^°-v- A"^ i;^ -^^ >- ^^ 'i-^ '^^^ *-i^>t^\c,^^'' '^'V '0, .^^ o V ^0 v-^ >^' 4 o ,0' '^<=)- .*% - v-^^ ^.^ % 0^ oo^; ■;f. s'y . °Xv \ '=^' '^:- ^'. \, ,.:^^ ^^^^#<^ ^ .^^' ^ s . . , % ' ^ .■^^"^- 0' *r) 'o . * .^^ Kt^r:< "ov^' : ; "'^^o' « ^-n^, V ^ ^^ o K ■A Qi '- i-t-' s ^ 1^> -tV .0 xO ^v*^ ^ -y " o ( f#i V ^;::.- V ^^«^ ^^^ 4 '-'"■■" '^^^ ■■- v^--'-y ... V o C^ -?- vPS ■p ,0 .0 ■ S' i • 1 ANTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS OF THE American Museum of Natural History. Vol. XIV, Part I. THE STEFANSSON-ANDERSON ARCTIC EXPEDITION OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM: PRELIMINARY ETHNOLOGICAL REPORT. BY VILHJALMUR STEFANSSON NEW YORK: Published by Order of the Trustees. 1914. American Museum of Natural History. PUBLICATIONS IN ANTHROPOLOGY. In 1906 the present series of Anthropological Papera was authorized by the Trustees of the Museum to record the results of research conducted by the Depart- ment of Anthropology. The series comprises octavo volumes of about 350 pages each, issued in parts at irregular intervals. Previous to 1906 articles devoted to anthropological subjects appeared as occasional papers in the Bulletin and also in the Memoir series of the Museum. A complete list of these publications with prices will be furnished when requested. All communications should be addressed to the Librarian of the Museum. The recent issues are as follows : — Volume X. I. Chipewyan Texts. By Pliny Earle Goddard. Pp. 1-66. 1912. Price, $1.00. II. Analysis of Cold Lake Dialect, Chipewyan. By Pliny Earle Goddard. Pp. 67-170, and 249 text figures. 1912. Price, $1.00. III, Chipewyan Tales. By Robert H. Lowie. Pp. 171-200. 1912. Price, $.25. IV. (In preparation). Volume XI. 1. Societies and Ceremonial Associations in the Oglala Division of the Teton Dakota. By Clark Wissler. Pp. 1-99, and 7 text figures. 1912. Price, $.50. II. Dance Associations of the Eastern Dakota. By Robert H. Lowie. Pp. 101-142. 1913. Price, $.25. III. Societies of the Crow, Hidatsa and Mandan Indians. By Robert H. Lowie. Pp. 143-358 and 18 text figures. 1913. Price, $2.00. IV. Societies and Dance Associations of the Blackfoot Indians. By Clark Wissler. • Pp. 363^60, and 29 text figures. 1913. Price, $1.00. V. Dancing Societies of the Sarsi Indians. By Pliny Earle Goddard. Pp. 461-474. 1914. Price, $.25. VI. Political Organization, Cults, and Ceremonies of the Plains-Ojibway and Plains-Cree Indians. By Alanson Skinner. Pp. 47.5-542, and 10 text figures. 1914. Price, $.75. VII. (In press.) {Continued on 3d p. of cover.) ANTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS OF THE American Museum of Natural History. Vol. XIV, Part I. THE STEFANSSON-ANDERSON ARCTIC EXPEDITION OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM: PRELIMINARY ETHNOLOGICAL REPORT. BY VILMJALMUR STEFANSSON NEW YORK: Published by Order of the Trustees. 1914. This paper is an advance section of a volume to be devoted to the obser- vations of Mr. Vilhjahnur Stefansson and Dr. Rudolph M. Anderson upon the Eskimo of Coronation Gulf and westward. It is the substance of Mr. Stefansson 's report to Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn, President of the American Museum of Natural History, submitted June, 1913. Upon the completion of this volume, a permanent title page with table of contents and index will be provided. As Mr. Stefansson is now on another expedition for the Canadian Govern- ment, he was unable to see the manuscript in its final form, or to select the illustrations; therefore for all arrangements and selections the Editor is alone responsible. The Editor wishes to thank the Macmillan Company for permission to use the maps, illustrations, and other data in Mr. Stefansson's, "My Life with the Eskimo"; also, for Figs. 66 and 90, from plates in the Museum Journal originally published by permission of the above. Ck Hi PRELIMINARY ETHNOLOGICAL REPORT. By Vilhjalmur Stefansson. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION .... THE CORONATION GULF ESKIMO Range and Distribution Climatic Conditions Driftwood Trees and Vegetation Fuel .... Food .... Vegetable Foods Animal Foods Cooking and Handling Food Dwellings and Furniture Household Utensils Methods of Travel Hunting Implements and Weapons Implements and Tools Clothing .... Ornajients and Charms Hairdressing Religion .... General Conditions of Life THE MACKENZIE ESKIMO . Food Clothing Work in Skins MISCELLANEOUS NOTES The Mackenzie Delta, 1906-7 The Colville River, 1908-9 Cape Parry, 1909-10 . Coronation Gulf and Victoria"^Island,'*^1910-1] The Horton River, 1911-12 To Point Barrow, 1912 Page. 7 33 33 40 42 44 45 47 47 48 59 61 68 78 84 98 114 121 121 126 129 133 133 139 141 151 151 196 211 224 305 379 Anthropological Papers Atncrican Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, ILLUSTRATIONS. Tkxt Figures. 1. Probes for Seal Holes, made of Bone, Coronation Gulf 2. Seal Indicator of Ivory, Prince Albert Sound, Victoria Island 3. Seal Indicator of Ivor.y, Coronation Gulf 4. Copper Probe for Seal Holes, Prince Albert Sound, Victoria Island . 5. Pull for Cord used in Hauling Seals, Prince Albert Sound, Victoria Island 6. Seal Harpoon from Mouth of the Coppermine, Coronation Gulf . 7. Set of Seal Wound Pegs, Coronation Gulf ..... 8. Stone Lamps .......... 9. Stone Kettle from about three miles off Parry Peninsula 10. Large Lamp and a Kettle from Prince Albert Sound, Victoria Island n. Models of Vessels, Coronation Gulf 12. Model of a Horn Spoon, Coronation Gulf .... 13. Wooden Pail with Bail of Horn and Copper Rivets, Coronation Gulf 14. Small Spoon of Musk-ox Horn, Coronation Gulf ... 15. P'ork made from the Metacarpal Bone of a Musk-ox, Coronation Gulf IC). Horn S})oon with Bone Handle, Coronation Gulf 17. Hr)rn Dipper, Coronation Gulf ....... Is. Models of Buckets, Coronation Gulf ...... 19. Bag for Fire-making Implements, Coronation Gulf 20. Bag of Moss for Tinder, Coronation Gulf .... 21. Frame for drying Clothes, Coronation Gulf .... 22. Blubber Pounder of Musk-ox Horn, Coronation Gulf 23. Dipper of Musk-ox Horn, Coronation Gulf .... 24. Wooden Ware, Coronation Gulf ....... 25. Wooden Snow Goggles, Coronation Gulf ..... 26. Copper Fish Hook and Reel, Coronation Gulf .... 27. Three-pronged Fish S])ear with Copper Prongs, Coronation Gulf . 2S. Copper Fish Hook and Line, Coronation Gulf .... 29. Copper Pole Hook. From the Pallirmiut, mouth of Rae River, Corona tion Gulf 30. Bow, Prince Albert Sound, \'ict()ria Island .... 31. Bow Case, Prince Albert Sound, Victoria Island 32. Types of Copper Arrow-Heads from the same Quiver as Fig. 34, Corona tion Gulf 33. Bone and Ivory .Vrrow-IIeads from the same (Juiver, Kent Peninsula 34. Iron and Bone Arrow-Heads from the same Quiver as Fig. 32, Coi-ona tion Gulf ........... 35. Copper Arrow-Heads selected from a single (Quiver, Prince Albori Sound, Victoria Island ........ 36. Forms of Metal Arrow Points 37. Splices for Arrow-Shafts, Prince Albert Sound, Coronation Gulf . 38. Form of Splice u.sed in Spear and Harpoon Shafts, Coronation Gulf 1914. The Siefdnsson-Anderson Expediliun. Page. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. Contents of the Tool Bag attached to Bow Case, 60-6939, Kent Penm- sula ............ Shaft Straightener, Coronation Gulf ...... Feathers for Arrows and Bag for the same, Kent Peninsula . Bone Thumb Guards, Kent Peninsula General Form of the Ulu . . . Ulus with Iron Blades ........ General Form of Knife found West of Coronation Gulf . Copper Knife with Caribou Antler Handle, Mouth of Rae River, Corona- tion Gulf Steel Knife with a Bone Handle ....... Copper Knife with Bone Handle, Basil Hall Bay, Coronation Gulf Steel Knives .......... Crooked Blade Knives, Coronation Gulf Crooked Blade Knives of Iron, Coronation Gulf Tool Bag and Contents, Coronation Gulf ..... Knife Sharpener, Bone Handle with Steel Insert, Coronation Gulf Small Knives or Graver's Tools, Coronation Gulf Saws, Coronation Gulf ........ Adze Head, Iron Blade, Antler Haft, Pallirmiut . Whetstone from Coronation GuK ...... Piece of Worked Copper from Rae River ..... Wooden Snow Shovel, Edged with Ivory, Coronation Gulf Bowdrill Set from Coronation Gulf ...... Snow Knives made of Bone, Coronation Gulf .... Bone Pin from Prince Albert Sound, Victoria Island Bone Pegs from Coronation Gulf ...... A Sinew Stretcher, Knot Opener, and Awl from Coronation Gulf . Decorated Toggles from Prince Albert Sound, Victoria Island Prince Albert Sound Man in Winter Costume; (b) Victoria Island Cos- tume ............ Group of Prince Albert Sound Men ...... Woman's Boots, Coronation Gulf ...... Shoe of Sealskin, Coronation Gulf ...... Pattern for the Hood to a Woman's Coat, Fig. 71 .... Patterns for Front and Back of Woman's Coat, Coronation Gulf . Sleeve Pattern, upper and under, for Fig. 71 . Skin Scraper with Copper Blade and Bear Tooth Toggle, Coronation Gulf Skin Scrapers from Coronation Gulf ...... Awls of Bone from Coronation Gulf ...... Steel Knife with Bone Handle, Coronation Gulf Scissors with Bone Handles and Iron Blades, Coronation Gulf Needle Case and Attachments, Coronation Gulf Tool for working Sinew, Coronation Gulf ..... Guard made of Bone, Coronation Gulf ..... Copper Needles from Victoria Island ...... Cup-and-Ball Game, Coronation Gulf ..... Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV. 83. Needle Cases, Combs, and a Coat Ornament 84. Cup-and-Ball Game, Coronation Gulf .... 85. Drum from Twenty Miles west of Gray's Bay, Coronation Gulf 86. Steel Knife, Mackenzie River 87. Plan of a House 88. Plan of a House at Shingle Point 89. Ruins at Point Atkinson 90. Ancient Stone House, Simpson Bay, Victoria Island . 91. Kitchens of Summer Camps, East Edge of Mackenzie Delta . 92. Tent Frame, Langton Bay 93. Plan of a Caribou Drive, Point Barrow .... 94. The Caribou Snare 95. The Hoop Game, Upper Colville River .... Page. 124 125 125 134 158 159 298 298 299 299 385 386 391 Maps. Map showing the Distribution of the Eskimo between Point Barrow and Cape Bathurst 11 Map showing the Distribution of the Coronation Gulf Eskimo . . 32 INTRODUCTION. The district traversed by either Dr. Anderson or myself, singly or both of us together, between our reaching the mouth of the Mackenzie River in July, 1908, to our leaving the Arctic in September, 1912, is chiefly a stretch of the north shore of the North American continent, although we penetrated some distance inland on the Colville River in Alaska, in the Endicott Mountains on the Horton River, and on the Coppermine. We also visited Victoria Island and a score or more of the islands of Coronation Gulf; Banks Island we saw only from shipboard. In Alaska the western- most point visited by sled in winter by members of our expedition was Icy Cape although by water we also visited Cape Lisburne and Point Hope.^ The northern portion of Alaska is in general a low alluvial plain, rolling in some places, as level as a Dakota prairie in others, and everywhere covered by grass and moss in summer. There are many rivers, mostly sluggish, and therefore of an apparent size greater than justified by the volume of water the}^ discharge. None of these, with the exception of a portion of the Col- ville, are represented on published maps with even an approximation of correctness, and some of the largest, such as the one falling into the foot of Smith Bay are unindicated on any chart known to me. The coastal plain is triangular in shape with its apex at Point Barrow and its base formed by a mountain range extending approximately straight from the point where it meets the sea at Cape Lisburne, Alaska, to where it again approaches within twenty miles of the ocean at the international boundary line on meridian 141 west. Just east of the Colville River we hunted nearly to the foothills of this mountain range and judge the distance from it to the sea to be about one hundred miles. At Point Barrow the mountains are probably nearly two hundred miles inland. In general, all the larger rivers and even some of the smaller ones are well supplied with willow for fuel. On the Ikpikpuk, for instance, and on the Colville, these willows grow to a diameter of three or four inches and to a height of over twenty feet in some cases. Willows of this size, however, are found only at a distance of twent}' or more miles from the coast. Appar- ently the cool winds that blow off the ice-filled ocean in summer tend to 1 A fiill narrative of our journeys has besn published in "My Life with the Eskimo." Tlais report, therefore, gives more particularly the substance of our anthropological observa- tions, but does not duplicate much of the concrete matter in the book, it being taken for granted that the reader is already famihar with the contents of that volume. Most of the important photographs were also reprodiiced in the book, making them unnecessary in this report. 7 8 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, dwarf tree growth. As most of these rivers are also well stocked with fish and frequented in winter by ptarmigan their shrub-clad valleys were the homes of large bands of Eskimo imtil the disappearance of the caribou, to which the fish and ptarmigan are only of secondary importance, drove to the coast the small remnant of these people that had not been extermina4:ed by measles and other contagious diseases brought in by white men. The country itself being a low plain, it follows that the coast line is low, although there are in some places sea cliffs to the height of thirty or forty feet. The villages were strung along this coast and were built in locations determined by the food-gathering habits of the people. Between Point Hope and Point Barrow, the bowhead whale was of paramount importance. A village might therefore be located almost anywhere where the ice condi- tions in spring allowed the whales to approach within five miles or less from shore in an ordinary year. Next to the whale, the seal was the most important item at Point Barrow and even farther south, although the walrus increased in importance w est of Icy Cape. Ever^'where along this coast were strewn huge quantities of driftwood, deri^•cd probably in the main from the Yukon River, at least on the coast section west of Point Barrow. East of Point Barrow, I am inclined to think the Mackenzie River is to be credited with the larger amount of drift- wood. There is a fairly steady current from the southwest along the coast to Point Barrow and this would bring wood even against the prevailing northeasterly winds, but at Point Barrow this current continues its course off shore and would therefore be ineffective in bringing wood to regions farther east. On the other hand, the prevailing winds between Flaxman Island and Point Barrow are northeasterly and these would bring driftwood as far up as the apex of Alaska. In former times, villages were not located with any reference to the amount of driftwood, for wood was not used to any extent in winter for fuel, but only seal oil, which fiu-nishes a much more satisfactory method of heating houses of the Eskimo style than any that could have been devised in the days antedating the importation of white men's stoves. When these stoves began to come in, however, and when the Eskimo began to li\'e in flimsy frame houses into which the cold penetrated b}' induction, driftwood had to be used for fuel and the apparently inexhaustible deposits of driftwood gathered by the winds and tides, for centuries disappeared in a few years. Now the entire coast from Point Hope to Point Barrow may be considered devoid of wood that can be used for fuel, and as the modern houses are unsuited for heating with oil, the people are facing a serious fuel problem of which the local coal mines are the only solution, although an unsatis- factory one, and the supply of coal will therefore in the future have a con- 1914.] The Stefdnsson- Anderson Expedition. 9 siderable influence on the locations of the habitations of the people. The two chief coal mines are at Cape Lisburne and Wainwright Inlet, although coal is found in other places. It appears that east of Point Barrow, on the way to Herschel Island, the food supply has always been more uncertain than it was on the coast west of Point Barrow. We found no indication that there had been large perma- nent villages an\'^vhere on this stretch, except on the Jones Islands just east of the Colville Delta. One hundred years ago there was, however, no doubt, a fair sprinkling of houses in groups of two or three or half a dozen, probably throughout all these four hundred miles of coast. We know that within the memory of the oldest men now living, it was common that trading parties from either Herschel Island on the east or Point Barrow on the west would be overtaken by winter somewhere between these two locations and would build their houses and stay until spring at any one of a dozen or more places considered suitable for winter. At Barter Island, about one hundred twenty-five miles east of the Col- ville, was one of the largest trading rendezvous and the indications are that every now and then some of the traders spent the winter there as well as the summer. Another large trading center was Nirlik, on one of the alluvial islands of the western part of the ('olville Delta; but although there were hundreds gathered there in summer, no one seems ever to ha\'e wintered in that vicinity; in fact, the region is self-evidently unsuited to a hunting population in winter. Going upstream, the first recognized wintering place is Itkilikpa, or as the name implies, the mouth of the river Itkillik, which empties from the east into the head of the Colville Delta. This river rises in the mountains to the south and is said to be the only branch of the Colville upon which coniferous trees are found and that only near its head. The mouth of this river was the site of our camp for a portion of the winter 1908-1909. There is excellent fishing in the autumn and several varieties of fish can be caught there in some numlier all winter. Now that the caribou are no longer numerous in the country, this is about the only place on the Cohille which seems to have food supplies enough to make wintering safe. While the number of recognized wintering places on the Colville and its tributaries is very large, the people of the Colville above the mouth of the Itkillik are by themselves considered to form three groups: the Kagmahr- miut who centered about the Kagmallik branch of the Colville ; Killinermiut of the Killirk River; and the Kanianermiut, who, as the name signifies, occupied the headwaters of the Colville. Occasionally also, you hear the name Kupigmiut, the people of the Kupik, which is the name applied to the lower section of the Colville River above the Delta. The reason why this 10 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, name has not the same recognized standing as the other three as a designa- tion of a group of people, seems to be that the population of the Kupik section of the river was more transient than that of the other sections and consisted, in fact, of people all of whom would fall under one of the other three designations. The people of the Upper Colville associated on terms of intimacy with the Noatagmiut of the Upper Noatak and the Napaktogmiut and other groups of the Lower Noatak River as well as the Kuvugmiut of the Upper Kuvuk, and a good many families of the Colville people went annually to the trading rendezvous in Kotzebue Sound where they obtained x\siatic and other wares. North of the Kanianermiut was what seems to have been the largest of all the inland tribes, the Oturkagmiut, who occupied the country between the head of the Colville and the seacoast at Icy Cape and Wain- wright Inlet. Some members of this tribe were recognized as land dwellers and are said to have been the only people of Alaska who understood the use of heather for fuel in winter, and were therefore independent alike of the coast where the sea dwellers secured blubber or wood for fuel and of the inland valleys where the land dwellers got the willow they burned in open fireplaces. They obtained their seal oil for food and light as well as other coast products by purchase in exchange for caribou skins and Kotzebue Sound wares chiefly, while others went down to the coast each spring to do their own seal, walrus, and whale hunting. Others still, while recognized as members of the Oturkagmiut tribe, seem to have been fairly constant inhabitants of the coast. Circled in by these larger tribes, there were near the head of the Colville River, the Nunatagmiut, a small group that seems to be now nearly extinct. For some reason the white men and coastal Eskimo alike, have seized upon the name of this tribe as the name for all the inland dwellers. I have always l)een curious to find one of them, but have never succeeded in doing so, although I have been told by some old Oturkagmiut men that there are three persons still living to their knowledge who belong to this group. It seems fairly clear that the name of this smallest of all these inland tribes became recognized on the coast as the name for them all l)ecause they were centrally located. From the point of view of the Barrow people, the Nunatagmiut Avere south of the Oturkagmiut; looked at from Kotzebue Sound, they were north of the Noatagmiut; from the point of view of the traders who met in the Colville Delta, the Nunatagmiut were farther up- stream next beyond the Kanianermiut. The people of the north coast knew the name of no tribe farther south than the Nunatagniiut. The people of Kotzebue Sound knew the name of no tribe farther north than the Nunatagmiut. For each of these sections of the countrv, therefore, Xuna- I i M ■-i^T^BaM^ I: I trriii»'ii»»i>»Wiii»(ririn«) •; Distribution of the Eskimo between Point Babrow and Cape Bathcbst. • Winter Camps of the Author. t;!r 1914.] The Stejunsson-Anderson Expedition. 11 tagmiut became the indefinite name that covered the people next beyond those who were personally known to the speakers, and thus the word ob- tained a comprehensiveness of meaning on the seacoast which it never had among the inlanders themselves. Now you find it in census reports and works of ethnology. In the summer of 1912 a group of old men in consulta- tion at Cape Smythe agreed on the following list of peoples who formerly inhabited the coast between Point Barrow and Point Hope. Most of the groups are still represented by some living individuals : — 1. Nu^^lgmiut (Pt. Barrow). 2. Utkiavigmiut (Cape Smythe). 3. Pinasugrugmiut (Beta Point, Belcher, and Pt. Franklin), 4. Atanirk (Atanirrmiut). 5. Sinarumiut or Uallinergmiut. 6. Nunariagmiut. 7. Kugmiut (Kungmiut) (Wainwright Inlet). 8. Kilavitarvingmiut. 9. Miliktarvik (Ugrug sealing place). 10. Nokolik. 11. Kaiakseravigmiut (Icy Cape, the village used to be on the main- land, now it is on sandspit). 12. Akearonat. 13. Uivarrmiut. 14. Tigiragmiut (Pt. Hope). East of Point Barrow all the way to Herschel Island, there seem to have been in recent times no groups of people that had their separate names, although of course each would be designated any year by the name of the place where they happened to be encamped. This, however, is different from the names of tribes cited above, for these applied irrespective of where a man might happen to be at any particular time. Roughly, the limits of the Mackenzie Eskimo are, Herschel Island on the west and Cape Bathurst or the Baillie Islands on the east. There were, however, settlements of these same people as far west as the international boundary line or a little beyond, but although I have knowni of men who lived in these settlements several years at a time, they do not seem to have had a really permanent character. East of Cape Bathurst there was also a continuous line of settlements as far as Langton Bay probably up to 1840 and a little after. It is true that from an archaeological point of view, it seems fairh^ clear that the coast for. more than one hundred miles farther east still, was occupied by people of a cultural affinity with the jNIackenzie group; but the feeling of the Baillie 12 Anthropological Papers American Mtiseum of Nati(ral History. [Vol. XIV,. Islanders themselves is, that the people farther east tluui Laiigton Bay were not of their kind. At Herschel Island the mountains approach within twenty or so miles of the coast and rolling low foothills come nearly down to the sea. The island itself is of irregular shape; its greatest diameters, if no reference be taken to the sandspits, are about eight by five miles. The island is about five hundred feet above sea level at its highest, is tundra-covered and of a clearly alluvial structure, for huge trees similar to those found as driftwood on the beach today may be seen sticking out of the seaward precipices of the island three hundred feet above tide level. The land at the foot of the bay between Herschel Island and Cape Point is low but there are high bluffs in many places from Cape Point east to Escape Reef, which may be considered the western limit of the Mackenzie Delta proper, although in ordinary conditions of weather the sea water is fresh at King Point, twenty- five miles farther to the west. The delta of the Mackenzie is much like the deltas of the other great rivers of the world. It is over one hiuidred miles wide, filled with a multitude of low willow-covered and driftwood- strewn islands between which channels of unknown niunber flow northward into the polar sea. The huge volume of fresh water in the spring (the river usually opens between the fifth and twenty -fifth of May) not only melts away the sea ice, but also by its current drives away any that happens to be floating about, so that none but the strongest ones from seaward can fill the immediate vicinity of the delta with ice. The volume of fresh water is so large, tluit the whaling ships in passing outside of Mackenzie Bay take water for cooking and drinking purposes that has not a taint of brackishness even where land is not in sight from the masthead. There are everywhere in the neighborhoofl of the Mackenzie, Avindrows of driftwood, thousands of cords to the mile in many places, and the most northerly growing spruce are foimd near the center of the delta at the limit of tidewater or even north of it. In this connection, it is interesting to point out that the tide proper ranges less than a foot and is scarcely ever noted by the natives, but a strong westerly wind will cause a "storm tide" that rises some six feet abo\'e the low level, produced l>y an easterly gale. At such places as Herschel Island it is often possible to foretell many hours in advance the coming of a west wind by the rise of the sea. One hundred years ago the territory definitely possessed by the Eskimo^ as opposed to the Loucheux Indians, may be considered to have extended to the head of the Mackenzie Delta; in the vicinity of the Eskimo Lakes, it extended somewhat farther south. Had white men not come in just when they did, it seems likely that the Eskimo would ha\e spread farther up- stream for their relation to the Indians was an aagressiNe one. Their own 1914. J The Stefdnsson- Anderson Expedition. 13 memory as well as that of the Indians estabHshed the fact, which is also confirmed by the records of Frankhn's and Richardson's expeditions, that they used to make armed expeditions as far upstream as two hundred miles beyond the head of the delta. These expeditions seem to have been for the purpose of obtaining stone for knives and missile points from the deposits at the foot of the clifTs and the Fort Good Hope ramparts. E\-en after one hundred years the Good Hope Indians are in such fear of the Eskimo that they do not dare to build fires or to camp openly on the Mackenzie Ri^^er in the summer time, except immediately around the trad- ing posts, and in the old days they seem to have entirely abandoned the river at the time the Eskimo were expected, not returning to it until the time the Eskimo were known to have returned to the sea. It seems there were semi-friendly relations occasionally with the Lou- cheux Indians near the mouth of the Peel River. There are traditions of the employment of a trading method, consisting of suspending in trees or leaving in a pile on the ground, articles for the Indians to take. The Indians were expected to and did in fact, leave other articles in exchange. Parties also came into actual contact occasionally, but only for a few hours at a time, for neither trusted the other and even after the establish- ment of the Hudson Bay Company at Fort McPherson, there were cases when the suspended hostility of these meetings broke into open feud and killings took place. Between the Loucheux and the Eskimo there is no tradition of anything like formal hostile expeditions of one against the other, but as noted above we have definite accounts of organized expeditions into the country of the Good Hope Indians, not real war expeditions it is true, but still expeditions made in force with a show of arms and with no secrecy. The Indians of Good Hope tell that the Eskimo used to come in singing and shouting boatloads. They do not appear to have made incur- sions into the forest in search of Indians to kill or to plunder. On the other hand, they were so confident in their numliers and strength that they evi- dently feared no attack. East of the Mackenzie River all the way to the Anderson, the country is in general low and flat with few or no exposures of rock in situ. In the Anderson, spruce trees come within a few miles of the ocean and on the Eskimo Lakes they extend up to the middle of the three lakes. If a line be drawn from the southern end of the Eskimo Lakes east to the Anderson River about ten miles from the sea, it will approximately mark the northern boundary of the forest north of which there is low and level tundra inter- spersed with many lakes. All this was in former years excellent caribou country and until the coming of white men, they were killed in large numbers both inland and on the seacoast as well as on Richard Island. 14 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV Richard Islaiul on the eastern edge of the Mackenzie Delta is apparently of alhnial formation and is proljably of about the same height as Herschel Island although of a much greater area. This is the only island of the delta proper north of the tree line that seems to have been permanently occupied, although parties engaged in egging and fowling frequented the loAV islands to the west of Richard Island in early and middle summer. The settlements on Richard Island were chiefly on the east coast, facing the mainland and the main occupation as well as that of the mainland people opposite, was the hunting of the beluga, or white whale. Seals were not hunted to any great extent by any of the people between Escape Reef on the west and Warren Point on the east. The first \'illage of real sealers was that at Point Atkinson, called Nuvorak. A few white whales were occasionally caught in summer and sometimes a single family or two might go west to Kittegaryuit and join in a white whale hunt, al- though these seem to haAC been rare occurrences. The Nuvorugmiut hunted caribou towards the foot of Liverpool Bay and also spent part of the autiuun there annually in fishing. Cape Bathurst is a low peninsula nearly cut in two (much more nearly than the charts indicate) by Harrowby Bay. On the eastern or Franklin Bay side, the coast line of the peninsula begins to rise higher after one goes half way to the mouth of Horton River and the sea face rises into steep cliffs that are known as the Smoking Mountains, from the fact that smoke issues from them in various places apparently on account of the existence, deep below the surface, of deposits of coal that have been afire since imme- morial times. Driftwood is very scarce between the tip of Cape Bathurst and Horton River on account of the absence of suitable beaches for it to lodge upon. Horton River has a much smaller delta than would be expected from the size of the river, which we found to be as large as the Coppermine in appear- ance, although the volume of water it discharges may not be so great. Upon exploration during the winter of 1910-1911, we found this river to come from the southeast. Crossing over from the northeast end of Great Bear Lake from the mouth of Dease River, we took a course northwest true and struck the Horton River some forty miles from the lake. At that point it is already a stream of considerable size coming from the east, and it is likely it may head not far from Dismal Lake and the length of it from its head to the sea is therefore probably over five hundred miles, as measured along the curves of the river. The main branch apparently rises in Barren Ground and flows through a treeless country for one hundred miles or more, but from a point some forty-five miles northwest of the northeast corner of Great Bear Lake, to a point about half way between the mouth of Horton 1914.] The Stefdnsson- Anderson Expedition. 15 River and Langton Bay, and about ten miles from the seacoast, there is a continuous fringe of trees which in most places are confined to the valley, although in some parts they spread up over the high land as much as ten miles east of the river. Some thirty miles south of Langton Bay the forest seems to be continuous; west from the Coppermine River to the Anderson, but further south again where the land gets higher, a district of Barren Ground separates these two rivers. The Indians of Great Bear Lake seem to have regularly hunted north to the headwaters of Horton River, and those of the vicinity of Fort Good Hope hunted on its lower course, and since the days of the Hudson Bay Company, at least, made journeys across the river into the Barren Ground in search of musk-oxen. We have found ancient Indian lodges, the remains of their hunting campfires, within fifteen or twxnty miles south of Langton Bay. In this district the Eskimo occupation seems to have somewhat over- lapped that of the Indian, principally in the way in which a similar over- lapping takes place in the Coppermine region; for the country that is occupied by the Eskimo in summer during the caribou hunting, will be vacated by them in winter while they are sealing off on the sea ice and this gives the Indians a chance to make a winter hunting ground of the districts occupied by the Eskimo in summer. An old woman, Panigiok, who was born at Langton Bay and is still living at the Bell Island told us that there used to be Eskimo families living on the Barren Ground some fifteen miles southeast of Langton Bay near Horton River who never came to the sea except on short visits and who purchased seal blubber from the coast people, exactly as the inlanders of Alaska did at such places as Point Barrow. There w^as semi-friendly contact, apparently with considerable fre- quency, between the various groups of Eskimo that hunted to the foot of Liverpool Bay and the head of Anderson River, and the Hare or other Indians of Fort Good Hope. Murders seem to have been frequent on both sides and captives were carried off by both, but occasionally marriages were voluntarily arranged, the woman going to the people of her husband. This is said to have' taken place with about equal frequency on both sides. At present there is no Indian woman living with the Eskimo, but one Eskimo woman to my knowledge is now with the Indians, having been transferred to them by her foster parents while she was a child. East of Horton River begin the Melville Mountains which extend thence eastward parallel to the coast until they break up into isolated hills and disappear in the generally high land towards the west side of Coronation Gulf. From Langton Bay west for fifty miles or so, they have the character r 10 Anlhropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, of a coast range which bars the way to the ocean against the Horton River which, through this stretch, has to flow about parallel to the coast until an opcniug to the sea is secured at the west end of the mountains. Two miles or so west of Langton Bay, it is only perhaps a mile and a half from the ocean to the top of the mountains. From here east for some distance they ha^■e the character of the seaward face of a plateau; looked at from seaward you have mountains of a height of about 1500 feet, but when you climb to the top of them you find yourself on a plateau that slopes almost impercep- tibly southward to the Horton River ten or fifteen miles away. The Parry Peninsula is high and rocky towards its north end and so cut up by fjords that it comes near being a group of islands instead of a peninsula. There is in fact more than one place where a stone can be thrown from the waters of one fjord to those of the next. The hills which form the north end of the peninsula rise to a height of two or three hundred feet, and from their tops in clear weather one can plainly see Banks Island sixty miles to the north, for the two thousand feet high hills immediately back of Nelson Head are well above the horizon. The Booth Islands lie six or eight miles oft" shore west from the tip of Cape Parry and consist of two small islands and some isolated rocks. Both these islands as well as the mainland of Cape Parry were in former times the site of numerous \'illages of people who no doubt lived chiefly by sealing, but also partly by bowhcad whaling. These were too, no doubt, the occupations of the people all around the shore of Franklin Bay as is shown by the fact that bones of whales abound on the beach near the village sites and hiixe been used in the construction of many of the houses. Near the foot of Cape Parry on the Franklin Bay side are numerous good fishing places, both in the sea and in the lakes that form a chain towards Darnley Bay. Through these lakes runs a river, the mouth of which is back of Point Stivens. In early summer this river with its system of lakes, furnishes a portage route for a boat drawling not more than a foot or eighteen inches of water to within about half a mile of Darnley Bay, while the total distance from Langton Bay to Darnley Bay is about twenty miles. Al- though the tip of Cape Parry is high and rocky, as l)efore stated, the neck of the peninsula along the foot of the Melville Mountains is in general low and flat, though there are some groups of rolling hills. In one place, surrounded by large areas of level marsh tundra, is a volcano-shaped hill, about one hun- dred fifty feet high with a small lake in its crater. The bottom of Darnley Bay has never been mapped. We found two hitherto unnamed rivers of considerable size flowing one into its southeast corner and the other into its east side some ten miles farther north. From the Bay south, it is but a day's journey to trees on a big branch of the Horton 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Andersoti Expedition. 17 River that heads in some lakes in the vicinity. Cape Lyon is a rocky prom- ontor}' where the coast turns a sharper angle than I have seen anywhere else. There is a change in direction of the coast line of more than a right angle in the space of half a dozen yards. Here there is the most westerly gull rookery that I have seen, although I suspect there may be some in the rocks found near the coast of Cape Parry, but which I have never had occa- sion to pass in the summer time. From here on east to Coronation Gulf, as well as in parts of Victoria Island, these rookeries are found at greater or less distances apart wherever there are suitable cliffs. They are not so extensive in any place, however, that they can ever have formed a con- siderable part of the food supply of the people at the time the coast was inhabited. The species found here is chiefly the glaucous gull. On our way eastward from Cape Lyon we made a disco\'ery of some possible importance to future navigators; we found an apparently excellent ship harbor in the tip of Point Pierce. Point Pierce is a high promontory, its two hundred foot cliff of stratified limestone being the highest and most picturesque that I have seen on the entire Arctic coast. Just east of this cliff, between it and a sandspit which connects a series of granitic knolls, there is a harbor evidently deep, for there were big cakes of ice inside it, and sheltered from all winds. Continuing east from here, we found but two more ship shelters on the way to Coronation Gulf. The first is at Point Keats which is T-shaped so that a vessel can get shelter on one side or the other from any wind that blows, or so it seems, although this is apparently a fairly dangerous coast and there may be hidden reefs in the neighborhood, for there was no heavy ice near to give us an indication of the depth of water. The other harbor is behind a little island on the mainland shore of Dolphin and Union Straits and is so difficult to find that I doubt that I myself could locate it again, except by the compass bearings. From the west end of the island which shelters the harbor, I fovmd the west end of Sutton Island bears west 338° 30' and the east end of Sutton Island 1°. This is certainly a good boat harbor and a very good one for ships, if it proves deep enough. In general, the coast line between Cape Lj^on and Coronation Gulf is high with cliffs here and there usually of limestone, although there are some sandstone formations. It was at Cape Lyon that Richardson saw the most easterly- house of earth and wood and he therefore concluded that this was the eastern limit of the whale-hunting people who dwelt in permanent ^'illages. This was by no means the most easterly village, however. It was merely Dr. Richard- son's method of travel which prevented him from finding similar \allages or the ruins of them farther east. He stood along in boats well off shore usuallv, and had not the same chance of finding what human remains there IS Anlhropological Papers American .][iiseai)i of Malnral Hidorij. [Vol. XIV, are on the beach that we did tlironjih our method of sled travel, althoufih of course even to us many things self-evident in summer may have been hidden by snow. We found the ruins of earth and wood villages, however, as far east as the Avest side of the delta of ("roeker River, and in many places along the beach between there and Cape Iaou we found such quantities of the bones of whales that we were convinced whaling mvist have been one of the industries of this entire district. Along this coast as far east as Crocker River the Melville ^fountains run approximately parallel to the coast, from three to ten miles inland. In some cases the foothills j^roper come right to the coast, in others tliere are stretches of comparatively low although rocky and hilly country. Between Crocker Ri\ t-r and Imnan River the mountains get farther from the coast and apparently lower. Richardson estimates the Melville Mountains in general to be about five hundred feet high, but I found, in the spring of 1911, that standing at sea level at Bell Island near the southwest corner of Mc- toria Island, I could see the mountains on the mainland up to Point De ^Yitt Clinton, and e\"en there it was apparently rather a fog or clouds that ob- structed the \iew down, after the mountains ran properly below the horizon. This means that the Melville Mountains should l)e not five hundred feet in height, but anything between fifteen hundred and two thousand feet. On his first journey along this coast, our only predecessor. Sir John Richartlson, saw to seaward near the mouth of Crocker River, what he considered an island lying about twelve miles off shore. He named this Clerk Island. On his second \oyage in 1848, apparently Sir John did not see Clerk Island. No one else has traversed the coast, but both Collinson and Amundsen passed at a considerable distance out to sea and neither of them saw the island. In the spring of 1910, we were fortunate in the neighborhood of Crocker River, in having in general clear weather and with my field glasses I used to climl) high hills near the coast every few miles and look to seaward hoping to see the island. Had there been an Eskimo village twehe miles to seaward where the island was supposed to lie, I should have been able to see it; but there was no sign of anything but sea ice. In the spring of 1911 we crossed by sled in a direct Ymv from Bell Island for Point Tinney. This should have taken us across the corner of Clerk Island as it is plotted on our charts and again we saw no signs of it. I think it is clear, therefore, that either Clerk Island does not exist or else it is at some place remote from that laid down by Richardson. Driftwood gets gradually scarcer as one goes east along the coast, al- though from the point of view of a traveling party that needs wood for fuel there is plenty to Cape Bexle\' and even beyond. There are few places where you can travel five miles at a stretch without finding a deposit of 1914.] The Slefdnsson-Anderson. Expedition. 19 driftwood sufficient to supply a camp for a week. The sticks you find, how- ever, get smaller as you proceed east and more waterworn. They are excellent for firewood, however, as they are dry through lying on a rocky beach. Only in the mouths of rivers, such as Inman Ri^'er, did we have some trouble with wet and rotten wood where it was imbedded in sand or river mud. Although they have knowledge of the coast farther w est, it is not proba- ble that any of the Copper Eskimo go west beyond Crocker River. We saw signs of ancient occupation in the form of broken sleds and split sticks of driftwood all along the coast, but fresh signs (ones not over three or four years old) we did not find until we reached Point Wise. It may be considered roughly that the territory of the mainland occupied by the Copper Eskimo is bounded on the west by the 118th meridian from the coast to where it intersects Dease River. The line of the extreme boundary will run a little west of south, thence to McTavish Bay of Bear Lake and from the east end of that Bay, straight east to the Coppermine River. It will probably continue about straight east from there until it reaches the longitude of Bathurst Inlet after which it will run southeast to Back River and to the Akilinik. It is better to leave the eastern limit of these people undefined until our information shall become more complete than it is up to the present, but we can safely discuss their northward range. As stated elsewhere, they occupy regularly only the southeast coast of Banks Island east of Nelson Head. At Nelson Head the land rises rapidly to a height of at least two thousand feet two or three miles back from the beach. The south quarter of Banks Island may be considered high, although the extreme south appears to be the highest, and there is a gradual slope to the north, or at least that is what one gathers frorri what the Eskimo tell us, supplemented by the accounts of Collinson and M'Clure. Cape Kellett at the southwest corner of Banks Island is a long low sandspit and back of it to the eastward the land appears low. As far north on the west coast of Victoria Island as the Eskimo at present range, which need not be considered to be farther north than the latitude of 72°, the coast line is mountainous although the mountains are not very high. From the information of the Prince Albert Sound people this mountainous character is continued well into the country. We crossed the WoUaston Peninsula approximately in longitude 113° 30' west, and found it to be mountainous also all the way across. Our route was through a sort of a pass and there seemed to be higher mountains on either end. To the east there was an especially conspicuous range which had never been seen by white men before and as it appeared as a whole to have no native name, we called it the Museum Range to commemorate the connection of the 20 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Nalural Hmlorij. |Vol. XIV, American jNIuseuni of Natural History with the cxpe(Htion. From Eskimo report we learned, howe\"er, that there is a belt of low land stretching across Victoria Island approximately straight east from the foot of Prince Albert Sound to Albert Edward Bay. This strip consists of the valleys of the two rivers that are probably the largest in Victoria Island: the Kagloryuak which heads near the center of the Island and flows west into the foot of Prince Albert Sound and the Ekalluktok which heads in the same N-icinity with the Kagloryuak and flows east into Albert Edward Bay. It seems from Eskimo report that the eastern half of ^"ictoria Island is in general low. This is corroborated so far as they go by the observations of Rae, Collinson, and Lieut. Hansen of Annnidsen's expedition. The country between the llSth meridian and Coronation Gulf can scarcely be called mountainous but rather high, hilly, and rocky. There is an abundant vegetation of grasses, mosses, and lichens in the low places, but the high hill tops are in many cases barren on account of their rocky character. There are some ri\ers of size, but the details of them are un- known to us except that we were told that Rae River heads in an oval-shaped lake, apparently about twenty miles long that lies south of Staypleton Bay which, by the way, is not nearly so deep a bay as the maps indicate. There are conunonly the smallest of dwarf willows said to be found anywhere north of the Rae River, and that river itself is not well supplied, but the Richardson River which has its mouth just south of that of the Rae has, we were told, considerable growth of willows in its ^■alley and this we verified through finding heaps of drift willow at its mouth. The Coppermine, as elsewhere described, is well wooded. It is one of the swiftest large ri\'ers of the world and is therefore never likely to be com- mercially ^•aluable for anything except water power. It is practically a continuous rapid, but there are no real falls in it, not even the so-called Bloody Fall which is really a shelving cascade or rapid about six hundred yards long. On account of the general rocky character of the country, the valley of the Coppermine is much narrower than would be expected from the volume of water it carries, and the stream itself rims through a confined bed and is seldom over three hundred yards wide and that only in shallow places, while one hundred thirty yards may be consitlered its a\erage width between Kendall Ri\'er and the sea while there are many places much narrower than this. Being the swiftest of the great northern rivers, the Coppermine is also peculiar in the roughness of its ice in winter. What apparently happens is that first the ri\er freezes o\'er to a greater or lesser thickness of ice and then the rush of the water causes this original roof of ice to break down and ca\'e into the water. The swift current seizes the blocks of ice and whirls them downstream mitil something occurs to make a 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 21 blockade and there they are heaped together on edge and in every other way while level ice again forms over the open water which has just been swept clear. A few days or weeks later another cave-in may occur where the ice lies smooth and the same process is repeated. But where a jam has once been lodged and cemented together there the ice will remain approximately unchanged all winter. As the season advances the water in the stream bed gets less and less. In many places in the Coppermine thei'e seems to be a sort of winding secondary channel in the bed of the river proper so that towards spring there is really only a little creek running through this curved and ice-roofed water course. Eventually the roof over even this sometimes caves down, but usually only after the ice becomes so thick (say over a foot) that it does not break small and float in cakes as the younger ice did earlier in the year. The current is not so strong late in winter, with the result that this last cave-in produces pits and valleys in the river ice proper. In the centers of some of these the ice is eight or ten feet below the general level of the river in the months of March and April. In the spring when the thaws begin, it is along this channel that the melted snow" water first begins to run and we found in the first week of June, 1910, that where the rest of the ice of the river w^as comparatively solid, this creek had com- menced flowing and had eaten through the ice so that although the water had not risen sufficiently to flood the river as a whole, nevertheless a crossing could be made by sled. The popular summer hunting district which lies between Bear Lake and the Coppermine River north of the parallel of 66° is largely Barren Ground on account of its high and rocky character, although trees of good size are found in all the creek beds round about. East of the Coppermine too, so far as we know it, the land is high and rocky and devoid of trees for the same reason. The south shore of Coronation Gulf averages much higher than the north shore. A striking feature of the topography south of the Gulf is a series of rocky terraces. If one walks southward or southeastward over (his country in foggy weather or at night one will often go up so gradual an incline that the country seems level, until suddenly one comes to preci- pices where it is necessary to scramble down forty to sixty feet of cliif and talus slope. If the walk be continued southward, this experience will be repeated. Apparently the character of the bottom of Coronation Gulf is similar to the character of the land south of it. There are many times more islands than the chart indicates and these lie in chains extending from the west side of the Gulf eastward or northeastward. Most, if not all of these islands have precipices to the south or southeast and slope down gradually 22 AnihwiKilofiicdl Papers American Museum of Natural Hislory. [Vol. XIV, to the north or northwest. There is deep water close up to their precipitous faces while from their low north ends dangerous reefs extend. There are many boulders of all kinds found on the surface of some of these islands. The islands themselves seem chiefly basaltic and the cliffs are typical colum- nar basalt. In a few cases we found the basaltic upper portion of the island underlain by stratified limestone. It is of great significance to the people of this district that native copper is found in many places. I have known of a piece of copper float as large as a house-building brick picked up on the north shore of INIcTavish Bay, Great Bear Lake, and from here north copper is known to occur either in the form of float along the stream courses or native copper outcrop from the hillside all the way north to at least forty miles north of Prince Albert Sound in Victoria Island a distance of over three hundred miles. The western limit of copper deposits known to us is in the vicinit}^ of Dismal Lake, while to the east it extends at least to the east shore of Bathurst Inlet. It is naturally difficult for the natives to cut the native copper where it occurs in huge masses or as an outcrop and most of the material actually used for knives and other things is picked up in the form of small fragments along the banks of the rivers. Smelting is quite unknown and nothing is ever done with the copper except to pound it with stones and to sharpen the edges of cutting tools by grinding them against rough stones. As pointed out elsewhere another geological feature of great importance to the people is the occurrence of talc chlorite, of a character suitable for the making of pots and lamps, at the mouth of Tree River and at certain places farther east. Although wood is not used for fuel except to a slight extent in summer, the occurrence of trees on the Coppermine and the head of Dease River, draws people from great distances to these places each sum- mer for they need wood continualh' for various things, and driftwood of a character suital)le for implements and utensils is found only on the coast of the Gulf. Before cjuitting this geographical discussion it is worth while to comment especially upon the anomalous economic importance of the jMackenzie River to all the district west of Coronation Gulf and east of Point Barrow. Not only does the huge volume of warm water temper somewhat the climate at the immediate mouth of the river and alter the seasons to a degree, but the ri\er also supplies building material for the construction of houses for more than one thousand miles of coast and material for the construction of the framework of boats and for all the smaller wooden things that the Eskimo need. Most of this wood comes from the Liard branch of the Mackenzie River. Although a great river, the Liard does not bring down as much driftwood as does the Peace or the Sla\e and it is possible that even 1914.] The Slejdm^son- Anderson Expedition. 23 the Athabaska River may carry as much wood as does the Liard: but un- fortunately practically all the wood brought by the Athabaska is stranded in Athabaska Lake and all the wood brought by the Peace and Slave is depos- ited on the shores of Great Slave Lake. On neither of these lakes is the driftwood of any considerable economic importance while on the Arctic coast it would be of incalculal^le value to the Eskimo, should they survive for any considerable period, or to the white men, should numbers of them ever come to occupy the coast. In the region of the Mackenzie Delta there were a large number of permanently inhabited village sites. By permanent habitation, however, we mean only that there were houses at these places which were occupied regularly year after year at corresponding seasons for a month or more at a time. The most important of the western settlements was that one of the three on Herschel Island which was called Kigirktayuk. This name was sometimes even in the old days applied to the island as a whole, and now that the other two village sites on the island have been abandoned, the name for the A'illage has become synonymous for that of the island. Between Herschel Island and the Mackenzie River were se^ eral village sites, the most important of which seem to have been Kingak near King Point and Tapkark on the Shingle Point sandspit. It is true of all Eskimo tribes that they use for distant tribes other names than those which really belong to those tribes. From the point of view of the Kittegaryuit people, for instance, the people west of the Mackenzie River to and a little beyond Herschel Island were known as the Tuyormiut. The people of Point Barrow and Cape Smythe who were called by themselves the Nuviigmiut and L^tkiavigmiut were called by the Kittegaryuit people collectively Apk\armiut. All other western people were grouped coUec- ti^'ely under the term Nunatagmiut. Two names that may be used anywhere for one's neighbors up or down the coast were therefore naturally in use in the Mackenzie section. These are Uallinergniiut, the people up the coast, and Kagmalit, the people down the coast. It is an interesting fact that whereas in going west along the main- land coast from Baillie Island west the next people ma^' always be called Uallinergmiut while the next people east are Kagmalit, but to this rule there is one striking exception, the people of the Colville River although living south and east of Point Barrow always spoke of the Barrow people as Kagmalit. This is what one would expect had the Colville people first become familiar wnth the Barrow people at the time when the Colville tribe were living on the seacoast to the west of Cape Smythe. This is what would have happened had Alaska been peopled by a migration from the east along the coast which had followed the shore around until it got to Kotzebue Sound and had then sent a branch up the Noatak and back down the Colville. 24 Aidhropdlofjical Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, From the point of view of the Mackenzie people, the Baillie Islanders and other comparatively near neighbors to the east were known as Kagmalit but beyond them lived the Nagyuktogmiut. Under this term of Xagyuktog- miutthey vaguely grouped all the distant easterners just as they with equal vagueness called the inland Alaskans, Nunatagmiut. Just as we found that the Nunatagmiut were really but one of the many tribes of interior Alaska so we also found later on that Nagyuktogmiut are but one of the many tribes of the Copper Eskimo. Although the name of no other tribe seems to have penetrated as far west as the Mackenzie or if any did penetrate that far they ha^•e at least now l)een forgotten. As the relation of the INIackenzie Eskimo to the Indians was an especially aggressive one they had pushed their settlements a considerable distance up into the forest country to the head of the delta, but the larger portion of the ]\Iackenzie Eskimo were on the east coast of Richard Island and on the mainland coast opposite and eastward, thence to the Baillie Islands and beyond. Curiously enough, a large number of these people were known to their immediate neighbors by the name of a village which, for a century at least, has been uninhabited. Kupuk was located on the east coast on Richard Island and was a place favorable for the killing of white whales in summer, but the shifting current of the rj^' er made the whaling grounds too shallow and the people had to move across to the mainland to the neighbor- hood of the present large village of Kittegaryuit, which was the largest of all the Eskimo vilkges of the Mackenzie section and possibly of all Arctic North America until the great measles epidemic of 1900, when the few remnants got the idea that the site was an unlucky one and mo\-ed away, liichardson tells us that from this \illage alone about two hundred kayaks came out and followed his boats as he was passing. We know that dmnng the white whale season kayaks were used only by the able-bodied hunters so this will show that the population of the Kittegaryuit village alone must have been somewhere between eight hundred and one thousand people. It was not true that the other villages on the coast were all depopulated and their people gathered at Kittegaryuit for the white whale hunt. No doubt a few individuals from the nearest village did so, but the people of the Eskimo Lakes inland were at that season himting caribou and the people of Point Atkinson told me that they ne\er took part in the Kittegaryuit hunt. There seem to have been many \illages of considerable size east of Kitte- garyuit, but the biggest of them next to that of the Baillie Islands was Nuvo- rak (Point Atkinson), and eventually it became the only inhabited village between Baillie Island and the ^Mackenzie Delta proper, and even it is uninhabited since the epidemic of 1900, or was so, until the winter of 1911- 1912 when a trading schooner anchored there. The natives as a result 1914. J The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 25 gathered about and in April, 1912, there was a population of perhaps thirty people. Formerly the people whom we call Baillie Islanders had a permanent village on one of the Baillie Islands which they called Avvak. Since the whaling ships began to come in and winter in this vicinity, the dwelling site was removed to a sandspit on the mainland of Cape Bathurst, called Utkal- luk. In the autumn both the people of Cape Bathurst east of Liverpool Bay, Nuvorak, and other places west of it, used to go to the head of the Bay in the fall for the caribou hunt and used to spend the early part of the winter there fishing ; but apparently the entire population moved out to one of the promontories for sealing purposes about the middle of m inter. East of the Baillie Islands were several villages between that anfl Langton Bay, which was known as Nuvuayuk from the sandspit on which the village was located, and behind which whaling ships have wintered in recent years. There is little doubt that there was a continuous chain of habitations prior to say 1830, all the way east along the coast from Langton Bay to Coronation Gulf, and from the character of the archaeological remains, we are inclined to think that these people resembled in culture those of the Baillie Islands more than they did those of Coronation Gulf. However, there seems to have been a feeling at the Baillie Islands that the people east of Langton Bay were not their people, while those of Langton Bay were, and when the changing trade conditions and other reasons broke the con- tinuity of habitation along the coast (about 1840), most of the people of Langton Bay moved west to the Baillie Islands, while some of Langton Bay and apparently all east of them, moved east towards Coronation Gulf if indeed they were not exterminated by some famine consequent upon an untoward season. There were evidently permanent villages as far east, at least, as the mouth of Crocker River, and clearly bowhead whaling was one of the chief occupations. Even beyond Crocker River closer investiga- tion is likely to show the existence of permanent earth and wood dwellings. We did not happen to find any, but we passed this section of the coast in the early spring (May, 1910) when the snow would ha\e covered so as to hide any })Ut the most conspicuous house ruins. The Copper Eskimo do not seem exev to have had any permanent houses, so far as we could ascertain from spending the summer in the neighborhood of the Coppermine and from making inquiries from the oldest men. In looking for a characteristic by which to dift'erentiate the eastern from the western Eskimo, it may be difficult to find a lietter one than this, that the westerners built permanent dwellings of earth and wood while the easterners used only skin tents and snowhouses. If it shall be found, as I suspect, that the distribution of the larger western sled will coincide archaeologically 26 A Hlhropologic.nl Papers American Museum of Ndiunil llislory. [Vol. XIV, approxiinatoly with the area of earth and wood houses, and the long eastern sled with that of the absenee of house ruins, these two features will differ- entiate the two regions with some clearness. So far as we know the big skin boat or umiak was also a characteristic of the western section and absent in the eastern, at least within the last century. Named from the west and following the mainland coast around without any reference to ^"ictoria Island, we have the groups enimierated below. The population in vnc\\ case is approximate, but the figiu'es given may be relied upon to \ary in most instances not more than ten ])ercent from tlie actual. The Akuliakattagmiut are to be found usually in the late autumn and early winter encamped on the shore of Cape Bexley. This is a trading rendezvous where there come to visit them most or all of the Haneragmiut, a considerable number of the Puiplirmiut and the Noahonirmiut and a sprink- ling from other tribes as far removed as the Ekalluktogmiut of the east coast of Victoria Island. Shortly before or after the winter solstice the Akuliakattagmiut move out on the ice of Dolphin and Union Strait for seal- ing purposes and about the same time the visitors begin to return, each party to its own tribe. Between the tenth and the last of May they will move ashore near Cape Bexley where they cache their stores or seal blubber as well as their spare clothing and household gear, and move inland two or three days' journey south to Akuliakattak Lake, which is said to be the head of Rae River. This section is less well supplied with caribou than most other districts of the Copper Eskimo; consequently, the people live to some extent on fishing in the lake and are forced to purchase some of the skins they need for clothing from other tribes, chiefly in exchange for articles of wood. On account of this scarcity of caribou the Akuliakattagmiut use more sealskin for garments than do other tribes and are in general less satisfactorily dressed. They are much given to visiting among other tribes, so that while the population is really no doubt sixty or over, we found only thirty-se\'en at home when we were visiting them in May, 1910. The Noahonirmiut hunt in winter on the ice of Dolphin and Union Strait in the neighborhood of Liston and Sutton Islands and spend the summer in general on the mainland south of those islands and north of Rae River. This is perhaps the smallest of the recognized subdi\isions of the Copper Eskimo on the mainland. Their number is about twenty. South of the Noahonirmiut in summer are found the Kanianermiut, so called because they inhabit the headwaters (Kangia) of the Pallirk which is their name for the Rae River. These people are also sometimes called the Uallirgmiut. In winter most of these seem to be out on the ice of Corona- tion Gulf. This is rather an indefinite subdivision sometimes confused with the Pallirmiut proper. The number may be about thirty. 1914.] The Slefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 27 The Pallirmiut occupy in spring, and sometimes also in summer, the mouth of the Rae River (Palhrk). Some of them, however, annually join the Kogluktogmiut in the summer salmon fishery at Bloody Fall. In win- ter, they occupy the ice of the west central portion of Coronation Gulf. Their number is about forty. The Kogluktogmiut draw their name from Bloody Fall (Kogluktok — it flows rapidly, or spurts, like a cut artery) which name is also generally applied to the Coppermine River as a whole. They spend their winters on the ice of Coronation Gulf and in summer it is not always that they remain at Bloody Fall during the summer salmon fishery, although the Fall is recognized by the other groups as being their particular hunting ground. Their population is about thirty. The Kugaryuagmiut hunt in summer in the vicinity of the Kugaryuak River, the mouth of which is about eighteen miles east of that of the Copper- mine. In winter they are like the rest on the ice of Coronation Gulf. Their population is about twenty-five. Pingangnaktok (meaning it blows a land wind) is a place some distance inland west of Tree River and a number of people whom we met considered themselves natives of this district, the Pingangnaktogmiut. Like the rest, they hunt out on the gulf in winter. Their number may be about thirty. The Kogluktualugmiut are the people who frequent the neighborhood of Tree River (Kogluktualuk). They are also called Utkusiksaligmiut, the dwellers of the place where there is pot stone. This is the location of the most westerly pot stone (steatite, or talc chlorite schist) quarries known to the Eskimo on the Arctic shore of the continent of North America. These quarries and others east of them are probably the source of all the so-called soapstone lamps and soapstone cooking pots in the possession of the Eskimo as far west as Bering Straits and even into Siberia, for people still living at Cape Prince of Wales have told me that they got stone lamps from the east and exported them to Siberia, and as you go east from Cape Prince of Wales you find in each village the story that they got their lamps from the next village east of them and so you can follow the trail until it leads to the Utkusiksaligmiut about eighty miles east of the Coppermine River. In xApril, 1911, w^e visited a village of these people, located about twenty miles to seaward from the north of Tree River and they had just moved to this campsite from another farther northeast. The population is about forty. This is the most easterly tribe actually visited by us on their own hunting grounds, although we saw and talked with individuals of other tribes as far east as the Kent Peninsula. Kogluktuaryumiut are in winter on the ice off Gray Bay. In spring they fish at the mouth of the Kogluktuaryuk River where Hanl)ury found some of them in July, 1903. This is the most westerly tribe seen by Hanbury on 28 Antliwpnioyical Papers AvicHcari Museum of Natural History. [WA. XIV, his journey with the exception that he saw one family of the PalHrniiut on Dismal Lake. The population is probably about fifty or sixty. We were informed in a general way that the entire district from Gray Bay to Kent Peninsula was thickly inhabited and this was said to be espe- cially so on Bathurst Inlet and the Kent Peninsula itself. As none of our informants would count above six, it was of course rather difficult to get a definite idea of numbers from them. Members of the tribe of Kanhiryuar- miut informed us that the number of people in Bathurst Inlet was greatly in excess of that of their own tribe and as that tribe numbers about two hun- dred, I am inclined to assign to the region between Gray Bay and Kent Pen- insula a population of four to five hundred. I think that in conversation, I must have heard the names of various tribes of this district, but through some slip I failed to note them down except that of the most talked-of group, the Umingmuktogmiut of the permanent \illage of Umingmuktok on the west coast of Kent Peninsula. We have never ourselves seen permanent villages or permanent dwellings among the Copper Eskimo, but we were told that Umingmiiktok was inhabited the year around. There are no doubt several groups, each with its own name, between the Umingmuktogmiut on Kent Peninsula and Ogden Bay, where live the Ahiagmiut. The ahiak is the Alpine bear berry. We know of this tribe only because they are visited b}' the Victoria Island Eskimo when they are on their way to the summer trading rendezvous on Hanbury's Akilinik River, near the head of Chesterfield Inlet. According to the Victoria Islanders, the Ahiagmiut should number anything between fifty and one hundred persons. South of the Ahiagmiut, the Victoria Islanders fall in Mith the Haningayogmiut, the people of Back Ri\er (Haningayok) who are said to be a small tribe. On this journey the}' also met sometimes the Kaernermiut, which they say may be only another name for the Haningayogmiut. On the Akilinik itself, they met the representatives of a large number of tribes, some of them from the ocean to the east (Hudson Bay?). The people with whom they chiefly trade they speak of, however, as the Pallirmiut. Parties of the Pallirmiut also of recent years make winter trading trips as far north as the Kent Peninsula. It is probable that these trips began with Hanbury's journey, for the \'ictoria Islanders speak of the first visit of the Pallirmiut to Kent Peninsula as being that of the party of which Hanbury was a mem- ber. Whether this was really the first visit or whether it was merely the first one of which the Victoria Islanders happened to hear, is not certain. We have given roughly the summer location of all the mainland coastal tribes so far as it is known to us, but one district is peculiar in that it is occupied by representatives of a dozen or more tribes. This is the summer hunting district enclosed by a quadrangle formed by the Coppermine River 1914.1 The Siefmisson-Anderson Expedition. 29 on the east, Great Bear Lake on the south, Dease River on the west, and Dismal Lake and Kendall Ri\er on the north. Among two hundred or so people who visited this district and with whom we hunted the summer of 1910, there were representati\'es of all the mainland tribes from Cape Bexley to the Kent Peninsula as ^\•ell as the Puiplirmiut and Xagyuktogmiut of Victoria Island. In naming the island people we must begin with Banks Island, for it is still inhabited in its southern portion in winter and all of it seems to have been inhabited until comparatively recent years. We were told by the old men of the Kanhiryuarmiut that so far as they knew, all Banks Island was inhabited formerly and the people w'ere very prosperous. They are said to have killed so many musk-oxen and caribou in summer that they usually had plenty of dry meat to take them through the winter. However, famines began to occur now and then, due the Victoria Island people say, to the enmity of a powerful Victoria Island shaman who by his spells caused all the food animals to leave Banks Island and its neighl)oring waters. Finally, the last of these people are said to have died of hunger at a time when men now apparently less than thirty years of age were small boys. On Victoria Island north of Minto Inlet there was also a numerous population known as the Ugyuligmiut. This is also attested by the English explorers Collinson a,nd M'Clure, whose maps are labeled "numerous Esquimaux parties" in the district north of IVIinto Inlet. There is a lielief among the Victoria Islanders today that these Ugyuligmiut murdered some white men belonging to the exploring ships and that the white men in revenge shot them down, exterminating them to the last man. This is supposed to have happened in the lifetime of the oldest of the Victoria Islanders, a man named Pami- ungittok, who at the age of six years visited Collinson's ship in Walker Bay. Pamiungittok said, however, that he had never heard of any eye-witnesses to the shooting of the Ugyuligmiut by the white men and he said it was ciuite possible that they might really have died from famine and that the story of their being shot might ha\'e grown up "as such stories do." However, all the Victoria Islanders agree that at present there are no living representa- tives of the L'gyuligmiut. The north coast of Victoria Island east of Collinson Inlet and the east ■coast north of its middle are supposed to be uninhabited and to have always been so. Collinson Inlet has been visited occasionally liy many members of the Kanhiryuarmiut tribe still li\-ing, and they have never seen other signs of human habitation than those which they believe to be the traces of the earlier visits of their own people. Coming to the tribes still in existence, the Kanhiryuarmiut are the most westerlv although they draw their name from Prince Albert Sound 30 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural Histor;/. [Vol. XIV, (Kanghiryuak). They live in winter, most of them, on the southeast coast of Banks Island between Nelson Head and I)e Sails Bay, where in contradistinction to most other Eskimo tribes they depend for food chiefly on polar bears. \ few, however, spend an occasional winter on the south- west corner of \'ictoria Island near Cape Baring. Two families did so the winter of 1910-1911. Late in March or early in April in each year they conmience their east- ward migrations crossing the straits to Prince Albert Sound and mo\ing east along the middle of the Sound. We found them to be approximately in the geographical center of the Sound on May 13, 1911, and it is prol)al)le that their migrations pass this point at the same time each year. In Prince Albert Sound the parties divide. In the summer of 1911, none of them were going south into the Colville Mountains, although certain years a few of them are in the habit of going there to meet the Haneragmiut. Six or se^'en families were going north into the mountains between Prince Albert Sound and Minto Inlet ; a larger party still, were going southeast fnmi the foot of the Sound to meet the Puiplirmiut and another good-sized party were going northeast from the foot of the Sound, location about forty miles inland, where native copper is most abundant and can most easily be had for the manufacture of knives, missile points, needles, and other articles. But the largest party of all, were going east up the Kagloryuak Ri\er to meet the Ekalluktogmiut near the center of Victoria Island. The popula- tion of this group is two hundred or a little over. When they were all together in the spring of 1910 they occupied thirty-three dwellings, as we learned from the examination of one of their deserted villages. When we visited them, six families had already separated themselves from the main body. North of the Kanhiryuarmiut are the people who bear the name of Minto Inlet, the Kanghiryuatjiagmiut. They are said to ha\e been more numerous formerly, but have suffered somewhat from famines, not so much' in actual deaths as in ha^•ing certain families leave them to join other tribes that had better hunting grounds, for some such as the Kanhiryuarmiut who never had a famine within the memory of anyone living. I failed to make a record of where they spent their winters but have the general impression that they usually, if not always, are with the Kanhiryiuu'miut on Banks Island. When we visited the Kanhiryuarmiut the middle of May, 1910, the Kanghiryuatjiagmiut were said to have separated from them on the ice of the straits as they were coming from Banks Island and to have gone around Cape AVollaston into ]Minto Inlet with the intention of spending the sunnner in the mountains to the north. Their number is about twenty. As we have mentioned :ib<)\'e, the larger number of the Kanhiryuarmiut 1914.] The StefdnssoH- Anderson Expedition. 31 hunt in summer in the middle of Victoria Island, where they meet the Ekalluktogmiut who come up from the east from Albert Edward Bay along the ice of the Ekalluktok River. It is said that the river is so called because of the large number of fish to be caught in it and this is the only tribe of the Copper Eskimo who, according to our information, live largely on fish in winter. It was this tribe with whom Lieut. Hansen of Amundsen's expedi- tion came in contact on the ice east of Victoria Island in the Spring of 1905. The Kanhiryuarmiut say that they and the Ekalluktogmiut are tribes of about the same size, so that we may estimate them at two hundred. Two members of this tribe, both of them men, had married into the Kanhir- yuarmiut tribe. We talked with both, and one of them gave us considerable information about the east coast of Victoria Island as well as about his own people and other tribes farther east. Along the south coast of Victoria Island, the most westerly are the Haneragmiut. A few of them each year hunt on the mainland with the Akuliakattagmiut or farther east, but the larger number go north into the Colville Mountains to a fishing lake called Tahiryuak, where they also get numerous caribou and where, as stated above, they some years meet a few representatives of the Kanianermiut. The population is about forty. The Puiplirmiut are in winter on the ice in the neighborhood of Liston and Sutton Islands and most of them hunt in summer northeast from Simpson Bay into Victoria Island, where they annually meet a party of the Kanhiryuarmiut. A few families usually hunt south of the mainland, some of them as far as Great Bear Lake. This tribe is so given to visiting with other tribes that their number is difficult to estimate, though I suppose it to be not short of sixty. The Nagyuktogmiut are so called from the little island of Nagyuktok, which may be intended by the charts to be one of the Duke of York Islands, although the maps here as in many other places are so poor that identifica- tions are difficult. This tribe also has the name Killinermiut from the dis- trict Killirk on the south coast of Victoria Island east of Lady Franklin Point where many of them hunt in summer. This is nowadays, at any rate, not one of the most important tribes of the Copper Eskimo and still, as mentioned elsewhere, it is the name of this tribe alone of all the tribes of the Copper Eskimo, that is known as far west as the ^Mackenzie River, as I know from my own observations, and as far east as King William Island as we know from Amundsen's account. This name also impressed itself on Richardson who mentions it in connection with his expedition of 1848. They spend their winters near and north of the middle of the western half of Coronation Gulf and most of them hunt north into Victoria Island in sum- mer, although some hunt to Bear Lake and elsewhere upon the mainland. The population of this group is not over fifty. 32 Antliropological Papers American Museum of Natural History, [^"ol. XIV, The Nagyuktoginiut were the most easterly tribe of Victoria Islanders visited by us. They told us that the next tribe east of them were called the Kilusiktogmiut. I got no special idea of how numerous they are. I happened to see one or two members of the tribe among the Nagyuktog- miut, but in the press of other things I neglected the opportunity of making careful inquiries as to population. They told me, however, that so far as they knew, the entire south coast of Victoria Island was populated all the way around to Albert Edward Bay and in their opinion about as densely as that portion w^ith which we were familiar. If that be so, it should mean from three to four hundred. ^ ::• IT ■■Willi 1 1 Ml 1 KANHIRYUAf?MIUT 2 KANHIRYUATJIAGMIUT 3 EKALLUKTOGMIUT 4. AHIAGMIUT 5 UMINMUKTOGMIUT 6 KILUSIKTOGMIUT 7 NAGYUKTOGMIUT orKILLINERMIUT 8 KOGLUKTOGMIUT 9 PALLIRMIUT 10 NOAHONIRMIUT 11 PUIPLIRMIUT 12 HANERAGMIUT 13 AKULIAKATTAGMIUT 14 KOGLUKTUARYUMIUT DlSTRIBtTION OF THE COROXATION GrLF ESKIMO The letters locate the campsites for the several seasons of the year' the numeral'* indicate the tribes occupying each site. ??? "'^f!?"' — ^- ««-, 1 "^ / ■ 1 Kk o F^ \ \n i i AM S -.13 C ' ! ;■..-. .-.iHA ^ TusMO^T>iuM;iJM'u e TUlMOOT>«eUJ!>i d TUIMOOT> that the animal may have been merely wounded and mav ha\e made its wav into Coronation Gulf before it died. Trees and Vegetation. In many of the river valleys of Alaska and of the neighborhood of the Mackenzie, there is a growth of very heavy willows which serves the natives for fuel. This is not so general in the district of the Copper Eskimo. Small willows are found both on Banks Island and Victoria Island, but there seems to be only one place in Victoria Island where the willows attain a considerable growth. This is the valley of the Kagloryuak River which falls into the east end of Prince Albert Sound. We did not see these willows, but we were told that what there were of them, grew crooked and never stood quite as high as a mast head. In the valley of the Coppermine the growth of willows is very small north of the tree line, and on Dismal Lake where there are trees both at the east and the west ends of the lake, the middle section of the lake shore is supplied with willows that are only of a size corresponding with the descrip- tions we have from Victoria Island. In ascending the Coppermine, the first week of June, 1910, we found a dozen shoots of spruce not more than three or four feet high growing a mile and a half north of Bloody Fall, or not over four miles from the ocean in a direct line. It may be considered, however, that the tree line of the Copper- mine is, as measured along the river, nine or ten miles south of Bloody Fall, or in an air line, perhaps fifteen miles from the ocean. Just east of the Coppermine there is, however, a small patch of trees on the head of a little creek. These trees are no more than seven or eight miles from the ocean. As one proceeds up the Coppermine, trees appear in irregular patches not so much in the valley of the river itself as in the valleys of its tributaries. Along the east side of the river we found that north of the mouth of the Kendall, the spruce nowhere extends more than about ten miles up any of these creek beds, and on the west so far as we could judge by looking across from hill tops with our field glasses, the woods are even more closely confined to the river. Just north of the mouth of the Kendall we crossed from the east to the west bank and found that not only is the Kendall Valley itself densely wooded all the way to Dismal Lake, but the higher lands to the north of it are also banked with scattered groves of spruce. Dismal Lake is about thirty-six miles long and is curved as shown on Hanbury's map and not a chain of lakes as described by Dease and Simpson and shown on most of our 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 45 maps and charts. There is a considerable growth of spruce around the east end of the lake for the first five or six miles from its outlet, and then for about thirty miles it is flanked on either hand by Barren Ground, but there is a dense grove of trees at a creek mouth at the southwest end of the lake. Crossing here and descending south into the valley of the Dease, it is only a matter of a mile or so from trees on Dismal Lake to the trees of the Dease Valley which run continuously down to the northeast corner of Bear Lake. South of Dismal" Lake there is, however, what amounts to an island of Barren Ground surrounded as it is by the woods of Dismal Lake, Dease River, Great Bear Lake, and the Coppermine. It is on the high hill tops of this rocky section, that the Eskimo chiefly camp in summer. It is commonly supposed, no doubt from the knowledge of Greenland, that most of the xVrctic Islands are covered with an ice cap. This is so far from being true that so far as I know, there is not a vestige of a glacier any- where either in Victoria or Banks Island and they are everywhere covered with green grass and flowers, except in districts that are too rocky for plant growth. Fuel. The most important item of fuel among the Copper Eskimo is, of course, the blubber of the seal. Except in special emergencies this is the only article of fuel used in winter in Victoria Island or on the mainland, although the Kanhiryuarmiut on southeast Banks Island use also the fat of the polar bear to some extent. It makes little difference whether driftwood is abun- dant or scarce in any district, it is never used during the part of the year when people live in snowhouses. It would manifestly be unsuited for the heating of a snowhouse and as a matter of fact, as I know from experience, the seal oil lamp is better suited for the heating of any kind of a substantially built Eskimo house than >'ood is, even when burned in sheet iron stoves. But in the spring when the snowhouse is discarded for the tent and the people move from the sea ice inland to hunt, the supplies of oil are all left behind at the coast and either wood or heather is used. Among the Noahon- irmiut, for instance, w^e found in the latter part of May, 1910, that families living six or eight miles from the seacoast had taken w^ith them two or three sticks of wood eciuivalent to as many stout cord wood sticks and these they were eking out for cooking purposes. The man of the family would take an adze and with it make fine chips or shavings which the woman would feed one by one into a tiny flame built under the bottom of the pot. In this way a very small piece of wood could bring a good-sized pot of meat to a 46 Anlfirnpologiail Papers Animcan Mui^euvt of Nattiral Hidory. [\'ol. XIV, boil. Wlicn this was done they intended, they tohl us, to find heather {Cassiopc icfragujia) underneath the snow antl use that for fueh Later, when the sun had eleared the snow away, it would, of course, l)e easy to find the heather which is the favorite fuel of the Copper Eskimo. The Eskimo of my party were all westerners and used to cooking with driftwood or willows. When during the sunnner of 1910 we traveled around with parties of the Copper Eskimo, my companions insisted that they were not going to cook with " grass." They seemed to look upon the very idea as degrading in some way; and would scout around in search of hushes of willow which they maintained would make a much more satisfactory fire. The residt was that our local tra\'eling companions would have their camp pitched anfl supper cooked before we got oiu" fire lit and proceedings in our camp were usually suspended while we went over and joined them in their supper inviting them later on to come and share ours which was ready an hour or so later. Towards the end of the summer my westerners had finally become convinced that the use of grass was really not necessarily degrading, with the result that we could get our meals as quickly as the natives. There is a special art about burning heather. You must make a small fire and feed in a handful at a time, keeping the blaze uniform. In most x\rctic districts w^here I have traveled, you cannot walk half a mile without finding a patch of heather big enough to cook several meals b3^ You build the fire in the proper place and within ten or fifteen feet of it you can gather sufficient fuel for cooking. We found it convenient to carry a small stick of dry wood with which to make shavings to start the fire on damp days, for when it is wet the heather is not easy to light, but with the fire once going there is no more trouble about it. The Bear Lake Indians are unfamiliar with the use of heather for fuel, which greatly handicaps them on their anmuil incursions into the Barren Ground in search of musk-oxen. Like my western Eskimo companions they understand the use of willows, but on the Barren Ground, patches of these are few and far between and quickly hidden beyond chance of discovery by the blizzards of early winter. Consequently the Indians on their musk- ox hunts carry sled-loads of wood which burden them and decrease their speed. When the wood has been exhausted the party retreats towards the forests of Bear Lake again. The local Eskimo are under no such handicap. Even in the depths of winter, they could always find heather to burn, as the Back River people do in fact, as we know from hearsay. The Eskimo with whom we personally associated never leave the sea ice in winter and con- sequently have no occasion for any fuel except oil. 1914.] The Slefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 47 Food. Vegetable Foods. The Eskimo of Alaska from Kotzebue Sound south along the coast depend to some extent on vegetable foods, not only in sum- mer while these are growing and can be gathered for immediate use, but also in winter when the people draw on stores gathered in summer. The Mac- kenzie district is as well supplied as some Alaskan localities with edible vegetables, but very little attention is paid, or w^as, until a few years ago when Alaskan immigrants began to teach them the use of berries, leaves, and roots. The summer hunting districts of the Coronation Gulf Eskimo, too, are rich in vegetable foods, but the knowledge of their use is on an even lower level than in the Mackenzie Delta. That proximity to the vegetable- eating Indians of Alaska and not the richness of any given district deter- mines the amount and variety of vegetables used, is one of the many reasons for thinking that the Arctic coast population did not come to their present home down the Mackenzie or from the Yukon. Had they come from a district rich in vegetables to a district rich in the same vegetables they would not have forgotten their use. Berries known as paunrat are eaten by all the Copper Eskimo, and a few other sorts are occasionally tasted. The most substantial and palatable fruit found on the Arctic coast is the akpek (salmon berry). This grows abundantly on the summer hunting grounds of the Coronation Gulf tribes and is sure to be found also on Bathurst Inlet. Its use, however, was never discovered in this locality, though the name seemed to be known. It was the natives of our own party who first induced trial of these berries, and only a few of even those who spent most of the summer of 1910 near us acquired a taste for them. So far as we could learn the akpek was under no taboo, it simply had never occurred to anyone that they were food. The one vegetable of some importance among the Copper Eskimo is the root known to them as viahu (Alaskan, masu) . These can be dug for food at any season, though it is difficult to find them in winter under the snow. In summer they are eaten chiefly in times of scarcity, but occasionally from choice. The viahu (Polygonum bistortum) is a parsnip-like root. Large speci- mens may be half an inch in diameter and ten or more inches long. They sometimes fork into two or more branches. They seem of better flavor and less "woody" if gathered from sandy soil. If boiled and then kept in bags, as is the custom in Alaska, there develops an agreeable mild acid flavor and the roots become excellent eating to the taste of most white men. The Copper Eskimo never keep the roots to sour, but eat them from hand to mouth, either raw or boiled. 48 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natitral History. [\'ol. XIV, Probably because of greater abundance of other foods, these roots are less used in the Mackenzie Delta than even in \'ictoria Island. They are abundant on the rivers flowing into the foot of Prince Albert Sound, and are said to be fairl}' conunon, too, in certain parts of Banks Island. Reindeer moss is never gathered for food directly from the ground but is a highly relished dish when found in the paunch of a caribou. It is eaten warm with the warmth of the animal, or cold; preferably, however, the paunch is let lie in the sun several days till the contents begin to ferment. West of Cape Parry seal oil is poured over the soured mass, making a kind of salad; the Chopper Eskimo, howe\'er, never take oil with them inland, and so far as we know do not have the opportunity of eating moss and oil together. No taboo would prevent their doing so, however, as land and sea foods are everywhere freely brought in contact as well as meat, vegetables (/»a/m), and oil. Besides the undigested moss from the stomach, partly digested food from other portions of the alimentary canal is eaten. Among the Puiplirmiut especially, we saw deer droppings picked up from the snow and eaten di- rectly; here they are also gathered in pails and kept in the house to be eaten as wanted. In Alaska caribou droppings are commonly used to thicken blood soup, or were, until white men's taboos began to restrain the prac- tice. Some quantity of vegetables is also consumed through the eating of the stomachs and intestines of hares, marmots, and ptarmigan. Animal Foods. Most of the Copper Eskimo depend chiefly on seals for food in winter. Fish are said to be caught at all seasons by the Ekalluktog- miut; the Kanhiryuarmiut secure a large number of bears in midwinter in southern Banks Island and all tribes secure stray foxes and wolves now and then. Musk-oxen are never hunted by the Kanhiryuarmiut in winter, but if a band w^anders down to the coast between Nelson Head and De Salis Bay the opportunity is taken advantage of. We never heard of caribou being killed in winter either on the mainland or on the islands west of Bathurst Inlet. Among most of the tribes in question no taboo prevents caribou hunting at any season, so far as our c|uestions could bring out; it simply has never been tried. Among half a dozen tribes I have myself been assisted by natives in caribou hunting on the sea ice, and I have seen caribou meat and seal meat eaten at the same meal by members of the following tribes: Nagyuktogmiut, Kogluktogmiut, Pallirmiut, Puiplirmiut, Noahonirmiut, Akuliakattagmiut, and Kanhiryuarmiut. Some families said, however, that caribou and seal meat should not be cooked in the same pot unless the pot were suspended over the lamp by a fresh cord when the caribou meat was to be cooked; but most people paid no attention to even this prohibition. 19U. The Stefdnsson- Anderson Expedition. 49 In bear hunting among the Kaiihiryuarmiut two or more men usually hunt together. Sleds are not used, as for instance in Smith Sound and among other eastern Eskimo, but dogs loose or in leash accompany the hunter. When a bear is either accidentally met with or is found by the fol- lowing of a fresh trail, the dogs are turned loose. They overtake the ani- mal and hold it at bay by barking and by nipping its heels when it turns to run. On close approach it is then shot with arrows or speared with lances improvised by lashing the hunting knife (iron or copper) on the end of a Fig. 1 a (60-6941), b (60-6931), c (60-6930). Probes for Seal Holes, made of Bone, Coronation Giilf. Probe 6 is tipped with musk-ox horn. Length of a, 90 cm. Fig. 2 (60.1-3462). Seal Indicator of Ivory, Prince Albert Somid, Victoria Island. Length of needle, 30 cm. Fig. 3 (60-6943). Seal Indicator of Ivory, Coronation Gulf. Length of n, 34 cm. long walking staflf (aiaupTak) which Eskimo usually carry on their hunts, M'hether in winter or svmimer. The Kanhiryuarmiut is the only tribe of Copper Eskimo in whose food supply polar bears play an important part. There are two localities where this hunt is feasible — the southeast coast of Banks Island between Nelson Head and De Salis Bay, and the southwestern point of Victoria Island — Cape Baring. At Cape Baring, however, the "open water" gets farther and farther from shore as winter advances and the people depend more and more on seals as the bears retreat with the retreat of the floe. Near Nelson Head, however, the floe is always near shore, for whenever an easterly wind 50 Anthrnpologinil Papers A nirrican Museum nf Nalurnl UiMory. [Vol. XIV, blows the ice moves oft' into the Beaufort Sea. Accordingly this locality is rich in bears, and they form the chief article of food in winter for the larger portion of Kanhiryuarmiiit. Even for fuel, bear grease here largely' replaces seal oil, thougli occasionally the bear hunters near Nelson Head trade bear meat or fat for seal blubber to their neighbors towards De Salis Bay, for these do not depend exclusively on bears. There is but one sealing method in winter. All tribes of the Copper Eskimo, except those Kanhiryuarmiut who live on bears and those Ekalluk- togmiut who live on fish, seek level stretches of ice on which to pitch their camps. So far as we know% the Kanhiryuarmiut are the only ones who ever build winter houses on land or even near land, but it is probable that the Ekalluktogmiut do also. These ice encampments are moved from time to time, for the seals within a five-mile radius of any spot are soon exterminated Fig. 4 (60.1-3462rl). Copper Probe for Seal Holes, Prince Albert Sound, Victoria Is- land. This copper rod is square in cross-section and seems to have been formed by beating together thin sheets of the metal. It is the most remarkable specimen of copper work in the collection. Length, 77 cm. Fig. 5 (60.1-3468). Pull for Cord used in hauling Seals, Prince Albert Sound, Victoria Island. Length, 11 cm. by the hunters. Seals in winter are necessarily non-migratory, as each depends for his supply of air to breathe on the hole in the ice which his own teeth have kept open in spite of the frost. Of a morning the various hunters start out from camp, usually before daylight, in directions radiating from the encampment. Each is followed by his dogs, one or more, but never over three, for a man who is wealthy enough to own three dogs is sure to have a grown son or a dependent who also goes sealing and needs a dog. The main business of the dog is to find a seal hole; secondarily, he is to drag home the seal if the hunt proves successful. The seal's breathing hole at the upper surface of the ice is but an inch or two in diameter; downwards it widens out, and has thus the shape of an inverted funnel. If it is the home of a female seal about to become a mother the mouth of the hole is enlarged s.ufticiently to allow the animal to crawl on top the ice and make a cave for herself in the hard snowbank above. But be the 1914. j The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 51 seal male or female, be the hole small or large, there is nothing in the appear- ance of the snow roof above it to indicate its presence to the eye, unless in- deed a wandering fox has smelt it out the night before and stopped above it to investigate, leaving its tracks to tell the story. Be a seal hole to wind- ward a dog will smell it at a considerable distance; the finding of it is usually therefore the least of the hunter's troubles. When the general locality is discovered the position of the hole is accurately determined by prodding the snow with the caribou antler probe till its point slips into water instead of meeting the hard ice. If the snow roof is thick it is thinned down consider- ably by scraping away with the snow knife. When so thin that it is not likely to offer much resistance to a lance-thrust, the " feeler," a slender bone or antler rod, is thrust down through the snow until its lower end is just below the surface of the water. When this is done the hunter cuts himself a block of snow for a seat, spreads a skin rug in front of it to keep his feet from the snow on the ice, and sits down by the hole to wait. The lance lies ready by his side. The seal must come to the surface frequently to breathe, and the hunter's wait would therefore not prove a long one had the seal but one string to his bow. He has several. In the neighborhood of any seal hole there is a group of several others that have been made by and are used by the same seal. Though the lumter may have done his work so carefully that the seal's suspicions remain unaroused, yet mere chance may prevent for hours and even days his visiting the hole where the captor awaits him. It may happen therefore that the hunter sits from daylight till dark and from daylight till dark again, awaiting the sign of his quarry's approach. If fortune favors, however, the hunter may have his seal in half an hour. When the seal rises to his hole to breathe his nose pushes upwards the slender "feeler" that has been so arranged that its upward motion is un- impeded. The hunter rises from his seat, which was so near that it is not necessary for him to step forward to be in a position to drive his lance vertically downward into the hole ; if he needed to make a step forward the crunching of the snow under his foot would warn the animal of danger. When the indicator rod has been elevated as much as it can be, and just as it begins to fall the lance is driven down alongside it, usually striking the seal in its neck or shoulder. The thrust usually goes home; against a good hunter no more than one fluke in ten chances should be recorded. When the seal has been speared the hole is enlarged with ice pick or knife sufficiently to allow the animal to be hauled out, this after its strength has been partly exhausted by its struggles. As it is about to be hauled out it is despatched by a stab in the head or, occasionally, by a blow on the head with a club. For killing the seal, among the Kanhiryuarmiut at least, a special instrument is used, this is described elsewhere. 52 Anthropological Papers American Must i:m of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, If the seal is of the common small kind, the man has little trouble holding him by the stout harpoon line and the hole is soon enlarged with the ice •chisel and the animal hauled out on top of the ice. In the case of the gigantic bearded seal, howe\er, the struggle is often severe, the line may break, the harpoon-head i)ull loose, or the hunter may have to let go. This latter seldom happens, for two reasons: it is considered a great disgrace to let go one's hold, and secondly, the harpoon point, especially if it be of iron^ is an article of great value and must not be lost. A single hunter may get, in this manner, three or four seals in a day, or, he may go a week without getting one. But his neighbor's catch is his, no less than his own would be. A man's success is the good fortune of the community as much as his own, he has the work of getting the seal and the praise of a successful man is his ; otherwise, the seal belongs to all alike, except for the skin, if that is to be used for clothes rather than eaten. When a seal has been caught, if the village be not far off, the hunter often sends the dog home dragging the seal by the harness which the hunting dog always wears, while he stays in the hope of getting another; if the village be far off (three to five miles) the seal is not taken home till evening. Some hunters, discounting success, will take along two or even three dogs, sending one dog home each time a seal is caught. It is not common that more than a week's supply of meat accumulates in the village, but the supply of blubber steadily grows beyond what is needed for food and fuel, and often a family has se^'en to ten sealskins full of oil (fifteen hundred to three thousand pounds) to cache against the need of the next autumn, the period of scarcity. The method of securing bearded seals is the same essentially as that employed against the common seal, except that two men occasionally join forces, for the animal is huge and powerful and difficult to hold after it is speared. Few bearded seals are secured in winter for they frequent chiefly shore waters, and the seal hunting tribes seldom approach land until towards spring. The stretch of strong current in Dolphin and Union Strait from Lambert Island east to Cape Kruscnstern is richer in bearded seals than any other locality accessible to the Copper Eskimo. The ice here is never over two or three inches thick and the seals bask on the ice even in February with the temperature below —40° F. I have here counted over forty bearded seals visible with the naked eye from shore, as many as ten sometimes crawl up through one breathing hole. Except among the Kanhiryuarmiut the winter from October to April is generally a hand to mouth struggle. Starvation may, and does, occur at any time, but generally the sunless days are most feared. There is seldom a winter that among one or another of the Copper tribes dogs do not die of 1914. The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 06 Fig Fig. 6 (60-6970). Seal Harpoon, from Mouth of the Coppermine, Coronation Gulf. Length, 1.86 m. Fig. 7 (60-7032 a-e). Set of Seal Woimd Pegs, Coronation Gulf. Pig. 6. ■54 Anthropological Papers American MvMuni of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, hunger; dried sinew and clothing are eaten and the houses are without hght or fueL Specific instances of deaths from hunger are detailed in another place. In April and early May seals are still the main food of the people and the methods of securing them remain what they were in winter. During this period the Kanhiryuarmiut move from Banks Island to Prince Albert Sound, Victoria Island, and the other tribes divide or move in single bodies towards either the mainland or the Victoria Island shore. The Akuliakat- tagmiut consider the appearance of the first seal on top of the ice in their locality (about May 20th) as a sign it is time to leave the sea for the fishing lakes. No member of this tribe or of the Haneragmiut, we were told ever tries crawling up to a basking seal in the manner familiar from many other Eskimo districts. Among the Puiplirmiut and Noahonirmiut (in portions of whose hunting districts seals bask on the ice even in winter) about one in three of the able hunters knows this method and uses it more or less. In Coronation Gulf again the method is not much used. All tribes of the Copper Eskimo in April and May have their camps on ice across which the caribou migrate in thousands on their way north. None of these make any use of their opportunities so far as we could learn. Especially the Noahonirmiut near Lambert Island and the Kaiihiryuarmiut on Prince Albert Sound see endless successions of small bands passing their very doors. As mentioned above, there seems no taboo on caribou killing or caribou meat at this season, but we were merely told " nobody ever hunts caribou on the ice" — they live in abundance of seal meat at this time and blubber gathering is their most important object. It would really be foolish for them to spend their time pursuing the skinny migrating cows, if they did they would have to face the winter without the store of blubber that is their salvation at the time of autumn scarcity. In April no starvation came to our notice, though we found a Puiplir- miut village on short rations May 6, 1911, in Simpson Bay, Victoria Island. These had plenty of blubber, however. Each family lays by at this season as much blubber as it can. This is cut in small pieces and placed in bags made by skinning a seal through the mouth. Each of these bags when filled with oil will weigh one hundred seventy-five to two hundred fifty pounds and one good hunter will fill two or three such bags during March, April, and May. When it comes time to go inland these are placed en cache, preferably on a small island. Be the caches on an island, or not, they are covered with large stones so as to be safe from bears; people, it is said, never steal from such caches. At the same place are also cached usually the winter lamps, the heavier stone pots, the winter clothing and all good clothes, and in fact everything that is not absolutely needed for the summer. On account of taboo restrictions no blubber is taken along inland. 1914.] The Stefdns^on-Anderson Expedition. 55 Most people move inland while there is still snow on the ground; a few remain on the coast till the thaws are well under way, and some^even stay on or near the coast aill summer; notably certain of the Puiplirmiut in Simp- son Bay, most of the Pallirmiut at the mouth of Rae River and some of the Kogluktogmiut at Bloody Fall on the Coppermine. Nothing is rigid about these arrangements; — the summer 1910, for instance, Bloody Fall was unoccupied. On May 7th, 1911, the first three families of the Puiplirmiut moved inland into Victoria Island from Simpson Bay. They expected to camp by some fishing lakes and to live mainly on fish till the ground should be bare of snow some tliree or four weeks later. They no doubt tried for caribou too; at any rate we found on May 24, 1910, that some Noahonirmiut had already begun deer hunting about fifteen miles southwest of Lambert Island. By May twenty-sixth, however, they had not themselves secured any cari- bou as yet, and had no food when we left them but the carcasses of two bucks that we shot just before leaving their neighborhood. The women of the party fished every day for small lake trout with their copper fish hooks and caught about half enough to feed the party. The Kanhiryuarmiut whom on May 19, 1911, we left still encamped on the ice in the middle of Prince Albert Sound expected to move inland in about two weeks and to live partly on fish when they got inland. The musk-ox plays no part in spring among any Victoria Island tribes directly known to us, nor among any people on the mainland much west of Gray Bay. About Gray Bay and east of it musk-oxen are more numerous and are said to come down towards the sea in the spring, but to what extent they are killed while the snow is still on the ground we do not know. The pursuit of these animals will assume new phases now that guns are about to be introduced in Coronation Gulf. It is said there are some musk-oxen east and north of Minto Inlet, Mctoria Island, so the Kanhiryuatjiagmiut may get a few occasionally. Hares and ptarmigan are shot with bows and form part of the food supply in spring, summer, and fall. An important food animal in the mainland districts is the marmot (Sper- mophilus parrii). These awake from their winter hibernation in April and when they first come out of their holes they are rolling in fat and are excellent eating. Many are killed with bows and many are caught at the mouths of their holes with slip nooses of slender braided sinew. It is generally not difficult, except for large parties, to secure enough of these to feed men and dogs. Certain sections, especially rocky barrens, are largely wanting in squirrels, however, while others, such as the flats of Rae River and the lower twenty miles of the Coppermine, are abundantly supplied. It is only on Banks Island and southwestern Victoria Island that polar 56 Anlhropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, bears are common at any season. A stray bear may find its way into Dolphin and Union Straits and Coronation Gulf, especially in the spring. One at least was killed by the Puiplirmiut in 1911. I have however, both among the Akuliakattagmiut and in Coronation Gulf, seen grown men who have never seen a live polar bear, lirown bears {Ursus arctos Richardsoni) are quite absent from Victoria Island but most mainland tribes kill one of them now and then, especially the Akuliakattiigmiut. If found still in the stupor of hibernation they are easily despatched, but if awake (any time after the middle of x\pril, or even sooner) they are more difficult game than polar bears. One or two good dogs will generally keep a polar bear at bay; it is seldom dogs can hold a barren ground bear. At close quarters, too, they are more dangerous than white bears both to men and dogs, and many a man bears the mark of their claws. They are however attacked single- handed, by hunters armed with only the bow and knife. W^e were told that the hunter sometimes pays for his venturesomeness with his life; of this, however, we learned no specific instance, though I saw among the Kogluk- togmiut a man whose eye had been scratched out and who had been " con- fined to the house" the larger part of the summer as a result of the mauling he got. In summer caribou are the chief source of food, although in certain dis- tricts fish, birds, and eggs, barren ground bears, and musk-oxen, play a more or less important part. Fishing is of most significance in early spring. When the first seals appear on top of the ice, about May fifteenth to May twentieth at Cape Bexley, the supply of blubber, the winter clothing, oil lamps, etc., are put in safe caches under heavy stones, usually on small islands, and the people move inland by sled, taking along a little seal oil (not nearly enough for all summer) and little other food. Individuals of some groups, such as the Pallirmiut, sometimes go inland only after the snow leaves the land, carrying packs instead of using sleds. A few people stay near the sea all summer, especially at the mouth of the Coppermine. Gener- ally, the objective point with those who move inland early is a fishing lake that is also frequented by caribou and while the men hunt the women fish with hooks. As the hooks are not barbed they are seldom "set." Later, when the water courses become free of ice, fish are often speared at certain well-known spearing places. These spears are of the three-pronged Eskimo type with handles sometimes twenty feet long or longer. The barbs of these are usually of copper, though they may be of iron, bone, or antler. If fish are caught in large nund)ers they are often dried by being spread out on flat stones, hung up on deer antlers, etc., seldom on wooden racks, even where wood is available. Perhaps the most frequented spearing place is at Bloody Fall on the Coppermine. No fish nets or fish traps are used or known. 1914.] The Stejdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 57 For spearing caribou a few members of the Puiplirmiut, Nagyuktogmiut, Pallirmiut, and Ivogluktogmiut still use kayaks. Formerly, they say, while caribou were more numerous, kajaks were more numerous and much used. A few even of those who hunt farthest inland carry kayaks by sled or on their backs to astonishing distances from the sea. The summer of 1910 seven or more kayaks were brought to the lake, Imaernirk, in which the middle branch of the Dease River heads. One of these came from the Kent Peninsula and had been packed on the back a hundred miles of that distance by Itigaaittok ("The Footless") whose toes and insteps of both feet froze off a few years ago and who has only the heels of his feet to walk on. Many spearing places have of late been abandoned. One of the favorite ones up to a few years ago was Dismal Lake, at the Narrows (Cf. Hanbury's Account). This was last occupied by a single family the summer of 1909 but they got no deer and nearly starved. The summer of 1910 half a dozen families spent a part of the summer on Imaernirk Lake but were finally starved out. The Ivogluktogmiut, perhaps the best caribou hunters as a group, carried no kayaks inland the summer of 1910, though they use them for crossing the river those summers when they fish at Bloody Fall instead of going to the Bear Lake hunt. The method of waylaying and spearing caribou is the same as elsewhere described by Eskimo and need not be here described. All the hunting practically is with the bow and arrow, either by simple stalking, or, by driving bands of deer towards concealed hunters. The first consists merely of approaching the deer to seventy-five yards or less by such methods as the character of the ground and the other special features of each case suggest. Just before sending the arrow, the hunter usually abandons all attempts at concealment and makes a sudden dash towards the caribou, thus usually getting fifteen or twenty yards nearer than was possible by stealth, for sometimes the animals will not at once notice a man running at them though upright at close range and even when they see him their minds seem to work slowly and it takes them a second or two of staring to make up their minds to run, and then they do not always run directly away, but as often as not at about right angles to the approach of the hunter. The first run is often, too, only a dash of a dozen bounds, after which they stop to have another look, and thus give the hunter a chance to speed three or four arrows. At close range an arrow that does not strike a bone will go entirely through the largest bull caribou and often fly a considerable dis- tance on the other side. An animal wounded by an arrow that stays in the wound, and all do, unless they pass clear through, usually lies down to prevent the arrow from working in the wound, and is then easily approached for a second shot. I have known a single hunter to separately approach and kill three isolated caribou in a single day. 58 Anlkropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [WA. XIV, Most of the carilxHi killed, however, are secured b}'^ the concerted action of several men, women, and children, even the dogs help. When a band is discovered feeding, a V-shaped "fence" is constructed somewhere beyond their line of A'ision, generally to leeward. The "fence" consists of straight lines of stones or pieces of sod raised on end and set twenty to forty yards apart. In spring, blocks of snow are used instead. These stones, sods or blocks of snow are often not over eighteen inches high and no particular pains need be taken as to their shape or appearance, though a dab of earth is usually put on a block of snow or light colored stone so as to make sure the animals will see it. Apparently the eyesight of caril)ou is very poor, as compared with that of man. When this fence is completed, a half dozen men make one a mile long in an hour, the men conceal themselves in the angle of the V, the women and children with the dogs, go to windward of the deer to drive them. Usually the deer do not see the women who go to their windward. A few long-drawn wolf howls will generally set a band of deer in slow motion before the wind, or in the direction they are migrating. If they attempt to pass outside one of the wings of the Y, someone is there to turn them, and usually the band moving in single file along one side the V- shaped fence, much like horses along a barbed-wire fence, arrives at a walk or slow trot at the point where the angle of the fence becomes so narrow, about one hundred yards, that they begin to notice the fence on the other side and to see there is no opening. Then they bunch up irresolutely and give the hunters a good opportunity to shoot. Members of our party have seen only as many as eleven caribou killed in this way by four hunters and half-a- dozen women and children. It is uncertain how many they get in lucky hauls, none can tell themselves, for none can count, but they considered eleven a small catch. Perhaps six to eight animals per hunter may be near the ordinary limit, though we have been told that occasionally not a single animal escapes of those that once enter the fence. When deer have been killed in some number, most of the meat is cut up and half-driefl, never fulh' dried, spread out on stones. The blood is always taken and used for soups, and the moss contents of the stomachs are allowed to ferment a few days in the sun and then eaten. This last dish, fresh or fermented, is about the only article of vegetable diet used l)y these Eskimo. Most of those groups who hunt on the mainland kill a barren ground bear {Ursus richardsoni) now and then. These animals are not found in Victoria Island. A few musk-oxen arc killed by the Xanhiryuarmiut only in Banks Island, b;^'*the Akuliakattagmiut west and northwest of Dismal Lake, and by the more easterly people in the district towards Kent Penin- sula and southward perhaps to the Akilinik River. Otherwise, musk-oxen are extinct from the mainland and Victoria Island in the districts frequented 1914.] The Slejdnsmn-Anderson Expedition. 59 by the groups under discussion. Where there are musk-oxen they are natu- rally an easy prey for the Eskimo, who surround them with their dogs and usually kill every animal of every band found. A few wolves and foxes are killed every year, with the bow, for there is little trapping, and a good many spermophiles (marmots) are taken. The skins of all of these are valued for clothing, though deerskin is preferred, and the meat of all is eaten, though only the marmots are secured in numbers to make them of significance as sources of food. The Akuliakattagmiut and others kill a few muskrats, but they use neither skins nor meat but only use the tails for charms. This, as well as lack of knowledge of common berries as food, may go to show that the present territory has not long been occu- pied by these people. Further, had they come to Coronation Gulf either from the south or west they would have brought with them the habit of using these things, and would not have forgotten it while occupying the present territory which, comparatively speaking, abounds in berries and has numbers of muskrats. (As to the muskrats, however, the Bear Lake Slaveys say that they, as well as the beaver and the moose are new arrivals north and east of Great Bear Lake. This may explain the Eskimo igno- rance of their use.) All groups shoot a few ptarmigan with bows; the only ones to whom birds and eggs are of much significance are those who summer in Victoria Island, some of these are said to kill numbers of swans and smaller water birds during the moulting season. The skins of all birds are used for hand wipers after eating greasy food, and the skins of loons are used for slippers between the socks and outer boots in winter. Loon skins are also used during the fly season in summer to beat off mosquitoes. Cooking and Handling Food. Caribou meat is more often eaten raw than cooked, whether fresh or half- dry, thawed, or frozen. Fish are also often eaten raw, whether frozen or not. This eating of raw meat and fish conforms to Eskimo custom farther west, except that the western people show greater preference for the frozen state as opposed to the thawed. A raw dish peculiar to the Straits and Gulf Eskimo (at least, the Eskimo of my party knew nothing of such a practice) is fresh sealskin cut in small pieces with about a quarter inch of blubber left on it. The hair is not removed. I found this agreeable eating on first trial, but our Eskimo would not taste it, they had " never heard of such a thing." All western Eskimo, however, practice eating the skin of the bow- head and white (beluga) whales in a similar manner. 60 Aiilhwpologicdl Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, In general, these Eskimo are not so fond of "high" or partly decomposed fish as are those of the Mackenzie River and farther west, who generally prefer rotten to fresh fish for eating raw. Meat is more often eaten "high" here than farther west, but that seems a result of circumstance and is not a matter of preference. Caribou liver is, however, highly esteemed here, as everywhere to the west, after being allowed to ferment for some days under a hot sun inside a moss-filled caribou stomach. Seal oil fermented in an air-tight bag from spring till fall is by all Eskimo, and those whites who have tried it, much preferred to the fresh. There is really but one method of cooking and that is boiling, though roasting before a fire is known. Fish and caribou are more often eaten raw than cooked, but caribou heads are always boiled and fish heads are boiled when convenient. Seal is seldom eaten raw, and never raw unless frozen, except in emergencies. The cooking is over the seal oil lamp in winter and generally over a fire of heather or small twigs in summer, even when good wood is at hand. The pots (stove) are long, narrow, and shallow, a large pot may be thirty inches long, eight inches wide, six inches deep. The seal meat or deer meat is usually cut in pieces of such a size that half of each piece sticks out of the water. In cooking over the lamp the meat (at least the first potful) is put in the cold water as the pot is hung over the lamp flame, and when the pot boils the lower half of the meat is considered cooked. The pieces are then turned around and now and then after that one is lifted out of the pot and squeezed between thumb and finger to see if it is sufficiently cooked. When one of the larger pieces seems done, the pot is emptied of the meat and some seal or caribou blood is added to make the blood soup which forms the last course of a properly arranged meal. In a snowhouse, where space is limited, the guests usually eat standing, while the master of the house, his wife, and perhaps an especially honored visitor sit on the edge of the bed. The woman divides the meat into as many (or more) pieces as there are people present, squeezes each tightly between both hands so that no blood or juice shall later drip on the floor while it is being eaten, and hands the best piece to the guest of honor, e. g., a visitor from another village. If there is no especially distinguished guest, the woman hands the best piece to her husband, she will not keep a good piece for herself though she may make up for that by eating a few tidbits between meals. Each person present has a piece handed lum in turn, the order being generally one of age, the oldest first. A middle-aged woman will be served ahead of a young man though an old woman or a decrepit man may be ranked lower than a middle-aged one. A few usually get a second helping, though I have never seen enough pieces of meat at a meal to go twice around. When the meat course is finished the warm blood soup is dipped up with 1914.] The Stefdnsson- Anderson Expedition. 61 musk-ox horn dippers and these are passed around in about the same order as the meat was. Several persons often have to use the same dipper in suc- cession; a single house seldom has more than five or six dippers and twelve or fifteen people often eat in a single house. If the pot is not large enough to satisfy all present, then it is filled with meat a second time, or a few of the younger people are given frozen instead of boiled meat. In case of two or three boilings, each potful is eaten while the next is cooking, and the blood soup course follows only the last potful of meat. The foregoing is based on the practice of the iVkuliakattagmiut and Haneragmiut, who were the only ones visited while still living on the ice or by the seashore in May, 1910. The summer food being caribou and fish mainly, there is less cooking done in summer than in winter, though there is usually one cooked meal per day, the morning meal commonly. The last course here too is generally warm (never hot) blood soup, though I have seen caribou blood drunk un- boiled. Birds and spermophiles are almost always cooked, and as above stated caribou heads always are. Marrow bones are cracked and the mar- row eaten raw; caribou back fat is sometimes boiled and the intestinal and kidney fat usually is boiled. Eggs are always boiled if a fire is available. Dwellings and Furniture. The general style of the Copper Eskimo snowhouse is fairly well shown by our photographs.^ They are built in a manner similar to that employed by the Mackenzie Eskimo. In Alaska the construction of proper snow- houses is an unknown art. A sort of snowhouse is built at Point Barrow, the groundplan is usually rectangular. The blocks are huge and stuck on edge in a slip-shod way and rafters of wood are used to support the roof. The true dome house is first met at the Mackenzie River. The snow is cut wdth a snow knife into blocks that have a surface area of something like eighteen by thirty inches and are about four inches deep. Among the Copper Eskimo this method of cutting snow blocks is rarely used and chiefly in the fall while snow is still thin on the ground. In winter when good snowdrifts can be found, the cakes are cut of about the same length as in the Mackenzie district but with a depth of eighteen inches instead of four so that while the finished block is the same size and shape as that used by the Mackenzie people, it is obtained by a different method. In other words, the snow Ijlock in the Mackenzie district is, while it is being 1 See " My Life with tlie Eskimo." 62 Anlliropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV^ cut, in the position of u domino lying flat on a table, while the block among the Copper Eskimo is cut in a position of a domino standing on edge. The snow dwelling houses of the Mackenzie Eskimo proper were used only on journeys and inider special circumstances. Among the Baillie Islands or most easterly branch of the Mackenzie people, snowhouses were frequently li\ed in all winter although wood and earth houses were also used. Among the ( 'opper Eskimo no other form than the snowhouse is now in use nor w'as any other house in use in the past so far as the people themselves know. The Cape Bexlej- people were familiar with the wood and earth houses used on the section of coast west from them to Cape Lyon, but I infer that this familiarity came through the ruins of the houses onlj^ because they made about them some statements which are absurd in the light of our knowledge of the characteristics of the Eskimo house of the western type. They said that the people of this section of the country used to live in snow- houses in winter and in earth and wood houses in summer. The nature of an Eskimo house is that so soon as the sun begins to thaw the snow on its roof in the spring, the house begins to drip and must be vacated. This is true, I know, all the way from Point Hope east to Baillie Island and must be true wherever houses of the type are used. All summer the floor of one of these houses is a puddle of water and it is only next fall after the ground is thoroughly frozen that the dwellings become again habitable. It appears to me therefore an essential absurdity to suppose that the houses of which we saw the ruins west of Crocker River w^ere used as summer dwellings. The snowhouses of the Mackenzie people seem to have averaged con- siderably larger than the ones in use b}' the Copper Eskimo. It was com- mon enough at Baillie Island that it was something like nine or ten feet from the floor to the top of the dome. In the east, however, houses of this size are erected only on special occasions when dances are to be held. One such house w^as built to celebrate our coming to the Akuliakattagmiut and was about nine feet in height and acconmiodated forty people standing up, with a circular space of about five feet in diameter left in the center free for the dancers. The largest dwelling house we ever saw in actual use was among the Kanhiryuarmiut, where nine people slept under a single roof. At the time we were there they were using snow walls and a skin roof in that particular house, but we were told that the same family had occupied a snowhouse until a few days before. Five or six may generally be considered a large number for a single snowhouse and if there are only two or three inhabitants, the house is commonly no more than five by seven feet in the dimensions of its floor space and five and a half to six feet high from floor to the center of the dome. 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Aiiderson Expedition. 63 By the eastern method of cutting snow blocks so as to have them stand- ing on edge as they are cut out of the drift it is possible to complete a house entirely from the blocks that are cut out of the floor; in other words, a single man without assistance can easily complete a house and finish it to the last detail of the "key stone." By the western method this is not possible for a second man is required to stand outside, cutting blocks and bringing them to the builder, or else, the man who does the building would have to cut a door in the wall of the house he is making and crawl out through it to fetch blocks with which to continue the work. The principles of snowhouse construction have been so often discussed that there is not much use for going into them here in detail; besides our photographs are in a measure self-explanatory. It is worth pointing out, however, that while the Eskimo of the Mackenzie River are rather particu- lar in building up the house in a continuous spiral which seems from the accounts of other travelers to be a method also in use in many other districts, the Copper Eskimo take no pains to follow this method. In the building of a large house, for instance, there are sometimes three men working at different parts of the wall and one of them may have his section five feet high while neither of the others has got beyond three feet and there will be high and low places in the wall so that it presents a serrated appearance. All that is necessary in order that the snow blocks do not cave in is that no part of the wall shall be absolutely straight. The curve must be continu- ous; if then the ends of two blocks are properly trimmed so that they fit together they cannot possibly cave in without breaking. The same principle applies to the finishing steps of a dome roof. The roof may be almost flat but it cannot be quite flat for if it were the blocks would fall in of their own weight. Still, an expert snowhouse builder will make a roof so nearly flat that it is difficult to see it is not perfectly so. When the key stone has been put in place the next thing is to arrange the interior. It is intended that the bed shall be on a platform anything from eighteen inches to three feet high which occupies about two-thirds of the oval floor space. Commonly the house has been excavated to about a depth equal to the desired height of the platform by the taking out of the floor of the blocks that went to construct the walls and roof. If this has been the case, the builder has been careful to leave a little shelf running all around the wall, but if that has not been convenient he will cut from what remains of the floor a series of blocks and stand them up on edge around the wall, or if there is not material enough inside the house to do this have it brought in. Then the floor blocks are passed in to the house by the builder's wife or someone who remains outside. The longest of these has a length equal to the transverse diameter of the house and by being put crosswise 64 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, forms the front edge of the bed phitform. The shorter ones are put farther back, the shortest forming the foot of the bed. In other cases, however, there is one piece ])ut crosswise on the side to form the front edge of the bed platform and the others at right angles to it lengthwise of the house. The skins are spread over this platform and household gear is stowed away under it. If, however, no planks are at hand out of which to make the floor of the bed platform, the entire platform is built up out of snow. The disadvantage of this method is that it takes a little more work and that it gives you no stowage space underneath the bed. After the l)ed platform has been pre- pared it is the woman who does the rest of the work. She comes in and spreads the skins over the bed and then she puts up the l)lubber lamp, either setting it on a block of snow or else by the use of uprights and cross pieces of wood she sets up a table upon which the lamp stands and above which the stone cooking pot is to be swung. When everything is in readiness she takes a little blubber, crushes it with a blubber pounder and about half fills the bowl of the lamp. Then she takes from a bag either a piece of moss or some fuzz of the pussy willow and spreads a layer for a wick along the forward rim of the lamp. She now strikes a light by knocking together two pieces of iron pyrites above a bit of pussy willow fuzz which is used for tinder. When the lamp has been lit it is trimmed so as to burn with the greatest possible heat and then the door of the house is sealed up with a block of snow. In about half an hour the house becomes so warm that the snow of its walls and roof begins to melt. As the melting goes on the water does not drip l)ut is soaked up into the snow blocks blotter fashion until finally they are nearly or quite soaked through. The woman occasionally^ feels of the walls b,y pressing her knuckles into them and when they are the requisite degree of dampness she puts out the lamp and opens the door. In a few minutes the intense cold which rushes in from the outside freezes the wet snow blocks and the house is turned from a fragile structure of snow that would cruml)l(> if you touch it carelessly to a Naulted dome of ice so strong that a polar bear might crawl over the roof without the danger of breaking it in. This in fact often happens in districts where polar bears are numerous. The house is now fit for occupancy and will be occupied as long as cir- cumstances require. When the weather is cold out-of-doors, it is possible to keep the snowhouse vevy comfortably warm for the cold from the outside neutralizes the heat from within and no melting takes place, but if the weather turns warm, melting soon starts. If the house has been perfectly built the dome is of such even curvature that no water drips down, but only trickles down the sides. If there is any ime\enness, however, dripping will 1914.] The Stefan sson- Anderson Expedition. 65 commence. This is temporarily dealt with by pressing a block of dry snow against the spot from which the water drips. This block will adhere to the roof without any danger of its dropping until it becomes thoroughly soaked before which it should be removed and be replaced by a dry block. Occa- sionally, however, one naturally forgets to do this and it is not uncommon to have a block of soaking wet snow drop on the bed upon your head or into any food that you are eating. Outside the door of the house is an alleyway anywhere from ten to thirty feet long with its floor on a level with the floor of the house. Both the outer door and the allej'way and the door of the house itself remain open day and night and there is commonly also a small ventilating flue in the roof so that the interior is always plentifully supplied with fresh air. This is universally the case except in times of famine when seal oil becomes too precious for food to allow its being used for fuel and then, of course, it will be necessary to decrease in size the ventilating openings to keep up the temperature of the house. Sometimes two families will occupy the same house in which case the woman of each family has a separate lamp for cooking standing on either side of the door as one enters. More commonly two families, if for any special reason they want to live together, will build a double house. There is a single alle.^'way at the inner end of which there are two doors leading into the two houses. Again, there may be a three-room house or three snowhouses built adjoining each other and intended for the occupancy of two families. In this case there are generally two alleyways leading into the houses at either side while there is interior communication between the two houses and the central common room furnished by the third house be- tween them. It is also common that a house has an alcove for storage pur- poses either built on to the house or excavated into the snowbank in which the house stands. This alcove is used chiefly for the storing of meat and blubber although other articles may be kept there as well. Sometimes these storage alcoves are built into the wall of the alle;y^way just outside of the door of the house in which case they have to be closed with snow blocks for the dogs of the family occupy the alleyway and would help themselves if un- restrained. When the warm weather of spring comes upon a snowhouse village that is already built, the roofs will cave in while the walls remain intact. A few sticks are then put up for support and skins spread over. Only caribou skins are used, although sealskins, bearskins, and musk-ox skins are used in emergencies. If, however, a village is built during the changing weather of spring, snow walls are put up with the intention of using a tent roof over them in which case they are built rectangularly instead of ovally as they 66 A7ilhropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, would be it' they were to be roofed over with snow. This is a sort of a transition stage and all the dwellings of this time are makeshift ones so that they may be of any shape. The roofs may be flat, pyramidal, or of the general outline of our A-tents, differing from them, however, usually in that the ridge pole is never as long as the floor of the house and the roof therefore slopes in from all sides instead of from two sides only as in the case of our common tents. The tents in use in siunmer from Cape Bexley to the Kent Peninsula as seen near Bear Lake the summer of 1910 may be described as A-tents with bell ends. Commonly the tent of last year is during the winter cut up and used for some purpose, perhaps it has been fed to the dogs, or possibly it has been needed for bedding. The tents of all but the most provident families are therefore very small and unsatisfactory but each time a caribou is killed its skin goes to increase the size of the tent and by the latter part of summer everyone is suitably housed. The skins are always used with the hair side out whether they be sealskins or caribou skins. I have never seen musk-ox or bearskins used in summer. They are useful only in the transition stage while the snow walls are still in use and while the people are still able to haul their belongings in sleds. In the summer, w^hen everything has to be carried on one's back, none but light skins can be conveniently used. The tents range from little bits of three-cornered shelters where skins are spread over the two sides leaving the lee side open, to long affairs with a floor space say six by fourteen feet and a door in one of the long walls. In this sort of a tent two families live, one on each side of the door w^hile the shelter first described merely keeps the rain off the heads and upper parts of the bodies of two or three people who use them. Their feet stick out into the open as they sleep and if it commences to rain, they either get soaked or else the people have to get up and sit huddled inside their shelter. The triangular shelter, of course, has no ridge pole; its frame is a mere tripod. A good-sized ordinary tent vised by a single family will have a ridge pole about five foot long supported on either end of the tent by a tripod of sticks about seven foot long, the third leg of each set being so placed that the floor of the tent w'ill have an extreme length of about nine feet. This frame is by its construction rigid and is completed by leaning up against it at various points any number of sticks that happen to be at hand. The skins that form the tent cover are sewn in one piece and are spread over the tent frame something in the manner employed with Indian tipis. It is not intended, however, that a fire shall be built within the tent except for smudge purposes, to keep out mosqm'toes. There is therefore no design to have an opening at the top of the tent. It is, however, a matter of fact that little care is taken in lacing the skins together at the top and a little rain wull accord- 1914.] The StefdJisson-Anderson Expedition. 67 ingly come in all along the ridge pole and especially at the two ends where the upper six or eight inches of the poles that form the tripods stick out through the roof of the tent. An Eskimo family usually needs such a quantity of gear that there is room for but a small part of it inside the house and it is kept outside either on top the roof or on a rack especially constructed for the purpose. Most of this belongs to the woman's department of the family and consists in large part of partly worn-out clothing, tanned and untanned skins intended for garments, bundles of sinew for sewing thread, and things of that sort. Some of the main items of the furniture of the snowhouse have already been indicated : the planks that form the floor of the bed platform, the stone lamp, and stone pot with which the cooking is done, the wide board that forms a table in front of the lamp, and the round rods that are stuck verti- cally into the floor and horizontally into the walls of the house form the framework that supports the lamp and the cooking pot and upon which the drying frame rests above the lamp. The drying frame is a hoop commonly oval in shape perhaps two feet by four in size. There may be one or two rods across this hoop to keep it rigid or there may be only thongs stretched at right angles to each other across the hoop so as to form a network upon which mittens and other small articles can be spread without any danger of their falling through into the cooking pot or lamp underneath. On the table in front of the lamp will usually be found some platters made of wood for holding meat and dippers of musk-ox horn from which the blood soup is drunk. There is also a woman's knife, the rod of antler which she uses in place of a fork to turn over the meat w^hen it is boiling and to fish it out of the pot when it is done, the blubber pounder of musk-ox horn to crush the frozen seal blubber before it is put into the lamp, and the short fiat-tipped stick that is used for trimming the lamp. There is also kept convenient a little pencil-like stick the end of which is charred and stuck in grease. This can be made at any time to form a torch if anyone wants to look in a dark corner of the house or under the bed or something. By the door is a flat stick like a ruler that is used for beating the snow out of the clothes when anyone comes in from a blizzard. This is usually done out in the alleyway while the snow is still dry and powdery on one's clothes. If you were to come into the warmth of the house the snow among the hair clothing would soon become damp and would stick instead of flying out easily as it does when clothes are beaten while the snow is still dry -with. cold. The furniture of the summer camp is even simpler than that of winter. In Coronation Gulf there are certain small islands upon which all sorts of household belongings can be safely left for the summer and everywhere the greater part of the property of a family is left behind in spring, although 68 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, the cache may be nothing safer than a heap of stones which a polar bear might easily break into. Pohir bears, liowever, are exceedingly rare, so that the danger is really not very grave. Commonly when they move about, the grown members of the family carry all the household things as well as the small children; the dogs are loaded with nothing but the dry meat and with the tent poles and the handles of fishing spears which they drag along somewhat as did the dogs of the more southerly Indians. For some reason, apparently not a taboo, no seal oil is carried inland and consequently the seal oil lamps are all left behind. Only the smallest stone pots are taken not only because they are heavy, but also because the large ones are so fragile that they would never get through a summer's hunt unbroken. Even a pot no larger than twelve inches long by seven wide and six deep is so breakable that no one but the housewife is entrusted with the carrying of it and she wraps it carefully in a bundle of bed skins and carries it on her back. Two or three musk-ox horn dippers will also be carried for use in drinking the blood soup but the wooden food platters are all left behind, for stones or grass can always be foiuid upon which the boiled meat can be spread for the meal. Unless the woman's sewing kit be considered an article of furniture, we have hereby exhausted the list of the furnishings of the typical camp. Household Utensils. Most lamps and cooking pots are made of stone secured on a small main- land river that flows into Coronation Gulf "a short distance" east of the Coppermine. This river is called Kugaryuak but is often referred to as Utkusiksalik (the place where there is material for pots) . The lamps are of the type already familiar from Point Barrow.^ This is to be expected if, as the Mackenzie people say, the Point Barrow people used to buy lamps at Barter Island from the Mackenzie Eskimo who got them from the Baillie Islanders, who in turn got them from farther east. Lamps and pots were formerly costly in the west as compared with other artifacts, but are now cheap on Coronation Gulf, another thing that points to the Gulf as the source of pots, etc., used farther west. We have seen lamps in use ranging in length from six to forty-three inches. If the lamp is too short for the entire length of the pot or pots swung above it, a second or third is used, so as to give a flame equal to the total length of the bottoms of the pots. For wicks, moss is sometimes used 1 Cf. Murdoch, John. Ethnological Results of tlio Point Barrow Expedition. (Ninth Keport of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Washington, 1892.) 1914.] The Stefdnsson-A nderson Expedition. 69 as at the Mackenzie River, but more often the eotton-Hke fuzz of a plant found in marshy places. This seems to make a wick superior to the moss used in the west, for at the Baillie Islands, etc., the snowhouses are usually discolored inside by lampsmoke, but old winter houses at Cape Bexley to our surprise showed no lamp black on the walls. Pots seldom vary much in depth or width (about eight inches wide, and six inches deep) but may be anything from ten to forty-five or more inches in length. These pots, especially the larger, are very fragile and are a constant care to the women. The larger ones are never carried inland to the hunting and fishing grounds in summer; the ones that are taken along are carried by the women wrapped inside a big bundle of skins. In winter each housewife keeps two pots at least in continual use, one for cooking, the other for melting drinking water. The pots are so swung on rods that they can be shifted over the lamp flame or beyond its influence. The length of the lamp flame is constantly varied according to the warmth of the house or the urgency of bringing a pot to the boiling point. The blood soup that forms the last course of every cooked meal is drimk from dippers of musk-ox horn. These differ strikingly from the sheep horn dippers in use west of the Mackenzie, through being so shaped that they will stand on any flat surface without danger of upsetting, and in having a handle less than two inches long against handles of eight to twelve inches to the west. Some housekeepers have as many as five or six of these dippers, though two or three is more common. At a meal the head of the house or an important visitor gets the first dipperful but never gets a second helping until all present have had their turn. The woman who serves, drinks last, but grown women present are preferred to boys. Rank at meals is by age irrespective of sex; decrepit persons rank below those of middle age. Shallow wooden dishes are used as platters for meat, cooked or raw; Fig. 8 a (60.1-2862), b (60.1-.3458), c (60.1- 2871). Stone Lamps: a. Point Barrow; 6, Coronation Gulf; c, Mackenzie Kiver type. Lengtli of 6, 60 cm. 70 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, pails of sealskin are used for carrying and keeping water; bags of sealskin are used for oil and l)]()od; and bags of one sort of skin or another are em- ployed by the men to keep safe small tools, fragments of metal, etc., and by the women for scraps of skin, needle cases, knives, etc. In eating, both sexes prefer to use ulus (women's knives), a copper ulu is preferred to a man's iron knife. The women's needle cases are j=::;;p^==s==f==s-;======™,^ of the lowest long bone of the foreleg of the cari- ^f ^^l?%"i ^on. Clubs or mallets of musk-ox horn are used MV^- ^;i»^l5>'C2sv«3a for pounding blubber before it is put in the lamp ^fe|f?fefrS) ^^^-^ so the oil may run out more freely. ^^'^^^^ Campsites are chosen M'ith more care in sum- Fig. 9 (60.1-3211). stone nier than in winter. In the fall the Kogluktog- Kettlc, foiuid on an Island • i i i i i- in west Darniey Bay about ^lut, they toid US, are kept Irom moving out on three Miles ofif Parry Penin- the ice to the best sealing grounds by the lack sula. Length of fragment, ,. •, i , pi i -i t ^ 47 cm. 01 suitable snow for house-building everywhere except near shore. Why the Akuliakattagmiut remain near shore at Cape Bexle^y through the fall, till about the disap- pearing of the sun, we did not learn, but the reason is most likely the same. After midwinter, however, a village can be built wherever the ice is a little rough and has gathered snowdrifts of sufficient depths for house blocks and that is in several places every square mile of even the levelest ice the Straits can show. Of course, villages are seldom found in winter except in good sealing localities. What is a good site for a sealing village one year may not, however, be equally good the next for the seals, though more dependable than caribou, frecpient certain localities more one year than another, the fluctuation depending probably largely on the season at which the ice forms in the fall and on the conditions of calm or storm under which it forms and its consequent roughness. The summer of 1910 we saw several hundred sites of summer camps, two dozen or so of which were occupied wdien we saw them. The location is always marked by the stone tent rings (the stones that have been used to hold down the tent flaps) and usually by numerous other works of man, .sha\ings of wood, bones and horns of animals, flat stones raised on edge for fireplaces, drying frames for meat, or for windbreaks, etc. 0\er ninety percent of these are situated on hill tops that give a commanding \iew of the surrounding country. The reasons for choosing such hill tops were given as follows: (1) Fear of Indian attack; (2) Desire of a good view of the caribou feeding grounds; (3) The advantage of a wind-swept hill in mitigat- ing the plague of mosquitoes and sandflies. Those that hunt toward Bear Lake told us the nearer they camped to the lake the more carefully they chose their campsites for "you never know when or from where the Indians may come." 1914. The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 1 Another consideration in choosing a campsite is that there shall be enough stones for camp purposes, to fasten down the tents, to form windbreaks, fireplaces, etc., to furnish suitable slabs and boulders on which, to spread meat to dry, and perhaps most important of all, to give a background with which the color of the tents so harmonizes as to make them difficult to per- ceive from a distance. The tents generally have a mottlefl appearance due to the use of whole caribou skins, the animals are much darker on some parts of the body than on others. This harmonizes well with the huge moss- grown boulders and stone slalis that cumber the hill tops about the sources of the Dease and along the Coppermine to IVIcTavish Bay of Bear Lake. A dozen tents are often so artfully pitched that the men and dogs moving about them can be seen at a greater distance than the tents, while an Indian Fig. 10 a (60.1-3457), 6 (60.1-3455). Large Lamp, and a Kettle from Prince Albert Soxmd, Victoria Island. Length of a 1.8 m. lodge or a white man's tent can usually be seen four times as far as could men standing around them. In August, 1910, our camp was for a few days located a quarter mile across a small lake from an Eskimo camp of some seven tents. Though this camp was on the skyline as seen from ours, we had the greatest difficulty in making it out without the use of glasses, so little did a tent on the skyline differ in shape and color from a boulder on the skyline. Looking from their camp to ours the small details of arrangement could easily be made out. A third desideratum is the presence near by of a considerable supply of heather for fuel. There seems to be a prejudice against camping near wood, or even using it for fuel. If wood is used at all in cooking, a small dry stick is brought to camp and chopped into shavings with an adze. The chief Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, Fig. 12. Fig. 13. Fig. 14. Fig. 11 a (60-7066), b (60-7065), c (60-7067), d (60-7071). Models of Vessels. Corona- tion Gulf: o, food dish, made of a linot from a tree, diameter, 9 cm.; b, pail made of skin; c, dipper made of wood; rf, food dish made of wood. Length of a, 9 cm. Fig 12 (60-7073) . Model of a Horn Si)o(m. (.^oronation Gulf. Length, 8.5 cm. Fig. 13 (60-6963). Wooden Pail with Bail of Horn and Copper Kivets, Coronation Gulf. Height, 12 cm. Fig. 14 (60-7027). Small Spoon of Musk-ox Horn, Coronation Gulf. Length, 14 cm. 1914.1 The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 73 Fig. 15 (60-7006). Fork made from the Metacarpal Bone of a Miisk-ox, Coronation Gxilf. Length, 29.5 cm. Fig. 16 (60-7028). Horn Spoon with Bone Handle, Coronation Gulf. Length, 40 cm. Fig. 17 (60-7024). Horn Dipper, Coronation Giilf. The repairing is with iron and horn plates; copper rivets. Length, 23 cm. 74 Aiithropologiail Papers American Museum of Natural History. [V'ol. XIV, Fig. IS a (60-7070) ,"^6 (60-7073a). Models of Buckets, Coronation Gulf: a, bone horn. Height of a, 3 cm. Fig. 19 (60-70.53). Bag for Fire-making Implements, Coronation Gulf. It contains two pieces of pyrites each having wrapped grips. Length, 19 cm. 1914 The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition 75 Fig. 20 (60-7062). Bag of Moss for Tinder, Coronation Gulf. Length, 12 cm. Fig. 21 (60-6967). Frame for drying Clotlies, Coronation Gulf. The cord is of braided sinew, the frame of wood. Length, 5.5 cm. rO Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, Fig. 22 (60-6925). Blubber Pounder of INIusk-o.K Horn, Coronation Gulf. Length, 35 cm. Fig. 23 (60-7031). Dipper of Musk-ox Horn, Coronation Gulf. Length, 18 cm. 1914. The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 77 reason for doing this I take to be the, to a white man, incomprehensible conservatism of the race, though the shape of their cooking pots furnishes some reason. Fear of enemies cannot be the reason, for a heather fire makes more smoke by a great deal than would an adequate blaze of dry sticks. In cooking with heather, the oblong stone pots are set up on small blocks of stone about the height of a common house-building brick laid edge- c Fig. 24 a (60-6926), b (60-6964), c (60-7026). Wooden Ware, Coronation Gulf: a, food dish, 69 cm. long, carved from a single piece; 6, food dish made of two pieces, bottom carved out, sides bent; c, food bowl, carved out. wase, or perhaps an inch higher. A long slab of stone is then taken and set on edge at the back of the pot and two smaller ones at either end of it, so as to form thi'ee sides of a rectangular box for the pot. Fire is then built and small handfuls of heather or a shaving at a time of wood are pushed under the pot to keep a low blaze constantly going. Om- own Eskimo refused for a long time to cook with heather when we were traveling with a party of Coronation Gulf Eskimo, saying their people 78 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural Ilistury. [Vol. XIV, (Port Clarence, Alaska, and Mackenzie River) never cooked that way. They would therefore hunt far and wide for green dwarf willows, but by the time there were willows enough gathered by our party, further operations V ould be stopped by hospitable shouts from the other tents to come over and have supper. They had boiled two successive potfuls of meat and some- times three, while we were getting ready to build a fire. This was too much for the conservatism even of Eskimo and towards the end of the summer our Eskimo could cook a potful of meat as quickly as anybody, though there seemed always an undercurrent of feeling that they were doing something unworthy, and there was much rejoicing in our camp over finding a patch of large willows to camp by, though I cannot see that it helped us to get supper any quicker. But as our Eskimo prefer wood, for fuel, so the Coronation Gulf people prefer heather. When heather is scarce and far from camp and wood near and easy to get, they often waste much time gathering and carrying heather, but so often do white men traveling with Eskimo waste time and energy doing in their own way what could be quickly and better done in the way of their companions. It is a common human trait, though the Eskimo has it developed more strongly than most other people, more strongly than the most "old-fashioned" European. Nearness of water is not of much concern in choosing a summer campsite, for good water is found almost anywhere during the Arctic summer, even on top the salt sea ice. Of self-evident importance to the Eskimo (and there- fore not needing much consideration) is locating their camps overlooking deer passes, good feeding grounds, places where caribou swim lakes or rivers, etc. The steady decrease in the number of migrating caribou has of late years led to the abandonment of many formerly frequented campsites at swimming places. Methods of Travel. In winter there is little long distance travel by large parties, the individ- uals and groups of two or three families often make long journeys for trading purposes, to pay visits, or to return to their own people after summer wander- ings to distant hunting grounds. Such travel as there is, is by sled exclu- sively. The sleds used in Dolphin and Union Strait are longer on the average than any familiar to me among Eskimo farther west, the natives of the Kuwuk and Noatak Rivers have long ones also, while perhaps the shortest sleds used by anj^ Eskimo are those of the Mackenzie Delta and Baillie Islands, three and a half to four feet long. The sled fragments found on 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 79 old graves at Cape Pany, Cape L}' on, and east along the coast to the limit of the present range of the Straits people (say Inman River) are all of the short type and correspond in detail to those still in use by some of the Baillie Islanders, the same width of "guage," shape of runners, number of cross bars and manner of inserting the ends of the crossbars into the runners. There are always three crossbars, and the fourth perforation in the runner, that for the hauling lines, is always triangular. The sleds in use in the Straits vary from twelve to twenty feet in length and those of Coronation Gulf average longer. The number of crossbars varies not only with the length of the sled but also according to the fancy of the maker, though there usually are from five to nine. A few sleds in the Straits and as far east as Rae River are shod with whalebone in the usual Eskimo way, strips of bone cut lengthwise from the bone of the lower jaw (inferior maxillary bone) of a bowhead whale. Generally, however, the shoeing of a sled is as follows : — The runner to begin with, is a spruce wood plank about one and a half inches thick and twelve or fourteen inches high. To the bottom of this is pegged with round wooden pegs a thin strip of wood, the width of the runner. This strip is of as decayed and "fuzzy" a kind as is obtainable, a piece of half decayed driftwood is preferred. In the fall, when the sled is to be used sod is cut in strips as long as convenient and about three inches thick and four inches wide. Lengthwise, along the flat side of these is cut a groove the width of the sled runner and the sod is put under the runners as shoeing. With a little water these are securely frozen to the bottom of the runners, the fuzz of the half-decayed wood holding them securely. The bottom of the runners is then rounded off with an adze or knife so the sod takes the form of a longitudinally bisected cylinder. The last touch is given by turning the sled upside down and washing over the sod runners with a little water to give them a one-tenth inch coating of ice. This ice coat is inspected every day of travel and repaired when necessary; the sod shoeing usually lasts a whole winter without special attention being paid to it. In spring when the sun shines warm a skin is hung loosely over the sunward side of the sled to shield the runners when traveling from the direct rays of the sun, and at camp time, the sleds are buried in snow to keep the sod shoeing from dropping off and the ice coat on its bottom from melting. In various places I have seen different ways of applying ice to the shoeing of sleds but none seems so satisfactory as this, at least, none are so well adapted to use on rough ice or stony ground. Ice is no doubt the best form of shoe- ing ever devised for sledging at low temperatures. We have seen sleds thus shod carrying a thousand pounds and more of load, traveling at the rate of two miles an hour hauled by one man, one woman, and two dogs. 80 AntJiropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, TniNoliiiji; in tlio same company wx- liad .some dilficulty keeping up with the party with six good dogs and two men hauHng six hundred pounds on a steel shod sled such as is now used by all Eskimo west of Baillie Islands. Steel has many advantages and is the best all-round shoeing in spring and fall, but it grates on the snow as on sand when used at temperatures prevalent in the ^Vrctic from December to April. Ice is the best possible shoeing for low temperatures, it most nearly eliminates friction. ^ Except when carrying blubber and other things to islands, promontories, and other places where they are to be cached, the Straits and Gulf Eskimo usually travel light, but we have never accompanied them on such journeys. Generally, they do not carry even one day's provisions of meat, expecting to catch seal wherever they camp, and thus be saved the trouble of hauling, always irksome to them as few have over two dogs, none, so far as we know, over three, and many only one. We have however, followed the trail of a Fig. 25 (60-7054). Wooden Snow Goggles, Coronation Gulf. Length, 14 cm. party l)ound for the caribou hunting grounds who kept the coast several days before striking inland. These traveled on an average of about six miles per day. Their chief baggage in winter is the lamps, cooking pots, wooden supports for the lamps, and the pots and woman's table that stands before the lamp, and the boards that form the bed platform of the snow- houses. More than most Eskimo these groups practice keeping a large part of their belongings in caches here and there. This is pretty safe as a polar bear is seen once in many years only (we have spoken with middle- aged men who never saw a bear) and wol\-erines are absent from a large part of their territory. There are no i)owerful animals to break caches, therefore, neither wolves nor foxes will break a stone cache. When bound for the caribou hunting grounds and fisheries in the spring most families start inland by sled, though some are delayed on the coast by 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 81 this or that circumstance till the thaws have made sledding impossible. Those usually spend the summer not far inland, though we have seen within ten miles of Bear Lake men who had packed their camps on their backs from the mouth of Rae River on Coronation Gulf. A large kill of caribou near the coast may delay any party till the thaw overtakes them, but commonly they penetrate seventy-five or one hundred miles inland before the disap- pearance of snow (about the first week in June for the Coppermine district) compels the abandoning of sleds. When moving camp in summer the woman carries the stone cooking pot wrapped in bed skins, for the pot is very fragile. She also carries, if there be any, pups that are too small to walk and usually she carries the tent besides. If he has a kayak, the man carries this, his bow, arrows, all his tools, fragments of copper for making arrow-heads to replace those lost, and some other odds and ends. The one or two dogs carry backloads of meat and drag the sticks that go to make the tent frames. Thus loaded, the party travels at the rate of about two miles per hour but seldom moves over eight miles per day. The loads carried by the men and women are about of the same weight, and seldom exceed eighty pounds, for if there is more meat on hand than the dogs can carry they either delay till the surplus is eaten or dried down to suitable weight, or else a stone cache is made for the meats to serve as a relay on the return journey to the coast. Generally, therefore, a family returns to the coast by the way it came south in the spring, or else someone else takes up the caches if some special reason sends the owner by another route. Things cii cache seem to belong strictly to the maker of a cache, though all eat equally of the meat when the cache is once broken. Very seldom does anyone, however, help himself from another man's meat pile, his wife is expected to serve out the food to all who want it. On a windy day the long kayaks though they weigh not over forty pounds are very awkward to carry, and camp-moving is often delayed by a gale. When traveling a man will usually not take the trouble to launch his kayak on a lake less than two or three miles long. When a sufficiently long lake is found the kayak is put in the water, the rest of the man's back- load is stufted into the after end of it, and the man paddles quickly across. But the speed and ease are not all pure gain, for the wetting has increased the carrying weight of the boat and it has taken time to unpack and repack the load. When there are two kayaks they are lashed together side by side with cross sticks to form a sort of raft capable of carrying a heavy load. In that case the women, who have to walk around the lake, are relieved of a part of their load. This makes travel easier and pleasanter for all, and routes abounding in lakes are therefore chosen when possible. Those lakes will later on too, furnish good sled routes when the party returns to the coast in the fall along its line of caches. 82 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural Hisiory. [\'ol. XIV, During the .summer the people who hunt south of the Dease, chop out with their adzes planks of green spruce and set them up to dry. At the freeze-up the camps concentrate around these places, and sleds are made for the return journey to the coast. Some sleds are well made, if the maker intends it for permanent use or to trade off to the Victoria Islanders; some Fig. 26 (60-7085). 24 cm. Copper Fish Hook and Reel, Coronation Gulf. Length of hook, are poorly made and intended to serve only for a few days or weeks till the cache is reached where they left their good sled in the spring. At these sledmaking places are made also, both for use and to trade, quantities of wooden furniture and utensils, dishes, pails, tables, lamp supports, bows, etc. The favorite sled-making place south of Coronation Gulf is on a branch of the Dease (not inflicated on the ordinary maps) that heads near the northeast 1914.1 TJte Stefdnsson-Aiiderson Expedition. 83 corner of McTavish Bay, flows north, west, and then southwest into the Dease, joining that river about fifteen or eighteen miles above its mouth. The immediate locahty is a clump of trees onlj' a few acres in extent, located about fifteen miles up stream from the confluence with the Dease. This place is well-know^n to the Bear Lake Slaveys and is called by them "Big Stick Island." In the fall of 1910 the manufacture of wooden articles here Fig. 27 (60-7086). Three-pronged Fish Spear with Copper Prongs, Coronation Gulf. Length, 39 cms. Fig. 28 (60-7084). 28 cms. Copper Fish Hoolc and Line, Coronation Gulf. Length of Hook, was interfered with by the scarcity of caribou for food, and many left before sufficient snow came, carrying their sleds on their backs towards Dismal Lake. The Coronation Gulf and Straits Eskimo use a head strap in carrying heavy loads. Head straps are also in use among the Unalit, Kaviragmiut (inland from Port Clarence), Killirmiut (upper Colville) and generally 84 Anthropologiail Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, among those Alaskans who hunt towards the Yukon and come in frequent contact with the Indians to the south, while we have not seen it in use among the people of the north coast of Alaska, in the Mackenzie Delta, or at Cape Bathurst (the Baillie Islands). A sidelight is thrown upon the habit of extensive summer movements among these people by some c^uestions we asked a family from the Kent Peninsula whom we saw near Bear Lake. They had been at Bear Lake before, but not habitually, they said. We asked them why they came so far. "But this is not far; we often go farther in the spring to where there are trees." The route bj^ which they came to Bear Lake may have been any- thing between three hundred and five hundred miles. That they consider this "not far" is significant. Just where they "sometimes go" we could not make sure, probably to Hanbury's Akilinik River. Hunting Implements and Weapons. The seal spear or harpoon does not differ in principle from those in use by Eskimo elsewhere. The lance head is sometimes of copper, more often of iron. We have been told that stone heads are still occasionally used, but have seen none, though we have seen stone-headed arrows. The lance warp attached to the detachable head is of bearded seal thong among the Akulia- kattagmiut but generally of braided deer sinew in Victoria Island. The Xogluktogmiut have both types. That caribou are more plentiful in Victoria Island may be the reason for the prevalent use of deer sinew there. There are tw^o methods of catching fish, by hook and by spear. The hooks are generally of copper, unbarbed. The spear is of the ordinary Eskimo three-pronged type, the barbs of the two side prongs being of copper, typically, and the prongs themselves of musk-ox horn or caribou antler. These spears are often mounted on handles over twenty feet long. A combi- nation of the hook and spear is found in hooks mounted on spear handles. The difference in use between these and spears is merely that in spearing the fish is transfixed by a thrust, in hooking it is transfixed by a jerk towards- the fisherman. The simple hooks are generally used without bait. In using the spear or polo-hook the fisherman holds the shaft in one hand, while with the other he dangles in the water near the spear or hook, a bait attached to a long string. This bait is usually the canine tooth of a wolf or bear. The caribou spear is used only in connection with the kayak for killing deer as they swim lakes or rivers. There are typically two spears to a set. W hen the kayaks at the spearing places are made ready to be launched two spears are attached to the deck of the craft, forward of the manhole; in 1914.1 The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 85 traveling the spears are usually packed inside the kayak. The head is not barbed nor detachable, as the weapon is intended for repeated successive rapid stabs at the same animal or different animals. The heads of spears seen by us (not over twenty all together) were in about equal number of copper and iron. The bow is the most important of all the hunting implements. By it is secured in summer all the food of the two hundred or so people who in 1910 hunted south of the Dease River, or at least over 90% of it. I have never seen a fish hook in use here, but have known of one or two fish being clubbed with a stick and of a few ptarmigan being killed with stones. There are no spermophile to be snared in this district. All bows intended for serious use are of the three-piece or "Tartar" type. Very small boys (under six years) sometimes have toy bows of the Fig. 29 (60-6972). Copper Pole Hook: In use it is fastened to a long pole. Originally, there were two prongs of copper as indicated in the drawing, the one remaining is 26 cm. long. The shaft is of bone. From the PalUrmiut, mouth of Rae River, Coronation Gulf. rib of a caribou or musk-ox, or of an unshaped willow twig. Boys of eight years and over, women, and able-bodied hunters alike have three-piece bows, the difference as to the age and sex of the owner being expressed solely through the weight and stiffness of the bow and the length and character of the head of the arrows. The bows of the Akuliakattagmiut are generally made of driftwood, as well as those of the Haneragmiut and the Victoria Islanders north and west of them. All these get the materials from the mainland shore near Cape Bexley, except the Kanhiryuarmiut who secure driftwood to some extent on their owti coast, but chiefly on the west coast of Banks Island. All these buy many bows, ready made, however, more especially the Victoria Islanders. In trade among themselves an ordinary seven-inch butcher knife (generally from Hudson Bay) is equal in value to a good bow with Fig. 30 (60.1-3462b). Bow, Prince Albert Sound, Victoria Island: a, side view- back view; 6, detail of wooden parts. Length of a, 124 cm. Fig. 31 ab (60-6938a). Bow Case, Prince Albert Sound, Victoria Island: detail of both sides and attachments. Length, 137 cm. 88 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Nalural History. [Vol. XIV, bow case, quiver, and full complement of arrows, fifteen to twenty. A "number one" steel sewing needle was worth about the same in 1910. The Victoria Islanders east of the Haneragmiut, a few families of them each year, practise hunting in summer to the Coppermine and Bear Lake for the purpose of securing wood for bows for themselves and for trade, as Fig. 32 (60-6975d). Types of Copper Arrow-Heads from the same Quiver as Fig. 34, Coronation Gulf. Length of a, 10 cm. well as wood for other articles. Besides this, they buy many bows, chiefly, perhaps, from the Kogluktogmiut. The Kogluktogmiut and others who hunt towards Bear I^ake make their bows exclusi\ely of green spruce trees. These are chopped down with adzes and roughed-out in midsummer. After drying a month or so the bow materials are further shaped with the crooked knife and perhaps made into bows on the spot, perhaps carried unfinished to the coast in the fall. 1914. The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 89 The backing of the bows is preferably of the leg sinew of old bull caribou; the leg sinew of smaller animals is also used, and even back sinew. There are three or more different ways of preparing this backing and applying it to the bow. The bowstring is of sinew braided three-ply into a long slender line. This line is then taken four, five, or six-fold and twisted into a round cord from one-eighth to one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter. When the bow is strung the bowstring usually touches the frame of the bow on the two Fig. 33 (60-6939, e, d, k, c, h, f, g). Bone and Ivory Arrow-Heads from the same Quiver, Kent Peninsula. Length of a, 23 cm. convex curves. The length between tips of the strung bow is from four and a half to five and a half feet in those used by men ; those for women and boys are smaller in all dimensions with less sinew backing and more slender bowstrings. The arrows are much longer, by six to ten inches, than those used by the Mackenzie Eskimo or the Bear Lake Slavey Indians. At Kittegaryuit, eastern Mackenzie Delta, I have been told that the standard length of ar- rows was equal to that from the left shoulder joint to tip of middle finger of 90 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Nalural Ilislory. [Vol. XIV, tlu' owner's left hand; there seems to he more variation in the Straits and Gulf ueeording to the strength of the indiNidual and the span and stiffness of the bow, but in general a short arrow is measured between tlie chin and middle finger tip of the maker, and a long one from the right shoulder joint to the tip of the middle finger of the left hand. The ordinary arrow (all except the blunt bird arrows used l)y women and boys, and the " killing arrow") may consist of from three to five pieces when new; a mended arrow may ha\e more parts separately joined together. In other words, the wooden shaft of the arrow may be of one, two, or three pieces,in addition to which there always is a caribou antler head piece pointed with a cutting blade of stone, iron, or copper. Of several hundred arrows seen, o\'er ninety percent were copper-headed and perhaps one percent had stone heads, the rest, tin, iron, or steel. Most of the arrows of the Akulia- kattagmiut seen in May (we saw only two or three ({uivers out of o\er twenty) had a three-piece shaft, but at that time our command of the local dialect was so poor that I could not make sure if the ow-ners had made or bought these arrows; the arrows later seen frqm Uminmuktok generally had a one-piece shaft, but there was such confusion on account of frequent barter: a man often had in the evening a quite different set of arrows from wdiat he had in the morning, if there were many men aroimd and the day was one of idleness. Another element of confusion is the frequent marrying of men into distant groups, where a son may continue his father's methods in spite of the different practice of those around him. Direct inquiry often failed to show a man's foreign parentage; some did not seem to know or have any interest in their parents' ancestry, and an accidental remark of some old man or woman would l)ring it out afterwards. For these and similar reasons I am still in doubt where to localize the three- piece arrow-shafts, though they seem to be more frequent in Victoria Island than on the mainland and more frequent in the west than in the east. It might be tliought that the quality of wood used for the shaft had something to do directly with the number of pieces spliced together to make it, but this seems not to be the case. One man will take pains to straighten a crooked stick over a fire to make a one-piece shaft, another will take a stick as straight as a tight string, cut it in three pieces and splice these together laboriously by means of sinew and seal blood glue. There are four or fi\'e variants on the method of splicing as to whether sinew alone, blood alone, or sineW' and blood together are used to join the pieces. When blood is used the joint is carefully dried over a charcoal fire, the sticks being held in place meantime Avith temporary lashings. There are two forms of the joint. F'ig. 37-38. When blood alone is employed, the second type of joint is in- variably used. 191-1. The Slejdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 91 Fig. 34 (60-6975e, f, f). Iron and Bone Arrow-Heads from the same Quiver as Fig. 32, Coronation Gulf, c. Rivets of copper. Length of a, 29 cm. Fig. 35 (60-6938P, e, g, i, h, o, s, f, q, n). Copper Arrow-Heads selected from a single Quiver, Prince Albert Somid, Victoria Island. Length of a, 20 cm. 92 Anthropological Papers Amencan Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, The section of the shaft nearest the head is invariably of caribou antler. This is from fi\e to eight inches in length, slightly flattened or round and fits by a romul spike-like point and shoulder into a socket in the front end of the wooden shaft, while a slit in the front end of the antler piece holds the metal or stone cutting blade of the arrow-head. There is generally some device for holding this part of the arrow in the flesh of a wounded animal: it may be one or more small notches on one or both sides of the arrow, or it may be one or more long flange barbs. One specimen seen had four barbs each over an inch long forming a complete circle around the shaft just back of the metal head, another had six one-inch barbs set in two rows on opposite sides. These barbs are rarely of inserted metal but of one piece with the antler forward end of the shaft. The metal head varies in shape and size almost indefinitely, as well as in the number and character of barbs, or in their absence. The one fairly constant character is the shape of the point, which is the same as that of both copper and iron knives of their own fashioning. Fig. 36 shows some of the types seen. They make no attempt at geometric regularity in the outline shape of arrow-heads except in the point, where the two cutting sides are the equal sides of an obtuse isosceles triangle. Occasional heads are of very irregular shape; these are generally iron heads, the shape no doubt due to that of the original piece of iron. The copper arrow-heads are roughly hammered out with stones picked up at the place the arrow-heads happen to be made. We have never seen any sort of a hammer as part of the tool-kit carried by anybody. The finishing touches are given by grinding the arrow-head held in the hand against any rough stone that happens to be convenient, generally a large stone lying on the ground, not a small one used as we use whetstones. A few men have files, mostly from Hudson Bay, but these are usually saved for iron tools. The head is glued into the antler forepiece of the shaft with seal blood, usually, though it is sometimes fastened with copper rivets. The shank of the antler piece fits tightly into, but is not glued into, its socket in the wooden shaft. It does not seem to be deliberately intended that the head or antler piece shall be detachable, but as a matter of fact, in about two cases out of three, the wooden shaft does become detached and is usually lost if the wounded animal carries the arrow far, wliile an arrow -liead is seldom lost that strikes an animal, unless the animal escapes. The arrows here are feathered in a careless, perfunctory way, as opposed to the practice among the Bear Lake Slavey or the Mackenzie Eskimo, in both of which places bows are still occasionally made. The feathers most commonly used are those of the snowy owl and Aarious hawks, eagles, and 1914.1 The Stefdnsson-Atiderson Expedition. 93 Fig. 36. Fig. 37. Fig. 38. Fig. 36. Forms of Metal Arrow Points. Fig. 37 (60.1-3462cl). Splices for Arrow-Sliafts, Prince Albert Sound, Coronation Oulf. Fig. 38 (60-6970) . Form of Splice used in Spear and Harpoon Shafts, Coronation Gidf. Interlocking grooves prevent slipping under the strain of a thrust. 94 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [\'ol. XIV t^J ,^ r, ^'''^■^^ (60-6939 g, p. r, s). Contents (including Figs. 41-42) of the Tool Bag attarlied to Bow Case, 60-6939. Kent Peninsula. Length of a, 21 cm. 1914. The S(efdnsson-A nderson Expedition . 95 Fig. 40 (60-697511). Shaft Straightener, Coronation Gulf. Length, 19 cm. Fig. 41 a, h (60-6939n). Feathens for Arrows and Bag for the same, Kent Peninsula. Length of a, 23 cm. 96 Aitlhropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, loons. Ptannigiiii IViitliers arc not used, if others are available. The midrib of the feather is spUt and the two halves (the pieces about four inches long) are tied witli sinew on opposite sides of the shaft in the usual way. But the feathers are often twisted, are badly worn away on old arrows, and are sometimes one or l)oth partly or oven wholly missing. The "killing arrow" (h'fTers from the others in having no metal head. On the front of the shaft of wood is set a long double-edged dagger blade of caribou antler from eight to twelve inches long. This arrow is used to despatch wounded animals and is discharged at close range behind the shoulder of the caribou into the heart. It is also used by the men to shoot birds, as men seldom carry blunt arrows. This arrow is never liarbed. The blunt bird arrows are carried only by women and ])oys and are used chiefly against ptarmigan. The shaft is of the ordinary character, except a little shorter than is usual. The head is of antler (or of wood, in the case of very small boys) and has a flat front end or one slightly rounded, to give a stunning blow. As to the efficiency of the bow: Tolerable accuracy, such as is needed in shooting birds, is not secured beyond a range of twenty-five or thirty yards. Against caribou the effective range varies with different archers generally between seventy-five and ninety yards, and is probably not over one hundred. At thirty or fifty yards meml)ers of our party have repeatedly seen an arrow pass through the thorax or abdomen of an adult caribou and fly several yards beyond. An arrow seldom breaks a caribou l)one, except a rib; never, it is said, does it break a leg, though the point may penetrate a long bone slightly and even stick fast in it. When an arrow lodges in an animal, every movement of the body causes pain and tends to increase bleeding. For this reason an animal that would keep moving with a simi- larly located bullet wound will lie down if it carries an arrow, and will thus give a chance for a second shot. Much fewer wounded animals escape from the bow hunters than do from the rifle-using Eskimo of Alaska. Barren ground ])ears and nuisk-oxen are also killed with bows and arrows, but none of our party have been present at any such hunt. A defect of the "Tartar" l)ow^ is that as its shooting power depends entirely, or almost so, on the sinew backing, the weapon becomes weak or useless if the sinew gets damp. Eskimo therefore protect their bows care- fully in bags of waterproof sealskin, and are reluctant to use them in a rain or even a heavy fog. For this reason, also, the bows must be daily tested to see if the backing or the bowstring has become too tense or too lax from dryness or damp. There is seldom a day, even w^hen the Iww is not used, that it is not partly taken to pieces for one reason or another, generally to give an extra twist to the backing or to relax it by taking a turn out of it. 1914. The Stefdnsson- Anderson E.vpeiition. 97 Deadfall traps are known, but we have seen none in use. One man of the Kogluktogmiut had two common steel traps from Hudson Bay through Uminmuktok; he had never set them for wolves or foxes but used them for trapping birds at their nests, and for spermophiles. This man had a wolf- skin coat of two wolves he had shot with his bow. Ordinary snares seem unknown, either for use against animals or birds, but boys catch spermo- philes (marmots) with a string snare set in the mouth of the hole, when the animal emerges from the hole the string is jerked after the manner of farm boys catching gophers. The kayak might be described as a hunting implement for it is only incidentally used for other purposes than spearing caribou. It is never used, we were told, for sealing. A sufficient explanation for which is that the people are never on the sea and seldom near it during the period of open Fig. 42 (60-6939,0). Bone Thumb Guards, Kent Peninsula. Length, 5 cm. water. The kayak has, so far as we know, disappeared during the present generation from among Kanhiryuarmiut, the Nuwukpagmiut, Haneragmiut, and Akuliakattagmiut and is owned by less than one hunter of five among all the other groups familiar to us. It seems in danger of becoming obsolete. The Coronation Gulf kayaks seen are up to sixteen feet in length and barely wide enough at the widest to accommodate the maker, sitting in the ordinary kayaker fashion. The width varies therefore somewhat according to the stoutness of the man who makes it. A man always makes a kayak or almost anything else for himself, though he may later sell it. We have known of no kayak made by another man than the one who used it. These kayaks are therefore longer and narrower than those of the Baillie Islands or the Mackenzie. The frame is of dry spruce, generally driftwood, and is much clumsier and heavier than any we have seen in the west. The lashings are thongs of the common seal and the skin that covers the frame is of the 98 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, same animal. Several Alaskan groups make kayaks of caribou skin which makes a lighter boat, but less durable. The skin co^'er is removed each fall and generally is used for one purpose or another, while the old frame is covered with new skins next spring, if the kayak is to be used that summer. As a man may, and usually does, hunt in different places different years, he may have use for a kayak one year and no use for it the next. Implements and Tools. The most important items under this head are the woman's ulu, the man's snow knife and crooked knife. Both the ulu and snow knife are fre- quently of copper, otherw^ise of iron. We have seen several ulus made of heavy sheet tin which must have come from the refuse piles of some of the English ships of the Franklin Search Expedition, probably from those of Collinson's " Enterprise " at Cambridge Bay or Minto Inlet, Victoria Island, or from iVI'Clure's "Investigator" at the Bay of Mercy, Banks Island. Whatever the material of which the blade of the ulu consists, the general shape is such as would be secured by mounting a section of the blade of a cheese knife or buck-saw% T fashion, in a handle. (Fig. 43.) The broad part of the antler handle that runs up on the blade, is so thin that it does not interfere with the depth of the cut made by the ulu into such soft materials as cooked or uncooked flesh. When the ulu is of copper, it may be all of one piece up to the musk-ox horn hand grip, the riveted middle piece of antler being replaced l)y an extension of the copper blade. The same general shape ob- tains, however. We ha\'e also secured specim(>ns of ulus in which a riveted middle piece of metal replaces the antler. The striking thing about these ulus to one who comes from among the Western Eskimo, is that the cutting edge is straight except near either end of the blade. The western type of ulu in present use from the Baillie Islands at least to Icy Cape has a curved cutting edge similar to that of knives used by harness-makers. The copper snow knives, and the iron ones, if th(> material allows it, have Fig. 43. General Form of the Ulu. 1914. The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 99 a broad, double-edged spear blade six to twelve inches long, mounted on a handle of caribou long enough to easily accommodate the two mittened hands of the man who uses it, or a handle from seven to ten inches long. The handle is wound with split roots of the small arctic willow. It flares at the end into a thin, kidney-shaped widening. One side of this kidney- shaped spade is perforated and a string attached for tying the knife fast to the bow case in summer, when it is used as a hunting and skinning knife. The sheath for the knife is separately tied to the bow case, so that the knife lies horizontally when the bow and ciuiver are slung across the hunter's back. Fig. 44 a (60-6992), 6 (60-6991), c (60-6997), d (60-6993), e (60-6994). Ulus with Iron Blades: a, b and c. Coronation Gulf; d, Puiplirmint; and e, Nagyulitogmint. Lengtli of a, blade, 19 cm. In winter the knife is carried in the sled, or held in the hand. (Cf. Richard- son's account of the way in which knives were formerly carried in the Mac- kenzie Delta, Arctic Search Expedition.) The two things of perhaps the greatest interest about the knives are : (a) that the knives are always shar- pened not only on both sides the blade, but each edge is sharpened from both sides, as white men sharpen a knife, Avhile from the Baillie Islands west to the Yukon mouth, both on the coast and inland, Eskimo sharpen knives of all sizes on one side the edge only, or in the manner in which we sharpen scissors. Coronation Gulf and Victoria Island people sharpen only the 100 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, Fig. 45. General Form of Knife found West of Coronation Gulf. r^'c- Fig. 46 (60-6984). Copper Knife with Caribou Antler Handle, Mouth of Rae River, Coronation Gulf. Length, 39 cm. Fig. 47 (60-6980). Steel Knife with a Bone Handle. The blade is stamped "Fox Collected at Coronation Gulf. Length, 43 cm. Fig. 48 (60-6983) . Copper Knife with Bone Handle. This specimen was piu-chased of Taptuna, living east of the Akuliakattagmiut but met with at the foot of Basil Hall Bay, Coronation Gulf. Length, 44 cm. 1914. The Slefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 101 crooked knife, scissor fashion, (b) The fideHty with which the shape of the copper knives is copied in the iron knives whenever the character of the material allows fidelity. If the blade as a w^hole cannot be coerced into shape, the peculiar local type of point w^ill at least be given it; the same point as is found on all their arrows, spears, and lances. This type of point is not Fig. 49 a (60-6982), h (60-6978), c (60.1-3463), d (60-6979), e (60-6981). Steel Knives, o, Pallirmiut; c. Prince Albert Sound, Victoria Island; 6, d, e. Coronation Gulf; the rivets are of copper. Length of o, 33 cm. familiar to me from farther west, where the blade of any butcher knife is soon filed into the type shown in Fig. 45. It is to be expected that in knives as well as other things closer affinities will be found to the east than to the west, for our discussion goes to show that not only in the recent past, but also in the more distant past, relations with the east have been more continuous and probably more friendly. 102 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, The crooked kuit'c here is the same as farther west except for one rather interesting thing; the handle of a Straits or Gulf crooked knife is just what the handle of a western knife would be if about six or eight inches were cut off its tip. In other words, each knife gives the impression of having been made with a handle capable of reaching, and resting on, the user's elbow, and then of having had a piece sawed off so that now the handle can reach only about two-thirds of the distance from the wrist to the elbow when held in the usual western fashion. Both my Eskimo and I took the first dozen or so crooked knives we saw to be broken, but the uniform length of the han- dles and their uniformly " sawed-off " appearance led me to ask directly, and I learned they were " always made so ". The knife here, too, is held in the manner in which the Slavey Indians hold their crooked knives (about as we might a hunting knife in making sha^'ings to kindle a fire), and not in the pe- culiar manner of the Western Eskimo. In working a large stick the end of the handle is often stuck in the ground or held with the foot or knee, a posi- tion I have never seen farther west. The handle is always of caribou antler. The three-piece drill, bowdrill, or firedrill is here what it is elsewhere, practically. The bow is usually one of the long ribs of a musk-ox, the mouthpiece often the bone from the hock-joint of a caribou, and the stem of the drill of antler, musk-oxen, or bear bone, the point most often of iron but occasionally of copper. For drilling the eyes of needles, the drill point is usually a fragment of a broken needle. Various less familiar minor tools and implements are difficult to describe without illustrations: wound pins, not like the familiar wound pegs for seal, for pinning up gashes in skin, rents in a caribou stomach that is to be used as a bag for blood, etc., handgrips for carrying blood-filled caribou stomachs, sinew stretchers for bows, bone thim- bles, and thim})le holders, marrow extractors, for the long bones of deer, copper chisels for perforating sled planks, etc. For the forms of such speci- mens as we were able to bring home, the reader is referred to the drawings. There is a general rough division of labor between the sexes although un- der certain circumstances a man may do any kind of woman's work and a w'oman any kind of man's work. There is no taboo restriction in this matter apparently. At any rate it seems to me that men among the Coi)per Eskimo and in fact all Eskimo whom I know, are less likely to mind doing such work as mending clothes, cooking, or looking after children than white men would be Under similar circumstances. But besides this sexual division of labor there is a rudimentary one of another sort. Lame men or others for some reason not well able to hunt are likely to be occupied in the making and mend- ing of implements and utensils and in some cases a man's skill at bow-making or pot-making is well known to be superior to the average and he therefore makes bows and pots for his neighbors occasionally merely as a favor, but 1914.] The Slefdnsson- Anderson Expedition. 103 sometimes also for pay. Commonly a man who makes pots, for instance, is thereby handicapped in hunting and is consequently paid in caribou skins which he needs to clothe himself and his family. There is also a specialization of industries by tribes according to the natural resources of the country. The Kogluktogmiut and others who hunt south to the woods of Great Bear Lake during the summer, make from spruce saplings large numbers of the type of tent poles necessary' for the A- shaped skin tents that are in common use. They also make complete bows of wood, sinew, and antler all of which are more abundant among them than among most other of the mainland tribes. They also rough out the wooden materials for bows intended for sale to men who themselves are sufficiently supplied with sinew to be able to finish the work. Commonly, those who hunt to Bear Lake abandon their sleds in the spring in the neighborhood of the seacoast and make new ones in the Bear Lake woods upon which to haul to the coast their household gear and the wooden wares they have made in summer. When they get to the coast with these new sleds they find there waiting for them the old sled of the year before and as no man has more than three dogs nor use for more than one sled, there is always one sled for sale. Besides the articles already mentioned, the Bear Lake hunters during the summer make large numbers of snow shovels, wooden platters, planks intended for the floors of snowhouses, tables, and sideboards to he used in connection with the cooking over the seal oil lamp and the uprights and cross pieces needed for supporting the lamp on the table and for swinging the stone pots as well as supporting the drying frame upon which the damp clothing is dried over the flame of the lamp, harpoon shafts, and spear shafts both for the caribou lance and the fishing spear as well as for the long gafl^s that are chiefly used by the fishermen at Bloody Fall. All these are made in greater quantities than are needed by the makers and the Bear Lake hunters may therefore be considered merchants in wooden ware. While the Bear Lake people make their implements and utensils out of green standing trees which they chop down at great labor with adzes, the Akuliakattagmiut also make various wooden articles for sale out of the driftwood which is more abundant on their beach than upon the shores of the rest of the Copper Eskimo district. While the Bear Lake men have to rough out each piece from the green wood and leave it for months to dry before the wood is seasoned enough for finishing, the Akuliakattagmiut find the wood already seasoned to their hand. Neither do they have to carry the made articles long distances to the seacoast as do the Bear Lake traders. As a consequence, the Akuliakattagmiut are also great makers of sleds and bows and other wooden things with which they supply a consider- 104 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural Hislonj. [Vol. XIV, i '1 >' 1 f, HWim Fig. 50 ab (60-6990), cd (60-6985). Crooked Blade Knives, Coronation Gulf. The first has an iron blade, the second copper ; the rivets are of copper. Length of a, 26 cm. 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 105 Fig. 51 ab (60-698S), c (60-6989). d (60-7004). Crooked Blade Knives of Iron, Corona- tion Gulf. Length of a, 13 cm. 106 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural Hislory. [Vol. XIV, Fig. 52 (60-7048 a-d, g. i, j). Tool Bag and Contents, Coronation Gulf. Length of a, 51 cm. e, has a copper blade. 1914. The Stefdnsson- Anderson Expedition. 107 Fig. 53. Fig. 54, Fig. 5.3 (60-7011). Knife Sharpener, Bone Handle with Steel Insert, Coronation Gulf. Length, 9 cm. Fig. 54 a (60-7013), 6 (60-6986, copper blade), c (60-7012). Small Knives or Graver's Tools, Coronation Gulf. Length of a, 9 cm. Fig. 55 a (60-7001), 6 (60-7000). Saws, Coronation Gulf. Length of a, 25 cm. 108 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural Histori/. [Vol. XIV, Fig. 56. Fig. 57. -{ITg.i-Jr^-c.-Te Fig. 56 (60-6999). Adze Head, Iron Blade, Antler Haft, Pallirmiut. Length, 17 cm. Fig. 57 (60-7076). Whetstone from Coronation Gulf. The surface bears traces of copper from use upon copper tools. Length, 9.5 cm. Fig. 58 (60-6987). Piece of Worked Copper from Rae River. Length, 12 cm. 1914.1 The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 109 Fig. 59. Fig. 60. Fig. 59 (60-6962). Wooden Snow Shovel, edged with Ivory, Coronation Gulf. Length, 98 cm. Fig. 60 a (60-7007), 6 (60-7050), c (60-7049). Bowdrill Set from Coronation Gulf. Length of c, 48 cm. 110 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, Fig. 61 o (60-6976) , b (60-6977) . Snow Knives made of Bone, Coronation Gulf. Length of a, 42 cm. Fig. 62 (60.1-3467). Bone Pin from Prince Albert Sound, Victoria Island. Length, 14 cm. Fig. 63 a (60-7033b), b (60-7033a). Bone Pegs from Coronation Gulf. Length, 18 cm. 1914. The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. Ill Fig. 64 a (C0-7017C), b ((60-7045), c (60-7034). A Sinew Stretcher (o), Knot Opener I), and Awl (c) I'rom Coronation Gulf. Length of a, 8 cm. Fig. 65 a (60.1-3474), b (60.1-3469), c (60.1-3470), d (60.1-3473), e (60.1-3471). Deco- rated Toggles from Prince Albert Sound, Victoria Island. Length of a, 9 cm. 112 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, able portion of \'ictoriii Island. Their sleds and their hows are considered to be about as good as those from Bear Lake although the bows intended ,for sale are seldom if ever completely finished for caribou sinew is scarce with the Akuliakattagmiut. In one thing only do the Bear Lake products excel according to popular estimation and that is that their tent poles being made of the slim saplings that grow in the thick woods are better than ones made on the sea shore by the splitting of large logs and adzing them down. About the most difficult article to make is a snow shovel. The biggest of them are as much as twenty inches wdde. It is therefore in the first place difficult to find either in the Bear Lake woods or on the sea beach of the Akuliakattagmiut a log so big that a shovel of this size can be adzed out of it, and then the labor is self-evidently considerable especially in view of the care for size and sharpness of the tools with which the work has to be done. We fovmd, accordingly, in Coronation Gulf that a good snow shovel made of one piece of wood was worth as much as a dog or as any but the very best sleds. The Utkusiksaligmiut from the nature of their country are dealers in stone lamps and stone pots. Sometimes a family- from as far aw^ay as Cape Bexley will make a journey to Tree River in order to find material for pots and lamps for their own use and for sale to their countrymen upon their return which is sometimes at the end of a year, sometimes in two or more years. More commonly, however, the distant tribes buy lamps and pots. It takes a good deal both of labor and patience to make a large stone pot. The largest specimen which w^e actually secured and brought home is twenty- five inches long, but we saw another pot which was not for sale that was nearly forty inches long. The maker of this pot, one Ivarluk, told us that he had spent an entire summer in its construction and had for that reason been unable to hunt caribou so that he had been forced to purchase skins for clothing for his whole family that fall. While doing the work he had camped beside the best fishing place he knew^ of and stayed right there until the pot was finished. The making of a stone lamp is evidently not so difficult a task. The chief tool used nowadays is an iron adze, the iron being procured chiefly by tribe to tribe trade from Hudson Bay, although some of it is said to date back to the finding and plundering of M'Clure's ship on the north coast of Banks Island, which must have been somewhere in the '50's of the last cen- tury. When iron is not at hand it is said that tools of stone take its place. As all soapstone products are fragile and especially so the cooking pots be- cause they are made thin, there arises continually the necessity of supplying new pots and lamps. In earlier times before the coming of the Hudson Bay trading post at Fort McPherson on the lower Mackenzie broke up the chain of continuity of the coastal trade between Coronation Gulf and Bering 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 113 Strait, it is probable that the making of stone lamps and pots was an industry of far greater proportions than it is today. For, as elsewhere pointed out, it seems clear that this community and ones east of it supplied all the steatite cooking gear used to the west as far as Siberia. Of the tribes whom we visited, the Kanhiryuarmiut are paramountly the makers of weapons and implements of copper. From the deposits northeast of Prince Albert Sound and from pieces of float which they pick up here and there they make long-bladed hunting knives, the ordinary half-moon shaped woman's knives, crooked knives for whittling purposes, copper rods for the foreshafts of seal harpoons, points for ice chisels, blades for caribou spears, seal harpoons and arrows, prongs for fish hooks, needles for sewing, and nails and spikes used in the making or mending of articles of wood, horn, or bone. Naturally, they have more practice than members of other tribes in the making of these copper articles and they are the wares for which they purchase sleds and other wooden articles, which if they are from the Cape Bexley region come to them through the intermediary of the Haneragmiut while if they are from Bear Lake they come through the territory of the Puiplirmiut. Some of these copper articles also they take with them on their long trade excursions to the head of Chesterfield Inlet where they exchange them for articles of wood and even for certain white men's wares for although they do not meet white men on the Akilinik, they meet there Eskimo who deal with the white men of Hudson Bay. Besides the sale of made articles of copper, there is also a considerable trade in raw materials. The chief of these are pieces of unshaped copper and the skins of summer-killed caribou. The caribou skins seem to go chiefly to the Akuliakattagmiut through the hands of the Haneragmiut in exchange for articles of wood. A good many tribes do not have any special advantage of territory that tends to develop industries along special lines but in general these occupy the position of middlemen between other tribes. As has been pointed out above, the Haneragmiut receive copper and caribou skins from the north and articles of wood from the south and these act as go-betweens for the Haneragmiut and Akuliakattagmiut. Their only peculiar local resource is that there are some deposits of iron pyrites, a substance that is universally used by the Copper Eskimo in kindling fire, and this they sell to many of the surrounding tribes. The Puiplirmiut also act as middlemen between Prince Albert Sound and the Coppermine River passing articles of wood on northward as well as cooking utensils of stone and receiving in exchange copper and caribou skins. The wooden articles, however, are only in part those received from the Coppermine people proper, for a few of the Pui- plirmiut each year go to Great Bear Lake to secure wood for their own use and for trade. 114 Atilhropologictd Papers American Museum of Natural Ilistori/. [Vol. XIV, Clothing. All coats for summer or winter wear are preferably of caribou skin, except the raincoats which are of the skin of the common seal. The cut of the coat is much in the form of our formal evening dress, except that they are whole in front on the breast and are therefore put on after the manner of Fig. 6G. (a) Prince Albert Sound Man in Winter Costiune; 0>) Victoria Islantl Costume. our sweaters. In front the coat (both sexes practically alike) comes down only to about the tip of the sternum, the long tail may reach barely to the knee or quite to the ankle, according to the fancy of the wearer, apparently. The coats ar? not trimmed with wolverine as in .Vlaska or anv skin other than 1914.1 The Stefdnsson-Atulersoti Expedition. 115 caribou, but have a narrow tape of caribou skin sewed along all borders to keep the edges from rolling up. Some coats are ornamented, strips of white deerskin sewed into the coat in various places, especially on the breast or along the borders of the coat tail. There may also be strings sewed on for ornament; and there may be bone buttons, shells, weasel-tails, etc., worn for ornament or as charms. There are two coats worn in winter, the inner with the hair turned in, the outer with the hair turned out. The sleeves are Fig. 07. Group ol' Prince Albert Sound jSIen. short, seldom come c^uite down to the wrist joint. The hood does not come well forward on top the head as it does in the coats of most other Eskimo, but leaves almost the entire top of the head exposed, the edge of the hood slanting forward and down so as to barely cover the ears. • This form of coat is evidently not adapted to winter storms, and most persons therefore have a storm coat in readiness to put on over one or both the others if the wind blows, or if a snowhouse is to be Iniilt. This coat is as 116 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, Fig. 68 (60-6882a). Woman's Boots, Coronation Gulf. Length, 1 m. Fig. 09 (60.1-3601). Slioo of Sealskin, Coronation Gulf. Length, 24 cm. 1914.] The Stefdnsson~Anderso7i Expedition. 117 often of seal as of deer ; it has the same hood and same short sleeves that the others have, but it comes down to the knees both before and behind and thus is a more satisfactory garment in a bhzzard. The bottom edge of this coat is never trimmed evenly, it has all the flaps and unevenness of the original deerskin or sealskin. If it be of sealskin, the margin has in it the holes by which the green hide was pegged out to dry. This garment never has ornamentation of any kind. The sealskin storm coats are identical with the raincoats used in summer, the hair worn out, both winter and summer. The breeches worn by the men are of caribou skin preferably, or of marmot skins. They come well up to the tip of the sternum instead of barely above the hips, as in Alaska, and reach down to the middle of the calf of the leg. They do not have a pucker-string at the knee as among the western Eskimo. Two pairs are worn, the inner hair in, the outer hair out. In summer when but a single garment is worn, both coat and breeches are usually worn hair out. There are two types of mittens. Although the coat sleeves are short, the mittens commonly worn are without gauntlets leaxing usually a bare strip an inch or more wide at the wrist. These mittens are of thin summer fawnskin or legskin of young caribou yearlings. The second type of mitten is of caribou skin or sealskin, has a gauntlet that comes almost up to the elbow, and pucker-string by which it is tightened around the forearm so that no snow can enter. This mitten is used in snowhouse building and in blizzards. It is seldom put on without assistance, a second person's help is required to tighten the pucker-string of the gauntlet. The footgear worn differs strikingly from that in use at the Baillie Islands or west. In the west there are many variants, but in general at the Baillie Islands and the Mackenzie both boots and socks come either just up to or just above the knee and are held in place by a pucker-string of the breeches, which comes outside the boots at the top. Generally, in Alaska the boots have a pucker-string at the top whether they be ankle or knee boots. Every- where in the west the women's nether garments are in one piece from the waist down (in the manner of fishermen's wading pants), and short (ankle) boots are worn over these. In some cases a slipper, usually of sealskin, is worn between the socks and boots. East of Cape Bexley and in Victoria Island, two pairs of socks are worn, both reaching up to the knee. These are not worked soft, as in the west, but the skins are intentionally left stiff so that the leg may hold its shape. The leg is widest at the top and comes just up to the knee, with no pucker- string to hold it up. A slipper is worn between the two pairs of socks. The breeches overlap the socks at the top by about three inches, and are 1 IS Anthropdoffical Papers American Mxiseum of Nilural History. |Vol XIV, Fig. 70 (60-6947). Pattern for the Hood to a Woman's Coat, Fig. 71. SHOULDER LINE Fig. 71 (60-6947). Patterns for Front and Back of Woman's Coat, Coronation Gulf 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 119 not tied with a i^ucker-string. The knee joint is thus left far more free in walking than is the case among western Eskimo. Outside the socks is used a shoe of sealskin. This is of a peculiar shape, differing radically in cut from a western Eskimo boot. It resembles, in fact, rather closely the sheepskin shoe worn in Iceland, more closely at least, than it does the western boot. An essential of the boot in the west is that it has a sole of another material (or at least of another piece) from the upper; in the east the shoe is of one piece, with small patches sewed under the heel and the ball of the foot to strengthen it. In the west boot soles in summer are of bearded seal when possible ^^^ / \ ^> (white whale, beluga, in the ^ Mackenzie), in winter they are ^^^^^; ~g '^^^^^^^p' ^''"^' ''^"'™' "^'^"' "^^ of deerskin. Neither material is ever used in the east, only the skin of the common small seal, though they have the other materials in abundance. The boot worn by the eastern women is an extraordinary garment. It fits the foot only below the ankle, above which it is funnel-shaped, reaching at the woman's hips the width of a flour sack. They are supported from the waist by strings that go over the belt. Their shape, looseness, and weight make them a considerable impediment in walking. The breeches worn reach only half way down to the knee; consequently the loose bootleg fills with mosquitoes and sandflies in summer and with driving snow in the winter storms. It is as irrational a garment as any worn in civilized countries. The "evening-dress" coats and short mittens of both sexes and the boots of the women make the every-day clothing of these people ill-suited for the climate in which they live. True, they have good coats and mittens against storms, but these are seldom put on until pressingly needed, and naturally therefore a person is often caught ill-prepared for bad weather. This is probably one reason why they so often freeze to death in blizzards of which we heard many stories. We have seen a woman both of whose breasts froze off the winter of 1909-1910 because she was caught in a blizzard while wearing the ordinary "evening-dress" coat. A man who accompanietl us from the village of the Akuliakattagmiut to that of the Haneragmiut suffered considerably from a slight wind which blew up, though I and my western Eskimo companion were not at all inconvenienced. These clothes also allow mosquitoes and sandflies access to all parts of the. body in summer. 120 Anthropological Papers Aynerican Museum of Natural History. [\o]. XIV, Fig. 73 (60-7005). Skin Scraper with Copper Blade and Bear Tooth Toggle, Coronation Gulf. Length, 27 cm. I" It/ li Ilk Fig. 74 a (60-70.59). b (60-7060), c (60-7058). Sliin Scrapers from Coronation Gulf. Length of a, 26 cm. 1914.] The Stcfdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 121 Caps are in use in summer only, and then are not worn for warmth, but as a protection against mosquitoes. It is a simple skull cap with ear flaps to which strings are attached that tie under the tlu'oat. The material preferred is the headskin of a fawn, but it may be marmot skin or any other light soft material. Loon skins and duck skins are used for slippers inside boots in very cold weather; those skins are also carried in summer to beat off mosquitoes from one's face and neck. Ornaments and Charms. The outer "evening-dress" coats of men often have a single bone button sewn at the small of the back, placed about where the back buttons are on white men's dress coats. Muskrat tails, weasel-tails, etc., are worn as pendants on the coat, usually on the broad of the back. The coats are cut so as to give somewhat the effect of an epauletted uniform coat. Strips of caribou skin are worn on the coats by both sexes and on the breeches by men, somewhat in the manner of the buckskin lacing of frontiersmen pictured in story books. Bone buttons, round or rectangular in outline, are worn by children bound on the forehead above and between the eyes, these are purely charms, we were told. Each child wears only one button. Almost any conceivable thing may be carried, usually in a bag, as a general charm by either men or women, usually, though, it is some rare thing, as something they have found in a deserted Indian camp, a part of some rare bird or ani- mal, etc. Hairdressing. The men do not have the hair cut in the proper tonsure fashion that maintains from the Baillie Islands west to Indian Point, Siberia, and beyond. East of Cape Bexley not only the crown is cropped short, but also the fore- head, in fact, the entire head except a fringe from one to two inches wide extending in a horseshoe from just in front of and above one ear, back in a curve to the back of the neck, and up and forward to just in front of the other ear. Such hair as is allowed to grow is apparently never trimmed and comes well down on the back in many cases. It is not braided. The hair cutting is with a sharp knife and a small piece of flat stick, and is closer than it is possible to cut with barber's clippers. I have never seen hair over half an inch long on the trimmed part of a man's head. Boys of two years and over have their hair cut like the men's. The women usually braid in two small braids that portion of the hair 122 Anthropoloffical Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, ^ Fig. 75 a (60-7036), 6 (60-7038). c (60-7037), d (60-7041). Awls of Bone from Corona- tion Gulf. Length, 17 cm. Fig. 76 (60-7002). Steel Knife with Bone Handle, Coronation Gulf. Used for cutting skins when sewing. Length, 14 cm. Fig. 77 (60-7003). Scissors with Bone Handles and Iron Blades, Coronation Gulf. Length, 17 cm. 1914.1 The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 123 Fig. 78. Pig. 79. Fig. 80. Fig. 81. Fig. 78 (60-7018). Needle Case and Attachments, Coronation Gulf. Length, 70 cm. Fig. 79 (60-7015ab). Tool for worldng Sinew, Coronation Gulf. Length, 19 cm. Fig. 80 (60-7051). Guard made of Bone, Coronation Gulf. Length, 7 cm. Fig. 81 (60.1-3438). Copper Needles from Victoria Island. Length of a, 5 cm. 124 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, Fig. 82 (60-7057). Cup-and-Ball Game, Coronation Gulf. Length, 12 cm. Fig. 83 a (60.1-3510), b (60-7020), c (60-7042), d (60-7043), e (60-7064). Needle Cases (o and 6) from Prince Albert Sound and Coronation Gulf; Combs (c and d), and a Coat Ornament (e). Coronation Gulf. Length of a, 12 cm. 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 125 Fig. 84 (60-7056). Cup-and-Ball Game, Coronation Gidf. Length of bone, 7 cm. Fig. 85 (60-6974). Drum from Twenty Miles west of Gray's Bay, Coronation Gulf. Diameter, 38 cm. 12G Anlliropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, that is liable to get into the eyes. Except for this, the luiir is in most cases not done up at all. Some women however, divide the back hair of the head in two, and wind each half into a queue by twisting around each bundle a long strip of thin, short-haired deerskin. The hair is probably never washed. The women occasionally wash their faces by spitting into the palm of the hand and then rubbing the face. As they have no mirrors they sometimes forget to clean one part or another of their faces, which gives them a rather unusual appearance. This washing is most likely to take place on the arrival of visitors from a distance, and usually is performed in their presence. Religion. It is doubtless impossible to sum up the religion of any people in a sen- tence. We can make an attempt to do so for the Eskimo by saying that to their notion all things and processes are controlled by spirits which in turn can be, and as a matter of fact, are controlled by formulae that are either known to man or susceptible of becoming known. The most obvious short- coming of this statement is that there seems to be a fundamental idea in the Eskimo mind that certain things are punishable in an automatic way or of their own very nature without the intervention of any effective agent. In this connection we must emphasize the word "seems" for like all other men the Eskimo are very unclear in their religious thinking and it is possible that what one thinks of as happening in an automatic sort of a way another may consider as being brought about by an agent. It is also possible that a man who has been in the habit of thinking of a thing as happening of its own account may when pressed for an explanation say that he never thought of doing so before, but doubtless there is some spirit back of it all. We shall first discuss some of the phases of the subject of taboo. On the basis of any dialect from Cape Prince of Wales east to Corona- tion Gulf two words must be thoroughly understood before one can discuss intelligently with an Eskimo the subject of taboo. Aglirktok, this word applies exclusively to a person or to some animal or thing considered as personified. Our nearest approach to a translation of it would be: he is under a taboo. In certain things a man may be aglirktok at birth and will have to remain so forever by reason of the tribe to which he belongs. In the case of the Kittegaryuit people, for instance, every grown woman and child is aglirktok with reference to the eating of a marmot and in Coronation Gulf with reference to the eating of a muskrat. In other cases a man may become aglirktok automatically, as it were, by 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 12/ attaining a certain age or by having certain things that are in the nature of natural development happen to either himself or some relative or intimate associate. All these cases are fairly definite and are easily known and kept in mind with the result that offenses against the aglirktok condition are rare and the consequent misfortunes and punishments assigned to a breach of conduct are not likely to occur. Under certain conditions, however, a man may become aglirktok without knowing it. If, for instance, he lives in another community from that occu- pied by his relatives and were one of those relatives to die, certain articles of food and dress and certain lines of conduct would become prohibited and the violation of this prohibition would similarly become punishable but the man under the taboo would know nothing of it by reason of not knowing that his relative is dead. He would then be likely or almost certain to break the taboo with attendant evil consequence to himself, his friends, and family and to the community at large. It is in connection with a misfortune that comes without assignable cause that the shamans go into seance and inquire who it is that is aglirktok and why. When they find out and tell the right man that he is aglirktok the misfortunes are likely to cease if the man acknowledges his fault and commences to observe the taboo. Aglernaktok is generally applied to things, conditions, and actions but may also apply to persons. In the case of the Kittegaryuit people every individual, as above pointed out, is aglirktok with reference to eating the flesh of the marmot and the flesh of the marmot is by a reciprocal relation aglernaktok from the point of view of every native Kittegaryuit. An action may be aglernaktok, such as the walking in the same trail with a woman who has recently borne a child. There are probably no things, actions, or relations that are thinkable to the Eskimo mind that are not subject to becoming aglernaktok. It was formerly unthinkable to them that one day should be diiTerent from another, but since they learned from the white men that the days have names and are dift'erent one from the other the civilized Eskimo have universally acquired the idea that Sunday is aglernaktok and some of those who have associated much with white sailors have discovered that Friday is aglernaktok with reference to the sailing of ships from port. In the old days with the Alaskan Eskimo a man was considered wise in proportion to the number of charms he had for the accomplishment of what he wanted and the number of prohibitions he knew the observance of which would prevent the happening of things he did not want and now many Eskimo consider it a proof of the superiority of the white men over the Eskimo that while no Eskimo had discovered that a day could be taboo, the white man had found out that important fact and had acted on it with the result that they have become a mighty and a prosperous people. 128 Anthropoloffical Papers American Museum of Natural Hidory. [Vol. XIV, It is common that if a man is sick or has poor success in hunting or if there is any other fact or condition that he wants to change he appUes to a shaman to find out what he shall do to attain his ends. The shaman will usually after the performance of suitable ceremonial rites of the summoning of his familiar spirit find out that some hitherto unsuspected thing is really aglernaktok to the man in question and he announces this fact. It may be that the man has been fond of eating the fat at the back of the eye of a cari- bou and he is told that this is aglernaktok to him and will remain so until he is full grown, until he is married, until his son kills his first caribou, or up to the consummation of any similar thing. In a few cases it is discovered that a man is aglirktok for life with reference to one or more things. It is a general rule that more prohibitions fall upon the young than upon the old and upon women than upon men. A child will outgrow certain prohibitions by the mere passing of years and the attainment of stature. Others he leaves behind him through the accomplishment of something such as the winning of a race, the killing of a bear, or the attainment of perfection in the art of snowhouse building or kayak paddling. Other prohibitions are left behind when the persons in question become the parents of children. This is more especially true of women. There are other prohibitions, however, that fall upon the parent at the birth of a child so that the total number of prohibitions may remain unaltered or may even be increased. One of the most fundamental of the religious ideas of the Eskimo is this, that supernatural punishments come not so much on account of evil things being done as on account of their remaining unconfessed. If a famine occurs, for instance, a shaman will magically inquire from his familiar spirit why the food has become scarce and the answer is likely to be that some member of the tribe has done such and such a thing in secret. A woman may perhaps have eaten the meat from the wrong rib of a mountain sheep. When the spirit informs the medicineman that the woman has done this, he calls upon her to confess that she has done it. If she confesses the famine will end and all will be well, but if she brazenly asserts that she has done no such things as charged with, then the most serious misfortunes will con- tinue to fall upon the people. A person who stubbornly refuses to confess is therefore a public enemy and will be treated accordingly. In extreme cases it may become necessary to kill a person who is incorrigible. This is rare, however, seeing that no piuiishment will fall upon one who has broken a taboo provided he confesses, it is obviously simpler and better to confess to a thing one has not done than to be punished for not confessing. 1914.] The Stcf a nsson- Anderson Expedition. 129 General Conditions of Life. Our discus.sion comes here to the less tangible things of which archaeo- logical and ethnological collections can give but indirect evidence at best. A thing of fundamental importance in determining the social condition of a people is the degree of comfort in which they ii\ e and the presence or absence of the continual anxiety as to what they shall eat tomorrow. Not only "humanity" but many other things are "functions of the food supply" and of the comfort of houses and clothes. The question of the comfort and security of the lives of these people will therefore be taken up before a dis- cussion of their social status is attempted. IMost travelers (e. g., the English explorers from Parry to M'Clintock) are a unit in characterizing the Eskimo's conditions of life as "wretched." What most of these writers say is that the Eskimo are wretched; what they really mean is that they suppose an Englishman would be wretched if he had to live as the Eskimo live. In this latter they may be right, though my own experience goes against it no less than that of the well-known English trav- elers David T. Hanbury and Alfred H. Harrison, men who really have lived as Eskimo which Parry and the other ships' commanders, of course, never did. But whether or not an Englishman could live comfortably in a snowhouse on seal meat is beside the question. That their houses and clothes are comfortable in winter is sufficiently shown by the experience of such men as Peary, who have given them a severer test than the Eskimo themselves are called upon to do under ordinary conditions of life. That their native foods meet all their wants and wishes, if only they have plenty of them, is best shown by the pronounced distaste they invariably have at first for any of our foods when invited to try them. After half a century of abundance on white men's goods at Point Barrow, Alaska, caribou meat, seal meat, and whale "blackskin" are still considered the three things without which no one can be reasonably expected to do, even for a week, though tea, sugar, flour, and ship's biscuits have secured a place on their bill of fare. In the district to which the personal knowledge of the writer extends (from Wainwright Inlet, Alaska, to the east end of Coronation Gulf) the Eskimo are in general satisfied with their conditions of life, the least so in the extreme west where the olitrusive pity and insistent commiseration of certain white men has taught them to pretend a discontent which they do not really feel, or at least do not feel in the way in which they have been taught to express it. But although no group of the Eskimo known to me are^ dissatisfied with 130 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, their lot, at least in the sense in which almost or quite every class and condi- tion of men are dissatisfied among us, and although they all live in as high a degree of average comfort as we do, there is in certain districts an uncer- tainty of the future that profoundly affects ethics and ideals. Among the Nogatagmiut, Napaktogmiut, Nunatagmiut, Oturkagmiut, Kanianermiut, Killirmiut, Kagmalirmiut, and others, in fact all the inland people of Alaska who depended mainly on carilSou for food, the fear of starvation was ever present, even in the periods of greatest abundance. From this resulted among these groups an inhumane treatment of the sick and the aged that, judged by our standards, amounts to the most horrifj'ing brutality. Today when these groups have "become Christian" he is considered a much more reprehensible person who neglects to say grace before meals than he who has shut his father out of a warm house to die by freezing, or she who has exposed her child on a snowbank. Several such cases have been recorded by me that have happened within fifteen years. Starvation is most frequent on the Colville River. It is accordingly chiefly thence that the most abhorrent things are told. One of these stories I have heard several times. The point of view of the narrators has always been the same and is of sociological interest. The man in question, one Turnnrak, a Killirmiut (upper Colville) now living in the Mackenzie Delta, shut his father out to freeze to death in a time of comparative plenty. He did it just then because his brother, who did not want their father to be put out of the way so soon, happened to be away and could not protect his father. There were a dozen other tents, all fairly stocked with food, within hearing of the old man's cries as he was freezing to death. I have never heard this murder criticised on the ground that it is wrong for a son to kill his father, or even that it is wrong to do so in time of plenty, nor ha\e I ever heard it suggested that someone of the other houses should have taken the old man in and sheltered him till his other son came home. What all say is: "It was too soon to shut him out to freeze. He was not decrepit or sick. If he had been sick it would have been w'ell enough." One thing no narrator omits from this story is that the old man kept crying out: "It is only a few days since my son ate five ptarmigan I snared." He was still self-supporting, that is the heart of their criticism. This incident happened a thousand miles from the locality at present under discussion. It is set down here to counterbalance, in a way, some of the laudatory things we have to say about the people east of Cape Bexley. We have learned no similar story from among them as yet, but we have learned that they undergo frequent periods of scarcity and not a few actual famines. We expect therefore to learn similar things of th(>m in time, for hunger everywhere has a brutalizing effect on the individual and famines compel a disregard 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 131 for the weak. No one who refused to abandon a decrepit parent at such a time could himself long survive, nor would his children be likely to survive to the age of self-support. Among such a people will inevitably develop a brutal code of ethics, brutal at least when judged by the standards of the well-fed. The stories of the abandonment of the decrepit that have come to us east of Cape Bexley, have a stereotyped self-justifying form: the party was traveling, this old man dropped behind because the sleds went faster than he could walk; a blizzard came up and he must have lost the sled trail on ac- count of the storm, for he never came to camp. How easily this might happen without any brutality being intended, we ourselves know by the close calls that members of our own party have had more than once. If there be nothing worse hidden behind these stereotyped accounts, one finds little to condemn. Of the exposing of babies we have learned nothing direct. Among the Akuliakattagmiut the proportion of the sexes leads one to suppose that the exposing of female children is practised. We found here ten women of marriageable age as against nineteen men. In all other groups the men are more numerous than the women, the difference is nowhere else so great as at Cape Bexley. To whatever extent the abandonment of the aged and the exposing of children does exist, it may be considered a direct result of the scarcity of food, for it is found rarely or not at all in such prosperous, well-fed communi- ties as those of Cape Smythe (Point Barrow) and the Mackenzie Delta, while among all inlanders it is so common as to scarcely induce comment. We were told by the Akuliakattagmiut and Haneragmiut that the people north of them along the west coast of Victoria Island were better supplied than they with caribou in summer and seal in winter, that they never want for food. At Cape Bexley and to the east there is apparently hardly a winter when the people do not have to subsist for considerable periods on seal oil alone. The oil that takes them past these scarcity periods is invariably oil saved the previous spring and cached during the summer on some small island or other secure spot. But sometimes these "secure spots" prove insecure, a rare bear finds one of them and destroys the entire hoard, and sometimes the winter period of scarcity is so long that even though the summer caches be safe they do not suffice and starvation ensues. About fifteen years ago on a small island about three miles off shore from Cape Kendall, Coronation Gulf, about forty (?) people died in one winter of hunger. Of crimes committed we know as yet only of murder. There may be thefts, but we never heard of one. In fact neither myself nor my Eskimo found among them a word for stealing such as is found every^^here in the 132 Anthropological Papers Ainerican Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, west and in many more easterly Eskimo districts (some form of tip;liktuak). This word they had never heard, nor tlid they understand it when they heard it. Specifically, we know of but one murder, a group of people whom we found in Basil Hall Bay (three men) had killed with their caribou lances one of the Akuliakattagmiut. We were unable to learn a reason for this killing beyond that the slayers "felt angry" at him. The wife of one of the men concerned told us of it in a matter-of-fact way in the presence of the wife of another one of them. Among the Akuliakattagmiut one family had their house two hundred or so yards from the rest. The man always kept his bow and arrows ready by his bed. We have since learned of several relatives of his living among other groups, and have heard of one man that he was afraid to return home. Everyone professes ignorance of why he was afraid and though he spent the summer largely at our camp we failed to learn anything from him. How- ever we suppose a murder or blood feud to be at the bottom of the matter. 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 133 THE MACKENZIE ESKIMO. Food. In winter there were months at a time when no cooked meat was eaten by anyone except those to whom uncooked food was for one reason or another taboo. There was plenty driftwood within a few rods of any Kittegaryuit house and there was a fireplace in the allej^^ay of every house; blubber was abundant and several lamps continually burned within doors, yet during the dark days especially, and so long as the store of half-rotted summer killed meat and fish lasted, there was no use made of lamps or kitchen except to melt water for drinking purposes. Usually this was done over the lamps. Those who lived on lakes or rivers sometimes cut holes in the ice for water with the ice pick. Women at times of childbirth drank only snow water, and other regular and special taboos required the drinking of water from a certain source or melted in a certain way. Although they ate in the aggregate large quantities of uncooked food, the range of foods that were considered suitable for being so eaten was not nearly so wide among the Kittegaryuit as among most x\laskan tribes. They ate freely from white whale meat (Kuak, or, Kuarasuk), frozen sum- mer caught fish (tipa-ktok), half-thawed summer caught fish (augnerluktok) and frozen fish roe, frozen fresh "connie" (Stenodiis mackenzii) fish (si-pl-si-t) and frozen "high" caribou meat they used only in emergencies. When they first began to be familiar with the Alaskans in the early nineties they used to say of them : " One would think they were dogs to see the way they devour raw things." The Alaskans consider the cooking of caribou brains, liver, or kidneys as spoiling good food ; the Mackenzie people would eat none of these w^arm from the animal as the westerners prefer to eat them, nor yet frozen. Fresh caribou meat they never ate raw, either frozen or unfrozen, except in emergencies, they ate no fresh frozen fish except Con- nies, and so the list could be extended indefinitely among the things which Alaskans like to eat raw. Shortly after the sun comes back each winter the Kittegaryuit people move inland to the Eskimo Lakes or to other fishing localities. As long as they remain at the fishing they make their snowhouses only on the ice, generally near shore, however. The food is now fresh fish and almost every meal is cooked. Over the lamp there is but one method of cooking — boil- ing; at wood fires meat and fish are often roasted; frying was an unknown method of cooking till the whites came and even now few can make a full 134 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, meal of fried meat though they could and do eat a hundred successi\'e full meals of boiled meat alone without beginning to suspect the diet monoto- nous. In winter the first meal of the day was generally eaten in bed by the men, but all women not sick were expected to get up before eating. Certain taboos operated to get children dressed early in the morning; in many cases a child however after being driven out-of-doors to satisfy the taboo was allowed to creep l)ack into bed again and to eat breakfast in bed. If frozen white whale was to be eaten it was brought indoors and allowed to thaw to a point where it could not splinter on being adzed or was soft enough to allow cutting with the knife. It was then divided into pieces, put on large wooden trays and either passed around, or else so many trays were employed that at least one of them was near anyone still in bed. The women would gather aroimd a single tray, or else each take a piece with her to eat in her place on the edge of the sleeping platform (iglirk) . If fish were to form the breakfast they were brought in and allowed to thaw so much at least that the skin could be stripped off. If the fish are large (over two or three pounds) they Fig. 86 (60.1-1684). Steel Knife, Mackenzie River. Length, 39 cm. are cut in pieces; if small they are served whole. The women slit the skin along the belly, take its edge in their teeth and strip it somewhat as one might peel a banana. The procedure is then the same as for frozen meat. This method of serving raw fish differs from the Alaskan in that among the westerners each man has to cut up and skin the fish he eats. Besides the frozen fish there are three important adjuncts to the break- fast : a pot of oil, a pail of ice water and some sort of a hand wiper and face wiper to get the oil, blood, and other ingredients of the meal off one. The oil at Kittegaryuit was generall}^ that of the white whale; along the ocean shore proper it was more likely to be oil of seals or bowhead whales; inland it might be any of these, purchased where most convenient. Preferably the oil was "soured" by having been kept in air-tight bags through the warm summer; this fermented oil is much more agreeable to the taste and is apparently more digestible than the fresh, which is used only under necessity. Pieces of the frozen meat are dipped in the oil before being put in the mouth; or else the first and second fingers are dipped in up to the proximal joint and the oil sucked oft' them. The water pail passes around 1914.] The Stefdnsson- Anderson Expedition. 135 frequently, for a meat diet requires much drinking. The hand-wipers generally consist of wads of freshly made fine wood shavings (excelsior); more rarely the skins of birds are used, especially of loons, and of recent years sometimes cloth. The other meals do not differ from the breakfast essentially except that a single food tray usually suffices for the men of a house. There are now- adays at least seldom over fifteen. The tray is then usually set near the center of the sleeping platform, and alongside it the pot of oil. All gather about in a circle ; if some cannot reach the tray, pieces are handed them over the shoulders of the others, or they may join the women and children who usually gather about a separate tray. Though there is no disgrace involved in eating with women, as a matter of fact, it is the younger or less influential who are crowded out of the men's circle. If the household is small, men and women eat from one tray. ' The foregoing discussion of "table etiquette" applies to households con- sisting of one leading man and a number of dependents, married or single. In perhaps a greater number of cases housemates consisted of two or more families each independent of the other. Outdoors they had their separate food stages, at the summer hunting stations they had their separate meat caches. In such a case each woman brought in food for her own family only and ate with her husband and children. If, however, one family is having a meal of fish while another is eating meat, the woman of the first family will make a gift of fish to the woman of the second, and vice versa. In making these gifts it is etiquette for each woman to ignore the other's husband and family; she must address the woman only and must use the singular, never the dual or plural, the idea being that the other woman individually and not her family collectively receives the present. The gift received is, however, always shared with the husband. Gifts of food are also handed out to her housemates by a woman whose family takes a meal at a time different from the mealtime of the others, e. g. on the home-coming of her husband from hunting// if one family is short of food or out of food while another has plenty, those who are short receive lump presents which they divide among themselves and eat in their own eating places, If a traveler arrives, he is usually more intimately connected with one family in the house than another and he is therefore looked upon as their guest. The other families in the house will, however, contribute to his meals each of what it has; they will eat at the same time as the visitor does, as a sign of respect for him, or to show they are glad he came; each family, however, in its own place as usual. If the visitor is an absolute stranger, he will be entertained by the most prominent family of the house. Stinginess occurs among the Mackenzie people, but is rare, for " thrift" is not an admired quality; such families will 136 Aiilhropologicdl Papers American Mitaeum of Xatural Historij. [Vol. XIV, shirk the cntcrtainnu'iit of strangers and even refrain from eating- at different times from the other families so as to avoid the j)ractically obligatory giving aAvay of food on such occasions. Meals were seldom taken in the club house by the men in winter; the club was in use only in the fall while sleds, etc. were being made. It had (at Kittegaryuit, and in most other places probably) an open fireplace in the center and a large smoke hole above it. This arrangement could not keep the house comfortable after real winter weather had set in, and it fell into disuse. Summer meals in the club house will be described later; their character was the same in autumn, though the club was then less frequented and many men took their meals at home. Towards spring, fish was not always the only article of food; there were caribou, ptarmigan, rabbits, and moose in different inland districts and seals were killed in spring in some numbers at Cape Bathurst and elsewhere. These were always boiled or roasted, never eaten raw or frozen. In spring came into effect a remarkable food taboo — remarkable be- cause of its general application. Most of the Mackenzie people of all ages and both sexes were forbidden to eat eggs of any sort, a prohibition that would mean little to the Coppermine Delta, for example, but which in the IMackenzie Delta means that a body of people who might otherwise have been drawn out to the low mud islands to reap the easy harvest of thousands of goose, duck, and other eggs were by it kept to the mainland fisheries and hunting grounds. Many taboos are arbitrarily imposed on individuals by the shamans, many others apply to all persons without exception, e. g., that against eating brown bear liver; but the egg taboo was prescribed upon them by the children's parents and it held through life. Other taboos similarly imposed generally held only till puberty, till marriage, till the birth of pro- geny, etc. There was a general doctrine to the effect that the eating of eggs caused illness, but that a few individuals were immune. Some parents would therefore experiment with their children ; would feed them an egg or part of one and watch for results. Sometimes illness did not come quickly, and in occasional cases the parents were already rejoicing that their child was immune and might eat this delectable food freely, when illness of some sort came. This might be severe or mild, but it was at once seen that the eating of the egg had caused it, and eggs were therefore taboo ever after. Other parents were so careful with their children's health that they never even ventured to find out, but forbade them eggs from the start. A few of these later in life, knowing their immunity had never been tested, would try the matter out for themselves, with varying results. From the ranks of these were recruited some of the few egg-eaters there were; th(> larger part, how- ever, seems to ha\e consisted of persons who whih^ children, before they 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 137 learned to recognize the danger of violating a taboo, surreptitiously indulged in egg-eating. When at last these learned to fear taboos in general, the}' had been eating eggs so long that the conclusion they must be immune was un- avoidable. Those who ate eggs boiled them. They were eaten at all stages of in- cubation. A female bird with embryonic eggs was not taboo to anyone by virtue of the egg taboo, but all vestiges of eggs must be carefully cleaned out of them before cooking. No part of any bird was e\er eaten uncooked unless it were dried. Dry meat was made of the breasts of any birds that were caught in numbers but especially of geese, brant, and swan. The rest of the body was eaten fresh or somewhat high, according to circumstances. Fresh birds were often roasted, when high they were generally boiled. The important part of the summer at Kittegaryuit is the white whale season which begins about the tenth or fifteenth of July and ends some time in September. The earlier part of the season, however, used to be taken advantage of, for the pursuit of the caribou needed for clothing began so soon as their skins were in condition, or between the beginning and the middle of August. Of the first few whales killed the skin was removed, as elsewhere described. After everyone had sufficient materials for leather, the blubber (from 2| to 4 inches thick) was allowed to go with the skin and the whale (sirkuvyak) was cached to rot in shallow pits covered with earth. The flippers as they are, as well as the head and the rear third of the body (itiryukak), also go to these pits (kinnirk, kinnerit). The meat of the forward two-thirds was sliced thin and hung up to dry (mipku), some of it in smoke houses, some to be wind-dried. In the case of animals whose skins vv'ere preserved, the "false skin" (ganirk), sliced off the outside of the hide, was cut into small pieces, boiled, and preserved in oil in air-tight bags, or it was hung up to dry; in either form it was considered a great delicacy. It was preferred half dry, to thoroughly dry, for in the latter case it was hard to chew. Some of the whale blubber while fresh was cut into pieces and put into skin bags to ferment. Most of this was plain blubber, but occasionally some was cut so that each piece carried with it a portion of skin. This was the miikta^'k, corresponding to the muktak of the bowhead-hunting com- munities. When well dried some of the white whale meat was cut in domino-sized pieces and put into bags containing a little oil. This was the gillttat, the most prized food known to the Mackenzie people ; the ullia'kat, or, ullia'kkat (uliaga^'k) differed from the preceding only in that the pieces were some three or four inches square in area. The gilittat were made of white whale meat 138 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, only, wliilc tlu' luiinc ullikkat might apply to any sort of dried meat kept in oil. It seems, however, that dry meat of caribou or birds was never put into oil bags, at Kittegaryuit only white whale and at other places white whale, and seal (common and bearded). Fresh mukta'^k raw, though considered a delicacy by most Eskimo was hardly eaten at all by the Kittegaryumiut; boiled it was eaten more freely, but never many meals in succession; it was not considered good eating until it had become high through storage in the meat pits, when it was relished either thawed or frozen raw. Netting for fish was done before the coming of the white whales and e^'en during the whaling season women often set nets. Some of the catch was placed in pits covered with logs and usually straw to keep out sun; some were cut up and smoke dried or wind dried. Between cutting up whales and cutting up fish, the women's palms were often worn to the flesh by the ulu handles. Even if the fish were not dried there Avas much work for the women in cleaning (gutting) them before they went into the pits. Though the Kittegaryuit were not given to eating any other unfrozen things raw, they were fond of raw fish that had been allowed to lie a month or so in the warm, log-covered pits. This fish, mentioned above under its winter name of tipaktok was eaten in summer under the name of erkalug- yuak. The heart and kidneys of white whales were among the first things to be eaten. They were roasted on vertical spits beside the fire. The stomach and gullet were taken for use as oil bags, etc., the lungs, liver, and intestines were thrown away. A week or two later, however, if some one found a well- rotted pair of lungs not yet devoured by the dogs, the bronchial tubes were separated from the body of the lungs and boiled. This was a much-esteemed dish. As stated elsewhere, each tent during the whaling season had its kitchen, or else it had one in common with one or more other tents. The cooking was done here by an open fire. Each woman ate her meals at home with her children. At this season no man able to walk about took his meals anywhere else than in the club house. When a hunter returned from his kayak rowing, he walked directly to the club ; it was the woman's business to watch for his coming and to bring him food to the club so soon as it could be got ready — - really she was expected to possess a sort of prescience and to have the food boiled but yet still hot at the time of her husband's arrival. If a hungry man had to wait long for his food, or found it imderdone, overdone, or cold when it was brought, there was likely to be trouble in the family. As most Eskimo like to have the boiled meat just a trifle underdone, the woman's task was somewhat difficult. 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 139 Boys did not generally begin to eat in the club house until they were grown and had become hunters. Children of either sex would wander in, however, and were often given hand-outs by their fathers. This was not frowned on but a set meal was allowed only grown men. Cripples unable to walk ate by themselves at home, however, and so did the blind. Men too blind to hunt but who could yet go about, would eat at the club; con- valescents would go there as soon as they could be about. The caribou hunt was carried on in a desultory way all summer, but it was the first part of August to October only, that much energy was put into tlie matter. When women were along they cut up meat and spread it to dry, and occasionally the men prepared dry meat (mipku, or, gu) if no women were with the hunting party. Much of the caribou meat, however, was merely buried so as to be comparatively safe from animals. After the freeze- up the venison was often dropped into shallow lakes through holes in the ice. The high flavor developed in these ground caches or in the meat dropped into lakes, made them comparatively palatable to the local taste. This article of food is mentioned in the winter menu under the name of kuak. Clothing. In most of the garments made at present the local Mackenzie fashion has given way to those recently introduced from Alaska, and it is only by careful questioning of the older people one can learn what the local style really was. The preparation of skin for the \arious articles of clothing is discussed elsewhere. Summer boots (waterproof) had their uppers made preferably of autumn- killed seals. A medium seal made a pair of boots. The tops came to just below the knee, were drawn tight with a drawstring (uneron) and were not trimmed with nalluak which is now the fashion. The soles were of white whale, crimped with the teeth at heel and toe. The crimped part was sewed to the upper with a welted seam, the rest of the sole with "plain sewing." The toe was shaped as the foot and the boots could not be shifted from one foot to the other; today the western rounded toe is in use and it is considered advisable to shift the boots from one foot to the other every day. No ankle lashings were used with any Mackenzie boots. The socks used at all seasons were the same, though partly worn out ones passed muster in summer when they would have been unsuited to winter use. Their tops came up even with the boots and had a drawstring as the boots did; they were made entirely of the body skin of short-haired deer. 140 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural Ilislonj. [Vol. XIV^ or of long-liiiirt'd skins that had been clipped. Between the socks and boots was worn a sUpper of caribou legskin. When about the house in summer the men wore "fancy" boots of two general types, both knee boots with drawstrings and white whale soles. One sort (atirkak) had the uppers made of caribou legs with black and white ornamental stripes of short-haired skin running doAvn the sides of the leg a little forward of the middle of each side. Another sort of boot (atirkak tivyalu-k), the "holiday" boot proper, had the uppers made of dark short-haired summer caribou skin. Animals used for such boots had to be killed in July before the old hair was all shed, the last remnants being plucked off with the fingers before the animal was skinned. The ornamentation of the boot consisted of a stripe running down the full length of the front, an inch wide at the top but narrower down. There was also a diagonal ornamentation on the outside of each boot leg. This consisted of two outside strips of white caribou belly skin about half an inch wide, a middle white stripe about \ inch wide, and two \ or jg inch wide strips of black caribou skin separating the three white stripes. Along the upper edge of the lowest white stripe was a row of red dots made of the red skin found above the eyes of the willow ptarmigan {Lagopus lagopus). On both sorts of ornamented boots there is above the white skin sole an inch wide strip of black sealskin (water boot material) and above that a half inch wide band of white sealskin (ka'"k soktak) . In general, the coats and trousers worn in summer were merely the half worn-out underwear of the preceding winter. Good caribou skin clothes could not be safely worn in summer except about the house, for the first rainy day would have spoiled them. At Kittegaryuit, it seems, sealskin rain garments were never used except the kayak coat; towards Baillie Island sealskin coats were used occasionally, but it is difficult to say if they were made as raincoats proper, or if they were mere makeshifts due to a scarcity of caribou. About camp thin and loose ornamented outer garments were slipped on occasionally by most men for dancing purposes, etc. and by "dressy" persons they were used about camp whenever the weather was fine. There were no caps or hoods corresponding to the hoods worn for protection from mosquitoes by the mainland tribes of the Copper Eskimo. In winter legskin "fancy" boots were much worn — with them, as with us, holiday clothes become everyday clothes so soon as they show wear. Those whose families had industrious seamstresses seldom wore unorna- mented boots. That these "fancy" boots were really everyday boots is shown by the fact that they have no special name, they are merely atirkak or boots. The skin of all the four legs of a single caribou went to each boot; the skin of one In'nd leg made the front of the })()ot leg, another hind leg 1914.] The Slefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 141 made its back, the two front legs made its sides. Along the outside of each boot leg through its whole length ran a band of black and white stripes; two outer white stripes each about half an inch wide, a central white stripe about 3 inch wide, and two l)lack stripes each about jg inch wide, separating the three white ones. Along the front edge of the rear broad white stripes ran a line of red dots, made of ptarmigan head skins. There are three sorts of plain knee boots in common use. One is the ornamented legskin boot with the ornamental stripes and dots left out; like the ornamented boot this has the name of artirkak only. A second plain boot, which also lacks a special name, differs from the preceding in that its instep is formed of the hock skin of the caribou instead of the hock coming half way up the calf of the boot. This is the easiest of all boots to make (it is the inexperienced seamstresses' refuge) for the natural shape of the hock skin just fits the human instep, so there is no complicated cutting and splicing to be done. But if the hock skin is Ijrought down to the ankle, some five to eight inches of the legskin will stick out beyond the toes. This is cut off and goes to form the uppers of the women's short boots. The third of the plain boot styles is the tuniiayuk. It differs from the first of the plain styles described, only in the omission of the bands of seal- skin; the caribou legs come right down to the white whale sole, hence their name, i. e., the upper touches the sole (tunfiayok — it touches). The kaera'y-u-k is a sort of makeshift boot worn at any season by all ages and both sexes, but especially l)y children in spring and summer. It has a sole of white Avhale, above that is a band of thinner white whale skin two to three inches wide. This forms a sort of slipper which is worn about the house as it is; or an upper may be sewed on it, in that case usually the leg cut off a worn-out water boot. The name is said to refer to the fact that the whitefish upper of the slipper has only one seam (at the heel, or up one side), and is therefore smooth on the toe (ka-erktok — it is smooth). Work in Skins. Up to the coming of the first whaling ships in 1889 the only freight- carrying boats of the Mackenzie Delta were the (typical Eskimo) umiaks, ^s walrus are absent from ]Mackenzie waters and bearded seals are rare, the skin covering for these l)oats was sewn from the hides of kllalukkat (sing. — kilalugark), known popularly to us as whitefish or white whales {Dclphinus leucas). This large mammal supplied the Kittegaryumlut not only with boat covers, but also with bootsole material (or spring and summer waterproof boots as well as for ])oots used in winter on the always damp sea 142 Atdhropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XI\', ice), and material for lines. When so worn out or rotten as to be unsafe as boat covers, they found their final use as covers for summer shelters, kitchens, and smoke houses. Whether the skin was to be used for boat material or for boot soles, it was removed from the freshly killed animal as follows: circular incisions were made around the neck of the animal and around its body well towards the flukes; the skins of the head always and of the tail usually went for food, becoming the maktak described under the section of foods. These two incisions were then connected by a third along the ventral median line and the skin stripped off with the ulu. While as yet fresh, all blubber still adhering to the skin was scraped off with the ulu. From the outside of the skin was pared oft' the false skin which seems to correspond to the hair of ordinary mammals. This was done by hanging the skin over a smooth log of driftwood. The woman then took the ulu in both hands and, using it somewhat as one might a plane, pared off the false skin. The "technical" term for this paring process is kilioktok (gilloktok). The meat of the animal was sometimes cut up for drying before atten- tion was turned to removing the false skin. It is said, however, that a few hours toughen the maktak and make it hard to remove with a knife. When cleaned as thoroughly as possible, the skin was pegged out on the ground to dry. It must be pegged with the flesh side (blubber side) down to insure its drying properly; it must be pegged with its headward end "faced" inland, its tailward end pointing to seaward to assure the coming of more white whales next year, for if the skins of the dead white whales had their tails turned inland the live whales would also turn tail and none would ever come to that part of the coast again. As the heads of the drying skins face this year, so will the heads of the migratory animals be pointed next year. If the skin is to be used for a boat no further treatment is needed; next spring when the boat covers are to be sewed it needs merely to be soaked in water for a day or so to soften it to the needle and to make it stretch well over the umiak frame. If the skin is to be for bootsoles or for thongs it is, so soon as thoroughly dried, taken to form part of the roof of an open-fire kitchen or a smoke house. The blubber side is the one smoked ; the purpose is said to be to prevent the little blubber which still adheres to the skin from getting a rancid taste unpleasant to the women who must eventually " chew" the skins. When the skin is considered sufficiently smoked, perhaps in two weeks, it is removed and replaced by another new skin to be smoked or by an old and worthless one. Boot sole materials may then be cut from the skin as needed, or the whole of it may be cut up into suitably large pieces at once. Each boot sole is then chewed to get the last remnants of the 1914. * The Siefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 143 blubber off and to soften the skin; only the blubber side is chewed. The chewing done, the sole material is then sponged with water to soften it and the blubber side is scraped a bit with a stone or iron scraper. When this is done it is either dried for future use or immediately sewn to a boot. If thongs are needed the skin is cut into strips whose length is the full length of the hide. These are then chewed to get the blubber out and further softened by being pulled dry back and forth through a loop of thong. If the tailward part of the white whale skin is used for anything but food, it is to make a bag for oil. If this is the intention, the median incision of the rest of the body is carried down to the flukes, the skin is removed, and in every way treated as is the case with the body portion, except that the smoking is sometimes and the chewing is always omitted. When a bag is to be made, the skin is merely soaked in water till thoroughly soft, and then sewed up, the mouth of the bag being at the tip of the tail. These bags are at once filled with oil before they have time to dry. Seals, for whatever purpose the hide is intended, are skinned so that the lighter colored thinner belly portion all the way from neck to tail is in a separate piece from the rest of the hide. This thin skin (the ummaksak) eventually is to be used for the uppers of the ankle boots (gaugak-gak-gat) worn about the house by most women and children and by some of the men. The two incisions for removing the belly skin are made in such a way that the main body of the skin shall have its long edges approximately straight and parallel; that this should be so is especially desirable if it is intended for a kayak cover. If the skin be intended for the uppers of w\ater boots, the hair is shaved off with a sharp ulu while the skin is fresh. It is then dried by being pegged on the ground, unless immediate need for boots demands quick drying in the warmth of the house. Those skins are considered to be inferior that are house dried. The material for boots is chosen with care. The freshly killed seal is examined by the women. It is said that irrespective of age or sex the skin is darker on some than others. The darker it is the better boots it will make; the whiter ones are less valued. The "better" in this case seems to refer largely to looks, and anyway hardly any two Eskimo tribes agree as to what sort of skin will make the best boots. Kotzebue Sound people, for instance, say that the lighter skins are better, and that the more nearly transparent a skin is when held up to the light the better will it keep out water. Most tribes agree, however, that autumn-killed skins are the best; the chafes and scratches found on the skins of seals that bask on the ice in spring make them ill-suited to most uses. The skin is thinned by one dry scraping of the flesh side. If the need is for boot soles a thick skin is chosen, generally that of an 144 Anthropological Papers American Museum of A\itural History. [Vol. XIV, old male seal. Its hair is removed by scalding; the fresh skin is dipped repeatedly into hot water and the hair scraped off. It is then dried either in the house or out-of-doors. Skins intended for kayak covers were placed in a bag while fresh. They were then kept in the house if it was winter, or outdoors in the sun if it was warm enough, and the hair was allowed to rot off slowly. The kayak cover was usually sewn while the skins were still wet and their first drying was on the frame of the finished kayak. A kayak cover seldom wore out in one year, and it seldom lasted four years. With both umiaks and kayaks, the life of the skin depends on how frequently and thoroughly the boats are dried much more than on the number of days they are actually in the water. Three weeks or a month of warm rainy weather will ruin any skin boat, if both sides of the skin are allowed to get wet; a skin canoe lying bottom-up on shore would not be much damaged by a month of rain. Old kayak covers were used to spread on the floors of snowhouses (traveling camps) underneath the bedding; in summer they had similar uses in tents or were used to roof summer kitchens, smoke houses, etc. or to spread on the ground in the open outdoor work places of the men. A specially prepared white sealskin (nalluak) was used chiefly for the trimmings of women's and children's ' fancy ' boots (gaugak) . A medium or thin skin was chosen; while fresh it was rolled in a bundle, hair side out, and put in the warmest place in the house ; usually over a lamp, or near the peak of the roof in a wooden house. When sufficiently rotted the hair was plucked off with the fingers. The skin was then staked out in a shaded place outdoors. This should be done so early in winter that it might be thor- oughly dry before the spring thaws. The treatment produces a leather, white with a slight yellowish tinge; the flesh side is somewhat darker. If a bag for oil is to be made of a sealskin, the animal is skinned through an opening made by a circular incision around the head at the eyes; the skin is " cased" as a furrier would say. A careless person or one in a hurry, may»nake the incision around the head at its largest diameter, somewhat back of the eyes. The claws of the flippers are left in the skin, usually, so that the incision at the eyes is the only one made. The bag is turned hair side in and inflated, for if not air tight, it would probably not prove oil tight. These bags, besides being used to hold oil, are in whaling communi- ties used for floats attached by a line to the detachable head of the whaling harpoon. In the white whale hunt smaller floats are used; generally in- flated white whale stomachs. Bearded seals are rare in Mackenzie waters and their skins do not seem to have had any specific use. Following fashions recently introduced from Alaska, some Mackenzie women use them at present for bootsoles, espe- ciallv if bclutra skins are scarce. In imitation of Alaskans, too, the ulu is 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 145 largely discarded as a tool for removing the hair from common and bearded sealskins that are intended for waterboots and bootsoles. The skin is dried hard and kept unwrinkled by being tightly stretched while drying. Dry wood ashes are then spread over the skin and the hair removed by scraping with a dull stone scraper. The use of bowhead whale skin for bootsoles has been tried of recent years occasionally. The idea is pretty surely of Alaskan introduction since 1889. The treatment is about the same as for white whale skin. It is said, bowhead skin makes better bootsoles than white whale, which in turn is preferred to bearded seal. Fish skins were less used in the Mackenzie district than in many sections of Alaska. Of the whole skins of the kaluakpuk, were made bags of all sizes and for various uses; they were rainproof and well suited for storing spare clothing, dry sinew, dried fish or other things that must not get damp. Of the whole skins of titalirk were made bags and of their belly skins, win- dows. Of kaluakpuk skins windows were sometimes made, but these were considered inferior to most of the other common window materials. Kal- uakpuk skins were used for kayak covers by the Inuktuyu-t of the Eskimo Lakes in the memory of men still living. Different parts of the alimentary tracts of various sea animals had their uses apart from the role they played as food. As mentioned above, white whale stomachs were used for harpoon floats and for oil bags : their gullets too were employed as bags for oil, and when this had increased their trans- parency, they were often sewed into windows; fresh gullets were occasion- ally taken for windows too. The common Alaska use of intestines of various animals for windows was not in vogue near the Mackenzie. Bird skins were not used for clothes at all in the Mackenzie District. Bags for holding the lines used in white whale hunting were made from skins of loon and swans. Tobacco bags were also made of the same skins, and women's work bags were sewn of the foot skins of swans, the claws being left on. Windows were frequently made of the gullets of glaucous (and perhaps other) gulls and more rarely of those of loons. Skins of all sorts of birds, but especially of loons were used for handwipers. The bills of loons and portions of other birds were often used as talismans. Polar bears were seldom killed in numbers in the delta region proper or even at Herschel Island, but from Toker Point to Cape Parry they are more frequently met with. As several persons usually took part in the pursuit of a single bear, the skins were usually cut up into portions so small as to be unsuited for anything but mittens, and this accordingly was about their only use. The pieces were dried either indoors or out and then softened by scraping with the ordinary metal or stone skin scrapers. Brown bears (Ursus richardsoni) were not often secured. It can scarcely 146 Anthropological Papers American Museum oj Natural History. [Vol XIV be said that their skins pUiyed a role as clothing. The headskin and the skins of the forepaws were worn as cap and mittens in the midwinter bear ceremony; the working of these parts of the skin consisted essentially in drying and then softening with the scraper. The remainder of the skin was nuM-ely dried, and then used for bedding. The possession of a brown bearskin is much desired by those who have growing boys, as children sleeping on such a skin will become quick to anger and of an imforgiving disposition, (irowing girls should never be allowed to sleep on one of these skins, for women should be of a mild and forgiving temper. Wolfskins, and the skin of all the large land quadrupeds, were removed from the body much after the manner described for caribou. The claws of all animals except wolverine were let remain with the carcass. Wolfskins were usually dried indoors but sometimes they were pegged out on the ground or snow. All fat was removed at the time of skinning the animal, and the dried skin was softened by scraping. No coloring was applied to the skin side, though that was done with wolverine. The headskin was used for ceremonial caps, the body skin for the trimming of coats, the leg- skins for boot legs and the tails for the belts worn by men and boys. W'olverine skins were treated exactly as wolf skins except that the claws were let remain on the skin and that the flesh side of the skins was colored ref] either with ashes or pulverized rock (ocher). The head, body skin, and tail were used as the corresponding parts of wolf skins were used; the feet were cut off so as to leave three or four inches of skin with the claws. These were then slit so as to leave each separate claw at the end of a ribbon of skin; the strips were then sewed on to men's belts so that they formed pendants about four or five inches apart. It is not imlikely that muskrats are comparative newcomers in the Mackenzie delta; however that may be, their arrival antedates the knowl- edge of people now living and their skins are said to have been "always" of importance among the sources of the clothing supply. They were "cased" in the manner we employ with small fur animals; the claws remained with the carcass and so did the tail, the latter because of its importance as food and source of sinew for sewing. The skins were dried by being hung up without stuffing or stretching in any way. W'hen thoroughly dried, the skins are rul)bed between the hands till fairly soft; next they are dipped in hot water in which meat has been boiled, or better still fish (no stress is laid on there being fat in the water or not) and pulled and stretched when thoroughly soft. A second drying follows, and lastly the skins are powdered with a chalk-like decomposed rock and then a coarse soft sandstone. The skins are then slit along the ventral median line. They were never sepa- rated into back portion and belly portion until that method was recently 1914.] The Stefdnsson- Anderson Expedition. 147 brought in from Alaska. By men, muskrat skin.s were used for inner coats, inner pants, inside mittens and (rarely) socks, by women for inside mittens and inner coats. Though much used both in Alaska and by the Copper Eskimo, the skins of marmot {Spcnuophilus Parii) were never preserved, in fact the whole animal was thrown away, not even were dogs fed on them. It is said nowa- days that this is because they burrow in and under the graves of the dead; this may be the real reason for the taboo, for there is fear of anything that comes in contact with a corpse. The taboo seems local between Cape Parry and Demarcation Point, the international boundary. Until some six or seven years ago when their numbers suddenly decreased greatly, caribou were more important than all other animals together as sources of the clothing supply. To remove the skin an incision is made around the muzzle about half an inch back from the corners of the mouth; from this cut another incision is run along the ventral median line back to the roots of the tail; an incision from back of each nostril runs up to each corresponding eye and horn. From the hoof of each hind foot an incision passes up the back of the leg to about four inches above the hock when it curves to the inside of the ham and thus till it intersects the median cut. A similar slit is made up the front of each front foot to about four inches above the knee and then curves to the inside of the leg and intersects the median cut on the breast. As appears in the discussion of boot-making, it is important that the legskin be removed quite down to the hoofs and that the incisions along the legs shall not curve till well above the hock. After the necessarv- preliminary cuts have been made a knife is not much used in the skinning, except about the eyes and horns. Old bulls are an exception to this statement, however; especially when poor their skin re- quires the knife. Otherwise the hide is removed by grasping a flap of skin by one hand and pushing the fist of the other hand between the skin and flesh; on portions of the sides and back the skin is so loose that after the legs, head, and neck have been skinned one can strip the rest off by taking hold of the headward end and pulling back towards the tail. The moment the skin is off it is spread out on the ground : if in summer, to begin drying; if in winter, to freeze without wrinkles. After being taken to the summer camp the skin is again spread out on the ground, if that be safe from the dogs, or else hung up across a pole. Not unless dried indoors, is the skin pegged out or stretched on a drying frame, except those intended for tents or for bedding. If it be winter, the skin is either house-dried (which is considered injurious) or wind-dried by being hung up outdoors, hair side only exposed to the wind and sun. 148 Aiithropological Papers American Museum of Natural Ilistory. [Vol. XIV, Of recent years Alaskan methods of workina, carihou skins have been adopted l)y some Mackenzie women, apparently not because they think them better but rather to l)e in the fashion, for in many things the westerners are now "leader of fashion," partly no doubt because of partiality to them shown by the white whalemen. Those who still keep to local methods begin by softening the edges of the skin and especially the headskin by remo\ing most of the hardened fascia attached. The skin is then warmed (sirlaksiga, literally, makes it crack) by being hung up near a fire or by being used as a blanket over night, the flesh side of the skin next the naked body of the sleepers. This warming process is supposed to make the dried fascia brittle and easy to remove. The warm skin is now sponged with water which is usually approximately of blood temperature. Inuuediately after the spong- ing the skin receives its second scraping which does not yet remove much of the fascia. The skin is now rolled up, flesh side in, and let remain a few hours, usually over night. The last scraping removes all adhering fascia, dries the skin and leaves the flesh side soft and white. The Alaskan methods now adopted by some differ from the local in the following respects : the first scraping involves the whole skin, instead of the edges and headskin; the wetting of the skin is with a mixture of caribou brains and water or of caribou liver and water, instead of water alone. The brain or liver may be fresh or rotten among the Alaskan Eskimo (Nogatag- miut, etc.); thoroughly rotted brains are used by the Bear Lake Slavey Indians. Just before the last scraping the western method requires the sprinkling or rubbing over the skin of a powdered whitestone. The Kitte- garyuit women say the skins treated the Alaskan way are no better and no worse than those prepared in the old way; there may be a vague taboo idea behind the adoption of the new method, besides its fashionableness; at any rate we can testify that the western method has no marked advantages o\('r the eastern. For four years we have had in our employ women who dress skin in the manner of the Killirmiut and Nogatagmiiit, as well as a woman from Kittegaryuit who adheres to the old method. The last named has made better clothes for us than the otlier, rather however because of better workmanship than superior methods. The different skin dressing processes seem to give identical results. We have also purchased and used garments, blankets, robes and unsewn skins dressed by the Loucheux of Fort McPherson as well as by Slavey and Dog Rib of Bear and Slave Lakes and various points on the Mackenzie. These Indians apply to the skins between scrapings various dressing preparations, notably rotted caribou brains. The finished work does not show that these preparations have any effect whatever on the skin beyond those produced l)y lukewarm water. For reasons put forth elsewhere it seems likely that muskrats have not been in the Mackenzie Delta over a hundnMl \-c;n-s or so; we know tliat for 1914.] The Slejdnsson-Anderson Expedilion. 149 the greater part of this time there was at least occasional semifriendly contact with the Loucheux. It is interesting to note in this connection that Indian ways of " tanning," though never used with any skins with which the Eskimo are certain to have been long familiar, are used with muskrats. The knowledge of the animal itself is likely to have been first obtained from the Loucheux, and along with that knowledge seems to have been borrowed, in part at least, the Loucheux method of working its skin. An example of division of labor between the sexes is found in that the fourth scraping of caribou skins is often done by the men. They however usually avoid the working position used by the women and do the work standing, generally out-of-doors. The skin is hung by its headward end from some elevated support and the scraping is done by holding the imple- ment (the same as used by the women) so that its blade takes somewhat the position of an adze blade ; the skin is then struck with a free hand movement much as one might adze a log. The method is not adapted to thin or fragile skins. In agreement with the Alaskans, but contrary to the practice of the Copper Eskimo, the Mackenzie people used short-haired skins for under garments and longer haired ones for the outer coats and pants; as every- where among Eskimo the inner garments had the hair side turned in, the outer ones the hair turned out. One adult caribou sufficed for the inner or outer coat of any but the largest men; two were requiretl for a woman's coat, largely because of the big hoods. The main part of the hood was made of the headskin of the caribou that formed the back of the coat; leg- skin was used for the l)oot legs for both sexes and for large gauntlet mittens; body skin was usefl for socks and legskin for slippers worn between the socks and boots. If a short-haired (August killed) caribou had an especially white belly skin, this was taken off in a separate piece somewhat in the man- ner described for skinning seals; these were used for the decorative piece work of the outer garments of both sexes, but especially for the women's coats. Caribou killed between the first week of August and the middle of September furnished the bulk of skins used for clothing; fawns were con- sidered good for a month after that. If it was necessary to use for garments skins the hair of which was considered too long, the hair was thinned and shortened by currying or shortened by clipping. The soles of winter boots are nowadays made of the October killed skins of old bulls; until the com- ing of the Alaskans (1SS9 and after) caribou skins were considered unfit for bootsoles, white fish soles were used. Caribou used for boot soles is scraped twice with one wetting between, allowed to stay wet for a day or longer. It is probable that when the first moose came to the Mackenzie Delta lie found the Eskimo already in possession. The people, howe^■er, do not 150 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, seem to preserve any memory of his coming, but the fact that mooseskins are httle valued or used is itself a proof that this valuable animal is a new- comer. The conservatism of the Eskimo prevents them from readily devising uses for new things, and the Indian method of preparing mooseskins could have little attraction for them for, as the writer can testify from ex- perience, the products of their tanning offer less protection from a cold wind than does good woolen cloth. While well-suited to timbered regions, a moose coat is unfit for the blizzard-swept barrens; in fact, you can blow out a candle through the skin of a bull moose. The preparation of mooseskins consisted generall\' merely of simple drying. They were then used as bedding, as parts of the walls of smoke houses, etc. If white whale skin for boot soles gave out, soles were occa- sionally made of mooseskin by clipping the hair short and scraping and chewing the flesh side. As the white whale skin was used so long as it lasted, the shortness in boot soles did not generally occur except in summer, and it was for water boots therefore that the moose was chiefly used. In the Mackenzie Delta proper and inland on the Eskimo Lakes sealskins for kayaks could be had only through hunting expeditions far from home, or by purchase from the country east of Toker Point or west of Escape Reef. Caribou were therefore often used for kayak covers: for this purpose were chosen the comparatively light skins of females, killed in August or early September, skins that were not made unfit by the holes made and kept open by the larvae of the bot-fly. These kayaks were said to be heavier and to rot and wear out more quickly than those of seal. Natives of the upper Colville River, however, say that caribou skin kayaks are lighter than seal- skin ones; which side has the truth of the matter is doubtful. Skins not well suited for clothing and not needed for kayaks were used for bedding, for blankets (sleeping bags do not seem to have been used and there was no need for them in the warm earth or snowhouses), for hold-all bags (short haired spring skins), and for tents. Sealskins were seldom or never used for tents in the delta, but were occasionally used elsewhere, especially at Cape Bathurst. Caribou skin tents usually had the hair side out, but sometimes the flesh side faced out. For tents skins were not scraped, but were dried pegged out to prevent their shrinking; if in winter, they were merely spread out to their full size on the snow to freeze. A skin thus frozen does not shrink in drying, provided the drying is completed before it can thaw. Skins intended for bedding were treated in the same way. Sinew furnished the only sewing thread of the Mackenzie people as well as of all other Eskimo; of the various sources of sinew the caribou, until recently, was the most important. 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 151 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. As an introduction to this section the Editor wishes to state that at Mr. Stefansson's suggestion he selected from the journals of the expeditions such passages as in his judgment contained useful anthropological data not fully presented in the author's book, "My Life with the Eskimo." The author's absence on another expedition made it impractical to submit the selections for his approval, so that he is neither responsible for the choice of data nor the arrangement. To the Editor it seemed best to present the various extracts in chronological order under their respective dates of entry to facilitate their use in connection with the author's previous work. The Mackenzie Delta, 1906-7. August 11, 1906. Herschel Island. The schooner "Olga," Capt. Klinkenberg (Jorgensen) arrived yesterday morning from a winter at Minto Inlet. They report plenty of natives, "the cleanest they ever saw" at Minto Inlet. They used copper knives, plenty of copper, deer, bear, fox, etc. Prince Albert Land natives had no seal or fish nets. Were shown how to make and use them by Capt Klinkenberg. Had slit wood goggles. Two tribes of natives Minto Inlet: Could speak with Kogmollik from Baillie whom "Olga" took down. A few words different. Coat cut swallowtail; down to end of sternum in front only. Inside pants to reach up and under coat, and fancy leggings over. Did not see any water boots. Part hair in middle; braid it in two braids and hang over shoulder in front; carry babies in large hood. Most of snow knives, etc., of copper. Copper ice picks. Saw about two hundred and fifty natives, all told, on Prince Albert. These said there were more. Game is inland in winter. Think Banks Island better for game than Prince Albert. Went along shore in fall and picked up wood; in winter about six miles from ship. Natives burn oil exclusively. Found winter about as cold as at Herschel. Got free from ice about fourth to sixth of July. Blizzards not so sudden as at Herschel. Were northeast and southwest, the southwest blizzards were worst. Bows of wood and sinew\ Natives they dealt with most, call themselves Kogmollik; another taller, darker tribe called Nunkatiks. Neither tribe smoked nor chewed. Tea and hard bread they spit out: did not like molasses. Natives very 152 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Xdlnrtil History. [Vol. XIV, clean; never saw them look for liee, do not l)elie\'e they had any. Put tiieu- hed clothes on a Hne to freeze every day. August 20. The o'ola-ho'ola, which the natixes hold e\'ery night, seems piu'ely for amusement. There are usually from two to three drums and all the crowd sings, the dancers excepted. They do have them for seal killing, curing diseases of any kind, or for any good thing; also for evil. When the oola-hoola is for a purpose, it is usual that no one speaks except when the performers stop, and then it is a cheer of thanks to the performers. The dances I have seen are something like a cake walk, they move in unison, each doing the same thing as the others. Some know the dance well enough never to watch the others, and some have to keep their eyes on some good performer to get their cue. September 1. Shingle Point. I notice the Nunatama we had with us have all given up polling their hair, though the custom, they say, was no less universal among them than the Kogmollik. The Nunatama seem to have been entirely an inland people and they furnish one of the interesting problems of the region. Labrets. All the older men have labret holes, and most of them wear at least one. Those who wear two seem seldom, if ever, to wear a pair even when they own pairs, but wear one labret of one kind, another of an- other. Most of them are of various stones, from gray to green which they say they find in the mountains themselves./' Many wear labrets used by their grandfathers, so it seems that a man's labrets (or at least all of them) are not buried with him. I asked Kakatu about this, l)ut could not make him understand fully, though he told me both they were buried and not buried ; probably means that either the customs vary, or else they bury some of a man's labrets, and keep others. Roxy tells me among the Kogmollik sometimes you bury labrets, some- times son keeps them. When his own father died he had six labrets (three pairs). Roxy put one pair in the gra^'e alongside of the body, and kept two pairs for himself. They have no scruples against selling these heirlooms, though they put a high price on them./ Roxy says that so far as he knows these customs are the same for the Nunatama. The labrets are always taken out of the lips before burial, whether they are to be buried or not. Burial Customs, '^loxy s;iys that nowadays if a man has two rifles, one good, one poor, they put the poor rifle in the grave and keep the good rifle. He thinks perhaps this was different a long time ago; then they put both rifles on the grave. | [ Huskies. Harrison's Huskies seem to be \ cry kind and thoughtful in every way. When we left the tent, they would tie the door if we forgot to; they put special wrappings around my trunk l)ecause they saw papers in it. 1914.1 The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 153 When flour or tea is scarce, they will go without and gi\^e it to you. If they see you chopping wood they come and offer to do it. They are very cleanly. Many of the women are good-looking. Many of the men are about six feet tall; all are strong and active. They are crack shots, at least laki and Kokatu are, as I saw last night in target shooting with my rifle. They can make almost anything; last Saturday they made a centerboard for our boat out of poor boards, and did it beautifully. Most of them have a brace and set of bits. Some of their tastes are not cleanl3'^ to a white man's notion, though most of them have their parallels in civilization. They roast their fish, stuck vertically near the fire on sticks run through their mouths, with- out removing the insides, which you merely leave in the dish when eating. They allow dogs to lick the plates after meals and dip their fingers deep into the seal oil and suck them off with a smack. None of them seem lazy, though there is doubtless a difference, especially in some working faster than others, for all of them are always working, one may say. Even at this time of year, when their kerosene lanterns are lit at nine P. M. they work by lamplight, especially the women. Day times, if the weather is not bad, the men are out-doors all the time, and the women much of it. They spread blankets, skins, etc., to sit on and build a windbreak, lighting a fire if wood is plentiful, as it usually is on this coast. Even when the cooking is not done at this fire, but on a sheet iron or kerosene stove in some tent, the food is brought out to eat. P^'ishing. In fishing they usually push out their nets with their fifty to seventy foot poles, though they occasionally tend nets in kayaks and small umiaks. The nets here w^ere set indifferently outside and inside the sandspit, and with similar luck. The fish caught were a small whitefish mostly, with pickerel "bull heads," and two or three large cod- like fish (?). Clothing. The Nunatama sleep naked. They are fond of blankets, especially four point blankets, though they use fur also. Over their artegis of skin they usually wear a cloth one to keep the hair from wearing off fast. The artegis should be made of summer deer, and the favorite trimming is wolverine, for which they pay as much as $30.00 a skin at McPherson. A man who buys one cuts it into strips, uses all he needs, and sells or trades the rest, often getting a fair profit. Some whites say they consider wolverine their " medicine," but Roxy says they use it because they think it looks good. Wolf or dog is used for trimmings if wolverine cannot be gotten. Some- times the artegi is worn fur in, and for such occasions it often has a few small strips of wolverine in a bunch between the shoulder blades, perhaps three or four strips half by three quarters inch, and perhaps on the shoulders or sleeves. Sometimes, perhaps under white influence, they make patch- 154 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Yol. XIY, Avork ganiuMits of seal and deer trimmed with wolverine. They are made for whites usually and usually are buttoned, while theirs are not. Boots. The summer waterproof boot is of seal, with a "shoepac" sole; the winter boot is of deer, the sole of the brow, the leg of the deer's legs. The hair of the sole is always in, the leg may be either way. A sack of thinner skin is worn inside of this, or perhaps occasionally duffle. Cooking. The Itkillik seldom use baking powxier in cooking, and do not know how to use it right when they do have it. The Husky is skillful with it. The bread is either dry-baked, baked with a little fat in one-eighth inch of batter covering the bottom of a frying pan, or boiled doughnut fashion. Fresh seal oil leaves no taste perceptible to me, and they take pains not to use rancid oil. Roxy says "big seal" is "all the same" to eat as small seal; the skin is a little thicker and is used for boot soles, while the other goes for uppers. Tattooing. The tattooing of the Nunatama and Kogmollik differs little so far as I can see, both depend on taste of individual, within certain limits. It is done by drawing a thread under the skin, charcoal, or occa- sionally stove coal smoke or lampblack. Care of Children and the Aged. I have never seen a child struck or punished by Huskies, and a dog seldom. Both are well behaved, especially the children who always jump to do what they are told. It is said old people are occasionally left behind to die on journeys, usually at their own request, but I have seen nothing like this. laki's old parents are with him. His mother is especially decrepit, and whines with a bad head continually, but he humors her in every way. If he sees her trAang to do anything that is difficult for her, as getting out of the boat, he runs to her; he lifts her very tenderly ashore where everyone else jumps. Among Indians she might be helped by some other woman possibly, but not probably by her own son or any other man. The old people (we had two such couples) eat with their children, but have their own tupek, a very small one, to sleep in. How it will be in the winter I do not know. Much of the men's time is taken in making and mending nets. At this the women help if they have no clothes, etc., to make. Children even close upon a year old, are much of the time carried about on their mother's back when at work. Both with the Nunatama and with Roxy the men eat separately. Roxy's boy (about fourteen years old) eats with him and so does another boy about same age from Herschel Island whom Roxy brought down last time. The Nunatama children all ate with the women. Our camp here consists of two tents set with doors opposite. In one is Roxy, his wife, Mamaline (Neviluk) fourteen years old, a woman Roxy 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 155 brought from Herschel and her (?) boy of fourteen and Roxy's boy. The other is Whiskers, his wife, and daughter of fifteen. She smokes, Neviluk does not — probably sign of being past puberty, so Walker says. Roxy born at Kopuk, other side of PuUen Island some fifty-five miles. Alualuk, and another Husky, live there now. Speak a little English. They had implements of copper from Coppermine. Kopuk people once lived at Richard Island, then moved on account of bad weather to Kopuk. Thinks Kogmollik used to be as far as Icy (?) River, sixty miles west of Herschel Island. Nunatama came before whalers to Herschel, when Roxy was a small boy. (Nuna — land : taima — stop, stay). Kogmollik used to fight Point Barrow people, but never with Nunatama, who came only eighteen years ago. Kogmollik got their name from Point Barrow people. First time Kogmollik and Nunatama met they could not talk, "all the same, Itkillik." Very soon "savey little, though." When Nunatama came, they killed animals with "mucky powder." They do it still occasionally, though Roxy has threatened to call the police. Nuna- tama could not speak with Itkillik. They had both umiaks and kayaks on inland rivers. Before they came to coast used to trade with Kogmollik and Point Barrow, especially the latter, for whale and seal oil for which he paid in skins, wolverine, etc. Roxy says he is so used to Nunatama lan- guage now he hardly knows what words are Nunatama, has to stop to think. September 4- At 8: 00 A. M. Whiskers awoke our tent by telling Roxy there were five boats passing, coming down from Herschel. At first we thought they would pass by, but the}' rounded the point and came in; five Nunatama boats, had left Herschel three days ago. Tattooing. These five women, have one strip of tattoo half an inch wide on chin, some a little narrower. One is split slightly at the top, as if by a failure of having the tattoo lines of the band quite touch. All the men are about thirty years old. Have labret holes, but do not wear them; one younger (twenty-five?) has them, one almost thirty ha- none. One of the men has his feet gone up to the knee. Is cheerful and acti\'e. Does all his owai work, apparently. There are sixteen in the party, none old, for even the graj^-haired woman seems not old. Food. I suppose their meal with Roxy and his partner is typical of such welcomes to travelers. The men went into the partners' tent, the women and children into Roxy's. They then had some raw fish. They prefer it a little "high," Roxy says, so they had it out of the cache. Each man takes a fish, cuts off his fins, about two inches of the tail in front of the tail fin, and then eats with his knife, the fish having the consistency of a fresh one two-thirds cooked. A dish of seal blubber was also on; of this each man takes a piece, cutting off it a small piece for each mouthful of fish. 156 Anthropological Papers Awerican Muscmn of Natural Hi.slorij. [Vol. XIV, He puts the hhihber in Iiis mouth iinnu'diutely jifter the fish and chews them together. In eating, when they come to the guts they are picked out and put back in the fish trough. Some, after chewing off the spine to which the ribs are attached, chew this up, spitting out tlie ribs, l)ut apparently swallow- ing the masticated vertebrae. Dried fish was also eaten; after this came tea and doughnuts. Each cup is handed the guest in its own napkin. When through drinking he folds it after wiping the cup and saucer "clean" with it. They usually drink from the saucer to cool the tea. In folding, the saucer is placed on the center of the napkin, and the corners bent in so they just touch in the middle of the saucer bottom. The cup is placed right side up upon the corners of the napkin, and the sides of the napkin bent up and stuffed into the cup. The napkin which is big, and usually of some white stuff" fills the cup and makes the whole a ball which may be rolled about without coming apart. This is a convenient thing in mo\ing camps, or even in the crowded houses. Physical Characteristics. The eyes of all these people are a dark brown. A few of them have a slight tendency to widening of the nostrils (Negro or Mongol fashion), I)ut most of them not. The teeth seem good, though some, especially the women's, look yellow and are worn down in front by use. None of them have their heads polled. Kogmollik. Roxy tells me the name Kogmollik was given them by the Point Barrow and Nunatama people. They always referred to them- selves if not as "innuit," as "the people of Kopuk," or the people of "Kittegarue" (I did not get his pronunciation of this word clearly, but it is doubtless the one of Murdoch, p. 48). This village was east of Kopuk, but how far I do not know. Its people were "all the same as those of Kopuk." Down there they still use stone lamps, Roxy says. Toliacco and White Man's Food. It was in his father's time, but before his own, that Kopuk people first saw tea, sugar and flour, though they had pipes and leaf tobacco, that it was leaf tobacco I infer for their mistaking tea leaves thrown awa\' after meals at the fort for tobacco. Roxy says that when he was about twelve years old he and Oaiuk ("chief") who was a year older, stole sonie tea from W'illiam Smith (Indian) at McPherson, thinking it was smoking tobacco. They threw it away when they found it was not. This shows it was not very highly prized e^•en then by the Kopukmiut. When his people first got them they did not like any white foofls he knows of, not even sugar or molasses. The bacon was "all same seal," and did not tejnpt them for they had plenty of seal. Now they are very fond of sugar and tea, and like to have flour, coffee, molasses, etc. Tea is most highly valued by the Kogmollik, though the Nuiuitaina seem to like coffee as well. They are all still indiff'cn^nt to bacon when they have seal: the Indians are verv fond of it. 1914.] The Slefmisson-Anderson Expedition. 157 Houses. There are said to be a great many houses on the Herschel Island sandspit, and they are scattered in three or four places between here and there. One house (apparently of Kogmollik type) was sho^^^l me as Nunatama. This morning I took a walk to the east end of the sandspit to see what evidences of permanent occupation I could find. I found only one house ruin, and that is about two hundred yards east from our camp, which is within five hundred yards of the west end of the spit. Graves. I found three graves. In two I could see the skull; the third was well filled with gravel. I found perhaps a dozen fish caches, but these are often the remains of temporary camps. The graves are made as the caches are, and may differ only in the presence of bones and absence of fish scales, but there usually is more or less gravel in the graves. Some of the caches are more carefully made; I have not seen logs split to form sides of graves. The caches are often square, but the graves are oblong. Houses. To the west of our camp there are evidences of at least ten houses. One of these is still "fit to live in," and one ^eems to have been abandoned in the course of construction. The one still standing was re- built by Roxy six years ago. He lived in it three winters, and for the last three it has been empty. Hair Dress and Physical Appearance. Roxy's l)rother wears two tutaks half inch in diameter. He is older than Rox\', hair streaked with grey. On the crown it is a two months' growth ; in front and to the ears it is trimmed on a level with the eyebrows, but hangs in long locks behind, to the level of the head while Roxy's is trimmed even (see p. 141, Murdoch.) all around. His name is Pokerk. Iguam., his son, has the hair trimmed ex- actly as his father. He has labret holes, but no labrets, is perhaps twenty years old and the handsomest Husky I have seen, a distinguished, slightly aquiline oval face, light Italian complexion (light olive), a rather slim, erect figure five feet eight inches and a soldier -like gait. His mother has a series of narrow tattoo marks, which amount to and may be intended for a solid band three-quarters of an inch wide. She wears no earrings, but has the holes. Rings. These people have many silver rings on their hands — gilt ones I have never seen worn, though I have seen several stone rings, on woman's pipes. The ring is worn, if one only, on the third finger of the left hand. A woman in Anderson's boat has five rings all broad silver. Mrs. Whiskers has same tattoo as Mrs. Pokerk, except the lines composing it don't merge so evenly. Tea Drinking. Roxy tells me he likes to drink six cups of tea " every time," and that means about five times a day. I have seen him drink six several times. The others seem to drink as much. A good deal of water is drimk, too. 158 Anthropological Papers American Muse\im of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, Bows. Roxy says he never knew Kogniollik to have three-piece bows. September 8. Names. Roxy says his foster daughter is named Nevilluk because "my mother die, this one come up." He says names of the dead are seldom given to a child l)orn the next week, but usually one, two, or three Fig. 87. Plan of a House. Measurements: A to B, 3'2"; A' to B', 6'10"; B to C, 7'; B' to C, 2'; C to D, 2'9"; C to D', 3'; A' to A, 9'; D' to D, 8'10"; P to AD. 41" F' to A' D', 4'; posts 1, 2, to roof, 5'3"; posts 3, 4, 3'4" (roof one length, sloping logs); D E. to D' E', 10'; E to E', 3'.5". The outside of the house is banked with earth. G' is a small storage alcove usually for hou.sing a bitch with pups; it has a flat roof about 2 feet from the floor. G has a roof of the same level as the rest of the passage and sloping towards_E. The door is toward the west. years after death. When I asked him why he sometimes calls her " mamma" he said: "She got name all same my mamma (mother)." September 9. Clothing. Stein says the H. look upon wolverine trim- mings merely as we do sable, etc., but thinks the strips attached to the small of the back of the coat, etc., are "medicine." 1914. The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 159 Roxy and Anderson say these things "long time ago" were so you could tell when you saw a man far off, or saw his back, who he was. One would wear a loon feather between the shoulders always, another one would wear it on the left shoulder, another on the right shoulder, and then you could always tell his name. And suppose some stranger came and told you he saw a man five miles away who had a feather on his left shoulder, then everybody would know he had seen X — over there. Anderson says the son used to wear the same mark as his father. Length and Care of the Hair. The women's hair seems to average shorter than with whites. Roxy and Anderson say that both Nunatama and Fig. 88. Plan of a House at Shingle Point. Measurements: A to B, 23'6"; C to D, 24'; G to E, IS'IO"; I to E, 8' (H to K and H to F about the same) ; G to H and I to K, 10'; A to C, 7"; B to D, 6'2"; E to F, S'lO" equals height of G and H, 4'; I and K, 5'10", E. 3'; F, 2'4". (A to F measurement from floor of respective platforms, others from main floor.) Kotzebue used to pull out the beard when it came, but Kogmollik never did this. From people I have seen I am inclined to think the upper lip often escaped this process. I have heard of heavily bearded Nunatama, though this may be an effect of white contact. Oblutok, Roxy's partner, has a beard three inches long on the chin, and evenly distributed in the manner usual among whites. Fig. 88 shows a groundplan of Roxy's house at Shingle Point. To the north there is no alcove, but a slight curve in the wall behind the door. The door is oval, made of two (not three, as shown) plank slabs two inches thick, hewn out of driftwood logs. It is one foot seven inches by one foot ten inches 160 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, in size and the slant of the pkinks makes one foot eleven inehes to the floor of the passage below from the edge towards the center of the house and two feet six inches from the edge towards the wall, both measurements from the under edge of the two-inch planking. Alcoves A-C and B-D are floored with split logs of irregular length, lack- ing from six inches to one foot on each side from reaching the walls. These are the sleeping places. The main door and south alcove are floored with logs split into boards. The south alcove floor is six inches lower than the others, and the main floor six inches lower still. The window, rectangular, one foot three inches by one foot eight inches, is above the dotted rectangle marked on the floor and is thus on the north slope of the roof which is of split boards, sod, and gravel. It has been covered with a plain sack tacked across. The walls all lean in so that though they are a few inches from the posts at the base they come to them at the top, except at the posts (I and K). From K, the wall is two feet at bottom, one foot at top; .from I it is fifteen inches at the bottom, eight inches at the top. The walls and roofs are of split logs with the flat side in. The posts have roots for a crotch in every case. The walls are built partly of sod, though mostly of loose earth. At various points at the base of the wall, posts are driven in and horizontal tim- bers placed inside these to support the walls. There are also all sorts of odds and ends of timber laid up against the wall vertically, so that the house, at a distance, looks like a pile of wood. The floor of the house seems to be about at ground level. The cache near by, south of house, is six by six feet high, built with root crotches, as all this type are. In old times Roxy says they used to have five lamps in the house, four near posts G, H, I, K and one small at L (S.) between E and F. He says in this house people slept at both A-C and B-D ends and he himself slept at Q. In old times the favorite material for windows was the membrane from gulls' necks. The ventilating hole is above P, and is about three inches in diam- eter. The stove pipe, for this is a modern house, is near it. Roxy says houses are always faced toward the water, if water is near. If no water is near, the door always faces east he says. September U). Food. In eating raw fish today, only slightly high, 1 could barely smell it in the tent, Anderson (Kotzcbue) had to go out and throw up what he had eaten, at which the other five (son\e KogmoUik, some Nunatama) who were eating in our tent laughed very much. When he came back he told me that his people never eat raw fish imless it is well rotted. The Kogmollik and Nunatama prefer it a little rotten, but are fond of it in all stages from fresh from the net to a cheesy consistency. His people bury fish in the ground to rot it. Here that would not do, it would freeze. He 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 161 says that although he has tried repeatedly these several years he has been in the country to eat raw fish with the Kogmollik and Nunatama, he always has to vomit what he had eaten. If he eats more after vomiting he has to vomit that also. Septcviber 1 1 . As to the statement by Murdoch that unmarried people sleep with their heads the opposite way from the others in the common bed; I believe that is only so that more can be accommodated in the small space allotted for sleeping. At any rate Roxy's boy slept with his head the other way until now that there are two less in the bed, when he sleeps as the rest. The girl used to sleep head towards the door with the rest all the time, and the other boy lodged at Oblutok's. Chihibirth. Yesterday a child was born in a Nunatama tent. Roxy tells me that women sometimes die at childbirth; that doctors are (among Kogmollik) often secured to be with the woman, sometimes they hold her head, sometimes her hand. The child, he says, is never touched until com- pletely delivered. The Nunatama used to have the custom of confining the woman to her tent for a certain period after births ; he says his people never did this, that she goes out as soon as she feels able. The Nunatama have discontinued this custom, he says. Houses. He tells me the Nunatama build snowhouses outside their tents in winter. His people always have wood in their permanent houses. Houses on Banks Island. Stein says that both N. and S. of Kellett, Banks Island, he saw traces of recent houses that must have been lived in at least one winter. The wood stakes had been pulled out indicating the scar- city of timber, and only the sod was left. This was in 1901. He saw three on the shore where they landed some miles S. of Kellett and two at a landing N. of Kellett. The ones S. seemed not over two years old, the ones N. a little older. They had been built circular at the bottom. Though they had caA'ed in he thought they had been cones like an Indian wigwam. The wall had been of rather well cut sod. He saw more game there than he has seen an\"where; deer, bears, foxes, hares, and musk-oxen. This Anderson corroborates, for he has landed from the " Penelope." I have not had a chance to ask him about house ruins yet, but finding them tallies with Klink- enberg's story that the people of Prince Albert Land go to Banks Island occa- sionally. Names. Anderson tells me that the Nunatama and Kogmollik give their children the names of people who have recently died, irrespective of sex. Supposing he died, and a girl was born soon after, she would be called "Anderson." If two or three people die she will get their names. He never heard of more than three, and does not know how many a person might have, supposing many people die. 162 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural Historij. [Vol. XIV, Childbirth. He says "long time ago" Nunatama women used to go outside tent, perhaps make small tent, when childl)irth approached. Now they do not, and as far as he knows his people never did. Burial. When a man dies among his people or Nunatama, some people do not dare to stay in the tent with the dead man; some do, and these fix him for burial. They wrap him in skins or cloth or put him in a box, and tlien place on elevated platform. He says he helped put up the Nuna- tama platform-grave I saw on the sandspit in August that coiitained the body of a woman who died one hundred miles up the delta and whom A. brought down in his whaleboat. He says "some people are afraid" to use clothes, etc., that belong to the deceased, but he has worn such clothes, and many now do the same. September 17. Village Sites. On the way, just east of Sabine Point, Roxy pointed out the village site where he lived some years ago as a boy. At this place he said there were twelve whaling boats always ready to put out, and he remembers the whale-killing. His father at one time was the first to spear one. Just beyond King Point was a village that supported six whaling canoes; beyond, at Stokes Point, was another, the size of which he did not know. Then came the one on the Herschel Island sandspit, and one at the harbor. It seems to have been the fashion to indicate the size of a village by telling how many whaling boats they had. Breaking Bones. In breaking bones for marrow, i. e., the long bones, I have seen the Huskies always break them somewhat as we might break the shell of a hard-boiled egg with a knife. They generally use the back of the blade of their hunting knives (butcher knives), twirling the bone and tapping it on all sides from one point to the other imtil the bone is all cracked into small pieces, which, however, remain in place held, I suppose, Ijy membranes. The Ijone is always, so far as I know, broken for the mar- row without roasting, though I have seen shoulder blades roasted after most of the meat was cut off. Fish. Various men whom I have asked tell me they prefer l)oile(l fish to rotten raw fish. It seems chiefly a matter of convenience to eat it raw, though it may be that the preference for boiled is a taste acquired since the whites came. September 18. Sickness. Last week arrivals from Herschel reported that most of the Huskies there suflFered from coughs and colds. Yesterday Anderson suflFered from toothache. I am told there was toothache before the whites came just as now. Two of the young KogmoUik with tlie present party are without the polled haircut, one close cropped and the other cut on a level with his ear lol)es. Oyanginna, who looks fifty has gray hairs and tends to l)aldness in 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 163 front. Roxy tells me that a good many Huskies " no savey " sing or dance, he is one of them and never does either. He says colds and other sickness were less common before white men came. He attributes this to tea, flour, etc. Before they drank only water or "soup" of deer meat, seal, and occasionally fish. Scpfcmber 19. I asked Roxy this morning concerning certain scars on his breast. He said they had been made when he was sick inside under the spot where the scars are. He said this was not done by a doctor, but by anybody. "I just said: 'Here, you come out this place' and somebody come out." His wife and others whom I have seen have similar scars. He is just now thinking of having his head cut to relieve a headache that goes with the cold he has had some time. He says "By and by blood come, headache all right." Physical Characteristics. On seeing more of the Kogmollik I found that tall nien are much rarer among them than the Nunatama, while their women are all rather small. Many of those who are here now, seem to have weak eyes, and one woman is blind in one eye. All the young men have labret holes, and only two are without the polled hair cut. One woman has a chin tattoo of three bands one third of an inch wide each, separated by two spaces one-eighth of an inch wide. The bands are a trifle wider on the chin than at the lip. The woman's dress shows conspicuously the V cut both before and behind. Clothing. Roxy says formerly Kogmollik sometimes made men's pants as women's are still made, in one piece with the boots. Intermarriage. Happy Jack, who is a Point Barrow man, is married to a Kogmollik woman, the one noted abo^'e as being blind in one eye. September 20. Skins used for Clothing. Roxy says that before Fort McPherson was established musk-ox skins were always thrown away and foxskins only occasionally used then for clothes for children under ten years of age. The musk-ox robes were too heavy to carry. When he first re- members his people gave as many as forty foxskins for a small knife. Their tents were then usually made of mooseskins, although that animal is almost never killed now by people living at Kopuk. Deer Hunting. When he was a small boy deer were usually killed in the following way : They were found in a position w here they could be cornered against a lake or river, the men went out and cautiously made a semicircle about them. If there were too few men to completel}^ invest the deer, scarecrows were employed alternately with the men. Wlien all was ready the men began to howl like wolves. Sometimes the deer dashed into the water at once. Sometimes they ran toward the men, but were turned back bv them and the scarecrows and finally took to the water. Then they were 164 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, dispatched hy spearmen in kayaks. He remembers as many as two hun- dred deer killed in one day. Sometimes the people considered enough had been killed and let the rest escape. Umialik. Roxy explains "Umialik" as man who has an umiak, and says that at Kopuk, and among Kogmollik generally a man who owns a umiak is so called. Ilialuk is a name applied to a man who has neither umiak nor kayak, and who has no parents, even if he has children living. Earrings. Roxy says earrings, such as his wife wears now, long pendants of dentalia about one and a half inches long (two lengths, plus beads), were always made by his people, and who found dentalia on Husky Lake, also occasionally bought them from Nunatama. Clothing. Roxy says that he long ago gave up the use of skin under- wear, prefers woolen or cotton. September 22. Herschel Island. Walker tells me that when a whitefish was killed here this fall pieces of the skin were given to "everybody," i. e., to each native or family on the beach. The same is true when an ugrug is killed, but not of a small seal. For water bootsoles whitefish skin is best, and ugrug comes next. Exchange of Wives. After dinner I secured measurements 21-22 and 23. Kabheahek ("22") is Roxy's half brother by an exchange of wives, Roxy's father and another man's wife. This is seldom more than one night at a time, and seldom except upon the two families meeting after a protracted separation. After another separation this may be repeated. This practice seems to be seldom indulged in except by close friends, partners, sort of blood brothers. Roxy says the Nunatama custom is the same. He says that even when a man has two wives (this applies to Kogmollik, he does not seem to know Nunatama custom), and a traveling friend who has none arrives, they never lend him one of the wives. I notice that most of the natives (excluding kept women, and also those on the Narwhal, of whom I know nothing) who are now staying at Herschel Island (perhaps fifteen grown men all told) are Kogmollik. There is no one whom I know to be anything else than Kogmollik. They seem to be depending largely on the seals they catch in nets. September 25. Ula-hula. Sunday night I saw an ula-hula in one of the Mesinka houses. Several dancers followed one another. There was scant room for three (one woman and two men) to dance, and that was the largest number. Much of the time there was no one, while two danced onl}^ occa- sionally, one man being the rule. There seemed to be two or three slightly different ways to beat the drums, but different dances were also danced to the same tune. Each dance was only from two to four minutes long; but when a dancer once was up, he usually flanced from one-fourth to one-half 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 165 hour. One old man, a doctor (Kogmollik — in fact I heard the affair called a "Kogmollik ula-hula" and all those dancers whom I knew were Kogmol- lik, though several whom I knew as Xunatama looked on) danced until he was so exhausted that his motions, which had been exceedingly lively, became those of a man half dead. The other dancers moved their heads, bodies and arms in a manner to make one who did not see their feet think they were jigging. Usually, however, the motion was at the knees, and one or both feet were kept nearly still. Sometimes the dancer faces gradually around in a crescent, using one foot as a pivot. The old man rushed about, shook all parts of his body apparently to the dislocation point, and roared and shouted hoarsely. Occasionally, he dashed into the crowd and seized a certain young man by the head, shaking him. The spectators laughed and the young man took it coolly. I was told afterwards that the old man was making the young one a doctor, for fun. This meant, so far as I could understand, that the present generation was having performed for its amusement a ceremony that had been serious formerly. No one appeared to be very serious. Two young men who took care of Roxy's tent during his stay at the dance, passed the time by singing Church of England hymns. One of these was Eskimo, composed by the missionaries I was told. Ball Game. A game of hand ball Sunday afternoon was played as fol- lows: The crowd was divided into two parties, usually this is the men vs. the w^omen, but this crowd was promiscuous, a few men helping the women's side. The ball is throwTi to any member of one's own side and by him to anyone he chooses. The game is to intercept the ball and to get it into play on one's owai side. I was told there were no prohibitions, you could even take the Imll out of an opponent's hand by force. This I never saw done, but pushing, etc., was frequent. This game, I was told by Roxy, was played at Kopuk before whites came. Juggling. Many seem expert jugglers, especially the women. They will keep three stones in the air with one hand, or keep one ball in the air a long time with the toe of one foot, kicking it several times in the air. Blanket-tossing a woman, and jumping spring board are favorite amuse- ments. The blanket-tossing I have not seen; formerly a big seal hide -R-ith handles was used. The woman tossed kept on her feet if she could, and was throwai twelve to fifteen feet in the air, it is said. Broken bones and dis- located joints were often the result. I have seen women who have been pointed out as having broken arms, clavicles, etc. Chiefs. Capt. Leavitt assures me that Oaiuk's father was as real a chief at Kopuk as there ever was at Point Hope or Port Clarence. He himself has paid this chief toll and could not get deer hunters except through him. If 166 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, persoiuiUy oli'ended, he would compel all the Kogmollik of his \illage to boycott certain ships and sell meat to certain others, even when the boy- cotted ships offered a higher price. Displeasing other natives had no such consequences. September 27. Shingle Point. Villages. Half way from Herschel Island to Stokes Point there is one Kogmollik family wintering and one at Stokes Point. Thence to King there is no one. Formerly, Roxy saj's, there used to be a number of villages, one at the Harbor, Herschel Island, one at the southwest sandspit (the one at the Harbor depending on seals), one \illage near Stokes Point and Herschel, one on Roy Point, one between Roy and King, one just west of Sabine and one at Shingle Point, as now, then one two or three miles farther east. Roxy says six years ago fifteen Kogmollik died at Herschel Island of pneumonia, and in one week seventeen at Kopuk. Ever since he remembers Kogmollik have been dying fast. September 28. Last night Obluktok, and some of the rest of our folks, had an ula-hula in the next tent until after 12: 00 at night. Roxy tells me that when he was a boy they had various jumping tricks, one to kick a stick over their head with both feet, landing on them again, another was to tie a thong around the neck and just above the knee of one foot and drawing the knee close to the chin and kicking with the free foot. He showed me tonight various scars on his legs where he had been cut when swollen there, and water came out. He says if the cuts had not been made the swelling would have turned "all the same bone," as they did in the case of a man he cited. Roxy says at Kopuk they had a special whale house. This house was used for no other purpose. October 2. Roxy tells me that when he was a boy about twelve years of age fights with weapons were frequent between Kitigaru and Kopuk, Kitigaru being only about six miles east from Kopuk. He says that men of one village often picked up things which men of another claimed belonged to them, and fights resulted. In these spears, clubs, snow knives, or any- thing else, were used and men were often killed. But about the time Roxy was eighteen or twenty years old, these inter-village fights came to an end, apparently simply because people began to see they were silly. Houses. When he was a boy he says there were seven houses in Kitigaru of the type of his own house at Shingle Point only they were larger, most of them. These housed, on an average, six families, he says. There were also small huts of skins on a frame like a smoke house, "perhaps two, per- haps four," in which certain unattached persons lived (orphans, though mostly old people). He does not remember how many houses there were at 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. ' 167 Kopuk at the time, though there were more houses there than at Kitigaru. Kopuk, besides, was a trading center for the people to the east as far as Liverpool Bay, and beyond and to the west as far as Herschel. The fights do not seem to have pre^'ented this intercourse. They were more in the nature of quarrels or brawls, and seem to have occurred especially at the meetings. Skin Dressing. In scraping skins the women use both iron and stone scrapers, the stone scrapers seem to be preferred with rough skins at the first scraping, or rather, in beginning the scraping. On small skins, as rauskrat, I have seen only iron ones used. Mrs. Roxy uses water in which fish have been boiled to wash the skin side of deerskin after scraping; she rubs it on with a swab of deerskin with long hair on it. Tuluga's wife rubs the inside of rat skins with a paste of flour and water; Stein says that at Point Hope they take a little white, chalk-like stone, burn, and powder it, using it to rub on skins. Though she is a Kogmollik she may have learned this from her husband's people, who are Nunatama. Houses. Roxy says that he built his house five years ago, on the site of another house, which in turn he thinks was on the site of an older one. The passageway of the new house is five feet high where lowest; this gets lower year by year, and finally it is necessary to rebuild. At that time all the old timbers are thrown away and new ones substituted. The hole and passage- way are deepened and then the house built as before. This makes the number of house ruins in a place a better index than otherwise of its former population. Lamps. The lampwick used by Oblutok is composed of moss. By the side of the lamp is always lying a little round stick which is left in the oil and lighted whencA'er they need to look into dark corners. This torch is also used for lighting pipes, etc. October 4- Lamps. Roxy has told me two things of considerable interest — • First, that " 170" years ago, when his father's father was a small boy he could barely remember seeing the last of a woman's labret which had been in fashion before that time. These were single labrets, of stone usually he thinks, worn in a hole in the middle of the lower lip. They made the lip stick out " like a shelf," as he indicated with his hand. The second was, that a greyish stone was " all the same gold" among his people formerly. This was soft and stood fire perfectly, and was used for labrets, lamps, etc. It came from Prince Albert Land. He showed me a pair of labrets of the material, and it seems to me the same as Klinkenberg's lamps. Pottery. Of pottery Roxy never saw any, but his wife had seen some fragments brought from the west, and he had been told by western natives of its manufacture and use. 168 Anthropological Papers American Muncuin of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, October o. Whaling Customs. Roxy tells that when a man of his village killed a whale (as boat-steerer) he wore a crowskin with beaks and claws across his back for some time after. It was also usual to tattoo him with two lines running from the corners of the mouth to the angle of the lower jaw below and in front of the ears. His father killed a whale about in Octo- ber and wore a crowskin until about April. / When the houses had all been fixed and all preparations made for winter, he sent word out that there would be eating and ula-hula at his house for he intended tattooing because of the whale he had killed. The house was filled with guests, and during the celebration the two lines were tattooed. Tattooing. Formerly the women and men of Kopuk used to tattoo a line diagonally down from the nose. He remembers seeing one old man and two old women, all very old, who had this tattoo. Roxy says tattoo line from nose never curved as shown by Boas, but always down towards angles of jaw. In an umiak the man who steers the boat is "lunialik" while the boat-steerer is "niuyakti." The crew range from three to six besides this, and often consisted in part of women. Feathers as Means of Identification. Roxy had previously explained that the wearing of feathers, etc., was for purposes of identification. He says that the same sort of feather, or other insignia, was also tied to snow knives, or any other article of value that was likely to be left lying around — to show at a glance whose it was. Chiefs. Roxy corroborates, in a measure, Capt. Leavitt's statements as to chiefs at Kopuk. He says his own father (Itaar'ktjiak) and grand- father were chiefs there. When his father died, Oaiuk's uncle, Kax'alik, became chief and remained so until six years (?) ago, when he and seven other members of his household of eleven died of the black measles, among others his two wives and his eldest son. A young son lived who was too young to be made chief; besides, he did not want the post. Three years ago "Mr. Frith made Oaiak chief," apparently b}' giving him tea, etc. Some time later a trader at Red River made another Kopuk chief in a similar manner, by making him his trading representative, or Katatje. "Long ago" the chief had much power. No one could sell deer meat without the chief's permission. This agrees perfectly with Leavitt, and Roxy explicitly says that Kaxalik had this power, though the chief has no such power now. Drums. In Kogmollik dancing, the Mumirktuak, a stick six inches long, called 'Kat' tuk, is used to beat the drum, which is half rotated with a tambourine motion and a blow is struck on each edge alternately. In stretching the drum, it is "tuned" by tapping with the finger tips around 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 169 the edges. If the sound at any place does not satisfy, the skin is readjusted at that point. The material is usually deerskin. Balls. The balls used in play by Kogmollik were kicked with the foot and were some three to five inches in diameter. The outside was often of white fish skin and the stuffing was fine wood shavings or whalebone. Fire Bags. The real fire bag of the Eskimo, containing now matches and a pocket knife, etc., besides tobacco, but formerly the flint, steel, and tinder, is called Ignen. The Nunatama call it igaktaun. Telemayun or tlamayun, is a bag for tobacco only. Dancing. If I understand Rox}- right, dancing was sometimes in the nature of contests between villages. Persons danced as representatives of certain villages, and sometimes men not belonging to a certain village might be chosen to dance for it; say, if all the crowd were Kopuk, certain men might be told "you be Kittegarmiut." Whether these were contests of strength, endurance, or what, I do not know. October S. Roxy says that so far as he knows, nose rubbing was never a general form of salutation, but was indulged in practically solely by old people who saw their children after a long separation — perhaps after believ- ing them dead. "Medicines." I described to Roxy Hanbury's louse remedy for sore eyes, as he saw it. Rox}^ says that he has been told that the Nunatama run a hair across the eye in some cases, and also that they sometimes make a hair fast to a louse to "make him scratch" the eye. His people, he says, use a sharp, bent nail and make a little wound inside the eyelid with it. ^Yhen the eye clouds, I understood him to say, they occasionally scratched the eyeball. For snow blindness the Nunatama, he says, cut the tip of the nose, and prod sticks up their nostrils; the Xogm. cut on a level with the eye and an inch or inch and a half back of the outer corner of the eye, and also on the top of the head above each eye just in front of the tonsure or even across the front border of the tonsure. Cutting, Roxy says, is their only " medi- cine," and is not done by the doctor, but by anyone at all, often by the patient himself. They cut for everything. I believe I have already noted that Timmluni, whose eyes are now well, was cured by cuts on the top of his head, and that Tsitsak was cured of earache by a vertical cut an inch and a half long and about an eighth inch deep, an inch in front of the ear, the middle of the cut being on a level with the opening of the ear. The small of Roxy's back is practically covered with scars, and he has them all over, even on his fingers. They emphasize that it is not so much blood, as water, that comes out, and this water must be gotten rid of in some way. Sometimes the doctor is called. He works in the patient's house, and 170 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, his treatment consists in songs and dances. While he is at work no one must leave the house, though the doctor himself often goes out, goes around the house, and comes in again. The dance ordinarily lasts from about 7:00 P. M. to 1 : 00 A. M. Occasionally it may be longer. Sometimes, too, there are recesses of a few minutes, when people may leave the room. The fee is proportioned according to the severity of the disease, and ranges from three to five foxskins, to a finished umiak made for the doctor of from five to seven whitefish skins. If a man is poor, people join in and give the doctor any- thing they feel like, one a knife, another a foxskin, etc., regarding these con- tributions as much as a matter of course, as giving a destitute man food If the doctor makes a cure, or if he fails to cure but the patient lives, he keeps his fee; but if the patient dies soon after treatment, the doctor comes back with whatever he has received and refunds it. Among the Nunatama, Roxy says, the doctor got no pay until the benefits from his treatment were evident. Kadjigi. In the time of Roxy's great-grandfather (paternal) his people lived in two villages about one mile apart, Kopuk and Kingnirit; but the filling in by the sea of the places where they used to kill whitefish induced them to move some six or seven miles, where they founded Kittegaru and Tsannirak; these last places being about one mile apart. In Tsannirak there were two kadjigis and in Kittegaru three. But these have all fallen in ruins and been burnt, and there are now no kadjigis on the coast. These buildings, Roxy says, were so high in the center that a tall man could just reach the roof with a four foot stick, while around the sides an ordinary man would just touch the sides with his head when standing on the bench seat which ran all aroimd the house. These houses were about fifty or sixty feet long, and as wide. When dancing was on they sometimes danced a whole day without eating; when they ate the}^ had to go to their own houses for the food. In the spring the kadjigi was used as a workshop for repairing umiaks, etc. The kadjigi had the same sort of an entrance as an iglu, was lighted and heated comfortably with lamps and had windows of white- fish skin. Reckoning of Time. The three or four weeks ending about New Year were almost continual dancing, Roxy says. The month was called the "dancing time." There appear to have been eleven months in the year, counted from each new moon. Probably there were ten "moons" and the moonless summertime taken as the remaining one. Roxy puts it that they "left August out." October 9. Kittegaryuit and Tsannirak. Roxy drew for me a map indicating the position of the old towns Kopuk and Kingnirit and the newer ones, Kittegaryuit and Tsannirak. The people at Kingnirit moved to i 1914.] The Stejdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 1/1 Kittegaryuit and those of the Kopuk to Tsannhak. This was in Roxy's great-grandfather's time. The Kopuk men, both while at Kopuk and later at Tsannirak, hunted up the Anderson River, while the Kittegaru people hunted towards Richard Island. The result of hunting up the Anderson was frequent fights between the Kopuk men and Itkillik, who were thus traditional foes. The last "fight" with Itkillik came when Roxy was a small bo}'. He does not remember it. His mother and her brother and cousin were in an Itkillik house of which they had taken uninvited possession. The Itkillik, who were eight in number, tried to drive them out and a fight ensued. Roxy's mother killed two with a knife; four others were killed, and two escaped, — a boy of twelve and an old man. The fight occurred on the Peel. The Itkillik used to come down as far as Tunurak. I noticed today that young Roxy wears a young hawk's wing feather sus- pended by the "near" end by a string around his neck inside his shirt. I a.sked him "why" and he said he did not know, someone gave it to him long ago and he always wore it. Roxy explained to me that this was a remnant of the " marks " he had explained to me before. Young Roxy produced two white weasel skins fastened together at both ends. These were to be worn as a wreath, only more on the back of the head than the classic. There was a string to tie these under the throat. Young Roxy said he would not sell them for any mone}'. Roxy said he had a wolverine head skin split so as to fit as a fillet on his head, but that he disposed of it many years ago, for he got to see they were no use. Whatever may have been the understood meaning of these things once, young Roxy seems to prize his as a gift. October 10. Songs. Roxy tells that the "Kogmollik singing," a more continuous and softer song, accompanied evenly on the drum, which is half rotated in the hand and struck on alternate edges, came from the east lately, reaching Kittegaru only some ten years ago, and Shingle Point later. Dancing. In the "Kogmollik dance" which is, now at all events, not always to the Kogmollik song, only one man and one woman take part at one time, l)eing followed b}' another pair when they are tired; in the Tuyor- miut form, the most common at Herschel, any number of either sex take part. In the Kittegaru kadjigi there was usually one big drum (say, three to four feet across) and this sufficed, but the Tuyormut often had as many as nine drums. When a ^'isitor came from another district it was usual to dance as long as he pleased before eating. Roxy has heard that " long ago " there were fighting games, but his information on the point has been vague. At Herschel if a sled came from the east it was always said : " Kogallit are coming!" Fishing. At Kitteijarvu they did not use nets for whitefish l)ut speared 172 Anthropological Papers American Muneiim of Natural History. [Vol. XIV^ tliem from kayaks. Iloxy thinks there were as many as one hundred kayaks. A good hunter, if he was hicky, sometimes speared ten in a (hiy. October 11. Roxy's wife saves the feathers of the birds eaten, and uses them as swabs whenever it is thought necessary to wipe a pot, or some mess off the floor. Feathers are occasionally used to wipe the hands after meals. Succession of Chiefs. Roxy says when a chief died his eldest son Ijecame chief; if he had no son, his brother became chief; if no brother, some rela- tive in whom the people had confidence. If the son was mentally or other- wise unfit, the people would decide that fact and then the succession took effect. If there was no brother, popular opinion decides which of the relatives should become chief. Building Umiaks. Umiaks were usually built in the summer out-of- doors. But if one had to be built say in April, a special snowhouse was put up to shelter the builder. Kadjigis. As before stated Tsannirak had two kadjigis and Kitte- garyuit three. The doors were not like those of iglus, as pre^-iously stated, but were something after the white man's style. There was a whitefisb skin employed to close the door when necessary. When a dance was to be held, no fire was lighted that day, and the house cleaned just before the dance, usually this began between 4: 00 and 7: 00 P. M. October 12. KogmoUik on Coast. This year there are three Kogmollik families between Shingle Point and Herschel Island : one Kay Point Bay, and at Stokes Point, one half way thence to Herschel Island. Commerce at Kittegaryu. For copper, lamp stone, tutak stone, etc., the Kogmollik paid in skins and blubber, paying as much as five whitefish skins for a copper skin scraper. The place seems to have been a trading center, as was Kupuk. October 13. Waterproofs. They had a waterproof garment made after the manner of a union suit, with hood and boots attached. It had a slit of a few inches down from the neck in front for putting on, and was made large, to go over artegi, water boots, and everything. The garment is called auno'tjik. Dressing Skins. In scraping garments or finishing skins they rub with lumps of chalk. Formerly, they used a stone called maxatlik found at a place called Kitikkat, not far from Kupuk. Trade with Point Barrow. The first man of whom Roxy knows that came from Point Barrow was one who arrived in a umiak at Herschel a few years before Roxy was born. He stayed there until after the freeze-up, when some Shingle Point people took him home with tliem. Later he was taken to Kupuk by a resident of that place, and finally he got as far as Baillie Island, where he jnarried and turned bjick with liis wife, who was a 1914.] The Stejdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 173 cousin of Kunalik's grandmother. After this Point Barrow people fre- quently came as far as Baillie, bringing tobacco and labrets which they exchanged for copper and stone for kodliks. October I4. Tents. The tents of the Kogmollik were made conical on a frame of ten or more sticks tied together at the top in the manner of the cooking tripod. They were preferably of moose, though seal and deer were also used. It was the Nunatama who introduced the dome-shaped tents. KogmoUik-Nunatama Disagreement. Four (?) years ago the Kogmol- lik delivered the Nunatama a sort of ultimatum to the effect that if they did not stop using poison for animals they would have to leave the country. This, the Nunatama seem to have taken to heart. October 25. Camp. Yesterday w^e picked up another deer, leaving, however, some of the meat for me to take going back. At 6: 00 P. M. we arrived at the camp. It consists of two oval brush and moss houses, the larger about twelve by twenty-five feet and eight feet at the top of the vaulted roof. There are three women and four children in the camp. The men left in charge had killed 11 deer while our companions were absent. Shedding Teeth. A little girl who had just pulled out one of her milk teeth, wrapped it in a piece of meat and gave it to a dog. This, I w^as told, the Nunatama always do. Candles. The Nunatama have always used candles, one I saw being about two inches in diameter. Traps. Yesterday, we stopped to make a wolverine trap. The beast has to reach in through a door for the greased end of a long stick, on the outer end of which a short stick is pivoted to support the roof. October 26. At supper tonight we had a mess made by stirring together a quart each of melted deer and finely minced meat. This we stirred with the hand in a ten quart pail, and in half an hour the pail was full of a puffy creamy stuff. It tasted fairly good, but is too rich for a white man's taste. The stuff is called "akuttok" by the Nunatama. November 1. Home Life, Kogmollik. Tonight Roxy's wife was un- usually sick, head, back, etc. The manner in which he sat by her, held her hand and forehead and rubbed her back, was exactly in the manner to be ex- pected of a " civilized " man who had great affection for his invalid wife. November 2. Infanticide. Stein tells me of two cases of infanticide last winter, a Point Barrow man and Nunatama wife; one Kogmollik woman who left her white husband. He has known of many other cases, usually girl babies. November 8. Boots. The Nunatama wear their winter boots on al- ternate days on a different foot. The Kogmollik wear same boot on same foot all the time, as we do. 174 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural Histnnj. [XOl. XR', Dancing. Among the KognioUik when any dance is through, the (hmcer may touch anyone present, man or woman, whose time it then becomes to dance at least one dance, a sort of " tag ". Shortening Hair on Deerskins. When for any purpose the hair on the deerskins is too long, it is cut off, not with scissors, though every family has a pair, but with the ulu. There seems nothing the ulu cannot be used for, ripping seams, cutting skins, and sometimes cloth in shape for garments, cutting l)rea(l, slicing meat to be fried, etc. December !->. Kangi'anik. Made fair progress Wednesday. Camped at 1 : 30 on the l)ig river " that comes straight down from Red River ". Thurs- day night we camped at Tunurnak, the first Kogmollik site on the way east. Had hoped to find people here. Friday noon we got to Siniguak where Roxy expected to find Oaiok, but found no one. The dogs were played out and the fish all gone, so we cached everything but oiu* bedding, tent, stove and twent}' pounds of flour, all the food we had. T. and I pulled the sled along fairly fast now, and we got to Igloryuit at 3 : 00. This was also de- serted, though at both these places people had lived last year. Saturday 1 :30 we got opposite Kittegaryuit, but passed two miles off shore. Roxy said no one had lived there for eighteen years and there would be none. Soon we came upon sled tracks going from Kittegaryuit to the east. These, Roxy said, were white freighters from Kittegarj^iiit, for there often is a summer camp at Kittegaryuit to catch white whales. We soon came to two cached whale boats, one of them Jimmy's, and at 2 : 00 got to Kangia'nik, where we found a house with twelve people and all kinds of food, so much they will have to throw half of it away next summer: fresh fish hooked, dry fish, white whale meat, and plenty of oil for four kodliks. This is the first real Kogmollik family life I have seen. Were told here there is one family at KittegarNOiit. Boy's First Game. T. showed me a place near Kittegari^iiit where he shot his first duck. His parents invited all the neighbors for a feast with plenty of tea in honor of the event. Snowshoes. Typical Kogmollik snowshoes are of two pieces of drift- wood sewed together with thong or whalebone at heel and toe; toe sharp and turned up. Nunatama are of two okpeks, spliced at the toe, rounded toes and turned up rather less than R. Have seen them made of one okpek arovmd the toe. House at Kangianik. Similar to Ro.xy's at Shingle Point. Four kod- liks, one at each main post, kept burning all night, supplied with oil from a bunch of blubber suspended by a stick above and behind the ffanie. Wick is a pile of wood scrapings like sawdust. Kodliks are all of iron. House heated by stove also. Window of a white whale stomach. Ventilator al- ways open. Rather warm inside, but no bad smell. Diet: fish and tea. 1914.1 The Stefdnason- Anderson Expedition. 175 Feuds. An old man here, whose father killed three men and wounded three more in one night with a knife. A man near here somewhere who killed two men with a rifle two or three years ago, one of these Roxy's cousin. Police have not been tokl. Hand Wipers. Both sexes employ considerable time in making shavings like fine excelsior with fistfuls of which one wipes his hands and mouth after eating. Rate of Growth. Tjitjak is said to be seventeen years old and to be full- grown. Roxy says boys are full grown at sixteen and seventeen. December 10. Surgery. Saw an incipient boil on a girl's back slit with knife today. A bunch of excelsior was put on as an absorbent. Water Holes. The one here has a windbreak of snow about three feet thick. There is an ice pick with a point of iron and a sort of spoon of wood with a blade about four by six inches, handle about seven feet. The water here has a faint trace of salt, but will be fresh later. Is fresh all summer. Sleds. The ones here are stronger and wider than at Herschel, approach the old Kogmollik type, and are about three feet wide and four to six feet long. These were shod formerly (as now) with whalebone, deer horn, etc. Ice was put on; moss chopped fine and mixed with new snow, then some water added and the mush put on with the gloved hand. Ice spots were avoided. The ice on runners was smoothed by pounding with a piece of wood. Cook House. An alcove in left side of passage as you enter, chimney of snow blocks, roof about five feet high, and chimney two feet more. Brands scattered when the pot is taken down. Old Age. The oldest man here, Taiakpanna, is said by Roxy to have been as old as Roxy is now when Roxy was a small boy, about thirty years ago. He does not look a bit decrepit. He has a beard. Cleanliness. Today they scrubbed the floor carefully with warm water and rags. Floor is partly of hewn, partly of round logs or poles. The little girl washes to excess, and most, if not all, wash their faces in the morn- ing. The women comb their hair daily. There is no bad smell in the house. Have seen no signs of lice. Nursing Children. The three-year old girl here today is not weaned yet. December 12. Snares. Isib'yuok, a strip of whalebone fifteen inches long, half an inch wide, and one tenth of an inch thick is folded back on itself in about two inch lengths, tied with a thong and covered with ice and oil. This the wolf or other animal swallows. December 15. Tattooing. Anarakljiak has a single horizontal tattoo line on each arm, about over the upper neck of the humerus. Wolf Tail Belts. Oyangium and one of the boys wear belts of wolfskin 176 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural Historij. [Vol. XIV, fastened in front and luiving a wolf tail fastencfl at the middle of the belt and thus hanging down to back. Stone Lamps. Oaiak has one stone lamp which lie saj's is " akkia au- ganimi" with front edge slightly curved about two feet long. Bridge has three openings, one at each end and one midway. Kadjigi. Oyangina says the Kogmollik the other side of Baillie make a snow kadjigi every winter. Xagmallit. The people here make it plain the}' do not consider them- selves Xagmallit. Those are the people to the east. Fishing. Formerly, no one of Kopukmiut hooked fish while sun was down. As it is, only Oaiak is doing it. Deceviber 16. Kangianik. Left Tuktuyoktok for Kangianik with a company of Huskies to meet there Oaioka's boy from Singyok. December 17. Care of Children. Notice here, as with the Nunatama in Stein's house, that tulurak (raven) is used to scare children when naughty. Childbirth. Notice no peculiar practice in regard to the newborn boy. Mother in some pain yesterday, everybody grieves over the child, as among kabhmas. Mother eats only boiled fish as, I believe, the sick do usually. December 19. Tuktuyoktok. Dance. Last night saw the best dance yet. Agnalluak, who has incipient consumption, danced first a long time with her back most of the time to the audience, and with no violent move- ments. She occasionally said something, i. e., how her cough started, (audience, "too bad"!), that she hoped it would stop soon ("amen"), etc. Then Oaiyuak began dancing alone sometimes playing one of the drums, sometimes merely with his gloves in his hands, or nothing. He was stripped to the waist. His movements gradually became very violent and then he called for his weasel laurel, which he alternately wore on his head or held in his hand, shaking it. Then he threw it away and called for a wolf belt, which he threw on the floor and then danced around it. He now began making excited and earnest statements (or questions) to which the audience replied. Occasionally, he jumped down into the doorway, dancing there sometimes with his back to the audience, sometimes his breast, continually exclaiming and asking questions. Both here and on the floor, he made complicated passes with both hands. He seemed near dropping from exhaustion at one time. At this point he went out of sight into the passage. I did not see just the movement when he popped up into the doorway again, but believe he came into it backwards. At least someone held up a drum in front of my face at the moment; when T saw him he was dancing there again with his back to us. When he turned, there was blood running out of his mouth at the labret holes. This trickled to his breast, but soon stopped flowing. After this he mostly walked (sort of cake-walk, stooped forward) 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 177 in a circle, beating one of the drums. At the shouting points of the dance, the drums beat violently and most of the people sang the accompaniment. At the speaking parts there was silence, except for the responses. These remarks came in bunches, between which (perhaps about a minute) the drums beat softly, stopping just before O. began to speak again. Near the end of the dance he ceremonially drank a cup of water, holding it high with his right hand, and striking a dramatic upward and forward attitude, while with his left hand he held the hand of a decrepit old woman (Ekopterea). During the performance everyone was very serious. O.'s part of the dance lasted about forty-five minutes. Dancers seem to want to have something in their hands — usually gloves, either grasped or put half-way on. Games. Last night we played with match-like sticks about four inches long. We had nine, but lost one later, which seemed to make no difference. The bunch is held on the flat palm, tossed up and caught on the flat back hand, then tossed again and caught in the fist, the trick being to catch one stick or any odd number. The odd stick is kept; the throws are invariably alternate between the players. The one who has the most sticks when all are gone, wins. Tricks. One boy showed me twenty-two tricks with a string, called tuktu, kimmek, amaox, etc. He said there were others. The H. say these are "all the same as writing." Lamps. After burning a long time, several days, a good deal of residue matter from the oil forms on the bottom of the lamp, and is removed when the lamp is almost full of it. Polygamy. O.'s two wives seem to get along well. The older is evi- dently boss, though she seldom uses her authority. Certain things, as piptje and tea she has in her charge and deals out to the other one. She seems as fond of the children as the mother is. Physical Characters. The men have nipples better developed than I remember seeing them on whites. There is uniformly a spot of about one inch diameter, slightly conical, of a dark brown color, and looks about as the palm of one's hand does under a low magnifier. The nipple itself is about one sixth of an inch in diameter, cylindrical, and about one fifth of an inch high, about like an empty 22 cal. "BB." cartridge inverted. The accumulation of flesh, too, beneath the skin simulates a woman's breast to a considerable degree. Songs. O. continually sings about various exploits, his and others', at which everybody laughs. December 21. Tonight a Kotzebue Sound, Kale'lik, who lives some fifteen miles inland, came walking in in pursuit of one of his dogs which ar- rived this morning. 178 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, Pulling Teeth. Pulling milk teeth is practised. This evening a girl had one pulled that had become loose. A loop of sinew was used. Dccnuber 23. Childbirth, Nunatama. The mother immediately after birth presses the baby's head firmly before and behind with her hands, but once only. Anderson says he believes the Kogmollik do not do this, while his people, Kotzebue, do as the Nunatama do. December 25. Windows. Two ice windows facing S. and about four- teen by fourteen inches each admit light enough, so lamps were dispensed with at 10: 30 A. M. The ice is about four inches thick. It tends to frost on the inside in the manner of glass. There is a skin window in the roof, but this gives less light. Houses. This house is of the moss turf like the Nunatama house, but has a framework of spruce logs instead of okpak, two uprights, a ridge pole between and four long logs, two rimning from each end of the ridge pole in opposite ways and the ground eighteen feet on one side, twenty on the other, where these are about three feet from the ground, the ridge pole is seven feet, they have cross logs between which the ridge is laid. On the longer side there is a cross log three feet from the ridge, making a rectangle in the roof three by ten feet. In the center of this is the window of skin. The walls all slope in and are of upright spruce sticks. The ends of the lean-to logs stick out about five feet through the corners of the house till they reach the ground. The floor is of brush, the beds not elevated as in Kogmollik house but simi- larly placed. Whitefish Catching, Nunatama. A. says the Nunatama used to come down to the sea at Kotzebue and elsewhere, and catch white whales, seal, etc. They were always fond of Oktjuk and bought some from A.'s people frequently. Blood Mixture. The habit of the Nunatama of coming to the sea every year at various places for trade or fishing made intermarriages with \-arious coast people frequent, so much that careful inquiry almost always shows impurity of blood ; Kuwax and Katotox, for instance, had a Kotzebue father. Fireplace. A square of logs three l)y three feet in the center of the house and filled with earth, forms a fireplace used when fish is cooked in a huge pot of eight gallons. The skin window then serves as a smoke-hole. Ice Sieve. For completely clearing a net hole of ice before pulling out net, a spade four inches wide shaped like a tennis bat, is used here. Coronation Gulf, Cape Parry People. About four sleeps east from Parry, A. saw ruins and one old Kogmollik house some years ago. No other signs of people. December 28. Nunatama. This country has no trees (merely okpek), no rabl)its, few fish in sununer and none in winter. l)ut plenty deer, formerly. Now there are no deer. 1914.] The Slefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 179 Rabbitskin Blankets. K.'s wife has made two for the ehikh-en to sleep with; woven "all the same net," K. says. She learned how smce coming here, though the Kogmollik do not practise this. I can't find out from where she learned. The skin is slit in quarter inch strips, twisted so as to bring the hair out, and then looped; for which a wooden needle (4 in.) is used. January 1, 1907. Kangillirk. Fishing. Nets set under the ice here are first placed by cutting a series of holes eight inches in diameter about six feet apart, and tw^o holes two feet in diameter at the net ends. The net line is passed from hole to hole under the ice by means of a bent stick, a tupek willow. Temperature. Mr. H.'s observations give the following results for three months past. Those before Nov. 16 were taken at Long Lake, the rest here: Max. Min. Mean, October : 33° 1° 24.076° November : 15° -41° -7 .464° December: 12° -51° -18.860° The thermometer is said to be accurate above 0°, but gives too low readings if colder (i. e. -42° probably -40° on a standard thermometer). Yesterday afternoon we had -5° and at 7 P. M. today -46°. It does not feel cold at all today, one would guess it ca -10°. January 28. Burial Customs. A. says he has laid out several dead persons in the sweater he still wears while most people throw away the clothes they have worn on such occasions. He also told me that when a man lives alone in a house and dies, he is usually left there. Somewhere near Tuktuyoktok O. has told him, there is a house with two bodies. Sickness. O.'s baby, the one adopted of Tirktirk, has been sick for some time. One evening he "spoke," to cure the child, a series of exclama- tions, declarations, and questions responded to by the company every now and then. There was neither dance nor song. The day before yesterday he built a snowhouse; I was told so that the baby's rest would not be disturbed by the noises of O.'s house. February 1. Incantations. O. indulged in a long one after bedtime last night, sitting at the head of his bed. He demands good winds and little, small cold, good going, plenty of various goods at Herschel and cheap, the generosity of his son-in-law, Sander's mate of the Narwhal, and good health and good luck for us all four and the dogs. Shifting Population. Avantok and family, who were at Kittegaryuit, lived a while at Kang. and are now at Imnaluk. Alualuk's wife is his sis- ter and Navalluk's at Shingle Point. One of the younger couples counted here before now is at Imnaluk. Jimmy's mother who was here (Kangianik) 180 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, in December, left with Anderson for Kiglu\':Vnoktok's some distant S. E. Then he and Anderson's brother Oyuliak to Kaxotok's, thence Okilliak back to his house and Oyu- liak to Tuktuyoktok, intending to go later to Imnalak, and so the story might be long continued. This shows the uselessness of trying to get the census by localities or houses. February 2. Kangianik. Edge of Tools. All knives and tools, exc<.'pt axes, have edges, scissor fashion. February 3. Tonsure. Kaxilik, three and a half years old, O.'s son, has just had his first tonsure and the full adult haircut. Cleanliness. Today, as also this morning, we left Tuktuyoktok. O.'s younger wife washed her face in fresh urine. Language. Mangilanna spoke with Capt. Amundsen's (King William Sound?) "Kogmollik" last winter and thought some words strange in form, but had no difficulty in conversing with him. February 4- O. gives me the following places inhabited when he was a boy, most had two or three wood houses, and some snowhouses : Tsaunrak 3, Kittegaryuit 8, Kang., Naparotalik, Niakoatjak, Inuialugyuak, Kenerkt- jak, Tuktuyoktok, Tapkark, Mangomik, Anagniarme, Nunasuame, Tapaka- lugyuame, Sjeoakane, Inmalungme, Kangirgme, Itibyaak, Itibyaak Tsan- iane, Itibyaak Tsaniane (two of same name), Mumirkpa\dk, Tjigllaluk, Nuwurak, (as big as Kittegaryuit formerly) (O.'s wife from there), Ublat- sami, Nimagatjak, Kiglavait, Kigirktame, Nuwiik, Tjaiyuaryune, Okivig, (very many houses), Kopukine (many houses), Igloryuit, Sinigyhak. In the interior (Husky Lakes district) Kuraluk, etc., very many. All these places were inhabited every winter. February 5. O. says that he, Jimmy, Anderson, Avanlik, Ivitkwa, think of going beyond Parry for hunt and trade next summer. May want passage on ship. Washing. O. used today a method I have seen among Russian immi- grants, sipping and spitting into his hands. February 7. Tunuruak. Deer. We saw two sets of deer tracks old, of several, and this morning's of three deer, going to Richard Island. O. says there will be a few deer after a month, besides those that are here now. Formerly deer were so plenty that, in his own house, fish were little eaten, but the last three years com[)aratively no (l(H'r and they have lived on fish. 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 181 Last year he came E. from Shingle Point about March 1 and got ten deer the rest of the spring besides fish and small game. Waterfowl are innumerable here in the spring and on some of the islands to the S. and N. thej^ nest in thousands. White whales and fish abound in summer. February 11. Near Shingle Point. Tents. O. contradicts R.'s state- ment that Kittegar}^Tiit tents were formerly of moose. Said it was used merely on the floor next to the snow. February 13. W. wind and trace of snow. Therm, at —46°, wind 2, much better day than yesterday. Our trip, as a whole, was very cold, though the wind was never very high. Our camps were comfortable. Our snowhouses were large, about eight by ten feet oval and six feet at vault, and consequently froze a little, just enough to make the frozen fish right for eating. Most days we cooked fish for our meal, eating raw fish for the first course even there. This usually mornings. The effects of cold on our dogs were quite as pronounced as upon our- selves which the H. understand. O. said yesterday they were tired more from cold than hard work. The sled was lighter, of course, yesterday than ever before, and the wind blew the rime away so it should have dragged easier than on past calmer days which were fully as cold, but the wind seemed to chill the strength out of them so they could not be urged beyond a \'ery slow pace. On other days the mere approach to a place that looked like a campsite made them strain and tug, but yesterday the sight of houses, men, dogs, which usually makes them rush ahead wildly, had but slight effect, and they had to be whipped for the first time to keep them from stopping, quite, even on a level, when a blast of wind came. February 15. King Point. Beliefs. Kataksinok, Stein's wife, was greatly disturbed by my handing Annie, her two year old child, K.'s cup to drink from. Stein says she does not mind who drinks from her cup, except now, while she is pregnant, the child is due soon. O.'s wife shows the same prejudice, l)ut whether she is pregnant I do not know. Her last child was born at McPherson about July 20. February 18. Herschel Island. Childbirth. Childbirth seems fre- quently to come as a surprise to natives. Oaiyuak's daughter had child today, was planning to go E. with father next Thursday, but will now stay until April. Sgt. F. says that unless a birth is expected in a few hours the woman's abdomen is continuously kneaded by other women. As today labor is seldom severe, the doctor said last spring half-whites were often born with difficulty. February 20. Childbirths are said by Capt. L. to frequently cause 182 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, rupture among Husky women. This often due to the kneading oi" the abdomen. "Modesty" in the exposure of the sex organs is said by Capt. L. to be far greater among the men than the women. In examining them for rupture, for instance, the women make no attempt to cover the sexual organs, but the men ahnost always do. Childbirth. Child delivery is said by Capt. L. to be more difficult with half-whites. February 23. Stokes Point. Consumption was the cause of death of a middle-aged woman who died in this house this winter. February 24- Vessels of wood (cf. Koogniks) have the groove for the bottom formed by pressure with the round point of an ivory, horn, or bone instrument, usually the end of the handle of a crooked knife. The edge of the bottom to be inserted is beveled with the side of the knife handle. The sewing of the side of the vessel is from below upwards along both seams. The bottom, when pressed in, is large enough to make a convex form. February 28. Shingle Point. Dog Feed. Whale meat from an eight to ten year old whale on the N.W. shore of Herschel Island was our dog feed on the trip. The meat was moss-grown and looked a good deal like hard hay, but seemed to do well for the dogs. Pregnancy Customs. Mr. Stein gives the following with reference to his wife, who is expected to have a child in a few days. She is a Nunatama. A pregnant woman should not use the "chamber" in the house, though his wife occasionally does. She has not done any sewing for the last few days, and won't until the child is born. At Point Hope he says, pregnant women could not work at whaling, because they must not urinate on the ice, and the whaling is done some miles from shore. Menstruation Customs. S. says at Point Hope menstruating women were under the same restriction in regard to ice-work as pregnant women. Whale Hunt Prohibitions and Customs/' At Point Hope lead could not be safely cast into bullets within the "village limits" while the whale season was on. Skins nuist not be worked in the house of the husbands of the women working them if they are engaged in whaling, probably this restric- tion applies rather to the houses of the whalers than to their wives. Skins are worked in the house of some one not an active whaler, or else in a tent, etc., or in a Avhite man's house. The owner of the house seems the one likely to suffer injury. In launching a canoe for the first time each season there is some slight ceremony of which I could get no clear account from S. It seems to consist of passes and incantations by the men as they sit in the newly launched craft. ' 1 1914.] Tke Slefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 183 After a death in his family, a eaiioe belonging to its head, or, probably, to any member, must not be launched for whaling till the first whale has been caught by a meml)er of the village. The same prohibition probably applies to engaging in whaling by men not owners of canoes. At the Point Hope village the spirits of the graveyard were fenced off from the whaling grounds by a fence of stones, or pebbles, set on edge, ceremonially by old women "doctors." The fence was not a complete enclosure of the graveyard, but merely one side, a curve or bow-shaped fence. Childbirth. Stein's wife (Kataksi'nax) had her child at 9: 15 P. M. tonight. We had the first intimations of its coming at about 8. At 8:30 she asked that I leave the house till the birth was over, and that Roxy's wife come. About 9, Roxy's wife came home with the report that the child would not come before morning, so I went home and was in the house when the child suddenly came. She did everything for herself and the child, but came near fainting about half an hour after the birth. By 1 1 : 00 she was sitting up and chatting and laughing as if not indisposed. Apparently there was no superstition behind her request that T stay away — • merely a reluctance to have a comparative stranger present. March -2. Childbirth Customs. Kataksinax says she must not eat frozen fish now. How many days that will last I don't know. She must not eat fish heads, a great delicacy. Her cup must not be washed. She wipes it with a cloth and wraps it up Eskimo fashion. She treats her other eating appliances similarly, except the plate on which food is brought her, equivalent to the old "iliniak." The child's first excrement must be burned or else the child will suffer from a hardening of the rectum. The burning was neglected with her first child, Annie, now twenty-two months old, and she has suffered; so the present youngster must be protected, and S. had to burn it today, made a fire in the woodshed. Could not burn it yesterday, so it was kept carefully wrapped in paper till today. Inconnus, Mr. Stein says, are caught on Kotzebue Sound — Selanik, etc., and are larger than here, some say seventy-five pounds. Winter Habitat. When ships are at Herschel Island many of the Kogmollik now beyond Kittegaryuit are usually at the Island, living largely on their women. March /f. Migrations. Stein tells the following: Nyuvikannak, the father of Tulugak's wife, was born of a tribe who livdd on Langley Bay. When tweh-e to fourteen years old he came to Kittegaryuit. When a grown man he married and went to Langley Bay again and found no one. Beyond Cape Parry he later found a stone lamp belonging to his father and farther east campsites and remains which indicated to him that the whole tribe had 184 Anthropological Papers Amencan Museum of A'aiurdl Hi.ilorij. [Vol. XIV, moved east. Nothing has been heard of them since and 1 snppose they went either to the Coppermine or Prince Albert Land. He was therefore, the only survivor of the tribe. He died at (ape Parry al)out 1903-4 and seemed to be about forty then. Houses in Langley Bay. There are ruins of two villages close together in Langley Bay, two close together, fi\'e and seven houses — frames of whale- bone, did not see any wood in the house-frames, house not much smaller than any ordinary Kogmollik. Pretty well caved in, all of them. March 6. Childbirth: Kataksinax, whose boy was born the evening of Feb. 28 was up yesterday, she seemed to be worried by staying in I)e(l so long, but was ordered to by Stein. She never seemed sick, but for the semi- faint a half hour after the birth, from loss of blood and exertion in washing the child. Marriage Relations. It seems to be customary that the man who mar- ries the youngest or only daughter, must attach himself to the parent's family. If he is later unwilling to go where they go, the girl nevertheless goes with her parents (cf. case of Titjak and Pannigok, she is to go with parents to Kittegaryuit and he does not want to go, so has already gone up river to Pokerk's). March 7. Star\'ation. Ovayuak brings the report that a Nunatama arrived from the mountains a few days ago with tales of hunger. Omigluk has plenty deer on the Herschel Island River and the next camp E. from him has gotten fifteen deer since New Year. But farther E. there were no deer and most of the dogs are dead and the people are said to be en route for Herschel so enfeebled that it is feared some will not get there. Kurugak, Ningaktjirk, Apokerk and Tulugak, with their crowd, are said to be about the hungriest. They were farther E., had proceeded some dist. S. W. from where we visited them last fall, and then had to fall back. March 9. Migrations. With O. this morning Oblutok, wife and daugh- ter with a sled and Naipaktunak and wife with toboggan started for the Kittegaryuit country, while Roxy's family and Kunalik and Kinnniwa (two sleds) went to the river twehe miles E. where Kannirk and wife are " grous- ing." March 22. Starxing Natives. It seems Ova\'uak's account of the starving Nunatama was grossly overdrawn, at least; the sum known here is that they had enough for themselves, but scant dog feed at the end of the dark days. Paperok, who brought the story, is the only one who has come in, and him we met going out after deer at Stokes Point. Religion. Capt. Leavitt, who has seen many natives approach death fidly realizing it, says he has seen no one afraid so far. They take it better than whites, on the average. 1914.] The Slefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 185 March 28. Wolverine Beliefs. Stein says Xunattima who has trapped or otherwise killed a wolverine is not allowed to eat any cooked or warm food for a certain number of days after. He found this out on iuA^ting a number to Christmas dinner and Xiyak sent word he could not come and eat for that reason. The skull of a wolverine must not be disposed of (sold, etc.). The head is buried. Kunnax, etc., still hold to this. April 17. Flaxman Island. Arrived at 4:30 P. M. Monday after traveling steadily from 9 A. M. after leaving the native Uikshak, wife Tullik, adopted baby and Nagorak one year old — parents of baby as well as adopted parents, from near Cape Prince of Wales. This native, together with another family, are ' permanent " inhabitants of Flaxman Island who have moved out for deer hunting. As yet he had killed only three deer. In the winter the}' lived chiefly on seal, of which they have abundance, the other family even having an ice house. These two families have been sup- plied with provisions by the ship to hunt deer for it. Uikshak has already brought his three saddles to the ship. He made me a present of a seal which I picked up at his house on the east end of the Island on my way to the ship. The trip from Herschel Island had to it little of special interest. Be- tween the sea and the lagoons the sand divide is strewn continuously with wood, so there are few half-mile stretches on which one does not find good firewood. Here and there are remains of villages which York calls Kogmol- lik, both permanent houses and summer camps. They lived, he said, chiefly on seal, but also on deer and fish, I had no time to investigate them, leav- ing that for the return journey. April 18. Native Census. Dr. Howe knows of the following natives. 1. Uikshak and Tullik, adopted baby Nagorak, 1 year, from near Cape Prince of Wales, permanent house on Flaxman. 2. Sagauichak (Jaruis) (Taklemanalk) , Kayotak (l)oy ca. 10-12), Shumigan, boy ca. 7. (Father, Pt. Barrow, Mother; Point Hope, children their own. Permanent house Flaxman). 3. Karnaurak (lakok — 2 names), Kapkannak, their children: Okelli- sok, boy 15-16; Capok, ca. 10. Iglanisok, ca. 4 (said by his father to be crazy — Dr. is uncertain.) Temp, house last winter at Flaxman. 4. U'shuruk, Shukranna (or Sirkinnirk) (husb. Nuna.; wife, Pt. Bar- row). Nanigra, ca. 12 — 23, their daughter. Temp, house Flaxman, last winter. 5. Ned Arey, Ikaya, Cape Smith (?), Gallagher — Ned's son I)y former Cape Smith (?) wife, ca. 16. Yakak, ca. 16, son of Ikaya by former native husband. House at mouth of Okpelia river. Children of Ned and wife: May ca. 6, Joe ca. 3-4. Also 4-5 families up the Kugaruk at a waterfall where fish is caught in open water all year. 180 Anthropological I\tpers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, ("ancer is said not to Ix' found among the Eskimo. ^1///-// £0. Syphilis. Dr. Howe say.s he has seen no trace of the dis- ease. April 21. The coast population from Herschel Island to Camden Bay, some five years ago (Mr. Arey says) consisted chiefly of Nunatama and probably none were Kogmollik. But going east last summer on his boat he examined some houses and thinks that towards the eastern end of the sand- spit some of the older houses are Kogmollik. An ice house is used by one of the natives on Flaxman Island, " Saga- vichak ", for storing seal. They are partly excavated (some two feet) and a vault roof built over the hole. Near the center of the roof is a trapdoor and part of the contents can be fished out by a man sticking his head and shoul- ders through the hole, while things near the wall can be reached only by going into the house. This native has two ice houses and some seven to ten seals at present. Last fall he is said to have had as many as two hundred at one time. Sealing, is done chiefly at tw^o seasons — spring and fall. The spring season is probably equally as productive as the fall season, but is more or less interfered with by the weather; sometimes spring sealing is completely neglected. In the last, prevalent N. E. winds are said to have " closed up everything so tight " that seal have not been caught for long periods and the nati\'es have been "hungry". In ordinary years seal are caught more or less all winter. Diseases. Dr. Howe has seen no case of gonorrhoea or syphilis. About twelve sick people examined. Boils observed, but no more frequently than, say, in Boston. Four cases of osteomyelitis, chronic; one in humerus, two in tibia. One case of tuberculosis of spine. One case has touch of pul- monary tuberculosis (woman " Toolik "). Chronic cough prevalent; much of it is not of a tubercular nature. At St. Lawrence Island many com- plained of impaired sight, but there were no means of testing eyes. Com- plaint of being sick, when really not sick, about as often as whites. Seem to flinch from pain as much as whites of a corresponding class. Most of those who complain of being sick are women, one man only, a particularly lazy and worthless chap. April 23. Aboriginal Trading. The summer 1901 was the last time (Mr. Arey says) the Itkillik (from near Rampart House, probably) came to Collinson Point to trade. That year they found only one family, a Nuna- tan^a. It seems that about, or over, twenty-five years ago the old trading residence of Barter Island was given up and Collinson Point took its place. Cape Smythe natives met there l)oth Itkillik and Kogmollik, though it seems 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson ExpedUion. 187 probable that the waning interest of the KogmoUik in this trading center due to Hudson Bay Co.'s influence, may have been one cause of its moving farther west. Gradually, the Xunatama became a factor in the Collinson Point trade. What brought the westerners so far east was probably the wolverine skins of the Itkillik, for the deerskins they could get farther west. Cape Smy the natives now come as far as Flaxman Island only rarely ; what they now get is chiefly old skins, in exchange for ammunition, etc.// June 10. Point Barrow Eskimo. Saxa wanna has heard that long ago there were many people living on Flaxman Island who spoke not as Kogmol- lik but as the Point Barrow people. This was long before his day. Archaeological Remains — Flaxman Island. There are no clear evi- dences of the old houses above suggested, on the island, but several places where decaying wood in high places may show on excavation that they mark house locations. Burial Customs. Point Barrow People. Saxawanna says the head of the body in the grave is always to the eastward among his people, and proba- bly therefore similarly placed in the graves along this part of the coast. Burial Customs. Nunatama. S. says the Nunatama are so afraid of the dead that they ordinarily make no grave, nor any arrangement of the body after death. June 14- Dances. The evening of the 12th, the Captain, Dr. Max Thuesen, and I attended a dance at the village in a tent made by stretching a sail forward as an awning from a tilted umiak. There were three drums and four dancers at the most. As the crowd was a miscellaneous one there were many dances in which one or two only could appear, as the others did not know them. The music varies occasionally, no one ever seemed unable to play the proper accompaniments, the drum passing from hand to hand as the men took turns dancing. Disease. A young man was sick at the village the night before the 13th and word was sent he was dying. Dr. found him suffering from wind colic and promptly cured him. He was told he had been shivering violently. Dr. has seen several cases of these "shivers" and believes them aftectation. June 16. Weapons, Pt. Barrow. S. told me today that the favorite knife for fighting with formerly, was one made from the humerus of a polar bear. June 23. Summer Migrations. All the natives but Kanaurak's family are on the mainland after game and eggs. Must have gone some distance westward. July 4- Physical Characters. Dr. Howe has noted on patients he has examined that there is some hair, though far less than in whites, under the arm-pits of both men and women. It is currently stated by whalers that 188 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, both iiuile iintl female genitals are devoid of hair. It is more likely that tlie hair growth is slight and inconsi)icuous, rather than absent. July 9. Archaeology. Today I took a walk around the west end of the Island to see if any remains were revealed by the caving in of the bank. I saw none. At the old (ten year old) houses on the bank I found two wooden lamps, a small tub, a fragment of a larger one, a bone implement (club?), and a broken wooden ladle. July 11. Disease. Kanaurak has been complaining for a week or more of various pains, head, back, etc. Today we were down at the xdllage and learned he was going to die. In the afternoon the Dr. and I went down to interview him. Yesterday the devil (a turnnrak) had appeared inside of him and told him he would die. He therefore broke his drum and tore his dancing cap, for he would need them no more. The dogs had eaten the drum skin and part of the cap. I was able to recover only a few fragments of the cap (the bird beak) and a few splinters from the drum, including a three-inch piece of the kattuk. We found the man sleeping outside and that he did not look at all sick. He was cheerful, but apparently perfectly convinced he would die, as was his wife and all the rest of the village. The fellow's character (with us) is shad}^ but breaking up these two articles for which we woidd have paid him in grub (and he is "hungry" now) is an indication that while the disease is hysterical it is not wholly shammed. Apparently the devil in him was the Christian devil, for there was a book there illustrating both the temptation on the mountain and the devil- swine episode. lakak told me it was the same devil. July 15. Physical Appearance. Putulirayuk's most noticeable pe- culiarity was curly hair. This, he said, was rare in his country. Saxa- wanna says it is also rare at Point Barrow. The nose was also of peculiar type. The Dr. says Uikhrak's hair also curls when it gets long. P. was the only one in camp who had labret holes, and these looked as if stones had not been worn for years. July 20. Jones Island. Native graves are not remarkably frequent, so far as we have seen the coast. A quarter mile E. from this point are three graves, two coffins, calico covered, standing side-by-side, and a log grave just west of them. Some old calico clothes were scattered around, but we saw no other articles. Another coffin, not calico covered, is about half a mile W. from the point. Native camps, recent, are frequent along the coast. We have picked up a number of articles, mostly wooden, at these. A women's camp is said by Saxawanna to ha\-e been here — Beechey Pt. in the earlv davs of trade with tlie Kogmollik ;it Barter Island and 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 189 neighborhood. The fishmg, he says, is good here, and the Point Barrow people seldom dared take their women and children farther. July 21. Pt. Barrow Dance House. This tent was built, so near as I can find out, a year or two after Jarvi's coming to Pt. Barrow, say, 1899 or 1900. It was built by Xunatama, and Pt. Barrow natives were invited to dance. Saxawanna was present. Some trading was done at the same time, this was main object of Xunatama. The roof-supporting posts were about seven or eight feet high. The tent was partly of skins, partly of calico. All along the wall was a close palisade of uprights, slender or split, about five feet high. The stumps of many of these still remain, — the wood has since been chopped for camp-fires. The floor was covered with umiak skins for the dancers, while deerskin was scattered over the rest of the floor, and some of the people sat down. The drummers sat in a single row the row not reaching quite to the sides of the house. Everyone sang. The dance continued two days, and few, if any slept. Plenty eating. Xuna- tama and Point Barrow danced alternately. The following winter many of the X'^unatama who took part, in the dance died of hunger inland. No hunger then at Point Barrow. Bird Iron. Formerly, before they knew of gims, the Point Barrow people used to kill ducks, etc., with shot in their breasts. These they called "bird iron" and used as "medicine" against pains in the chest, just how they used them I cannot quite understand, did not take them internally. July 22. Traveling Camps. On different days, either tracking, or walking the shore while boats sailed, I have seen recent camps in great number. Often averaging more than one to the mile for long stretches. Picked up paddles, net floats, etc. Jones Islands. Archaeology. In a walk E. along the entire X. side of the island and W. to its middle on the S. side I discovered two village sites and some other house ruins along the X"^. side, and two graves on the E. side of the more eastern narrows. One village is located at the western narrows and the other some distance west of the E. narrows. There are probably thirteen house ruins in the W. village; the E. one, which seems older, I have not counted up carefully, and probably shall not be able to estimate how many houses there were, as so many of the heaps are of doubtful charac- ter. It seems likely the sea has eaten away some of the houses, and some are now at the edge of the bank. Xear one house was a dilapidated human skull, completely on the surface. Pingok History. Saxawanna has heard there was a considerable num- ber of people living here. They were not Xunatama nor Kogmollik, but nearly related to the people of Point Barrow and known as the same people as those along the shore towards Flaxman. They were whalers, killing also 190 Anlhropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV. bears, seals, and deer. I found a skeleton of a deer, almost whole and mostly in position, indicating that the deer had died here and only a few of its bones disturbed — dogs, wolves, or people. How long ago these people lived here, he does not know, but when he went E. along the coast as a boy, they were long, ago gone. He thinks they were gone in his father's time, and is sure his father never saw them. Medicine. S. says that the Point Barrow people were very much afraid of little black stones, about the size of a bean. These, if one lay with head on gravel, would get into the ear and eat their way into the head, devouring the contents of the skull. When the top of the skull was eaten empty to the level of the ears, or sometimes sooner, the man died. S. once had a stone in his ear. Oil (seal or whale, he has forgotten which) was poured into the ear and the stone finally came out. Certain little black sticks, or worms that looked like sticks, I can't find out which, were also greatly feared. He showed me a stick much like the dangerous ones. This was a piece of a twig, a trifle more slender than a slate pencil, and an inch and a quarter long. He says that if these get into the stomach of a man or deer they work their way out, making a whole through the stomach, muscle, skin, and all. Jidy 24. Beliefs. When S. and I came up to Pu.'s camp a separate fire was made away from the others, some three or four yards and we were asked to sit in the smoke of it, which we did. This was because Pu.'s older wife gets sick if anyone who has been handling dead persons stays around her without being purified. S. says that formerly at Point Barrow also those who had been handling dead used to sit for a few moments afterwards in the smoke of a small fire made for the purpose. The fire above was really no fire, but a few brands picked from the main fire, and merely smoking, not burning. Mortuary Customs. S. says that at Point Barrow no great fear was ever caused by the dead. People would eat afterwards the food part of which had been consumed by the dying just before his death, they would wear his good clothes and throw away his bad ones. The sled on which the body went to burial was, however, formerly broken at the grave. Some other things were also buried, but not of great value, such as labrets, iron articles, etc. July 25. Some Nunatama up the Colville, or at least of the crowd that went there to trade are said to have starved to death this winter and others to have been close to it. Medicine. One of the Point Barrow has a sore eye and the other rubbed together a flint-like stone and one of a whetstone texture with some water and rubl)ed the resulting salve on the sore eyelid. 1914.] The Stejdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 191 July 30. Herschel Island. Archaeology. I spent the day prospecting the S. E. coast of the island, saw several graves. In one found broken Kogmollik sled, broken stone lamp, iron pipe bowl and a bone object — perhaps part of an eyeshade. Also picked up skull near tent on surface. July 31. Archaeology. Today made a map of the point, showing approximate distribution of houses and location of some graves. The graves do not seem old, and have been considerably disturbed, by dogs and whites, probably. On top of hill are some graves considerably older. Fi^'h caches, or seal caches are scattered all over the point. Present Distribution of the Loucheux. At present many individuals born on the Peel River are found living in the Yukon Basin, along the Bell and Porcupine Rivers. The reason for this migration seems to be chiefly that food animals, such as moose and caribou are more abundant on the Yukon side of the divide, although the valuable fur animals seem more numerous on the Mackenzie side. A partial reason may be that some of the Indians were employed in the Yukon gold rush to help miners cross the mountains over the La Pierre House portage. Their association with these white men, and the opening up of the markets and trading posts in the Yukon Basin have been contributory reasons for leaving their former home. These people had been brought up to trade at Fort McPherson with the Hudson Bay Company, and some of them make long trips yearly to Fort McPherson, partly to see their friends and relatives, and partly to buy such things as copper kettles and fur-l)ound blankets, of which the Company carries a stock which the Indians believe superior to the corresponding articles bought from the American traders of the x\laska side. Eskimo Boats. The hunting boat of the Eskimo men was, and is, the sealskin kayak; for moving their family and transporting freight they formerly used large open boats, also of sealskin, known as umiaks. Some- times, and preferably, these were made of the skin of the big grown seal, or of the white seal (beluga). These skins are capable of carrying from five to seven tons of freight, and are reasonably seaworthy, as well as light and convenient to take ashore on the harborless coast when necessary. The great disadvantage with them is, that it is unsafe to keep them wet more than three or four days at a time, and frequent halts have to be made to take them ashore and dry them thoroughly to prevent the skin from rotting. In the rainy season w^hen a boat cannot be dried it will rot and become unseaworthy in the course of two or three weeks, while otherwise a boat may last two seasons. In winter the skins are taken olT the umiaks, rolled up in a bundle, and stored on the fish platforms beyond the reach of dogs or wolves. As a matter of fact few of these boats are now in use in the neigh- borhood of Herschel Island. The x\merican Whaling Fleet from San Fran- 192 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, cisco has been in these waters now shice 1889. Many a whaUng captain in exchange for labor, fresh ^'enison or furs, has found it convenient to trade olf his spare whale boats. At present, therefore, many famihes own these boats, but those who have none frequently move about as passengers on board the boats of others. The Eskimo are becoming expert and daring sailors, managing their boats competently in weather which would look doubtful to many a whaleman. Eskimo Milages. Eskimo houses were at various times in the past built at practicall^,• every point of the coast between Herschel Island and the INIackenzie River, but the first place west of the Mackenzie River recognized as a regular ^•illage site is Escape Reef, some fifteen miles west of the most westerly mouth of the Mackenzie. From this place, going eastward, one has to cross the entire delta to the south point of Richard Island before coming to the next recognized site of habitation. At Escape Reef there are the ruins of some eight or ten houses clearly visible, and the huge quantities of driftwood may easily cover from sight any number of old ruins. There are also several graves. Some of them of the old log-covered type, and others, more recent, of wooden boxes set on high hills. One grave differed from all the rest in being a platform burial of what might be called the Indian type. This contained, as I learned during the winter, the body of a Nunatama girl of fourteen, but the grave had been constructed by an Eskimo known to the whites as Anderson, who was an immigrant from Kotzebue from the west coast of Alaska. (' Honesty of the Eskimo. Nothing can make more clear the general honesty of the people than the fact that people leaAe their household goods on platforms, or even on the ground, at any point where it is convenient to leave them. Although these articles are often of considerable importance and easily carried off they are very seldom disturlied. Of course, where food is left, it is an unwritten law that anyone who is hungry may help himself. But, having done this is always freely acknowledged. In the old days apparently no restitution was made, but in more recent times, since the Eskimo began to acquire ideas of private ownership from the whites, the custom is gradually growing up of making payment for food as it is taken from abandoned stores. There are, however, thieves among the Eskimo. Of those native to the Mackenzie Delta two men are publicly recognized as thieves, and it seems to me probable that these two are renlly the only ones at all given to stealing, for such matters l)ccome ciuickly known among the Eskimo. /y One of these men is also the only murderer now lixing in the community, or at least the onlv one whose crime is at all recent. 1914.] The Stefcmsson-Andersoti ExpcdUion. 193 Burial Customs. The Mackenzie River Eskimo put the body of the dead person on the ground, sometimes on hills, but more frequently on sandspits where driftwood is abundant. The body is then covered with logs, the sled on which it was hauled to the burial place is broken up by the side of the grave, and a number of articles, such as the dead man had used, or owned, are left beside him. A few articles of great value, such as labrets of rare stone, ordinarily go as inheritance to the descendants of the dead man. If, however, the man owns several pair, one or more may be buried with the dead. A woman's most valuable possession, her false hair, was, however, usually buried with its owner. This accounts, among other things, for the fabulously high price at which false hair was held, for the value of a good set was computed at from one to two white whale skin umiaks. White men assert that very often an old and inferior gun is substituted for burial purposes for the better weapon owned by the dead man. This, the Eskimo deny, however, and I am uncertain where the truth lies. They admit that the custom is growing into disuse. Certain recent burials have no property at all left beside the grave, and it seems not improbable that the white men's story of the substitution of inferior articles may be true. In general, the Eskimo seem to have the idea that the articles left with the body are useful to the dead.-^ Sometimes these take a curious form, however. One man told me, for instance, that as he could not bury both a blanket and a rifle with the deceased relative he buried two blankets and no rifle. He said that the dead man could use the blanket as a rifle in the future life. As I met this Eskimo at the time when my command of the language was as yet rather poor, I could not make out clearly whether he expected his relative to trade off one of the blankets in the future life for a rifle, or whether he thought of the blanket merely as an indefinite equivalent for the gun. // Food is often placed in the grave with the dead, and it was formerly a custom to replenish this store occasionally for two or three years after the individual's death. Only small quantities were put on the grave, however, a year's supply of food for the dead man rarely being equal to a square meal for the living. Sometimes articles placed on the grave were deliberately broken and the food was occasionally burned, or otherwise handled, so as to be unfit for the use of the living. From my investigation of the older graves I conclude that such articles as kayaks and sleds were almost in- variably broken, while smaller things were buried in good condition. The labrets, all the Eskimo agree, were not left in the man's lips, but were placed at the side of his head in the grave, some said invariably at the right side of the head. i The Eskimo from Point Barrow, and along the north coast of Alaska, told me that the only proper way to bury a man was with his head to the 194 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, east, but the excavation of graves showed no sucli uniformity as a matter of fact. It was difficult, however, in some cases, to determine the original position of the body, because the graves had been disturl)ed l)y dogs, wolves, or polar bears. In fact, the body ordinarily is de\-oured within a day or week of its interment. It was said that if the dead was recognized by the comnmnity as a man of importance more pains were taken to preserve his body, and the Eskimo frequently remark, on seeing a carefully covered grave, "that a gootl man must be l)uried there." Firearms Among the Eskimo. In guns, as in e^'erything else, the Eskimo are particular to get the best. In the early days they had no firearms at all until long after the Indians south of them were supplied with nuizzle loaders by the Hudson's Bay Company. But when whalers began to winter at Herschel Island the Eskimo soon secured modern American rifles, and are now so particular about their quality that 44 calibre guns, and others of low power, are practically without value among them. Some own Krag- Jorgensen, Lee-Enfield, and other similar high-power rifles. If it were not for the expensiveness of the ammimition these ginis would doubtless entirely replace the American-made rifles, for the Eskimo values e\en more keenly than most white hunters, lightness of ammunition and the high power of the rifle. Fear of Being Photographed. Some of the Eskimo east of the Mackenzie River have not the least idea of what is happening when their picture is being taken, and so they do not mind it. But west of the ri\er some seem to enjoy being photographed, those were the more sophisticated ones who had gotten over their early views on the subject. But others of those who understood, in a way, what a photograph was, were exceedingly afraid of having their picture taken. It seems prol)able that this is from the under- lying idea found among so many primiti^•e peoples, that one who possesses the likeness of a man thereby secures magic power over him, and can, by injuring the picture correspondingly injure the individual. Some of these men were m illing to have their photographs taken when they were feeling well, but if they had a cold, or other form of sickness, they would excuse themsehes saying that they would come and be photogra])lied as soon as they were well. Some really did this, but son^e of them used the excuse to escape entirely. The Eskimo of Herschel Island. Pre\ious to the first coming of the whalemen in 1889, there were probably few Eskimo immigrants into the Mackenzie River country. There are traditions of occasional visits, perhaps one only, from Point Barrow. Roxy told me that when he was young a umiak arrived at the Island just about freeze-u]) time one fall. These were Point Barrow people who were on what might be called a voyage of exi)lora- 1914.] The Slcfdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 195 tion. True, the ^Mackenzie River and the Point Barrow men met yearly for trading purposes at Barter Island, Collinson Point, or some neighbor- ing place, and were, therefore, more or less familiar with each other. As I learned later, the Herschel Islanders had a very bad reputation for dishon- esty and even treachery among the traders from Point Barrow. These, therefore, left their wives, children, and property behind in the neighborhood of the Colville Delta. It seems there really was a difference in the two people, because the Point Barrow men never had a correspondingly bad repu- tation with the Herschel Islanders. It may be considered, therefore, a rather venturesome journey upon which this Eskimo boat found itself. The visitors were well received, however, at the Island, entertained for a while, and then began a sort of triumphal march to the eastward, going from village to village with a large company of followers, and finally going as far east as Baillie Island. Here the leading man of the Point Barrow party mar- ried a " KogmoUik " woman who became his second wife. In the latter part of the winter the party returned to Herschel Island,' and when navigation opened they proceeded to Point Barrow. It is, therefore, clear that there was some intercourse, and intermarrying, between the Mackenzie River Eskimo and others. Shortly before 1889 the first Nunatama, or inland Eskimo, arrived at Herschel Island. The people who were used to dwelling with Point Barrow Eskimo, and who found no trouble in understanding their language, under- stood at first scarcely a word of the dialect spoken by the inlanders. After being together for a week or so, however, they found little difficulty in con- versing, but it seems that the Nunatama dialect difPers more from that of the Herschel Islanders than from that of the Kotzebue Sound, or so, at least, the Mackenzie people say. With the first whalers, and practically every year since, there have been Eskimo immigrants from the Islands in Bering Sea, and from various points between the mouth of the Yukon or Point Barrow. Sometimes these have stayed one and a half years, sometimes indeed they have hardly come ashore from the whaling ships, but not infrequently both men and women have taken up permanent residence at Herschel Island, or farther east. A large number of the Nunatama have come either overland by themselves, or east- ward from Point Barrow or Kotzebue Sound as passengers on whaling ships, while those from Bering Straits have ordinarily come as whalers or servants on board. The net result is, that the Mackenzie population is becoming mixed in blood, is already deeply influenced in its culture, and has taken up many strange words into the spoken language. A few of these borrowed words are English, an occasional one is Indian, but most of them are forms of Eskimo words which were previously not in cm-rent use at the mouth of the Mackenzie. 196 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, The Colville River, 190S-9. July 4, 1908. On way to Rod Rher. Huiitiiif; [las l)een poor at Good Hope. The Indians ordinarily li^'e largely on rabbits. But this and last 3'^ear no rabbits, so they could not stay near the Fort for marten (even if these had been plenty) but had to go to the deer country around the head of the Anderson and north of Fort Confidence. Many dogs starved and they are now high in price. Indians had been li\ing mainly on rabbits for "last ten years," IVIr. Gaudett said, but these last two there were none. July 23. Deaths. Kunnullak and wife and young girl (about 12-14) of another family died Tuesday of this week at Niakonak, apparently of kilalua poisoning; had eaten of kilalua day before they became sick. The common belief seems to be they died because they worked at skins, (deer, seal) just after a kilalua was killed. September 14- Smith Bay. Child Teeth. Noashak had two pulled with a string- today and they were thrown away. Mamayauk reminds me that Kogmollit feed teeth enclosed in meat to a dog, })ut Ila\'. says his people throw them away.^ Beliefs. When he was young some women of his people scraped deer- skins the same day an ugrug had been killed and eaten. Later that same summer, some weeks later, an epidemic ("dry throat," he calls it) came, killed many people, among them some, but not all, of the women who had been concerned in scraping skins. This epidemic came because of the skin scraping; Ilav. still believes this (Kotzebue Sound). Has known many similar cases, among them the deaths at Niakonak this summer. Why dead seals, etc., must have fresh water. In the boyhood of Ilavi- nirk's grandfather there were at one time many hunters (as usual) at the kilaluak station of Sishulik. One of them, Kaiaaitjuk, was one daj' cap- sized in his kayak, but was not drowned for two kilaluak placed themselves one under each arm and he swam off with them and li\ed with them some time. By and by, he became a little homesick and they took him back to Sishulik. When they came to the surface where he had been capsized, he saw all the tents were gone, all the people had left for their homes. K. be- gan crying (weeping) but the kilaluak said, "Never you mind; come stay Avith us all winter and we will l)ring you here next summer when your friends are here." K. accordingly stayed all winter and at the proper season was taken to Sishulik by the kilaluak. W^hen the Inmters saw them they came in innumerable kayaks (there were both Nunatama and coast people) 1 See Stefansson, "My Life with the Esliimo," p. 56. 1914.] The Sicfdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 197 to the hunt. The kllahiak told K. to keep between two of them and not to go near any kayak for fear of being harpooned. The kllaluak soon found themselves in shoal Avater and many of them were harpooned. Finally Ivaiaaitjuk saw his chance and came out of the water. ^Yhen he appeared people at once said "There is Kaiaaitjuk," for they recognized him though his outfit was somewhat changed. Over the deerskin coat he wore when he went away, he now had a waterproof coat of intestines (ugrug?) and his kayak was now pure white, like the skin o.^ a kilaluak. But what people wondered at most, was that while Kaiaaitjuk held his paddle level and dipped neither blade in the water, still his kayak flew ahead faster than anyone could paddle. When people saw^ this they feared he would go away again, and all gave chase to try catch him. One of them was so placed he could head off the fleet white kayak, and got his hand on it as it went past him. At his touch, the kayak became an ordinary one and thereafter moved only to the paddle, as other kayaks. Kaiaaitjuk now went ashore with his friends, but was scarce able to go into a house or stand near anyone, or he said the}' smelled so bad. They brought him food such as he had been very fond of before, but he declared it stunk, and he could eat onlj^ a trifle at first. Finally he got used to everything, however, and was thereafter as other men. After his return K. told that the kllaluak and other animals that live in salt water, are really tarningit (sing, "tarnik") and that when- ever a seal, ugrug, walrus, kilaluak or bowhead was killed he should be given fresh water on coming to shore. (This water is brought from some house, not any particular one, and maybe river, pond, snow, or sea ice water, pro- viding it is not salt.) Ilav. says maybe the people lied who told this, but his own grandfather saw Kaiaaitjuk. Anyway, Ilav. always gives seals, etc., water. September 18. Guests arrived yesterday in the shape of three sleds, two with umiaks (bound for Point Barrow), and some sixteen people. Measured all men and women — rest of women and children unwilling. These were some of the people we met Wednesday. One of them was the man whom the ice party two j-ears ago encountered on their return, on an island just west of Pingak, he says. He gave me map with location of some families in the Colville this winter. September 20. Near Flaxman Island. Old Houses. The two houses where we camped last night were recent. Some four to five miles E. is older house, but also recent, half to one mile E. of that agam is a really old house ruin on sand bar at X. W. corner of a large, roundish lagoon near some large pressure heaps of sand. A grave near this old house has this board: "f C. L. Gray died Oct. 5, 1897, aged 36 years." A half mile farther west are two native graves with crosses. 198 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, Landmarks. About half mile PI of our camp of last night is a pole about twenty feet high supported by a large number of props. Two very conspicuous pressure heaps of earth near the abo\'e gra\e. Scptcmhcr 25. Aboard the "Olga." Capt. Mogg gives information as to Prince Albert Land. Wood \ery scarce, though in summer often suffi- cient for camp fires traveling along the coast. A little more wood on Banks Island east of Nelson Head. Blubber for fuel, however, easily attainable. The people of Prince Albert Land, Capt. Mogg estimates at 800, 250 of whom they saw. They are in the estimation of himself (and crew, including natives) a very superior class of people in honesty, resourcefulness and intelligence. Extremely hospitable. In winter they live on the ice. Seal are so abundant that at most abandoned winter camps one finds "tons" of blubber either cached or left lying around. They have no fish nets, kill bears with spears, every man and dog turns out, and deer with bow" and arrow (tartar bow). Spears and arrows copper and bone tipped. Only Banks Island people heard of are towards Mercy Bay, called "bad" by Prince Albert people. October 21. Flaxman Island. A daughter was born the night between Saturday and Sunday (17th and 18th) to Akpek and Shungauranik. Shungauranik danced furiously in our house at a general "ulahula" the evening before, and has been able to walk behind the sled with the child on her back since we started. The child is apparently in the best of health, has black hair half an inch long, and thick — "a full head of hair." October 26. Island in Sharavanktok Delta. Care of Infants. Sh. handles hers entirely inside her clothes. The child is dressed, however, coat and boots, coat fur, boots blanket. Sh. was able to walk all day, though she is not feeling well, distance about ten miles, Ojarayak's camp about four miles S.E. of Putulray cache, the one we knew of old. Saw another of his caches on E. branch of river about two miles inland. October 28. Sharavanktok Delta. Dog harness were made by the Nirlirmiut of deer legs "because they had no seal" (A. says). They were like the harness now" made, sometimes one broad band, sometimes two narrow^, along back. October 30. Barrel Point. Deer driving was much employed by the Colville people, especially up near the mountains, Akpek says. He re- members one only, however, when he was about eight yrs. old (say twenty years ago). At that time about fifty were killed, and it was a small drive. Kayaks were used, and okpek stakes in convergent lines to represent men. The driving was towards small lakes and seldom towards a river, if at all. The bucks often fought with tlu>ir front feet against the kayaks. Deer were killed l)y his father. Hilly says, about two days' tra\'el from Cape Prince of 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. ' 199 Wales. Billy never saw any there. A whale skeleton Akpek knows about and has seen on the bank of the Colville about two days' journey from Oliktok. Some has by now caved into the river. People say that formerly there was sea extending to this place and a whaling village located here. November 8. Itkillik River. Started 8:45; camped 3:00; near Itkillikpa, saw tracks of sleds gathering willow. Place we stopped called Tuluraluk, on right bank. x\fter starting yesterday, we followed left bank except not going into some small streams, until we came to a point about twelve feet high. After that we kept "main road" pretty well. Saw a grave about six miles from our camp. Opposite (west of it or N. W.) is a point of an island (its south end) high and with small pingoks. This is Peshiksharvik, a place so called from frequent fights and many being killed there. E. or S. E. of this on mainland, high pingok. November 9. The people we have seen so far are disappointingly sophisti- cated, though they do not seem to have much use for "civilized" food. Akpek's whole family seems to be around here — brothers, sisters, mother. One of his brothers (Aya'unirk) came to visit him last night and Akpek goes to see him tomorrow, lives some few miles south. Paniu'lak is the name of our neighbor here. November 14- Akkoblak's boy has delayed us about one hour today with nose bleeding. He had another attack just after we got into our tent for the evening. November 15. Nirlik. Akoblak says there are trees on the Itkillik, but not on the Kupik branch of the Colville. He lived among the trees one winter of the five he has spent on Colville (comes from country behind Kotzebue, wife of Colville parentage and birth) ; at that time (four j^ears ago) some deer (formerly plenty) and moose, fish, rabbits, and ptarmigan; in mountains, sheep and some places bear. Now no deer but still some moose in tree country. Some miners occasionally and one expected next year, has horses, and has been on Itkillik before. Have been miners also on upper Kupik. When " Charlie" (the one who lived in " Miner's House" with " Minnie" the Jap.) left, he went up Itkillik in spring by sled. Of the five he knows of that starved to death last winter some (two?) were on the Itkillik and three on a branch of the Kupik called Ningolik. This branch is on the Kupik's east side. Farther east still (or north) is another branch, the Anaktok. November 16. Indian Song. Noticed what might be called an Indian refrain in Mrs. Akoblak's singing. She said it was a Nirrlik song. The refrain: Ai hea he occasionally brought in. November 20. Cape Halkett Island. Preparing Deer Legs. Akko- blak's wife is doing a pair as follows: After cutting them off the hide she 200 Anthropological Papers American Miiseum of N^dturdl Hislori/. [Vol. XIV, dried them iind then nibbed them soft with n brick-like (pumice?) stone found on the Kupik near Atoakotak's house. She then plastered the skin side with a mush made of boiled deer Ii\'er and whale oil. When thoroujjhly plastered with this each leg is folded like the closing of a book (lengthwise). The above holds, except in this respect, that the rubbing with stone was down to the knee of the deer leg only; below that the leg was slightly scraped with the Ikuun. The liver is applied only to the part scraped, and not to that rubbed with stone. After the leg is folded book-wise as above, it is doubled on itself so that the "livered" part is four-fold and the rest mcu'cly double. The legs are then piled one above the other in a pile and sat on a little while and then put aside. Perhaps tomorrow, perhaps later, she says she will scrape the livered part soft and the leg will then be ready for boots. November 23. Started 7:30, camped 2:30, housing with Kunagrak where we made our first camp going east. Akoblak's family slept in the other house. Both houses have considerable fish (the kind caught at Shingle Point) and are catching them now. They also have a smaller fish, looks like Norwegian herring. They expect the fishing to stop about the time the sun comes back. November 29. Started 9 A. M. Camped 2: 30 P. ]M. in a house built this winter by some Barrow people who have left it temporarily. Found stove, lamp, etc. in position and blubber on the rack — took some for our dogs. November 30. Iglorak.^ Houses. We found two caches on a sandspit east of Iglorak and one (of snow) on another, a snowhouse at latter place but tent sites onl}' at former. On Iglorak were two houses. The people had all left these, only a few days ago, — probably went to Cape Smythe for Thanksgiving. From Iglorak broad slcfl trails northward showed they have been sealing from there. Deeember 5. Cape Smythe. The blue stone (sapphire?) beads were accounted for in this w^ay: Long long ago, there was a man in Kotzebue Sound who treated his wife very badly. Finally she could not endure his abuse longer and ran away, going across country northwards. When she reached the ocean she still kept the same course (it was winter) until she came to an uninhabited island. Here she found a beach covered with pebbles, and all of them were green (or blue) stone. She filled a mitten with these and turned back. When she got to her people again her husband had married another w^oman, and they alread}^ had a famih% but because the stones represented great wealth he took back his former wife and ousted > Probably Cooper's Island. See Stefansson, "My Life with the Eskimo," p. .51. 1914. J The Stejdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 201 from the house his second wife and her cliildren. This story was told to Mr. Brower some years ago by a native from Kotzebue Sound who was at Cape Smythe. The vahie of these beads was fabulous. Some years ago when furs, bone, etc., were already at a high price, one of these was sold at Cape Smythe for two silver foxes, (twenty) slabs of bone, a sled and team of five dogs and five cross foxes. Labrets were made out of these beads if they happened to break accidentally. One side was ground to a flat surface and stuck on to a circular disk of white stone. The adhesive material was "gutjuk," or seal oil boiled till thick and sticky, the same material as they used for chewing gum and for pitching canoe seams, when they pitched them at all. Occasionally, however, they used the pitch from the lake behind Simpson. After the ships came, imitations of almost no selling value were made by using split blue marbles. x\n unbroken bead was much more valuable than a pair of the best labrets made from the same sort of bead, so beads were never broken to make labrets. The red stone (ochre?) used for coloring skins and woodwork comes to Barrow from a branch of the Sharavanaktok River. Mr. Brower himself still uses it in preference to paint for his skin boat frames, etc. In putting it on, sometimes the powder is dampened with water before rubbing on the wood, sometimes the wood is dampened and the powder rubbed on dry. Occasionally, seal oil is used in place of water; this makes a darker shade, but the object remains sticky. December 8. Cape Smythe. Practice of Abortion. No disgrace, so far as Mr. Brower knows, ever attached to either voluntary or involuntary abortion and the former was practised until a few years ago, especially by young girls who considered it too early to assume family cares. Treatment was by kneading the abdomen and was done by doctors or by old women. Two or more doctors often worked together in other cases and Mr. Brower believes, but does not know, that both doctors and old women worked to- gether on abortion. No secret was made, he thinks, of the time and place of treatment although he never heard of it till afterwards, except in the case of a young girl who told him she was going to have it done pretty soon, and later told him that now it was done. He never knew death or any serious illness to follow voluntary abortion, though he has known of serious illness after a miscarriage. Treatment was occasionally by hitting the stomach smart blows with a flat stick, though kneading was the usual way. There was no question of "confessing abortion" for it was made no more secret than childbirth. Twins were not desired, but were no great misfortune or disgrace to the women who had them. Two could not be cared for, however, and one was exposed, usually not always, the girl, if the children were one of each sex. No secret was made of either the birth or the killing. The sex of a child is usuallv correctly foretold by the mother after five or six months 202 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, of pregnancy. Mr. Brower knows oi' hut few mistakes, and in his own wife's case there liave been none, two girls and four boys now hving and two girls and one boy dead. He thinks they tell partly b^' the amount of movement of the foetus, boys move more. Preference for boys is the rule, but in many cases girls are desired. Mr. Brower can give no rule as to under what circumstances girls are wanted, but thinks that in most cases parents prefer to have the first child a boy (cf. Mackenzie River). He has never heard of any magical or other treatment to control the sex of the expected child. Pigmentation among Eskimo varies from that of whites in this general way that the parts lighter than the rest of the body among whites are darker than the rest among Eskimo — cf. Unia lahe. The genitals, nipples, and abdomi- nal line are usually, if not always markedly dark (Dr. Marsh). January 1, 1909. Names. A small bo^' (about four) in this house was born a short time before his uncle died. After the uncle's death the baby became very restless antl became riuiet only after he got the uncle's name. This was given him as a second name and he at once became quiet. He had been crying for the name. Formerly, when a child was very restless and cried, a medicineman was called in to determine whose name he was crying for, when the right name was found the cr^^ing stopped. On being ques- tioned, all the people of the house (three) agreed that not only did the child want the name, but "in all probability" the name was equally anxious to get into the child, i. e., they seem to think of the name as an entity. Ten-Footed Bear. Tarak told us Wednesday evening that the ten- footed bear lives mostly in the water like a seal. Looks like a polar l)ear all but the ten legs. When he walks on ice the fi\e feet of each side track after each other so the bear makes a double track like a sled. Walking the bear often gets his legs tangled up; there are so many, he can't manage them all. Once a man was followed by a ten-footed bear. The man walked between two cakes of ice and the bear was caught in the crevice between them. If his feet had not become entangled he might ha^'e gotten oflP. As it was, the man speared him. When dying, the bear fell on his back, all his feet pawing the air. This is an old men's story. Tarak never saw such a bear or tracks. January 2. Point Franklin. Started 10 A. M. Arri\'ed at house of Akebiana (Point Franklin) 4: 45. There are six houses here, but only two have people just now, the other four families are at Icy Cape for the dance. Tattooing. A woman from Noatak (Napaktok) says girls of her tinie (she looks forty) were told if they did not tattoo the chin, the chin would grow long to disfigurement. A "Kogmallik" woman is Akebiana's wife and she is Roxy's and Ova- yuak's cousin. She has been around Barrow about tweh-e years and has forgotten most Mackenzie words that differ from Barrow. 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 203 Humor. Two jokes "sprung" last evening may be called t^'pieal Eskimo jokes. The loose root of a badly pulled (broken) tooth, came out. Some one said I had twisted it out in trying to pronounce Eskimo words. George said when he was small he cried for another name. His wife said she guessed it probably was worms. January 3. Point Belcher. Started 10: 10 A. M., stopped 1 : 30 P. M. in vacant house (stove, etc.) at Sisdraruit (Point Belcher). Two inhabit- able houses here. About half mile north is house of Portugee Jerome Lope who three years ago last fall went into prison at McNeill's Island, Washing- ton, for "Statutory Rape," living with woman under sixteen. January 7. Wainwright Inlet. Perpetual Frost. At various times in the past I have found in speaking with Eskimo that they consider solid frost as the natural condition of the earth to an iniknoMii depth, the layer thawed in summer is the only part not frozen at that time. They have asked me how far one Mould have to dig in my country and in the negro's country to get down to frost, after it was explained that in Africa it does not freeze in winter or summer. January 11. Wainwright Inlet. Sharpening Tools. Dr. Marsh says women never sharpen stone ulus or ikuuns, the flaking done by men. Takpuk is said to be going insane. He is so restless that he has to be traveling or moving all the time. Got tired of waiting for crowd of dancers (who hang around Wainwright four days) and came back to his deer herd. Behaving as he does would not be remarked among the whites, but is con- sidered abnormal here. February 19. Wainwright Inlet. A native trader arrived last evening from Kotzebue Sound. He is said to have S500 in money and some "civi- lized" shoes, sweaters, socks, vmderwear. He pa,ys $3.00 in money for white fox; other prices in proportion. February 21. Whalebone was made into a sort of toboggan. The small ends of the bone turned forward so the sled was narrow in front, raft fashion. The forward end bent back as in toboggan. All hair trimmed off the bone. Back end bones cut straight across side pieces and at end of bone turned up on edge or at an angle. Some sleds strengthened with wood, Mr. Brower thinks, but is not sure. Bone was also used in making snares for big birds, geese, etc., and occa- sionally for ptarmigan. Hair off the bone used to snare smaller birds. Ptarmigan snares and small bird snares generally caught l)ird about neck; geese caught by leg in snares along beach. These snares usually set in strings with one or two dead geese for decoys. Bone also used for wolf killing, was not folded (as at Mackenzie River) but coiled, was frozen in deer meat and deer fat and string removed so mere thawing would release spring. 204 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural Hislory. [Vol. XIV, February 23. Victoria Island People. "Fearless" (Ilaviiiirk's " broth- er") who was with Alogg last winter gave nic some items concerning the people today. Fearless says people had a distinctly lighter complexion than any Eskimo he ever saw. Saw some whose skin (face) was as light as mine, several with hair ranging from mine to Mr. Hadley's (which is dark, but not black). Hair was, too, not so stiff as ordinary Eskimo and children's hair averaged lighter than grown people's, a thing true of whites, though I have seen no variation from the ordinary black among Eskimos except in newborn children. It seems entirely out of the way to suppose that these facts can be ex- plained by white blood mixture from Collinson's and ^Vl'CIure's vessels, in view of the fact that no such changes have been wrought at Pt. Barrow in over half a century of definite contact. Fearless says the complexion differ- ences are carried out in the eyes, for he says the white of the eye was like white men's and not like Eskimo's or Indian's. Some of the people had eyes as light as mine. Fearless says (though Mclntyre says he saw only one as light and Baker [engineer] says he saw two.) Fearless agrees with white men in saying average stature of the people up to that of Nunatamas. Mr. Brower knew of one woman a daughter of an officer of McGuire's ship. No trace of white blood is apparent in her full grown son who now lives at Point Barrow, woman long dead. It may be said, therefore, that all trace of McGuire's wintering has disappeared. Mr. Brower has seen only one case of light eyes in half-whites here, and knows one case of light hair. All half-caste children I have seen anywhere (Eskimo) have had black hair, have seen thirty or thirty-five. F. says beards no more marked than among other Eskimo. This is negative but he also says beards were as light or lighter in shade than hair. February 25. Victoria Island People. Scarcity of women is marked. There were no single women but several single men; no men had two wives but several women had two husbands. Exchanging wives is practised and little or no sexual jealousy. Large proportion of children (contrary to Klinkenberg's story). ^Movements of People. People hunt in Banks Island sometimes. When- ever they cross sea it is by sleds, for they have no umiaks and but four ka^-aks among people whom Fearless saw (Capt. Mogg says about 150 A'isited ship and F. saw an encampment of twelve houses besides those 150). They sometimes hunt where there are trees (not willows) and have their bows, etc., made of these and not of driftwood. They know of people (Eskimo presumably) who have white men's wares, but these are hostile. Know of Indians also. T'opper not nuich in evidence among people Fearless saw, most had 1914.] The Slefdnsson-Anderson Expediiim. 205 knives from Klinkenberg's ship of former years. Some women had uhis of thick tin probably from CoUinson's ship. March 5. Wainwright Inlet. Ugrug boot soles when cut from canoe skins, should be cut with their long axis perpendicular to the rail (or keel) of the boat, on account of mis-stretching of the hides in lip parts of the boat. Only boat skins make first class soles. The prow and stern skins of an umiak, however, are stretched fore and aft and from these the soles cut should have long axis parallel to rail. March 5. Sled rafts a la Peary were always used by the Point Barrow Eskimo — usually one poke forward between the runners and two behind lashed outside the rvmners. March S. Aboard the "Challenge." The hair cutting of the Siberians aboard (from near Indian Point) is the same practically, as that of the Eskimo, except, possibly, the tonsure is a bit larger and the hair shorter below, i. e., the uncut hair just after a hair cut, gives the impression of a ridge or band around the head. You notice on them the hair they have left, on the Eskimo the hair cut away. They say that ever\^vhere along their coast the same style prevails. Some abandon it while on shipboard but always cut hair just before getting home. The same style does not now (if ever) prevail on Big Diomede. March 8. Barrow Houses. Mr. Mclntyre says that he was at Point Barrow in 1880, and saw and entered a house there that had a door in the side covered wdth skin. There were two doors each covered with bearskin, i. e., one in alley. March 10. West of Iglorak. Started 8: 45 A. M., camped 6 P. M. in one of three snowhouses (deserted) on next sandspit west of Iglorak. Big- gest (the center one) house had evidently been lined with canvas for perma- nent habitation, but canvas recently removed and big holes left open in roof of house, about three feet square. The (west) one we slept in was a temporary camp but door and stove pipe hole closed and all in good shape. Did not look into easternmost house. March 10. West of Iglorak. Snowhouse building seems a lost art. It is said the people formerly made the dome houses, but nowadays they use a handsaw, cut the snow into huge blocks (say eighteen inches by forty), build the house in a rectangle with the walls perpendicular and the gables highest in the center, log cabin shape. A ridge pole of wood is then laid and block laid resting one end on wall and other on ridge pole. If no wood is available the blocks are said to be leaned together at the top. This sort of roof will evidently sag in mild weather. It is said some half dozen men at Cape Smythe and Point Barrow know how to build dome houses. Inlander combination houses and tents are thus made: The ordinary 206 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural Jlidory. [WA. XIV, (lomc tent is put up. On top this snow is shoveled. It must be soft; if there are ehunks they are puherized or thrown out. When the tent is covered about six to eight inches (pattcnl down witli flat of shovel), a fierce fire is built inside. This forms ice in the snow outside and unites the tent, of course. Tn course of use the tent dried. A space is left between the tent and snow (now part ice), by the first thawing. This acts as insulating space all winter. We thus have practically a lined snowhouse. If the tent be removed the snowhotise remains, imless broken. March 1-2. East of Point Barrow. Mctoria Island people hitch their dogs fan fashion to sled, Uj^nliak says. Team usually four or five dogs. Sled, short, such as used formerly at Mackenzie River. Runners of wood, shod only with ice. No knowledge of nets nor of snowshoes. Marrh Id. Fine whetstones were, and are, brought from Ulahula River to Barrow, etc., for trade. Look almost or quite suitable for razors. March 16. Imarruak Ingenuity. Someone in the house has made today a kerosene lamp with a two inch wick (wide) out of one of vay two- pound roast-mutton tins. The wick is of manifold cloth. The wick is raised by a pin thrust in alternately through two slits in the side of the burner. March 17. Imarruak. Combination pants (like w^ading pants) such as women usually wear, are worn by Pllyalla (the starved man) and by the boy Cekeara who is with us. The man's outer and only pants are with hair in. The boy wears inner pants hair in, a sealskin slipper on feet over these; then outer, hair out. The legs of the outer pants are of deer legs such as usually used for boots. Boy is twelve or thirteen years old. March 17. Polyandry. A Point Hope woman, Aksxratkok, had two husbands, the earlier, Nayukuk; the one added later, Ukulli'na (a Kuwor- miut) N. is from Point Hope, and later lived at Point Barrow. Ukulli'na has now been divorced. All are still living, woman and husband at Point Hope. (Told by Uyuliak and Billy in concert.) March IS. Near Cape Halkett. Tents of walrus or ugrug gut were, Billy says, sometimes made for summer use at Port Clarence. April 14. Flaxman Island. Thefts are numerous this year. We have lost from the cache here 1 spy glass, 1 pair deerskin boots, 1 skein red yarn, about 10 lbs. tobacco, half a tin matches, etc. Others have lost similarly. Whole community very religious. Thefts formerly rare. Ajiril 20. Near mouth of Kuparuk River. A cache at our camp about two miles west of the Old Barrel. Table gear, ulu, wolverine claws, etc., indicates to us starving people, but it may be stuff left by people going inland to hunt. April 29. Near Point Barrow. Started 10:-).") A. ]\r., camped about 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 207 9 P. M. in Arnavirak's house, the house he was Hving in when we slept in his other vacant house March 11th. All houses now deserted, everybody whaling at Barrow. May 23. West of Simpson Cutbank. Bringing up Children. Talked with Ilavinirk tonight about the fact that Noashak is a pretty bad little girl. When we travel she is always on the sled, when we stop she is over all creation tumbling and capering. He said if she were a boy, he would make her walk. Told of the harmfid results of speaking harshly to children. Said when he himself was small his father spoke harshly to him occasionally and he feels the evil effects still. Is not as bright as boys always spoken to kindly; if spoken to harshly or suddenly now his "heart jumps." Besides, he wants her to have as easy time as white children. Travelled once with Mr. and Mrs. Lapp and children to Point Hope; neither Mrs. Lapp nor children walked a step. May 26. Length of Stories. Ilav. says his father knew one very good story. It was so long it took about a month to tell it all. Of course, he says they did not sit at it continuously. His father might go looking at traps one day and hunting another, but always when he came home and had eaten he took a seat in middle of karrigi floor and started where he left off. May 27. Imarruak, (Smith Bay). Hunting Methods. Pannigabluk found some small dead bed-willows at Imarruak, stuck them in the snow, and snared ptarmigan among them. Religion. Ila^^ the other day repeated his assertion that before mis- sionaries came Eskimo were Imd. Now they are good. The first time the story was that they lied, stole, and worked on Sunda^^s; now they lie and steal but don't work Sundays. To this he now adds that formerly " doctors " used to kill men by magic, but now there is none of this, thanks to fear of Hell. May 28. Near Imarruak. Conservatism. A. says that last winter when they had no deerskin for bootsoles his people would not try moose- skin. Said they never heard of anyone trying it. Refused to use for boot- legs those of deer skinned by A. because he ripped the skin up the back of the leg up to the hock, whereas they rip it up the front of leg to hock then go inside leg. May 29. Near Cape Halkett. Dimensions for our Umiak. Length 335 feet, width 6 feet at top, 33 inches at bottom, depth 26 inches. June 3. Cape Halkett Island. Found on top pressure ridge by last camp a piece of an Itkillik bark canoe laced with a root. June 9. Island southeast of Point Comfort (?). Women's tapsis at Port Clarence and neighborhood were decorated with deer teeth. Panni- gabluk says she has not seen this at Barrow or among any of the eastern peoples. 208 Antfiropological Pa],ers Aincncctn Mui^eum of Natural History. [Vol. XR . June 19. Beliefs. Pannigabluk tells that two years ago her brother Alekak wanted to stay at Rampart House as Kururak did, but eould not because their mother (hers and Alekak's) " did not want to die among trees." Why did she not want to die among trees? "That was her idea not mine. I don't know what she thought." June 34- Eskimo jNIedicine. Have seen this winter several cases of violent squeezing of the chest to relieve pains there. The patient holds up his arms al)ove his head wliile the strongest man a\'ailable stands behind him, puts his arms around his chest and grasps one wrist by the other hand and sciueezes about or below the nipples. Apparently he sc^ueezes as hard as he can, while the patient does not seem to swell the chest to resist. I^sually the patient lifts his feet off the ground and is thus held up for perhaps thirty seconds, when the pressure is relaxed. Jime 24- Childbirth. The old women tell the young girls to be sure to get their first child early, as otherwise childbearing will be difficidt. Shortly before the time of deli\'ery pregnant women ai"e advised to court violent exercise as "it will loosen the child and make it come easy." This advise ]\Ir. B — blames for the death (about Apr. 30) of his nurse girl, Flora — miscarriage. She brought a sled out to the floe o^'er rough ice and worked hard on it, against B.'s directions, because old women had told her to. June 25. Nirrlik. The person seen was a Colville M'oman, Keruk, a widow since last winter. B. had come to a river and attracted her attention by shooting, so she came to the opposite bank. She told B. that if we ascended river we were planning to ascend we should hit Colville "far" above Itkillikpa; besides the river was cracked — very. Said almost all Colville people had starved this winter, though none to death; that about all of them had come in boats yesterday to Nirrlik to fish and they had pro- ceeded to where they are now camped on a river, having its mouth in sight of Nirrlik and coming to within half mile of the river we were near. Jmie 25. Nirrlik. The people we found yesterday were the following (according to Pannigabluk) : Keruk, a widow of I'tjerrak (K's father Nuna- tama; mother Kuwuk) (I's Nunatama?); Kalegarrk (Killermiut) (the Killer is a l)ranch of the Kafiianik in the mountains, the Kaiia branch of Kupik); Duk'kayak (mother, Nuna; father. Killer); Innuahlurak, husband of D., (Killermiut); iVaak (daughter of Kan'aurak's brother. K. is one who had a devil) (Kagmallirmiut — in mountains); Itahluk (Kagmallirmiut) ; Kaxxorak (Daughter of Keruk — about five years old), Arrigaaitjuak (Akpek's sister, about fifteen years). June 28. The jx'ople camped al)out one mile S. W. of us are Turnna and Kiktoriak and their two children, boy ten, girl three. T. is Kuwuk, K., Point Hope. 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 209 July 2. Nirrlik. Measured heads today with Anderson's help, twenty- eight in all. Measured all but two grown people (Attoakotak who is sick and his wife) and eight children, mostly small, though some six or seven years. Panniulak gives the number and distribution of the other people, who frequent Nirrlik to trade as follows (excluding seven measured June 27th and Keruk's little girl (who would not be measured). Up the river S. W. of here four, near Oliktok seventeen, Kuparuk five, total sixty-four. This is not counting, of course, Pillyalla, Kunagrak, and others who are at Point Barrow now and may not come back. One old man, Ikakshak, has parts of his skin turned about "white men's" color — -not tallowy albino. July 3. In Camp at Nirrlik. Some of the people were across the moun- tains, so far they saw no mountains where they were; supposed they were near the Kunkpuk (Yukon). Saw no Indians, but saw two miners who told that the country was now^ full of prospectors up to the divide, that Carter had "struck it rich" and also the Jap "Cookie." The Eskimo (five tents) killed seven moose and about twenty sheep to the tent, and some deer, but starved in spring. July 3. Nirrlik. Panniulak tells that formerly when a man killed a wolf he ate no warm food for four days, if it was a male wolf and five, if it M-as a female. When he got into the house after killing the wolf, he would take a stone hammer (an old one preferably or necessarily) and shout four times in the fireplace or near it, " 0-ho ! " Four times, if wolf a male ; strike five times and shout five times if a female. July 4- At Nirrlik were eight umiaks: — Attoktuak, Neakoyuk, Alak, Panniuldk, Keruk, Katteruak, Kaiyau, Akslaktok, Aiakkerak, Alahualuk (arrived as we left). Turnfiak had his boat up on the Ekallirkpik; Puya and Kirinirk have each an umiak and are on their way now with them from Oliktok by the river. Nutarksiruak and wife and two children are in the mountains, not coming to sea this year. Had umiak when he went up, but may be dismantled now. There are not known to be any others on the Kupik or its branches, have deserted either to Barrow or Kotzebue. No one this summer on Itkillik. People at Nirrlik do not seem to hunt at all this time of year birds, eggs, or deer, but fish exclusively. This is the easiest, as mosquitoes don't bother so much. Mosquitoes do not seem so bad anyway at Nirrlik as elsewhere inland, probably because situated on a high cutbank not far from the sea, and because se\'eral tents divide attentions between. Panniulak and family are going to Barrow by the first fair wind. P. says Colville is too uncertain a country for food. Though he did not starve last winter, he came near it, after giving food to those who were starving. Seal Hunters. Eighteen of the Colville people went by earliest water to 210 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Nalural History. [Vol. XIV, Oliktok (sledded to islands outside?) for seal. One of the three boats (Alahualik's) with nine people and five and a half poks seal oil arrived as we left Nirrlik. They had gone outside the delta. The other two umiaks are on their way with seven poks oil. People killed only one caribou near Oliktok, but think there are plenty now on account of the mosc^uitoes. Indian Feuds. In general the relations with the Indian in the tree country seem semi-friendly. I was told, however, that the father of the girl Dukkayak (Innuahlurak's, Panniulak's son's, wife) was shot by an Indian while he was hunting deer five winters ago. Seems to have been and to be regarded, rather as a murder than a warlike act, though quarrels are always admittedly likely to occur. It is said that a few years ago when Omigluk (now of Herschel) crossed the mountains on the Ulahula, he "nearly had a fight" with some Indians he met. The Nirrlik people seem to be pretty stingy. P. was told that Neokoyuk and Alak had flour and Panniulak a little. Panniulak used his for his children only, but the others are said to have cooked for themselves. Neo- koyuk also had coft'ee and shared with no one. After Panniulak got the sack of flour I owed him and the flve pounds tea for the copper kettle he did not spread himself much. In fact, the only public tea drinking was at our house. Several women, however, brought us cooked or uncooked fish at different times, and one brought us two good meals of mashuk roots, locally called Mahu'. These were sacked inland up the Itkillik north of the mountains. They were very pleasantly sour, had been merely boiled and sacked without further preparation. July 29. Diseases. Woman today complained of her heart being so bad it hurt her ribs, and said she got that way after most meals, first her heart would get bad, then her liver, and both "wanted to come up in her throat." In connection with this I asked Pannigabluk about Keruk on the Ekallirkpik River who complained to us her coughing had broken a rib that morning. P. denied the incident, and so did Billy, for they must have heard us amused over the matter. Later today P. told a womnn how Keruk had broken her rib one day she was with us. August 11. Barter Island. Saw among nine house ruins at W. end of Barter Island at least three that seemed of Mackenzie type — one, a typical Mackenzie River house. Ruins not very old, perhaps older than, e. g. Flanders Point; a larger number of houses at E. end of Barter. Asked Nin. who used to live there? Said all sorts of people in sunmicr, but in winter few or none but Mackenzie River people. Some winters he thought, no one; sometimes a good many Kogmallit (Mackenzie River). 1914.] The Slefansson-Anderson Expedition. 211 Cape Parry, 1909-10. August 30. Cape Parry Peninsula. Archaeology. Many of hills, per- haps every fifth has stones set one on top the other by man. Found yesterday one old meat cache of rock, empty. One tent site (circle of stones) with broken deer, seal, and fox bones, as well as charred sticks. Judging from known age of Flanders Point remains, these should be a hundred years old at least. Traces of people most numerous on hills near west side of peninsula. Yesterday found grave on hill just S. of our tent. Some fragments of bones as if body eaten by wolf or bear. Stones at head and foot of grave. Grave wood-covered. On hill yesterday found a half circle wall ten or twelve feet in diameter and about two feet high, averaging two layers of small boulders. Suppose it made by boys playing, some boulders must weigh three to four hundred pounds. September 2. Cape Parry. Archaeology. Yesterday found on a little island what neither Billy nor I knew if to class as a grave or a deer meat cache, a box about two by two feet with sides of stone slabs (one piece to the side) and a cover of two slabs. One slab was partly shoved from its place, leaving a triangular-shaped opening about twenty-four by eighteen inches. Other slab not only in place, but had boulders on two of its corners, apparently to prevent slab being raised. Although hill was nothing but cracked rock everywhere else, inside of box (its bottom) w^as sod with only an odd pebble. Dug into soil about six inches and found no stone bottom, though we were an inch or two below level of surrounding ground. No bone or other trace of anything, but soil with stray fragments of stone. Sides of box stood about ten inches above ground from outside, but inside of box filled to about six inches from top. Did not dig (could not) below level of sides inside box; would have dug outside box but increasing surf made it necessary to launch our boat. We had gone ashore on the island to spy a harbor across the fjord. It is remarkable in how many places we find a considerable sprinkling of small driftwood sticks on top hills, mostly within c^uarter mile of some arm of the sea, though in one case half a mile at least. In one instance found slender sticks laid as usual in tents and camp-fire sites during moscjuito season. This is Billy's guess as well as mine. Billy says box above referred to may possibly have been a trap for wolf, wolverine, or fox. Pannigabluk plucks out, whenever they appear, any hairs from her arm- pits. Looks as if there would be ciuite a growth there if not plucked. Have heard many whites say Eskimo have no hair there but this is evidently wrong, though the hair may not be so abundant as with whites. 212 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, September 3. Cape Parry Peninsula. Archaeology. Remains of an old meat cache made with stones and whalebone on island; ancl another of stones (or a grave?) near our camp tonight. No remains in either, frag- ments of an old short sled, the wood parts, also found on island. September 4- Archaeology. About four miles south of camp along beach saw pile of logs apparently gotten together to build a house. All now rotten, though perhaps not over thirty or forty years old. Some chopping done with poor ax, though more likely small iron hatchet than stone ax. Numerous stones everywhere put up (as landmarks?) on top hills or on hill slopes. September 5. Cape Parry. It is so wintry today that I started off about 12 M. to see from hills N. of here if ice is not in, these westerly winds, if extensi^•e, should bring it. Just after starting, however, it got so thick with snow that I was about to turn home a mile from camp when I saw under the shelter of a rock what I took for a rabbit. The one we saw last week was white. I approached to aliout fifty yards and fired — no move; fired again, same result — concluded I was shooting too high and aimed lower. The thing jumped up and rolled over. On near approach found a very old human skull with two neat holes in the center of the top of the head and a third through the temporal bone. The gra\'e from which this skull came was about twenty yards away. It is built up of flattish stones, none more than twenty inches in diameter or one hundred pounds in weight. The form is oval, its inside dimensions about forty by seventy-five inches. The walls are about eighteen inches high. If there ever was a roof, it probably was of wood or skins, probably largely the latter. Fragments apparently of a short sled, very rotten. Only one piece of any size, with four perfora- tions probably for thong or whalebone lacing. I suppose this piece to be from a sled runner. The piece is about three feet long, the perforations about I by | inch. The skull is very fragile, especially after the shooting. There are only five teeth left, one an incipient wisdom tooth. From general appearance of teeth and especially wisdom tooth, conclude subject not an old person. No other bones or other remains found. Dimensions of skull, length, 167, width, 127. Skull too broken for other dimensions. Pan. tells me Mary Thrasher is now a " bad woman." " In what way? " "She scolds all the time. Most women who li\'c with white men get into the habit of scolding, contradicting and quarrelling." Pan.'s opinion of the Indians, whom her parents used to meet often each year, is that they are "nagomlut," excellent people. The above description of the grave is from superficial examination at the time of the shooting. Later B. and I went there with spade. The general shape is as given aboxc. so far as the grave is the work of man, but excava- 191-4.] The Stejdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 213 tion of its bottom shows that a crevice was chosen to build the gra^'e upon, so that the body lay in an irregular shaped space considerably smaller than the box. The main axis of the grave is N. and S. (compass), the sharp point being slightly up hill and away from the sea. From shape of grave, conclude head of body must have been S., towards a narrow fjord about two hundred yards away. The bones give no evidence of position of body. Found lower jaw and part of femur together near S. end but found loose teeth all over bottom of grave as well as fragments of several ribs and two pieces of vertebrae, no whale bone found. Fragments of round bones found indicate breaking under teeth of some animal. Excavation showed plainly the grave had had a roof. At the N. end of the grave was a largish slab jutting out somewhat, the only part of the roof still in position. For the rest the roof was of thin (about one and a half inches thick) sticks, some split and others adzed into shape evidently by a small and very blunt adze, probably stone. On top of these had been small, thin pieces of brownish stone (the largest not over one inch thick or ten inches square) and sod cut with some sharp instrument. One that still retained its shape perfectly had one straight cut side and the other sides a gradual curve, as if sod had been cut at the side of a rock. The curved part came to a "knife edge" all around, the maximum thickness of the straight side about two inches, The brown stone slabs seem to have been under the sod, the rafters were lengthwise of the grave. The depth of the crack in which the grave was about twelve inches; so total depth eighteen plus twehe to thirty inches. On rolling them away, conclude that heaviest stones in grave weighed about one hundred fifty pounds a piece. Found about fifteen fragments of ribs (none more than half a rib, some splinters an inch by an eighth of an inch only) two fragments of vertebrae, the upper two thirds of a femur, with its head gone and one piece apparently from the pelvis, and eight teeth. No traces of hair or of rotten skins in which the body may have been wrapped; while enough sod and wood found to account completely for roofing of grave. X piece of antler (?) dimensions 19 by 7 by 6 by 5 measurements of smooth sides and sharp edges (corners) ; at one end looks as if broken off from a longer piece: Part of needle case (?) or end of belt (tapsi)? Walrus ivory. One side is somewhat damaged by decay. The figures, though they have elongated heads, suggest otherwise an Eskimo woman with a fairly large baby on her back. October Jf.. ^Yhaler's Harbor. Immaculate Conceptions. Pan. say& Eskimo women frequently have children that have no father. Sometimes; they die at or before birth, sometimes they live. When they live they do not differ noticeably from people that have fathers. Some women are afraid of these fatherless children and kill them at birth. One instance 214 Anthropological Papers American Museum, of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, of this is the woman Akhiatjiak who Hves in one of Brower's "iglupauiaks." A few years ago she had a fatherless female child. She buried it at once. Another Cape Smythc woman, Ifunina (she is bald-headed though not old) had a fatherless child. It died when one or two years old, of sickness. A Kuwok man who is now wealthy and a trader is fatherless. His name is Kax'ri. She knows of two Unalit women who had fatherless children. One had a boy and a girl (not twins), and the other a girl. Kax'ri's mother's name was Imo'sirk. She was a widow when he was born; she had had a girl before, whose father was her husband. Some women who have fatherless children are virgins at the time, some have had a child before, some are widows. Pan. herself has had a fatherless birth, an abortion at Oliktok last spring when she was on her way west with Billy and Anderson. The foetus was about three inches long. She never had connection with a man since the death of her first (only) husband, — a full year previous to the abortion. People do not suspect of lying, she says, women who say they have fatherless children, for they know that it often happens. Some- times, perhaps always though people don't know it, some "doctor" is magically responsible for the child. This was known to be the case with Imosirk, Kaxri's mother, and she foretold the birth of a son to herself at an "ulahula" long before Kaxri was born. It is not only in recent times, Pan. says, l)ut it has })een "always" this way, that women had fatherless children. Abortions. At the abortion above referred to Pan. says she had no great pains but lost much blood. She seems to feel no reluctance in telling of the matter. Dreams. Pan. says when she tlreams a river with a swift current, a strong west wind follows; if she dreams the ocean rough with waves, there will be a strong nigirk (easterly wind). If she dreams of making "slap jacks" (but not other kinds of bread), the next day some traveler will come; if she dreams of eating deer-ribs boiled, deer will soon be killed. "Some- times I dream well (true) and sometimes badly (untrue)," she says. She has heard of people who always dream true. Dreaming a swift river means east wind only to a few people, it means this or that to others. And so with other dream signs. Boots. Pan. made herself the first boots I have seen made from the body skin of the deer. She says some people want only l)oots from deerlegs, others like boots from the body skin anywhere. Of course, the latter kind are always worn hair in. She says her husband Alashuk never would have socks made of anything but the upper half of the legskin of a cari})ou fawn, reindeer would not do. Upper half, skin from knee or hock upwards to where the hair gets long. A. would, however, wear any kind of boots. 1914.] The Stefdusson-Anderson Expedition. 215 October 5. Snowshoe lacing is said by Billy to be best if of seal ; I have heard others say deer is better. The skin is cut in lacing about one tenth of an inch wide and is cut from the center of the piece. Then at one end of this cut, the cutting of the lace is begun, leaving finally an irregular fringe of skin. When skin is plenty, the cutting ceases when the continuity of the lace is first broken. Today we are making lace from the back of Billy's old coat and are cutting up all corners so some of our pieces of lace are not a foot long. A skin intended for lacing is put in water immediately after the deer is killed. In summer four or five hours suffice to loosen the hair so it can be rubbed off; in winter I suppose it takes a bit longer. When skin has once been dried this method does not work well. The skin is then usually plucked, fowl fashion, and then soaked to make it soft. The Eskimo do not seem to have the idea of shaving a skin with a sharp knife as Iceland- ers do, for instance, for shoes. Kagmalit. Billy says that among his people, at least, and in most places probably, "Kagmane" is a less frequently used alternative form of "ka-va-ne" (in the east; down the coast). The people living to the east (along the coast only?) are called "Kagmalit," and (less frequently) "Kag- malii'rmiut " ; corresponding to "Kagmane" there is the term "shag-mane" ( in the west). His people therefore, call the people of Cape Nome, etc., "Shagmanerimiut"; has heard Nunatamas call people of Tapkark, Kotze- bue Sound, "Shagmailrrmiut." His people never refer to people living eastward inland as "Kagmalit" or " Kagmalirrmiut." Pan. says Nuna- tamas call Cape Smythe people "Kagmalit" and Mackenzie River people "Kagmalixihlaurat." The people of the Diomedes are called at Port Clarence "Immarxlit" while people living "west of the Diomedes, rather far off, on another island are called "Okiovormlut." The " Okiovarmiut " Island can be seen from Port Clarence sandspit, but Diomedes can be seen only from Cape Prince of Wales." Bering Ice. B. says though ice is continually moving people cross with light sleds and small or no loads between Diomedes and Cape Prince of Wales while Okiovarmiut can come to mainland only by umiak in summer. Snowshoe lacing is usually dried on a double-cross frame. The frame is ordinarily five foot long between the cross pieces. Skins for clothing are rated about as follows: sheep retain their hair best of all, but the skin itself is weakest of all; tame reindeer keep the hair better than caribou and are about equally strong, but somewhat smaller for animals of the same age. Squirrel is preferred to muskrat, because stronger. Swan plucked of all but finest down makes good clothes for children and loon unplucked breasts make a good coat. — Pan. Scraping Skins. The "innermost thin skin" should be scraped off 216 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, with ;i sharp scraper; if the deerskin is th(>u too thick for the purpose intended, "the next skin" should l)e rubbed oft* with a rough stone. Pan. uses for this purpose piece of shig (so light it floats in water) that we found on the Cape Parry Peninsula. Often, when skins are plenty, the neck is not used in garments wanted thin. If skins are not plenty, the whole skin may be given one scraping, and the neck rubbed with a rough stone to a thickness uniform with the rest. Names. The name "Kon'nirk," now applied to tame reindeer, is the one anciently applied to them when they were known only l)y the skins that found their way over from Asia. Ko'hlit or Konililaxat," are the two names Pan. knows for the people across Bering Strait. The latter, she says, she supposes comes from their having reindeer (Koh'nrit). The wolf has these two names: A'marok, Ki'rlunirk among all Eskimo, so far as Pan. knows. Coats. A coat should have in its making one deerskin with the head complete. This skin is used for the back of the coat. The natural shape of the skin as it is on the living deer will then give the proper form to the hood, small patches being put in for the eyes, horns, etc., and perhaps a strip along the middle of the top of the hood, as well as along the cheeks, etc., to form the complete hood. If the head is on the other skin it is cut off and used for the patches where needed. In cutting a coat or other garment a good deal of material seems to be wasted, each piece (i. e., a sleeve) is cut larger than needed and not of quite the desired shape at first and then trimmed down. At first, fairly large pieces may be cut off, but towards the final stages the parings are almost infinitesimal. Some of the larger pieces will later be used to fill in here or there. Most women have a large bag full of these remnants and can from it match almost any kind of skin in mending or altering a garment. The final waste of material is therefore not great. Boot Soles. Even when skins are scarce, the neck of the skin intended for a coat, if considered too thick after the first scraping, is not rubbed down with a stone (cf. above description of scraping skins) but cut off and used for boot soles, for one must ordinarily have boot soles as well as coats. The thickest and strongest deer boot soles are from the neck of a buck killed October to December. October 10. Snowshoes. In piercing holes for the thongs of the foot- part of the snowshoe, Billy measures from front to back as follows : (1) Cross bar to first string, width of first finger at first knuckle. (2) 1st string to 2nd string, width of first finger at first knuckle. (3) 2nd " "3rd " " " " and middle fingers at 1st knuckle. (4) 3rd " "4th " " " " and 3rd fingers at 1st knuckle, 1914.] The Sk'funsson- Anderson Expedition. 217 ^5) 4th string to 5th string, width of first and middle and 3rd fingers at 1st knuckle. (6) oth string to 6th sti-ing, width of first and middle and third fingers at 1st knuckle. (7) (ith string to rear cross bar, rest of distance. Ugrug line is preferred for this part of snowshoe. The first and second strings are brought together in arranging the fore and aft thongs. Aklak skins, Pan. says, are used by Unaht and others for umiaks and make a good substitute, though whether better or not, she does not know. On the Colville all umiaks are ugrug or walrus, even on the Kangianik (upper Colville) where some skins come from Noatak, some from Kuwok and some from Cape Smythe. October 13. Wolverines. Pan. says if wolverine knows of meat buried under frozen ground, it will lie down on top the earth covering, thaw it a little, dig away the thawed part and lie down in the hole, thus finally thaw- ing its way to the meat. As for stone covering, they will lift straight up- ward, if necessary, stones to uncover meat. Aklak (bear) meat and fat, I find has to me a peculiarly disagreeable taste and smell when even slightly tainted. The meat of the big bear had begun to smell when we buried it, the fat layer, apparently, had protected body from getting cold, though skin and internals removed. When we cut it up and buried it in the rock (covering with stones only) it seems still to have kept warm so much so that middle pieces of pile were still little frozen when Billy opened the cache to take out meat Oct. 9th. Aklak meat, untainted, I like well, and the fresh fat, boiled, has a \'ery agreeable taste. As fat, it is to my idea better than deer fat because it is nearly as agreeable and "goes" twice as far. Aklak feet are like human feet because aklaks are descended from a woman who, with her two children, a boy and girl ran away from people and turned into bears (aklak). Pan. has also heard some story of polar bears. Ptarmigan feathers are here a household necessity. One needs at least a bird a day for wiping greasy hands after eating, bloody hands after pre- paring fish or meat for cooking, or wet hands from any cause. October 17. Horton River. B. was in completely treeless country, but west of the river almost every one of the innumerable lakes has small trees along its N. bank. B. found considerable flat land. I none. He found one "Large" lake on the barren with a creek to the river and Indian tent frames on the shore (hauled by sled probably). October 18. I started 7:30 A. M. up river looking for ptarmigan. Billy made log deadfall at our camp and came along with load behind at 218 Aiillirojiologicdl PdjK'rs American Museum of Nitlnral Ilidory. \\o[. XIV, about 8:30. Found another Indian tipi t'ranu' about half mile up stream from our eamp, perhaps three 3'ears old. B. found old deadfall trap about five miles farther up stream on W. bank and fixed it up. Logs cut with saw- by Baillie Islanders, he thinks. October 20. An Indian tipi frame seen about two miles X. E. of our deer meat, on edge of tree area. May be sunmier camp for deer hunt, though more likely winter camp for musk-ox and deer. Animal Lore. B. asked me what sort of mouse it was I shot at the other day, dark or white. I said it was dark, which he said must then ha\e been a\'iria(k)pi'ak. There is a white sort of mouse kilanmiu'tak. These have feet (hoofs) like a caribou and fall from the sky when it is snowing. He has not seen them in the country but has seen their tracks. Many other people have seen them, however. These mice cannot travel straight ahead, when they fall from the sky they run in circles and always run crooked. The Kllaiimi'iitak are a little larger than the dark mice and are usually fat. November 1. Fish. Great excitement tonight over Pan.'s seeing two fish known as tltJilirk through hole she made to get water. She and Billy have been fishing for them most of time since but have had no luck. Noveviber 16. Trade Across Bering Strait. Billy says his father made a number of trips in umiak to the Xod'lit to get reindeer skins. Perhaps more frequently, however, the Xod'lit brought their wares over. B. says in his neighborhood there are many ruins of houses built on top of cliffs for fear of Xod'lit attack. This was very long ago; in more recent times visits of Xod'lit were entirely friendly. Caribou have for a long time been absent from the rivers inland from Port Clarence, though Billy has seen numerous bones. His father told him he made one killing of twelve deer. This was when B. was a baby; now about 25. Ideas Foreign to Eskimo. The Aalue of time idea found currently among "civilized" people seems entirely incomprehensible to the Eskimo. If they can get a sack of flour for two foxskins from a trader two hundred miles away, then if that trader were to haul the flour to their village they would equally expect a sack for two skins. So I found the people of the Kittegaryuit neighborhood would expect the same price for each fish sold at home as they could get hauling to Herschel where they seldom arrive with o\'er a dozen fish (say fifty pounds) and often with none. So in trading if they know a trader buys a rifle for ten dollars they consider it worth only ten after he has carried it two thousand miles, spent a year in doing so, and hired many men for the work. They will, however, of course, pay any price for a gun the}' need, but their thinking is this: "You have the upper hand; you are 'doing' me out the difference between ten dollars and what I pay you, but I must have the gun." One of the results of this view of trade 1914.] The Stcfdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 219 is that the advantage is all with the resident as against the itinerant trader. Those who make long voyages, e. g., for deerskins, lose from hunting the time they travel and usually have to pay what the skins are worth in their home neighborhood. When a man is known to get more for an article than he pays for it, the profit is looked upon after the manner of winnings in gambling, somewhat as we look upon stock exchange transactions. There is, in other words, no such idea as our "legitimate profit." The wages idea such as they have is quite different from ours. Indeed, this might be considered as our idea misunderstood. If I hire a man for a stated sum or quantity of goods to work for me a year, if the dajj after I hire him he falls sick and is sick all the year and I keep him, clothe him and his family and care for them all as if they were my own people, all this is not considered in any way to affect my obligation to hand him at the end of the year the amount he would have received had he worked hard and effi- ciently for me every day of the year. A concrete instance I know of illus- trates a variant of this idea. The man Kunnaluk was hired on these terms: he was furnished fifteen (or twenty) sacks flour, besides rice, beans, tea, coal oil, etc., a new rifle, and a thousand cartridges, tent material, etc., and promised certain things at the end of the year, if he should do as follows: trap energetically with (fifteen) traps furnished for the purpose, and deliver all foxskins, half his deerskins and sheepskins, and the saddles of all deer and sheep killed, to his employer. Kunnaluk trapped six foxes and sold the skins, ate the saddles of all deer killed, and used all deer and sheepskins, in fact, willfull}' and openly broke every item of his agreement. Now he expects to receive, and his neighbors expect he will receive, the things promised him at the end of the year. These views of wages and bargains have been fostered, perhaps engendered by whalers with other white men who have been so dependent on the service of Eskimo that they have put up with anything. A man who tried to do differently would become known as a "bad man" and the object of an informal boycott. Necessarily this paragraph applies only to Eskimo who ha^'e had considerable dealing with w^hites. The rigidity of the triangle idea is, so far as I knoW', unknown to Eskimo mechanics. In lashing a quadrangular frame (as the rear end of a sled) to make it rigid, they will wind innumerable turns about the angles but never use a rope or string as a diagonal. That they never use a stick as a diagonal, I am not sure, though I have seen no case of it. It might be noted here that the Eskimo are the only Americans, north or south, who have ever employed the dome principle of architecture. The cardinal points idea seems to be absent. There are words currently translated as "north, east wind," etc., but I fail to see they have any, 220 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural liislorij. [X'ol. XI\', but a local relation to our ideas that correspond to these words. Their real meaning is "hmdward" "seaward," "up the coast," "down the* coast," etc. Thus the word "nlgirk" means southeast wind at Point Tangent twenty miles east of Point Barrow, northeast wind at Cape Smythe or ^Yainwri_l>■ht, south wind in (Greenland (West Coast — Kleinschmidt) and north wind (sailors have told me) at various points on Bering Strait. This fall nl-gh"k with us on the Cape Parry peninsula was a northerly wind. 1 have found no name for the Xorth Star (though the Dipper is named) and no evidence that Eskimo have noted its peculiarity of no apparent motion. Tra\'eling at night they often shape their course hy a conspicu- ous star, hut always make allowance for its motion, as they would for sun or moon. Xoronhcr 21^. Customs. Ilav. says the first time he killed a wolf was when wintering at Horton River (six or seven years ago) with Kaxotox and Kunnak. When he came in the e\ening Kaxotox's father said he must not eat cooked food or drink tea for five days. When he was going to drink water they told him not to until they made him a cup. K. made him a cup of sealskin from which he had to drink. All this, Ilav. says, was new to him. The old man said if he broke the rules he would, if he did not die, become very sick or sufYer great misfortune the next year. Ilav. says he broke the tea prohibition before the five days were over, but did not notice being partic- ularly sick or unfortimate that year. The old man, however, was much worried about him. (The old man was a Nu'natarmiut). That same winter when Ilav. came home one day reporting the killing of a polar bear, the old man said he must not work wood (chop wood etc.,) the next day. He was also going to hang up to the roof of the house a crooked knife, but Ilav. would not let him. Said that he submitted in the wolf case because there he was ignorant, but that he had killed many bears without more ceremony than a grouse and had suffered no harm and he wasn't going to begin ceremonies now. Game at mouth of Horton. When he wintered here six years ago, Ilav. says that they killed seals in considerable number up towards the dark days (as long as had open water) and bears now and then (five or six during winter. In both fall and spring got a few deer near the coast, perhaps twenty in all. Grouse fairly numerous in first willows up river, some straggling, waist-high willows three or four miles upstream from where B. and I crossed over it Nov. 17th. This man lived well all winter on ptarmigan only, .shot and snared, never went up to rabbit country and got no fish so far as Ihn-. knows. Ilav. went up near his house in February and got a heavy sled-load in two days' shooting. Aklak Doors. Ilav. says only ]K'ople who use tliciii iiiuch and \ahie 1914.] The Stcfdnsson-Anderson Expedition 221 them highly are the inlanders (probably coincident with the users of willow and moss dome houses) and they use them primarily as house doors but also for tents. Doors. Ilav. says when first he remembers his father's house had a trap door in the floor, but while he was yet a small boy Ilav.'s brother induced his father to put in a door of the style he had seen on a trip, a white man's door. Food. Ilav. says he knows his people ate all the fur animals now trapped except wolves, but then he says wolves were very rai-e anyway and that it is possible they really had no objection to eating wolf, but none was killed when he was around and so he never saw one eaten. He himself, however, never thought of eating first wolves he killed, did not take carcasses home. Note : He did not kill a wolf till he had been aboard ships many years and had opportunity to absorb white man's prejudices. Many Eskimo are now ashamed of eating wolf, fox, etc., and lyingly deny that they or their people ever did, admitting always, however, that neighboring tribes did. In recent years Ilav. has eaten many wolves and likes the meat. Mamay- auk has eaten all fur animals and objects to none. December 1. Started 9 A. M., camped 1 P. M. on account of supposing we had arrived at small river from south, recommended to Ilav. at Baillie as a good rabbit place. Found no tracks, however. Near mouth (S. side of small river) were some house ruins perhaps ten years old. January 8, 1910. Horton River. Women breaking bones today and we use some of tallow for lamp. January 28. Langton Bay. Turnrak Beliefs. Tannaumirk tells: He has only once seen a turnrak. A year or two after he began to hunt with a rifle, it happened one full-moon evening that he and another boy went out of the house together. This was at Tuktuyoktok. The club house (kad- jigi) was still in fair repair but not much used. When they came out of the alleyway door they saw a man standing near the kadjigi and took him for one of the neighbors. They did not speak to him as they expected him to come nearer, for theirs was the only inhabited house and they thought the man had come to visit them. But instead of approaching, he turned and entered the dance house. The boys expected he would soon come out and waited, and the man did come out in a few moments, but stopped out- side the door and soon went into the club house again. The boys now be- came curious about what he was up to and who he was, and went to the door and called to him. No answer. They then went in, struck a match, and looked in every corner but saw nobody. They then went to the house and told what they had seen. No one but they had left the house and the people said it must \\axc been a turnrak. Then for the first time the boys 222 Anthropological Papers American Muneum of Nalural History. [\'o\. XIV, became frightened. Up till then they thought of nothing but that it must be a neighbor. There were no tracks the next morning except their own at the kadjigi door. January 80. People. Pik. has heard that formerly Ikpikpok was uninhabited, later inhabited, and says it is now again uninhabited. February 5. Kayaks. Kutokak promises to make a kayak to sell us as soon as they get two more seals; it takes three fresh skins to make kayak. February 22. Cape Parry. Use of Copper at Baillie. Copper was always rare for implement use at Baillie, Kutakat says. February 24- Fishing Methods. In reading Steensby's "Eskimo kul- tur, etc." yesterday, I found the description for East Greenland of sealing through two holes in ice by two men, one watching, the other holding a long spear. Someone last winter (I think it was Kadri\iak) dcs('ril)(>d the same method for fall fishing. Pikkalu lived on the headwaters of Kuwok once, but never saw or heard tell of this method. Inhabitants of Parry. Kutukak and others aboard the "Rosie H" told me the other day that the former inhabitants of Parry were one people with the Baillie Islanders and that one summer they all died of disease, except one who thereafter lived at Baillie Island. Capt. Wolki, however, says this is a new story. Both in former years and last summer he frequently asked Baillie Islanders who were the former inhabitants of Parry and always got the answer, "A'-tju," until after they got in winter quarters this winter ,^ when he began to hear it from all sides. Bows. Ships people gave me a bow picked up on one of the Booth Islands. A piece is broken off one end. It seems to have been about three feet long. It has evidently been a one-piece bow% but if reinforced, or how,, one can't tell. February 27. Travel. Kutukak says that formerly at Baillie an " um- ialik" traveled with a string of five short sleds hitched one behind the other, and two dogs to drag the five sleds, separate traces. Plain men had one dog, usually. Shamanism. T. says a few years ago Taiakpauna died and had been dead all day ( about twelve hours) when Alualik undertook to resurrect him Avith witchcraft, and succeeded. Both arc still living, Taiakpauna, a very old man, and " many people" saw T. die and knew that he was dead all day, and saw A. revive him. Tannaumirk asked me if Jesus was the only white man that knew how to wake up the dead. He said many Eskimo used to know how and to do it frequently. Many still know how, but dare not practise, by and by nobody will know because none dare to learn now for fear of not going to heaven after death. Wlicn I told him that I doubted if Jesus really did raise people from dead, T. said it was reasonable white men 1914.] The Siefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 223 should doubt it if they had no one who could do it, but the Eskimo under- stood how it was done by others and therefore believed Jesus could do it also. March 16. 0-kat. Eskimo Ways of Thinking. Ilavinirk told me three or four days ago that he himself is naturally of a skeptical turn of mind. He continually prides himself herein, without good reason. He is really the most gullible Eskimo I know. He had some private doubts of certain anatkut performances. He had made a ring of wood about the size of a napkin ring and had it inside his clothes. No one in the kadjigi knew he had it. He made an excuse for going out and dropped the ring in the dark hall- way carelessly on the floor. When the performance was to begin, he asked to be one of those who held the rope. A long single thong of ugrug was brought, the afiatkok tied feet together, hands behind back, a turn over neck and under knees, bringing his chin between his knees. Then Ilavinirk and another man took hold of the rope and braced themselves. Somebody lifted the doctor up and tossed him carelessly down the trap door in such a way as to have hurt any other man, but the aiiatkok never struck bottom. The line played out with terrific rapidity, so that it took the skin out of the hand of Ilavinirk who was going to try to hold the doctor. When the line was about all payed out, the strain ceased, and they hauled it in hand over hand till they brought the anatkok, bound as before, up through the open- ing, and behold, Ilavinirk's wooden ring was on the rope, just behind the shaman's back. He had made himself so small he had gone right through the ring and thus threaded it on the rope. He had turned natural size before they pulled him up through the scuttle. Ilavinirk concludes that though certain doctors may be frauds, this one certainly was not, and most doctors are not. In fact, no genuine doctors are frauds, but some unprin- cipled men pretend to be shamans when they are not. One such is Panni- gabluk, as witness : When hungry at the river and impatient for me to come back, Pan. said she used to have seances for Alashuk's deer hunting, and it never failed to bring him deer. Ilavinirk says he knows "doctor business" is wicked, but they wxre in such straits that no means were to be neglected. He told P. therefore to go ahead. He and Mamayaux took part in good faith (i. e., did not work against P. by doubting her) and she announced at the end that her spirits (Alashuk and a white man) had talked of eating deer tongues tomorrow evening and had said Dr. A. and I would come with our whole party in two days. Ilavinirk was therefore to kill deer next day. No one arrived for a week. " We know now what sort of a woman Pan. is, and we'll not believe her in anything she says. If she had spirits she would have told the truth, for spirits know everything and never lie." Ilav. explained further he thought it was too bad spirit driving conflicted with religion but as it is, everyone must quit them for everybody wanted to go to heaven. 224 Anthropological Papers American Musexmi oj Natural Hidory. [Vol. XI\ March 18. Women's Tutaks. Both Mamayaux and Tannaumirk renieinher seeing tutaks that were said to have been women's center hibrets and tliat have been sohl to the steamer people at McPherson. They know the eonunon report that women wore them once. They are said to have always l)een inserted from tlie inside. The largest lie has seen, Tan. indi- cates to have been about three-quarters of an inch in horizontal diameter as worn in the lip, one-fifth or one-sixth of an inch in vertical diameter and with an axis of about half an inch. Those he has seen have all been of white stone. Neither of them has heard any reason assigned for these tutaks going out of fashion. March 20. Prejudice against Working on Sundays. Mamayauk is afraid to go today (to Langton Bay) as it is Simday. Sunday is as taboo to useful work as work on deerskins is taboo the dav after a white fish kill. Coronation Gulf and Victoria Island, 1910-11. April 22. En Route towards Coronation Gulf. We took spyglass survey first thing in morning. Saw pair of erect sticks to southeast and to make sure they weren't signals from our party (Billy, Pan. and Tan.) I walked southeast about four miles to them while Ilav. started north along coast with sled. Found remains of rack approximately five to ten years old, and frame of native umiak, carelessly made, small, and nailed wath iron nails, evidently ships' natives. Ilav. went al)out eight miles north and camped. April 26. Cape Lyon. Food Tastes. Tannaumirk eats only ugrug (bearded seal) when both it and bear (barren ground) are cooked. He says it does not taste so very bad, but he can't stand the smell. Old John, a German sailor with most of such men's food prejudices, says it is the "best meat in the Arctic" for it "tastes and looks just like pork." He does not like caril)ou, saying it is "watery" and prefers salt l)eef every day to deer meat even once a week for a change. All of us here prefer bear to ugrug except Tan. This is the first barren groimd l)ear he has eaten, except some tainted and moldy bear meat he ate and liked at Langton Bay in January. He has eaten many polar l)ears and is fond of their meat. All the rest of us prefer barren ground bear. April 29. Near Point Pearce. House Ruins. Besides the up-ended stones referred to abo^•e we found just west of our camp (one hundred yards) a wood pile, probably a grave which seems more recent than the houses on Parry or Langton Bay. Wood scarce just at our camp, so used earth. Bill}^ saw three house ruins at the next point east. I shall look at these to- morrow. 1914.] The Slefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 225 April 30. On examining ruins found by Billy yesterday I found six house sites where he had found three, it was blizzarding then. The houses were apparently about rectangular, though the caving-in has given them a doughnut appearance. Interior dimensions of largest about eight by fifteen feet. There were found only three stubs of sticks sticking up that had apparently been parts of the walls. None stood over a foot above ground. Though none were over four inches in diameter, none were decayed enough to break with a sharp blow w4th the foot. Six or seven pieces of wood lying aimlessly about, none decayed badly, though lying on sod or moss. All good firewood. These may be more recent, of course, than the houses, the leavings of a summer camp, though no one would probably camp here after the ice goes off, as the boat landing seems bad and there is no Avood for fuel, while plenty on the other side of the hill some two hundred yards away. Carrying wood there (plenty on the other side of the hill) would be difficult as it would be over a hill about one hundred fifty feet high; there is no beach around. No rafters seen in the ruins, or other sticks than those standing up as erect stumps, but these would be luider the earth of the roof naturally enough. Fragments of vertebrae of small whale (bowhead or "inyutok") in walls of one house. Small rocks half the size of a man's head mixed with the earth of what had been walls. Highest portions of "doughnut rings" left by caving walls and not over eighteen inches, average a foot. Houses seem somewhat older than the most recent at Flanders Point, Herschel Island, that are known to date back to 1890 only. These here, howe\er, are probably much older. They are on a terrace about thirty feet above sea level and have black rock for a background. They may have been standing though not seen when Richardson passed. He says: " to the eastward of Cape Parry .... we met with no villages, though solitary winter-houses occur here and there on the coast." (Searching Exp., Vol. 2, p. 348.) Doors of houses faced the east apparently and some at least had passageways six feet long. Mackenzie River houses are often a good twenty feet. Many things may have escaped me on account of snow covering them. May 1. En Route to Coronation Gulf. Traces of People. At camp place found some cross-pieces for a sled that had never been used. They are of exactly the type found at Parry and Tan. says, are just like those formerly used at Kittegaryuit. Beliefs concerning Caribou. Tannaumirk relates: In former times bull caribou when fighting would often get their horns interlocked and die thus or be killed. This interlocking may sometimes have happened naturally, but he knows that it was often caused by some chance watcher giving a 226 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Nalimil History. [Vol. XIV, twist to his hood; i. e., throwing the hood back from the head and giving it a complete turn with the hand, as one woukl twist a wet cloth in wringing it. Pannigabluk adds that her mother once saw bucks fighting. She twisted her hood and they promptly became interlocked, but the prongs of the horns were not strong enough and after a struggle the ones that held got broken off and the bucks went free. Billy has heard of bucks being thus caught, but has never seen it tried. May 2. Near Roscoe River. Village Ruin. l*annigabluk, in making a short cut where the sled went farther off shore, came upon a ruined village on a sandspit. She did not count the houses but thinks they were over twenty. There were numerous sticks upright, some the remains of racks. She says the village looked older than that at Flanders Point on Herschel Island. If our camp was yesterday at Roscoe River, then these houses would be about five to eight miles east of it by her account. Driftwood in large quantities at this village site, she says. Saw two or three " up-ended " stones inland. May 2. En Route to Coronation Gulf. Sleds. On seeing accidentally the picture of a "kutchin" sled in the frontispiece of Richardson's "Second Journey" Pan. and Billy both said it was like a Kuwiirmiut sled, P. said "just like"; Billy said he had seen most of them with the rear end a little lower in the runner bend than the front end. He has owned one sled bought in the Kuwiik "for a rifle, when rifles were yet valuable." It was longer than any sled he has seen at Herschel, though some of them must be sixteen or eighteen feet long. Kuwuk sleds never had shod runners, neither did they, he says, ever shoe them with ice or ice them even slightly. The runners were of ururri'lik, or canoe birch. It was the best sled he ever used for snow, but very poor crossing ice. May 3. Eskimo Cleanliness. Certain remarks and deeds of Panniga- bluk's today prompt me to enter certain things about Eskimo cleanliness, etc. Pan. will clean dog excrement off a sole of a pair of boots with her ulu,, wipe it casually with a rag that may have had as bad uses a dozen times before, and then proceed to eat with the ulu or cut up with it food for cooking. She will not use the same spoon twice in a half hour to stir her own tea without wiping it between times with the same rag, if it so falls, with which she has just wiped the ulu. Most of the Eskimo I know will pick up and eat without concern a piece of blubber, cooked meat, raw meat,, fish etc., that falls on the floor, no matter in what state the floor is, but most of them would throw away a piece of bread that dropped in the same way. I noticed this especially in Roxy's house. He has been with the police a great deal, and seen them throw away such pieces; naturally, they less often would drop meat, etc., than bread, besides meats are native foods and the 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 227 customs with regard to them are of long standing. In times of scarcity they will eat their own foods to the last scrap and take pride always in a clean picked bone, but I never saw a bacon rind eaten, nor even shaved close in time of necessity. E. g., I gave bacon to Kunaluk's starving family last spring, he threw away nearly a fourth of the bacon with the rind. Most Eskimo wash religiously every morning. Usually, they soap profusely and leave it unrinsed on the face. Few of them seem to care if the water is dirty. In Ovayuak's house up to twenty would wash from the same water or until the dish was empty. Then the towel passes around, the same for months, and occasionally a nose blown into it incidentally. On my telling Pan. one day that certain water was dirty she said that was no matter, she was just going to wash the teapot inside w^th it. I am considered a sort of renegade because I insist on the teapots and my own cup remaining unwashed. I have often heard my natives tell strangers that with many good qualities I have the failing, differing thus from most white men, of caring little for cleanliness in my food utensils. That I prefer manifestly dirty dishes to apparently clean ones in an Eskimo house, is considered a curious eccentricity; some seem to think it is "put on." Pan. will sometimes wash a pot thoroughly with an ancient dish rag and then use the water to make soup. She will hook with the dirtiest finger to the bottom of a cup of tea or water to get a deer hair, of which she con- ceived me, in common with "all" white men to be in horror, in spite of my protests that I rather am fond of hair in my food. I have known no Eskimo to contract the white man's horror of hairs in food. As with us, white cloth garments must be washed, a dark one may be as dirty as it will. Songs. Eskimo songs seem to need explaining. Tan. knows a great many, most of them composed by Ovoyuak or others he knows. When he sings them he always explains after the song what it means — " what it says" (i. e., gox). Then he sings it over again after telling "what it says." May 4- West of Point De Witt Clinton. Sled. Billy improvised out of the bearskin a sled of a type new to me, except from hearsay. He merely laced it into a bag and attached the })ag by the head-skin to the rear end of our sled. On level snow its two hundred pound weight can be pulled by a small dog; on glare ice it is a bit sticky; in rough going its weight comes in play, of course. To have this behind the sled rather than on it may or may not increase the average hauling weight, but it is a convenient way, and I am afraid of two hundred pounds more on the sled, a breakdown would be serious. May 8. Near Crocker River. Songs. Pannigabluk sang today a song consisting chiefly of a repetition of atSyoa kenoyoa which she says she learned when young among the Unalit. This song has an irresistible 228 Anthropolnqica] Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, tendency to suggest the music of "The Darhng of the Gods" which I suppose to have been based on Japanese melo(hes. I have noticed before that she sings songs much resembhng the one In(Uan tune heard all along the Mackenzie. This, too, she says, is Unalit. May 9. Point Wise. Traces of People. At almost every place where we have camped or cooked we have found sticks, split pieces of sleds, etc., but all uniformly \ery old, any or all might have been half a century or more. Have found two bed planks from a snowhouse and about the last of April or first of May, a single stone tent ring. Tent might have been round or square, and about eight feet in diameter. On thinking aliout it, a log evi- dently chopped by white men seems rather mysterious. We found it May 7th. The lower and upper end were chopped with a sharp ax. The log was about fifty feet long, four inches.in diameter at upper end, ten inches in diameter at lower end. An eighteen inch section (stove length) of the lower end was almost chopped off in a manner rare even with Mackenzie Eskimo. The cuts might have been eight or ten years old, but the strange thing was that the marks seemed not to be at all much w^ater-worn. The snow was deep around the log, but I much regret now we did not make a search for chips, as the log seems to have been chopped in situ. It can hardly date back to Dr. Richardson's time. Today, at camp time, we came upon the first fresh signs of people, nu- merous choppings with a dull adze into pieces of wood, logs, etc., apparently to test their quality, as if searching for sled or bow material. Consequently everybody excited and in good spirits. Marks seem to be of last summer. One would suspect they were made by Victoria Island rather than Copper- mine people, for they were evidently in search of material for artifacts. May 10. Point Young. Stone Graves. Numerous adze choppings, some last summer or last fall, for a mile after leaving camp. No good tim- bers and few adze marks Pt. Young (?). Drumstick and other artifacts at Pt. Young, most recent, at least five years. Seven or eight stone graves seen on ridge by our camp here, ridge of broken rocks about twenty feet above sea and two hundred yards or more from it, parallel to beach. Old rock caches in numbers near beach, but no house signs. May 10. Point Wise. Traces of People. Adze choppings at camp here so new they can hardly be distinguished from our own choppings into the same stick. An old broken stone kettle found near camp on Point Wise. May 12. Point Hope. A Deserted Snowhouse Village. Saw tracks of two men with a sled getting wood from Point Hope. Camped tonight at a deserted snowhouse village. There are over forty houses, how many more I do not know; part of the village is completely snowed over under the cut- bank. All seem to have had skin or gut windows, the window directly 1914.] The Slefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 229 above the door, and the door usually facing south, though in some cases north. Every window about twenty by twenty inches. Were in one house, about seven and a half feet high inside, ten feet in diameter, and with a U- shaped bend along walls, facing door about fifteen inches high. This, Tan. says was the support for the bed boards laid across the house. Seal and ptarmigan leavings ; food plenty, as sealskins lying around, dogs would eat them if hungr}'. People evidently came for wood, from Victoria Island. Houses about two months old, or less. One sled trail fresh, not over two weeks. It comes from the east and follows main trail north towards Victoria Island. May 13. Following Trail of People toward Victoria Island. Started 2:30 P. M. on trail of people leading towards Victoria Island after moving Pannigabluk who did not want to go and then camped east about half mile to some wood. Main trail perhaps two months old and hard to follow, but one new sled track, about two weeks. At about 4:30, some eight miles from our camp came upon a village of houses, which showed by fish spears, etc., that people intended returning. From roof of one house saw with glasses three men, some three miles northwest, sealing evidently. Headed for nearest. Before getting to them, saw a deserted village about in our former course, 320° by compass, some five miles from one first seen. Getting near first man B. and I halted team while T. went ahead to try not to frighten him by all approaching. The man sat on his snow seat bent for- ward as if watching for seal, occasionally raising his eyes only not his head to T. When T. got within some paces man suddenly stood up, seized an iron snowknife that lay on the snow beside him, and poised himself as to receive an attack or to be ready to spring forward. This scared T. and he went no nearer, but started to talk. The other never smiled or paid atten- tion for some time repeating monotonously (about twenty times a minute, as often as one breathes) ha-ha-ha-ha, etc. Evidently he at first under- stood nothing of what T. said, but he soon began to. Then he began talking and T. did not understand. T., however, knew from Kalakutak (who was both with Mogg and Klinkenberg) a Victoria Island phrase; a-ll-a-nait-tu-ar- al'-u-it (they are good) which he then used, and showed by lifting his coat he had no knife. After about five minutes of parley Igxslirki laid down the knife and soon after began an examination of T.'s clothing, which seemed to satisfy him we were harmless he had probably heard of "calico" from Victoria Island people. He then told T. to tell B. and me to follow a little way behind while he went along a line of sealers to tell that we were alia- naituaraluit. We came near forgetting to remove our goggles. If we had, I don't think our first meeting with these people would have gone well. The \illage proved to be southwest about three miles, we had gone past it. 230 Anthropological Pa pern American Museum of Natural Hidory. [Vol. XIV, When we arrived within a hun(h*ed yards of the houses, they asked if we would camp near them, or a httle way off on account f)f the dogs. We preferred to be a httle A\ay off and us many as could get at it turned-to to make us a snowhouse. Victoria Island. Snowhouses. Snowhouse building differs here some- what from the Kittegaryuit who build in a regular spiral from the ground up and cut the snow usually outside the house. Here the snow is probed with a probe about four feet long to see if it is good quality down to the ice and the ice level. Blocks are then cut from the floor of the house first, and so as to have their transverse diameter ^•ertical. The Kittegaryuit are particular about the size of the blocks having them about uniform. These cut blocks any shape and size, some like a "four square" timber and anything from a foot to four feet long, some squares, some triangles, etc. The wall is not started in a spiral, our north wall was well up when someone else started the south wall equally irregularly. When the roof part is in construction the blocks are more regular in shape and of more uniform quality. There was not enough snow in the floor for much more than half the house, a few blocks were spoiled for the snow was not good. The house was about circular and about eight feet to the dome, diameter about ten feet. Outside to a height of about three feet, a second wall is built outside the first, about eighteen inches from it, and soft snow thrown in between. An oval shaped hallway about four feet high was built southwest and just east of it a rectangular shaped door cut about three feet high and two feet wide, through which snow blocks were passed in. When house was finished this was walled up and a new door arch-shaped about two and a half feet high, cut in from entry. The sleeping platform is built of the pieces that break and of new blocks passed in to front it, with loose snow shoveled over. In our case the platform is about eighteen inches, but I have seen it two and a half feet, in which case it consists of a horseshoe-shaped bench left or built around the wall and boards laid across. All the people seem to carry with them dwarf willow for bedding and their skins are polar bear, seal, and deer. The lamp is on a platform usually of two parallel bars two feet above the floor and resting one on a piece of snow on edge, the other on a bar at right angles also stuck through the wall. This is about eighteen inches above the lamp stand and from it is swung the pot, while above is a long narrow frame for drying socks, etc. In front of the lamp is a sideboard from twelve to twenty-four inches wide on which rest the ulu, dipper, pieces of meat to be cooked or that are cooling, parings of blubber trinmied off too fat meat, etc. When this gets pretty well lit- tered it is scrajjed clean, the litter being pushed over the back edge of it and falling in a pile about under the lamp. This is periodically gathered up for dog feed. 1914.] The Stejdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 231 When our house was built and the bedding in place, some half dozen men had sent to their various houses for contributions of cooked, or if there were none, uncooked food. May 14- General Characteristics of the People. The people, as Mogg's and Klinkenberg's people report from Victoria Island, are apparently of superior type. They look clean as compared with Baillie, for instance, and are models of good behavior. In fact, have manners towards strangers such as I do not suppose any white men have ever honored themselves by showing to any branch of the Eskimo race. There is interest, but no for- ward curiosity shown with regard to all the strange things we have and do ; no laughter at a dialect which must seem funny to them; the greatest courtesy in everything, — the best seal for the visitor; the first choice of food ; continual expressions of friendship ; no questions as to why we came. No spitting out and calling " bad" food we give them to taste, though all say " We are not used to it and do not like the taste." The same with smoking. " We do not expect people from far away to have no manners different from us, so go ahead and smoke," but several have had to leave the house when T. and B. smoked together. Continual invitations to come and eat though they are short of food, got three seals yesterday for thirty-eight people, an average catch, and continued bringing presents of blubber for our lamp and meat to cook, small pieces, for there is little to give. The snow today keeps melting in holes from sun, and each house is carefully patched as it appears, our clothes are carefully brushed of the least particle of snow in entering a house. One could particularize endlessly, but the sum is courtesy and good breeding with generous kindness. May 14. People at Cape Bexley. At Cape Bexley last winter there were three groups of people joined these, who hunt in summer invariably south from Point Hope " toward a lake that is like the sea for size," a Vic- toria Island group bound up the west coast this spring (they are supposed close now), and a Victoria Island group (now "far away") who belong off the mouth of the Napaktulik (Coppermine River). No one here has seen the Nagyuktogmiut, but they say they are excellent people, which encour- ages our party. There must have been over two hundred people at Bexley, to judge by the snowdiouses. May 14. Use of Copper. There is probably not a single copper im- plement here, though some ulus etc., are nailed with copper rivets. Iron Implements. Their iron comes from the " UalliiTmiut," whose location is not yet clear to me. They have iron pots, frying pans, snow knives, etc. The knives are all made by themselves, apparently. The language resembles Kittegaryuit more than any other dialect I know, yet some things remind more of westerners, as "hamma" in both for 232 Anthropohgical Papers American Museum of Naturnl History. [Vol. XIV, "tjamma" in Kittegaryuit. 1 have this advantage, too, that when B. or T. identifies a word, he at once changes its pronunciation into the form of his own dialect, while T try for the local. That I speak something like T. is shown by the fact that they were unanimously agreed T. was my younger brother, and that he was not full grown " because he is so much smaller than you, and brothers are often similar in size." Method of Wearing the Hair. The women do not braid or apparently tend the hair much, but I have seen only one woman (no man) who appar- ently is lousy. The men cut the entire top of the head close in a horizontal line a half inch above the ears, and W'Car the back hair loose. Both sexes use the hair frequently for toothpicks, in manner of " tooth- silk." This I have never seen before. Tattooing. The women, most or all, tattooed. The lines down the forehead are (the two) everywhere equidistant (about j in.) from each other, go half way down the nose, and are, the inner, one inch, the outer 1| inch, apart where they end at the roots of the hair. The only old woman here has her forehead bald an inch or two back, and the lines end where her hair formerly ended. The eye design varied. The cheek lines I have seen did not vary. They extend from nostrils slanting up to ear, meet at nose and are about quarter of an inch apart at ear. The chin lines I have seen varied from five to seven and eciuidistant in pairs. Clothing. The clothes are of the general style of those I got from Mogg (Victoria Island — Prince Albert Sound) but vary greatly, no two being quite alike. The swallowtail is usually to knee and never below calf of leg, and from six inches to fifteen inches wide. Some coats are cut about as our "frock" coats. One has almost a horizontal lower line and reaches almost to knees. The sleeves are generally short and the mittens not ciuite to w rist, leaving the wrist bare, all l)ut snowhouse-ljuikling gauntlets. The pants and coat barely meet in front, typically, and when one reaches arms above head the abdomen and chest are bare from an inch or so below the navels to above the nipples, for the coats are very badly cut at the shoulders, — for a man about a foot broader than the wearer. On some women's coats the shoulders are nearer the elbow than the shoulder. Outside their pants, the women wear two huge pairs of leggings fitting loose around the thigh suspended from a belt. They must fill with snow in a blizzard. Both sexes wear slippers OAcr leggings. Two men froze to death last winter, old men following the trail behind a party. It is a wonder half of them don't freeze to death. Tattooing. The most common number of chin lines is five. The lines are in general quarter of an inch apart at top and half an inch at bottom, being all curved but the middle one. They begin about one-half inch below 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 233 edge of lip mucous and end where they would disappear from the view of a person whose eyes were on a level with those of the wearer. The hand designs seem to be unlimited in number and form. A rather common one is an ISI-shaped figure across the back of the hand. The back of the hand is pretty well covered. The arrow-heads at the eye angles decrease in size backward from the eyes generally. The point of the arrows is somewhere between the line of the angle of the e^e and that of the upper brim of the lower eyelid when the eye is open. The cheek lines are parallel till about two inches from the nose, when they converge. In one case they do not meet. The nearest arrow point is about in the wrinkle, usually, of the angle when the eye is closed tight. The inner of the forehead lines meet and end abruptly at the line of the inner ends of the eyebrows; the outer meet just below angle of eyes at top of nose and are prolonged down, Y-fashion to the middle of the nose. Have seen no tattoo on men. Complexion. The complexion is a good deal darker than our two men, who have been much outdoors, though the ice may sunburn more than the shore. Some are as dark as half-blood negroes. Hands. The hands are typically Eskimo in general, but one woman (twenty-five or thirty years, approximately) has the long fingers that I have seen only in half-bloods. She has no other marked non-Eskimo characters. Term used for "white man." "Kablunak" is used here for "white man." This is the first locality I ha^•e been where it has an apparently respectable standing. The western people know it only as slang, on a par with taksipuk. Tan., who has ne\'er worked on a ship, did not understand it when used to him last niglit, and only when I explained it today when he did not yet get its meaning from their talk. Blubber Eating. The people here pare off the blubber from fresh seal meat too closely to suit me, or any of us. ^Yhen I asked for parings (pared off after boiling) they were surprised. I have not seen them eat any blubber or oil, but they evidently expected me to prefer the raw. I have seen no "sour" oil. All Eskimo I know (till these) set forward an oil pot, fresh, if there is no "sour" at every meal. Needles. The needles I have seen are all made by Eskimo. They are of the "glover's" type and vary in size from darning needles to "glovers No. 3." Some have a smaller eye than "glovers No. 3." Lamps. The largest lamp I have seen must be forty inches long and weigh fifty pounds. The largest pot is about thirty inches by eight and eight inches deep, flat bottom. Windows. Windows are not in use now, though all the abandoned houses we saw had them, both on shore and the two sea villages. Evidently they are to catch the faint light. Either ice was never used or else sledded awav to new houses. 234 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, "Modesty." Have seen no signs of the sexual hospitality which Mac- kenzie Eskimo have told me was part of ordinary courtesy to a guest. Skin Diseases. Several persons have sores now, mostly on the hands, though some on eyebrows, forehead, and one in the scalp. He has hand sores too. Where this man's hand sores have healed there are little eleva- tions, almost like warts and lighter color than rest of back of hand, about color of palm. The one now open is circular, like a conical pit, about one cm. wide and half a cm. deep. It is red, perhaps from plucking off scab, which seems a habit. It is not apparently a "running" sore, nor yet is it dry, about as moist as our lips. Names. Names are given here with a freedom not foimd to the present to the westward, even among people who have worked on ships. x\mong Kittegaryuit people, the name is never given you by the man himself when you ask him, but always by a bystander, here each as he first sees you says: "I am So-and-so; what is your name?" When we arrived here. Tan. had to repeat his name to every man as they went along the Ijne of sealers, each sealer giving his own name in return. After we got to the village, those who had not seen us before always gave their own names before asking ours. Manner of Speaking. The voice is kept much lower and the manner in telling stories, conversing, etc., is quieter than that of any group I know and contrasts especially with the Kittegaryuit. Opinions of other Groups. Contrary to all groups seen before, they speak favorably of all those people of whom they have any knowledge. They seem to have no knowledge of Avoak or Kittegaryuit. Of the Itkilliks they know, but they say "We do not know what sort of people they are, for we have never seen them." May 15. Dancing. Dance house built today in our honor. The dance house has its floor on ice level, is about fifteen feet in diameter and eight feet high. It is full six feet in height a foot from the wall, i. e., the roof very flat. In building it, two temporary doors were used on opposite sides. As w'ith all houses, the door faces south. The hallway is about half the usual length, about five feet. The door is a trifle higher than ordi- nary. There are no seats or benches along walls. People stand in complete circle, some boys in the front row, " so they can see." All the men and about half the women present. No special place for the women. A circle about five feet in diameter left for the dancer in center. There was no drum, but their bewailing its absence showed they ordinarily use it. They said: "We almost never dance. We have no drums (utii more." This would imply the dancing on decline. The dance now was entirely perhaps at Billy's instance. Most of the dancers assumed being \ery tired or o\-ercome with languor from heat, they cast their eyes down and tlie hand dangled lifeless at the 1914.] The Stcfdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 235 wrist. They sang in general with the chorus, there were words to three- fourths of the song and in some eases the dancer used words while others accompanied him without words; in other cases he ailaya'd while others used words; in still others he danced silently while others sang. In a half dozen cases the singer made a mistake, used words when he should not have joined the words of the chorus, etc. In each case he was "jogged" by one or another, and one who failed to hear first correction was tapped on the shoulder to draw his attention. This was all done in a jocular wa}', each mistake causing laughter, corrections gi\en and received about with same spirit as in a "set" at a country dance. One dancer Iglixsirk, danced about in Kittegaryuit "doctor" style. His movements quick and often violent, his facial expressions at times dia- bolical, his shouts earsplitting and evidently intended to frighten. At intervals he would suddenly face some one and ask: "Who am I?" This always of one of us visitors. " Am I a good man?" etc. (il-yer-a-nait-tok). Occasionally, however, he dropped the dance manner and smiled as pleas- antly as his Mephistophelian face allowed. At a set point in his song, every- one joined him in a half dozen movements bending at hips and knees. Both my own knowledge and Tan.'s verdict show this performance to be one not essentially different from the Mackenzie River type. Trip to Victoria Island. After the dance we had supper of seal meat and blood soup and then started in search of the Victoria Island party that was supposed to be near. One man, I can never remember his name, one of the prominent men, came along, saying, "When you come near, I will run ahead as a herald (kivrarnlaktuna) and tell them you are good (harmless, friendly ilyeranaktusi) . " Leaving at 9 P. M. " We always travel at night in the spring," our companion said. He did not want to start earlier than we did. We first struck east about six miles when we found a deserted camp. The trail from here led north about five miles to another abandoned camp about a week old. Here the trail was a trifle north of west about five miles to the present camp (four houses, three with sealskin roofs, one all snow) which lies about two miles east of Tulugak some ten yards from shore on a low bit of coast. We had therefore traveled in a U curve. When a half mile off we stopped the sled and our friend ran to the houses. He darted into one after the other, and in about two or three minutes the men began to come out. After a few words, all started looking to the dogs, securing those not already tied. Then a shout was raised for us to come, and our friend came running to meet us. When about two hundred yards off the village, men and boys, all in line (not in file) started slowly forward to meet us, holding their hands aboA'e their heads and calling out at intervals, " il-ver-a-nait-tu-ru " "nam-nak-tu-rut," a word not heard among the 23G Anthropological Papers American Museum oj Natural History. [Vol. XIV» Staypleton Bay people "We arc nuule glad by your coming," etc. AVhen near, we each were asked to pass along the line from our right to left. i\s we came opposite each in turn he gave his name and we then repeated ours. This was done even with boys not over eight years, though the l)oyswere fallen out of line before the introductions and being introduced to them seemed more or less optional, A snowhouse was then built in the Staypleton manner with the door south and we cooked some milk. They had all been asleep and the seal meat frozen, so they said they would not be cjuite ready yet. We were then taken each to a separate house, where we introduced oin-sel\es to the women, they gixing name first. The meat was cooked, we had a sort of midniglit sup])(M-. Had arri\('d '.] A. M. It was now () A. M. and then ;ill went to sleep again. Relations with Other People. There is h\ing here a man belonging to- the Nagyuktogmiut. Several of them have brothers and sisters living now with the Staypleton group. They ha\e, at present at least, less to do with people along the west coast, the first of whom are now supposed to be, as- they habitually are, on the ice of Prince Albert Land. These will hunt the summer to the north of the Sound. With the group that have gone east this spring and belong off the (^oppermine, they have frequent relations. Knowledge of Land, ^'ictoria Island People. This group has names for all points and rivers on the mainhind to (/'ape Ly(Mi, but not beyond. They also name several points on Panks Island (inchuHng Nelson Head?). Banks- Lsland, they say, is uninhabited, though the Prince Albert Sound people occasionally sjxMid the summer there, crossing by sled in spring and fall. Cooking. There seems to be very little uncooked meat eaten. I huve seen two cases among Staypleton people of a single man at end of a meal asking for a piece of frozen meat because he had not had enough cooked meat. Tan. has seen one meal where frozen meat formed "a covu'se."' Today our dogs were fed cooked meat, " For," they said, "meat frozen hard is not good for a dog." May 17 . Food. Had my first meal of frozen meat today, an emergency one when our guide came into a house. There nuist be a meal whenever one of us visitors goes into a house. Two men present refused to join, a thing I never saw with boiled seal. 1 liked it better than frozen deer. When a trifle high I prefer it raw to cooked. Clothing. Clothing here same as at Staypleton. Mittens have hair in on palm and thumb. Long blouses of seal or deer slipped on when wind blows or build a snowhouse. Tails vary in length from middle thigh to middle calf, and in width from six to fourteen inches. Some meet body (waist) of coat at right angles, are of equal width all the way; some curved as much as to middle of each side of coat. Deer's ears form ventilating 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 237 holes to hood. There is a sHt about half inch into tip of each ear, possibly ceremonial, on killinji; deer. Kayaks and Umiaks. Kayaks and umiaks are not made now by either Haneragmiut or Akuliakattagmiut, though some have had kayaks in recent years who now have none. Use of Bows and Arrows. They do not spear deer but shoot them witli bows. Billy was mistaken yesterday about Koiiolttok's aktlak. He told me today he killed him, with arrows only. This aktlak he told me today was a very light color, yellow, ({iiite different from any I have seen killed, though similar to one we use for tent door and I got from Capt. Pedersen at Barrow, from Icy Cape, if T remember right. May 18. Counting. I have heard of Flskimo being unable to count beyond six, but this is my first meeting with that fact. There are seventeen people here and after careful conference they showed me on the fingers of three hands, do not use feet as Mackenzie do, there were fourteen. They had no name for this numlier and on being pressed, none could count be- yonfl six. A-tau-hirk, ma'l-lrok, plil-a-hsut, hi-ta-mat, ta(d)l-li-mat, arr- vin-nran. A half hour of trying by Billy and me coidd not induce them to count at all, unless objects were in question, as our dogs, or theirs, the size of their families, etc. They would not count their fingers, deeming it useless, I suppose, their number is well know^n. Entering a house, everyone except members of the family utters a series of sharp exclamations from the time he stoops to enter the alleyw'ay till his head is inside the door proper. The first to come to our house each morning always comes singing loudly; also, when no visitors known to be with us, while yet at a distance. Hanirkarrmiut Houses. Skin roofs and snow walls are used in the spring by the Haneragmiut. Have been in use since they came ashore here some eight or ten days ago. There is a ridge pole some three feet shorter than the long diameter of a slightly oval house, supported on X sticks and lashed to them. These sticks incline a little, in pairs, toward the center of the house. The rest of the rafters, of which the ice pick is always one, are either from the wall to the ridge pole, or from w^all to the X sticks, whose end sometimes, and sometimes not, sticks out of a hole in the roof. There are generally three rafters from w\all to X sticks, the middle being to the crotch. The tents are preferably of deerskin but only one here is wholly of deer. One has a gable of aklak and another is mostly of sealskins, dried, laid shingle fashion. The hair is turned in. In summer they use tents similar to the house roofs now in use. One man here has not enough skins yet, and still uses a snow roof, which is poor now, as the weather is no longer cold. 238 Anlkropological Papers American Museum of Natunil Hislnrij. [Vol. XIV, Use of Iron Implements. Iron implciuents are universal here as with the Akfiliakattaginiut. These they say come from the Uallirrmiiit, or Uallinergmiut, who wintered to the north, beyond the Kafihirryuarrmiut in a huge two-masted umiak. They do not seem to identify these with kahhma'k who are probably known only by hearsay from the east, imless the middle-century explorers are rememl)ered as such, but of memory of them I find no trace. I cannot make sure whether most come from Klinken- berg or Mogg, though I recognize, I believe, some of ^Nlogg's canned beef tins. None of the Haneragmiut saw either ship, and I am not clear if they realize there w-as a ship more than one winter. Misinformation concerning Knowledge of Ships. Billy misunderstood the other day that a woman who was telling about the two-masted uuiiak had been to one of the ships. On close inquiry we find neither she nor any other of them was, but they ha\'e all their information from the Kafihirryu- arrmiut, some of whom were at the ship. It seems the Kaiihirryuarrmiut seldom come down here, they probably made a trade expedition after meet- ing the ships, who, as is whaler habit, immediately glutted the natural market, expecting later, I suppose, to create an artificial one for tobacco, matches, firearms, flour, and perhaps whiske^^ Outside Influence on Eskimo. Outside influences seem to be as slight and indirect here, therefore, as one can find among the Eskimo or perhaps anywhere in the world. This would be a good place to stop therefore, and we might do so. People to the East. The Puiplirmiut are said to be on the south shore of Victoria Island this side the Nagyuktogmiut, and both are said to be numerous. Then there are (accoimt of Hanbury) the group from Bloody Fall to Krusenstern, the people (Hanbury) of Gray's Bay, and the ones seen by Lieut. Hansen at the southeast corner of Victoria Island, and probably Victoria Island people west of these on south coast and possibly some in the islands of Coronation Gulf besides those of whom we have heard. All of these are about equally untouched, and the Akuliakattagmiut are on our home road to be easily seen again. May 19. Dogs. Dogs are not numerous. Most people have two dogs and the largest number I know of is four. They are on an average about fifty pounds if in flesh but are rather thin now, though not skinny. They seem to get nothing but bones and blubber and not mucli of the latter, judg- ing by how greedily they eat when fed, a dog soon is satiated with blubber. At Haneragmiut there were fourteen dogs to five families. Here I ha\e not been able to count them. The color is generally black with light spots over eyes, a stripe on breast and belly and often white iiairs in under sid(> of tail, with white tips. But there are many other colors from roanish gray to black; would pass for mongrel farm dogs, any of them. 1914 ] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 239 Western People. One woman says her mother was from far west along the coast of the mainland, this side Lyon somewhere, I suppose. Starvation. Pan. has heard of two people who starved to death "ai- pani" "when there were no seals in the winter," Two old men froze to death this winter, possibly we suspect, partly from hunger. An Accident. A man here, Kudlark, when shooting at deer last summer, shot past accidentally and killed his younger brother, an adopted son of Aialuk (the Aialuk living with Akuliak). Haneragmiut. B. also misunderstood that one of Haneragmiut was originally from the Nagyuktogmiut. He had not even been to their country. Akuliakattagmiut at Cape Bexley. Left Akuliakattagmiut camp at 4 : 45 P. M. and got to our camp about 6 P. M. Their camp is about eight miles from the northwest corner of the Cape Bexley peninsula (the land one reaches first from Point Hope) and bears about 300° magnetic. Since leaving shore, some time after the sun came back, they have had three camps, the first about five miles east of the present, and the other some four miles farther north and half way between first and present camps, apex of isosceles triangle. Cephalic Measurements. Cephalic measurements taken of all women when they came for present of needles and most of the grown men. No boys came at my call for all the village, and I did not want to press it. They all seemed restless after novelty of first few measurements wore off, so I did not venture to try their patience on stature, etc. Photos of group wor- ried them too, so took no individuals. May 20. Houses. At Hanerak, four to five families and seventeen people; among Ak. thirteen families and 38 (?) people. Three with skin roof at H. No skin roofs used yet by Ak. Perhaps difference due to fact H. have moved ashore. Contact with Explorers. What I know and what they know leads me to think as they think, that neither they nor their ancestors (Akuliakattag- miut or Haneragmiut) have come in contact with any of the middle-century explorers. I think it worth while therefore to give more space than already given to a description of their manners, etc. When I presented some needles to the women they all wanted to pay. This I declined on the ground our sled was too heavily loaded already (as it is) ; I told them that when we go home I should be glad of anything they give me. Pan. and Tan. had, however, received while B. and I were in Victoria Island several presents of sealskin, bootsoles, slippers, etc. Their interest in us continued to our leaving, though only the men (all I think) came to see us off, helped load the sled, etc. B. and T. had explained when people parted as good friends they always shook hands, so of course it was up to 240 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, me to shake hands too. I regret having been forced to plant here the seed of this to them thoroughly foreign custom. Didiculty in obtaining Information. We had great trouble in getting any information out of them. They are far from garrulous. Our many inquiries as to where the Nagyuktogmiut are and how to be found, brought an invariable "We do not know, we never were there." It was an accident we found out that three of them did know the way by winter, straight down the middle of the strait. Either these had not been present when we in- quired, or they had been silent when those who did not know spoke up, I think the latter is the fact. The others must have known too, by hearsay, but in every case, we got, "We do not know" as an answer when they had not themselves actually seen the thing, except information as to their an- cestors. This character I have often noted in Eskimo to the west, but never so marked as here. They will also agree with you in anything. After telling us in a body of three islands known as "the hares" (okalliit) they at once agreed with Pan. who said they were only two in number as a woman had told her who had been there. This is a place where people habitually cross the strait, and no doubt many knew positively how many there are, but they immediately agreed with Pan. that there were only two. My chart shows three islands (Liston and Sutton) and I have no doubt there are three. Similarly, after telling B. that the Nagyuktogmiut consider the Itkillik bad people, they at once agreed with him when he said they were very good people. They had previously said to me " We do not know what sort of people they are, for we do not know them." General Characteristics. While they probably once had an organic connection with the people towards Cape Lyon (and one indeed has a mother from "far west") their present movements seem to be restricted to less than fifty miles of coast and to the strait ice just north of them. Some spend an occasional summer in Victoria Island with the Haneragmiut or the Puiplirmiut farther east. This is a very confined sphere. Perhaps this has had a strong influence. At any rate, after allowing for their not well understanding our speech, I am inclined to consider them somewhat less intelligent in general than any I have before seen. Eskimo everywhere are little interested in the outside world; these show practically none. But as their intelligence is less, so their general kindliness and good breeding is far beyond anything I have before seen. Of course, I have seen only "civilized" and mostly christianized people heretofore. Their generosity was always prominent, and the expression of it was monotonous. Perhaps because of difficulty of conversing and a distaste for remaining silent, considering it impolite they kept constantly repeating "We hope you are having enough to eat." "We want you to be content 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedilion. 241 (not lonesome) while with us. We are therefore trying to feed you well, for a man with a full stomach is seldom discontented. He is well off who is well fed," etc. These were endlessly repeated. I believe some of their phrases have a status similar to our proverbs, for their phraseology was almost never, if ever varied. Whenever one of these sentences was uttered, most or all present acclaimed with " i-yarr-li," which we do not understand exactly, but which clearly is akin to our "amen," "so it is," "so be it." When we left we took with us a number of small pieces of meat, presents, and their last words were inquiries if it was enough and urging us to speak up if we wanted more. It has been noted that they have little themselves, especially since they have neglected sealing largely since we first came. When we were not five miles off they were spread all over the ice, hunting in earnest for the first time since we came. ]VIodesty is not among their conspicuous virtues, however, for as often as they expressed friendliness (which was about every five minutes) they would say "ilyiranaitturut" "koyanakturut," "nagoyurut tamapta" and when they spoke of other groups, " They are excellent people, just as good people as we are." They are as monotonous in this self-praise as in their good wishes to us, etc. It is to be noted, however, that the connotation of these phrases is not so much that they are an excellent, superior people, as that they are harmless, friendly, not to be distrusted. A phrase much used by the Haneragmiut and occasionally by the Akuliakattagmiut is " naunait- turut" which literally, nellunait turut, we are easily seen, easily discerned from afar, but which I suppose denotes "easy to see through," "not given to underhand and secret practices," "not treacherous," "really as we appear." Treatment of Dogs. Their kindness to their dogs, a uniform trait I believe of all un-influenced Eskimo, is even greater than I have ever seen before. One of the dogs will every few minutes come and stand with his head in the doorway. He invariably gets a bone or piece of blubber. They can spare no meat now, but they do not clean-pick bones as western Eskimo do, and if someone tries to drive him off, another member of the family will protest "You cannot expect a hungry dog not to beg for food," " Drive him away with a bone and not a stick," etc. The dogs wear their harness all the time, and when they fight they are not beaten apart, as is the custom farther west, but pulled apart by the harness, which seems to be left on for this purpose. I saw one dog struck with a small stick, but he was an in- \'eterate trouble breeder. Habits of Cleanliness. Measuring their heads, I saw neither lice not nit, though this gave me a good chance to see any there wxre. I do not think them quite free, however, as I saw one or two women feeling for some such thing inside their coats. They were never successful in their search. 242 Anthropological Papers American Musciun of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, which bad luck seldom attends a similar quest in the Mackenzie. They probably never wash but I know from experience one gets no dirtier after the first few days. Attitude toward being Measured and Photographed. They showed no fear of head measurements and of being photographed, at first. But B. officiously explained the photo process which seemed to make them uneasy and I dared not go beyond two group pictures, for we expect to have con- siderable to do with these people later. They made no inquiry as to the nature of my operations in photographing them, possibly not to show igno- rance, or perhaps for some other reason. B.'s explanation was gratuitous. Use of Bows. Wanting to see them shoot with bows, I thought it a happy introduction to the subject to show them how to shoot. I therefore set up a small stick at one hundred yards and fired at it. Two of the apparently prominent men went with me at my call for volunteers to see the effect of the shot. Unfortunately, I had missed and wanted to shoot again, but this they earnestly begged I should not do, saying they were unused to such things. I regretted my foolishness in starting this, but seeing it was started I thought it better to show we occasionally did hit, and B. and I each fired once, both hitting. The repetition seemed to rather reassure them. Two bows were then brought out at our request. The range seems to be about one hundred yards and at twenty-five yards they hit within a foot of the target "bulls eye" about four out of five times. Doubtless these two were the best bow men. Evidently the bow is a more satisfactory weapon for deer than I had supposed, yet it surprised me that they should have given up the method of spearing, which has everywhere, so far as I know, been the mainstay of deer hunting. Clothing. Only a few of them have really good deerskin clothes and some help themselves out with seal and squirrel, seal long blouses and squirrel pants. Condition of the Houses. Their houses have no bad smell noticeable to me. They doubtless smell somewhat of seal oil, but so do our houses smell of the things we eat and use, and we don't consider them therefore vile. They are very careful that their lamps are trimmed and I have not yet seen a snow roof with traces of lampblack e\ident, and it would soon show on snow, ours was fairly black in a week, but then we don't understand lamps, except Tannaumirk. Use of Stone Lamps and Pots. The lamp and stone pot are a pretty satisfactory cooking apparatus. A lamp takes perhaps double the time of a "primus" to boil water, but it can be left for hours unattended, and if one wished (but this they probably never do) one could lea\'e a pot on going to sleep and find boiling water in the morning. It seemed to me those who 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Andersoii Expedition. 243 used stone pots took less time in cooking than those who had iron or tin ones (over half of them), but this is perhaps because the stone ones are long to fit the lamp fllame, the iron ones are round and therefore with less heating surface. Cooking. I have heard of Eskimo merely warming meat to eat it. These always comment unfavorably on a piece that is a trifle rare and I have not seen one eaten that would not be considered "medium" or "well done" if a beefsteak in a grillroom. In fact I have never seen Eskimo eat partly cooked meat, they usually cook well. Besides, I have tried boiling seal more than the Eskimo do and found it toughened the meat, unless you boil it an hour or so, when it softens again but has lost its best flavor. I prefer meat put unfrozen in cold water and taken out about five minutes after the water boils. At this season of the year I much prefer seal to deer meat, if fresh. At meals the couple of the house and anyone else who cares to, usually an old or middle-aged man, sit on the edge of the bed platform with their feet hanging over; younger visitors stand, as do the children who typically come in from play to eat and dart out again when done. When the meat is considered cooked, the woman takes it out of the pot, using a handle-less musk-ox horn dipper in her right hand and the fingers of the left hand. The pieces are put on the sideboard in front of the lamp and left to cool. They are occasionally felt of, and when comfortably cool to the hand, the woman takes a piece, squeezes it between her two hands to squeeze out any water that might drop on the floor or one's clothes, rubs off the blood (seal blood coagulates in the water in grains and thickly covers each piece of meat as it is taken out). Then the woman hands out the pieces. In our case, who were guests of especial honor, the husband took the piece intended for us, usually felt of it and the other pieces to see if it was really the best, squeezed it again and rubbed it to make it drier, and then handed it to us, saying their meat was not much good, but this was about the best piece. In all cases blubber was carefully trimmed off, until thej' found that I liked to have some left on mine. Most of the people hold the meat in both hands and do not use a knife; some use an ulu, eating in the ordinary Eskimo fashion, biting into the meat and then cutting just in front of the teeth. After eating the hands are wiped on a birdskin. I have seen ptarmigan, gull, and swan used. Then any fragments that have dropped on the floor are scraped under the table with an ulu. Ceremonials or Charms. Of ceremonials I saw no trace, nor of charms, though they probably have both. Tan. took a leather thong worn o\'er shoulder and under arm across the breast and back, to be a charm, but I think it was to carry the knife. It is worn between the two coats. 244 Anlhrnpolngical Papers American Museum of NaturnJ Ilislory. [Vol XIV, Stories and Cat's Cradles. They told Tan. they told stories and did cat's cradles only during the dark days. This T. says is as formerly it was at Kittegaryuit. Skin Dressing. Sealskin is dressed in the ordinary Eskimo style: black for water boots and white (nelhiak) for soles and ornamental work. The skins arc dried on snow walls, perpendicular and facing south, being pegged on with small pegs. At Haneragmiut I saw skins being dried on the north side of these walls, not for want of room on the south side, for the wall that had skins on its north side had none on its south side. What the difference of result is I do not know. Their ugrug lines were cut about one-third of an inch wide which is the ordinary Eskimo width. All of us see them here for the first time white. They have been sun-dried and then most of the hair scraped off with a knife. The style west is to rot off the hair making the skin yellow. May 21. Iron and Copper Implements. The Akuliakattagmiut and Haneragmiut all ha\'e iron snow knives, though one Akuliakattagmiut has a copper one too. PAX the women have iron ulus, only one has a copper one, but she has also five iron ones. They have whittling knives, crooked knives, and needles, all of steel. Their tools are all sharp. Clothing. Pan. says their sewing of water boots is to her mind better than Kittegaryuit or Avoak (Baillie). They have seal coats against rain, they say, but these I did not see. Stone Pots and Lamps. Their stone pots, they say, are not very costly, -did not find out about lamps, though they are probably more valued. Snow Knives and Ice Picks. One man had bought a good snow knife for a bow\ Must have good ice picks, one Akuliakattagmiut has a copper one. Fishing. They use ice picks for fishing when first they move inland. The fishing is chiefly by spear, a polar bear tooth is "jigged" on a string and the fish speared when they approach. Bows. One bow measured was four feet one inch from tip to tip, straight. They are not unstrung in winter. They are of three pieces, of drift spruce, backed with deer leg sinew. Bow about two inches wide and one-half to three-quarters of an inch thick. String of leg sinew, is one- eighth inch in diameter. Seal Spears. One seal spear is four feet eleven inches over all, the loose piece fifteen inches. Spear had iron point, called (with bone it is set in) natilak; the bone into which loose piece fits (on handle), katka, keyukta; the wooden feeler put in seal hole to show seal's approach, kaup'kota; bone cross piece at end of string attached, i ilark. The whole seal spear, natjirkslun, the ordinary name for seal is ox6\ ik. Turarxiok is the ugrug line attached to the spear to hold seal. 1914.] The Stefdnsson- Anderson Expedition. 245 Sleds. The sleds are not of the short Mackenzie and BailHe type though Prince Albert sleds said by Mogg to be short as early Mackenzie. All the old sled pieces we found on Parry and one or two found east of Lyon were the short type. One measured, an average one, was ten feet one inch long, nineteen inches wide, inside measure, about ten inches high, with eight cross-pieces lashed on. They are rudely made of driftwood, and as many were new, I conclude they are frequently discarded and new ones made. Shoeing of moss and ice. I did not want to ask to see it, as all sleds carefully buried to within about two inches of top, to protect ice runners from chance thaw. Their trails leading on rough and glare ice often show the shoeing substantial, no pains taken to avoid glare spots, apparently. Food. Seal heads are cooked and the meat eaten, but the bones only slightly broken to take out brain. Heads protected from dogs. At a deserted village I found a pile of some thirty heads that showed no dog gnawing though some meat on all, not clean picked, as bones seldom are here. Houses. The lamp platform in most houses is a piece of wood split from the root of a large drift log. This splitting is done with numerous small wooden wedges. The platform resting on a cake of snow, as described some days ago, is after all, on visiting more houses, found to be very rare. The houses are all high enough to stand upright in. The door faces the south. The woman sits on the edge of bed at side board, over edge of which is the lamp. To her right is the man's seat and to her right the guest or older visitors. Younger visitors stand. In one case two houses had a third, without door to the outside, between them. I was never invited into one of these houses, and none of us ever entered houses uninvited. Clothing. A cap of fawnskin with ear flaps and band under chin is used in summer against mosquitoes. The coat is typically swallow-tail, length vary- ing from middle thigh to middle calf, and width from six to fifteen inches. All borders, seams, edges, are reinforced with a strip one-eighth to one- quarter inch of hairless skin inside and about one-quarter inch in from edge. Some coats are one color, some have much fancy work in black and white (all deerskin), mostly lines and rectangles. No fancy work on inner coats. Some outer coats have thongs hanging here and there usually in pairs. Most have a bone button (from twenty-five to fifty cent piece size) on small of back of coat. Some buttons oval or lozenge-shaped. Some coats not swallow-tailed; some of deer, but most of seal (no swallow-tails of seal) and come to about the knee. They are put on for snowhouse-making and in blizzard. The lower edge suggests that the skin was not trimmed at all below, the coat being as long as the skin allowed, and showing all the flaps and irregularities. The shoulders of these coats about fit the man, but the 246 Anthrnpologiml Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, swallow-tails, especially the outer, have exaggerated military shoulders, some being fully six inches too wide at shoulders, shoulders of coat sticking three or four inches he^yond shoulders of wearer, and often therefore sagging down. The exaggerated shoulders and the swallow-tail give the men a triangular back figure. Ears seem never cut off skins. I have seen them on women's boots, men's pants in front about each side the navel, and on the shoidders of a man's inner coat, the ear sticking inwards. Each ear forms a hole in the garment, at least in the hoods. The ears of the hood sticking out give at a distance an appearance not unlike the mortar boards of academic institu- tions. Inner coat has hair in; outer, hair out. Outer coat usually, but not always, thicker than inner. Tails of both outer and inner coat seldom of quite the same cut. Women's coats in general similar to men's, except that ears are not prominent on hood, but hood large and pear-shaped, hanging back on shoulder. Children are not carried in hood, but inside coats on back, as Mackenzie River. Trousers are plain or ornamented with white skin and pendant strings. They come well above navel, much higher than farther west, and reach three inches below knee. They are loose at knee, not tied. The women's trousers are ornamented from the middle of side to middle of back of each thigh with vertical strips of dark and white deerskin. Each strip is wide at top and tapers down, or witlest, perhaps about ten inches from top. Boots. I had no chance to examine complete footgear. They wear two or more pairs of socks coming to knee inside pants, and o\'er these a slipper of nelhiak (white) sealskin drawn tight just below the ankle. Wom- en's slippers similar, but leggings come to hips, about as our own water boots do, and fit very loosely. They are suspended from a Ijelt. Sleeping Bags. Saw no sleeping bags nor sewn-up deerskin blankets, but they may have either or both. Clothing. Haneragmiut have about same clothes as Akuliakattagmiut, but deerskins seem rather more abundant. The shoulders of their coats also somewhat less exaggerated. Cat's Cradles. T had Tan. make all the cat's cradles he knew, three, to see if they knew their names. They recognized them as (1) Terrerantak, (2) axrar'iuk, (3) marhikto'ryuk, which T. says was as they are named at Kittegaryuit. The Akuliakattagmiut then made for us these same three, and also (4) imirtaktar'ryuk, (5) tukto'ryuk (Kittegarj'uit, tilk-tu), (0) pihyilgyuk (Kittegaryuit, pitjugiitjlak), (7) kannaheryuk (not recognized by Tan. till named and then as kannaySk), (S) rdv'pik (not recognized till named, then as fikpik), (9) ulfuirulik (Kittegaryuit, aiyarak). All agreed 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 247 this was all any of them knew. Many did not know how to make all, but all apparently knew some. The string passed from a young to an older man and then to a middle-aged man before list was complete. T. said he did not recognize some because he does not happen to know how to make them, but insists all are "just the same" as at Kittegaryuit. May 22. Point Cockburn. Introductions. Each man of Akuliakat- tagmiut or Haneragmiut usually explained the meaning of his name or made some pun on it at time of introduction. This I took to be to help us re- member the name. Each seemed to have a stock phrase, for some must have had a dozen occasions to repeat their names and always used some set accompaniment. Some made no comments on their names after first introduction, and a few not even then, simply repeating the name two or three times. May 23. Coronation Gulf. Deserted Village. Started 10: 45. Had seen from camp before others woke up what appeared to me a snowhouse window just south of the two little islands (north end of northern one 46° from camp, south end of southern one, 50°) . Had previously determined to cross to Victoria Island south of Listen and Sutton Islands to look for the trail of the people who wintered with the Akuliakattagmiut as Pan. claims a woman told her that they always travel along the Victoria Island coast after passing these islands. Either Pan. misunderstood or else the woman did not know, as this snowhouse soon proved to be one of seven and the trail lead about 80° or 85° towards mainland, and this must be the party in question. Followed trail till 10 P. ]M. and passed three camps after the first one, four in all. Trail about two weeks old. They used snowhouses at first camp and tents at others. Stopped to rest every two or three miles and always adzed or whittled wood at each resting place. "Windows" in Deserted Snowhouses. The "windows" I have spoken of in previous entries are, not windows, but holes cut in the snow wall to pass out bedding, etc., at time of breaking camp, to save carrying through alleyway. The hole is naturally over or near the door, as the woman could most easily stand there passing things out. It is never to the left of the door, but rather often to the right of it, because, no doubt, lamp occupies left of door. May 24. The Akuliakattagmiut. Started 11 A. M. and at 1:15 P. M. after several stops came to place where trail led inland. This is not at a river mouth proper, but at a tiny inlet at the bottom of a V-shaped small bay. There are gravel bars just outside this inlet, a few j^ards off. Its bearing is 312° from the east (or north) end of the farthest east (or north) of the Liston-Sutton group and 0° from the west end of Lambert Island. The trail led about 140° over several small ridges about three miles to where 248 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, we found two tents and seven people. The other sleds had moved farther on. There were two men, three women, and two boys. They had fish only for food and say that have never had quite enough to eat since they came. They, however, at once presented us with about ten pounds of boiled salmon trout. They consider themselves Akuliakattagmiut though they often hunt. here, Nuaho'nirk. A young woman whose child died soon after birth a few days ago has a tiny tent to herself. Names. A boy is named "Nyer" which is said to be the name of a kablunak who lives far away by the sea ; can't find out just where. We met the same name in a woman of the Akuliakattagmiut, but it was not explained to us. Songs. They have songs which they sang for us which they say their ancestors got from the Uallirnergmiut very long ago. They were surprised to find neither T. or B. knew them. Dress. The dress in general is the same as Akuliakattagmiut but two of the three women have a twelve inch long, one and a half inch wide tail in front also. An old woman wears a man's sealskin coat. They Avear more seal than others seen and two women have squirrel skin pants. Though only women at home they seemed far less timid than others seen. A woman who had been fishing stopped on her way home to wait for us a half mile from their camp. Nevertheless, w^e halted and sent Pan. ahead to con- fer. We then pitched camp about a hundred yards west of them on the ice. Method of wearing the Hair. Brown hairs in eyebrows and moustache (no beard) of both men. Hair cut of men Akuliakattagmiut. Two men and one boy have front hair braided, two small braids, apparently to keep it out of eyes. One woman and ten year old boy have back hair wound in two bundles with hairless thong. House furnishings much as Akidiakattagmiut. The^^ have sledded some wood, for fuel, which they burn with blubber, of which they say they have 'plenty. They gave us both for cooking. General Characteristics. This group appears to better advantage than others seen, seem more intelligent, answer questions readily, seem far better informed about their neighbors. May 25. Skin scrapers. They say they never had skin scrapers of copper or iron, but only horn and white and brown bear bones. We saw metal scrapers among the Akuliakattagmiut, but they may have learned the making of them indirectly from the Klinkenberg or Mogg ships' natives. Clothing. Muskrats are killed inland here, but flesh never eaten and skins never used for clothes, "for we never learned to use them." The tails are sometimes worn as jjendants on clothes, as ornaments or charms. 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 249 The Puiplirmiut. The PuipHrmiut are said to be inUxnd in Victoria Island from the Liston-Sutton group of isUmds. Have just moved in they think. They are called more numerous than the Akuliakattagmiut by a good deal. They call the Indians, irkslnaktut, bad, or rather, to be feared. Skin Diseases. Amirailak has some sores on one leg (did not see them) and he showed me scars of sores from sole to knee open last winter. Size ten cents to dollar and leg as a whole swollen, slightly swollen now. Sores chiefly or only on feet. He is the father of the baby died at birth a few days ago. The first case of anyone asking for anything was that of a woman today who asked for a spoon for her boy who asked her for it. We refused as we have only one each. They seem well acquainted with the Nagyuktogmiut Igli^xirk and say he has told much of kablunat. One of Hanbury's natives (a talkative one, according to Amundsen's account, Amundsen's " Atan- gala") was left with Iglfxirk while sick and probably told of the whaler "Lords Bountiful" in Hudson Bay, so this may account for the begging as well as for greater inquisitiveness than before. They are evidently not nearly so untouched by outside influences as the Akuliakattagmiut, though they call themselves the same people. Perhaps they are a division of the Akuliakattagmiut who have long acted as intermediaries between them and those farther east. May 26. The Kabluna. The kabluna Njer, Ner, or, Nerk, as variously pronounced remains a mystery. Arr. told me he was an excellent man, "just like us." I could get no idea of where he lived "by the sea," but not by the Haneragmiut, Kanhirmiut, or any group whose name I knew. He was "lost" (a word used here of people who freeze or starve to death on trail or out hunting) "and when he was lost we gave his name to children." Arr. also has a dog named Ner, after the kablunak. I gather he must have been lost over twenty years ago, because the Nyer of the Akuliakat- tagmiut can certainly not be under twenty, and the Nyer here, though only about eight was named after Mukharak's son (?) who was her child and Arrnatak's. " Nukka" — Arr. is probably thirty-five years, at least, but of course his "nukka" may have been considerably younger. I could not make sure if this "nukka" was named "Nyer" directly from the kabluna, though I think so. He may have been named after some other Eskimo who had been named after the kabluna. Arr. told me (the only fact I could worm out about the kabluna) that he never could eat seal blubber. Arr. thinks "perhaps he would not have been lost if he had been willing to eat blubber" from which I infer hunger played some part in his ending, probably never 250 Aiithrnpolodical Paper.s American Miisciin) of Nyon people. They never meet the Akuliakattag- miut now. June 2. Point Mackenzie. Camped 6 A. M. at Point Mackenzie to wait a day for promised coming of Kirkpuk and family who are going towards (but not to) Dismal Lake. It seems no one going this year to the lake. If they do not come today, we shall strike for woods up the Coppermine and return to Bloody Fall "when the moscjuitoes come" which is when people are said usually to go there. Names. One man Atigiliox " named from a kabluna." Jmie 5. People East of the Coppermine. Next group of people east of the Coppermine habitually go to Napaktulik (tree-grown part of Copper- mine) in summer. Richardson River "is said to have had" food on it and to have been peopled, "but it ceased to have food before my time" said Ekallukpik. Rae River. The Pallirk (Rae River) has since very long ago (iii-Il-le-ran) been the home of the people in summer. Ekallukpik apparently the most intelligent and best informed man seen down here. x\pattok had never heard of Koxluktaryuk (Hanbury's map) but E. could tell much of it though he had never seen it. Fear of Guns. No one since Akuliakattagmiut has shown fear of our guns, but have on the contrary all urged us to use them on game. June 12. Coppermine River. Rae River people were first we have seen, who were not at Cape Bexley last winter. Found today two sod tent rings and spruce bough bedding of two Eskimo shaped tents of last summer on high hill by river. Put there either for deer lookout, or else on account of mosquitoes. Tan. says Kittegaryuit use "amisut"only of caribou, and only when very many. If only fairly uiany, then "amilraktut. If many l)irds, "oyamuyat" (u as in mute). Billy says deer "innuiaktut," birds amilraktut, if many. "Innuiaktut" is used by both B. and T. for people, though usual colloquialism at Kittegar- yuit is " innuk!" " Amisut" used by Akuliakattagmiut etc., for all things over five, though when pressed they know " avinnran" (Kittegaryuit, arrvanihrit). June 13. Ekallukpik the other day took triscuit for whale meat on seeing them first. He took my light hair as a sign that I was a very old man, saying, "You and I have lived a long time, our white heads show it." His sled shod with whalebone. Pallirk (Rae River) sleds in general longest we have seen. 254 AiiUrropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. \W)\. XIV, Campsites. Found numerous old campsites on hill alongside lake just north of us, probably a fishing lake. Deer and nnisk-ox bones. June 17. All people we have seen speak familiarly of tuktuwik and ai\ik, but none have seen them. None seem to have any notion of such an animal as inmak, though tlie^' use imnak for a cliff or precipice. The Akuliakattag- miut who do not eat meat or use skins of muskrat, ha\'e the name Kivraluk. Tan. describes bears to them in terms of Kivraluk but no sign they ever heard of such an animal. Neither did Akuliakattagmiut seem to have heard of a smaller okallirk than the hare. June 19. Belief. Pan. says Kuwilk people hang afterl)irtli in a high tree. Among her own people a woman with a child on her back (i. e. less than about five years) must not eat kaksrauk (black-throated and red- throated loon); if she does her child will be unable to walk or be at least a poor walker. June 19. Campsites. Found yesterday some eight or ten different places formerly campsites of Eskimo, mostly along small lakes lying about half a mile from river about six miles south, but one each on our river and the next one south, the one on our river at foot of rapid, all probably fishing places. Next river south has branch, comes from a lake lying parallel to mountains about two by a half miles. Found yesterday small ri^'er (ten yards wide, eighteen inches deep, five or six mile current) coming out of a chain of small, very deep lakes. Along two of these very large spruce a foot in diameter six feet up and over thirty feet high. Indians axings (sharp ax, winter cut) on trees here. This river lies parallel to main river for about two miles behind a range of peaked gravel hills, a few hundred yards- further up stream on opposite side of main stream is a rather large river. June 22. Tan. got back 12:30 P. M. so did not sleep, but kept on up small river. 1 P. M. came to river widening into a lake with one island, a hill, and three smaller ones low roundish lake, half by a c^uarter of a mile in transverse diameter. On shore, found tipi frame and inner cover of lard pail with Cree characters and the four names "Melvill, Hornby, McKinlay,. McCallum." Large number of trees cut shows they were here for some time, and in chilly weather, as large logs used, twelve inches in diameter cut in eighteen inch lengths and not split. Tn a way disappointed at finding this, had hoped Melvill and Hornby were coming this sunnner and that we might meet somewhere. June 23. Started 8:30 A. M. and turned towards home about noon as our time is up and no fresh signs of people. Old signs are plenty, a tent ring and firewood leavings on top almost every one of the big hills along river. Hill tops average over a mile apart. Most tent sites seen on very pinnacle of hills. There mav be as manv in lowland thoui-h w(> did not find them. 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 255 Campsites. Tan. yesterday found "over ten" meat caches of about thi'ee by five and four feet deep, made of rocks, and "plenty" house sites, but wood, bone arrow-head, etc. indicate twenty-five or more years. One case of stones set up at an angle to indicate direction campers moved up stream. June 27. Tan. knows names for about one third of flowers and now a purple-red flower is called itkilo'yak and it was former practice at Kitte- garyuit for small boys to chase around all day with bow shouting " itkillirk uvva!" when' one was found, and competing to see who could shoot it down first with arrow, encouraged in this by elders as " long ago we used to fight the ItkilHks." June 29. Started 5 P. ]M. moving camp S. Looked at chopped trees seen by B. and T. yesterday and think them all Eskimo work. Some cut up by roots for lamp rests and sled runners (?). On bank found pair of sled runners made last summer and left to dry. July 8. Eskimo Habits of Mind. When we first saw robin redbreasts the other day all three agreed they were klyirk (the name for blue-jay) and fond of meat. When T. and I found first nest he said he now saw they were not kiyirk, as the eggs were different, but he is now evidently back to his former view, for he agrees that he and B . yesterday had found a kiyirk nest with three eggs. On reasoning the matter over P. concluded they might be kayotak, e. g. they were not kiyirk. From this B. violently dissented, saying kayotak is not found here. The mental trait illustrated is the same with both, however. Each identifies the bird positively wdth a bird they knew before, though (I do not know kayotak) the difference between robins and jays is great. This trait was noted in reference to snow geese, sulupau- rak (arctic trout?) and aklaks (land bears). One must bear this trait in mind in reasoning about Eskimo prehistoric migrations on the basis of ani- mal names, a source from which I now expect less light than I did before I understood their laxness in difi^erentiations. (Cf. also the Noatak-Killirk, et. al, belief, that doe never fawn two years in succession). Last winter we repeatedly killed a solitary doe and fawn, when the doe carried an embryo, also often a fawn broke from a band and returned to look for its dead mother who had embryo. This last fact Kunaluk admitted was very strange in view of the known fact that if a doe had embryo that proved she had not fawned the past year, therefore fawn's return probably accidental. When single doe and fawn together, he called that accident, too, as any two deer might be found together, that the doe had milk in her udder did not seem strange to him, perhaps because Eskimo women give milk five to seven years after bearing a child. Typically an Eskimo is very diff'erent in ad- ^•ancing an opinion based on his own observation, but rock-firm in adherence 256 Anlhropologicnl Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, to views he gets from others " for people would not keep saying it if it were not so." The fact that many Eskimo here have names of white men (Nerk, several), etc., B. and T. refuse to regard as strange, as "The people here, as we used to, no doubt have white men for turnnrat (familiar spirits) and name their children from them, as we used to." When I pointed out that the name "Nerk" is characteristically non-Eskimo, they said that was natu- ral, as turnnnit who were M'hite men naturally spoke like white men and had white men's names. I pointed out that Arrnatok had told us the Kal)lunak "Nerk" had been averse to eating seal-oil; that too B. and T. said was natural, as many turnnrat have strong food-prejudices and B. personally knew of several turnnrat that would not eat seal oil; T. contributed that Alualuk's turnnrat would not eat seal-oil. B. added that being a white turnnrak, it would be especially natural he would not eat oil. The only thing that seems to them strange is the fact that " Nerk" is said to have died. They do not know of turnnrat dying, but say that, come to think of it, it would be but natural they should die, though people naturally are not likely to become aware of this circumstance. Both B. and T. are Christian, though B. admits he is not well posted on Christianity, T., however, is a sort of deacon, and missionary last year to Baillie Islanders. B. the other day after singing what he ' mis-knows ' of the hymn " Rest beyond the River" explained that if one was Christian, when one died he would have to cross a river and could not rest at all after death till he got across, by which time he was in many cases very tired. This explained I suppose to be a misunderstanding (with additions) of his Sunday school teacher's (Port Clarence) explanations of the symbolism of the hymn. Akuliakattagmiut and East do not wear belt to support pants at hips as Eskimo west and Indians commonly do, but at waist, about as whites do. This probably a corollary of coats which are short in front. July 24. Near Dismal Lake. Lice. Pan. says "annirut" come out, as child at birth, from a man's liody in at least three places she knows of, at the nijiple, under the arm, and near the upper inner part of the shoulder blade. July 27. People found and our hopes therefore realized. Our old acquaintance Apatok with wife, two sons, daughter-in-law and her baby girl. They are the people we left at the island off Cape Kendall. The other three, Kirkpiik, wife, and child are said to have attempted to follow our trail (we had talked of sumnnering together) and their whereabouts are now not known. They may (I think, but Apatok thinks not, account of fear of Indians) have gone to the S.W. and Tahierpik, where I had said I hoped to spend the fall. They say a large party, the Kogluktogmiut, have just 1914.] The Slejdn&son-Anderson Expedition. 257 gone south up the small river we were on yesterday (Richardson's "Wooded Valley" river, also his "river had thrown a sandbar across lower end of the lake.") They are said to be now, as habitually on Imaernirk lake, a common name among Eskimo for lakes notably larger in spring than fall. This is said to be " near," from here but no one can tell just what that means. Shall try to keep in touch with people hereafter, though we cannot stay long here as only two deer have been seen since they came here "a few days ago" (ikpiiksak). These both they killed with bows, though they have kayaks; otherwise they live on squirrels and ptarmigan which they mostly shoot with bows; we cannot afford this, as our ammunition would soon run out and must therefore find deer. The camp is, I believe (though they do not know) situated about where Hanbury found "Igliki's" camp. Extensive innuk- cuit (deer stockades) both on lake shore and on land. July 28. Packing all wear head straps. One man carries kayak scuttle up, other scuttle to his back. Scuttle-up is on top a pack, other man carries no pack but the bow and quiver, which in both cases are on top the kayak. The dogs have pack of a single seal pok split down one entire side and laced, apparently to suit contents, the lacing being tightened if load grows smaller. On camping they had pot boiled by time our fire fairly started, our woman had to have green willows even from considerable distance, while they cooked with heather which when dry makes apparently a very quick fire. The long, shallow stone pot is well suited to this sort of fuel. Packing kayakers walk far from others for safety of kayak, especially in turning around. The people and dogs straggle in any order, and one man now leads, now another, often many abreast. July 29. Found on reaching lake people gone. Have gone " south into the woods and are lost till they make sleds and come out again." Ap. says it is hopeless to try to find them but I shall have a look around tomorrow and the following day. July 30. The "lost" people of yesterday prove to be visible with our glasses from our tent about four miles off on east side the southern part of the lake. Shall move there this afternoon. The two women are very helpful to us, cutting out sinews, helping cook, sewing, etc. without our suggesting it. They use all three principal tendons of hind leg for sinew, ours only two. They and Kittegaryuit people skin deer head by splitting from nostrils to eyes and horns, westerners cut up middle face and make Y cut from between eyes to horns. In boiling heads, westerners cut off nose, split rest of head, and boil brain loose (if not eaten raw^). Kittegar- yuit people cut off nose just below eyes instead of above nostrils, split skull but allow it to hang together so that it retains the brain in boiling; on eating it is opened oyster fashion and brain eaten as oyster from shell. I have not 258 Anthropological Papers American Museum of A^atural History. [Vol. XIV, yet seen a head eaten here, but the bones show the spht whole head, nose to foramen, without removing nose. They crack marrow bones with stone on stone without scraping ofl' membranes; ours scrape oft" membrane with knife and crack with back of knife. Moved about five miles and camped on account of numerous deer seen. Got to them just in time to conflict by our scent, with deer-driving plans of resident people so neither got any. B. approached the only person we saw near, expecting to apologize, but she took fright when she saw B.'s strange clothes, and ran for home, abandoning deer-driving operations and scaring off a small band that were in fair way to approach the bowmen, as we later saw. B. was only about one hundred fifty yards off and she must have heard plainly his protestations of friendliness and pleadings for her to stop. Later B. got five small deer, three females, two young bucks, and I two, a female and a large buck. After shooting latter I was approached by a stump-legged man (feet, frozen off) wife and small girl, who said this was their buck, had wounded him this morning. I gave him the doe besides. Ap.'s people had by this time arrived at village and news of our harmlessness were carried to hunters. Caps for mosquitoes are worn by most, though Alyirk had an addition to his head that extends it well forward. Caps are usually squirrel and are tied, bonnet fashion under the chin. July 31. Moved and camped a few hundred yards from people on account of our thievish dogs. Brought home some of yesterday's meat. August 1. A band of deer came to W. side of lake and would have crossed, people think, but for smelling our tent which (and not the Eskimo camp) was to windward. On smelling us they turned west and disappeared. Later: Moved nearer to village to prevent recurrence of this morning's deer episode. Shot young buck and gave to people who have little meat. August 2. Learn that Kirkpuk who followed our trail last spring and was lost to his family (Apatok's) is camped some four or five miles S. of here, having come around by way W. end Tahierpik, where he went looking for us. In the afternoon a crowd of eleven (three women) including Kirkpuk came to visit us, the Kogluktograiut. At their suggestion moved to their camp in the evening, they carrying most "of our stuff. Apatok's people at least will not eat akpek. "Never heard of such a thing," though they do eat blueberries and occasionally macut roots. August 3. People have plenty of meat and do not seem to care to hunt, expecting wonders from our rifles and modestly refraining, or else shifting the burden on us. They dry meat on rails supported by stones three feet above ground. When outside is dry, it is then taken down and piled under 1914.] The Stefd7isso7i- Anderson Expedition. 259 sealskin rain shield. Very generous to us, give us more dry meat than we could eat if we ate alone and then insist on our eating with them about five times a day. Boiled meat and blood soup in morning only. Have no kayaks, left them near mouth of Coppermine. One man at Imaernirk, the footless Aiaki, belongs to Uminmoktok, (Arctic Sound — according to Hanbury) and one here belongs to Akuliakat- tagmiut, whom he left this spring (will return next fall). Saucers, cups, etc. here from Mogg or Klinkenberg. Some are said to be from Kanhirmiut, others from Puiplirmiut. Aiaki says some of his people have rifles; one man here (Huprr5k) has a new house trap which, he says, came from the kablunat to the east, Hudson's bay: People more like western Eskimo in appearance and manners than any seen yet, striking difference from Victoria Island. Our people (P. and B.) say their speech is more easy to understand than any other and Aiaki and his wife's best of all. Thus affiliations are evidently closer in some direction other than Victoria Island. August 4- Suddenly without any foreknowledge of any of us, the camp broke up about noon to move south (compass) eventually to woods which I suppose six or eight miles off in that direction. This is evidently the reason why they have not hunted recently, as they are heavy with meat for moving. One family — Natjinna, wife, boy of eight, girl of two, decided to come with us S.V^^ (compass) where we hope to cache meat for winter. Very glad of their company as one family is about as good for my purposes as many, for the present. August 5. Moved to woods beside small lake. Musk-oxen are said to frequent the district to N. and W. of us along Dease River which has no Eskimo name, other than Imaernirk River. The first musk-ox signs of recent years we saw along E. side of Imaenirk, last winter's dung abun- dant. August 7. B. hunted w^est with no success. Apatok, son, and son-in- law and the three families moved to us today. Say Huprok killed two large bucks in one day recently, several other deer killed. August 8, Natjinna's and Uluxsrak (Akuliakattagmuit) family moved on farther S. today and we have only Apatok's family. Imaernirk is abandoned, all people now S. E. and S. of us. Said to be people scattered here and there all the way to the coast, as well as E. of the Coppermine. August 9. People here evidently don't know much about Indians as they call the tipi frames occasionally found, kablunak tent frames. Nat- jinna and others evidently fell in with Melvill-Hornby party (about four miles S. of our present camp) for they tell of meeting six (some say eight) white men there two years ago, and Nat. has a shawl, ax, file and other things 260 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, from them. All refuse to believe that any of this party were Indians, though there can hardly have been more than four white men, and the woman must certainly have been an Indian. Have been trying to teach people to eat akpek. Most or all the men and children have tried and some like them. Most of the women refuse to taste them even, and those who taste do not like them. About the only berry they seem to eat is a small black one growing on a low shrub that resembles an evergreen, these berries none of us like, though I eat them when brought me as presents by the children. The name "akpek" seems known to all and some, but not all know an "akpek" b}^ sight. The Akuliakattag- miut couple say they never saw an akpek before, but I think that is merely because they do not pay attention as the Akuliakattagmiut hunt close up to Tahierpik and the woods occasionally. August 10. Hunted S. saw o^■er twenty deer, three bucks of which shot two, half inch back fat both. B. returned, had been loafing with Kogluk- tok people. Natjinna and Uluxsrak's families returned. X.'s baby sick, swollen feet, and other parts of body, ears, etc. Billy killed five deer while with Huprok's people eight or ten miles S. E. of here. From there he saw Imarryuak (which is Bear Lake, I suppose) from a hilltop. Huprok told him that once when he was a boy (now thirty- five) his people hunted for some time along the shore, but fled on hearing shooting, which they attributed to Indians. There are only four men (three women) in Huprok's party now, all scattered in groups of one and two families, some gone back, some forward or E. Apatok's family moved back to Imaernirk. August 13. The Uminmuktok woman (wife of footless Aiaki) told Pan. wonderful stories the other day of the Pallirmiut, from whom they get guns and other white men's wares. These Pallirmiut come overland from a country near which white men have big houses. They kill so many deer en route north that they bring sealskin bags full of deer marrow. Their women use a whole deerskin for their hoods, which hang down to the ankles. Only a few of the Umin. have guns as yet, but they have from the Pallirmiut cooking pots in which they cook a whole deer at once. August 19. Conservatism. Most Eskimo I have seen habitually (if they want meat to boil quickly) turn pieces over even when water covers every piece in the pot. This practice no doubt dates from time of shallow stone pots when every piece had its upper side out of water. B. never probably saw meat cooked in a stone pot till here. August 22. Great Bear Lake. After traveling about two miles saw Indians at a distance, three families, one of them man who was with Melvill- Hornby on Melville River two years ago. Speaks a little English, sa\ s 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 261 Hornby has house N. E. comer of Bear Lake close to our route j^esterday. Hornby is coming back soon, he says, with boatload trade and had sent this man to try find Huskies and establish relations. I am sorry to see trade begin but it can evidently not be long staved off and I am glad to see it fall to Hornby of all those who seek it, I am therefore at Hornby's urgent request (through the Indian) undertaking to bring them together and took the three men this evening to the next Husk}^ camp about five miles N. and eight from Bear Lake. These are the following: Nirak- tallik, Avalluk (Rae River), Aiiivvra'nna, Oturriak (younger brother of N. both of Uminmoktok). Pizyuak (z French) of Puplirk, Nalvalhlrok or Nabanna (son of above, about six) ; L^llroyak or Dtoxanna of Puiplirk, Kall5n of Rae River, Iguak son about five, and Avaliit'tok about three, Kumak about twenty-five Rae River, Kopan'na, Rae River, inland; Kiidlaluk of Akuliakattak, Atiigyuk (same as husband), Koralarryuk, eight, adopted daughter of Kor- luktak, Aviurannaof Akuliakattak, two years, Nablualuk of Akuliakattak. August 23. As mutual amities Eskimo and Indians danced; very like in song, loose, stooping attitude, gestures, step, almost as like or quite like Eskimo of Mackenzie River and Coppermine. Six Eskimo to visit Indian camp on condition I go too as interpreter and guarantor. Indians last night and Eskimo today by my request in first case and Indian request in later, left guns and bows respectively at a dis- tance. Indians last night refused to sleep till we lay down on each side the three as sort of guard. Ver^'^ amicable towards last today. Indian insists on making manj^ presents contrary to my advice. Bought three Indian dogs from Eskimo for two knives and an old coat. Ulus (iron) for plates and jack knives, snow knife for poor butcher knife. Indians Catholic and swear in French. Brought pictures of Virgin, etc. for presents to be worn over right breast and message from Bishop that he would build mission at Bear Lake if Eskimo were good, Indians say in the winter time they use drum in dance, and from gesture today, it appears that the dancer carries and beats it Eskimo style. Indian tents thirty-six caribou skins, hairless, white as cloth and fold as small as No. 10 drilling, or smaller (small pack for one dog). Roomy, com- fortable, big fire in center does not smoke, room for meat drying in blanket pieces, about Coppermine size, on crossbeams seven feet over floor. Indians (Jim, Jim Hislop and Snowman) think large body Bear Lake Indians will come here, in about nine sleeps. Say plenty are going (or gone) up Dease River. Hodgson coming up Dease, they say for Company. Plenty deer, moose and fish winter N. E. corner Bear lake, plenty deer and moose and marten lower Dease. About three weeks caribou will go south to tip (N. E.) of lake. 262 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, In tent women keep shifting meat with reference to fire as it dries. Head and legs of deer not skinned. Intestines with fat dried a la Eskimo and back fat cut off similarly. Favorite food, pounded meat with garnish of dry back fat. Dogs poor and much beaten, but not as at Peel River. Caribou skins dried by fire in tent (far off) which Eskimo say spoils skin. Dried skin out, Eskimo hair out if plenty time on hand. Deerskins after hair off in water, dried over fire about ten feet up while wet, later to side of fire far off. Large fire flames often four feet up. Dry meat toasted slightly just before pounding (ax on stone). Some meat not dry, though no blood. Tent skins sewn head up, head and legs cut off. Some of Indians including this man (Jim) will go to Fort Norman Christmas. The lake is crossed end to end, usually in six days or seven. No rabbits on Dease River but some E. side of Bear Lake. "Arrah" exclamation of Indian identical with Eskimo west of Barrow. Indians break marrow bones like Eskimo on the Coppermine on stone with ax instead of stone on stone. August 25. Indians moved to habitual camping place of Jim; two miles west. Says in woods has safe meat cache, wolverine do not climb if legs are of stout timbers, this cache a short day from here — three miles? On invitation took some meat to Indians to be dried in tipi. Jim's father killed by bull moose, hooked under shoulder blade. Was on trip to mountain Indians to trade tobacco, etc. for the company. Caribou heads never boiled, roasted by fire with tongue in, kept rotating till all baked but nose, then placed on plate with nose to fire a few minutes, then jaws opened and if underdone, placed gaping toward fire. Bear Lake people, he says, do not eat boiled meat if least bit rare, but eat slightly rare roasts, i. e. tongue of roast head. Half-dry and dry tongues boiled, dry meat usually pounded before eating. Lines of braided deerskin, flat, half inch wide. In winter travel always use tent at night and do not sleep by fires, as the Cree. L^se old tent frames which are numerous on all usual routes of travel and on favorite hunting grounds. August 26. Two men Hanbury saw on Dease River were Good Hope men. Good Hope men are not far from lake everywhere along N. shore. Thinks their houses frequent along treeline northwestward toward sea. Bear Lake people first seen by Hanbury on Bear Lake. Bear Lake people never have tents larger than thirty-six skins nor smaller than twenty-five. If poor skins, tent lasts three years; if good five years. August 27. Fort Rae ("Jim Hislop place") is called seven sleeps from S. side Bear Lake and some Bear Lake people occasionally go there Christmas. 1914.] The Slefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 263 Fishers (no deer) called "sometimes hungry" at head of Bear River, but "people never hungry" east of Dease or along E. shore Bear Lake. In winter Jim says much gambling song, drum, sticks in closed hands, a la Cree. Use head straps in packing. In cooking, head cut as at Kittegaryuit, and hind leg dismembered similarly. Udder and kidneys usually roasted, liver "not liked," perhaps as Loucheux, think it poisonous, or have it taboo. Thin, cut meat dries in a day, then placed in pile under pillows because of fear of dogs. When "plenty" will be cached on a rack. If legs of rack of stout logs wolverines will not climb, they say. August 28. Brought to Indian camp most of our meat from creek bottom N. a mile. Wolverine had stolen from our rack one backfat and some meat. Indians Catholic service; say do not hunt Sundays, but went for meat, though Jim Hislop saw tw^o moose, one large, in comparatively woodless country. Camp here said to be about half way between mouth of Dease River and N. E. corner of Bear Lake; nearer Dease perhaps, on straight line between these. August 29. Dease River. Built rack for our meat near Indian camp and started homeward along treeline (towards Dease) making this long curve to look for Hornby or some one who has seen him. Camped where valley curves eastward, beginning of our branch of the Dease. August 30. Home before sundown. ]Met party of about twenty Eskimo going west to camp near our sleeping place of last night. No deer east, they said ; a few families gone seaward to fish along Coppermine. Natjinna and Uluxsrak's families gone, took without asking three quarters of our meat, about eight caribou, and cached it by their future sled-making place. Took, too, about twenty deer sinews and two deerskins of ours without permission. An old woman Aialik, left by the food caches. Many have cached meat at sled-making place. This old woman had one breast frozen off last winter and it is tied with a string Pan. says. The Indians learned to hum B.'s most complicated song (Pi-hju-u-lirk- tufi-a (or puna?), after hearing it two or three times. B. and T. learned this at Akuliakattak and it took them longer it seems to me. Evidently songs of Eskimo not essentially different from Indians. I don't think a white man could learn it in hearing it twenty times. Indians say they never heard of caribou horns growing smaller in old age. They say the older the caribou, the bigger the horns. Pan. says Kagmallit habitually use water pails and cooking pots as receptacles for urine. September 1. Moved to woods near where cooking lunch Aug. 21st. Camping in old tipi after dark, made no tent. 264 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, September 3. Kogluktok people say they have had visitors before who were "nagga" from east no doubt. September 9. Expected to meet my crowd coming west, but B. not home yet. About 10 A. M. Pan. heard eight or ten shots fired in quick succession a quarter mile or less S. W. of us. Did not look as she thought it was I coming home, though I am not in the habit of firing such volleys. Had difficulty restraining dogs from following the shots. Went to old Indian camp in evening, hoping to find traces of people, but found none. Would give a good deal to know who fired shots and where they went. Have only about two pounds meat in camp but shall nevertheless spend day hunting around for traces of people. Made fifteen mile circuit to S. and S. W. but saw no people or deer. Coming home saw a mile E. of our camp in our river a tent frame I have seen before. The people who fired the shots must have slept there, and passed west quarter of a mile S. of us. September 6. Taboos. Pan. says Noatak, Killirk and Kuwok people, and perhaps others cooked mountain sheep and caribou in different pots on different fireplaces when cooked at same time. If cooked at successive times, the pot, if they had only one, was carefully washed with water be- tween times. Some people never ate caribou and sheep the same meal, others ate both together. Women did not eat sheep off any of the four legs or front of the rear line of the shoulder blades. If they did, their husbands would become sick "inside" (i. e. lungs, liver, stomach, etc.). Prohibition did not apply to women past childbearing. Of the shoulder vertebrae, the women might eat the meat above the line of the ribs, but not the fat and meat facing into the thorac cavity below the rib line. People that ate sheep and caribou same meal, washed hands with water between the two courses. Old men, and they only, often wore pants same style as women, socks and pants one piece. This "because they had ceased to make long journeys." September 17. Hornby and I to his camp-cache at last rapid, Dease River. Hodgson and family there, building log house. Lives in combina- tion tipi and wall tent. Hodgson says at Peel River Eskimo always carried knives in hand all day, in store trading, etc., as late as 1896. In 1885 In- dians between Porcupine and Yukon River usually hunted moose with bows though they had guns and a few still wore the old type clothes (pants and socks in one piece like Eskimo Avomen) though they had cloth. Lou- cheux more afraid of Eskimo than vice-versa, as it is here at Bear Lake now. Very marked break in language between Loucheux and Good Hope but nowhere else till one comes to Cree to south. No great difference from Loucheux down Yukon so far as Hodgson knows. 1914.] The Slefdtisson-Anderson Expedilion. 265 September 20. Melvill and Hornby agree that Slavey, no more than Eskimo, can understand that time and labor (even hired labor) spent in carrying goods adds to their cost or value. They also have many stories of their business stupidity. One man they deputized to bu}^ meat for them. He paid for the meat with a shirt Avorth six skins. He brought the meat to Melvill and Hornby and wanted six skins for it because he was bringing them six skins worth of meat, and another six skins because he had given away on their behalf a six skin shirt. They were finally forced to pay both bills; as otherwise they would have acquired among the Slavey a reputation for dishonesty. September 21. B. tells when Eskimo saw Melvill and Hornby's smoke (the same day B. and T. got to them), he and T. had difficulty restraining them from moving camp at once. They said they were " not afraid of the Indians, but it was their immemorial custom to move away if they saw smoke." It was only on saying the camp was as likely as not a white man's camp, that they stayed. As it was, it was several days till T. could induce any of them to visit the strange camp with him. Melvill and Hornby's "Tom" has hunted N. W. to salt water and points out on the chart the bay west of Cape Bathurst as the place big ships used to winter. He is wrong in this. It was Langton Bay the Indians used to visit. He says that to go straight from here one would have to cross large stretches of barrens on the way to where the big ships used to go. This he believes a gameless country and says that the Good Hope people do not hunt there any longer as they always starve (in recent years) when they go there, as they sometimes do in hope of getting musk-oxen, which Tom says are all, such as there are, well to the right of a line drawn from here to Langton Bay. September 25. At Hodgson's. At Trout Lake, eight days west from Providence, are twenty-five or less hunters who trade alternately at Provi- dence, Vermillion, or Liard. They are pagans. They come, some of them, every year about Christmas to Providence. They are called more enter- prising than any others who trade at Providence. They speak a dialect of Slavey. They live in a good game country. They do not visit other Indians, nor do families of Christian Indians hunt among them for a year's visit, as other groups do with each other. Women never come to the trading posts. Occasionally a few come in canoes down Beaver River twenty-five or thirty miles S. of Providence and go home up Yellow Knife, about eighty miles, north of Providence. This is outlet of Beaver Lake. Wolves and Deer. One year in the '70's there were extensive bush fires between Bear Lake and the ^Mackenzie. Before that, caribou used to pass in great numbers between the lake and the river, but were apparently 26G Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV , turned back by the burning of the moss which to this day has not grown up in the burnt stretch and have never since passed south or north, west of the lake, but only east of it. That winter wolves numerous west of the lake, but starving and frequently attacked Indians, in one case a single wolf entered a lodge and attacked a woman alone at home. Husband fortu- nately returned from hunt as woman was fighting with wolf and shot wolf inside the lodge. An interpreter of Hodgson's, said he once shot a large caribou, breaking one hind leg. He pursued deer, which disappeared over a ridge quarter of a mile ahead. Snow was deep. When man got near top of ridge he saw wolf had cut into trail and was following caribou from the tracks. Soon both came in sight quarter of a mile ahead. Wolf was close on heels of cari- bou, still running, and now and then made a jump, landing on animal's rump and tearing out a mouthful. Soon deer fell and wolf pounced upon it, tearing away at rump. Indian fired at long range, missed wolf but scared him off. Deer got up and tried to run but was weak and Indian killed it next shot. It was a fat deer, and wolf had devoured almost all backfat but had not otherwise bitten deer. Hodgson's interpreter saw two deer, yearlings, feeding at a distance and a moment later three wolves came in sight of deer. Two stopped and lay down to leeward of deer and third wolf circled till deer got his wind. At same time as they got wind he gave long howl and started for deer. Deer ran straight before wind towards the concealed wolves. As they got near wolves made a dash, one for each deer, and before Indian could get to them both deer were dead and partly eaten. Nine years ago, the year before Hanbury, Hodgson was on Dease River. Fort Confidence was then standing, piles of firewood, several cords, w^ere as dry and fit as if chopped year before. Sleds, several, in good condition for use. Houses and everything since burned by Indians. This year near Dease's mouth Hornby found sled, evidently built for hauling a boat with a keel. Sled badly decayed. Seems probable it was brought by water from farther up river, as it is in a pile of driftwood. Septeviber 27. Dease River. Pan. has been told that the people who hunt here to the woods every year make various articles of wood, beyond what they need, for trade to the Puiplirmiut. Sepicmher 28. Pan. relates that Noatak, Kuwuk, Kanianik, Kagmallik and affiliated people used to use in summer when traveling by umiak or camped on streams, a tent resembling an Indian tipi. It was a rectangular pyramid with only the four corner sticks meeting at the apex. A foot or two below apex was a hoop much like the frame of an Eskimo drum. To this there were fastened willows (large number) running to the ground. Some 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 267 four feet above the floor four crossbars made a rectangle strengthening the corners posts and willows. The largest tents were about the size of Bear Lake tipis (36 caribou skins). There seldom was cooking done inside and the vent in the top was for smoke used in smudging mosquitoes. Meat, clothes wet from rain, etc. were sometimes dried in tents, a fire being then used. Dog Language. Dogs are never addressed imperatively in first person, always in third. Lie down, akuvilli (let him lie down), not akuvittin (you lie down). A dog is forbidden to do a thing by words which, if literally translated, or if applied to a man tell him to do it. iiyoriun, don't fight with him (literally " fight him") ; nerkiksran parkittutin — you have found something you must not eat (lit. " you have found something meant for you to eat"). Ki, ki, kllamik (literally, come, hurry up I) is often used by my Eskimo to dogs who will not stand still M'hen their pack is being fixed. It really equals our "be quiet." September 29. P. relates: The Ir'rigak is a turnrak that lives in the woods. They are very numerous in some localities. She has never had a front view of one, but has seen one walking away from her. It looked much like a man and was about as tall. It had a coat on, probably of squirrel skin, and it was so torn there were only slii'eds left, and P. could see the bare back and ribs (kattigak). It had no hair, but so far as she could see skin like a man. It is a very troublesome turnrak in that it steals squirrels and ptarmigan from peoples' snares and traps. She has had it steal squirrels from her snares. The squirrel was always replaced by a little earth, moss, or grass; that's how she knew the irrigak had been there and that it was not merely a case of the squirrel having escaped. B. contributes that once he was out snaring ptarmigan with an old man. They got very few. The old man said that was no wonder as they were in a locality infested by irri- gak. B. pointed out he had seen no strange tracks in the fresh snow. Nat- urally not, the old man said, for it is one of the characters of an irrigak that it walks without touching the ground. When seen they seem to be walking on ground, but as a matter of fact their feet never come nearer than about six inches from the surface of the ground or snow. B. has never seen one. B. says his people when on the seacoast sometimes used to live in tipi- shaped houses made entirely of driftwood. If big, the sticks were split, but most of the sticks were round. They were fitted closely together. At Kittegaryuit T. says rough houses were used such as I have seen with big spaces between logs and used to smoke-dry fish. People often sat in these by the fire, but had a regular tent besides. The Copper Eskimo have repeatedly told me the cheap butcher knives I brought for trade are fine knives because they bend easily. My own knife 268 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, none of them care for because it will not bend. Hodgson says the Porcupine and Yukon Indians had exactly the same test for the goodness of a knife. At Barrow and Mackenzie, now at least, they will not have a knife if it bends. They don't like anything lighter than a Wilson nine-inch blade (at Barrow at least), which they cut down with a file to seven inch to give a point. "Jimmy" says arrows of Bear Lake people were much shorter than those of Copper Eskimo. T. says the same thing for Kittegaryuit as compared with Coppermine. Both Barrow (?) and Kittegaryuit feathered arrows with much longer and better feathers than do Copper. B. people still use bows a good deal. T. says that while camped on the hill on the river bank above (91 mile S.) our present camp the Eskimo sometimes killed as many as four deer in one day per man, i. e., two or three men out of eight or nine hunters frequently reported three or four deer killed that day when they came home at night. Some days no one hunted. Srpfcmbcr 30. Bear Lake Lidians know nothing of the danger of dogs eating a deer's windpipe that has not been split down the middle, so Jimmy says, and I saw him feed several windpipes to dogs without bad results. B. and P. believe dog liable to die if windpipe not split. T. never heard of this, but says windpipe never fed to dogs at Kittegaryuit because people liked eating it too well. Jimmy also said his people believed that the older a bull caribou the larger the horns; while B. and P. say a very old bull has small (slender) horns. I believe Indians are right in first case and Eskimo in second. T. relates some years ago he saw Alualuk (native of Cape Smythe or Point Barrow, but has been so long near Kittegaryuit that lie speaks almost like them) strip to the waist, seat himself on the bare floor in the center of the house, and have two walrus tusks almost as long as his arm (but slender - — about size of man's thumb in diameter) grow gradually out of his mouth. The tusks had been inside his chest reaching down to the stomach and he groaned with pain as he forced them up through his neck, and out of his mouth. Soon after they had attained full length, they disappeared back into his mouth, gradually but after several people had felt of them. They were hard and smooth like ivory. This performance was in the evening but the house was well lighted. T. firmly believes this was genuine; i. e., no sleight of hand or make-believe. B. contributes he has known of one "doctor" who spent four days under water and came out unharmed when everyone thought him long dead. Another "doctor" (A'pokerk, whom I know) B. himself tied as thoroughly as he could, all the house then turned their backs. Thev heard a loon's crv and the noise of wings. When the-v 1914.] The SteJdnsson-AnderHon Expedition. 269 looked again A'pokerk was gone, had flown through the window. This B. thinks may have been trickery, he may have untied himself and run out through the door. The story of the four days under water he firmly believes, however, apparently because he did not see it and has it on honest men's hearsay from other honest men. Yesterday to the sled-making place, expecting to find Huprok, but found instead Nirak Talik's crowd, five families in three tents. Huprok, they said had started north two sleeps before we came, carrying their sleds on their backs. At lunar eclipse, Melvill tells, circle around houses and toss pieces of meat, fish, etc., in through door of each house. This brings plenty game and fish in future. They keep up continual shouts. Do not use drum except in dance. October 8. Athapascan Beliefs. Mr. Hodgson has a quilt made entirely of the legskins of lynx. He says that all over the northern Mackenzie Valley a man who kills a lynx always cuts oft' all its feet and brings them home separately. He has asked the reason and been told that once long ago a man killed a lynx and put him into his game bag. The lynx came to life on the man's back and scratched him badly. Since then the precaution is always taken to cut oft' its paws. Jimmy Soldat says he has given up this practice now. When a hunter brings home rabl)its he always throws his day's catch into the tipi on coming home, and the woman singes the nose of each rabbit separately at the fire. Mr. Hodgson has been told this is to prevent them from eating the snares. The custom is universal where Mr. Hodgson has been. Jimmy S. says he and all Bear Lake people practise this, but he says he does not know why. Mr. Hodgson says Providence Indians are the most "superstitious" in in the north. Few if any of them dare to hunt alone daytimes, to say nothing of sleeping out alone nights. They practise numerous ceremonies and charms not seen elsewhere, nowadays at least. They are all catholic, and have been for over fifty years. Are considered by both traders and priests the worst Indians north of Slave Lake. Beliefs. Pan. told some time ago that "Kadzoni nu'nani in'opta," (the winter I was at Kittegarynit, when several families in the mountains south of Shingle Point had to retreat on Rampart House where Mr. Kadzow outfitted them, the same families whom I visited in October, 1906), they at one time had nothing to eat but a little caribou fat. They used to make tea, of which they had plenty, and then boil over the steeped tea leaves in a little water and add the grease (much as we did with seal oil in December, 1909). Kunas'luk and his son Pik'kalS alone would not eat this mess for 270 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, the missionary had told them not to eat tea leaves. When taxed with hav- ing eaten tea leaves before, they said that was before they were told by the missionaries not to. I asked Pan. why the rest of them ate tea leaves when they knew this from Kunas'luk. She seemed to think the question silly and replied shortly that it was all right for them to eat the tea because none of them had ever been forbidden to do so, i. e., K. and P. took the missionary's simple statement that the tea liquor only was meant for consumption, to be a personal taboo inflicted on them individually by the missionary and having no force for anyone else. In Dec. 1909, when we were hungry, Kunasluk was the only one of our party who did not eat tea leaves soaked in oil, but took the oil " straight," I did not attach significance to this then, but under- stand it now. Pan. also tells that it is dangerous to leave a sleeping child alone in a house, even for a moment. She has known one case. One spring two large parties had met to dance and trade, the one Kurrirmint, the other Indians. An Indian mother, who probably did not know of this danger, was dancing when she heard her baby begin to cry. She went to it, fed it, and it soon fell asleep. A little while later she went out to get some meat from a stage at the tent door. She was only gone a few moments, but when she came back the child was missing. The people stopped dancing and searched all day but found no signs of the child. It was not old enough to walk, besides no one had entered or left the tent by the door, as the mother had her eye on the door all the time, as Indians usually do fearing dogs. The people all agreed the child had gone up to the sky to Jesus because of being left alone. Both Indians and Eskimo were christians. Pan. has told further that formerly afi'atkut used to bring back from the sky, sun, moon etc., where they went on spirit flights, songs taught them by the spirits they had been visiting. Now all the aii'atkut are christians and some have ceased to fly as formerly, but the spirits come to them in dreams instead. Other anatkfit still practise spirit flights, but now they go to heaven where God and Jesus are, instead of going to the sun and moon as formerly. As formerly, both in dreams and in flights to heaven, they learn new songs, which they sing on their return to prove the truth of their story of the dream or flight. Sometimes the song is taught them by God, some- times by Jesus, sometimes by an angel. One case is that of the Oturkag- miut (mother, Oturkagmiut; father, Napaktogmiut) Paperok. This man's name was formerly Patik. " When he was being converted he dreamed that a man came to him from the sky and said: "You are called Patik, that is a bad name, for it is the name of a turnrak, hereafter you shall be known as Paperok." This, Pan. explains, she thinks was the name of the man who descended from the sky, who gave his name to Patik. The man 1914.] The Slefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 271 then taught him a song: i'l a aira uhulahu"la pag-ma u-plii-a-a cu'-pi-ra- o-hu-la-hu"-la. This is all Pan. knows of the song, which is long and consists partly of words which no one understands except she supposes Paperok himself. She knows the whole of the song to hum it. The tune reminds me of several common hymns and the u-hu-la-hu-la part sounds like ragtime. She annotates as follows; i-la(ii) (nom. case, subj. of ai-ra) [B. however, thinks i-la(n) nom. sing. = 6-ma (he, that one)] one of them, literally, part of it; ai-ra, he brings it home (a dead man to heaven, P. says); pag-ma = up there; u-pin-a= u-pirk-tok, he speaks truly (?) or he has a well founded faith in (?), (cf. missionary's use of u-pik-tok, for he is a christian); P. thinks cu-pl-ra may be intended for cu-pl-va-ufi, what is he doing? or she says, it may be some secret word; u-hu-la-hu"-la, she does not understand; (may be from hymn "Holy, holy, holy. Lord God Almighty" or from u-la-hu'-la, the Kanaka? jargon word for "dance"). Paperok has never been called Patik since he had this dream; he has had many dreams since, at each of which he was taught a song. October I4. Pan. says of mother who lost child, noted above, that it happened before she was born, but she knew personally several people who had been present at the dance. Her own mother was one of these. People did not know until this occurrence that it was dangerous to leave a sleeping child alone, but since then they have known it. Tan. says Kittegaryumiut had no horn dippers, either musk-ox or sheep, except spoons for scooping ice out of holes in setting nets, etc. These were usually musk-ox, sometimes deer horn or even wood. Never used " snow- shoe-like" type I have seen among Kuwuk, Noatak, etc. Mrs. Hodgson tells that when she was a little girl at Fort Norman her father used to spend all summer with the Company's scows and she lived with her uncle (mother's brother). Each group then kept very strictly to their own hunting grounds and only in extreme need followed game into a neighbor's territory. Once her uncle, she does not know why, decided to hunt farther west than usual. Though they were near the western boundary of their proper district they went three short days' marches farther west. On the third day they found a stage with dry meat and fish and plenty of baskets and stones from which they inferred the owners had no kettles and boiled their meat in baskets with hot stones. They saw no iron at all, although there was plenty of household gear. They were all thoroughly frightened, and immediately turned back, but by a different way from the one they had come. On the march children were usually allowed to play in the rear of the party and to straggle along as they pleased. In this case they were not allowed to play at all and were cautioned to silence; on the retreat they walked ahead, instead of behind, the stoutest bringing up the 272 Anthropological Papers American Museum oj Natural History. [Vol. XIV, rear. They traveled far into the night, and finally camped without a fire and without chopping or making any noise. The dogs were all tied and each fed more than usual so they would not howl. Long before sunrise they again broke camp and marched till dark, when they first made fire on reaching their own ground. The Loucheux, she says, seemed to be a bit freer than the rest in their wandering about. In recent years none seem to fear visiting their neighbors or wandering about freely except to the northeast of Bear Lake where there is danger of falling in with Eskimo. Moose. Mrs. Hodgson tells that when she was a child (perhaps forty years ago) there were no moose or deer west of Norman east of the Rockies, and the mountain Indians depended entirely on goats instead. Now no one hunts goats, as it is hard work and moose are plenty and easy to kill. (P.) mam'-mirk, inner part of any skin (deer, seal, etc.) that is or may be scraped off to make skin suitable for clothes. Seal skins have this usually removed among Western Eskimo, but not in Coronation Gulf. Western Eskimo leave it on seal boots that have the hair in (for spring) and on deerleg waterproof spring boots. (P.) ma-min-erk-shak, skin that has hafl "mamirk" removed. pu'yuviak (P.) is the name used by the Killirmiut for snowshoes with a sharp toe (Bear Lake style). It is seldom referred to as tagluk which is the name of the round-toed type. Both types of toe are in use by both sexes indiscriminately — though more "tagluk" than "puyuviaks" (P.) i-gan (g, Icelandic saga) is used by the Kaviragmlut for kettle ' or pot, (ut'kusik, which is not used). October 21. Animal Heads. Hodgson tells of all Indians of lower Mackenzie : Do not like to allow animal heads to be taken out of country. They fear scarcity of animals. October 22. Taboos. Melvill tells that until Maccallum started a crusade against it. Bear Lake women had separate (usually brush) huts at time of monthly periods. No woman may step over a fish net or go over one in a canoe. It brings bad luck to the owner of the net. A man who carried a deerhead on his back must not walk along the trail but must walk on the side of the trail. If a bearskin is carried across Bear Lake it spoils the fishing in the lake. This applies to sleds; M. does not know if it applies to a canoe. Woman during menses must not walk in the trail. When a boat passes a spot where an Indian has been drowned, they toss a little tea and tobacco into the water. A priest at Fort Good Hope once caught and kept a live caribou, since then there are no caribou at Good Hope. People do not like to kill mink or otter even now. A wolfskin must not be kept in the house as women will have no more children. A man last winter would not sleep in McKinlay's house because some otterskins were under the bed but took them outside. 1914.] The Slefdnsso7i- Anderson Expedition. 273 October 23. When wind on the lake is too strong for fishing or for hauling, a woman who has a child at breast goes out-doors and squeezes her breast so as to send a squirt of milk up into the air. This stops the wind, though not always promptly nor on the first attempt. October 31 . Windows. T. tells Kittegaryuit never used ugrug or beluga intestines for windows, used by preference the gullets of gulls. P. says she has seen at Baillie Island gullets of the various loons in use, but if these were not handy, they used fish skins of anoxlirk, ekaluakpfik, and others. Snares and hooks both used at Kittegaryuit to catch gulls. Snares for feet set in a roofless house that had meat bait in middle of floor. Hooks always set in water. November 1. Clothes. T. tells that the Kittegaryuit people never used a separate string around waist to support pants, but string was threaded through pants as it is through boots with short loose ends behind where they were tightened and tied. Leg of pants always reached some three inches below knee, somewhat down on calf. The short pants I have seen there, tied above the knee are an innovation. The Cape Smythe man, Alualuk, was first one T. ever saw with that sort of pants. Pan. says they belong to Kagmallirk and Killirk primarily, though they have lately been taken up by Cape Smythe and others. Spirits. While alone the other day P. hear pounding in the woods north of camp. She took this for Indians camped near and chopping wood. Later, she heard the noise from all sides as if a man had walked slowly in a circle a hundred yards outside our camp, pounding the trees with a rod as he went. There were no tracks so Pan. knows they were turhrat. Xovcmber 10. En route to Langton Bay. Beliefs. Eskimo from Point Barrow to Baillie at least, believe that in winter smokeless powder is " not strong" and will use only black powder guns if they can, 38-55 and 40-82 preferred. Bear Lake Indians uniformally believe that a black powder bullet "gets cold" in winter soon after leaving the barrel, that great speed is therefore necessary so bullet may reach its mark before it "loses speed through getting cold." 38-55 are said to be the worst and it is claimed that in very cold weather the bullet barely penetrates the skin of a caribou at fifty yards. 45-90 guns are said to be the best of the black-powder kind. This caliber can hardly be given away now to Eskimo. Western Eskimo (Pan. Billy) believe eating a caribou windpipe, whose rings have not been split, will kill a dog. I have seen B. slit windpipes of small animals before feeding to dogs. Bear Lake people say there is no danger in windpipes but ribs are deadly and must not be fed to dogs. In every camp ones sees long bundles of ribs hung up out of reach of dogs. This belief unknown to Eskimo, and windpipe belief unknown to Tannau- nirk. 274 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, November 16. A Big Cave. A Fort Liard Indian who is now dead was out hunting one clear March day. He came to a porcupine track and fol- lowed it. The trail led into the mouth of a cave, the entrance the size of a blanket. The cave was dark. The porcupine was not far in front and the man heard it walking over pebbles. He left his rifle at the mouth of the cave, took a club and followed the porcupine, one hand feeling one wall of the cave, the other tapping in front and to the side with the club to guard against crevices or a precipice. Now and then the man stopped, threw a pebble as far as he could to the left, but never heard it strike the opposite wall • — it always splashed into water. After a while the man turned back, having his club now in the other hand and feeling the wall with his free hand. After a long walk he came out, took his gun and went home. When he came home he said: "I did not hunt far, I followed a porcupine track into a cave, from the time the sun was there and came out when the sun was there," (pointing to indicate about three hours of the afternoon). "But when did you sleep?" people asked. "I have not slept: I have been gone only a part of the day." "Oh no," they said, "you have been gone one night, you started from here yesterday." He had been a little over a day in the cave following the porcupine. That's why people think there is somewhere in the mountains near Liard a large underground lake with a pebble beach. The Underground River. There are two fishing lakes near Fort Liard, one a day from the fort and the other, half a day from the fort. The two are on opposite sides of the river and in opposite directions from the fort. A man fishing in the lake a day from the fort used a birckbark dish as a buoy for a hook, the line being sew^n to the middle of the bottom. He thought, " No fish is strong enough to swamp this dish, it will be an excellent float." But the next day the dish was gone, a fish had taken the hook and swamped the dish, pulling it down with him. The man looked long in vain for the dish. A man of another group of Indians was fishing on the other lake, a half- day from the fort. He saw something floating and moving. He paddled to it and picked up a birchbark dish with a jackfish fastened to it by hook and line. He thought some " mad men " might have been fishing in the lake and this was their dish. He did not, therefore, try to find the owner. When next fur trading time came, all people from all sides gathered at Fort Liard. The man who had lost the birchbark dish happened to see it in the tent of the finder, he knew it by the arrangement of some porcupine quills on it. He asked, "Where did you find that dish?" the other replied, " It was a float on a jackfish, I picked up on our fishing lake." That is why people think there is an underground channel between these lakes; the 1914.] The Stefdnfison-Anderson Expedilion. 275 channel must lie under the Liard. The lake where the dish was lost has never been successfully sounded. Once a man cut a big bull caribou into babiche and sounded with a big stone. He found no bottom. He then took the babiche of half a second hide, but this was not enough, so he gave up, and no one else has succeeded. The men concerned in the losing and finding of the dish are both dead, but they died not so very long ago. November 26. Horton River. Johnnie tells that "long ago" Bear Lake people had runner sleds for use on lake. They made the runners of "red sticks." When they stayed long in one place fishing, they made a lodge- shaped house of sticks, placed close against each other, covered with a thatch of spruce-bows, and this again with snow. B. has told me his people used tipi-shaped houses occasionally in summer, the sticks being usually split, and fitting close against each other. Cf. smoke shelters of Kittegaryuit in which people often sit daytimes though they seldom or never sleep in them. November 29. B. tells: Coppermine Eskimo told him that the lake into which the Dease flows is small and that seen from Huprok's this summer (the east end of Bear Lake) is large. There is no connection between the two. The large one is called Imarryuak, the small one has no name. Dease River, so far as B. ever heard, has no name except Imaerrnirm kiiafiu. People told B. that when near the woods of the Dease they are especially careful to place their camp in a commanding position for fear of the Indians cf. Billy's own country where ancient stone and wood roofed houses are on highest hill tops. Said to be from fear of East Cape (?) people, who made terrible summer forays. November 30. Bear Lake people, same as Eskimo, practise leaving a caribou unskinned over night "to improve the meat." Caribou tracks seldom found on the north shore of Bear Lake farther west than the middle of the lake, in summer at least. IVIost winters snow so deep on Caribou Point, Bear Lake, that deer travel in set trails only. Beaver spreading into many localities where it was not a few years ago. Notably to E. of Bear Lake. Moose are also spreading. Last winter (1909-10) was the first when starvation was general among Good Hope Indians on account of failure of caribou (i. e. in the district mapped as the basins of River Macfarlane and River la Ronciere) (Johnnie). The year Hanbury passed, Johnnie shot on Caribou Point, when at their fattest, eighty-three large bull caribou in two weeks; number killed limited by number he could take fat and ribs of. Another man of the same party killed one hundred sixty bulls in three weeks. A party of eleven men loaded a York boat in three weeks with fat and ribs only, and crossed back to mouth of Bear River, whence they all came for the hunt. The caribou are always to be fourud at Caribou Hill. 276 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, When Johnnie some fifteen years ago crossed the mountains west from Simpson toward Telegraph Creek (just after Christmas) there was plenty game, chiefly moose, except for three days crossing the crest of the moun- tains, where there are no sticks. Game chiefly moose. Bear Lake people, for crossing the lake in winter, wear caribou skin pants with hair in a la western Eskimo. Bull caribou skin in the fall is stronger than moose skin for shoes (J.). Billy's grandmother remembered the last fight between the Kaviarrmlut and the Khodlit of East Cape. She was so old when B. was a boy that "her skin was not like human skin, but hard and black," and "she had almost come to nothing" (our "shriveled up" nufaupiuraktok). B. found some arrows of the battlefields. The East Cape arrows were of iron and had a very slender shank just below the head, but shafts otherwise about size of Eskimo arrows. December IJf.. Langton Bay to Dease River. Johnnie is quite unreliable in what he tells about " long ago." He asserted tonight that the Bear Lake Lidian always had stone chimney places of the type we saw together in the ruins of Fort Confidence; also, they always had candles. The latter may conceivably be true, the former surely is not. December 30. Dogrib Feast. Johnny says that "when Dogrib Rae Indian make a big feast for plenty people to eat," they take a small piece of meat, fat pemmican, bread, and any other food they are about to eat, then a cup is taken and a little grease and bouillon is skimmed off the top of the pot in which the meat was boiled. This cupful is spilled into the fire and then are thrown in the pieces of meat, pemmican, etc. This must be done before anyone starts to eat. "This is Dogrib fashion; Bear Lake people don't do like that." January 2Jj.,l9ll. Dease River. Race Blending. x\rrviy u'nna was the "Eskimo George" of whom Hodgson tells, who was the company's inter- preter at Peel River. He is long dead. His wife was an Indian and his three children are living among Indians. One of these three was born with one arm wanting. Niuittjiak is now living among the Peel River Indians and has an In- dian wife. Both these men belonged to the Kittegaryumiut. Iruan'na Kittegaryumiok (?) had an Indian husband for some time and lived at McPherson. Memoranna may have had an Indian father. Tan. knows one Peel River Indian who lived at Kittegaryuit ; he was a grown man when T. first remembers, and T. used to call him "Aiiayura (my older brother) for no reason known to T., except people told him to do so. This man died while T. was yet small. All, or most of the fingers of one of his hands were wanting from birth. This man was unmarried. 1914.] The Slefdtisson-Anderson Expedition. 277 Loucheux-Eskimo trade. Mr. Hodgson, when at La Pierre's house, knew an old Indian who bore the nickname "Husky" because he used to cross the mountains every year to trade with the Eskimo on the coast. This was one of the men told about before by Mr. Hodgson who used to make trips south of Rampart House and buy for the same price he got from the Huskies, wolverine skins for trade to the Eskimo. Use of Bows by Loucheux. As late as twenty-five or thirty years ago (if not more recently Mr. Hodgson says) the Loucheux of Rampart House frequently came to the post with only bows and arrows, though they owned guns. They explained this was " because they were hunting moose," as they preferred the bow for this use. Bows are still in use in almost all parts of the ]\Iackenzie, though in some districts use is confined to women or to shooting birds and rabbits. Shape of Snowshoes. The round Yukon toe is now, at least in use on Bear Lake for women. Harry Hodgson says, a shoe may be the proper woman's shoe, however, so long as the toe overlaps and is lashed. The men's shoes have this toe, a slight knob and lashing confined to one groove around the toe, as far south as Providence. Loucheux only, use round toe for both sexes. Kittegaryuit Eskimo had the same toe as Bear Lake, but perforated and laced instead of lashed and no knob. Tan. does not think women's shoes differed from men's. At his place B. says (inland from Port Clarence) the men had the sharp toe as at Kittegaryuit and women slightly rounded. Pan. says the people of the Colville had the round toe (Yukon) for both sexes, but the part of the shoe in front of the foot was generally narrower on women's shoes. Conservatism. Our house, though in a clump of spruce woods, is floored with large, crooked willows. "There are few good willows," they say in explanation, but they won't put spruce boughs for " they are not as good flooring as willows." Anderson tells that on the Chandelar River in 1908-9 they often went far and spent a long time in getting willows for the floor of a one-night camp when spruce were at hand and could be secured in a quarter of the time. On the Chandelar, too, they used to camp on bare sand-bars in the middle of the river and carry firewood a quarter of a mile when they might just as easily have pulled their toboggan in among the trees to a good campsite. These toboggans by the way, were made the same width as the big runner sleds, so that the man walking ahead could not break a trail through soft snow more than half the width of the sled. Neither do they really try to break trail, they merely walk ahead of the sled, and that generally on big snowshoes that go on top while the dogs behind flounder to the belly. And all this in spite of the fact that most of those Eskimo who go to the woods at 278 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, all are familiar with Indian methods and have themselves been among woods in winter since children, and so their fathers before them, e. g. Kuwurmiut, Napatogmiut, the people south of them and the Colville people who hunt south of the mountains, chiefly over the Itkillik River pass. Eskimo Pemmican. (Pan. says) Eskimo make pemmican occasionally, but only as a food for children. She has seen it made only of dry pounded back-meat and bone grease of caribou ; more often a similar food for children is made of bone grease and boiled back or leg meat minced fine with a knife. Tan. knows of no such food, nor of pounded meat except for making akutok, and not even that is often made there, though a favorite dish. The Copper- mine people make akutok occasionally, but onl}^ with seal oil as well as deerfat and "could not" therefore make any here last summer. Around the Yukon akutok is made of fish more often than meat, and often without deer fat. In the latter case snow is stirred in to make the grease thick. Comparison of Eskimo and Indian Customs, Character, etc. It may be that I am scarcely fitted by experience for a just comparison of the two people, but then a comparison may never have been attempted by anyone better fit. Anyway, the following is set down, with some diffidence far as Indian character goes; as to hunting methods, camps, etc., here there is little chance of my going far wrong, as I have discussed what I have seen with the Hodgson's, Melvill, Hornby, and the Indians themselves. Johnny Sanderson, while quarter or half white is an Indian in bringing up and in his ideas. The Two Peoples as Travelers. The Indians carry less impedimenta in winter and in that matter have the advantage. The Coppermine Eskimo, who carry less than any other Eskimo I know, always carry the table and and other wooden furniture that goes with the lamp, besides the lamp itself and the cooking pot. They carry no tent in winter, but the Indians fre- quently also travel without the lodge, making "open camps" in the wood. When tents are carried, the advantage in weight is with the Indians, for the lodge weighs no more than the modern tents of the Western Eskimo and the Eskimo carry the willow framework in addition, bulky and a little heavy. Pitching camp seems to take about the same time with the lodge and the beehive tent. But when the tent is once pitched there is no comparison in comfort. In fact, the word "comfort" is out of place in describing a lodge camp, at least in cold weather. But thrust a foot clad in a woolen stocking (skin would burn) as near the fire as you can bear it, and hoar frost will form on the back of your toes. It is almost impossible to dry anything, as steam rises in clouds from the snow-covered ground from the cooking and from anything in fact that gets warm. Frequently, I was unable to see Anderson's face, though he was my next neighbor, for the steam from the 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 2<'9 ground. This steam condenses on the away-from-the-fire-side of any gar- ment hung up, and alternately condenses and melts on the fire-ward side, as the fire varies in heat. If one attempts to bank the tent, it smokes, and if one camps in a low place (valley) it usually smokes anyway. This is hard on the eyes besides the moment's discomfort. Anderson was nearly blind some days and suffered considerable pain. A lodge cannot be tolerably pitched unless at least a half-dozen poles be found of a length three or four feet greater than the height of the lodge or poles thirteen or fourteen feet long, and to be well pitched the smallest lodge should have twelve poles, while I have seen eighteen used, and seen old lodge frames of over twenty. Then from a quarter to a third of a cord of good dry wood is needed for the night (say three hours) and for breakfast (say two hours) and if one remains in camp all day a cord will be used up in cold weather. A beehive Eskimo tent can be pitched anywhere on ice or land, it furnishes some comfort though no wood be found, and a stove and two or three armfuls of wood, such as a farm boy carries to the kitchen stove, will cook two meals and dry one's clothes, keeping the tent so comfortable that one can sit in shirtsleeves or stripped, Eskimo fashion. Two points of advantage the lodge has over a tent. It dries deer meat or fish faster than any other ordinary way, and keeps off bluebottles and gives an agreeable smoke flavor. Back meat or sinew meat cut thin is thoroughly dry in two days. This sort of meat has the place most nearly over the fire; it is intended for making "pounded meat" and pemmican. The boneless ribs are half-dry in the same time, though hung farther from the fire. Ribs the Indians never thoroughly dry, as they are intended for boiling. In the matter of which are better long distance runners I have no opinion of one's superiority over the other. There are many white men who state positively the Indians are much better, but these are, so far as I know, men who know only the Indians. It is true that the Indians travel faster and stop more seldom in traveling short distances; but the apparent reason, nowadays at least, is that they are so poorly dressed they have to keep moving to keep warm, while an Eskimo is usually, if not always, comforta- bly warm on the body and can therefore take his ease anywhere by turning his face away from the wind. As hunters of caribou it seems to me clear the Eskimo are better men. The Indians have about the same methods of driving deer as the Eskimo and if they differed materially I would not be competent to contrast them as to efficiency. They snare more deer than the Eskimo trap or snare but that is through the advantage of better local conditions. But in "straight hunting " the Indian has but one way if trees are absent for cover. He walks 280 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Nalural History. [Vol. XIV, or runs straight at the caribou, shoots poorly at long range, and depends on the caribou's curiosity and frequent stops to get in range at all. This method is equally used by the western Eskimo (the Coppermine people do not seem to use it), but only in one of two cases; when the weather is calm and the snow crusty, too stealth}^ approach is impossible through the deer's acute hearing; or when the deer have accidentally seen or heard the hunter and further concealment is to no purpose. Otherwise, the Eskimo have the habit of careful approach, and can often get within one hundred yards of a band of deer on even level ground, while if there are several Eskimo their approach to deer is often worthy of the term Hanbury applies when he calls it "a carefully planned campaign." From some point of vantage the ground is studied out (nowadays usually with the use of glasses) with reference to the wind, the direction the deer are moving, etc. It often takes an Eskimo all day to approach a band that an Indian would be shoot- ing at fifteen minutes after he saw them ; but then an Eskimo is about five times as likely to get his deer, and does not scare the animals off the hunting ground to such an extent as the Indians do. The method used by the Bear Lake Indians is well enough where caribou, when they come, come in thousands and can be butchered off hand; but in a country such as Horton River, where one needs to kill a large portion of the deer seen in order to live, they would starve, as indeed the Good Hope Indians have been completely starved out of Horton River, their ancestral hunting grounds. On Horton River we can live well by attending to the hunt at proper seasons. As companions when traveling my experience confirms that of Hanbury (who could contrast Eskimo and Indians from personal knowledge). Pike, Russell, etc. They are always whining when something goes wrong, are always ready to break a bargain, always haggling for more pay, always homesick and worrying about not being able to see their little grandnephews, or other distant relatives. They are afraid to go out of the territory of their own tribe, except along the Mackenzie highways of travel. None of these faults the Eskimo have in general, or at least none of them are so universally evident. Our man Ilavinirk is always worrying about starvation in a strange country, but he has some cause. He has starved, and his health is poor, he has frequently in the past been unable to hunt or travel for weeks at a time. B. and P. have none of the above faults, and T. only some of them slightly developed — is homesick, a little lazy, a good deal thoughtless and very lacking in initiative. The Indians are very much on their dignity, I have never seen an Eskimo who was. Johnnie, for instance, felt very grieved at having to do women's work, cut up meat to dry, find spruce boughs for flooring the lodge, etc. There are lazy Eskimo, but I have never known one of them to refuse doing a thing be it sewing, tending the baby. 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 281 cutting up meat, or what not on the ground that he was too important a person to do these things. F'ew Eskimo will stand being harshly spoken to. They will leave an individual employer or a ship at no matter what loss of pay, etc., promptly if harshly spoken to by the man in highest authority be the reproof deser^-ed or not. Indians, it seems from Johnnie's case and what I have heard will not only stand sharp words, but will be more atten- tive and better servants if occasionally dressed down a bit. Honesty, at least "business honesty," is on a higher level among the Eskimo. The Akuliakattagmiut would not accept the smallest thing with- out paying for it; the "Western P^skimo through long training, have become beggars to a degree, but not as the Indians. But if the Western Eskimo promise pay they will deprive themselves of "necessities" and luxuries to meet their bills. An example were the people to whom Cadzow gave credit at Rampart House the winter of 1906-7. He gave them no more than he was accustomed to give Indians as gratuities, but some of them made a three hundred mile trip from the coast (Alekak, Tullurak) to pay bills of three or five fox skins, and carried fox skins for the settlements of debts of others. They were so far from Cadzow that they needed have no fear of his attempting collecting or even seeing him. It might be that Alekak and Tullurak paid their debts to get more credit; this can't be though of those who sent their furs with these two to pay debts. Most of these, or all, were without a remote notion of ever again seeing Cadzow. As a contrast, an Indian at Norman will run up as big a bill as he can with one trader, and then, before that trader's face, take his furs to a ri\-al trader to avoid paying his debts, and then change his trading post for another when he can get no more credit at Norman. Even now Eskimo take no "debt" from the traders at Peel River, though some are often urged to do so, for the traders know that if they can sell to a man more than he can pay for, that man will bring the furs next year to them, whereas they might otherwise go to a whaler. And having brought furs to pay his bill, he will probably bring also the rest, for he won't have the time to go back to the "Fort" and Herschel Island (to the ships) without forfeiting his chances of the summer white whale hunt and the fishing. I have, however, known cases of misrepresentation, cheating and real " confidence games " among the Mackenzie Eskimo. There are also thieves, but they are few, everybody knows them for thieves, and they are looked down on, a few years ago they would have been killed. Comparisons of Ethnological Interest. Tonsure hair-cutting was and is even now by old men, Johnnie says, practised on Bear Lake. It was Mackenzie River Eskimo style, and not like that of Coppermine. Bear Lake Indians and (all?) Eskimo put bait on hooks alike, lash it 282 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, to the stem of the hook, instead of putting it on the point of the hook, as we do. Bear Lake people had one-piece bows. Kittegaiyuit both, though three-piece were the rule and one-piece were toys, children's bows, and women's etc. The Coppermine people have only three piece bows, except very small boys who use a caribou rib or unshaped stick. Bear Lake people use caribou skin pants for cold weather, especially for crossing Bear Lake. These are (nowadays at least) made in the ordi- nary Noatak style. Mr. Hodgson says pants and socks were always in one piece on Porcupine, a la women and old men of Western Eskimo. Nowadays, Indians generally consider garments of fur more or less "infra dig," though both sexes wear caribou coats in traveling, the women's coats longer than the men's. January 30. Indian Beliefs. Johnnie and Anderson saw two ravens fly over them the second day out from Langton Bay. One of these kept turning half-somersaults in the air and croaking as he did so, as ravens often do. Johnnie tells that "Indians believe" this is a sign that the men who see the raven do this will soon kill caribou. The raven ducks thus to imitate a man shouldering a heavy load of meat. February 19. Theories of Disease. Tan. says either men or dogs may lose their gall. In that case they become ill and usually die; the symptoms are such as Dekoraluk (a dog) has now, inability to close the mouth, un- willingness to eat, staggering gait and later inability to stand up, etc. February 20. Beliefs. Pan. when small was forbidden to eat at the same meal, berries and seal meat, especially if fresh. They habitually ate berries with old seal oil, but must not use fresh. Grown people feared this prohibition less than children. Tan. says he was forbidden to eat bowhead whale, meat, skin, or oil, while his labret holes were healing. February 27. Beliefs. Pan. says the Noatagmiut, Killirmiut, etc., believe that if a child " before he gets understanding," before seven or eight years, is continually forbidden to do things it wants to do, continually "don't do that," "stop your noise," etc., their ears become like dogs' ears and they are stupid throughout life. If a man has big ears, or is stupid, people know he has been forbidden to do what he wanted to do when a child. Tan. confirms this for Kittegaryuit, but is not sure of the dog's ears, knows that stupid people are so in the degrees in which they have been for- bidden to do things. Pan. says it is better to run the danger of a child pricking his eye out with a sharp knife than to forbid him the knife if he wants it and thus have the certainty of making him stupid. March 2. Beliefs. One of the lobes of a caribou liver is called "the thumb," (kublua). Mothers that are bringing up young sons should eat 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 283 this. (Killirmiut, Noatagmiut, etc., Pan. says). When the boy grows up to be a man and hunts deer, the bands will circle about him in a curve shaped like the outside (margin) of this lobe. This will give him a chance to kill many at once, while if his mother had not taken the precaution to eat this lobe, the deer might have run straight away from him. There is a story ("Unipkak") that tells of this, and a song in it about making the caribou circle as if running around the lobe of a huge caribou liver, but Pan. knows neither. March 4- Pan. tells, a few years ago she and a large party of people were traveling in winter. They had gone up the Killirk branch of the Colville and had reached the head of the Kivirk, which flows into the Yukon. There were a few trees where they camped the night in question. Among the party was the elderly man Kenoranna, his wife Oki'laerk, their son Tiiriirak or Tu'-yak (a grown man). These pitched camp a little (a hun- dred yards perhaps) away from the rest of the party. When all camps were made, the rest of the party noticed that Turnrak's party had a fire outdoors and that the old man Kenoranna sat by it, but his wife and their son were inside the tent. Later they heard Kenoranna crying " Let me in, why don't you let me into the warm tent?" Later he began upbraiding his son: "It is only a few days since you ate in one day five ptarmigan I killed. I am not decrepit. I am feeling a little sick tonight but it is nothing serious. I shall not die if you let me in." Later as the strong wind in- creased (nlgirk) the cries became inarticulate, but were still loud and plainly heard in the camps of the rest of the party, for the wind blew that way. Towards morning the cries died away. Everybody knew that Kenoranna was not seriously sick, and people thought it mean of his son not to let his father in, seeing he was not very sick. Kenoranna had another son, Puk- taun, who was away hunting deer. When he returned he was angry at his brother for having let their father freeze to death when he was not seriously ill. Kenoranna's wife cried the next day for her husband. Puktaun and Okilaerk are since dead; Turnrak still lives, usually stays with Aiaki (Kanirkpuk) and is probably in the Mackenzie delta, P. tells on the Ikpikpuk in summer a boat party was traveling. One boat contained a middle-aged woman and her son, who was sick. He was uncomfortable in the boat and urged his mother that they remain and wait for the next boat party which was coming behind, allowing their present companions to go ahead. So they stayed in their tent and their companions proceeded. But when it got nearly dark the mother was afraid to stay alone over night with a sick man so she started off for the camp (about eight miles away) of the party for whom they were waiting. When she got there she told: "He called after me; 'Mother, don't leave me when I am sick 284 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, and our friends are sure to be coming- along soon in their boats.' But I dared not stay in the night with a sick man." The next morning they all went to the sick man's tent and found he had shot himself in the night. The dead man's name was Irkaark, his mother's, Akergavik; they were Killir- miut. Akergavik is now dead too. She was the younger sister of the Okilaerk of the preceding story. This happened about ten years ago. Note: This was in the time of epidemic and five members of the party were already dead. March 9. Beliefs. Pan. says Nogatak and Killirk women might not eat the inside membrane of the ribs, i. e., the membrane covering the side of the rib that is towards the intestines or lungs, of mountain sheep or brown bears. They might eat the meat of no part of a sheep that was front of the eighth rib, counted from behind, except as follows: the leg back of a plane bisecting each from leg from the middle of tlie shoulder blade to the middle of the hoof, and the meat above a horizontal plane bisecting the neck Acrte- brae from the head to the trunk, i. e. they must not eat the head, ventral halves of the front legs, ventral portion of neck, or any part of the back vertebrae behind the neck and front of the eighth rib counted from behind. They were forbidden also the heart, that part of the intestinal fat that is near the pelvis, and any part of the pelvis itself. They were, however, allowed the kidneys and kidney fat. When eating lungs they must be careful not to eat any of the bronchial tubes. They were not allowed to eat any sheep marrow. A man might eat any part of a sheep. Children of both sexes ate all parts; the first menses put a girl in a class with the women. Women were allowed to eat any part of a caribou, except during menses, when they must not eat caribou heads. Tan. tells, when he was small he did not believe in ghosts (turnrat), in angels (which he called nelluarmiut keyukkat), or in God and was never afraid to be alone day or night. Now he knows of the existence of all these and is afraid to be alone not only at night but also sometimes in the daytime. He thinks a man who does not believe in turnrat or in God deserves no par- ticular credit for not being afraid at night. Pan. says the beliefs of dift'erent families varied among Killirmiut. Her husband believed it was safe for her to eat of only five ribs of a sheep of each side. He told her not to eat of any of the first four or the last three ribs, the ones between she might eat. March 12. Names of Dogs. T. and P. agree that dogs usually have names of dogs now dead which usually belonged to people now dead, most often to the parents of the man whose dog now bears the name. Pan. once owned a team (five or six) all but one of whom had names from folklore stories (unipkat). Of the three we have had, Kaiiivagok and Ukunerk had folklore names. 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 285 Richardson. Pan. tokl me that she learned at Rae River last spring that Natjinna who was with us all summer, one of the sons of Ekallukpik, had been named after the white man who came to Rae Ri^■er when Ekalluk- pik was a boy. This information Natjinna himself repeated last summer so both Pan. and Tan. heard, though now is the first I knew of it. "Nat- jinna" from "Richardson" is certainly as close as Velvinna from Melvill and Caunapina from Hornby. For a test, I spoke Richardson's name as we would in ordinary unemphatic conversational speech. Both Pan. and Tan. heard it and repeated it to me as Natjisin. March 13. Iglu. Pan. says the people between the Yukon and the Kuwuk, most of them had never heard the word " iglu" and would not have understood it, had they heard it. At that time there came to them (near St. iVIichaels) a man who was gathering folklore, ethnological specimens, etc. This man told them that the "Kagmalit" spoke of a house as an "iglu." This they would not have believed, seeing it was only a white man who told it, had not her mother spoken up and confirmed it by saying it might well be so for she had heard the name when she was among the imarxhlit and the Okioviigmiut. Pan. is not sure it was known by the Nogatagmiut, she thinks it was known but seldom or never used. All the Colville people knew it twenty years ago, she says, " for they traded every summer with the Cape Smythe people." South of the Kuwiik the word for a house was " Tu- pergruk" or some dialectic variant. Itjaligan'rak was the word for a tent (or Kallrovik). Tuperk, covered both houses and tents, a common, non- discriminating name. Napaktak, a tent similar to an Indian tipi, though hole in top smaller, and covered when it rained, no fire in summer unless to dry meat or fish. Panapkak, was a white man's style wall tent. Nan- maunak was a tent that had a ridge pole and rafters running at right angles to it, usually giving wall tent shape. Itjak was the name for the ordinary tent cover. It consisted almost invariably of six caribou skins, all legs and heads being left on the skins. Ilavinirk has advanced to me the theory that it was called itjak because there were six skins (six, itjaksrat) but it is much more probable that six gets its name from the fact that six skins were itjaksrat (i. e., materials for a tent, i-tjak, tent; srak = material for). March 14- Swimming was known by two (Roxy) men only in the Mackenzie district when Memoranna was a boy. Pan. says several Cape Smythe men knew it, but she thinks they learned on their trading expeditions to Nirlik. Both near the Yukon and on the Killirk everybody could swim. Young men and young women often went swimming either in separate parties or together. They used to make a fire to dry themselves before dressing. The maturer girls used to wear breeches, the yoilnger girls and the bovs none. 286 Anthropological Papers American Museum, of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, This summer Pan. was told by Natjinna's wife that a few years ago, when they crossed the Dease River, the string broke by which they were ferrying their goods across on a raft. There was no man on the raft. Huprok, she said, then took off his clothes and swam (pubraktuak; to wade in deep water is turnmaktuak) to the raft and tied a line to it so the others could i)nll it ashore. When looking for musk-oxen, Natjinna's wife said, tliey used to cross the D(>ase (about eight miles above its mouth) and hunted northwest to the edge of the barrens. They habitually use a small raft, one or two men cross first trip, and after that the raft is hauled back and forth with a line. Beliefs. Pan. tells her husband spent a year at (\ipe Smythe before Brower came there. He told among other things the following. In the spring when they were about to go out to the edge of the floe to begin looking for whales, each umialik (master of a whaleboat) would take a dish in which his wife had pla('(>d four small pieces of muktuk ("black skin," true skin, and say quarter of an inch of blubl)er) and whale meat. Going to the trap- door (houses at Cape Smythe had only trapdoors then) he would stand astrifle the trapdoor with his back towards the door of the alleyway, face towards tlu> bed-platform end of the house, and throw the pieces one by one between his legs through the trapdoor towards the door of the alleyway. As he did this he said (in part) : Piiioarrumiut oxsroktoriarittji (name of a second group of people for- gotten by the narrator) oxsroktoriaritji dxsroksraksi nuarra. Oxsroksrap- signik aiyognaaitjuamik aixlirniaktugut. This paraphrase is not likely to be accurate e\en for the ])art of the speech which it pretends to cover, but probably gives a correct idea, of the trend of the speech. Names. At Cape Smythe at one time there were four men who bore the name Appaiyauk. One of these was called Appaiyaugnak, that may have been his name from the first, or it may have been given him later in life to distinguish him from the others. The most prominent of the four was always called Appaiyauk. The remaining two Appaiyauks were given the distinguishing suflixes, -hlux, and -tjiak. Appaiyaxhluk is now dead but Appaiyauxtjiak is the one still living and at present one of most important men at Cape Smythe. When the prominent Appaiyauk died (but Appai- yauxhluk, brother of Tagluksrak's wife still lived) the -tjiak was removed from the present umialik's name. He has since been plain Appaiyauk. At Herschel Island, etc. and at Cape Bexley and east I have heard of no such distinguishing suffixes being applied to men of the same name. March 14- Names. A child is named Keyuk from one of several Keyiiks. The one from whom the child is named is "oma atk"a" (that 1014.] The Slef a nsson- Anderson Expedition. 287 one's name), the others are not the ehild's "name," tliough they bear the same name. Boots. Boots for long journeys were sometimes carried in large number. Pan. has known of a man who started in midwinter and did not expect to return till spring carrying ten pairs along. April 6. Coppermine River. Started 11: 30, camped 6: 45. Distance fifteen or eighteen miles. Followed seaward side of island chain extending with few short breaks about parallel to shore. Found autumn snow village of twelve houses on the Limestone Island, seaward side. Saw later autumn track of one sled and found just before camp one footprint by a piece of wood that had been chopped this fall with an adze. ApriJ 7. Old ehoppings (last fall) at camp place, no other signs of people. Found wood enough for one night's fuel on a small point on about one hundred yards of beach — all small broken pieces. In Jun(> no doubt plenty wood for sledding camps everywhere. April 10. The F'uture. For o^■er a century since Hearnc first saw an encampment of them at Bloody Vi\\\ the Coronation Gulf Eskimo have made little "progress towards civilization." It was probably after Hearne's time that they first saw an article of European manufacture; later they got a few scraps of iron, etc., by plundering the abandoned boats and gear of the Franklin expedition; Richardson traded the Rae River group a few knives, files, and needles, and so did Rae a little later; Collinson's ships traded with widely separatcnl parties at Cambridge Bay and on Prince of Wales Strait and threw heaps of emi)ty tin cans and other waste gear ashore; M'Clure's abandoned ship on the north coast of Banks Island may have become Eskimo spoil, though he never saw Eskimo on Banks Island, as well as some wreckage from Franklin's ill-fated ships on the east coast of Victoria Island. Of recent years articles of iron have begun to come in more freely by overland native trade from Hudson Bay. Firearms and the fur trade are known by hearsay, though they have not as yet penetrated into Coronation Gulf proper. From the present year, howe\er, change will be rapid. Our imwilling ministrations this summer broke down the walls of fear and hatred that ignorance of each other has till now maintained and that has since effectively kept apart the Coppermine Eskimo and the Bear Lake Slavey. The fur- trading post on Bear Lake River (Fort Norman) is the natural market for Coronation Gulf. The white men there are eager for the Eskimo's furs; the missionaries there are no less eager to extend their activities. Both Avill go to the sea if necessary to attain their ends. The Eskimo, after familiarity with our outfit for a summer, are set on getting guns, fish nets and tools, now that thev know the Indians are really a harmless lot and 288 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, friendly. In a year or two the Eskimo would go to the traders if the traders did not come to the Eskimo. And if neither Eskimo nor trader had the enterprise to seek the other, the Indians are eager to act as middlemen be- tween. Commerce in goods may, therefore, be said to have begun; com- merce of ideas cannot help following close behind. From the point of view of the ethnologist and sociologist the result of these new forces is clear, the rapid change of ideas, institutions and material surroundings. Up to the present, three-quarters of the food of the people has been the seal and three-quarters of the year have been spent in its pursuit. The sea has therefore, been their home, the snow hut their dwelling. But the coming of the trader and the acc^uisition of guns will give the land a lure it formerly did not have and increasingly the people will become land-dwellers seeking furs with which to buy articles to supply their newly discovered wants. At first making a living on land will be easy, for caribou are still numerous. The result will be that the people will live on caribou meat for twelve months a year (some of them, at least) instead of three or four; where they had one dog to hunt seal-holes for them in w^inter they will now have teams of four or six with which to make long winter journeys (or so it has been in the west of the Baillie Islands) and these dogs also will feed on caribou meat. At present the caribou has in winter a wide zone of safety between the Indians who dare not face the barren ground and the Eskimo who prefer the sea coast. But the Eskimo fear the woodless barrens about as much as a fish fears water, and when the fur trade draws them inland the doom of the last musk- ox will l)e not a decade away nor that of the last caribou many decades. This will have its efi'ect on those northern tribes of Indians who are still to an extent caribou-eaters, while the flisappearance of the caribou will drive the Eskimo back again to the sea coast. They will then have to get all their living from the water instead of three-fourths of it as at present and will have to dress in sealskins where they now use caribou. By then they will have learned tea drinking, tobacco using, etc., and will have lost their eco- nomic independence as completely as have all Eskimo west of the Baillie Islands. They will then be less well fed than at present, less well clothed, richer only in ideas without which they now live content and in wants which their poverty will never completely satisfy. The Coronation Gulf people look to the immediate future with eager anticipation; so do also the fur-traders at Fort Norman. As a spectator with no material interests at stake the writer feels that the trader is to be congratulated, but not the Eskimo. In closing a chapter on the Eskimo of King William Land Captain Amundsen says: "My best wish for my friends of the Netchillik Eskimos is that civilization may never reach them." It had reached them even when that line was written, or its wants and its vices had, and that is 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 289 all of civilization that is readily absorbable. It is now about to obliterate the last oasis of economic independence on our continent, the populous district surrounding Mctoria Island. I would wish these people the same wish that Amundsen did their neighbors to the east, but I should have to put it in a past tense and should have to add a regret that I had a part in bringing the change about. April 10. Range of Ideas. The people east and north of Cape Bexley were probably even in the earliest days among the most isolated groups of Eskimo an^-where. A comparison of them a hundred years ago with the then equally uncivilized Mackenzie Eskimo would probably have, even then, shown in intellectual things a heavy balance in favor of the westerners. However that may have been, the difference in range of ideas today is marked. Unfortunately, the sixteen years of Herschel Island whaling that preceded the writer's first visit to the Mackenzie Delta had made it difficult to determine for that locality what ideas were local there or of ancient intro- duction, what ones were borrowed recently from the Alaskan Eskimo, whom the whalers brought with them, and what had been absorbed from the white men directly. Nevertheless a comparison will be attempted on the basis of what seems to be local and primitive in the Mackenzie district. Inability to count in the Coronation Gulf district has a wide direct influence; it is besides an index to their general mental status. At the Baillie Islands and west any grown person can count up to four hundred (twenty twenties) ; at Cape Bexley, in Victoria Island, and east at least as far as the Kent Peninsula no one can count above five. Even this seems to be a numerical vocabulary beyond their wants. In summer nothing is of so much interest or importance to them as the caribou, yet of all the people we have lived with and hunted with, no one (unless cross-questioned by us) ever used a numeral larger than "two" to designate the number of caribou seen or killed. If there were more than two but less than six they knew how many they were but never told. The expression for more than two was invariably "many" (amihuar'yuit). When we pressed them for more exact details they could tell us "three, four, or five," but with impatience as if ours was unreasonable or childish curiosity. If there were over five the answer would be; "I don't know how many, very many." Of certain things, such as the population of a small village, they have approximately correct ideas of number to and even above fifteen and will indicate this by holding up their ten fingers and getting some bystander to hold up as many more as are needed to complete the total, prompting him by "one more finger" till he holds up the required number. Of such a performance the main performer seems very proud and the assembled crowd finds it highly amusing. It is probable that it is seldom except when we ask questions 290 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV. that anyone finds occasion to express a number above five. We never heard a man not of our party ask any question in regard to exact number after he had been told " many." In the Mackenzie district a band of caribou seen is usually reported by exact number if there are less than ten; over that number careful estimates are let suffice, e. g. "over twenty," "less than forty," etc. It is in fact, usually, exceedingly difficult to count caribou correctly if the band is over ten animals. April 10. Started today at 11 :45 A. M. and followed sled trail 20° Mag. about fifteen miles to people. Enthusiastic welcome, one or two old acquaintances from our summer on the Dease, the Footless (Itigoaittok) family. Say we have narrowly missed numerous parties of people to the west. Report the "Teddy Bear" wintering just east of Coppermine. Camped in excellent vacant snowhouse, fitted up for us and furnished with lamp and drying rack. Ayril 12. The Pallirmiut who come to Uminmiiktok to trade come from a wooded (spruce) river in the south called Pallirk (a branch of the Akili- nik?). The Kaernermiut. The Eskimo who were with Hanbury are called Kaernermiut usually, but are sometimes called Pallirmiut. The girl Ihyiimatok is named so after "the white man who came to Iglihsirk on Dismal Lake." Day occupied in taking cephalic measurements of all but one boy (four years) of the fifteen people here, and in buying ethnological specimens. Prices very different from last spring on account of ship's bujdng. Most who sold garments cut off piece to throw away, some did not. Iron Work. There are here some large three-cornered ulus from the Pallirmiut (made by them), many spear-shaped knives said to be made by the Pallirmiut by sawing gun barrels lengthwise and beating them out cold so as not to lose the temper. Knives of files are made here by heating files to softness, working down with a stone and retempering. Blubber pails are like water pails except shallower and wider. Cooking. Seal blood is kept in large pails of "Nelluak," one seen was about 21 ft. long, 1| ft. wide and 1| ft. deep. The blood is kept frozen in these. For cooking, the blood is broken off in chunks by pounding with the muskox-horn blubber pounder. Raw blubber is chewed by the women and spat into the pots in which cooking is going on, the fat is too closely trimmed off the meat being cooked to give enough fat to the soup. Food. There is not the slightest prejudice against eating caribou meat on the ice. We had a hundred or so pounds fresh meat and some dry meat when we came. We hid part of the dry meat, but the fresh and the rest 1914.) The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 291 of the dry meat were quickly eaten up. They ate fresh blubber with it (there is no old blubber to be had) and ate meals of boiled fresh seal meat within an hour or two before and after eating deer meat. Saw children eat deer meat and seal meat at the same meal. Fish Spears. Not possible to get three-pronged fish spears on the handle, as handles are always thrown away when they move camp far. Handles are always rude therefore, being only temporary affairs, so I had one set of prongs mounted on a stub handle to show size and position of prongs. Handles are any length needed in the particular locality, some over twenty feet long. April 13. B. with two women, Arnauyak and Anaktak, to fetch people of next village. They went east about five or six miles, found deserted village and trail southwest. Found people by going southwest seven or eight miles and came home from a little west of south at dark. Two sleds came with them and one had come ahead, two boys to pay this village a visit. They had started for here before B. got to their camp. "Igliki" whom Hanbury saw is coming tomorrow. He treated B. especially well and fed our dogs half a seal, the first square feed since they came here. April Uf.. A dance house was then built by clearing away the Footless family's alleyway, cutting a six feet high arch in their wall where the door used to be, and building a ten by twelve snowhouse so that those that were crowded out of the new house could stand in the Footless house and watch the dancing through the arch. Dancing about two hours when it broke up on account of the visitors being anxious to get back home for a square meal. We had stayed so long keeping people from sealing that the village was out of meat. They told me they did not want to go sealing for fear of our getting lonesome. Went with visitors six miles south to their camp, which is apparently some ten or twelve miles from the mainland, a trifle west of north true, from the mouth of the Kogluktualuk, which is the place whence comes the mate- rial for most of the stone pots and lamps in this locality. Mammoth bones have been found "to the west," I can't learn how far west, perhaps it is only a story from the times when there were trade rela- tions with the Mackenzie. They keep asking us if we hunt mammoth, or see them alive. They say their neighbors to the west near Rae River, they heard, a few years ago found mammoth bones on sea ice near shore. They don't know if any bones were saved. We never heard of this at Rae River. Contact with White Men. Iginiirk and Ulipsinna told me separately that their grandfather had seen white men near the Coppermine but their father never had, nor they themselves except when Igli^hirk saw Hanbury. An old woman was about six years old when her father saw white men on 292 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, Rae River, she herself did not see them. I asked IgU^hirk if he had heard of ships being broken and white men dying on the east coast of Victoria Island. He is the first man I have seen who knows Victoria Island has an east coast. He said no ; but he had heard of two ships being broken in the ice off shore east of Victoria Island and all the men eventually dying. Had any of the white men lived a while among the Eskimo? Not that he had heard. Anarak says he really belongs west of Cape Bexley; has often camped with the Haneragmiut but always hunted summers on the mainland with the Akuliakattagmiut or near them, a little west of them sometimes. Ig- li^hirk says just the same of himself. Anarak's wife also used to be with the Akuliakattagmiut. This perhaps accounts for her having more "fancy work" on her clothes and her husband's, the only man's garments here I have seen with red stripes. Natjinn is the young woman whose parents used to spend summer now and then on the Akilinik River. One of the sleds here (Kaiarlak's) has runners of folded musk-ox skin stiffened with willows and interstices full of ice. The cross-pieces and runners as well as the shape of the sled are the usual ones. Snowhouses. This village when we came consisted of one single snow- house, one double one, and two tents with snow walls. One family from other village came with us (Kaiariak, son of Igli^hirk) and built a house, the rest of the village will follow today. Deerskin Leggings. Could not buy today woman's large legging (ordi- nary cut) made of deerskin tanned white like "nelluak" with narrow red and white and black stripes in broad bands running up the front of the leg from ankle to hip and a crosswise band between ankle and knee. The narrow black and red stripes were deerskin, the white ones "nelluak" seal- skin, sewn by Niakoptak, wife of Anarak, who has lived at Bexley. Was told no other woman makes such clothes here. Stripe woi'k in general same as on man's leggings I bought. Mittens. Told also that they do not make the black and white tiger stripe mittens here ordinarily, only now and then "to have mittens like some of rest of our neighbors" i. e.. Cape Bexley, et al. April 22. At the Schooner "Teddy Bear." Place Names. Napak- toktok, first river east of Coppermine. Kugaryuak, eighteen miles east of Coppermine (second river east of Coppermine?) where "Teddy Bear" is wintering. Kogluktualuk, Tree River. Kogluktuaryuk, river flowing into Gray's Bay. West part Lambert Island, Kauvoktok. East part of Lambert Island, Igoktorlirk. Near here Dolphin and Union Strait never freeze, "Cagavok." Eskimo at Mouth of Rae River. Capt. Bernard first found Eskimo, as 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 293 he cruised south from Cape Krusenstern, at the mouth of Rae River (Ekal- lukpik, et al) August 20th, 1910. They had plenty of meat most of which they had no doubt speared, though they shot some with bows while " Teddy Bear" was there. Eskimo at ^Yest Mouth of Coppermine. At west mouth of Coppermine on a triangular island they found (Oct. 26) twenty-seven houses of people who were spearing fish between this triangular island and the bluff that marks the west bank of the Coppermine mouth. Some of these people also hooked for fish, though spearing was in three feet of water by an open hole at the river's mouth, the hooking was from three to five miles up stream. Capt. Bernard finally got as far up as Sledmaking River, and turned back. Cache on Read Island. On Read Island saw with glasses from ship a platform cache on wooden (?) posts with kayak (?) on it. Stone House. Saw dome-shaped stone house, old, no rafters used building it, on neck of Cape Krusenstern. April 25. Puiplirmiut. Five Puiplirmiut came over today from not far northwest of here. Clothing. Several coats seen here and there east of Cape Bexley have on hood the horns of the caribou, the velvet, no branches, as well as the caribou ears. April 29. En Route to Banks Island. A Deserted Camp. Started towards Banks Island April 29th, 3 : 15 P. M. At 5 : 45 came to temporarily deserted camp of people not at ship, kayak and other things, including blubber, en cache. At 6: 15 crossed our east going track of about middle of our second day going east along islands, between first and second islands. At 8:30 reached second deserted camp, permanently deserted. Camped in one of snowhouses. Most of houses here double. Have been told that usually, but not alw^ays, double houses are built by those who are in the habit of exchanging wives. Sorcery. B. heard it told April 28th that KoUronna is a great anatkok. Last winter he dropped his knife into a seal hole. He took an ordinary artegi, put it over the hole so that the hem completely circled the hole, and then reached with his arm through the neck of the coat down to the bottom of the sea. The sea had become so shallow it was up to his biceps only. B. saw the knife so recovered. B. believes the story. April 30. Started 10 : 45 A. M. following old trail. In about eight miles found camp not over two weeks abandoned, but could not trace trail by which they arrived there. One faint trail (a single sled) leading northwest, evidently had come overland from Lambert Island way. Did not follow this as hoped to find people off Krusenstern. At the first cape south of 294 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, Krusenstern found last fall's village, unknown number of houses as snowed over among the big ice cakes. Northeast of this cape, about one and a half miles found village of eight houses deserted three or four months. April 30. Near Cape Krusenstern. In all villages seen on ice far from land, doors faced south; in villages at point of Cape, doors in most or all directions. May 1. Puiplirmiut Village east of Lambert Island. Saw from camp an Eskimo village a mile or so east of Lambert Island. Started at 8 P. M., got there at 10: 30, slow going account dogs sweating, heavy load (took part of two deer killed) and soft snow, softened by thaw today. Camp consists of twelve snowhouses. People mostly Puiplirmiut, though many others here too. Kaminnok and his wife Miyuk who are really x^kuliakattagmiut are here now and were with Haneragmiut when we were there last May. Uluxarak (Akuliakattagmiut) is here too. Huprok and his brother Konirk (Kogluktogmiut) also here, and their parents. Others not seen before. None of these hungry last winter. Are killing ugrug now, got two today. Are not killing any caribou "because we have no guns." All, or most, are going to the ship and to Bear Lake. None here have seen white men except those who have seen us. (Huprok's and LTluxrak's families now here were at the ship last fall, however.) A good deal more prying and unpleas- ant forwardness than among the same people last spring. May 2. Near Lambert Island. Food. Deer and seal meat eaten at same meal and cooked in same pots, did not see both cooked together though. I asked them if they all did this, they said they knew it wasn't really right to cook both in same pot, but they always did it, never, however, without changing the strings by which the cooking pot is hung over the lamp. Deer and seal fat and meat raw and cooked eaten in almost or quite all the possible mathematical combinations. Snowhouses. Village near Lambert Island was all snowhouses (eight) when we arrived last night, by three P. M. today five of eight houses had skin roofs. It was a very warm day. This is almost three weeks earlier than at Cape Bexley last year and about ten days or two weeks later than at mouth of Kugaryuak. Summer Hunting Grounds. Say Puiplirmiut and Kanhiryuarmiut usually meet every summer where they hunt, probably north of Read Island. Say they go in three days from sea to sea (from near Read Island to Prince Albert Island) when they go to trade with Kanhiryuarmiut in winter. Say Kanhiryuarmiut are very timid, afraid of strangers. Drying Frame. Uluxsrak had drying frame over lamp with hoop of whalebone. Did not seem to know where bone was picked up, had bought frame from another man. 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 295 Copper Knives. Copper knife bought of Huprok (only one in camp) has history of at least four previous owners, all of them Puiplirmiut now dead. May 3. Deserted Village. Started 1 : 35 P. M. and at 2 : 30 arrived at deserted village on the trail of ten houses, i. e. Huprok's party now in nine houses were then in ten, or else someone has since left the party. People had evidentl}^ been here several days. Trail fresh to here, but beyond this hard to follow; only one sled track discernible most of time, though it occasionally coincided with an older trail of many sleds, that could now and then be faintly made out. At 5 P. M. arrived at old deserted village and simultaneously saw quarter mile south of it a small village of tents. Found here Apatok's family (10 persons), four other houses. May 3. Feathered Arrows. Saw wing of a black eagle found frozen on ice last fall, feathers intended for arrows. May 4- The teeth of an old woman here, Haviuyak, are worn even with the gums in both jaws and as far back as the eye teeth, molars slightly less worn. Not a single tooth seems to have fallen out. Many younger Eskimo, however, have lost several teeth. The black eagle of which we were shown a wing, is known here as Kopa- nakpuk. May 5. B. and all the men but Takuerkinna hunted seals due south from camp. The hunting ground was perhaps three or four miles west of the end of Lambert Island and a little south of it. There were "many ugrug but more seals " B. says. He had two ugrug of which one slid into the water and sank, though dead. One of the natives crawled up on a seal and stabbed at him, but got blood only (Kullark). The ice was so thin it could be felt heaving under one's weight "and in some places there was no ice probably" they say. Even when crawling flat-bellied towards seals the hunters keep stabbing their knives through the ice to test it. On the sealing ground the ice is in few places over two inches thick and mostly not over an inch. B.'s blunt "skinning knife" went through at every stab. Accidents are said never to happen to men or sleds " for we know where it is safe to go." B. said also he never saw so many ugrug in one locality as here last sum- mer. It would evidently be a great hunting place with boats in fall and nets in all seasons. The ice was everywhere smooth where the seals were. The seal holes were mostly " as big as tents and some oblong and much bigger than any tent." The current could be heard in most places under the ice and in the holes it could be seen running rapidly west. So far as we can learn it always runs west, though people seem to have paid no particular attention to it, and are therefore not to be relied on. 296 Anlhropologicnl Papers American. Museum of Natural Ilislory. [Vol. XIV, Ceremonial Gift of Caribou Meat to Dogs. A ceremonial gift of caribou meat to their dogs was made by Apatok's family the evening we came here. We had given each family about five pounds of meat and this was at once set to cook. I was eating with Apatok. When we were half through he asked his wife, "Have the dogs had any caribou meat yet?" "No. What can I be thinking about," said his wife, cut off a piece for each dog about the size of a pea and gave it to them. I take it that this was a ceremony, the dogs look well fed. They have plenty of seal meat on hand, and the pieces of caribou were so small anyway that they were a bare taste. Some dogs here are tied, some have one leg tied up to the neck, but most are loose. Food. Deer meat was here cooked in the seal pots without even chang- ing the strings they are hung up by, as do the Kogluktogmiut (at least Huprok's family), nor was any ceremony applied so far as I know, not even washing the pots between. Boots. Water boots, summer style, are worn by some, ordinary winter boots by others, and by a few sealskin leggings, hair out, with slipper made in the manner of the soles of water boots. May 6. Near Victoria Island. People by Shore of Victoria Island. Started 1 : 35 P. M. and took course generally true north. At 5 P. M. spied people by shore of Victoria Island ahead of us and got to camp of three houses at 5:35 P. M. Distance fifteen miles. People hunting seals only though camp by shore, now three days old. They have had hard luck and have only a day's supply of meat ahead. They are nevertheless very gen- erous with the little they have, more modest and pleasant people than we have before seen. None of them have been to the ship, which explains much. They are in conduct very like the Akuliakattagmiut last year. Camp is at mouth of Kogluktok River which "used to be a good fishing place but has ceased to have many fish. There are ugrug in its mouth though." Kogluktok River. Knowledge of Ships and White People. Some of people spend all summer in sight of the sea, none however saw "Teddy Bear" nor have they seen any other ship either winter or summer, or any white men at any time, nor have their ancestors. Food. Customs in general do not seem to differ from other people seen before. For first time saw deer droppings eaten. They had them in a bucket frozen and ate them as we do berries. Similarly when deer were killed at Kirkpuk's camp two days ago grubs were gathered in a small pail and passed around as a sort of dessert after the meal as we might nuts or fruit. Care of Infirm. One man of about forty-five, Avranna, is totally blind 1914.] The Stcfdnfifion-Atidcrson Expedition. 297 and has been "for a long time." He seems tenderly cared for and goes walking about outside with his cane, guided by the shouts of grown people or children warning him of obstacles and telling him where to go. May 7. Houses. Houses here have the land east of them but all have doors facing north, in that direction land is about two miles away. At last village (Kirkpuk's) three houses faced south, one east, and one north. The one facing east was north of a house facing south but there was no house immediately east of it and none farther north or west. Hunting Seals. Seals on top the ice are occasionally hunted here, both sorts. This method is called "auktok" (he hunts seals by crawling up to them on his stomach). The same word is used for this method at Mackenzie River and Port Clarence. Kirkpuk told me, "I have often seen people crawl upon seals (auxliigu) but I have never tried it myself." It seemed only the older men ever did it, of those in that village, and not even all of them, for Apatok said he never tried it. Roughly speaking, the Noahonir- miut (mainland) had ne\er done it and the Puiplirmiut (Simpson Bay, Victoria Island) had. Stone Houses. In nearly the bottom of the small bay just west of the mouth of the Kogluktok set a hinidred yards back from the present water- line, we found what we were told was " tiirnnrat iglukapcaluk." This was so covered with snow which must also have filled the inside that I did not attempt to unco\'er it. It would haAC taken a day's hard work. It seemed to be about eight feet high and about eight feet in diameter, about the shape of a trimcated cone, the truncated section not o^'er three feet across. It is said to have a door on ground le\el about the size of the door of an Eskimo (local) snowhouse, and children often use it for a play house in summer. "It was built by the turnrat long before the time of our forebears" (sivuli- vut). There is one other somewliat like it to the south at Tuktuktok. I could not make out positi\ely if this is the neck of Cape Krusenstern where Capt. Bernard found a similar house, though they said Tuktuktok was of a piece with the same land as Puiblirk. The house is built of flat limestone slabs, some of which must weigh over one hundred pounds even those near the top. There is no evidence of sod or moss between stones. The house is not at a conspicuous point on the coast that would attract attention of passing boats. People. People are said to be here and there (got no idea of how many) from here to Haneragmiut. The nearest village is Puiplirmiut, about six miles west, just west of an island which may be the most easterly one marked on the chart in Simpson Bay, just west of Clouston Ba}^ (Mouth of Kogluk- tok is probably in Clouston Bay). This village consists of four houses, probably about twelve people. I should have found out their names only I 298 Anthropological Papers Ajnerican Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV Fig. 89. Riiins at Point Atlvinson. *^ -^ Fig. 90. Ancient 8tono House, Simpson Bay, Victoria Island. 1914 The Slejdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 299 Fig. 91. Kitchens of Summer Camps, East Edge of Mackenzie Delta. Fig. 92. Tent Frame, Langton Bay. 300 Atithropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, intended going there but changed the plan on having to go about three miles inland for first deer killed by B. There were three of last village along who were to convey us to next village, but they turned home packing deer we gave them (Kalaark, Aialik, and Hinaxiak). Have been unable to form a definite idea of the total number of Puiplirmiut. Suppose I have seen aggregate of less than half. Near Nagyoktok we are said to have missed one party of them, and there are others west of ones whose village we intended visiting today. Musk-oxen never killed by Puiplirmiut when hunting at home. " Plenty "^ on other side Prince Albert Sound. May 9. Forsythe Bay. Eskimo Village at mouth of Kimiryuak, Visitors arrived about 1 A. M. this morning. Neglected to note yesterday we saw a native village with the glasses a mile or two southwest of the most easterly' island off the mouth of the Kimiryuak (Forsythe Bay, if Forsythe Bay is the narrow estuary or fjord-like bay and not the wider one west of it.) Two of the four families of this village had started inland in the afternoon, following the river. When they came to our trail the rest camped and two men followed us up. They must have known we were not of their people for B. used snowshoes. Probably guessed who we were, though they did not let on that they had. When they heard our names, however, they knew we were the party that had passed east last spring and asked where the rest were. They have been catching plenty seals and ugrug lately, the latter in the river mouth. They are going up the river to fish in some small lakes in which the river heads " not far inland." They will follow the river ice all the way so the stream cannot be crooked. Must come from the east or north- east, the latter more probable. The lakes in which the river heads are called small. The fish are sea fish (salmon?) and are caught with hooks. The rest of their party will follow them inland. " It is time, for ugrug are on top the ice by the shore." The ugrug caught lately were speared through the holes, winter fashion. The Uallinermiut. Older of two men asked B. if he were a Uallinermiut. On B's replying "Yes," he told us his wife's father was a Uallinermiut too. May 12. Near Prince Albert Sound. Food Taboos. Hunting with Hupgok last summer was a young man (B. tells), Kamoarlok (Kogluktok) who forbade anybody to break for marrow l)ones of caribou he had killed. Both ends must be sawed off to get the marrow. This was because " caribou might all leave the country, if the bones of any he had killed were broken for marrow." This man would break in the ordinary way bones of caribou killed by anyone else. He was the only one last summer who, so far as any of us learned, put restrictions on manner of eating marrow. B. says in his place he heard of people who had similar restrictions as to breaking marrow 1914.] The Stejdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 301 bones. When B. was young he had pain in his index finger. The doctor then told him that until he was a grown man he must not eat fish roe or he would quickly die. B. kept restriction some years but broke it before grown up. None of his people would eat ptarmigan heads with seal oil for fear of going blind. May 18. An Eskimo Village. Saw from our island village on ice bear- ing 270° from hill on south middle of island. Started for this at 3 P. M. after shooting and skinning one more caribou. Got to people sealing three miles southeast of village at 6 P. M. and to village at 7 P. M. Distance from island about ten miles. Evidently much nearer south than north shore of bay. Our reception seems worth describing. The three first approached showed some, timidity which quickly wore off and invited us to village. When within half mile they signalled meaning "The Togmiut are coming" by one man running oflP to the left from us at right angles to our course about ten yards and back to us again, this repeated twice. A crowd of men and boys then started to meet us, a crowd of women following a few yards behind, because of timidity or because slower runners. When they reached us we were surrounded by a howling friendly mob who jumped around us, pulled at our clothes to attract attention and all talked at once so no one could be heard. They were eager to help put up a tent, but of course were more hindrance than help. When the tent was up seventeen persons besides ourselves crowded into the tent (seven by seven feet square). When first approaching us all ran with upstretched hands, palms forward, saying: " Ilyeranaittugu t, Imainnarittugut," the latter words accompanied by an opening and closing of the palm to show there was no weapon held in the hand. Note: From this date to the entries of May 22 the author's diary is given in full as Chapter XVIII of My Life with the Eskimo. May 22. Cape Baring. Traces of People. Saw one snowhouse about a mile east of the pitch of Cape Baring yesterday (Alunak's, no doubt) about three hundred yards off shore, door facing southwest. Nearest way to land was south. Several "up-ended" stones seen near beach today and one grave (?). May 23. Traces of People. After leaving Clouston Bay and before reaching mountains proper, we saw six stone graves. All were conspicuously placed on top hills, but not on top the very highest, and were merely irregular low heaps of stones as they are at Parry. Saw no bones or artifacts. In one case two graves on same hilltop, about five yards apart, other graves isolated. Numerous "up-ended" stones and some stones placed on top of others, but none in regular lines as if deer drives. One tent ring seen of usual oval type. 302 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, Tent rings less conspicuous than graves and therefore more readily over- looked. "Up-ended" stones in mountains and one tent ring about twenty miles before reaching the Sound. One empty meat or blubber cache seen on Ualliraluk Island. Ugrug. According to Hitkoak there are plenty ugrug near tJnahiktak Island off the bay of the Ekalluktogmiut. Names of People and Places. According to Hitkoak the Ahlagmiut are south of the Ekalluktogmiut on the mainland. Aulativigyuak and Pitokirk (Peelokek of Hanbury) are in their country. Hitkoak has been at the Akilinik only above the lakes; he has heard there are lakes in it down stream from where he was; he has forgotten the names of them. He has been at Uminmuktok. In front of it is the island Ekalluligaluk (Barry Island?). Kilaktorvik is a small river near Uminmuktok. Ku'nayuk is a river just west of Aulativigyuak (White Bear Point). Aulativigyuak is so called because it is a great place to hook for fish. Kiilgayuk another river just west of the Kimayuk. The people that frequent the Akilinik are the Ahiagmiut and the Kaernermiut. The Kaernermiut. The Kaernermiut (according to Hitkoak) never kill seals, but live on caribou and musk-oxen. Their land is east and south of the Aliiagmiut. They never come to the sea except as single families visiting other tribes. The Netjiligmiut. Hitkoak has heard of the Netjiligmiut but never seen them. East of the Netjiligmiut again he has heard there are people without chins whose necks come out flat with their mouths and breasts. The Natjirtogmiut. On the south coast of Victoria Island, east of the Nagyuktogmiut, Hitkoak has heard there are the Natjirtogmiut. He has never visited the Nagyuktogmiut or Natjirtogmiut nor have any Sound people. Place Names. Prince Albert Sound, Kaiihirgyuak ; Minto Inlet, Kahhiryuatjiak; Walker Bay, Kaiierxhinerak; De Salis Bay (?), Kaher- xualuk; Cape Wollaston (?), Kitikat (the place they leave Victoria Island to cross to Iga'huk.) They sleep three times, three camps, on ice between these capes; Cape Cardwell or Cape CoUinson, Iga'huk (this also serves as name for Banks Island); Cape Baring, Ikpigyuak; Point south of Baring, Nauyat; River south of Baring, Kugaryuak; Back River, Hannifiayok; Arkilinik River (Hanbury), Akkilinik; Albert Edward Bay, Ekalluktok (same name given large river that flows into Albert Edward Bay); Ad- miralty Island (?), Uiiahiktak; Taylor Island, Omannak. May 30. Near Crocker River. Commerce between Groups, B. tells when he was young the Uallinermiut used to come to Port Clarence, with umiaks loaded with nothing but pogotat (wooden platters, pails, etc.) He 1914.] The Slejdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 303 thinks these UaUinermiut were mostly or all Unalit. These were bought by the Port Clarence people and carried by umiak the following summer to the Kliodlilit who bought them for reindeer hides chiefly, but also for tobacco. The Port Clarence people paid for the pogotat entirely in goods received from the Khodhlit, reindeer hides, legs, sinews, and tobacco. Bows. The Kaiihiryuarmiut make few of their bows, but get most of them from the Haneragmiut in exchange for iron goods (plunder from Bay of Mercy and goods bought of Ekalluktogmiut who get them on the Akili- nik), arid made and unmade copper. Tent Sticks. Their tent sticks are partly of local driftwood, partly from the Haneragmiut (Cape Bexley driftwood), but chiefly from the Puiplirmiut who get them from those who hunt on the Dease. Sleds. Their sleds are chiefly or entirely from two sources, the Hanerag- miut who either get the wood or the made sleds from the lands or the hands of the Akuliakattagmiut, or from the Puiplirmiut Avho get them as they do the tent sticks. Of course, a Puiplirmiut sled may get to the Kanhiryuar- miut by way of the Haneragmiut or a Haneragmiut or Akuliakattagmiut sled by way of the Puiplirmiut for these meet every winter to trade. Trade between Groups. The Akuliakattagmiut get Bay of Mercy iron from the Kanhiryuarmiut and Hudson Bay iron from both Kanhiryuarmiut and Puiplirmiut, the Kanhir;yiiarmiut getting it from the Ekalluktogmiut who either got it themselves on the Akilinik or got it from the Ahiagmiut; the P. getting it from the Kogluktogmiut or the Nag. who get it from the Uminmuktok who got it directly from the Akk. (by going for it or from the Pallirmiut traders who come to Uminmuktok from the Akilinik) or through the intermediation of the Aliiagmiut. May 3. Traces of People. Traces of people, such as there are, would be very easy to find now if we only had a third man to leave me free to follow the beach while they proceeded off shore. The snow that must have covered many things the first week of May and the last week of April last year is now all gone. Ai'ound our present camp have seen no traces of men except one stick that was probably used as a chopping block (by Richard- son's party?), axes were very sharp. Cuttings might be anything from six to sixty years old. June 1. House Ruins. Before supper I took a fruitless walk west along the beach in search of traces of the former inhabitants. After supper I had a look east with better results. Half a mile east of camp is a tiny creek coming from the mountains (or foothills) . Our camp is twenty yards east of another such creek. On the west bank of this creek, about fifteen feet above the creek and thirty or forty feet over the sea, is a little, flat- topped shelf of the hill nearest the coast, about one hundred fifty or two 304 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, hundred yards from the sea. On this shelf is the ruin of a sod-and-wood house of ovoid shape about eight hy ten feet, in greatest transverse interior diameters. The greater end of the ovoid is towards the sea, and the door seems to have been in the middle of the seaward gable. There is no evidence of an alleyway of wood and earth such as is freciuently in use in the Mackenzie. The main supports of the house have been in western style, the butt ends of small trees, the roots up to serve for crotches. That the structure cannot have l)een a cache is shown by the traces of a door, by the root bearing uprights which are now fallen, and by the fact that the walls were clearly partly of split sticks. One of the sticks still upright in the east wall was an adzed board about six inches wide whose end now sticks about two and a half feet up at an angle varying from the vertical about as Eskimo walls usually do, about 15° or 20°. Some of the wall timbers are decayed quite off even with the ground, others are still in fair preservation, difference no doubt due to differing age and sort of timbers originally used. No excavation possible on account of ground being frozen. About ten yards east of the house are a few scattered sticks probably of more recent date. They may however be remains of a work-shelter dating from the days of the house, or more likely, a more recent campsite. Judging by the ruins of Fort Confidence, making no allowance for difference in climate this house should have a minimum antiquity of over a hundred years. About three hundred yards west of this house ruin, ten or twelve feet above the sea and fifty yards from the beach are the sites of two or more tents. There are no stone rings, but there are two fireplaces (flat stones now and perhaps originally all lying flat on the ground). There is one small stick by one fireplace that still has the charcoal on the end. There are many unshaped sticks scattered about. This is the interesting part, for the present people to the east never gather sticks about their camps except to dry on meat or fish. The western Eskimo however build windbreaks and smoke shelters of rough sticks. Date of these sites perhaps fifty or sixty years. Saw also three or more tent sites that would suit well the present eastern style of tent, merely some split sticks laid on the ground to be under the beds and some split rejects from implement making. None of these camps less than fifty years old. Adze and knife shavings have all disappeared from all the sites. June 3. Buchanan River. Stone Graves. Saw four or more very old stone graves on the rising ground in the delta just east of the most westerly mouth of Buchanan River. Only artifact seen was a piece of a sled runner so rotten that it was in pieces where it lay. It was almost surely a piece of the short, western type sled, piece about eighteen inches long. Both ends missing and parts of side edges, one hole still showed, the sort 1914.1 The Stefdnsnon-AnderHon Expedition. 305 of hole used for the insertion of cross bars on Mackenzie sleds and not found at present towards Coppermine. A half mile east of present camp some sticks brought to?at are of both sexes, they marry and have children. A human afiatkok often has sexual relations with a female turnfirak but it is doubtful if children result from this. On the other hand, male turnfirat often visit ordinary women as well as women aiiatkot and children often result. It is not told that turniirat ever die a natural death though some may be killed by powerful anatkut (?). M. has never heard of one being killed by an afiatkok, but has heard of their being severely hurt in the process of being driven off (Mamayaux). Has never heard of turniirat getting old though they must do so for they are born babies as humans are. Still she has known of several generations of sha- 322 Anlhropological Papers American Mutseum of Natural HiMory. [Vol. XIV, mans who had the same old man (turnnrak) or old woman each after the death of the shaman preceding. It is clear therefore that if they do get decrepit with old age, their lives must embrace at least a good many genera- tions of humans (Mamayaux). In the case of sex relations with turniirat the humans, male or female, become unconscious or fall asleep at the ap- proach of the turnnrak and awake only after it is gone. Children who have turniirat for fathers are said to be better runners and walkers than other men and quicker in all their actions. They have no special supernatural powers (M.). Beliefs. The smell of a white man, say of his hand after he has thor- oughly washed it, is considered to be different from that of an Eskimo and those not used to it are said to dislike it very much. There was much talk of this a few years ago but there is little now, for one used to the smell does not dislike it (Mamayaux). Some Eskimo of both sexes are known as hav- ing a disagreeable smell. July 29. Clothing. Coats of both sexes at Kittegaryuit were formerly ornamented where the red dots of yarn are now used with red spots made of the "eyebrow" patches of the male willow ptarmigan (akeigivik), on hood, front of shoulders, and around coat above the bottom fringe. The red spots now appear also on the arms of the coat below the shoulder, but this is a recent borrowing from the inlanders, formerly there was on the arm, but one unbroken band of white. July 31. Terms of Relationship (Kittegaryuit). Brother and sister older than he "atkalualuik"; brother and sister younger than he, "naiya- gik"; two brothers or two sisters, "nukarik"; "atkalualua" has of recent years gone out of fashion in favor of "aniiiaralugik" which, so far as Mam. knows, is also a Kittegaryuit word, not borrowed in recent years. A brother will address an older sister often as "agaralun" and she may be spoken of as "agaralua." " Aniiiaraluii " is used by older sister to brother; "aniii" by younger sister to brother (e. g. Nogasak to Palaiyak). August 1. Clothing. At Kittegaryuit (Mam.) boots were always to just below knee and so socks. The boots coming above the knee a recent borrowing from the West. Between boots and socks a thin slipper of cari- bou leg. The sock was of caribou as now, the boot of caribou leg and seal, white fish or rarely thin caribou sole (hair clipped close, if long). The boots had pointed toes and made track different from the western boot. For this reason, Kittegaryuit used to say Uallinergmiut tracks were like a bear's. Women's artegi hoods always trimmed with wolf, men's with wolf or wolver- ine. Dog skins never used. Women used wolf for hood trimmings and sleeve, but wolverine for bottom fringe. Taboos. Aglernaktok was the eating in one day of caribou meat and 1914.] The Stcfdnsiiott-Anderson Expedition. 323 any of the following: bowhead, seal, or ugrug. White whale and caribou were allowed in one day. The oils of above animals also taboo with caribou, except white whale. For a while at the beginning of the tea-drinking habit, tea and white whale in one day were taboo. No new caribou clothes were made during white fish hunt, but new sealskins might be sewed and any old garment mended. August 3. Skin Dressing. Skins are never scraped by men at Kitte- garyuit. Never heard of kayak skins being chewed (cf. Boas). They are rotted and scmii while wet. In fly time they are protected from blue bottles by being encased in a sealskin "pok." Men who had no wives sometimes scraped deer legs for boots, etc. M. thinks therefore scraping skins was not aglernaktok but the men were merely lazy. Cannibalism. Cannibalism heard of by M. only in case of a man who had killed an Indian and who was told by a shaman to eat a piece of the dead Indian. M. does not know the reason, but is sure that there was no scarcity of food at the time. Kayaks. Kayaks were occasionally made at Kittegaryuit of caribou skins, but were considered inferior to sealskin ones ; the women said too that sewing them was more difficult. Parties of kayak men often went inland, carrying their kayaks; one woman usually accompanied each five or six men to cook and sew for them. The rest of the women stayed on the coast and fished. Kittegaryuit. Kittegaryuit was a large village only in summer. In winter the people scattered as they do now. The white whale caches were drawn upon when needed, hauled by sleds to where the owners were winter- ing. It was rare that a man camped by his whitefish caches to eat them up. Importance of Early Ethnological Work. Five years ago (1906) Memoranna (Roxy) pretended to give me minutely the difference in the Mackenzie system of counting used "long ago" from that used today. The differences were trifling. Today for the first time I happened to note the numerals in Petitot's "Monographic." They show an excellent system of counting and wholly different from that given by Roxy. I have no doubt Petitot is substantially right. Thus, in a few years, has been lost from people's memory an interesting and significant fact. Some of the people who accompanied Petitot to Good Hope were of Roxy's own family, uncles or aunts, I forget which. Taboos. ]Mam. told today that her people (Kittegaryuit, etc.) are grate- ful to the missionaries for letting them know that Sunday is aglernaktok (taboo). The idea underlying this gratitude seems to be that they suppose many of their past ills to be due to violation of this taboo, the existence of which they did not know ; now they know the taboo, can avoid breaking it, and hope thereby to escape many ills. S24 Anthropological Papers Avierican Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, August 4- Cardinal Points. In reading today Thalbitzer's " Skraelin- gerne: Markland, etc.," p. 207, where he says the Labrador people thought the "Karaler" dwelt on the same side of Davis St. as they did i. e., in the north, whereas they really dwelt to the east, in south Greenland, I am re- minded of an interesting thing told me by Ilav. several weeks ago : At Kotze- bue Sound the old men used to say and all the people believed it, that the seacoast was as a whole straight and that bends in it (e. g., Pt. Hope) were only local like kinks in a fairly tightly stretched line. This fits in with their absolute (as I believe) lack of comprehension even today of our cardi- nal points. An Eskimo who started north along the Labrador coast and finally got to South Greenland by way of Smith Sound would think of him- self as going east, north, or whatever the original direction was, the whole time, he would no more be conscious of changing direction than we would if we traveled around the earth on a meridian. To begin with, Kavunamun, etc., does not mean "to the north," " to the south" "to the east," or any- thing else in terms of our points of the compass, it means "up the coast" or "down the coast" as nearly as it can be translated into our speech. August 7. Clothing. Ornamental trimmings of a coat (Mam. tells) : A wolverine aiiutisiun (hood trimming for a man's coat) should be black on top the head for a space of about equal to the width between the man's eyes; below that on either side of the face come the light stripes of the wolverine, the wider the better, then the dark of the sides and belly. This sort of piece is obtained by cutting a transverse band just in front of the arnaksiun, which is cut so as to include the bow of the U-shaped white band of the wolverine skin, i. e. the arnaksiun should have an unbroken band of white o\'er the top of the woman's head down to the middle of each cheek. An arnaksiun is sometimes made out of an anutisiun by removing the black middle piece and substituting one or more pieces of white, so as to make the horseshoe from cheek to cheek. The hide of the wolverine in front of the afiutisiun so far forward as it has white in it, is used to trim the lower edge (hem) of the coat, the whitest of it in front, the next whitest behind, and third choice for the sides of the hips, i. e. about where the hands would fall when hanging naturally. Darker still is used to trim the sleeves and the darkest of all for the pendant strips on the shoulders, back, etc., of "fancy" coats. Of a wolfskin the arnaksiun is a strip of skin about three inches wide (in the best wolf pelts) about over the hip joints. The requirements are that the hair shall be long, white at its base, black in the middle, and white at the tips. This piece is extravagantly valued, so that though it is barely enough for the hoods of two coats and though the rest of the skin is valued less than wolverine, yet good wolf may be worth as much as two or even 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderiion Expedition. 325 three wolverines. Wolverines are worth as high as five fox skins at Baillie when good and $40 at Cape Smythe. Face trimmings for hood, itirvik (woman's, arnaksiun ; man's anutisiun) ; sinit (when not sewn, siniksat, hem trimmings ; atjiksinak, sleeve trimmings (wrist); kaiyoarotik (Nogatak word), the "corporal's" shoulder strip on some coats; nigyat, the (wolverine or other) pendants; avatiktjak, itirvik+ siniksat, a combination for selling purposes, a unit of trade. This does not include the sleeve trimmings, shoulder bands, or pendants. August 8. Mammoth. Kiligvainnok tjauniirit parkitaraiiamik auglir- (k)sok paktuat (Mam). Tusarsugivaktuami kolinik niulignik killgvugnik (Pal.). Kiligvainnok nunamin nuiyarailamik tokovaktuat (Mam.) The bleeding was started by a blow on the nose or by pricking it with a straw. August 18. Horton River. Turnnrat. lyi'rka are turnnrat which "do not fear people" and are harmless. Their peculiarities are illustrated by the following : When people see coming a sled unaccompanied by people they know the iyi'rkat are coming. Dogs pull these sleds but men cannot see them, only the harness and the tight traces of the pulling dogs can be seen. The sled or sleds halt near the people's houses, the snow blocks seem to rise of themselves to form the snowhouses, for the builders at work can- not be seen, only when the house wall has become so high as to completely screen the builder, his snow knife can sometimes be seen as he "flenses" the key block into the dome of the house. Then lamps are lighted and food prepared. Anyone who cares to look may see all this with safety. It is an uncanny sight, however, for everything seems to be done of itself (Tan- naumirk and Mamayaux tell). Tan. says the aliukkat are feared by all. The keyukkat are not danger- ous (they are the shaman's familiar spirits) except when sent by a shaman for the purpose of doing harm. The dangerous thing about aliukkat is the sight of their faces ; it does no one harm to see their bodies and many have seen them (including Tannaumirk). Those who see their faces die sud- denly, fall as if shot. August 19. The spirit of the fire (ignerum napata) was fed with a little blubber, tallow, akutok, or other fat by Kittegar>Tiit after fire was built, saying, " Nanirk, oktjoviaktorin." "Iliat oktjoviaktorlit," was said by people in boats as they passed any grave except a recent one; as they said this some sort of fat was thrown into the water, or on the beach if the boat was so near shore that it could be done. "Iliat aviutjaktarlit " was the universal expression that covered such an offering not only of fat but of any sort of food; "aviutjak" was any sort of food intended for spirits. Water was similarly given the spirit of the grave by being poured out anywhere while the giver was in sight of the grave. 326 Anlhropologicul Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, August 20. Bear liver, whether of brown or white bear, does not make a person partieiilarl}^ sick, but his skin turns permanently white. Several persons are cited who have white patches on their bodies from eating bear Hver i. e., loss of pigmentation — a well known phenomenon in all races. (Mamayaux) . Tan. never heard of this till this summer, but now firmly believes it. Names. Names at Kittegaryuit were never given by persons them- selves or even by bystanders. If a stranger wanted to know a person's name he would wait till that person was out of hearing and then ask some- one. A person would not tell his parents' names, the name of wife (or husband) any more readily than his own. They would readily, however, tell the names of their brothers and sisters, and of their own children. August 23. Whistling. Whistling (Tan. says and my observation confirms it, though I never thought to enquire) is not practised by the Copper Eskimo. They used to succeed in whistling, however, on seeing him do it; they kept continually asking him to whistle more. At Kitte- garyuit whistling was probably "always" known he thinks. It was prac- tised especially in hunting white whales, when one got near the whale (uinioktiiak, whistles once; uinoksoktuak, keeps whistling). August 24. Names of Houses at Kittegaryuit. Kaiiilirk, Allirk, Sukarluktok, Nutarmiok, Kimiaryuk, Kajigimiok There were many more houses with names in winter (occupied in winter) but Tan. and Mam. remember only these. In summer there were no people in any houses, but there were name-bearing tent places though most people tented in nameless, indiscriminate places. When a winter house got old it was rebuilt, so far as T. and M. know always on the identical site, except that the new building might be larger, smaller, or of different shape from the old. The new build- ing always bore the name of the old. They knew of no house being built on a new site, "for the houses always got fewer, never more numerous." August 21^.. Beliefs. Arnakpuk (dual) are two women of great size that dwell somewhere in the sky. There is no formal imipkak about these. The anatkut tell fragmentary things about them after their spirit flights, on which they sometimes see them. There is no name for each separately, except that because one has a coat of fawnskin she is referred to as Nogay- ualik ; the other is dressed in skins of grow n deer and is called Nogayuanit- tok. They both have a loud, strident laugh that in general resembles the cry of the willow ptarmigan. Men (not women) fear both, but especially Nogayualik. They frequently steal men afiotitogugmaiinik; those that Nogayualik steals, never return; those that Nogayuafiittok takes wake up naked outdoors (Kuyagtagerannik) and return naked and nearly frozen to their houses. While they have the men in their possession they arti- giminun itirtitpagit, tajvaniillutik (Tannaumirk and Mamayaux). 1914.] The Stefdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 327 The Stars. The stars must be hving things because their excreta are often seen dropping to the ground. Those who have examined these say it is plain they feed on seals (Tan. and Mam.). Sun and Moon. The sun and moon are brother and sister. The brother went out to get ice for water. He was getting very cold, and his sister took a firebrand to go look for him. Some say, to go make him a fire to warm him. He, carrying a big piece of ice became the moon, she carrying a fire- brand became the sun. This is an abstract of a long tale which both T. and M. have heard told by old Kittegaryuit people, neither of them can tell the whole story. August 26. Beliefs. Shadows and reflections were made objects of fear to children at Kittegaryuit though Mam. never knew just what the fearsome thing was. She thinks people may have been "playing" some- what as white people do who scare children with imaginary creatures. Children were especially told not to bend over the seal oil dish in eating, for they might see their reflection if they did. She was frequently told "get your face away from that oil dish; your reflection (tarran) may smile at you." Some people used to say there was no danger in seeing your reflection in anything except oil, i. e., it was well enough to look for your reflection in a river or pond. August 27. WTiite Whale Hunting Customs. On the afternoon of each day a shout was raised by someone who had climbed to the roof of one of the two Kittegaryuit kajigis. This was a sign for the kayakers to gather on the roof of the kajigi to talk of who should be the head kayaker (sivulirk) for tomorrow. Generallj^, there was a new head each day, though a man who was considered "better" than the rest might serve several days. While a man was leader, it was incumbent on his wife to be careful her fire should never quite go out, and during the pursuit of whales she must not go out- doors from her tent until the last whale had been killed or had escaped. When a whale had been killed, a single straw that had grown upon a grave was stuck into the wound and withdrawn. If several wounds, all were treated with the same straw, M. thinks, but is not sure. She thinks the straw was then thrown away. The straw was referred to as ikimun kaul- rotiksak. A similar custom was observed with regard to caribou. A man who had killed a white whale (or caribou, or other large game animal) usually had his earholes pierced, and must not eat blubber till the holes had healed. It was kept from closing by the use of a small peg. No one who had lost a relative by death must eat within the following year any part of a whale uncooked. If they did the man who had killed that whale would never get another whale. August 31. Beliefs. When the new moon is first seen a person should spill a cup of water saying that it is for the "tatkim inna" to drink (Kitte_ 328 Anthropological Papers American Museum of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, garyuit — Mamayaiix). This water should be spilled on the ground in the direction of the moon. September 1. Distribution. Campsites of Eskimo are numerous around here. There are two "tent rings" of stones at a creek mouth half a mile west of sled route river (seen b}^ the natives only). I found in various places scattered rotten sticks and broken bones, indications that some one had camped (either Eskimo or Indian) between here and Isugluk, and about half way to Isugluk probably half a dozen tent sites, with stone fireplaces, pieces of kayak slats, etc., clearly showing they were of Eskimo origin. There are no deer swimming places near, so either the parties were en route somewhere, or they used kayaks to set nets. Found also campsite of ship's natives a mile southwest of Isugluk, plenty broken boxes, canned meat tins, etc. A half dozen long sticks of firewood I raised up in tipi frame style, thinking someone may need them sometimes for wood. These are in a hol- low, at the north end of a small lake. September 3. Customs. "Show me your tongue," (Okan nauii?) is said at Kittegaryuit (especially to children, but also to older persons in jest) if one thinks the speaker may be telling fibs. They do not know why people speak so, they never heard of the tongues of fibbers looking otherwise than of those who tell the truth. Icelandic children are told, however, that if they fib, a black spot appears on the tongue, and "show me your tongue" is frequently said to them. Beliefs. Tannaumirk was frequently told when small, not to eat stand- ing up as it would make his feet weak and liable to swell up. Mam. was told not to sing when eating but she never knew the penalty. September 6. Customs. Tan. tells in traveling, when camp was pitched, the sleds must stand over night only with their front ends pointing the direc- tion the people were traveling, i. e., towards their destination. Snowhouses and tents had the door toward the sun, always between southeast and south- west, no matter how the coast trended. The snowhouses were built on the ice near shore, never on shore. The only exception to houses facing the sun was when several were built or tents pitched so as to have a common central kitchen. This might be done with from two to six houses. In summer, the kitchen was like an Indian tipi. The tipi poles for the ordinary tents were in sets of fours, fastened together, tripod fashion at the top by thongs passed through holes. The tipi poles for the common kitchen were not perforated at the top, but merely lashed together. They were crude and made afresh at each campsite; the house poles were slender, finished ones, and were always carried along in traveling. The tent poles we keep finding around our present hunting grounds cannot be Eskimo for they have no holes at the top ends, but instead a groove for the string about six inches from 1914.] The Slejdnsmn-Anderson Expedition. 329 the top of each. The length of poles found around Horton River usually about eight feet. These poles are therefore probably the traveling tipi poles of the Good Hope Indians. Eskimo do not throw away finished tent poles, we find these not ovAy abandoned, on the return of the parties to the wooded river valley, no doubt, but also in manj' cases some have been used for firewood. September 10. Snares. Snaring caribou was never practised at Kitte- garj^uit so far as Tan. and Mam. know. Ptarmigan and squirrels only snared. September 12. Taboos. At Kittegaryuit during the beluga season all were forbidden to "work earth" i. e., holes or pits must not be dug, macu roots must not be gathered, etc. Berries might be gathered, however. Children at play were reprimanded whenever found breaking this taboo. The beluga skins were cut usually or always around the throat and the waist, i. e., the piece of skin between throat and waist was dried for bootsoles, canoe covers, lines, etc. The skin of the head and tail was eaten as maktak. When being dried this piece of skin was pegged on the ground as sealskins are. It was strictly required that the headward part of the skin should be towards inland, the tailward towards the sea. It was said if a skin were dried in the reverse position the beluga would cease visiting that part of the coast. During the beluga season no new deerskin garments must be made but old ones were mended; new sealskin clothes were made, however. New caribou clothes or clothes of muskrat (perhap other skins too) must not be made while the sun was absent. No one attempted hooking or otherwise catching fish during the dark days. Mam. never heard that there was a prohibition, but it was said none could be caught. Distribution. Eskimo tent sites (two tents) seen Monday just east of the tree line about eight miles southeast of camp, stone fireplace and a few small sticks of firewood on top a stoneless woodless hill. September 13. Beliefs. Growing girls were told that when they wake up in the morning they must not linger in bed but must go outdoors at once, if but for a moment. Some were not even allowed to dress, but were made to go out-doors naked or partly clad. They were told that doing this would n.ake child delivery easy, while if they lingered in bed while j^oung they would have slow and painful delivery when they came to have children. Growing boys were also made to go out-doors similarly but Mam. does not know what they were told would happen if they did not (Kittegaryuit). September 22. Coal Creek. Beliefs. Aktlat know what people talk about (Ilav. Tan. Mam.). If a man boasts, "I am not afraid of aktlat; I could kill one with my knife," then aktlats will attack that man the first chance they get; but if a man speaks modestly and says he is afraid of bears. 330 Anthropological Papers Avurican Museum of Natural, History. [Vol. XIV, they will not attack him. For this reason (Ihivinirk says) many who are really not afraid of bears always take care to pretend they are, as an additional precaution against danger from bears. Originality. Mam. Tan., and Pal. say that people commonly say that the Kiligav'^it refused to enter the ark when Noah invited them in, preferring to hide from the flood underground. This is a case of grafting on to the new Christian mythology a bit of their own folklore, which was merely to the effect that the Klligav'^it lived underground like moles. Some seem to have believed they all became extinct anciently; others that they still live under- ground mole fashion ; are very rare animals, though not extinct, and come out only at night. iVll our Eskimo believe that the refusal of the mammoth to enter the ark is recorded in the bible. The}^ have no notion it is an Eskimo emulation of the Jewish account. September 25. Beliefs. The ' keel ' of the breastbone of some ptarmigan is white uniformly; the egg from which this bird was born was laid in cloud- less weather. If the ' keel' is unevenly colored (as seen held up against the light) the egg was laid in cloudy weather. (Mam., Kittegaryuit). Ilav. knows this belief for Kotzebue Sound, but says the clear 'keels' are those laid in cloudy weather and the spotted ones in clear weather. Ptarmigan Snaring. Ptarmigan snaring in spring is practised by using a dead male or the skin of one for bait. The bird is set up as if alive and a net or snares put around. Another male bird will come up 'to fight' this one, and is caught. The ptarmigan thus used for a decoy, or any bird used for a decoy, or any model of a bird used so, is called ' Mittauyak' (Mam.). September 27. Taboos. The brain of the moose killed by A.'s party in 1909 was aglernaktok to Nogasak, according to Tutak ' Auktalgum nuliana ' who is probably a Killirrmiut. She said that no other part of the moose was aglernaktok and the brain only to girls not grown ; may have been taboo to small boys too. There were none in the party. September 30. Beliefs. A woman who has a child she wants to grow tall should sew the side seams of its coat with sinew from the neck of a swan (Kittegaryuit — -Mam.). Sinew from the wing (breast) muscles of ptarmigan Mamayauk has known to be used, braided. One man she knows put a pair of soles in his boots with ptarmigan sinew. October 1. Rattles. Children at Kittegaryuit used to play with rattles made of ptarmigan crops blown up. The rattle was produced with berries found in the crop. Children were reprimanded for making such playthings out of snared birds. Mam. thinks that this taboo applied only in the winter and spring, but is not sure. October 3. Locality Names. At Kittegaryuit the people between the Mackenzie Delta and Herschel Island were Tuvormiat. West of Herschel 1914.] The Stejdnsson-Anderson Expedition. 331 to Demarcation Point were also Tuyormlat, Mam. thinks but is not sure. Apkva'rmiut were the people of Utkiawik and Nuvuk (Point Barrow). All other western people known (by hearsay chiefly) before the ships came were Nunatarmiut. To the east all people were Kaiimalit. Those to the Baillie Islands were correctly known by place names; of those east Mam. heard onl}' of Nagyuktogmiut and supposes east of Baillie bore this name. She heard of Akilinirmiut, but always supposed (never was told) that they were 'Kitegaryum akiani' i. e., across the sea (north) from Kittegaryuit. She heard it frequently told that the valuable beads came from the Akilinirmiut. This would make it seem likely that Akilinirk was Siberia, but Ilav. and Nat. never heard of such a name applied to any part of Siberia. Bering Straits were crossed in winter by a dash being made when weather was especially favorable, from the mainland to the Diomedes. Here a wait usually took place, and another dash accomplished the remaining twenty miles or so to the Asiatic side. Sometimes the party returned the same day to the Diomedes, for fear of the ice moving. Only light sleds with plenty dogs were used, and the trip was seldom undertaken except when tobacco was scarce. The bulk of intercontinental traffic was by boats in summer (Ila vinirk) . Taboos. Tan. says that about the only taboo in which he now firmly believes and which he carefully observes is that against sitting on or over charcoal on a charred stick. A man who does this becomes prone to capsiz- ing in a kayak. November 2. Taboos. Food that has fallen to the ground or floor is taboo (God has forbidden us to eat it) unless in picking it up one describes with it a circle in front of one's face just before eating it. Some believe this applies only to tanuktak or white men's foods. They have asked about this taboo and he never heard of it " but he may not know all God's com- mands" and so the taboo is kept. Licking off the blade of one's knife and passing food at table with the left hand are taboos ascribed to mission- aries at Kittegaryuit (Ilav. and Mam.). November 5. Raven and Crane Groups. Ilav. says his father and his contemporaries used to have heated arguments in the karrigi (Kigirktaruk) over which were more excellent birds, ravens or cranes. Those who favored ravens were said to " tuluganmuktoktut " ; they who favored cranes, "tatiri- ganmuktoktut." The whole community took sides, made two parties. Sons did not always but often did belong to the party of their father. At one time when Ilav.'s father had tobacco, he placed a large pile of it in the karrigi, saying that anyone who admitted the superiority of the crane might help himself, and no other might take any. Only one man held out against this bribe. Arguments were based, so far as they had any solid basis, on 332 Anthropological Papers American Museum, of Natural History. [Vol. XIV, the crane's eating dirty things, steahng, etc. Those who favored cranes, would become angry on seeing a raven and would try hard to kill it, shooting at it at long range or on the wing. Cranes were similarly viewed by the raven party. November 21. Influence of Missionaries. Ilav. and Tan. say all the missionaries have told them never to forget Jesus. If they do, he will not take them into hea\'en. Therefore neither of the two informants ever ceases to think about Jesus when awake, nor does any converted Eskimo even when angry, when hunting caribou, when dancing, singing etc. Proba- bly from some such expression as "The Lord shall make the wicked to crawl in the dust" there has been evolved (Kittegaryuit and Baillie) a de- tailed account credited to of how those who do not l^elieve will after death have to crawl on their knees and elbows till all flesh is worn off and till finally, the leg and forearm bones are quite worn out and drop off. Norcviber 23. Customs. All here are horrified at my telling of the Puiplirmiut that they pick frozen deer droppings off the snow, keep them in pails, and eat them like berries. Ilav. says that while this practice is re- pulsive the Puiplirmiut deer droppings are really a fine thing when boiled and used to thicken blood soup. This is much practised in Western Alaska. November 24- Langton Bay. Langton Bay Inhabitants. From notes taken, August 10, 1911 at the Baillie Islands by Ilavinirk from Panigyuk, the oldest woman there. Langton Bay harbor sandspit called Nuvuayuk. Its people lived on whale, seal, caribou, and fish at different seasons. There were no fish nets while she was at Langton Bay (till about 1845) nor even at Baillie Island till later. Fish were hooked and speared. Another settle- ment was where we dug house ruins in July, 1911. There the people also had a "mine" of clay for pots. The Baillie Island river used to get their pot clay from a cutbank on the east bank of the mouth of "Macfarlane River," which place therefore has the name "kTku." Most people had only clay pots, but a few had stone ones. All stone pots and all lamps came from the east. A settlement north towards Parry was Annigak; a high hill near it is Pinogyuk (this place w^as seen by my men, when in April, 1910, I shot two young caribou bulls near it). It is marked by remains of platform caches. There were also people at Booth Islands and, she heard, everywhere east along the coast to the Nagyuktogmiut. There were two years (not successive) where many people died (Ilav. did not know if of hunger or sickness) ; after the second all people left the vicinity of Langton Bay (about 1845, a little before Richardson's visit whom P. saw at Baillie), some went to Baillie, others east; nothing ever heard of those that went east. People used to hunt and fish southeast on top hill. How far they sometimes penetrated is not clear, I have seen camps. 1914.] The S(cfdnsson-Andcr.