." diffused quickly distrust and discontent. College students began to declaim against the ine- qualities of the social order, and popular preachers to clamor for a readjustment of society. The flaunting of wealth, the follies and luxuries of fashionable idlers, the occasional insolence of the powerful, asking "what are you going to do about it?"' or exclaiming. " damn the public," the escape of colossal criminals from condign punish- ment, the invasion of the United States Senate by millionaires, the enormous fortunes acquired by practical politicians, and by gamblers in stocks and grain, increased the general irritation. . Deep answered deep. The distress of the farmer to the discon- tent of the artisan. The agitated surface of society began so cast up all manner of schemes, while splendid speculations built on the sand perished suddenly. Real diffi- culties were multiplied by exaggerated rhetoric and unwholesome fear. And the people, having learned to trust in legislation, began to cry for a miracle. Yet the progress of our industries has been amazing. The telermone, the electric THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 935 motor, and the electric light, the rapid and daring application of machinery to every kind of production and manufacture, the discovery of oil, and coal and minerals of every kind, have made us the richest people in the world.* The destruction of slavery, though fatal to the wealth of the former slaveholder, did not destroy the productive energy of the former slave. The nation gained economically by his emancipation, for the negro is more productive than ever. The new South is richer than the old, while the creative enterprises of the North are vaiious, and numerous, and bold, giving em- ployment to thousands, and adding annually to the permanent wealth and welfare of the people. The tallow dip has been replaced by the coal-oil lamp, the tapestry carpet costs no more than the ancient product of the rag-bag and the hand loom, the faces of the " loved and lost " look down upon the poorest, from the neatly papered walls, the fur- niture of a room costs hardly more than our fathers paid for a table ; children carry watches, for which Queen Elizabeth would have given a fortune, and the literature of the world can be had for less than she paid to get half a dozen books. The luxuries of former centuries have become the necessities of American life ; so that the discontent of American society is but the friction generated by our tremendous progress, a wit- ness of our power, and a warning of our danger. For the development of the intelli- gent citizen and the happy home is the only worthy goal of human progress; free in- stitutions neither create nor preserve themselves ; population is not the measure of prosperity ; and it is far more important to study and to learn the immutable laws that regulate human movement, than to elect legislators, or even to control their legisla- tion. The best and wisest rulers can but follow the leadings of that higher law, upon which depends the peace of mankind, and the happiness of the world. § 828. The extent to which the American people have realized their ideals was shown in the two great celebrations of 1876 and 1893; each a marvel of its kind, the lat- ter the 'wonder of the century. Its vast extent and noble architecture excited universal astonishment. Its varied display of material and intellectual achievements startled the spectator with the growth of human power, and the possibilities of the future. Where, two decades before, the flames had devoured a city, there appeared a prodigy of strength and beauty, that seemed to challenge distant generations. The rise of Chicago is but one marvelous chapter in the history of American cities. From 1850 to 1890 they have grown in number and in population, until they have be- come a source of great anxiety. Occasional riots, like those of Cincinnati, in 1884, of *The valuation of the property of the United States mnrle in the Eleventh Census is as follows: Real Estate. $39,544,- 5i4,333; Live Stock and Farm Implements, $2,703,015,040: Mines and Quarries. $1,291,291,579; Coin and Bullion. $1,158,744,- 9JS; Railroads and Railways, $8,685,407,323; Telegraphs and Telephones, $701,755,712; Miscellaneous, 87,S93,708,S21 ; Total. 565,037,091,197. From a bulletin issuedby the census bureau it is shown that the entire receipts by the national, state, county, town- ship and municipal governments of the United States combined, including schools and postal service and all forms of taxation, reached in 1890 an aggregate of $1,040,473,013. The total expenditures for the government of the people, from the support of the district school to the payment of the expenses of Congress and the interest on the public debt in the same year, amounted to $915,954,055, leaving a balance of $124,518,958 ill the treasuries of the various states, cities and counties. The revenues are made up from various sources, the largest being local taxation upon real and personal prop- erty, which was $443,096,574. The liquor dealers of the United States contributed to the support of government the sum of $24,7S6,496. The largest expenditures of the people of the United States are for charities, amounting in 1890 to $146,895,671. The second largest sum is paid for education. $145,583,115. Omitting interest on the public debt, the next item in amount is for roads, sewers and bridges, $72,262,023. The postal service cost $66,000,000. the army and militia $35,500 000. and $15,174,- 403 was paid for the support of the navv. The cost of sustaining the police in all the cities and towns of the Coiled States aggregated $24,000,000, and the tire departments $16,500,000. The judiciary system of the country cost $23.000,000 : $12,000,- 000 was paid for the support of prisons and reformatories. Sll.000.000 for lighting the streets of the towns and cities of the United States ; $3.2S0.294 was paid for protecting the public health. $2,962,697 for sustaining parks and public resorts. It costs the United States government $6,608,047 to support tlie Indians, and $11,737,738 for the improvement of rivers and harbors. It cost every man, woman and child in the United States the sum of $13.15 to maintain the national, state and local governments in the year 1S90. 936 AMERICA. New York and Brookkyn, in 1886 and 1887, and of Chicago, in the same year, have cre- ated much alarm ; the development of the Tweed ring in New York city, the Gas ring ia Philadelphia, and of city '-bosses," in nearly every city of the Union, has excited earnest reflection, which has thus far borne not much fruit ; although various States, conspicuously New York and Pennsylvania, have created able commissions to report upon the best methods of municipal government, and Brooklyn and Philadelphia are now living under improved charters. But the radical defect has not been reached. Municipal charters must be made independent of legislative caprice ; no structure can ever rest secure upon the shifting sands of party exigency. Tweeds may die in prison, and Jacob Sharps within the shadow of the jail ; yet their tribe increases. For the spoils are greater than the peril ; to plunder a city is, under existing charters and circum stances, less difficult and less dangerous than any other kind of pillage, as it happens mostly under cover and color of the law.* Nevertheless, the people are alive to these defects of political structure, and are striving to remove them. In many States new constitutions have been adopted for the redress of evils, and the ballot-reform move- ment has swept before it the combined and cunning opposition of the mercenary politi- cians. The most that these could do, was to check and mutilate the measures adopted in several of the States, and to impede their successful operation. The American citi- zen has ceased to boast of his institutions, and begun to study them ; he is discovering their value and their failures ; he is learning the limits of law, and the necessity of political training. Citizens, he sees, are neither born nor naturalized, but made. When the magnitude and glory, the difficulties and dangers of self-government in the United States are fully discerned, there will doubtless be a flow of energy into public life, such as marked the conduct of the civil war ; an application of intelligence to political problems, like that which has conquered mountains and achieved the triumphs of American industry. Our fathers, as this history shows, fought, from the beginning, the battle of self-government; and yet reached a crisis, in 1784, that threat ened the destruction of their future welfare. Then they were three millions only, and almost all of one stock. Under the pressure of its own weight, and the condemnation of progressive intelligence, slavery gave way, almost destroying the nation in its wreck. But the people rallied from the calamities of civil war, and developed a prosperity that challenged and received the admiration of the world. They now confront problems of a different kind, as yet but dimly grasped and feebly stated. To attempt the solu- tion of them has been the chief glory of the noblest epochs hitherto ; to solve them approximately, only, will make the American people the saviors of civil liberty. *Tlie following table shows the principal cities of the United States arranged in the order of the expenditure per capita for the maintenance of their city governments: it does not show, however, what each city gets for its money. St. Paul $39.07 Boston 32.63 New York 24.56 Columbus (O.) 24.23 Buffalo 1 23.41 Minneapolis 22.95 Los Angeles 21.59 San Francisco 18.86 Hartford (Conn.) 17.64 Lynn (Mass.) 17.29 Providence 17.23 Cambridge 16.94 Worcester 16.73 Detroit 16.61 Rochester 15.91 Atlanta 15.75 Albany (N. Y.) 15.73 Richmond (Va.) 15.43 Newark (N. J.) $14.96 Cleveland 14.56 Lowell 14.48 St. Louis 14.45 Omaha 14.17 Baltimore 14.02 Grand Kapids 13.98 Chicago 13.80 Brooklyn 13.67 Syracuse 13.35 Charleston 13.35 Philadelphia 13.10 Dayton 13 08 Jersey City 12.52 Pittsburg 12.04 Fall River 11.93 Toledo 11.44 New Haven $11.33 Troy 11.18 Louisville 10.89 Nashville 10.88 Memphis 10.82 St. Joseph (Mo.) 10.44 Allegheny ... 10.20 Evansvilte 9.32 Indianapolis 9.27 Trenton 9.25 New Orleans 8.65 Wilmington 8.44 Paterson 8.41 Kansas City 8.17 lies Moines 7.38 Scranton 6.20 Reading 5.07 THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 937 § 829. 'Educational Progress. — The older universities of the United States have been munificently endowed and intellectually transformed in recent years. As wealth accumulated, it began to pour into the treasuries of learning ; as science triumphed over matter and bigotr}^ it forced its way into the halls of education, and compelled a change in the topics and methods of instruction ; as intercourse with Europe in- creased through the development of steamships, and the laying of the Atlantic cable, the influence of Germany led to innovation and imitation, startling and almost revolu- tionary. The lecture displaced the text-book ; special investigation took the place of the older training in the classics and mathematics ; the student elected his pursuits and his professors ; and a multitude of subjects were provived for his choice. This movement pervades the whole country, and has wrought both good and evil. It has filled the land with callow specialists, and has developed a few great scholars ; it has led to much parade of erudition, and to a few displays of specialized intellectual power ; but the modern Harvard can boast neither of an Emerson or a Lowell, a Prescott, a Motley, a Parkman, or a Holmes. Alongside of the older institutions, new and splen- did foundations, like Johns Hopkins, Cornell, and Lehigh have appeared, and with them, colleges for women, like Vassar, Wellesley, Smith, and Bryn Mawr. In no respect is the change so marked, as in this eagerness to provide the high- est education for young girls. Many of the universities and colleges admit both sexes to their classes, and others provide means for their separate instruction. The State universities of the West are firmly rooted in the affections of the people, and the common school system still remains intact.* Yet the latter is shaken occasionally by demands, from the Roman Catholics, for a division of the funds. In various localities the parochial school has insisted upon recognition by the State. In 1893 the Pope sent as legate to America, Archbishop Satolli, whose utterances and movements attracted much attention; and for the present the school question seems to sleep. Meanwhile, the new Catholic University at Washington excites the eager interest of Catholic and Protestant. The growth of Catholic schools and col- leges has been commensurate with the rapid development of the Catholic church in recent years. The floods of immigration have lifted Romanism in the United States into commanding power, and their schools and seminaries are conducted with great skill, and supported with great liberality. The theological schools of the country have multiplied rapidly, and two of them. Andover and Union, have been the centres of unusual interest. The attempts of their teachers to restate theology, in the light of modern scientific and historical re- searches, have provoked fierce criticism and angry debate. Law schools and medical schools have likewise multiplied, and industrial schools •Of all the States New York expends the most money for school purposes, $18,438,164. Pennsylvania is second. $13,370- 459. Then come Illinois. 811,416,703; Ohio, $11,069,254; Massachusetts, $8,527,656 ; Iowa, $6,570,063; Indiana, $6,191,009. Of the Southern States, not including Missouri, Texas stands first in the expenditure of money for education with $3,307,320; Kentucky second, $2,088,165. Then come Maryland, $2,012,868; Virginia, $1,816,214: West Virginia, $1,372,191, and Tennessee, $1,324,441. Alabama spends but$613,562, Louisiana $754,728 and South Carolina but $545,755 for schools. The average cost of education in the United States per capita of population is $2.24, while in 1880 it was only $1.59. California pays more than any other State for the education per capita other population, $4.24, and Colorado per capita of her pupils enrolled, while Alabama pays the least, 37 cents per capita of population, and $1.85 per capita of pupils enrolled. The average cost of education per capita of population in New England and the North Atlantic States is $2.74, a little above the average for the country; in the South Atlantic States, 98 cents; in the North Central States, $2.81 ; in the South- ern States, $2.74, while in the Rockv Mountain and Pacific States it is 83.35. The cost per capita of pupils enrolled for the United States is $11.03. In the North Atlantic and New England States it is $15.35: in the South Atlantic States. $4.96; in the Northern Central States, $12.56; in the Southern Central States, $4 39, and in tiie Eocky Mountain and Pacific States, $19 71 The total expenditures for school purposes in tiie United States increased from $79,528,736 in 1880 to $139,065,537 in 1890. 938 AMERICA. have been liberally endowed. The Drexel Institute of Philadelphia, and the Armour Institute of Chicago are splendid gifts to their respective communities, and to the future of America. § 830. Indian Education. — The Sioux Indians of western Minnesota, after frequently complaining of their treatment by the whites, attacked the frontier settle- ments in August, 1862. General Pope was hastily despatched to drive them from the State, and a number of the leaders were subsequently hanged. When Sitting Bull became their chief, they rose once more, but were driven into southern Montana, to- ward the Big Horn river. General Custer was surprised by them, and he and his regiment of cavalry completely destroyed. Three years before, the Modocs of southern Oregon had resisted desperately an attempt to drive them from their "lava-beds." They killed the peace-commissioners sent out to pursue them, and fought for a whole year in their country of volcanic ruins and subterranean fortresses. In 1877 the Nez Perce Indians also refused to leave their reservation, and took up arms. They were pursued from Idaho through Montana, but fought like a brave and honorable foe. They were finally compelled to surrender. But under the pres- sure of public opinion, the administration of General Grant started a policy of peace, and a system of Indian education. The reservation lines had come to be regarded as " a wall that fences out law and social order, and admits only greed, and despotism, and lawlessness." The government agent, living within this wall, was usually some precious product of the spoils system ; the creature of an Indian ring. The result was inevitable ; discontent and frequent Indian war. In 1878 Congress, therefore, passed the general land and severalty bill, which authorized the President to allot the land of a reservation to the Indians located on it. In 1882 the education division of the Indian bureau was created, and the work of instruction thoroughly organized. Bureau Schools, comprising boarding, day. and industrial training schools have an enrolled attendance of ten thousand one hundred and seventy-two pupils. Special Schools, like those of Hampton, Va., and Carlisle, Pa., have an enrolled attendance of two thousand one hundred and thirty-seven scholars, and the Contract Schools, maintained by missionary and church organizations, but receiving stipulated sums from the government, enroll three thousand five hundred and ninety-seven Indian children. Industrial training is a conspicuous feature of all these institutions ; the children are of all tribes, and both sexes, and vary in age from eight to eighteen. The Pine Ridge and the Osage Indians have compulsory education laws, of their own adoption and administration, while the civilized tribes of the Indian Territory have, each of them, an independent school system, where instruction is given in the English language only. These five nations enroll, in their primary schools, eight thousand pupils ; and in their secondary schools, fifteen hundred. In fact, the history of the Five Nations throws- more light upon the Indian problem, than all the pamphlets written on the Indian question ; and the departure from the policy that established them so firmly in their homes, has been the fruitful source of all our Indian miseries. S 831. Public Libraries also have been munificently provided for — the Ridgway- Rush of Philadelphia, the Carter-Browne of Providence, the Lenox and the Tilden of THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 939 New York, the Peabody and the Pratt of Baltimore, the Newberry of Chicago are but a few of these great lights that bring knowledge to the reach of all that read. Literature. The conspicuous feature of recent literary life in America is the develop- ment of the magazines. Harpers, the Atlantic, Scribners, the Century, have created for themselves an influence co-extensive with the country. These and other periodicals have discovered talent, and fostered the literary spirit; they have brought to American homes the genius of the old world, and filled the homes of Europe with the echoes of the new. While personality has vanished from the great dailies, it has reappeared in the weeklies and the monthlies. Men and women are heard, not only for what they say, but for what they are ; and questions of prime importance are il- luminated by those in whom the people have, for some reason, learned to trust. James Russell Lowell, George William Curtis, William D. Howells, Charles Dudley Warner, J. G. Holland, R. W. Gilder, have all distinguished themselves in the conduct of these magazines. Holmes wrote for the Atlantic his famous "Autocrat" papers, Henry James has contributed to it and to others, striking stories and criticism. " Mark Twain " has made them the vehicle of his peculiar humor ; Har- riet Beecher Stowe wrote for them novels and sketches of New England life ; Con- stance Woolson and Helen Hunt Jackson and Sara Jewett have adorned their pages with stories of rare beauty; Stedman and Stoddard have given us alternately fine poetry and noble criticism ; Aldrich furnished verses and charming prose ; Hopkinson Smith, bright sketches of travel, and attractive stories of American life. Nelson Page has painted for their pages the South before the war. George W. Cable has mingled truth and fiction in strange impressions of the " Old Creole " times in Louisiana. " Charles Egbert Craddock " (Mary N. Murfree) has depicted for her readers, the mountaineers of Tennessee, while James Whitcomb Riley and Edward Eggleston have made them familiar with Hoosier schools, and the pathos of life upon the Indiana prairies. Joel Harris made "Uncle Remus" the joy of all the children, Bret Harte brought to their pages the mining camp of the Pacific, and Walt Whitman chanted through them his rude and powerful lines. These magazines are the chief educators of the American people, the meeting places of their noblest minds, the intellectual inspiration of aspiring youth, the sup- port of all good causes, and the promise of a glorious literature of the future? Of the older literary men, Holmes alone survives. Longfellow died with Morit- uri Salutamus streaming from his golden lips, Whittier covered the nation with his ben- ediction of the " Eternal Goodness," and Lowell left us, breathing out loft}' indigna- tion against the men that betray the hopes of mankind. Often misunderstood, but al- ways faithful, his essays will abide, and his poems will endure ; the one to show the breadth of his mind and the wealth of his culture, the other to reveal the depth of his feeling, the tenderness and sweetness of his humor, the beauty of his intellectual vis- ions, and the nobility of his ideals. § 832. History. Francis Parkman began, in 1849, a marvellous series of histori- cal narrations, dealing with the discoveries and settlements of the French in America. Their learning, their accuracy, their impartiality, their vivid and luminous style, won for them instant recognition, and placed their author at the head of the splendid com- pany of historical writers. John Lothrop Motley devoted himself with enthusiasm lsis-isii. and with brilliant success, to the story of the Dutch struggle for civil 940 AMERICA. and religious liberty. Hubert Howe Bancroft began, in 1869, to collect materials for a complete history of the Pacific slope, which has proven voluminous and valuable. Justin Windsor planned and executed, in co-operation with many leading inves- iss». tigators, a " Narrative and Critical History of America," which abounds in learning and splendid disquisitions. John P'iske has told the story of the American Revolution with great charm and power, Moses Coit Tyler has recovered for us the true soul and nature of Patrick Henry. John Bach McMaster has wrought into a pic- turesque narrative, the newspapers, memoirs, and pamphlets of former periods ; Carl Schurz has recreated the political environment of Henry Clay, and made the great Kentuckian move before our fascinated fancy, while Hay and Nicolay have wrought the life of Lincoln into a " History of the Causes and Conduct of the Civil War." § 833. Theology. Horace Bushnell wrote books on great themes that made for him a name in the world ; Philip Schaff contributed a splendid " Histor} r of the Christian Church ; " Henry Ward Beecher poured forth sermons and essays full of po- etry and philosophy, and at once profound and popular ; Elisha Mulford described the republic of God as conceived by a noble Christian thinker ; Theodore Munger has dealt with the problems of life and immortality; Henry M. Dexter told, with splendid erudition, the story of the Congregationalists ; Abel Stevens has depicted with mar- velous power the rise and progress of Methodism ; Charles A. Briggs has interpreted the " Higher Criticism ; " Arthur McGiffert has enriched us with the finest edition of Eusebius ever published ; George P. Fisher has made valuable contribution to Christ- ian history ; McCliutock and Strong have published a valuable encyclopedia, and James Freeman Clarke has enlarged our knowledge of the great religions. § 834. Philosophy has been cultivated with unusual energy. Dewey of Michi- igan has given us a fine psychology, and so did Porter of Yale. Ladd has quite re- cently opened up to Americans the path of physiological psychology explored by Wundt and Lotze of Germany, and Bowne of Boston has expounded the views of his great German teacher with unusual success. McCosh of Princeton has given us the fruits of a vigorous old age, and Stanley Hall of Clark has brought to us the inspira tion of his great Leipzig instructor. William T. Harris has won for himself a high place as the expounder of German philosophy, and James of Harvard has published a treatise on psychology, brilliant, acute, and profound. Francis Lieber gave the first impulse to the study of political philosophy in the United States, in his work on "Civil Liberty; " Theodore Woolsey and Elisha Mulford have followed him with contributions of great value. Wayland and Bowen, Carey and Perry, Newcomb and Walker have written ably but inharmoniously, upon economic subjects, and have been followed by a multitude of others. The bewildering confu- sion, prevailing among American students of economics, is re-echoed in the national legislature and in the public mind. Hence dogmatic vehemence and exasperating controversy, mixed with bold assertion, gilded platitudes and cunningly manipulated statistics, strut about as scientific demonstrations. For as yet we have no science, but only attempts at a science of political economy. § 835. Inventions and the Sciences. The Marsh harvester, which has supplanted almost every other form of reaping machine, was first built in 1858, and has not been changed materially since then, in principle or in form. It was the invention of the THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 941 two brothers Marsh, of De Kalb county, Illinois. A multitude of inventors next began to think out an automatic binder, in order to perfect the Marsh harvester; and finally John F. Appleby swept ahead of all the rest, with the twine binder, now in general use. Marshs and Appleby were greatly furthered in their efforts by William Deering of Chicago. " He established," writes Mr. C. W. Marsh, " twine binding machines as the grain harvesters of the time and the future." Elisha Gray and Alexander Graham Bell perfected the telephone of Philip Reis of Frankfort ; and the speaking wires now vibrate all over the globe. Bond, of Cam- bridge, and Henry Draper, of New York, photographed the moon and the spectra of the stars. Edison invented the incandescent light, and he ami Tesla have astonished the world with their electric discoveries. The sleeping cars of Pullman and of Wagner, air-brakes and continuous platforms, have made long journeys easy and comparatively safe ; and the transforming mind of the inventor has introduced most startling changes into every form of manufacture. Louis Agassiz gathered about him at Cambridge a company of eager young biolo- gists, who are now at work in every corner of the land. Asa Gray acquired, in botany, a renown of equal splendor. Joseph Henry, of the Smithsonian Institute, ranked with Michael Faraday, and his successor, Langley, is an acknowledged expounder of the new astronomy and the recent theories of solar energy. Newcomb of Washington, Young of Princeton, and Holden of the Lick observatory, are famous in both hemis- pheres for their knowledge of the skies, while Cooke of Cambridge expounds, with clearness and beauty, the wonders of the new chemistry. Whitney, and Gildersleeve, and Goodwin have won recognition from the philologists of Germany. Bache made a survey of the coast of the United States, marvellously complete and accurate ; Hayden explored the Rocky Mountains ; and Major Powell has published a complete descrip- tion of the geolog}^, botany, zoology, and ethnology of the Colorado river. Elisha Kane explored the arctic regions in search of Sir John Franklin ; Commodore Perry opened up Japan ; Hall and Howgate, and finally Greely, surpassed all others in their discov- eries among the ice-bergs and the northern lights, while an American editor sent Stan- ley to the heart of Africa to discover David Livingstone. a. The gold produced in the United States from 1792 to 1892 is estimated at $1,937,881,769 ; the silver at $1,148,161,465 ; or $789,720,304 more ol gold than silver. The production in 1892 was of silver $74,989,390 ; gold $33.000.000 ; $41,989,390, more than twice as much silver as gold. In five years, 1889—1893, we exported in gold. $322,000,000 and imported in gold $112,- 000,000; $210,000,000 more exported than imported ; in silver, exported $161,000,000. imported $100,000,000: $64,000,000, more exported than imported. That is we have lost nearly seven times one year's gold product, and less than a single year's silver product in these five years. b. In 1890 there were 221,087 hands employed in the woolen, and 140.978 in the iron and steel industries. The manufac- ture of cotton goods lias nearly doubled in a' decade, but so it has throughout the world, for two-thirds of our cotton crop, which has also doubled in the last twelve years, still goes abroad. The total area under cotton was, in 1890, 19,566.271 acres: under cereals, 141.704.000 acres. The total value of all mineral products reached $674,356,848. as follows : Coal, $207,637,139 ; pig iron, $131,161,039: silver, $74,989,390; copper, $37,977,142; gold, $33,000,000; petroleum, $26,034,196. c. Population of the United States: 1790 3,929.214 I 1830 12,866.020 i 1S70 38.5S8.371 1800 5,308,483 1840, 17,069,453 1880 50.155.783 1810 ....7.239,881 | 1850 23,191.876 1890, 62,622,250 1820 9,633,822 i860, 31,443,321 d. The immigrants, since June 30, 1868, aggregate 12.875,876, not including those from Canada and Mexico, nor aliens not registered as immigrants. e. New States have been admitted in the following order. 1. Vermont Mar. 4. 1791 2. Kentucky* June 1, 1792 3. Tennessee June 1, 1796 4. Ohio Nov. 29, 1802 5. Louisiana April 30, 1812 6. Indiana Dec. 11, 1816 7. Mississippi Dec. 10, 1817 8. Illinois Dec. 3, 1818 9. Alabama Dec. 14, 1819 10. Maine Mar. 15, 1820 11. Missouri Aug. 10, 1821 — * Slave states in italics. 12. Arkansas June 15. 1836 13. Michigan Jan. 26, 1837 14. Florida March 3, 1845 15. Texas Dec. 29. 1845 16. Iowa Dec. 28, 1846 17. Wisconsin May 29. 1848 18. California Sept. 9, 1850 19. Minnesota May 11. 1858 20. Oregon Feb. 14, 1859 21. Kansas Jan. 29, 1861 22. West Virginia June 19, 1863 23. Nevada Oct. 31, 1864 24. Nebraska Mar. 1,1867 25. Colorado Aug 1, 1876 26. North Dakota T 27. South Dakota ( ,„„„ 28. Montana f lbw 29. Washington J 30. Wyoming} i R q n 31 Idaho / 18B0 942 AMERICA. V. CANADA. § 836. a. From the Conquest to the Union of the Two Oanadas. \ iUEBEC passed to England in 1763, and with it all the territory now no3. known as British North America. Although the English made liberal promises to the French inhabitants, yet many of them left the country. Their places were taken by English from across the sea and from New England. But General Murray, who governed the province with the rule of the soldiery, respected the religion and customs of the French, and the latter reluctant]}' accepted the situation. Sir Guy Carleton, an exceedingly popular general and diplo- mat, became governor in 1766. He conciliated the French without weakening his own 1774 control. In 1774 the Quebec act was enacted by the English Parlia- ment. This was opposed by London merchants, and by the Continental Congress. New England objected to it as a covert attack upon the Protestant religion ; Pennsyl- vania and New York because of its boundary provisions. The chief features of the Quebec act were : — The preservation of the Catholic religion to the French Canadians; the establish- ment in the province of the criminal law of England ; the continuance of the French civil code and practice ; and the creation of an executive council. The Quebec act and the wise administration of Sir Guy Carleton so strengthened the loyalty of the Canadians, that the expedition of Arnold and Montgomery, against Quebec, ended most disastrously for the Americans. When, however, Sir Guy was superseded in command of the army by General Bur- goyne, he resigned angrily. The defeat of Burgoj-ne at Saratoga, and the success of the American Revolution, drove thousands of loyalists into Canada. They settled i-isi. along Lake Erie as far as Detroit. Haklimand, the new governor of the province, fearing their republican opinions, permitted none of them to dwell on the frontier. Especially anxious did he become, upon learning that certain dissatisfied men in Canada were in secret correspondence with eminent citizens of the United States. After eight years of Haldimand's suspicious and narrow policy, Sir Guy Carle- ton came back as Lord Dorchester. His second administration was one of great pros- perity. He favored free institutions, and was therefore hot displeased when the loj'al- ist settlers petitioned for a share in the government. They were, however, violently opposed by the English speaking people of Montreal and Quebec. This opposition. i79i. though, proved unsuccessful, and Parliament passed the Act of 1791, dividing the province of Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada. Each division re- ceived two houses of parliament ; a council appointed by the crown, an assembly chosen by the people. This act provided also for the support of "a Protestant clergy," em- powering the governors to erect and endow parsonages. § 837. The settlers of Upper Canada at first endured great suffering ; the famine of 1788 was long remembered among them. The country was then but a vast forest, without towns, without roads, and without direct communication with the world. When John Graves Simcoe, a loyalist officer of the Revolutionary war, summoned his JS93. first Parliament in 1792, two only of the five councillors, and five only THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 943 of the sixteen assemblymen, answered the governor's call. They met in a misera- ble log hut at Niagara. It was harvest time, and hence the absence of their colleagues. Nevertheless, the little company passed eight important statutes. They established the law of England in the province, divided the country into counties, opened the lands to settlers, and invited thousands to cross the Niagara river and make a home among them. They chose London to be the military station, and Toronto (York) to be the capital of the province. The population of the new province rose rapidly from twelve to thirty thousand; settlers flocked in from all quarters, Scotchmen, English- men, Highlanders, Huguenots, French Emigres, and Thomas Talbot's bold frontiers- men. And yet the "sedition act " of 1804, gave power to arrest any person under suspicion, who had been less than six months in the province. Gov. Simcoe's successors were conspicuously incompetent. And Upper Canada soon became a scene of party strife. The original settlers, the loyalists from the States, proscribed the later emigrants, and drove them to their defence. And as all of them were contentious and fond of fight there was no lack of turbulence. This quarrel was silenced temporarily by the war between Great Britain and the ism. United States, in 1812. The capture of General Hull, and the victory of the Canadians at Queenstown heights, marked the first year of the war. But in the isi3. second, Niagara was burned ami the Canadian fleet destroyed by Com- modore Perry. Toronto, then called York, also fell into the hands of the Americans, and when the year closed, they were in possession of all the western peninsula of Up- isij. per Canada. The Niagara frontier was fought for in 1814. The Cana- dians lost Fort Erie, and were repulsed at Chippewa, and the bloodiest battle of the war was fought at Lundy's Lane. But in November, the Americans withdrew entirely from Canada, and have never since returned. § 838. The Family Compact. John Strachan, rector of York (Toronto), was a leader of public opinion during this three years' struggle with the United States. Strachan, though an English clergyman, was a fighting Scotchman, pugnacious, perse- vering, courageous, indefatigable, cunning, and greedy of power. He, in conjunction with Chief Justice Powell, John Beverly Robinson, and others of like minds, formed, 1S20. in 1820, a party which was known for many years as the Family Com- pact. These men ruled the governor and the council. They drove Robert Gourlay, an honest and capable man, from the province, because, in prosecuting his business, he dared to circulate a list of questions tha-t seemed to reflect upon their conduct ; and they filled the offices with their favorites and tools. They became, however, so obnox- is24. ious to the people, that in 1824, an Assembly was elected, hostile to their tyranny. The. Colonial Advocate was started at the same time by William Lyon Macken- zie, an impetuous Scotchman, whose vehement opposition soon brought down upon him the hatred of the Compact and their adherents. The Advocate office was gutted by a mob ; but the damages recovered by Mackenzie from his persecutors, lifted him from poverty, and public sympathy made him a member of the Assembly. And Robert Baldwin, a man of integrity and of noble character, was chosen to represent York (Toronto) in opposition to the candidate of the Cabal. But Sir John Colborne, who succeeded Maitland as governor, was like him enamored of oligarchic measures, and like him helped, of course, the Famity Compact. § 839. The Clergy Reserve Controversy. And a religious quarrel intensified the 944 AMERICA. strife of parties. The Act of 1791 provided for the maintenance of a clergy by the state. One-seventh of the crown lands was alloted for the support of a Protestant clergy. When, however, a Scottish Presbyterian congregation asked for the loan of one hundred pounds from the clergy reserve fund, a furious fight began, that lasted through thirty years. Lord Bathurst, the British secretary for the colonies, decided, when appealed to, that the term "a Protestant clergy," might include the Scottish church, but not Dissenters, although Lord Grenville had declared, at the time of its pas- sage, that the bill meant to provide for any clergy that was not Roman Catholic. Dr. Strachan was in 1823 chairman of the Upper Canada Reserves Corporation. He threw himself with untiring energy into the battle. He claimed for the Episcopalians of the province a monopoly of loj-alty to England, and he insinuated that the Methodists of the province were saturated with republican ideas, imbibed from their American preachers. This brought Egerton Ryerson and the Methodists, whose avowed leader he soon became, into a quarrel hitherto confined to Episcopalians and Presbyterians. Strachan petitioned the Crown authorities that the Church of England be alone allowed the benefits of the act. The Assembly there upon declared that the Scottish church was entitled to a share of the funds. But the legislative council supported Strachan, and refused to concur in this declaration of the Assembly. The latter thereupon appealed to the King, but his majesty decided that the " clergy reserve fund " had been created by Parliament exclusively for a clergy of the established church. sir John cot- Elated by this success, Strachan now hastened to England and obtained bome, the charter, a land endowment and a money grant of one thousand is3s-is3o. pounds a year, for a King's College, grounded on the thirty-nine articles of the English church. His conduct provoked intense excitement and violent recrim- inations, which grew furious when Sir John Colborne erected secretly forty-four rec- tories of the Church of England, under the "glebe clause" of the act of 1791, and en- dowed them with extensive and valuable lands. The Assembly in 1840 denied again the exclusive claim of the Church of England ; and the authorities of the crown, eager to compromise this bitter quarrel, procured the passage of an act vesting the revenues of the public lands in the imperial parliament for religious purposes. Strachan now become Bishop, entered immediately upon a series of devices that resulted in the transfer of the fund to Canada in 1853. And in 1854, the controversy was finally settled by an act securing their life interests to the clergy alreadj' in the enjoyment of grants, and devoting the remainder of the fund to public education. § 840. PapinemCs Rebellion. While Upper Canada Christians were quarreling about the mammon of unrighteousness, Louis Papineau was elected year after j - ear speaker of the Assembly of the French-speaking province. Lord Dalhousie, the gov- ernor-general, refused to recognize him, whereupon he was himself transferred to India. A committee of the British Parliament then recommended a reform in the government of the province, and in 1832 the local revenues were passed over to the control of the Assembly. The French Canadians seized them eagerly, and started at once to starve out the English judges and civil officers. Salaries were unpaid ; the government seemed blocked. The French Canadians confronted the "Constitutional Associations" of the English. Lord Russell next intensified the strife by the four resolutions that he introduced into the House of Commons, in which the legislative assembly of Lo^er Canada was condemned, and the oligarchic council defended. Both provinces were THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 945 now demanding that councillors should be elected by the people. Excited meetings were held in Lower Canada ; Papineau tribute was collected ; liberty caps displayed ; homespun coats and gowns became the fashion ; drilling begun ; and fighting took place between angry groups of " Constitutionalists " and " Sons of Liberty." But Sir John Colborne acted promptly and decisively. He attacked the insurgents wherever ts37. they collected. Dr. Nelson, the leader of one band, was captured, and Papineau escaped across the border. § 841. Mackenzie's Rebellion. William Lyon Mackenzie, excited by this move- ment in Lower Canada, broke suddenly into an insurrection that led to much ruin and distress in Upper Canada. He had been for years bitterly assailed by the forces of the Family Compact ; and had been too radical and too straight-forward to hold the opposition solid. In 1830 the oligarchy was strong enough to pass the "everlasting salary " bill, which made judges and councillors independent of the Assembly for their pay. Mackenzie, though three times elected to the House, was three times expelled by the tyrannical majority. All this added to his popularity. The law officers of Great Britain pronounced his expul- sion illegal. Reelected by a large majority, the House once more refused to admit him. But Toronto made him the first mayor of the city, and his triumph was assured, when an unfortunate expression of Joseph Hume, adopted by Mackenzie, enabled his enemies to cry out " disloyalty ! " Nevertheless, he and his adherents controlled the Assembly of 1835, which exposed the Family Compact, and compelled the recall of Sir John Colborne. But Sir Francis Plead, Colborne's successor, threw his entire strength against Mackenzie ; Hume's expression, " the baneful domination of the mother country," was quoted against him continually ; " Hurrah for the British con- nection ! " shouted the servants of the " Family Compact." This shout carried the discredited oligarchy back to place and power, and the overwhelmed Mackenzie began to lose his head. He entered into communication with Louis Papineau ; he formed a committee of vigilance, and he agreed with Papineau to head an uprising in Toronto, on the same day that the insurgents met their enemies in Montreal. He proclaimed a "Provisional Government of the State of Upper Canada," and assembled eight hun- dred adherents a few miles from Toronto. But while he hesitated to take the city, Colonel McNab dispersed his men, and put a price upon Mackenzie's head. He fled to Navy Island, where he flung his flag to the breeze ; but the flag soon ceased to flutter, and Mackenzie had thrown away the chances of a patriotic and useful career, by his lack of patience and political sense. § 842. Durham and the Act of Union. In 1838 the Earl of Durham became governor-general of Upper Canada. He was swift to perceive the conditions and needs of the province. Yet his rule was hardly successful. Sixteen rebels were ex- iled by his decree, among them Dr. Nelson, conspicuous in connection with Mackenzie. "Lord High Seditioner! " cried Durham's enemies in England. And the government disallowed and disavowed him ; Durham attacked in turn his British superiors ; the ministry thereupon recalled their angry (in)subordinate. But his report on Canada is invaluable. Upper and Lower Canada differ, he said, in their political conditions ; in the one there is a conflict of principles, in the other a conflict of races. He recom- 1839. mended a union of the two. In 1839 Lord John Russell introduced into Parliament a bill embodying his suggestions. To ascertain the sense of the Canadians, 60 946 AMERICA. isjo. a special envoy of great tact and abilit} r was sent over from England, John Poulett Thompson. Upon his return, the union was accomplished. This act of union of 1840 contained the following features: The legislature was to consist of an equal number of members from each province. English alone should be spoken in Parliament (this was subsequently modified). A civil list over which the Assembly had no control was made out. and made perma- nent. The relation of the Executive to the Legislature was not clearly defined, but to prevent a recurrence of the former troubles, it was provided that the governor should only exercise power according to instructions from the crown. This act satisfied neither the rebels nor the Family Compact. But the moderates were highly pleased. b. From the Union to the Formation of the Dominion. (184.0-1867.) § 843. Thompson, to whose report as envoy the passage of the act was clue, came again to Canada as Governor-General, and Lord Sj-denham. He chose his cabinet from the moderate members of both factions. Baldwin, the liberal chief, and Draper, afterward chief-justice, were the ministerial leaders. But the Assembly affirmed, plainly and emphatically, that the governor was subject to the advice of the council. Sydenham skillfully avoided and evaded difficulty. But his successor, Lord Metcalfe, i843-is4e. refused to listen to the council, and made his own' appointments. The ministry at once resigned. The assembly denied him the prerogatives that he claimed, and the struggle terminated only with his death. The coast provinces had similar struggles. Nova Scotia was ruled bj' an olig- archy, and New Brunswick rejected a new constitution sent over by Lord John Rus- is4o. sell. In Nova Scotia, however, the Assembly led by Joseph Howe demanded a responsible government, declared a want of confidence in the governor of the provinces, Sir Colin Campbell, and asked for his recall. The struggle in each province was long and difficult, but they were both organized finally on the same principle as L T pper and Lower Canada. § 844. The Losses Bill. — The new Parliament of Canada met in 1844. It opened js44. with a quarrel. Upper Canada had obtained ten thousand pounds, in order to pay losses incurred during the rebellion. Lower Canada now demanded an equal sum. The ministry granted the settlement of losses in Lower Canada : and Upper Canada thereupon broke out in wrath. Lord Elgin became governor-general in the midst of the tumult. Great excitement greeted him at Montreal. The English minority failing to defeat the ministry (La Fontaine — Baldwin), signed a manifesto, demanding annexation to the United States. Nevertheless, the losses bill was carried. i8so. Wild excesses followed. Lord Elgin was mobbed on his way home bv the minority, and the Parliament house was sacked and burned. But the new gov- ernor-general was calm and wise. He developed the resources of the country, encour- aged canals and railroads, and greatly furthered the cause of education. § 845. The Land and Rent Excitement. — The losses bill trouble was followed by a sharp conflict about land and rent charges. Lands in Canada had been divided orig- inally into seigniories ; these were owned at first by members of the French nobility, and the Canadian tenant farmers were compelled to pay large revenues to their de- THE HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA. 947 seenclants. These rents had become exceedingly onerous and oppressive ; finally the seigniors were induced to accept two million five hundred thousand dollars, in lieu of all their claims. Lord Elgin's administration was also memorable for the reciprocity iss*. treaty, negotiated with the United States. The adoption of free trade by England had greatly depressed Canadian industry, so that this treaty was hailed with great delight, 3 r et the prosperity that rushed in like a flood, was soon followed by disaster. The " clergy reserve " question was also settled in Lord Elgin's time ; the reserves were secularized, and the Church of England in Canada made practically independent. § 846. The Clear Grits. — Upper Canada, which had been growing rapidly since the union, now demanded increased representation in Parliament. George Brown, the leader of the " Clear Grits," a split from the liberal party, put the Conservatives in the minority, on the question of a capital site. But Sir Edmund Head, the gover- nor, refused to dissolve Parliament. The Cartier ministry was then defeated on the 1802. militia bill and a dead-lock ensued. Ministry followed ministry in quick succession. Confusion prevailed, until the three leaders, Brown, MacDonald, and Cartier formed a coalition ministry, which set about the deliverance of the country from the dead-lock, and the formation of a union of all the Canadian colonies. The warfare that ensued was bitter and demoralizing, but finally a conference met at Quebec, composed of delegates from both Canadas and Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward's Island. Seventy-two articles were here agreed upon, for sub- mission to the various legislatures. During this contest in Canada, the civil war was raging in the United States, and Canada was threatened with serious difficulties. Ref- ugees and conspirators from the South gathered upon the borders and in the Canadian isea. cities ; Fenian raids were attempted from the States, and incursions made from Canada into Vermont. Nothing came of it all, but alarm, and irritation, and diplomatic correspondence. -c. The Dominion. (1867-1894.). § 847. In 1867 the English Parliament passed the British North American Act, iso7. which created the Dominion of Canada. This act, the passage of which ■called forth great rejoicing, united in one confederation, Ontario, Quebec, New Bruns- wick and Nova Scotia. Four years later Manitoba and British Columbia were in- cluded. Prince Edward's Island followed in 1874. The Dominion's Parliament con- sists of two chambers ; a Senate and a popular Assembly. The members of the Senate are nominated by the prime minister, and hold office for life. The chief features of government are described in the act creating the Dominion, but the British constitu- tion is referred to as the authoritative guide in questions of peculiar difficulty. After the formation of the Dominion, Sir John MacDonald became conspicuous in Canadian lsio. politics. He was prime minister during Fuel's short first rebellion in Manitoba. He was one of the commissioners who arranged the treaty of Washington, by which the Alabama claim and other outstanding questions between England and tan. the United States were referred to arbitration. But as the parts of this treaty relating to Canada were exceedingly unpopular in the Dominion, Sir John and his party barely escaped defeat the following year. To carry the elections for MacDonald and the Conservatives, Sir Hugh Allan contributed enormous sums of jnoney, receiving in return the pledge of the ministry to put through Parliament the 948 AMERICA. charter of the Canadian Pacific Railroad Company, of which Sir Hugh was president. 1813. When Parliament met an investigation was demanded; Sir John offered no defence, but his majority defeated the resolutions appointing a committee, finally he was compelled to yield, and a committee was appointed, which brought in Lora nufferin. a report incriminating the Premier and his colleagues. Lord Dufferin, isi3-isis. the Governor-general, was obliged to convene a special session of Par- liament, which met, discharged the committee, and appointed a royal commission of three judges to report to the House in October. When Parliament reconvened, in- tense excitement prevailed. A motion of censure was introduced and debated hotly ; but before the vote was taken, the ministry resigned. Alexander Mackenzie now be- came prime minister, and under the administration of the Liberals, the Dominion pros- pered exceedingly. Notwithstanding the scandal that overthrew the Conservatives, the construction of the Canadian Pacific road was gradually pushed forward. But when a is3«. period of financial stringency set in, the country began to clamor for protection. Mackenzie refused to adopt a change of policy, but MacDonald was more than willing. He strode forward as the champion of a national system. Rallying the entire Conservative party to his new standard, in two years time he regained the con- isis. trol of Canada. Lord Dufferin's term of office now expired. He had been exceedingly popular, having managed affairs with exquisite tact. Sir John Mac Donald carried his national policy into effect. A high protective tariff was enacted, a revival of trade followed, general prosperity returned, and the Canadian Pacific rail- i8so. way was completed, regardless of expense. In 1880 the British Par- liament transferred the dominion and jurisdiction of all the British possessions in Canada, except Newfoundland and its dependencies, to the Parliament of the Domin- ion. But the inexcusable neglect of department officials in adjusting the claims of settlers in the Northwest, led to an uprising of Indians and half-breeds under Kiel. The insurrection was promptly suppressed. Riel and ten Indians were arrested, tried, convicted and sentenced to death. The leader and eight of the others suffered the extreme penalty, and more than a score expiated their offence in jail. § 848. The Canadian Pacific railway, after desperate financial struggles, was com- i8se. pleted in 1886. In 1887 the Dominion received another grant of power from the imperial Parliament. Henceforth she might negotiate her own com- mercial treaties, in connection with the ministry representing Her Majesty. At the iss?. same time delegates from the various provinces met to consider amend- ments to the act of 1876 ; they recommended an enlargement of the powers of provin- cial officers. The question of reciprocity with the United States provoked a hot dis- cussion, but the administration triumphantly opposed the policy. Difficulties, touch- ing the rights of American fishermen on the banks of Newfoundland, severely strained the relations between the Dominion and the United States, while the destruc- tion of seals in the Alaskan waters, by Canadian •fishermen, produced another sharp and dangerous controversy. These differences, are now in process of final settlement; the British and American government having submitted them to a court of arbitra- tion, which met and passed upon them in the summer of 1893. Sir John MacDonald is9i. died in 1891. In a few months investigations were demanded into the conduct of various departments, and unpleasant revelations led to the overthrow of several popular leaders : — conspicuous among them being Mercier, the hitherto all powerful leader of the French in Lower Canada. [MMMMMMT^MMMSMl B. CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA. I. MEXICO. The Struggle for Independence and the Subsequent Revolutions. §729. OSfi DE ITURRIGARAY was Spanish Viceroy in Mexico when Napoleon I. drove the Bourbon king from isos. Spain. He sought to conciliate the Mexicans while pursuing his exactions, partly for his own advantage and partly to satisfy the demands of the Bonapartes. A conspiracy was framed against him and he was sent back to Spain a prisoner. His suc- cessors were timid and irresolute. This brought to the sejj*. isio. front Miguel Hidalgo, a native priest, strong with the clergy and trusted by the discon- tented. He was supported by Ignacio de Allende, a man of some skill as a soldier. After a brief period of suc- cess Hidalgo was defeated by Calleja, in 1811, and obliged to fly with his broken army. And he with his com- panions, Jimenes and Allende, were soon captured and promptly shot by the victorious royalists. Jose Maria Morelos, however, continued the struggle with a valiant remnant of the insurgents. He too failed, was captured and executed in 1815. But his stubbornness and courage had increased the strength of the insurgents, and in 1816 they held their own against a force of 80,000. But in 1817 the leaders were obliged to succumb. In 1820 the news reached Mexico that Ferdinand VII. was once more King of Spain. The revolutionists now made overtures to a man who had been most active in suppressing the former rebellion, Augustin de Iturbide. The latter accepted, and in 1821 entered the gates of the capital as the conqueror of Mexico. For in spite 1822-1823. of the opposition of the republicans, he proclaimed himself Emperor and compelled the Congress to acquiesce. Santa Anna organized an army of liberators ; the soldiers deserted to the re- (949) 950 AMERICA. public ; Iturbide abdicated and gladly accepted permisson to embark for Italy. The 1S2S-1SX0. United' States of Mexico opened their history in 1824, with Guadaloupe Victoria as president of the republic. Spain, however, did not yield until 1836, and then only after an ignominious failure to reconquer the country made in 1829. Party struggles disgraced the new Union and kept the people in unceasing turmoil. In 1841 Santa Anna entered the capital at the head of an army ; but his stay was short ; in 1842 Herrera proclaimed him a rebel and he fled the country. Meanwhile the Americans had entered Texas. In 1833 there were already 20,000 of them there. The United States offered repeatedly to purchase the terri- tory, but Mexico refused to sell, and Santa Anna was sent to bring the Texans to obedience. He was met at San Jacinto by General Samuel Houston, taken prisoner and compelled to agree to the independence of Texas. Mexico repudiated the con- i84e-i&4s. tract ; and in attempting to regain control, was obliged to do battle with the United States, and this resulted in the additional loss of Upper California, New Mexico, and Arizona. § 730. Santa Anna, who had been compelled to fly in 1842, returned during the war with the United States to the presidency of the Republic and to the control of the army, but proved so weak that in 1855 he was compelled to abdicate once more. A period of anarchy then followed. Finally General Alvarez obtained the presidency, and with the help of the liberals and radicals ruled with dictatorial violence. He sketched a new constitution in which the clergy especially were great sufferers ; the property of the church being in many cases confiscated. A reaction soon took place, in consequence of which Zuloaga, a Conservative, became president and the constitu- tion of 1857 was abolished. The radicals, however, stuck to their principles, stirred up the people of the provinces against the "reactionary classes" of the capital, and made Juarez their president. There were now two governments, one at Vera Cruz isas. and one at Mexico, and a civil war ensued between the Guerilla bands of Juarez and the regular troops of General Miramon. The United States demanded the right of transit across the Isthmus of Tehuan- tepec. Zuloaga refused this demand, whereupon the government at Washing- ton recognized Juarez as president. Jua- rez confiscated the properties of the church, and prosecuted energetically the war against the Conservatives ; and in December 1860 his General, Ortega, made a triumphal entry into the capital. But meanwhile Mexico had become greatly indebted to the bankers of Europe ; besides this the European residents of Mexico clamored for compensation, for the losses incurred by them during the civil war. This led to the convention at London, in MAXIMILIAN. CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA. 951 which England, France, and Spain declared that, owing to the weakness of the Mexican authorities, they were compelled to demand better protection for their citizens resident in Mexico, and to require the fulfillment of the financial obligation entered into by the Mexican state. Three squadrons were sent to America to demand satisfaction for the past and security for the future ; thej' took possession of Vera Cruz together with Bee. isei. other harbors ; the Spanish under General Prim encamped at Orizaba, the French at Tehuacan, and the English at Cordova. But the allies soon disagreed April a, lse*. and the English and Spanish withdrew. But the honor of France and of the French Emperor, required that an undertaking so ostentatiously begun should not be ingloriously abandoned, notwithstanding the attacks which were made upon it by the French Republicans and the opposition that it encountered in Mexico. May is, lsaa. After much suffering and many difficulties, the French overcame all resistance ; capital and provinces alike surrendered. A triumvirate was chosen and an assembly of notables convened. The republic was abolished, a limited hereditary monarchy was established, and the imperial crown was offered to Maximilian, of Austria. The choice was a prudent one. Maximilian was a younger brother of the Emperor of Austria ; was finely educated, had traveled much, was full of energy, of courage, and of ambition. His wife, Marie Charlotte, supported him in this great ism. adventure, and they departed for Mexico with eager expectations. The United States at once made known its discontent, and their Congress declared that the people of the United States found it irreconcilable with their principles, to recognize au imperial government that had been established upon the ruins of the Mexican republic, under the auspices of a European power. Maximilian soon found that the Mexicans would not support him, and that the French army of occupation were un- able to put down the guerilla bands of Juarez and the Republicans. The reve- nues of the land were insufficient, and it was impossible to borrow money in Eu- rope. The United States had reached the close of the Civil War, and now demanded the withdrawal of the French from Mex- ico. Maximilian was thereupon aban- doned, first by the French Emperor and then by his Mexican supporters. The Empress Charlotte journeyed in vain to Paris and to Rome, seeking help from Na- poleon and from the Pope. The only re- sult of her mission was her own insanity. Bazaine, the French commander in Mexico, advised Maximilian to abdicate, but he re- iser, fused. For the Mexicans who had been faithful to him, saw in his re- maining, their only hope of safety. In 1867 the French troops returned to Europe. The last of them had scarcely left Vera Cruz, when the army of the liberals and the guerilla bands attacked the empire. The inhabitants of the capital urged the Emperor MARSHAL BAZAINE. 952 AMERICA. to withdraw, and Maximilian acceded to their wishes. He retired to Queretaro where he was soon surrounded. But he and his little army defended themselves with des- perate courage. He was finally betrayed for money bj T Colonel Lopez, a man whom he had distinguished and rewarded above all others. A court-martial was convened and Maximilian was condemned to be shot. On the day of his execution the capital June 19, tsar, surrendered to Diaz, and eight days after Juarez entered Vera Cruz in triumph. Juarez retained the chief magistracy until his death. A few attempts at rebellion were promptly suppressed. Under his successor Tejada, however, Diaz raised the standard of rebellion, overthrew the existing government and began a period of liberal reform. This old guerilla chieftain, the right hand of Juarez, and the de- i8s*. struction of Maximilian's empire, was re-elected to the presidenc} r in 1884. PORFIEIO DIAZ. SOUTH AMERICA. MS II. SOUTH AMERICA. The Struggles for Independence and the Formation of the Republics. § 735. HE Spanish dominion in South America was one of cruelty, selfish- ness, and extortionate greed. As in Mexico, so everywhere, only Spaniards from the mother country could bear rule. The Creole population suffered for the most part in sullen silence, the natives with the patience of despair. The War of the Spanish Succession made the former restless, and the War of American Independence opened the eyes of the Americans, to the immense profits that were drawn by the Spaniards from their colonies. For their intercourse with the French revealed to them ihe enormous gains of the Spanish system of colonial monop- olies. Nevertheless, the attempt of Miranda of Caraccas to stir the people of South America to energetic resistance, failed entirely. The interests of the different provinces were too various, the population was politically too ignorant, and the antagonism between Spaniard, Creole, and Native was too irreconcilable for him and his French and English supporters to succeed. But in the beginning of this century, the career of Napoleon Bonaparte reshaped the American as well as the European world. It gave Louisiana to the United States, which carried with it the surrender of Florida b} r Spain, and it broke the bond that united Mexico and South America to the mother country. When the Bourbons were driven from the Spanish throne, and Joseph Bonaparte placed there by his powerful brother, the Spanish possessions in America consisted of four vice-royalties (New Granada, New Spain or Mexico, Rio de la Plata or Buenos Ayres, and Peru), and of five general captaincies (Chili, Venezuela, Guatemala, Cuba and Porto Rico). For a while the Spanish authorities in the conies were undecided and discordant. Mariana Morena, an enterprising, educated and resolute citizen of Buenos Ayres, sought to use this want of promptness and of harmonj' among the Spanish rulers for the creation of a patriotic party, and to win the people generally for freedom and independence. But he and his adherents encountered a fearful enemy in the Guachos, the wild sons of the Pampas. On these great grass plains, stretching from the torrid regions of the palm tree to the ice fields of Patagonia, roved a multitude of savage herdsmen upon their half-tamed horses, whose wild life knew nought of any moral code ; who hated every social organization, and looked with contempt upon the " tenderfeet " that dwell in cities. § 736. In Chili the Captain-General Carrasco was opposed by Martinez de Kosas, j%a u isio. an influential man who organized the patriots, and in Venezuela Simon isi4. Bolivar raised the standard of independence at the head of a powerful 954 AMERICA. and intelligent party. Napoleon's demand that the colonies should recognize the new ICing Joseph found there the same reception as in the mother country. His governors were everywhere expelled, and in most cities juntas were formed, which acted for BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF THE ANDES. Ferdinand VII., but desired and worked really for independence. The separation was accomplished in most of the colonies without blood-shed ; Quito was an exception, for their twenty-eight patriots were slaughtered, and their homes plundered by the Spanish garrison. When the Cortes were called together at Cadiz to form a liberal constitution for Spain, the American representatives, who were present upon invitation, desired for the colonies equal rights with the mother country ; equality of representation in the Cortes and full liberty of trade. These demands found no response ; for to have con- ceded them, would have transferred the political superiority to the Americans, and would have given a mortal blow to the opulent trade at Cadiz. Equal rights were granted to all ■ the races of South America, and the old restrictions upon agriculture and industry were abolished. But the dissatisfied Americans declared themselves in- dependent of the Cortes, organized themselves as independent states, and, although not eveiwwhere victorious, maintained themselves with honor against the Spanish Gov- ernors and their troops, and would have conquered even greater results if the jealousy of the cities and the discord of the sections had not prevented concerted action. SOUTH AMERICA. 955 NATIVE OF BRAZIL. § 737. After the restoration of Ferdinand, the Spanish colonies would have returned to their allegi- ance, if the ill-advised king had not refused their just demands and re- isi*. quired of them uncon- ditional submission to his roj r al will. But the South Americans put no confidence in the monarch who, by cruel persecution of the Spanish lib- erals, bad displayed such hatred to all political progress. Instead of yielding to the royal will, they re- newed their claini for equality of rights with the mother country, and, when this was refused them, they unsheathed the sword to fight for in- dependence. A life-and-death strug- gle began in which the South Ameri- cans displayed virtues which no one had expected of them ; their fortitude in misfortune, their self-denial, their enduring of unspeakable distresses, their sacrifice of peace and prosperity, of strength and of life, have been seldom paralleled in human history. Assembling in masses they would attempt a blow and, if it failed, they scattered like dust before the wind. Their troops were com- posed of peasant farmers, of workers in the sugar mills and in the mines, who were accustomed to live on horse- back, and in the open air, and who passed readily, by long habit, from- plenty to want; they had the advan- tage of requiring no fixed centre of operations, no strategy, no organiza- tion and no commissary. To-day they might be in the depths of want and to-morrow rejoicing in a lucky conquest; and this wild life was their' vital breath, for it gave them oppor- tunity to satisfy, now a private re- venge, and now the longing of a sud- den impulse. Ferdinand sent his isis. cruel general Morillo (a second Alba), to South America, and with him the Inquisitor Tomes, INDIAN OF THE AMAZON. 956 AMERICA. charged with extraordinary powers. But Rio de la Plata had so solidly established her independence and her republican constitution, that her success encouraged the other states to persevere even though their struggle was a harder one. Three re- publics, La Plata, Bolivia, and Uruguay were established, isig. and Paraguay was for a long time gov- erned by the astute advocate, Dr. Francia, with dictatorial power. The war for freedom in New Granada and Peru is connected with the Creole Simon Bolivar, of Caraccas. This distinguished general and statesman chose Wash- ington for his model, and dedicated his energy and his fortune to the redemption of his people, not departing from his great purpose even when ingratitude was heaped upon him. Venezuela had declared her independence as early as 1811, but a terrible earthquake almost totally destroyed the capital Caracas, and killed' in Valencia march isi2. twenty thousand people. This was inter- preted by the priests as the punishment of heaven for their rebellion, and used cunningly to bring the land back to Spanish rule. The unsparing cruelty with which the vindictive Spaniards hunted down the republicans, brought the extinquished fire to a fresh conflagration. Bolivar led 600 men across the Andes ; thousands rushed to his stand- ard to avenge the death of the slaughtered patriots; the National Assembly of New Granada hailed him as their saviour and appointed him Dictator ; and he organized at once a war to the knife, in the decree of Trujillo, con- PARAGUAY INDIAN. demning to death every Spaniard found supporting the royal cause. A fearful, fluctuating, dangerous, arduous and wasting war arose be- tween Bolivar and Morillo, Bolivar being supported by the black gen- eral, Paez. When the Spaniards conquered, the blood of Republi- cans flowed in streams ; to revenge m SIMON BOLIVAR. SOUTH AMERICA. 957 them, Bolivar executed eight hundred Spanish prisoners. The Spaniards acquired a terrible ally in the Llaneros, who like the Gauchos of the Pampas, lived a Bedouin life on the grass plains of Terra Firma, who were capable of great endurance and abstinence, and who as troopers fought with the pike, the lasso, and the fire-brand. Bolivar was compelled to lay down his command and to seek safety in flight to San Domingo. The Royalists exulted now in corpses, in confiscation, and in forced contributions. But Bolivar soon returned ; his appearance restored the sink- ing courage of the Republicans and victories increased his power. Venezuela and New Grenada formed a union, choosing Bolivar as captain-general, and at the Con- Dec. i7, 1810. gress of Angostura the two republics were united into the single free state, Colombia. The Spaniards now determined to send a new army to America. This was the same which, by raising the standard of rebellion, had brought about the rule of the Cortes in Spain. But even the Cortes would not recognize the independ- ence of the colonies. So tlie war was renewed, but to the disadvantage of the dis- cordant Spaniards. Colombia conquered her liberty and chose Bolivar as president. A treaty of commerce united the young republic to North America. Bolivar next appeared as the savior and liberator of Peru. This land with the help of St. Mar- tin, the cunning and enterprising liberator of Chili, and of the Englishman Cochrane, had adopted a republican constitution and named St. Martin as protector. Discord however weakened the power of the Republicans; St. Martin resigned and returned to Chili ; the' Spaniards prevailed ; the republic seemed lost. At this crisis Bolivar appeared. The discordant Spaniards were beaten and forced to withdraw, and the liberator was 182*. named protector for life by the Congress in Lima. This heaping of power and of honor upon Bolivar awakened the envy and the anxiety of the Repub- licans. Conspirators lay in wait to kill him ; he was accused of ambitious designs and treasonable purposes. He resigned his office with deep sorrow, and death soon freed him from labor and from care. But this did not establish harmony among the shat- tered and dissevered states. Their history, since their independence, is painfully marked with jealousies and discord. § 854. The Chilian Civil War. — Chili adopted a constitution in 1833 resembling i83s. that of the United States. This constitution was revised in 1874, so is?j. that the voting franchise was extended, public education provided for, and religious tolerance secured. But the Liberal party, as it became supreme, split into factions, and quarreled about leadership and the " spoils." The radicals, under the lead of Balmaceda, soon became more numerous than the moderates, their leader being the most popular man in Chili, and indeed in South America. He had been minister of war during the campaigns against Peru, and minister of the Argentine Re- public in a period of great importance. He was easily elected president by an over- whelming majority, and for a while received enthusiastic support. He established a complete system of popular education, secularized the cemeteries, separated church and state, and banished sectarian teaching from the schools. He built railroads, dredged harbors, erected wharves, and lifted the country into great prosperity. But who can appease the hunger of the office-seeker? The moderate Liberals joined forces with the Nationalists or Monntvarists to drive the President from power. An opposition Congress passed hostile laws which he vetoed, and by a vote of censure forced his cabinet to resign. Balmaceda now resorted to violent and unconstitutional 958 AMERICA. measures, and finally declared himself dictator and proclaimed martial law. A des- perate civil war ensued, which ended in the defeat of Balmaceda, and the ruin of his adherents. The provisional government, established at Santiago by the revolutionary Junta, isot. was then formerby recognized bj r foreign governments, and the recon- struction of Chili begun. Admiral Jorge Montt was inaugurated first president under the new constitution, December 26, 1891. Since then amnesty has been granted to most of those who took part in the rebel- lion. And as Balmaceda committed suicide, he has ceased to trouble the country. § 855. Brazil. — Brazil was discovered in 1499, by Vincent Pencon, who sailed t-too. as far as the Amazon, and thence to the mouth of the Orinoco. But Cabral, a Portuguese commander, reached the Brazilian coast the next year, and sent word of his discovery to the King at Lisbon. Emanuel .sent Amerigo Vespucci to ex- plore the country, but no attempt to introduce organized authority was made, until is3i. Martin de Sousa discovered Rio de Janeiro on the first of January 1531. Captaincies were then established, and settlements begun. Thome de Sousa is49. became governor-general, and arrived at Bahia in April, 1549. with three hundred and twenty 'persons in the King's pay, three hundred colonists, four hundred convicts, and six Jesuits. Nobrega, one of these Jesuits, established the col- lege of St. Paul, which diffused knowledge through Brazil, and became at once the centre of colonization and of civilization. The French occupied Rio Janeiro in 1558, but the treacherous conduct of Vil- i5ss. ligagnon toward the Huguenot settlers, weakened their settlement, and iso-i. the Portuguese acquired it in 1567. From 1578 to 1640 Brazil, along with Portugal, was under the Spanish crown. Accordingly, the Dutch attacked it in the period of their strength, and Maurice, of Nassau, established Dutch supremacy along the Brazilian coast, from the San Fran- cisco River to Maranhao. But in 1640 a revolution restored the throne of Portugal to the house of i64o. Braganza, just in time to rescue Brazil from the hands of Holland. The inhabitants of San Paulo however longed for independence, and would have achieved it, but for their chosen king, Amador, who declared for Portugal, and retired to a convent, leaving them without a leader. Yet fourteen } 7 ears elapsed before the Dutch were driven out of the country, and in 1710 the Portuguese were compelled to defend Rio de Janeiro against a French invasion commanded by Duclerc. San Paulo attracted settlers, and the colonists married frequently with the natives of the vicinity. New colonies were settled in the north and west ; and a hardy and adventurous people spread over the country. The Portuguese minister, Pombal, the enemy of the Jesuits, attacked them in Brazil, and expelled them from the country in 1760 ; and reorganized the country, abolishing feudal privileges, and admitting all races to equal rights before the law. In i7so. 1789 a project was formed in Minas to throw off the yoke of Portugal, but the conspirators were detected and banished, except their leader, Silva Xavier, who died upon the scaffold. When Napoleon Bonaparte resolved to conquer Spain, the prince regent of Portugal, afterward King John VI., took refuge in Brazil. SOUTH AMERICA. 959 isos. He and the Queen, Maria, arrived at Bahia on the 21st of January, 1808, and were welcomed with great enthusiasm. Dom John opened the ports of Brazil to foreign commerce, excepting from the general privilege of export under any flag, only diamonds and Brazil wood. English artisans and shipbuilders, German engineers, French manufacturers, and Swedish iron founders entered the country, and created plants of industry. But the Brazilians paid the expenses of the kingdom, and the Portuguese governed the court. The foreign nobility were ignorant and profligate and greedy; they delayed and perverted justice, and confusion reigned in all departments of government. Republican feeling devel- oped rapidly, and the King surrounded himself with troops from Portugal. These re- volted in 1821, and compelled Dom John to accept the system established by the Lis- bon revolution of 1820. Deputies were elected to the Cortes of Lisbon, and arriving there, rebuked the Portuguese for beginning to frame a constitution in their absence. is2i. Angry scenes resulted. Dom Pedro, the prince and favorite of Brazil, was ordered to Europe. The news excited great uproar in Brazil. The Portuguese were driven out; Dom Pedro, the prince regent, was proclaimed emperor, and before the end of 1823 the independence of Brazil and the imperial authority were every- where acknowledged. § 856. In 1824 the Emperor adopted a liberal constitution, saving himself from iss4. overthrow, and Brazil from anarchy. But in 1828 his popularity is2s. waned; the defeat of his army by the Argentines, troubles with foreign powers, and financial embarrassments combined to ruin him. A bold attempt to destroy the liberal party ended in his own abdication. A regency now administered the government, until Dom Pedro II. became is4o. emperor in 1840. Order was established, the slave-trade abolished, and Rosas, the dictator of Buenos Ayres, effectually crushed. In 1870 Lopez, the dar- ing dictator of Paraguay, was destroyed by the Brazilians, after a desperate struggle of isii. six years, involving an immense expenditure of life and money. In 1871 the first step was taken toward the abolition of slavery ; enterprises of all kinds began to multiply, and public instruction advanced quite rapidly. But the frequent absences of the Emperor, and the popular dislike of his daughter and heir, led to the conspiracy mso. that drove him from the throne, and established the republic of 1889. Fonseca convened a Congress elected by universal suffrage, and a new constitution was isoi. proclaimed February 24, 1891. A federal republic was established, with a president and two houses. But in November, Peixoto, the vice-president, drove Fonseca from office, and a period of confusion followed. Rio Grande do Sul revolted, and the movement spread to other States. Peixoto struggled desperately with his difficulties, but finally Admiral Mello withdrew from his cabinet, and, forming a conspiracy of naval officers, demanded of Peixoto that he resign. This the latter re- fused, and the intervention of foreign officers was necessary to prevent Mello shelling the city of Rio de Janeiro. A Brazilian ship, assailing an American vessel, was fired into by Admiral Benham of the United States Navy, and compelled to strike her 1893. colors. Mello however retired wounded from the conflict, and Da Gama took command of the forces combined against Peixoto, who maintained himself with difficulty. TABLE OF SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. Assyrian Kings. b. c. Ninirod or Belus, ' 2245 ****** Ninus, 2069 Ninyas, > 2017 Semiraniis, . . . . . . . 2007 Ninyas, 1965 Arius, 1927 Aralius, 1897 ****** Belochus 1446 Belatores, . 1421 ****** Rirnmon-nirari I., 1320 Salmanasser I., 1300 Tiglath-adar I., 1280 ****** Tiglath-pileser I., ..... 1140 Assur-bel-Kala, 1110 ****** Assur-dau II., 911 Rimmon-nirari II., 889 Assur-natsir-pal, 883 Salmanasser II., 858 Samas Rimmon II. 823-810 ****** Assur-nirari, . . . . . 753 Tiglath-pileser II., 745 Salmanasser IV., 727 Sargon II., (the Tartan), .... 722 Sennacherib, 705 Assur-hadon, 681 Assur-hani-pal, ...... 668 Assur-hadon II., (Sardanapalus), . . 625 605 Babylonian Kings. b. c. Nabonassar, 747 Ukiuziru 732-729 Tiglath-pileser (of Assyria), . . . 729-722 Merodach-baladan II., 722 Assyrian Viceroys, 705-640 Nabu-abla-utzar (Nabopolassar), . . . 640 Nebuchadnezzar, 625 Evil Merodach, . ... . . . 561 Neirglissar, . 559 Labynetus, 556 Nabonadius, 551 61 b. c. Belshazzar, 539-538 Egyptian Kings (Pharaohs). b. c. Menes abt. 3000 ****** Khufa (Cheops), " 2500 Moris " 2200 ****** Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings, . . 2100-1580 Aahmes I., 1580 Amenhotep, abt. 1560 Thothmes I., " 1540 Thothnie3 II. and Hatasoo, . . . " 1520 Thothmes III., " 1500 Amenhotep II. " 1480 Thothmes IV., " 1460 Amenhotep III. " 1440 Amenhotep IV., "1420 Rameses I., . . . . ' . . " 1400 Seti Sesostris, 1400 Rameses II., 1388 Meneptah, 1300 ****** Rameses III., . . . . . . 1200 ****** Shabat, 700 Tirhakah, 693 Psamraetichus I., 653 Necho II., . 610 Psammetichus II., 595 Hophra, 590 Amasis, 570 Psammetichus III. 526 Persian Rule, 525-424 Armyrtseus, 424-406 Hebrew Kings. b. c. Saul, 1050 David 1030 SolomoD, 1000 Kings of Judah. b. c. Rehoboam, 975 Alijah 958 Asa, 955 Jehoshaphat, ...... 914 Jehoram, 889 (961) 962 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. Aliaziah, Athaliah, Joaz or Jehoahaz, Amaziah, Uzziab or Azariah Jotham, Ahaz, Hezekiah, . Manasseh, . Anion, Josiah, Jehoahaz, Jehoiakin, . Jehoiachim, Zedekiah, Kings of Israel. Jeroboam, Nadab, Baashah, Elab, . Ziniri, Omri, . Ahab, . Ahaziah, Jehoram or Jehu, . Jehoahaz, Jeboash, Jeroboam II Auarchy, Zechariah, Shallum, Menahem, Pekahiah, Pekah, Hoshea, Arbaces, Kings of Media. B. C. 885 884 878 839 810 758 742 725 695 643 638 608 608 598 t 96-588 975 954 953 930 929 925 918 897 896 884 857 841 825 784-773 773 772 772 761 759 730-721 B. C. Kings of Macedon. 842 Deioces, .... 709 Phraortes or Arphaxad, 656 Cyaxares . 632 Astiages, ...... 594-558 Kings of Persia. Cyrus, 558 Cambyses, .... 529 Darius Hystaspes, 521 Xerxes, .... 485 Artaxerxes I., LoDgimanus, 465 Darius II., Notbus, 425 Artaxerxes II., Mnenou, 405 Artaxerxes III., Ochus, 359 Arses, ..... 328 Darius III., Codoruanus, 336-331 Caranus, 761 Perdiccas I., 729 Argseus I., . 684 Philip I., . 640 * * * * * * Amyntas I., 540 Alexander I., 500 Perdiccas II., 454 Archelaus, 413 Pausanias, . 394 Amyntas II., 393 Argseus II., 392 Amyntas II., 390 Alexander II., 369 Perdiccas III., 364 Philip II., . 360 Alexander III., the Great, 336 Philip III., Aridaeus, . 323 Kassander, . 316 Alexander V., 298 Demetrius I., Poliorcetes, 294 Antigonus Gonatas, 277 Demetrius II., 239 Philip IV., . 232 Antigonus Doson, 229 Philip V, . 220 Perseus, 178-168 Seleucids of Syria. Seleucus Nicator, 301 Antiochus I , Soter, 280 Autiochus II., Theos, . 261 Seleucus II., 246 Seleucus III., Ceraunus, 226 Antiochus III., the Great, 224 Seleucus Philopator, . 187 Antiochus IV., Theos-Epiph anes, 176 Antiochus V., Eupalor, 164 Demetrius Soter, 162 Alexander Bala, . 150 Demetrius Nicator, 14G Antiochus VI., Sidetes, 137 Demetrius Nicator, 128 Antiochus VII., Grypus, 125 Antiochus VIII., 111 Seleucus V., 95 Antiochus IX., Eusebes, 94 Philip, 85 Tigranes of Armenia, . 83 Antiochus X., 69-65 Ptolemies of Egypt. Ptolemy I., Soter 323 Ptolemy II., Philadelphus, ... 280 Ptolemy III., Euergetes, .... 247 Ptolemy IV., Philopator, 221 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 9&c B. C. A. D. Ptolemy V., Epiphanes, 205 Gordianus, . 237 Ptolemy VI., Philometor, . 181 Balbinus and Pupienus, . 238 Ptolemy VII., Euergetes, . 146 Gordian III., 238 Ptolemy VIII., Soter II. and Cleopatra I., 117 Philip Arabs, 244 Alexander I., and Cleopatra I., . 107 Decius, 249 89 Gallienus, 260 Alexander II., and Cleopatra I., . 81 Claudius II., 268 Ptolemy IX., Auletes, 80 Aurelianus, 270 Berenice and Tryphsena, 58 Tacitus, 275 Ptolemy IX., 55 Probus, 276 Ptolemy X., and Cleopatra II., . 51 Cams, . 282 Cleopatra II., . . . . 43-30 Diocletian, . 284 Maccabees op Jud^a. Constantius I., Chlorus, 305 Judas Maccabasus, .... 165 Constantine, the Great, 306 Jonathan Maccabseus, 160 Constantius II., . 337 Simon Maccabasus, .... 143 Julian, the Apostate, . 361 John Hyrcauus I., 135 Jovian, . 363-364 Judas, Aristobulus, .... 107-70 Empeeoes op the West. Kings of Rome. Valentinian, 364 ^^^^^^| ^^H^^K^^^^^H 753 Gratian, 375 Valentinian II., . 383 Numa Pompilius, ... 715 Tullus Hostilius, 672 Eugenius, . 392 Ancus Marcius, . 640 Theodosius, the Great, 394 Tarquinius Priscus, 615 Honorius, 395 Servius Tullius, . 578 Valentinian III., 425 Tarquinius Superbus, 534-509 Maximus, . Avitus, 455 455 Roman Empeeoes. Marjorian, . 457 The Csesars. Severus, 461 30 Antemius, . 467 A. D. Olybrius, 472 Tiberius, . ... 14 Glycerius, . 473 Caligula, 37 Nepos, 473 Claudius, 41 Romulus Augustulus, . 475-476 Nero, 54 Galba, . 68 Empeeoes of THE EAS r r. Otho, . 68 Vitellius, 68 Theodosius, the Great, . 379 Vespasian, ... 69 Titus, . 79 408 Domitian, 81 450 The Good Emperors. Leo I., . . . 457 474 Nerva, ...... 96 474 Trajan, 98 491 Hadrian, 117 518 Antoninus Pius, ..... 138 Justinian I., 527 Marcus Aurelius, .... 161 565 The Military Despots. Tiberius II., 578 Commodus, 180 582 Pertinax, 193 602 Septimius Severus, .... 193 Heraclius, . . 610 Caracalla, 211 Constantine III., Heracleons s, . • 641 Heliogabalus, 218 Constans II., . 641 Alexander Severus, .... 222 Constantine IV., Pogonatus, . 668 Maximinus, . 235 964 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. A. D. A. D. Leontius, 695 Peter de Conrtenay, 1216 Tiberius III., Aspimar, 698 Robert de Conrtenay, . 1221 Justinian II., 705 Baldwin II., .... 1228 Philippicus-Bardanes , 711 The Palxologi. Anastasius II., 713 Michael VIII., .... 1261 Theodosius III., . 716 Andronicus II., Palseologus, 1282 The Isaurians Andronicus III., .... 1328 Leo III., the Isaurian, 718 John Paheologus I., 1341 Constantine V., Copronymus, 741 Mauuel II., Palseologus, 1391 Leo IV., .... 775 John Palaeologus II., . 1425 Constantine VI., 780 Constantine XIII., Palasologus,. 1448-1453 Irene, . . . 797 Kings of Peesia (Sassani DES). Nicephorus I., Logothetes, . 802 Artaxerxes I., 226 Stauracius, .... 811 Sapor I., .... 240 Michael I., . 811 Hormisdas I., 272 Leo V., the Armenian, 813 Varanes I, . 273 Michael II., the Stammerer, 820 Varanes II., .... 277 Theophilus, 829 Varanes III., 293 Michael III., Porphyrogenitus, 842 Karses, ..... 294 Hormisdas II., .... 301 The Macedonians. Sapor II., 309 Basilius I., the Macedonian, 867 Artaxerxes II., .... 380 Leo VI., ..... 886 Sapor III. 385 Constantine VII. and Alexander, 911 Varanes IV., .... 390 Eomanus Lecapenus, . 919 Yezdejird I., 404 Constantine VIII., 928 Varaues V., .... 420 Romanus II., 959 Yezdejird II., .... 440 Xicephorus II., Phocas, 963 Hormisdas III., .... 457 John I., Zimisces, 969 Feroze, 458 Basilius II., 976 Pallas 484 Constantine IX., 1025 Kobad . • 486 Eomanus III., Argyropulus, 1028 Jamaspes, Kobad, ..... 497 Michael IV., Paphlagonian, 1034 497 Michael V., Calaphates, 1041 Chosroes I., .... 531 Constantine X., Monomachus, 1042 Hormisdas IV., .... 590 Theodora, .... 1054 Chosroes II., .... 591 Michael VI., Stratiotes, 1056 Siroes, ..... 628 The Comneni. Artaxerxes III., . 629 Isaac I., Comnenus, 1057 Purandokt, . 630 Constantine XL, Dncas, 1059 Shenendeh, .... 631 Eomanus IV., Diogenes, 1067 Arzemdokt, . . 631 Michael VII., Parapinaces, 1071 Kesra, 631 Nicephorus III., . 1078 Ferokhdad, .... 632 Alexius I., Comnenus, 1081 Yezdejird III., .... . 632-641 John Comnenus, . 1118 Kings of Italy (Medlsv al). Manuel I., Comnenus, 1143 Odoacer, 476 Alexius II., Comnenus, 1180 Gothic Kings. Andronicus I., Comueuus, . 1183 Theodoric 493 Isaac II., Augelus-Comnenus, 116., Athalaric, 526 Alexius III., Angelus, 1195 Theodatus, .... 534 Isaac II., and Alexius IV., . 1203 Vitiges, . . 536 Alexius V., 1204 Theodebald (Hildebald), . 540 Latin Emperors. Totila, . 541-552 Baldwin I., of Flanders 1204 Lombard Kings. 1206 Alboin, 568 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 965 Cleoph, Autharis, Agilulph, Adaloald, Arioald, Rotharis, Rodoald, Aribert I., . Bertharit and Godebert Grimoald, . Bertharit, Cunibert, Luitbert, Ragimbert, . Aribert II., . Ansprand, . Luitprand, . Hildebrand, Raebis, Astolph, Desiderius, . The Popes. Gregory the Great, Sabiuianus, Boniface III., Boniface IV., Deusdedit, . Boniface V., Houorius I., Severiuus, . John IV., . Theodorus I., Martin I., . Eugenius I., Vitalianus, . Adeodatus, . Dominus I., Agathon, Leo II., Benedict II., John V., Conon, Sergius, John VI., . John VII., . Sisiunius, Constantine, Gregory II., Gregory III., Zacharias, . Stephen II., Paul I., Stephen III , Adrian I., Leo III., A. D. 573 Stephen IV., 575 Pascal I., 591 Eugenius, 615 Valentinus, 625 Gregory IV., 636 Sergius II., 652 Leo IV., 653 Benedict III., 661 Nicholas I., the ( 662 Adrian II., . 671 John VIII., 686 Marinus, Martin 700 Adrian III., 701 Stephen V., 701 Formosus, . 712 Boniface, 712 Stephen VI., 744 Rom an us, 744 Theodorus II., 749 John IX., . 756-774 Benedict IV., Leo V., Sergius III., 590 Anastasius III., 604 Landonius, . 606 John X., 607 Leo VI., 614 Stephen VII., 617 John XL, . 625 Leo VII., . 640 Stephen VIII., 640 Marinus II., (Me 642 Agapetus II., 649 John XII., . 654 Leo VIII., . 657 Benedict V., 672 John XIII., 676 Benedict VI., 678 Domnus II., 682 Benedict VII., 684 John XIV., 685 John XV., . 686 John XVI., 687 Gregory V., 701 Silvester II., 705 John XVII., 708 John XVIIL, 708 Sergius IV., 715 Benedict VIII., 731 John XIX., 741 Benedict IX., 752 Gregory VI., 757 Clement II., 768 Damasus II., 772 Leo IX., 795 Victor II., . Great, II, in.: A. D. 816 817 824 827 827 844 847 855 858 867 872 882 884 885 891 896 897 897 898 898 900 903 904 911 913 914 928 929 931 936 939 942 946 956 963 964 965 . 972 974 975 984 984 985 996 999 1003 1003 1009 1012 1024 1033 1044 1046 1048 1048 1055 966 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. Stephen IX., Nicholas II., Alexander II., Gregory VII., (Hildebrand] Victor III. Didier, Urban II., . Pascal II., Eanieri, Gelasius II., Calixtus II., Honorius II., Innocent II., Celestine II., Lucius II., . Eugenius III., Anastasius IV., Adrian IV., Alexander III., Lucius III., Urban III., Gregory VIII., Clement III., Celestine III., Innocent III., Honorius III., Gregory IX., Celestine IV., Innocent IV., Alexander IV., Urban IV., Clement IV., Gregory X., Innocent V., Adrian V, . John XX., . Nicholas III., Martin IV., Honorius IV., Nicholas IV., St. Celestine V. Boniface VIII., Benedict XL, Clement V., John XXIL, Benedict XII., Clement VI., Innocent VI., Urban V., . Gregory XL, Urban VI., . Boniface IX., Innocent VII., Alexander V., John XXIII., Martin V., . Eugenius IV., Nicholas V., Calixtus III., A. D. 1057 Pius II., 1058 Paul II., 1061 Sixtus IV., . 1073 Innocent VIII., 1086 Alexander VI., 1088 Pius III., . 1099 Julius II., . 1118 Leo X, 1119 Adrian VI., 1124 Clement VII., 1130 Paul III., . 1143 Julius III., 1144 Marcellus II., 1145 Paul IV., . 1153 Pius IV., . 1154 St. Pius V., 1159 Gregory XIII., 1181 Sixtus V., . 1185 Urban VII., 1187 Gregory XIV., 1187 Innocent IX., 1191 Clement VIIL, 1198 Leo XL, 1216 Paul V., 1227 Gregory XV., 1241 Urban VIIL, 1243 Innocent X., 1254 Alexander VII , 1261 Clement IX., 1265 Clement X., 1271 Innocent XL, 1276 Alexander VIIL, 1276 Innocent XII., 1276 Clement XL, 1277 Innocent XIII., 1281 Benedict XIII., 1285 Clement XII., 1288 Benedict XIV., 1294 Clement XIIL, 1294 Clement XIV., 1303 Pius VI., . 1305 Pius VII., . 1316 Leo XII., . 1334 Pius VIIL, . 1342 Gregory XVI., 1352 Pius IX, . 1362 Leo XIIL, . 1370 1378 Ca 1389 Abu Bekr, . 1404 Omar I., 1409 Othman, 1410 Ali, . 1417 Hassan, 1431 The Ommiads, 1447 The Abbassides, 1455 Harun-al-Raschid Caliphs of Arabia. a. D. 1458 1464 1471 1484 1492 1503 1503 1513 1522 1523 1534 1550 1555 1555 1559 1566 1572 1585 1590 1590 1591 1592 1605 1605 1621 1623 1644 1655 1667 1670 1676 1689 1691 1700 1721 1724 1730 1740 1758 1769 1775 1800 1823 1829 1831 1846 1878- 632 634 644 656 661 661-750 750-1258 . 786-809 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 967 Kings and Queens of England. House of Stuart. Anglo Saxon Kings. A. D. A. D. James I., 1603 Egbert, 827 1625 Ethelwolf, . 837 The Commonweallh, 1649 Ethelbald, . . 857 Charles II., 1660 Etkelbert, . 860 1685 Ethelred I., 866 William III., 1689 Alfred the Great, 871 Anne, 1702 Edward the Elder, 901 Hotise of Brunswick. Athelstan, . 925 Edmund I., 940 George I., 1714 Edred, 946 George II., . 1727 Edwy, Edgar, 955 George III., . 1760 957 George IV, • 1820 Edward the Martyr, . 975 William IV, • 1830 Ethelred II., 979 Victoria, • 1837 Snieyn, 1013 Kings and Queens of Scotland. Ethelred II., 1014 House of Kenneth. Edmund Ironside, 1016 Fergus II. 404 Danish Kings Eugenius II., 420 Canute the Great, 1017 Dongardus, . 451 Harold I., Harefoot, 1035 Constantine I , 457 Hardicanute, 1039 Congallus I., 479 Saxon Kings. Goranus, Eugenius III., 501 535 Edward the Confessor, 1042 Congallus II., 558 Harold II., 1066 Kinuatellus, 569 Norman Kings. Aidauus, 570 William the Conqueror, 1066 Kenneth, 605 William Rufus, 1087 Eugenius IV., 606 1100 Ferchard I., 661 1135 Donald IV., 632 The Planiagends. Ferchard II., 646 Henry II., Plantageuet, 1154 Malduinus, 664 Richard I., Coeur de Lion, . 1189 Eugenius V., 684 1199 Eugenius VI., 688 Henry III., 1216 Amberkeletus, 698 1272 Eugenius VII., . 699 Edward II., 1307 Mordachus, 715 Edward III., 1327 Etfinus, 730 Richard II., 1377 Eugenius VIII., . 761 House of Lancaster. Fergus III., Solvathius, . 764 767 Henry IV., 1399 Achaius, 787 Henry V 1413 Congallus III., 819 Henry VI., 1422 Dougal, 824 House of York. Alpine, 831 Edward IV., ' 1461 Kenneth II., 834 Edward V, 1483 Donald V., . 854 Richard III., 1483 Constantine II., . 858 House of Tudor. Eth, . 874 Henry VII., 1485 Gregory, the Great, 876 Henry VIII 1509 Donald VI., 893 Edward VI., 1547 Constantine III, 904 Mary, 1553 Malcolm I., 944 1558 Indulfus, 953 968 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. A. D. A. D Duff, 961 Clovis III., 691 Cullerj, 965 Childebert III., 695 Kenneth III., 970 Dagobert III., 711 Constantine IV., 994 Chilperic II., 715 Kenneth IV., 995 Clotaire IV., 717 Malcolm II., 1003 Chilperic II., 720 Duncan I., 1033 Thierry IV., 720 Macbeth, 1039 Interregnum, 737-741 Malcolm III., 1057 Childeric III 742 Donald VII., Duncan II., 1093 1094 Carlovingians. Donald VII., 1094 Pepin, the Short, 752 Edgar, 1098 Karl the Great, Charlemagne, 767 Alexander I., 1107 Louis I., le Debonnaire, 814 David I., . 1124 Karl, the Bald, 840 Malcolm IV., 1153 Louis II., the Stammerer, 877 William, the Lion, 1165 Louis III. and Carloman II., 879 Alexander II., 1214 Karl, the Fat 884 Alexander III., 1249 Eudes, or Hugh, 887 Interregnum, 1285-1292 Karl, the Simple, 898 Houses of Baliol and Bruce. Robert, .... Rudolf, or Raoul, 922 923 John Baliol, 1292 Louis IV., d'Outre Mer, 936 Interregnum, 1296-1306 Lothair, .... 954 Robert I., Bruce, 1306 Louis V., .... 986 David II., Bruce, Edward Baliol, . 1329 1332 House of Capet David II., . 1334 Hugh Capet, 987 Bouse of Stuart. Robert II., ... Henry I., 996 1031 Robert II., Stuart, 1371 Philip I., the Fair, 1060 Robert III., John Stuart, . 1390 Louis VI., the Fat, 1108 James I., 1406 Louis VII., the Young, 1137 James II., James III., . 1437 1460 Philip II., Augustus, - . Louis VIII., Cceur de Lion, 1180 1223 James IV., . 1488 Louis IX., Saint, 1226 James V., . . 1513 Philip III., the Hardy, 1270 Mary, . 1542 Philip IV., the Fair, . 1285 James VI., (James I. of England), . 1567-1603 Louis X., the Headstrong, 1314 Sovereigns op France. John I 1314 Merovingians. Pharamond, 420 Philip V., the Long, . Charles IV., the Handsome, 1316 1322 House of Valoi 9. Merova?us, ...... 447 Philip VI., the Fortunate, 1328 John II., the Good, 1350 Clovis I., the Great, 481 Charles V., the Wise, 1364 Childebert, Clodorair, Thierry and Clotaire, 511 Charles VI., the Beloved, . 1380 Clotaire 558 Charles VII., the Victorious, I 1422 Charibert, Gontrara, Sigebert and Chilperic, 561 Louis XL, 1461 Childebert II., 575 Charles VIII., the Affable, 1483 Clotaire IT., 613 Louis XII., 1498 P'gobert I., '628 Francis I., . 1515 Clovis II. and Sigebert II., . . . 638 Henry II., .... 1547 Clotaire III., 656 Francis II., 1559 Childeric II., 670 Charles IX., 1560 Thierry III., . • • 670 Henry III., 1574 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 969 House of Bourbon. Henry IV., tlie Great, Louis XIII. , the Just, Louis XIV., the Great, Louis XV., ihe Well Beloved, Louis XVI., Louis XVII Nap First Republic. The National Convention, The Directory, The Consulate, First Empire. NapoleoD I., Bonaparte, House of Bourbon. Louis XVIII., .... Charles X., .... House of Orleans. Louis Philippe Second Republic. Louis Napoleon, President, Second Empire. apoleon III., .... Third Republic. Thiers, MacMahon, .... Grevy, Carnot, German Emperors. Carlovingians. Karl, the Great, Louis I., le D6bonnaire, Lothair I., Louis II., . Karl II., the Bald, Karl III., the Fat, Arnulf, Louis III., the Blind, Louis IV., the Child, Saxon Emperors. Conrad I., . Henry I., the Fowler, Otho I., the Great, Otho II., the Bloody, . Otho III., the Red, . Henry II., the Saint, House of Franconia Conrad II., the Salique, Henry, III., the Black, Henry IV., Henry V., . Lothair II., the Saxon, A. D. 1589 1610 1643 1715 1774 1793 1793 1795 1799 1804 1814 1824 House of Hohenstaufen, or Suabia. 1830 1848-1852 1852 1871 1873 1879 1887- 800 814 840 855 875 881 887 899 899 911 918 936 973 983 1002 1024 1039 1056 1106 1125 Conrad III., Frederick I., Barbarossa, Henry VI., Philip, Otho IV., the Superb, Frederick II., William, Conrad IV., Conradin, Interregnum, House of Hapsburg, Rudolph, Adolphus, . Albert I., . Henry VII., of Luxemburg, Louis IV., of Bavaria, Charles IV., of Luxemburg, Wenceslas, of Bohemia, Rupert, Sigismund, House of Austria. Albert II., the Great, Frederick III., the Pacific, Maximilian I. , . Charles V., Ferdinand I., . Maximilian II., Rudolph II., Matthias, . Ferdinand II., Ferdinand III., . Leopold I., Joseph I., . Charles VI., Maria Theresa, . Francis I., of Lorraine, Joseph II., . Leopold II., Francis II., A. D. 1138 1152 1190 1198 1208 1215 1247 1250 1250 1268-1273 1273 1292 1298 1308 1314 1347 1378 1400 1410 1438 1440 1493 1519 1556 1564 1576 1612 1619 1637 1658 1705 1711 1740 1745 1765 1790 1792-1806 Confederation of the Rhine, 1806-1815. Germanic Confederation, 1815-1866. North German Confederation, 1866-1871. House of Hohenzollern. William I, 1871 Frederick (William) III., . . . 1888 William II 1888 Kings of Prussia. Frederick I., 1701 Frederick William 1 1713 Frederick II., the Great, .... 1740 Frederick William II., .... 1786 Frederick William III. 1797 Frederick William IV., .... 1840 William I., 1861-1871 970 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. Kings of Poland. House of Piast. Boleslas I., Miecislas II., Casimir I., Boleslas II., the Intrepid, Ladislas I., the Careless, Boleslas III., Wry-mouth, Ladislas II., Boleslas IV., the Curled, Miecislas III., the Old, Casirnir II., the Just, Lesko V., the White, Miecislas IV., Ladislas III., Lesko V., Boleslas V., the Chaste, Lesko VI., the Black, Anarchy, Premislas, Ladislas IV., the Short, Wenceslas, Ladislas IV., Casimir III., the Great Louis of Hungary, Maria, The Jagellon. Ladislas V., Ladislas VI., Casimir IV., John I., Albert, Alexander, Sigismund I., the Great, Sigismund II., Augustus, Elected Monarchs Heury, de Valois, Stephen, Bathori, Sigismund III., . Ladislas VII., Vasa, John II., Casimir V., Michael Wiesnowiski, John III., Sobieski, . Frederick Augustus I., Stanislas I., Lesczinski, Frederick Augustus I., Frederick Augustus II., Stanislas II., Poniatowski, Kings of Aeagon. Ramiro I, Sancho Ramirez, Peter I., of Navarre, . Alphonzo I., the Warrior, Ramiro, the Monk, Protronilla, Alphonso II., Peter II., . A. r>. 992 1025 1041 1058 1081 1102 1138 1146 1173 1177 1194 1200 1202 120S 1227 1279 12S9-1295 1295 1296 1300 1304 133S 1370 1382 1384 1434 1445 1492 1501 1506 1548 1573 1575 1587 1632 1648 1669 1674 1697 1704 1709 1733 1764-1795 1035 1065 1094 1104 1134 1137 1163 1196 A. D. 1213 Peter III., . • . 1276 Alphonso III., the Beneficent, . 1285 James II., the Just., 1291 Alphonso IV., the Meek, 1327 Peter IV., the Ceremonious, 1336 1387 Martin, 1395 Interregnum, 1410-1412 Ferdinand I., the Just, 1412 Alphonso V., the Wise, 1416 John II., 1458 Ferdinand II., the Catholic, . . 1479-1512 Kings of Castile and Leon. Ferdinand I, the Great, 1035 Sancho II., the Strong, 1065 Alphonso VI., the Valiant, •1072 Uraca, and Alphonso VII., 1109 Alphonso VII., Raymond, 1126 Sancho III., the Beloved, . 1157 Alphonso VIII., the Noble, 1158 1188 1214 Ferdinand III., the Saint, 1217 Alphonso X., the Wise, 1252 Sancho IV., the Brave, 1284 1295 Alphonso XL, 1312 Peter, the Cruel, .... 1350 Henry II., the Gracious, 1369 1379 Henry III., the Sickly, . . . 1390 1406 Henry IV., the Impotent, . 1454 Isabella, 1474 Joanna and Philip I., of Austria, 1504 Ferdinand V., 506-1512 Kings of Spain. House of Trastamora. 1512 House of Hapsburg. Charles I., 1516 Philip II., 1556 Philip III., 1598 Philip IV., 1621 Charles II., 1665 House of Bourbon. 1700 Ferdinand VI., the Wise, . 1746 Charles III., 1759 Charles IV . 1788 House of Bonaparte. Joseph Bonaparte, .... 1808 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 971 House of B ourbo n. A. D. A. D. Eric I 850 Frederick VII., 1813 Eric II 854 Isabella II., 1833 Gormo, the Old, 883 House of Savoy. Harold, Bluetooth, 941 Aniadeo I., 1870 Sweyn, the Forked Beard . 991 Canute II., the Great, 1014 Republic- 1873-1874 Canute III., .... 1035 House of Bourbon. Magnus, of Norway, . 1042 AlptaonsoXII 1874 Sweyn II., 1047 Alphonso XIII., .... 1886 Interregnum, .... 1073-1076 Harold, the Simple, 1076 Kings of Portugal. Canute IV., .... 1080 Olaus IV., the Hungry, 1086 House of Burgundy. Eric I., the Good, 1095 Alphonso I . 1139 Interregnum 1103-1105 Sancbol., . 1185 Nicholas I., .... 1105 Alphonso II., the Fat, 1212 Eric II., Harefoot, 1135 Sancho II., the Idle, . 1223 Eric III., the Lamb, . 1137 Alphonso III., 1248 Sweyn III., .... 1147 Dennis, .... 1279 Canute V., .... 1147 Alphonso IV., 1325 Waldemar, the Great, 1157 Pedro, the Severe, 1357 Canute VI., the Pious, 1182 Ferdinand I., 1367 Waldemar II., the Victorious, 1202 John I., the Great, 1385 Eric IV., 1241 Edward, 1433 Abel, 1250 Alphonso V., the African, 1438 Christopher I., .... 1252 John II., the Perfect, 1481 Eric V., . 1259 Emanuel, the Fortunate. 1495 Eric VI., 1286 John III 1521 Christopher II., 1320 Sebastian, 1557 Interregnum, .... 1334-1340 Henry, 1578 Waldemar III., .... 1340 Anthony. ... 1580 Olaus V., 1376 Margaret, 1387 United with Spain. 1580-1640 Margaret and Eric VII., 1397 House of Braganza. Eric VII 1412 Interregnum .... 1438-1440 John IV 1640 Christopher III., 1440 Alphonso VI., 1656 Peter II., . 1683 House of Oldenburg. John V., . 1706 Christian I., .... 1448 Joseph Emanuel, 1750 John, . . . • . 1481 Peter III., and Maria I., 1777 Christian II., the Cruel, 1513 Maria I., 1786 Frederick I., 1523 John VI., . 1816 Christian III., .... 1533 Peter IV., Dom Pedro, 1826 Frederick II., .... 1559 Maria II., da Gloria, . 1826 Christian IV 1588 Dom Miguel, 1828 Frederick III 1648 Maria II., . 1833 Christian V., 1670 Peter V., Dom Pedro, 1853 Frederick IV., 1699 Louis I., . 1861 Christian VI 1730 T"lrt,v» Porlno ip q o Frederick V., . 1746 1'Olli V^allUb, i.e.. lOOJ Kings of Denmark. Christian VII., 1766 Frederick VI., .... 1808 House of Skiold. Christian VIII., .... 1839 Sigurd Snogoje . . . . . . . 794 Frederick VII., .... 1848 Hardicanute 803 Christian IX 1863 972 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. Kings of Sweden. Dukes of Burgundy. A. D. A. D. OlafSchotkonung, 1001 Philip, the Bold, ..... 1363 Edmund Colbrenner, , 1026 John, the Fearless, . . 1404 Edmund Slerame, , 1051 Philip, the Good, 1419 1056 Charles, the Bold, .... 1467-1477 1066 Ingo I., the Good, . 1090 Sultans of Turkey. 1112 1299 1118 1326 Swerker I., . 1129 Amurath I., ...... 1360 1155 Bajazet I., Uderim, .... 1389 Charles VII., • 1161 Solomon, 1403 Canute, • 1167 Musa-Chelebi 1410 Swerker II., a 1199 Mahomet I., 1413 1210 Amurath II., 1421 1216 Mahomet II., . 1451 1222 Bajazet II., ..... 1481 Waldemar I., . 1250 1512 Magnus I., Ladulses, , 1275 Solomon II., the Magnificent, , , 1520 1566 Magnus II., Smsek, . 1319 1574 Erie XII., . . 1350 1595 Magnus II., . 1359 Achmet I., ..... 1603 Albert of Mecklenburg, . 13631397 Mustapha I., .... 1617 United with Denmark, 1397-1523. Osman II., ..... 1618 House of Vasa. Mustapha I., 1622 1623 Gustavus I., Vasa, 1523 1640 Eric XIV., .... 1560 1649 John III., 1569 Solomon III., 1687 1592 Achmet II., ..... 1691 Charles IX., .... 1604 1695 Gustavus II., Adolphus, the Great, 1611 Achmet III., 1703 Christina, ..... 1633 Mohammed V., Malimud, . 1730 Charles X., Gustavus, 1654 Osmau III., ..... 1754 Charles XI . 1660 1757 Charles XII., .... 1697 Achmet IV., Abdul-Ahmed, 1774 Ulrica Eleanora, .... 1718 Selimlll., . . . . '. 1789 Frederick I., 1741 1807 Adolphus Frederick, 1751 Mahmud II., Mahomet VI., 1808 Gustavus III., Adolphus, . 1771 Abdul Medjid, 1839 Gustavus IV., Adolphus, . 1792 Abdul Aziz, 1851 1809 Amurath V., 1867 House of Bernadotte. Abdul Hamid, 1876 Charles XIV., John, . 1818 Czaes of Russia. 1844 Charles XV., .... 1859 House of Buric. 1872 Ivan, the Great, Basilovitz, 1462 Kings of Naples and Sicily. Vasali, Basil V., .... 1505 Normans. Ivan IV., the Terrible, 1533 Roger I., 1131 1584 "William I., the Bad, . 1154 Boris-Godonoff, 1598 William II., the Good, 1166 1605 Tancred, 1189 Demetrius, tie Impostor, . 1606 William III., 1194 Zouinski, Vasali-Chouiski, 1606 Constance, . . 1194-1197 Lad islaus, of Poland, 1610 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. 973 House of Bomanoff. Michael, Feodorovitz, Alexis, Feodor II., Ivan V., and Peter I., Peter I., the Great, Catharine I., Peter II., . Anne, Ivan VI., . Elizabeth, Peter III., Catharine II., Paul, Alexander I., Nicholas I., Alexander II., Alexander III., Empeeoes of Austeia House of Hapsburg. Francis I., . Ferdinand, .... Francis Joseph, Kings of Holland. House of Orange. William Frederick, William II., . William III Wilhelmina, .... Leopold I., Leopold II., Otho I., George I., Kings of Belgium. House of Saxe-Coburg. Kings of Geeece. House of Bavaria. House of Denmark. Kings of Italy. House of Savoy. Victor Emmanuel, Humbert, ..... Peinces of Roumania Alexander Couza, Charles I., .... Peinces of Bulgaeia Alexander I,, Ferdinand, .... Peinces of Seevia. Milosch I., Obrenovitch, Michael II., .... Michael III , a. d. 1613 1645 1676 1682 1689 1725 1727 1730 1740 1741 1762 1762 1796 1801 1825 1855 1881 1804 1835 1848- 1813 1840 1849 1890- 1831 1865 1832 1863- 1S61 1878- 1859 1866- 1879 1887- 1829 1839 1840 Alexander, Milosch I., Michael III., Milan IV., Alexander, Peinces of Montenegeo. Daniel, ...... Nicholas, Shahs of Peesia. Suffean Dynasty. Ismail, Tamasp, Ismail II., Meerza, Mahommed, Meerza, Abbas I., the Great, Sophi, Abbas II., Sophi II., . Hussein, Mahmoud, Ashraff, the Usurper, Tamasp II., Abbas III., Nadir, Rokh, Interregnum, Kureem Khan, Anarchy, Turkoman Dynasty. Aga-Mahommed Khan, Futteh Ali, . . . Mahommed, Nasr-ul-Deen, Mogul Empeeoes of India. Baber, Humayuu, Akbar, Jehanghir, Shah Jehan, Aurungzebe, Bahadoor Shah, Jehander Shah, Mahomed Shah, Empeeoes of China. Chwang-Lei, Shun-che, . Kang-hi, Yung-ching, Keen-lung, Kea-king, . Taou-Kwang, Hieng-fung, Ki-tsiang, Toung- Kwang Su, A. D. 1842 1858 1860 1868 1889 1851 I860 1502 1523 1576 1577 1585 1628 1641 1666 1694 1722 1725 1730 1732 1736 1749 1751-1759 1759 1759-1795 1795 1798 1834 chi, 1848 1526 1531 1556 1605 1627 1658 1707 1713 1719-1748 1627 1643 ' 1662 1723 1736 1795 1820 1850 1861 1875- 974 SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS. MlKADOS OF JAI 'AN, A. D. A. D. Rutherford B. Hayes, 1877 Koinei Tenno, James A. Garfield, .... 1881 Mutsu Hito 1867 Chester A. Arthur 1881 Khedives of Egypt. Grover Cleveland, .... 1885 Mehemet Ali Pasha 1806 Benjamin Harrison, .... 1889 Ibrahim, ..... 1848 Grover Cleveland, .... 1893 Abbas, .... 1848 Governors General of Canada Said, 1854 Earl of Durham, .... 1838 Ismail, .... 1863 Sir John Colborne, 1838 Mechmet Tewfik, 1879 Lord Sydenham, 1839 Abbas Hilmi, 1892 Sir Charles Bagot, 1841 British Governors of India. Lord Metcalfe, . . 1843 Warren Hastings, ..... 1772 Earl Cathcart, 1846 Sir John Macpherson, 1785 Earl of Elgin, 1846 Lord Cornwallis, 1786 Lord Monck, 1861 Sir John Shore, 1793 Lord Lisgar, 1^64 Marquis Wellesley, 1798 Earl of Dufferin, 1872 Lord Cornwallis, 1805 Marquis of Lome, 1878 Sir George Hilaro Barlow . 1805 Marquis of Lansdowne, 1884 Lord Minto, 1807 Lord Stanley of Preston, . 1888 Marquis of Hastings, 1813 Rulers of Mexico. Lord Amherst, . 1823 Emperor. Lord William Bentnick 1828 Augustin Itnrbide, .... L822-1823 Lord Metcalfe, . 1835 Presidents. Lord Auckland, 1836 Guadalupe Victoria 1825 Lord Ellenborough, . . 1842 Guerrero, . 1829 Sir Henry Hardinge, 1844 Bustamente, 1830 Lord Dalhousie, 1848 Pedraza, 1832 Lord Canning, 1855 Santa Anna, . . 1833 Lord Elgin, 1861 Bustamente, 1837 Lord Lawrence, 1863 Santa Anna, 1841 Lord Mayo, 1868 Herrera, 1845 Lord Northbrook, 1872 Paredes, 1846 Lord Lytton, 1876 Santa Anna, 1846 Marquis of Ripon, 1880 Herrera, 1848 Earl of Dufferin, 1884 Arista, 1851 Marquis of Lansdowne, 1888 Santa Anna, 1853 Presidents of the United States. Alvarez, 1855 George Washington 1789 Comonfort, 1856 John Adams, 1797 Zuloaga, 1858 Thomas JeffersoD, 1801 Benito Juarez, 1861 James Madison, 1809 Emperor. James Monroe, . 1817 Maximilian, of Austria, 1864-1867 John Quincy Adams, 1825 Presidents. Andrew Jackson, 1829 Benito Juarez, ..... 1864 Martin Van Buren, 1837 Lerdo de Tejado, . 1872 William Henry Harrison, . 1841 Porfirio Diaz, 1877 John Tyler, 1841 Gonzalez, 1880 James Knox Polk, 1845 Porfirio Diaz, 1884 Zacbary Taylor, 1849 Rulers of Brazil. Millard Fillmore, 1850 House of Braganza. Franklin Pierce, 1853 1822 James Buchanan, 1857 Dom Pedro II., ..... 1831-1889 Abraham Lincoln, 1861 Presidents. Andrew Johnson, 1865 Deodora da Fonseca, .... 1889 Ulysses S. Grant, 1869 Floriano Peixoto, 1891 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. B. C. 2500 2205 2200 2100 2000 1900 1800 1580 1500 1550 1451 1300 1263 1250 1194 1104 1100 1100 1068 1068 1004 1000 975 962- 950 884 880 858- 850 800 776 754 753 750 730 729 721 710 683 675 Building of the great pyramid in Egypt, Founding of China, Construction of Lake Moris in Egypt, Egypt subdued by the Hyksos, Time of Abraham, Time of Isaac and Jacob, Time of Joseph, Egypt delivered from the Hyksos, Time of Moses, . Hellenes conquer the Peloponnesus from the Pelasgi, Israelites enter Palestine, Israel governed by the Judges, . Argonautic expedition, Conquest of India by Hindus, Trojan war begun. Dorians enter Peloponnesus, Cadiz settled by Phoenicians, Time of Samuel, Dorians defeated by Codrus, First Archon appointed in Greece, Consecration of Solomon's Temple, The Vedas written in India, Kingdom of Israel divided, 469 Laws of Menu written in India. Time of Homer, Time of Lycurgus in Greece, Carthage founded by Queen Dido, 810 Conquest of Babylonia and Syria by Assyria, Time of Hesiod, Phido of Argos unites iEgina and north eastern states of Peloponnesus against Sparta, .... Founding of Olympian games, Office of Archon opened to all noble families in Greece, Founding of Eome, Rape of the Sabines, First Messenian war begius, Tiglath-pileser conquers Babylon and Samaria, Sargon II., of Assyria, conquers Samaria and Phoenicia and carries the Israel ites into captivity, Sennacherib invades Judea, Archons elected annually in Greece, Assurhadon, of Assyria, conquers Egypt, page b. c. 47 670 Psammetichus of Sais conquers Egypt, 31 670 Second Messenian war begins, . 47 665 Destruction of Alba Longa by Rome, 47 627 Ostia built by Aucns Marcius, . 52 620 Draco compiles code of laws in Greece, 52 605 Death of Sardanapalus and destruction 52 of Nineveh, 48 600 Periauder tyrant in Coiinth, 54 600-500 Time of "seven wise men" ir Greece, .... 81 597 Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem, 56 594 Solon establishes the laws of Greece, 56 590 Nebuchadnezzar takes Tyre, 82 588 Judah carried captive to Babylon, 32 560 Cyrus conquers Media, . 82 560 Pisistratus tyrant of Athens, 86 551-479 Reign of Confucius, 50 550 Spread of Buddhism in India, 58 549 Cyrus conquers Lydia, . 87 540 Persians conquer Phoenicia, 96 538 Cyrus permits some of the Jews to re- 62 turn, .... 35 538 Cyrus conquers Babylon, 62 530 Polycrates tyrant in Samos, 35 529 Cyrus destroyed by Tomyris, 84 527 Cambyses conquers Egypt, 92 527 Hippias and Hipparchus tyrants in 51 Athens, .... 510 A republic established at Athens, 37 509 Overthrow of the Tarquins, and estab 86 lishment of the Roman republic, 507 Lars Porsenna repulsed through the bravery of Horatius Codes, 96 504 Persian invasion of Greece, 92 500 Death of Pythagoras of Samos, 499 First Roman dictator appointed {Titus 96 Lartius.) .... 150 495 Destruction of Miletus, 150 494 First seeession of the Plebeians to the 95 Sacred Mount, 491 Coriolanus besieges Rome, but is in- 38 duced to retire, . 490 Persian invasion of Greece, 490 Battle of Marathon, Sept. 12, . 38 486 Spurius Cassius hurled from the Tar 39 peian Rock, 96 484 Birth of Herodotus, 39 481 Invasion of Greece by Xerxes, . (975) PAGE 48 95 154 156 96 41 98 65 96 42 65 68 98 32 34 70 52 66 70 98 72 72 99 99 157 159 101 100 159 101 159 160 101 102 161 88 103 976 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. B. C. 480 Battle of Thermopy Ire, Aug., 480 Athens burned by the Persians, 480 Battle of Salamis, Oct. 20, 479 Battle of Mycale, Sept. 22, 479 Battle of Platasa, Sept. 22, 477 War between Rome and Veii, and death oftheFabii, 471 Themistocles banished from Athens, 466 End of Persian war, 465 Terrible earthquake in Sparta, 465 Rebellion of the Messenians and Ilelots in Sparta, 463 Cirnon ostracized, 458 Cincinnatns, dictator, conquers the jEqui, .... 457 Jerusalem rebuilt, under Ezra and Nc hemiah, 457 Battle of Tanagra, 456 Death of iEschylus, 455 Messenians compelled to give up Ithorne, .... 451 Appointment of decemvirs iu Rome, 450 Age of Pericles, . 450 Birth of Herodotus, 449 Death of Cirnon at Cyprus, 449 Death of Virginia and overthrow of Appius Claudius, 449 Decemvirs abolished, 447 Battle of Coronea, between Athens and Bceotia, .... 445 Peace of Pericles, 415 Marriage between Patricians and Pie beians permitted, 444 Military tribunes created in Rome, 443 First censors appointed in Rome, 442 Parthenon built by Pericles, 431 Peloponnesian war begins, 429 Terrible plague in Athens, 427 Plateans yield to the Spartans 425 Demosthenes takes possession of Pylos 421 Peace of Nicias concluded between Athens and Sparta, 418 Battle of Mantinea, 415 Athenian expedition against Syr. fuse, .... 413 Athenians defeated at Syracuse, 413 Death of generals Demosthenes and Nicias, 407 Battle of Ephesus, 406 Death of Sophocles, 406 Death of Euripides, 406 Battle of Lesbos, 405 Battle of iEgospotamos, 404 Athens surrenders to Sparta, 404 Government of the "Thirty Tyrants" in Athens established by Lysauder, page B. c. 105 403 Democracy restored in Athens through 105 Thrasybulus, 106 402 Death of Thucydides, . 107 401 Battle of Cunaxa, 107 400 Retreat of the ten thousand, under Xen ophon, 160 399 Death of Socrates, 110 396 Conquest of Veii by Rome, and over 110 throw of the power of Etruria, 110 335 Battle of Haliartus, 394 Battle of Coronea, 110 394 Sea-fight at Cnidus, 110 390 Rome taken by the Gauls, 389 War between Corinth and Spart 1G0 388 Death of Aristophanes, 387 Peace of Autalcidas, C6 385 Spartans destroy Mantinea, 110 383 Theban war begins, 123 383 Execution of Marcus Manlius, 380 Spartans compel the submission of 110 Olynthia, 161 373 Platsea subjected by Thebes, 111 371 Battle of Leuctra, 124 370 Rise of the Theban power in Greece, 111 369 Messene rebuilt by Epaminondas, 366 Passage of the Licinian laws, . 162 364 Death of Pelopidas, 161 362 Battle of Mantinea ; death of Epami nondas, .... Ill 358 Death of Agesilaus, 111 358 The Athenians al tempt to subjugate th maritime cities, 162 358 Death of Agesilaus, 162 357 Sacred wars begun in Greece, 162 356 Death of Xenophon, 111 348 Death of Plato, . 111 343 First Samnite war begins, 112 342 Defeat of the Samuites at Cumse 112 342 War between Rome and the Latins, 112 340 End of Samnite war, 339 Locrian war, 112 338 Defeat of the Latins by Decius Mus in 113 the Battle of Vesuvius, 338 Death of Isocrates, 113 338 Battle of Chseronea, 113 337 Council of Corinth, 335 Rebelliou of Thebes against Alexander, 113 334 Alexander marches against Persia 113 334 Battle of Granicus, 123 333 Darius defeated in the Battle of Issus, 123 332 Conquest of Tyre by Alexander, 114 332 Destruction of Gaza, 114 332 Founding of Alexandria in Egypt, 114 331 Battle of Arbela and fall of Persia Oct. 1., . 11*4 330 Battle of Megalopolis, . PAGE 114 125 118 118 118 162 120 120 120 164 120 123 120 120 120 164 120 120 120 121 122 164 122 122 119 122 122 127 125 124 165 165 165 165 128 165 125 130 130 131 131 131 132 132 132 132 134 142 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 977 B. C. 329 Conspiracy of Parmenio and Philetas, 328 Death of Clitus, . . * . 327 Second Samnite war begins, 327 Conquest of India by Alexander, 326 Battle with Poms, Callisthenes, (put to death) ..... 325 Voyage of Nearch in the Persian Gulf, 324 Alexander celebrates the feast of Dion- ysos in Equitana, 324 Death of Diogenes, 323 Reign of the Ptolemies in Egypt begins 323 Death of Alexander, the Great, 322 Death of Demosthenes, 321 Perdiccas murdered by his army, 321 Romans defeated by the Samnites, and compelled to pass under the yoke 318 Death of Phocion, 317 Demetrius, the Phalerian, rules Athens 317 Syracuse besieged by Cartilage, 314 Death of ^Eschiues, 312 Conquest of Syria by Seleucus, 312 Seleucus conquers Babylon, 306 Ptolemy defeated by Demetrius n Cyprus, .... 304 End of second Samnite war, 301 Battle of Ipsus; death of Antigonus 298 Third Samnite war begins, 290 Subjection of the Samnites by Rome, 289 Mamertines sieze Messina, and devaS' tate Syracuse, 281 Pyrrhus makes war with Rome, 277 Greek translation of the Old Testa ment, known as the Septuagint, 275 Defeat of Pyrrhus at Beneventum, 272 Death of Pyrrhus at Argos, 272 Conquest of Tarentum by Rome, 261 First Punic war begins, 260 First Roman fleet built; naval battle of Mylse, .... 255 Defeat of Rome by Carthage ; captivity of Regulus, 250 Formation of the Achaian League, 241 End of first Punic war, 241 Death of Agis IV., of Sparta, 240 War with the mercenaries of Carthage, 238 Sicily made the first Roman province, 228 Conquest of the Illyrians, 222 Battle of Sellasia ; defeat of Sparta, . 222 Rome subdues the Cis-Alpine Gauls, . 220 Death of Cleomenes, 219 Siege of Saguntum by Hannibal, . . 218 Second Punic war begins, 218 Hannibal crosses the Alps, 217 Battle at Lake Trasimene ; defeat of the Romans, . . 216 Defeat of the Romans at Cannas, 62 PAGE B. C. PAGE 136 215 First Macedonian war begins, . . 179 136 212 Syracuse taken by Marcellus, . . 174 166 212 Death of Archimedes, . . .145 138 211 Great wall of China completed . 31 211 Destruction of Capua, . . . 176 138 208 Conquest of Sparta by the Achaian 138 League, . . . . .143 207 Defeat and death of Hasdrubal, . 176 141 203 Defeat of Hannibal in the battle of 145 Zama, . . . . .179 143 202 End of second Punic war, . . 179 141 200 Second Macedonian war begun, . 179 142 197 Defeat of Philip at Kynoskephala ; Iu- 141 dependence of Greece acknowledged, . 179 192 Roman war with Antiochus, . . 180 166 183 Death of Hannibal and ScipioAfricanus, 180 142 183 Death of Philopasmon, " the last of the 142 Greeks," in a war against the Mes- 167 senians, ..... 143 126 172 Third Macedonian war begun, . 181 143 168 Perseus defeated at Pydna; Macedon 141 made a Roman province, . . 181 149 Third Punic war begins, . . 182 141 146 Destruction of Corinth, . . 183 166 146 Destruction of Carthage, . . 184 142 144 Death of Judas Maccabseus, . . 144 166 135 Death of Simon Maccabsus, . . 144 166 133 Tiberius Gracchus renews the Licinian laws, • . ■ . .188 167 123 Caius Gracchus renews the proposal of 166 Tiberius, . . . .188 121 Agrarian disturbances in Rome ; death 144 of Fulvius and Gracchus, . . 189 166 113 Cimbrians and Teutonians defeat the 167 Romans, . • . .190 167 112 Jugurthine war begins, . . 190 167 107 Marius elected Consul, . . . 190 106 End of Jugurthine war, . . 190 168 102 Defeat of the Teutons by Marius at Aquae Sextise, .... 191 168 90 War against the allies, . . 192 142 88 First war against Mithridates, . 192 141 88 Sylla chosen consul, . . . 192 142 87 First civil war in Rome, . . 194 171 86 Athens conquered by Sylla; Delphi 171 plundered, .... 194 171 86 Death of Marius, ■ . .194 143 84 Death of Cinna, ■ ■ .194 171 78 Death of Sylla, . . .195 142 74 Second war against Mithridates begun, 197 171 75 Rebellion of Sertorius in Spain, . 195 171 72 Revolt of the gladiators, . . 196 172 71 Overthrow and death of Spartacus . 196 70 Pompey and Crassus, consuls of Rome, 196 172 69 Tigranes of Parthia defeated by 174 Lucullus, . . . 197 978 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. b. c. 67 Pompey made dictator over all seas and shores, .... 64 Syria conquered by Pompey, 63 Death of Mithridates, . 63 Jerusalem taken by the Romans, 63 Conspiracy of Cataline, 60 Formation of first triumvirate by Caesar Pompey and Crassus, 58 Banishment of Cicero, . 58 Caesar's Gallic wars, 55 Caesar's first invasion of Britain, 54 Caesar's second invasion of Britain 53 Crassus overthrown and killed by Par thians, .... 52 Complete subjection of Gaul, 49 Second civil war. 49 Caesar crosses the Rubicon, 48 Death of Pompey, 48 Caesar proclaimed dictator, 47 Caesar conquers Egypt, . 47 Overthrow of Pharnaces by Caesar. 44 Death of Caesar, 43 Formatiou of second triumvirate by Oc tavius, Antony and Lepidus, 43 Death of Cicero, 42 Defeat and death of Cassius at Philippi. 42 Death of Brutus, 31 Defeat of Antony by Octavius at Ac tium, .... 30 Death of Cleopatra; Egypt becomes a Roman province. 13 Formation of Praetorian Guards, 4 Birth of Jesus Christ, A. D. 6 Tiberius completes the conquest of West Germany, 9 Destruction of Varus and three legions by Hermann in the Teutoburger forest 14 Germanicns in Germany, 64 Rome burned to the ground under Nero, .... 69 Brief civil war between Vitellius and Vespasian, 70 Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus 75 Coliseum built by Vespasian, 79 Destruction of Herculaneum and Pom peii by an eruption of Vesuvius, 84 Conquest of Britain by Agricola, 102 Pliny, the Younger, governor of Bithy nia, .... 106 Dacia conquered by Trajan, 114 Erection of column of Trajan, 121 Hadrian visits Britain, 136 Final overthrow of Jewish nation, 162 Marcus Aurelius, conducts a war against the Parthians, . . . . AGE A. D. PAGE 226 Artaxerxes I., founds Sassanides dynasty 197 in Persia, . . . .235 197 250 Invasion of Rome by Goths, . . 236 198 269 Claudius II., conquers the Goths in 145 Pannonia, • • - .236 198 270 Dacia Relinquished by Aurelian . 238 273 Conquest of Palmyra by Aurelian, . 238 199 312 Constantine overthrows Maxentius, . 312 199 313 Constantine issues the decree of Milan 199 protecting the Christians, . . 240 200 321 Observance of Sunday established by 200 Constantine, Mar. 7, . . . 246 325 First general council at Nicea, . 246 202 330 Constantine founds Constantinople and 200 makes it -the capital, . . . 244 202 364 Division of the Roman Empire between 202 Valens and Valentinian I., . . 248 203 375 Valens allows the West Goths to settle 203 south of the Danube, . . .249 204 376 The Huns invade Europe, driving the 204 Goths before them, . . .249 206 378 Valens defeated by the Goths at Adrian- ople, . • • . .249 206 402 Alaric invades upper Italy, . . 251 206 406 Duke Radegais and the Germans de- 206 feated by Stilicho, . . .252 207 408 Stilicho forms an alliance with Alaric, 252 410 Rome plundered by the Goths under 208 Alaric, Aug. 24. ... 254 411 Spain conquered by the Vandals, . 254 208 412 West Goths invade south Gaul, . 254 219 414 Spain conquered by the West Goths, . 254 145 430 Vandals conquer north Africa, . 254 449 Conquest of Britain by the Angles and Saxons, . . . . .261 213 451 The Huns uuder Attila invade upper Italy, 255 Destruction of Aquileja by Attila, . 255 Rome conquered by the Vandals uuder Genseric, July 15, 256 Odoacer terminates the Western Em- pire, ..... 257 Clovis, king of the Franks, conquers Gaul, . . . . .258 Theodoric establishes his kingdom at Ravenna, .... 258 Clovis defeats the Alemanni and em- braces Christianity, . ... 258 Clovis puts to death the other chiefs of the Franks, . . . .258 Justinian code published, . . 262 Conquest of Rome by Belisarius, . 262 Totila, the Goth, reconquers Italy, . 262 Lombards enter Italy at, the invitation of Narses, .... 264 230 596 Conversion of England to Christianity, 261 213 452 . 214 455 . 221 476 i . 222 486 • 224 . 224 493 . 226 496 . 226 507 . 227 227 529 . 227 536 . 230 544 226 568 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 979 A. D. 622 Flight of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina (Hegira,) July 16, 932 Death of Mohammed, 631 Publication of Koran, 638 Moslems conquer Egypt, Palestiue and Syria, ..... 650 Islam invades India, 675 Conquest of north Africa by Saracens, 687 Pipin of Heristal establishes the office of " Duke of the Franks," 711 Conquest of Spain by Moors, 732 ' Decisive defeat of the Saracens by Charles Martel, at Tours, 754 Destruction of images decreed by Leo, 755 Foundation of the Caliphate of Cordova in Spaiu, ..... 755 "Donation of Pipin," establishing the temporal power of the Pope, 744 Karl the Great conquers Saxony and Lombardy, .... 777 Defeat and death of Roland at Ronces- valles, ..... 783 England invaded by the Danes, 787 Images restored to the churches by Irene, ..... 800 Karl the Great, crowued Emperor of Rome, December, 827 Uuion of the Saxon heptarchy by Egbert of Wessex, forming the kingdom of England, .... 843 Treaty of Verdun and separation of Ger- many from France, 862 Founding of Russia by Ruric at Nov- govod ..... 875 Denmark founded by Gorm, the Old, . 875 Norway founded by Harold Fairhair, . 891 Arnulf of Germany defeats the Nor- mans, and destroys the kingdom of Moravia, .... 900 Sweden founded by the Yinglings, 911 Germany becomes an elective monarchy, 912 Charles the Simple grants Normandy to Rollo, 2i 933 Henry the Fowler of Germany defeats the Magyars at Merseburg, . . 290 955 Otto I. defeats the Magyars at Lechfeld, and ends their westward progress, 292, 381 962 Coronation of Otto as emperor of Ger- many, ..... 966 Conversion of Duke Misco of Poland, by German missionaries, ■973 Geisa, king of Hungary, converted to Christianity, .... 980 Greenland discovered by Icelanders, 988 Vladimir the Great introduces Chris- tianity into Russia, A.GE A. D 1000 267 266 1000 267 1002 268 1016 268 1018 270 1025 261 270 1028 271 1042 264 1060 271 1066 1077 275 279 1081 280 286 265 280 261 282 1084 1085 1096 1098 1099 1099 1130 1138 285 1140 379 1147 379 1157 1155 1162 284 379 1164 284 1170 379 1176 1177 1180 292 1187 1189 383 1192 381 1203 285 1203 1209 385 1212 Introduction of Christianity into Sweden by Olaf Lapking, Stephen, the Saint, establishes the Roman Catholic religion in Hungary, . Massacre of the Danes in England, Canute of Denmark conquers England, Olaf the Saint diffuses Christianity in Norway, . . . . . Canute the Great of Denmark converted to Christianity, . . . . Canute the Great of Denmark, conquers Norway, . Saxon Dynasty restored in England, Robert Guiscard, a Norman duke, con- quers lower Italy, Conquest of England by the Normans, Henry IV., of Germany, humiliated by Pope Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) at Canossa, . . . . . Henry IV. of Germany leads an ex- pedition across the Alps against Gre- gory, .... Rome taken by Henry IV. of Germany, Pope Urban II. begins to preach the first crusade, First crusade undertaken, Crusaders take Antioch, Death of the Cid in Spain, Capture of Jerusalem by crusaders July 15 Roger II. founds the kingdom of Naples and Sicily, Separation of Austria from Bavaria, Guelph and Ghibelline feuds begin, Second crusade, Frederick Barbarossa invades Italy, Death of Arnold of Brescia, Destruction of Milan by Frederick Bar barossa, .... Constitutions of Clarendon issued in England by Henry II. Murder of Thomas a Becket, Battle of Legnano and defeat of Ger many by Italy, English conquest of Ireland under Henry II. ... Barbarossa deposes Henry, the Lion, of Bavaria and Saxony, Saladin takes Jerusalem, Third crusade, Richard Lion-Heart imprisoned in Ger many, .... Fourth crusade, Normandy seized by Philip, Crusade against the Albigenses, Crusade of children, PAGE 370 381 286 286 379 379 380 286 288 289 298 298 298 302 302 306 272 306 288 321 320 310 321 321 321 359 360 322 366 323 312 312 312 314 360 319 314 980 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. A. D. 1215 Magua Charta signed by King John of of England, 1222 "The Golden Privilege" granted to Hungary by Andreas II., 1223 Waldemar II., of Denmark, imprisoned by Count Henry of Schwerin, . 1224 Moguls overrun Eussia, 1227 Guengis Khan, chief of the Moguls, be gins his career of conquests, 1228 Fifth crusade, 1229 Othman founds the Ottoman empire at Prusa, Bithynia, 1233 The Holy Inquisition established, 1241 Moguls defeat Duke Henry of Silesia at Lignitz, .... 1242 Eussia made tributary to the Khan of the Golden Horde, 1245 Hanseatic League established, 1250 Egypt comes under control of the Mamelukes, 1254 Naples conquered by Conrad IV. of Ger many. .... 1258 The Moguls overthrow the Caliphate of Bagdad, 1265 English Parliament divided into Peers and Commons, . . . , 1266 Florentine guilds established, . 1266 Battle of Beneventum, and end of the power of the Ghibellines in Italy, 1266 Naples and Sicily conquered by Charles of Anjou, .... 1269 Westminster Abbey rebuilt by Henry III., 1270 Sixth crusade, .... 1277 The Visconti become paramount in Mi- lan, ■ . . . . 1282 The massacre of the Sicilian Vespers, 1282 Conquest of Sicily by Peter III. of Ar- agou, . 1283 AVales annexed to England, 1291 Mamelukes take Antioch and Acre, 1291 Kobert Bruce and John Baliol contend for the Scottish crown, 1300 Party struggles of the Guelphs and Ghibellines in Florence, 1301 Hungary becomes an elective monarchy, 1302 Invention of the compass by Flavio Gioja, ..... 1302 Quarrel between Philip the Fair of France and Pope Boniface, 1305 William Wallace of Scotland defeated by the English and executed, . . 1305 Avignon in France becomes the seat of the papacy, 1310 The order of Knights Templar abol- ished in France, PAGE A. D. p AGE 1310 Henry VII. of Germany unites Bobe- 362 mia to the Empire, . . . 341 1315 Austrians defeated by the Swiss at the 3S2 Battle of Morgarten, . . . 341 1322 Frederick of Austria taken prisoner at 380 the Battle of Miihldorf, . . 341 385 1330 Organization of Janissaries by Oscar, 388 1346 Battle of Crecy, . . .352 386 1347 Calais taken by Edward III. of England, 356 316 1347 Cola di Eienzi establishes a new Ro- man Republic, May 20. Abdicates, 388 Dec 15, 376 268 1348 First German university established at Prague, . . . . .343 386 1354 Assassination of Cola di Rienzi, the last of the tribunes, .... 376 385 1355 Failure of the conspiracy against the 337 Republic of Venice and execution of the leader, Marino Faliero, April 17, 372 316 1356 John Wyclif translates the Bible into English, . . . • .346 326 1356 Karl IV. issues the Golden Bull, . 343 1356 Battle of Poitiers, . . .352 386 1358 Insurrection in Paris, . . . 352 1360 Calais and southwest France ceded to 363 England, .... 352 375 1361 Turks enter Thrace and take Adrian- ople, . . . . -388 328 1370 Poland becomes an elective monarchy, 384 1377 Papal court returns to Rome, . 376 328 1378 Two popes reign, at Avignon and Rome, 344 1380 Genoese fleet sails victoriously through 362 the lagoons of Venice in the Chioggia 316 war, . . . . .372 1381 Insurrection of Wat Tyler suppressed 363 374 1386 Battle of Sempach and death of Arnold 330 von Winkelried, . . . 344 1389 Bajazet overuns provinces of the East- 367 ern Empire, . . . .388 362 1396 Christians defeated by the Turks at the 318 Battle of Nicopolis, . .388 1397 Genoa comes under the protection of 362 foreign lords, .... 372 1397 Union of Calmar, unites Norway, Swed- 375 en and Denmark under Margarethe, . 380 382 1402 Bajazet defeated and taken prisoner at Angora by Tamerlane, . . . 389 395 1404 Conquest of Padua and Verona by Ven- ice, . . . . .372 339 1406 Pisa becomes subject to Florence, . 375 1409 Universit}' of Leipzig founded, 347,404 362 1410 Poland subdues the Teutonic Order of Knights in the Battle of Tannenburg, 384 340 1414 Henry of Plauen, grand master of the Teutonic Knights is deprived of his 341 dignity, and conspires with the Poles, 384 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 981 A. D. 1411 1415 1415 1416 1416 1419 1420 1421 1426 1429 1429 1431 1431 1435 1436 1439 1440 1444 1450 1453 1455 1456 1456 1456 1464 1466 1467 1471 1476 1476 1477 1477 1479 1479 1482 1482 1483 1483 1485 1486 PAGE Council of Constance, . . . 347 Martyrdom of John Huss, . . 348 Battle of Agincourt, . . . 356 Savoy made a duchy, . . . 374 Martyrdom of Jerome of Prague, . 348 The Hussite or Holy war in Germany, 348 Cosmo de Medici rules Florence, . 375 Murad II. restores the Ottoman empire 389 University of Lyons erected, . . 378 Order of Golden Fleece founded . 378 Joan of Arc delivers Orleans, . . 356 Council of Basel, . . .349 Death of Joan of Arc, . . . 358 Alfonzo V, of Aragon seizes Naples, . 377 Charles VII. enters Pans, . . 359 Council of Florence, . . . 390 Introduction of the art of printing by John Guttenberg of Mayence, . 395 Ladislaus of Huugary and Hunyad de- feated and slain at Varna by Sultan Amurath, . . . .390 Francesco Sforza subdues Milan and be- comes duke, . ... . 374 Constantinople taken by the Turks un- der Mohammed II., which ends the Eastern Roman empire, . . 390,404 Wars of the Roses begin, ' . . 364 Hunyad rescues Hungary from the Turks, . . . 382,390 Greece subjected to the Turks, . 390 Hunyad victorious over the Turks at Belgrade, Cosmo de Medici dies, Peace of Thorn, Death of Scanderberg, . End of Wars of the Roses, University of Upsala founded Defeat of Charles the Bold of Burgun- dy in the battles of Grauson and Mur- ten, ..... University of Tubingen established, . Charles the Bold of Burgundy defeated and slain at the Battle of Nancy, Janu- ary 5, .... Louis XL annexes Burgundy to France, Aragon and Castile united, Conspiracy of Louis XL against Maxi- milian, guardian of Philip of Bur- gundy, ..... Death of Maria, Duchess of Burgundy, Birth of Martin Luther, November 10, Richard III., of England, murders the young princes in the tower. Battle of Bosworth, Aug. 22, Bartholemew Diaz discovers the Cape of Good Hope, . . . .396 390 375 385 390 364 380 378 421 378 379 367 379 379 406 364 364 A. D. 1488 1492 1492 1492 1492 1492 1492 1492 1495 1495 1497 1498 1498 1498 1499 1499 1497 1499 1500 1500 1500 1500 1501 1502 1502 1504 1506 1506 1507 1508 1508 1510 1512 1513 1513 1513 1514 Rebellion of Ghent and the guilds of Bruges, Death of Lorenzo de Medici, Expulsion of the Moors from Spain, Expulsion of the Jews from Spain, Lorenzo, the Magnificent, dies, Columbus sails from Palos, Aug. 3. Columbus discovers the Island of San Salvador, Oct. 12. ... Founding of Hispauiola by Columbus, Dec, .... Diet of Worms, . Naples conquered by Charles VIII., of France, ..... Discovery of Labrador by the Cabots, . Savonarola burned at the stake, May 23, Vasco de Gama discovers the sea route to India, .... Discovery of South America by Co- lumbus, . . ... Milan conquered by Louis XII., of France, ..... Maximilian acknowledges the independ- ence of the Swiss, Sebastian Cabot discovers St. John, 790, 799 Discovery of Brazil by Vincent Peneon, 958 Ludovico, the Moor, led captive to France, ..... Birth of Charles V., Duke of Burgundy, Brazil discovered and acquired for Portugal, .... Columbus deposed and sent in chains to Spain, ..... Louis XII. of France and Ferdinand of Spain subjugate and divide Naples, Fourth voyage of Columbus to America, University of Wittenberg founded, Spain acquires Naples aud Sicily, Death of Philip of Burgundy, . Death of Columbus at Valladolid, Spain, May 2., City of Ormuz, Persia, conquered by Albuquerque, .... League of Cambray agaiust Venice, Luther goes to Wittenberg, Albuquerque founds a Portuguese colony in India, Ponce de Leon discovers Florida, April 4, • ■ • • . ■ James IV., of Scotland defeated by Henry VIII., of England in Flodden Field, Sept. 9, . Alliance of Scotland with France, Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean, Reuchlin accused of heresy by the Do- minicans, .... 405 379 376 368 370 376 398 400 400 350 377 402 376 396 400 374 351 374 379 398 400 377 400 406 378 379 400 398 272 406 398 787 366 366 402 982 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 406 406 406 407 421 464 402 408 408 408 416 A. D. PAGE 1515 Death of Albuquerque, . . 398 1515 Battle of Marignano, . . 374, 416 1517 Leo X. publishes general indulgences throughout Europe, 1517 Commencenieut of the Reformation, 1518 Luther defends himself at Augsburg, October, . . 1519 Debate between Luther and John Eck at Leipzig, .... 1519 Duke Ulric driven from Wurtemberg by the Swabian union, 1519 Death of Leonardo da Vinci, 1520 Magellan circumnavigates the globe, . 1520 Luiher appears before the Diet of Worms, April, .... 1520 Luther ex-communicated by the Pope and his writings condemned, June 16, 1520 Luther burns the Papal bull of condem- nation, Dec. 10, . 1520 First war between Charles V. and Francis I., 1520 Christian II., of Denmark, massacres the Swedish nobility at Stockholm, 381, 436 1520 Death of Raphael, . . 377,464 1521 Conquest of Mexico by Cortez, . 402 1521 Luther excommunicated by the Diet of Worms, May 26, ... 1521 Gustavus Vasa takes Upsala, 1522 Knights of St. John compelled to sur- render the Island of Rhodes to the Turks, ..... 1522 French lose Milan and Geneva, 1523 Final separation of Denmark and Sweden, .... 381, 436 1523 Verrazzano explores coast of North Carolina, .... 1524 League of the Pope and Ferdinand of Austria against the Reformation, 1524 Death of Chevalier Bayard, 1525 French driven from Milan by the Span- iards, ..... 1525 The peasant war, 1525 Battle of Pavia, 1526 Louis II., of Hungary, defeated by the Turks at Mohacz, . . 383 1526 Hungary united with Austria, 1526 Peace of Madrid ; France gives up Milan and Burgundy, - 1527 The Holy League formed against Charles V., 1527 Second war between Charles V. and Francis I. .... 1527 Rome taken and pillaged by the Ger- mans and Spaniards, May 6, 1527 Gustavus introduces Reformation in Sweden, . . . . .436 408 436 318 418 790 410 418 374 410 418 418 383 418 418 418 418 A. T>. PAGE 1527 Frederick I., of Denmark, concedes to the Protestants equality with the Catholics, .... 436 1527 Pampi lo deNarvaezperishesin Florida, 787 1528 Andreas Doria restores the independ- ence of Genoa, .... 372 1528 Death of Albrecht Diirer, . . 466 1529 Siege of Vienna by Solomon, the Splen- did, . . . . .390 1529 Discovery of Peru by Francis Pizarro, 403 1529 Protestation of the German reformers at the Diet of Speyer, . . . 412 1529 Conference at Marburg, . . 413 1529 Ladies' Peace of Cambray between Charles V., and Francis I., . . 419 1530 Alexander de Medici made Duke of Florence, .... 379 1530 Confession of Augsburg adopted, . 413 1530 Cardinal Wolsey deposed by Henry VIII., 430 1531 Religious war in Switzerland ; battle of Cappel and death of Zwingli, . 414 1531 Protestant league of Schmalkald, Dec. 31, 421 1531 Discovery of Rio de Janeiro by Martin de Sousa, ..... 958 1532 Conquest of Peru by Pizarro and Alma- gro, . . . . .403 1532 Peace at Nuremberg, . . . 421 1533 Death of Ariosto, . . -377 1533 Thomas Cranmer made Archbishop of Canterbury, . . . .430 1533 Henry VIII., divorces Catherine of Ara- gon, and marries Anne Boleyn, . 430 1534 Luther publishes a German Bible and liturgy, . . . . 409, 462 1534 Philip of Hesse overcomes the Aus- trians at Wurtemberg and restores Ulric, 421 1534 Henry VIII., recognized as the head of the church in England, . . . 430 1534 Cartier explores the St. Lawrence, . 790 1535 Pizarro builds Lima, capital of Peru, 403 1535 Francis I., makes an alliance with the Turks, to gain Milan, . . . 420 1535 Charles V., conquers Tunis, . . 420 1535 Auababtists sieze Munster, . . 421 1535 Execution of Sir Thomas More, July 6, 430 1536 Third war between Charles V. and Francis I., .... 420 1536 Anne Boleyn beheaded, May 19, . 432 1536 Lutheranism established in Denmark . 436 1536 Hoie's expedition to America, . 799 1538 Almagro conquered and beheaded by Pizarro, . . . . .403 1538 Truce of Nice, between Charles V., and Francis I., .... 420 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 983 A. D. 1539 The " Bloody Articles" adopted in En gland, .... 1539 Ferdinand de Soto explores Florida, 1510 Milan annexed to Spain, 1540 Orellano sails up the Amazon, 1540 Cromwell beheaded, 1540 Order of Jesuits founded by Ignatius Loyola, .... 1540 Cortez withdraws from Mexico, 1541 Hungary annexed to the Ottoman Em pire, .... 1541 Death of Francis Pizarro, 1541 Second African expedition of Charles V., .... 1541 Discovery of the Mississippi by De Soto, .... 1542 Fourth war between Charles V., and Francis I., 1542 Henry of Brunswick conquered by Sax ous and Hessians, 1543 Death of Copernicus, 1544 Peace of Crespy between Charles V., and Francis I., ^B_ 1545 Council of Trent opened, Dec 13, 423,424 1546 Pedro de la Gasca made governor of Peru by Charles V., 1546 Death of Martin Luther, Feb. 18, 1546 Beginuing of the religious war in Ger many, .... 1547 Death of Cortez, 1547 Battle of Muhlberg, 1547 Paul III., removes the Council of Trent to Bologua, 1548 Augsburg Interim published by Charles V 1548 Book of Common Prayer composed, 1551 The Council returns to Trent, . 1552 Religious peace of Passau, 1552 Maurice of Saxony makes war on Charles V., March, 1552 Execution of Somerset in England 1553 Servetus suffers martyrdom in Spain, 1554 Executiou of Lady Jane Grey in En- gland, ..... 1554 Mary Tudor of England marries Philip of Spain, .... 1555 Religious peace of Augsburg, 1556 Thomas Cranmer burned to death at Oxford, ..... 1558 French occupy Brazil, . 1559 Peace of Chateau Cambresis, between France and Spain, 1559 Heidelberg catechism adopted, 1559 Margaret of Parma appointed regent in Brussels, .... 1559 Statutes of Paul IV., mutilated, AGE A. D 1560 430 1561 787 1562 374 403 1562 432 1562 1563 439 788 1564 1564 382 1564 403 PAGE 409, 427 . 429 420 788 420 422 460 420 403 423 423 403 424 425 425 432 425 425 425 433 437 433 434 426 434 958 421 427 442 438 1565 1565 1566 1566 1567 1567 1567 1568 1570 1570 1571 1571 1572 1572 1573 1573 1574 1576 1576 1576 1578 1579 1580 1582 1584 1584 1587 1588 1588 1588 1590 Death of Philip Melancthon, . Death of Mary of Guise, Act of uniformity decreed by Eliza- beth, ..... Council of Trent begins its third session, Massacre of Protestants at Vassy, Francis of Guise murdered at the siege of Orleans, Death of John Calvin, Death of Michael Angelo, French settlement at Fort Caroline near St. Augustine, June, Four hundred nobles' petition for the suspension of the inquisition in the Netherlands, Founding of St. Augustine, Sept., Destruction of images in Antwerp and Brussels, Murder of David Rizzio, Murder of Lord Darnley, Duke of Alba enters the Netherlands with a Spanish army, Brazil acquired by Portugal, Counts Egmont and Horn beheaded by the Duke of Alba, Austria united to Germany, Peace of St. Germain, Battle of Lepanto — Don Juan over throws the Turks, Oct. 7, Establishment of the Inquisition in Mexico, .... William of Orange made Stadtholder, Massacre of St. Bartholemew, Aug. 24, Zuniga governor of the Netherlands, Recall of Alba from the Netherlands, Foundation-of University of Leyden, Dou Juan governor of the Netherlands, "Holy Catholic League" established in France, .... Death of Titian, Alexander Faruese, of Parma, governor of the Netherlands, Union of Utrecht formed, Portugal united to Spain, Gregory XIII. reforms the calendar, Assassination of William of Orange, July 10, . Raleigh sends the first colony to Vir- ginia, ..... Execution of Mary, queen of Scots, 447, 458 Insurrection in Paris against Henry III., 453 Assassination of the Duke of Guise and Cardinal Louis, . . • 454 Destruction of the Spanish Armada, 448, 459 Battle of Ivry and siege of Paris by Henry IV .... 456 435 438 450 450 427 464 442 788 442 457 458 442 958 442 426 450 440 788 444 452 444 444 444 446 452 464 446 446 441 438 447 800 984 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. A. D. 1592 Dutch West India Company proposed, 1593 Henry IV. becomes a Catholic, 1595 Death of Tasso, 1598 Edict of Nantes issued, April 13, 1598 Earl of Tyrone heads a Catholic re- bellion in Ireland, 1598 Ships of the Greenland Company said to have entered Hudson and Delaware rivers, ..... 1600 War between Sweden and Poland, 1601 Earl of Essex beheaded, 1602 Dutch East India Company established, 1603 Champlain and Pont Grave reach Hochelaga, .... 1601 De Monts explores the Bay of Fundy, 1605 Gunpowder Plot in London, 1605 Founding of Port Royal, 1607 English settlement at Jamestown, May 13 1607 The Popham colony founded in Maine, 1608 The Elector Palatine forms the Protest- ant union, .... 1608 Champlain founds Quebec, 1609 Truce of Antwerp, 1609 Netherlands become independent of Spain, ..... 1609 Maximilian, of Bavaria, forms the Catholic League, 1609 Champlain discovers Lakes Champlain and Huron, .... 1609 Henry Hudson explores Newfoundland, Cape Cod, Delaware Bay, and Hudson River, ..... 1609 Lord Delaware appointed governor of Virginia, .... 1610 Pontrincourt settles Port Royal, 1611 Sir Thomas Dale governor of Virginia, 161 3 Port Royal attacked by Samuel Argall, 1615 Champlain discovers Lake Ontario, 1616 Death of Cervantes, . . . 1616 Death of William Shakespeare, 1616 Samuel Argall appointed governor of Virginia, .... 1618 Synod of Dort assembled, 1618 Thirty Years' war begins, 1618 Etienne Brule explores Michigan, 1619 Sir George Yeardley becomes governor of Virginia, .... 1619 First legislative assembly in America at Jamestown, June 28, 1619 Introduction of slavery in America, August, ..... 1620 Battle of Prague, which ruins the Elec- tor, Palatine, .... 1620 Pilgrims sail from Southampton on the Mayflower, August 5, 4.GE A. D 795 1620 456 1621 377 456 1622 460 1622 1624 795 437 1625 460 1626 448 1627 791 791 1627 480 1628 792 1628 800 1628 821 1628 466 1629 792 448 1629 1629 448 1629 466 1630 792 1631 1631 796 1632 802 1632 791 1632 802 791 1632 792 1633 462 464 1634 •1634 802 1634 448 1634 466 1634 793 1634 802 1634 1635 802 1635 803 1635 1635 467 1935 812 PAGE Pilgrims land at Plymouth, Dec. 21, . 814 William Bradford chosen governor of Plymouth, . . • .814 Virginia colony nearly exterminated by Indians . . . . .802 Clayborne driven from Kent Island by Governor Calvert . . . 806 Cardinal Richelieu becomes prime min- ister of France, .... 496 Settlement of Maine, . . .823 Peter Minuit buys Manhattan Island from the Indians, . . . 796 Colonists purchase the English interest in the Plymouth plantation, . . 814 Settlement of Dover, N. H., . . 821 Duke of Buckingham assassinated, . 481 The "Petition of Right" signed by Charles L, 481 Rocbelle taken by Cardinal Richelieu, 496 Massachusetts Bay Colony established at Salem, . . . .816 Edict of Restitution published by Ferdi- nand II., . . . .470 Quebec reduced by the English, . 792 Massachusetts Bay colony obtains a charter, March, .... 815 Founding of New Hampshire, at Exeter, 821 Gustavus-Adolphus of Sweden invades Germany, .... 472 Magdeburg taken and destroyed by Tilly, May 16, . . . ' 472 Tilly defeated by Gustavus at Leipzig, 472 Battle of Lutzen — victory and death of Gustavus-Adolphus, Nov. 16, . . 473 Quebec restored to France, . . 792 Lord Baltimore obtains the grant of Maryland, . . ... 806 Settlement of Portland, . . . 823 Treaty of Heilbronn between the Swedes and the Germans, . . 474 Assassination of Wallenstein, Feb. 25 . 474 Battle of Nordlingen, . . . 476 Jean Nicollet discovers Lake Michigan, 793 First colony in Maryland established, . 806 Clayborne attacks Maryland, . . 807 Thomas Dudley chosen governor of Massachusetts Bay colony, . . . 816 First settlements in Connecticut valley, 821 Peace of Prague, ■ ■ ■ 476 Richelieu organizes the French Academy, .... 606 Death of Samuel Champlain, Dec. 25, . 792 Roger Williams banished from Mas- sachusetts, .... 817 Settlement of Weathersfield and Windsor, . . . .821 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 985 A. B. 1636 Henry Vaue elected governor of Mas- sachusetts, .... 1636 Founding of Harvard College, . 1636 Settlement of Hartford, Conn., 1636 Settlement of Rhode Island by Roger Williams, .... 1637 Presbyterian rebellion in Scotland, 1637 Wheelwright banished from Massa- chusetts, .... 1637 Extermination of the Peqnod Indians, 1638 First Swedish settlement on the Dela- ware, at Fort Christina, 1639 Anne Hutchinson banished from Mass; chusetts, .... 1638 First printing press in New England set up at Cambridge, 1638 Founding of New Haven, 1638 Settlement of Newport, Rhode Island, 1639 First written constitution in history drawn in Connecticut, 1639 Settlement of Portsmouth, Rhode Island, 1640 Portugal recovers her independence, 1640 Death of Rubens, 1640 The Long Parliament assembled, 1640 Revolution separates Portugal from Spain, .... 1641 Catholic rebellion in Ireland, 1641 Impeachment and execution of Lord Strafford, May 11, 482 1659 1641 Sir William Berkeley appointed gov- ernor of Virginia, 1641 New Hampshire united with Massa chusetts, .... 1642 Death of Galileo, 1642 Beginning of the civil war in England, 1642 Death of Cardinal Richelieu, Dec. 4, . 1643 "United colonies of New England" formed, .... 814, 817 1644 Battle of Marsten Moor, July 2, . 486 1644 Richard Ingle joins Clay borne in an at- tack upon Maryland, 1644 Denial of validity of infant baptism made a crime in New England, 1544 Rhode Island obtains a charter, 1645 Archbishop Laud beheaded, 1645 Battle of Naseliy, June 14, 1647 Peter Stuyvesaut becomes governor of New Amsterdam, 1647 Establishment of grammar schools in New Euglaud, .... 1648 Peace of Westphalia ends the thirty year's war, . . . 448, 477 1648 Colonel Pride's purge, Dec, . . 486 1648 Civil wars of the Fronde commence in France, . . . . .498 AGE A. D. 1649 817 818 1659 821 1650 823 1651 481 1651 817 821 1651 1651 798 1652 817 1653 818 821 1653 823 1653 821 1654 823 1655 441 1655 464 1656 482 1656 1658 958 1658 482 1658 803 1659 1660 821 460 486 1661 498 1662 1662 1663 807 1664 1664 818 1664 823 482 1664 486 1665 797 1666 1667 818 1667 1667 1668 1668 Execution of Charles I., of England, Jan. 30, ■ . . . . 488 Battle of Dunbar, Sept. 3, . . . 488 Maryland Assembly passes severe laws regarding religion, _ . . . 807 Navigation act passed by the English Parliament, .... 490 Naval war between England and Hol- land, ..... 490 Cromwell's victory at Worcester, Sept. 3, 490 Three Baptists arrested by Governor Endicott in Massachusetts, . . 818 Maine comes under the control of Massachusetts, .... 823 Cromwell dissolves the Long Parlia- ment, April, .... 490 " Barebones Parliament" assembled April, . . ... .490 Oliver Cromwell, Protector of the Com- monwealth, Dec, . . . 490 Port Royal subjugated by Cromwell, . 793 New Sweden surrenders to the Dutch, 798 Civil war in Maryland, . . . 807 Three days' battle of Warsaw, . 478 Two Quaker women seized in Boston, 819 Carl X., invades Denmark, . . 478 Death of Oliver Cromwell, Sept, 3, . 491 Bill passed in Massachusetts persecut- ing Quakers, ..... 819 Treaty of the Pyrenees between France and Spain, .... 498 Four Quakers hung in Boston, . . 819 Proceedings against the Quakers in Massachusetts suspended by order of Charles II., . . . .820 Death of Cardinal Mazarin, . . 498 Church of England restored, . . 492 Connecticut obtains a charter from Charles II., . . . .821 Charles II. grants the Carolinasto Lord Clarendon, .... 807 Death of Rembrandt . . . 464 Hungary rebels against Austria, . 503 New Amsterdam surrenders to the English and becomes New York, . 798 New Netherlands becomes New York, Aug. 27, . . . . . 826 Great plague in London, . . 492 Fire destroys two-thirds of London, . 492 Disgrace of Lofd Clarendon, . . 492 Louis XIV., makes conquests in the Spauish Netherlands, . . . 499 Fundamental constitution of Carolina drawn up by John Locke, . . 808 Triple alliance against France, . 499 Port Royal ceded to France, . . 793 986 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. makes a secret treaty with A. D. 1670 Charles I[ France, KH 492 1671 Subjugation of the Cossacks by Rus sia, 1672 Louis XIV., invades Holland, 1672 Count Froutenac becomes governor of New France, 1672 Charleston settled, 1673 Roman Catholics excluded from the English Parliament, 1673 Maiquette and Joliet discover the Mississippi, June 17, 1673 New York retaken by the Dutch, 1674 Spain and Germany join Holland against France, .... 1674 New York given back to England, 1675 Battle of Fehrbellin, . 1675 Beginning of King Philip's war, 1676 Nathaniel Bacons' rebellion in Virginia, 1676 Rebellion in North Carolina, 1676 Death of King Philip, . 1677 Louis XIV., authorizes La Salle to ex- plore the New World, 1679 Habeas-Corpus Act passed in England May 27, . 1679 Peace of Nymwegen, 1679 New Hampshire becomes a royal prov- ince, . ' 1680 La Salle discovers the Falls of St Anthony, 1681 Strasburg annexed to France, Sept., 1681 La Salle and Father Heuuepin explore the Mississippi River, 1681 "Penn's woods" granted to William Penn, .... 1681 First settlers sent to Pennsylvania. 1682 La Salle discovers and names Louisiana April, 1682 Penn signs the frame of government for Pennsylvania, April 25, 1682 William Penn lands at New Castle Oct. 27, ... 1682 First assembly meets in Pennsylvania Dec. 4, . 1683 Rye House plot-Execution of Russell and Sidney, 1683 John Sobieski defeats the Turks and raises the siege of Vienna, 1683 Baltimore leaves the colony of Mary laud, .... 1683 First colony of Germans settle German town, .... 1683 Penn's treaty with the Indians, June 23, .... 1683 First provincial assembly in New York 1684 Truce of Regeusburg, Aug. 15, 516, 385 500 794 808 492 793 798 502 798 502 820 804 808 820 794 493 502 821 794 505 794 823 824 794 824 824 824 493 503 A. D. 1684 1684 1685 1685 1685 1685 1687 1688 1688 1689 1689 1689 1689 1689 1690 1690 1692 1692 1692 1692 1693 1694 1694 1697 1697 1698 1699 1699 1700 1700 1700 1700 1701 1701 PAGE Charter of Massachusetts withdrawn, 820 Penn returns to England, . . 821 Duke of Monmouth's rebellion, . 493 " The Bloody Assizes " of Judge Jeffries, 493 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, Oc- tober, . . . . .508 First printing-press in the middle col- onies established at Philadelphia, . 824 Reputed hiding of Connecticut charter at Hartford, .... 821 Desolation of the Palatinate by the French, . . . . .504 Vera Cruz raided by French freebooters, 788 Catholic rebellion in Ireland in favor of James II., .... 494 The Bill of Rights passed by the Eng- lish Parliament, . . . 494 Beginning of the Orleans war, . 504 Revolution in Maryland, . . 807 Sir Edmund Andros imprisoned in Bos- ton, . . . . .820 Paper and woollen mills started in Penn- sylvania, .... 824 Unsuccessful attempt to establish a newspaper in Boston, . . . 898 Acadia made part of Massachusetts, . 793 Church of England established in Mary- laud, . . . . .807 Consolidation of Massachusetts, Maine, Plymouth, and Nova Scotia under a new charter, . . . 814-820 807 1702 824 824 826 503 1702 1702 1703 Salem witchcraft, Battle of Neerwiuden. Defeat of Will iam III., by the French, Mar. 18, University of Halle established, Penn released from imprisonment, Peace of Ryswick, Dec. 20, Acadia ceded to France, D'Iberville founds a colony at Biloxi Bay, .... Peace of Carlowitz, Penn visits his colony again, War between Sweden and Russia, Russians defeated at Narva, College of William and Mary founded, Yale College founded, War of the Spanish Succession begins Colonists from Charleston capture St Augustine, Warsaw surrenders to Charles XII., of Sweden, . . . . . Delaware given a separate Assembly, The two Jerseys placed in the hands of the king, .... St. Petersburg founded by Peter the Great, ..... 821 568 525 824 505 793 795 504 824 518 518 805 821 510 808 518 824 828 519 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 987 A. D. 1704 1704 1704 1706 1706 1706 1706 1707 1708 1708 1709 1709 1710 1710 1711 1712 1713 1713 1714 1714 1716 1717 1717 1718 1718 1719 1719 1719 1720 1720 1721 1723 1724 1729 1729 1729 1731 1732 English capture Gibraltar, Battle of Blenheim, Aug. 13, . First newspaper in America published in Boston, .... Battle of Ramillies, May 23, . Battle of Turin, Sept. 7, Peace of Altranstadt between Charles XII., of Swedeu and Augustus of Sax- ony, Sept. 24, French and Spanish fleet unsuccessfully attack Charleston, Devastation of Valencia, Battle of Oudenarde, July 11, Charles XII., of Sweden invades Russia, Charles XII., of Sweden defeated at Pultawa, July 8, ... Battle of Malplaquet, Sept. 11, Alexander Spotswood brings the writ of habeas corpus to Virginia, French invasion of Brazil under Du- clerc, ..... Russian war with Turkey, Lousiana sold to Antony Crozat, Treaty of Utrecht, April 11, Church of Eugland established in Car- olina, ..... Peace of Rastatt, Charles XII. returns to Sweden, Charles XII. of Sweden invades Nor- way, ..... John Law forms the Company of the West, ..... New Orleans founded, . Mississippi Bubble bursts, Iron works started along the Schuyl- kill River, .... Carolina colonists overthrow the pro- prietors, ..... Settlement of Londonderry, N. H. Second newspaper in United States es- tablished in Philadelphia, The Duke of Savoy acquires Sardinia with the title of King, Law's bubble bursts, in France, Iroquois hold a council with the whites at Conestoga, . . , Death of Isaac Newton, Massacre of Protestants at Thorn, Founding of Baltimore, The Caroliuas become royal provinces, Act restricting immigration passed in Pennsylvania, . . . . Louisiana reverts to the kingdom of France, . . . . . Trustees for colony of Georgia receive their charter, iGE A. D. 511 1733 511 1733 1733 898 1734 511 1736 511 1738 519 1738 1739 808 511 1740 512 519 1740 1740 519 1741 512 1741 806 1711 958 1743 520 1744 795 1744 512 1745 808 513 1745 522 1745 522 1746 1746 795 795 1748 795 1753 826 1753 808 821 1754 1754 898 371 1754 513 1754 826 462 1755 524 1755 807 809 1755 826 1756 1756 795 1756 809 PAGE War of the Polish succession begins, 524 Richmond laid out, . . . 806 Oglethorpe founds a colony at Savannah, 810 Great awakening in New England . 821 Oglethorpe brings a second colony to Georgia, . . . . .810 France agrees to the Pragmatic Sanc- tion, . . . . . 526 New Jersey made a separate province, 828 Peace of Belgrade between Austria and Turkey, . . . . .526 Frederick the Great begins the first Silesian war, .... 526 War of the Austrian succcession begins, 528 Oglethorpe invades Florida, . . 811 Battle of Mollwitz — the Prussians defeat the Austrians, April 10, . . 526 Restrictions on the importation of rum and slaves to Georgia removed, . 811 Negro plot in New York, . . 828 England's alliance with Maria Theresa, 528 Second Silesian war, . . ■ . 528 Sailing of expedition from Boston to capture Louisbourg, . . • 821 Edward, the Protender, invades En- gland, . . . . .514 Battle of Hohenfriedberg, June 4, . 528 Peace of Dresden betweeu Frederick II. and Maria Theresa, Dec 25, . . 528 Battle of Cnlloden, . . .516 College of New Jersey established at Princeton, . . . .828 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ends the war of the Austrian succession, . 528 Sir Danvers Osborn comes to New York as governor, and hangs himself, . 828 Duquesne sends an expedition to occu- py the Ohio valley, . . .828 Georgia becomes a royal province, . 811 .Plan of union agreed upon by commis- sioners of all the colonies at Albany, July, 828 Beginning of the French and Indian war, . • • . '. 828 Washington sent by Dinwiddie to build a fort at the forks of the Ohio 831 Great earthquake at Lisbon, Nov. . 547 Defeat and death of General Braddock, July 9, • • • • -830 Defeat and capture of Dieskau by Phineas Lyman, . . . 830 Beginning of the Seven Years' war, . 530 Frederick II. invades, Saxony, whose army surrenders, . . • 530 Queens College, now Rutgers, estab- lished in NewBrunswick, . . 828 988 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. A. D. 1756 1757 1757 1757 1757 1758 1758 1758 1758 1759 1759 1759 1759 1759 1759 1760 1760 1760 1762 1763 1763 1763 1763 1763 1763 1763 1765 1765 1766 1767 1767 1768 1769 1769 1769 1769 1771 Fort Oswego surrenders to Montcalm, Frederick II. victorious at the Battles of Prague, Rossbach and Leuthen, Frederick II. defeated at Kollin and Hasteubeck, .... Franklin -wins a diplomatic victory for Pennsylvania, .... Moutcalm destroys Fort William Henry on Lake George, Ferdinand of Brunswick drives the French from North Germany, . Frederick II. defeats the Russians at Zorndorf, Aug- 24, • . . Bradstreet captures and destroys Fort Frontenac, .... Fort Duquesne occupied by the English and called Pittsburg, French army defeated at Mmden, Jesuits expelled from Portugal, Johnson takes Fort Niagara, Wolfe's fleet sails from Louisbour take Quebec, Juue, Death of Wolf and Montcalm at Que- bec, Sept. 13, • Canada passes to the English crown, Sept. 18 . Frederick II- recovers Silesia by the victory at Liegnitz, Aug. 15, Frederick II- conquers Saxony in the Battle of Torgau, Nov. 3, Jesuits expelled from Brazil, Louisiana presented to King of Spain, 795, 834 Peace of Hubertsburg ends the Seven Years' War, Feb. 15, . . 534 England acquires Canada, 534, 834, 942 Reign of Terror in France, Marat stabbed by Charlotte Corday, July 13, Execution of the Girondists, Oct. 31, . Florida ceded to Great Britain, Uprising of Indian tribes under Pou- tiac, ..... Passage of the Stamp Act, Meetiug of the first Continental Con- gress in Oct., .... Repeal of the Stamp Act, March 6, Civil war in Poland, Jesuits expelled from Mexico, War between Russia and Turkey, James Watt invents the steam engine, Iuveutiou of the spinning-jenny by Arkwright, .... Discovery of San Francisco Bay, Kentucky settled by Daniel Boone, Gustavus III. breaks the power of the Swedish aristocracy, PAGE A. D. PAGE 831 1772 Count Struensee beheaded, . . 548 1772 Partition of Poland, - . .551 1773 Society of Jesus abolished by Clem- ent XIV., . - • .546 1773 Destruction of tea in Boston harbor, Nov. 25, ■ • • - - 836 1774 Peace of Kudschuck Kainardsche be- tween Russia and Turkey, • . 552 1774 Parliament passes the Boston Port bill, June 1, . . . . .836 1774 Four regiments of British troops sent to Boston, . 837 1774 Meeting of a Congress in Carpenter's Hall, Philadelphia, Sept., 4, • . 837 1774 Quebec Act enacted by the English Parliament, .... 942 1775 Rebellion of the Cossacks in Russia sup- pressed, .. . . . . 551 1775 Conflict between British troops and minute men at Lexington, Mass., April 19, .... 838 1775 Ethan Allen captures Ticonderoga, May 10, 838 1775 Seth Warner captures Crown Point, May 12, . . . . . 838 1775 Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17, . 838 1775 Washington takes charge of American Army, . - - . .840 1775 Capture of Montreal by Montgomery, Nov. 13, .... 840 1775 Defeat of Americans and death of Mont- gomery at Quebec, Dec. 31, . . 841 1776 Examination of Dr. Franklin by a com- mittee of the House of Commons, . 835 1776 Declaration of American independence, 571 July 4, 841 1776 Signing of the Declaration by the Con- 571 tinental Congress, August 2, . - 841 571 1776 Defeat of Washington on Long Island, 788 August 27, ... . 842 1776 Washington crosses the Delaware, 834 Dec 25, .... 842 835 1777 Repulse of Burgoyne at Fort Schuyler, Aug., . . . . .846 835 1777 Victory of Stark at Bennington, Aug. 835 16, ..... 846 551 1777 Washington defeated at Philadelphia, 789 and Howe enters the city, Sept., . 844 551 1777 Defeat of Burgoyne at Beruis Heights, 514 Sept. 19, .... 846 1777 Battle of Germantown, Oct. 4, . 844 514 1777 Defeat of Burgoyne at Stillwater, Oct. 7, 846 789 1777 Surrender of Burgoyne's army at Sara- 866 toga, Oct. 16, . . . . 846 1778 War of the Bavarian Succession, . 537 548 1778 Death of Voltaire, . . .544 532 532 826 S31 532 533 831 . 831 . 533 546, 547 . 831 ;to • 831 834 834 534 534 958 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 989 A. D. PAGE 1778 Death of Rousseau, . . .545 1778 Independence of United States acknowl- edged by France, Feb. 6, 1778 Battle of Monmouth, June 28, 1778 France, Spain, and the Dutch contest British supremacy at sea, 1778 British occupy Savannah, Dec. 29, 1779 Capture of Stony Point by General Wayne, July 15, 1779 Capture of the Serapis by the Bon- homme Richard, Sept. 23, 1780 Charleston surrenders to the British May 12, . 1780 Battle of Camden,' August 16, 1780 Treason of Benedict Arnold, Sept. 22 1780 Execution of Major AudrS, Oct. 2, 1780 Defeat of the British at King's Mount ain, Oct. 7, 1781 Death of Lessing, 1781 Morgan defeats Tarleton at Cowpens Jan. 17, . 1781 Battle between Greene and Coruwallis at Guilford Court House, March 15, 1781 Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown Oct. 19, . 1782 Lord North resigns as premier of Eu gland, March, 1782 Naval victory of Admiral Rodney in the West Indies, April 12, 1782 The populace make demands on Louis XVI., June 20, . 1783 Conquest of Crimea by Russians under Potemkin, 1783 Florida ceded back to Spain, 1783 Congress driven from Philadelphia to Princeton, June 21, 1783 Signing of Peace of Paris, Sept, 3, 1786 Conference of the thirteen States meets at Annapolis, Sept. 11, . 1787 Rebellions in the Austrian Netherlands and Hungary, 1787 War of Austria and Russia against Turkey, .... 1787 Assembly of notables convened 1 France, Feb., 1787 Constitutional convention meets in Philadelphia, May, 1787 Constitution >1 convention completes its labors, Sept. 17, . 1787 Passage of the Northwest ordinance restricting slavery, . . 866, 900 1788 Guetavus III., of Sweden, makes war on Russia, .... 1788 Second assembly of notables in France, 1788 The Union becomes an established fact, Juue, ..... 858 847 847 847 848 848 848 848 849 848 848 849 538 849 849 850 852 852 565 552 788 853 853 856 549 552 557 856 856 548 560 A. D. 1789 The States General, of France, declares itself a National Assembly, June 17, . 1789 The French Revolution begun by the storming of the Bastile, July 14, 1789 The Paris mob forces Louis XVI. to re- move to Paris, Oct. 5, 1789 Revolution in Brazil under Silva Xav- ier, ..... 1790 Confederation of the Champ de Mars, 1790 Defeat of General Harmer by Indians on the Ohio, Nov. 4, 1791 New .monarchical constitution adopted in Poland, 1791 Death of Mirabeau, April 2, 1791 Louis XVI. sanctions the national con stitutiou, 1791 Unsuccessful attempt of Louis XVI. to escape from France, June 21, 1791 The French Legislative Assembly con venes in Paris, Oct. 1, . 1791 General St. Clair defeated by Indians in Ohio, Nov. 4, . 1791 First amendments to American constitu tion adopted, 1791 Division of Canada, 1792 Peace of Jassy between Russia and Turkey, Jan., 1792 France declares War against Austria and Prussia, April 20, . . ■ 1792 Poland invaded by Prussian troops May, .... 1792 Passage of act transferring the seat of American government to the, Potomac, July 8, 1792 Insurrection and massacre in Paris, Aug. 10, .... 1792 Massacre of the prisons in Paris, Sepl. 2-5, 1792 The National Convention of France opens Sept. 17, ... 1792 Duke of Brunswick defeated atValmy, • Sept. 20, .... 1792 The National Convention proclaims France a republic, Sept. 22, 1792 Revolutionary tribunal set up in Paris, ..... 1792 Flight and imprisonment of General Lafayette, .... 1792 Battle of Jemappes, Nov. 1, 1792 Flanders conquered by the Freuch, 1792 First coalition against France, . 568, 5 7 6 1792 Establishment of United States bank in Philadelphia, 1792 Kentucky admitted to the Union, 1792 First Parliament convened in Canada 1793 Execution of Louis XVI. Jan. 21, 560 561 563 958 563 860 552 564 564 564 564 860 879 942 552 565 552 858 565 566 566 568 566 566 566 568' 568 858 866 943 568 990 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. A. D. PAGE 1793 Duinouriez defeated at Neerwinden, March 18, ... 568, 569 1793 War in La Vendee, March, . . 573 1793 Second partition of Poland, April, 1793 Insarrection of the Jacobins in Paris, May 31, ..... 1793 Committee of Public Safety established in France, .... 1793 Execution of Marie Antoinette, Oct. 16, 1793 Insurrection in Lyons, Marseilles and Toulon, .... 1793 The French National Convention alters the calendar and establishes the wor- ship of reason, Nov. 10, 1793 Invention of cotton gin by Eli Whitney, 1794 Rise of the Poles under Kosciuszko against the Russians, 1794 Execution of Dauton and Desmoulins, April 5, - 1794 Robespierre makes an end to the wor ship of reason, 1794 Robespierre guillotined, July 28, 1794 General Wayne thoroughly defeats the Ohio Indians, Aug. 20, 1794 Defeat of Kosciuszko by the Russians Oct. 10, . 1794 Abolition of the revolutionary tribu nal, Dec. 15, 1795 Third partition of Poland, 1795 Holland erected into the Bataviau Re public by General Pichegru, Jan. 1795 Bread riots in Paris, Mar. 31, 1795 Peace of Basle between France and Prussia, April 5, 1795 Dangerous insurrection in Paris, May 20, .... 1795 The Austrians take Heidelberg and Mannheim. Sept. . 1795 Insurrection of the sections in Paris put down by Napoleon Bonaparte, Oct. 5, 1795 French Directory choseu, Oct. 26, 1795 Ratification of treaty between England and America, .... 1795 Washington makes a treaty with Spain, gaining free navigation of the Missis- sippi. 1796 Moreau's masterly retreat through the Black Forest, Sept. 19, . 1796 Napoleon Bonaparte's successful cam- paigns in Italy, .... 1796 Bonaparte defeats the Austriaus at Ar- eola, Nov. 15, . 1796 Babeuf's conspiracy suppressed in France, ..... 1796 Tennessee admitted to the Union 1797 Cis-alpiue Republic formed in Italy, A. D. 1797 The Venetian Republic destroyed by Bonaparte, .... 1797 Treaty of Leoben between France and Austria, April 18, 1797 The Royalist deputies banished from France, Sept. .... 1797 Peace of CampioFormio betweeu France and Austria, Oct. 17, 1797 Congress of Rastadt, Baden, Dec 1798 Switzerland converted into the Helvetic Republic, .... 1798 The French proclaim a Roman Repub- lic, Feb. ..... 1798 Rebellion in Ireland against British au- thority, ..... 1798 European coalition against France 1798 Bonaparte invades Egypt, July 1, 1798 Battle of the Pyramids, July 21, 1798 Passage of Kentucky resolutions, 1798 Passage of the Alien and Sedition laws 578 by United States Congress, 578 1798 War threatened between France and America, .... 1799 Death of Kant, ... 1799 The Parthenopian Republic established in Naples, Jan. .... 1799 Bonaparte's invasion of Syria, Feb. 1799 Siege of St. John d' Acre, Syria, by Bonaparte. March, 1799 Freuch defeated at Cassano, Trebia and Novi, Italy, June, . 1799 The Parthenopiau Republic overthrown June 13, . 1799 Russians defeated by the French at Zurich, Switzerland, Sep. 25, 1799 Bonaparte overthrows the Directory in France, Nov. 10, . 1800 Napoleou Bonaparte created first con- sul of the French Republic, Jan. 1800 Napoleon crosses the Alps, May, 1800 Austrians defeated by Napoleon at Monte-bello and Marengo, Italy, June, 1800 Battle of Hohenlinden, Bavaria, Dec. 3, 1800 Attempted assassination of Bonaparte, Dec. 24, ..... 1800 Death of Benedict Arnold, 1801 Peace of Luneville between France and Austria, Feb. 9, . 1801 Death of General Abercombie at the battle of Canopus, March 21, . 1801 Observance of Sunday restored in France, ..... 1801 Louisiana retransferred by Spain to France, .... 834, 864 1801 War between United States and Trip- oli, . . . . .866 553 571 571 572 573 574 886 553 576 860 554 578 554 576 580 576 580 578 580 580 860 578 580 582 583 866 582 582 582 583 582 583 584 584 . 585 . 585 ■ 588 . 588 860, 899 862 862 540 584 588 589 585 585 586 590 591 592 592 592 595 848 592 593 595 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 991 A. D. 1802 Peace of Amiens, Mar. 27, 1802 The Concordat in France, April 18, 1802 Legion of honor instituted, May 19, . 1802 Bonaparte made Consul for life, Aug. 2, 1802 Ohio admitted to the Union, Nov. 29, 1802 Church of England deprived of its glebe lands iu Virginia, 1803 West Point military academy founded, 1803 French invasion and conquest of Han- over, ..... 1803 Purchase of Louisiana by the United States, .... 86. 1804 Napoleon I. proclaimed Emperor of the French, May 18, ... 1804 Conspiracy against Bonaparte and exe- cution of Duke d' Enghien, May 21, . 1804 Napoleou crowned by the pope, Dec. 2, 1804 Duel between Burr and Hamilton, 1805 Death of Schiller, 1805 Coalition of Eugland, Russia, Austria and Sweden against France, 1805 Napoleon crowned King of Italy, May 26, . t . 1805 The Austrian general, Mack, surrenders Ulm to Napoleon, Oct. 20, 1805 Naval victory of English at Trafalgar. Death of Lord Nelson, Oct. 21, 1805 Murat enters Vienna, Nov. 1? 1805 Battle of Austerlitz, Dec. 2, 1805 Peace of Pressburg between France and Austria, Dec. 26, 1805 Tripoli agrees not to further molest the United States, ". 1806 End of the German Empire and forma- tion of the Confederation of the Rhine, 1806 Joseph Bonaparte made King of Naples, and Louis, King of Holland, 1806 War breaks out between France and Prussia, Aug. .... 1806 Napoleon defeats the Prussians at Jena, Oct. 14, . . 1806 Napoleon enters Berlin Oct. 25, and is- sues the Berlin decree, Nov. 21, , . 1806 Jefferson rejects a treaty with Eugland, 1806 Passage of the Embargo act, 1807 Battle of Eylau, Prussia, Feb. 8, 1807 Peace of Tilsit between France, Russia and Prussia, July 7, 1807 Jerome Bonaparte, becomes King of Westphalia, . .- . 6i 1807 War of Prussia, France and Denmark against Swedeu, 1807 Bombardment of Copenhagen by the British navy, Sept. 2-5, . . 1807 Trial of Aaron Burr for treason, Nov. . PAGE A. D. 593 1807 595 595 1807 596 1808 866 1808 890 893 1808 1808 503 1808 , 879 1808 597 1808 597 1808 597 880 1808 539 1809 598 1809 598 1809 600 1809 1809 600 600 1809 600 1809 600 1810 866 1810 601 1810 601 1810 602 1811 602 1811 602 1811 866 1811 602 1811 603 1811 1812 605 1812 604 1812 1812 604 1812 879 Napoleon issues the Milan decree, Dee. 17, Invention of steamboat by Robert Ful- ton, . . John VI. of Portugal takes refuge in Brazil, Jan. 21, . Joseph Bonaparte made King of Spain, June 6, . . Commencement of the Peninsular War, Surrender of Dupont to the Spanish in Andalusia, July 22, Capitulation of Cintra and French evac- uation of Portugal, Aug. 30, Napoleon and Alexander meet at Erfurt Sept. 27, ... Napoleon enters Madrid, Dec. 4, First Roman Catholic see established in Baltimore, End of slave trade in the North. Sweden cedes Finland to Russia by the peace of Frederickshamn, Surrender of Saragossa to the French Feb. 20, • War breaks out between France and Austria,April, . . • 608, 609 Napoleon enters Vienna, May 13, . 609 Pope Pius VII. imprisoned in France, July, ..... Revolt of the Tyrolese against the Ba- varian government, Napoleon divorced from Josephine, Dec. 16, ..... Napoleon marries Maria Louisa of Aus- tria, April 2, . Rebellion in Chili headed by de Kosas, July, North Germany and Holland annexed to France, July 9, . . . Hidalgo defeated and shot by Calleja in Mexico, ..... Massena's unsuccessful campaign in Por- tugal, ..... Preparations for war begun in America, Indian insurrection under Tecumseh, Utter defeat of Tecumseh at Tippeca- noe, Nov. 7, Henry Clay defeats an attempt to re- cbarter the United States bank, Venezuela declares her independence, Earthquake in Caraccas kills 20,000 people, March, .... Constitution of the Cortes, May 8, Napoleon declares war against Russia, Napoleon invades Russia, June, 608, 614 Congress declares war against England, Juuel9, . . . . .868 685 886 959 601 604 606 608 604 608 891 899 604 -608 609 609 612 612 953 612 949 608 866 866 884 956 956 608 614 992 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. A. D. 1814 1814 1814 1814 1815 1815 A. D. PAGE 1812 Peace of Bucharest between Russia and Turkey, . . . . .614 1812 General Hull surrenders at Detroit, Aug. 16, .... 868 1812 Battle of Smolensk, Aug. 17, . . 616 1812 Destruction of the Guerriere by the Constitution, Aug. 19, . . 868 1815 1812 French victory at Borodino, Sept. 7, 616 1812 French enter Moscow, which is burned by the Russians, Sept. 15, . . 616 1812 Retreat of the French from Russia be- gins, Oct. . . . .616 1815 1812 Battle of Queenstown, Canada, Oct. 13, ... . 868 1812 Capture of the Frolic by the Wasp, Nov. 18, .... 1812 Terrible passage of tho Beresina, Nov. 26-29, ..... 1812 Princeton Seminary established, 1813 Wellington drives the French from Spain, .->... 1813 Prussia joins Russia and Sweden against Napoleon, Feb. 3, . . . 1813 Order of the Iron Cross founded, March 10, .... 1813 Austria joins the All ies against Napo- leon, August 10, ... 1813 Napoleon victorious at the battle of Dresden, August 26-27, 1813 Perry's victory ou Lake Erie, Sept. 10, 1813 Battle of Leipzig and retreat of Napo- leon, Oct. 16-18, 1813 Burning of Niagara by Commodore Perry, ..... 1814 Invasion of France by the allied armies, Jan. 1, • 1814 Genoa united to the Kingdom of Sardinia, .... 1814 Denmark cedes Norway to Sweden by the peace of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814 Pope Pius VII. restored to his authority in Rome, Jan., .... 1814 Abolition of the Confederation of the Rhine ..... 1814 First capitulation of Paris to the allies, March 31, .... 1814 Abdication of Napoleon, April 11, 1814 Napoleon arrives at Elba, May 4, 1814 First treaty of Paris, May 30, . 1814 Constitution overthrown in Spain, 1814 Battle of Chippewa and defeat of the British, July 5, ... 1814 British enter the Penobscot, July, 1814 Meeting of the Hartford convention, . 1814 British enter Washington and burn the Capitol, August 24, . ■ 874 1820 943 1815 1815 868 1815 618 1815 891 1815 1815 608 1815 1815 619 1815 620 1815 620 1816 620 1816 870 1817 622 1817 943 1817 1818 623 1818 1818 374 1819 622 1819 622 1819 622 1819 624 1820 625 1820 625 625 1820 638 1820 872 874 1820 874 1820 A congress of European powers meets at Vienna, Sept. 25, . . 625 Canadians lose Fort Erie, . . 943 Rebellion in Venezuela, . . 953 Treaty of peace signed at Ghent, Dec. 24, . . . . . 874 General Jackson wins the battle of New Orleans, Jan. 8, . . . 874 Napoleon arrives in France, March ], . 628 England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia combine against Napoleon, March, . 630 Battles of Liguy and Quatrebras, June 16, . . . . .630 Battle of Waterloo, June 18, . . 630 Abdication and flight of Napoleon, June 22, .... 632 Second capitulation of Paris, July 8, . 632 The Holy Alliance formed, Sept. 26, . 635 Napoleon arrives at St. Helena, Oct. 18, 632 Second peace of Paris, Nov. 20, . 632 Execution of Marshal Ney, Dec. 7, . 632 Establishment of North American Re- view. . 898 Morelos defeated and executed in Mexico, . . . . 949 Ferdinand VII., of Spain, sends Gen- eral Morillo to South America, . 955 Indiana admitted to the Union, . 866 Republics of La Plata, Uraguay, and Bolivia established in South America, 956 Death of Kosciuszko, . . . 554 Demonstration at the Festival of the Wartburg, Oct, 18, . . . 645 Erie canal begun, . . . 888 Conquest of Florida byGeneral Jackson, 864 Illiuois admitted to the Union, . 866 Jackson brings the Seminoles to bay in Florida, Nov. 18, ... 878 Popular uprising at Manchester, En- gland, ..... 642 Murder of the Poet Kotzebue by Carl Sand, March 23, ... 645 Purchase of Florida from Spain, . 864 Venezuela and New Granada united to form Colombia, Dec. 17, . . 957 Murder of the Duke de Berri, Feb. 13, 637 Spanish revolution and re-establish- ment of the Cortes constitution, . 638 Revolution in Naples and establishment of a liberal constitution, July 13, . 639 Revolution in Portugal and establish- ment of a liberal constitution, . 639 Maine separated from Massachusetts, 823 Lutherans of the United States form a General Synod, . . . .891 Missouri Compromise agreed to, . 901 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 993 A. D. PAGE A. D. 1820 Formation of the " Family Compact," 943 1830 1821 Tbe Holy Alliance restores absolute 1830 monarchy in Naples, Jan., . . 639 1830 1821 Rise of the Greeks against Turkey, March, . . . . .646 1830 1821 Revolution in Piedmont crushed by 1831 Austrian power, April, . . . 639 1831 1821 Death of Napoleon Bonaparte, at St. 1831 Helena, May 5, - . • .632 1821 Destruction of Ypsilanti's baud in 1831 Greece, June 19, . ■ - 647 1821 Treaty ratified, by which Florida is 1831 ceded to Uuited States, . . .788 1821 Iturbide conquers Mexico, . . 949 1832 1821 Revolt of Portuguese troops in Brazil, 959 1832 1822 Lighting by gas begun in America, . 888 1823 A French army restores absolutism iu 1832 Spain, .... 637,639 1832 1823 President Monroe warns Europe against extentiou of its territory in America, 1832 Dec. 2, . . . .874 1823 Independence of Brazil acknowledged, 959 1832 1824 Rebellion of Dorn Miguel in Portugal, April, . . . . .640 1833 1824 Death of Lord Byron in Greece, April 1833 19, ...... 647 1833 1824 Mexico becomes a Republic, . . 950 1824 Bolivar named "Protector for Life " by 1833 the congress in Lima, . . . 957 1825 Erie canal finished, . . .888 1833 1825 Mercersburg seminary established, . 891 182G Fall of Missolonghi and end of Greek 1833 insurrection. April 22, . . . 647 1826 Abolition of janissaries in Turkey, 1833 June, . . . • . 648 1827 Naval battle of Navarino, Oct. 20, . 648 1834 1827 Division of the Quakers, . . ' 891 1827 Organization of Free Will Baptists and 1835 Campbellites, .... 891 1828 Dom Miguel overthrows the Portuguese 1836 constitution, June, . . . 641 1836 1828 War declared between Russia and 1837 Turkey, . . . . .648 1837 1828 First locomotive in America, . . 888 1839 1829 Emancipation Actio England admitting 1840 Catholics to Parliament, . 644 1829 Peace of Adrianople — Greek independ- 1840 euce acknowledged, Sept. 14, . . 648 1840 1829 First Catholic provincial council in 1941 Baltimore, . . . .892 1829 Spain fails in an attempt to reconquer 1842 Mexico, . . . . .950 1830 Salic law abolished in Spain, March 29, 664 1842 1S30 Capture of Algiers, July 5, . . 660 1830 Revolution in Paris and dethronement 1843 of Charles X., July 23-30, . . 659 m PAGE Revolution in Belgium, Aug. 25, . 661 Revolution in Warsaw, Poland, Nov. 29, 662 Joseph Smith says he finds the book of Mormon, ..... 892 Death of Simon Bolivar, . . 957 Reform of English Parliament, . 642 Death of Duke de Berri, February, . 665 Formation of the kingdom of Belgium, June, . . . . .661 Fall of Warsaw and Prague and end of Polish insurrection, Sept. 6-7, . . 663 Conclusion of a treaty providing for in- demnity for French spoliations, . 876 Death of Goethe, . . . 539 French take possession of Ancona, Feb. 23, 664 Kingdom of Greece established, May, . 648 Black Hawk war in Illinois and Wis- consin, ..... 878 First national convention for nominat- ing a president, .... 883 South Carolina nullifies the tariff act of 1828 by ordinance, Nov. 19, . . 901 Abolition of slavery in English colonies, 642 Passage of Irish coercion bill, . . 644 Founding of the German customs union (Zollverein), . . . 664 Civil war begun iu Spain between Christinos and Carlists, . . . 664 Beginning of Oxford movement in En- gland, . . . . .772 Removal of deposits from United States bank, . . . . .885 National anti-slavery convention held at Philadelphia, . . . .902 Dom Pedro restores the Cortes constitu- tion in Portugal, . . . 741 Attempt of Fieschi on the life of Louis Philippe, July 28, 666 Texas becomes iudependentof Mexico, 876, 950 Union seminary founded, . . 891 McKenzie's rebellion in Canada, . 945 Papineau's rebellion in Canada, . 945 End of civil war in Spain, . . 665 Marriage of Queen Victoria of England to Prince Albert of Coburg, Feb. 10, . 643 Establishment of the sub-treasury, . . 886 Union of the provinces of Canada, . 946 Santa Anna enters the City of Mexico at the head of an army, . . 950 Maine boundary question settled by treaty, Aug. .... 876 General Taylor finally conquers the Seminoles, . . . . 878 Revelation to Joseph Smith sanctions plural marriage, . . . 892 994 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. A. n. PAGE A. n. 1844 First use of electro magnetic telegraph, 888 1849 1844 Opening of the Michigan copper mines, 888 1844 Methodists divide on the slavery ques- 1849 tion, . . . . . ' 891 1844 Furious Catholic riots in Philadelphia, 892 1849 1845 Annexation of Texas by the United States, July 4, . . . 864,876 1849 1845 Annapolis naval academy founded . 893 1846 Conflict between Radicals and Jesuits 1849 in Switzerland, .... 670 1846 Title of Oregon confirmed to the United 1849 States, . . . . .864 1849 1846 Settlement of Oregon boundary dispute, 876 1846 Battle of Palo Alto, May 8, . . 876 1849 1846 Battle of Eesaca de la Palma, May 9, 876 1846 United States declares war against 1850 Mexico, May 13, ... 876 1846 Rebellion in Schleswig-Holstein, July, 677 1850 1846 General Taylor captures Monterey, Sept. 24, .... 876 1850 1846 Elias Howe patents thesewing machine, 890 1847 Battle of Buena Vista, Feb. 23, . 876 1850 1847 Capture of Vera Cruz by General Scott, 1851 March, . . . . .876 1851 1847 General Scott takes Molino del Rey, Sept. 8, 878 1851 1847 Scott takes Chapul tepee, Sept. 13, . 878 1852 1847 General Scott enters the city of Mexico, Sept. 14, .... 878 1852 1847 Hoe printing press patented, . . 890 1848 Revolution in Sicily, January, . 666 1853 1848 California and New Mexico ceded to the United States, Feb. 2, . . 864 1853 1848 Insurrection of students in Bavaria, February, . . . .670 1853 1848 Revolution in Paris, and overthrow of Louis Philippe, February 24, . . 670 1853 1848 Insurrection in Vienna and overthrow of Prince Metternich, March, . . 673 1853 1848 Insurrection in Berlin, March 18, . 674 1848 Revolution in Paris, June 22, . . 672 1854 1848 Financial panic in Germany, . . 670 1854 1848 Truce of Malmo, between Prussia and Denmark, negotiated, August, . . 677 1854 1848 Hungarian struggle for independence, 1854 Sept., . . . • .677 1848 Insurrection in Vienna, Oct., . . 677 1854 1848 Vienna besieged and taken from insur- 1854 gents by General Windiscbgratz, Oct., 677 1854 1848 Emperor Francis Joseph proclaims a 1854 new constitution for Austria, Dec, . 678 1848 Gold discovered in California, . . 890 1855 1848 Mormons driven from Nauvoo HI., and settle in Utah, . . . .892 1855 1848 Free soil convention in Buffalo, . 903 1856 1849 Revolution in Rome, February, . 676 PAGE End of National Assembly at Frank- fort, March, . . . .679 Independence of Hungary proclaimed, April 14, .... 678 Frederick William IV., of Prussia de- clines the imperial dignity, April, . 679 Charles Albert of Sardinia defeated by Radetzky at Verona, May 6, . . 676 Mutiny among the soldiers at Baden, May, . . . . .679 Rome taken by French army, July 3, 676 Surrender of Gorgey and fall of Hun- gary, August 13, ... 678 Venice taken by an Austrian Army, August 25, . . . 677 Prussia becomes a constitutional mon- archy, Feb. 6, . . . .702 Schleswig-Holstein surrendered to the Danes, July, .... 680 Humiliation of the Prussian ministry at Olmiitz, Nov., . . . 679 Passage of the Losses bill, in Canada, 947 ■World's Fair held in London, . . 686 Coup d'Etat of Louis Napoleon, De- cember, 2, .... 680 Death of James,Fenimore Cooper, . 896 Second French Empire proclaimed, Dec. 2, . . . . .680 First Catholic plenary council in Balti- more, ..... 892 Marriage of Napoleon III., to Eugenie Montijo, Jan. 30, ... 684 War declared between Russia and Tur- key, Oct. 4, . . . .690 Defeat of Turkish squadron at Sinope, Nov. 30, . . . . . 690 Attempt to assassinate the Emperor of Austria, ..... 701 Reorganization of the customs union, (Zollverein), .... 702 Opening of Paris Exposition, May, . 685 Euglish fleet under Admiral Charles Napier enters the Baltic, August, . 690 Battle of the Alma, Sept. 20, . . 691 Charge of the six hundred at Balak- tava, Oct. . . . .691 Battle of Iukermaun, Nov. 5, . 691 Press law estabished in Germany, . 700 War in Schleswig-Holstein, . . 704 Passage of Kansas and Nebraska bill repealing the Missouri compromise, . 904 Storming of the Malakoff tower by the French, Sept. 8, ... 692 Fall of Sebastopol, Sept. 9, . . 694 Peace of Paris and end of the Crimean war, March 30, . . . . 694 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 995 906 687 702 ,707 940 708 711 907 A. D. PAGE 1857 Dred-Scott decision of the United States Supreme Court, March 6, 1857 Massacre of the English by Sepoys in Delhi, April, .... 1857 Uprising in Neuenburg 1858 Attempt of the Italian, Orsini, upon the life of Napoleon III, June 14, 685 1858 First Marshharvester built, 1859 War between Austria and Sardinia begun, April, .... 1859 Defeat of the Austrians at the battle of Magenta, June 4, 1859 Battle of Solferino. Defeat of the Aus- trians, June 24, ... 1859 Peace of Villa Franca, July, . 1859 Schamyl taken a prisoner, Aug., 1859 War between Spain and Morocco, Oct., 1859 John Brown's insurrection in Virginia, Oct. 19, . 1859 Death of Washington Irving, . 1859 Discovery of petroleum in Pennsylva- nia, ..... 1860 Garibaldi overthrows the kingdom of Naples, Sept. 7, ... 1860 South Carolina, passes an ordinance ot secession, Dec. 20, 1860 General Ortega enters the city of Mex- . ico in triumph, .... 1861 Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia and Louisiana secede from the Union, Jan., ..... 1861 United States steamer, Star of the West, fired upon in Charleston harbor, Jan. 9, 1861 Insurrection in Warsaw, Feb., . 1861 Austria becomes a constitutional state, Feb., 1861 Texas secedes, Feb., 1861 Constitution of Confederate States of America adopted, Feb. 4, 1861 Victor Emmanuel proclaimed King of Italy, Feb. 18, . 1861 Abolition of Serfdom in Russia, March 3, .... 1861 Lincoln calls for seventy-five thousand volunteers, April 15, . 1861 Virginia secedes from the Union, April 17, ....'. 1861 Massachusetts regiment assaulted by a mob in Baltimore, April 19, 1861 Death of Count Cavour, June 6, 1861 Attempt of Oscar Becker to assassinate King William I. of Prussia in Baden- Baden, July 14, ... 1861 General McClellan drives the Confeder- ates from West Virginia, July, 1861 Battle at Bull Run, July 21, A. D. 1861 1861 1861 1861 J 861 1861 708 1861 708 1861 709 696 1861 723 1862 906 894 1862 933 1862 1862 1862 1862 950 1862 1862 907 1862 1862 907 696 1862 701 1862 701 907 1862 907 1862 1862 711 1862 695 1862 1862 907 1862 908 1862 1862 907 712 1863 1863 703 1863 908 1863 908 McClellan organizes the Army of the Potomac, Aug. 20, . . 908 Capture of Hatteras Inlet, Aug. 29, . 914 Coronation of William I. of Prussia in Kbnigsberg, Oct. 18, . . . 703 Battle of Ball's Bluff, Oct. 21, . 908 Capture of Port Royal by Admiral Du- pont, Nov. 7, . . . . 914 Captain Wilkes takes two Confederate commissioners from a British steamer, Nov. 19, . - . . . 921 Death of Albert, Prince Consort, Dec. 14, 688 Union of Moldavia and Wallachia to form Roumania, Dec. 23, . . 694 Allies take possession of Vera Cruz, Dec. . . . . .951 Great Britain recognizes the Confed- erate States as belligerents, Jan. 1, . 921 Battle of Mill Spring, Kentucky, Jan. 19, ..... 909 Capture of Fort Henry, Feb. 6, . 909 Surrender of General Buckner at Fort Donelson, Feb. 16, 909 Victory of Monitor over Merrimac in Hampton Roads, March 8, . . 915 Battle of Shiloh, April 6-7, . . 909 Union forces take Island No. 10, April 7, 910 English and Spanish withdraw from Mexico, April 9, 951 Surrender of New Orleans, April 25, . 910 Yorktown surrenders to General Mc- Clellan, May 3, . . . .910 Battle of Fair Oaks, June 1, . . 910 Beginning of seven days' fighting be- fore Richmond, June 25, . . 911 Conflict of Garibaldi with Italian troops at Aspromonte, Aug. 28, . . 713 Second battle of Bull Run, Aug. 30, . 911 Bismarck called to the ministry, Sept. 704 Capture of Harper's Ferry by General Jackson, Sept. 15, . ■ .911 Battle of Antietam, Sept. 17, . . 911 Revolution in Greece, Oct., . . 695 Two steam rams destined for the Con- federacy detained at Liverpool, Nov. 13, 921 Battle of Fredericksburg, Dec. 13, . 912 Sioux Indians of western Minnesota at- tack the settlements, . . . 938 Emancipation proclamation issued by President Lincoln, Jan. 1, . . 911 Russian conscription in Poland, Jan. 14, 698 Attempt of Emperor Francis Joseph to reform the German Union, . . 701 National bank system established, Feb. 25 921 996 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. A. D. ' 1863 Battle of Chancellorsville and death of Stonewall Jackson, May 2-5, 1863 Completion of French conquest of Mexico, May 18, 1863 Battle of Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863 Surrender of Vicksburg to General Grant, July 4, 1863 Draft riots in New York city, July 13-15, ..... 1863 Battle of Chickamauga, Sept. 19-20, . 1863 Siege of Charleston, Sept., 1863 Napoleon III. sends troops to Mexico, Oct. 31, . 1863 Battle of Chattanooga, Nov. 23-25, 1863 Troops of Saxony and Hanover occupy Holstein and Lauenberg, Dec. 7, 1864 Troops of Prussia and Austria enter Holstein, Jan., .... 1864 Prussians take Diippel, April 18, 1864 Death of Hawthorne, 1864 Battle of the Wilderness, May 5-13, . 1864 Battle of Cold Harbor, June 1-3, 1864 Sinking of the Alabama by the Kear- sarge, June 15, . 1864 Grant begins the siege of Petersburg and Richmond, June 15, 1864 Danes driven from Jutland, June 29, . 1864 Resignation of Secretary Chase, July, 1864 Farragut enters Mobile Bay, August 5, 1864 Sherman enters Atlanta, Sept., 2, 1864 Sheridan wins the battle of Winchester, Sept. 19, ..... 1864 Peace of Vienna between Austria and Prussia, and Denmark, Oct., . . ' 1864 General Thomas annihilates Hood's army at Nashville. Dec. 16, 1864 Sherman captures Savannah, Dec 21, . 1864 Maximilian enters Mexico, 1865 Overthrow of the Polish revolution, 1865 Capital of Italy transferred to Florence, 1865 Lee's surrender at Appomatox Court House, April 9, 1865 Assassination of President Lincoln, April 14, .... 1865 Surrender of Johnston's army, April 26, .1865 Amendment abolishing slavery becomes a part of the constitution, Dec, 1866 Republican uprisings in Catalonia and Valencia, Jan., .... 1865 Rebellion in Bucharest, Feb., . 1866 Insurrection in island of Candia, 1866 Seven -weeks war of Prussia and Italy with Austria begun, June 14, 1866 Battle of Custozza, June 24, 1866 Battle of Sadowa, July 3, 1866 Naval battle of Lissa, July 20, . \GE A. D. 1866 912 1866 951 912 1866 1866 912 1867 922 913 1867 915 1867 921 1867 914 1867 705 1867 705 1867 705 896 1868 918 918 18C8 916 1868 918 1868 705 1868 922 1869 915 919 1869 918 1869 706 1869 1870 919 919 951 1870 700 713 1870 1870 919 1870 1870 923 1870 920 1870 925 1870 1870 723 694 1870 695 1870 716 1870 717 1870 716 1871 720 PAGE Peace of Prague between Austria and Prussia, August 23, Kingdom of Italy acknowledged by Austria, Oct. 3, . French troops leave Rome, Dec, Formation of North German Union, Dec. 15, . Creation of the Dominion of Canada, Feb., Purchase of Alaska from Russia, March, Attempt to assassinate Alexander II., of Russia, June 6, Hungary given a separate constitution from Austria, .... Coronation of Francis Joseph as king of Hungary, June 8, Jefferson Davis released from prison, Execution of Maximilian, of Mexico, June 19, ... . Impeachment of President Johnson Feb., .... End of English War with Abyssinia April, .... Revolution in Spain and flight of Isa bella II., Sept., . Serrano enters Madrid, Oct. 4, . Insurrection in Cuba, Nov., Final repeal of the Corn laws in En gland, .... Completion of the first trans-continental railroad, May, , . Adoption of new constitution in Spain June 1, • Opening of Suez canal, Nov. 15, Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern Sigmar- ingen nominated as King of Spain, July 6, War declared between France and Prus- sia, July 19, . Battle of Worth, Aug. 4-6, Battle of Gravelotte, Aug. 18, . Battle of Sedan,, Sept. 1-2, Overthrow of French Empire, Sept. 4, ■ Italians occupy Rome, ending temporal power of the Pope, Sept. 20, Surrender of Strasburg, Sept. 28, ^B^ Capitulation of Metz, Oct. 27, - 728, 730 Amadeus, second son of Victor Emman- uel, chosen king of Spain, Nov., Mont Cenis tunnel completed connect- ing Italy and France, Dec. 25, . Assassination of General Prim, Dec 27, Riel's first rebellion in Manitoba, Lopez, dictator of Paraguay, William I. proclaimed Emperor of Ger- many at Versailles, Jan. 18, . . 732 718 720 720 721 947 931 700 722 722 926 952 926 688 724 724 763 643 933 724 695 725 726 727 728 729 730 720 730 725 760 725 947 959 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 997 A. D. PAGE A. D. 1871 Truce of Paris agreed upon, Jan. 23, . 734 1874 1871 National Assembly convened at Bor- 1874 deaux, Feb. 14, . . . . 737 1871 Austriau ministry hostile to new Ger- 1874 man Empire appointed, Feb. . . 752 1871 Peace of Paris between France and 1874 Germany, Marcb 2, 737 1871 Insurrection of Red Republicans in 1874 Paris, March 17, ... 738 1871 Representatives from all German States 1875 convened at Berlin, March 21, . . 738 1875 1871 Treaty of Washington between Great Britain and United States, May, . 927 1875 1871 Triumphal entry of William I. into Berlin, June 16, . . . .744 1876 1871 Meeting of Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria with Emperor William of Ger- 1876 many, Sept. 6-8, . . . .752 1871 Count Beust removed from the office of chancellor of Austria, Nov. 6, . . 752 1876 1871 Manitoba and British Columbia enter the Dominion of Canada, . . 947 1876 1871 First steps taken toward abolition of slavery in Brazil, . . .959 1876 1872 Beginning of conflict between church and state in Germany, Jan., . . 741 1876 1872 Visit of Crown Prince and Princess of Italy to Germany, May, . . 734 1877 1872 Meeting of the Emperors of Russia, 1877 Austria and Germany at Berlin, Sept., 744 1877 1872 Settlement of the Alabama question in favor of United States, . . .927 1877 1873 Death of Emperor Napoleon III., Jan. 1877 9. 756 1873 Spain becomes a republic, Feb. 11, . 761 1878 1873 Passage of the Reform Bill in Austria, 1878 March 10, .... 753 1873 Civil war in Spain commences, April, . 761 1878 1873 Financial crisis in Austria, May, .. 753 1873 World's Fair in Austria, . . 753 1873 Russian war with the Khan of Khiva, 754 1878 1873 War between Holland and the Sultan of Atchin at Sumatra, . . . 754 1873 Don Carlos of Spain proclaims himself 1878 King Charles VII., July, . . 761 1878 1873 Last installment of war indemnity paid by France, Sept. 5, . . . 755 1878 1873 Trial of Marshal Bazaine for treason be- gins, Sept. 6, . . . . 756 1878 1873 Count de Chambord declines the king- 1878 dom of France, Oct., . . .757 1878 1873 England establishes her power on west ' coast of Africa, . . . . 772' 1879 1873 Rising of the Modocs of Oregon, . 938 1873 Resiguation of Sir John McDonald as 1879 prime minister of Cauada, . . 948 PAGE Ferghanistan annexed by Russia, . 754 Marshal Bazaine escapes from the isle of St. Marguerite, Aug. 9, . . 757 Alfonso XII., proclaimed king of Spain, Dec. 30, . . . . . 762 Return of Tories to power under Dis- raeli, in England, . . . 772 Prince Edwards Island enters the Do- minion of Canada, . . . 947 Emperor William journeys to Milan, . 747 Insurrections in Herzegovina and Bosnia, July, .... 763 Passage of the act for the resumption of specie payment in the United States, . 929 Don Carlos defeated and compelled to abandon Spain, Feb. 27, . . 762 Bismarck, Gortschakoff, and Andrassy unite in a memorandum to the Sub- lime Porte, Feb., . . . 764 Sultan Abdul Aziz consents to the re- moval of his grand visier, May, . 764 Presidential election decided by an electoral commission, . . . 929 Centennial exhibition in Philadelphia, May 10-Nov. 10, ... 935 Murder of General Custer by Indians, June 25, . . . . . 938 Russian Army invades Turkey, April, 764 Ronmania declared independent, May, 764 Great railroad strikes in Pittsburgh and elsewhere, July, . . . 934 Rebellion of Nez Perce Indians, Sep., 938 Fall of Plevna and end of Russo-Turk- ish war, Dec. 10, ... 767 Russians take Adrianople, Jan. 20, . 767 Peace of San Stefano between Russia and Turkey, Mar. 3, . . 767 Robert Hodel makes an attempt upon the life of Emperor William of Ger- many, May, .... 747 Dr. Nobling makes an attempt upon the life of Emperor William of Germany, June, . • ■ • -747 Congress of Berlin meets, June 13, . 767 Austria occupies Bosnia and Herzego- vina, July, • • ■ .768 Passage of the anti-socialist laws in Germany, Oct. 19, . . .747 Rebellion in Afghanistan, . . 775 Passage of the Bland silver bill, . 929 Sir John McDonald returns to power in Canada, .... 948 Parliamentary constitution framed for Bulgaria, Feb. 22, 770 General Wolseley puts down the Zulus under Cetewayo in South Africa. . 773 998 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. A. D. PAGE A. D. 1879 Ismail Pasha succeeded by Tewfikk 1887 Pasha in Egypt, June 26, . . 774 1880 Return of the Liberals to power under 1887 Gladstone, April, . . .776 1881 Rebellion under El Mahdi in Nubia, 1887 July, 775 1881 Assassination of President Garfield, 1887 Sept. 19, .... 930 1888 1882 Hamburg and Bremen become members of the Customs-Union. . . .748 1888 1882 Murder of Lord Cavendish and Bourke in Phoenix Park, Dublin, May 6, • 776 1888 1882 Completion of St. Gothard railroad and tunnel uniting Germany and Italy, June, 760 1888 1882 Death of Garibaldi at Caprera, June, 2, 761 1882 Alexandria bombarded by English war 1888 vessels, July 11, ... 774 1882 Egyptian Army under Arabi Pasha de- 1888 feated at Tel-el-Kebir by General Wolseley, Aug. 31, 775 1888 1882 Death of Leon Gambetta, Dec. 31 . 759 1882 Death of Longfellow and Emerson, . 896 1888 1882 Formation of the Standard Oil trust, . 934 1882 Organization of the educational divis- 1889 ion of the Indian Bureau, . • 938 1883 Sagasta called to the Spanish ministry, 1889 Jan. 8, . . • • .763 1889 1883 Death of Prince Gortschakoff of Russia, March 11, . . . • 771 1889 1883 French war with Tonquin, Aug.-Sept. 759 1883 French war with Madagascar, . 759 1889 1883 Passage of the civil service reform act in United States, . . • 930 1889 1884 Riot in Cincinnati, . . . 935 1885 Death of General Gordon in Khartoum, 1889 Jan. 26, . . . . . 775 1885 Riel's Rebellion in the northwest, March, 948 1890 1885 Return of the Tories to power under Lord Salisbury, June, . . 776 1890 1885 German legation in Madrid attacked by a mob, Sept. 4, • ■ • • 765 1890 1885 Pope Leo XIII. decides the affair of the J890 Caroline Islands in favor of Spain, Sept., 763 1890 1885 Insurrection in Bulgaria, Sept., . 770 1885 War between Servia and Bulgaria, Nov. 770 1890 1885 Conquest of Burmah by England, . 775 1885 Passage of the inter-state commerce bill, 931 1891 1885 Mormons disfranchised, . . 931 J891 1886 Death of Victor Hugo, . . 656 1886 Ludwig II. of Bavaria, becomes insane, 749 J891 1886 Expulsion of princes from France, • 760 1886 Riot in Brooklyn, . . .936 1891 1886 Completion of Canadian Pacific Rail- way, . . • • .948 1891 1887 War between Italy and Abyssinia be- 1891 gun, Jan., .... 761 PAGE New military law adopted in Germany, March 11, .... Scandal on account of shameful traffic in decorations in France, Crispi becomes prime minister of Italy, Aug., ..... Riots in Brooklyn and Chicago, Trial by jury introduced into Spain, Feb. 27, Death of Emperor William of Germany, March 8, . Trial of General Bonlanger in France, for insubordination, March 26, Overthrow of Tirard's ministry in France, March 30, Overthrow of Floquet's ministry in France, April 19, ... Death of Emperor Frederick of Ger- many, June 15, ... Duel between Boulanger and Floquet, July 13, .... Local Government Act passed in En- gland, Aug. 13, ... Suicide of Crown Prince Rudolph of Austria, Feb. 5, 7, Opening of the Paris Exposition, May 6, General Boulanger found guilty of plot- ting against the state, Aug. 14, Expulsion of Nihilists from Switzer- land, ..... Treaty between Germany, England and United States regarding Samoa Pan-American Congress meets in Wash- ington ..... Revolution in Brazil and overthrow of imperial government, Resignation of Prince Bismarck as chan- cellorof theGerman Empire, March 18, 752, 777 Heligoland becomes part of Germany Aug., .... Anti-tithe war in Wales, Aug., Revolt at Ticino, Switzerland, Sept. 12. Passage of the McKiuley tariff bill Sept. 30, ... Queen Emma appointed regent of Hoi land, Nov. 13, . Death of George Bancroft, Defeat of Crispi's Ministry in Italy Jan. 31, . Release of the sequestrated funds of the Roman Catholic churches, Feb. Murder of eleven Sicillians in New Or- leans, March 14, Death of Count von Moltke, April 24, Beginning of the Trans Siberian rail- way, May, .... 749 760 761 936 779 749 778 778 778 750 778 782 753 778 778 781 931 932 959 777 783 781 732 781 897 779 777 779 777 780 CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX. 999 A. D. 1891 Renewal of the Triple Alliance for six years, June 28, . . 1891 Settlement of the difficulties between England aud Portugal, June, 1891 Suicide of Boulanger near Brussels, Sep 30, .... 1891 Passage of the Sherman silver bill 1891 United States cruiser Baltimore at tacked by a mob in Valparaiso, Oct 16, .... 1831 Death of Sir John McDonald, . 1891 Civil war in Chili, 1892 Rebellion of Yemen tribes of Arabia under Hamid Eddin, Jan., 1892 Defeat of the Liberals in Denmark April 20, ... 1892 Collapse of the Panama canal project May, 1892 Defeat of Rudini's ministry, May 5, 1892 Frontier war between Russia and Af- ghanistan, 1892 Openingof canal connecting Amsterdam with Rhine provinces of Germany, 1892 Murder of Italians by a mob in New Orleans, . . - . PAGE A. T>. PAGE 1893 Death of Alfred Tennyson, . . 654 777 1893 Return of liberals to power under Gladstone, .... 779 1893 Adoption of new army bill in Germany, 1893 Failure of the Barings in London 778 1893 Behriug Sea disputes settled by arbitra- 93e tion, .... 783, 948 1893 Passage of the Home Rule bill by Eng- lish House of Commons, 932 1893 Revolution in Hawaii, 948 1893 Repeal of the Sherman silver bill, 958 1893 World's Fair in Chicago, May 1 to Oct. 30, 782 1893 Archbishop Satolli sent to America as papal legate, . . 781 1893 Brazilian revolution headed by Ad- miral Mello, .... 778 1894 Prince Bismarck accepts an invitation 779 to the imperial court 1894 Gladstone succeeded by Lord Roseberry 780 as prime minister of England, . 776, 783 1894 Commercial treaty concluded between 781 Russia and Germany, . . 777, 780 1894 Reconciliation between Bismarck and 932 Emperor William II. . . . 778 776 777 783 783 932 933 935 937 959 752 ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. Aachen. See Aix la Chapelle. -4ar'gau (-gow), 670. Aa'rim, 54. 56. Ab-bas'i-des, 271. Abd'el Ka'der, 660. Ab-de'ra, 88. Abd'er ra/i'inan, 271. Ab'dul A-z'iz', 694, 764. Ab'dul Ha'mld II., 764. Ab'dul Ke'riin, 764, 765. Ab'dul Med-schid', 689, 694. Ab'e-lard, 321. Ab'er-crom-bie (-krum), General, 593. Ab'er-crom-bie (-krum-), General James, 831. Aberdeen', Lord, 903. AboM-kir', Battle at, 589. A'bra-Min, 52, 54. A'bra-ham, Heights of, 832. A-bran'tes, Duke of. See Junot, 604. Ab'sa-lom, 60, 62. A'bii Bek'r, 267, 268. Ab'y-dos, 104. Ab'ys-sin'i-a, 688, 761, 772. Academy, 110. A-ca'di-a, 791, 792, 793, 830, 834. Ac'ar-na'ni-a, 76. Ac-ca'di-an Races, 37. Ac-can', 794. Ac-co-mac', 805. Ac/i'ae-men'i-des, 73. A-cM'ian (-y«n), League, 77, 143, 182. A-cAa'ians (-yans), 77, 84, ^6, 87, 179, 182. Ac/iil'les, 83, 131. A'cre, 312, 316. 318. Ac'ti-iim (slii-). Sea-fight at, 207. A-dal'gis, 279. Ad'ain, 23. Ad'ams, Charles F„ 921. Ad'ams, John, 839, 840, 841, 852, 860, 852, 866, 879. Ad'ams, JOftn Quin'cy (-zi), 874, 876, 880, 882. Ad'ams, Sam'u-el, 856. Ad'-el-bert, Archbishop of Brem'en, 296. Ad'el-heid, 292. Ad'i-ge, 592. A-dolf, Fred'er-ick of Swe'den, 548. X-dolph' of Nas'sau (saw), 338, 339. A-dolph', the Goth, 254. A-drarn'me-lec/t, 39. A'dria, 709. Ale. care, am, arm, final ; eve, obey, e by; (jell; K=ng; italic letters silent or Ad-ri-iin-o'ple, 249, 388, 765. 767. Ad-ri-an-o'ple, Peace of, 648. Ad'ri-at'ic Sea, 370, 372. jEd'u-i (ed'), 200. M'g&, 127, 130. JE-ge'an Sea, 52, 78, 80, 102, 111, 170, 369. jE-gi'na, 76, 96, 101, 106, 111. jE'gos-pot'a-nios, 114. jE-mll-I-aVi'a, 171. jE-ne'as, 83, 147, 150. jE'ne-us SH'vi-us, see Silvius Aliens. jE-o'li-ans, 82. .E'qui, 117, 160, 165. iEs'eM-nes, 126, 128. jEs'cfty-lus, 123, 124. jjysop, 100. A-e'ti-us (-Shi), 254, C55. jJEt'na, 88. jE-tG'H-a, 76, 179, 180. Af'fre, Archbishop, 672. Af-ghan-Is-tan', 775, 780. Af'ri-ca, 23, 48, 184, 244, 252, 254, 270, 641 742, 759, 772, 773, 777, 779, 941. Af-ri-ca'nus, Scip'i-6, 179, 180. At-rl-ca'Dus,' the Younger. See Scipio. tlie Younger, 184. Ag'a-mem'non, 77, 83, 123. Ag'as-s'iz, Lou'is, 911. A-gath'o-cles, 167. A-ges-i-la'us, 119, 120, 121. 125. A-gin-courf' (-zhaN), Battle of, 356. A'gis II., 142. A'gis IV., 142. Ag'nesof Augs'biirg (Owgs'), 350. A gric'6-la, 226. Ag-ri-gen'tum, 168. A grip'pa, 207, 210. A grip-pi'na, 214, 219, 220. A-grip-pi'na, the Younger, 221. A'hab, 64, 65. A/j'med Fe/i'zy Pasha', 7S2. Ah-ii-man', 68. Aix-la-"Cha-pelle', 282. Aix-la-fha-pelle', Treaty of, 528. A-jac'cio (yat'clio), 594. A'jax. 83. Al-a-ba'ma, 788, 873, 907, 909, 937. Al-a-ba'ma River, 878. Al-a-ba'ma (vessel), 916, 927. A-la'ni, 249. Al'a-1'ic, 251, 252, 254. AlSs'ka,780, 931, 948. Al'bii, Duke of, 424. 441, 442, 444. Al'ba Lon'ga, 148, 100, 154. nd. her. recent ; ice, ill, pique ; Old, orb, obscure. Al'bSn-ese, 768. Al-ba'ni-a, 390. Al-ba'ni-an Mountain, 150. Al'ba-ny (awl'), 796, 828, 890. Al-be-niarle', 808. Al-be-ro'ni, 514. Al'bert, Arch-bishop of May-ence' (-ons') 405, 406, 409. Al'bert, Archduke of Aus'tri-a (aws'), 713, 717. Al'bert, Crown Prince of Sax'o-ny, 728. Al'bert of Bran'den-burg, 385, 426. Al'bert of Co'burg (-bdorg), 643. Al'bert, Prince Consort, 688. Al'bert, Prince of Prus'sia (-slia), 749. Al'ber-tus Mag'nus, 335. Al'brec/it I. of Aus'tri-a (aws'), 339. Al'brecftt II. of Aus'tri-a (aws'), 350. Al-bi-gen'ses, 319, 332. 351. Al'bi-on, Duke of Sax'o-ny, 280. Al'boin, 264. Al'bO-querque (-kerk), 398. Al-cas'sar, 441. Al-ca-va'la, 367. Al-caz'ar, 272. Al-c.es'tis, 123. Al'ci-bi'a-des, 113, 114, 116. Alc'mae-on'i-dse, 99. Al'cuin (-kwin), 282. Al'drich (awl'), Thom'Ss Bai'ley, 939. Al-e-man'ni, 247, 248, 25S. A-lem-berC (-Ion), d', 545. A-lep'po, 386. A-le'si-a (-shi-), 200. Al-es-san'dri-a, 322, 639. 708. Al-ex-an'der I. Czar. 594, COO, 602, 604, 612, 614, 616, 620, 630, 635, 646, 647, 660. Al-ex-an'der II., Czar, 691, 695, 696, 700, 753, 754, 770, 780. Al-ex-an'der III., Czar, 747, 764, 771, 780. Al-ex-an'der de Med'i-ei (e-clie), 376. Al-ex-an'der of Par'nia, 456. Al-ex-an'der, Papal Ambassador, 408. Al-ex-an'der III., Pope, 321, 322, 359, 368, Al-ex-an'der VI., Bor'gia (ja). Pope, 377, 787. Al-ex-an'der Preacher, 246. Al-ex-an'der, Prince of Hesse, 716. Al-ex-an'der, Prince of Rou-me'li-a, 770. Al-ex-an'der Sev-e'rus, 235, 236. Al-ex-an'der, the Great, 42, 52, 126, 131, 132, 134, 136, 138, 140, 141, 115. Al-ex-an'dri-a, E'gypt, 52; 132, 136, 141, 143, 144. 203. 207. 208, 268, 588, 589, 774. odd, move; use, urn, up, rude; food, foot; (1001) 100: ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. Al-ex-an'dri-a, Vfr-gin'i-a, 830, 874. Al-ex-an'dri-ad, 335. Al-ex-an'dri-an Age, 145. Al-ex'is Com-nS'uus, 304. Al-ex-is of Rus'sia (-sha), 524. Al-ex-is, R6-iiia'nofJ, 516. Al-fi-e'ri, 650. Al -foil 'so of Ar'a-gon, 377. Al-fon'so X., of Cas-tile', 337, 338, 307. Al-fon'so XI., of Cas-tile', 367. Al-fon'so I., of Por'tu-gal, 368. Al-fon'so XII., of Spain, 762. 763. Al-fon'so XIII., of Spain, 763. Al-fon'so, Prince of -As-tiir'i-a, 724. Al'fred. the Great, 286. Al-gi'dus Mountain, 147, 160. Al-gzers', 390, 420.660. Al'gon'quin, Indians, 792. Al-ham'bra. 272. A71I, Son-in-law of Mo-ham 'nied, 268. it'll, Uncle of Mo-ham'med, 267. Al'lan, E'thau, 838. Al'lan. Sir Kugh, 947. Al'ie-g/ia-ny Mountains, 794, 828. Al-lende', Ig-na'ti-o (-the) d', 949. Al'li-a, 164, 174. Alliance, Holy, 635, 637, 639. 643, 647, 660, 686. All'ston (awl'), Wasli'Ing-ton (wosh'), 898. Al'ma. Battle of the, 691. Al-ma'gro, 403. AU-nie'i-da, 398. Alps', 147, 171, 176, 391, 279, 374, 586. 592, 698. Al-saee'. 378. 412, 426. 477, 512, 576. 730, 736, 738. 743, 746, 748. Al'sen, 705. Al'va. 181. ATva-rez. General. 950. Am-a-de'iis, 725. 761. A-ma-dor' of Brazil'. 958. A-ma-la-suii'ta, 262. Am'a-lek-ites, 56. A-nial'fi. 288. 395. A-ma'sis, 48, 49. 98. Am'ii-zon River, 403, 958. Am'brose, 251. A-mer'i-ca, 26, 285, 395, 396, 404, 429, 562, 591. 645. 742, 761. 772. A-mer'i-ca. Central. 400, 638, 874, 900. A-mer'i-ca, North, 787, 790, 791. A-mer'i-can Race, 24. A-mer'i-ca, South, 400. 63S, 783, 787, 874, 953. Am'fterst, Colonel, 831, 832, 834. A'mi-ens, (-as), Peace of, 592, 593, 594. A in 'mon, 46. Am'mon-ites. 56, 58. Aui-mo'ni-um. 73. A'mor. See Eros. Am '6-rite, 56. A'mos, 65. Ain-phic'ty-on'ic Council. 90, 127, 128. Am-phip'O-lis, 88, 112, 125, 128. Am'ru, 26S. Am'ster-dam, 500, 781, 812. A-incrii-us, 150. A'mu-ratfr I., 388. A'mu-ratA 11., 389. Anabaptists, 409, 421, 422. A-nac're-on,99, 100, A-nam' 759. Ancients, Council of, 93. An-cG'na, 664, 711, 722. Au'cus Miir'cius (-shus), 134, 154, 156. An-da-lii-si'a (-the'), 606. 608. An'der-sen, Hans C/ais'tian (-Chan), 657. An'do-ver Seminary, 937. An'dras-sy lOn'dra-she), Count 722, 747, 753, 764. 767, 768. An'dre-as II., of Hfra'ga-ry, 314, 382. Au'dre-as III., of HiiN'ga-ry, 382. An'dre, Jofcu.848. An'dros, Sir Ed'mund, 820, 822. An'ge-lo. Mi'cftael. See Buonarotti. An'ge-lus, Al-ex'i-us, 314. An'ge-lus, I'saac, 314. AN'gle-land. See England. AN'gles, 218, 261. AN'gli-can Church. See English Church. Au'glo Sax'ons, 261, 286- An-go'ra. 389. An-gos-tii'ra, Congress of, 957. An-gc«(-lenie'. d 1 , (don-) Due, 624, (j37, Duchess 572, 626, 637. A'ni-ti. 147. An-jou' (On-z1ioo'), House of, 377. 382. An'na, of Rus'sia (-sha), 524. An-nap'o-lis, 854, 856. Anne AVun-del, 805, 807. Anne of Aus'tri-a laws'), 498. Anne of Cleves, 432. Anne, of En'gland (-ing'), 494. 510. .512. Ans'gar, Bishop, 286, 379. An-t;il'ci-das, 120. An'ta-ra, 274. An-the'nii-us. 256. An'ti Cos'ti, 790. An-tfe'tam Creek, 911. An-tig'd-nus, 131, 141, 142. An-til'les, 762. An'ti-oc/i. 143, 268, 306, 318. An-ti'o-cftus E-piph'a-nes, 144. An-tl'6-cftus III., The Great, 143, 144, 179, 180. An-tip'a-ter, 142. An-tis'the-ncs, 145. An-tO-nel'li, Cardinal, 748. An'to-niue Baths, 235. An'to-nines, 223. An'to-ni'mis Column. 231. An'to-ni'nus. Mar'cus Au-re'li-us (Aw-), 230, 232, 243. An'to-ni'mis, Pi'us, 230. An-to'ni-o, 441. An-to'ni-us, 202. An'to-ny, Marc, 204, 206, 207, 208. Au'tO-ny, E gyp'tian (-shan) Hermit, 331. Ant'werp, 378, 442, 444. 661. 795. A-pel'les. 127. Ap'en-nines, 147, 165, 172. Aph'ro-di'te, 77, 79. A'pis. 46. 73.- A-pol'lo, 76, 78, 79, 90, 92, 127. Apostles, 247. Apostolic Fathers, 247. Ap'pi-an Way. 202. Ap'pi-us, Clau'di-us (claw'), 162. 166, 168. Ap'ple-by, J07m F., 933, 941. Ap-po-mat'ox Court House, 919. A-pu'Ii-a, 173. 288, 324. A'quae-Au-re'li-se (aw-), 227. A'qua? Sex'ti-a3, 191. A-qui-le'ja (-ya). 249, 255. A-qui'nas, Thom'as, 334. A-rab'i-a, 47, 50, 141, 266, 267, 782. A-ra'bi Pa-sha', 774, 775. Ar'abs, 52, 104. 266. 267, 268, 271, 272. 284, 288, 302. 368, 395. Ar'a-go, 672. 740. Ar'a-gon, 272, 367. 377, 511. A-ran'da, Count, 852. A-ran'da, Don, 547. A-ra'tus. 142. Ar-be'la, 134. Ar-bO-gast', 249. Ar-ca'di-a, 76. 86, 121. Ar-ca'di-us, 251. Ar-eAi-da'mus, 112. Ar-c/iil'6-chus, 100. Ar-c/ii-me'des, 145, 174. Ar'c/ii-pel'a-go, Gre-cian (shan), 77, 101, 370, 648. Ar'ehons, 96, 97, 114. Ar'cis, 624. Ar-da-c/ian', 764. Ar'de-a, 157. A-re-op'a-gfis, 97. 99. AVgall. Sam'u-el, 781, 802. Ar'gen-tlne Republic, 957, 959. Ar'go-lis, 77, 86. Ar'go-nauts (-nawts), 82. Ai''gos, 70, 77, 82, S3, 87, 96,104, 113. 127, 167. A'ri-ad'ne, 82. A'ri'an-Ism, 246, 251, 264. A'ri-ans, 246, 262. A-ri'on. of Les'bos, 98. A-ri-os'to, 377, 462. A'ri-o-vis'tus. 200. Ar-is-ti'des, 102, 103, 107, 110. 121. Ar-is-tip'pus, 146. A-ris'to-crats, 113, 114, 120, 142, 566, 572. A-ris'to-de'mus, 95. Ar'is-tag'6-ras, 101. Ar'is-tom'e-nes, 95. Ar-is-toph'a-nes. 124. Ar'is-tot-le. 138, 145, 274. A'ri-us, 246. Ar-i-zo'na, 789, 950. Arlian-sas' (-saw'), 864, 90S. 925. Ar'Uan-sas' (-saw'). 910. Ar'l;an-sas' (-saw'), River, 793, 794. Ar-ko'na. 266. Ark'!«'is/it. Rich'ard. 514, 741. Ar'ling-ton,804. Ar-nia'da, Span'ish' 447, 448. 459. Ar-magrn-ac' (yak'), Count d', 356. Ale, care, am. arm. final; eve, obey, end, her, recent; ice, ill, pique; old, orb, Odd, move; ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING iNDEX. 1003 Xr-me'ni-a, 38, 65, 197, 227. Ar-ini'das, 800. Ar-mour' (-moor') Institute, 938. Ar-naud' (-no'). Marshal Saint, 680, 690, 691. Anitft, 601. 646, 650. Ar'nim, Bet-ti'na von, 739. Ar'nim, Count Har'ry von, 746. Ar'nold, Ben'e-dict, 840, 841, 846, 848, 850, 942. Ar'nold, Mat'thew, (Math'yti), 124, 655. Ar'nold of Bres'ci-a, (Bresh'e-a), 321. Ar'nold, von Wink'el-ried (-ret), 344. Ar'nulf of Ba-va'ri-a, 284. Ar'pad, House of, 382. Ar'ta-pher'nes, 101, 102. Ar'tax-erx'es, 66, 118, 235. Ar'te-mis, 78, 79, 83, 87. Ar'te-mis'i-um, 106. Ar'thur, Ches'ter A., 929. Ar'thur, King, 261. Articles, Six, 430. Ar-tois' (-twa), Count d', 562, 596, 624, 626, 628, 637. Ar'yans, 32, 33. As'ca-I6n, 308. A'sen,218. Ash-all-tees', 772, 773. Asli'dod, 38. Ash'ley River, 852. A'si-a (-shi-), 23. 29, 38, 39, 68, 180, 390. A'si-a (Shi-) Mi'nor, 52, 120, 131, 143, 194, 268, 388, 768. AS-pa'si-a (-shi-), 111. As'pern and Ess'ling, Battle of, 609. As-prO-monte', 713. Assassins, 318. As'sur, 37. As'sur-ban'i-pal, ''9,41, 48. As'sur-ha'don I., 39, As'sur-ha'don II., (Sar-da-ua-pa'lus), 41. As-syr'i-a, 37, 41, 65. As-tar'te, 51. As'tor, John Ja'cob, 894. As-tra-kftan', 385. As-tii'ri-a, Prince of, 724. As-tii'ri-as, 272. AS-ty'a-ges, 68, 70. A'sy'ine-tes, 97. A-ta-lmal'pa (-liwal'), 403. At-chin', Sultan of, 754. Ath'a-li'a/i, 64, 65. Ath'a-na'si-us, 246, 247. Ath'aulf (-owlf). See Adolph. A-the'ne, Pal'las, 99, 110, 111. Ath'ens, 76, 81, 82, 86, 87, 89, 96, 99, 101, 102, 105, 107, 108, 110, 111, 112, 114, 119, 120, 121, 124, 125, 126, 130. 131, 142. 145, 150, 161, 183, 192, 194, 198, 314, 375, 695. Ath'os, 101, 104. At'lan-ta, 919. At'lan-ta, (vessel), 915. At-lan'tic Magazine, 939. At'ti-ca, 76, 81, 82, 86, 102, 105, 107, 112. At'ti-cus, P6m-po'ni-us, 212. At'ffl-a. 255, 336. Attys, 70. Au'er-bach (0\V), Ber'tftold, 739. Au'er-sperg (On"), Prince, 600, 722, 753. Augereau (Ozh-ro'), 583, 622. Augs'biirg (Owgs'), 406, 407, 424, 425, 472, 716; Confession, 413; Diet, 413, 414, 420, 421; Interim, 425; Peace, 466, 477. Au'gust (aw') II. See Augustus III., Frederick. Au-gus'ten-berg (aw-), Duke of, 677. Au'gus-tine (a\V) Benedicitine Monk, 261. Au'gus-tine (aw'), Bishop of Hippo, 246, 247, 427. Au'gus-tine (aw'), Saint, 788, 789, 808. Au-gus'tus (aw-), Cae'sar, 181, 206, 207, 208, 210, 211, 212, 214, 216, 219, 222. Au-gus'tus (aw-) II., Fred'er-ick, 518, 519, 520, 524, 526. Au-gus'tus (aw-) III., Fred'er-ick, 524, 528, 551. Au-gus'tus (aw-) IV., Fred'er-ick, 602. Au'lis (aw'), 83. Au-niale' (do-), Due d'. 756. Au-re'li-fin (aw-) 236, 238. Au-re'Ii-fis (aw-), Marcus. See Anto- ninus. Au-so'ni-us (aw-), 249. Aus'ter-litz (aws-), 598, 600, 601, 603. Aus'tin (aws'-), Ann, 819. Aus'tin(aws'-),Ste'phen, (-v'n),864,876. Aus-tra'li-a (aws'), 644, 742, 783. Aus-tra'si-a (aws-) (-shi-), 260, 261. Aus'tri-a, (aws'-), 321, 426, 44S, 503, 534, 537, 552, 565, 582, 583, 585, 592, 598, 6"0, 603, 609, 614, 620, 622, 628, 630, 636, 645, 668, 676, 678, 679, 680, 6S6, 688, 691, 700, 701, 702, 704, 705, 706, 707, 708. 709, 713, 714, 716, 717, 718, 720, 721, 722, 744, 747, 748, 752, 753, 763, 764, 768, 776, 777, 779. Aus'tri-a (aws'-) Hun'gar-y, 722, 753. Aus'tri-an (aws'-), Warof Succesion,526. Au'try (do'tri) d\ 794. Au'to (aw') da fe, 368. Au-tun' (5-), 199. Au-tun (0-), Bishop of, 563. A-vars', 280, 284. A-ver'ro-es, 274. Av-i-cen'na, 274. A-vig-non' (-ven-yoN'), 340, 314, 376, 565, 637. Av'ron, Mt., 732. Ax'el, Arch-bishop, 380. Ay'e-sha, 267. A-zof , Sea of, 692. A-zores', 396. Ba'al, 42, 51, 64, 234. Ba'bel, 23. Ba-beiif, Grac'cftus, 583. Bab'ing-ton, 458. Bflb'y-lOll, 37, 42, 65, 66, 70, 74, 134, 140, 141, 227. BSb-y-lon'i-a, 37, 38, 39, 42, 70, 141. BSb-y-lun'i-an Captivity, 340. Bac'cftae, 80. Bac'cfta-na'li-a, 80. Bac'cAus, 80, 81, 190. Bac-cio'c/ii (bat-cho') fi-1'i'sa, 594, 597, Bac/t, Se-bas'tian (-chan), 538. Ba'cou, Lord, 479. Ba'con, Na-than'i-el, 804, 805, 807, 808. Bac'tri-a, 136. Ba'den, 412, 599, 600, 622, 665, 673, 676, 679, 718, 726, 730, 732. Ba'den-Ba'den. 227, 702. Bag-dad', 268, 271, 386, 389. Ba-gis'tan, 74. Ba-gra'tion (-shun), General, 600,614. Ba-ha'mas, 808. Baft-i'a, 916. 958, 959. Ba«'ly, 560, 561, 572. Biiin'bridge. Captain, 868. Baj-a-zet', 388, 389. BiL'ker, Sir Sam'u-el, 742. Ba-ku'nin, 741. Bal'a-kla-va, 691. Bal-bo'a, 402. Bal'ca, 386. Bal'der (bawl'), 218. Bald'win (bawld'), of Flan'ders, 306. 308, 314. Bald'win (bawld'), Rob'ert, 944, 946. Bal-e-ar'ic Islands, 254, 723. Bal'fofir, 783. Ba'li-ol, Joftn, 362. Ball's (bawls) Bluff, Battle of, 908. Bal'ma-ce-da, 932, 958. Bal'tic (bawl'), 50, 380, 426, 518, 520, 593, 604, 619, 677. Bal'ti-morel (bawl'), City, 807, 842, 874, 890, 891, 907, 911, 939. Bal'ti-more (bawl), Lord, 803, 805. 806, 807. Bam' biirg, 294, 634. BaN'croft, George, 893, 894,897. BfiN'croft, Hu'bert Howe, 940. Ba-nar', 477. Banks, General, 910, 911, 912. Bap'tlsts, 818, 823, 891. Bap'tists, Free Will, 891. Bar-ba'does, 808, 819. Barbarians, 89. Bar-ba-rora', 564, 571. Bar'ba-ry, 854. Bar-ce-10'na, 254, 279, 511, 512, 639. 761, 779. Bar'clai/ de Tol-ly' (-le), General, 614, 616, 622. Bar, Confederation of, 551. Bard, Fort, 592. BSi'e'bOnes, Praise God, 490. Ba-rere, 578. Ba'ring, 783. Bar'loju, 800. Bar'nard, Hen'ry, 892. Bar-nave' 572. Bar-ne'veld, Ol'den, 448. Bai'-riis', 580. Bar-re', Colonel I'saae, 835. Bar-ror. O'dil-dN, 659. * BartA, of Ham'burg, 742. Bar-thol'o-mew (-rau), Massacre of Saint, 438, 452. Ba-san-tel'lo, 292. Ba'se-dflto, 540. Ba'sel. 349. 414, 576, 760. Bas-a-lis'cus, 256. Ba-sil'i-us, 265. use, urn, up, riide; food, foot; by; cell; N-ng; italic letters silent or obscure. 1004 ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. Bisques (basks), 865, 761, 790. Bas'ra, 268. Bas-ti-aC, 141. Bas-tile', 561, 562. Ba-ta'vi-a, 418, 576. Ba-ta'vi-ans, 224. Bath'Mrst, Lord, 944. Bat'on Kouge (roozli), 910. Ba-toiim', 767. Bat'ten-berg, Prince of, 770. Baut'zen (bowt'sen), 620. Ba-va'ri-a, 276, 284, 296, 319, 321, 323, 348, 426, 472, 474, 477, 511, 528, 535, 537, 546, 599, 600, 609, 622, 675, 679, 716, 71S, 726, 732, 744, 749, 752. Ba-va'ri-a, Elector of, 510, 511, 513. Bay'ard, Chevalier, 418. Bay'ard, TAom'as F., 929. Baj/le, 507. Ba-zaine', Marshal, 727, 72S, 730, 756, 757i 766. 951. Beac'ons-field, Lord, 767, 775. Bja'ton, Cardinal, 428. Beau-/!ar-na/s' (bo-), Vicomte de, 576, 5S0 # * Beau-Mr-mus' (bo-), .Eu'gene, 594, 598, 622. Beau-ftar-nfus' (bo-), JJor-teuse' (-taNs') 594. Beau-Heu' (bo-), 582. Beau'rg-gard (bo'), General, 908, 909. Bea'ver Dams, 870. Beck'er, Os'car, 703. Beek'et, Tftom'as a, 359, 360. " Bed of Justice," 556, 558. Bed'-ou-In Tribes, 270. Beech'er, Hen'ry Ward (wawrd), 921, 940. Bee'tftO-ven, 658. BeA'iing Sea, 931. Bel-forr', 730, 734, 736, 737. Bel'gi-an Revolution, 661, 662. Bel'gi-um. 200, 448, 537, 549, 568, 576, 582, 628, 658, 660. 661, 662, 725, 754, 780. Bel-'grade', 304, 383, 390, 503, 526, 770 Bel-i-sa'rl-us, 262. Bel'&nap, Wil'liam (yam) W., 928. Bell. Al-ex-an'der Gra'ftam, 741, 941. Bell'a-mont, RIeli'ard Coote, 826. Belle-Isle', 528. Belle Isle', Straits of, 790. Bel-ler'o-phon, 632. Bell, Joftn, 906. Bell, Pat'rick, 888. Bel-shaz'zar, 70. Be'mis Heights, 846. Ben'der, 520. 522. 551. Be'ne-dek, 713, 714, 716. Be-ue-det't'i, 725. Ben-e-dic'tiue Monks, 379. Ben'e-dict of Nur'sl-a, 331. Ben'e-dict, Order of Saint, 332. Ben'e-dict VIII., Pope, 294. Ben'e-dict XII., Pope, 342. Ben-e-ven'tum, 166, 328. Ben'ftam, Admiral, 959. Ben'ja-mln, 58, 64. Ben'nett, James Gor'don, 898. Beu-nig'sen, 6"2, 622, 746. Ben'ning-ton, 846. Ben'tou TAom'as H., 880. Be-ran-ger' (roN-zha'), 638, 656, 685. BercA't/iold, Count, 288. Ber-en-gar',292. Ber'es-ford, Lord, 639. Ber-e-si'na (-ze') River, 618. Berg, Castle, 749. Berg, Dukedom, 466. Berg, General, 698. Berke'Iey, Sir Wil'liam (-yam), 803, 804 805, 828. Ber'lin, 525, 534, 602, 620, 658, 668, 670, 678, 679, 721, 738, 743, 744, 750, 752, 768, 770, 777, 778. Ber'lin, Congress of, 767, 768. Ber'lin Decree, 685, 866. Ber'lin, University of, 612. Ber-na-dotte', Marshall, 583,599, 604, 614, 622. Ber'nard of An'halt, 323. Ber'nard of Clah'vaux (vo), 308, 310, 334. Bern, Due de, 624, 637. Berne, 339, 378, 414, 584, 671, 760, 781. Bern'hard (hart) of Wei'mer, 474, 476, 477. Bern'storff. Count, 548. Bern'ward, Bishop, 294. Ber'ri, Due de, 665. Ber'ri, Duchess de, 665. Ber'thaof Sa-voy', 296. Ber-tfti-ec', 584, 625, 634. Ber-tftold', Archbishop. 350. Bes-sa-ra'bi-a, 767. Bes si-eres', 606. Bes'sus, 136. Beth'le-hera, 316. Beust (boist). Count, 718, 722, 752, 753. Beuve, Saint, 655. Bex-tu-scheff', 532. Bi-an'cW, 375. Big Horn, 938. Bi-lox'i Bay. 795. Bis'marck, Prince Ot'to von, 704, 713, 714, 716, 730, 734, 736, 744. 746, 747, 748, 749, 750, 752, 763, 764, 767, 768, 777, 783, 784. Bith-yn'i-a, 227, 388. Bi'ton, 70. Bjorn'son, (B'yorn-), 657, 781. Black Death, 335, 343. Black Forest, 600. Black Hawk, 878. Black, Jer-e-ini'aA S., 907. Black Sea, 82, 192, 211. Blaine, James G. 929, 931. Blarr, Francis, P.. 898, BlSi'i', of Vir-gin'i-a (ver-), 805. Blake, Admiral. 490. Blanc, (BloK) Lou is', 672. Bland, Silver Bill. 829. Blen'fteim, Battle of. 511. Blois, (Bl\va),454, 624. Birm-del', 312. Blu'cfter, 602, 620, 622,623. 630, 632. "Blues," 261. Blum (Bloom). Rob'ert, 677. Bliintseh'lT, 740. Bo-ba-del'la, (-ya), 400. Boc-cac'cio, (bat'cho) 336. Boc'c/ius, 190. Bo'cAar, 386. Bo'den-stedt, Franz (frants), 739. Boe/zm-Ba-wertz' (vertz'),.741. Bo-e'mund, 288. Boe-o'ti-a, (-shi-), 76, 80, 81, 82, 86, 104 119, 120, 192. Bo-e'thi-us, 258, 286. Bo-he'mi-a, 296, 341, 343, 348, 350, 424, 426, 466, 467, 472, 474, 477, 702, 714, 716, 753. Boi-leau' (bwa-lo'K 507. Bois'sy, (bwa') d'AN'glas. 580. Bok'OId, 421. Bol'eyn, (bool'), Anne, 430, 432. 434. Bol'ing-broke, (brook), 512. BOl'i-var, Si'mon, 638, 953, 956, 957. Bo-liv'i-fl, 956. Bo-losrn'a (ya), 326, 377, 425, 664, 709. Bo-mar'sund, 690. Bom-bii?/', 36. Bo-na-parte', Car'lo, 594. Bo-na-parte', Jer'ome, 594, 601, 603, 729. Bo-na-parte', JO'seph, 594, 601, 605, 606, 608, 638, 953. Bo-na-parte', Lofl-is', 594. B0-na-parte', Lu'cian (-shan), 5S9, 594. Bo-na-parte', Na-po'le-on I., 573, 580, 582, 583, 585, 588, 589, 590, 591, 592, 593, 594, 595, 596, 597, 598, 599, 600, 601, 602, 603, 601, 606, 608, 609, 610, 612, 614, 616, 618, 619, 620, 622, 623, 625, 626, 630, 632, 634, 635, 750, 862, 1:64, 866, 868, 872, 894. 949, 951, 953, 954, 958. Bo'na-par-tists, 637. Bo-na-ven-tii'ra, 334. Bon'I-face VIII., 339. Bon'i-face, Wm'fred, 275. Bon-i-fae'i-us, 254, 255. Boone, Dan'iel (-yel), 866. Booth, Jo/m Wilkes, 923. Bor'a, Cath'er-Ine von, 412. Bor-deaux (-do'), 573, 730. 734, 737. Bor-deaux (do'), Due de, 624. Bor-gAe'se, Pau-line' (paw-), 594. Bor'gi'a, Cae'sar. 377. Bor'gifi, Lu-cre'zi-a (166-krat'se-), 377. Bor'ue (ber'), Lud'wig (liit'veg), 738. Bor-O-dl-nO, Battle of, 616. B6s'nl-a, 265, 763, 767, 768. Bus-sue*', 507. Bos'ton, 805, 820, 821, 831, 836, 837, 838, 840, 890, 892, 893, 904. Bos'worth (-wurth), 364. Both/well, Earl of, 458. Boii-ille' (-ya'). General, 564. Boii-lan ger', (-loN-zha'), General, 759, m. Boii-lot?ne', 599. Boiir-ba'k'i, 734 Boiir'bon, Constable, 418. Boiir'bons, 450, 454, 546, 591, 601, 603, 624, 626, 628, 632, 637, 659, 665, 757, 953. Boiir-geoi-sie' (-zhwa-ze'), 290. Boiir-get' (zha'), 657. Boiirke, 776. Bo-vines', 360. B"td'do('n, Governor, 854. Boyj'en, Frau'cis, 940. Ale, care, am, arm, final ; eve, obey, end, her, recent ; ice, ill, pique ; old, orb, odd, move ; ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 1005 Boyne, Battle of the, 494. Bra-bant', 378, 379, 661. Brad'dock, General, 830, 831. Brad'ford, Wil'liam (yam), Phil-a-del'- phi-a, 824. Brad'ford, Wil'liam (yam), Ply'moiith, 812,814. Brad'street, General, 831. Bra-gan'za, House of, 441, 604, 723, 958. Bragg, General, 910, 913, 914. Bra/i'ma, 34. Bra/i'mans, 33, 34, 35. Bran'den-burg, 280, 342, 344, 348, 422, 427, 477, 502, 532, 534, 536, 678. Brandt, Se-bas'tian (Chan), 462, 548. Bran'dy-wme Creek, 844. Bras'i-das. 112. Brat'tle, ThOm'&s, 821. Bra'vo, Gon-za'-lez (-tha'leth), 723. Bra-zH', 398, 604, 639, 640, 787, 958, 959. Bre'a, General, 672. Breck'in-ridge, Joftn C, 906. Brem'en, 294, 427, 477, 602, 612, 748. Bren'nus, 164. Bren-ta'no, 650. Bres'ci-a (bresh'), 372. Bres'lau (-low), 386, 619, 746. Bret'ons (brit'uns), 790. Breiix, Battle of, 450. Bri-bac'te, 199. Bridge' wa-ter (-waw-), Battle of, 872. Briel, 444. Bri-enne', Lf>-me-me' de, 558. Briggs, Charles A., 940. Bri^ftt, Jo/in, 921. Bris-soN', 759. Bris-sot', 564. Brit'am. Great, 200, 222,226, 239, 244, 261, 783, 788. Bri-tan'i-cus, 221. Brit'ons, 220. 226, 234, 261. Brit'ta-ny. 261, 359, 571, 573, 791. Broc-te'ri. 212. Bro'glie (-ye), Due de, 756, 757, 758. Brooklyn, 935. Bron'te, Char'loHe, 655. Broiiff/i'am, 642. Brown, B. Gratz, 927. Browne, General, 872. Browne, Sam'u-el, 816. Brown, George, 947. Brown'ing, Rob'iirt. 654. Brown, Jo/in, 816, 906. Brown'son O-res'tes, 892. Bruce, Eob'iirt, 362. Bru'ges. 379. Bru'le, Ste'phen, 793. Brun-du'si-uin, 202. Brfine. Marshal, 584, 637. Bru-nftilde', 260. Brii'no, 292. Bruns'wick, 323. 532, 603, 665, 749. Bruns'wick, Duke of, 568, 602, 622. Brus'sels, 378, 426, 442, 444, 549, 661, 738, 784. Brii'tus, Mar'cus Jun'i-us (-yus), 157, 158, 159, 204, 206, 207. Bry'cmt, Wil'liam (yam) Cull'en, 896, 897, 898. Bryn Mawr (brun-mowr'), 937. Bu-cen'to-ro, 372. Bu-ceph'a-la, 138. Buc/i-an'an, James, 906, 907, 923. Bu-cfta-rest', 694. Buck'ing-ftam, Duke of, 479, 480, 481. Bii'da, 383, 390. Bud'd/(a(b66d'), 34. Bu'ell, General, 909, 910. Bue'na Vis'ta, 876, 903. Bue'nos Ay'res (bo'nus A'riz), 953, 958. Buf'fa-lo, 903. Buffalo Seminary, 892. Bul-ga'ri-a (bool), 764, 765, 767,770,782, 787. Bull (bool) Run, Battle of, 908, 911. Bu'loio, 623. Bunk'er Hill, 838. Bun'sen (boon), Baron yon, 740. Bun'sen (boon'), Chemist, 740. Bii-o'nar-rot'ti, Mi'cftael Au'ge-lo(-ja-), 376, 464. Bur-goyne', General, 844, 846, 942. Bur'gun-dy, 216, 251, 252, 255, 258, 260, 282, 292, 294, 356, 359, 378, 379, 418, 419. Burke, Ed'mund, 508. Bur'leiff/j, Lord, 457, 459. Bflr'maft, 775. Burn'side, General, 911. Burns, Rob'ert, 652. Burr, Aar'on, 862, 878, 879, 880, 882, 900. Bii-sen'to River, 254. Bush'nell (boosh'), Hor'ace, 940. Bu-si'ris, 44. But'ler, General Ben'ja-min, 910, 912, 914, 916, 918. But'ler, General W. F., 474. Bux'ton, 642. By'ron, Lord, 647, 652, 654. By-zan'ti-iim, 88, 107, 118, 243, 244. Ca-bal', 492, 512. Ca'ble, George W., 939. Cab'ot, John, 402, 788. Cab'ot, Se-bas'tian (-chan), 402, 788, 790, 799. Ca-bral', 398, 958. C'a-bre'ra, 723. Cft-die', la, see Acadia. Ca'diz, 50, 367, 608, 638, 639, 724, 761, 954. Cad'mfis, 81. Ca-doii-dal', George, 596, 597. Ca'en, £m'e-ry de, 792. Cse're, 148. fae'sar, Ca'ius (yus) Ju'li-us, 198, 206, 210. Cai'ro (Egypt), 268, 316, 588, 589, 593, 774. Cair'o (Illinois), 909. • Cai-vo'li. 761. Caj'e-tan, 406, 407. Ca-la'bri-a, 288, 630. Cii-lais', 352, 354, 356, 359. Cal-out'ta, 396. Cal-de-roN', 464. Calhoun', Joftn C., 880,884, 899, 900, 901, 902, 903, 904. Cal-i-for'ni-a. 403, 787, 789, 864, 876, 890; 903, 904, 937, 950. ca-lig'u-la, 220. Ca-lix'tus (-toos) II., Pope. 300. Cal-le'ja (-ya'ya), 949. Cal-lis'the-nes, 138.. Cal'mor, Union of, 380, 436. Ca-lonne', 557. Cal'vert, Ce-Qil'i-us, 806. Cal'vert, Sir George, 806. Cal'vin-ism, 426, 427, 428, 429, 444, 450, 454, 456, 477, 496, 508, 549. Cal'vin-ists, Old, 890. Cal'vin, Joftu, 426, 428, 429, 435, 486. Co-ma-ril'la (-ya), 638, 723. Cam-ba-ce-res' (kou-), 591. Cam-braJ/' (kon-), 372, 419. Cam'bridge, Massachusetts, 817,818,821. Cam'bridge, University, 815, 818. Cam-bronne' (kon-), Gen., 632. Cam-by'ses, 49, 72, 73, 74. Cam'den, Battle of, 849. Cfnn'den, Lord, 835. Ca-inil'lus, 162, 164. Cam'o-ens, 464. Cam-pan'ia (-ya), 147, 174. Canip'oell, Al-ex-an'der, 891. Camp'6ell-Ites, 891. Camp'oell, Sir Co'lin, 946, Cititip'oell, TAom'as, 652. Cam 'pe, 540. Cam-pe-a-dor', (-thur')i see Cid. Cam'pi-0 For'mi-o, Peace of, 582. Cam'pOs, General, 762. Ca'naan, 52, 56, 65. Can'a-da, 534, 641, 644, 792, 794, 821, 826 828, 834, 837, 844, 846, 852, 868, 872, 874^ 931,941,942. Ca-na'di-an, Pa-cif'ic Railroad, 9)7, 948. Ca-na'ry, Islands, 398, 723. Can'di-a, 695. Can'nse, 174,648. Cannes, 757. Can'ning, George, 647,874, Ca-no'pus, 593. Ca-nos'sa, 298. Ca-no'va, 658. Can-o'vas del Cas-til'lo (-yo), 762, 763, 779. Can-ro-bert' (koN-ro-bar'), General, 691, 692, 708. Can'ter bur-y (-ber-), 261, 360. Canute' II., of Den'mark, 286, 294, 379. Ca-nute VI., of Den'mark, 380. Cape Cod, 796, 814. Cape de Verde Islands, 787. Cape Town, 773. Ca-pis-tra'nd. 390. Cap'I-to-IIne Hill, 150. Cap-i-to-Ii'nus, 164. Cap-i-to-li'na. Al'i-a, 224. Ca-pit'u-la-ries, 282. Cap-pel', Battle of, 414. Ca-pre'ra, 707. Ca'pr'i, 220. Ca-pri'vi, General, 711, 752, 757. Cap'u-a, 165, 174, 176, 196, 711. Car-a-cal'la, 234. Ca-rii'cas, 956. Ca-rac'cio-li (rat'cho), Prince, 586. Car'a-van, 29. Car-bo-na'ri, 638, 639. use, urn, up, riide ; t'OOd, foot ; by; cell ; N=ng; italic letters silent or obscure. looe ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. Car e-ma'ni-a, 633. Ca'rey, Hen'ry Charles, 940. Ca-rifl'ii-a'no (-ya'), Prince of, 639. Car-in'thi-a, 190, 466. Carl. Archduke, 609. Carl, Duke of Bruns'wick, 663. Carl, Elector, 504 Carle'ton, Sir Guy, 942. Car'lings, See Karlings. Car -lisle', 938. Carl'ists, 665, 722, 723, 724, 762. Carl VI., of Aus'tri-a (aws'),510, 512, 513. Carl, of Ba'den, 601. Carl X., of Svve'den. 478. Carl XIII., of Svve'den, 604. Carl XIV., of Svve'den, 604. Carl'o-man, See Kallmann. Car'los, Don, 441, 664, 665, 724, 761, 762. Car'lo-witz (-vitz), Treaty of, 504. Carl, Prince of Rou-ma'ni-a. 764. Carls'bad (-bat) Decrees, 646. Carl'staett, An'dre-as Rii'rtolph, 407, 409. Carl T/ie'o-dor, of Ba-va'ri-a, 537. Car-lyle', Tftom'as, 654, 894. Car-niasn-o'la (-yr'tu'gal,547. Jo'seph, Father, 498. Jo'se-phine, Empress, 580, 594, 612. Jo'seph I., of Ger'ma-ny, 511, 512. Jo'seph II., of Ger'ina-ny, 528, 536, 537, 549, 551, 552. Jo-se'phus, 224. Josh'u-a, 56. Jo-si'aft, 65. Jour-dan' (zhoOr-doN'), 576, 578. Jo'vi-an, 248. Ju-an' (yii-), Don, 440, 446. Ju-a'rez (hu-), Be-ni'to Pat/Id, 950, 952. Ju'daft, 38, 42, 58, 64, 65. Ju-de'a, 144, 145, 224. Ju-gur'tha, 190. Ju-gur'thine War 189, 190. JQl'ia, (-ya). 219. Jul'ian (-yan), 244, 247, 248. Jul'ian (-yan) Alps, 249. Jul'ian (-yan) House, 219. Jul'i-an-a, of Den'mark, 548. Jiil'ius (-yus) II., Pope, 372, 377. Ju'no, 56, 78. Ju-nOC (zhu-), 604, 608. Jun'ta, 605, 608. Ju'pl-ter, 78, 156, 224. Ju'ra, 734. Jus-tiii'i-an, 262, 264. Jus-tin'i-an Code, 262, 362. Jut'land, 478. Ju've-nal, 232. Ka-a'ba, 266. Ka-biil', 775. Ka-di'jaft, 267. Kair -wan', 270. Kai'sers-lau'tern (-low'), Battle at, 576. Ka'lisch, Proclamation of, 620. Kal-li-krat'i-das, 114. Kal-no'ky, Count, 753. Kane, E-li'sha Kent. 743, 941. Kan'sas, 864, 904, 806. Kant, Im-man'u-el, 540, 740. Kapt'sehak, 385. Kar'is-nians, 386. Karl Al'bert, of Ba-va'ri-a, 526, 528. Karl, Archduke, 578, 582, 585. Kar'lings, 275, 276, 284, 8^5, 453. Karl'manii, 276, 279. Karl Mar-tel', 271, 275. Karl IV., of Ger'ina-ny, 343. Karl VI., of Ger'ma-ny, 526. Karl IX., of Swe'den, 437. Karl XV., of Swe'den, 754. Karl, the Bald, 282. Karl, the Great, 265,276,279, 280, 282, 284, 294, 415, 604. Karl, the Fat, 281. Kars, 694. Ka-san', 385. Kas-san'der, 141. Katte (ket), Lieutenant von, 526. Katz'biicft, Battle of, 620. Kan-da-har', 775. Kaufman (kowf), General, 754. Kaul'bacft (kowl'), Wil'liam (-yam), 657. Kau'nitz (kow'), Prince vou, 528, 548. Kear'ney, Phil'ip. 877. Kear'sage, (vessel), 916. Ke'ble, Joftn, 890. Keith, Governor, 826. Kell'er-mann, 568, 592. Kem'pis, Tftom'as A., 334. Ken'ne-bec', Kiver, 814, 823. Ken'nS-dy, Joftn Pen'die-ton, 897. Kent, En'gland (ing'), 261. K5nt, Island, 806, 807. Ken-tuck'y, 866, 909, 910, 937. Ken-tiick'y Resolutions, 860, 864, 899, 906. Kep'ler, Joftn, 460, 462. Ket'tel-er, Bishop, 743, 748. Kett'ler, Gott'hard (-hart),385. Kfta'lid, 268. Kftar-toum', 775. Kfti'va, 754, 772. Ki-eff', 385. Kieft, Wil'liam (-yam), 796, 797. Kiel, Treaty of. 622. Kiersey, Deed of, 275. Kings Mountain, Battle of, 849. Kink'el, Jo'hann (yO'-) Gott'fried (-fret), 739. Kirc'hof/, Gus-tav' (goos-) Eob'ert, 740. Kirk (kerk),Da'vid, 792. Kiss'in-gen 746 Kiu'burg, 294. Kle'ber, General, 573, 589, 593. Kle-om'e-nes, 142. Kle'6n,112. Klop'stock, Frie'dricft Gott'lieb, 538. .Knox, Hen'ry, 860. A'nox, Joftn, 429. -Khox'viUe, 914. Ka-lin', Battle of, 532. Ko'nig-ratz (ke'nig-retz). Battle of, 716. Ko'uigs-berg (ki5'-), 318, 385, 524,525,540, 602, 603, 703, 740. Kopp, Bishop, 748. Ko'ran, 267, 268. Ko-rei-shi'tes, 266, 267. Ko'resli, 70. Ko'sas, Mar-ti'nez (-neth) de, 953. Kos-ci-usz'ko, Thad'de-us, 552, 55K, 554, 602, 698. Kos'siitft (kosb/), Lou-is', 678. Kot'ze-biie, 645. Krain, 338. Kra-pot'kin, Prince. Krem'lin, 385, 616. Kriem'hilde, 336. Kru'de-ner, General, 765. Ku-klux', 926. Krii-ko-wick'i (-vick'), 663. A'schafri-ja, 33. Kues-trin' (kes-), Fort, 526. Kulm (koolm), 318. Kulm (koolm), Battle of, 620. Kii-ma'si, 773. Ku'ni-giinde, 294. Ku'ni-niuud, 264. Ku'rii, 35. Kii-tii'soff, 600, 616, 618. Ky'nos-keph'a-la, 179. La-be-do-yere' (dvva-), Colonel, 628, 632. Lab-ra-dor', 402. Lab'y-rinth, 43. La Car-6-li'na, Colony of, 54 Lac'e-dse'mon, 77, 82, 87. La Chaise, 508. La'cftai, Bishop, 760. La-co'ni-a, 77, 121, 388. La-con'i-ca, 86, 87, 93. La'de, 101. La'den-bflrg, 227. Lad'is-laus (-laws), of HuN'ga-ry, 390. Lffi'li-us, 184. La-fa-yeKe', Marqnis de, 562, 563, 564, 566, 660, 846, 850. Laf'fitte, Jacques (zhak), 659. La-fon-taine', Jean (zhaN), 507. La Fon-taiiie', of Cau'a-da, 946. Laftn, 248. Lai'bacft, Congress of, 639. Lam'a;cftus, 113. La Mar'mo-ia, General, 761. La-mar-tine', 655, 656, 672. Lam-balte' (Ion-), Princess. 566. Lam'bert, Joftn, 490, 491, 492. La-mo-ri-c'i-ere', General, 711. La Motie, 794. Lane'a-shire, 921. Lanc'as-ter, 826. Lanc'as-ter, House of, 363. Laii'^ey, de. 826, 828. Lan'dam-man, 584. Land'staftl (lanf), 410. Land'stiirm (lanf), 749. Land'wehr (lanf var), 622, 749. Lang'ley, Sam'u-el Pier'pont, 941. Lan-gue-doc' (16N-), 319. Lan-jui-nais' (16N-zhwe-), Count, 163. Lannes, Marshal, 599. Lan'za, General, 710. La-oc'o-6n, 127. La-oN', 285. use, firn , up, riide ; food, foot ; by ; cell ; N=ug ; italic letters silent or obscure. 1016 ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. La Pla'ta, 956. La' res, 80. Lar-is'sa, 75. Lii Ro-chelte', 450. LaRo-man'a, 601, '608. La Rfltft-I-ere', Battle of, 623. LiiSaUe, 794,795. Las Ca'sas, 404. Las-saUe', 741. Lass'6, 6r-lan'do, 466. Lat-i-huu'di-a, 188. Lat'in (language), 404. Lat'ins, 147, 148, 157, 165, 192, 247,314. Lat'i-mer, Hugh, 434. La'ti-um (-shi-), 147. Lau'be (low'). Hein'ricft, 738. Laud (lawd), Wil'liam (-yam), 481, 482, 817. Lau'en-burg (low'en-boorg), 704, 705, 706. LaN'gie-wicz (-viks), 698. La-va-lette', Count, 634. La-va-tei", 540. La-voi-s'i-ei" (-vwa-), its-tome' (twan') Lau-rent' (10-raN'), 572. Law, Joftn, 513, 795. Law'son, C e'eil, 809. Laj/'nez, 439. Leb'a-non, 41, 49. Le-brfiN', 591. Lecft'feld (-felt), 381. Lech, River, 472. Le-comte', General, 738. Le-dru'-RGHin' (Ian'), A-lex-aN'dre Au- guste' (G-), 672, 683. Lee, Charles, 839, 847. Lee, RGb'ert E., 878, 911, 912, 918, 919,920. Lee, Rich'ard Hen'ry, 804, 841. Legion of Honor, 595, 626. Lean-a'go (ya'), 708. Leon-a'no (ya'), Battle of, 322. Le'hioft River, 826. Le'hlgh University, 937. Leib'nitz (lip'-), Baron, 525. Lez'ces'ter, Earl of, 447. Lei-no'gen, E-nriT eG von, 304. Leip'zig (-sik), 424, 472, 477, 530, 534, 602, 622, 747. Leip'zig (-sik). Battle of, 472. Leip'zig (-sik), Interim, 425. Leip'zig (-sik), University of, 317. Leis'ler, Ja'cob, 826. Lem'nos, 78. Len'ox Library, 93S. Le-C'beii, Truce of, 582. Le'on, 639. Le-6n'i-diis, 105. Le-0-par'di, Count, 650. Le'G-pOld II., of Aus'tri-a (aws'), 339, 341, 342,344. Le'G-pOld V., of Aus'tri-a (aws'), 312. Le'G-pOld I., of Bel'gi-um, 688. Le'0-pold II., of Bel'gi-um, 754. Le'6-pGld I., of Ger'ma-ny, 500, 503, 510, 525. Le'o-pold II., of Ger'ma-ny, 549, 565. Le'o-pold, of HO-Aen-zol'lern (-tsol')i 725. Le'o-pold, of Saxe-CG'biirg, 661, 662. Le'o-pold, of Tus'ca-ny, 668, 708. Le'O I., Pope, 255. Le'O III., Pope, 280. Le'O IV., Pope, 265. Le'o X., Pope, 377, 406. Le'O XIII., 718, 761, 763. Le'O, tlie Ar-me'ni-an, 265. Le'o, the I-sau'ri-an (-saw'), 261. Le-pau'tO, 440. Lep'i-dus, 206, 207. Ler'i-da, 511. Les'bos, 78, 87, 93, 112, 114. Less'eps, de, 695, 778. Les'sing, Gott'hold (-holt), E'phra-im' 538, 539. Leuc'tru, 76, 120. Leu'tften (loi'), Battle of, 532. Le-viiut', 641. Le'vi, 56. Le'vi, Point, 832. Le'vites, 56, 64. Le'wald (-valt), Fan'ny, 739. Lex'ing-ton, 838. Ley'den, 812. Ley'den, University of, 44ll Lib'y-a, 73. Li-cin'i-an Laws, 188. Li-cin'i-us, 240. Lie'ber, Fran'cis, 940. Lieg'nitz, 386. Lieg'uitz, Battle at, 534. Li^n'y (-ye'), 630. Li-gu'ri-a, 172. L'i'ma, 957. Linc'oin, A'bra-ham, 784, 899, 906, 907, 908, 911, 915, 918, 922, 923, 921, 925, 910. Linc'oin, Ben'ja-min, 816, 848. Linz (lints), 503, 526. Lip'pe-Det'mold, 700. Lis'bon, 368, 398, 411, 601, 639, 958, 959. Lis'bon, Earthquake at, 547. Lis'sa, Battle of, 720. List, Fried'iie/i, 741, Literature, 33, 66, 123, 145, Lith-u-a'ni-a, 384. Lit-tau' (-taw'), 663. Liv-a-di'a, 646, 647. Liv'er-pool, 921. Liv'i-ft, 219, 403. Liv'ing-stone, Da'vid, 712, 796, 941. Liv'i-us, Sal-i-na'tor, 176. Liv'i-us, Ti'tus, 212. Liv'land, 426, 137. Li-vo'ni-a, 518, 522. Lla-ne'ros (lya-),957. Loeft Lev'in, 458. Locke, Joftn, 808. LO-cris, 76, 128, 130. Lo'di, 582. LO'di, Bridge of, 582. Lo'gan, Jo/m A., 922. Loire (hvar), 351, 359, 730. Lol'lards (-lerds), 363. Lom'bard League, 322. Lom'bar-dy, 216. 246, 264,275, 279,292, 294, 322, 325, 350, 374, 420, 510, 511,582, 592, 628, 676, 706, 707, 708, 709. Lon'don (lun'dun), En'gland (ing'),362, 492, 558, 591. 753, 782, 783. 820. Lon'don (lun'dun), On-ta'ri-o, 943. Lon'don-derr-y (lun'dun-), 822. Long'fell-6z», Hen'ry Wads'wovth, (wodz'wui'th), 834, 894, 896, 897, 904, 939. Lon-gi'nus, 238. Long Island, 812. Lon'go-bards, 255. Loug'street, James, 914. Look'out (-owt) Mountain, 911. Lo'pez, Colonel, 952, 959. Lo-reu'zo, the Magnificent, 376, 377. LOr-ranie', 282, 290, 292, 356, 378, 126, 502, 521, 561, 565, 658, 736, 733, 713, 716, 718. Lot, 52. LG-t/iar', of France, 285, 292. Lo-tftar', of It'a-ly, 282. Lo'tAar', the Sax'ou, 300, 319. Lot'ze, Rii'dolph Her' man n, 910. Lou'don (low'), Gid'e-on Ernst, 533. Lou'doun (low'), General. 831. Loii-i'sa, Duchess of Par'ma, 708. LoiHs' Blanc (bloh),685. Loii'is-bourg (bewrg), 821, 831. Loii-is' Cap'et, 154. Lou-Is', Cardinal, 454. Loii-is' d'Oiitre-Mer, 285. Loii-iseof Prus-sia (-sha), 598, 620. LoM-S'i-a'na, 513, 794, 795, 864, 879, 900, 907, 925, 928, 937, 939. 953. Loii-is', of Ba'den, 503, 510. Loii-is', of Ba-va'ri-a, 675. Louis' V., of France, 285. Loii-is' VII., of France, 310, 351. Loii-is' VIII., of France, 319, 351. Loii-is' IX., of France, 316, 326. Loii-is' XI., of France, 359, ?64, 378, 379. Loii-is' XII., of France, 359, 372, 374, 377. Loii-is' XIII., of France, 494, 496, 498. Lou-Is' XIV., of France, 492, 494, 498, 499, 502, 503, 504, 505, 506, 507, 508, 510, 512, 513, 794, 795. Loii-is' XV., of France, 513, 524, 530, 547, 555, 556, 624. Loii-is' XVI., of France, 547, 556, 557, 560, 563, 564, 565. 566, 56S. 621, 626, 631. Loii-is' XVII., of France, 621. Loii-is' XVIII., of France, 621, 625, 626, 628, 637. Loii-is', of Hol'Iand, 612. Loii-is' I., of HuN'ga-ry, 383. 381. Loii-is' II., of HiiN'ga-ry, 383. Loii-is', of Na'ples, 382. Loii-is' Plii-lippe', 659, 660, 661, 665, 666, 672, 673, 683, 871. Loii-vois' (-vwa'). Marquis, 503. Loii'vre (-ver), 598, 738. Lihe'ell, James Rus'seH, 901, 937, 939. Lo'wen-haupt (lu'ven-howpt), General, 519, 520. Loy-o'la, Ig-na'ti-us (ski-) 439. Lu'beck. 323, 380, 122, 136, 602, 612. Lu'ean, 221. Lu-ca'ni-a, 117, 196. Luc'ca, 584, 598. Lu-cerne', Lake, 111. Lu'cian (-shan), 232. Luck'now, 687. Lu-co-mO'nes, 118. Lii-cre'ti-us (shi-) Ca'rus. 211. Ale, care, am, arm, final ; eve, obey, end, her, recent ; ice, ill, pique ; old, orb, Odd, move ; ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 1017 Lu-crii'zia (-zha), 57. Lii-cul'JQs, 197. Lu-do-vi'co, 374. Liid'wig (-vig,_) Fer'di-nand, Prince ol Pl'Qs-sia (-sha), 599. Liid'wig (-vig) I., of Ba-va'ri-a, 670. Liid'wig (-vig) II., of Ba-va'ii-a, 749. Liid'wig (-vig) IV., of Ger'ma-ny, 341, 342, 343. Liid'wig (-vig), of Thu-rin-gi-a, 323. Liid'wig (-vig), the Child, 284. Liid'wig (-vig), the Ger'man, 282. Liid'wig (-vig), Hie Pious, 282. Liiet'tieft, 300, 568. Lu'lt-pold (polt), of Ba-va'ri-a, 749. Lun'dy's Lane, Battle of, 943. Lii'iien-burgft, 323. Lfl-ne-v'iUe', Treaty of, 592. Lu si-ta'ni-ans, 187. LiYtlier-an Churcli, 413, 426, 437. Lu'ther-ans, 426, 427, 466, 467, 549, 891. Lu'ther, Mar'tin, 405, 406, 407, 408, 409, 412, 413, 423, 427, 429, 462. Lut'zen (loot'sen), 620. Lut'zen (loot'sen), Battle of, 472. Lux'em-burg, 645, 721, 725, 754. Lux'ein-burg Palace, 738. Lii-zerne', 658, 670. Ly-cur'gus, 95, 97, 99, 142, 143. Lyd'i-a, 68. Ly'maii, Phin'e-as, 830, 831. Lynch/burg, 918, 919. Ly'ons, 408, 573, 628, 665, 680. Ly'ons, Council of, 325. Ly'ons, University of, 378. Ly-san'der, 114. 120. Ly-sip'pus, 126. Ma-cau'lay (-caw'), Tftom'as Bab'ing- ton, 655. Mac-ca-bse'us, Ju'das, 144. Mc-CleTZan, George Brin'ton, 908, 910, 911, 922. Mc-Cor'mick (ma-), Cy'rus Hall (bawl), 888. Mc-Cosh' (ma-), James, 940. Mac-Do-naW, General, 585, 592, 608, 614, 619, 622. Mac-Do-naW, Sir Joftn, 947, 948. Mac-don'o»(f/7i, Tftom'as, 872. Mc-Dow'eil, Ir'vin (er'), 908, 910, 911. Mac-e-dO'ni-a, 88, 104, 107, 120, 127, 128, 130, 131, 132, 138, 140, 141, 142, 179, 181, 182, 194, 206, 265, 314. 388. Mae-e-do'ni-an (vessel). 868. Me-Gif'fert, Ai-'thm; 940. Macft-i-a-velTi. Nic-co-10', 376, 462. Macfi'i-moff, 692. Maeken'zie, Al-ex-an'der SH-dell', 948. Mac-ken'zie, Wil'liam (-yam) Ly'on, 943, 945. Mack, General, 584, 600. Maek'i-naw, Straits of, 793. Me-Kin'ley Bill, 932. Mc-Leod' (-lowd'), Rev. Joftn, 810. Mac-Ma-MN'- President, 708, 727, 728,729, 756, 757, 759. Mc-M&s'ter, Joftn Bacft, 940. Mae-Mi'cftael, Mor'ton, 898. Ma-com6', Al-ex'-an'cfer, 872. Mad-a-gas'ear, 759. Ma-dei'ra, 395. Mad'i-son, James, 856, 866, 878, 879, 899. Mad'rid, 418, 444, 604, 605, 606, 608, 639, 722, 757, 761, 762, 763, 779. Mae-5e'nas, Ca'ius (-yus) Cil'ni-us, 210, 211. Mag'de-burg (-boorg), 294, 425, 471, 472, 477, 530, 566. Mag-del'la, 688. Ma-gel'tan, Fer-nan'do, 402. Ma-gen'ta, 707. Ma-gen'ta, Battle of, 708. Ma-gen'ta, Duke of, 727. Ma'gi, 42, 68. Mag'na Cftar'ta, 362. Mag'na Graa'^i-a (-slii-), 88. Mag-ne'si-a (-slii-), 98, 110, 180. Mag'nus (-noos) II., of Swe'den, 380. Mag'yars, 284, 290, 292, 381, 677, 678, 702, 753. >fa-ha-b/ia'ra-ta, 35. Ma/i'di, El, 775. Mai-mon'i-des, Mo'ses, 274. Mai'notes, 647. Maine, 814, 817, 820, 822, 876. Maine, River, 716, 718, 721. Mai'N-te'noN', Madame de, 508, 510. Maj't'land, Governor, 943. Ma'ior (-jer) Do'mus, 461, 275. Ma-kart', Hans, 657. Mal-a-bar', 396. Ma-lae'ca, 398. Mal'a-ga, 761. Mal'ii-koff . 692. Mal-e-ven'tum, 166. Ma-lay', 24. Mal'den (mol'), 870. Male-sfterbes', de, 547, 557, 567, 572. Mal'mo (-me), Truce of, 677. Mal-plii-quet' (-ka'), Battle of, 512 Mal'ta (mawl'), 50, 318, 585, 593, 641. Mal'ta (mawl'), Knights of, 585. Mal'thus, T/iom'as Rob'ert, 741. Mal'vern Hill, 911. Mam'e-lukes, 316, 318, 389, 588, 647. Mam'er-tines, 167. Mam-mae'a, 235. Ma-niis'seft, 56, 65. Ma-nas'sas Junction, 910. Man'ches-ter, En'gland (ing'), 642. Man'ches-ter, New (mi) York, 892. Man'da(, 565. Ma'nes, 80. Man'fred, Prince, 326. Man-hat7an Island, 796. Man'lielm, 504, 578. 623. Ma-nil'i-an Law, 197. Ma-nnin' Da-ni-el'5, 707. Man-i-to-ba', 947. Man'li-us, Tor-qua'tus, 165. Mann, Hor'ace, 892. Mann'ing, Hen'ry Ed'ward, 772. Man'teuf-fel (-toi), Baron, 702, 713,714, 734, Man-ti-ne'a, 77, 113, 120, 121, 125. Man'tu-a, 582, 610, 708. Ma'nu, 35. Ma-nu-el,' Jacques (zhak), AN-toine' (-twan'), 637. Man-zo'ni (dzo'), Count, 652. Mar-a-can'da, 136. Ma-ran-ha'o (-ya'oN), 958. Ma-raC, Jean (zhaN), Paul (pawl), 563, 571. Mar'a-thon, 76, 102, 103. Mar'bode, 214. Mar'burg (-boorg), 413. Mar-gel', 352, 354. Mar-ceTlus (chel'), Mar'cus Clau'di-u? (-claw'), 174, 176, 184. Mar'ci-a-no-pel, 249. Mar-co-man'ni, 214, 216, 230. Mar'cus Au-re'li-us (aw-), see Antoni- nus. Mar'cus Man'li-us, 164. Mar-do'ni-us, 101, 107. Mii-reN'go, 591,592, 593. Ma-rei', 626. Mar-fO'ri, 724. Mar'ga-ret, of France, 450. Mar'ga-ret, of Par'ma, 442, 444. Mar-ga-ret, of Thu-rin'gi-a, 330. Mar-ga-re'tAe, of Den'mark, 380. Ma-ri'a Char'lotte, of Mex'i-cO, 951. Ma-ri'a C/iris-ti'na, of Aus'tri-a (aws'), 763. Ma-ri'a C/iris-ti'na, of Spain, 664, 665, 722. Ma-ri-am'ne, 145. Ma-ri'a, of Bur'gun-dy, 379. Ma-ri'a II., of Por'tu-gal, 547, 641. Ma-ri'a, Phi-lip'po, 374. Ma-ri'a, Queen of Por'tu-gal, 959. Ma-ri-a T/ie-re'sa, of Aus'tri-a (aws'), 526, 528, 530, 533, 534, 537, 546, 548, 556, 624. Ma-rie'An-toi-net(e' (on -twa-), of France. 556, 566, 572, 624. Ma-rie', of Ba-va'ri-a, 711. Ma-rie' Loii'ise, of Frange, 612, 625, 668. Ma-rijrn-a'no (-ya'), Battle of, 374, 416. Ma-ri'no, Mar'tin, 722. Mar'i-on, Fran'eis, 848. Ma'ri-us, Ca'ius (-yus), 189, 190, 191, 192, 194. Ma'ri-tis, the Younger, 191. Mark-neis'sen, 290. Marl'borough (mawl'b'ro), Duke of, 510, 511, 512. Mar-moNj, Marshal, 599, 608, 621, 625." Mar'mo-ra, 88. Marne, 623. Ma-rof, Clem'ent, 46i. Mar-quette (-kef), 793. Miirs, 148, 150. Mar-sa'la, 710. Mar-seiUes, 418, 573, 637. Mars, Field of, 256. Mar'shall, Joftn, 862. 883. I Marsh, C. W., 933, 940, 941. Marsh'feld, Battle of, 338. Mar's Hill, 97. Mar'si'an, 147, 192. Mar'ston Moor, Battle of, 486. Mar'tin V„ Pope, 347. use, urn, up, rude; food, foot; by; cell; N-ng; italic letters silent or obscure. 1018 ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. Marx, Karl, 741, 934. Mar'y-land (mer'-), 804, 806, 807, 809, 823, 856. 893, 923, 937. Ma'ry of Bur'gun-dy, 351. Ma'ry of Guise, 428. Ma'ry Stu'art, 447, 448, 457, 458, 459, 460, 479. Ma'ry, Tu'dor, 434. Ma'ry II., of En'gland (ing'), 493,807,826. Mas-i-nis'sa, 178, 179, 133, 198. Ma'son, Captain Joftn, 822. Ma'son, Confederate Commissioner, 921. Masons, Free, 638, 639, 640. Mass-a-chu'setts, 793, 814, 815, 817, 819, 820, 821, 822, 830, 835, 836, 837, 854, 892, 893, 907, 937. Mass-a-chii'setts Bay, 814. Mas-sag'etae, 70. Mas'sa-soit, 814, 820. 823. Mas-se-na', 688, 608. Mas-sil'i-a, 203. Mat-a-mo'ras, 876. Math'er, Cot'ton, 821. Math'er, In'crease, 821. Ma-t/iil'da, of Tuscany, 2E8. Mat-ta-tfti'as, 141. Mat-Wti'as, 466, 467. Mat-tftie'sen, John, 722. Mauch (mawk) Chunk, 888. Mau'pas (mo'), 680. Mau-rice' (mo-), of Bran'den-biirg, 424. Mau-rice' (mo-), of Nas'sih;, 958. Mau-rice', (mo-), of Sax'o-ny, 423, 424, 425, 426. Mau-ri-ta'ni-a (maw-), 190. Mau-so'lus (maw-), 121. Max-en'ti-us (-shi-), 239. Max-im-i-a'nus, 239. Max-i-mH'ian (-yan) I., Duke of Ba- va'ri-a. 466. 468, 471, 476, 477. Max-i-mil'ian (-yan) Jo'seph I., Duke of Ba-va'ri-a, 528, 537. Max-i-mil-ian(-yan) Jo'seph I., King of Ba-va'ria, 600. Max-i-mil-ian (yan) JO'seph II.,Kingof Ba-va'ri-a, 675. Max-i-mil'ian I., of Ger'ma-ny, 350, 352 372, 379, 407, 408, 415. Max-i-mil'an (-yan) II., of Ger'ma-ny, 426, 466. Max-i-mil'ian (-yan), of Mex'i-co, 921, 951, 952. Max'i-mus, 249. May-ence' (-6NS'), 236, 276, 280, 282, 408, 568, 570, 576, 582, 658, 718, 721. Ma'yenne, General de, 456. May'er, 740. Mayflower, 812. Maz-a-rin', Cardinal, 494, 498, 499. Ma-zep'^a, 519. Maz-zi'nl (mat-se'), 676, 707, 710. Meade, George Gor'dou, 912. Mec'ca, 266, 267, 258. Meck'len-burg, 470, 700. Me'di-a, 33, 39, 41, 42, 65, 66, 68, 82, 102, 123, 134. Med'i-ci (-che), 375, 376, 404, 420. Med'i-ci (-che), Cos'mG de, 375, 376. Med'i-ci (-che), Ma-rc'e' de, 496. Me-di'na, 267, 268. Med-i-ter-ra'ne-an, 38, 49. 50, 77, 117, 167, 173, 178, 184, 197, 252, 641. Meg'a-cles, 99. Meg-a-16p'0-lus, 77, 121, 142. Meg'a-ra, 86. 87, 112. Me-gid'do, 65. Me'lle-med it'll, 765, 767, 768. Me'he-met A'li, 647. Meis'sen, 339. Meis-tersing'Srs, 462. Me-lancft'thon, PhU'ip, 409, 412, 413, 425, 427, 460. Me'las, 592. Mel'i-koff, Count Lor'is, 770. Mel-i'to, 713. Mel'kart, 49, 51. Mel'lo, Admiral, 959. Me'los, 113. Me'mel, 603. Mem'non, 43. Mem'phis, 43, 47, 49, 268. Me-nard', Father, 793. Men'dels-softn, 658. Men'den, Battle at, 533. Men-do' za, An-to'ni-6 de, 788. Men-e-la'us, 82. Me-nen'dez (deth), Pe'dro, 788. Me-ne'ni-us A.-grip'pa, 159. Me'nes, 47. Mengs, Kaph'a-el, 657. Men'no, 422. Men'non-ites, 422, 824, 826, 891. Me'non, 598. Men'sehi-koff, Prince, 520, 524, 689. 691, 692. Men'zel (-tsel). 657. Mer'ce-des, Ma-rie', 763. Mar'Qers-burg Seminary, 891. Mer-51-e)', of Can'a-da, 948. Mer'cu-ry, 80. Mer'mil-lod, Bishop, 760. Mer'o-e. 48, 73. Me-ro vae-us, 258. Mer'o-vings, 258, 260, 261, 275. Mer'ri-mac River, 814. Mcr'7'i-mac (vessel), 914, 915. Mer'ry-mount (-mownt), 814. Mer'se-burg (-boorg), 290. Merv, 754. Mes'en-zeff, General, 770. Mes^-po-ta'mi-a, 37, 48, 52, 199, 227, 234. Mes-sa-lt'na. 221. Mes-se'ne, 77, 86, 95, 110, 112, 121, 143. Mes-si'na, 88, 167, 168, 288, 312, 711, 713. Me-tau'rus (-taw'), 176. Met'caZf, Lord. 946. Me-tel'lus, 182, 190, 191. Methodist Church, 891, 944. Met'ier-nicft, Prince, 620, 635, 639, 645. 646, 673. Metz, 260, 425, 727, 728, 729, 730, 736, 737, 744. 756, 766. Metz'ler, George, 412. Meuse (muz), River, 729. Mex'i-can War, 876, 924. Mex'i-c6. 402, 403, 684, 787, 788, 790. 794, 864, 866, 876, 878, 903, 911, 921, 941, 949, 950, 951, 953. Mex'I-co (city), 878. Mex'i-co, Gulf of. 888. Mey, Captain, 796. Mey'er-beer, 658. Me'za, de, 705. MI-am'l, Fort, 794. Mi'cM-el An'ge-lo, See BuonaroMi. Mf'cfeael Pa-laB^Jl'6-gus, 314. Mieh'i-gan, 878, 888. Miflil-gan, Lake, 793. Mi'das, 131. Mid'i-an-Ites, 58. Mie-ro-slaw'ski (mye-ro-slav'), General, 698. Jlipn-et' (ya'), 638. Mi'gifel, Dom, 640, 641. Mi'lan, 255, 279, 321, 344, 350, 372, 374, 377, 418, 419, 420, 503, 511, 512, 582, 592^ 676, 708, 747. Mi'lan Decree, 240, 685,866. Mi'lan, King, 782. Mi'lan, Prince, 695, 764. Mi-le'sians (-shans), 107. Mi-le'tus, 87, 101. Mill, John Stu'art, 655, 741, 921. Mill Spring, 909. Mi'lo, 202, Mil-ti'a-des, 101, 102, 103, 110, Mil'titz, 407. Mil'ton, John, 464, 488. Mil'vi-an Bridge, 239. Mi'na, 639. Mi'nas, of Bra-zil', 958. Min'cio (-chO), 708. Ml-ner'va, 56, 78. Min'ne-sing-ers, 331, 336. Min-ne-so'ta, 938. Min'o-taur (-tawr), 82. Min'u-it, Fe'ter, 796, 798. Mi-quel' (-keT), 752. Mi-ra-beau' (-bo'), Count de, 560, 564, 567. Mi-ra-mon'. General, 950, Mi-ran'da, of Ca-ra'cas, 953, Mir'i-am, 54. Mis'co, Duke of Po'land, 383. Miss'ion-a-ry (Mish'un-) Ridge, 914. Miss-iss-ipp'i, 788, 907, 909. Miss-iss-ipp'i Bubble. 795. Miss-iss-ipp'i River, 793, 794, 795, 828, 834, 852. 862, 864, 874, 888. 908, 909, 910, 914. Mis-so-16N'gfti, 647. Miss-oii'ri, 864, 878, 901, 904, 929, 937. Miss-oii'ri River, 794. Mith-ri-da'tes, 192, 194, 196, 197, 204. Mith-ri-da'tie Wars. 192, 197. Mit-y-le'ne (-e-), 112. Mo-bile', 916. Mod'e-na, 664, 707, 709. Mod'e-na, Duke of, 582, 668, 708. Mo'doc Indians. 938. Moe'ris, 47. Mce'si-a (-zhi-), 222. M6-guls\ 385, 386, 388, 389. Mo-hacs' (-hach'), Battle of, 383, 390. MS-ham'med, 266, 267, 268. Mo-ham'med II., 390. Mo-ham'med-ans, 29, 316, 368, 588, 646, 689. Aie, care, am, arm, final ; eve, obey, end, her, recent ; ice, ill, piq.ue ; Old, orb, odd, move ; ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 1019 Mo-ham'med Pa-slia', 764. Mo'hawk River, 828, 830, 846. Mo-hi'cans, 821. Moft'ra, 406. Mol-da'vi-a, 520, 551, 552, 604, 694. Mo-li'-ere', 506. MO-li'no del Hey, 878. Moll'witz (-vitz), Battle of, 526. Mo'loc/i, 28, 51. Molt'ke, Count von, 716, 727, 732, 734, 752, 777. Momm'sen, 740. MoinG-rO', 574. MoN-cSj/', 592. Mdn-go'li-ans, 24, 31. Mdn-i-teur', 593, 658. Mdn'i-tor (-ter), 915. Monk (muuk), George, 490, 491, 492. Monks, 405. Mon'mouth, 493. Mon'mouth, Battle of, 847. Mo-nbn-ga-he'la (-law) River, 830. Monotheism, 243. Mon-roe' (inun-) Doctrine, 874, 931. Mon-roe' (mill-), James, 866, 874, 879. Mon-ta'na, 938. Mont-ca!m', General, 831, 832, 834. Mon-te-bel-lo, 592. Mon-te-mo'lin, Count, 723. Mon'te-ue-gro, 703, 764, 767, 768. Mon'te Not'te, 580. Mon'te-r62/' 876. Mon-tes-quieu' (-led'), 543, 544. Mon'tez, LO'la, 670. Mon-te-zii'ma, 402. MoNt-fer-rat', 314. Mont'fort, Si'mon de, 362. Mont-gom'er-y (-gum'), 907, Mont-gom'er-y(-gum'),Rich-ard,840,943. MdN-ti-jo'(-zho'), Mi-ge-in'e'(-zha-), 684. MoNf-mar'tre, 624. Mont-mo-ren'ei, General, 420. Mbnt'mo-ren'cy, Duke of, 496. MdNipen-si-e)'' (-PON-), 723, 725, 763. Mont-re-al' (-awl'), 790, 831, 834, 840, 870, 942, 946. Moirts, Siciir de, 791, 792. Monti, Admiral Jor'ge (zhor'zha), 958. Moore, General, 608. Moore, Tftom'as, 654. Moors, 272, 279, 367, 368, 370, 441. Mo-ra'vi a, 284, 348, 467, 526, 600. Md-ra'vi-ans, 826. More, Sir Tftom'as, 405, 430. Mo-re'a, 76, 646, 647, 648. Mo-reau' t-ro'), 578. 585, 591, 592, 620. Mo-re'los, 949. Mo-re'na, Ma-ri-a'na, 953. Mor'gan, Dan'iel (yel), 846, 849. Mor-gar'ten, Battle of, 339, 341. Mo-ri'a/i, Mount, 62. Mo-ril'lo (-yo), General, 955, 956. Mo-ri-on'es, General, 762. Mor'mon-ism (-mun-), 892, 931. Mor-ny' (-ne'), Due de, 680. Mo-roe'eo, 723. Mor'ris, Gou'ver-neur, 856. Mor'ris, Lew'is (180'), 826. Mor'ris, Rob'ert, 854. Mor'ris-tovvn, 848, 850, 856. Morse, Sam'u-el F. B. 741, 888. Mor-ti-er' Marshal, 624. Mor'ton, of Mer'ry -mount (-mownt), 814- Mo'scher-osch, Phi-lan'der von, 478. Mos'coio, 385, 519, 522, 551, 614, 616, 618, 770. Mo-selte', 502, 728. MO'ses, 54. 56. Mos'lems, 267, 268, 270, 368, 386. Mot'ley, Joftu LO'throp, 937, 939. Mountain, 564, 567, 570, 571, 680. Mo-zart', Wolfgang (woolf) Am-a-de' us, 658. Miieftl'dorf, Battle of, 341. Mu'en-nic/i, 524. Muftl'berg, 424. Mu/il'er, von, 744. Muftl-hau'sen (how'), 412. Mukh tar' Pa-sha', 763. Mul'ford, E-li'sha, 940. MuJ'ler, Hans, 410. Miim'mi-us, 182. Mun'da, 204. MuN'ger, The'o-dore, 940. Mu'nicft, 472, 528, 657, 670, 743, 744. Mun'ster, 421, 422, 500. Miin-ta-m-ej - ', 335. Mun'zer, (Munf), Tftom'as, 410, 412, 421, 422. Mii'rad I., Sultan, 388. Mii'rad II., Sultan, 389, 390, Mii'rad V., Sultan, 764. Mu-rat', Car'o-line, 594. Mii-rat', Jo'a-cAim (yo'), 599, 600, 601. 604, 618, 622, 630. Mur'frees-bor-o (-burro), 910, 913. Mii-riZ'lo (lyo), Bar-tho-lo-me' £s-te-ban (-van'), 466. Mur'ner (moor'), T/iom'as, 462. Mur'ray, James Stu'art, 458. Mur'ray, General, 942, Mur'ten (mor'), Battle of, 378. Mu'ti-na, 206. Mu'tin-ab-bi, 274. Mye'a-le, 88, 107. My'ce-naa, 77, 83, My'las, 168. Mys'tics, 334. My-thol'o-gy, 28, 78. Na-bon-e'tos, 70. Na-bo-po-las'sar, 41. Nac/i'i-ni6ff, Admiral, 692. Na'na Sa'hib. 687. Nan'cy, 378. 524. Nantes, Edict of, 456, 508. Na'pi-er, Charles, 690. Na'pi-er, Sir Rdb'irt, 688. Na'ples. 88. 288. 292, 323, 325, 326, 328, 329, 330, 367, 377, 378, 415, 419, 426, 441, 513, 514. 584, 585, 601, 622, 630, 639, 668, 676, 707, 710, 711. Na-pO'le-on II., 632. Na-po'le-on Bo'na-parte. See Bona- parte. Na-po'le-on III., Loii -is', 594, 601, 656, 672, 680. 683. 684, 685, 686, 688, 694, 698, 702, 707, 708, 709, 717, 721, 723, 725, 729, 756, 921. Na-po'le-on, Prince, 773. Nar-cis'sus, 220. Nar-ra-gan'sett Bay, 817. Nar'ses, 274. Nar'va, 518. Nar-vii'ez (-etli), General, 665, 722, 723. Nar-va'ez (-eth), Pam-fi'lode, 787. Nase'by, Battle of, 486. Nash'viUe, 909, 910, 919. Nas'sau (-aw), 600, 721. Nas'sau (-aw) Fort, 796. Na-tii'lie, Queen, 782. Nau'kra-tis (haw'), 44. Nau-pac'tus (haw-), 110. Nau-voo' (naw-), 892. Na-va-ri'no, Battle of, 648. Na'vy Island, 945. . Nax'os, 78. Naz'a-reth, 316. Ne'arcft, 138, 140. Ne'bo, 56. Ne-bras'ka, 864, 904. Neb-u-c/iad-nez'2ar, 42, 52, 65. Ne-ees'si-ty, Fort, 830. Ne'cfto, 48, 50, 65. Neck'ar River, 410, 422, 504. Neck'er, Jacques (zhak), 557, 558, 560 561, 564, 595, 655. Neer'win-den, 568. Neg'ro-ponte, 78. Ne-he-mi'ah, 66. Nel'son, Doctor, 945. Nel'son, Lord, 585, 5S8, 600. Ne'me-a, 92. Neph'e-le, 82. Ne'pos, C6r-ne'li-us, 212. Nep'tune, 78. Ne're'ids, 79. Ne'ri, 375. Ne'ro, Clau'di-us (claw'), 221, 243. Ner'va, Mar'cus C6c-ee-ius (yus), 226. Ner'vi-i, 200. Nes'tor, 83. Neth'er-lands, 248, 351, 378, 379, 404, 415, 420, 423, 426, 428, 441, 442, 444, 446, 448, 448, 452, 459, 477, 499, 504, 511, 513. 528, 549, 568, 576, 585, 586, 628, 645, 661, 754, 780. Neu'en-burg (noi'en-boorg), 7C2. Neus'tri-a, 260, 261. Ne'va, 519. Nev'in, Joftn, 891. New (nu) Am'ster-dam, 797, 798, 799, 821. New'berr-y (nu) Library, 939. New (nu)Bruns'wiek, 828, 946, 947. New'mlrg (nu'), 853. New (nu) Car'thage (-thij), 171. New'casfle, (nu'), 824. New'comb (nu'kum), Simon. 940, 941. New (nu) En'gland (ing'), 797, 803, 808. 812, 814, 817, 820, 822, 830, 844, 846, 848, 870, 874, 890, 891, 893, 899, 901, 937, 942. New'fOMnd-land (nu'), 783, 790, 791, 796, 806, 834, 852, 948. New (nu) France, 790, 791, 792, 794, 795. New (nu) Gra-na'da. 953, 956, 957. New (nu) Hamp'slure, 814, 822, 854. New (nu) Ha'ven, 797, 817,822. New (nu) Jer'sey, 826, 828, 842, 844, 854. use, urn, up, rude; food, foot; by; cell; N=ng; italic letters silent or obscure. 1020 ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. New (nu) Jer'sey, College of, 828. New (nfi) Lon'don (lun')i 848. New'mcm (nu'), J6/ih Hen'ry, 772, 890. New (nil) Mex'i-co, 787, 788, 789, 864, 950. New (nil) Neth'er-lands, 796,797,826,828, New (nu) Or'le-ans, 779, 794, 834, 862, 910, 912, 932. New (nu) Or'le-ans, Battle of, 874, 882. New'port (nu'), 823 New'port (nu'), Captain C/iris'to-pher, 800. New (nil) Spain, 787, 788, 953. Newspapers, American, 898. New (nu) Swe'den, 798. New'ton (nu'), Sir I'saac, 462. New'town (nu'), 817, 821. New (nu) York (eity), 797, 798, 821, 828, 831, 836, 840, 844, 847, 850, 852, 854, 890, 904, 912, 922, 928, 935, 936, 939. New (nu) YBrk (state), 792, 823, 826, 828, 836, 847, 853, 854, 856, 878, 882, 892, 899, 900, 922, 928, 929, 930, 931, 936, 937, 942. NS2/, Marshal, 599, 608, 616, 618, 622, 625, 628, 630, 632. Nez Per-ce', 938. Ni-ag'a-ra, Fort, 830, 831. Ni-ag'a-ra, River, 86S, 943. Ni-ag'a-ra (town), 942. Ni-ag'a-ra (vessel). 916. Nice, 374, 580, 684, 709. Ni-ce'a, 138, 246, 304, 306, 314. Nice, Truce of, 420. Nic/i'o-las, Archduke, 765. Nicft'0-las, Czar, 647, 688, 689, 690, 691, 702, 753, 780. Nicft'o-las V., Pope, 349, 377, 390. Nic/i'ol-son, Fran'cis, 805, 807, 809. Nic'i-as, 112, 113. Nic'o-la, Colonel, 853. Ni'co-lai, Cftris'toph Frie'dric/i, 540. Nic'o-lay, 940. Ni-e6He<\ Jean (zhaN) 793. Nic-o-ine'dl-a, 646. Ni-cop'o-lis, 765. Ni-cop'o-lis, Battle of, 388. N2eb'el-ung-en Lzed, 335. Nii-eT, Marshal, 708. NiffM'tn-gale, Flor'ence, 691. Ni'liil-ists, 770, 781. Nile, 43, 44, 46. 47, 48, 54, 204, 742. Nimes, 637. Nim'rod, 37. Nin'e-ve/i, 37, 38, 39, 41, 65. Ni'nvis, 37. N'ir-va'na, 34. Nis'roeft, 39. No'ii/i, 23. Nob'ling, Dr., 747. No-bre'ga, 958. No'la, 214. Nom'ads, 24, 26, 30. Nord Al-b'ing'i-a, 380. Nor'den-skjold (-sheld), 743. Nord'ling-en (nerf), Battle of, 476. Nor'foJk, Duke of, 458. Nor'foZk, Vir-gin'i-a (ver-) , 915. Nor'man-dy, 285, 351, 359, 360, 379, 571, 573, 791. Nor'mans, 284, 285, 286, 288, 298, 379, 790. North Car-6-li'na, 790, 807, 808, 823, 908. North Da-ko'ta, 864. North, Lord Fred'er-ick, 835, 852. North Sea, 677. Nor-thum'ber-land, 286, 363, 433, 458. Northwest Territory, 856, 892. Nor'wa?/, 285, 379, 380, 437, 522, 622, 781. No'tre Dame, 574, 597. Nourse (noors), Jo'el, 888. No-va'lis, 648, 650. No-va'ra, 639. NO'va Sco'ti-a f-slli-), 512, 820, 946, 947. Nov'gS-rod, 285, 3S6. No'vi-a Do'num, 199." No'vi, Battle of, 585. Nii'vi Ba-zar', 768. Nii'bi-a, 48, 73. 775. Nue'<;es (nwa'), River, 876. Nu-man'ti-a (-Shi-), 186, 187. Nu-man-ti'nus, 187. Nu'ma Pora-pil'i-us, 154. Nu'mid'i-a, 178, 179. Nti'ini-tor, 150 Nun, 56. Nu'rem-bSrg, 421, 472. Nymphs, 79. Nym-weg'en (-veg'), Peace of, 502, 505. Ny'on, 199. Ob'e-lisks, 46, 47. 0-bre-n6'witsch (-vich), Prince Mi'- cftael, 694. Oc'cJ-dent, 244. O'Con'nell. Dan'iel (-yel), 644. Oc-ta'vi-a, 221. Oc-ta'vi-an, or Oc-ta'vi-us. See Augus- tus Caesar. Od-a-na'thus, 236. O'der, 383, 384, 386, 620. O-des'sa, 552. O'din, 218, 286, 379. O-do-a'cer, 257, 258. O'Don'nell, 722, 723. O-dys'se-us, 77, 83, 84. Od'ys-sey, 84. (Ed'i-pus (ed'-), 123. CE/j'len-schla-ger, Ad'am, 657. (E-no-phy'ta, 111. CE'ta, 75, 105. O'fen, 503. Og'deus-burg, 870. 0-gee'chee River, 919. O'gle-thorpe, James, 809. 810, 811. O-hi'O, 866, 892, 928, 929, 937. O-hi'6 River, 794, 82S, 830, 831, 852, 860, 909. O-hi'o University, 893. O'laf Lap'king, 379. Olaf, the Saint, 379.. Ol-den-barn'velt, 795. Ol'den-burg, 319, 612. 622. Ol'den-biirg, House of, 380, 677. O-li'va, Peace of, 479. Ol'i-ver, James, 888. OHi-vi-e?-', 686. Ol'mutz, 566, 677, 679, 700, 708. O-lym'pi-a, 77, 92, 130. O-lym'pi-ads, 92. O-lym'pi-an, Games, 92, 105, 127. O-lym'pi-us, 252. O-lym'pus, 75, 78. O-lyn-thi-a, 88, 120, 128. ■O'mar, 268. O'mar Pa-sha', 690. Om-mi'ads, 268, 271, 272. O-nei'da, Lake, 792. On-o-mar'c/ius, 128. On-ta'ri-o, Lake, 792, 870. On-ta'ri-o, 947. Op-e-cAan'ca-nowffft, 802. O-pim'i-us, 189. 0-por't6, 639. Op'pen-heim, 472. Ops, 150. Op'ti-miitss, 186, 188, 191. Oracles, 251. Oi'ange, 500. Or'ange, Fort, 796. Or'ange, House of, 661. Oi'ange, Mau-rice' (mo) of, 447, 448. Or'cinge-men, 644. Or'ange, Wil'liam (yam) of. See William of Orange. Or'cus, 80. Or'e-gon, 864, 876, 938. O-rel-la'na (-ya'J, 413. O-res'tes, 256, 257. O'ri-ent, 29, 30, 31, 243, 244, 404. Or'i-gen, 247. O-ri-no'co River, 400, 958. O-ri-za'ba (tha'va), 951. 6r-lean'ists, 685. Or-le-ans' (-6N'), 358, 496, 504, 561, 568, £72, 666. Or-le-ans' (-on'), Diet of, 450. Or-le-ans' (-on'), (island), 832. Or-le-ans' (-on'), Maid of, See Joah ol Arc. Or-le-ans' (-on'), Siege of, 450. Or-le-ans' (-on') War, 504. 6r-loff', Gre-gor', 549. Or'muz, 398. Or'muzd, 66. O-ron'tes, 143. Or'phe-us, 82. 6r-s'i'ni, 376 6r-s'i'ni, Fe-li'ce (-che), 685, 707. 6r-te'ga, 723. 6r-te'ga, General, 950. Orthodox Church, 890. O-sage' Indians, 938. Os'born (-burn), Sir Dan'vers, 828. Os'can, 147. Os'car II., of Swe'den, 754, 781, 782. O-si'ris, 46. Os-man' Pa-sha', 765, 766. Os'sian (osh'), 539. Os'so-li, Mar'ga-ret Ful'ier (fool'), 897. Ost-end' Conference, 906. Os'ter-mann,524. Os'ti-a, 56. Os-we'go, Fort, 830, 831. Oth'man, 268, 388. O'tho, 222. Ot'to-car, 338. Ot'to-man Empire, 372, 374, 390, 421, 694, 695. Ot'to, of Frey'sing, 335. Ale, care, am, arm, final; eve, obey, end, her, recent; ice, ill, pique; old, orb, odd, move; ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 1021 Ot'to I., of Ger'ma-ny, 290, 292, 381. Ot'to II., of Ger'ma-ny, 292. Ot'to III., of Ger'ma-ny, 292, 294. Ot'to IV., of Ger'ma-ny. 324. Ot'to I., of Greece, 648, 695. Ot'to, of Nord'heim (norf), 296, 300. Ot'to, of Wit'tels-bacft, 324. Ot'to, Prince of Ba-va'ri-a, 749. O-tum'ba, Battle of, 402. Oude'narde, Battle at, 512. Oii-di-noC, 625. O-van'do, 400. O'ver-beck, 657. Ov'id, 211. Ox-eii-sttern, Ax'el, 373. Ox'ford, 405, 434, 772, 818. Ox'ford movement, 890. Fa-cAO'mi-us, 331. Pa-cif'ic Ocean. 402, 783. Piick'en-ham General, 874. Pa'der-born, 279, 280. Pad'u-a, 255, 298, 372. Pa'dus, 147. Pa-ez' (-eth')i General, 956. Pa-ga-ni', 251. Paganism, 243, 248, 251, 262. Pa-ger-ie' (zher-), Tasch'er de la, 580, 594. Page, Tftom'as Nel'son, 939. Pali'len (par'), Count, 593. Pa-lae-61'o-gus, Mi'cfta-61, 314. Pa-lais' Roy-al'. 561. Pa-lat'i-nate, 427, 466, 467, 477, 502, 504. Pal'a-tine Hill, 150, 210, 221, 235. Pa-ler'mO, 168, 288, 324, 710, 711. Pal'es-tine, 38, 70, 132, 268, 302, 316, 318, 689. Pa-les-tri'na, 464, 466. Pal'las A-the'ne, 70, 78, 220. Pal-la-vi-ci'no (-che') Tri-vul'zI-0, 639, 707. Paim'er-ston, Lord, 642, 688. Pa(m, of Nii'rem-burg, 602. Pfll-my'ra, 236, 238. Pa'lo Al'to, Battle, of, 876. Pa'los, 398. Pam-pe-lti'na, 279. Pan-a-ma' Canal, 778, 930. Pan A-mer'i-can Congress, 932. Pan'dects, 262. Pan'du, 35, Pan-no'ni-a, 236. 255, 280. Pan'the-on, 210, 583. Papacy, 280, 288. Pa-pi-neau' (-no), -Lou-is', 944, 945. Pa-pin 'i-an, 232, 234. Pa-pir'i-us, 166. Pap'j>en-heim, Count von, 472, Pa-ra-guay' (-gwi'), 956, 959. Pa'ri-a/i, 33. Par'is, 248, 356, 420, 439, 450, 453, 454, 456. 498, 561, 562, 563, 564, 565, 566, 570, 572, 5T6, 589, 589, 595, 597, 598, 602, 60S, 618, 624, 632, 659, 665, 671, 673, 680, 684, 725, 726, 728, 729, 730, 732, 734, 737, 743, 753, 754, 778, 792. Par'is, Congress of, 694, 707. Par'is, Count of, 757. Par'is, of Troy, 82. Par'is, Parliament of, 556. 558. Par'is, Second Peace of, 632. Par'is, Treaty of, 625, 630, 772. Par'is, University of, 638. Parliament, Bareboues, 490. Parliament, Long, 482. Parliament, Kump, 488, 491, 492. Fark'man, Fran'cis, 939. Par'nia, 514, 582, 598, 625, 664, 668, 707, 709. Par-me'ni-6, 131, 132, 136. Par-nas'sus, 76, 80, 106. Par'nell, Charles Stew'art (stu'), 776, 783. Pa'ros, 78, 102. Parr, Cath'er-ine, 432. Par-rfta'si-us (-sill-), 127. Par'the-non, 111. Par-then'o-pi-em Republic, 584, 585. Par'thi-a, 143, 197, 207, 221 , 230, 234, 235. Pas'cal, Blai-se', 507. Pas'cal II., Pope, 300. Pas'cal III., Anti-Pope, 322. Pas-kie'witsch (-vich), Prince, 663, 678, 690, 696. Pas'sau (-sow), Treaty of, 425, 426. Passover, 54. Pas-tor'i-us, Fran'cis, 824. Pat'a-go'ni-a, 953. Pat'kul (-kool). 519. Pat'mos, 78. Patricians, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 164. Pa-tri-mo'ni-um Pe'tri, 275. Pa'tro-cin-i-o, Sister, 723. Pa-tro'clus, 83. Pat7er-son, Eliz'a-betli, 601. Pat'ier-son, General, 908. Paul (pawl), Apostle, 243. Paul, (pawl), Czar. 534, 585,591, 592, 593. Paul (pawl) III., Pope, 420, 423, 425, 438. Paul (pawl) IV., Pope, 438. Pau'lus (paw'), Jurist, 232. Pau'lus (paw'), Lu'ci-us (-shi-) JU-mll'l- us, 174, 181, 184. Pau-sa'ni-as (paw-), 107, 108, 110, 114. Pa-vi'ii, 264, 276, 279, 418. Pa-vi'a, Battle of, 418. Pa-vi'a, General, 762. Pea'bod-y Library, 939. Peasant War, 352. Pec'ci (Pet'che), Cardinal, See Leo XIII., Pope. Pe'dro II., of Bra-zil', Dom, 959. Pe'droIV., of Por'tu-gal, (Lot Brazil') 641, 959. Pe'dro, of Por'tu-gal, The Stern, 368. Pei-xo'to (-so'), 959. Pe-la'gi-us, 247. Pe-las'gi, 81. Pe-lis-si-e»'', General, 692. Pel'Za, 127. Pel'K-oo, Sil'vS-a, 639, 652. Pe-Iop'i-das, 120, 121. 125. Pel-O-pon-ne'sus, 75, 76, 78, 81, 87, 95. 96, 107, 112, 113, 119, 120, 121, 131, 142, 186, 251, 265, 646. Pel-o-pon-ne'si-iin War, 111, 112, 125. Pe'lops, 81. Pe-lu'si-um, 49, 203. Pem'ber-ton, Genera], 912. Pe-na'tes, 80. Pen-con' (piiN-soN), Vincent, 958. • Pen'dle-ton, of O-hi'o, 929, 030. Pe-nel'o-pe. 83. Pe-ne'us, 75. Pen-in'su-lar (-ler) War, 604. Penn, Han'na/i, 826. Penn'syl-va'ni-a, 823, 826, 842, 847, 853, 854, 856, 860, 899, 900, 904, 933, 936, 937, 942. Penn'syl-va'ni-a, University of, 893. Penn, Wil'liam (-yam), 807. 823, 824, 826. Pe-nob'scot, 874. Pe-nob'scot Bay, 796. Pe-nob'scot River, 823. Pensions, 924, 931. Pe-o'ri-a, Lake, 794. Pepe, Wil'liam (-yam), 639. Pe'quOd Indians, 821. Per'cy Hotspur, 363. Per-dic'cas, 141. Per'ga-mos, 143, 194. Per-i-an'der, 98, 99, 100. Per'i-eles, 110, 111, 112, 125, 126. Pe-ri-er' Cas-i-mir', 756. Per-i-ce'-ci, 87, 93, 94, 120. Per'kins Institute, 893. Pe)'-r6C, Georges (zhorzli), 793. Per'ry, Ol'i-ver Haz'ard, 870, 941, 943. Per'j-y-vilte, 910. Per-sep'o-lis, 74, 134. Per'se-us, 180, 181, 182, 231. Per'si-a (-shi-), 49, 52, 66, 68, 70, 72, 74, 81, 99, 101, 102, 104, 105, 107, 111, 118, 119, 120, 121, 123, 124, 130, 131. 132, 134, 140, 236, 238, 243, 248, 262, 268, 386, 389. Per'si-an (-shi-) Gulf, 398. Per'ti-nax, 234. Pe-rii', 403, 787, 930, 953, 956, 957. Pe-run', 266. Pe-ru'si-a, 148, 207. Pes-ca'ra, 218. Pes-chi-e'ra, 708. Pes-ta-loz'zi, (lot'se),540. Pestft, 722. Pe'tSr, Apostle, 243, 255. Pe'ter, Mar'tyr, 437. Pe'ter of A'mi-ens (-aN), 302. Pe'ter III., of Ar'a-gon, 330, 367. Pe'ter, of Castile', the Cruel, 367. Pe'ter I., of Rus'sia (sha), the Great, 516. 517, 518, 519, 520, 522, 524. Pe'ter II., of Rus'sia (-sha), 524. Pe'ter III., of Rus'sia (-sha), 534. Pe'ter, of Vin'e-a, 326. Pe'ters-burg, 918. Pe'ter, Hie Hermit, 304. Pe-ti-6N', 565, 571. Pe-toe'f'i, Al-ex-an'der, 657. Pe'trarcft, 336, 343. Pe'tri, 436. Pe-tro'ni-us Max'i-mus, 256. Pfalz (pfalts) New'burg, (noi'boorg), 504. Phse'drus, 211. Pha'lanx, 130. use, urn , up, rude; food, foot; by; <;ell ; N=ng; italic letters silent or obscure. 1022 ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. Phar'a-mund, 258. Pba'raOA, 43, 46, 48, 52, 54. Pliar'i-sees, 144. Phar'na-ces, 197, 204. Pha'ros, 204. Pilar -sa'li-a, 75, 203. Phar-sa'lus, 179. Phid'i-as, 92, 111, 126. Phi'do, 96. Phil-a-deTplii-a, 796, 799, 824, 826, 831, 836, 837, 844, 847. 850, 853, 854, 856,858, 860, 890, 892, 893, 902, 912, 936, 938. Plill-a-del'plius, 143. PM'le'tas, 136. Phil'ip, Ar'abs, 236. Phil'Ip-ists, 427. ' Pliil'ip, Indian King, 820. Pliil'ip of Bur'gun-dy, Sonof Max-i-mil'- iau (yan) of Aus'trl-a (aws'), 379. Pliil'ip, ol Bfir'gun-dy, the Bold, 378. Pliil'ip, of Bfir'gun-dy the Good, 356, 359, 378. Pliil'ip II., of France, 312, 324, 351, 360. Pliil'ip IV., of France, 339, 341, 351, 352. Pliil'ip VI., of France, 352. Phil'ip, of Ger'nia-ny, 324. Phil'ip of Hesse, 410, 412, 413, 421, 423, 424. Pliil'ip II., of Ma-cedf/iii-a, 125, 127, 128, 130, 131, 132. Phil'ip III., of Ma-ce-do'ni-a, 179, 180. Phil'ip of Or-le-ans (-on'), 513. Phil'ip of Par'ma, 514, 528. Phil'ip II., of Spain, 370, 421, 426, 434, 440, 441, 442, 446, 448, 452, 456, 459. Pliil'ip III., of Spain, 370. Phil'ip V., of Spain, 510, 511, 512, 513. Phil'ip-o-pel, 770. Plli-IIp'jpi, 128, 206, 207. Pliil'ip-pine Islands, 402. Phil'ip, son of Per'se-us, 182. Phi-lis'tines, 38, 56, 58, 132. Phil-o-me'lus, 128. Phil-O-pce'nien, 143, 180. Pliips, Sir Wil'liani (-yam), 793, 821. Pho-cse'a, 87, 127, 128. Pho'ei-on, 142. Pho'cis, 76, 105, 127, 128. Phce-nic'i-a (-nish'), 28, 42, 49, 50, 51, 52, 62, 70, 77, 104, 132, 184. Phoe'nix Park, 776. Phra, 46. Phrix'us, 82. Phul, 38. Phy'les, 99. Fi-as'-ti, House of, 384. Piche-grfi', Charles, 576, 578,580, 583,596, 597. Picts, 226, 234, 261. Pied'niGnt, 374, 420, 510, 580, 639. Pierce Frankiin, 904. Pi'e-ro, of Flor'ence, 376. Pilgrims, 812, 814. Pill'nitz, Castle of, 565. Pi-10'ty (-te), Karl Tfte'6-dor von, 657. Pinclc'ney, Charles C. 862, 866. Pin'dar, 92, 100, 131. Pin'dus, 75. Pine Ridge Indians, 938. Pip'in, Donation of, 275, 279. Pip'in, of Her'is-tal, 261, 271, 275. Pip'in, the Little, 275, 276, 279. Pip'in, Son of Lud'wig (liit'vig) the Pious, 282. Pi-ra'us, 76, 108, 113, 120. Pir'na (per'), 530. Pi'sa, 341, 375. P'i'sa, Council of, 346. Pi-sis'tra-tus, 98, 99. Pitts, Brothers, 888. Pitts'bfirg, 830, 831. Pitts'bfirg Landing, 909. Pitt, the Younger, 568. Pitt, Wil'liani (yam), 532, 594, 601, 8:8, 831, 834, 835, 838, 847. Pi'us II., Pope, 377, 390. Pi'us IV., Pope, 438. Pi'us VI., Pope, 549, 582, 584. Pi'us VII., Pope, 586, 609, 622. Pi'us IX., Pope, 666, 676, 720, 748, 758, 761. P'i-zar'ro, Fran'cis, 403, 787. Piz'zo (pet'so), 630. Pliicid'i-a, 254. Plan-tag'6-nets, 359, 364. Pla-tse'a, 76, 102, 107, 112, 120. Pla'to, 118, 124, 145, 248. Platts'bfirg, 872. Plau'tus (plaW), 184. Plebeians, 156, 157, 159, 160, 161, 162, 164. Plev'na, 766, 767. Plin'y, the Elder, 226. Plin'y, the Younger, 227, 230. Plum'bi-Sres, 707. Plii'tarcft, 230. Plfi'to, 78. Plym'outh, 811, 814, 817, 820, 821, 823. Plym'outh Bay, 812. Po, 147, 171, 172, 251, 622. PO-ca-hon'tas, 800. PSe, Ed'gar Al'lcra, 897. Poi-ti-ers' (pwa-), 271. Poi-ti-ers (pwa-), Battle of, 352. PiVland. 265, 296, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 388, 390, 426, 437, 452, 478, 479, 518, 524, 551, 552, 553, 554, 568, «02, 614, 626, 630, 660, 662, 663, 688, 696, 698. PoJe, Cardinal, 432, 434. PO-lipn-ac' (-yak'), 562,659. Po-li-or-lce'tes, 141. Polk, James JTnox, 864, 884, 893. Pol'Ii-o, 210. Pol'lux, 82. PO-lyb'i-us, 182, 212. PO-lyc'ra-tes, 98. Polygamy, 31. Polytheism, 78. Pom-bal', Marquis de, 546, 547, 958. P6m-e-ra'ni-a, 265, 472, 477, 502, 522, 614. Pome'roy, Seth, 830. Fom-pa-dour' (poN-), Marquise de, 530, 532, 555. Pom-pe'ii (-ye), 226. Pom-pe'ius (-yus), Onse'iis, 195, 197, 198, 199, 202, 204. Pom-pe-i-6p'6-lis, 197. Pom'pey, 196, 203, 206. Pon'ce (-tha) de Le-oN', 787. Po-n'i-a-tow'sk'i (-toV), Jo'seph, 554. Pon'ti-ae, 834. Pon'ti-us, 166. PoN-trin-courf' (-traN-), 791. Pon'tus, 192, 194, 197. Pope, John, 911, 9E8. Pop'ftam, Sir Jo/in, 822. Poi'ci-a, 207. Por-sen'na, Lars, 58, 59, 130. Porte, 552. Por'ter, Da'vid Dix'on, 916. Pur'ter, No'aft, 940. Port Hud'son, 912. Port'land, 823. Pfir'to R'i'co, 400, 953. POr'to San'to, 395. Port Roy'al, 791, 792, 810, 914. Ports'mouth, 823. Por'tu-gal, 187, 272, 367, 368, 395, 396, 398, 404, 441, 448, 462, 547, 604, 608, 630, 638, 639, 640, 723, 725, 773, 779, 783, 787, 958, 959. Po'rus, 138. Po-se'i-don, 78, 87, 92. Po'sen, 630, 663, 746. Pos-tliu'mi-us, 166. Po-tem'kin Prince, 550, 552. Pot-i-dse'a, 112. PO-to'mac, Army of the, 908, 918. Po-to'mac River, 858, 874, 908, 910, 911, 918. Pots'dam, 600. Pots'dam Guard, 525. Pow'ell, Chief Justice, 943. Pow'ell, Major, 941. Pow-ha-tan', 800, 802. Prae-nes'te, 194. Prae-to'ri-an Guards, 219, 220, 222, 224, 234, 235, 261. Pra'ga, 554. Prag-mat'ic Sanction, 526. Prague, 466, 467, 526, 528, 663. Prague, Battle of, 532. Prague, Peace of, 476, 718. Prague, Treaty of, 732. Prague, University of, 343, 753. Priis-lin' (-1&N') Duchess de, 671. Pratt Library, 939 Prax-it'e-les, 126. Pre-moN-tre', Order of, 332. Pren'tice, George Den'i-son, 898. Pres-by-te'ri-an Church, 429, 435, 479, 486, 488, 492, 806, 890, 944. Pres-by-te'ri-ans, Seotch, 808. Pres-by-te'ri'ans, United, 891. Pres'cott Colonel Wil'liam (yam), 838. Pres'cott, Wil'liam (yam), Hick'ling, 937. Press'burg (boorg), 528. 593, 718. Press'burg (-boorg), Peace of, 600,601. 609. Press Law, 700. Pre-vost', Sir George, 872. Pri'am, 82, 83. Prid'eaux (-6), General, 831, Pride, Colonel, 486. Pride's Purge, 486. Prim, General, 723, 724, 725. Prince Ed'ward's Island, 947. Ale, care, am, arm, final; eve, obey, end, her, recent; ice, ill, pique ; old, orb, odd, move; ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 1023 Prinqe'ton, 828, 853. Prince'ton Seminary, 891. PrO'bus, 238. Proc'tor, General, 870. Prohibitionists, 930. Prol-e-ta'ri-at, 156. Pro-per'ti-us (-shi-), Sex'tus Au-re'li-us (aw-), 211. Pro-pon'tis, 88. Prop-y-lse'um, 111. Protestants, 412, 421, 423, 424, 425,436, 439, 440, 447, 466," 467, 468, 481, 482, 525 551, 637. Pro-vence' (voNS'), 319,420, 624. Proverbs, 66. Prov'i-denee, 938. Pru'sa, 388. Pru'si-as, 180. Prus'sia (-slia), 265, 384, 385, 426, 478, 479, 502, 520, 536, 551, 552, 553, 554, 565, 567, 576, 578, 593, 598, 599, 601, 602, 603, 612, 614, 620, 622, 626, 630, 632, 636, 645, 646, 678, 679, 680, 688, 691, 700, 702, 704, 705, 706, 708, 713, 714, 716, 717, 718, 720, 721, 725, 728, 732, 743, 744, 945, 747, 748, 750, 761, 777, 784. Pruth, River, 689, 764. Priitz, 739. Prynme, Wil'liam (-yam), 481. Pryt'a-nes, 99. Pryt-a-ne'um, 99. Psaims, 60, 66. Psam-met'i-cftus, 48, 49, 72, 73. Ptii/i, 46. Ptol'e-mies, 142, 143, 144. Ptol'e-my I., of E'gypt, 131, 141, 143. Ptol'e-my II., ol E'gypt, Phil-a-del'- phus, 167. Ptol'e-my X., of Egypt, 203, 204. PQb'li-us, 199. Pti-gat'seheff, 551. Bull'man (pool'), George Mor'ti-mer, 941. Put-to' wa (pol-), Battle of, 519, 524. Pun'ic Wars, 167, 171, 179, 212. Pu'ra, 138. Pu'ri-tans, 429, 435, 481, 486, 492, 806, 807, 816. Pusch'kin (poosb'-), Al-ex-an'der, 657. Pus'ey, Ed'ward B., 890. Put'nam, Is'ra-el, 830, 831, 839. Putt'ka-mer (poof-), von, 750. Pyd'na, 181. Py'los, 77, 83, 112. Pym, John, 482, Pyr'a-mids, 47. Pyr'a-mids, Battle of the, 588. Pyr'e-nees, 172, 199, 203, 252, 271, 498, 510, 574, 637, 639. Pyr'rftus, 165, 166, 167 Py-thag'6-ras, 100. Pyth'i-a, 90. Qua'di, 230. Quak'ers, 807, 818, 819, 820, 824, 826, 828, 891. Quatre-bras' (katr-), 630. Quebec', 535, 790, 792, 794, 795, 831, 840, 942, 947. Que-bee' Act, 837. Queen's College, 828. Queens'town, 868, 943. Que-re'ta-ro (ka-), 952. Ques-najf' (ka-), FraN-cois (-swa'), 545. Quin'cy (-zi), Jo-si'aft, 894. Qui-neC (ke-), Ed'gar, 665, 737. Quir'i-nal, 760. Qui-ri'nus, 152. Qui-ri'tes, 152. Qui-ro'ga (ke-), Jo-se' (yo-), 638, 639. Qui'to (ke'), 954. Quix'ote, Don, 462. Ka, 46. Ea-belais', FraN-cois' (-swa'), 464. Ea'chel, 52. Ra-c'ine', Jean (zhaN), 586 Kad'a-gais, Duke, 251. Ka-detz'ky (-ke), Count, 676, 706. Rad-is-soN', 793. Ra'dom, Confederation of, 551. Rad'z'i-vil, Prince of, 662. Rag'lan, Lord, 690, 692. Ra'hel, 739. Rai-nald', Archbishop, 322. Ra'leigh (raw'la), 920. B.a,'le\ffh (raw'), Sir Wal'ter (wawl'), 800. Ra'ma, 36. Ra-ma'ja-na (-ya-), 35. Ra-mel', General, 637. Ra-me'ses, the Great, 48. Ra-m'i2'Jies (-ye'), Battle of, 511. Ra-mo-l'i'n'i, Le-tit'za (-tish'), 594. Ra-mo-ri'no General, 664. Ean'dolph, Jo/in, 855, 899. Ran'ke, Le'o-pold von, 740. Raph'a-el, 377, 464. Rap-id-an' River, 918. RaSeh'id, 764. Ras'tadt, 583. 585. Ras'tadt', Peace of, 513. Rat-taz'zi (tat'se), Ur ba'no, 712. Rauch (rowk), Fred'er-iek Au-gus'tus (aw- j, 658. Rau'mer (row'), Frie'dricft, 650. Ra-vajl-lac' (-yak'), Fran'cois (-swa), 457. Ra-ven'wa, 214, 251, 252, 254, 255, 258, 262, 264, 275. Raw'don, Lord, 849. Ray'mond, Hen'ry Jar'vis, 898. Rat/'mond, of Tou-loiise', 306, 319. Re-bek'aft, 53. Rec'61-let, 792. Red Bank, 844. Re'dif Pa-sha', 765. Red Sea, 48, 50, 54, 688. Red'witz (-vitz), Os'car von, 739. Reed, Hen'ry, 894. Reformation, 374, 405, 409, 412, 426, 437, 440, 459, 460, 645. Re'gens-burg, (-boorg), 410, 468, 470, 535. Reg'gio (rad'), 711. Reg'u-lus, 168. Re-ho-bo'am, 62. Rei'c/i-en-bacii, Countess, 663 Reign of Terror, 571, 573, 578, 584. Rei'nach, Baron de. 778. Rein'kens, Bishop, 745. Reins'berg, 526. Reis, Phil'ip, 941. Re'mus, 150. Re-my, (me'), Don, 356. Rens'burg (-boorg), 680. Reus'se-laer School, 893. Re-ques'ens (reg-nes'senz), 444. Re-sa'ca de la Pal'ma, 876. Retz, Cardinal de, 498. Reii'ben,56. Reuch'lin (Roich') John, 404, 405. Reu'ter (roi'), Fritz, 739. Revolution, American, 834, 924. Revolution, French, 565, 635, 638, 659,661 > 662, 663, 664. Re-vo-lii-ti-oN (-ts'i-), Plaije de la, 568. R/iap'so-dists, 84, 99. RAe'a Sil'vi-a, 150. Rfte'gi-um, 88. Rheims (raNS), 339, 358, 6-37. R/te'tri-a, 95. Rhine, 200, 212, 214,239, 247, 248, 252, 280, 337, 412, 414, 422, 568, 576, 582, 583, 592, 601, 622, 623, 630, 663, 679, 721, 725. Rftine Confederation, 598, 601, 602, 609, 614, 622. Rhode Is'land, 817, 819, 823, 854, 892. Rhodes, 77, 88, 126, 198, 268, 318, 390. Rfto'dos, 52. Rhone, 171, 172. Ri-car'do, Da'vid, 741. R'i-ca'so-li, Baron, 712. Rich'ard, of Corn'wall (-wawl), 337. Rich'ard I., of En'gland (ing'-J, Cceur de Li-oN', 312, 324, 360. Rich'ard II., of En'gland (ing'-), 363. Rich'ard III., of En'gland (ing'-), 363, 364. R'iche-boiirjr', E-mile' de, 806. Riph'e-h'eii. Cardinal, 472, 476, 494, 496. 498, 506, 792. Rich'e-lieu, Duke of, 532. Rich'e-Heii River, 792. Rich'mond, 806, 848, 908, 910, 918, 919. Rich'ter, Fried'ricft, 650. Ric'i-mer, 256. Ridg' way-Rush Library, 938. Rid'ley, NicA'o-las, 434. Ri-e'go, Colonel, 638, 640. Riehl, 739. Ri-el', 947, 948. R'i-en'z'i, Co'la di, 376. Riet'sehel, 658. Ri'ga, 516. Ri'ley, James WAit'comb (-cum), 939. Ri'6 fee'co, Battle at, 606. Ri'o de la Pla'ta, 953, 956. Ei'o Gran'de do Siil, 959. Ri'o Gran'de, River, 794, 876. Ri'o Ja-nei'rS, 958. Rit'^er, Au'guste (ow'goost) Hein'ricft, 740. Eiz'zi-o (rit'se-o), 457. Ro-a-noke', Island, 800. Rob'ert, Artist, 658. Rob'ert, of Nor'man-dy. 306. Eo-ber-val', Stem de, 790, 791. use, urn, up, rude ; food, foot ; by ; (jell ; N=ng ; italic letters silent or obscure. 1024 ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. Ro'bes-pien-e dg, 567, 571, 572, 574, 578. Rob'in-son. John Bev'ei-ly, 943. Rob'in-son, Rev. Jo/in, 812. Ro-cham-beau' (-shoN bo'), 853. Roche-fori', 632. Ro-chelie', 496, 792. R6ch'es-ter Seminary. 892. Rock'y Mountains, 794. R6d-er-i'go, 270, 271. Rod'ney, Admiral, 852. Roe'bling, Wasli'iug-ton (wosh') Au- gus'tiis (aw-), 893. ROg'erll., ofSic'Hy, 2B8. Rog'ers, Sam'u-el, 652. Rog'ers, Captain, 831. RcYland, 280. Ru-land Hon') de la Pla-tiere (tyer')' 564, 566,571. Ro'land, Madame, 565, 571, 655. ROl'lo, 285. 379. Ro'man Catholic Church, 276, 282, 408. Ro-mance' Languages, 335. Ro'man Hierarchy, 428. Ro-ina'noft House of, 516, 662. Rome, 47, 77, 78, 143, 145, 147, 150. 152, 154, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 171, 173, 174, 176. 178, 179, 180, 182, 183, 187, 188, 190, 191, 192, 194, 196, 197, 198,199. 202, 203, 204, 208, 210, 212, 213, 214, 219, 220, 221, 222, 224. 226, 231, 232. 234, 235, 236. 238, 240, 243. 244, 248, 254, 255, 256, 258, 262, 264, 265, 280, 292, 294. 298, 300, 321, 329, 344, 376, 390, 406, 410. 420, 430, 4S4..439, 450, 546, 584, 586, 609, 612, 666, 6"6, 685, 710, 712, 713, 720, 746. 753, 779, 780. Ro'mer (re'), O la'us. 679. Rom u-lus, 150, 152, 154. Rom'u lus, Au-gus tu-lus (aw-), 256, 257. Ron ces-val'les, 280. RoN-sin' (-saN'),573. Roon, General von, 716. Roque (rok), Jean (zhau) FraN-cois' ( swa') de la, 790. 791. Ro'sa munde, 264. Ro'sas, de, Dictator, 959. Rosch'er (resli), 741 ROse'ber ry, Lord, 776, 783. Ro'se-crans, Wil'liam (yam) Starke, 910, 913. Roses, Wars of the, 363, 364. Ross'bacii, Battle of, 532. Ross, Rob'ert, 874. Ros'si, 676. Ros-siffn-ol' (-yol'),573. Rossi'ni, 658. Ros-topi scliin', Count, 616. Rot'ier dam, 745. Rott'man, 421. Roii-en' (-On'), 358. Roii-fter', 685. Rou-ma'ni-a, 694, 767, 782. Roii-me'li-a, 767, 770. Roundheads, 482. Roiis-seau' (-so'), Jean (zhan), Jacques (zhak), 540, 543, 544, 545, 655. Rox'an-a, 136. Roy-er' (rwa-ya'), COMard', 63S. RCi'bens, 464. Ru'Di-a-nus Cro'tus, 405. Ru'bi-con, 202. Ruck'ert, 650. Rii-di'ni, Marquis d'i, 779. Ru'dolph, Crown Prince of Aus'tri-a, (aws'-), 753, 780. Ru'dolph, of Bur'gun-dy, 294. Ru'dolph I., of Ger'ma ny, 338. Ru'dolph II„ of Ger'ma-ny, 466, 467. Rii'dolph of Swa'bi-a, 298. Ruf'fo, Cardinal, 585. Rii-fi'nus, 251. Ru'gen, Island of 522. Rimes, 218, 379. Rii'prec/it, of Ger'ma-ny, 344. Rii'prec/it, Priuce of En'gland (ing'-), 486. Ru'rie, House of, 385. Ru'ric, of Rus'sia (-sha), 285, 385. Rus'sell, Lord Wil'liam (-yam), 493. Rus'sell, Lord John, 642, 921, 944,945,946. Rus'sia (-sha), 265, 285, 381, 385, 383. 522 524, 534, 549, 551, 552, 553, 554, 585, 591, 593, 598, 614, 619, 622, 626, 630, 636, 648, 662, 663, 677, 686, 688. 690, 695, 696, 698, 708, 741, 744, 748, 752, 753, 754, 763, 764, 765, 767, 768, 770, 771, 772, 777, 780, 789, 874, 921, 931. Rus'sia (-sha), Red, 384. Rus'tem (rods'), 274. Rut'gers College, 828. Rut'ledge, Ed'ward, 856. Ruy'ter, De, 490. Ry'er-son, A-dol'phus Eg'er-ton, 944. Rys'wick, Peace of, 505. Saa'dT. 274. Saal'feid (felt), 602. Saiir, 502. Saar'bruck en, 727. Sa-bel'li, 147, 148, 166, 192. Sab'ines, 147, 148, 150, 152, 211. Sac/is, Hans, 462. Sac-ra-men'to River, 890. Sad'o'u.-cees, 144. 'Sa-do'wa (-va), Battle of, 716. Sa-giis'ta, 762, 763, 779. Sa-gtin'tum, 171. Saint An'tfto-ny, Falls of, 794 Saint Au'gus-tine (aw'), 2.")4. Saint Bar-thol'o-mew (-niu), Massacre of, 438, 452. Saint Ben'e-dict, Order of, 332. Saint Ber'nard, 172, 279, 592. Saint Clair, Ar'thur, 844, 860. Saint Cloud (clowd), 590. Siiint CroiE, 791. Saint Denis (dne), Battle of, 450. SaiNi Denis (dne), Cathedral of, 275, 456. SaiNi Gall, Cloister of, 332, 414. Saint George, Bank of. 372. SaiNi Ger-rmuN (zlier-), Treaty of, 450. SaiNi Go-tAard', 592, 668. Saint (sent) He-le'na, 632. SaiNi Jean (zliaN), M6n(, 632. Saint .Toftn d'Acre (dakr), Siege of, 588. Saint John, Hospital of, 318. Saint John, Island, 799. Saint Joftn, Kniglitsof, 318, 341, 390, 593. SaiNi Just (zhust), 567, 571, 574, 578. Saint Law'rence River, 790, 792, 793, 794, 828. SaiNi Leu, Duchess of, 626. Saint Loii'is, Church of, 560. Saint Ma-lo', 790, 791. Saint Mar-gae-rite' Island, 757. Saint Mark's Church, 322, 370. SaiNi Mar-tin' (-taN), 957. Saint Ma'ry's School, 807. Saint Paul (pawl), College of, 958. Saint Paul's (pawls), 481. Saint Pe'ter's, 280, 300, 377, 406. Saint Pe'ters-burg, 516, 519, 522, 549, 551, 554, 690, 768, 770. SaiNi Pi-gire', Jacques (zhak), 655. SaiNi Pri-viii', Battle of, 728. SaiNi Si'mon, Count de, 741, 810. Saint So-phi'a, Church of, 262, 390. Sa'is, 44, 48, 49. Sa-kon-ta'la, 30. Sal'a-din, 310, 312. Sal-a-man'ca, 439, 608, 723. Sal-a-man'ca, University of, 367. Sal'a-mis, 76, 106, 107. 123. Sal-man-as'sar IV., of As-syr'I-a, 38. Sal-me'ron, 761, 762. Sa'Iem, 816, 817, 821. Sa-ler'no, 2i8, 292, 308. Sa'lic Law, 352, 664. Salis'bwr-y (sawlz'), Lord, 776. Sfil'lust, 211. Sa-lo'mo, 288. Siil-setie', 36. Salt (sawlt) Lake City, 892. Salz'burg (salts' boorg), 525, 628. Salz'mann, 540. Sam-ar-cand', 386, 389. Sa-ma'ri-a, 38, 65, 66. Bam'nites, 147, 14S, 165, 166, 192, 194. Sa-mo'a, 931. Sa'mos, 78, 87. Sa-mo-thrace', 78, 181. Sam'son, 56, 58. Sam'son, Monk, 413. Sam'u-el, 58. San'cAo I., of Por'tfl-gal, 368. Sand (sant), Carl, 645. Sand, George, 656. Siin'dys. George, 802. San Fran-cis'co Bay, 789. San Fran-cis'co River, 958. San'he-drim, 144. San Ja-cin'to, 950. Sail Juste (zhiist), 426. San Pau'lo (paw'), 958. San Re'mo, 750. San Siil'va-dor, 400. San'serit, 35. SaNS Cti-loties, 567, 572, 573. San Se-bas-t"i-an', 724. San Ste-fa'no, 767. San-ta An'nii, General, 876, 949, 950. San-ta'rem (-reN). 368. San'ta Ro'sa, 639. San-ti-a'go, 958. San'to Do-min'go, 400, 788, 927, 957. Sap-pho', 100. Ale, care, am, arm, final ; eve, obey, end, her, recent; ice, ill, pique; old, orb, odd, move; ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 1025 Siir'a-eeus, 270, 271, 272, 292, 298, 306, 316, 318, 325. Sii-ra-gos'sa, 279, 511, 60S. Sa'raft, 52. ■ Sar'a-nac River, 872. Sa-ras-va'ti, 32. Sar-a-to'ga, 846, 849, 942. Sar-da-na-pa/lus. See Assurhadon II. Sar'din-i-a, 171, 325, 367, 374, 513. 576, 630, 639, 664, 691, 706, 707, 708, 709, 711. Sar'dis, 68, 101, 103. Sar'gon I., of Assyr'i-a, 37. Sar'gon II., of As-syr'i-a, 38, 51, 65. Sar-ma'ti-cms (-shi-), 265. Sa-ro'ni-an Bay, 106. Sas-san'i-des, 235. Sass'bacft, 502. Sas'su-liisch, Ve'ra, 770. Sa-tol'lii', Ai-cli bishop, 937. Sat'urn, 150. Sat-ur-ni'iius, 191. Sa'tyrs (-ters),80. Saul (sawl), 58. Sav'age Sta'tion, (-shim) Battle of, 911. Sa-van'naft, 811, 818, 914, 915, 919. Sa-van'maft River, 810, 919. Sa-v.iiffu-y' (-ye'), 740. Sa-vO-ua-ro'la, 376. Sa-voy', 374, 37S, 420, 504, 513, 580,664,684, 709. Sa-voy', House of, 339, 374, 707, 710, 744. Saxe, Marshal, 528. Sax'o-ny, 218. 261, 277, 279, 2S0, 2S4. 296, 298, 319, 321, 348, 350, 381, 406, 408, 410, 412, 422, 424, 425, 426, 427, 472, 476, 477, 519, 526, 530, 533, 534, 602, 622, 626, 630, 663, 673, 679, 705, 716, 718, 728, 752. Say'brook, 821. Say, Le-ON', 759. Scaev'o-la (seV) Mu'ci-us (-sl)i-), 159. Scsev'O-la (sev') t PontiTex Maxim us, 195, Scan'der-beg, 390. Scan-di-ml'vi-a, 285, 286, 379, 380, 754. Scel-e-ra'ta, Vi'a, 156, 157. Scha'dino, Jo'liarm (yo') GOtf'fried (-fret), 657, 658. Schaff-hau'sen (-lioW), 414. Schaff, Fhil'ip, 891, 940. Scham'yl, 696. Scharn'horst, 612, 620. Scbart'lin, 423. Scheming, von. 540. Schil'ter, Fred'er-ick von, 539, 540, 650, 658, 701. Seliill, Mayor von, 610. Scliip'ka, Pass, 765, 767. Selile'gel, Au-gus'tus (aw-), 648. Selile'gel, Fried'ricA 648. Schlei'er-ma-eher, 733. Scles'wig, 290, 294, 380, 436, 470, 477, 478, 520, 677, 680, 684, 704, 705, 706, 713, 714, 717. 744. Sehmal'kald. 421, 423. Schmer'ling, 702. Scliom-berg (shoN-), Marshal, 494. Schop'per (slief), Pe'ter, 395. Scho'pen-hau-er (-how), 740. Schu'bert, 658. Schul'ze (sho6rtse)-De'li(2sch, 741, Schii'mami, 658. Schurz (shoorts), Carl, 927, 940. Sctay'lers, 796. ScAwy'ler, Fort, 846. Sctay'ler, Phil'ip Jo/in, 844, 846. Sc/iiij/l'kill River. 798, 826. Schwan't/ia-ler (shvan'), Lud'wig (loot'- veg) Mi'cftael, 65S. Schwartz (shvarts), Ber'tAOld, 395. Sehwartz'eu-berg, Priuce vou, 614, 622, 623. Schwe-rin', Count von, 526, 703. Sclnvytz (shvits), 339. Scip'i-o, jEm'i-li-a'nus (em-), 187, 189. Scip'i-o, Cor-ne'li-us, 172, 176, 178, 179, 180. 184, 188. Sco'lots, 74. Sco'pas, 126. Scot, Dred, 906. Scot'land, 362, 364, 366, 428. 429, 448, 458, 479, 481, 488, 490, 494, 652, 782, 808,826. Scots, 226, 234, 261. Scott, Win'Keld, 876, 908. Scott, Sir Wal'ter (wawT), 652. Sco'tus, Duns, 334. Scrib'ner's Magazine, 939. Scroo'by, 812. 814. Scyth'i-ans, 74, 100, 265. Se-bast'iau (ynn), Doiti, 441. Seb-as-to'pol, 689, 690, 091. 692, 694. Se-dan (doN') Battle of, 729. See'konk River, 823. See'land, 478. Se-gest', 213. Seine, 351, 623. Se-i-sacft-thi'S, 97. Se-ja'nus, 219, 220. Sel-eu-ci'a, 143. Se-leu'cids, 143, 144,197. Se-leu'cus, 141. 142. Sel-juk' Turks, 302. Sel-la'si-a (-shi-), 143. Sem'i-noles, 864, 878. Se-mir'a-mis, 37, 42. Sem'ites, 521. Sem'pacl), Battle of, 339, 344. Sein-pro'ni-us, 172. Sen'e-ca, 221. Sen-nacft'e-rib. 38, 65. Sen-ti'nuni, 166. Se'poys, 687. Sep'tu-a-gint. 144. Sepulchre, Holy, 689. Seq'ua-ni (sek'wa-), 200. Se-ra'pis, 143. Ser-ra'no, 723, 724, 725. 761, 762. Ser-to'i'i-us Quin'tus, 194, 195. Ser-ve'tus, Mi'c/iael, 437. Ser'vi-a, 694, 763, 764, 767, 768, 770,782. Ser'vi-us Tul'li-us, 156. Se-sos'tris, 48. Sev'en Pines, Battle of, 910. Seven Years War, 528. 536. Se-ve'rus, Sep-tim'i-us, 234. Ss-vilte', 367, 608, 724. Se-vjer', John, 848. Sew'all (su'), SAm'u-el, 821. Sew'ard (su'), Wil'liam (-yam) Hen'ry, 904, 924, 931. Sex'ti-us Lu'ci-us (-shi-), 164. Ses/'mour, Jane, 432. Seyd'litz, 532. Sfor'za (sfort'sa), Francis, 374. Sfor'za (sfort'sa), Max-i-mil'ian (-yan), 419, 420. Shack'a-max-on, 262. Sliaftes'bur-y, Earl of, 493. Shakes'peare, Wil'liam (-yam), 363, 464, 539, 648. Shal-ma-ne'ser IV. ,65. Slia-re'zer, 38. Sharp, Ja'cob, 936. Sliarps'burg/i, 911 . Shat'tttcks, 820. Shays, Dan'iel (-yel), 854. She'cftem, 64. Shel'burne, Earl, 852. Shel'by, General, 848. Shel'iey, Per'cy Bysshe, 654. Shem, 23. Slien-an-do'a/i Valley, 908, 910. 911, 918. Sher'i-dan, Phil'ip Hen'ry, 918. Sher'man, Rog'er, 856. Sher'mau Silver Bill, 932, 933. Sher'man, Wil'liam (-yam) Te-cum'seft, 878, 912, 914, 917, 919, 920. Shi'10/i, 909. Ship Island, 910. Shir'ley (sher'). Wil'liam (yam), 830. Si-be'ri-a, 385, 516, 520, 663, 780. Sib'yl-line Books, 157. Sib'yls, 251. Si-cam'bri, 212. Si-cil'i-an Vespers, 330. Sic'Il-y, 50, 84, 88, 96, 98, 166, 167, 168, 170, 171, 174, 178, 254, 270, 288, 323, 325, 326, 328, 367, 377, 378, 415, 511, 513, 514, 584, 585, 601, 666, 676, 707, 710, 711. Sick'ing-en, Franz, 410. Sie'y-on (sish'), 77, 86, 87. Si'don, 49. 52, 312. Sid'ney, Al'ger-non, 493. Si-do'ni-a, Me-di'na, 448. S.eg'fn'ed, 336. Sie'mens, 741. Si'e-yes, Abbe, 560, 634. Si'gel, Franz, 918. Sig'is-inund of Ger'ma-ny, 344, 348, 349, 382, 388. Sig'is-mund, of Po'land, 3S5. 437. Si'la, 196. Sil'a-rus, 196. Si-le'si-a (-shi-), 526, 528, 533, 534, 536. Si-le'si-an (-shi-) War, 526, 528. Si-lis'tri-a, 690. Silk Culture, 262. Sil'vi-us, ^E'ne-us, 348, 349, 377. Sim'coe, Joftn Graves, 942. Sim-i-0'ne, Cardinal, 748. Simms, Wil'liam (-yam) 611 'mure, 897. Si-mon'i-des, 92, 100. Si-moN', Jules (zhfll), 755, 758. Si'mon, of Ju-de'a, 144, 224. Sim'plon, 592. Simp'son, James, 692. Si'nar, 54. Sin-o'pe, 88, 118. 690. Sioux, Indians, 791, 938. use, urn, up, riide; food, foot; by ; cell ; N-ng; italic letters silent or obscure. 65 1026 ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. Sirens, 79. Sis'e-ra, 58. Sis-to'va, 765. Sifting Bull (bool), 265, 438. Si-waft', 73. 132. Six'tus V., Pope, 439. Skalds, 285. Skel'ton, John, 815. Skier-nie-wic'ze (skyer-ne-vet'sa), 748. Sko'be-leff, General, 766. Slavery, 803, 811, 821, 899. Slavs, 265, 266,' 280, 284, 290, 292, 323, 380, 384, 702, 753, 780. SUdell'. Joftn, 921. Slough 'ter (slaw'), Governor, 826. Smer'dis, 73. Smith, Ad'am, 547, 741. Smith, Captain Joftn, 800, 802. Smith College, 937. Smith, Colonel, 838. Smith, Hcip'kin-son, 939. Smith, Jo'seph, 892. Smith'son, James, L. M., 894. Smo-lensk', 516, 519, 616, 618. Smyr'na (smer'), 87. Smythe. General, 868. SO-bi-es'ki, Joftn, 503, 518. S6-cin'i-ans, 437, 551. SO-ci'nus, Faus'tus, (laws'), 437. Soe'ra-tes, 114, 116, 118, 124, 145, 146. SO-fi'a. 770. Sois-soss' (sw;\s-),258. Sol-fer.'i'no, 70S. So'li, 197. Sul'0-mfin, of Is'ra-el, 62, 224. Sol'6-inon, the Magnificent, 390, 392. SO'loil, 70, 96. 97, 98, 99. 100. So'lo-tlmrn, 760. Som'er-set (sum'), Duke of, 432. 433. Soin'mer-ring (sem'), 741. SGn'der-burg(s6Gn'),Glucks'burg,Cftris'- tian (-chan) von, 704, 705. Soph'ists, 114, 116. 124, 136. Soph'6-eles, 123, 124. Soph-O-nis'be, 178. So'ter, 143. Soii-bise', Prince of, 532. Soiilt, Marshal, 599, 608, 632. Soii'sa. Mar'thi de, 958. . Soii'sa Tho'me de, 958. Southamp'ton (-hainp'), 812. South Car-G-li'na, 807. 808, S09, 810, 823, 848, 849, 852, 853, 901, 902, 904, 906, 937. South Darko'ta, 864. South'ey (sowth'), 652. South Sea, 402. Spaan, 167, 171, 176, 179, 187, 191, 195, 203, 204, 239, 244, 249, 252, 254, 271, 272, 279, 367, 368, 374, 398, 400, 402, 403, 404, 419, 421, 426, 437, 441, 444, 448, 450, 452, 472, 503, 504, 505. 510, 547, 576. 598, 604, 60S, 630, 636, 637, 638, 646, 664, 722, 723, 725, 761, 762, 763, 779, 787, 788, 789, 795, 808, 834, 847, 852, 860, 862, 864, 874, ' 949, 950, 951, 953, 957, 958. Spain, Art and Literature, 462. Span'dau (-dow), 422. Span'ish Succession, War of the, 510. Sparks, Ja'red, 897. Spar'ta, 77, 87, 89, 92, 94, 95. 96, 97, 99, 101, 102, 105, 107, 108, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 119, 120, 121, 125, 142, 143, 183. Spar'ta-eus, 196. Speke, Joftn Han'ning, 742. Spen'cer, Her'bert, 655. Spey'er, 282, 300, 412. Sphac-te'ri-a, 112. Spicft-er'er Heights, Battle of, 727. Spi'el'ha-zen Frte'dricft, 739. Spi-no'za, Ben'e-diet, 739. Spit'tler, 540. Spo-le'ti-um, 173. Spotts'wood, Al-ex-au'der, 806. Stad'e-co-ne, 790. Stael, Madame de, 595, 655. Stam'bu-loff, 782. Stamp Act, 835. Standard Oil Trust, 934. Stand'ish, Captain Miles, 814. Stan-is-la'jfs, Les-czin'ski (lesh-chin'), 518, 524. Stau-fs-la'-us, Po-ni-a-tow'ski (-toV), 591, 654. Stan'ley, Hen'ry Mor'ton, 742, 941. Stan'ton, Ed'wiu Mc-Mas'ters, 907, 922, 925. Staps, 610. Star Chamber, 482. Stark, Joftn, 830, 816. Starn'berg, Lake, 749. Star of the West, 907. Stau'pitz (stow'), 406. Sted'ni-ger, 319. Sted'man, Ed'mund Clar'ence, 939. Steen, Jan (yan), 781, 782. Stein, Baron, 610, 612, 619. Stein'metz, 727. Sten'bock, Genera], 520. Ste'phen (-ven), of Blois (blwa), 630. Ste'phen (-ven) III., Pope, 275. Ste'phens (venz), 687. Ste'phens (-venz), Al-ex-an'der Ham'z'l- ton, 922. Ste'phen-son (-ven-) George. 888. Ste'phen (-ven), the Saint, 292, 381, 382. Steppes, 74, 552. Stet-tin', 477, 516, 716. Steu'ben, Fred'er-ick Wil'liam (yam), 847. Ste'vens. A'bel. 940. Stew'art (stu'), Al-ex-ah'der Tur'ney, 927. Stey'er-mark, 333, 466. Stil'i-cfto, 198, 251, 252: Still'wa-ter (waw-), 846. " Sto'a, 110, 145. Stock'holm, 436, 437. 604. Stod'aard, Kich'ard Hen'ry, 939. Sto'ics, 145, 230. Stul'bei'g, Fn'ed'ricft Le'0-pold, 540. Sto'lo, Li-cinl-us, 164. Stone, of Mar'y-land (mer'!, S07. Stone River, Battle of, 910- Sto'ny Point, 847, 848. Storms, Cape of, 396. StOugh'ton, Wil'liam (yam), 821. Stowe, Hai"ri-et Beech'er, 939. ■ Stra'bo, 212. Stra-chan', Joftn, 943, 944. Strafford (-urd), Tftom'as Went' worth (-WUTth), 481, 482. Stral'sund (-soont), 470. 516, 522, 604,610. Stras'bflrg, 248, 282, 424, 426, 502, 505, 512, 730, 737, 744, 756. Strauss (straws) Da'vid Frze'dricft, 739. Strel'itz, 385. String'ftam, Si'las Hor'ton, 914. Strii'en-see Jo'hanu (yo'), Frte'dricft, 547, 548. Strii've of Ba'den, 676. Stry'mon, 107 Stu'arts. 362, 364, 435, 479, 492, 494, 516. Stu're, Sten, 380, 437. Stu're, Sten, the Younger, 380. 381. Stutt'giirt (stoof), 65S, 670. 679. Stwy've-sant, Pe'ter, 797, 799. Sub-treasury, 886. Sfi-chef', Loii is' Ga'bri-el, 608. Sii'dra, 33, Sue, .Eu'gene, 656. Sue'vi (swe'), 212, 216, 251, 252. Sii-ez' Canal. 695, 773. Sii-lei'man Pa'sha', 767. Sul'Zy, Due de, 456, 791, Sul-pi5'i-us, 192. Siilt'ner, Ber'tha von, 739 Sii-ma'tra, 754. Su-nier'i-an, 37. Sum'ner, Charles, 904, 927. Sum'ter, Fort, 907. Sum'ter, Tftom'as, 848. Sun'da Islands, 398. Sunday, 246, 573, 595. Su'ni-um, 102. Sun'tal, 280.. Su-pe'ri-or (-er), Lake, 890. Sii'sa, 73,74, 100, 101, 106, 134, 140, 334. Sii-san'na, 41. Sii-wa'roff (-va'), Count, 552, 554, 586. Swa'bi-a, 284, 296, 344, 350, 412, 421, 426, 599. Swan-tow'it, 265. Swe'den,379, 380, 381, 436, 437,471,473, 474, 477, 478, 479, 499, 502, 522, 592, 598, 604, 622, 657, 754, 781, 959. Swenek-feld'ers, 826. . Swet/n, the Lucky, 286. Swiss Confederation, 781. Swiss Guards, 566. Swiss League, 339, 344, 350. Swit'zer-laiid, 199, 339. 351, 356. 378, 414, 415, 416, 427, 428, 450, 452, 477, 584, 585, 586, 594, 597, 601, 670, 671, 709, 725, 760, 780, 781. Sword, Order of the, 385, 426: . Sy-a'gri-us, 258. Syd'en-ftam, Lord, 946. SylTa, Cor-ne'li-us, 189, 190, 191, 192, 194, 195,198. . Sym'ma-cftus, 258. Synod, Holy, 524. .' Synod of Doit, 448. Sy'phax, 178. Syr'a-cuse,-88, 113, 166,. 167, 174, 178. 324. Syr'i-a, 28, 38,42,47.48,70.141,142,143, 144, 197, 199, 213, 268, 302, 318, 386, 389, 390, 588. Ale, care, am, ayrn; final; eve, obey, end, her, recent; ice, ill, pique; old, orb, odd, move; ALPHABETICAL AND PRONOUNCING INDEX. 1027 Sys-sit'i-a, 94. Sz'i'getA, 392. Tna'fe, Count, 779. Tac'i-tus Ca'ius (-yfis) Cor-ne'li-us, 214, 216, 219, 226, 227, 238. Ta-gi'na, 264. Ta-la-ve' ra. Battle of, 608. Tal'bot (tawl'), Tftom'as, 943. Tal'ley-rand, Prince, 563, 566, 597, 619, 624, 630. Tal-li-en' (-an'). 578. Tam-ei'-lane', 389. Tam'ma-ny Hall, 931. Tan'a-gra. TaN'cred, 304, 324. Tank 'mar, 290. Tan'nen-bgrg, Battle ot, 3S4. Tar'a-ko, 39. Ta-ren'Mnes, 166. Ta-ren'tum, 88, 166, 167, 176, 292. Ta'rik, 270. Tarle'ton, General. 849. Tar-pe'ian (-yau) Rook, 161. Tar-quin'i-i, 148. Tsir-quin'i-us, A'runs, 159. Tar-quln'i-us, Col-la-tl'niis, 157, 158. Tar-quin'i-us, Pris'cus, 156. Tar-quin'i-us, Su-per'bus, 156, 157, 158, 159. Tar'slrish, 51. Tar'tars (-ters), 386. Tar'ta-riis, 78, 80. Tar'siis, 248. Tas'so, 377, 462. Tau'ler (tow'-), Jo'hann (yo')i 334. Tau'rus (taw'-), 180, 549. Ta-yg'e-tus, 77, 93. Taj/'Ior, Zac/i'ii-ry, 876, 878, 903, 904. Te-cum se/i, 866,878. Te'ge-a, 77. Teg-ner' E-sai'as (-za'),657. Te-hua-can' (-wa-), 951. Te-huan-te-pec' (-wan-) Isthmus ot, 950. Te-ja'da (-ha'), Ser'dO de, 952. Te'jas, 264. Tel'a-mon, 171. Tel-el-KS'bir, 775. Tel'e-ma-e/ius, 83, 507. Tem'pe, 75. Tem'plar (-pler),° Knights, 318, 340, 341. Tein'ple, Order of the. 318. Ten'iers (-yerz) Da'vid, 464. Ten-nes-see', 854, 896, 908, 909, 919, 925, 937, 939. Ten-nes-see' River, 909. Ten-nes-see' (vessel), 916. Ten'ny-son, Al'fred, 654. Ter'ence, 184. Ter'ra Fir'ma (fer'), 957. Ter'ry, Al-fred, Howe, 916. Ter-tul'fi-an, 247. Tesch'en, Peace of, 537. Tes'la, 941. Tet'zel (-sel), Jo'liann (y ■ ■ .*