o ^* " C. ^ ^^ ♦y.T^i?!^- -^ 0° ..• -- *- \ *^.>* .'i$!»". \/ /jfe'-, v^'* .*»te\ \/ ^^ V o^ ♦vTTi* A o • » c> ♦'TVi* A o - . ^ •^ " ' .4>' . u / • '''^. "' * r.^'' . o • . . "^ ' * * ' '^'^ .0^ ♦' o • ^9*^ 4^'w' 3 V /;.-:^';\ o • * o, ^'TVT^ A •.c«;5^X^»k'- o .^- ♦ *. >An< .'«5^iia'- ^o^ 'V^O' : ^^-n^. - 4 o ^^c:^' ^^, • 'J^ i!^ q.. --M* ^0 j3 ^ 0^ \ ^. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR John Barton Payne, Secretary ■rf United States Geological Survey George Otis Smith, Director Water-SuppIy Paper 466 GROUND WATER IN THE SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONNECTICUT ;^'j BT HAROLD S. PALMER »' Prepared in cooperation with the CONNECTICUT GEOLOGICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY Herbert E. Gregory, Superintendent » • WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1921 "ii LIBRARY OF CONGRESS MAY 7 M ftp 1 ►■ ► CONTENTS. Page. Introduction 7 The problem 7 History of the investigation 8 Reliability of data 8 Geography 10 Topography 10 General features 10 The highland 11 The lowland 11 Climate 12 Surface waters 15 Woodlands 17 Population and industries 18 Geologic history 20 Water-bearing formations 23 Glacial drift 24 Till 24 Stratified drift 26 Criteria for differentiation of till and stratified drift 28 Occurrence and circulation of ground water 28 Triassic sedimentary rocks 30 Distribution 30 Lithology and stratigraphy 30 Occurrence of ground water 32 Water in pores 32 Water in bedding planes 32 Water in joints 32 Water in fault zones. 33 Triassic trap rocks 33 Distribution 33 Lithology 33 Occurrence of ground water 34 Crystalline rocks 34 Distribution 34 Lithology 35 Schists 35 Gneisses of igneous origin 35 Gneisses of complex origin 35 Occurrence and circulation of ground water 36 Water in lamellar spaces 36 Water in joints and along faults 36 Artesian conditions 36 3 4 CONTENTS. Page. Springs 38 Seepage springs 38 Stratum springs 38 Fault and joint springs 39 Relation of springs to wells 39 Recovery of ground water 39 Dug wells 39 Construction 39 Lifting devices 40 Bailing devices 41 Pumps 41 Siphon and gravity rigs 43 Rams 44 Windmills and air-pressure tanks 46^ Pumping tests on dug wells 46 Infiltration galleries 50 Driven wells 51 Drilled wells 52 Springs 54 Ground water for pul^lic supply 55 Quality of ground water 58 Analyses and assays 58 Constituents determined by analysis 59 Values computed 59 Accuracy of analyses and assays 61 Chemical character of water 61 Interpretation of analyses and assays 61 Water for Ijoiler use 61 Water for domestic use 63 Contamination 64 Tal)ulations 64 Temperature of ground water 65 Detailed descriptions of towns 66 Avon 66 Barkhamsted 73 Bristol 81 Burlington 95 Canton 102 Cheshire 110 Farmington 118 Granhy 129 Hartland 136 Ilarwinton 142 New Britain 149 New Hartford 159 Plainville 166 Plymouth 177 Prospect 185 Simsbury 191 Southington 199 Wolcott 207 Index 215 ILLUSTRATIONS. ► Page- Plate I. Map of Connecticut showing physiographic divisions and areas cov- ered by water-supply papers of the United States Geological Sur- vey 8 II. Geologic map of the Southington-Granby area, Conn In pocket. III. Topographic map of the Southington-Granby area, Conn., showing distribution of woodlands and locations of wells and springs cited In pocket. IV. A, View looking northwest from northeastern part of Harwinton, showing dissected plateau and, in the distance, a scarp of the higher plateau; B, Stratified drift in Pequabuck Valley, 1^ miles east of Terryville station 22 V. A, Faulted and folded stratified drift in the fill of Pequabuck Valley; B, Kettle hole at Burlington Center 84 VI. yl, Yellow pine {Pinus rigida) near Farmington station; 5, White pine {Pinus strohus) near Granby station 120 VII. ^4, The Windrow, an esker near East Hartland; B, Perched glacial boulder of pegmatite resting on a ledge of schist, near East Hart- land 138 Figure 1. Mean monthly precipitation at Canton 12 2. Mean monthly precipitation at Southington 12 3. Mean monthly precipitation at West Simsbury 13 4. Mean monthly precipitation at Shuttle Meadow, New Britain 13 5. Mean annual precipitation at Canton, Southington, West Simsbury, Shuttle Meadow, and Greenwood Pond 14 6. Mean monthly precipitation at Greenwood Pond, New Hartford, and New Britain : 14 7. Map showing the density of population in the Southington-Granby area in 1910 18 8. Map showing the density. of population in the Southington-Granby area in 1850 18 9. Diagram showing the usual relation of the water table to hills and valleys 30 10. Diagram showing the relation of the water table on hills to the water table in valleys in glaciated regions 30 11 . Columnar section of the Triassic formations of Connecticut 31 12. Diagram showing conditions under which artesian waters may exist in the sandstone and shale of Connecticut 37 13. Diagram showing two types of installation of " house pumps " 42 14. Diagram showing siphon well and domestic waterworks 45 15. Diagram showing recovery of E. L. Upson's well, Southington, after pumping, and relation of inflow to drawdown 48 16. Diagram showing recovery of H. W. Cleveland's well, Plymouth, after pumping 50 17. Diagrams showing two types of air lift 52 18. Section across Avon 67 5 6 ILLUSTRATIONS. l*age Figure 19. Profile through Barkhamsted 75 20. Map of Foreetville 86 21. Relations at well No. 29, Burlington 99 22. Section across Canton and into Simsbury 104 23. Profile of Ilartland 137 24. Diagrammatic profile of Ilartland Hollow 138 25. Section across New Britain 150 2G. Diagram showing probable relation of the flowing well of the Traut & I line Manufacturing Co., New Britain, to the trap sheet 152 27. Profile of water table from Pequabuck River southward through Plainville to Quinnipiac River 170 28. Map of Plainville 176 29. Section through Meriden West Peak 200 30. Section across Southington 201 GROUND WATER IN THE SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONNECTICUT. , By Harold S. Palmier. INTRODUCTION. THE PROBLEM. The census of 1910 reported the population of Connecticut as 1,114,756. The area of the State is 5,004 square miles. The average density of population is therefore about 220 per square mile, but the distribution of population is very uneven. More than 53 per cent of the inhabitants are gathered into 19 cities, each containing over 10,000. The cities are rapidly increasing in population, but parts of the State — about 24 per cent of the towns — are more sparsely settled to-day than in 1860. In a broad sense, the people of Con- necticut are engaged in two occupations — manufacturing and mixed agriculture. Manufactiu-ing is increasing at a rapid rate; agricul- ture at a slower rate, but with a distinct tendency toward speciali- zation. There is in addition a tendency to utilize the scenery of the State — a tendency resulting in the development of country estates and shore homes. As the stage of culture in a region rises it is necessary progressively to improve and increase the water supplies. Wild tribes are satis- fied with the waters of springs and streams. Pastoral peoples need somewhat more water. Agricultural regions must have water at those points where it may be conveniently used; weUs are made, springs are improved, and surface waters diverted to provide water at the points of utilization. In some arid regions extensive projects are constructed to supply irrigation water, as weU as to supply water for domestic purposes and for watering stock. Industrial and mer- cantile communities, inasmuch as they are characterized by con- centration of population in cities, demand a great deal of water, not only for human consumption but also for innumerable technical purposes. With an annual precipitation of 45 inches, Connecticut has in the aggregate large supplies of both surface and ground water, but the precipitation is sometimes deficient through periods of several weeks or months. Consequently farmers must endure periods of drought, 7 8 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. manufacturers must provide against fluctuating water power, and the inhabitants of congested districts must arrange for adequate public supplies. With increase in population and diversification of interests conflicts between water-power usei*s and domestic consumers, as well as between towns, for the right to make use of a particular stream or area have already arisen. Demands are also being made by prospective users of the waters for irrigation and drainage. The question of quality of water also takes on new meaning with the effort to improve the healthfulness of the State and to reclaim the waters now polluted by factory waste and sewage. The necessity for obtaining small but unfailing supplies of potable water for the farm and for the village home furnishes an additional problem, for the condition of many private supplies in Comiecticut is deplorable. To meet the present situation and to provide for the future. State- wide regulations should be adopted. Obviously the first step in the solution of the Connecticut water problem is to make a comprehen- sive study of both surface and gromid waters to obtain answers to the following questions : How much water is stored in the gravels and sands and bedrock of the State ? How much does the amoimt fluc- tuate with the seasons? What is the quality of the water? How may it best be recovered in large amounts? In small amoimts? What is the expense of procuring it? How much water may the streams of the State be relied upon to furnish? How much is the stream water polluted ? How may the pollution be remedied ? To what use should each stream be devoted ? What is the equitable distribution of ground and surface watei's among the conflicting claimants — industries and communities ? HISTORY OF THE INVESTIGATION. The study of the water resources of Connecticut was begun in 1903 by Herbert E. Gregory, under the auspices of the United States Geological Survey. A prehminary report was issued in 1904.^ A discussion of the fundamental problems relating to the State as a whole, published in 1909,^ meets in a broad way the requirements of the scientist and the engineer, but it is not designed to furnish a solution for local problems and is not sufficiently detailed to furnish data for use in a quantitative study of ultimate supply and its utili- zation. It was recognized that conditions in the State are so varied that each section of the State has its individual problem, and that in order to obtain data of direct practical value the conditions in each town and, where feasible, around each farm and each village should be investigated. ' Gregory, H. K., Notes on the wells, springs, and general water resources of Connecticut: U. S. Oeol. Survey Water-Supply rai>er 102, pp. 127-168, 1904. « Orogory, U. K., and Kllis, E. E., Underground-water resources of Connecticut: U. S. Oeol. Survey Water-Supply Taper 232, 190W. WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 466 PLATE I U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 466 PLATE I M o \ M IAl for D'^P^___-,J-- ,w"nc L I >T C/ H F/ I\/E jl^ D E i\ 'WASHll^GTON , iBETHLEHE: N sethel\CO ifl^ >ej4S/r £ Q I fj G \ L_\_-/huntington kEASTON \tRI>MBULLX' oX vk ■ A. S^ S A C H ARTljANP ,' ; 4- / a- 6T^i ,'- U S E T ! T S '~v~^ \ _--\ 5^ CJLCHESTER v^ j / V BOZRAH J E(iST HADOAM 1/ ^ MONTVILLE j iv^ p ':3 A M I i < O o Pi '^^^"■ 5 ^ ^ i\^ 2) EXPLANATION MAP or CONNECTICUT SHOWINajVtAIN PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS AND AREAS TREATED IN THE PRESENT AND OTHER DETAILED WATER- SUFPITf PAPERS OF THE U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY INTRODUCTION. 9 Realizing the importance of such studies to Connecticut, the State joined forces with the Federal Government in order to carry on this work. In 1911 a cooperative agreement was entered into by the United States Geological Survey and the Connecticut Geological and Natural History Survey for the purpose of obtaining information concerning the quantity and quality of waters available for municipal and private uses. The investigation was placed in charge of Mr. Gregory and was to be conducted through a period of two or more years, the cost to be shared equally by the parties to the agreement. The work has consisted in gathering information concerning muni- cipal water supplies; measuring the dug wells used in rural districts and obtaining other data in regard to them ; obtaining data concern- ing drilled wells, driven wells, and springs; collecting and analyzing samples of water from wells, springs, and brooks; studying the charac- ter and relations of bedrock and of surficial deposits with reference to their influence upon the ground-water supply. A. J. Ellis spent the field seasons of 1911, 1912, and 1913 on this work under the cooperative agreement. A report has been published on 13 towns around Waterbury,^ and another on 10 towns around Hartford, 4 around Saybrook, 3 around Salisbury, and on Stamford, Greenwich, Windham, and Franklin.* Parts of the summer and fall of 1914 and 1915 were spent by the writer in field work on the towns discussed in this report. Six weeks in April and May, 1915, were spent by G. A. Waring in the towns in the vicinity of Meriden and Middletown, and the results of his work have been published.*^ A report on four towns in the Pomperaug Valley is in preparation. The index map (PL I) shows the areas covered by the several reports. The area with which the present report is concerned comprises parts of two of the physiographic provinces of Connecticut. Avon, Cheshire, Farmington, New Britain, Plainville, Simsbury, and Southington are in the central lowland. Barkhamsted, Burlington, Canton, Hartland, Harwinton, New Hartford, Plymouth, Prospect, and Wolcott are in the western highland. Bristol and Granby are about evenly divided between the lowland and the highland. RELIABILITY OF DATA. The principal well data are given in tables appended to the reports on the several towns. The depth of the dug wells and the depth of the water in them were determined by measurement. The informa- tion presented as to depth to rock, the consumption of water, and the 3 Ellis, A. J., Ground water in the Waterbury area, Conn.: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 397, 1916. * Ellis, A, J., Ground water in the Hartford, Stamford, Salisbury, Willimantic, and Saybrook areas. Conn.: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 374, 1916. i H ■» & u 2 Figure 4.— Mean monthly precipitation at Shuttle Meadow, New Britain. The following tables are summaries of longer tables and show the average, maximum, and minimum monthly precipitation at five points in the Southington-Granby area. The tables for Canton, Southington, and West Simsbury represent longer periods than the other tables and are therefore probably more accurate. Figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 show graphically the precipitation and its distribu- tion through the seasons. 14 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. Summary of precipitation, in inches, at Canton, Conn., 1862-19 15. ^^ Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year. Maximum 7.10 .81 3.85 9.11 .49 3.84 9.57 .19 4.12 12.30 .68 3.58 18.00 .51 4.15 12.36 .20 4.09 16.96 1.36 4.64 16.45 .73 4.82 11.25 .29 4.06 14.70 .62 9.28 .70 9.07 .64 3.90 75.16 Minimum 38.90 Average 4. 68 4. 18 49.93 n Data collected by G. J. Case. Figures for 1S62-1913 from Sixtieth Annual Report of the Board of Water Commissioners of Hartford. Figures for 1914 and 1915 furnished by Mr. Case. 60 40 (Q y I SO z 20 10 CO 0) y Z « ■5 •-5 f c > i .1 1 c 1 i i. ; i z 1 1 i ^ 1 Figure 5.— Mean annual precipitation at Canton, Figttre 6.— Mean monthly precipitation at Green- Southington, West Simsbury, Shuttle Meadow, wood Pond, New Hartford and Barkhamsted. and Greenwood Pond. Summary of precipitation, in inches, at Southington, Conn., 1870-1913. "■ Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year. Mj^TOmnTn 10.81 1.47 3.83 7.70 .90 3.90 8.45 .87 4.34 9.65 .85 3.20 7.00 .03 3.40 12.10 .45 3.06 19.90 1.15 4.23 9.55 .40 4.54 11.90 .38 3.50 ia30 .55 3.66 7.68 .65 3.57 9.80 1.05 3.82 63.54 Minimum 30.02 Average 45.05 o Goodnough, X. H., Rainfall in New England: New England Waterworks Assoc. Jour., Sept., 1915. Summmy of precipitation, in inches, at West Simsbury, Conn., 1890-1912. f^ Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year. Ma"X"imiiTn 6.70 1.41 3.66 9.06 .52 3 83 6.76 .64 4.W 11.10 .66 3.37 7.15 .73 3.65 9.79 .51 3.24 16.21 1.17 4.37 7.38 .75 4.24 9.83 1.17 4.03 6.49 .90 3.90 &48 .61 3.35 8.06 1.28 3.89 59.53 Minimum 35.71 Average .. 45.57 a Goodnough, X. H., op. cit. GEOGRAPHY. 15 Summary of precipitation, in inches, at Shuttle Meadow, New Britain, Conn., 1899-1902, 1904-1906, and 1908-1913 a Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Year. Maximum 4.89 .46 2.80 8.03 .00 2.72 7.06 .58 4.79 9.36 1.61 4.53 7.72 .02 3.92 6.05 .22 2.94 7.24 1.45 3.52 6.41 .50 3.85 7.48 .59 3.70 9.17 .20 3.97 5.63 10.03 Minimum . 26 1. 35 2. 83 3. 85 Average 43.42 a Compiled from annual reports of the Board of Water Commissioners of New Britain. Summary of precipitation, in inches, at Greenwood Pond, New Hartford, Conn. ,19 10-19 15 .(^ Jan. Number of years in record Ma:dmum Minimum Average 3 2. 51 1.12 2.06 Feb. 4 4.44 1.68 2.87 Mar. 4 6.16 1.31 3.34 Apr. 5 4.67 2.27 3.42 May. 5 4.73 1.76 2.99 June, 5 3.26 .53 2.40 July. 5 7.01 2.30 4.01 Aug. 6 8.20 2.42 4.72 Sept. 6 5.98 .08 3.56 Oct. 6 8.94 .84 4.83 Nov. 5 4.34 1.04 3.29 Dec. 4 4.12 2.42 2.96 Year. 40.45 o Discontinuous record furnished by Mr. Aaron Watson. SURFACE WATERS. The Southington-Granby area comprises parts of ^ve drainage basins. About half of Cheshire and a little of Prospect are drained by Mill River, which enters Long Island Sound at New Haven. Parts of Prospect, Wolcott, Plymouth, Harwinton, and New Hartford are drained by small streams tributary to Naugatuck River. New Britain is in large part drained to the Connecticut. A little of western New Britain is drained by Quinnipiac River, which flows through a gap (Cooks Gap) in the long lava ridge and then turns south to enter Long Island Sound at New Haven. Many small streams in Bristol, Wolcott, and Cheshire and all of those in South- ington are tributary to the Quinnipiac. Farmington River flows through this area and joins the Connecticut above Hartford, and the streams draining the rest of the area are tributary to it. The divide between the Farmington and Naugatuck basins is very sinuous, but for most of its length it is much nearer to Naugatuck River than to Farmington River. As in all other glaciated regions lakes and ponds are abundant in the Southington-Granby area. Some of the swamps in the area are former water bodies that have been filled with sediment. When water faUs as rain or snow a part evaporates, another part enters the ground, and a third part flows off directly into streams. Some of the ground water is lost by evaporation and by transpiration from trees and other plants. The ratio of run-off to rainfall is highly variable, as it depends on many factors, such as the rate of precipita- tion, its distribution throughout the year, the character and thickness of the soil, the steepness of slopes, the abimdance of vegetable cov- ering, the amount of frost in the soil, and the character and structure of the rocks. 16 GKOUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRAN^BY AREA, CONN. The following tables give some idea of the run-off in two basins in Connecticut : Monthly run-off of Pomperaug River at Bennetts Bridge and precipitation in Pomperaug ' drainage hasin.f^ [Area of basin 89.3 square miles.] Month. 1913. August September October November December 1914. January February March '. April May June July August September October November December 1915. January February March April May June July August September October, 1913, to September, 1914 Precipi- tation (inches). 3.19 3.53 9.66 3.05 2.72 2.15 2.14 5.63 4.35 3.19 2.83 5.91 3.66 .36 3.31 3.37 2.82 6.21 5.70 .15 1.59 3.37 2.01 6.31 8.09 2.94 45.65 Run-off. Depth in inches on drainage basin. 0.25 .35 2.57 2.73 2.24 1.33 .58 4.32 ,50 1.61 1.60 1.21 .45 .78 1.79 .92 38.95 Per cent of precip- itation. 6.8 9.9 26.6 89.5 81.7 61.8 27.1 76.6 67.5 73.6 22.3 11.8 12.3 55.6 14.8 1,070 100.6 35.9 22.4 12.4 22.1 31.3 85.4 a Data obtained from unpublished report by A. J. Ellis, XT. S. Geol. Survey. Precipitation and run-off in Housatonic River basin above Gaylordsville, Conn., 1901-1903, 1906-1909 a [Area of basin 1,020 square miles.] Precipi- tation (inches). Run-ofl. Year. Depth in inches on drainage basin. Per cent of precip- itation. 1901 56.94 61.43 56.85 46.31 55.80 40.26 44.75 29.65 38.62 39.65 22.17 29.47 19.67 19.85 52.1 1902 62.9 1903 69.8 1906 47.9 1907 52.9 1908 48.8 1909 44.4 o Compiled from Gregory, H. E., and Ellis, E. E., Undergroimd- water resources of Connecticut: U, S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 232, p. 29, 1909, and from Surface-water supply of the United States, 1907-8 and 1909: U. S. GTeol. Survey Water-Supply Papers 241 and 261. GEOGKAPHY. 17 The Tenth Census report on water power gives figures taken from various sources concerning the ratio of run-off to precipitation in a number of drainage basins. The data for four of these basins in the northeastern United States are siunmarized in the following table: Precipitation and run-off in northeastern United States. River basin. Area of basin (square miles). Length of record (years). Annual precipi- tation (inches). Run-off (per cent of precipita- tion). Mean. Maxi- mum. Mini- mum. Connecticut above Hartford 10,234 78 20.37 339 7 5 4+ 13 42.7 46.1 50 49.79 62.8 47.6 62.9 56.5 72.2 57.9 51.8 Sudbury 32.7 West Branch of Croton Croton The difference between the run-off of the basin of West Branch of Croton River and that of the whole Croton drainage basin is due to the fact that the former is a steep, rocky, thin-soiled, and relatively untilled region, whereas the latter is flatter and more cultivated and therefore absorbs more of the rain. WOODLANDS. About 35 per cent of the area of the lowland towns of the South- ington-Granby area is wooded, but in the highland about 65 per cent is wooded. The greater facility of transportation in the lowland, together with the nearness of markets and the more readily tillable nature of the soils, has stimulated the clearing away of the forests. At present the forests of the lowland are for the most part represented by small woodlots. On the plains there are some extensive stands of white and yellow pine with small admixtures of deciduous trees, and the trap ridges are in large part covered with deciduous forests. In the highland there are relatively few evergreen trees but numerous chestnuts, oaks, hickories, elms, maples, beeches, birches, and other hardwoods. A great amount of cordwood and native lumber is pro- duced. The manner of cutting wood has heretofore been very waste- ful, and few attempts at reforestation have been made. Cut-over lands have been allowed to grow up with sprout and staddle, and the woodlands have in consequence deteriorated steadily. In the last decade, however, there has been some systematic planting of trees, and the cutting has been a little less ruthless. The wood crop would be a very profitable one were the industry prosecuted in a proper manner, as the soil is in general very good, and if given a chance will mature most kinds of trees sufficiently for the market in 20 to 30 years. 187118°— 21— wsp 466 2 18 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. 0-25 25-50 POPULATION AND INDUSTRIES. The Southington-Granby area comprises 1 8 towns which belong in three counties. The towns are Avon, Bristol, Burlington, Canton, INHABITANTS PER SQUARE Famiington, Granbv, Hart- MILE, 1910 ° ' . . -r-»i • land, New Britain, Flain- ville, Simsbury, and South- ington, in Hartford County; Barkhamsted, Harwinton, New Hartford, and Plym- outh, in Litchfield Coxmty; and Cheshire, Prospect, and Wolcott, in New Haven County. The distribution of popu- lation and the occupation of the people in this area depend in large part on the physiographic features of the area. The bulk of the 50-100 Pv^?^ 100-500 ^ 500-1,000 ^ ^ Over 1,000 INHABITANTS PER SQUARE MILE, 1850 25-50 100-500 FiGUBE 7. — Map showing density of popu- lation in the Southington-Granby area in 1910. population, as indicated on the population-density map (^g. 7), is concentrated in the six adjacent lowland towns — New Britain, Bris- tol, Southington, Plym- outh, Farmington, and Plainville. The total popu- lation of these towns was 75,315 in 1910, or 81 per cent of the population of the whole area. The area is 139 square miles, or 28 per cent of the total area. Thus 81 per cent of the people dwell in only 28 per cent of the area. The density of the population in these towns is about 540 inhabitants to the square Figure 8.- -Map showing density of population in the South- ington-Granby area in 1850. ^ GEOGRAPHY. 19 mile. The population is next greatest in those highland towns which are cut by valleys that provide not only power sites but also avenues of communication. The six typical highland towns of the area — Barkhamsted, Hartland, Harwinton, Burlington, Prospect, and Wolcott — are sparsely populated. Although they comprise 171 square miles, or 32 per cent of the total area, they have only 5,270 inhabitants, or 6 per cent of the total population. The population density is 31 to the square mile. The heavier shading on the map brings out the concentration of the population along the lowland and particularly in the region of the east-west hne of the Highland division of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad. A comparison of this map with the map show- ing the population density in 1850 (fig. 8) wiU show the extent and character of the movements of population in the 60 years between 1850 and 1910. In 1850 there were no towns with less than 25 in- habitants to the square mile; in 1910 there were two. In 1850 there were only two towns with over 100 to the square mile; in 1910 there were six. In 1850 only one town had as many as 223 inhabitants to the square mile; in 1910 there were four. The following table gives statistics concerning the eighteen towns considered in this report: Statistics of towns in Southington-Granhy area. Town. Area (square miles) .o Population, b 1900 1910 Gain (per cent). Inhabit- ants per square mile, 1910. Avon Barkhamsted. Bristol Burlington... Canton Cheshire Farmington.. Granby Hartland Harwinton... New Britain.. New Hartford Plain ville Plymouth Prospect Simsbury Southington.. Wolcott 22.7 38.9 26.8 31.1 29.5 31.9 28.7 41.3 33.7 30.8 13.6 37.4 9.6 22.3 15.0 30.6 38.2 21.1 1,302 864 9,643 1,218 2,768 1,989 '3,331 1,299 592 1,213 28,202 3,424 2,189 2,828 562 2,094 5,890 581 1,333 865 13,502 1,319 2,732 1,988 3,478 1,383 544 1,440 43,916 2,144 2,882 5,021 539 2,537 6,516 563 3 40 8 2 3 6 c8 19 56 c37 3.2 77 c4 21 11 c3 59 22 504 42 93 62 121 33 16 47 3,230 ■ 57 300 223 36 83 170 27 503.2 69,899 92,702 32.6 184 a Areas measured with planimeter on topographic sheets. 6 Population figures from Connecticut Register and Manual, 1915. c Loss. * The broad, roUing plains of the Farmington and Quinnipiac valleys early attracted settlers by reason of their easily tillable and fairly fertile soils. The vaUey gave a ready line of commxmication with the sea. At first there were only rough trails and bridle paths, but soon good roads were built over which much freight was hauled. In 20 GKOUJSTD WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. the early part of the nineteenth century a canal was built through the valley from New Haven to Northampton. The canal was operated from 1827 to 1848/ when it was replaced by a railroad. During the period of canal transportation the villages in the steep valleys of the highland, especially those near the debouchures of streams on the lowland, where there were sites suitable for the development of water power, became of some importance. The towns which were more re- mote from the canal and in which power sites were few fell behind in many respects and even decreased in population. The construction of railroads accentuated the differences that were first developed by the canal. The Northampton Railroad, which follows the old canal, was put into operation in 1848. In 1849 the Highland division through New Britain, Plainville, Bristol, and Plymouth was built, and in 1850 the New Hartford branch of the Northampton road was opened. Then there was a lull in railroad building till 1871, when the Central New England Railway went through Simsbury, Canton, and New Hartford. The Meriden-Waterbury Railroad, which runs through Cheshire, was built a few years later. There are now many factories in the Southington-Granby area and they afford subsistence to most of the population. Agriculture is a subordinate occupation. A few special crops of considerable value are raised — tobacco in Simsbury, Granby, and Avon; orchard fruits in Cheshire, Southington, and Farmington ; and dairy products, garden truck, cordwood, and native lumber in most of the towns. GEOLOGIC HISTORY. Very little is known of the early geologic history of Connecticut, for the old j:'ocks have suffered so many changes that the evidence given by them is almost impossible to interpret. It is certain that in pre- Cambrian and early Paleozoic time sediments were deposited. The first deposits were sand, mud, and clay, which became consolidated to form sandstone and shale, but later, in Ordovician time, some limestone was deposited. No fossils have been found in these rocks, but their age has been roughly determined by studying the relative positions of the formations and by tracing them into regions where more evidence is to be had. From the end of the Ordovician period to the Triassic period no sediments were formed, or if any were formed they have since been completely removed. During this interval there were several great mountain-building disturbances, characterized by compression of the earth's crust in an east-west direction, and the intrusion of vast quan- tities of igneous rock. To the compression is due the change of the old shales and sandstones to the schists and gneisses of the highland. ' Brandegee, A. L., and Smith, E. A., Farmington, Conn., pp. 132 et seq. GEOLOGIC HISTORY. 21 The igneous rocks, in large part, were also crushed and converted to gneisses. During Triassic time the mountains were deeply eroded, and much of th^ debris was deposited in a troughlike valley in central Connecti- cut. The sediments are for the most part red shales, sandstones, and conglomerates, but there are some dark bituminous shales and green and gray limy shales. In some places in the red rocks foot- prints of reptiles, both large and small, and a few of their bones have been found. The footprints and bones indicate that the rocks are of Triassic age, as do also the remains of fishes found in places in the bituminous shales. The deposition of the Triassic sediments was interrupted three times by the gentle eruption of basaltic lava, which spread out across the wide valley floor and which now forms the trap ridges between the .Farmington and Connecticut valleys. Into the already buried sediments were also intruded other masses of basaltic lava that formed the sills, dikes, and laccoliths characteristic of the western edge of the central lowland. Subsequently, presumably in the Jurassic period, the flat-l^dng sedimentary rocks and their intercalated trap sheets were broken into blocks by a series of faults that cut diagonally across the lowland in a northeasterly direction. Each block was rotated so that its south- east margin was depressed and its northwest margin elevated. There is no sedimentary record of the interval from the Triassic period to the glacial epoch, but the erosion that took place in that interval has left its mark. Duiing Cretaceous time the great block mountains formed by the Jurassic faulting were almost completely worn away. It is believed by Davis ^ and others that during part of the Cretaceous period the sea advanced over Connecticut as far as Hartford, and that the submerged area was covered with marine deposits. No such beds have survived to the present day, and the only evidence of them is indirect. Most of the streams in the region flow about due south, but parts of the more powerful ones — for ex- ample, the lower Connecticut — ^have southeasterly courses. It is possible that when the Cretaceous deposits were raised they were tilted toward the southeast, and the courses of the streams across these beds were similarly deflected. The more vigorous streams were perhaps able to impose their channels on the discordant rock surface below the Cretaceous beds, whereas the smaller streams were turned back to their old channels by elevations of the rock surface. It was noted by Percival ® that the highlands may be regarded ^ ' as extensive plateaus'' which '^ present when viewed from an elevated 8Davis, W. M., The Triassic formation of Connecticut: U, S. Geol. Survey Eighteenth Ann. Kept., pt. 2, p. 165, 1898. 9 Percival, J. G., Report on the geology of Connecticut, p. 477, 1842. 22 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. point of their surface the appearance of a general level, with a rolling or undulating outline, over which the view often extends to a very great distance, interrupted only by isolated summits of ridges, usu- ally of small extent." Rice ^^ h^s described the phenomenon &s fol- lows: ^^If we should imagine a sheet of pasteboard resting upon the highest elevations of Litchfield County and sloping southeastward in an inclined plane, that imaginary sheet of pasteboard would rest on nearly all the summits of both the eastern and western highlands." The rocks of this plateau are the roots of the mountains that stood there in late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic time. They have been worn away and a more or less perfect plain made in their stead. Barrell ^^ has pointed out, however, that the hilltops approximate not an inclined plane but a stairlike succession of nearly horizontal planes, each a few hundred feet lower than the next one to the north. Plate IV, ^, is a reproduction of a photograph taken from the northeastern part of Harwinton looking toward the northwest. The rolling foreground and middle ground are part of the Litchfield ter- race of Barrell, about 1,100 feet above sea level, and at the left in the far distance is the front of what he calls the Goshen terrace, the next higher, about 1,350 feet above sea level. The explanation offered for these features is as follows : The emergence of the land after the late Tertiary submergence was marked by alternate rapid uplifts and long periods of rest in which the land stood at one elevation and was subjected to marine erosion. There are in the Southington-Granby area three terraces, each facing the sea, at elevations of 880 to 920 feet, 1,100 to 1,140 feet, and 1,340 to 1,380 feet above sea level. The lowest has been named the Prospect terrace by Barrell because it is well developed in the town of Prospect. The middle and upper ter- races are named in the same way for the towns of Litchfield and Goshen. In the northern part of Hartland there is a plateau of 3 or 4 square miles that is part of the Goshen terrace. In southern Hart- land, Barkhamsted, Granby, and New Hartford there are similar fragments of the Litchfield terrace. The best preserved of the ter- races is the Prospect terrace, extensive remnants of which exist in Burlington, Harwinton, Plymouth, Bristol, Wolcott, and Prospect. Other terraces, both higher and lower, are found elsewhere in the State. Since the formation of the terraces ajid their exposure to erosion by elevation they have been deeply trenched by streams. Only a small part of their original surface is preserved. Most of the detail of the 10 Rice, W. N., and Gregory, H. E,, Manual of the geology of Connecticut: Connecticut Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 6, p. 20, 1906. " Barrell, Joseph, Piedmont terraces of the northern Appalachians and their origin: Geol. See. America Bull., vol. 24, pp. 688-691, 1913. U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 406 PLATE IV A. VIEW LOOKING NORTHWEST FROM NORTHEASTERN PART OF HARWINTON. Showing dissected plateau and, in the distance, a scarp of a higher plateau. B. STRATIFIED DRIFT IN PEQUABUCK VALLEY, l}^ MILES EAST OF TERRYVILLE STATION. WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 23 topography is due to this erosion, but much of it is due to ice action. During the glacial epoch the continental ice sheet that overrode most of the northern United States covered New England completely. It was of great thickness, and as it moved slowly southward it remod- eled the topography by scraping away the surface accumulation of decayed rock, by breaking off and grinding down projecting ledges of rock, and by redepositing the debris. The major features of the to- pography were left unchanged, but the details were greatly altered. The soil mantle of decayed rock was replaced by unconsolidated man- tle rock of two types — till and stratified drift. The till is of moderate thickness, and its surface is about the same as the general surface of the bedrock below. The stratified drift has several forms of topo- graphic expression — ^flat outwash plains, long esker ridges, and hum- mocky kame areas. DuriQg the Recent epoch — that is to say, since the fijial recession of the ice sheet — there has been no great geologic change. Small amounts of alluvium have been deposited in stream valleys, some swamps have been filled and some lakes changed to swamps by the deposition of sediment, and there has been slight erosion over the whole area, but the changes are in general imperceptible. WATER-BEARINO FORMATIONS. The water-bearing formations of Connecticut may be divided into two classes — bedrock and glacial drift. The bedrocks are the under- lying consolidated, firm rocks, such as schist, granite, trap, and sand- stone, and they are exposed at the surface only in small, scattered outcrops. The glacial drift comprises the unconsolidated, loose ma- terials, such as sand, clay, and till, that form the surface of most of the State and overlie the bedrocks. These materials are by far the more important source of ground-water supply and are of two chief varieties — till, also known as ^'hardpan" or "boulder clay," and stratified drift, also known as "modified drift" or "glacial outwash." On the geologic map (PL II) are shown the areas occupied by till and stratified drift, as well as the outcrops of bedrock. The Triassic sandstone, the trap, and the crystalline rocks are differentiated, but no attempt was made to separate the eight well-recognized varieties of the crystalline rocks found in the Southington-Granby area. The outcrops of bedrock are indicated as small patches, which have roughly the shape of the actual outcrops but most of which are dis- proportionately large because of the small scale of the map. Inas- much as in the field work it was necessary to follow the roads many outcrops in the spaces between the roads may have been unmapped. 24 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. GLACIAL DRIFT. TILL. Till, which is an ice-laid deposit, forms a mantle over the bedrock of much of Connecticut. Its thickness is in general from 10 to 40 feet but in places reaches 60 or 80 feet. The average thickness of the till as penetrated in 64 drilled wells in the Southington-Granby area is 23.7 feet. The till is composed of a- matrix of the pulverized and granulated fragments of the rocks over which the ice sheet passed, and of larger pieces of the same rocks embedded in the matrix. The principal minerals are quartz, clay, feldspar, and mica, but small amounts of their decomposition products and of other minerals are also found. There has been little chemical decompositioji and disintegration of the till, and it has in general a blue-gray color. Near the surface, however, where the iron-bearing constituejits of the matrix have been weathered, the color is yellow or brown. Where the material is in large part derived from the red Triassic rocks the till has a red or red-brown color. ' * The boulders of the till are characterized by their peculiar suban- gular shapes with polished and striated facets. Many of the boulders have facets that are in part concave where spalls have been flaked off as the boulders were pressed together in the ice. The boulders are very abundant and are scattered over the fields and in cut banks. In any bank or field there are likely to be a number of different varieties of rocks. There are many boulders of clear or brown-stained quartz- ite to which the name "hardheads" is often given. Many of these have been transported from localities in Massachusetts, where this variety of rock imderlies considerable areas. They show something of the direction of movement of the ice, as do also the trap-rock boulders. Some of the till is very tough, as is indicated by the popular term "hardpan" often applied to it. The toughness is in part due to its having been thoroughly compacted by the great weight of the ice sheet, and in part to the interlocking of the sharp and angular grains. It seems probable, however, that the more soluble constituents of the matrix have to some extent been dissolved by the ground water circulating through it and have been redeposited in such a way as to cement the particles together. The relative amounts of the different sizes of material are shown in the following table.^^ The material treated by mechanical analysis is the fine earth that remained after the coarse gravel and boulders had been removed. '2 Dorsey, C. W., and Bonsteel, J. A., Soil survey in the Connecticut Valley: U. S. Dept. Agr. Div. Soils Field Operations, 1899, p. 131. WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. Mechanical analyses of stony loams from Connecticut Valley. 25 Diameter (millimeters). 1 2 3 2 12.45 5.26 3.35 11.86 8.66 8.60 13.98 18.83 31.25 14.78 21.00 34.22 17.51 18.83 4.35 8.20 8.70 6.20 8. 67 5.30 6.57 10.23 10.87 1.36 1.04 1.01 2.03 1.69 1.77 Gravel Ck)arsc sand Medium sand... Fine sand Very fine sand.. Silt Fine silt Clay Loss at 110° C... Lossonimition. 2tol 1 to 0.5 0.5 to 0.25 0.25 to 0.1 0.1 to 0.05 0.05 to 0.01.... 0.01 to 0.005... 0.005 to 0.0001. 8.05 3.85 8.22 11.53 29.82 21.26 6.45 12.20 1.54 2.35 1. Triassic stony loam half a mile south of Bloomficld, Conn. 2. Triassic stony loam, Enfield, Conn. 3. Triassic stony loam 1?: miles south of Hazardville, Conn. 4. Holyoke stoiiy loam 2 miles south of Ashleyville, Mass. The first three analyses represent till derived from Triassic sand- stones and shales; the fourth a till derived " from crystalline rocks. The boulders and pebbles mixed Avith the fine earth (the matrix) constitute from 5 to 50 per cent or even more of the total volume. The water-bearing capacity of the till is difficult to estimate for any large area because of its extreme variability. A small sample may be tested by drying it well, then soaking it in water until it is saturated, and finally allowing the excess to drain away. A com- parison of the weight after drying wdth the final weight will show how much water has been absorbed. Gregory ^^ made such an experiment on a typical mass of till collected near New Haven and determined that 1 cubic foot could absorb 3.46 quarts. In other words, the till is able to absorb water to the extent of 11.55 per cent of its total volume. Other samples would undoubtedly show higher and lower results, but this is probably not far from the average. The pores of the till are relatively small, so that water does not soak into it very rapidly. On. the other hand, the pores are very numerous and are able in the aggregate to hold a good deal of water, as is shown above. The fineness of the pores is a disadvantage in that it makes absorption slow, but it is at the same time an advan- tage in that it retards the loss of water by seepage. The till of Connecticut is more porous than that of many other glaciated regions, apparently because the hard, resistant rocks from which it was derived yielded grains of quartz and other siliceous minerals, rather than fine rock flour. This statement probably applies better to the till derived from the crystalline rock and the Triassic sand- stones and conglomerates than to the till derived from the shales and shaly sandstones. At many places there are lenses of water-washed and stratified material within the body of the unsorted and unstratified till. These 13 Gregory, H. E., and Ellis, E. E., Underground-water resources of Connecticut: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-supply Paper 232, p. 139, 1909. 26 GROUND WATER IK SOtrTHlNGTOlsT-GRANBY AREA, CONIS". were presumably deposited by subglacial streams that existed but a short time before they were diverted or cut off by the advance of the ice sheet. These lenses are of considerable value where they happen to be cut by a well, as they in effect increase the area of till that drains into the well and so increase its supply. Well diggers often report that at a certain depth they ''struck a spring. '^ Such reports probably refer to cutting into lenses of this type. The till has no striking topographic expression. The plastering action of the ice sheet by which it was deposited tended to give it a generally smooth surface. In a very few places there are ridges or terrace-shaped bodies of till — lateral moraines, built at the flanks of tongues of ice that protruded beyond the front of the m^ain ice body. In some places the till was heaped up beneath the ice, much as sand bars are built on river bottoms, and now forms gently rounded hills called drumlins. STRATIFIED DRIFT. In contrast with the till, which was formed by direct ice action, s the stratified drift, which is a water-laid deposit. Stratified drift may have originated either v/ithin, on, under, or in front of the ice sheet. In Connecticut only subglacial and extraglacial stratified drift are found, and except for their topographic expression they are very similar. Stratified drift is composed of the washed and weU-sorted, reworked constituents of the till, together with some debris made by the weathering and erosion of bedrock. The water that did the work was, for the most part, the water produced by the melting of the glacier, but since glacial times the streams of the region have con- tinued the process. The distinction between glacial stratified drift and more recent alluvium is hard to .draw, and for the purposes of a ground-water study it is not essential. Toward the end of the gla- cial epoch the climate became very mild, and vast amounts of ice were melted. The relatively soft till was easy for the glacial streams to erode, and it supplied a great abundance of material. Presuma- bly some of the streams flowed in sinuous subglacial channels in which they made deposits that have now become long, winding ridges called eskers. The water in some of the channels beneath the ice seems to have been under hydraulic head, as some eskers cross ridges and gullies regardless of the grades. Where the debris-laden waters came to the edge of the ice sheet kames were made. Some of the material was carried beyond the front, of the ice sheet and was laid down as an alluvial deposit in the valley. Not all the materials composing the wide outwash plains have been deposited by running water. There are also beds of finer material — clay and silt, rather than sand — that were laid down in WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 27 lakes and ponds which stood in shallow depressions in front of the ice. The stratified drift consists of interlocking lenslike beds laid one against another in a very intricate and 'irregular way. Some of the lenses consist of fine sand, others of coarse sand, others of gravel, and still others of cobbles. Sand lenses are the most abundant. The material of each lens is rather uniform in size, but there may be a great difference between adjacent lenses. In general the finer mate- rials form more extensive beds than the coarser. Some of the beds of clay and fine silt, though only an inch or two thick, have a horizontal extent of several hundred feet. Lenses of gravel may be 2 or 3 feet thick and not extend over 10 feet horizontally. The sand lenses are composed almost entirely of quartz grains. In the gravel lenses are pebbles of many kinds of rocks. The clay beds contain true clay, thin flakes of mica, and minute particles of quartz and feldspar. In all the deposits there is iron which gives them brown colors. The follo\\dng table shows the character of the material i^"^ Mechanical analyses of stratified di if t from Connecticut Valley. Diameter (millimeters). 1 2 3 1 5 Gravel 2to 1 4.98 n.3i 33.41 33. 75 10.82 2.09 L03 L65 2.20 7.51 33.50 32.05 13.50 4.47 L75 2.78 0.50 L51 7.96 23.27 41.82 9.15 6.32 4.40 0.00 Trace. .21 L50 19.55 33.67 28.54 9.50 0.00 Coarse sand ltoO.5 0.5 to 0.25 0.25 to 0.1 0.1 to 0.05 0.05 to 0.01 0.01 to 0.005 0.005 to 0.0001... .29 MftrlinTn snnri , .40 Fine sand .73 Very fine sand 5 Silt 32.57 Fine silt 29. 10 Clay 25.65 Loss at 110° C .50 .80 .80 L30 L92 3.68 2.60 4.75 2.17 Loss on ignition 3.53 1. Coarse, sharp sand, 2 miles southeast of Bloomfield. 2. Sandy loam, southwest of Windsor. 3. Fine sandy loam, half a mile northeast of South Windsor. 4. Recent flood-plain deposits, three-quarters of a mile southeast of Hartford. 5. Brick clay from glacial lake beds, Sxrffield. The most striking difference shown by a comparison of this table with the table of mechanical analyses of till samples on page 25 is that in each sample of stratified drift two or three sizes make up almost aU the material, whereas in the tiU there is a wider diversity of sizes, even exclusive of the boulders, which are neglected in the analyses. The topographic form assumed by most of the stratified drift is that of a sand plain, which may be modified by terraces, by vaUeys cut into it, or by kettle holes. In the highlands small bodies of strati- fied drift form eskers — long winding ridges, 10 to 40 feet high — in some " Dorsey, C. W., and Bonsteel, J. A., Soil survey in the Connecticut Valley: U. S. Dept. Agric. Div. Soils Field Operations, 1899, pp. 132, 134-136, 138. 28 GROUND WATER IN SOXJTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. places with narrow crests and in others with flat tops up to 100 feet wide, and generally with steep flanks. In the lowlands there are kame areas of stratified drift which consist of irregularly scattered hillocks and hummocky short ridges. CRITERIA FOR DIFFERENTIATION OF TILL AND STRATIFIED DRIFT. No hard and fast rules can be laid down for determining whether the mantle rock at any point is tiU or stratified drift, and the decision is reached only after weighing several factors. The presence of clear bedding is indubitable evidence that the deposit is stratified drift, but it can be seen only in fresh excavations. TiU areas in general contain numerous stone wafls, which are lacking in most stratified- drift areas. In case of doubt the shape of the boulders in the walls should be studied. TiU areas have less striking topographic forms than stratified-drift areas, which show broad plains with terraces and kettle holes, or kames and eskers. Because of their peculiar ground-water conditions the stratified-drift areas are likely to have many pines, both white and yellow, cedars, and scrub oaks, with an undergrowth of sweet fern and '^ poverty" grass. There are no out- standing floral characteristics in the tiU areas. OCCURRENCE AND CIRCULATION OF GROUND WATER. Some of the water that falls as rain or melts from snow soaks into the ground. A surface layer of sand or gravel or a thick mat of leaf mold or of needles, as in woods, probably affords the most favorable condition for high absorption. Steep slopes are unfavorable, because the rain runs off from them rapidly and completely. When the ground is frozen it becomes almost impervious and absorption is at a minimum. Heavy rains concentrated in a short time wiU in general result in less absorption than an equal amount of rain spread over a longer time. The amount of water that may be absorbed is great. With a rain- faU of 48 inches, each acre would receive in the course of a year over 1,300,000 gaUons of water. If one-fourth of this were to soak into the ground and be concentrated in a single spring, that spring would discharge an average of six-tenths of a gaUon a minute throughout the year. The movement of water through the groimd is due for the most part to gravity. The water sinks through the pores of the soil until it reaches an impervious bed or the ground-water level and then per- force it moves lateraUy. Lateral movement over great distances does not occur in Connecticut, because the porous soils are cut into smaU, discontinuous areas by the numerous ledges of bedrock. Inasmuch as the porous-soil cover over the bedrock is in general not WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 29 very thick the direction of movement is for the most part the same as the slope of the smiace of the ground. In the fiat phxins of stratified drift this rule holds less rigidly than on irregular till-covered slopes. The velocity of circulation depends on the steepness of the slopes and the porosity and permeability of the soils. Porosity is the ratio of the total volume of the voids between the grains to the total volume of the substance and is not concerned with the size of the pores. Permeability is the abihty of the material to transmit water and depends more on the size of the individual pores. Large pores like those of gravels favor rapid circulation of ground water. Fine clays may have as high a porosity as the gravels, but because of the inter- stitial friction in the fine pores they are virtually impermeable. The rise of water through the soil by capillary action is not an important factor in the problems of domestic and public water supply. It is of moment, however, in -making water accessible to vegetation. At some depth the pores of the soil are saturated with water. The rains and melting snows have continued to supply water to the soil and would have saturated it throughout but for the lateral escape of the excess. The top of this saturated zone is known variously as the ground-water surface, the ground-water level, or the water table. The water table is high — that is, near the surface of the ground — in regions and seasons of high precipitation, where the soil cover is thin and discontinuous and where the surface is level or gently sloping. It is likely to be particularly high in small deposits of mantle rock filling minor depressions or basins in the bedrock. Along the margins of streams, lakes, and swamps the water table is at the surface. It is low in arid regions, in times of drought, on steep slopes, and in areas where the soil mantle is thick. The depth to the water table fluctuates with the seasons and may be increased by drainage of wet grounds, by heavy draft on weUs, and to a slight extent by transpi- ration from vegetation. The improvements made by man on farms and the engineering works in cities tend to lower the water table. In Connecticut the greatest fluctuation of the water table is on steep slopes from which the water drains readily. In such situations there is also a rapid though often temporary replenishment of the ground water after rains. No general horizons for water-bearing beds are known in Connecti- cut, with the exception of the water table in the unconsolidated mantle rocks and the water table formed in many places just above the bedrock by the blocking off of the downward movement of the water by the relatively impervious bedrock. Many weUs dug to solid rock and blasted a few feet into it take advantage of this source of supply. This water bed also feeds water into the fissure system of the bedrocks. 30 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTQN-GRANBY AREA, CONN. ce ofjanc/ FiGUKE 9.— Diagram showing the usual relation of the water table to hills and valleys. The till and stratified drift show great contrasts in texture and therefore in their ability to hold up the water table and to transmit water. Because of its greater permeability the stratified drift absorbs water more readily than the till, but it also loses water more rapidly. * In most regions the water table is nearer the surface in valleys and lies deeper on the hills, as shown in figure 9. In much of Connecticut, however, where the valleys are filled with stratified drift and the hills are capped with tiU, the anomalous reverse condition exists. Because of the much slower rate at which the water percolates through the till the water table is held up nearer the surface on the hills than it is in the valleys. This condition is diagrammaticaUy shown in figure 10. TRIAS SIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS. DISTRIBUTION. A belt 4 to 8 miles wide along the east side of the Southington- Granby area is underlain by Triassic rocks. It occupies 195 square miles, or nearly 40 per cent of the whole area. LITHOLOGY AND STRATIGRAPHY. The lowest of the Triassic beds lie unconformably on the upturned edges of the crystalline rocks along the western border of the belt. The relation is shown in the structure sections across Avon, Canton, Simsbury, and Southing- ton. (See figs. 18, 22, and 30.) The Triassic sediments may be divided into four parts separated by trap sheets, as is shown in the stratigraphic column given in figure 11, compiled from the de- scriptions given by Davis.^^ The physical differences between the four parts are shght, and they can in general be separated only by their position relative to the trap sheets. The names are derived from their positions in the stratigraphic column. The following description of the Triassic sediments is taken from the excellent one given by Rice and Gregory :^^^ 15 Davis, W. M., The Triassic formation in Connecticut: U. S. Geol. Survey Eighteenth Ann. Kept., pt. 2, pp. 27-29, 189S. 15a Rice, W. N., and Gregory, H. E., Manual of the geology of Connecticut: Connecticut Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 6, pp. 163-165, 1906. FiGUKE 10. — ^Diagram showing the relation of the water table on h Us to the water table in valleys in glaciated regions. WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 31 'Upper" sandstones 3,500 ft + Red sandstone and shale with local conglomerate /'''Posterior'trap inn-if^oft. "V Extrusive trap sheet "Posterior sandstones and shales 1,200 ft. Red shale and red shaly sandstone, with a little black bituminous shale "Main"trap sheet AOO-500 ft. Extrusive trap sheet; in part a double flow 'Anterior" sandstones and shales 300-1,000 ft "Anterior" trap • \ 0-250 ft. Red shales and red shaly sandstone with a little impure limestone and black bituminous rock Extrusive trap sheet; begins at Tariffville and thickens southward The rocks would naturally be characterized in a broad way as red sandstone. The sandstones, sometimes coarse, sometimes fine, consist mainly of grains of quartz, feldspar, and mica resulting from the disintegration of the older rocks which form the wall of the trough in which the sandstones were deposited. The prevailing red- brown colors of the sandstones are due not to the constituent grains but to the cementing material, which contains a large amount of ferric oxide. * * * While the name sandstone would properly express the prevalent and typical character of the rock, the material is in some strata so coarse as to deserve the name of conglom- erate, and in others so fine as to deserve the name of shale. In the conglomerates the pebbles may be less than an inch in diameter, but they are sometimes much coarser. In some localities occurs a rock which has been called "giant conglomerate," in which some of the boulders are several feet in diameter. The conglomer- ates occur chiefly near the borders of the Triassic areas, and in these it is especially easy to recognize rocks from the disintegration of which the pebbles have been derived. In general, it may be said that the pebbles in any particular area are derived from rocks in the immediate vicinity. The conglomerates in the Connecti- cut Valley area are obviously derived from the gneisses, schists, and pegmatites, which are the prevalent rocks of the highlands. * * * The shales, like the sandstones and conglomerates, . are prevail- ingly red, owing their color likewise to the presence of ferric oxide. Some strata of shale, however, contain in con- siderable quantity hydrocar- bon compounds derived from the decomposition of organic matter. These bituminous shales are accordingly nearly black. In the Connecticut Valley area there are two thin strata of these bituminous shales, which have been shown, by careful search for outcrops, to have a very wide extent. There is also a small amount of impure green and gray limestone in the Triassic sediments. The red sediments, however, are domi- nant. The material and structure of the beds vary greatly and the changes in the rock are very abrupt. The stratification is uneven and irregular, and the beds are wedge-shaped or lenslike rather than uniformly thick over wide areas. Although the beds were originally horizontal and in continuous masses, they have been tilted 15° or 20° to the east and have been "Lower" sandstones 5,000-6,500 ft. Coarse sandstone with conglomerate and shale; all red. Basal portion conglomeratic in south part of area. Basal intrusivesills and dikes of trap in parts of the area FiGTJEE 11.— Columnar section of the Triassic formations of Connecticut. 82 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. broken into blocks. The nature of the forces that caused this fault- ing into blocks has not been conclusively determined. They opened many joints and fissures along which there was little or no movement. These joints are in general parallel to the bedding or nearly at right angles to it, though joints may be found with every conceivable incli- nation. The sandstones and conglomerates have more abundant and more extensive joints than the shales, for they are rigid and relatively brittle rather than plastic and tenacious. The joints are rarely more than 50 feet apart and in general are found at intervals of 2 to 8 feet. They are more abundant and wider near the surface than at some depth. OCCURRENCE OF GROUND WATER. Ground water occurs in the sedimentary rocks in four ways — in pores, along bedding planes, in joints, and along fault lines. Though its original source is the rainfall, it is for the most part derived by infiltration and percolation from the saturated glacial drift above. Water in pores. — ^The sandstone, shale, ' and conglomerate consist of particles of quartz, feldspar, mica, and other less abundant min- erals and of pebbles of older rocks, all cemented together by fine clay and films of iron oxide. The spaces between the grains are not completely filled with the cementing material but are partly open and may contain water. In the aggregate large quantities of water are held in this way, but on account of the smallness of the openings the water is not readily given off. Bare outcrops, as in quarries, are for the most part dry on the surface, though the interior of the rock may be moist. In the sandstones and conglomerates the water in the pores is given off slowly to joints, from which it may be recov- ered by means of driUed wells. The shales have very fine pores and yield but little water. In some places the shales are so impervious as to act as restraining beds that concentrate the water in the pores of the coarser beds. Water in hedding planes.^There is a tendency for the water in the pores to be concentrated in and transmitted along the lower parts of the coarser beds, where they rest on finer and relatively imper- vious beds. It is probable that a few of the wells drilled in Triassic rocks draw their supplies from such horizons. Water in joints. — ^Joints, which divide all the rocks into polygonal blocks of various sizes and shapes, are the chief source of water in the bedrocks of Connecticut. They are more abundant and wider in sandstone and conglomerate than in shale. These extensive crevices are better water bearers than the pores, because they are larger and offer less capillary resistance to the circulation of water, because they draw on and make available the supply of water stored in the pores, and because they are of relatively great extent. Most WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 33 of the drilled wells and a few of the dug wells in the Triassic area draw on the joints for their supplies. Water in fault zones. — The faults that break the Ti'iassic rocks of Connecticut into great fault blocks are not single fractures, but rather zones comprising many parallel planes along which movement took place. Because of the great number of water-bearing joints in such zones, wells drilled along fault lines are likely to yield very large supplies of water. TRIASSIC TRAP ROCKS. DISTRIBUTION. Trap rock is found under two conditions in the Southington- Granby area. Along the east boundary there are three extrusive sheets which were gently poured out as lavas and interrupted the deposition of the Triassic sediments. • Their thickness and relative position in the stratigraphic column are shown in figure 11. The middle sheet is called the ''Main" sheet, because it is the thickest and makes the most prominent cliffs. The eastward tilting of the Triassic rocks made the lower sheet crop out on the west or face side of the ''Main" sheet, and for this reason it is called the "Anterior" sheet. Similarly, the upper sheet is called the '^Posterior" sheet. The "Main" sheet follows very closely the east boundary of the Southington-Granby area for most of its length. Just to the west and a little lower are outcrops of the "Anterior" sheet, which does not, however, extend far north of Tariffville but pinches out. The "Posterior" sheet is found nowhere in this area except in the eastern parts of the towns of New Britain and Farmington. Near the contact of the basal Triassic sediments with crystalline rocks are intrusive masses of trap — siUs, dikes, and irregular masses that were forced into the sediments after they were already buried. The sills in general are extensive flat bodies that follow the bedding, though in some places they cut across it. One sill extends from a point near Milldale southwaAi through Cheshire and Prospect to New Haven, and another from Unionville northward through Avon, Canton, Simsbury, and Granby. These sills range in thickness from less than 100 to more than 400 feet. The dikes are thinner and range from 10 to 40 feet. There are several in Cheshire, of which the so- caUed Bristol ledge, 4 or 5 miles long, is the most conspicuous. There are also a few trap dikes in the crystalline rocks of the highland — ^for example, in the southwest corner of Wolcott. LITHOLOGY. Except for the difference in the position in which they were first formed, the two classes of trap are essentially alike. They are dense, 187118°— 21— wsp 466 3 34 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. heavy dark-gray to nearly black rocks. The intrusive traps are some- what coarser and more perfectly crystallized than the extrusive traps. Sometimes the names ''diabase" and ''basalt" are used to differ- entiate the intrusive and extrusive traps. Like the sedimentary rocks in which they are inclosed the traps are cut by numerous joints, some of which were made by the initial cooling and shrinkage of the rock and others by the jarring incidental to the Jurassic faulting. As the shrinkage and cooling joints tend to be normal to the planes of cooling of the rock masses, the joints of sills and sheets are generally vertical and those of dikes horizontal. The joints are more abundant near the margins of the masses. OCCURRENCE OF GROUND WATER. Trap rocks have a twofold bearing on the occurrence of ground water. The joints may contain water, and the sheets may act as impervious layers to restrain the circulation. Trap rocks have a very low porosity and carry virtually no water in pores, and of course they contain no water corresponding to that along bedding planes of sedimentary rocks. Water circulates through the joints and fault zones just as in sandstones, but in general less abundantly. Evi- dence of this circulation is given by the yellow and brown stains of iron oxide along the joints, due to the oxidation and hydration of the iron-bearing minerals by the water. In a few places a sheet of trap rock above a relatively porous sand- stone layer makes it a small artesian basin. The well belonging to the Traut & Hine Manufacturing Co., in New Britain (see p. 152), seems to have obtained a flow from such a horizon. It is impossible to predict that a well in a similar situation will obtain artesian water, however, for there may be faults and joints that cut the trap in such a way as to allow the water to escape from below. The immediate source of the water in the trap rock is the water in the formations with which it is in contact: this water enters it through the network of interconnecting joints. CBYSTAIiLINE ROCKS. DISTRIBUTION. Crystalline rocks, so named because their constituent mineral particles are crystalline rather than fragmental, underlie the western three-fifths of the Southington-Granby area — about 308 square miles. The extent of these rocks is identical with that of the highland physio- graphic provinces, because the characteristic features of the province depend in large part on the resistance of these rocks to erosion. WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. 35 LITHOLOGY. There are three types of crystalline rocks in the Southington, Granby area — schists, gneisses of igneous origin, and gneisses of com- plex origin. Each of these types is represented by two or more for- mations. Schists. — Typical schists are metamorphosed sandstones and shales which in tm-n are consolidated sands and muds. The mountain- making movements to which this region has been subjected sc^ueezed up and folded the sedimentary rocks. At the same time the great change in temperature and pressiu'e metamorphosed the rocks com- pletely; the quartz sand grains were crushed and strung out, and the clayey material was changed to crystalline mica. The mica flakes were turned to roughly parallel positions and so give the rock a pro- nounced cleavage, known as schistosity. Though other materials are present quartz and mica are the most abundant. The Berkshire (Ordovician) schist of western Hartland and Barkhamsted and of northwestern New Hartford and the Hoosac (^'Hartland") schist (also Ordovician) , which extends the whole length of the margin of the highland, are of this type. Gneisses of igneous origin. — In connection with the dynamic meta- morphism of the region were intruded great masses of molten rock. They have been metamorphosed like the schists but to a much smaller degree. The dark minerals are somewhat segregated and parallelly oriented, so that the rock has a fair cleavage. There are five forma- tions of this general type in the Southington-Granby area. Typical granite gneisses, composed essentially of quartz, feldspar, and mica, are the Bristol granite gneiss,^^ which is found in half of Bristol and small areas in Plymouth and Burlington; the Collinsville granite gneiss, in Canton and Avon; and the Thomaston granite gneiss, which occurs in small patches in Plymouth and Harwinton. The Prospect porphyritic granite gneiss differs from- these in that some of the feldspars are much larger than the others and give the rock a porphyritic character. A small area south of Plymouth village is underlain by amphibolite, a gneissic rock composed essentially of feldspar and hornblende. Gneisses of complex origin. — The Waterbury gneiss, in Harwinton, Burlington, Plymouth, Wolcott, and Prospect, and the Becket granite gneiss, in Harwinton, New Hartford, Barkhamsted, and Hartland, are of complex origin and are in a way intermediate between the two types described above. Certain parts of the schist have been very 16 Five gneiss formations (Waterbury gneiss, Bristol granite gneiss, Collinsville granite gneiss, Prospect porphyritic granite gneiss, and Thomaston granite gneiss) are here referred to under the provisional names given to them on the preliminary geologic map of the State by Gregory and Robinson (Connecticut Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 7, 1907). These names are used for convenience and may differ from those which will be finally adopted by the United States Geological Survey. 36 GKOUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GEANBY AREA, CONi^. extensively injected on a minute scale with igneous material, so that its character is materially altered. The thin intrusions for the most part follow the planes of schistose cleavage and somewhat obscure them. OCCURRENCE AND CIRCULATION OF GROUND WATER. Water in lamellar spaces. — In the schists and to some extent in the gneisses of complex origin, but not in the granite gneisses, there is a little water in the spaces between the crystalline grains and flakes. Most of the openings are flat, thin, and not extensive^ and few of them are interconnected. In the crumpled schists there are small tubular openings along the furrows and ridges. The chief function played by schistose structure in promoting the circulation of ground water is that its weakness in one direction gives rise to numerous joints. Water in joints and along faults, — The forces that caused meta- morphism also made many fractures in the rocks. The fractures are even more numerous in the crystalline rocks than in the sandstones, but they bear water in the same way. Inasmuch as it is virtually impossible to trace faults in the crystalline rocks they will be con- sidered here only as compound or enlarged joints in which circulation is especially vigorous. There are two principal sets of joints; those of one set are nearly horizontal, and those of the other nearly vertical. The vertical joints, according to EUis/^ are from 3 to 7 feet apart where jointing is well developed. In some sheeted zones 1 to 15 feet wide the joints are spaced at intervals of 3 inches to 2 feet. In other places they are 100 feet apart. Though the spacing increases with depth it is on the average less than 10 feet to a depth of 100 feet. Ellis finds that for the fijst 20 feet the horizontal joints are 1 foot apart on the average; for the next 30 feet they average between 4 and 7 feet; and from 50 to 100 feet in depth they are from 6 to 20 feet or more apart. The intersecting horizontal and vertical joints form a very complicated system of channels through which water may circulate. Water is supplied to the network of channels by percolation from the overlying mantle of soil. ARTESIAN CONDITIONS. The word '^ artesian" is derived from the name of the old French province of Artois, in which wells of this type first became widely kno^vn. Originally the term was applied only to wells from which water actually flowed, but now it is applied to wells in which because of hydrostatic pressure the water rises above the level of the point " Gregory, H. E., and Ellis, E. E., UndergrouBd-water resources of Connecticut: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 232, p. 65, 19C9. ARTESIAN CONDITIONS. 37 at which it enters the well. The term is sometimes improperly used for any deep well whether the water is under pressure or not. The question whether an artesian well will flow or not depends as much on the elevation of its mouth as it does on the pressure at which the water enters the drill hole. The requisite conditions for artesian waters are the existence of a porous bed or fractured rock through which water may flow; having an outcrop (the imbibition area) where water may soak into it, at a higher elevation than the well; relatively impervious strata above and below the pervious bed to prevent escape of the water and sufficient precipitation on the imbibition ai'ea to fill the pervious bed and keep it full. In Connecticut these conditions may be ful- filled in two principal ways, but in general there are so many faults and open joints that the water loses most of its head and flowing weUs are few. The faults and joints prevent the fulfillment of the 7IGUBE 12.— Diagram showing conditions under which artesian waters may exist in the sandstone and shale of Connecticut. condition of restraining beds above and below the pervious bed. The great majority of the drilled weih, however, are artesian, for the water in them rises considerably above the point of entrance. A few wells pass through beds of relatively impervious shale and draw water from porous sandstones, as shown in figure 12. The underlying restraining member may be either a shale bed, as at A, or it ma}^ be the dense crystalline mass on which the Triassic beds rest, as at B. According to Gregory and Ellis,^^ the black shales of the '^ anterior" and "posterior" shales are particularly elFicacious restraining layers. Within the limits of the Southington-Granby area, however, the black shales are to be found only in New Britain and Farmington. In general the beds of the Triassic sedimentary rocks are not of sufficient lateral extent to form important reservoirs. In a few wells, such as that of the Traut & Hine Manufacturing Co., New Britain, a sheet of trap rock may act as a restraining member 18 Gregory, H. E., and Ellis, E. E., Underground-water resources of Connecticut: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 232, p. 109, 1909. 38 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. and form a small artesian basin. This condition is diagrammatically illustrated at C in figure 12. (See also ^g, 25, p. 150.) Many more wells draw water from the network of fissures than from the pores of sandstones and conglomerates. In some of these rocks there are no connecting joints that might discharge water to the surface below the wells; in others the fissures are so tight that they do not discharge water readily. Other wells draw water from fissured rock that is overlain by a blanket of till which acts as a restraining member. SPRINGS. A spring, in the broadest sense of the word, is a more or less definite surface outlet for the ground water. Springs are formed wherever the surface of the ground is so low that it reaches the water table. A well is in a sense an artificial spring, for it is made by artificially depressing the ground surface till it reaches the water level. There arQ many possible conditions which may cause springs, but they may all be grouped under three principal heads, as described below. SEEPAGE SPRINGS. The normal method of escape of water from the groimd is by slow seepage in saturated areas on hillsides and along swamps and streams. This process may go on over a wide space if the soil is of uniform texture, or it may be concentrated in a small body of more porous soil. The former process is diffused seepage; the latter produces a true spring, and to this class belong the so-called '^boiling springs," in which the water enters with sufficient force to keep the sand bottom in gentle motion. In a spring of either class the supply may be concentrated by the excavation of a collecting reservoir. Seepage springs are very likely to be found in small swales cut back into a slope. It seems probable that the flow of water is the primary cause of the excavation of the swales, but the swales second- arily tend to concentrate the flow. Areas of diffused seepage tend to dcA^elop into true springs by such a process. STRATUM SPRINGS. Stratum springs are those in which an outcropping or only slighth^ buried ledge or layer of impervious material interrupts the flow of ground water and forces it to the sm^face. Springs of this type may be made by a ledge of rock underlying saturated drift, by a bed of sedimentary rock having less porosity than the adjacent bed, or by a body of stratified drift overlying tiU. Many of the springs of the Southington-Granby area are of this type. In the Farmington-Quinnipiac valley the slopes are covered with tiU and the floor with stratified drift. Many springs are found at the contact of the tiU and stratified drift. This is an anomalous RECOVERY OF GROUND WATER. 39 condition, for the porous stratified drift seems to force out water from the less porous till. One possible explanation is that there is a ledge of rock near the surface beneath the boundary of till and drift. Inasmuch as the stratified drift is a water-laid deposit, it seems probable that the stream cut away most of the till before laying down the stratified material. FAULT AND JOINT SPRINGS. Faults and joints greatly facilitate the circulation of water thi-ough rocks, and where they reach the surface they may supply springs. Some faults carry a good deal of water under considerable pressure and may be considered analogous to artesian wells. RELATION OF SPRINGS TO WELLS. Springs that have been improved by excavation to a considerable depth are hard to distinguish from wells that have obtained water at moderate depths. In this report the criterion taken for classify- ing such springs is the original condition of the ground. If it appears to have been a wet or springy spot, the term ^'spring" is applied re- gardless of the depth of excavation. If the surface was dry in the first place, the term "welP' is applied no matter how shallow the depth at which the water table was found. RECOVERY OF GROUND WATER. DUG WELLS. CONSTRUCTION. Dug wells are constructed by digging holes in the ground deep enough to extend below the water table. The excavation is generally made 8 or 10 feet in diameter, and in it is built a lining of dry or mortared masonry or brickwork, concrete, vitrified tile, or planking. As the weU is walled up the space outside the lining is filled. The filling should be of some porous material such as coarse sand or gravel, but most weU diggers pay no attention to this point. Most dug weUs when completed are 3 to 5 feet in diameter, though some are much larger; and they range in depth from a few feet up to 80 feet. The average depth of the dug wells measured in the Southington- Granby area is about 20 feet, and they contain on an average 5 feet of water. Some wells are specially constructed so as to draw on a large area. The well of J. H. Sessions & Sons in the southeastern part of the city of Bristol has at the top a vertical line of tile 2 feet in diameter that extends 6 feet underground and rests on the domed roof of a bricked chamber 6 feet in diameter and 16 feet high. Seven iron pipes 4 inches in diameter and 10 to 25 feet long radiate from the bottom of 40 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. the chamber and draw water from a roughly circular area of gravel about 35 feet in diameter. It is beheved that this well will yield 40 gallons a minute for a whole day's run. LIFTING DEVICES. BAILING DEVICES. A number of different devices are in use for raising water from dug wells. All are modifications of a simple bucket for bailing out water, of the displacement pump, or of the siphon. The most primitive method is bailing with a dipper in very shallow wells, or with a bucket hung from a rope in deeper wells. In some places the rope is replaced by a light pole with a snap ring by which the bucket is held. The devices are not only inconvenient and la- borious but insanitary. Most wells used in this way have no covers, so that there is every opportunity for the entrance of leaves, sticks, dust, small animals, and other foreign matter. Moreover, the handling of the bucket may transfer objectionable matter from the hands to the water. There are various modifications which though not much more sanitary are less laborious. In the typical ''one-bucket rig" there is over the well a gallows-like framework from which is hung a pulley. The rope is fastened at one end to the ciu*bing and at the other to the bucket. The " two-bucket rig '^ is similar except that it has a bucket at each end of the rope, and the necessity of sending down the bucket before drawing water is eliminated. The curbing for either of these rigs should be tight and have a cover or roof. In the "sweep rig" the bucket is himg by a rope or slender pole from the small end of a sweep 1 5 to 40 feet long. The sweep is pivoted at a crotch in a convenient tree or over a pole set firmly in the ground, and has at its butt end a counterbalancing weight of some sort. In the "wheel and axle rig" the rope from the bucket winds around a wheel 2 to 4 feet in diameter which has a grooved face to keep the rope from slipping off. The wheel is carried on an axle 4 to 8 inches in diameter suspended above the well and a little off center. Wound around the axle is a second rope to which a heavy stone or block of iron is hung. The greater weight of the stone acting on the axle counterbalances the lesser weight of the bucket acting on the large wheel. In the "windlass rig" the rope from the bucket winds around a drum 5 or 6 inches in diameter to one end of which a crank is attached. The windlass is set over the well, and on the drum are flanges io keep the rope from running off. Many are provided with a ratchet to prevent the bucket from falling back and with a brake to use in lowering the bucket. Some of the brakes are of the band type, and some are merely boards hinged at one end to the side of the curbing RECOVERY OF GROUND WATER. 41 and bearing near the middle on the drum. In some windlass rigs the rope is replaced by chains either of the ordinary sort or flat linked, by leather straps, or by flat straps of mild brass. I The ''counterbalanced rig" is a modification of the windlass rig in which the rope instead of winding aroimd a drum passes over a pulley carried on the crank axle. One end of the rope has a bucket and the other a weight that more than counterbalances the empty bucket but is lighter than the full bucket. In some rigs a chain and suitably notched pulley are used instead of a rope and smooth pulley. The rigs described above, as they are generally installed, are open to criticism on sanitary grounds. At far too many weUs the open curbs and inward-sloping surrounding surface allow access of for- eign matter to the water, and moreover there is danger of pollution from the handling of the bucket and rope. All the devices are much safer when the curbs are tight and hinged covers are provided which may be kept closed except while water is being drawn. It is also a good plan to bank up the earth around the well curb or to build a con- crete apron aroimd it so that surface water and drippings will flow away from the well. With the wheel and axle rig and the windlass rig it is possible to avoid the transfer of objectionable matter from the hands by using an automatic tippiug and filling bucket, an ordinary bucket equipped with a flap valve in the bottom to facilitate filling, and a pair of metal prongs fastened opposite one another on the rim. For a few feet next to the bucket the rope is replaced by a flat chain that as it rolls onto the windlass drum turns the bucket so that one or the other of the prongs catches a cross rod inside the curb. By winding up a little more the bucket is tipped and emptied into a spout. With this arrangement it is unnecessary to open the curb, which may be made thoroughly tight agaiust foreign matter, or to handle the bucket except on rare occasions for repairs. The arrangement of the windlass at one well that was visited is worthy of description. The well is just outside the house, and the windlass crank extends through the wall into the house. The water is dumped from an automatic tipping bucket into the spout, from which it flows into a piece of galvanized-iron conductor pipe that also goes through the wall and delivers the water indoors. In winter the discomfort of drawing water is reduced to a minimum. PTTMPS. Among the principal classes of pumps are displacement pumps, impeller pumps, bucket pumps, and air lifts. Displacement pumps are of two principal sorts — ^pitcher pumps and deep-well pumps. Both consist of a cylinder in which a piston moves. At the bottom of the cylinder and in the piston are valves that open upward. When the piston is raised water rushes into the cylinder from below, and 42 GROUND WATEE IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN, when the piston is shoved down the water rises through its valve. Repetition of the movement raises the water in successive small masses. In a pitcher pump the working cylinder is at the top of the pipe, above the ground, and the pump is not closed in above the piston. In a deep-well pump the working cylinder is at some depth and is connected with the dehvery pipe by a closed covering or cap. On top of the delivery pipe is a standard to carry the pump handle, and a rod runs down through the delivery pipe to the piston. Some deep-weU pumps are double acting — that is, they have two pairs of valves so arranged that water is pumped on both the rising and the descending stroke of the piston instead of only on the rising stroke. Displacement pumps, theoretically, ought to work when the cylinder is 32 feet or less above the water level, but in practice it is found that on account of leaks and friction they will not work when the suction lift is more than 25 to 28 feet. These figures apply to pumps working Pitcher pump in kitchen Deep well pump with cylinder in cellar FiGXJEE 13. — Diagram showing two types of installation of "house pumps," at sea level, but they must be decreased at high altitudes on account of the lesser atmospheric pressure. Deep-well pumps are superior to pitcher pumps in that they are less liable to freezing, need little or no priming, and can be used in deeper wells by lowering the working cylinder. Sometimes a displacement pump is installed in the house or bam at some distance from the weU, as shown in figure 13. The suction limit (vertical distance between working cylinder and water level) is reduced to some extent when the horizontal distance between well and pump is increased. In this report installations of this kind are called '^ house pumps." Some have a pitcher pump with the working cylinder on the first floor, and some have a deep-well pump with the working cyhnder in the cellar and the pump-handle standard on the first or even the second floor. Chain pumps are used in many weUs in Connecticut and are of two varieties — rubber-bucket pumps and metal-bucket pumps. A rub- ber-bucket pump is a displacement pump of special type and consists RECOVERY OF GROUND WATER. 43 of a long tube, generally of wood, through which is passed an endless chain that has thick rubber washers on special links inserted at inter- vals of 6 to 10 feet. At the top the tube is fastened to a curbing, across the top of which is an axle with a crank and sprocket wheel to carry the chain. When the crank is turned the chain is drawn up through the tube and the rubber washers act as pistons and raise water which is discharged through an opening in the tube near the top. Metal-bucket pumps are similar to rubber-bucket pumps in ex- ternal appearance, but their principle is quite different. A chain, made of alternating plain flat links and special flat links that are fitted with small metal buckets, passes over a sprocket wheel turned by a crank. The buckets are about 2 inches square and 4 inches deep, and each has a lip so constructed that as it passes over the wheel it empties into a hopper-like spout the water it has carried up from below. All these pimips are sanitary when the curbing and platform are tight enough to prevent waste water, surface drainage, and solid foreign matter from entering the well. On a few farms where garden truck is raised the high commercial value of the crops, especially if they are forced for early markets, makes the pumping of water for irrigation profitable. WeUs of large diameter are dug, but as the sanitary quality of the water is relatively unimportant they need not be covered or very carefully walled up. If the water table is high and the yield of the weU large, as on some of the stratified-drift plains of the Soutlungton-Granby area, centrifugal pumps driven by gasoHne engines have been found to be well suited to the conditions. Inside a closed casing is a fan- like wheel, which is rotated at high speed and gives the water enough centrifugal inertia to force it out through a tangential discharge pipe. A partial vacuum is produced at the center of the pump and the water rushes in through a central opening. These pumps have to be primed, but they are only sHghtly affected by grit in the water. If properly designed and of the right size for the task given them they are very efficient. SIPHON AND GRAVITY RIGS. Dug wells that are situated higher than the points at which the water is to be used may be developed by means of a siphon pipe line provided the water level is not more than 25 feet below the ground and is above the point of dehvery. Figure 14 illustrates such an installation. In some wells where the water level is very near the surface and where no hill intervenes between the well and the point of delivery and in many springs a direct gravity system may be used, obviating the necessity of occasionally priming the siphon. The gravity and siphon rigs are highly sanitary provided the surroundings .44 GROUKD WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, COl^N". of the well or spring are safeguarded. If lead pipe is used care should be taken not to use any water that has stood a long time in the pipe. In some places where the fall from the well is not great enough to carry the water to the first floor of the house the water runs continu- ously to a cistern in the cellar and is pumped up by hand. The over- flow of siphon and gravity systems is in many places used for water- ing troughs. RAMS. WeUs and springs of large yield that lie lower than the point of utilization may be developed by rams. The hydraulic ram is a mechanical device that uses the momentum of a relatively large volume of water falling a short distance to raise a smaU volume to a relatively great height. TheoreticaUy 100 gallons falling 10 feet woifld have enough energy to raise 10 gallons 100 feet or 1 gaUon 1,000 feet, and other quantities and distances in proportion. How- ever, on accomit of leakage through the valves and elasticity and friction in the pipes this condition is not realized. According to tables given by Bjorling,^^ when the ratio of lift to faU is 4 to 1, the ram wiU lift 86 per cent of the theoretical amount; with a ratio of 10 to 1, 53 per cent; with a ratio of 15 to 1, 17 per cent; and with a ratio of 25 to 1, only 2 per cent. Bjorling says further that the length of the drive pipe should be- five to ten times as great as the faU. The delivery pipe (from the ram to the storage tank) should have an area of cross section from one-fourth to one-third as large as that of the supply or drive pipe (from the spring or well to the ram). The rapid- ity of the beat should be as great as is compatible with perfect and complete action of the valves and in most rams may be regulated by adjusting springs or weights on the main valve. Rams are open to the objection that they are noisy. The noise is transmitted along iron pipes but may be reduced or eliminated by the use of lead pipe or of a section of rubber hose. Many people have been disappointed in trying to use rams because they did not realize their limitations. Rams must of necessity waste a large portion of the water. Before instaUing a ram careful meas- urement should be made of the flow of the well or spring during its lowest season, the amount of fall available, the amount of lift desired, and the horizontal distance from weU to ram. If these data are supplied to the makers they wiU be able to recommend the best model and size of ram. With proper conditions a suitable ram properly installed will furnish a reliable, inexpensive, and permanent supply. It is customary to have the water from the ram delivered to a reservoir or tank in an elevated position, from which it is distrib- uted by gravity. 19 Bjorling, P. R., Water or hydraulic motors, pp. 264-271, 1894. RECOVEKY OF GROUND WATER, 45 ^ T3 a C3 o Of .9 o m B 2 .a o £ • 46 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. Mr. H. S. Parmelee, of Granby, owns and operates a unique ram. It is installed at the crest of a siphon and differs from the ordinary ram only in that the waste valve is inclosed in order to prevent loss of suction. The chest in which the valves are built is virtually only an enlargement of the siphon pipe. The ram has been in operation over 20 years and has required only trifling outlays for repairs. The well is 7.7 feet deep and at the time it was visited (Oct. 25, 1915,) had 1.2 feet of water in it. The water, then, stands 6.5 feet below the ram, which is at the mouth of the well, and the waste pipe or long leg of the siphon discharges 10.5 feet below, so that there is an effective working head of 4 feet. The ram drives the water to a tank on the second floor of the house, 15 feet above the mouth of the weU. This type of ram was patented in 1S56 by E.'W. Ellsworth (patent No. 16176) but seems not to be manufactured at present. It is emi- nently suited to raising small quantities of water from a shallow well that is situated where it is difficult to dig a trench for a gravity sup- ply sloping to an ordinary ram. It also has the advantage that it can be operated on a very small How, because the working parts are small and light. WINDMILLS AND AIR-PRESSTJIIE TANKS. A popular method of supplying water is by the use of a windmill, pumping jack, pump, and reservoir. Many modifications are used; the windmill may be of steel or wood, on a steel or wood tower; the reservoir may be of steel, wood, or concrete and may be on the tower, on a near-by hill, or in a separate building. Another equipment which is used by many people is the air-pres- sure system. A cylinder pump driven by a gasoline engine or elec- tric motor pumps water into a closed steel tank containing air. As the water comes in it compresses the air and gives pressure suffi- cient to drive the water through the plumbing of the house. The pump is fitted with a snif ting valve which takes in a little air with each stroke to replace that dissolved and absorbed by the water. Some of the tanks are e(iuipped with telltales which give a signal or auto- matically start the motor when the water level is reduced below a set limit. It is the usual practice to put the tank in the cellar, but some are in specially constructed pits outside. When tanks or reservoirs are built in the open it is found that the water is apt to become disagreeably warm in summer and to give trouble by freezing in winter. If the water is used for irrigation the heating in summer is an advantage in that the warm water gives less shock to the plants on which it is put, and no trouble is experienced in winter as the tanks are then drained and not in use. PUMPING TESTS ON DUG WELLS. One of the most important questions relative to the development of ground water is that of the available amount. Studies were made of two dug wells in the Southington-Granby area — one in till and EECOVEEY OF GKOUND WATEK. 47 one in red sandstone — and indicated a very low rate of supply but yet sufficient for ordinary domestic needs. A study of a well in East Granby in stratified drift is cited for purposes of comparison. On July 3, 1915, a test was made of Mr. Edwin L. Upson's well, in the town of Southington, shown on the map (PL III) as No. 97. The well is 22.3 feet deep and at the time had 5.4 feet of water in it. The lower 9 feet is blasted out of red sandstone, from cracks in which the water enters the well. The well has an average diameter of about 4 feet 2 inches. The equipment consists of a two-bucket rig at the well and an air-pressure system. A gasoline engine in a pit back of the house drives a double-acting cylinder pump (3-inch bore, 3^-inch stroke), which forces water and air into a cylindrical tank (3 feet in diameter, 8 feet in length) in the cellar. The pump was run from 10.25 to 11.25 a. m., and about 270 gallons was pumped into the tank. The depth from a datum point on the well curb was measured at 10-minute intervals during pumping in order to determine the rate of lowering. Then meas- m-ements were made at 15-minute intervals up to 4.05 p. m. to get the rate of inflow. Mr. Upson kindly made observations at greater intervals until the water had regained its original level. It took the well about 70 hours to refill. The following table gives the data: Depths to water level in E. L. Upson^s well, Southington, during pumping test. Date. Time. Depth (feet). Remarks. Julys 10. 25 a. m. 10.35 19. 58 20.00 Pumping commencJed. V «-*-^^ vr****...*.........*....*...........*- 10.45 20. 56 10.55 21.02 11.05 21.33 11.17 21.70 11.25 21.96 Pumping ceased. 11.40 21.93 11.55 21.91 12. 15 p.m. 21.87 12.25 21.85 12.50 21.82 1.06 21.79 1.20 21.77 1.35 21.74 1.50 21.72 2.05 ■21.69 2.20 21,67 2.35 21.65 2.50 21.63 3.05 21.61 3.20 21.58 3.35 21.56 3.50 21.54 4.05 21.53 6.05 21.37 Observations from this time on by Mr. Upson. July4 6.05 a.m. 9.05 20.62 20.57 " ***•? ■•-•••-•••••• >••-.-.-........-.....-. 12. 05 p. m. 20.42 3.05 20.30 6.05 20.22 Julys 6.05 a.m. 9.05 19.93 19.90 12.05 p.m. 19.84 6.05 19.70 July 6 5.30 a.m. 19.58 48 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. The figures in the table are also graphically expressed in figure 15. The irregularities in the curve for the forenoons of July 4 and 5 represent depressions of the water level by drawing water for house use. The rate of inflow was calculated for the first 6 J hours and for each succeeding 12-hour period. Rate of inflow and corresponding average depression of the water table in E. L. Upson's well, Southington, duri/ng pumping test. Period. Depres- sion of water level (feet). Rate of inflow (gallons per hour). Period. Depres- sion of water level (feet). Rate of inflow (gallons per hour). First 2.09 1.41 .84 9 6.4 3.4 Fourth 0.49 .23 .06 2.5 Second Fifth 2 Third Sixth 1 The data in this table are also graphically expressed in the inserted diagram in figure 15. The following conclusions may be drawn. The draft of 270 gallons was replenished in about three days, but if pumping were done at I2m. 6p.m. 12p.m. 6a.m. 12m. 6p.m. 12pm. 6a.m. izm. bp.m. iZp.m. 6a.m. July3,l9l5 July4 July 5 JulyG Figure 15.--Diagram showing recovery of E, L. Upson's well, Southington, after pumping, and relation of inflow to drawdown. frequent intervals more water could be taken. If the periods of pumping were only six hours apart there would be 54 gallons available each time, for there would have intervened six hours with an average inflow of 9 gallons an hour. This is equivalent to 216 gallons a day. Under actual conditions of operation about 90 gallons a day is avail- able, which seems to satisfy the demands on the well. RECOVERY OF GROUND WATER. 49 On June 2, 1915, a pumping test was made of Mr. H. W. Cleve- land's dug well, at the northwest corner of the green in Plymouth village, to ascertain its rate of inflow. The well is No. 12 on the map (PL III). It is dug on a gently sloping hillside in a rather sandy till with an average amount of boulders and is in every sense a typical till well. The well is 24 feet deep and before pumping had 8.8 feet of water in it. The diameter is about 3 feet 3 inches. There is an air-pressure tank in the cellar with a cylinder pump driven by a J-horsepower gasoline engine. The depth to the water was meas- ured from a convenient datum on the well curb. In H hours of pumping the water was lowered 4.06 feet, which represents a pump age of about 34 cubic feet, or 250 gallons. After pmnping ceased the depth to water was measm*ed at intervals of 15 minutes. In 2f hours the level had risen 0.59 foot, which is equivalent to an inflow of about 5 cubic feet, or 37 gallons. This is at the rate of 13.3 gallons an hoiu- for the whole well or 0.35 gallon an hour per square foot of seepage surface. The following table gives the depth to water at intervals during the pmnping of the well and during the first 2| hours of recovery: Record of pumping test on H. W. Cleveland's well, Plymouth. Time (p.m). Depth from datum (feet). Remarks. 1.20 1.40 2.00 2.13 2.25 2.40 2.50 3.05 3.20 3.35 3.50 4.05 4.20 4.35 4.50 5.05 5.20 5.35 15.59 16.17 17.32 17.92 18.43 19.19 19.65 19.59 19.54 19.48 19.42 19.38 19.32 19.26 19.20 19.15 19.10 19.06 Pumping commenced. Pumping ceased a few minutes. Pumping ceased. Figure 16 is a graphic representation of the^ data in the table. If the rate of recovery were constant, regardless of the amount of de- pression, and if it should proceed as rapidly as is indicated by the above figures, it would take about 19 hours for the well to fill to its original level. However, as the weU fills there is less and less area from which seepage may take place, so the rate of inflow becomes slower and slower and the total time would be much longer. If the weU were piunped to the capacity indicated by this test — that is, if 37 gallons was pumped every 2 J hours — it could be made to yield 187118°— 21— wsp 466 i 50 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. about 320 gallons every 24 hours. This well gives about one and a half times as much water as Mr. Upson's well but with a greater drawdown. Tests made in 1916 on a dug well in stratified drift in Granby indi- cate a still greater yield.^^ This well was not observed during pump- ing, but after pumping ceased the water was observed to rise 1.53 feet in 41 minutes. As the well is about 4 feet in diameter, this is equivalent to an inflow of over 140 gallons. This well could be made to yield at least 210 gallons an hour, or 5,000 gallons a day. Mr. Edward Wassong's dug well in till in the southeastern part of Southington also has a large yield. The weU Hes east of the house, on the talus slope of Meriden West Peak. The soil seems to be iq part till and in part talus and must be a good aquifer, for the supply is abundant. The well is 29 feet deep and on April 14, 1915, had 13 feet of water in it. Its diameter is about 3 feet. A siphon carries the water to the house and to a cream- ery about 65 feet lower in elevation. The water runs continually into the cooling tank. The stream was of suf- ficient size at the time the well was visited to fill a 20-quart mUk can in 1 minute and 57 seconds. This is equivalent to a little over 150 gallons an hour, or 3,600 gallons a day. INFLLTBATION GALLERIES. An infiltration gallery is a modification of a dug well and derives its water in a similar way. Tumeaure and Russell ^^ say of them : Where ground water can be reached at moderate depths it is sometimes intercepted by galleries constructed across the line of flow. * * * In form a gallery may consist of an open ditch which leads the water away, or it may be a closed conduit of masonry, wood, iron, or vitrified clay pipe, provided with numerous small openings to allow the entrance of water. * * * Galleries are usually constructed in an open trench. They are arranged to lead the water to the pump well and may be provided eo Figure 16.- 2.00 3.00 ^.00 5.00 6.00 xi tv/i e: -Diagram showing recovery of H. W. Cleveland's well, Plymouth, after pumping. 20 Palmer, H. S., Ground water in the Norwalk, Sxrffield, and Glastonbury areas, Conn.: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 470, pp. 41-43, fig. 9, 1920. a Tumeaure, F. E., and Russell, H. L., Public water supplies, pp. 318-320, 1909, RECOVEKY OF GROUND WATER. 51 with gates so that the water may be shut off from various sections. The cost of galleries ifi about the same as that of sewers in similar ground. It rapidly increases with the depth, but up to a depth of 20 or 25 feet it is suflBciently low so that the construction of galleries can often be advantageously undertaken. A gallery not only intercepts the water more completely than wells, but it replaces the suction pipe, it is more durable than either pipe or wells, and all trouble from pumping air is avoided. Filter galleries may be so constructed that surface water is flooded over the ground alongside them and is collected in them after the removal of suspended matter as the water percolates through the soil. DRIVEN WELLS. Driven weUs are made by driving a pipe into the ground by means of a maul or machine resembling a pile driver. The pipe is made up of enough sections to reach the ground-water level and may have either an open end or a closed end. In closed-end driven wells a drive point shghtly larger than the the pipe is used to penetrate the ground. Above the point is a per- forated section covered with wire gauze which prevents sand from entering the well. As the pipe is driven down sections are screwed on to lengthen it. The pipes are usually from three-quarters of an inch to 3 inches in diameter, and the screens from 2 to 4 feet long. Open-end driven weUs are made by driving a plain pipe which may or may not have a heavy cutting shoe attached to it. The material inside the pipe is removed by means of a sand pump or a jet. In the jetting method water is forced down a small pipe inside the drive pipe and as it rises it carries up the sand, silt, and smaller pebbles. The pipe is perforated either before driving or by special tools after driving. Either kind of driven well should be pumped very heavily for a while after driving in order to remove the fine silt and sand and to leave a screenlike layer of pebbles outside the perforated section. Several kinds of pumps are used with driven wells. The most common practice is to screw a pitcher pump to the top of the pipe. In some of the larger driven wells a deep-well pump is put down inside the pipe, and in others a specially constructed section of the casing acts as the pump cylinder. Driven wells are suited to loose sands and gravels in which caving would make trouble in digging wells. They are inexpensive and have the advantage that if they are unsuccessful the pipe may be withdrawn and used at another place. One disadvantage of driven wells is the proneness of the screen to become clogged by an incrus- tation of mineral matter or by silt and sand, and another is that fine particles may be drawn up with the water and score the working parts of the pump so that it works poorly. 52 GKOUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AEEA, CONl^. DRILLED WELLS. Drilled wells are in general deeper than dug or driven wells, and obtain their water from cracks and fissures in bedrock. They are made either by a percussion machine or by an abrasion machine. A percussion drill or chum drill has a long steel bar with a hardened and sharpened bit at the lower end. This is worked up and down by an engine and pounds its way through the rock. At intervals the drill is withdrawn and the debris is removed by means of a sand pump. Abrasion machines are built to revolve a hoUow steel cyhnder shod with chilled-steel shot or with diamonds. The rotation of the shot cuts a circular channel surrounding a core, which is broken into short sections and removed from the hole. It is neces- sary in general to put an iron or steel casing in the part of the drill hole above bed- rock. Drilled weUs in Con- necticut range in diameter from 4 to 12 inches. Where only moderate amounts of water are needed a pump of the deep-well type operated by hand or by power is used. In some weUs where large amounts of water are to be raised from a great depth use is made of an air lift. Com- pressed air is forced down an air pipe and delivered near the bottom of a discharge pipe and then expands and rises, bringing water with it. The delivery pipe may be hung inside the well with the air pipe alongside it, as in a, figure 17, or the rock wall of the well and the casing may act as the delivery pipe, as shown in h. Each manufacturer puts out special designs of air noz- zles that are claimed to be particularly effective, but aU seem to work about equally well. It is essential that the length of the sub- merged portion of the air pipe should be from 30 to 70 per cent of the distance from the bottom of the air pipe to the point of discharge. In shallow wells the percentage of submergence must be greater than in deeper wells. The pressure used ranges from 20 to 100 pounds to the square inch and is often calculated at one-half to one- fourth pound for each foot of lift. The two great advantages of the Figure 17. — Diagrams showing two types of air lift. I RECOVERY OF GROUND WATER. 53 air lift are that it has no moving parts in the well, where they would be rather inaccessible in case of wear by grit in the water, and that it may be controlled and operated from a distant air-compressing station. The success or failure of drilled wells can not be predicted, because of the irregular distribution of the fissures, but it is probable that at any point a satisfactory water supply will be obtained. Among the 237 drilled wells in crystalline rocks studied by Ellis ^^ only 3, or 1.24 per cent, are recorded as obtaining no water. A supply of 2 gallons a minute is considered abundant for domestic needs, though insuffi- cient for certain purposes such as manufacturing. Among the 134 wells drilled in crystalline rocks whose yield Ellis ascertained, only 17, or about 12.5 per cent, fm'nish less than 2 gallons a minute. It is probably a moderate estimate to state that not less than 90 per cent of the wells sunk in the crystalline rocks have given supplies suffi- cient for the use required. Wells may be unsuccessful not only as regards the quantity of the supply but also as regards the quality. The quahty of the waters from the drilled wells in the Southington- Granby area is in general good, but near the sea these wells are likely to yield brackish or salt water. Although wells are reported by Ellis that obtain water at aU depths from 15 to 800 feet, the largest percentage of failures is in weUs over 400 feet deep. This is due to the smaller number and greater tight- ness of joints at considerable depths. From a consideration of the greater cost per foot of drilling at depth and of the lesser probabili- ties of success it is concluded that ^'if a well has penetrated 250 feet of rock without success the best policy is to abandon it and sink in another, locahty ." Gregory ,2^ speaking of wells drilled in sandstone, says that ^' of the 194 weUs recorded * * * only 11, or 5.6 per cent, failed to obtain 2 gallons a minute, the minimum amount desired for domestic pur- poses." The average yield of 112 of these weUs is '^27 J gallons a minute, the largest being 350 gallons and the smallest two-thirds of a gallon." In view of the decreasing abundance in which fissures are foimd as depth increases and of the greater cost of deep drilling it is considered "good practice to abandon a well that has not obtained satisfactory suppUes at 250 to 300 feet." w Gregory, H. E., and Ellis, E. E., Underground-water resources of Connecticut: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 232, p. 91 , 1909. "Idem, p. 130. 54 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. Statistics of drilled wells in various kinds of rocks in the Southington-Granhy area. Averag e yield. Average depth. Kind of rock. Gallons per minute. Number of records. Total. To rock. To water. Feet. Number of records. Feet. Number of records. Feet. Number of records. Stratified drift 12.5 24.1 2 11.3 2 37 1 18 61.4 ' 134. 5 127.6 145.8 9 68 5 24 - 19.7 25.9 3 Sandstone 29.6 39.6 27.8 57 4 22 28 Trap Crystalline rocks 20.0 11 19.6 58 129.6 106 30.5 85 23.9 42 Kind of rock. Nnmber of wells yielding, in gallons per minute— Total number of wells. Average yield (gallons 0-5 6-15 16-25 26-50 51-100 Over 100 per minute). Stratified drift' Sandstone 13 1 10 2 8 5 6 1 6 1 2 1 2 2 37 1 18 12J 24 Trap 2 Crystalline rocks lU 24 15 7 7 3 2 58 19 No measurements of the yield of drilled wells were made by the writer, but many of the owners were able to give the figures deter- mined by the drillers. The yield of drilled wells at some manufac- turing plants is rather accm-ately known. SPRINGS. In developing a spring as a source of water supply it is advisable to make some sort of a substantial collecting basin. No material which may rot should be used. Rotting works in two ways to injure a spring supply — it adds objectionable decayed organic matter, and it weakens the walls so as to allow the entrance of surface water which may be polluted by persons or animals that come to the spring. No spring should be so arranged that water must be dipped from it, as this process allows the transfer of pollution from the hands. The reservoir should be covered and a pipe provided to carry off the flow, as this method not only prevents pollution from the hands but also prevents treading and pollution by cattle around the spring. If the spring is used for watering stock a pipe and trough should be provided. In order that the water may enter the reservoir readily its bottom should be thoroughly perforated or it should have no bottom, but it should have stout, water-tight walls extending a foot or two above and below the ground level to prevent the entrance of surface wash. Where it is desirable to use the full yield of the spring, the shape of the springy area determines the shape of the reservoir. The springs RECOVERY OF GROUND WATER. 55 of tHe Satan's Kingdom Spring Water Co., in New Hartford (No. 61, PI. Ill), are in a line running along at a uniform level on a steep slope. A trench about 25 feet long, 6 feet wide, and 3 feet deep was dug, and walls of concrete 1 foot thick and 4 feet high were built in it to form a collecting gallery. Sides and roof of frame construction were put on to keep out foreign matter. The shape allows nearly complete recovery of the water. If only a moderate supply is needed the reser- voir may be of any convenient shape. Small springs may be devel- oped by setting a length of large pipe of concrete, iron, or vitrified tile vertically in the ground. Such tile is superior to a wooden cask or box because of its greater durability and lesser expense in the long run. Whatever the type of the reservoir, it should be provided with a cover or roof that will effectually keep out leaves, sticks, wind-blown dirt, and small animals. It was possible to make rough measurements of the yield of a num- ber of springs well distributed throughout the Southington-Granby area. Some were measured by observing the time necessary to fill a vessel of known capacity, and the overflow streams of some could be measured by means of floats. The yield of two or three large springs whose water is bottled and sold was learned from the owners. In the following table spring No. 30 in Bristol and spring No. 61 in New Hartford are groups of springs rather than individual springs. The remaining 32 springs have an average yield of nearly^ gallons a minute and range from a quarter of a gallon to 40 gallons. Yields of springs in Southington-Granby area. Town. No. on PI. ni. Yield (gallons per minute). Town. No. on PL in. Yield (gallons per minute). Avon 22 46 59 11 30 87 121 15 26 36 17 26 84 9 82 107 3 2 2 .5 1 100 20 1£ 2.5 5 6 .5 .75 40 1 1 2.5 30 Hartland 13 42 67 125 59 61 9 4 6 36 52 35 48 52 59 79 52 3.33 Do Harwinton .25 Do Do 30 Barkhamsted Do 2 Bristol New Hartford 1.5 Do Do 250 Do Plymouth 2 BurMngton Prospect 1 Do Do 4 Do Do 6 Canton Do 3.5 Do Simsbury 10 Do Southington 12.5 Chesliire Do 2 Do Do 10 Do Do 1 Granby Wolcott 1 GROUND WATER FOR PUBLIC SUPPLY. Most of the pubhc supphes for cities and villages in New England are obtained by impounding streams, but a few come from wells or infiltration galleries. Supphes could be developed for many of the villages and smaller cities from bodies of stratified drift. 56 GHOtrisrD WATEH llsT gOtrTHIl^rGTOi?-GRAHBY AREA, COHN. Most ground-water systems for pubKc supply comprise one or more batteries of driven wells, connected by suction mains to pumping plants which discharge into small reservoirs. A few plants, however, use dug wells or infiltration galleries. Geologic conditions in New England do not afford adequate artesian supplies, as in some other parts of the country. The driven wells are similar to those described under '' Recovery of ground water" (p. 51), except that they are generally greater in diameter than domestic wells. They are so located that they will draw from as great an area as possible with the least amount of piping in consideration of the difference in the abun- dance of the supply throughout the field. If the direction of the under- flow is known the lines of wells are placed at right angles to it in order that the maximmn yield may be intercepted without inter- ference among the wells. In selecting a suitable place for a battery of weUs it is more im- portant to consider its topography and the character of the soil than to consider convenience in geographic situation or the apparent wetness of the soil. Sandy or gravelly plains of stratified drift or alluvium, especially those near lakes or streams, are promising places even though the surface may be rather dry. Wet grounds as a rule indicate the presence underground of an impervious layer that would prevent a large flow of water to driven wells. Glacial outwash plains and the flood plains of rivers should be thoroughly studied. Several tests weUs should be sunk and should be vigorously pumped in order to determine the water-bearing capacity of the soil at different points and depths. The pumping should be as heavy and as long continued as practicable, in order that any deterioration in the quahty or decrease in the quantity of the water may be detected. Analyses of samples collected at intervals and measurements of the yield should be made. The static level in open wells near the test weUs should be observed before, during, and after pumping tests for the purpose of ascertaining the amount and extent of drawdown of the water table and its rate of recovery. The source of the water may be rainfall on an adjacent area or underflow from some body of water or both. Water from a body of surface water is greatly improved in quality by passing slowly through a great mass of soil. Water derived chiefly from the absorption of rainfall by the soil has a temperature of 48° to 52° F., which is the general temperature of the earth below the depth of diurnal variation. Surface waters are much warmer in summer and colder in winter, so that a wide range of temperature in the driven-well water would indicate it to be of surface origin. The experience at many plants at which ground water is pumped into open reservoirs is that there is likely to be a heavy growth of algae, even more than where surface waters are thus stored Hoofing GROUND WATER FOR PUBLIC SUPPLY. 57 the reservoirs is found to reduce or eliminate algal growths, for they thrive only in abundant light and air. Roofed reservoirs also keep the temperature more nearly uniform. As roofing is expensive, how- ever, it is the usual practice to have much smaller storage for ground supplies than for surface supplies and to depend on the pumps to keep pace with the fluctuations in consmnption. An excessive amount of carbon dioxide, iron, ormanganese in some supplies has been troublesome. Carbon dioxide gave a good deal of trouble at the plant at Lowell, Mass.,^* for a time, and experiments were made to find a remedy. It was found that spraying the water under low pressure from small nozzles would aerate it and thus eUminate the gas. By another set of experiments, conducted at the same time, for the removal of iron and manganese, which had increased in amount as the draft on the supply became heavier, the conclusion was reached that '^the iron and manganese can be successfully and economically removed by limited aeration, passage through a coke prefilter not less than 8 feet in depth, operated as a contact bed at a rate of 76.5 milHon gallons per acre daily, and subsequent filtration throMgh sand at a rate of 10 milHon gallons per acre daily.'' The rate of filtration and the details of construction of the filter beds would be somewhat different with waters of different content of carbon dioxide, iron, and manganese. One of the largest water supplies in New England derived from wells has been developed at Lowell, Mass. Lowell's first water- works, built in 1870, comprised a filter gallery 1,300 feet long parallel to and 100 feet distant from Merrimack River, from which water was pumped to a distributing reservoir. The supply was about 900,000 gallons a day (1875), and as the daily consumption became greater a supplementary supply was pmnped direct from the river and passed through a sand filter. An epidemic of typhoid fever in 1890 and 1891 necessitated a better supply. Test weUs were driven at various places near the city, and finally a contract was awarded to the Cook Well Co. for a 5,000,000-gallon supply to be obtained by driven wells along River Meadow Brook. Forty-five 6-inch weUs of the open-end type, 47 to 67 feet deep, Vs^ere sunk by sand pumps and at first yielded 7,000,000 gallons a day but soon fell off to only 2,000,000 gallons. Fifteen 4-inch wells were added and increased the yield to 3,000,000 gallons, but the contractors con- sidered it impossible to get 5,000,000 gallons and abandoned their contract. In 1894 the Hydraulic Construction Co. of New York sunk by the jetting method 120 open-end 2-inch wells a mile upstream from the old wells. As the total yield from both well fields was less than 5,000,000 gallons a day it was necessary to pump river water to ^^ Barbour, F. H., Improvement of the water supply of the city of Lowell, a special report to the municipal council, 1914. 58 GROUND WATER IN SOtJTHlNGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. supply 7,000,000 gallons a day in 1895. In 1895 B. F. Smith & Co. drove 169 successful wells 27 to 40 feet deep at a third locality 150 to 350 feet from Merrimack River. The daily yield from this area, known as the Lower Boulevard Field, was about 4,000,000 gallons. Excessive corrosion of lead pipes in the city developed in 1899, and the State board of health attributed it to the high content of carbon dioxide in the water from the Cook wells. Consequently the Cook field and the field a mile upstream on River Meadow Brook were abandoned in 1900. Fifty-two wells driven in 1900 and 125 driven in 1901 supply the Upper Boulevard station. The system was ade- quate for the demand in 1902 and 1903, but the supply began to de- crease, and from 1904 to 1911 it was found necessary to use the Cook wells. A deterioration in quality due to overdraft was coincident with the decrease in supply. In 1911 118 new wells were added in the Boulevard field, so that there were then 450 wells available in this area, exclusive of a few that had been abandoned. The addition of these wells counteracted the overdraft, and for several years the supply was satisfactory. The wells that have been sunk since 1900 are of the closed-end type. They are lined with 2J-inch extra heavy iron pipe with a bottom sec- tion 38 inches long in which are bored 180 half -inch holes. A heavy brass wire wound spirally around the pipe separates it from a brass screen with vertical slots, 20 to the inch horizontally and 6 to the inch vertically. The bottom is screwed into a cast-iron driving point 4J inches in diameter that protects the strainer from abrasion. The wells are driven with a heavy drop hammer. As the soil in which the wells are driven is fine grained the wells have to be cleaned at intervals. Each casing is capped at the surface, and a connection with the suction main is made below the cap through a T. In general the wells are staggered 12 feet apart on alternate sides of the suction main and 4 feet away from it. That the water comes in large part from the river is shown by the seasonal range of temperature from 45° to 65° F., which is more pronounced than that of true ground water. The deterioration upon overdraft is presumably due to the fact that the water is then re- tained a shorter time in the soil and consequently loses less of its impurities.^® QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. ANALYSES AND ASSAYS. The chemical studies made in connection with this report comprise 50 assays and 31 analyses by S. C. Dinsmore, 4 analyses by Alfred A. Chambers, and 3 analyses made by other chemists and furnished by owners of wells and springs. The quantities are reported in parts per million. The results are given under the several towns. 28 Thomas, R. J., The Lowell waterworks and some recent improvements: New England Waterworks Assoc. Jour., vol. 27, March, 1913. QUALITY OP GROUND WATER. 59 CONSTITUENTS DETERMINED BY ANALYSIS. In the analyses by Mr. Dinsmore the following constituents were determined: Silica (SiOj), iron (Fe), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), carbonate radicle (CO3), bicarbonate radicle (HCO3), sulphate radicle (SO4), chloride radicle (CI), nitrate radicle (NO3), and total dissolved solids. In the analyses by Mr. Chambers the same constituents and also sodium and potassium together (Na + K) were determined. In the assays the following constituents were determined: Iron (Fe), carbonate radicle (CO3), bicarbonate radicle (HCO3), sulphate radicle (SO4), chloride radicle (CI), and total hardness as CaC03. VALUES COMPUTED. In the analyses by Mr. Dinsmore the following quantities were computed: Sodium and potassium (Na + K), total hardness as CaCOg, scale-forming ingredients, foaming ingredients, and the coefficient of corrosion. The computation of sodium and potassium was made by calculating the sum of the reacting values of the acid radicles (CO3, HCO3, SO4, CI, and NO3) and subtracting from it the sum of the reacting values of calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) . The re- acting value of a constituent is its capacity to enter into chemical combinations and is equal to the amount of it present multiplied by its valence and divided by its molecular weight. The excess of the acid radicles is considered to be chemically equivalent to the sodium and potassium. They are computed on the hypothesis that only sodium was present, by dividing the difference between the reacting values of the acids and bases by the reacting value of sodium. The result is reported as parts per million of sodimn and potassium. Total hardness was computed in the conventional terms of calcium carbonate by the following formula given by Dole: 30 H = 2.5Ca + 4.1 Mg The computations of the scale-forming constituents, and the foaming constituents, and of the coefficient upon which the proba- bility of corrosion is based, were made according to the following formulas by Dole : ^^ Scale-forming constituents = Sm + Cm+2.95 Ca+ 1.66 Mg. Foaming constituents = 2.7 Na. Coefficient of corrosion = 0.0821 Mg- 0.0333 CO3- 0.0164 HCO3. The symbols Sm and Cm represent the suspended matter and col- loidal matter in parts per million. 30 Mendenhall, W. C, Dole, R. B., and Stabler, Herman, Ground water in San Joaquin Valley, Calif.: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 398, p. 45, 1916. 31 Idem, p. 65. 60 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. In the assays the same values were computed, except the total hardness, which was determined ; and in addition the values of total solids were computed. The following formula by Dole^^ was used to compute the sodium (Na) equivalent to the sodium and potassium taken together: Na = 0.83 CO3 + O.4I HCO3 + O.7I 01 + 0.52 SO4-O.5 H The symbols represent the parts per million of computed sodium and of carbonate, bicarbonate, chloride, sulphate, and total hardness found by the assay. The total solids were computed by the following approximate formula of Dole: ^^ T. S. = Si02+1.73 CO3 + O.86 HCO3+I.48 SO4+I.62 CI The symbols represent the parts per million of silica and the car- bonate, bicarbonate, sulphate, and chloride radicles. In applying this formula to the assays it was necessary to set some arbitrary value for silica. Inasmuch as the average silica content in the analyses of ground waters from the Southington-Granby area was 13 parts per million, 15 parts per million was taken as the arbitrary value for silica. The estimate of solids is rough and is reported to the nearest 10 if above 100 parts per million and to the nearest 5 if below 100. The value representing scale-forming constituents was computed according to an approximate formula by Dole: ^* Scale-forming constituents = Cm + H The symbols represent the parts per million of colloidal matter and of total hardness in terms of CaCOg. Inasmuch as the colloidal matter is' essentially the same as the sum of silica and iron, the equation has been used in the equivalent form Scale-forming constituents = SiOj + Fe + H The value of silica was taken arbitrarily as 15 parts per million, as in the computation of total solids. The ratio between calcium and magnesium is an unknown and variable one and introduces a further error. The results are reported to the nearest 10 if above 100, and to the nearest 5 if below 100. The same formula was used for computing foaming ingredients in the assays as in the analyses. 82 Mcndenhall, W. C, Dole, R. B., and Stabler, Herman, Ground water in San Joaquin Valley, Calif.: U.S. Gool. Survey Water-Supply Paper 398, p. 57, 1916. S3 Idem, p. 81. 8* Idem, p. 66. QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. 61 ACCURACY OF ANALYSES AND ASSAYS. The analyses in this report were all made substantially according to the methods outlined by Dole,^^ who gives also a discussion of accuracy of methods and results based on both theoretical and prac- tical considerations. Assays were made as described by Leigh ton,^^* except for the use of solutions instead of solid reagents. The results obtained in assays are not all as accurate as the corresponding values obtained in analyses, but it has been shown ^^ that the classification of a water for domestic or boiler use or for irrigation is nearly always the same, whether based on an analysis or an assay. CHEMICAL CHARACTER OF WATER. The statement in the analytical tables under the heading '^Chemical character" shows the predominating basic and acid radicles. Bicar- bonate, HCO3, does not appear because for this classification it has been united with the carbonate and the two reported together as CO3. INTERPRETATION OF ANALYSES AND ASSAYS. In addition to the chemical interpretation discussed in the preced- ing section, the analyses and assays have been interpreted as regards their suitability for boiler and domestic use. WATER FOR BOILER USE. Three kinds of trouble in boilers — the formation of scale, foaming, and corrosion — are due to the nature and quality of the salt^in solu- tion in the water. Scale formation is due to the deposition of min- eral matter within the boiler as a result of heating under pressure and of evaporation. These deposits increase the fuel consumption, as they are bad conductors of heat, and they also decrease the capacity of the boiler. They are a source of expense and a potential cause of explosions. Scale is formed of the substances in the feed water that are insoluble or become so under the usual conditions of boiler opera- tion. It includes all the suspended matter, the silica, iron, alirnoi- num, calcium (principally as carbonate and sulphate), and magne- sium (principally as oxide but also as carbonate). Foaming is the formation of bubbles upon and above the surface of the water, and it is intimately connected with priming, which is the passage of water mixed with steam from the boiler. Foaming is believed to be due principally to sodium and potassium which remain 35 Dole, R. B., The quality of surfeice waters in the United States, Part I: U. S. Geol. Survey Water- Supply Paper 236, pp. 9-23, 28-39, 1909. 35a Leighton, M. O., Field assay of water: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 151, 1905. 3« Mendenhall, W. C, and others, Ground water in San Joaquin Valley, Calif.: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 398, pp. 43-50, 1916. 62 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. in solution after most of the other bases are precipitated as scale and which increase the surface tension of the water. The increased sur- face tension tends to prevent the steam bubbles from bursting and escaping. Other factors undoubtedly affect or cause foaming, but sodium and potassium are the chief causes. The principal ill effects of foaming are that the water carried over may injure the engine and that it may cause violent and dangerous boiling. Where waters that foam badly are used it is necessary to "blow off" the water at fre- quent intervals. Corrosion, or "pitting," is caused chiefly by the solvent action of acids on the boiler iron. Many acids have this effect, but the chief ones are those freed by the deposition of hydrates cof iron, aluminum, and especially of magnesium. The acid radicles that were in equi- librium with these substances may pass into equilibrium with other bases, thus setting free equivalent quantities of CO3 and HCO3; or they may decompose carbonates and bicarbonates that have been deposited as scale; or they may combine with the iron of the boiler shell, thus causing corrosion; or they may do all three of these things. Even with the most complete analysis this action can be predicted only as a probability. If the acid thus freed exceeds the amount re- quired to decompose the carbonates and bicarbonates it corrodes the iron. The danger from corrosion obviously lies in the weakening of the boiler, which may result in explosion. The formula for the corrosive tendency ^^ used in computations based on the analyses expresses the relation between the reacting values «rf magnesium and the radicles involving carbonic acid. If the coefl5.cient of corrosion (c) is positive the water is corrosive. If cH- 0.0499 Ca (the reacting value of calcium) is negative the mineral constituents will not cause corrosion. If c + 0.0499 Ca is positive corrosion is uncertain. These three conditions are indicated by the symbols C, N, and (?), respectively. In working with the assays it is necessary to restate these con- ditions, as the amounts of magnesium and calcium are unknown. One-fiftieth of the total hardness is equivalent to the reacting value of calcium and magnesium, and H divided by 230 (0.004 H) is equiv- alent to the reacting value of magnesium on the assumption that Ca = 6 Mg, a ratio in which magnesiiun is given its smallest probable value in relation to calciiun. The reacting values of carbonate and bicarbonate are represented, respectively, by 0.033 CO3 and 0.016 HCO3, ^^^ coefficients being the ratio of the valence of each radicle to its molecular weight. The following propositions result: If 0.033 CO3 + 0.016 HCO3^0.02 H, then the water will not cause corrosion. 37 Mendenhall, W. C, and others, op. cit., p. 66. QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. 63 If 0.033 CO3 + O.OI6 HCO3<0.004 H, then the water is corrosive. If 0.033 CO3 + 0.016 HCO3 < 0.02 H but > 0.004 H, then corrosion is uncertain. Scale formation, foaming, and corrosion are the principal criteria in rating waters for boiler use, but their evaluation is a matter of personal experience and judgment. The committee on water service of the American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Asso- ciation has offered two classifications by which waters in their raw state may be approximately rated, but, as its report states, ''It is difficult to define by analysis sharply the lines between good and bad water for steam-making purposes.'' The committee's table, which is given below with the amounts changed to parts per miUion, was used in rating the waters for this report. In every case the less favorable of the two ratings was given. Ratings of water for boiler use according to proportions of incrusiing and corroding conr stituents and according to foaming constituents. Incrusting and corroding con- stituents. Foaming constituents. Parts per million. Classifl- cation.a Parts per million. Classifi- cation. 6 More than — Not more than— More than — Not more than — 90 200 430 Good. Fair. Poor. Bad. 150 250 400 Good. Fair. Bad. Very bad. 90 200 430 150 250 400 o Am. Ry. Eng. and Maintenance of Way Assoc. Proc, vol. 5, p. 595, 1904. b Idem, vol. 9, p. 134, 1908. WATER FOR DOMESTIC USE. Waters which do not exceed 200 parts per million hardness and which are sufficiently low in mineral matter to be palatable are satis- factory for drinking and cooking. Although waters high in harden- ing constituents can be used for drinking purposes they are unsatis- factory for cooking and laundering. Hardness exceeding 1,500 parts per million makes water undesirable for cooking and water much softer than that consumes excessive quantities of soap in washing. Ap- proximately 200 parts per million of carbonate, 250 parts of chloride, and 300 parts of sulphate can be detected by taste. The amounts of these constituents which can be tolerated by a human being are considerably higher than the above, but waters exceeding 300 parts per million of carbonate, 1,500 parts of chloride, or 2,000 parts of sulphate are apparently intolerable to most people. It must be pointed out, however, that local conditions and individual preference largely determine the significance of the terms ''good" or "bad" as applied to the mineral quality of water for domestic use. 64 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. CONTAMINATION. Water supplies may become contaminated in various ways, chiefly by industrial and manufacturing wastes, by the washing in of surface water, or by sewage. Industrial wastes rarely pollute ground-water supplies, and sea water, which along coasts is a source of contamination, need not be considered in this report, because of its nonexistence in the Southington-Granby area. Sewage is a very serious danger and is of various sorts, including animal excreta, human excreta, and kitchen wastes. Wells should never be con- structed where there is any possibHity of underflow from barnyards, privies, or kitchen drains. No spring that is thus wrongly situated should be used. No barnyard, privy, or kitchen drain should be built where it might pollute a well or spring. No rule can be laid down as to the direction of flow of the ground water, but it is generally the same as the direction of slope of the surface of the ground. In addition to making safe the location of a well or spring, pre- cautions should be taken to prevent the entrance of surface wash. The ground around dug wells should be filled in enough to make rain water and drippings flow away from them and not back into them. An excellent construction is a concrete apron several feet wide on all sides, and sloping away from the well. Cattle should be kept away from wells and springs by a fence, and they should be watered at a trough some distance away. Drilled wells should have the iron casing set firmly into the bedrock to prevent entrance of shallow water, and the casing should extend at least a foot above ground to keep out surface wash. TABULATIONS. The results of the analyses and assays and the results of the compu- tations based on them are tabulated by towns. Tables of analyses and assays comparing the waters from the various water-beariQg formations are given on page 65. Within each table the data have been grouped according to the formation ia which the waters occur, and the average amounts of each constituent are reported together with the number of analyses or assays used. The group of analyses headed '^ schist^' comprises only waters from schists, but the group of assays with the same heading includes one sample from gneiss and one from granite gneiss. The analysis of water from well No. 86, in Plymouth, was omitted, as it is abnor- mally high in chloride and in sodium and potassium. The analysis of water from well No. 69, in Harwinton, and the assay of water from well No. 14, in Hartland, were also omitted from the tables of averages because they are abnormally high in total solids and ia almost every constituent. A study of the table of averages of analyses shows that the schist waters are in general the best, and that the till and stratified-drift QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. 65 waters are both of nearly as great excellence. The sandstone waters run comparatively high in iron, calcium, magnesium, bicarbonate radicle, total hardness, and scale-forming ingredients. The table of averages of assays corroborates that of analyses, except that it indicates no great difference in quality between sand- stone waters and stratified-drift waters. Although the former con- tain less total dissolved solids, constituents that are significant in economic interpretation are present in greater amounts than in the stratified-dfift waters. Averages of groups of analyses of waters from the water-bearing formations of the Southington-Granhy area. [Parts per million except as otherwise designated.] Formation. O 1— t O Sodium and potassium (Na+K). 9 1-1 ^-N o © a ohri C3C0 CO o ® 1 o -s O o EH bo h o -t-3 to® H '+3 §"= o as Schist 14 14 14 13 0.51 .71 .17 .12 7.9 29 12 12 2.2 4.6 3.3 3.3 6.0 12 5,2 10 0.0 .0 .0 .0 30 77 36 41 5.1 21 7.0 8.9 4.8 8.9 7.0 9.6 4.5 18 8.9 12 62 144 74 87 29 90 .42 44 42 104 53 55 16 32 14 27 4 Sandstone 5 Till 17 Stratified drift in Averages of groups of assays of waters from the water-hearing formations of the Southington-Granhy area. [Parts per million except as otherwise designated.] Formation. Schist Sandstone Till Stratified drift f^ 0.12 .09 .20 .05 ©o o <» (-1 C3 .2^ 45 «2 52 84 03t/2 ego 55 t^ 68 105 86 121 'So cSO o 1^ 40 65 42 48 bJO « '^ bo© i=i5 Ph 10 27 30 66 C3i^ J)3 1,040 60. 5 1 Unfailmg; piped to house. 900 54 Unfallhig; masonry reservoir. «S() 02 Piped to house. 1,000 51 Fails. 500 Piped to house; for analysis see low. )>e- 400 50 Piped to house. 425 5S Do. QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. Ill the followiiio; tabic arc given .the results of two analyses and two assays of samples of ground water collected in Barldiamsted. The waters are soft, are low in mineral content, and are calcium- carbonate in type with the exception of No. 39, water from dug Well at parsonage, whicli is sodium-carbonate in character. They are suitable for most domestic and industrial needs. In boilers they would yield only small amounts of scale and would give no trouble from foaming. Chemical composition and classijlcation of ground waters in Barkhamsted. I Paris per million; samples ei>llec(ed Nov. 30, 1915; S. C. Dinsraore, analyst. Numbers at heads of columns refer to corrwpondlng numbers on VI. Ill; see also records corresponding in immber, pp. 7{>-S0. ] Silica (SiOa) Iron ( Fe) Calcium (Ca) Maf^nesiinn (Mg) Sodium and potassium (Na-|-K) <* Carbonat e radu'lo {VO3) Pioarbonat radicle (IICO3) Suli-hal radicle (S04) eiilorido radicle (Cl) Nit ra ( e radicle (N Os) Tot al dissolved solids Tot a 1 hartincss as CaCOs Scjili^forming constituents^ Foamhig constituents*' Chemical character Probabilit y of corrosion^ Qualit y for boiler use Quality for domestic use Anal3rses." 30 12 .04 7.5 2.1 7.1 .0 44 3.7 2.0 .0 54 38 19 (\\-C03 N Good. Good. (vl 10 Trace. 8.0 2.1 .5 .0 20 3.7 5.0 3.0 43 rf29 37 1 Ca-COs CO Good. Good. Assa3rs.& 39 f71 Trace. Trace. tf84 29 45 40 Na-COa N Good. Good. a For methods used in analyses and accuracy of results, see pp. 59-61. ft Approximations; for methods used in ivssaj's and reliability of results, see pp. 59-61. c Sample colloctod November 20, 1915. rf Computed. ' Based on computed value; N— noncorroslve; (?)-» corrosion uncertain. 2 26 Trace. 6 d47 25 40 10 Ca-COs CO Good. Good. BRISTOL. 81 PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES. There are no public water supplies in Barkliamsted, except a small communal system that supplies a number of houses in River ton and obtains its water from a group of wells on the hillside southwest of the village. The reservoir which the Hartford Board of Water Commissioners is constructing on East Branch of Farmington River is not to supply water for general consumption but is to augment the summer flow of Farmington River, in order to compensate the owners of power rio^hts for the loss of flow that will result from the utilization of Nepaug River for public consumption in Hartford. (See p. 166.) Should it ever become desirable to have public supply in Bark- hamsted it would be practicable to develop such a supply by build- ing a dam on Beaver Brook or Morgan River. Abundant supplies could undoubtedly be pumped from batteries of driven wells along either branch of Farmington River, but the cost of pumping would preclude competition with surface supplies. BRISTOL. AREA, POPULATION, AND INDUSTRIES. Bristol is near the southwest corner of Hartford County. The principal settlement is the city of Bristol, near the center of the town. Forestville, in the eastern part, is a good-sized village, and near the northeast corner is a small settlement sometimes called Polkville and sometimes Edgewood. The city of Bristol was incorporated in 1911 and is coextensive with the town. There are post offices at Bristol and Forestville, but the rest of the town is served by four rural-delivery routes. The Highland division of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad crosses the town from east to west and has stations at Forestville and Bristol. The Plainville & Bristol Tramway Co. has trolley lines connecting Bristol with Terr3^ville, Forestville, Plain viUe, and Compounce Pond. The area of Bristol is about 27 square miles, of which about 35 per cent is woodland. Within the town there are about 155 miles of roads and streets, in- cluding 8 miles of the bituminous-macadam State trunk-line highway between Thomaston and Plainville and 3| miles of State-aid road from the northern part of the city northeastward toward Farming- ton station. In the eastern part of the town road building is diffi- cult on account of large amounts of sand, and in the western two- thirds of the town there are a number of bad grades, but the roads are in general very good. The territory which is now Bristol, together with Burlington, was taken from Farmington in 1785 and incorporated as Bristol. In 1806 Burlington was taken from Bristol and separately incorporated. 187118°— 21— wsp 466 6 82 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. In 1920 the population of Bristol was 20;620. The table shows the changes in population from 1790 to 1910. The decrease from 1800 to 1810 was due to the cession of Burlington and does not indicate a loss of population, as the towns together grew in that decade from 2,723 to 2,895. The only loss in population in Bristol was from 1810 to 1820. Prior to 1810 Bristol had dominated the clock industry of this region, but in the next decade Plymouth took the lead because of certain superior patents owned there, and many of the Bristol people moved to Plymouth. Population of Bristol, 17 90-1910. a Year. Population. Year. Population, Year. Population. 1790 2,462 2,723 1,428 1,362 1,787 1840 2,109 2,884 3,436 3,788 1880 5,347 7,382 9,643 13,502 1800 1850 1890 1810 1860 1900 1820 1870 1910 1830 a Connecticut Register and Manual, 1915, p. 652. • There is some farming in Bristol, but by far the greater portion of the population is dependent on manufacturing. The principal products are metallic and include bicycle and automobile parts and accessories, clocks, watches, steel fishing rods, brass goods, and aU sorts of malleable and gray iron castings. There is also some laiit- ting of underwear. As Bristol's manufacturing industries are pros- perous and produce goods of a staple character it is probable that the city will continue to grow in population. Bristol is one of the few towns in Connecticut in which there has ever been any mining. In the northeast corner of the town there is a small amount of copper ore which has been worked at different times. SURFACE FEATURES. The eastern part of Bristol is a portion of the plain on which Plain- ville, Farmington, and Southington lie, but the rest of the town is very hilly and is part of the western highland of Connecticut. The rocks underlying the eastern part are sandstones and shales which have been worn down so that the surface is only >200 to 400 feet above sea level. Prior to the glacial epoch the relief was probably some- what greater. The ice wore off the high points and with the material thus obtained filled the depressions to some extent, partly with ice- borne and partly with water-borne detritus. The water-laid fill is restricted to areas less than 250 feet above sea level in this portion of the lowlands, and it forms a weU-developed plain. Above 250 feet rise rock drumlins, gently rounded hills with roughly elliptical ground plan; they have rock cores but are mantled with till. The big area BRISTOL. 83 of till in Bristol, Plain ville, Burlington, and Farmington shown on the map (PL II) is a compound rock drumlin. At ForestviUe it is cut across by Pequabuck River, south of which it is farther continued as a series of rock drumlins which may be traced as far as New Haven. This ridge has been called the Quinnipiac Ridge by Davis,'*^ who believes that its prominence is due to heavy sandstone beds which have resisted weathering more than the adjacent shale. The lowland is bounded on the west by the escarpment of the highlands. South Mountain, near the Wolcott line, is 1 ,020 feet above sea level, or about 800 feet above the plain, but to the north the escarpment is lower. Bristol and Polkville are underlain by a variety of granite, which, although more resistant than the sandstone of the lowlands, has not withstood erosion as well as the schist to the west and southwest. Consequently, Bristol and Polkville lie in a depres- sion intermediate in altitude between the lowlands and the adjacent highland areas. The northwestern, western, and southwestern parts of Bristol are characteristic highland areas. In the southwest corner, for example, there are five hilltops that range from 980 to 1,020 feet above sea level and mark a plateau which formerly was very extensive but is now worn away except for a few such residual fragments. Chippen HiU, northwest of Bristol, is also a remnant of the old plateau. The vaUey of Pequabuck River west of Bristol is notable for the great banks of sand and gravel plastered against the rock slopes. Some of the cuts made in the construction of the railroad expose sand banks 150 feet high. Plate IV, B, shows such a cut IJ miles east of TerryviUe station. The sand and gravel deposits extend over an area bounded on the south by the Pequabuck and on the north and west by the 650-foot contour, approximately, as shown on Plate II. The eastern boimdary runs through the city of Bristol in a north-south direction. This whole mass of stratified drift is higher than that of the lowland, and much of it is a great deal higher. It also differs in that thin clay and silt beds, horizontal in position and of considerable lateral extent and continuity, are found in it. These features indicate that the sediments were deposited in rather quiet waters, very Ukely those of a lake. The most probable explanation of a lake in this position with its water level 400 feet above the plain to the east is that it must have been held up byvthe ice. During the recession of the continental glacier from this region there was, pre- sumably, a lobe which projected from the general front of the ice sheet and extended from a point at least as far north as Polkville southward to South Mountain and dammed Pequabuck River and its tributaries, making a lake. Because of the rainy cHmate and the «> Davis, W. M., The Triassic formation of Connecticut: U. S. Geol. Survey Eighteenth Ann. Kept., pt. 2, p. 183, 1898. 84 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. melting of much ice the streams tributary to the lake were vigorous and easily cut into the unconsolidated till and carried much sediment. The deposits seem to be rather like deltas; some of the coarser beds are very steep and highly cross-bedded like foreset delta deposits, and some of the finer ones are nearly horizontal like bottom-set delta deposits. It is probable that the valley was never filled but was merely fringed with deltas on the northwest and west sides. Had the valley been completely filled and then cut down to its present size the material would probably have been deposited as a huge allu- vial fan opposite the point where the Pequabuck now debouches onto the lowland. No such cone-shaped mass is found there, and the plain is, instead, very flat. Pequabuck River has, however, cut away some of the deposits, especially at the foot of the slopes. A quarter of a mile east of Fitzpatrick's spring (No. 30, PL III), on the north side of the road, is a sand pit, which is illustrated in Plate V, A. The sands have been cut away below by the stream, thus causing small ava- lanches. In the process faults and folds have been made. The faults in these unconsolidated materials are accentuated by the presence along them of small amounts of clayey matter, which, as the clay is darker and crumbles less easily than the sand, are somewhat promi- nent. Two sets of intersecting faults are shown in the upper part of the view, and. folded beds at the bottom. In the northeastern part of the city of Bristol, on North Street an eighth of a mile west of the end of the North Street troUey line, is a high bank in which a section of beds of probable lacustrine origin is exposed. Similar clayey beds were found in a railroad cut half a mile east of Fitzpatrick's spring. Pequabuck River, a tributary of Farmington River, flows eastward across Bristol about 2 miles from the southern boundary. Mr. C. W. BueU, of Bristol, supplied the following figures on the flow of this stream, derived from measurements made by weir about a mile below the TeiTyville railroad station. The average flow for the year is cal- culated at about 22 second-feet. Flow of Pequabuck River near Terry ville station. Month. Second-feet. Month. Second-feet. Month. oecond-feet. January 38 34 38 23 May 20 17 8 5 SpptPTnbPT 7 February June October 10 March July November 22 April August December 36 Formerly there were a number of water powers on the Pequabuck, and these gave Bristol its original impetus in manufacturing. Most of them have now been outgrown and are abandoned. U, S, GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 4G0 PLATE V A. FAULTED AND FOLDED STRATIFIED DRIFT IN THE FILL OF PEQUABUCK VALLEY. B. KETTLE HOLE AT BURLINGTON CENTER. 1 BRISTOL. 85 Marsh Brook, which flows across the northwest corner of the town and then through Plymouth and into Pequabuck River, was also studied by Mr. Buell. He made 39 weir measurements between June 2, 1909, and May 31, 1910. These measurements were well distrib- uted and indicated an average flow of about 2^ second-feet. North Branch flows southward through Bristol about 1 J miles from the eastern boundary and enters the Pequabuck at Fores tviUe. Sev- eral float measurements were made on this stream and its tributaries, and the results are given in the table below. The point at which each measurement was made is indicated by bearing and distance from a well near by. (See PI. III.) Floio of North Branch and ils tributaries. Place. Date. Flow (second- feet). \ mile south of well No. 100 Sept. 24,1915 do 3.7 J mile west of well No. 115 5.7 500 feet south of weU No. 91 do .7 400 feet west of weU No. 126 Sept. 30, 1915 Sept. 25,1915 5.4 Between wells Nos. 187 and 188 .1 WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. Underlying Bristol there are three varieties of bedrock — the Hoosac schist, the Bristol granite gneiss, and red sandstone of Triassic age. There are several wells in the town that obtain water from the gneiss and sandstone, but none which draw from the schist. ScTiist and gneiss. — The Hoosac schist is a typical mica schist, light to dark gray with a silvery sheen, and very fissile. It is essentially composed of good-sized flakes of mica, both black and white, and of granules of quartz. The mica flakes are roughly parallel to one another and give the rock its prominent cleavage. The forces which metamorphosed the schist also produced joints in great number, so that fissures of large and small size abound. Many of these un- doubtedly carry water which has percolated into them from the over- lying soil and which might be recovered by means of drilled wells. The areas underlain by the Hoosac schist comprise the highest por- tions of the town, a triangular patch of about a square mile in the northwest corner, a narrow strip along the margin of the lowlands, and a strip a mile wide along the Wolcott town line. The Bristol granite gneiss constitutes the bedrock of the rest of the highland portion of Bristol and consists essentially of feldspar and black mica with or without quartz. The quartzose phase is granitic and the quartz-free phase dioritic. Mashing has altered the simple granular texture of the rock and made it gneissoid. These changes 86 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. CD S •00 Is ii BRISTOL. 87 were accompanied by the production of fissures and joints, from which a number of the drilled wells of Bristol obtain water. Four such wells are tabrJated on page 93. Sandstone. — The lowland eastern portion of Bristol has red sand- stone and shale as bedrocks. The valley of North Branch is probably underlain by more shaly rock than the ridge which follows the eastern town line. No such crushing as characterizes the Hoosac schist has occurred in these rocks, but joints and fissures have been abundantly formed as a result of block faulting and tilting to the east. In these joints and in the pores of the coarser sandstone beds there is water which may be obtained by drilled wells. Though no prediction as to the likelihood of obtaining a satisfactory supply at any particular point can be made, the probability of success is high. Three drilled wells in sandstone, all successful, were visited, and the information obtained is given in the table on page 93. Stratified drift. — Under the heading ''Surface features" the distri- bution and origin of till and stratified drift, the two kinds of surface material in Bristol, have been discussed. The wells in stratified drift are not as successful as in .other towns in the Southington-Granby area, because much of this material is on steep slopes from which the water drains readily. In 141 dug wells the depth to water ranged from 4.3 feet in well No. 289 (PL III) to 44.8 feet in well No. 234, and the average was 16.9 feet. The measure- ments were made in September and October, 1914, after a long drought, so that the water table was unusually low. Nine other weUs visited were completely dry. Information as to reliability was obtained for 40 wells, of which 14 fail and 26 are nonfailing. Till. — The weUs dug in tiU that were visited in Bristol average 15.6 feet in depth to water, the range being from 3 feet in well No. 143 to 38.2 feet in well No. 61. In all 138 wells dug in till were measured. Of these 5 were dry, 12 more were said to fail, and 37 were said to be nonfaihng. The rehability of the remaining 84 wells was not ascertained. RECORDS OF WELLS AND SPRINGS. In the following tables the numbers in the first column of each table refer to the serial nmnbers on the maps (PI. Ill and fig. 20). It was found necessary to give a larger map of Forestville because of the great number of weUs to be recorded. On the enlarged map are shown wells Nos. 185 to 302, 305, and 306. Some of these are also plotted on Plate III for convenience in cross reference. 88 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. Dug wells ending in till in Bristol. No. on PI. Ill or fig. 20. Owiior. Topo- praphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to water. Method of lift. Remarks. 1 Slope.. . ...do Feet. 810 830 880 885 880 885 880 810 820 700 825 825 795 670 070 605 070 050 700 720 3S0 385 390 395 400 920 920 940 940 950 940 945 020 400 400 410 400 460 450 455 320 380 390 305 300 320 320 280 285 300 335 310 305 275 295 295 275 200 Feet. 12.0 11.8 11.3 16.0 11.5 27.3 17.1 8.8 17.9 11.4 19.7 16.1 20. 3 19.1 19.5 24.1 25.7 10.5 29.9 18.0 22.5 24.0 18.3 29.6 27.3 IS. 8 23.0 20.0 29. 9 25. 20.5 21.5 33.7 20.1 21.8 15.9 19.5 20.5 40.0 23.2 13.7 27.0 24.3 18.0 10.0 24.7 11.0 10.2 24.1 33.5 27.1 8.7 23.1 12.0 29.5 22.3 11.0 9. -^ Feet. 9.5 10.3 8.7 12.0 7.5 14.0 14.5 7.2 14.7 0.5 18.1 12.1 13.0 10.2 18.5 17.0 13.3 14.1 20.9 Dipping Unfailing. Do. Do.a Do. House abandoned. Fails. XTnfailing. Do. Do.?> Fails. Abandoned. Unfaihng. Fails. Unfailing, c Tiled. Unfailing. Do. Do. Fails. Unfailing. Unfailing. (0. Fails; abandoned. Fails. Unfailing. Tiled.if Fails; abandoned. Unfailing. T>o.h Abandoned spring. Unfaihng. Do. Do. Fails. Do. Unfailing. Fails. 2 3 4 M n u t Hope Chapel. ...do riateau . . .do Chain piunp House piunp 4a 5 ...do AVindlass rig Chain piunp Windlass rig Windmill 6 ...do 7 Slope... ...do 8 9 V alio v.. Slope . . . ... do House pump 10 11 Chain pump Windlass rig House pimip Deep-well pump Windlass and couii- terbalance rig. do 12 ...do.... 15 ...do.... 10 riateau.. ...do.... 17 17a School ...do 18 Slope. . . ... do ... . House pump 19 20 ...do 10.3 20.4 21.2 15. 4 24.4 22.9 10. 2 23.2 8.3 19.5 24.7 13.0 20.5 31.5 25.3 Chain pump and windmill. Windlass Windlass and coim- terbalance. House pump Windlass... 32 ...do.... 32a 33 • ...do.... ...do 34 ..do 35 ...do House pump Chain pump Windlass 40 Slope.. . do ... 47 48 Hilltop.. ...do .do 49 Deep-well pump AVindlass 50 . .do 50a . .do Chain piunp (f) 50b ...do 51 Slope.... ...do Two-bucket rig do 52 53 ...do 54 ...do '"'io.'i" 17.0 38.2 22.3 12.1 20. 3 22.4 17.4 14.3 21.1 ■■"■9.3" 23.1 31.8 22.9 8.1 22.0 9.9 27.0 IS. 3 9.1 7.7 Chain pump do 55 ...do 00 ...do Gravity sj'stem Windmill 01 ...do.... 03 R. W. Williams. Swale... Slope. . . . .do ... 72 70 Windlass... 70a :..do Windlass and house pump. Windlass 77 A. P. Pons ...do for 100 ...do Two-bucket rig (e) 101 Plain... ...do 102 (0. :::::. ..:..: 103 Slope. .. I'lain. . . Slope. . . riain... Slope. . . Fla^ Slope... . .do Windlass 105 106 C.E.Morris Two-bucket rig Deep- well pimip Windlass 108 109 110 112 Pitcher pump Deep- well pimip Two-bucket rig Pitcher pump Chain piunp 112a lie ...do 114 ...do 115 ...do.... j « Well No. 4 is in cellar of house; No. 4a is 00 feet southwest, t Well No. 17 is at house UX) feet southwest of road corner; No. 17a is at school house at southwest road corner. c Well No. 32a is 100 foot oast of No. 32. d Well No. 50 is at the house; No. 50a is 150 feet west of No. 50 and 9 feet higher; No. 50b is 300 feet south of a point halfway between 50 and 50a and 4J feet higher than 50. e No rig. / l>las(od 2 foot into rock. <; Winibnill with 10-foot wheel pump and 40-foot tower. Cost S93, plus freight on 1,700 poimds, $47 for dvniiniito, fuse, and caps for blasting into rock, and $54 for tile used above rock. 'h 2(X) foot south of well No. 70. ♦ Well No. 112a is at the house; No. 112 is 200 feet south. BRISTOL. Dug wells ending in till in Bristol — Contiiiuod. 89 No. on PI. Ill or fig. 20. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above soa level. Deiilh of woll. Doptli to water. Methodof lifl. Uomarks. 116 Slope. . . ... do Feet. 275 330 335 325 280 270 270 285 287 295 280 205 255 300 305 040 730 845 845 890 910 880 950 935 905 900 875 890 8()0 840 730 730 600 610 615 620 000 590 580 500 535 529 490 400 480 495 490 500 505 475 500 360 350 230 240 305 270 250 200 250 250 255 255 Feet. 23.5 21.1 28.3 27.3 10.9 • 18.3 15.0 21.4 29.0 16.6 16.9 16.1 13.2 26.9 24.9 23.5 18.8 18. 5 15.4 0.1 21.3 18.0 18.5 14.3 19.9 18.8 12.7 13.5 10.3 8.6 19.5 19.3 10.6 • 10. 15.7 10.0 10.4 17.0 10.3 27.1 30.0 24.2 13.4 21.4 10.8 11.7 24.8 19.9 21.1 19.7 17.1 18.7 13.7 13.3 20.9 25.8 20.5 9.3 14.4 23.8 35. 2 20.0 37.6 Feet. 1H.7 18.8 25. 2(i. 3 15.7 10.5 12.0 15. 9 19.3 12.0 15.5 14.9 12.0 24.2 ""'23."4' 18.0 13.0 14.1 3.0 18. 14.0 13.5 10.7 19.3 13.2 12.0 10.8 14.7 0.0 17.0 10.0 13.0 9.9 13.0 8.2 18.7 14.1 14.4 22.4 23 5 Windlass Unfailing. Do. 117 do 118 ...do IJocp-well pump Windlass 119 do 120 do HoiLso pump Chain pump Deep-well pump House pump do Do. 122 Plain. . . ...do 123 T)o. 124 Slope. . . ...do. . . . Fails. 125 133 Plain... Slope... Plain... . .do Windlass and house pump. House pump Two-bucket rig House pump Two-l)ucket rig Windlass... 1 nfailing. Do. 134 135 136 137 Slope... IlilUop.. Slope.. . Valley. . Hilltop.. Slope. . . Swale... Slope.. . . do 138 Do. 139 Two-bucket rig None Fails. 140 141 Windlass 142 do 143 144 Windlass. . . 145 Unfailing. 146 Hilltop.. Slope.. . ...do Windmill 147 148 Windlass 149 ...do ... Do. 150 ...do Pitcher pump and air-pressure sys- tem. House pump .....do 3 feet in rock. 151 . do . . . O'). 152 ...do.... ...do Unfailing. Do. 153 Sweep rig 154 ...do Tiled; abandoned. 155 do House pump (*)• 157 ..do 158 ..do House pump AVindlass and coun- terbalance. Windlass and house pump. Fails. 159 ...do Do. 160 .do ... 101 ...do Unfailing; tiled. Unfailing. (0. 162 do Windlass 162a do .. Sweep rig 163 ...do 104 do Tiled. 105 do 21.7 10.2 18.8 11.7 7.0 14.8 19.0 17.1 13.2 15. 3 10.7 ■ 12.4 12.0 20.1 23.5 Windlass 100 .do... Unfailing. Do. 107 ...do House pump 107a ...do Do. 109 do . House pump and deep- well pump. Windlass Do. 170 do Abandoned. 171 ..do Do. 171a 172 ...do.... ...do... Two-bucket rig House pump Windlass Unfailing. Unfailing; tiled. 173 do . Unfailing. 174 .do.. do 176 . .do... Abandoned. 180 Plain . . . do Chain pump Windlass 181 Tiled at bottom. 182 Hilltop- Slope. . . ...do 183 19.1 8.7 12.8 19.3 31.4 '"'36.'3' House pump 184 193 do . . Gravity system («). 225 . do 226 do . Windlass 227 do . . Chain pump Windlass Fails. 228 ...do.... i This well is on a steep slope; unfailing until the road 50 feet away down the slope was lowered. * Bottom of well planked to keep out quicksand. I On the north side of the road, midway between Nos. 102 and 163. m Midway between Nos. 106 and 107. n This well is dug into a body of till which fills a trough in the bedrock. The water is siphoned to the house, which is 200 feet east and 25 feet lower than the well. On October 9, 1915, it was flowing a little over 2i quarts a minute. 90 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GHANbY AREA, CONN. Dug wells ending in till in Bristol — Continued. No. on PI. Ill or fig. 20. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to water. Method of lift. Remarks. 229 Slope . . . ...do Feet. 250 240 230 220 300 300 240 275 275 275 280 255 250 240 220 225 260 260 Feet. , 6.7 15.2 18.1 17.7 12.0 28.7 18.7 26.0 29.3 ^ 27.7 19.3 26.2 16.0 32.4 5.0 5.9 13.0 15.9 Feet. 4.9 11.5 17.9 15.2 11.6 21.1 230 Windlass Tiled. 231 ...do Tiled at bottom; 232 ...do Windlass abandoned. Rock bottom. 251 ...do Chain pump Windlass 252 Hilltop.. Slope. . . ...do Tiled; unfailing. Tiled; fails. 260 do 264 25.2 22.6 23.0 14.6 21.6 12.5 28.8 3.8 3.2 11.6 13.9 Abandoned. 265 ...do Windlass Unfailing. 266 ...do Chain pump do 267 ...do 268 ...do do Do. 269 ...do.... Windlass Do. 279 ...do.... 280 ...do Chain pump Two-bucket rig Windlass Fails. 292 ...do Tiled. 305 ...do Tiled; abandoned. 306 ...do do Do, i Dug wells ending in stratified drift in Bristol. 22 Slope. .. riain... Slope. .. ...do Feet. 680 660 665 670 660 650 665 660 650 650 360 380 460 375 580 560 620 630 610 395 410 400 425 390 390 380 360 300 290 280 265 255 265 270 265 260 285 Feet. 14.5 10.9 32.2 19.8 15.5 6.6 26.6 24.1 30.0 22.8 17.3 29.1 22.7 19.6 18. 3 25.9 11.2 15.5 23.0 10.3 20.4 23.0 27.4 32.0 24.7 12.4 10.8 11.5 19.2 18.8 11.5 16.1 23.6 21.4 20.1 30.0 Feet. 12.4 10.2 28.9 18.5 14.5 4.5 23.1 22.0 27.5 21.7 14.4 22.6 20.3 14.1 16.5 25.1 10.6 14.0 16.2 9.3 19.3 20.7 26.1 22.5 20.7 11.0 10.0 8 16.2 12 17.1 8.5 1+.4 22.1 18.8 Windlass rig and house pump. One-buclvCt rig One-bucket rig and house pump. Windlass rig Deep- well pump Two house pumps. . . Unfailing. 23 24 Fails. 25 Unfailing.a 25a ...do 25b 26 ...do ...do 27 ...do Windlass rig 28 Plateau. ...do Fails. 29 Windlass rig do Tiled at bottom. 31 Vallcv.. Slope.... ...do 36 do Unfailing. Tiled; unfailing. Tiled. 37 do 38 ...do House pump Deep-well pump Windlass rig Windmill 40 ...do Unfailing. 41 43 Hubbard ...do Vallev.. Plain... Valley. . Slope.... ...do Fails. Tiled. 44 45 F. B. Hubbard.. Gasoline engine and pump. Windlass rig Fails. 56 57 Chain pump Windlass rig 58 ...do 59 ...do ...do Unfailing. Do.b 64 65 ...do Windlass rig Sweep rig Do.c 66 ...do 67 ...do One-bucket rig Steam pump House pump Steam pump Two-bucket rig (e) 73 78 Wallace Barnes Co. Plain.... Slope Plain... ...do Do. 79 82 J. H. Sessions & Son. {d). 83 ...do 84 ...do Chain pump Fails. So ...do Abandoned for 86 ...do Windlass rig do spring. Unfailing. Fails. 88 ...do ...do 89 Fails; reaches ledge. a Well No. 25 is at the house at the angle in the road; No. 25a is 100 feet west of and 7^ feet lower than No. 25; No. 25b is 200 feet west of and 17i feet lower than No. 25. b On Sept. 7, 1914, had 11 feet of water and on Sept. 27 had 9J feet of water; least observed in 13 years was 9t feet. c Blasted 5 feet into rock. d This well consists of a bricked chamber 6 feet in diameter and 16 feet high, connecting with the surface by 6 feet of large tile. Seven iron pipes, 10 to 25 feet long, with open ends, radiate from the chamber. e No rig. BRISTOL. Dug wells ending in stratified drift in Bristol — Oontiniied. 91 No. on PI. Ill or fig. 20. Owner. Topo- prfvphic liosition. Eleva- tion above sea lovol. Depth of well. Dejith to water. Method of lift. Remarks. 90 Plain... Slope... Plain.... Slope.... ...do Feet. 285 285 295 295 310 295 300 295 290 270 230 230 230 230 260 230 235 2G0 240 220 260 255 250 250 250 250 250 225 245 245 245 245 215 245 250 245 250 285 280 225 245 270 270 215 215 250 250 210 210 210 210 210 240 240 245 235 240 210 210 230 215 220 215 215 210 220 215 215 215 Feet. 25 A 28.7 19.7 8.3 15.1 38.7 38.7 42.6 31.6 19.1 11.4 10.8 8.2 9.6 14.5 15.2 5.5 26.8 23.1 19.8 17.5 10.7 23.2 16.0 34.3 21.5 19 4 11.0 20.7 20.7 20.7 17.6 17.4 32.2 16.3 13.9 10.5 17.3 17.5 13. 3 11.3 13.4 19.2 9.5 27.5 17.3 33.6 8.8 7.2 8.8 8.6 5.9 36.8 18.6 19.0 26.0 29.8 14.7 46.7 32.6 18.9 21.9 20.8 19.0 18.9 25.2 20.2 14.5 13.8 Feet. 24.7 27.9 18.1 4.9 13.6 37.7 36.0 41.6 '"ii'.o 10.7 7.1 7.8 8.7 10.8 11.2 4.9 26.4 20.1 15. 6 16.5 7.4 Two-bucket rig Windla.ss rig Two-bucket rig Chain pump do House vacant. 91 92 93 94 Unfailing. ' Unfailing; for analy- sis soo, p. 94. A.bandoncd.'* 95 95a C. W. Ilotchkiss. "M.'F.'Ford !'.'.'.".". Terrace . ...do ...do ...do Plain.... ...do Windlass rig do 96 do Unfailing. Do. 97 98 Two-bucket rig 126 127 ...do Chain pump do 128 ...do ...do Do. 129 AVindUu^s rig Cravily sy.stpm Deep-well piunp Tank pump Do. 130 Slope.... Plain.... ...do 131 132 177 ...do Two-bucket rig do 178 Slope.... Plain.... Slope.... J 'lain.... ...do (''). 179 Windlass rig do Unfailing, b 185 186 House pump Tiled; unMllng. Fails. 187 188 ...do 13.9 33.9 19.1 17.1 10.6 15. 6 18.6 19.3 16.8 16.4 31.9 "'Ua' 9.9 13.3 16.5 12.3 9.9 10.8 16. 9.0 Windlass rig do 189 ...do 190 ...do Deep-well pump Chain pump 191 192 ...do Slope- Plain.... ...do Unfailing. 194 Windlass rig . ..do 195 196 ...do Two house pumps. . . House pump Two-bucket rig do Chain pump Windlass rig and house pump. Windlass rig House pump Chai)! iHinip House pump do 197 ...do 198 ...do Fails. 199 200 201 ...do ...do ...do Abandoned. Fails; abandoned. 202 ...do Abandoned. 203 Hilltop . Slope — I'lain — ...do Tiled. 204 205 Do. 206 TT^nfailing. 207 Slope — ...do 208 Pitcher pump Do. 209 I'lain.... ...do Abandoned, 210 Fails; abandoned. 213 ...do 15. 8 30.1 7.4 6 7.4 6.9 4.9 33.5 14.4 16.5 22.7 25. 3 12.1 44.8 30.4 16.7 13.4 18.8 17.0 17.9 19.3 14.3 House pump Windlass rig House pump do 214 ...do Unfailing; tiled. 215 ...do 216 ...do 217 ...do do 218 ...do .. ..do 219 ...do Force pump 220 Terrace Plain... Terrace Slope... Terrace Plain... ...do Two-bucket rig do Tiled. 221 222 223 Windlass rig do 224 233 Abandoned, 234 Two-bucket rig Do, 235 Slope. . . ...do. . .. Do. 236 Windlass rig do Do. 237 Plain... ...do 238 . ..do Unfailing. 239 do . do . Tiled; unfailing. Abandoned. 240 do. . .do 241 Slope. . . do. . .. ..do Tiled. 242 243 . do... 13.0 11.3 Chain pump Windlass rig 244 ...do.... a At the north side of the house on the west side of the road and opposite well No. 95. b These wells abandoned on account of suspected contamination from the filter beds of the Bristol .sewage- disposal plant. 92 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. Dug wells ending in stratified drift in Bristol — Continued. No. on PI. Ill or fig. 20. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to water. Method of lift. Remarks. 245 Slope. . . do Feet. 220 260 255 260 265 290 270 265 240 260 250 230 220 270 265 270 225 225 225 220 230 225 220 250 245 220 205 210 200 205 200 195 195 195 245 250 245 250 245 250 250 250 255 Feet. 18.0 19.8 16.1 16.9 19.4 24.6 17 15 26.0 23.4 28.9 23.5 15.3 17.9 17.3 21.0 16.7 19.9 22.8 24.9 43.9 22.2 18.4 30.8 25.0 10.1 9.5 10.5 10.1 7.4 7.9 6.6 8.2 5.2 27.8 20.4 29.5 24.3 22.4 21.3 24.7 23.6 10 Feet. 16.4 17.3 13.6 14.0 18.1 18.3 Windlass rig do Unfailing ; a b a n - 246 doned. Tiled; abandoned. 247 ...do House pnmp do Tiled. 248 . do . Do. 249 ...do "Windlass rig Chain pump ...do Abandoned. 250 ...do 253 Hilltop.. Slope . . . .do Fails; tiled; aban- 254 doned. Fails. 255 22.5 22.2 25.0 21.2 13.6 15.9 13.0 14.0 12.1 16.8 19.1 21.2 42.3 19.2 12.2 29.4 22.9 7.9 8.5 7.7 7.9 6.3 5.7 5.5 6.3 4.3 27.0 17.1 23.9 22.3 21.9 20.2 22.3 21.6 7 Windlass rig .do Abandoned. 256 I. ..do Fails. 257 ..do 258 ...do Windlass rig Chain pnmp Tiled. 259 ...do Abandoned. 261 do Do. 262 ...do Windlass rig do 263 .do 270 ...do Chain pump do 271 ...do 272 ...do Tiled; abandoned. 273 .do Windlass rig do Abandoned. 274 do Do. 275 ...do do Do. 276 l...do 277 do Windlass rig Chain piunp do 278 do 281 do Do. 282 .Plain... dn ...do Do. 283 do 284 i do... do Do. 285 .do... Do. 286 do. ... Chain pump. Windlass rig House pump 287 ...do Unfailing. 288 ...do Tiled. 289 .do Abandoned. 294 ...do Two-bucket rig Pitcher prunp House pump Windlass rig House pump Deei)-well pump House pump do 295 .. do Tiled. 296 do Tiled; abandoned. 297 ...do 299 do. 300 do.. 301 do. .. Tiled; unfailing. 302 . do... Tiled. 304 dn. . Gasoline engine. . . . : W- 1 ft This well was dug through th,e following section: 8 inches loam, 2 feet clean sand, 2 feet clean gravel, 5 feet sand. It is about 8 feet in diameter and is pumped by a gasoUne-driven centrifugal pump. Water used for irrigating. Driven wells in Bristol. No. on PI. Ill or fig. 20. Owner. Topographic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to water. Remarks. 70 Ingraham Clock Co Narrow plain. Plain Feet. 340 225 245 250 Feet. 25-^0 35 30 30 Feet, (a) 25' 211 Fails. 212 do 298 do ('')• o 8 or 10 wells , abundant water found just above bedrock. b A 25-foot dug well deepened with a 5-foot drive pipe. Abandoned because of hardness of the water. BRISTOL. Drilled wells in BriMol. 93 No. on ri. Ill or fig- 20. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Ele- ■ level.' Depth to rock. Depth to water. Di- am- eter of well. Yield per min- ute. Water-bearing formation. Remarks. 13 62 69 71 290 291 S. N. Minor.... R. W. WiUiams Sessions Foun- dry Co. New Departure Manufactur- ing Co. M. T. Mccor- mick. J. Tegnon Hilltop.. Flat hiU- top. Plain.... ...do Slope ...do Feet. 810 445 375 320 255 265 255 Feet. *""90' 156 315 52 60 75 Feet. 6i 26 30-40 50 4 20 8 Feet. '""30' 4 12 26 In. 8 6 8-6 10 6 Gals. 2i 85-90 20 1 5 Granite gneiss .... do do do Sandstone do do Pneumatic system; for assay see p. 94. For assay see p. 94.'- 293 F. A. Peck ...do For assay see p. 94. a Not completed when visited; then 123 feet deep; water was obtained from a fissvu-e at about 100 feet depth. ft This well will flow 7 gallons a minute through a pipe to the level of a brook near by, but pumping in- creases yield. Used for boilers, etc. c Water enters from three fissures. Springs in Bristol. No. on PI. Ill or fig. 20. Owner. Topographic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Tem- pera- ture. Yield per minute. Remarks. 14 Slope Feet. 680 700 430 405 605 330 380 310 260 280 255 310 310 270 660 375 370 300 °F. 52 Gals. 21 Swale Unfailing. Piped to bottling works; for anal- ysis see p. 94. Used by C. E. Perkins for bottling. 30 39 E. J. Fitzpatrick... Foot of slope.. Valley 49 48 54 53 57 53 57 55 54 100 (?) 20 42 do Concrete basin; unfailing. 68 SlODft 74 J. L. Willcox ....Tdo Piped to house; unfailing. 75 do Piped to house; unfailing; basin 80 do blasted out of granite ledge; well 70 years old. Issues from a ledge. 81 do Reservoir 9 feet square by 4^ feet 87 Foot of terrace. Slope deep supplies 2 houses; issues from a ledge. Unfailing. 99 51 : 60 54 15 Issues from cracks in rock; unfail- 107 do ing. Spring house. 121 Foot of slope.. Slope 156 SuppUes a laimdry and a horse trough. Piped to house. Piped to house; laifailing; for assay see p. 94. Rubble and concrete basin 6 by 10 168 t do 175 303 A. S. Pons 0. H. Robertson... do do 54 60 (a) feet; frame coop; piped to house. a Fills a f-inch pipe. 94 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. Below are given two analyses and four assays of samples of ground water collected in Bristol. These waters are low in total solids and soft and are suitable for most domestic and industrial purposes. They would form little scale in boilers and would not cause foaming. Chemical composition and classification of ground waters in Bristol. [Parts per million; samples collected Nov. 17, 1915; S. C. Dinsmore, analyst. Numbers at heads of columns refer to corresponding numbers on PI. Ill or fig. 20; see also records corresponding in nxomber, pp. 88-93. J Analyses.a Assays. 6 c30 95 62 175 290 d293 Silica (SiOz) 18 «.31 4.8 1.1 £^1.5 7.6 14 .05 13 3.8 5.6 .0 44 7.4 7.0 8.0 76 /48 59 15 Ca-COs Good. Good. Iron (Fe) 0.50 Trace. Trace. Trace. Calcium (Ca) Magnasium (Mg) ..... Sodium and potassium (Na+K)/ 2 48 Trace. 5 9 66 Trace. 9 14 46 10 17 5 Carbonate radicle (CO3) Bicarbonate radicle (HCOs) . . . 66 Sulphate radicle ((SO4) Chloride radicle (CI) 2.1 1.5 Trace. 5 Nitrate radicle (NO3) Total dissolved solids A 37 /16 34 5 Ca-COs Good. Good. /64 43 60 (0 Ca-COs Good. Good. /86 49 65 20 Ca-COs N Good. Good. /97 45 60 40 Ca-COs (?) Good. Good. /80 Total hardness as CaCOs Scale-forming constituents /. . . Foaming constituents / • Chemical character 51 65 10 Ca-COs Probability of corrosion; Quality for boiler use N Good. Quality for domestic use Good. a For methods used in analyses and accuracy of results, see pp. 59-61. & Approximations; for methods used and reUabihty of results, see pp. 59-61. c Sample collected Dec. 12, 1895; analyzed by R. H. Chittenden; recalculated from hypothetical combina- tions in grains per U. S. gallon to ionic form in parts per million. d Sample collected Nov. 19, 1915. e FezOs+AlzOs. / Computed. ff Determined. A By summation. t Less than 10 parts per million, i Based on computed value; N=noncorrosive; (?)=corrosion uncertain. PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES. Bristol and ForestviUe are supplied with water by the works of the Bristol Board of Water Commissioners, which in 1914 took over the property of the Bristol Water Co., a private corporation organized in 1884. Water is delivered by gravity from reservoir No. 1, near the west boundary of the town half a mile north of Terryville station. The pressure ranges from 30 to 130 pounds to the square inch. The reservoir was constructed by damming a stream, floods 28.12 acres, and has a capacity of 57,000,( 00 gallons. A 500,000-gallon concrete reservoir and a 180,000-gallon steel standpipe on Federal Hill, north- east of Bristol, are connected with the mains of Bristol for supplying ForestviUe. Regulating valves half a mile east reduce the pressure for the mains in ForestviUe. Reservoir No. 3, which floods 4J acres about 1^ miles northwest of reservoir No. 1 and has a capacity of BUKLINGTON. 95 800,000,000 gallons, diverts water from Poland River into mains which carry it to reservoir No. 1. Reservoir No. 2 is on a small tributary which enters Poland River farther upstream, about a mile north of the Plymouth-Harwinton town line, has a capacity of 107,000,000 gallons and floods 1 1 acres. Reservoir No. 4 was made by enlarging Gridley Pond on Poland River a mile north of reservoir No. 2. The dam is of the concrete core-wall t3rpe and floods 42^ acres with 249,000,000 gallons. The water from reservoirs Nos. 2 and 4 is carried to No. 3 in an open brook. The area of the drainage basins that supply reservoirs Nos. 2, 3, and 4 is about 7^ square miles. According to Mr. A. W. Jepson, superintendent of water- works, there were in 1914 about 41 miles of mains, 133 hydrants, and 1-,961 service taps, and the consumption was 1,236,000 gallons a day. When the waterworks were taken over by the city it was estimated that with an increase of population proportional to that from 1900 to 1910 the supply would be adequate for 25 years. It is now about double the consumption.^^ At Polkville there is a small communal water supply in the expense and benefits of which eight families share. Water is conducted from the flume below the mill pond to the west by means of a 1 i-inch lead pir.e. Branch pipes, of -j^-inch size, conduct water from the main line to cisterns in the houses, from whicn water is pumped. As the pipe is of lead it has been found impracticable to carry water to the upper stories. Mr. George S. Osborn, who supplied the information, estimates the annual expense of maintenance at not over $5. BURLINGTON. AREA, POPULATION, AND INDUSTRIES.. Burlington is near the middle of the west boundary of Hartford County and lies west of Collins ville and Union ville. The east bound- ary in part follows Farmington River and in part approximates the margin of the highlands. Most of the west boundary is about on the divide between Naugatuck and Farmington rivers. The town has an area of 31 square miles, of which about three-fourths is wooded. There are settlements at Burlington, Whigville, and Burlington Sta- tion. At Burlington there is a church and general store. The New Hartford branch of the Northampton division (Canal Road) of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad follows the Burlingtoji shore of Farmington River and has a station at Burlington Station. There are about 55 miles of road in the town, all of dirt construction. Many of the grades are high, and southeast of Burlington village the roads are very sandy, but elsewhere they are fairly good. The road from Burlington Station to Harwinton by way of Burlington is par- ticularly well cared for. *^ Report of the city clerk, treasurer, etc., of the city of Bristol for the year ending Sept. 1, 1914, p. 80. 96 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. The territory of Burlington was taken from Bristol in 1806 and made a new to\vn. Burlington has suffered less loss of population than many of the Connecticut highland towns. The population in 1910 was 1,319, which is equivalent to a population density of 43 per square mile. The maximum population, 1,467, was recorded in 1810, when the town was first coimted separately. The population has been held by the factories at Collinsville and Urdonville, which have given employment to the people. ropulation of Burlington, 1810 1o 1910.fi Year. Population. Year. Population. Year. Population. 1810 1,467 1,360 1,301 1,201 1850 1,161 1,031 1,319 1,224 1890 1,3^2 1820 1860 liXK) 1,218 1,319 1830 1870 1910 1840 1880 o Connecticut Register and Manual, 1915, p. 652. The principal industry of Burlington is agriculture, though many of the inhabitants work in the factories at Collinsville and Unionville. SURFACE FEATURES. Most of Burlington is a plateau 900 to 1,000 feet above sea level, above which rise a few higher hills and ridges. In the northwest corner of the town the plateau is fairly well preserved, but elsewhere it is deeply cut by valleys, and on the east the slopes descend steeply to Farmington River and to a small area of lowland in the southeast corner. The general highness of the to^vn is due to the resistant character of its bedrocks, but it is more dissected than regions farther from the central lowland or from master streams. The topography has been modified by glaciation, the elevations having been worn doA\Ti and the depressions filled in. Southeast of Burlington village there are extensive deposits of stratified drift, which seem to be similar to the stratified drift of the Pequabuck Valley in Bristol. (See p. 83.) The extent of these stratified-drift deposits, which form a little plain aroimd Burlington village, is shown on Plate II. Back of the church at Burlington village is a fine kettle hole, 200 or 300 feet in diameter and 25 feet deep, formed by the melting away of a block of ice stranded in the stratified drift. A photograph of this kettle hole is reproduced in Plate V, B (p. 84). The southern part of Biu-lington is drained by the waters of trib- utaries of Pequabuck River, the largest of which feeds the Wliig- ville reservoir of the New Britain Board of Water Commissioners. The flow of this stream was estimated ou July 15, 1915, at 1 § second- feet. Parallel to this stream and half a mile west is a second un- named brook which on the same day flowed about 1 second-foot. BURLINGTON. 97 These streams unite IJ miles south of the Bristol line to form North Branch of Pequabuck River. Marsh Pond Brook, in the southwest corner of Burlington, feeds into Marsh Pond, which discharges into the Pequabuck at Terry ville. A quarter of a mile from the east, boundary and a mile from the south boundary of Burlington is a pond whose outlet was estmiated on July 14, 1915, to flow 1 J second- feet and ultimately discharges into Farmington River o])posite Unionville. A mile below the pond the outlet is joined by a small stream which on the same day was estimated to discharge 0.75 second-foot. Burlington Brook drains more of the town than any other stream and flows from the northwest corner across the town and joins the Farmington at Burlington Station. A careful estimate made half a mile above its mouth on July 20, 1915, indicated a flow of 1 1| second- feet. The discharge of Punch Brook, which enters Burlington Brook a little above Burlington village, was estimated on July 8, 1915, at 2} second-feet. The next tributary upstream, entering Burlington Brook from the south, was estimated on the same day to flow nearly 2 second-feet. Parallel to the north edge of the town is Phelps Brook, which IJ miles west of its junction with Farmington River is joined from the south by Clear Brook. Gagings made for the Hartford Board of Water Commissioners^^ show a minimum flow for 1913 of about 1.2 second-feet, or 0.220 second-foot per square mile in the drainage basin (5.4 square miles), in the month of August. The maximum flow was 270 second-feet, or 52 second-feet per square mile, and was measured on October 26 and 27, soon after a fall of 6.6 inches of rain. WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. There are four varieties of bedrock in Burlington — the Triassic red sandstone, Bristol granite gneiss, Hoosac schist, and Waterbury gneiss. Sandstone. — The Triassic red sandstone is restricted to a triangular area of less than a square mile in the southeast comer of the town. The rock is the basal portion of the Triassic and is dominantly sandstone and conglomerate. No wells have been drilled into this formation in Burlington, but the probability of success is good. Wells in Farmington and Bristol that penetrate similar rocks obtain satisfactory supplies. Gneiss and scMst. — ^The Bristol granite gneiss, which imderlies about a square mile in the valley in which Whigville is situated, is a grayish rock composed of quartz, feldspar, and black mica. Mashing has concentrated the mica in layers that alternate with « Hartford Board of Water Commissioners Sixtieth Ann. Rept,, p. 49, 1914. 187118°— 21— W8P 466 7 98 GKOUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. layers containing little mica, so that the rock has a fairly pro- nounced gneissic structure. Water has not been obtained from this rock m Burlington, but undoubtedly it could be, for in the town of Bristol a number of drilled wells procure water from it. The two remaining bedrock formations may be discussed together, for the Waterbmy gneiss is believed to be a modification of the Hoosac schist, due to the injection of much pegmatite, amphibolite, and granite. These materials are normally found in the Hoosac schist, but they are so abundant in this neighborhood that they quite alter the character of the rock, and a separate classification seems justified. The Hoosac schist is a typical mica schist composed of flakes of mica (both black and white), in many places altered to sericite and chlorite, and grains of quartz and feldspar. Mashing has recrystal- lized the original constituents of the rocks and parallelly oriented the mica flakes and concentrated them in bands along which they readily break. The forces to which this cleavability is due also made many larger joints and fissures, in which water undoubtedly circulates. This water, which is derived by percolation from the overlying mantle of soil, could undoubtedly be recovered by means of drilled wells, though no such development has yet been made in Burlington. In other towns (Hartland, Plymouth, Prospect, and Wolcott) there are drflled wells which obtain satisfactory supplies from this for- mation. The probability of obtaining water from the Waterbury gneiss is equally great, but drilling may be more expensive on account of the quartz and pegmatite veins, which make the operation diffi- cult and slow. Till. — The distribution of the two types of glacial drift is shown on Plate II. Till is the material formed by the plowing and scraping of the glacier and consists of a thoroughly mixed mass of debris of all kinds of material in fragments which range in size from rock flour to big boulders. It may be considered a matrix of sand, silt, clay, and rock flour in which boulders, cobbles, and pebbles are embedded. Between the smaller particles are interstices that are capable of absorbing rain water, of storing it, and of giving it out agaki to dug weUs. Wells dug in till will yield moderate and fairly reliable supplies of water unless they are unfavorably situated. Forty-eight wells dug in till were measured in Burlington; the average depth of water was 12.6 feet, though the depth ranged from 2 feet in well No. 31 (see PI. Ill) to 37.6 feet in well No. 63. The maximum fluctuation of the water table was in well No. 32, which fads, though it had 14.6 feet of water when it was measured (July 20, 1915). Well No. 61, which is said to be nonfailing, has the least fluctuation, for although the fore part of the month had been rather rainy it had only BURLINGTON. 99 1.6 feet of water on July 15, 1915. About half of these wells are not deep enough to reach below the lowest level to which the ground- water table sinks, and they fail in prolonged droughts. Probably many of them could be deepened so that their supplies would be made permanent. It is better to abandon a rock-bottomed well that fails and to dig another well in a more favorable place or to drill a well than to deepen by blasting. There are a nmnber of springs in Burlington which derive their water from till. Most of these are on slopes above the houses to which they appertain, and their water is piped in by gravity. Stratified drift, — Stratified drift is a water-laid deposit formed by the reworking of the materials of the till. The various sizes have been sorted and laid in separate beds and lenses. Because of the elimi- nation of the fine particles from the interstices of the larger particles the porosity of stratified drift is greater than that of till, so it absorbs jt_U Figure 21.— Relations at well No. 29, Burlington. and transmits water more readily, but it will not store water as long if its topographic situation is unfavorable. The 20 wells dug in stratified drift that were measured m Burlington show greater rehability than the wells in till, as only 5 of them fail. The depth to water in them averages 19.1 feet and ranges from 7.9 feet in well No. 22 (see PI. Ill) to 60 feet in weUNo. 29; the greatest fluctuation of the water table was 5 feet in well No. 29, and the least 1.4 feet in well No. 32. Well No. 29 shows the effect of a disadvantageous topographic situation. It is about 100 feet ba.ck from the brink of a terrace 30 feet high, below which is another terrace 200 or 300 feet wide and about 35 feet high. After heavy rains the water which falls on the flat area back of the well soaks through the ground and supplies the well. After some time it passes completely by and the well fails. The well seems paradoxical m its behavior, for often it fails during a rainy spell because the last wave of ground water has passed and the new one has not yet reached it. Similarly during a dry season the lagging water from the last rains may reach the well when other wells are failing. The relations in this well are shown in figure 21. 100 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. RECORUS OF WELLS AND SPRINGS. Dug welh ending in till in Burlington. No. on PI. IIL Owner. 1 2 3 4 6 6 8 9 10 12 13 14 16 18 19 23 31 32 33 34 37 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 54 55 56 57 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 68 69 70 71 72 74 Topo- gi-aphic position. L.F.Turner. G. N. Merrill. Charles Nilsen . . Slope. . . ...do... ...do.... Valley - Slope. . . ...do Plain... ...do.... ...do.... Slope.. ...do... ...do... ...do... ...do.. Plain. Slope.... ...do..... ...do..... ...do..... Valley. . Slope. . . . ...do ...do ...do...-. ...do ...do ...do ..do ...do ...do ..do Plateau . Slope.... ..do ..do ..do ..do ..do ..do ..do ..do ..do Plain.... Eleva- tion above sea level. ...do... Swale. Slope.. ...do... ...do... ...do... Knoll... Feet. 930 925 900 985 935 1,055 905 890 880 970 1,080 790 790 910 850 815 700 630 660 680 845 480 430 395 420 430 540 655 590 585 1,050 935 720 740 720 930 840 510 410 480 530 460 415 *400 470 460 I 565 ' 550 I 500 306 I Depth of well. Feet. 13.8 15.2 1&4 15.0 13.0 16.6 25.6 18.4 29.4 7.6 13.7 21.6 20.3 15.8 3^3 17.0 4.5 16.9 10.0 17.2 9.2 28.5 17.9 25.3 27.5 32.0 12.1 17.9 ia8 13.8 27.0 18.5 39.1 13 20.5 20.2 12.3 38.7 18.6 20.4 40.1 6 10.7 17.8 20.1 17.0 20.3 9.4 14.1 24.4 Depth to water. Feet. 10.8 9.1 8.4 10.5 4.9 6.7 17.1 13.6 24.5 5.2 9.4 16.3 17.8 11.0 20.6 12.8 2.0 2.3 8.0 14.8 4.2 15.4 24.5 21.7 13.5 8.1 14.1 14.0 6.2 19.2 7.1 8.1 9 12.5 12.2 6.0 32.6 17.0 19.0 37.2 4 8.0 16.0 15.9 12.8 10.9 5.3 3.8 20.8 Method of lift. Sweep rig Chain pump do do "VVTieel and axle ring. Pitcher pump Chain pump Windlass rig do Deep-well pump Windlass rig Two-bucket rig and house pump. Windlass rig («) Remarks Chain pupip . Gravity system . . WindlassVig Deep-well pump . Windlass rig Chain pump Windlass rig Pitcher pump Chain pump . . . . . Two-bucket rig... Chain pump do do do do Windlass rig do Deep- well pump . House pump («^ Windlass rig do Hoiisepump Chain pump Two-bucket rig. . House pump Windlass rig. Sweep rig do Chain pump . do....... do Abandoned. Unfailing. Do. Do. Fails. Unfailing. Do. Do. Do. Fails. Unfailing. Fails. Abandoned; unfail- ing. Unfailing: at house; rock bottom; for analysis see p. 102. Fails. Unfailing. Fails. Do. Do. Fails; rock bottom. Fails: tiled. Unfailing. Do. Do. Do. Fails. Do. Do. ft Unfailing. Do. Fails. Unfailing. Fails. Unfailing: tiled. Unfailing. Fails. Abandoned. Unfailing. Unfailing: aban- doned. Do. Fails. Do. Do, Unfailing. <' Xo rig. b Rock bottom: great fluctuation; response of water level 6 to 8 weeks behind rains. BURLINGTON. Dug wells ending in stratified drift in Burlington. 101 No. on PI. III. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to water. Method of lift. Remarks. 7 Slope.... ...do Feet. 780 945 800 800 810 820 815 815 820 810 790 500 650 455 710 705 710 375 280 Feet. 25.6 22.9 17.2 27.8 11.2 15.0 16.0 18.5 35.0 65.0 60.0 15.9 16.0 13.2 14.3 21.3 19.8 15.1 20.2 Feet. 11.3 21.1 9.9 24.0 7.9 12.0 11.5 14.2 31.7 60.0 55.0 14.5 14.2 8.4 8.2 16.2 15.9 11.0 15.3 Windlass Unfailing. Do. 11 do ?0 :::::;:;:::::::;::i:::do:;::: do Do. ?1 Plain . . . Slope.... Plain... - Slope ...do Abandoned. 22 ?4 G.N.Merrill.... Chain pump Windlass Fails. At bam. Unfailing. Fails. ?5 do 9.7 do Unfailing. Fails. Fails; for assay see p. 102. Fails. 28 29 30 L. F.Turner F. H.Stone Plain.... Edge of terrace. Plain.... Slope.... ...do Two-bucket rig do 38 Sweep rig Unfailing. Do. 39 Windlass 40 ...do.:... Partly filled in. Unfailing. Do. 53 Plain.... ...do Deep-well pump Windlass 58 59 ...do do Do. 67 ...do House pump Windlass Do. 73 E.W.Hart ...do Unfailing; for assay see p. 102. Springs in Burlington, No. on PI. III. Owner. Topographic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Tem- pera- ture. Yield per minute. Remarks. 15 E. S. Gillette Slope.... Feet. 900 890 730 720 860 "F. 48 51 48 Gallons. 2.5 5 Piped to house and barn; un- failing; for analysis see p. 102. Piped to house; for assay see 17 F, TT, TTiTiTinaTi do 26 do p. 102.a Piped to house. 35 J. W. Keeler Swale Piped to house; unfaiUng. 36 Chas. Nilsen do 49 6 Unfailing. a Reservoir blasted in rock ledge; supplied from one principal seam and three lesser ones. QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. The results of two analyses and three assays of samples of ground water collected in Burlington are given in the subjoined table. The waters are soft, low in mineral content, and of calcium-carbonate type. They are suitable for all common uses and good for use in boilers. 102 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. Chemical composition and classification of ground waters in Burlington. [Parts per million; samples collected Nov. 23, 1915; S. C. Dinsmore, analyst. Numbers at heads of columns refer to corresponding niunbers on PI. Ill; see also records corresponding in number, pp. 100-101.] Silica (Si02) Iron(Fe) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Sodium and potassium (Na+K) d Carbonate radicle (CO3) Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chloride radicle (CI; Nitrate radicle (NO3) Total dissolved solids Total hardness as CaCOs Scale- forming constituents d Foaming constituents d Chemical character Probability of corrosion « Quality for boiler use Quality for domestic use Analyses.^ 15 17 4.1 3.0 Trace. 36 dl8 24 6 Ca-COs (?) Good. Good. 23 15 6 1 4 27 6. 3. 50' d24 37 12 Ca-COa (?) Good. Good. 04 5 8 6 .0 9 Assay s.b 17 0.20 Trace. 19 Trace. 3 d36 21 35 Trace. Ca-COs (?) Good. Good. 29 Trace. Trace. 24 Trace. 7 d47 31 45 Trace. Ca-COs Good. Good. c73 Trace. 4 46 Trace. d68 40 55 10 Ca-COs (? ) , Good. Good. a For methods used in analyses and accuracy of results, see pp. 59-61. b Approximations: for methods used and reliability of results, see pp. 59-61. c Sample collected Nov. 17, 1915. d Computed. e Based on computed value; ( ?)=corrosion uncertain. PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES. Burlington has no public water supply, though 20 families near Collins ville are supplied by the Collinsville Water Co. Some of the drainage basins of the town have been developed by Hartford and New Britain. A 60,000,000-gallon reservoir at Whigville provides water for the high-pressure system of New Britain. Surveys have been made for the board of water commissioners of New Britain for an additional supply in the upper part of the drainage basin of Bur- lington Brook. Part of the new 8,500,000,000-gallon Nepaug reser- voir, which is now under construction for the board of water commis- sioners of Hartford, is in Burlington and will use the water of Phelps and Clear brooks. If it becomes necessary to develop a water supply for Burlmgton the problem will be difficult, as most of the possible reservoir sites are now occupied. The best way of utilizing the ground-water supply seems to be the indirect method. Reser- voirs of the streams which enter Bmiington Brook from the south would receive continued contributions of ground water from the bodies of stratified drift above. CANTON. AREA, POPULATION, AND INDUSTRIES. Canton is near the middle of the western boimdary of Hartford County, about 10 miles south of the Massachusetts line, and is on the eastern edge of the western highland of Connecticut. To the CANTON. 103 west are New Hartford and Barkliamsted, and to the south is Avon. In addition to CoUinsville, the principal settlement, which is in the southern part of the town, there are small settlements at Canton Center, North Canton, Canton, or Canton Street, as it is locally called, and Cherry Brook. There are post offices at all these settlements except Cherry Brook. The town has an area of about 3 1 square miles, of which two-thirds is wooded. The State trunk-line highway of bi- tuminous macadam between Avon and New Hartford passes through Canton and Cherry Brook, and other macadam roads join CoUinsville to Canton and to Cherry Brook. In addition to these roads, which have a combined length of 9 miles, there are about 90 miles of dirt roads. The road from Cherry Brook to Canton Center and North Canton is good, as it has been extensively graveled and graded. The New Hartford branch of. the Northampton division (Canal Road) of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Eaihoad crosses the south- west comer of the town m Farmington River valley and has a station at CoUinsville. The Central New England Railway crosses the southern part of the town and has stations at Canton, High vStreet, CoUinsville, and Cherry Brook. The CoUinsville station is at the end of a spur track three-quarters of a mile long which joins the main line at High Street. A stage with a star postal contract carries the mail daily between Cherry Brook, Canton Center, and North Canton. Canton had a population of 2,732 in 1910. In 1806 the territory was taken from Simsbury and incorporated as a separate town. The population increased rather steadily up to 1870; then it fell off for one decade but again increased so that the last census return was the greatest. It is probable that the population will be retained or be increased in the future. Population of Canton, 1810 to 1910. 0' Year. Population. Year. Population. Year. Population. 1810 1,374 1,322 1,437 1,736 1850 1,986 2,373 2,639 2,301 1890 2,500 2,678 2,731 1820 I860 1900 1830 1870 1910 1840 1880 a Connecticut Register and Manual, 1915, p. 652. The principal industries of Canton are farming and the manu- facture at CoUinsville of heavy edge tools, such as axes, adzes, plows, and machetes. The manufacturing has been the means of main- taining and increasing the population and has been made possible by the water power -provided by Farmington River and the excellent transportation route down the valley. The farmers raise general crops principally, but there is some tobacco growing and dairying. 104 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONK. SURFACE FEATURES. K O UJ O ul in bJ O o " 1 1 " ■ " " I '.'.'I jiHnasms_ ^^ ICS-^ i^ Most of Canton is a deeply dissected upland and is somewhat rugged. The east boundary follows the general trend of an almost continuous trap ridge, just west of which is a series of north-south valleys that separate the trap ridge from the iipland. The southeast comer of the town is a lowland 1 J miles wide, above which rises Mount Horr and Huckleberry Hill. Rattlesnake Hill separates this lowland from the valley of Cherry Brook, which drains most of the upland. The highest point in the town is at the north end of Ratlum Mountain and is 1,200 feet above sea level. The lowest point, on Farm- ington River near CoUinsville, is 300 feet above sea level. The broad valley between Moxmt Horr and Huckleberry Hill drains in both directions from a very low divide near Canton. It is possible that the Farming- ton formerly flowed through this valley and then southward along Roaring Brook valley, or perhaps eastward on the north side of Pond Ledge Hill. At its west end the floor of this valley merges with the flood plain and terraces of the Farming- ton Valley, which in turn merges with the flood plain and terraces of Cherry Brook. Between Cherry Brook and the New Hartford town line the terraces on the east bank of Farmington River widen out to about half a mile. Formerly the Farmington flowed near the east side of this terrace area, but in glacial time it was diverted into a new channel at Satans Kingdom, which it has cut down to make a narrow gorge with walls about 100 feet high. Figure 22 is a structure section across Canton and Simsbury Gine C-Cj' PI. II) g| I S " and shows the various topographic elements. At the east boundary of Canton is the trap ridge, which includes a couple of peaks with special names descriptive of their form — the Sugarloaf and the Hedge- hog. West of the ridge is the sandstone valley, and farther west the dissected upland. i^OOJgr/Cu^gn^ Kf 160 to 180 feet above sea level, and forms a layer as much as 30 feet or even more in thickness. It is a dense mass of tough clay or rock flour with some silt and sand and boulders of various sizes. The constituents of the till have no regularity of arrangement. Part of the water that falls as rain is absorbed into its minute pores. Though the upper part of the tiU may be devoid of water after long droughts, there is in general a good deal in the lower parts. Wells dug in deposits of this sort have fairly abundant and fairly reliable supplies of water. In some exceptional places the tUl has been worked over by water so that it is more pervious and yields larger and more reliable supplies. The average depth to water in the wells dug in till that were visited in Cheshire is 14 feet, the range being from 3.1 feet in well No. 26a (see PI. Ill) to 35 feet in well No. ^■* Gregory, H. E., and Ellis, E. E., Underground-water resources of Connecticut: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-supply Paper 232. p. 92, 1909. « Idem, p. 130. 187118°— 21— wsp 466 8 114 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. 68a. Information as to the reliability of supply was procured for 30 of the wells, of which 17 were said to be reliable and 13 were said to fail. Well No. 39 indicated an unusually great fluctuation of the water table, for although there was 17.2 feet of water in it v/hen it was measured (April 21, 1915) it is said to fail. This fluctuation of 17.2 feet or more is probably due to the location of the well on a steep slope from which the water drains readily. Stratified drift. — Stratified drift covers the bedrock of the lower parts of Cheshire. It is composed of well-washed and sorted sand, silt, and gravel which were carried out from the ice sheet by the great streams of melted ice during its recession from the region. As a result of the washing the pores are larger and connect better with one another than those of till, and consequently the water circulates more rapidly. Forty wells dug in stratified drift were visited and meas- ured. The greatest depth to water was found in well No. 55 (see PL III) and was 46 feet. This well is near the edge of a terrace, a fact which probably explains the great depth. Well No. 8Y, in which the minimum depth of 5.2 feet was found, is, on the other hand, on a broad plain where there is less chance for the ground water to flow away. The average depth to the water level in these wells was found to be 16.4 feet. The reliability of 35 of them was ascertained, and of these 25 were reported to be nonf ailing and 10 were said to fail more or less regularly in dry seasons. RECORDS OF WELLS AND SPRINGS. • Information was collected concerning 85 dug wells, 2 driven weUs, 30 drifled wells, and 8 springs in Cheshire. Dug tuells ending in till in Cheshire. No. on PI. III. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to water. Method of lift. Remarks. 2 Plateau Slope. . . ...do Feet. 665 540 420 340 240 220 240 205 290 200 220 ■ 230 250 255 265 260 255 250 250 215 255 Feet. 22.4 11.1 14.0 14.0 24.5 13.2 30.3 24.7 16.2 16.2 31.0 25.7 15.0 18.7 24.8 15.8 24.1 24.8 13.3 32.8 22 Feet. 15.6 8.2 5.2 6.4 16.5 9.3 23.7 20.3 9.6 8.7 13.8 16.2 6.7 9.9 15.0 8.7 20.8 18.2 9.3 33.6 9 Deep-well pump Two-bucket rig .. . .do Rock bottom; unfail- 3 ing. 5 Fails. 6 ...do Windlass rig Two-bucket rig Windlass rig Two-bucket rig do Unfailing. • 10 ...do Fails. 12 Plain.... Slope ...do UnfaiUng. 13 15 Do. 28 Hilltop.. Slope. . . do Sweeping Fails. 31 Windlass and pulley rig. Do. 39 Do. 42 Plain. . . Slope. . . Plateau ...do.... ...do Two-bucket rig do Unfailing. 49 Tiled; fails. 50 do Unfailing. Do. 51 52 Mr. Woodbury . . do do 53 Slope Plain. . . ...do do 58 Two-bucket rig Chain pump Two-bucket rig 15 feet in rock; un- 60 failing. Clear. 64 Slope. . . Plam. . . Unfailing. 65 12 feet in rock; un- failing. CHESHIRE. 115 Dug wells ending in till in Cheshire — Continued. No. on PI. III. 65a 67 70 76 77 80 84 90 92 94 96 97 98 100 101 102 102a 102b 109 110 111 112 Owner. Henry Metzler. Topo- graphic position. Plain... Slope. . Plain. . ...do... Slope. . Plain.. Steep . . ...do... ...do... Slope. . Swale . . Hilltop ...do... Slope. . ...do... Hilltop. ..do.. ..do.. Slope. Plain. Slope. ..do.. Eleva- tion above soa level. Feet. 255 220 260 315 •305 310 200 220 265 230 Depth of well. Feet. 265 14.7 190 27.6 200 23.4 240 18.8 235 25.4 240 26.4 210 21.8 165 18.8 190 25.1 275 18.9 265 16.2 285 21.9 30.2 12.8 20.7 28.5 17.3 23.4 13.6 21.9 10.7 Depth to water. Feet. 35 9.2 24.5 18.7 15.5 21.9 19.9 12.0 16.2 14.3 13.6 9.5 11.3 25.4 8.5 14.0 18.9 11.2 14.2 7.6 13.5 6.0 Method of lift. Chain pump Two-bucket rig do W indlass rig Two-bucket rig do do do do Deep-well pump Two-bucket rig. ... . Two-bucket rig and house pump. Two-bucket rig do Windlass rig and gasoline engine. Two-bucket rig and house pump. Two-bucket rig Remarks. 25 feet in rock; un- failing.o Fails. Unfailing. Fails. Unfailing. Rock bottom; fails. Unfailing. Unfailing.'' At house; 11 feet in rock; fails. 18 feet in rock; fails, c Rock bottom; fails.** Unfailing. Fails. 2 feet in rock; fails. o 100 feet west of well No. 65. *> Rock bottom; temperature 44' F. c 90 feet southwest of well No. 102. d 100 feet northwest of well No. 102. Dug wells ending in strat ified drift in Cheshire. No. on PI. III. Owner, Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to water. Method of lift. Remarks. 7 Slope.... ...do Feet. 185 190 190 185 180 195 155 220 180 175 185 185 160 205 190 155 155 185 190 130 200 195 200 125 160 180 175 165 180 195 140 190 185 175 170 155 135 Feet. 20.0 21.4 24.5 37.9 33.3 23.0 2J.5 18.8 19.0 16.1 25.0 '"'i2."i' 17.4 19.0 25.2 17.9 29.7- 20.1 21.9 44.8 28.7 20.2 17.6 15.1 25.9 18.7 16.3 30.3 33.6 18.0 43.2 18.6 9.7 15.7 18.4 23.1 Feet. 10.0 18,6 10,0 29.5 24.0 20.1 15.6 15.5 13.7 3.1 16.6 9.0 7.0 9.2 16.1 23.4 14.9 23.1 9.2 19.3 42.6 18.7 13.6 15.2 12.1 17.1 15.3 13.2 26.0 33.0 17.1 ]].8 13.6 5.2 12.3 15.5 16.3 Unfailing. Fails. 8 17 18 E. P. Dunham. . Plain... _. Ho Two-bucket rig Windlass Do 19 L..do do Unfailing. 22 ...do Two-bucket ng do 23 _do • Do. 25 .mil Plain... Slope. . do Do. 26 Wheel and axle rig. . 13 feet in rock. Fails, 26a Unfailing. 27 Plain. .. ...do Two-bucket rig Power pump Two house pumps . . Two-bucket rig do Fails. 29 30 Slope. . . ...do. . 37 Unfailing. 41 Valley.. Plain. .. ...'do... Ends in quicksand; fails. 44 . ...do 46 do Unfailing. 47 ...do.. do Rock bottom; un- 48 do... ...do failing. Unfaihng. 54 Wm. Krumm . . . Valley.. Plain. . . ...do do Tiled. 55 Two-bucket rig and gasoline engine. Two-bucket rig House pump Windlass . Unfailing. 56 Do. 67 ...do Fails. 62 Slope. . . ...do. . .. Abandoned. 68 Two-bucket rig Windlass Unfaihng. Do. 69 Plain... Slope . . . ...do. . . 71j Deep- well pump Two-bucket rig do Do. 72 Do. 73 ...do Do. 75 Plain. -. . .do... do . Do 83 do . Fails 85 Slope. . . ...do do.. Unfailing. Do. 86 do. .. 87 Plain . . . .. do.. Chain pump Two-bucket rig do Windlass Do 89 Do 91 ...do Do 99 ...do.... Fails. 116 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. Dug wells ending in stratified drift in Cheshire — Continued. No. on PI. III. , Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to water. Method of lift. Ilemarks. 108 ...do Feet. 195 165 165 170 160 Feel. 18.9 12.6 10.9 14.9 20.0 Feet. 14.9 11.1 8.7 13.2 17.5 ' Two-buckot rig Chain pump Two-bucket rig do Unfailing. 113 114 Warren J. An- drews. ...do.... ...do Unfailing; fo' anal- ysis see p. 117. Unfailing. 115 ...do Fails. 116 ...do do Unfailing Driven wells in Cheshire. No. on PI. in. Owner. Topographic position. Ele- vation above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to water. Diam- eter. Remarks. 24 Plain Feet. 160 195 Feet. 38 34 Feet. Inches. Unfailing. 88 do 3 (a). a An 18-foot dug well deepened by a 16-foot pipe 3 inches in diameter with 250 holes J inch in diameter: a 2-inch pipe inside connected to pump; yields 60 gallons a minute. Drilled wells in Cheshire. No. on PI. III. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to rock. Diam- eter. Yield per minute. Water-bear- ing forma- tion. Remarks. 1 Edwin A. Todd. Hill Slope Plain.... ...do Feet. 670 515 200 185 185 185 215 265 265 240 200 225 225 265 155 240 230 195 195 160 160 200 190 190 190 320 265 270 280 280 Feet. 99 67 38 96 44 "■'22""' 69 75 60-f 50 90 55 320 68 88 68 56 47 35 76 56 80 56 82 60 44 31 59 85 Feet. 70 4i Inches. Gallons. Schist do Sand and gravel. Sandstone. . . Sand and gravel. Sandstone. . . do do do do do Sand Sandstone... do do 4 6 li 11 Connecticut Brass Co. 20 84 60 15 24 IS 9 14 • 6 6 6 6 6 6" ""36"' 30 4 30 7 to 8 20a ...do (a). 21 Peck .do 32 33 34 E.R. Minor.... Glannap Reinhard Slope — Hilltop . ...do Water enters at 22 feet. 35 36 Wheeler Slope. . . . ...do 38 Hilltop.. Slope — Hilltop.. Plain.... ...do Slope Plain.... ...do Slope ...do 40 43 46 Gilbert Williams Walter Scott estate. Michael J. Gillen T.W.WilUams. '"""26" 5"' 10 6 6 6 6 ""'25" 59 60 6 7i do do do (&). 74 74a Siight." 6 6 4 6 6 8 6 6 do («)• 78 Low. Low. Large. ' Fails'.' Sand and . gravel. 78a (d). 79 J. B. Dill estate. F. J. Craigs. ...do .do 93 Sandstone... do do 93a 95 do J. C. Parkins. . . J. B. Gibson ...do ...do ...do {')• 103 16 4 4 10 2 60 6 6 6 6 ""is"" do do .....do do do For assay see 104 105 Curnow Bros... J. Moon ...do ...do For assay see 106 117 Albert LeClaire. E. D. Moon ...do Ridge. . . p. 117. a Well No. 20 abandoned when string of tools was lost and before water was reached. Well No. 20a was drilled only 12 feet away and found a good supply at 44 feet in gravel. b Water enters at depths of 35, 40, and 85 feet. c Wells Nos. 74 and 74a draw from a fine sand. d 125 feet southwest of well No. 78. e Well No. 93 is at barn and 100 feet west of well No. 93a, which is at the house. . / Temperature is 50° F. g Well is only 12 feet from the " Bristol Ledge" dike of trap rock. It was drilled in part through whitish and bluish metamorphosed sandstone. CHESHIRE. 117 Springs in Cheshire. No. on PI. III. Owner. Topographic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Tem- pera- ture. Yield per minute. Remarks. 9 Slope. . . . Feet. 200 230 320 135 290 160 130 200 ° F. 47 47 43 49 57 51 49 49 Gallons . 1 i" 2i Gravity rig; unfailing. 1)0. Do. Roadside. Unfailing. Unfailing; for analysis see p. Fails. 14 do 16 do 63 do 66 . ..do 81 do 82 107 Rev. J. Trigaskis Foot of slope.. Slope 117. QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. In the following table are given two analyses and two assays of samples of ground water collected in Cheshire. All the waters are soft, but No. 113 is softer than the rest. They are all of the calcium- carbonate type except No. 113, which is a sodium-nitrate water. The mineral content of all the waters analyzed is low, ranging from 78 to 130 parts per million. Although low in both scale-forming and foaming constituents, No. 113 is rated as only fair for boiler use on account of its tendency to corrode boilers. The owner of the well states that the water gives considerable trouble by corroding kitchen utensils. Nos. 103 and 105 are also classed as fair for boiler use on account of the amounts of scale-forming constituents present. No. 82 is good for boiler use. On the basis of the mineral content all the waters are classed as good for domestic use, although No. 113 contains excessive nitrate, which may indicate pollution from surface drainage. Chemical composition and classification of ground loaters in Cheshire. [Parts jper million; samples collected Nov. 12, 1915; analyzed by S. C. Dinsmore. Numbers at heads of columns refer to corresponding numbers on PI. Ill ; sec also records corresponding in number, pp. 115-117.] Silica (SiOz) Iron (Fe) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Sodium and potassium (Na-fK)d Carbonate radicle (CO3) Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chloride radicle (01) Nitrate radicle (NO3) Total dissolved solids ". . . Total hardness as CaCOs Scale-forming constituents d Foaming constituents d Chemical character Probability of corrosion / Quality for boiler use Quality for domestic use Analyses. a 82 15 .05 14 2.8 11 .0 66 4.5 8.0 Trace. 78 d46 61 30 Ca-COa N nood. Good. cll3 14 .20 6.9 2.8 e25 .0 12 20 15 30 123 d29 39 68 Na-NO,! C Fair. Good. Assays. & 103 Trace. dl30 94 110 20 Ca-COs (?) Fair. Good. 105 Trace. 6 100 10 5 dl20 88 100 20 Ca-COa (? Fair. Good. « For methods used in analyses and accuracy of results, see pp. 59-61. b Approximations; for methods used and reliability of results, see pp. 59-61. c Composite of two samples collected Nov. 12 and Dec. 5, 1915; analyzed by Alfred A. Chambers, U. S. Geol. Survey. d Computed. « Determined. / Based on computed value; N=noncorrosive; C=corrosive; (?)=corrosion uncertain. 118 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES. There is no public water supply serving Cheshire exclusively, but the New Haven Water Co. in 1914 had 166 customers in the town.^^ Water is supplied from the main that carries water from the Pros- pect reservoir to the villages in Hamden and to some parts of the city of New Haven. The reservoir on Broad Brook, in the northeast- ern part of Cheshire, is part of the Meriden system and has a capacity of 1,200,000,000 gallons. Should it become necessary to develop a fair-sized supply of water in Cheshire there would be two solutions of the problem. Reservoirs from which water could be distributed by gravity could be con- structed on one or more of the tributaries that come into Tenmile River from the west; or a pumping plant drawing from driven wells could be built on one of the stratified-drift plains. The driven well numbered 88 on the map (PL- III) yields at least 80 gallons a minute and shows the feasibility of such a plan. FARMINGTON. AREA, POPULATION, AND INDUSTRIES. Farmington is near the center of Hartford County, about 10 miles west of the city of Hartford. Most of it is in the central lowland province, but a section of the valley trap ranges occupies the eastern third of the town. The villages of Farmington, in the center of the town, and Unionville, in the northwest corner, are the principal settlements, and at each are post offices, banks, and stores. Rural delivery routes serve the outlying districts. The Northampton di- vision (Canal Road) of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Rail- road runs north and south through the town. Farmington Station, on this line, is also the junction point of the New Hartford branch of the Northampton division, which has a station also at Unionville. Farmington village and Farmington Station are connected by stage, and a trolley line between Hartford and Unionville runs through Farmington village. The area of Farmington is about 29 square miles. There is a large stretch of woodland in the southeast corner of the town and on Rattlesnake Mountain, which with other woods, chiefly along the east, north, and west boundaries, has an area of lOJ square miles, or about 35 per cent of the total area of the town. There are in Farmington about 60 miles of roads, of which 1 1 miles are State roads of bituminous macadam and belong to trunk lines that radiate from Farmington village to Plainville and New Britain, to Unionville, and to Hartford. Most of the dirt roads are kept in excellent condition, «« Connecticut State Public Utilities Comm. Rept. for 1914. FARMINGTON. 119 alt)iou^h some of tho grades in the eastern part of the town are severe and some of the roads in the central part are sandy. Farmington was fii*st settled in 1644 and was named in 1645. It then had an area of about 190 square miles, but the towns of Avon, Bristol, Bm-lington, New Britain, Plainville, and Southington and parts of Berlin and Wolcott have been taken from it at various times. In 1901 Farmington village was incorporated as tho Borougli of Farmington. Jn 1910 the town had a population of 3,478, of which 897 were assigned to tho borough. Tiie following table gives the changes in population from the first census after the cession of Avon: Population of Famiington, 1830-1910 ^ Year. Population. Yoar. 1860 Population. Year. Population 1«30 1,901 2,041 2,630 3,144 2.01fi 3; 017 18fl0 3,179 1840 1870 IHOO 3,331 1850 1880 • 1910 3, 478 a Connecticut Register and Manual, 1915, p. 653. The decrease in population in the decade from 1860 to 1870 was due to the separation of Plainville, which in 1870 had a popidation of 1,433. Considered together tho territory of these towns increased in population in this decade. The growth of Farmington has been moderate but fairly steady. The greater part of Farmington is a farming region in which many wealthy people, chiefly from Hartford, have fine country places. A number of sites with excellent views have been developed on the crests of the trap ridges. Only a moder- ate increase in population is to be expected in such a district. Union- ville, however, is a busy manufacturing place at which paper, nuts and bolts, cutlery, and rules and levels are made. Presumably there will be a steady though moderate increase in population in and around Unionville due to the natural growth of the manufactories. In this vicinity provision must be made at frequent intervals for increasing the public water supply. Loss attention to this phase of the water problem will be needed in the rest of the town. SURFACE FEATURES. The topographic elements of Farmington are a central sand plain above which rise several rock drumlins, trap ridges along the east side of the plain, and a higher till-covered plain in the southeast corner. The total range of elevation is about 600 feet. The lowest point in the town is where Farmington River crosses the Avon town line, at about 150 feet above sea level, and the highest point is the crest of Rattlesnake Mountain, in the southeastern part of the town, 750 feet above sea level. 120 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. The Farmington sand plain occupies the strip through the cen.ter of the town but widens from about 2 miles at the south to about 4 miles at the north. It may be divided into two subordinate ele- ments — a low flood plain and a terrace plain 20 to 40 feet higher, on part of which the village of Farihington is built. The sand plain is composed of stratified material laid down by water that ran from the ice sheet as it melted back from the region. A little south of Plain- ville an excess of this material was heaped up to a slightly greater height than elsewhere in the valley.^^ Whether this extra accumula- tion was due to a prolongation of the process during a halt in the reces- sion of the glacier or to the carrying in of much detritus from the west by Pequabuck River is uncertain. At all events, the deposits were heaped up at this point and blocked the valley so that a lake was formed on the north. Probably the small tributaries of this ancient lake were forced to drop their loads of detritus and so built up ter- race-like deltas near the shores. Although the coarser materials were thus deposited near the shores of the lake, the finer materials were carried well out into the lake before they were laid down. Deposits that seem to be of such origin were found in the bed of Farmington River a little north of Farmington village, in the construction of a crossing for the pipe line from the new Nepai^g reservoir to Hartford. A very striking feature of the sand plain is the great number of pitch pines {Pinus rigida) growing on it. Plate VI, A, is reproduced from a photograph taken about three-eighths of a mile south of Farm- ington Station and shows an almost clear stand of these trees. The till plain in the southeast corner of the town is of a very dif- ferent origin. It was cut to about its present form in preglacial time and has been since modified only by the deposition of a mantle of till. The present sm^ace is poorly drained and marshy by nature, but a canal dug southwestward from Hartford reservoir No. 4 has somewhat modified this condition. The two plains are separated by a belt of very hiUy country a mile or two wide, the ruggedness of which is due to the cliff-forming edges of eastward-tilted sheets of trap rock. The upper of the two sheets is the thicker (400 to 500 feet) and is known as the ''Main'' sheet, as it is the more prominent. The lower is thinner (250 feet or less) and is caUed the ''Anterior" sheet, as it crops out below the face of the principal cliff. The cliff formed by the "Main" sheet is highest at its south end, where it forms Rattlesnake Mountain, but toward the north it is progressively lower, and in the northeast corner of the town it forms only a very small ridge. This diminution of height is due to a large fault which cuts the ridge at a very oblique angle and so tapers « Davis, W. M., Triassic formation of Connecticut: U. S. Geol. Survey Eighteenth Ann. Rept., pt. 2, p. 181, 1898. <8 Idem, pp. 96-121, pi. 19. U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 4GC PLATE VI A. YELLOW PINE (PINUS RKJIDA) NEAR FARMINGTON STATION. B. WHITE PINE (PINUS STROBUS) NEAR GRANBY STATION. FARMINGTON. 121 off the outcrop.'^ The fault presumably does not cut the ''Anterior" sheet, as that sheet is almost continuous throughout the town and forms prominent cliffs for much of its length. Along part of the eastern margin of the till plain is a low ridge of trap rock that belongs to a third trap sheet (100 to 150 feet thick), which is called the ''Posterior" sheet, as it crops out back of the cliff of the "Main" sheet. This sheet seems to be repeated on another low ridge a quarter of a mile to the southeast, and the recurrence is probably due to a small fault bearing north-northeast, the east side of which has been raised. Possibly the second ridge is a local sheet, but the evidence is hidden by the till mantle. The narrow area of stratified drift along the east boundary of the town is a portion of the great sand plain of New Britain and Newing- ton and is essentially like that of the Farmington Valley. The hiUside on which the northwest corner of Farmington lies is part of the western highland and is underlain by schist. It is covered by a mantle of tiU, as are also the two hills which rise from the central sand plain. One of these is northeast of Unionville and extends northward to Pond Ledge HiU in Avon. The second of these rock drumhns, or tiU-mantled rock hiUs, covers about 5 square miles along the west boundary of the town. They are hiUs which escaped burial under stratified drift. It is believed that their elevation is due to their being underlain by a zone of the sandstone that is coarser and bet- ter cemented than that beneath the sand plain. Farmington is drained by Farmington River and some of its trib- utaries, of which the chief one is Pequabuck River. The Farmington enters the northwest corner of the town, flows southeastward about 5 miles, and then turns in a sweeping curve into a northward-flowing reach that extends about 13 miles through Avon and Simsbury. The flow of this stream has been studied by the Board of Water Commis- sioners of Hartford, who have maintained an automatic gaging station at Farmington village for several years. The maximum discharge for the year 1913 — 17,000 second-feet — occurred on October 26 and 27, after a rainfall of 6 to 7 inches at several points in the drainage basin.^® This is equivalent to a discharge of 37.9 second-feet per square mile for the 449 square miles of tributary drainage area. The minimum flow for the same year occurred in August and was 0.222 second-foot per square mile, which is equivalent to 100 second-feet at Farmington. The cour'ses of the Farmington and the Pequabuck lie mainly in the sand plain, where relatively few tributaries join them. There are more brooks entering Farmington River where it passes close to the till-covered lower slopes of the trap ridges. One fair-sized brook « Hartford Board of Water Commissioners Sixtieth Ann. Rept., p. 4."), 1914. 122 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. rises in Scotts Swamp and flows eastward to Pequabuck River, and two others enter the Farmington from the southwest between Union- ville and the ''big bend." Two streams join Farmington River from the north side of the bend — Roaring Brook (see Canton report, p. 105) and Poplar Swamp Brook. The fewness of the tributaries in the sand-plain sections of these stream courses is due to the porosity of the soil. The water that falls as rain, instead of collecting in streams, soaks into the ground and becomes part of the ground-water body. It is probable that there is considerable discharge of ground water directly into those rivers through their beds. Springs are few in this section and are for the most part restricted to low marshy spots at the foot of the terraces. The water table is low, and the lack of permanent moisture in the upper soil is indicated by the abundance of dry-land vegeta- tion, such as pitch pine, scrub oak, and ''poverty" grass. WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. The bedrocks of Farmington include sandstone, shale,' and trap rock of Triassic age and the much older Hoosac schist. Schist. — The Hoosac schist, which is restricted to a small area in the northwest corner of the town, is a typical closely laminated, fissile, light to dark gray mica schist and is composed essentially of mica flakes and quartz grains, with small amounts of garnet, staurolite, and other minerals. In some places there are many thin veins of quartz and pegmatite. The minute fissures between the laminae carry a little water but would not be as satisfactory a source of supply as the larger joints and fractures. No development of such a supply has been made in Farmington, but in other towns drilled wells in the Hoosac schist have obtained water from the larger cracks in quantities sufficient for domestic and farm requirements. Sandstone and shale. — The sandstones underlying the gently round- ed hills of the southwest corner of the town have been used to some extent as a source of water. These rocks are rather extensively fis- sured as a consequence of the movements which tilted them. Drilled wells are likely to intersect one or more fissures bearing water within a reasonable distance. The depth of eleven drilled wells in Farm- ington, believed to derive their supplies from this formation, averages 178 feet and ranges from 41 to 480 feet. In choosing a site for drill- ing convenience is the chief consideration, as there is no way of deter- mining the location of underground fissures. The fissures are so numerous that there is a high probability of success — about 19 chances in 20. (See p. 113.) The fissures are more abundant near the surface 60 Gregory, H. E.,and Ellis, E. E., Underground-water resources of Connecticut: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 232, p. 132, 1909. FARMINGTON. 123 than farther down, and it is held to be ''good practice to abandon a Well that has not obtained satisfactory supplies at 250 to 300 feet.^ Over much of the sand plain the red sandstone and shale lie at a depth of perhaps 100 to 200 feet, as is indicated by the Trumbull Electric Manufactiu-ing Co.'s drilled well in Plain ville, which reached rock at 218 feet. Two drilled wells in Avon have a similar signifi- cance: One reached bedrock at 90 feet and the other did not reach rock in its total depth of 85 feet. In this part of Farmington, then, it would not be necessary to drill to bedrock, for excellent supplies would be found in the unconsolidated stratified drift above. Trajp rock. — The trap rocks carry water in much the same way as the sandstones and shale but not to the same degree. On account of the resistance of this rock to weathering it stands up as high ridges, and there is great opportunity for the water to drain out of the fissures at lower levels. This would be particularly true of wells near the edges of the trap cliffs. The hardness of the trap makes drilling very slow and expensive, but the undertaking is worth while where other sources of supply are not available or are unreliable. Stratified drift. — Water is obtained in great abundance from the stratified drift by means of dug and driven wells, not only on the present flood plains but also on the higher terraces. The greatest difficulty in the construction of wells is the tendency of the very fine silt to behave like quicksand. Deepening a dug well through such silt below the ground-water level is very difficult. Large tiles of earthenware or cement can be used as a sort of caisson to keep out the silt during the digging. Another plan is to sink a drive pipe within the well, as was done with wells Nos. 48-B and 91. (See PL III.) The drive pipe should not be left in such a position that the screen is in silt, else it will clog badly and silt will get into and wear the pump. The screen should be in a bed of gravel or coarse sand. Of the 60 wells dug in stratified drift that were visited in Farming- ton, 8 were foxmd to be dry (October, 1914), 10 more were said to fail, and 10 were said to be nonf ailing, but the reliability of the remaining 32 wells was not ascertained. The depth to the water in the 52 wells which had any water ranged from. 6 feet in well No. 13 (see PL III) to 19.8 feet in wells Nos. 93 and 98, and averaged 16.3 feet. Till. — In the till-covered parts of the town dug wells seem to be more successful. The reliability of 23 wells was ascertained, and 16 were said to be nonf ailing. The very fine pores of the soil from which these wells draw water tend to retard the escape of water to lower areas, so that the water level is in many places near the surface, even on hills and slopes. The till is a mixture of ice- worked debris of all sorts and in fragments of all sizes from the finest of clay and rock flour up to big boulders. It was deposited directly by the ice without intervention of any appreciable aqueous action, else the 124 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHIKGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. finer constituents would have been eliiiiinated and the rest sorted out according to size. Of the 78 wells dug in till that were visited in Farmington, 9 were found to be dry. The depth to water in the remaining 69 wells averaged 15.5 and ranged from 3.3 feet in well No. 150a to 32.8 feet in well No. 22. There are many springs on the till-covereid slopes below the trap cliffs. Many of these have been improved by means of small res- ervoirs, and their water is piped by gravity to the houses below. RECORDS OF WELLS AND SPRINGS. Dug wells ending in till in Farmington. No. on PI. III. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to water. Method of lift.. Remarks. 14 Slope. . . ...do leet. 260 290 305 290 310 320 330 330 350 385 370 350 350 340 340 330 320 320 305 295 280 270 305 200 220 230 250 240 230 230 225 3% 335 335 335 330 325 325 325 325 315 310 310 310 290 300 210 310 225 220 Feet. 27.0 24.5 6.8 22.2 30.0 34.7 14.3 19.2 19.1 13.7 19.7 20.3 12.5 22.4 12.5 22.4 8.4 19.0 24.0 16.5 19.8 16.7 23.2 9.8 26.6 19.0 12.0 7.3 15.2 12.6 17.9 16.6 23.1 12.8 20.3 11.6 13.0 9.0 13.0 12.9 26.9 21.8 18.9 32.8 12.0 22.6 31.4 19.0 14.7 22.3 Feet. "'2i'5' 4.3 21.0 "'32.' 8' 12.2 18.6 18.2 11. 8 Deep- well pump do Pails 15 16 ...do Windla.ss Abandoned 19 ...do House pump Deep- well pump 20 ...do Fails. 22 Hilltop.. ...do 24.5 feet in sand- 23 Chain pump Pitcher pump Windlass stone. 24 ...do 25 ...do Unfailing. 26 ...do.... 27 ...do 15.2 12.9 11.3 21.0 Chain pump One-bucket rig Chain pump Deep-well pump Do. 28 Slope.. . ...do 28a (a). 29 Plain... ..do 30 Reaches rock. Pails 31 ...do 17.9 7.9 16.4 19.5 14.4 15.7 13.5 8.6 4.4 14.1 12.7 10.6 5.3 14.3 10.0 17.0 12.0 21.5 9.2 15.1 10.8 12.1 6.6 12.3 10.2 26.5 ]3.3 Chain pump Unfailing. Abandoned 32 ...do .. 33 ...do... (&) 34 ..do .. Windlass Do 35 Slope... Knoll... Plain.... Slope... ..do Chain pump do do Unfailing; Dug into rock. 36 37 38 Windlass 40 Chain piunp do 41 ...do... Unfailing. 42 ...do House pump do. . . 43 . do . . 44 ..do .. Abandoned 46 Valley. . Slope... ...do Plain.. . ..do House pump Chain pimip Two-bucket rig 47 48 52 Peck Bros do Unfailing. 53 House pump 53a ...do (d). 54 ...do Chain pump Sweep rig Unfailing. 55 ...do 56 ...do Two-bucket rig Gasoline engine Two-bucket rig Chain pump Deep- well piunp Do. 56a ..do... 9-foot diameter. Un- 57 ...do... failing. « Unfailing. 58 ...do 59 60 ...do.... do .. Do. Do 61 ...do 17.8 26.8 11.0 20.0 House pump Deep- well pump Chain pump Windlass 62 do .. 64 Vallev.. Plain . . . Slope. . . . .do do .. 81 Do. 110 Fails. 120 16.5 14.3 19.7 Two-bucket rig and gasoline engine. Two-bucket rig do 121 122 ..do...- Unfailing. a 100 feet south of well No. 28. Dug to rock. ^ N rig. c Measured on several dates; depth of water August 15, 1914, 4.1 feet; Sept. 4, 4.2 feet; Oct. 1, 2.7 feet. a 25U feet east ol well No, 53. < 330 feet west of well No. 56. FARMINGTON. Dug wells ending in till in Farmington — (.'ontinued. 125 No. on PI. III. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to water. Method of lift. Remarks. 123 124 Slope . . . ...do.. . Feet. 210 320 280 360 365 380 325 400 345 350 345 345 310 340 370 300 375 365 330 355 340 300 265 250 175 340 300 310 Feet. 26.6 31.3 21.0 16.3 20.4 14.6 39.5 17.1 20.0 12.6 13.0 12.5 8.5 15.9 22.0 37.1 19.3 19.0 11.0 23.1 24.8 7.7 13.1 26.6 15.0 46.2 12.2 26.0 Feet. 23.9 29.0 19.9 "13.4' 28. 1 . 14.8 19.1 "ii.'7' 10.7 6.6 14.6 12.6 29.2 19.1 16.9 ""l8."6' 21.7 3.3 12.0 17.2 14.0 21.6 ""i6.'3' Two-bucket rig Chain pump Windmill Windlass Unfailing. 127 Hilltop.. Slope... ...do. . . . Tiled. 129 Fails. 130 (a) Abandoned; fails. 133 ...do House pump Chain piunp do Two-bucket rig Chain pump do 135 Hilltop.. . . do ... 13fi 137 Plain . . . .. do Blasted into trap rock. Fails. 138 139 ...do 1-10 ...do do (0) 1-1 Oa ...do (6). 141 142 Swale... Slope.. - ...do Deep-well pump Chain pump and windmill. Windlass 143 Unfailing. 144 ...do ....do.. . . 14e ...do do Do. 148 ...do Two-bucket rig Chain pump Deep- well pump Windmill Deep- well pump Fails. 149 Slope.. . . ..do. . . . Abandoned 150 Do. 150a ...do (0. 151 Ridge... Slope.. . Plain... Slope... ...do 152 House vacant • 153 154 Abandoned. 155 Windlass Fails. 156 Hartford "Water Commission. ...do.... Chain pimip For assay see p. 128. a No rig. & In barnyard, 150 feet north of well No. 140. c 275 feet northwest of well No. 150 and 36 feet lower. Dug wells ending in stratified dr ift in Farmington. No. on PI. III. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to water. Method of lift. Remarks. 1 Plain.... Slope . .do Feet. 230 230 210 260 290 300 310 185 175 190 205 280 300 185 210 230 240 245 250 255 Feet. 12.6 23.5 12.2 9.0 27.4 32 31 12.8 17.2 39..9 7.2 21 23.1 13.8 25.3 20.1 16.4 21.8 13.2 20.2 Feet. 11.8 21.8 ""h'.K 25.2 30 28 11.1 13.2 18.0 6.0 '""26." 5' 24.6 17.6 14.0 20.1 12.1 (a). 3 4 6 7 8 8a House pump Chain pump Unfailing. Fails. .. do Unfailing. . .do Windlass rig Deep-well pump do Do. ...do ...do w. 10 Plain.... ...do House pump Chain pump do 11 Tiled. 12 ...do Unfailing. 13 do House pump Deep- well pump do Fails. 17 Slope Hilltop . Slope Plain.... Slope.... Plain.... ...do Do. 21 49 House pump House pump do Tiled; abandoned; 65 fails. 66 67 Chain pump House pump 68 69 .do Deep- well pump . .i Fails. 70 ';. . .. do Abandoned; fails. 71 ...do 255 18. 2 250 29.1 250 22. 7 17.3 26.5 20.6 Deep-well pump . . . 72 ...do Deep-wellpump and '^<^^- 73 ...do two-bucket rig. Chain pump do 74 ...do 250 21.4 21.2 Abandoned. a A new well, not yet stoned up. Follo\ving section is exposed: Loam, 2 feet; sand, 5^ feet; gravel, 5 feet. Ground level at the well is 12 feet above river level, b 200 feet south of well No. 8. c Oct. 12, 1914, had 2.6 feet of water; Oct. 21, had 3.8 feet. 126 GKOUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GEANBY .AREA, CONN. Dug wells ending in stratified drift in Farmington — Continued. No. on PI. III. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to water. Method of lift. Remarks. 75 Plain . . . ..do Feet. 250 250 205 250 250 240 205 205 200 170 170 170 220 250 185 165 185 190 200 200 215 195 190 215 170 180 160 170 170 190 180 175 185 175 165 170 Feet. 14.1 30 15.9 18.9 16.6 25.1 • 12.3 7.4 11.7 13.3 14.9 17.1 10.1 30.5 14.5 25.4 31.0 20.4 21.4 14.6 16.7 25.3 9.1 25.1 19.5 25.1 9.0 14.5 19.4 33.1 23.4 18.0 15.1 17.5 11.0 19.2 Feet. 13.3 Chain pump 76 Rock bottom; fails. 77 ...do 14.6 17.6 15.4 24.0 11.0 6.8 10.2 12.0 13.5 14.7 9.5 29.8 12.1 '"29." 8" 17.9 17.6 14.0 12.2 '"'i's' 9.9 19.4 21.8 7.9 13.0 15.9 ""26." 6" 12.4 14.6 11.1 9.4 16.4 Deep-well pump. Chain pump do Tiled. 78 C. A. Alderman.. . .do 78a do ...do ...do («). 82 Chain pump House pump Chain pump do 84 ...do Unfailing. Fails, b 84a ...do 85 do 87 do do Do. 88 ...do House pump Deep-well pump and gasoUne engine. House pump 89 ...do Unfailing. Tiled. 92 Slope.... Plain-.. ...do 93 96 Pitcher pump Two-bucket rig Windlass rig Chain pump do Do. 97 Slope ...do Fails. 98 99 ...do 100 101 N. H. Fossum... ...do Plain.... Slope.... Plain.... ...do For assay see p. 128. 102 Chain pump Two-b ucket rig House pump Windlass rig do Two-bucket rig .... . Chain piimp Two-bucket rig Chain pump Two-bucket rig do Abandoned. 103 Abandoned; fails. 104 105 Slope.... ...do Abandoned. 106 107 108 ...do ...do (c). 108a 109 ...do ...do Abandoned; unfail- 111 Plain.... do ing. Abandoned: fails. 113 Tiled: unfailing. Unfailing. Do. 114 Davis do do 115 ...do Windlass rig Chain piunp Windlass rig Two-bucket rig 116 118 ...do ...do Abandoned: fails. Fails. 119 ...do Do. a Oct. 12, 1914. had 1.2 feet of water; Oct 21, had 2.4 feet. ^ 200 feet northeast of well No. 84-. c Aug. 19, 1914, had 3.3 feet of water; Oct. 13, had 2.4 feet. d Halfway between wells Nos. 107 and 68. Driven icells in Farmington. No. on PI. in. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to water. Diam- eter. Remarks. 2 Valley. . Plain... .do... Feet. 215 200 200 200 205 170 160 165 205 195 325 Feet. 33 ■""30'"' Feet. 20'' Inches. 9 50 Water rather hard. 83 . .do 84 b ...do 25 («). 86 ...do 25 90 Miss Porter's school.. ...do.... ...do 91 22.5 33 33 30 (^)- 94 ...do 30 Working cylinder down 10 feet. 95 ...do.... 134 ...do.... 6 Fails. a Dug well 10 feet deep with a 15-foot drive pipe; 150 feet north of well No. 84. b Dug well 16.5 feet deep with a 6-foot drive pipe. FAKMINGTON. Drilled wells in Farming ton. 127 No. on PI. III. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to rock. Diam- eter. Yield per minute. Water- bearing formation. Remarks. 5 18 39 American Wril^ ing Paper Co. Seth W. Cook. . Plain... Slope. .. ...do Feet. 205 240 280 240 310 550 360 320 440 360 390 340 340 Feet. 430 92 92 57 152 187 480 208 Feet. 50 22 25 30 2 or 3 75 Jncjhes. 6 6 Onllons. 125-130 3 Sandstone. do.... .do... Have a brass screen above rock; 4-inch air lift. For analysis see p. 128. Water enters 45 Peck Bros . .do ... 10-15 80 do.... do.... at 40 feet. For assay see p. 128. 63 Plain... Slope. . . ...do.... ...do.... 112 T. H. & L. C. Root. Miss Porter's school. C. C. Cook (a). 125 126 6 40+ Sandstone and shale. For analysis 128 Wm.S. Miles... Hilltop.. Slope . . . Hilltop.. Plain... ...do.... 6 6 Sandstone. . .do ... 131 44 173 59 41 12 9 see p. 128. Wind mill 132 Wm.J.O'Meara Ed. Kilborn.... C. F. Finneman. used. 146 Trap do • 147 13 o Drilled throua;h 180 feet of trap and 5 or 6 feet of sandstone. i> Two flows were struck, at 425 and 475 feet, respectively; not used. c Water enters at 187 feet. Springs in Farmington. No. on PI. III. Owner. Topographic position. Elevation above sea level. Tempera- ture. Remarks. 51 J. E. Thomas Swamp edge Foot of bank At brookside Feet. 180 290 180 °F. 50 45 Unfailing; for analysis see p. 128.a 80 117 Unfailing. a Improved with a half hogshead; pumped by windmill and distributed from tank by gravity. QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. The results of three analyses and three assays of samples of ground water collected in Farmington are given below. Like the other ground waters in the area covered by this paper, those in Farmington are soft, although Nos. 128 and 156 have a total hardness of 178 and 101 parts per million, respectively. While all waters containing less than 200 parts per million of total hardness as calcium-carbonate are considered soft, waters running as high as Nos. 128 and 156 are imusual in the area under discussion. All the waters analyzed are low in mineral content, ranging from 59 to 140 parts per million of total solids, except Nos. 100 and 128, which contain 170 and 291 parts per million, respectively. With the exception of No. 100, which is of the sodium-carbonate type, the waters are calcium-carbonate in chemical character. All are good for boiler use except Nos. 128 128 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. and 156, which are classed as fair for boilers on account of the amounts of scale-forming constituents they contain. So far as the quantity and nature of the mineral matter in solution in these waters are concerned the waters are good for domestic use. The high nitrate and comparatively high chloride of No. 128, however, indicate surface pollution. . ' Chemical composition and classification of ground ivaters in Farmington. [Parts per million; samples collected Nov. 16, 1915; analyzed by S. C. Dinsmore. Numbers at heads of columns refer to corresponding numbers on PI. Ill; see also records corresponding in number, pp. 125-127.] Analyses.a cl8 51 128 Assays.?* 45 100 156 Silica (SiOs) Iron(re) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Sodium and potassium (Na+K)t* Carbonate radicle (CO3) Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3). . . Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chloride radicle (CI) Nitrate radicle (N O3) Total dissolved solids Total hardness as CaCOs Scale-forming constituents d . . . Foaming constituents d Chemical character Probability of corrosion c. QuaUty for boiler use Quahty for domestic use. 10 .04 20 2.9 5.5 .0 44 13 8.0 16 97 dQ2 74 15 Ca-COg (?) , Good. Good. 13 Trace. 10 2.8 5.6 .0 51 .0 4.0 1.5 59 Approxtmations; for methods used and reliability of results, see pp. 59-61. c Sample collected Nov. 17, 1915. d Computed. c Based on computed value; N=noncorrosive; (?)=corrosion uncertain. PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES. Within the town of Farmington there are two small waterworks which supply Farmington village and Union ville. No. 4 reservoir of the Hartford system is in the southeast corner of the town. Farmington Water Co, — ^In the early days the inhabitants of Farm- ington used wells almost exclusively, but later many small gravity systems which carried water from springs or spring-fed brooks on the hiUs were constructed in the eastern part of the tov/n. Various kinds of pipe were used — bored logs, tile pipes, lead pipe (both seamed and seamless), and iron pipe. One of the largest of these systems was that of Mr. Wadsworth, which supplied half a dozen families and from which the present system has grown. The company formally began operations in 1886 but was not in- corporated until 1895. In 1892 it was found necessary to build a good-sized reservoir part way up the north slope of Rattlesnake Mountain. A dam 720 feet long and with an average height of 10 GRANBY. 129 feet obstructs a small stream and makes a reservoir coYering about 20 acres and with a capacity of 80,000,000 gallons.^^ In 1899 a sand filter covering an area 80 by 100 feet was built, as trouble had been experienced with algal growths in summer. The water is distributed under gravity through about 4 miles of main and is delivered at an average pressure of 65 pounds to the square inch to 33 fire hydrants and 166 private service taps. Most of the people in the village, about 1,000, use the water, and the annual consumption is estimated at 55,000,000 gallons." Unionville Water Co. — Unionville has been supplied since October, 1893, by the Unionville Water Co. On a small brook in Avon, be- tween Roaring Brook and Farmington River, there are two small reservoirs with a combined capacity of 2,500,000 gallons. The upper is used for storage only, and the lower delivers water by gravity through about 5 miles of main to 35 hydrants and 376 private taps. The pressure ranges from 65 to 85 pounds to the square inch. This system, with a storage capacity of only 2,500,000 gallons on a very small brook, is inadequate for the 1,700 people in Unionville, The Collinsville Water Co. has about the same storage capacity but draws from a much larger stream (Nepaug River) and has an abundant supply for the 2,500 people served. It is highly desirable that some addition be made to the resources of the Unionville system, as water famines occur frequently. There are several brooks which join Farmington River from the southwest near Unionville, and on one or more of them reservoirs could be constructed. The stratified drift in the vaUey of Roaring Brook, northeast of UnionviUe, carries a great deal of ground water which could be recovered by means of driven wells, as it is at Plain viUe. (See p. 177.) This would be more expensive than the present supply, but it would be better to pay the price than to continue in danger of water famines. GRANBY. AKEA, POPULATION, AND INDUSTRIES. Granby is near the west end of the northern tier of towns in Hart- ford County. There are three, principal settlements — Granby (or Granby Street), North Granby, and West Granby, which have post offices and stores. Between Granby Street and North Granby are two small groups of houses to which local names are given — ^Mechan- ics viUe and PegviUe. These hamlets are served by the star contract of the stage line connecting North Granby and Granby Street with Granby Station and Tariffville. Another stage line carries mail from 51 Farmington, Conn., compiled by A. L. Brandegee and E. A. Smith; article on the waterworks by the superintendent, A. R. Wadsworth. 52 Connecticut Pubhc Utilities Comm, Kept., 1915. 187118°— 21— wsp 466 9 130 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. Granby Station to Granby Street and West Granby, and also on to East Hartland. There is a fourth hamlet, Hungary, just east of the gap in Manitick Mountain, and a fifth. Bushy Hill, IJ miles west of Granby Street. Granby has an area of about 41 square miles, of which about 70 per cent is wooded. The woodlands are mostly restricted to the western part of tlie town and are deciduous ; the woods of the eastern part consist largely of white pine (Pinus strohus). Tliere are about 134 miles of roads, of wliich about 5J miles are macadam roads. The roads from Granby Station to Granby Street and West Granby and from Granby Street to Goodrichville are parts of the network of State trunk-line roads. There are in addition about 4 miles of roads that have been discontinued. Granby was part of the town of Simsbury up to 1786, when it was made a separate town. It then included also East Granby, which was cut off and incorporated in 1858. In 1910 Granby had a popu- lation of 1,383. Population of Granby, 1790-1910 a Year. Population. Year. Population. Year. Population. 1790 2,595 2,735 2,696 3,012 2,733 1840 2,611 2,488 1,720 1,517 1,340 1890 1,251 1800 1850 1900 1,299 1810 1860 1910 1,383 1820 1870 1830 1880 o Connecticut Register and Manual, 1915, p. 653. The loss in the decade from 1850 to 1860 is due to the cession of East Granby. The population reached a maximum in 1820, and lost rather steadily till 1890, since when it has gained slightly. The loss is probably part of the general drift from the agricultural sections of New England to the centers of manufacturing. The recent gain is probably due to the development of the growing of wrapper and binder tobacco. Before the construction of the Farmington Canal in 1827 there was a little manufacturing of metal products, shoes, harness, and silver plate. This has died out, and agriculture is now the principal industry. A great deal of tobacco and considerable amounts of dairy products are shipped each year. SURFACE FEATURES. The eastern part of Granby is a part of the central lowland prov- ince of Connecticut and is a rolling plain above which rise several prominent hills. The hills of the western half of the town are for the most part about 900 feet above sea level, but one flat-topped hill in the southwest corner rises to 1 , 1 66 feet. The lowest point inGranby is where Salmon Brook crosses into East Granby, at an elevation of only 155 feet above sea level, so the total range is a little over 1,000 feet. The highland has a fairly straight eastern front, past the foot of the northern part of which Dismal Brook flows southward to North GRANBY. 131 Granby. South of this point the front is more thorouglily dissected, and where Salmon Brook enters the lowland it is very much broken down. The southern part of the highland front is partly obscured by the Barndoor Hills and their southward prolongations, wliich though they belong in the lowland are nearly as high and rugged as the adjacent highland. The lowland of Granby has several divisions, the most charac- teristic of which is the plain of Salmon Brook and its North Branch. This plain is a mile or two wide and ranges in elevation from J 00 to 300 feet above sea level. A mantle of stratified drift with a maxi- mum thickness of at least 75 feet covers the plain. Above it rise gently rounded hills with sandstone cores and a mantle of till having a maximum thickness of perhaps 40 feet. These hills attain ekiva- tions of 400 to 500 feet above sea level. The sandstones and shales underlying the lowland are softer than the crystalline rocks of the highland and have therefore been worn down to their present lowness. Associated with the sandstone and shale is a sheet of trap rock which crops out in the Barndoor Hills and in Manitick Mountain and gives them their t(){)ographic prominence. The trap sheet has been broken by faults which have caused the gaps in these hills. The soil of the sand plains is highly porous. It is very suitable for raising tobacco and in a natural state had a forest consisting in large part of white pines. Plate VI, B, shows a stand of white pine (Pinus strobus) near Granby Street. Two areas in Granby contain a number of eskers; one is west of West Granby, and one is in the northwest corner of the town and over- laps into Hartland. The eskers are winding ridges of stratified drift, 10 to 30 feet high, and from a few hundred yards to half a mile in length. They were deposited in channels or fissures at the bottom of the ice sheet and have been left by the melting away of the ice. A ridge of till a quarter of a mile long, 50 to 150 feet wide, and 10 to 25 feet high forms a conspicuous topographic feature just north of well No. 45 (PI. III). During the time that the great ice sheet was melting back from this region there were interruptions and even re- versals of this movement. It is probable that at such a time this ridge was built up as a lateral moraine by the temporarily advancing ice. The southern haK of Granby is drained by Salmon Brook and its tributaries. Above West Granby these streams are steep and swift but have a few slowly flowing reaches with small flood plains. North Branch of Salmon Brook, formed by the junction of Dismal Brook and East Branch at North Granby, drains the northern half of the town. These streams have gentle gradients for the greater part of their courses. On October 6, 1915, rough measurements were made of the discharge of these streams just above their juncture. North Branch showed a flow of about 9 second-feet and Dismal Brook about 3 second-feet. A lesser tributary a mile east of North Granby on the same day was flowing about 1 second-foot. 132 GROUND WATER IIST SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. ScTiist. — Western Granby is underlain by the mica schist known as the Hoosac schist. It is of light to medium gray color and consists essentially of mica and grains of quartz and in some places a little feldspar, garnet, or other accessory mineral. The mica flakes are arranged in a roughly parallel manner and by reason of their cleava- bility make the rock fissile. Water is carried to a slight extent by the minute openings between the mica flakes but more abundantly in the larger fractures and openings. Mr. Stevens's well (No. 40, PL III) was drilled below the bottom of an old dug well that was 18 feet deep, 10 feet in solid rock. The principal supply enters the drill hole at a depth of 65 feet, and there is another smaller flow at a greater depth. The water is under sufficient head to make it rise into the dug portion of the well, from which it is carried by a siphon to the house, 40 feet lower on the hillside. No other drilled wells in schist were found, but undoubtedly such wells could be successfully put down somewhere on every farm in the western part of the town. Sandstone and trap. — Red sandstones and shales, dipping uniformly to the east with a slope of 15° to 20°, underlie the eastern half of Granby. These were deposited as sands and clays in the great valley that occupied central Connecticut in Triassic time. The deposi- tion was thrice interrupted by the quiet outpouring of lava, which eventually became the trap sheets of Talcott and East Granby mountains. At one time, also, there was forced into the sediments the lava which now forms the sheets of the Barndoor Hills and Mani- tick MouQtain. The tilting of the rocks occurred subsequently and was accompanied by extensive faulting and fracturing, in both the sedimentary and the volcanic rocks. The topographic form of the trap sheet is disadvantageous for the retention of ground water, as it allows water to seep away readily. Seven wells drilled into sand- stone were visited. Their average depth is 112 feet, and the average reported yield of four of them is 6 gallons a minute. Till. — Till is the more abundant surface rock in Granby and covers virtually aU of the highland as well as the parts of the lowland more than 260 to 300 feet above sea level. It is a layer of rock rubbish composed of finely ground rock flour with clay, silt, sand, pebbles, and boulders, all thoroughly mixed together. Below a certain depth, which varies from place to place and also with the seasons, the minute pores of the till are full of water, which will seep slowly into wells dug deep enough. On account of the seasonal fluctuation of the water level some weUs in till may fail in times of drought. Measure- ments were made of 42 wells dug in till in Granby. The depth to the water level in them ranged from 0.6 foot in well No. 82 (see PI. Ill) to 24.4 feet in well No. 35; the average depth to water was 9.8 feet. Inquiries were made as to the reliability of 34 of these wells ; 24 were said to be nonf ailing and 10 were said to fail. In well No. 50 there is GRAiTBY. 13S indicated a fluctuation of at least 14 feet, for although it had that much water in it when measured (Oct. 13, 1915) it is said to fail. Stratified drift. — The stratified-drift deposits are very different from the till. Their materials are the thoroughly washed and sorted materials of the till and are relatively free of the very line and the very large constituents. In these sands and gravels the pores are larger and better connected than in the till, so the supply of water to wells is more abundant. The plainlike deposits of stratified drift are the best of water bearers, but the supply in the eskers is neither abundant nor reliable. Measurements of 31 wells dug in the stratified drift were obtained in Granb}^. The depth to the water level aver- aged 10.3 feet and ranged from 3.1 feet in well No. 57 (see PL III) to 37.2 feet in well No. 69. Six of these wells were said to fail and 14 to be nonf ailing ; the reliability of the remaining wells was not ascer- tained. RECORDS OF WELLS AND SPRINGS. Dug wells ending in till in Granhy. No. on PI. III. 1 4 5 6 7 8 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 41 42 46 49 50 62 76 81 82 83 Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to water. Slope . . . ...do.. .. Feet. 530 705 645 645 490 430 425 445 430 410 870 875 620 1,025 600 980 925 880 710 560 1,160 1,085 850 600 630 1,110 1,120 370 560 460 410 300 315 380 330 445 340 390 325 325 325 Feet. 21.5 18.4 18.1 21.9 24.8 10.8 22.4 14.2 12.1 16.7 9.4 13.3 15.5 15.1 18.5 13.9 16.5 9.6 19.8 18. 5 17,4 25.9 14.4 8 16.2 14.3 22.3 13.1 29.2 15.4 10.0 15.0 11.5 12.2 26.7 31 18.0 12.6 14.1 9.8 16.9 Feet. 19.9 12.1 12.2 17.4 9.1 7.4 11.7 6.3 7.2 11.8 3.2 6.5 5.5 6.4 11.6 8.6 7.6 3.8 13.7 13.9 12.6 13.8 7.3 4 8.5 6.3 18.1 11.5 25.4 5.9 7.2 9 6.7 8.1 5.1 15 13 3.4 9.5 .6 10.7 ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do I'lateau. Slope.. . Hilltop.. Slope . . . ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do do .. ...do. .. Hilltop.. Plain... Slope . . . ...do ...do Wm. V. Goddard Plain... do C. M. Beman Slope... ...do Plateau. Plain... Slope.. . do. .. . ...do ..do Method of lift. Windlass rig Chain pump House pump Windlass rig House pump Chain pumn do....: do do Deep -well pump and chain pump. («) («) Windlass rig do House pump Chain pump Two-bucket rig Chain pump do Windlass rig do Deep- well pump Chain piunp Gravity system Chain pump Windlass rig do Sweep rig Windlass rig Chain pump Windlass rig Deep-well pump. Windlass rig Chain pump .... Windlass rig. Windmill . . . Chain pump . . . Two-bucket rig . Gravity system . Windlass rig Remarks. Abandoned; fails. Unfailing. Fails. Unfailing. Do. Fails. Unfailing. Do. Fails. Unfailing. Do. Do. Rock bottorn; un- failing. Unfailing. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Fails. Do. Do. V Unfailing; rock bot- tom; for assay see p. 135. Unfailing. Do. Do. Unfailing; for anal- ysis see p. 135. Unfailing. Do. Do. Fails. Fails; temperature, 57° F. Unfailing. a No rig. 134 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. Dug wells ending in stratified drift in Granhy. No. on PI. III. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Elevar tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to water. Method of lift. Rem.arkr>. 2 Plain... ...do Feet. 480 415 685 655 700 350 3^5 310 280 315 250 280 255 260 250 210 260 230 235 310 290 190 195 225 265 215 155 230 200 190 180 235 Feet. 8.7 9.4 ""7."7' 12.2 10.5 15.7 15.0 13.8 11.4 11.5 23.6 10.5 12.2 10.0 24.1 13.1 20.6 12.7 41.0 23.9 11.2 37.6 11.2 15.0 12.5 9.6 17.6 19.1 21.0 19.8 12.6 Feet. 6.7 6.3 16.0 6.5 8.8 8.2 10.2 11.0 7.0 5.2 8.4 13.3 6.3 4.4 3.7 14.5 3.1 13.6 8.7 Pitcher pump Windlass 9 Unfailing. Do. 17 Slope... ...do.... Plain... ...do Pitcher pump Siphon ram 18 H. S, Parmelee.. Unfailing. 19 Windlass 38 Windlass and house pump. Fails. 39 ...do Unfailing. 43 Mary S. Mller. . . Slope. . . ...do Windlass Do. 41 Deep-well pump Windlass Fails. 45 ...do.;.. Do. 47 ...do . .do 48 Parsonage ...do House pump Windlass Unfailing; for assay see p. 135. Unfailing. 52 ...do 53 Plain... ...do Chain pump .....do Do. 55 Do. 56 ...do Windlass Fails. 57 ...do (o) Unfailing. Fails.6 58 Slope. .. Plain... ...do Windlass 59 Chain pump .... Unfailing. 65 Driven well. 66 ..do 16.4 8.0 37.2 7.5 5.0 10.2 Two-bucket rig Chain pump Windlass 68 ...do Unfailing. 69 ...do 70 ...do do 72 Hilltop-. Slope. . . Plain... ...do ( c) Do. 74 Windlass Rock bottom; un- 75 failing. Fails. 78 11.1 12.1 14.5 18.6 10.6 Chain pump Windlass Do. 84 Slope. .. ...do. . . . 85 do 86 ...do. . do 87 Plain... ido o 8-foot diameter. Pumped with a gasoline engine. b Rock bottom. Water enters through drill holes in the bottom. When the well fails the supply may be restored by cleaning out the drill holes, c No rig. Drilled wells in Granhy. No. on PI. in. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to rock. Diam- eter. Yield per minute. Water-bear- ing formation. Remarks. 40 51 54 67 A. A. Stevens . . A. F. Batavte.. A. B.Wells G. A. Smith . Slope. . . Plain. . . ...do.... ...do Feet. 440 280 250 290 210 210 300 260 Feet. 114 86 90 50 130 (?) 105 206 114 Feet. 8 15 23 28 17(?) Inches. 6 6 6 Gallons. 12 Schist Sandstone... do do For anal3'-sis sec p. 135.1 $2 a foot. 71 Slope.. . ...do 5(?) 2" 5 do do do do 73 Wm. Myers .... 75 48" 6 6 6 79 80 F. L. Spring.... L. C. Spring Hill Slope... a Well is higher than the house and the water is carried in by a siphon, at a depth of 65 feet. Principal supply from a fissure GRANBY. Springs in Granhy. 135 No. on PI. III. Owner. Topographic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Tem- pera- ture. Yield per minute. Remarks. 3 Slope Feet. 640 260 360 300 265 op 49 56 52 56 49 Onllovs. 30 Operates 3 rams; imfailing. 60 .do Piped to house. 61 Almou V. Godard ..do Piped to house; in red sand- 64 do stone. Piped to house. 77 ..do Do. QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. The results of two analyses and two assays of samples of ground water collected in Granby are given below. The waters are of the calcium-carbonate type and are low in mineral content, ranging from 51 to 130 parts per million of total dissolved solids. They are all very soft and are classified as good for both domestic and boiler use. Chemical composition and classification of ground waters in Granby. [Parts per million; samples collected Dec. 4, 1915; analyzed, by S. C. Dinsmore. Numbers at heads of col- umns refer to corresponding numbers on PI. Ill: see also records corresponding in number, pp. 133-134.] Analyses. « c40 46 Assays, b d3G Silica (BiOg) Iron(Fe) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Sodiura and potassium (Na+K)e Carbonate radicle (CO3) Bicarbonate radicle (HCOj) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chloride radicle (CI) Nitrate radicle (NO3) Total dissolved solids Total hardness as CaCOs Scale-forming constituents e Foaming constituents e Chemical character Probability of corrosion ff Quality for boiler use Quality for domestic use 14 .46 7.4 .7 /6.8 .0 29 7.8 1.2 .25 51 e21 37 18 Ca-COs N Good. Good. 17 .05 16 4.3 4.3 .0 39 3.7 22 Trace. 82 c58 71 12 Ca-COg (?) Good. Good. Trace. Trace. 5 18 34 61 15 20 4 15 e73 89 55 10 Ca-COs (?) Good. Good. el 20 57 70 50 Ca-COg Good. Good. a For methods used in analyses and accuracy of results, see pp. 59-61. b Approximations; for methods used and reliability of results, see pp. 59-61. c Analyzed by Alfred A. Chambers, U. S, Geol. Survey. d Sample collected Dec. 3, 1915. « Computed. / Determined. ff Based on computed value; N=noncorrosive; (?)=corrosion uncertain. PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES. The village of Granby Street is supplied with water by the Salmon Brook Water Co. Water is pumped from a small tributary of Sal- mon Brook and is delivered through a mile of main pipe to 62 service taps. Most of the people in the area covered by the service are supplied, and the water is used solely for domestic and farm purposes. 136 GEOUND WATER IK SOUTHINGTOK-GRANBY AREA, CONN. HARTLAND. AREA, POPULATION, AND INDUSTRIES. Hartland is the most northwesterly town in Hartford County and lies next to the Massachusetts boundary. The two largest settle- ments are East Hartland and West Hartland, which are east-central and west-central in position. There are also hamlets at Hartland (Hartland Hollow) and North Hartland, in the deep valley between the two villages, and at Centerhill, south of West Hartland. There are post offices at all these places and stores at East and West Hartland. A stage line with a star contract connects East Hartland with Granby Station, on the Northampton division (Canal Road) of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad. Another stage runs to the other settlements in Hartland from New Hartford, on the Central New England Railway and the New Hartford branch of the Northampton division. The town has an area of 34 square miles, about three-fourths of which is wooded. About 96 miles of roads are maintained by the town, and about 16 miles have been legally abandoned. None of the roads are metaled, but in time a State trunk-line road will be built across the town. The territory of Hartland was originally held by certain financiers in Hartford, and its name was chosen for this reason. The town has not changed in organization or extent since its incorporation in 1761. The population in 1910 was 544. Since 1800 a loss in population has been shown at ever}^ census except that of 1900. The gain of that decade is said by Mr. David N. Gaines, the postmaster at East Hartland, to have been due to the coming in of a few men for tem- porary employment in portable sawmills, and the strictly resident population decreased. Hartland is so remote from the railroad and its climate is so harsh that many of the residents emigrated to better farming country and particularly to Ohio. This emigration started at the beginning of the nineteenth century, and it is said that on Thanksgiving Day, 1802, 17 families comprising 117 people left for Ohio. Population of Hartland, 1756-1910 a Year. Population. Year. Population. Year. Population. 1756 12 500 961 1820 1,254 1,221 1,060 848 846 789 1880 643 1774 1830 1890 565 1782 1840 1900. 592 1790 1850 : 1910 544 1800 1,318 1,284 1860 1870 1810 a Connecticut Register and Manual, 1915, p. 654. At no time has manufacturing thrived in Hartland, and agricul- ture, especially stock raising, has been the chief industry. HARTLAND. 137 WesHBranch Farmiriffton JiiveTr \m SURFACE FEATURES. Hartland is a high plateau that is only slightly dissected except for two deep valleys that trench it. These features are shown in the topo- graphic and geologic section across ^ -^ -- g the town given in figure 23 and indi- cated on Plate II by the line A-A' . The plateau ranges in elevation from 1,160 to 1,340 feet above sea level. Into it are cut a nxunber of broad but shallow vaUeys, and on it stand a few higher hiUs. Several such hills in the northwest corner of the town are over 1,400 feet above sea level, the highest being about 1,460 feet. The valley of East Branch of Farmington River, known locally as Hartland Hollow, cuts the town into eastern and western parts. In flowing across the town East Branch drops from an elevation of 630 feet to 475 feet above sea level. The steep valley waUs are 500 to 700 feet high u.nd are very impressive scenic features. The vaUey was in exist- ence in preglacial time but was overdeepened by the glacier. Half a mile south of Hartland HoUow there is a lateral moraine, a mass of till plastered against the vaUey wall by the ice. The valley has a flat floor a quarter to three-quarters of a mile wide, formed of stratified drift washed in since the recession of the glacier. In part this plain is bound- ed by terraces of stratified drift 15 to 25 feet high. The relations of the rock wall, the lateral moraine, the flat valley floor, and the terraces are shown in figure 24. The valley of West Branch of Farmington River for about 2 miles insmore, analyst. Numbers at heads of columns refer to corresponding num- bers on Pi. Ill; see also records corresponding in number, pp. 146-148.] Analyses.o 41 69 Assays. b 42 48 52 SiUca (Si02) Iroa(Fe) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Sodium and potassium (Na-FK)c Carbonate radicle (CO3) Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chloride radicle (CI) Nitrate radicle (NO3) Total dissolved solids Total hardness as CaCOa Scale-forming constituents c Foaming constituents c Chemical character Probability of corrosion d QuaUty for boUer use Quality for domestic use Date of collection (1915) 8.5 .05 9.0 2.4 2.8 .0 20 3.7 6.0 12 53 32 39 Ca-COs (?) Good. Good. Aug. 3 12 .05 34 9.6 57 .0 105 21 92 14 301 cl24 130 150 Na^Cl Fair. Good. Nov. 22 Trace. Trace. Trace. 13 76 Trace. 19 Trace. 46 Trace. 4 c53 6 20 40 Na-COs N Good. Good. Clio 63 80 30 Ca-COs (?) Good. Good. Aug. 6 C61 43 60 Trace. Ca-COs (?) Good. Good. Nov. 22 a For methods used in analvses and accuracy of results, see pp. 59-61. h Approximations; for methods used and reliability of results, see pp. 59-61. c Computed. d Based on computed value; (?)=» corrosion uncertain; N=noncorrosive. GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. 149 NEW BRITAIN. AREA, POPULATION, AND INDUSTRIES; Of all the towns considered in this report, New Britain is the only- one east of the range of trap ridges of the Connecticut lowland. The town is in the southern part of Hartford County and contains the city of New Britain, with which it is coterminous. Outside the built-up portion there is a considerable district served by rural delivery from the central post office, which also serves the city with regular carriers. The Highland division of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad runs through New Britain, and there is a branch 2^ miles long that joins the main hne of the Hartford division at Berlin. Ti-olley lines connect New Britain with Hartford, Berlin, Plain ville, Southington, Meriden, and more distant points. New Britain has an area of 13-J- square miles, of which 20 per cent is wooded. The woodlands are restricted chiefly to the hills in the western and northern parts of the town. New Britain was settled in 1687 as a parish of Farmington. In 1785 Berlin, which then included New Britain, was separated from Farmington, and in 1850 New Britain was taken from Berlin and separately incorporated. Subsequently a borough was formed, which in 1871 was reorganized as a city. In 1905 the city was made coter- minous with the town. In 1910 the population of New Britain was 43,916, of whom 18,015 were foreign born. In 1920 it was 59,316. The growth in popula- tion since 1850 has been rapid and uniform, owing to the vigor and stability of the manufacturing industries. In 1850 the railroad from Hartford to Bristol by way of New Britain was built, and in 1855 it was extended to Waterbury. In 1848 the raih'oad between Hart- ford and New Haven was opened, and in 1865 the branch to New Britain was finished.. These railroads have provided the transporta- tion facihties vital to New Britain's manufacturing industries. The introduction of a water supply in 1857 is said to have given a marked impetus to manuf acturiag, because it made possible the use of steam engines. It is to be expected that the population wiU continue to increase as in the past and that every few years it wiU be necessary to arrange for extensions of the water supply. Population of New Britain, 1850-1920 A Year. Population. Year. Population. 1850 3,029 5,212 9,480 13,979 1890 19,007 28,202 43, 916 59,316 I860 1900 1870 1«80 1910 1920 a Figures up to 1870 from Connecticut Register and Manual, 1915, p. 654; figures from 1880 to 1920 from reports of the United States Census. 150 GROUND WATER IIT SOUTHINGTOl^-GRANBY AREA, CONK. The principal manufactures of New Britain are hardware, cutlery, edge tools, hosiery, and foundry and machine - shop products. Hardware of various sorts forms over 50 per cent of the products, and the name ''hardware city'' is often appHed to New Britain. surface' features. The topography of New Britain is somewhat intricate and reflects the structure, distribution, and character of the rocks. Two portions may be recognized — a very hilly and rugged western portion and a gently rolling eastern portion. The rocks underlying New Britain are trap and red sandstone and shale, all of Triassic age. The deposition of the sands and clays that eventually hardened to form the sandstone and shale was interrupted on three occasions by the quiet volcanic eruption of lava, which spread out in broad sheets that hardened to form the trap rocks. Within the EXPLANATION "^^ -'.,•'/«: Stratified drift t» Till i® Sandstone FiGXJBE 25. Posterior trap sheet Section across New Britain. Mai n"trap sheet I Fault limits of New Britain are found parts of the second and third sheet. The second is called the ''Main'^ sheet, as it is the thickest (400 to 500 feet) and has the greatest topographic effect. The upper sheet is thinner (100 to 150 feet) and is called the ''Posterior'^ sheet, as it crops out on the back slope of the main ridge. Between these trap sheets there is about 1,200 feet of sandstone, and a similar series of beds separates the '^Main" sheet from the underlying '^ Anterior" sheet, which is thus named because it crops out on the face or cliff side of the '^Main" sheet. The '^Anterior" sheet does not crop out in New Britain, but it undoubtedly extends under much or all of the town. After their consolidation these rocks were broken into great fault blocks, and the blocks were tilted to the east. The soft shales and sandstones have been eroded away and have left the harder trap sheets standing as high ridges. Block faulting has caused the repetition of the outcrops in some places and their elimination in others. Only by such a mechanism can the irregular distribution of trap knolls in the southern and eastern parts of New Britain be ex- plained. Figure 25 is a structure section (indicated by the line E-E' NEW BRITAIN. 151 on the maps) sho^ving the probable relation of the fault blocks in New Britain. The kind of topography which weathering produces on rocks hav- ing such a structure is that shown by New Britain to-day, except for the superadded effects of glaciation, which has smoothed the surface, wearing off projections and filling in depressions. The hills of New Britain are partly buried in sands and gravels of glacio-fiuviatile origin. Mr. T. A. Stanley's drilled well (No. 108, PI. Ill) passed through about 100 feet of sand and gravel before reaching bedrock. These sediments form a great outwash plain which with minor inter- ruptions extends eastward to Connecticut River. Most of the hills that rise above this plain have cores of trap, but in some the core is of sandstone, and others have no rock core at all. These are drumlins and are composed of till heaped up by the overburdened ice sheet. The total rehef of New Britain is moderate, only about 430 feet, and very few of the slopes are steep. The lowest point is where one of the branches of Mattabesset River crosses the Berlin town line, 55 feet above sea level, and the highest is on the slope of Bradley Mountain, 485 feet. No large streams flow through New Britain. The northern half of the town is drained by the headwaters of South Branch, which joins Park River in Hartford and so reaches Connecticut River. The southeast corner is drained by tributaries of Mattabesset River, which joins the Connecticut at Middletown. A strip three-quarters of a mile by IJ miles along the western boundary is drained by the headwaters of Quinnipiac River, which flows through Cooks Gap to Plainville and then turns south. Formerly the direction of the flow through Cooks Gap was the reverse of the present and the stream carried the run-off of a large area of the western highland. This ancestor of the Pequabuck and Farmington followed the general course of the Mattabesset to Middletown. The diversion of this stream is discussed in the section on Plainville. (See p. 168.) WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. Sandstone and trap. — The sandstones of the Connecticut Valley and the trap sheets associated with them have been broken and fis- sured very extensively by the jarring and crushing incident to the processes of block faulting and tilting. In addition, there are joints and fissures due to shrinkage either as the sediments dried out or as the igneous rocks cooled. A good deal of water which has fallen as rain soaks into these openings from the soil, and it may be recovered by means of drilled weUs. Information was obtained concerning 11 drilled wells in New Britain. Their depth ranges from 36 to 500 152 GROUND WATER IK SOTITHIHGTON-GRAHBY AREA, COl^lii'. feet and averages 237 feet. All these weUs are believed to derive their water from fissures in the sandstone. The well belonging to the Traut & Hine Manufacturing Co. (No. 55, PI. Ill) is 270 feet deep. Sandstone was found at a depth of 15 or 20 feet, and farther down the drill went through a rather thin sheet of trap rock, presumably the ''Posterior" sheet, below which water was obtained. There was enough hydrostatic head to make the water flow from the well. The probable conditions are shown in figure 26. The trap rock is presumably relatively free from joints at this point and acts as a restraining member. The water that per- colates into the cracks in the sandstone west of the point marked B flows through the complicated network of fissures. Once it passes B, the edge of the trap sheet, the water is restricted, and hydrostatic head is developed under the influence of gravity. A well drilled at Figure 26. — Diagram showing probable relation of the flowing well of the Traut & Hine Manufacturing Co., New Britain, to the trap sheet. W will reach fissures in the lower part of the trap sheet and in the underlying sandstone. The hydrostatic head of the water in these fissures wiU be equal to the head of a column of water of the height BC'y less a certain correction for the frictional resistance in the nar- row channels. If the difference in elevation is great enough to over- come the frictional effect, the water will flow from the well. The Traut & Hine well ^delded an abundance of water, but it was too highly mineralized for the company's particular uses and the well has been abandoned. The Stanley Works (Inc.) has a drilled well (No. 48, PL II) whose situation is somewhat similar to that of the Traut & Hine well. It was drilled through 20 or 25 feet of soil and 50 feet of sandstone and entered but did not go through a ^^ blue-gray" rock, presumably trap. The total depth is 250 feet. The water stands about 40 feet below the ground level, and a big supply is pumped. It is possible that had the well been sunk through the trap it might have struck NEW BRITAIN. 153 water under sufficient head to produce a flow, but this is improbable. In the first place, certain of the fissures would probably allow the head to be dissipated, and in the second place, as the trap rock is prob- ably part of the ^^Main" sheet, 400 feet or more thick, the great depth would tend to close the channels of circulation. Dug well No. G3 was blasted 32 feet into the trap of the crest of a low ridge formed by the '^Posterior'' sheet. The owner, says that in the spring it is sometimes nearly full and that in summer it fails. The excess water in the spring is probably surface water. The fail- ure in summer is due to the smallness of the fissures and the slight depth. These disadvantageous factors overcome the great abun- dance of the cracks cut by the well. TiU. — The western part of New Britain and the hills of the eastern portion above an elevation of 220 feet above sea level are mantled with till through which a few ledges crop out. The till consists of clay, sand, pebbles, and boulders intermingled in all proportions and with no sorting or washing into separate beds. It is the product of direct deposition by ice without the intervention of aqueous action. Wells dug in till yield water which seeps in slowly from the fine pores. The yield is in general not great, but as a rule it is obtained at mod- erate depths. Of the 55 wells dug in till that were measured in New Britain 3 were found to be dry. The depth to the water level in the remaining 52 wells ranged from 2.9 feet in well No. 22 (PI. Ill) to 60 feet in well No. 29 and averaged 14.9 feet. Information as to reli- ability was obtained for 18 of these wells, of which 12 were said to be nonf ailing. Stratified drift. — ^The deposits of stratified drift that form the plains of New Britain are far more porous than the till of the hills. Wells in this material are apt to be more reliable, although 6 of the 16 whose rehability was ascertained are said to fail. In all 39 wells dug in stratified drift were measured in New Britain. Their depth to water ranged from 3 feet in wells Nos. 61 and 65 to 40.9 feet in well No. 102 and averaged 16.1 feet. There are also a number of driven wells which draw from the strati- fied drift. The P. & F. Corbin Co. has a battery of ^yg such wells which together will yield 50 gallons a minute. The wells are so closely spaced that they interfere with one another, for any one weU alone will yield 25 gallons a minute. It is possible to procure a good deal of water in this way, even in the built-up portions of the city. In such locations, however, the sanitary character of the water is questionable. 154 GROUND WATER IN SOIJTHINGTON-GRANbY AREA, CONN". RECORDS OF WELLS AND SPRINGS. Dug wells ending in till in New Britain. No. on PI. III. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of ~ well. Depth to water. Method of lift. Remarks. 1 Slope... Hilltop.. ...do Feet. 395 390 390 330 320 325 335- 330 300 320 310 320 440 440 240 370 325 300 310 305 280 310 320 330 330 315 320 310 325 330 330 330 305 305 290 260 240 220 265 195 195 190 205 170 170 300 300 290 280 195 200 220 180 160 200 Feet. 11 24.7 25.1 16.7 12.8 41.1 6.4 38.1 60 35.3 48.3 30.9 33.6 21.5 16.2 41.1 10.1 8.0 23.4 4.5 11.3 27.2 12.3 13.4 20.2 41.2 33.9 21.6 25.8 19.3 27.3 16.0 20.5 41.2 39.3 19.8 17.1 39.6 13.9 11.9 16.0 20.3 '"2i."5' 24.7 23.9 20.9 6.2 27.0 11 11.5 22.6 13.6 Feet. 7 14.8 13.8 14.0 12.0 ""l'.h' 31.7 55 • (a) 2 2-bucket rig Unfailing. 3 Windlass rig do 4 Plain. . . Slope... Hilltop.. ...do 6 Abandoned. 7 Windlass rig Deep- well pump Windlass rig Fails. 8 9 10 M. A. Hunter. . . Slope ...do.... For analysis see p. 157. Fails. 12 HUltop.. Slope. . . Hilltop.. Slope... ...do... . Do. 13 40.8 26.6 32.5 Windlass rig do Do. 14 Unfailing. Do.b 15 do 16 Fails. 17 ...do 13.6 18.4 8.0 3.9 17.1 2.9 10.3 23.0 11.4 12.2 17.4 60 18.3 21.8 15.9 19.2 12.9 16.0 11.3 16.8 19.5 29.6 16.9 14.8 31.0 12.0 9.6 11.7 19.6 30.7 31.5 14.0 15.6 17.3 19.9 3.0 20.1 5 6.5 13.2 13.1 Windlass rig do 18 Hilltop- Slope ...do.. .. Unfailing 19 Chain pump 20 21 ..do Do.c 22 ...do 23 ...do (a) New well. 24 ...do Windlass rig Chain pump do 26 Hilltop.. ...do Fails. 27 28 Slope. . . ...do do 29 2-bucket ris; Temperature 49° F.; 30 ...do Windlass rig Wheel and axle rig. . Chain pump Windlass rig Chain pump and- windmill. Windlass rig Chain pump do imfailing. Unfailing. 31 ...do 32 Hilltop.. ...do Fails. 34 Do. 35 ...do Unfailing. 36 ...do 37 ...do 38 ...do 39 ...do 2-bucket rig 40 Slope. . . ...do Gravity system Windlass rig do 41 Do. 42 Valley. . Hilltop.. Plain. . . ...do.... 43 2-bucket ris? 44 Windlass rig 2-bucket rig 45 46 ...do Windlass rig 47 Slope. . . Plain. . . ...do.... Hilltop.. ...do... . 54 Landers, Frary & Clark. do {d). C^). 54a 56 Chain pump do 57 Unfailing. Do. 58 ...do do 59 Slope. . . ...do do 65 66 W. H. Ibelle ..do (o) Abandoned. 66a 68 do ...do.... ...do Gravity system do For assay see p. 157. « Unfailing. 97 Slope. . . ...do... . Windlass rig Sweep rig 98 o No rig. b Well reaches rock. There is a drill hole running down deeper, c Never less than 5 feet of water. d Wells 54 and 54a are dug on the site of a filled-in pond. They are dug to rock and get their water just on top of it. « Supplied six families and a dairy. NEW BRITAIN-. Dug wells ending in stratified drift in New Britain. 155 No. on PI. ni. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to water. Method of lift. Remarks. 5 Slope.... ...do Feet. 240 290 190 170 185 185 160 120 130 120 120 100 120 100 IGO 155 165 345 320 310 225 170 180 220 150 160 160 200 230 140 120 90 170 130 80 125 125 129 100 Feet. 14.0 31.2 29.9 7.0 6.9 32.2 14.5 18.6 22.6 25.0 25.1 15.0 34.0 16.6 21.1 18.4 22.9 6.6 26.0 15.1 20.0 18.2 19.6 15.3 27.1 25.5 23.1 20.1 15.5 21.1 13.2 41.8 20.1 26.0 14.1 15.4 15.9 21.3 Feet. 12.1 28.5 26.4 3.0 3.1 22.4 12.5 17.1 21.4 23.7 24.3 10.5 33.6 11.7 16.1 16.0 19.8 4.1 25.7 14.4 15.6 18.0 15.2 11.9 21.4 21.2 17.0 13.8 30.0 11.0 20.5 12.9 40.9 16.9 11.0 12.8 11.5 13.6 20.9 Chain pnmp Windlass.... Fails 11 60 Ridge... Swale... Ridge... -do. . .. Fails; 12 feet in trap. Unfailing; tiled. Tiled. 61 62 63 Chain pump In trap; fails. Tiled; unfailing. Reaches rock' unfail- 64 Slope. . . ...do 69 Windlass 70 Plain... Terraf^e . Plain... ...do Chain pump do ing. 72 Temperature 58i"'F.; unfailing. o 74 Two-bucket rig do.. .. 75 76 ...do Abandoned 78 Valley. . Plain... ...do Windlass 79 Two-bucket rig .do 80 81 ...do Windlass 82 Slope... ...do do do 83 Fails. 84 ...do Chain pump .. ..do. 8.5 ...do Unfailing. Abandoned' &ils b 86 Valley. . Slooe. .. ...do 87 Chain pump Fails. 88 89 ...do Chain pump do 91 ...do Unfailing. Do 92 ...do . ..do. . 93 Plain. . . ...do.... Slope... ...do Two-bucket rig Do. 96 Corbin Cabinet Lock Co. C*^)- 99 Windlass Fails. 100 Abandoned. 101 ...do (b). 102 ...do Abandoned. 103 Plain... Slope... Plain... ...do Windlass 104 105 T. A. Stanley.... Electric pump Windlass Unfailing. Do. 106 do. .. . Do. 107 ...dn do Abandoned. • 109 do do Fails. aWas once pumped for 2J hours in fighting a fire and did not fail. bPrior to the digging of a sewer in the street these wells ne\"er failed. Presumably the loose soil in the trench allows the ground water to percolate away. c Elliptical shape, 12 by 15 feet. Used chiefly for fire purpases. Has a capacity of 75 gallons a minute. Driven wells in New Britain. No. on PI. III. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Diam- eter. Yield per minute. Remarks. 49 49a Corbin Screw Corp . . do Plain.... ...do Feet. 160 160 120 255 170 Feet. 30 30 36 35 24-30 Inches. 3 2 Gnllom. 80 50 77 ...do Unfailing. 90 ..do 95 R. & F. Corbin ...do (") oA battery of 5 wells. Together they yield 50 gallons a minute, though any one well will yield 25 gallons a minute if the others are shut off. 156 GROTJKD WATER IK SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONl^. Drilled wells in New Britain. No. on PI. III. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to rock. Diam- eter. Yield per minute. Water- bearing formation. Remarks. 33 Hilltop- Slope — Plain... ...do Feet. 320 200 190 185 180 170 165 340 180 125 75 Feet. 36 250 328 500 152 400 270 232 200 134 99.5 Feet. 20 or 25 80 or 90 80 or 90 12 40 15 or 20 18 Slight. Inches. 6 8 8 8 ... . Gallons. 48 50 51 Stanley Works (Inc.). Russell&Erwin do 150 90 35 Large. Good. ...do... 5 38 6 5 («) Sandstone. do do.... do.c... Trap rock.d Shale Sandstone. do.-.. do..-. 52 53 55 67 94 City Hall Landers, Frary & Clark. Traut & Hine Manufactur- ing Co. A. W. Stanley.. Young Mens' Christian Association. Theo. A, Stan- ley. ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... Hilltop-. Plain.... ...do.... do For analysis see p. 157. Pumped by windmill. 109 110 100 21 Windmill, abandoned. a Said to have gone through 50 feet of red sandstone and then through "blue gray" rock, which is prob- ably trap. b Water enters the well at a depth of 150 feet. c Most of the water enters the well at 300 feet, and a little more at 400 feet. d See text (p. 152). Springs in New Britain. No. on PI. III. Topographic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Tem- pera- ture. Remarks. 25 . 71 73 By a marsh... Foot of slope.. do Feet. 270 115 115 "F. 68 58 Spring boxed in. Unfailing; 3 feet above brook level, water drawn by a pump in the house. QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. In the following table are gi\^en the results of an analysis and an assay of ground-water samples collected in New Britain, together with one analysis furnished by a manufacturer in the city. No. 9 is calcium-carbonate in chemical character, and Nos. 53 and 66a are calcium-sulphate and sodium-chloride, respectively. No. 53 is low and Nos. 9 and 66a are moderate in mineral content. Although all the waters are soft, No. 66a is especially low in hardening ingredients. In the consideration of the waters for domestic use the amount of nitrate in No. 9 is noticeably high. It may be derived from vegeta- ble matter and not from animal pollution, but its presence warrants a careful sanitary inspection of the wsll. Difficulty may be experienced with the iron in No. 53. It is high enough to stain porcelain and to be objectionable in certain types of manufacturing. On account of its high content of scale-forming constituents No. 9 is classed as fair for NEW BRITAIN. 157 boilers; the other two waters are good because they contain but small amounts of scaling and foaming ingredients. The three waters may or may not corrode boilers, their action depending upon working conditions. Chemical composition and classification of ground waters in New Britain. [Parts per million. Numbers at heads of columns refer to corresponding numbers on Pi. Ill; see also rec- ords corresponding iu number, pp. 154-156.] Silica (SiOa) Iron(Fe) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Sodium and potassium (Na+K)d Carbonate radicle (CO3) Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) Siilphate radicle (SO4) Chloride radicle (Cl) Nitrate radicle (NO3) Total dissolved solids Total hardness as CaCOad Scale-forming constitiients d Foaming constituents d Chemical character Probability of corrosion h Quality for boilers Quality for domestic use Date of collection Chemist Analyses.o 21 .05 36 12 9.6 .0 90 20 12 60 212 ' 139 150 26 Ca-COs (?) Fair. Good. Nov. 16,1915 (0 53 2. c2. 17 1. «2. fll 30 4.5 Jan. 71 49 55 Ca-SO* (?) Good. Fair. 6,1911 U) Assay. 6 66a 0.20 51 19 Trace. 89 dl80 e40 55 14.0 Nar-Cl (?) Good. Good. Nov. 16,1915 ('■) a For methods used in analyses and accuracy of results, see pp. 59-61. 5 Approximations; for methods used and reliability of results, see pp. 59-61. c Oxides of iron and aluminum (Fe203+Al203). d Computed. « Determined. / Carbonate and bicarbonate expressed as carbonate. 9 By summation. ft Based on computed value; (?)= corrosion uncertain. * S. C. Dinsmore. } Analysis furnished by Travelers' Indenmity Co.; recomputed from hypothetical combinations to ionic form. PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES. New Britain has been supplied with running water since 1857 by the board of water commissioners.^^ In that year a dam was built at Shuttle Meadow, on the Southington-New Britain boundary, and in the fall about 100 customers were served. In the following year the mains were extended to cover most of the borough. The res- ervoir covered 175 acres, had a capacity of 700,000,000 gallons, and gave a head of about 200 feet. In 1883 a canal, called the Panther Swamp '^ canal, " was dug to increase the area tributary to the res- ervoir, and in 1886 the storage capacity was augmented by the addi- tion of a 12-inch flashboard to the dam. This was not a sufficient increase, and in 1892 a new dam 10 feet higher was built and a second canal, the West canal, was dug to increase the tributary area. In 65 Information taken from annual reports of the board of water commissioners of the city of New Britain from 1875 to 1914. 158 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. 1898 a small diversion dam was built on Roaring Brook west of Southington, and the water was piped across the valley by gravity to Shuttle Meadow, where it was stored. It was again found nec- essary to augment the capacity of the reservoir, so a 12-irich flash- board was added to the new dam in 1901, making a capacity of 1,400,000,000 gallons. The next improvement was the addition of a storage reservoir on Wolcott Mountain above the Roaring Brook diversion dam. This has a capacity of 142,000,000 gallons, floods 49 acres, and has a tributary drainage area of 2^ square miles. By 1905 the available supply again seemed inadequate for the demands of the mcreasmg population. In 1905 a dam was started on the so-called main brook above Wliigville, in the town of Burling- ton. When completed in 1913 this reservoir had a capacity of 60,000,000 gallons. The water is carried by a pipe line lOJ miles long to its jimction with the city mains. Part of it is run into a small high-service reservoir west of the city, and the excess is dis- charged into Shuttle Meadow reservoir. The total capacity of the system for a year of average rainfall is estimated at nearly 9,000,000 gallons a day. In 1915 surveys were being made on the headwaters of Burlington Brook, in Burlington, for a reservoir site and a pipe line to carry the water to the Whigville main and so to the city. The system comprises about 85i miles of main pipe, 4 to 24 inches in diameter, and supplies 636 hydrants and 4,815 service connec- tions. As 4,824 meters are reported in use, allowing for the use of more than one meter on some taps, the supply is virtually all metered.^® The following table cites analj'ses of the water given in the reports of the board of water commissioners for the years ending March 31, 1909, 1911, 1913, and 1914. The analyses given are averages of monthly analyses made by Davenport & Keeler, consulting chemists in New Britain. The analysts state that no wide divergence from the average was noted. Averages of monthly analyses of New Britain water supply. [Parts per million.] 1909 1911 1913 41 54 41 21 22 18 .02 .07 .03 .33 None. None. None. .04 .03 3.2 3.3 2.2 2.9 2.7 2.3 1914 Total solids Volatile solids Free ammonia Albuminoid ammonia Nitrogen as nitrates . . Oxygen consumed Chloride radicle 48 20 .08 None. .38 2.5 2.2 66 Board of Water Commissioners of New Britain Fifty-seventh Ann. Kept., for the year ending Mar. 31, 1914. GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. 159 NEW HARTFORD. AREA, POPULATION, AND INDUSTRIES. New Hartford is near the middle of the eastern boundary of Litchfield County and includes the junction of the East and West branches of Farmington River. The principal settlement is New Hartford village, near the northeast corner. Pine Meadow, the second settlement, lies southeast of New Hartford and is almost con- tinuous with it. Nepaug, Bakersville, and Maple Hollow are small settlements in the upper valley of Nepaug River, and Town Hill, 2 miles south-southwest of the village, is a fourth. There are post offices at New Hartford and Pine Meadow, but the other sections are served by rural delivery from Winsted, CoUinsville, Unionville Torrington, and New Hartford. The New Hartford branch of the Northampton division of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Rail- road has its terminus at New Hartford and also has a station at Pine Meadow which is used jointly with the Central New England Rail- way. The latter runs north and south through the town and at New Hartford has a separate station. Stage lines connect New Hartford with settlements in Barkhamsted and Hartland. New Hartford has an area of 37^ square miles, of which about 70 per cent is wooded. There are 109 miles of dirt roads worked by the town and 6 miles of bituminous-macadam road belonging to the State trunk line between Hartford and Winsted. The Hartford board of water commissioners has built some excellent macadam roads to replace those to be flooded by their new reservoir. Most of New Hartford is rugged, so that many of the grades are severe, and in parts of the upper valley of Nepaug River there is a good deal of sand. There are about 6 miles of roads that have been legally discontinued. New Hartford was incorporated in 1738 and has had no change of territory or organization since. Previous to its iacorporation this region was known as the Green Woods on account of the very fine forests. It has always been of some importance, as it is on one of the few easy lines of communication between central Connecticut and the northwestern part of the State, southwestern Massachusetts, and central New York. Manufacturing was begun early because of the excellent water power and the convenient routes of transportation. Prior to the manufacturing development Town Hill was the principal settlement, but New Hartford has far outstripped it. Manufac- turing increased fairly steadily till after 1900, when one of the bigger companies moved its equipment away. The table below shows the changes in population since the incorporation of the town. The changes after 1800 for the most part refiect the degree to which manu- facturing flourished. 160 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. Population of New Hartford, 1756-1910." Year. Population. Year. Population. Year. Population. 1756 260 1.001 1,296 1820 1,685 1,766 1,703 2,643 2,758 3,078 1880 ' 3,302 3,160 3,424 2 144 1774 1830 ■ 1890 1782 1840 1900 1790 1850 1910 1800 1,753 1,507 1860 1810 1870 a Connecticut Eegister and Manual, 1915, p. 654. The principal industries are agriculture, including general crops and tobacco, and the manufacture of cotton goods, silks, brushes, and planes and rules. SURFACE FEATURES. New Hartford has a total relief of 835 feet. The lowest point is where Farmington River crosses the boundary, at 325 feet above sea level, and the highest elevation is about 1,160 feet at a number of points — two in the northwest corner, two in the southwest corner^ and three south of New Hartford village. These are flat-topped hills and are believed to be remnants of one of the wave-cut terraces that formerly extended across Connecticut. (See Harwinton report, p. 143.) During the long time since the carving of the flat terrace floor it has been cut deeply by erosion, so that only a few small frag- ments remain. In the report on Canton (see p. 104) there is a brief discussion of the gorge at Satans Kingdom, a mile south of Pine Meadow. Prior to the glacial epoch Farmington River followed a channel half a mile east of the present one. In late glacial time the eastern channel was blocked by a dam of stratified drift and the river was diverted into its new course, which it has cut to a deep gorge. When the dam was first built and before the gorge was cut there was a lake that extended northward and covered the present plain around Pine Meadow. A somewhat similar lake was made in part of Nepaug River valley and adjacent parts of the towns of Burlington and Canton. Most of New Hartford is drained by Farmington River and its tributaries. The largest of these, Nepaug River, has been studied by the engineers of the board of water commissioners of the city of Hartford.^^ The greatest flow in the year 1913 occurred on October 26 and 27, after heavy rains (about 6 laches in 48 hours) when 1,400 second-feet was recorded. The area of the tributary drainage basin is 26.8 square miles, so that the discharge is equivalent to a run-ofl of 52 second-feet per square mile. The minimum flow for the same year occurred in August and was only 3 J second-feet, equivalent to 0.124 second-foot per square mile. 67 Board of Water Commissioners of Hartford Sixtieth Ann. Rept., p. 45, 1915. NEW HARTFORD. 161 About 2 square miles in the southwest corner of the town is drained by headwaters of Leadmine Brook, which flows through Harwinton to Naugatuck River. Along the north boundary there are several small brooks which flow into Morgan River, in Barkhamsted. Sev- eral small brooks in the neighborhood of New Hartford empty di- rectly into the Farmington. On August 23, 1915, after a rather rainy period, a float measurement was made on one of these, South Moun- tain Brook, a little west of the reservoir of the New Hartford Water Co., and gave a result of about 2 second-feet. WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. Schist and gneiss. — Underlying New Hartford are three varieties of bedrock — the Hoosac schist, the Waterbury gneiss, and the Becket granite gneiss. ^^ The Hoosac schist is a typical light to dark gray mica scliist. The mica is in the form of flakes which are roughly parallel and give the rock a pronounced cleavage characteristic of schists. Besides mica, the rock contains much granular quartz and a little garnet, feldspar, and staurolite. The schist underlies the area southeast of a north- east-southwest diagonal through the town, except about a square mile at the southwest which is underlain by Waterbury gneiss. This rock is believed by Gregory ^^ to be a modification of the Hoosac schist made by the injection of granitic and quartzose veins in quan- tities sufficient to alter the character of the rock completely. Such injected sheets and dikelets are found in greater or less amounts almost everywhere in the Hoosac schist, but in the Waterbury gneiss they predominate over the schistose material. The Becket granite gneiss, which underlies the northwestern part of the town, is com- posed of alternating light and dark bands. The light bands consist chiefly of quartz and feldspar; the dark bands of black mica. White mica and garnet are found in subordinate amounts. These bedrocks are of similar character and value as regards their water-bearing capacity. All are cut by a complicated network of fractures and joints, from which water that has percolated down from the soil above may be recovered by means of drilled wells. The fractures are numerous near the surface, but in depth they are fewer and narrower on account of compression by the weight of overlying rock. No water has yet been obtained from the bedrocks in New Hartford, but driUing operations should prove worth while where domestic and farm needs are not satisfied by springs and wells. 58 Gregory, H. E,, and Robinson, H. H., Preliminary geological map of Connecticut: Connecticut Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 7, 1907. 69 Rice, W. N., and Gregory, H. E., Manual of the geology of Connecticut: Connecticut Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Bull. 6, p. 100, 1906. 187118°— 21— wsp 466 11 162 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. TiU. — ^There is a mantle of till over the bedrock of the town except where the rocks crop out and in the areas of stratified drift in the low- lands. The till is an unstratified or poorly stratified mass of boulders, pebbles, sand, and silt partly cemented together by very fine rock flour and clay. The pores between the grains are very small, but there is a considerable circulation of ground water through them and wells dug in till yield good supplies of water. The average depth to water in the 65 wells of this class that were measured in New Hart- ford was 10.2 feet, and the range was from 1.2 feet in well No. 23 (see PI. Ill) to 28 feet in well No. 55. The reliability of 43 was ascer- tained; 11 were said to fail and 32 to be nonf ailing. Stratified drift. — The stratified-drift areas of New Hartford include the lake deposits of the Nepaug Valley and those above Satans Kingdom, the flood plain of Farmington River and the upper reaches of Nepaug River, and the small esker deposits. The eskers are of no importance as sources of water supply, as they are small and their topographic form is such as to allow water to escape readily. Two eskers are shown on the geologic map (PI. II) — one 1 J miles south of the village and another a mile west of it. The flood plain and lake deposits of stratified drift are excellent bearers of ground water, for they are very porous and allow great freedom of circulation. Those of the lake deposits that were formed more or less as deltas are likely to have steep borders from which the water drains quickly, but the more flat-lying deposits are fairly reliable sources. Seventeen wells dug in this general class of material were measured in New Hartford. The depth to water was found to aver- age 13 feet and to range from 4.8 feet in well No. 48 (see PI. Ill) to 26.9 feet in well No. 58. Ten of these wells were said never to fail and &ve were said to fail; the reliability of the two remaining wells was not ascertained. RECORDS OF WELLS AND SPRINGS. Dug wells ending in till in New Hartford. No. on PI. III. 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 13 14 16 17 18 20 21 22 Owner. C. H. Rood Topo- graphic position. Plateau . ..do.... Valley. . Slope . . . ..do ..do.... ..do ..do.... .-do.... ..do.... ..do.... HiUtop.. ..do.... ..do.... ..do ..do.... Slops. . . a 6 feet in diameter Eleva- tion above sea level. Feet. 1,080 1,030 670 670 850 820 965 770 710 660 610 1,025 1,055 820 1,175 1,160 990 Depth of weU. Feet. 15.9 19.5 10.3 12.5 12.6 15.6 31.3 19.6 29.0 22.1 11.9 22.1 15.7 20.3 25.6 29.9 16.5 Depth to water. Feet. 2.3 6.5 2.2 9.2 7.0 11.6 7.2 4.5 13.1 15.1 7.3 17.9 5.6 8.7 17.8 15.0 4.9 Method of Hft. Chain pump. Gravity system. , Chain pump do ....do ....do Deep-well pump . Windlass rig. Chain pump . do do («>).: Cham pump . House pump. Chain pump . Remarks. Unfailing. Do.a Do. Do. Do. Fails. Do. Unfailing. Fails. Do. Do. Fails. Unfailing. Temperature 59" F. 6 No rig. NEW HARTFORD. 163 Dug wells ending in till in Neiv Hartford — Continued. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion Depth Depth above of to sea well. water. level. Feet. Feet. Feet. 970 22.4 1.2 970 22.5 6.8 640 31.1 27.8 1,000 23.1 7.3 990 31.2 9.2 990 32.9 2.1 860 25.1 16.9 630 10.4 6.9 535 13.5 5.1 565 15 880 10.2 3.0 920 23.9 7.4 600 9.0 3.5 1,040 24.0 7.7 880 27.6 17.3 980 13.3 4.8 980 22.8 4.4 900 15 10 960 16.3 9.8 700 26.2 22.2 770 13.0 1.5 670 13.9 7.9 700 15.3 8.8 370 7.0 2.7 400 10.5 9.3 360 29.7 28.0 590 29.1 14.8 810 16.1 15.1 890 24.1 18.6 865 34.9 19.0 685 17.5 11.6 720 16.9 7.0 850 30.9 8.0 830 26.6 16.7 720 16.4 10.6 560 16.9 6.1 620 17.4 8.0 710 21.5 7.0 730 29.0 22.5 915 15.5 9.2 840 22.8 9.7 500 10.6 7.2 865 10.9 7.1 815 16.8 14.6 665 18.4 16.2 800 9.8 8.6 820 18.9 13.5 480 13.4 10.1 Method Of lift. Remarks. 23 23a 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 34 35 36 38 39 41 42 Ellsworth . Koch Bros. Mrs.A. E.Dietz. E.W."Keilogg.'!: Richards. Slope. . . ...do. . . ...do... Plateau ...do... ...do... Slope.. ...do. . . ...do... ...do... ...do... ...do..., ...do... Plateau , Slope. . Plateau . ...do..., Slope . . ...do ...do... ...do... Hilltop , ...do Plain... ...do..., ...do... Slope... ...do..., ...do..., ...do.... Plain. . . Slope.. . ...do..., ...do.... ...do.... Plain... Slope . . . ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... Plain. . . Slope . . . Plain . . . Slope. . . Plain. . . ...do.... Slope . . . Chain pump. do do Chain pump do do Windlass rig do Deep-well pump . . . Gravity system Windlass rig House pump do Chain pump do Windlass rig and air- pressure system. Windlass rig . Windlass rig Two-bucket rig . . . Deep- well pump. . Chain pump Windlass rig. ..... do do Chain pump do Windlass rig Pitcher pump Wheel and axle rig Chain pump Two-bucket rig Windlass rig , do Chain pump Two-bucket rig. . ., (b) Chain pump , Deep- well pump . . Windlass rig , Hou.se pump , Deep- well rig , (&) Chain piunp , Windlass rig , Unfailing. Fails.o Do. Rock bottom; fails. Unfailing. Do. Do. Do. Do. Fails; analysis p. 164. Analysis on p. 164. Rock bottom; fails. I'nfailiag. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Fails. Unfailing. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do.c Do. Do. a 100 feet south of well No. 23. b No rig. c Never over 5 feet of water. Dug wells ending in stratified drift in New Hartford. Owner. W. R. Goldbeck. Topo- graphic position. Plain. ...do.. Slope . ...do. . ...do.. Plain. ...do.. ...do.. ...do.. ...do.. Slope . ...do.. ...do.. Plain. ...do.. Slope. ..do-. Eleva- tion above sea level. Feet. 570 660 600 700 580 360 350 555 540 535 550 540 555 795 790 500 530 Depth of well. Feet. 11.0 18.8 22.9 10.4 16.0 29.4 15.9 25.0 18.9 9.7 19.0 14.1 15.3 12.4 18.3 24.0 9.8 Depth to water. Feet. 9.0 17.8 16.6 4.8 13.6 26.9 9.4 21.6 16.5 6.3 15.4 9.0 11.5 7.9 12.5 17.1 6.3 Method of lift. Pitcher pmnp. . Chain pump . . . Two-bucket rig . Chain pump . . . Sweep rig Windlass do do do («) House pump... Windlass Chain pump . . . do do Windlass Chain pump Remarks. Unfailing; assay,p.l64. Fails. Unfailing. Do. Fails. Do. Unfailing. FaUs. Do. Unfailing. Fails. Unfailing. Do. Do. Do. a No rig. 164 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. Springs in New Hartford. No. on PI. III. Owner. Topographic position. Elevation abo"ve sea level. Tempera- ture. Yield per minute. Remarks. 1 Slope Feet. 1,020 740 600 950 750 1,075 910 550 400 535 380 550 535 " F. 55 52 56 54 49 55 47 65 55 49 45 57 49 Gallons. 5 do Ram delivers 4 gallon a minute at the house. Gravity system to two houses. Ram. 12 .do 19 ... do 33 Koch Bros do Unfailing; for analysis see p. 164. Gravity system; fails. Gravity system; unfail- ing. 37 Plateau Slope 40 52 do 200 to 300 57 do . 59 Geo. Hotchkiss do Unfailing; water issues 61 82 Satans Kingdom Bot- tling Works. do Plain from fissures in a ledge. Ram. Water brought out by an 86 Slope outcrop of bedrock. QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. The results of three analyses and one assay of samples of ground water collected in New Hartford are given below. The waters are aU low in mineral content, very soft, low in scale-forming constituents, and of the calcium-carbonate type except No. 15, which is a sodium- chloride water. All are suitable for domestic or boiler use, although the comparatively high chloride in No. 15 may possibly indicate pollution. Chemical composition and classification of ground waters in New Hartford. [Parts per million; S. C. Dinsmore, analyst; collected Noa'. 30, 1915. Numbers at heads of coliunns refer to corresponding numbers on PI. Ill; see also records corresponding in number, pp. 163-164.] Analyses.a 33 39 42 Assay. & 15 Si lica (Si02) Iron (Fe) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Sodium and potassium (Na-I-K)c Carbonate radicle (CO3) Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chloride radicle (CI) Nitrate radicle (NO3) Tota 1 dissolved solids Total hardness as CaCOs c Scale-forming constituents c Foaming constituents c Chemical character Probability of corrosion e Quality for boiler use Quality for domestic use 19 Trace. 11 4.1 4.5 .0 32 3.2 6.0 20 86 44 58 12 Ca-C03 (?) Good. Good. 6.5 .60 6.5 .6 2.9 .0 22 2.9 3.0 Trace. 35 19 27 Ca-COg (?) Good. Good. 14 .25 14 1.5 2.4 .0 46 2 8 4.0 Trace. 66 41 58 6 Ca-COa (?) Good. Good. Trace. 57 71 15 81 c230 d74 90 150 Na-Cl (?) Good. Good, a For methods used in analyses and accuracy of results, see pp. 59-61. b Approximations; for methods used and reliability of results, see pp. 59-61. c Computed. d Determined. e Based on computed value; (?)=corrosion uncertain. NEW HARTFORD. 165 PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES. The village of New Hartford has two water companies that serve overlappmg territories. The older company is the outgrowth of a commercial system and is not very extensive. The younger and larger company was organized to give a service adequate to the demands of the manufacturers for fire protection. The service now maintained by the Village Water Co. of New Hartford was commenced sometime prior to September, 1825. At first water was carried from a brook through an open ditch to a col- lecting basin and thence by log pipes to a tub in the village, where the people came and dipped it. Later lines of log pipe were run from the collecting basin to several of the houses. In 1861 the log pipes were for the most part replaced by iron pipes. The next improvement was made in 1891, when a 6-inch main was laid from the ''dry weU," as the collecting basin was called, with small dis- tributing pipes to the houses. At this time the first formal organiza- tion, a voluntary association, was made. In 1905 the association was reorganized as a joint stock company, and the present dam and reservoir were built on a stream west of the village. The dam has a maximum height of 14 feet, has a 12-inch core wall, and gives a stor- age capacity of 1,250,000 gallons. Water is delivered by gravity under a pressure of about 80 pounds to the square inch through about a mile of main to 38 service connections. There is a second reservoir for emergencies. According to Mr. C. E. Jones, the manager, the supply is used entirely for domestic purposes. The New Hartford Water Co. was incorporated in 1891 for the pur- pose of providing fire protection for the mills in New Hartford and Pine Meadow. A stone dam 17 J feet high was constructed on South Mountain Brook at an elevation of 715 feet above sea level, making a reservoir with a capacity of 3,500,000 gallons. Operations were begun in 1894. The water is distributed by gravity through 6J miles of mains and is deUvered to 63 fire hydrants and 190 service connections. The pressure ranges from 120 pounds to the square inch in the higher parts of the village to 155 pounds in Pine Meadow. It is probable that these supplies will be sufficient for the demands of New Hartford for many years, and the streams are probably capable of filling reservoirs of much greater capacity. In the southeast corner of New Hartford and the adjacent parts of Bm-lington and Canton the board of water commis'sioners of Hart- ford is constructing a reservoir. The reservoir will store the waters of Nepaug River and Phelps and Clear brooks will flood 851 acres, and will have a capacity of 8,500,000,000 gallons. The dam on Nepaug River will be of cyclopean concrete masonry, have a maximum height of 140 feet, and be 550 feet long. It was necessary in places to 166 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. remove 50 feet of loose mantle rock from the valley bottom in order to get a solid-rock foundation. The dam on Phelps Brook is of the earth-banked core-wall type and will be 1,200 feet long and have a maximum height of 140 feet. A short, low dike will be constructed across the sag in the rim of the reservoir between the two dams. The supply line to the city is for the most part 42-inch cast-iron pipe, but part of it is a tunnel half a mile long through Talcott Mountain. In order to compensate the owners of power rights in Collinsville, Unionville, and Tariffville for the loss of the summer flow of Nepaug River and Pheips Brook a compensating reservoir is being built on East Branch of Farmington River. The dam is to be about a mile east of New Hartford village and will be of the earth-banked core- wall type, with a maximum height of 120 feet and a length of 800 feet. The 3,500,000,000 gallons of water which this reservoir will store will be held at the disposal of the power users for release as they wish. PLAINVILLE. AREA, POPULATION, AND INDUSTRIES. Plainville is a small town halfway between the Massachusetts boundary and Long Island Sound, in the Farmington-Quinnipiac Valley. The village of Plainville is the only settlement and is built up almost continuously with Forestville, which is just across the Bristol town line on the west. There is a post ofiice with regular carrier delivery in the village and rural delivery to the outlying districts. The Northampton division (Canal Road) of the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad runs north and south through the town, and the Highland division east and west. Their joint station is at the village. Trolley lines connect Plainville with Bristol, Terryville, Compounce Pond, Southington, Meriden, New Britain, and more distant points. The area of Plainville is 9 J square miles, most of which is cleared. The woodlands in the east with small patches in the northeast comer aggregate 3 square miles. Plainville is on two State trunk-line highways — one between Southington and Farmington and one between New Britain and Bristol. These have a total length of 7 miles in Plainville, in addition to which there are 13 miles of dirt roads and streets. Although the soil is sandy in most places in the town the roads are well kept up and are uniformly good. Plainville, originally known as Great Plains, was separated from Farmington in 1869 and incorporated as a town. The population in 1910 was 2,882, and of these about 2,500 lived in the village. The growth in population has been fairly rapid and steady and probably reflects the growth of the manufacturing establishments. Two fac- PLAINVILLE. 167 tors will influence the future growth, but it is impossible to say which will predomiaate. The nearness of larger manufacturhig centers, such as Bristol and New Britam, ma}^ tend to draw business away from Plainville and so hiader its growth. On the other hand, the level ground around Plainville gives many excellent factory sites which with the advantageous position at the junction of two railroads may induce manufacturers to locate here. Population of Plainville, 1870-1910. a Year. Popula- tion. Year. Popula- tion. 1870 1,433 1,930 1,993 1900 2,189 2,882 18S0 1910 1890 a Connecticut Register and Manual, 1915, p. 655. Most of the population of Plaiaville is dependent on manufacturing of various sorts, but there is a little general farming and truck raising. The principal manufactured products are knit underwear, electric sundries, small hardware and tools, and brass goods. SURFACE FEATURES. Plainville has a total relative relief of 530 feet, the range of eleva- tion bemg from 155 to 685 feet above sea level. There are two low pomts, one where Pequabuck Kiver crosses into Farmington and the other where Quinnipiac River crosses the Southmgton line. The highest point is on Bradley Mountain, in the southeast comer. Most of Plainville is a very level sand plam formed by the heavily burdened streams of melt water that issued from the ice sheet about the end of the glacial epoch. Upon leavmg the glacier the velocity of the water was much reduced and it was forced to drop its load of detritus, and in this way deposits of well-washed sand and gravel were laid down in front of the glacier, forming a glacial butwash plain. This fill is very deep, as is shown by the well of the Trumbull Electric Manufacturing Co., which went through 218 feet of sand, silt, and gravel before reaching bedrock. . The valley must have been at least 218 feet deeper than it is now. That this great depth did not extend across the whole width of the valley is shown by wells Nos. 44, 55, and 71 (see PI. Ill), which reach rock at moderate depths. The hill in the northwest corner of the town, known locally as Camp Ground Hill, has a sandstone core overlain by 5 to 25 feet or more of till. The sandstone here is believed to be coarser and better cemented than that underlying the sand plain and therefore to have resisted erosion more successfully. The smoothly rounded outline 168 GROUND WATER IN" SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN". of this hill is due to the ice sheet, which wore off the projections and filled the depressions with till. The hill in the southwest corner of the town, known locally as Redstone Hill because the red sandstone crops out at several points on it, is of similar character. The eastern part of Plainville is a high ridge held up by hard and thick sheets of resistant trap rock. The uniform sedimentation by which the red sandstone and shale were laid down was interrupted three times by the outpourmg of sheets of lava which cooled to form the basalt sheets or trap ledges. The whole mass — sandstone, shale, and trap — was later broken by earth movements into huge blocks that were at the same time tilted to the east. The upturned edges of the trap sheets form ridges of considerable topographic prominence, because they resist erosion more successfully than the sedimentary rocks. The middle sheet is the thickest (400 to 500 feet) and therefore the most prominent and forms the high cliffs east of Plainville. Below and separated from it by several hundred feet of sandstone and shale is the thinner lower sheet (about 200 feet thick), which as it crops out on the face or the cliff side of the ^^Main" sheet is called the '^Anterior" sheet. In some places it makes a small cliff below the main cliff. North of the Quinnipiac it is more prominent than to the south and forms a line of low hills separated from the main ridge by a shallow valley. The upper' or "Posterior" trap sheet does not crop out in Plainville. The ridge of trap is not continuous but is cut by Cooks Gap, a gorgelike vallej^, 200 to 300 feet deep. As there is no evidence of fracturing or faulting,^^ it is probable that formerly Pequabuck River flowed across the trap sheet at this point and cut the gorge. Later the Quinnipiac, which had the advantage of flowing in a bed of softer rocks, cut its head back and captured the flow of the upper portion of this big river and turned it southward. At the end of the glacial epoch the sand plain was built up in such a way as to turn the Pequabuck northward. (See Farmington report, p. 120.) Two streams flow across Plainville, Quinnipiac River, which rises in New Britain, flows westward into Plainville and then southward iQto Southington, and Pequabuck River, which rises in Bristol, flows eastward into Plainville and then northward into Farmington. The divide between these streams is part of the sand plaiQ and' is only about 20 feet higher than the stream levels. A float measure- ment of Pequabuck River made half a mile north of the railroad junction Sept. 22, 1915, indicated a flow of about 30 second-feet. Further figures on the flow of the Pequabuck are given in the Bristol report (p. 84). w Davis, W. M., The Triassic formation of Connecticut: U. S. Geol. Survey Eighteenth Ann. Kept., pt. 2, p. 176, 1898. PLAIN VTLLE. 169 WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS. Two kinds of bedrock are recognized in Plainville — the sedimentary sandstone and shale and the igneous trap rock. Traj) rock. — Trap rock underlies the elevated portions of Plainville east of the broad sand plain. There are two classes of oj)enings in the trap. Bubbles of gas escaping from the lava have formed vesi- cles in the upper portions of the sheets. These are unimportant as bearers of water, as they do not interconnect. In addition there are many cracks or joints developed by shrinkage as the rock cooled. They are mainly at right angles to the cooling surfaces of the trap sheets and are very numerous near the contact, but many of them do not extend far into the sheet. Other cracks and fissures were formed by the jarring and crushing that accompanied the tilting of the rocks. Many of the fissures carry water which has percolated directly or indirectly into them from the soil above. This water may be recovered by drilling into the rock, as was done in Mr. Frank , Williams's well (No. 41, PI. III). Sandstone and shale. — The part of Plainville west of the lower trap sheet is underlain by red shale and sandstone, some of which is relatively hard and coarse, and some of which is softer and of finer grain. These rocks carry considerable water, in joints and fissures and in the interstices between the grains of the coarser beds. Mr. Beckwith's drilled well (No. 17, PL III) draws a good supply from the sandstone, probably from fissures rather than from pores. The fis- sures are less abundant in depth than near the surface, and, as Greg- ory ^^ has shown, the probability of a satisfactory supply is far greater in the first 250 or 300 feet than at greater depths. A concrete exam- ple of this is the Trumbull Electric Manufacturing Co.' s well (218 feet to rock, 1,008 feet total depth) which procured a flow of 17 gal- lons a minute from a fissure at about 300 feet, but got no more water in the remaining 700 feet. A large charge of explosives was set off at a depth of 500 feet, in the hope of opening a connection to possible adjacent water-bearing fissures, but this was unsuccessful and the well was abandoned. It is possible that some fissures were cut by the drill, but that on account of the great pressure of the overlying rock they are so narrow as to be valueless as water carriers. Till. — The surface material on Camp Ground Hill, Redstone Hill, and the trap ridges is till except where ledges crop out. Till is a mixture of debris of all kinds of rock materials in fragments of all sizes, ground and tumbled together by the moving ice. In general the very fine particles are the most abundant, and as they are closely packed they make the till tough and hard. Some of the boulders " Gregory, H. E., and Ellis, E. E., Underground-water resources of Connecticut: U. S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 232, p. 132, 1909. 170 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTOfN-GRANBY AREA, CONN. and pebbles show the effect of ice action by their subangular forms and the presence of ghicial striae or scratches. Wells dug m till have a small amount of water tliat seeps slowly into them from the fnie ])orcs. The depth to which wells in till must be dug to get a reliable supply of water depends in part on the character of the till but chiefly on the toi)ographic situation. Twelve wells dug in till were measured in Plauiville. The depth to the water level in these averaged 8.6 feet and rajiged from 7.7 feet hi well No. 43 (see PI. Ill) to 2;> feet m well No. 18. Information as to the reliability of six wells was obtahied, and five of them are said never to fail. Mr. Weeden's well (No. 43) is said to fail, and this is to be expected, as it is situated on a steep slope from which the water drams rather easily. Stratified drift. — In the discussion of the sm^face features of Plaui- ville it was shown that the sand plam consisted of well-washed and stratified stuid and gravel. In most places the top 2 or 3 feet is a loamy sand, below which is cleaner sand and gravel. The sand is more abmidant than the gravel and is hi the mam moderately ihie ^reaTcv^eT J ^0.08 No UO ISO '-'^Jiii.^iu. mrrr— — — 'A y?Mi\ Figure 27.— ProQle of water table from Pequabuck River southward through I'lainville to Quln- nipiac River. and suitable for mortar or cement. The gravel pebbles are for the most part from half an mch or smaller up to an mch m diameter. The interstices below a certain depth are iilled with water which has fallen as rahi, and the top of the saturated zone is laiowni as the water table. Its depth depends on the amomit of rauifall aiid the opportimity the water has to escape. The wells along West Mam Street, the fii'st street south of and pai'allel to Pequabuck River, have a depth of about 16 feet. On Broad Street, the next south, the depth is 11 to 12 feet. The wells on the connecting streets are foimd to be deeper the neai'er they ai*e to the river. South of Broad Street the depth decreases for about a mile but agaui increases near Qiuiinipiac Kiver. The depths to water hi a nmnber of wells along the luie A-A' on the small map (tig. 28) have been plotted hi the sec- tion (fig. 27) and a dotted luie drawn to show the effect of Pequa- buck and Quuinipiac rivers in de])ressuig the water table. Measiu-ements of 182 wells dug hi stratified drift were made hi Plauiville. The depth to water in them ranged from 4.2 feet hi well No. 102 (see PI. Ill and fig. 28) to 48 feet hi well No. 38 and aver- aged 15.2 feet. Information as to the reliability of 36 wells was ob tamed. Of these 31 were said to be nonfailhig and 5 were said to fail. Well No. 57 was dry when visited on September 4, 1915. PLAINVILLE. 171 RECORDS OF WELLS AND SPRTNOfl. In the following tables the niim])or3 in the first column refer to the serial numbers shown on the maps — Nos. 1 to 43 on Plate III ami Nos. 44 to 199 on figure 28. A few of the wells shown in figure 28 are also plotted on Plate III to indicate the relative position. Dug wells ending in till in f'lainville. No on Pi. m or flg.28. 19a 20 43 191 Owner. Topo- graphic position. C. W. Weeden... Hilltop. ...do... Slope. . Plain.. ..do.. ..do.. Slope. Plain. Eleva- tion above sea Depth of well. Depth to walor. level. Feet. Feet. Feet. 385 14.2 11.0 385 17.4 12.1 235 28.4 23.0 235 18.2 12.9 230 18.6 12.6 225 16.6 12.6 330 11.3 7.7 200 14.2 11.3 Methwl of lift. Windlass and hoase pump. Chain pump Windlass Deep-well p u m p and pump in house. ('haln pnmp Wimlluss House pump (yhuin pump RemarkB. Tllod; unfailing. Unfailing. Do.a Do. Falls. Unfailing. o 300 feet northeast of well No. 19. Dug v;ells ending in stratified drift in Plainville. No. on PI. Ill or 51; Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to water. Method of lift. Remarks. 4 Plain... ...do.... Feet. 245 245 200 205 200 190 215 195 220 200 205 210 225 195 190 195 Feet. 17.6 27.0 24.0 16.1 17.2 17.6 10 16. 5 43. 1 17.5 18.4 20.8 2.3.1 17.2 26.9 18.6 Feet. 1.5. 2 24.5 20.9 15 12.4 1.5. 4 14 12.7 41.4 9 17.2 17.9 21. 3 14.7 2:1.4 15. 1 Abandoned. 5 Chain pump Unfailing. « 5b ...do Do. 8 .do Windlass rig Unfailing; tiled. 9 ...do UnXailing; a Ij a n- 10 ...do Chain pump doned. Unfoillng; rock bot- 11 Slope. . . . .do. . .. tom. A bou 1 5 feet In rock. 12 Chain pump Windlass rig (h) Unfailing. 13 14 Peter Nystrom . . Terrace. Plain... .do.. . Do. 15 Abandoned. 1.5a . .do Chain pump Windlass rig ('^). 10 21 G. A.Beckwlth. ...do.... Slope. .. Plain... ...do Tiled; falls. Unfailing. 22 (3hain pump iXMjp-well pump and house pump. Do. 2:1 Reuben Day. . . . Fails; for analysts see p. 176,<' a Measurement given was ma/le Sept. 4, 1914; on Sept. 31 the well ha^l 2.3 feet of water. ''No rig. c East of well No. 15 and just across the street. ti Fourteen measurements of this well were made in 1914, as follows: Date. Depth to water (feet). Date. Depth to water (feet). Date. I)«»pth to water (feet). Aug. 15.. 15.1 1.5. 6 16.5 17.0 17.4 Oct. 19 17.3 17.3 17.3 17.4 17.4 Oct. 29 17.5 Sept. 4.,'. .... . . . 21 31 17.5 21 23 Nov. 2 17.6 Oct. 11 25 4 17.7 18 27 172 GROUND WATER IN SOtTTHINGTOlSr-GRANBY AREA, CONK. Dug wells ending in stratified drift in Plainville — Continued. No. on PL III or fig. 28. Owner, Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to water. Method of lift. Remarks. 24 25 Chas. Spaulding. Plain. . . Slope. . . Plain... ..do.. . Feet. 195 160 200 205 205 205 205 205 205 210 200 210 195 240 200 190 185 195 190 210 210 205 210 210 210 220 220 225 225 225 220 205 205 210 192 185 180 180 195 215 220 220 195 200 200 200 195 195 180 180 185 190 190 195 190 190 185 185 185 185 185 180 185 Feet. 19.7 9.3 12.6 14.5 27.7 26.6 41.1 13.0 20.9 13.4 22.3 30.0 18.9 50 25.1 17.6 22.7 19.2 15.6 26.0 23.8 21.7 24.1 20.1 26.6 34.4 '"26." 7" 19 24.0 23.9 24.4 r 18.4 23.7 13.4 12.4 12.2 12.8 12.3 24.4 36.3 22.9 13.9 19.4 17.8 27.9 14.5 13.6 14.2 14.9 17.3 17.0 17.3 17.7 21.8 20.0 19.0 18.8 21.0 18.0 17.6 19.4 18.7 Feet. 16.7 6.6 4.3 10.4 25.6 23.6 18.4 9.8 14.8 10.5 13.6 27.8 17.1 21.7 15.4 20.1 17.6 8.9 22.9 21.3 16.3 19.6 16.4 24.1 33.8 28 23.2 Two-bucket rig and air-pressure system. Unfailing.a 26 27 Do. 28 .do Fails. 29 . .do Two-bucket rig Unfailing. 30 . .do Do. 31 . .do Pitcher pump Windlass rig Chain pump .. .do Tiled; unfailing. 33 ...do Fails. 35 ...do 36 .do.. - 36a Slope. . . Plain. . . Slope. . . Plain... .do.. . Windlass rig do... . C*)- 37 38 Abandoned 42 V/indlass rig Chain pump do Unfailing. 44 Unfailing; rock bot- 45 Slope. . . Plain... .do tom. Unfailing. 46 Windlass rig Chain pump Windlass rig ... -do . 47 Do. 48 .do 49 .do. . 50 .do. Chain pump ... .do 51 .do. . 52 .do. ... .do Do. 53 .do. Windlass rig do.. . 54 .do Do. 55 .do. - Deep- well pump Chain pump do Tiled rock at 28 feet. 56 -do. 57 .do. Fails. 58 .do.. . 20.4 23.5 18.7 15.8 21.8 11.1 10.8 10.3 10.9 11.7 24.0 32.8 22.0 10.5 16.1 16.1 14.9 13.0 12.2 11.5 11.9 12.3 13.4 13.7 14.6 18.8 16.3 16.0 16.4 16.7 14.8 16.0 15.4 13.9 do Unfailing. 59 . .do.. . Windlass rig Chain pump do 60 Slope. . . Abandoned. 61 Do. 62 . .do. . Windlass rig Deep-well pump Chain pump House pump Windlass rig House pump Chain pump do Tiled. 68 . .do.. . 64 . .do.. . 66 Plain... -do.. . 65a Do. 66 Slope. . . 67 68 . .do.. . 69 ...do do 70 Plain. . . ...do do.... 71 Chaia pump and house pump. Windlass rig do Unfailing; tiled; rock 72 do bottom. 73 do . . Rock bottom. 74 . .do ... do 75 . -do ... Chain pump Two house pumps. . Chain pump Windlass rig Chain pump do Abandoned. 76 ...do . .. Tiled. 77 do 78 do 79 do . Abandoned. 80 do .. 81 ...do do 82 do Tiled; abandoned. 83 ...do Windlass rig Chain pump Pitcher pump Chain pump Two-bucket rig Chain pumn do '. 84 ...do 85 . do 86 ...do 87 ...do 88 ...do 89 -do 90 ...do.... do Date. Depth to water (feet). Date. Depth to water (feet). Date. Depth to water (feet). Aug. 15 16.7 18.1 Sept. 21 17.8 18.8 Oct. 18 la? Sept. 4 Oct. 11 b Midway between well No. 36 and well No. 38. PLAINVILLE. Dug wells ending in stratified drift in Plainvilic — Continued. 173 No. on PI. m or fis. 28. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to water. Method of lift. Remarks. 91 92 'E.DlSpeilman!! Plain... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do.... ...do ...do ...do ..do Feet. 185 185 185 185 185 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 185 185 185 185 185 180 185 185 185 185 185 185 185 185 190 190 195 190 190 190 190 190 190 190 190 190 190 190 185 190 1«0 190 190 190 190 190 190 190 185 185 185 190 l90 190 190 185 185 190 190 190 190 190 190 190 190 190 185 185 185 180 180 Feet. 16.2 16.4 18.7 14.0 15.8 17.0 15.2 12.7 12.9 13.6 13.3 6.4 14.1 13.9 15.4 17.0 15.1 18.4 Ifi. 7 15.6 13.2 14.7 19.8 16.8 15.9 18.6 18.7 17.0 16.1 17.9 20.4 17.3 18.8 20.0 18.2 18.5 23.9 20.2 18.7 18.1 20.0 21.3 20.0 19.8 18.0 20.9 19.5 18.6 20.1 19.2 21.9 19. S 20.2 20.6 20.0 21.3 19.8 23.3 21.2' 18.3 13.3 13.0 15.6 18.9 18.2 16.7 14.4 18.3 13.2 13.5 14.6 15.1 19.2 13.2 13.0 12,5 Feet. 13.7 14.5 13.6 12.6 13.0 15.9 12.0 10.3 11.1 11.7 10.3 4.2 12.7 12.9 11.7 12.3 13.2 13.8 14.2 12.8 12.3 10.4 12.8 13.6 15.2 14.6 15.5 14.4 14.1 14.5 17.7 16.0 16.2 15.2 16.0 16.1 20.2 18.1 16.5 16.0 19.0 18.0 16.0 16.5 16.3 18.0 17.1 16.9 16.8 16.6 18.0 16.7 16.9 17.2 18.2 18.8 18.2 17.8 17.3 16.7 12.5 11.4 12.9 1.5.7 17.0 14.0 11.1 14.3 11.7 11.4 12.3 11.6 14.8 11.3 9.1 10.5 Chain pump do 93 do Unfailing. 94 95 96 Windlass rig Chain pump do 97 do 98 do 99 100 101 Two-bucket rig House pump .do TUed. Do 102 103 Chain pump do Abandoned. Do. 104 do 105 .. .do 106 107 House pump Windlass Tiled; abandoned. Abandoned. 108 109 110 HI 112 Chain pump Windlass ng Chain pump Windlass rig do Bricked; abandoned. Abandoned. 113 114 115 115a do Chain pump Windlass rig do Unfailing. Do. Abandoned. Do.a 116 do 117 118 119 120 122 123 Chain pump House pump Chain pump House pump Chain pump do 124 .do 125 .. .do 126 No rig Abandoned. 127 128 Chain pump . . .do 129 do 130 131 132 133 House pvimp Deep-well pump Cham pump do 134 do Tiled. 135 136 Windlass rig .do 137 .do 138 139 Chain pvimp ..do 140 Abandoned. 141 141a _.do Windlass rig . ..do (5). 141b 142 143 ...do ...do ...do.... ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do Chain pump do ...do (0. 144 .do 145 146 Windlass rig .do Abandoned. 147 .do Do. 148 149 Chain pump Do. 150 Do. 151 152 Chain pump . ..do 153 .do 154 . ..do Tiled. 155 ....do Do. 156 ..do 157 do Do. 157a do Tiled; unfailing. Tiled 158 159 House pump do 160 161 162 163 Windlass rig Chain pump do do Abandoned. a 75 feet east of well No. 115. 6 100 feet east of well No. 141. c 200 feet ea.st of well No. 141 and at comer house. 174 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. Dug wells ending in stratified drift in Plainville — Continued. No. on PI. Ill or fig. 28. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to water. Method of lift. Remarks. 164 Plain... ...do Feet. ISO 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 175 175 180 180 180 180 175 180 190 185 165 175 175 170 160 170 160 165 175 190 195 Feet. 14.8 10.5 11.7 11.5 11.7 11.2 13.1 14.8 14.9 12.7 13.3 11.2 12.5 12.2 11.5 10.4 10.6 11.3 12.7 20.8 13.0 9.9 15.8 11.7 8.1 11.0 15.4 7.9 13.8 10.1 17.7 18.8 Feet. 9.8 9.0 8.7 8.5 7.9 8.7 11.1 10.8 11.2 9.8 10.3 7.5 9.5 9.5 8.5 9.2 7.9 7.3 10.4 13.3 9.2 4.6 5.7 7.8 4.5 9.7 10.7 6.6 10.7 4.8 16.2 15.9 Two-bucket rig "Windlass rig Chain pump do 165 166 ...do 167 ...do ...do 168 do do Pitcher pump Cham pump do 169 170 ...do ...do 171 ...do 172 ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do ...do 173 do 174 175 176 177 do do: do do Unfailing. Tiled; abandoned. Tiled. 178 do- Do. 179 ...do do 180 181 ...do ...do ...do do . ..do • 182 do 183 ...do do do 184 ..do Unfailing. Abandoned. 186 ...do Windlass rig Chain pump House pump Pitcher pumpv< Windlass rig 187 ...do Unfailing. 188 ...do Unfailing; tiled. 189 ...do Tiled. 192 ...do Abandoned. 193 ...do 194 ...do Unfailing. 196 ...do Rope and bucket — Windlass rig Chain pumn do r 197 ...do Tiled. 198 ...do 199 ...do Driven wells in Plainville. No. on PL III or fig. 28. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to water. Diam- ter. Remarks. 6 Frederick Wheeler Jeremiah Randall Plain... ...do Feet. 200 215 200 200 190 170 170 Feet. 46 Feet. Inches. For analysis see p. 175.a Dug well deepened by a drive pipe; unfailing. Unfailing; see description, p. 177. Two wells. 7 32 34 Plainville Water Co. . . ...do.... ...do 25-30 12-15 33 6 or 8 3 121a Trumbull Elec. Mfg.Co. ...do.... ...do Battery of wells. 185 195 ...do 25 Windmill draws about 4 gallons a minute. o Supply is steady. The pump cylinder is in a pit 15 feet deep with the following sections: 3 feet loam, 6 feet sand, 6 inches cobbles, 1 foot hardpan, 4 feet 6 inches fine sand. Drilled wells in Plainville. No. on PI. Ill or fig. 28. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to rock. Diameter. Yield per minute. Water- bearing formation. Remarks. 17 41 121 G. A. Beck- with. Frank Wil- liams. Trumbull Elec.Mfg.Co. Terrace . Slope. . . Plain... Feet. 230 240 190 Feet. 100 170 1,008 Feet. 35 123 218 Inches. 8 6 10, 8, 6 Gallons. 2i 2 16-17 Sandstone Trap Sandstone and shale. For assay see p. 175. Do. a Water in unconsolidated dri ft was cased off. A fissure at 300 feet supplied the only water from solid rock; Abandoned for a group of driven wells. PLAINVILLE. Springs in Plainville. 175 No. on PI. Ill or fig. 28. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Tem- pera- ture. Remarks. 3 Wm. J. Johnson Slope ...do Feet. 260 230 255 210 ° F. 51 57 57 Unfailing; piped to house and horse trough. Supplie.s four families bv graxitv- 39 40 R. S. Morey ..do... Unfailing: gravity supply; for assay see p. 175. A basin 5 feet square by 2 feet deep. 190 ...do QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. The results of two analyses and three assays of samples of ground water collected in Plainville are given below. The waters are low in mineral content except No. 41, which is moderately mineralized. Nos. 6 and 40 are very soft, and the rest are soft. The waters are carbonate in type, but in No. 17 the alkaline earths exceed the alkalies. In respect to mineral content they are suitable for domestic use. Nos. 6, 23, and 40 will deposit but little scale in boilers. Although the other waters will deposit more scale, the amount will not be ex- cessive, and all are considered good for boiler use. Corrosion would probably not occur through the use of any of the waters, although No. 23 is doubtful in this respect. Both chloride and nitrate are abnormal in No. 23. Chemical composition and classification of ground waters in Plainville. [Parts per million; S. C. Dinsmore, analyst. Numbers at heads of columns refer to corresponding num- bers on PI. Ill or fig. 28; see also records corresponding in number, pp. 171-175.] Silica (SiOz) Iron(Fe) Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Sodium and potassium (Na-fK)c, Carbonate radicle (CO3) Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) Sulphate radicle ( SO4) Chloride radicle (01) Nitrate radicle (NO3) Total dissolved solids Total hardness as CaCOgc Scale-forming constituents c Foaming constituents c Chemical character Probability of corrosion* Quality for boiler use Quality for domestic use Date of collection (1915) Analyses.^ 19 .05 10 1.3 12 .0 46 8. 5. 3. 73 30 51 32 Na-COa N Good. Good. Nov. 16 23 7.5 .25 16 4.2 29 .0 68 12 26 18 138 57 62 78 Na-COa (?) Good. Good. Nov. 11 Assays.b 17 c90 d56 70 20 Ca-COj N Good. Good. Nov. 19 40 0.40 Trace. Trace. 7 27 36 68 100 173 Trace. 5 5 10 10 4 C120 d47 60 70 N Good. Good. Nov. 16 41 C180 d81 95 100 Na-COa N Good. Good. Nov. 16 a For methods used in analyses and accuracy of results, see pp. 59-61. b Approximations; for methods used and reliability of results, see pp. 59-61. c Computed. d Determined. « Based on computed value; N=noncorrosive; (?)=corrosion uncertain. 176 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. PUBLIO WATER SUPPLIES. Plaiiivillo lias boon supplied since 1884 by the Plainvillo Water Co. At fii-st the water was drawn entirely from Crescent Pond, a reservoir in the northeast corner of Soutliington, covering 58 acres and having >4 I Mile ContoMi* iutei'val 20 t>tet EXPLANATION 'i' 50 Oiff ,20 Drilled well Dug and driven well Spring ^taftc /Tt//N>«ry(w.'/n^/c**s dapti &? water Figure 28,— Map of rMn\iJlo, A- A', Line of section iti llgiire 27. Numbers indicate wells referred to in text and tablo^^ a capacity of 160,000.000 gallons. The reservoir is fed by springs and was made by a dam 800 feet long and 25 feet in maximum height. The spillway is 234 feet above the Squai*e in Plainville, so there is a head of 100 to 110 pounds to thesquai*e inch. The water is distrib- PLYMOUTH. 177 uted by gravity through 12 miles of main to 5S (Iro hy(h*aiits and 437 service taps. Mr. J. N. M(dvornari, tlio suporiiitcMidoiit, estimates that 2,250 of the 2,. Unfailing. Fails. ITnfailing. Fails. Do.« Do. Unfailing. Fails; for assay see p. 213. Unfailing. & 17 feet in rock. Fails. Unfailing. Fails. Unfailing. Do. Do. Do. Fails. Do. Unfailing. Do. Do. Do. 5 feet in rock; fails. Unfailing. Do. Fails. Unfailing. Do. Do. Do. Do. Fails. Do. Unfailing, c Fails. Unfailing. Do. 6 feet in rock; un- failing. Unfailing./ Do. Fails. Fails; rock bottom. Rock bottom; un- failing.? Unfailing. Do. a 100 feet north of well No. 16. b This well was dag through blue clay and hardpan, which was so tough that it had to be picked, the bottom a sandy layer was struck, and this yields an abundance of water, c A buggy wheel used instead of a crank on the windlass, d No rig. e 300 feet southeast of well No. 53. / 150 feet northeast of well No. 58. g 200 feet southwest of well No. 61. At 212 GROUND WATER IN SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONN. Dug wells ending in till in Wolcott — Continued. No. on ri. III. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to water. Method of lift. Remarks. 70 Slate.... ..do. .. Feet. 480 490 540 485 475 445 560 550 .580 660 600 645 700 Feet. 16.5 20.6 27.4 30.1 12.1 13. 31.0 13.7 16.4 17.1 15.6 19.4 16.8 Feet. 12.0 15.0 18.0 26.4 8.0 Deep-well pump and house pump. Sweep rig and hou se pump. Sweep rig 71 Unfailing. Fails. 74 Slope. . . Plain... ...do 75 House pump Pltchei' pump 75a XJnfailing.a Fails. 76 Slope. . - ...do 78 18.7 7.4 9.7 10.7 6.1 9.6 9.7 Deep- well piunp (b) Unfailing. Do. 79 ...do 80 Plateau . Slope. . . Plateau. Slope. . . ...do. . .. Chain pump Two-bucket rig Chain pump do Do. 82 Do. 83 Do. 84 Do. 85 .do Do. « 100 feet southeast of well No. 75. & No rig. Dug ivells ending in stratified drift in Wolcott. No. on PI. III. 0^vner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to water. Method of lift. Remarks. 1 Hilltop.. Flam... Slope.. . Feet. 860 490 455 Feet. 19.3 14.1 23.9 Feet. 13.7 8.4 18.9 Windlass 6 feet in rook; fails. 73 do Unfailing. Do. 77 Chain pump Drilled well in Wolcott. No. on PI. III. Owner. Topo- graphic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Depth of well. Depth to rock. Diame- ter. Yield per miaxite. Water- bearing for- mation. Remarks. 86 Carl Watson . . . Hilltop- Feet. 700 Feet. 105 Feet. 15 Inches. 6 Gallons. 3 Schist. . . For analysis see p. 213. Springs in Wolcott. No. on PI. III. Owner. Topo- gram nic position. Eleva- tion above sea level. Tem- per- ature. Yield per minute. Remarks. 26 Swale Slope ...do Feet. 520 825 750 490 600 "F. 52 Gallons. Fails. 41 Parsonage Piped to house; unfailing; for assay see p. 213. 52 49 55 49 1 67 Bv brook... ...'do 81 Unfailing. WOLCOTT. 213 QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. The results of one analysis and two assays of samples of ground water collected in Wolcott are given below. The waters are low in mineral content and very soft. They are calcium-carbonate in chemical character except No. 86, which is of the sodium-carbonate type. All the waters have been classed as good for domestic pur- poses. Practically no scale-forming or foaming constituents are con- tained in the waters, and they are classified as good for use in boilers. Cheitiical composition and classification of ground waters in Wolcott. [Parts per million; collected Nov. 11, 191 ; analyst, S. C. Dinsmore. Numbers at heads of columns refer to corresponding numbers on PI. Ill; see also records corresponding in number, jp. 211-212.] Silica (SiOj) Iron(Fe)... Calcium (Ca) Magnesium (Mg) Sodium and potassium (Na+K)c. Carbonate radicle ( CO3) Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) Sulphate radicle (SO4) Chloride radicle (01) Nitrate radicle (N O3) Total dissolved solids Total hardness as CaCOa Scale-forming constituents c Foaming constituents c Chemical character Probability of corrosion d. Quality for boiler use Quality for domestic use. . Analysis.a Assays. & 86 19 41 14 .04 0.20 Trace. 8.2 3.2 11 Trace, 10 .0 24 19 32 6.9 Trace. Trace. 12 8 14 16 84 c44 c65 c34 27 27 44 40 40 30 Trace. 30 Na-C03 Ca-COs Ca-C08 (?) (?) (?) Good. Good. Good. Good. Good. Good. a For methods used in analyses and accuracy of results, see pp. 59-61. b Approximations; for methods used and reliability of results, see pp. 59-61. c Computed. d Based on computed value; (?)= corrosion uncertain. PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES. There are no waterworks serving any residents of Wolcott, but the town contains several reservoirs that belong to the systems of adja- cent towns. In the southeast corner is a reservoir belonging to the Waterbury system. North of it on Falls Brook are two reservoirs of the Southington system, and still farther north New Britain has a reservoir on Roaring Brook. INDEX. A. Page. Absorption of water by glacial drift 25, 28, 30 Air lift, pumping with 52-53 Air-pressure system, use of, for a house water service 46 Algae, growth of, in reservoirs 5&-57, 129, 177 Analyses of ground waters 72, 80, 94, 102, 109, 117, 128, 135, 141, 148, 157, 164, 175, 184, 191, 198, 206, 213 accuracy of 61 averages of, by water-bearing formations. 64-65 computations from , methods employed in 59 interpretation of .* 61-63 scope of 59 Artesian wells, conditions governing 34, 36-38 Assays of ground waters, accuracy of 61 averages of, by water-bearing for- mations 65 computations from, methods employed in 60 interpretation of '.... 01-63 scope of 59 Avon, geography of 66, 67-08 industries of 67 pubhc water supply of. 73 quality of ground water in 72 springs in, records of 72 statistics of 19, 55, 66 water-bearing formations in 68-70 wells in, records of 71-72 Avon Water Co., source of water supplied by. 68, 73 B. Bailing devices, descriptions of 40-41 objections to 40, 41 BakersviUe, location of 159 Barite, mining of, in Cheshire Ill Barkhamsted, geography of 73, 74 industries of 74-76 public water supplies in 81 quality of ground waterin 80 springs in, records of 80 statistics of 19, 55, 73, 74 water-bearing formations in 76-78 wells in, records of 78-79 Barndoor Hills, features of 131 Becket granite gneiss, nature and water con- tent of 77, 138-139, 144, 161, Bedding planes, water in 32 Berkshire sctiist, nature and water content of. 77,139,144 Boiler use, defects of waters for 61-62 rating of waters for 62-63 Boulder, perched glacial, near East Hartland, plate showing 138 Boulders, evidence of glaciation from 138 occurrence of, in the till 24 Bristol, geography of 81-85 industries of 82 public water supplies in 94-95 quality of ground water in 94 Page. Bristol, springsin 93 statistics of 19,55,82 water-bearing formations in 85-87 wells in, records of 87-93 Bristol granite gneiss, nature and water con- tent of 85-87,97-98 wells in 93 Bristol Ledge, location and origin of Ill Brooksvale, location of 110 Buckets, automatic tipping and filling 41 use of, in wells 40-41 Burlington, geography of 95, 96-97 industries of 96 public water supplies in 102, 158 quality of ground water in 101-102 springs in, records of 101 statistics of 19, 55, 96 water-bearing formations in 97-99 wells in, records of 100-101 Burlington Brook and tributaries, flow of 97 Bushy Hill, location of 130 C. Camp Ground Hill, physiography of. 167-168 Campville, location of 142 Canal, early transportation by 20 Canton, geography of 102- 103, 104-105 industries of 103 public water supply in 110 quaUty of grotmd water in 109 springs in, records of 109 statistics of 12,14,19,55,103 water-bearing formations in 105-107 wells in, records of 107-108 Capillary action, influence of 29 Carbon dioxide, removal of, from reservoirs. . 57 Cedar trees, preference of, for areas of strati- fied drift 28 CenterhiU, location of 136 Chambers, Alfred A., analyses by . 117, 135, 198, 206 Cherry Brook, coinrse and flow of 105 location of 103 Cheshire, geography of 110, 111-112 industries of Ill pubhc water supplies in 118 quahty of ground water in 117 springs in, records of 117 statistics of 19, 55, 111 water-bearing formations in 112-114 wells in, records of 114-116 Chittenden, R. H,, analysis by 94 Circulation of ground water, conditions gov- erning 28-30 Cleveland, H. W., pumping test of well of 49-50 Climate of the area 12-15 Collinsville, location of 103 CoUinsville granite gneiss, nature and water content of 105-106, 108 Collinsville Water Co., service by 102, 129 215 216 INDEX. Page. Compounce Mountain. See Wolcott Moun- tain. Compounce Pond, origin of 201 Conglomerate, "giant," occurrence of 31 water in 32 Connecticut, map of, showing areas covered by water-supply papers 8 Connecticut River, area drained by 15 basin of, precipitation and run-off in 17 Contamination, sources and prevention of . . . 64 Cooks Gap, flow of river through 168 reversal of stream through 151 Corrosion in boilers, cause of 62-63 Cream Hill, Cornwall, climatic data for 13 Crescent Pond, water supply from 176-177, 206 D. Davenport & Keeler, analyses by 158 Demand for water, increase of 7-8 Dikes, trap, occurrence of 33, 111-112, 209-210 Dinsmore, S. C, analyses by 72, 80, 94, 102, 109, 117, 128, 135, 141, 148, 157, 164, 175, 184, 191, 198, 206, 213 Dismal Brook, course of 130-131 Domestic use, quality of waters for 63 Drainage of the area 15 Drift, stratified, absorption of water by 28, 30 stratified, distribution of 120, 121 in Pequabuck Valley, plates showing. 22, 84 mechanical analyses of 27 nature and water content of. . . 27, 70, 78, 99, 107, 114, 123, 133, 145, 153, 162, • 170, 180-181, 188, 195, 203, 210 origia and deposition of 26-2S, 70 recognition of 28 wells in 71, 72, 79, 87, 90, 101, 108, 115-116, 125-126, 134, 139, 140, 147, 155, 163, 171-174, 183,190,196,204,212 Drumltnc, occurrence of 151 origin of 26 "rock," origin and occurrence of. . . 200, 202-203 E. East Litchfield, location of 142 Eightmile River, water supply from 207 Elevation, range of 11 EUis, A. J., work of 9 Ellis, E. E., Gregory, H. E., and, cited 11 Ellsworth ram, description of. 46 Esker, The Windrow, near East Hartland, plate sho\sang ■ 138 Eskers, occxnrence of 27-28, 131, 138, 201 F. Falls Brook, water supply from 206 Farmington, geography of 118-119, 119-122 industries of 119 pubUc water supplies in 128-129 quality of groimd water in 127-128 springs in, records of 127 statistics of 19, 119 v.-ater-bearing formations in 122-124 wells in, records of 124-127 Farmington-Quinnipiac VaUey, description of 11-12 Farmington River, areas drained by 15, 194 course and tributaries of 121-122 discharge of 121 Page. Farmington River, East Branch of, course and tributaries of 74,75,137 scenery on 75 West Branch of, course of 74, 75-76 valley of 137-138 Farmington Water Co., service by 128-129 Faulting, block, results of 150-151, 193 See also Fissures. Fissures, occurrence of 32 springs issuing from 39 water in 33, 36 Foaming of water in boilers, causes of 61-62 Forestville, location of 81 pubUc water supply of M wells in 87 Formations, water-bearing, nature and distri- bution of 23-36 G. Galleries, infiltration, description of 50-51 infiltration, use of, at Lowell, Mass 57 Geography of the area 10-20 Glaciers, material deposited by 24-30 Gneiss, origin of 35-36 water in 69,77,86,98, 105-106, 113, 139, 140, 143-144, 161, 180, 183, 187-188,202,209 Granby, geography of 129, 131 industries of 130 pubUc water supply in 135 quahty of ground water in 135 springs in, records of 135 statistics of 19, 55, 130 water-bearing formations in 132-133 wells in, records of 133-134 Granite, water in 69 Gra-Rock Spring, analysis of water from 109 Gravity water system, description of 43-44 Great Plains, location of 166 Green Woods, location of 159 Greenwood Pond, location of 76 Gregory, Herbert E . , earUer work of 8-9 and EUis, E. E., cited U Rice, W. N., and 30-31,76 Greystone, location of 177 Grimes Brook, water supply from 198 Groimd- water surface, depth to 29-30 H. .Hancock, location of 177 Hancock Brook, area drained by 209 "Hardheads." See Boulders. "Hardpan." SeeTm. " Hardware city,' ' New Britain called 150 Hartford, climatic data for 13 compensatory reservoir constructed by. . 75, 81,166 reservoir for, on Nepaug River. 102, 110, 165-166 reservoir No. 4 of 128 Hartland, geography of 136, 137-138 industries of 136 quahty of ground water in 141 springs in, records of 141 statistics of 19, 55, 136 water-bearing formations in 138-139 wells in, records of 139-140 Harwinton, geography of 142-143 industries of 142 INDEX. 217 Page. Harwinton, quality of ground water in 148 springs in, records of 148 statistics of 19, 55, 142 view northwest from northeastern part of, plate showing 22 water-bearing formations in 143-145 wells in, records of 145-147 History, geologic, of the area 20-23 Holts HUl, altitude of 178 Honeypot Brook, sources of 112 Hoosac schist, nature and water content of. . 76, 85, 98, 105, 112-113, 122, 132, 138- 139, 161, 179, 180, 187, 202, 209 Hoskins, location of 191 Housatonic River basin, precipitation and rmi off in 16 Huckleberry Hill, location and altitude of . . . 68 Hungary, location of 130 I. Industries of Connecticut 7 of the area .• 19-20 See also the several towns. Information on ground water, need for 8-9 sources of 9-10 Iron, removal of, from water in reservoirs 57 Irrigation, pumping of water for 43 J. Joints, occurrence of 32 spacing of 36 springs issuing from 39 water in 32-33, 36 K. Kames, occurrence of 28 origin of 26 Kettle holes, example of, at Burlington Cen- ter, description of 96 example of, at Burlington Center, plate showing 84 at West Avon, origin of 68 occurrence of 27, 201 L. Lake, ancient, in Simsbury, origin of 193-194 Lakes, drift deposited in 26-27 Leadmine Brook, area drained by 161 course and discharge of 143 Loams, stony, mechanical analyses of 25 Location and extent of the area 10 Lovely Street, location of 67 LoweU, Mass., public water supply of 57-58 M. Mad River, course of 208-209 Manganese, removal of, from water Ln reser- voirs 57 Map, geologic, of the Southington-Granby area In pocket. of Connecticut, showing areas covered by water-supply papers 8 topographic, of the Southington-Granby area In pocket. Maple Hollow, location of 159 Marion, location of 199 Marsh Brook, flow of a 85 MechanicsvUle, location of 129 Meriden, reservoir for , 112, 118 I'age. Milky appearance in wator, cause of 177 Mill River, area drained by 15 course of 112 MiUdale, location of 199 MixvUle, location of 110 Morgan River, course and history of 74, 76 Mount Sandford, clevat ion of Ill Mountains, elevations of 11 N. Naugatuck, reservoir of 191 Naugatuck River, area drained by 15, 186 Nepaug, location of 159 Nepaug River, course of 105 discharge of 160 reservoirs on 102, 110, 165-166 New Britain, geography of 149, 150-151 industries of 150 public water supply of 157-158 quality of ground water in 156-157, 158 reservoir of 213 statistics of 13,14,15,19,149 springs in, records of 156 water-bearing formations in 151-153 weUs in, records of 154-156 WhigvUle reservoir of 102 New Hartford, geography of 159, 160-161 industries of 159, 160 pubUc water supplies of 165-166 quahty of ground water in 164 springs in, records of 164 statistics of 15, 19, 55, 160 water-bearing formations in 161-162 weUs in, records of 162-163 New Hartford Water Co., service by 165 New Haven Water Co., reservoir of 191 service by 118 Nod Brook, course of 68 North Branch, flow of 85 O. Occurrence of ground water, modes of 32-33 P. Parmelee, H. S., hydraulic ram used by 46 Patton Brook, water supply from 207 Pegville, location of 129 Pequabuck, location of 177 Pequabuck River, present and former courses of 168 drift deposits on 83-84 flow of 84,168 North Branch of, flow of 85 tributaries of 96-97 valley of, stratified drift in, plates showing 22, 84 Phelps Brook, flow of 97 Pine Hill, altitude of 178 Pine Meadow, ancient lake at 160 location of 159 Pine trees, preference of, for areas of stratified drift 28 white, near Granby station, plate show- ing 120 prevalence of 130, 131, 192 yellow, near Farmington station, plate showing 120 prevalence of 120, 122 218 INDEX. Page. "Pitting." Sec Corrosion. Plainville, geography of 166-168 industries of 167 public water supply in 176-177 quality of ground water in 175 springs in, records of 175 statistics of 19, 167 water-bearing formations in 169-170 wells in, records of 171-174 Plainville Water Co. , service by 176-177 Plantsville, location of 199 Plateau, dissected, northwest of Harwinton, plate showing 22 Pleasant V alley , location of 73 Plymouth, geography of 177-179 industries of 178 public water supply in 184-185 quality of ground water in 184 springs in, records of 183 statistics of 19, 55, 178 water-bearing formations in 179-181 wells in, records of 181-183 Poland River, drainage area of 143 water supply from 94-95, 185 Pollcville, communal water supply at 95 Pollution, sources and prevention of 64 Pomperaug River, monthly run-oIT of. 16 Pond Ledge Hill , location and alti tude of — 68 Population of Connecticut 7 of the area, density of 18-20 See also the several towns. Pores of rocks, water in 32 Potholes, origin and occurrence of 208 Precipitation, absorption of 28 ratio of run-off to 15-17 records of 12-15 Prospect, geography of 185, 186 industries in 185 public water supplies in 191 quality of groimd water in 190-191 springs in, records of 190 statistics of 19, 55 Vater-bearing formations in 18&-188 wells in, records of 188-190 Prospect granite gneiss, nature and water- content of 187,202 Pump, centrifugal, description of 43 chain, description of 42-43 deep-well, description of 41-42 displacement, description of 41-42 double-acting , description of 42 metal bucket, description of 43 pitcher, description of 41-42 rubber bucket, description of 42-43 Purification of public water supplies 56-57,129 Q. Quality of ground water, tests of 58-66 Quinnipiac Ridge, description of 82-8-3 Quinnipiac River, areas drained by 15, 201, 209 capture of Pequabuck River by 168 course of 112, 168 tributaries of 112, 201 Quinnipiac River valley, description of 11-12 R. Railroads in the area 20 Rainfall. See Precipitation. Page. Rams, hydraulic, descriptions of. 44,46 Ratlum Mountain, altitude of 104 Rattlesnake Mountain, altitude of 119 Recovery of ground water, means of 39-66 Redstone Hill, physiograph y of 168 Requirements for water, increase of 7-8 Reservoirs, formations serving as 23-36 Rice, W. N., and Gregory, H. E., cited... 30-31,76 Rig, counterbalanced, description of 41 one-bucket and two-bucket, descriptions of 40 sweep, description of 40 wheel and axle, description of 40 windlass, description of 40-41 Riverton, location of 73 Roaring Brook, area drained by 186 flow of 105 water supply from 158 Rocks, crystalline, distribution of. 34 crystalline, lithology of 35-36 water in 36 Run-ofl, ratio of, to precipitation 15-17 Russell, H, L., Tumeaure, F. E., and, cited. . 50-51 S. Salmon Brook, tributaries of. 131 Sandstone, nature and water content of. — 31,32, 69, 87, 93, 97, 106, 113, 116, 122, 127, 132, 134, 151-153, 169, 174, 186-187, 194-195, 202, 205 Satans Kingdom, gorge at 104, 160 Satans Kangdom Spring Water Co., devel- opment of springs of 54-55 Scale, formation of, in boilers 61 Schist, origin and types of 35 nature and water content of 76-77, 85, 98, 105, 112-113, 122,132,138-139, 143-144, 161, 179-180, 187-188,202,209 Sessions, J. H., & Sons, dug well of 39-40 Shale, nature and water content of 32, 122-123, 132, 169, 174, 202, 205 Shuttle Meadow reservoir, construction of. 157-158 location of 207 Sills, trap, occurrence of 33 Simsbury, geography of. 191-194 industries of 192 public water supplies in 198-199 quality of ground water in 197-198 springs in, records of 197 statistics of 13, 14, 19, 55, 192 water-bearing formations in 194-195 Simsbury Water Co., service by 198 Siphon water-service pipe, description of. — 43-44 South Mountain, altitude of 83 South Mountain Brook, flow of 161 Southington, geography of 199-201 industries in 199 public water supplies in 206-207 quality of ground water in 205-206 reservoirs in 213 springs in, records of 205 statistics of 12, 14, 19, 55, 199 water-bearing formations in 203-203 wells in, records of 202-205 Southington Waterworks Commission, serv- ice by 206 Southington-Granty area, geologic map of In pocket. INDEX. 219 K Page. Southington-Granby area, topographic map of In pocket. Spaces, lamellar, water in 36 Spindle Hill, altitude of 208 Spring, definition of 38, 39 Springs, development of 54-55 records of 72, 80, 93, 101, 109, 117, 127, 135, 141, 148, 156, 164, 175, 183, 190, 197, 205, 212 seepage, origin of 38 so-called, striking of, in digging wells 26 stratum, origin of 38-39 yield of ^ Stanley Works (Inc.), well of 152-153 Stratton Brook, area drained by 194 discharge of 105 water supply from 198 Supply, public, algae in 56-57 public, driven wells for, locating of . . 55-56 purification of 56-57, 129 surface water used for 56, 57 testing of 56 T. Talcott Mountain, aqueduct through 166 location and altitude of 66-67 Tariflville, location of 191 Temperature, fluctuations of 65-66 Tennule River, flow of 186 sources of 112 Terraces, formation and remains of 22-23 Terrjrville, location of 177 TerryviUe Water Co., service by 184-185 Testing of water supplies for public use 56 Thomaston granite gneiss, nature and water content of 143-144, 17^180 Till, absorption of water by 25, 30 boulders in 24 lenses of washed material in 25 nature and water content of 24- 26, 69-70, 77,9S-99, 106, 113, 123- 124, 132, 139, 144-145, 153,162, 169- 170, 180, 188, 195, 202-203, 210 recognition of 28 wells in 71, 78-79, 87, 88-90, 100, 107-108, 114-115, 124- 125, 133-134, 139-140, 145-147, 154, 162-163, 171, 181-182, 188-189, 196, 203, 210-212 Tobacco, growing of 67, 68, 73, 103, 130, 160,192 Todd Hollow Brook, water supply from 185 Tolles, location of 177 Topography of the area 10-12 Town Hill, location of 159 Towns, list of 4, 9, 18 Trap rock, "Anterior," "Main," and "Pos- terior" sheets of, distribution of 33, 111-112, 120-121, 150, 168, 169, 186, 193, 202 joints in 34 lithology of 33-34 water in 34, 69, 106, 123, 127, 132, 151- 153, 169, 174, 186, 194-195, 202 Traut & Hine ^Manufacturing Co., artesian well of 34, 37-38, 152 Triassic sedimentary rocks, distribution of. . . 30 lithology and stratigraphy of 30-32 Page. Triassic sedimentary rocks, water in 32-33 Triassic trap rocks, distribution of. .33, 111-112, 120- 121, 150, 168, 169, 186, 192, 202, 209-210 joints in 34 lithology of 33-34 water in 34 Trumbull Electric Manufacturing Co., well of 167,169 Turnoaure, F. E., and Russell, H. L., cited. 50-51 U. Unionville, location of 118 Unionville Water Co. , service by 129 Upson, Edwin L., pumping test of well of . . . 47-48 V. Village Water Co. , of New Hartford, service of 165 of Simsbury, service by 198 W. Waring, G. A., work of 9 Wassong, Edward, capacity of well of 50 Water table. See Ground-water surface. Waterbury , reservoirs of 191, 213 Waterbury gneiss, nature and water content of 98, 144, 161, 180, 187, 209 well in 144 Waters, surface, discharge of 15-17 Weatogue, location of 191 Well, definition of 39 Wells, deepening of 70, 77, 99, 123 drilled, description of 52-53 records of 72, 93, 108, 116, 127, 134, 140, 147, 156, 174, 183, 190, 197, 205, 212 statistics of 54 driven, description of 51 records of 92, 116, 126, 155, 174, 197, 204 use of, for public supplies 56, 57, 58 dug, construction of 39-40 lifting devices for 40-46 pumping tests on 46-50 records of 71, 78-79, 88-92, 100-101, 107-108, 114-116, 124-126, 133-134, 139- 140, 145-147, 154-155, 162-163, 171-174, 181-183, 188-190, 196, 203-204, 210-212 West Peak range, altitude of 200 Westover Plain Water Co., service by 199 Whig\alle, location of 95 reservoir near 158 Windrow esker near East Hartland, descrii)- tion of 138 plate showing 138 Windmill, pumping with 46 Wolcott , geography of 207-209 industries of 208 quality of ground waterin 213 reservoirs in 213 springs in, records of 212 statistics of 19, 55, 208 water-bearing formations in 209-210 wells in, records of 210-212 Wolcott Moimtain, formations in 200 reservoir on 158 Woodlands, extent and importance of 17 See also under the several towns. Woodtick, location of 207 O U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY -- / WATEE-SUPPLY PAPER 1» PLATE 11 73°00' ^w.. 7T--^1'"/'^Y '-i V X 1) ■-ft'" II, I s I I "1 .\/t : T '( ) N ^-'S^ Vv^ v\%V ;, ^ B A "~1i^^ K II ,■ iM \ ^r --h- --+--4 •\'. :' 1 [..'iV'h-^'^^lft' iiA V. c>r i I ] ; I) Base from U. S Geological Sur MAP OF SURFACE DEPOSITS OF THE SOUTHINGTON-GRANB^ AREA, CONNECTKT'T GeoloEy by H.S. Palmer 4/^"C^fc^ TOPOGRAPHIC MAP OF THE SOUTHINGTON-GRANBY AREA, CONNECTICUT Showing distribution of woodlands and location of wells and springs cited H 275 83 « iiii ^. /y' * H°ft ^°-*. %. V ^, ,^^ ^^. G- % 'o.. .^ ..* .Ho«. . 1-^^ . ^n^ *'^ o •^^o* -bv ;<^ \/ V^^'/ %^'/ v^-/ \' <* ♦'TV <> *''^.'"'* .0*' '^-.. •••' A' ... --». "h^ ^ °^ - ^ ♦ <> *-Tvr» ,0 c,o*,c:^''^*o • T* A <* ♦/TTT* ,C - ^^..^^ /^ter-. Vc/ y^Mo ^.a'' / »5^^ . .* v^^ % ^y^v^.* ^^ ^4^ -J V<*..!^', \' ... V. -••• ^ .....^ "" ^ 'oK V s '.^ ^ ^<^ • ^, AUG 83 N. MANCHESTER, INDIANA 46962