•■^SS^^i^ '^>:^-^V'**:; •: ••'0., • • ■•X Class "VF JiS Goi]yright]^°_ COPYRIGHT DEPOSm n Building and Repairing Railways BEING A PRACTICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE LOCATION AND PRE- LIMINARY SURVEY OF RAILWAYS; CONSTRUCTION WORK; STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION AND APPLIANCES; MAINTENANCE OF WAY AND TRACK; BRIDGES, BUILDINGS, WRECKS; (QUESTIONS OF RE- BUILDING AND OTHERWISE INCREAS- ING THE FACILITIES OF RAIL- WAYS, ETC., ETC. FORMING ONE OF THE SERIES OF THE VOLUMES T-OMPRISED IN THE REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION OF I THE SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS BY MARSHALL M. KIRKMAN EDITION 1906 NEW YORK AND CHICAGO THE WORLD RAILWAY PUBLISHING COMPANY 1906 ' '■ LIBRARY of CONGRESS Two CoDJes Received JUL 19 1906 Copyright by The World Railw^ay Publishing Compan 1906 Also Entered at Stationers' Hall, I^ondon, England b / All Rights Reserved TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE. Introduction 19 Chapter I. Eailway evolution. The development of the rail- way illustrated 21 Chapter II. The reconnoissanee — the first step in railway construction 47 Chapter III. The preliminary survey — the second step in railway construction 58 Chapter IV. The location — the third step in railway con- struction 83 Chapter V. Construction 90 Chapter VI. Standards of construction and material 173 Chapter VII. Constructing track 361 Chapter VIII. Maintenance of way 386 Chapter IX. Wrecks 505 Chapter X. Maintenance of bridges and buildings 519 Chapter XI. Construction and maintenance accounts 541 Chapter XII. Maintenance and operation. What cost is dependent upon 544 Chapter XIII. Maintenance. Fixed operating expenses.... 574 Chapter XIV. Maintenance. Cost of operating affected by facilities 588 Chapter XV. Maintenance. Things that enter into the maintenance of a railroad 594 (in) APPENDIXES. B. (1) Eelation the various items of track labor bear to each other 623 (2) Eelation that various items of track expenses bear to total track expenses 623 C. (1) Eelation various classes of maintenance bear to total cost of maintenance 624 (2) Eelation of the cost of maintaining the property of a road to all other operating expenses 624 B, Percentage of the total cost of operating due to main- tenance of organization and the prevention of the destruction of the property from natural causes .... 625 E. Gauges of railroads that are or have been in use in different countries 626 F. Quantity of material required to lay one mile of rail- road track on the basis named 627 G. Table showing increase in weight of locomotives from 1880 to 1900 628 H". Detailed rules governing the location of railways. 629 Z. Detailed rules governing surveys and construction of rail- ways and lists of supplies required in the field 647 J, Detailed rules governing construction of track of rail- ways and various illustrations of rail sections, speci- fications and tables, giving details in regard to mate- rial used in construction 661 K, Table setting forth modern authorities on the location, construction, track and maintenance of railways .... 693 L. Bridges and buildings — Eules, tables and data 708 (V) LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Fid. PAGS. A Jessop's Cast Iron Fish Bellied Rail 24 B The First Rail Chair, A. D. 1797 24 C LeCann's Tram Rail, A. D. 1801 25 ** Wyatt's Hexagonal Rail, A. D. 1802 25 «* Tram Rail, A. D. 1803 25 •• Carlisle's Wrought (Rolled) Iron Rail, A. D. 1811 25 «« Losh & Stephenson's Edge Rail, A. D. 1816 25 D Tram Rail with Stone Supports, upon which Trevit- hick's first locomotive ran 27 E Birkenshaw's Wrought Iron Rail, A. D. 1820 28 *• HettonRail, A. D. 1824 28 George Stephenson's Fish Belly Rail, A. D. 1829 28 Rail, Designed by Robert L. Stevens, A. D. 1830 28 F Standard Track, Camden & Amboy R. R., A. D. 1837.. . 30 •• Track of Camden & Amboy R. R., Rails Laid on Piling Through Marshes, A. D. 1837 30 *• Stevens' Rail. A. D. 1841 30 G Stone Stringer and Strap 'Rail, A. D. 1833 31 Wooden Stringer and Strap Rail, A. D. 1837 31 H Street Railway Construction 32 I English Fish Belly Rail, A. D. 1832 34 " Joint Chair and Wedge, A. D. 1833 35 '• Stone Block Rail and Joint Tongue, A. D. 1831 35 J Stevens' Rail, Supported by Cast Iron Chair, A.D. 1837 36 •• Ring, Joint and Wedge, West Jersey R. R 36 Wooden Joint Block, A. D. 1860 36 Double Splice Bar, A. D. 1857 37 " Erie Rail with Ends Stamped for Adams* Cast Iron Bracket Splice, A. D, 1857 37 " Single Splice Bar, A. D. 1855 37 •• Double Splice Bar, A. D. 1856 37 K Plain Splice Bar, A. D. 1870 38 •* Angle Splice Bar, A. D. 1868 38 •• Angle Splice Bar, A. D. 1875 38 *• Angle Splice Bar, A. D. 1879 38 •• Angle Splice Bar, A. D. 1880 38 L An Early Frog Pattern , 39 viii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. L Frogs, A. D. 1825 39 *' Staple iron used as makeshift for frog, A. D. 1831 39 Krog, A. D. 1835 40 Wood's Kail Frog, A. D. 1859 40 M Switches in Colliery Railroads, A. D. 1825 41 N Section of English Permanent Way 41 O Steel Tie. London & Northwestern Ry., A. D. 1885. . 42 Metal 'Tot'* Tie. India, A. D. 1889 42 Metal Track, Queensland, A. D. 1889 42 Metal Track, Midland Ry., A. D. 1889 42 ** Metal Track, London & Northwestern Ry., A. D. 1889 42 «' Metal Track, Elferfield Ry., Germany, A. D. 1889 43 ** Metal Track, Great Central Ry. of Belgium, A. D. 1889 43 • Thick Rectangular Rail, A. D. 1838 43 Latrabe's Compound Rail, A. D. 1841 43 First Rail Rolled in America, A. D. 1844 44 92-lb. Rail, A. D. 1848 44 T Rail, A. D. 1850 44 Pear Headed Rail, A. D. 1853 44 Pear Headed Rail, A. D. 1855 45 Pear Headed Rail, A. D. 1855 45 Compound Rail, A. D. 1855 45 Compound Rail, A. D. 1855 45 Compound Rail, A. D. 1855 45 Compound Rail, A. D. 1855 45 Box Rail, A. D. 1855 46 Barlow's "Saddle Back" Rail, A. D. 1856 46 Triangular Strinpjer Capped with Iron, A. D. 1857... .. 46 1.) 2. }• Aneroid Barometers for Measuring Altitude 49 3. i 4. Engineer's Pocket Instruments 50 g* > Prismatic Compass with Clynometer Attachment — 50, 51 7. Lock's Hand Level 51 8. Abney's Hand Level and Clynometer 62 9. Field Glasses 52 10. Pedometer 53 11a, lib, lie. Odometer 54,55 12. Engineers' Transit with Level and Vertical Arc 59 13. ** ** ** ** ** Gradienter Attach- ment 60 14. Engineers* Chain 81 15. Engineers' Improved Tape Chain 61 16. Steel Tape ... 62 17. Ranging Rods or Poles 62 18. Chesterman's Metallic Tape 63 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. ix 19. Engineers' Scale 63 20. Protractor 6X 21. Transparent Protractor wit i R. R. Curves 64 22. Engineers' Y Level 64 23. Philadelphia Leveling Rod 65 24. Leveling Instrument and Gradienter for Topograph- ical Work Q^ 25. Clynometer or Slope Instrument 66 26. Form of Cross Section Book 93 26a. Form of Quantity Book 93 27. Graders' Plow 96 28. Drag Scraper 96 29. ** ** with Runners 97 30. ** ** ** Bottom Plate 97 31. Back Scraper 97 32. Two Wheeled Scraper 98 33. '* ** '' 98 34. ** ** *' . 99 36. Side View of Grader, ditcher and wagon loader 99 37. Rear ** ** *' '* ** ** *' loO 39. Four Wheeled Scraper 101 40. '' ** ** 101 41. Two Wheeled Dump Cart 102 42. End, Dump Wagon 102 43. Bottom, ** ** 103 .44. Iron End, Dump Cart 103 45. Embankment; built full width at Grade and out to the Slope Stakes 105 46. Right and Left Hand Dump Cars 107 48. Rotary Dump Car 107 49. View showing the method of dumping a rotary Dump Car 108 51. Plan and Side and End Elevations of a Steam Shovel 109 54. Steam Shovel Car 110 55. Hard Pan Plow 110 56. Showing the Slopes for an Earth Cut Ill 61. Example of Cristina Method of Tunneling 114 62. Example of American System 116 63. Air Compressor 117 65. Rock Drills for Tunnel Work 117 68 Ventilation of Mt. Cenis Tunnel 120 69-70. Retaining Walls 121 71. Showing How a Cut can be the Full Width at Grade and the Material Taken Out at Slope Stakes, and yet all the Material will not be Excavaled 122 72. Steam Pile Driver 125 72a. Form of Force Report 130 726. Form of Estimate Book 131 X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 73. View Overhaul 133 74. '' '' 133 75. Track Laying or Iron Car 135 76. Holman 's Track Laying Machine 138 77. Harris' '' '' '' 140 78. Terminal Coaling Station 156 78a. Elevation of Combined Coal, Ash and Sand Bins 157 78b. Transverse Section Coaling Station 158 79. Water Tank 159 80 Water Tank 160 80a. Gasoline Water Pump 161 80b. Four Post Pneumatic Gate 162 80c. Pneumatic Folding Fence Gate 163 80d. Iron Signs 164 80e. Pratt *' Split'' Turn Table with Motor Attachment 165 80f. Sheffield Section Gasoline Motor Car 166 80g. Bonzano Eail Joint, Side View 167 80h. One Hundred Per Cent Splice Bar 167 80i. Sem.aphore Stand 168 80j. The Buda Oscillating Surface Cattle Guard 169 80k. American Guard Eail Fastener 170 801. The Graham Combined Guard Eail and Frog Brace. ... 171 80m. Guard Eail Clamp 171 80n. Tie Plug 172 81. Earth Ballast — Galveston, Houston & Henderson Ey. . . . 181 82. Gravel '' '' '' " '' 182 83. Earth '' Illinois Central Eailroad 182 84. Crushed Stone, 2 inches Diameter, on Quarry Spauls 4 to 6 inches Diameter— N. Y. C. & H. E. E. E 182 85 Ballast, Crushed Stone 2i^ inches Diameter, Penn. E. E 183 86. Eock Cut Stone Ballast 2% inches Diameter, C. & P. D. Branch of Penn. E. E 183 87. Gravel Ballast, A. T. & S. F. Eailway 184 88. '' '' C. & N. W. '' 184 89. Burnt Clay Ballast, C. B. & Q. E. E 185 90. Hoosac Tunnel, Finished Masonry in Soft Ground 185 91. Section of Tunnel at Port Perry, P. V. & C. Ey 186 92. ** *' ** on the Insbruck Bozen Line, Aus- tria ' 187 93. '* '* ** used by Government Eailway of East India 188 94. Section of Iron Tunnel under the St. Clair Eiver, used by the Grand Trunk Ey 189 95. Morrell Metal Tie 220 96. Metal Tie used on the N. Y. C. & H. E. E. E 221 97. Wolhaupter Tie Plate with Eib to Eesist the Lateral Motion of the Eail 223 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xi 98. Goldie Claw Tie Plate with Lug to Prevent the Lateral Movement of the Kail 223 99. The C. A. C. Tie Plate 224 100. The Servis Tie Plate 224 101. Wolhaupter Arch Girder Tie Plate 224 102. Track Spikes 241 103. Angle Bars used on a 75 pound Kail of American Society of Civil Engineers' Standard 243 104. Continuous Kail Joint 243 105. Weber Kail Joint 244 106. Truss '' '' 244 107. Common Sense Kail Joint 244 108. C. & N. W. Kj. Joint Base Plate used to give Lateral Stiffness to the Kail 245 109. Track Bolts 248 110. Styles of ^^ Verona^' Nut Locks 248 111. The Elastic Self -Locking Steel Nut ^^ National" 249 112. Joint Spring Nut Lock 249 113. Shows how a Kail Brace will fail to support the Kail where it cuts into the Tie or the Kail Brace is not properly designed 250 114. Forged Steel Kail Braces 250 115. Stub Switch Showing Head Blocks and Ground Throw for Moving Switch Kails 251 116. Split Switch with Pony Switch Stand Suitable for Yards , 252 120. Kigid Filled Frog 253 121. " Chuck Filled Frog 254 122. '' Steel Clamp Frog 254 123. Kigid Plate Frog 255 124. Spring Kail Frog with Anchor Block 255 125. Eureka Spring Kail Frog 256 126. Movable Point Crossing 257 129. Crossing Frogs, Angle 60° to 90° 258 130. '' '' '' 45° to 60° 258 131. '* '* with Extra Heavy Angle Irons.. 259 132. '' ''for Steam and Street Kailroads 260 133. Jump Crossing Frogs for Steam and Street Kailroads. . 260 134. Kamapo Safety Switch Stand as it appears when Half Thrown by Hand 261 135. Kamapo Safety Switch Stand as it appears when Half Thrown by Wheels Passing Through the Switch .... 262 136. Three Throw Switch Stand 263 137. Automatic Parallel Ground Throw Switch Stand 264 138. Low Pony Switch Stand 264 139. '' '' '' '' with Safety Bottom Cap 264 140. Ground Throw Switch Stand with Weighted Lever 265 xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 141. Designs for Targets or Signals to be used on Switch Stands 265 142. Target Tripod for Switch Stands 266 143. Haley Semi-Steel Bumping Post 267 145. Ellis Bumping Post . 268 146. Through Plate Girder Bridge 269 147. Perspective View of Through Plate Girder Bridge 269 148. Through Plate Truss 269 149. Deck Pratt Truss 271 150. Through Warren Truss 271 151. Deck Warren Truss 271 152. Whipple Truss or Double Intersection Pratt 273 153. Modified Form of Warren Truss 273 154. Single Lattice Girder — Modified Form of Warren Truss 273 155. Double Lattice Girder — Modified Form of Warren Truss 275 156. Deck Baltimore Truss— Modified Form of Pratt Truss. . 275 157. Through Baltimore Truss — Modified Form of Pratt Truss 275 158. Long Span Baltimore Truss — Modified Form of Warren Truss 277 159. Long Span Baltimore Truss — also known as the Arched Truss, the Bow String Truss, and the Camelback Truss 277 160. Another Modification of the Warren Truss for Long Spans 279 161. Duluth—Superior Bridge 279 162. Bob Tailed Draw Bridge, Modified Form of Warren Truss, Short Span Counter-Weighted. 281 163. Scherzer Eolling Lift Bridge 281 165. Cantilever Bridge 281 166. Pile Trestle Bridge 282 167. Framed Trestle 282 168. Stone Arched Culvert 283 169. Cast Iron Pipe Culvert without Wing Walls 283 170. '' '' "• '' with '' '' 284 171. Open Culvert 284 172. Pump for a Deep Well 286 173. Common Form of Setting up a Pumping Plant for a Water Station 287 174. Combined Gasoline Engine and Pump 288 175. Design for Railroad Pump House and Machinery, using a Gasoline Engine 289 176. Water Tank supported by Wooden Posts or Bents 290 179. Automatic Stand Pipe or Water Column 291 180. Track Tank 292 181. Plan of a Coaling Station where Buckets are used.... 294 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xiii 182. Transverse Section of a Clinton Coaling Station 295 183. Cast Iron Turntable made by William Sellers & Co 297 184. Wrought Iron Turntable made by the King Iron Bridge Co 298 185. A Turntable Center used by William Sellers & Co ..... . 298 186. A Special Sixteen Eoller Center for Turntables 299 187. Small Frame Depot with Living Eooms on Second Floor 301 188. Small Frame Depot 302 189. Frame Depot for a Moderate Sized Town 303 190. Outbuildings for Small Depots 304 191. Plan of a Brick Passenger Depot 306 192. ** '' Stock Yard 307 193. * ^ * ' Koundhouse and Shops 308 194. *' '' Brick Storehouse for Supplies 309 195. '' '' Storehouse for Sand 310 196. Elevation of a Bent of an Air Hoist Ash Pit 311 198. Train Signal operated by the Station Agent 314 199. Automatic Electric Signal 314 200. Lever operated by the Engine to open and close the Electric Circuit 315 201. Block Signal, Operated by the Telegraph Operator.... 315 202. Switch Lamp, Upper Draught 316 203. Switch Lamp, Lower Draught 316 204. Semaphore Signal Lamp, Upper Draught 317 205. Barbed Wire Fence 318 206. Page Woven Wire Fence 318 207. Jones ' Wire Fence 318 208. Flexible Clamp, used in making Jones ' Wire Fence .... 319 209. Cyclone Wire Fence and the Machine for Making it ... . 319 210. Terra Cotta Base Iron Posts for Fences and Signs. .. . 320 211. Cattle Guard 321 212. Climax Stock Guard 321 213. Sheffield Cattle Guard 321 214. Eailroad Track Scales 322 215. Circular Arch 324 215a. Segmental Arch 325 215b. A Perspective View of a Semi-circular Arch 326 215c. Styles of Wing Walls 330 215d. Gravity Concrete Mixer, Using Baffle Pins Only 340 215e. Gravity Concrete Mixer, Using Baffle Plates Only 341 215f. Gravity Concrete Mixer, Using both Baffle Pins and Plates as made by the Contractors ' Plant Co 341 215g. The Method of Using a Gravity Concrete IMixer 342 215h. Drake Concrete Mixer with Automatic Feeding Attach- ment 343 xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 215i. Drake Mixer on a Car, with Conveyor to Deliver the Concrete on the Wall, also Showing the Method of Delivering the Material to the Mixer 344 215j. The Cockburn Barrow and Machine Co. 's Concrete Mixer 345 215k. Kansome's Continuous Concrete Mixer 346 2151. Kansome's Concrete Mixer 347 215m. Eansome 's Concrete Mixer, as Used at East End of Bridge 3, Allentown Terminal Ey 348 215n. Cubical Concrete Mixer 349 215o. The Smith Concrete Mixer 350 215p. Melan Arch Bridge Over Falls Creek, Indianapolis, Ind. 352 215q. Corrugated Steel Bars Made by the St. Louis Ex- panded Metal Co 353 215r. Twisted Steel Bars Made by Eansome Concrete Ma- chinery Co 353 215s. Thacher Patent Bars, Manufactured by the Concrete Steel Engineering Co 353 215t. Concrete Arch Eods 354 215u. Concrete Arch Eods 355 215v. Big Muddy Bridge 357 215w. Big Muddy Bridge 358 215x. Big Muddy Bridge 360 216. Plan of Tracks for a Small Country Town 364 217. Plan of Tracks for a Junction of Two Eailway Systems 364 218. Plan of Tracks for a Junction of a Branch with the Main Line 365 219. Plan of Tracks and Buildings for a Yard where Loco- motives are changed and where the grades alter, thus causing a change in the Tonnage of Trains each side of the Yard 365 220. Combination Slip Switch Crossing, with Adjustable Tie Bars and Eigid Center Progs, Operated from a Sin- gle Switch Stand with Eocker Shaft Connection.... 366 221. View of a Three Throw Split Switch 367 222. Arrangement of the Switch Points for a Three Throw Split Switch 368 223. Single Throw Split Switch No. 6; Eigid Frog 6 Feet Long 369 224. Single Throw Split Switch No. 7; Eigid Frog 7 F'^et Long 369 225. Single Throw Split Switch No. 7; Eigid Frog 12 Feet Long 369 226. Single Throw Split Switch No. 8; Eigid Frog 8 Feet Long 371 227. Single Throw Split Switch No. 9; Eigid Frog 9 Feet Long 371 LIST OF ILLUSTRATT0N8. xv 228. Single Throw Split Switch No. 9; Eigid Frog 12 Feet Long 371 229. Single Throw Split Switch No. 10; Eigid Frog 10 Feet Long 373 230. Single Throw Split Switch No. 11; Eigid Frog 11 Feet Long 373 231. Single Throw Split Switch No. 7; Spring Eail Frog 15 Feet Long 373 232. Single Throw Split Switch No. 8%; Spring Eail Frog 15 Feet Long 374 233. Single Throw Split Switch No. 9; Spring Eail Frog 15 Feet Long 374 234. Single Throw Split Switch No. 10; Spring Eail Frog 15 Feet Long 374 235. Three Throw Split Switch with No. 6 Eigid Frog 6 Feet Long 375 236. Three Throw Split Switch with No. 7 Eigid Frog 7 Feet Long 375 237. Three Throw Split Switch with No. 7 Eigid Frog 12 Feet Long 375 238. Three Throw Split Switch with No. 8 Eigid Frog 8 Feet Long 376 239. Three Throw Split Switch with No. 9 Eigid Frog 9 Feet Long 376 240. Three Throw Split Switch with No. 9 Eigid Frog 12 Feet Long 376 241. Three Throw Split Switch with No. 10 Eigid Frog 10 Feet Long 377 242. Three Throw Split Switch with No. 11 Eigid Frog 11 Feet Long 377 243. Plan of a Stub Switch 377 244. Plan illustrating the use of a Cross-Over or Switch connecting the Two Main Line Tracks of a Double Track Eoad 378 245. Plan of a Cross-Over 378 246. Derailing Switch used to prevent a collision between a Train on the Main Line and Cars running off a Side Track onto the Main Line 379 247. Sand Track; used to cheek the movement of Cars on a grade or when propelled by a high wind from running off a Siding to the Main Line Track 379 248. Derail Switch Point used in connection with Inter- locking System of Guard Crossings 379 249. Standard Guard Eail with Division Blocks and Bolts and Eail Braces 381 250. Guard Eail with the Hook Guard Eail Clamp 382 251. Guard Eail with the Sampson Adjustable Guard Eail Clamp 382 xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, 252. Crossing Frogs used where two tracks cross at an acute angle 383 253. Combination Slip Switch and Movable Center Points Switches and Movable Center Points operated by one Switch Stand 383 258. Sectional Perspective View of Gates Stone Crusher. .. . 398 259. Gates Eevolving Screen for Screening Crushed Stone. . 399 260. Arrangement of Stone Crusher, Elevator, Screen and Storage Bins for a Eailroad Ballast Plant 400 262. Jenne Track Jack for heavy Ballasting, Surfacing and General Track Repairs 401 263. Trip Jack 401 264. Adze 404 265. Chopping Axe 404 266. Augur for boring holes in the ground for Fence Posts. 404 267. Broom for removing snow from Switches, etc 404 268. Brush Hook for cutting down small Saplings 405 269. Ballast or Napping Hammer 405 270. Ballast Fork 405 271. Brace and Bit 405 272. Hand Car for Section Gang 406 273. Push Car, with Removable Side and End Boards 407 274. Track Chisel, for cutting Rails, etc 408 275. Claw Bars 408 276. Track Drill 408 277. Self -Feeding Rail Drill 409 278. Hand File, for smoothing the ends of Rails 409 279. Grindstone, Mounted and Treadle 410 280. Grub Hoe, Mattock, Pick Mattock 410 281. Hatchets and Hand Axe 410 282. Hand Hammer 411 283. Lantern 411 284. Lining Bars, for Throwing Track 411 285. Oil Can for Car Oil 411 286. Spring Oiler for oiling Hand Push Cars 411 287. Track or Rail Punch 412 288. Railroad Padlock used with a chain to Lock Hand or Push Cars by passing through the two Wheels on the same side of the Car and fastening the Chain by passing the Padlock hasp through two Links of the Chain 412 289. Pick for loosening Earth, Clay or Hard Gravel . 412 290. Tamping Pick 412 291. Rail Tongs 413 292. Rail Fork 413 293. Hand Saw 413 294. Cross Cut Saw 413 295. Scythes (a) Light; {h) Heavy 413 < LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xvii 296. Scythe Snaths 413 297. Spirit Level 414 298. Spike Pullers 414 299. Spike Maul 415 300. Stone Sledge Hammers 415 301. Eailroad Shovel for Tamping, etc 415 302. Scoop Shovel 415 303. Long Handled Shovel 415 304. Track Lever or Lifting Bar 415 305. Huntington 's Track Gauge 415 306. McHenry 's Track Gauge 416 307. (a) Common Track Level; (Z?) Duplex Track Level. . . . 416 (c) McHenry 's Involute Track Level 416 308. Tamping Bar 417 309. Torpedo 417 310. Eailroad Tool Chest 417 311. Track Wrench 418 312. Monkey Wrench 418 313. Eailroad Barrows 418 315. Four Wheel Eclipse Light Weight Car 419 316. Velocipede Car 420 318. The Ware Tie Plate Surf acer and Gauge 429 319. American Eailway Ditching Machine 434 320. Clarke Jeffrey Split Switch 435 321. Transit Split Switch 437 322. Channel Split Switch 438 323. Lorenz Safety Split Switch 439 324. Views of Different Connecting Eods . 439 325. Views of Different Kinds of Bridle Eods 440 326. Eamapo Yoked Frog 440 327. Strom Clamp or Yoked Frog 441 328. Frog with Wood Foot Guard 442 329. Frog with Iron Foot Guards 442 330. Eight Hand Turn Out 443 331. Left Hand Turn Out 443 332. Eight Hand Frog 444 '333. To take the Angle of a Frog 444 334. Head Blocks or Head Chairs for Stub Switches 445 335. Bryant Portable Eail Saw 445 336. Eail Bender and Straightener 446 337. '' '' " '' with Horse Power At- tachment 447 338. Plan and Elevation of a joint to take up expansion and contraction of Eails 451 339. Expansion Joint for a Bridge or difficult pieces of Track 451 342. Plan and Section show-ing Piping necessary to fit a Flat Car to sprinkle Track with Oil 452 xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, 344. Rotary Snow Plow 475 345. Inspection Hand Car 496 348. Double or Four Wheeled Motor Car for Inspection Purposes 497 349. 35 Ton Steam Wrecking Crane 507 350. 15 Ton Double Mast Hand Wrecking Crane 507 351. Automatic Lowering Jack 508 353. Dudgeon 's Hydraulic Jack. 509 354. Tilden Wrecking Frog 510 355. Palmerton Wrecking Frog 510 356. Elliot Car Eeplacers or Wrecking Frog 511 357. Device for Splicing a Broken Chain 514 358. Ship Augur Bits, used by Bridge Carpenters 521 359. Boring Machine used where Heavy Timbers are Framed 521 360. Crow Bar 522 361. (a) Pinch Bar without a Heel; (&) Pinch Bar with a Heel 522 362. Shackel Bar used for Drawing Drift Bolts 522 363. (a) Single Block; (&) Double Block; (c) Triple Block 522 364. -Bridge Gang Hand Car 523 365. Heavy Push Car for use of Bridge Crew 523 366. Cant Hook 524 367. Pevey 524 368. Timber Grapples 524 369. Hoisting Crabs or Winches, (a) Single Purchase; (fe) Double Purchase 524 370. Timber Trucks or Dollys 525 371. Files, (a) Taper File; (5) Double End File 525 372. House Raising Jack Screws 525 373. Bilge Pumps, (a) Bottom Suction; (fe) Side Suction.. 526 377. Steel Socket Bridge Wrench 526 378. Wheel Wrench 527 1. Curves showing Horse-power of Standard Locomotives; Northern Pacific Ry App. H 639 2. Diagram showing Lengths of Velocity Grades. . .App. H 642 3. Diagram of Train Resistance in Pounds per ton. App. H 644 379. Rail Section App. J 673 380. Pennsylvania R. R. Standard Rail Section and Stand- ard Joint App. J 674 381. New York Central & Hudson River R. R. Standard Rail Section App. J 675 382. Philadelphia &, Reading R. R. Rail Section App. J 676 383. Argentine Gt. Western Ry. (South America) Rail Section App. J 677 384. Mexican Ry. Co., Ltd., Standard Rail Section. .App. J 678 385. East India Ry. Co. India Standard Rail Section and Standard Joint -A.pp. J 679 INTRODUCTION. Many books have been written on the subject of Railway Construction by different men; many more will be written hereafter, and this without exhausting the subject. It is too great and the problems too multiplex to be exhausted. Each writer, however, will throw new and needed light on the subject and what each says will therefore be useful to owner and operator alike. For the Construction and Maintenance of rail- ways will never cease to interest or excite con- troversy. The subject is one of the greatest connected with the operation of railroads and is rendered more complex because of the dissimil- arity of conditions under which they are built and worked. The more light, therefore, that can be thrown on the subject the more advantageous to those interested. Because of this I do not feel that excuse is necessary for offering this book, apart from what I have written on the subject in other volumes of ''The Science of Railways." This added mat- ter will be of interest to all who seek increased knowledge and usefulness from the observation and experience of others. What is written here does not represent my particular experience, bat the experience and wisdom of others as well, who have studied the subject. (19) 20 INTRODUCTION, This volume, like others that I have WTitten, it is unnecessary to say, is intended for the use of students and practical men, such as builders, roadmasters, section foremen and others who have to deal at first hand with the material things that go to make up a railroad and its accessories. M. M. KiRKMAN. CHAPTER I. RAILWAY EVOLUTION. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE RAILWAY ILLUSTRATED. In depicting railways, an account of the con- ditions which lead up to them is interesting, not only in itself, but as affording a better under- standing of the subject. The origin and growth of property go hand in hand with the birth and development of man. When we describe the condition of one we describe the condition of the other. The two are coexistent. Thus the busi- ness principles which we observe to-day were in the main established by the ancients, who were commercially inclined as we are, many hundreds of years ago. In the same way they originated in the main our utensils and methods. We have simply developed their primary thoughts. In legal phraseology there are three kinds of property — real, personal and mixed. Railway property partakes of all these characteristics. The privileges it enjoys are such as are accorded it under the limited knowledge we have of its uses and needs. Its rights are exceptional because of its special duties and responsibilities. Its limitations are such as attach to common car- riers. It represents a new departure in industrial effort; a progressive step greatly stimulative of <21) 22 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. man's efforts. In other respects it presents no distinguishing features. It furnishes, however, another instance, if one were wanting, of the sympathetic tie that connects man's intellectual growth with that which he so greatly prizes, namely, material wealth. The primary purpose of the permanent way of a railroad was to furnish a surface that should be at once hard, smooth and unchanging for wheels to run upon. Railways had their origin in Great Britain in the tramways laid in the mining districts for con- veying coal to the sea from the mines near New- castle-on-Tyne during the seventeenth century. The rails were formed of scantlings of oak, straight and parallel to each other, connected by cross timbers also of oak and pinned together, with oak treenails; on these, carts made with four rollers fitting the rails traveled, the carriage being so easy that one horse is said to have been able to draw four or five chaldrons of coal. The benefits derived from this manner of transport- ing coal suggested to the thinking man the em- ployment of similar means for facilitating the conveyance of passengers and general merchan- dise. A road graveled between the rails was at first provided as a foothold for the horses which drew the cars. The wheels were kept on the rails by guides, attached either to the wheels or to the rails. As stated, the earliest railroads were con- structed wholly of wood. In comparing the first railroads with the com- BAILWAY EVOLUTION. 23 mon turnpike road, an early writer says: ''A saving is made of seven-eighths of the power, one horse on a railroad producing as much effect as eight horses on a turnpike road. In the effect produced by a given power the railroad is about a mean between the turnpike road and a canal, when the rate is about three miles an hour; but when greater speed is desirable the railroad may equal the canal in effect and even surpass it." Rails were first cast; afterward, early in the nineteenth century, they were rolled. In 1767 the first iron rail w^as cast at Colebrookdale, Eng- land. This was a great stride forward. It was three feet long, four inches wide at the top, and three inches high. This progressive step pre- pared the way for the locomotive when it should be evolved. However, the rail thus cast proved to be too light, but the difficulty was overcome by making the carts or wagons smaller and coup- ling a number of them together instead of having one big vehicle. Thus the train came into being. Shortly afterward it was found possible to cast a rail six feet long; in 1815 it had grown to fif- teen feet; still later to thirty feet. In 1789 William Jessop first introduced a rail with a smooth, level top, substituting a wheel with a flange for the old-fashioned form. This simple, yet ingenious, device at once revolution- ized previous practices. Before, a flange or something of the kind had formed a part of the rail in order to keep the wheel on the track. This not only added to the cost of the rail, but rendered it less strong and more easily worn out. 24 BUILDING AND BE P AIMING RAILWAYS. The flanged wheel cleared the sky. In 1797 Jes- sop also contributed to the development of rail- roads by inventing the iron chair, which he in- serted between the rail alid the tie. Rails at this time were very light, and the load and speed were made to correspond. Jessop's Cast Iron Fish-bellied Rail, A. D. 1789. -[Note: The attention of the reader is particularly called to the fact that in the accompanying illustra- tions not only the form of the rail is shown, hut also the fastenings, splice bars, chairs, ties and other details of interest connected with the track.] Fig. a. The First Rail Chair. Newcastle-on-Tyne, A. D. 1797. Fig. B. Figures A and B illustrate the Jessop rail and iron chair. Some of the various styles of rails used for tram roads are illustrated by Fig. C. With the introduction of the locomotive to take the place of the horse commenced the de- velopment of the present railroad. This was about the year 1830. George Stephenson, while he did not invent the first successful locomotive, is, nevertheless, BAILWAT EVOLUTION. 25 Top v/tw. Sfcrio/i. H seaTMRo LieCann's Tram Rail, requiring neither bolts nor spikes. Wales, A. D. 1801. Wyatt's Hexagonal Rail, North Wales, A. D. 1802. Tram Rail, Surrey Railway, A. D. 1803. Carlisle's Wrought (rolled) Iron Rail, A. D. 1811. Lcsh & Stephenson's Edge Rail, Stockton & Darlington Railroad, A. D. 1810. Fig. C. quite generally accredited with being the father of this machine and, therefore, of the railway system. He did much to perfect the locomotive. As I have had occasion to remark elsewhere, his 26 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, prominence in connection with the opening of the Liverpool & Manchester railway, where for the first time the attention of the world was generally drawn to the railroad question, concen- trated attention upon him, so that it was believed, though erroneously, that he invented the loco- motive and operated the first successful one. The idea of the locomotive originated with Trevithick, in 1803, but it was not a financial success. Af- terward, John Blenkinsop accomplished what Trevithick had been unable to do. Blenkinsop had constructed two locomotives which answered every requirement, so far as the action of steam and economy of operation were concerned, before Stephenson manufactured his first machine. The locomotive followed naturally the inven- tion of a suitable roadbed, as the wagon and car- riage followed a suitable highway. The railway track, as referred to elsewhere, was first utilized in connection with the handling of coal. The bulk of the latter, and the necessity for cheapen- ing its price, made some simple appliance for transporting it a matter of the greatest possible importance to the people of Great Britain. Horses were at fin^t used, then steam. The cost of transportation over these tramways, or primitive railroads, is said to have been about ten per cent, of that over the common turnpike. The character of the track on which Trevith- ick's first locomotive ran is illustrated by Fig. D. The character of the rails used for the first track on which locomotives were operated is shown by Fig. E. These rails were of light weight; in 1825 BATLWAT EVOLUTION 27 I- xram Rail witli stone supports, upon which Trevithick's first locomotive raa Fia. D. the average weight of rails per yard was about 28 pounds; in 1830 (about the time the locomo- tive was introduced) the weight was increased to 35 pounds per yard. As the weight of locomo- 28 BUILDING AND EEPAIRING RAILWAYS. Birkenshaw's Wrought-Iron Rail, A. D. 1820. Sf^G r/ff^'CH/HR. George Stepnenson's Fish-Belly Rail, Manchester & Liverpool Railway, A. D.1829. Rail designed by Robert L. Stevens, A. D. 1830; adopted by American railroads. Shaded section shows rail as originally designed, 1830. Section not shaded shows rail as rolled, 1831. This rail was fastened to stone blocks with hook headed spikes; at the joints were iron tongues fastened to the 3tem of the rail, put on hot. RAILWAY EVOLUTION. 29 tives and speed of trains have increased, the weight of the rail has grown heavier. Ninety and even 100 pounds per yard is not uncommon , in use now. jj The method of supporting the rails on the tram road and the first railroad was generally j stone blocks placed at their ends, as illustrated I by Figs. A, B, C, D and E. With the introduction of rolled wrought iron rails, in 1805, their length began to increase, and this led to the introduction of intermediate sup- ports between the joints. The T rail. Fig. E, led to the use of cross ties, the early method of use is illustrated by Fig. F. 30 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Standard Track of Camden & Amboy Railroad, A. D. 1837. Track of Camden & Amboy Railroad. Rails laid on piling through marshes, A. D. 1837. Stevens' Rail, Vicksburg «& Jackson Railroad, A. D. 184\ Fig. F. BAIL WAY E VOLUTION. 31 To cheapen construction, the strap rail was largely used on the early American railroads; it is illustrated by Fig. G. Stone stringer and Strap Rail, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, A. D. 1833. This was a favorite American device. Wooden Stringer and Strap Rail, Albany & Schenectady Railroad, A. D. 1837. A strap rail was used on many of the first railroads in America, par- ticularly in the Central and Western States. Fig. G. 32 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. The method of constructing track with stone blocks and stone stringers gave a rigid road bed and rough riding track which were very destruc- tive to locomotives and cars. This led to the introduction of the T rail and the use of cross ties.^ WMMMsmm ^Cross-Section of Track in Granite Block Fig. H. STREET RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. The rails are laid on continuous beams of concrete made of cement, sand and broken stone. The track is held to gauge by steel ties spaced ten feet centers. The space between the rail and beam is solidly filled by ramming in a mixture of cement and sand. The space under the ties is filled with liquid grout. This construction is somewhat of a departure from the usual practice in this country, and Is found to be more durable and no more expensive than the usual wood tie construction. The above used at Buffalo, N. Y., St. Paul, Minn., and Kansas City, Mo. During the winter months the track of the steam railways is practically such as the above. The failure of the early methods was duc to poor track and poor rolling stock. In connection with the construction of railway track, it is interesting to notice the methods *While the cross tie is generally used by railroads throughout the world, the Great Western Railway of England uses a longi- tudinal support for its rails. Such support was quite common in the early days of railroading, but has, as a rule, been abandoned. RAILWAY EVOLUTION. 33 adopted by street railways to secure a permanent way where expensive pavements are laid, as illus- trated by Fig. H. The weight of the first loco- motive on the London and Manchester R. R. was 7i tons including the tender; in 1831 the weight of a goods train with engine was about 50 tons. The weight of a modern electric car and motor is from 33 to 58 tons; the additional weight of passengers when fully loaded is from 4 to 5 tons, making a total of 37 to 63 tons. We find that this rigid street car track with modern rails and roll- ing stock is giving a smooth riding track without injuring the rolling stock. No rigid connection between the ends of the rails laid in a track was made until 1847. Prior to that time they were placed one against the other in a chair, especially designed for the pur- pose, called a joint chair. The ends of the rails were not held securely in this chair, but could slide past each other and were quickly ruined by the wheels jolting over the uneven surface. In 1847 fish plates for uniting the ends of the rails were introduced, and the device has since been generally adopted. By this means the rails are firmly held together, affording an even surface at the top. The fish plate, a strip of iron about an inch thick, was placed on either side of, but not touching, the web of the rail, the edges of the plate being made to perfectly fit the sloping sides of the head and foot of the rail. The fish plate is held in place by bolts, called fish bolts, which pass through the rail and the two fish 3 Vol. 13 34 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING BAILWATS. plates (one on either side of the rails), drawing the plates together and tightening their edges against the rail. The rail was further strength- ened at the fish joint by the cross ties being laid nearer each other there than in other portions of the track. The efficiency of the fish joint de- pends upon the plates being kept securely in their place. They require to be frequently looked after and the bolts screwed up, as they are liable to work loose with the jar of the trains passing over them. Various styles of fish plates English Fish-belly Rail, New Jersey Railroad, A. D. 1832. Fig. I. and fastenings have been introduced, the object being to find some way for holding the bolt and RAIL WA Y E VOL UTION. 35 Joint Chair and Wedge, Old Portage Railroad, A. D. 1832. Stone Block, Rail and Joint Tongue laid on Camden & Amboy Railroad, A. D. 1831. Fig. I. nut firm after being screwed into place, so they cannot work loose. The early method of fastening rail joints is shown by Fig. I. The development of the rail joint fastening up to 1860 is illustrated by Fig. J. 36 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS Stevens' Rail Supported by Cast-iron Ctiair, A. D. 1837. Ring, Joint and Wedge, West Jersey Railroad. ^^. »«^ * '•ei2;^2l^ll_--r--^=? Wooden Joint Block, New Jersey Railroad, A. D. 1860. Fig. J. BAILWAY EVOLUTION. Double Splice Bar. Erie Rail with ends stamped for Adams' Cast-iron Bracket Splice, A. D. 1857. Single Splice Bar. Double Splice Bar. Fig. J. The fish plate or splice bar, and the angle plate or angle splice bar^ had come into general use by 1870. Fig. K. illustrates its development from 1860 to 1880.^ *Iii another chapter the reader will find illustrations of the rail joints now in use. The best method of fastening the ends of rails is still much discussed. 38 BUILDING AND BEF AIRING RAILWAYS. Plain Splice Bar. A. D. 1868. Angle Splice Bar, Angle Splice Bar. Angle Splice Bar. Fig. K. RAIL WA Y E VOLUTION. 39 Early frogs and switches are illustrated by- Figs. L and M. staple Iron used as a makeshift for a Frog, Camden & Amboy Railroad, A. D. 1831. Fig. L. v_ 40 BUILDING AND REP^UIilNQ RAILWAYS. Frog, Old Portage Railroad, A. D. 1835. Wood's Rail Frog, New Jersey, A. D. 1859. Fig. L. Switches in Colliery Railroads, England, A. D. 1825. Fig. M. The Method of using bull head rails is shown by Fig. N. Section of English Permanent Way Fia. N. As timber became scarce in Europe and other countries, metal ties were adopted. Fig. illus- trates some of the styles used and the methods adopted for fastening the rails. 42 BUILDING ^iND HE POURING B^ULWAYB, Steel Tie, London & Northwestern Railway, A. D. 1885. Metal ♦*Pot" Tie, Midland Railway of India. A. D. 1889. Metal Track, Queensland, A. D. 1889. Metal track, Midland Railway, A. D. 1889. Metal track, London & Northwestern, A. D. 1889. Fig. 0. RAILWAY EVOLUTION. 43 Metal track, Elf erf eld Railway, Germany, Metal track, Great Central Railway of Belgium, A.D.I 889. A. D. 1889. Fig. 0. . During the development of the T rail, from 1830 to 1860, there were a number of devices and patterns proposed, some of which are illus- trated by Fig. P. , 1" , f...^..Z'i Cross lie J^'x\6 cltvcI y JTeet Lon^ '^'^^-^ Wooden Stringer.«-.6"«'''-vW ^! T^ck Rectangular Rail, A. D. 1838. Latrote's Compound Rail, wood and iron. Baltimore &L Ohio Railroad, A. D. 1841- Fig. p. 44 BUILDING AND REPAIlilNG RAILWAYS. First Rail rolled in America, Baltimore & Ohio 92-poun(i Rail, 7 inches high. Railroad. %^' mm -V— 1 T Rail, A. D. 1850. Pear-headed Rail, A. D. 1853. Fig. p. BAILWAT EVOLUTION, 45 i Pear-headed Rail. Pear-headed Rail. Compound Rail. Compound Rail« Compound Rail. Compound Rail. Fig. p. 46 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Box Kail. Barlow's *' Saddle Back " Rail, laid without support* Triangular Stringer capped with iron. Fig. p. CHAPTER II. THE RECONNOISSANCE. THE FIRST STEP IN RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. In locating a new railway line or extending an existing one, many factors must be taken ac- count of, such as the cost of the proposed line considered in relation to its probable revenue; the cost of operation and maintenance; and the financial resources of the owners. From an operating point of view it is desirable that the route shall be as direct as possible, a straight line drawn between the termini would be the ideal, but other considerations intervene, such as the most effective and profitable service that can be rendered the population within the territory, the cost of construction first and the expense of maintenance and operation afterward, the effect of the competition of existing or possible lines or other forms of transportation, etc."^ When it is desired to construct a new line be- tween given points or extend an old one to a cer- tain point, the first things to know before it can *It is recorded that when a great railway line was projected in the Russian Empire, the route was a matter of much contro- versy. The emx^eror, however, solved the problem by taking a ruler and ruling a straight line between the termini. In coun- tries like ours, however, commercial considerations are para- mount, and no such heroic disposition of the matter is possible. (47^ 48 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, be determined upon are, what will be the best route to take, and the probable cost and charac- ter of the road required. To ascertain these it is necessary that the country to be traversed should be examined by engineers. This examin- ation is called a reconnoissance, and is made un- der the direction of a civil engineer. ^ It is of a preliminary character only and is not intended to give an accurate survey of the country. It is made to determine: (a) an approximate location for the proposed line; (h) that it is possible to ascend from a valley on a given grade, and get over the summit of the divide; (r^) that it is pos- sible to descend from this divide and cross the summit of the next on a given grade; (c?) the elevation of the passes of the divides to the right and left, and (^) that the road can be built with- in certain limits of expenditure. The method of making the reconnoissance dif- fers, of course, according to conditions. If the country proposed to be traversed is well known and has been settled, accurate maps and surveys of it can be readily obtained. Accord- ingly, the engineer provides himself with a map made preferably on the scale of one inch to a mile. Such a map, where a government survey has been made, will give the township and sec- tion lines; generally the sub-division of each sec- tion by farm fences enables any desired point to be accurately located. In cases where the coun- *The dutios and peculiarities of a railway civil engineer are referred to more fully in the Ijook "Railway Organization." THE RECONNOISSANCE. 49 try has not been surveyed by the government, a map or plat will have to be made on a larger scale than that indicated — say two inches to a mile, so that the boundaries of farms and other properties can be clearly shown. The engineer who makes the reconnoissance will require the following: an aneroid barome- ter (Figs. 1, 2 and 3), engineer's field books and Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. ANEROID BAROMETER FOR MEASURING ALTITUDES. They indicate the weight or pressure of the atmosphere, from which the altitude above sea level is determined. note books, drawing paper, a set of pocket in- struments, (Fig. 4); a tin map case or two, a 100 ft. steel tape, a prismatic compass (Figs. 5 and 6); a hand level (Figs. 7 and 8); a field glass (Fig. 9). Provided with these instruments, the engineer travels the country mostly on foot, lo- cating the controlling points. Upon his map he will depict not only the location of section lines 4 Vol. 13 50 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Fig. 4. ENGINEER'S POCKET INSTRUMENTS. These generally embrace drawing pens and large and small compassea Fig. 5. PRISMATIC COMPASS WITH CLYNOMETER ATTACHMENT Used to take bearings. THE REC0NN0IS8ANCE. bl Fig, 6. prismatic compass with clynometer attachment. Used to take angles of slopes. The Prismatic Compass is used lor taking the magnetic bearing of a line The Clynometer attachment is used to take the slope of the surface of the ground with a horizontal plane. Fig. 7. LOCK'S HAND LEVEL. 52 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING HAILWATS. Fig. 8. ABNEY'S HAND LEVEL. AND CLYNOMETER. 1 IJand Levels are used for the purpose of ascertaining points on the same evel as the eye of the observer. The Clynometer attachment is used to take the slope of the surface of the ground with a horizontal plane. Fig. 9. FIELD GLASSES. The Field Glass brings distant objects within view of the engineer. and boundaries of farms and properties, but all water courses, ravines, hills, highways, towns, villages, etc. In his survey the engineer will ascertain by the use of his aneroid barometer along the summits of divides ^ the low points or *In engineering parlance a "divide" is the line separating the water-sheds of two adjacent systems of drainage or rivers. THE RECONNOISSANGE. 53 passes. He will ascertain the elevation of the valleys, and will take the elevation of spurs ^ from the divides, also plat the contours f of the country at difficult points when necessary. Where the country is unsettled and no gov- ernment survey has been made, the method will differ somewhat from the foregoing. In such case the engineer must secure the eleva- tion and distance of the controlling points, while in the former case the plats supplied him with the distances. In addi- tion to the instruments specified he will need a pedometer (Fig. 10); and an odometer (Figs. IIA, IIB, lie), and a good watch. He will not need to be provided with instruments for determining latitude and longitude, for the problem has already been re- duced to sections. For example, after making the summit of one divide, his problem is to cross ^A **spur" is a ridge extending from a divide and separates the water-sheds of two branches of the same river. fThe contour of a country is indicated by lines laid down on a map showing the location of points of the same elevation. PEDOMETER. Is a pocket instrument which records the distance the person carrying it has walked. In reality it records the num- ber of steps taken, but by proper ad- justment the distance traveled is in- dicated. 54 BUILDING AND REP AIMING RAILWAYS. the next valley and reach the summit of the next divide, using the desired grade and curva- ture. Any errors of dis- tance made from one di- vide to another will not affect those beyond. In i making such surveys I camp outfits are neces- ' sary. These should be as light and simple as pos- sible. If the country is even and sparsely set- tled, the engineer will probably take two ponies, one to carry his appli- ances, and the other to ride. When possible he ODOMETER. Records the distance traveled by the tire of a wheel. In reality it re- cords the number of revolutions, but by proper adjustment the distance traveled is indicated. Fig. IIB. ODOMETER. Inside dial with leather case and straps. secures a guide having local knowledge of the country. THE RECONNOISSANCE, 55 In making a reconnoissance the most direct line should always be examined first, unless there is positive knowledge of some insurmountable difficulty. Should this be the case, of course the territory to the right or left will be examined. The short route, other things being equal, should not, however, be too quickly aban- doned. Rocky val- leys, giving the im- pression of difficult and expensive con- struction, have of- ten been summari- ly avoided, when af- terward they have proved to be the cheapest location. When the gen- eral direction of a proposed line cros- ses ravines or pas- ses from a summit into a valley, fol- lows a stream for some distance and then ascends another stream to a divide, it will be found advisable to look for a high line and keep on the summit, following a spur out to the stream, cross the stream by a viaduct to a spur on the opposite side and again take the summit. Such locations need careful comparison as to first cost and cost of operating and maintenance, and 1;'^*' Fig. lie. ODOMETER. Inside dial with leather case and straps. 66 BUILDING AND REPMRINO RAILWAYS. in making a reconnoissance the engineer will give them most careful consideration."^ Mountain and valley lines are not the most difficult to construct as is generally supposed. The greatest errors of location have been made on open prairies and foot hills of mountains on account of stopping exploration when a location giving the desired grades curvature and cost was found without endeavoring to find a better. In making a reconnoissance the engineer will, as he proceeds, make calculations and notes showing the probable nature of the material to be handled i. e.^ whether earth, loose rock, hard pan or solid rock, and the percentages of each at dif- ferent cuts. This will be approximate only, but his observation will afford a basis upon which to estimate cost. He will note also the probable quantities of excavation, embankments and bridg- ing per mile; the fuel supply; possibilities of bus- iness; the geological formation, the water supply; the timber available for ties, piling and bridging; the character of the rainfall, and the effect it may have on operation. It is an axiom that nature always works along the line of least resistance. The engineer fol- lows the same rule and makes use of the forces of nature to overcome difficulties. The highest compliment that can be paid a railroad civil en- gineer is for passengers going over a completed *0n a railroad in north America a valley line as described above was built and afterward abandoned for a high line which saved 12 miles of track, and cost nearly a million dollars less than the valley line. TEE RECONNOISSANCE. 57 road to remark that the location and construc- tion were easy, and required no great knowledge or skill, because the passenger is ignorant of the expensive bridging avoided and the deep rock cuts, the long tunnels and heavy fills, which were unnecessary on account of the skill displayed by the engineer who made the reconnoissance. (Note: — The student requiring detailed information in regard to the methods of making a reconnoissance, and the use of the barometer, stadia, and gradienter to measure distance, wiU find a list of standard books on the subjects in Appendix K). CHAPl^ER III. THE PRELIMINARY SURVEY. THE SECOND STEP IN RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION. The reconnoissance having been completed and a report thereof made to the projectors, they will have the information needed to enable them to decide whether or not they will proceed with their venture. If their decision is in the affirm- ative and the outlook is favorable, the second step is now taken which is to make a Prelimin- ary Survey; this duty falls to the lot of a civil engineer, generally called a locating engineer, who takes the field with his corps of assistants. The instruments the locating engineer will re- quire in this work will be (a) a hand level, (b) an aneroid barometer, (c) a field glass, (d) a prismatic compass, (^) a pedometer and (/) a 50 ft. steel tape. The party will, of course, be fur- nished with the necessary stationery and kindred supplies. The organization of the force making the pre- liminary survey will vary according to the char- acter of the country and other considerations, such as the resources of the projectors and the degree of haste required, the latter factor being often controlled by financial considerations, or the probability of an invasion of the field by rivals. (58) THE PBELIMINARY SURVEY. 59 If the proposed line is a new one, the chief en- gineer will probably take direct charge of the Fig. 12. ENGINEER'S TRANSIT WITH LEVEL. AND VERTICAL ARC. Used to take vertical and horizontal angles; also to extend straight lines. The. level enables approximate elevations to be taken within limited dis- tances. The vertical arc is used for taking vertical angles. work; if on the other hand it is an extension of an existing system, a locating engineer will have 60 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAT^^ charge, acting in subordination to the chief en- gineer of the system. Fig. 13. ENGINEER'S TRANSIT WITH LEVEL AND GRADIENTER ATTACHMENT. The gradienter attachment is for the purpose of locating the axis of the telescope on a grade line parallel with the grade of the proposed road; in con- nection with a level rod it is also used to measure distances. The organization of the force making a pre- liminary survey generally consists of (a) a tran- THE PRELIMINARY SURVEY. 61 sit party, (&) a level party, (c) topographers, ((i) draughtsmen, (^) commissary and camp. The transit par- ty is generally made up of a transit man who, in the absence of the locating engineer, is in charge; the tran- sit man is respon- sible for the ac- curacy of all angles, bearings and measure- FiG. 14. ENGINEERS CHAIN. 100 feet long, having 100 links. ments taken; his assist- ants are a head flagman or chainman, a rear chainman, an axeman or stakedriver, and a rear flagman. The num- ber of assistants will vary according to cir- cumstances; thus, the number of axemen will depend on whether there is much or little timber or brush to be removed, etc. The in- struments and supplies the transit party need are (a) a transit (Figs. 12 and 13), (h) an engineer's Fig. 15. ENGINEER'S IMPROVED TAPE CHAIN. 62 BUILDING AND RE PAIRING RAILWAYS, chain (Figs. 14 and 15), {c) a 100 ft. steel tape, (Fig. 16), (r/) two ranging poles or rods (Fig. 17), Fig. 16. STEEL TAPE. {e) brush hooks, (/) axes, {g) transit books, (A) lead pencils, hard and medium, (i) kiel pencils, Sji Fig. 17. ' RANGING RODS OR POLES. Used in placing hubs. {j) tacks for centers on hubs, {k) two 50 ft. Ches- terman's metallic tapes (Fig. 18), (Z) engineer's field book, (m) scratch blocks, (w) one sounding rod, 3 joints 8 feet each, (o) red and white flan- nel for signals, (^) drawing paper, (^q) tin map cases, (r) scales (Fig. 19), (.s) protractor (Figs. 20 and 21), (t) steel straight edge, {it) triangles, (t;) THE PRELIMINARY SURVEY, 63 India ink and ink slab and carmine blue and neutral tint water colors, {ic) set of, drawing in- struments and drawing board. The leveling party is generally made up of a leveler and a rodman, but if rapid work is to be done, the force can be increased to meet re- quirements. The level- ^la. 1 8. ing party is responsible chesterman's metallic tape. for the correct elevation of the ground at all sta,- Vs^^^(9£if(^^sis»si^)S)S^^ ^\^^^^\^ x Av^ N Annn\\v%\\\\\\\\\^\N\A\n\\\V\\\n\\V^\v\nV xx\ v vxv\ uW, Fig. 19. ENGINEER'S SCALE. Divided into 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60 parts to tlie inch. Fig. 20. PROTRACTOR. tions where stakes are driven, the elevation be- tween the stakes where the slope of the ground 0> BUILDING AND HE PAIRING RAILWAYS. changes and the correct location of this point; the elevation of the water in streams; the elevation of Fig. 21. TRANSPARENT PROTRACTOR WITH RAILROAD CURVES. Fig. 22. ENGINEER'S Y LEVEL. For taking elevations and establishing benches. high water during freshets; and the elevation of the beds of the streams which will enable cross I THE PRELIMINARY SURVEY, 65 sections of the stream to be platted; the placing of benches at proper intervals and the correct elevation of them. The leveling party will require the following (a) a level (Fig. 22), {h) two Philadelphia leveling rods (Fig. 23), (c) one Chester- man's fifty-foot metallic tape, (c?) nails to use in benches, {e) a hand axe with leather case and belt, (/) level books, (^g) lead pen- cils, hard and medium, (A) profile paper (i) kiel pencils, (y) India ink and ink slab and carmine blue and neutral tint water colors, {k) scratch blocks. The topographical party is most variable in its composition. Sometimes it is repre- sented by the notes taken by the locating engineer and transitman, and at other times it may consist of a level man, rodman, chainman, and axeman. The topographical party is responsible for the data used in determining the rise or fall of the ground to the right and left of the line; the loca- tion of roads, buildings, streams, etc., lay- ing to the right and left of the line, prop- erty lines and names of the owners of the property, also the section lines where a government survey has been made; YiOr, 23. the character of the material to be Philadelphia met with in the excavations, etc. i^^veling rod. The instruments and supplies required by the party will vary greatly according to the require- ments of the case, but a complete equipment for the party would be as follows: (a) one level 5 Vol. 13 66 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, (Figs. 22 and 24), {h) one Philadelphia level rod, (c) one self-reading level rod, (rf) one 100 Fig. 24. LEVELING INSTRUMENT AND GRADIENTER. For topographical work. With this both elevations and distances can be taken. Fig. 25. CLYNOMETER, OR SLOPE INSTRUMENT. ft. steel tape, {e) one hand level, (/) one pris- matic compass with clynometer attachment, (^) THE PRELIMINARY SURVEY, 67 one clynometer (Fig. 25), (A) topographical books, cross section books and cross section paper (lOths). The draughtsman (or draughtsmen) accom- panies the party to record the result of its oper- ations by making the necessary drawings and maps. His accessories are (a) a set of drawing instruments, (&) protractor, (c) straight edge, {d) scale, {e) triangles, (/) lead pencils, hard and medium, (^) drawing paper, cross section paper and profile paper, (A) cross section books, (i) India ink, ink slab, carmine blue and neutral tint water colors, (J) camel's hairbrushes, (Jc) drawing board and trestles, (/) thumb tacks. The commissary and camp party is, of course, unnecessary in a well settled country, but is a most important adjunct in other cases; when it is necessary to make provision for feeding and housing the force it is of the greatest importance that intelligent provision be made for its health and comfort, as serious results may ensue if the survey be delayed through sickness or lack of subsistence. The result of the reconnoissance will have enabled the projectors to decide the maximum grades and degrees of curvatures that w^ill be ac- ceptable; the average cost of the bridges proposed to be used; the cost per yard for earth, loose rock, solid rock and hard pan; the cost per mile of track; the cost of depots, water stations, coal sheds, etc., and the locating engineer will have been furnished with this data. The detailed methods adopted in making a 68 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. preliminary survey will probably never be alike in any two instances; they will depend upon the genius and capacity of the engineer in charge, but there are several well defined plans or methods of operation, which may be described in general terms, as follows: First Method: The engineer tries to get the preliminary line as close as possible to the ground to be occupied by the location. He has what is termed '' an eye for country" and keeps the level party close up to the transit party, having the profile of the ground platted in the field; on this profile he lays down trial grade lines; side notes of the rise or fall of the ground are noted by him on the plat when he thinks they will assist him. A trial line is made from the point of commencement of the survey to the summit of the first divide; if it does not prove satisfactory, an examination of the map and profile is made, and with the side notes and knowledge of the lay of the country, such changes are made as the engineer thinks proper. The map of such a pre- liminary survey gives the alignment, streams, highways, buildings, and section lines bounding the property belonging to different owners, together with the names of the latter; ridges and bluffs are often indicated by hatched lines. This method is pursued from one con- trolling point to another. No attempt is made to show on the map any examinations that may have been made to ascertain whether a better line could have been secured to the right or left- In this case the management accepts the THE PRELIMINABT SURVEY, 69 line, if it fulfills the required conditions, depend- ing upon the opinion of the engineer as to whether it is the best that can be secured. Second Method: Under this method a step towards greater accuracy is secured by having a topographer and assistant added to the party who take side notes with hand level and tape line, locating the streams, highways, buildings, etc. The contours are also laid down on the map, and the line is revised as in the first method, but with the advantage of having more data re- garding the lay of the ground. Third Method: Under this method greater accuracy is secured. The topographer with a level, a rodman and a chainman proceeds to make cross sections of the country at right angles to the line at all points where the slope of the ground changes, carrying the cross sections out such distance as the engineer directs. This gives more accurate data from which to locate the contours, and gives the engineer fuller data from which to decide on the location of the line. This method also gives the engineer the means of furnishing the management with a map con- taining data which will enable it to call in a con- sulting engineer to criticise the line selected. Fourth Method: This method is the one used by a large railway system in North America, and aims at greater accuracy than the preceding ones; it also tends to eliminate errors of judgment of the engineer in charge of the survey. The engineer proceeds with the survey as in the first method, and is furnished a topographer and assistants as 70 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. provided in the third method. The topographer is required to cross section the country at right angles to the line every three hundred feet, and carry the cross sections out at least 700 feet each side of the line. On each line on which cross sections are made, side elevations are taken every three hundred feet at a distance of one hundred feet right and left. By this method the eleva- tion of the ground is secured on both sides of the line ran at each one hundred foot station; and accurate data is secured to make a reliable contour map covering a stretch of country four- teen hundred feet wide or about one-quarter of a mile. This enables an expert to locate the best line from the map, and eliminate the errors of judgment of the one in charge of the survey. Fifth Method: This method is used by one of the leading railroads of the world, and is radi- cally different from any of the preceding ones. The engineer aims more to lay his line so that he can secure, at least expense, data to make a topographical map of an extended area of country. The preliminary survey is made quickly, and the method of taking the topography is rapid, and with a good topographer accuracy is secured. The maps and profiles are made as the survey proceeds, but generally the contours are not worked out in the field, although if neces- sary this can be done. When this method is observed it is usual to follow the preliminary survey with a location running out the tangents only, as shown by a location from the topo- graphical map of the preliminary survey. On THE PRELIMINARY SURVEY. 71 this first location topographical notes are taken as on the preliminary. From the notes made from this location, a second topographical map is made, and from this second map the final loca- tion is made. Topographical notes are again taken on the second location and another map made, from which a study of the possibilities of improving and cheapening the line is made before construction commences. The method of taking the topography is to ascertain the angle which the surface of the ground slopes with a horizontal line and measuring the length of the slope to where the ground assumes another slope, take the angle of this slope and measure the length of it, etc. The following is an outline in general terms of the details of a preliminary survey: In starting the survey the first hub^ should be driven in the center line of the railroad which the new line is to connect with, and the angle taken with the center line of the existing rail- road and the first tangent of the proposed road. This hub should be carefully referenced to some permanent objects so that it can be replaced if destroyed. Stakes should be set securely in the ground, the blazed side facing the first hub; the first stake should be set 100 feet from the hub and marked number one, the second stake should be set 100 feet from the first and marked num- *The term ''hub" is used by engineers to distingjuish the points over which the transit is placed — it is usually a large size stake driven flush with the ground; in a rocky bluff it may be a small hole in the rock or a plug driven in a crevice of the rock or a hole drilled in the rock. 72 BUILDING jVND REP AIMING RAILWAYS. ber two. In this way the transit party proceeds to set stakes every 100 feet, and puts the num- bers on the blazed side facing the first hub. The numbers on the stakes thus show the number of one hundred feet from the point of commence- ment of the survey. Wherever the transit is set up a large stake or hub is driven, and a large tack or small nail driven in the point set by the tran- sit man. At a distance of about eighteen inches from the hub a reference stake is driven giving the station of the hub, thus if the second hub on the survey is driven at a distance of 1006.3 feet from the first the reference stake would be marked 10+06.3, which would mean ten stations and six and three-tenths feet; the numbers on the reference stake should face the hub; all stakes should be set by the transit man. When the survey has progressed to a point where the locating engineer wishes to change the direction, a hub is driven, and the back flag man holds his ranging pole on the tack of the hub next to the end of the line; the transit is set up on the last hub, the vernier of the transit set at zero, and a sight taken on the ranging rod held by the back flag man, the upper plate undamped, and the telescope sighted to a hub on the new line ahead, and the angle read from the vernier; the magnetic bearing of both the first and second lines should be taken at this time. The transit man records the stations of all hubs where the transit is set up; also the angles of one line with another and whether turned to the right or left; also the magnetic bearings of both lines at hubs THE PRELIMINAET SURVEY. 73 where angles are taken or the direction of the survey changes. If there is no topographer, the transit man also takes the topographical notes, the transit book is ruled on the left-hand page for the notes of the line, and on the right- hand page for the notes of the topography. The head chainman, who generally acts as head flagman, carries the head end of the chain and a ranging rod; after he has been given the line for a stake it is his duty to see that the axeman marks it correctly, and places it in the ground with the figures facing the right direction; while the axeman is driving the stake, the chainmen proceed. It is the duty of the hind chainman to note the numbers on each stake as he proceeds, and at once have the axeman correct any errors in numbering or direction of facing the stake. The leveling party also checks the numbers on the stakes; this is very important as the numbers on the stakes are the only means of determining the lengths of the lines composing the survey. In commencing the levels a bench^ is estab- lished on some permanent object, and if the survey of a new line is being made, the height of the bench is assumed at an elevation above a datum plane, which the locating engineer is sure is lower than any part of the country he is going to make the survey in, to avoid the confusion of minus quantities. Where the elevation above sea level can be secured by the barometer or otherwise, it is better to make sea level the datum plane. *A "bench" is any permanent object on which an elevation is taken; the elevation of the first bench used in a survey is gener- ally given an assumed elevation. 74 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, When the new line is an extension of an older system, the same datum plane should be used, as was adopted on the old one. As the levels proceed, benches should be es- tablished at least once each mile; they should be on permanent objects, wherever such are possible to be secured. The projecting root of a tree when cut in the shape of a cone, with a nail driven in it, makes a good bench; the tree in this case should be blazed, and the letters B. M.^ with the elevation of the bench marked under them; stone sills of doors, water tables of buildings, etc., make good benches, though often- times nothing better than a hub can be secured. All benches should be marked plainly with the letters B.M. and the elevation. When a hub is used a reference stake should be driven as for a transit hub, and it should always be placed some distance to the right or left of the line, so as not to be mistaken for a transit hub. The leveler should record all benches, giving their location and elevation: for example, station 52+26.5 B.M. 50 feet K. elev. 482.645 means that at a point 50 feet on the right side of the surveyed line, opposite station 52+26.5, there is a bench having an elevation of 482.645 feet above the assumed datum plane. The reference stake should have the figures facing the bench and the line. The leveler should record all readings of the rod for back and foresight on benches and turn- ing points (or temporary benches) and these *The letters " B.M." stand for Bench Mark. THE PRELIMINARY SURVEY. 75 readings should be taken to not less than two decimal points of a foot, but it would be better to read the rod to three decimal points. This can be readily done with a Philadelphia rod, after a little practice. The elevations of the ground should be taken at each one hundred foot station where stakes are driven, and at such intermediate points where the ground changes, as will enable a correct profile to be platted. In taking the elevations of the ground, the Phil- adelphia rod can be used as a self-reading rod, and the readings taken to the nearest tenth. The rodman should have a level book in which to record all back and foresights on benches and turning points, and to record the location of benches. It is the duty of the rodman to see that the stakes are all correctly numbered con- secutively; the leveler can assist in seeing that this is properly done. As far as possible all back and foresights should be of an equal distance so that errors in setting the target will balance each other. Sights should not usually exceed five hundred feet in length, and in windy weather a less distance is prefer- able. To insure accuracy it is necessary to have check levels run to detect errors in taking the elevation of benches; if the errors remain undis- covered it might not be possible, when the loca- tion came to be made, to reach a summit on the grade proposed, or the cost of the work might be greatly increased by heavier cuts and fills than the profile indicated. 76 BUILDING AND HE PAIRING RAILWAYS. Level books are ruled with six columns to a page, and the safest way to keep the notes is as follows: on the left-hand page use the first col- umn for the station, second column for the back sight, third column for the height of instrument, fourth for the foresight, fifth for the reading of the rod on all points except benches and turning points, sixth for the elevation of all points on which the rod is held except benches and turn- ing points. The right hand page should be used to give the elevation of benches, turning points and their description and location, and other miscellaneous notes as for example: Elevation 482.645 50 ft Right of 52+26.5 B. M. on Chestnut Tree. Elevation of surf ace of water in '^Cobb^s Creek.^^ Elevation of high water ^'CobVs Creek^^ June 16, 1895. Elevation of center of highway station 55+20. and any other notes of elevations of objects which may affect the location or construction of the road or be of use in future claims for dam- ages. By this method of keeping the notes, back and foresights can be added up on the first page, and the footings carried to the top of the second, and the footings of the second being the total of the first and second pages carried to the top of the third, the same as the footings of a cash book. The advantage is that the levelman at noon can in five minutes have his back and foresights footed up for the morning's work, and if the dif- ference between them gives the elevation of his THE PRELIMINARY SURVEY, 77 last bench or turning point, he knows there has been no clerical error in his morning's work. If he now turns to his rodman and does the same thing with his notes and secures the same result, he knows he has been using the correct readings of the target, and has not misunderstood the rod- man — a thing which can be easily done in windy weather. A check can be secured on the rod- man's reading the target by using the Philadel- phia rod; and when taking both back and fore- sights on benches or turning points, using the rod first as a self-reading rod the leveler can then tell whether the rodman gives the feet and tenths correctly. Where this method of taking levels is pursued, there should not be any mistake of importance made. The leveler will often be required to plat his profile in the field, so that the locating engineer can determine whether the ground is rising too fast for the length of the line, or whether his line is too low in the valley; to do this the level- er must make use of the time the rodman is walking between stations to work out the eleva- tion of the ground. This will enable him to act promptly when called upon for profile. The person in charge of topography should be a man of judgment with a good eye for country, and for the salient points to take data which will enable the contours to be platted with the least difficulty and labor on the part of the draughts- man. He should keep his work up close to the level party, and have his ^notes clear and exact; in addition to securing data for the contours, he 78 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, should sketch the streams, highways, buildings, section lines, division fences of farms, and, if possible, secure and record the names of the own- ers of land. He should note the character of the soil, whether earth, loose rock, solid rock, etc., and note the outcroppings of bluffs. The note books used in the field on one day should be left with the draughtsman to plat the notes on the following day, and the field force should use another set of note books for the fol- lowing day, the two sets thus alternating between the field force and the draughtsman. To avoid confusion each man using a field book of any kind whatever should commence the day's work by recording the date and time of the day, also noting the day of the week and month, and the same thing must be done on closing at night, or when finishing one book and commencing an- other. The books should be lettered and num- bered, and the commencing and closing station noted on the cover; also the letter or number of the line. Much confusion is sometimes caused by not observing these details, where the survey is in difficult country, and a number of trial lines have to be run. Another point to be observed is never to erase any notes taken in the field; if any changes are to be made, the changes should be noted with a different colored pencil than is used in the field or with ink; further information may demonstrate the original notes to have been correct or, at least, that the alterations were incorrect. If field notes. are copied into another book, the original THE PRmLIMINARY SURVEY, 79 should be preserved, so that clerical errors in copying can be corrected. The draughtsman being provided with the notes as outlined can keep the work up close, so that the locating engineer can know definitely what he is doing. After extending the survey for some distance, and reaching a controlling point where he feels satisfied the country on either the right or left does not present a more favorable point, he can make a careful examina- tion of the maps, profiles, etc., and also of the country traversed with a view to making such changes as the data secured suggests. At this point in the survey, the location very often com- mences, and is made from the junction of the ex- isting road to the controlling point mentioned. The peculiarities of location will be treated later. If the survey is being conducted in a settled country, the party at this point in the prelimin- ary survey moves on to a town or village near the next section of the survey, or if in a thinly settled section, camp is moved to a convenient location. The frequency of these changes de- pends on the character of the country. In an easy country they are often made daily, while in difiicult country the party may have headquarters at a given point for many days. In addition to the work outlined above, the locating engineer has other duties to perform. Thus, the extreme high and low water levels must be noted of all streams crossed, and also cross sections of the streams must be secured; careful notes must be taken of the probable classification of the mate- 80 BUILDING AND liEPAIBING RAILWAYS. rial composing the cuts, as the question of water supply for locomotives may decide the choice of location; especially in arid countries must this be noted; the fuel supply must be considered, and in connection with this the geological formation must be noted not only for coal but minerals which may yield profitable business; the commer- cial possibilities of the country must be set forth and the localities suited for towns, yards and divi- sion points suggested. The locating engineer must be a man of resources, and ready to adapt old methods to new conditions, and he must also be able to devise new methods to meet condi- tions which are new to him if not to other en- gineers. Thus a rocky canyon where the instru- ment men can not get on the line of the proposed road even with the use of assistants and ropes, requires the surface of the cliff to be located both for line and levels by triangulating from the valley below the opposite side of the canyon, or from the top of the opposite bluff. The ob- stacle offered by a marshy plain too soft for men to walk over, and over which there is not enough water to float a boat, will sometimes tax the re- sources of the engineer, but it must be overcome. A heavily timbered country with a thick under- growth of brush and vines, such as is the rule in tropical and semi-tropical countries, especially near streams, will call for a display of skill and resources. Two maps of the preliminary survey should be made, one on a scale of one mile to an inch. This should be platted from co-ordinates, calcu- THE PRELIMINARY SURVEY. 81 lated in the same way as the latitudes and de- partures of a farm survey; such a map gives a comprehensive view of the entire route; the cal- culations for co-ordinates give a ready means to ascertain the distance across country between any two points of the survey and the direction to lay a line to make a survey of the cross cut. The usual maps on the scale of two hundred or four hundred feet to an inch can only cover sections of the survey, and do not give an opportunity to study the line as a whole. It is always well to make examinations of the country from each terminus, as it frequently happens that another route and a better one is discovered by the locating engineer going back over the line from the end of the survey to the point of commencement. The preliminary survey should be thorough, and all possible improvements in the line and grades tried, so that the work of location may be rapid and require but few changes. Finally, the locating engineer must understand handling his men, and be able to get the maxi- mum amount of work done with the minimum amount of friction among the members of the party; he must use tact with the people in the district through which the survey is being made; their local history and prejudices should be taken note of, and he should ascertain Avho are their leaders in forming public opinion. Another point to be touched upon before pro- ceeding to discuss the location is the methods adopted to determine which of two or more 6 Vol. 13 82 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING RAILWAYS. routes will be the cheapest to operate, taking into consideration the first cost, the cost of operation and the coat of maintenance. The determina- tion of this question is of the greatest import- ance, and is the one surrounded with the great- est difficulties; only those actually in the active management of railroads and those who have at- tempted to furnish a reliable means of reaching a decision realize the difficulties. The locating engineer on a preliminary survey must always keep this subject in his mind. For further details and methods in relation to preliminary surveys as given by different engi- neers the reader is referred to Appendix K. CHAPTER IV. THE LOCATION. THE THIRD STEP IN RAILWAY CON- STRUCTION. The reconnoissance and preliminary survey having been made and the results reported to the projectors of the new line, they have definite data upon which to proceed. They now know enough to be in a position to estimate the cost of the proposed line; the grades and curves that are possible and the engineering obstacles that have to be overcome; they are also in a position to estimate the probable cost of operation. The question that now has to be decided, the reconnoissance and preliminary survey having given them information as to all the available routes where the line can be most advantage- ously located, is, which will be the cheapest route, having regard to cost of construction first and cost of operation and maintenance after- ward. When these questions have been decided, a party is put into the field to make the final location. The organization of the locating party, the duties of the various members, and the instru- ments and supplies required will be practically the same as in the case of the preliminary sur- vey, except that the transit party will lay out (83) 84 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. spirals,* curves, etc., in detail, f and will place stakes at each one hundred feet on curves the same as on the straight lines in the preliminary survey, and will carry the numbering along the measured distances on the tangents, spirals and curves. The duties of the leveling party will be the same as in the case of the preliminary survey. The services of the topographer will be needed now as then, indeed his notes will be more full and exact though they will not extend so far to the right and left as in the former case. The draughtsman will accompany the party as before, but his work will be done with more at- tention to detail, and his maps and profiles finished with greater care and exactness. The locating party will make soundings at all watercourses to ascertain the depth of the rock or hard strata necessary for bridge foundations, and will lay the grade lines. J In conducting the *A "spiral" is a parabolic or eUiptical curve placed between a tangent and a curve to secure the gradual change in the move- ment of a train from a tangent to a curve. tXhe work of locating is often carried on at the same time as the preliminary survey. For detailed methods of laying spirals, the following authors may be consulted; J. C. Nagle, W. H. Searles, Van Nostrand's Science Series No. 110, C. R. Howard and C. L. Crandall. The calculations for laying out curves, changing the direction of tangents, locating compound and re- verse curves, and similar problems, are given in a number of "Engineers' Field Books," among which may be mentioned those of W. H. Searles, J. C. Nagle, W. F. Shunk, C. S. Cross, J. C. Trautwine, and J. B. Houck. JAppendix H gives rules and values to enable a comparison to be made between two or more proposed routes. The amount of the reduction of grades on curves to make the resistence to the train correspond with that on the tangents has not yet been settled; opinions vary from 0.025 ft. per degree of curvature to 0.05 ft. The latter is, perhaps, the safer to use. The practice is generally to eauate the grades on curves to the extent that they will not exceed the maximum grade. THE LOCATION. 85 work of locating, there are a number of methods which can be adopted on the trial lines, some of which may be mentioned, viz: First: Running the tangents to an intersec- tion and putting stakes in only on the tangents to the points where the curves commence and end, carrying the numbers on the stakes the same as if the curves were run. The level read- ings can be taken at the center and quarter points of the curve. Second: Running the curves of the paper lo- cation without running the tangents to an inter- section and going ahead or backing upon the curve to make the tangent fit the ground. Thwd: Locating points on a curve by a long chord and backing the curve in.^ The survey of inaccessible bluffs is referred to under the head of the preliminary survey, and the same remarks apply to the locating party. In such localities the constructing forces make a roadbed along the face of the bluff on the estab- lished grade, and the alignment is worked out to fit the roadbed. As long tangents as possible should always be secured; a persistent examination of the coun- try and study of the map and profile will often result in a much larger percentage of long tan- gents than is at first thought possible. Absolute reverse curves should never be used, unless in very heavy rock work where the plac- *This is a conyenient method in rocky country on the sides of bluffs where the transit man, his instrument and assistants have to be supported by ropes let down from the top of a bluff. 86 BUILDING AND RE POURING RAILWAYS. ing of a tangent between curves would entail heavy expense. Such cases will, however, be rare if proper care in selecting the location is taken. Reverse curves should always have a tangent between them of sufficient length to enable the cars to gain their equilibrium after leaving one curve and before entering on another (see Appen- dix H). The intersection of all grades should be con- nected by a vertical curve; there should never be a level grade laid through a cut, as in such case it is difficult to drain the water away from the cut. All bridging that can possibly be dispensed with without unduly increasing the cost of grad- ing should be avoided, especially where draw bridges are required over navigable streams; a considerable increase in the cost of grading can be allowed if it will enable the engineer to avoid a drawbridge. Sharp curvature, like a succession of short tan- gents and curves, should, when possible, be avoided. Heavy cuts should be avoided if possi- ble, as they cause trouble during snow storms. The locating engineer, transit man and leveler must all take fuller information than on the pre- liminary survey regarding the following matters, viz: Heights of high water and low water at streams, making careful cross sections of the larger ones; soundings must be made to determine the depth to hard pan or rock; inquiries must be made re- THE LOCATION. 87 garding the rainfall and such information as may throw light on the proper size to adopt for bridge openings. Section and property lines must be located both by the station at which they cross the survey and the angle with the line."^ The locating engineer must give his personal atten- tion to noting the classification of the material in the cuts and possible borrowpits, the geolog- ical formation, the water and fuel supply, the rainfall, the commercial prospects, the possible town sites, yards and division points. f The surveyed line should be divided into sec- tions of about one mile each, and the amount of all excavation and embankment work calculated with its probable classification. Calculations must also be made of the amount of piling, square timber and wrought and cast iron required for the bridging for each opening. J Calculations must also be made for masonry of all kinds, such as that required for bridge abut- ments and piers, retaining walls, arch and open culverts, truss bridges of wood or iron and steel or plate girder bridges, depots, track and yards, round houses and shops. In fact, everything re- quired to be done or constructed to complete the road for the running of trains must be carefully *This should be done with a transit and the distance measured from located line to the section corners, highways, buildings, streams, etc. fThe hubs can be referenced in by the locating party; but it is well to let the engineer on construction do this. JThe number of openings ma3% however, be reduced after- wards, possibly, by changing the courses of streams and drains or ravines after the location has been decided on. 88 BUILDING ^iND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. calculated, so that the estimated cost may be ascertained before actual construction commences. The map of the completed location will show the alignment giving the point of curvature, the radius of the curve and total angle formed by the intersection of the tangents, the point where the curve ends and tangent commences, the centered hubs on the curves and tangents, the right of way required for the road, depot grounds, yards and borrowpits, the names of the property owners; also the plats of towns and villages, highways, section lines and location of section corners where a U. S. government survey has been made; also buildings and streams. In addition this map should give the contour lines, so that possible improvements can be studied in the office of the chief engineer. The profile should have the ground line drawn with India ink, and tinted on the ground or lower side with neutral tint; the grade line should be shown with carmine; the elevation at each change of grade and the rate of grade between each change should be given; the bridging and various openings should be marked and the character of the bridge or open- ing stated; high and low water should be shown with blue; the names of the streams given and the division points between sections shown. At the bottom of the profile the alignment should be given showing the width of the right of way, names of owners of the property, the roads, streams and towns and villages; the estimated quantities should be shown on each section with the classi- fication, and the amount of excavation and em- THE LOG AT I O:^. 89 bankment in each cut and fill should be given."^ For further details and methods in relation to location as given by different engineers the reader is referred to Appendix K. *Ia connection with this chapter the reader is referred to Appendix I, which treats on location, for more detailed informa- tion. CHAPTER V. CONSTRUCTION. The route having been definitely located, pro- posals are invited from contractors to construct the road; agents are sent out to secure the right of way, and the engineering force, under the direction of the chief engineer, is placed in the field to plan and supervise the work of building. The official in immediate charge of the work is generally known by the title of Division En- gineer.*^ The division engineer should be one experienced in 'methods of railway construction and of execu- tive ability; he should have knowledge of the methods contractors adopt to do the work, and also of those which are sometimes resorted to to avoid doing it. The headquarters of the division engineer should be located at such a point on his division that he can readily reach any point on it, and yet be convenient to the telegraph and postoffice; he is generally given a clerk and draughtsman. *It is well to state here that the titles given subordioate en- gineers vary so on different systems that it is difficult to tell from his title what are his duties. In this book whenever the title "Division Engineer" is used, it will indicate the engineer who reports directly to and receives orders from, the chief engineer; also the engineer having charge of constructing the road through one or more counties, or some forty or more miles of road. The title "Assistant Engineer" will indicate the engineer who re- ceives orders from and reports to the * 'Division Engineer"; also the engineer who has direct charge of the construction of four to six miles of road, depending on the nature of the work. (90) CONSTRUCTION. 91 The assistant engineer should be a man who has had some practical experience in railroad building; he should be gifted with a disposition that will enable him to secure obedience with- out contention with his assistants or the contrac- tors or their employes; he should be competent, energetic, sober and reliable. He is generally given a rodman and chainman as assistants, both of whom must possess a fair education and be able to assist in making the calculations both on the line and in the office. The division engineer is furnished by the chief engineer with a complete profile, map and record book of his division, and he in turn furnishes this data for the section under their jurisdiction to each of his assistant engineers. In the record books they will find notes of the alignment and levels giving all hubs, benches and turning points used by the party in the final location. The first work of the assistant engineer is to check the alignment and see that all hubs and stakes are correctly located; also to put in such additional hubs as may facilitate work during construction* The next step is to thoroughly reference all the hubs, placing the reference hubs at such points as appear least likely to be occupied by the con- struction forces for roads, borrowpits, runways, etc.^ ■^Reference hubs should be placed at equal distances on each side of center line, usually at right angles, from 50 to 75 feet out. It is also a good plan to place hubs about a foot bade of cross- section stakes and points at the mouth of cuts about a foot below grade, at points on low fills, etc. 92 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, The levels must now be re-run, checking both the benches and elevation of the ground; new and additional benches must be established look- ing to security of location as in the case of refer- ence hubs, especially will they be needed at grades of heavy cuts where they will be used often, at streams where bridge piers are to be built, etc. The width of cuts and fills having been decided upon, the work of staking out for excavation and em.bankments will be proceeded with.* From the profile of the location the division engineer decides where the work shall be com- menced, which is often at a point where heavy work is required; or, perhaps, if the season is dry, a marsh or swamp; or a rocky and difficult place which must be graded in order to enable the forces to get at work laying beyond it, etc. The assistant engineers commence cross-sectioning these points, and then extend their work to the points next to be occupied by the contractors until the entire work is cross-sectioned or staked out. The notes of cross-sectioning made in the field may be kept in the form. Fig 26. In calculating quantities of excavation and embankment several methods are in vogue, some aiming to approximate the prismoidal formula and to compensate for curvature; the general practice, is, however, that known as averaging *The various standards for roadbed, tracic bridges, etc., are discussed in another chapter, only the actual work of construc- tion being considered here. C0N8TBUGTI0N. 93 STATION BACK SIGHT H£rCHT mSJRUMEH POR£ SIGHT £LEVATlOr\ CRfiOi car OR riLL on thc LETT or CENTERUHi CUT OR FILLON THE RICHT OF C£NT€RLIN£ too 500 00 S ZS SOS 25 500 00 *rto 6o -3|o -'Its ■ rTo lOi 499S0 •M ^ ■^ o -M -^ *so 2 60 SO' 35 6 50 £L£V or r P ^98 7.- lOZ 499 00 f? -^ -. o -i5 -M LCf T n 1A,0 PACL^ RiChT /f'/lN PAC£ Fig. 26. FORM OF CROSS SECTION BOOK. end areas; form Fig. 2 6 A, can be used in this connection: STATION AREAS Sa» FT. aUANTlTlES CU. YDS R€MARI<.^*' EXCAMATION EMBANKMENT EXCAVATION EMBANKMEkil • Fig. 26A. FORM OF QUANTITY BOOK. While the assistant engineers are testing and revising the alignment and levels and starting 94 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. the cross-sectioning, the division engineer will be examining the country to the right and left of the line to ascertain the area and nature of the territory to be drained, and thus be enabled to decide on the size of openings for bridges, cul- verts, etc. At this time he will also decide on the changes, if any, to be made in water courses, ravines, etc., to reduce the number and size of openings, if possible."^ In deciding upon the size of openings the en- gineer must rely on his local knowledge; he must take into account the height of freshets, the cross-sections of streams at high water and the rate of fall of streams or valleys. This is one of the engineers perplexing problems; he does not want to have embankments washed out after the road is opened for business; neither does he want to build unnecessary bridges. The best he can do in a new country is to compare his opin- ion with the data given and size recommended by the engineer on location and preliminary sur- vey, and act upon his best judgment. The division engineer prepares a bill of ma- terial for all bridges and openings on his division and gives the location of each; these he sends to the chief engineer so that the material can be forwarded without delay. *There are engineers who use a formula to determine the size of openings for culverts and bridges, based on the area drained; as, however, the slope of the area drained, the porosity of the soil and other variable or unknown quantities cannot be taken into account in any formula, it is of doubtful value. The subject is one about which little is known even for cities where the size of sewers depends on it, and a formula good for one locality is worthless for another. CONSTRUCTIOJS , 95 The first work of the contractor is to clear and grub the right of way; stumps and logs are re- moved from under embankments, but where the embankment is to be more than three feet in height, no grubbing will be required, cutting the stump off close to the ground will suffice. The estimates for material for track, bridges required to be erected by false work, buildings, shops, etc., are made in the chief engineer's office, and th^ division engineer often has nothing to do with such work except to give track centers over his division. At the point or points where the new line con- nects with a railroad, material yards are estab- lished, and in these the material for track, build- ings and bridges, etc., is assembled, each kind of material being piled separately."^ The methods adopted by contractors to do the grading depend, of course, on the nature of the material and the size of the cuts and fills. Where embankments are light, i. e., fills not over ten feet, the material is generally taken from borrowpits on each side of the embankment leaving a bermef of not less than five feet be- tween the bottom of the slope and the borrowpit. In this class of work the earth in the borrowpits *It sometimes occurs that material for large trestles or false w^orks, or for use in cases where a number of streams cross the line close together, is hauled across the country from some other railroad to the place where it is to be used thus enabling the work to be done ahead of the tracklayers and so preventing delay. tThe *'berme" is the space between the base of an embank- ment and the inside edge of the side ditch. 90 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING llAILWAYS. is loosened with a plow, and drag or wheel scrapers are used to haul it to place. (See Figs. 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, U.y Fig. 27. GRADERS' PL.OW. Fig. 28. DRAG SCRAPER. *There is being introduced for this class of work machines known as "elevator graders and ditchers." Tliese machines are drawn by six or more horses, and in suitable earth excavate the material in the borrowpit, elevate it and dump it in the embank- ment or into wagons (see Figs. 36 and 37.) The objection to mak- ing embankments direct from borrowpits with this machine is that the earth is loose in the embankment, and, consequently, great shrinkage ensues. Where, however, the machine loads wagons and they haul the dirt to the embankments this objec- tion is removed. Embankments four to six feet high have been successfully made with this machine by having teams pulling harrows and rollers on the embankment to pulverize and com- press the earth delivered on the embankment by the machine. r I CONSTRUCTION. Fig. 29. DRAG SCRAPER WITH RUNNERS Fig. 30. DRAG SCRAPER WITH BOTTOM PLATE. 97 Fig. 31. BACK SCRAPER. / Vol. 13 S8 BUILDING AND liEPAIBING RAILWAYS. Fm. 32. TWO-WHEELED SCRAPER. END CATC CtoaCO. Fig. 33. TWO- WHEELED SCBAPER. CONSTRUCTION. 99 End gate open. Fig. 34. TWO-WHEELED SCRAPER. Fig. 36. SIDE VIEW OF GRADER DITCHER AND WAGON LOADER. LOFC, 100 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Fig. 37. REAR VIEW OF GRADER DITCHER AND WAGON LOADER. Heavy fills are generally made wholly from material excavated close by, but v^here the loca- tion has been made with the view of avoiding cuts as much as possible, the heavy fills will have to be made with material from borrowpits. In this case the bottom is put in with material borrowed on each side of the road and at the point of heavy fill; the top is made with material bor- rowed at the end near grade and hauled out on the top of the embankment and is built up in lifts of two or three feet at a time; the top material for the embankment is taken from the cut at the end, which is widened or used as a borrowpit on the side from which snow will come. Where the length of haul is considerable, four-wheeled scrapers, wagons and carts are used (see Figs. 39 to 44.) CONSTBUGTION. 101 Fig. 39. FOUR-WHEELED SCRAPER IN POSITION FOR LOADING FRONT PAN. Fig. 40. POUR-WHEELED SCRAPER. REAR PAN DUMPED. 102 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAT8. Fig. 41. TWO- WHEELED DUMP CART. Fig. 42. END DUMP WAGON. i CONSTRUCTION, 103 Fia. 43. BOTTOM DUMP WAGON. Fig. 44. IRON END DUMP CARTo Embankments must be built up regularly, and carried up their full width as they progress, to ensure uniform settlement. The degree of settle- 104 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. ment of an embankment is an uncertain quantity, depending on the kind of material and the state of the weather when the work was done; if wet, the embankment will be more compact than if the weather was dry. The manner of doing the work also affects sattlement, thus, if embank- ments are put up wholly with drag scrapers from the sides they will be the most compact; if put up by wheel scrapers from the side they will be less compact, while the poorest embankment is made by wagons and carts hauling from a cut or borrowpit at one end and building the bank in lifts of two or three feet at a time, the empty wagons returning on the top of the embankment. Wagon and cart embankments settle the most. Frosted or frozen material, especially clay, should never be put in an embankment, unless provision is made to meet excessive and uneven settlement under the tracks afterwards. In case frozen clay is used, the embankment is liable to slide out laterally when thawing takes place. Stumps, logs and brush should never be allowed in an embankment. The matter of providing for shrinkage on a new bank is largely one of individual opinion, based on experience. A good practice is to build the embankment so as to allow a shrinkage of one-tenth, i. e., an embankment in a ten-foot fill should be built eleven feet high. The bank should be the full width at the top and carried out full to the slope stakes at the base, and no sags should appear in the slope between the top or grade and foot of slope. In Fig. 45 the dotted CONSTRUCTION. 105 lines show how contractors will skimp an em- bankment w^here material is scarce, the haul Fig. 45. Embankment; built full width at grade and out to the slope stakes, long, or the embankment high. Particular care must be taken at the bridges to have the ends of embankment, and also the slopes full. A good practice is to get more earth into an embank- ment than the section requires, especially at bridges, thus allowing for shrinkage and washing down of material. It must always be borne in mind that the cheapest material put in an em- bankment is that put in by the contractor before the track is laid, though this can be carried to extremes and be made to unduly increase the cost. The material should be paid for as measured in excavation, and this is not only fairer, but makes the contractors' interests correspond large- ly with those of the owners. In cases where an embankment has no open- ings through it except arched culverts and cast iron pipe drains, the addition of one-tenth per foot for shrinkage, as indicated, will increase the grade gradually at one end of the cut and de- crease it gradually at the other, but this will cause lOG BUILDING AND ME PAIRING RAILWAYS. no inconvenience in operating trains. Where, however, there is an opening for a bridge, trestle or open culvert, the structure must be put at the established grade, and the embankment sloped off gently at each approach, so that trains will not drop suddenly from the embankment on to the bridge. The practice of building an embank- ment with shrinkage added and then putting the bridge to a grade to correspond with the top oi the embankment as built, is faulty; the effect is to change the grade permanently and lose the object sought in giving shrinkage to the embank- ment. Cuts are not handled by contractors in the same way as embankments; their methods vary according to the kind of material to be handled; whether the material must be placed in embank- ment or wasted; and the ingenuity of the con- tractor. Contractors prefer, as a rule, to waste the ma- terial near the center of cuts, where the cuts are light and the material from borrowpits is conveni- ent to the embankment. Engineers on the other hand may wish the excavated material all placed in the embankment rather than unnecessarily disfigure the landscape in a thickly settled coun- try ; they may decide it is cheaper to pay over- haul ^ when necessary, than purchase extra right of way for borrowpits; or they may not wish the material wasted on the sides of cuts where the soil is liable to slide back into the cut or in- *The term "overhaul" is used to designate the length of haul in excess of the agreed length of free haul. II CONSTRUCTION, 107 terfere with surface drainage. The length he has to haul material is a vital point with the con- tractor. The length of free haul that the con- FiG. 46. RIGHT AND LEFT HAND DUMP CARS. Fig. 48. ROTARY DUMP CAR. tractor must perform is decided upon in advance, and is known at the time the work is bid upon; a price is also agreed upon for each 100 feet that material is hauled in excess of the free haul.* *The length of free haul is different with different roads, but one thousand feet is often adopted. 108 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Earth cuts are handled in much the same man- ner as described for excavations for borrowpits. For large earth cuts the contractor often lays a narrow gauge track, and conveys the material in dump carts hauled by horses or a steam engine, as shown in Figs. 46, 48 and 49. The earth is Fig. 49. VIEW SHOWING THE METHOD OF DUMPING A ROTARY DUMP CAR. excavated and loaded into the cars by picks and shovels or steam shovels, according to the extent of the cut (see Figs. 51 and 54). Where loose rock is encountered the work is conducted in much the same manner as earth. Hard pan is a cemented gravel, and is found in all stages of hardness from earth to solid rock; however, the latter occurs but seldom. It occurs sometimes in mass and again in veins from a few inches to several feet thick; as generally found it can be broken up with a specially designed plow (see 110 BUILDING AND HEP AIMING EAILWATS. Fig. 55). If it is extremely hard, it is often blasted by explosives, but it does not break up Fig. 54. STEAM SHOVEL CAR. Fig. 55. HARD PAN PLOW. well; it ''blows out," to use a grader's expressioUj in ''hatfulls." It is sometimes removed by steam shovels where the deposit is large enough to war- rant one being installed. Solid rock excavation CONSTRUCTION. Ill affords the contractor opportunity to exhibit his skill; a cut which has been cross-sectioned for earth when solid rock is encountered, must be re-cross-sectioned for rock. (See Fig. 56.) Fig. 56. SHOWING THE SLOPES FOR AN EARTH CUT. The dotted lines show the slopes for an earth cut. The full lines show the slopes for a rock and earth cut. The methods adopted for removing rock from excavation may be stated in a general way as follows: Blasting with powder or any other con- venient explosive, and reducing large pieces by block holes and small charges."^ It is often found cheaper to use explosives plentifully and blow the upper part of the cut out beyond the slopes, so it does not have to be handled, t *The better way and cheaper is to arrange a ginpole or cheap derrick in the cut, and hoist the large pieces on to a dump cart frame, of which the sides are removed, and only break up the extremely large pieces by block holes and blasting. fAn extreme case of handling rock in this way occurred some years ago. Galleries were blasted out in the cut as in a mine, and a carload of powder used at one charge, blowing practically all the rock to be excavated beyond the slopes. 112 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Where explosives have been used freely to break the mass of rock, steam shovels are some- times used to load the broken mass on cars. The cars, carts, and wagons mentioned and illustrated are used in handling rock. When building an embankment with rock, it is generally safe to calculate that the material in the embankment will occupy twenty-five per cent, more space than it did in the cut; it is also safe to use slopes of one and one-quarter horizon- tal to one vertical. But great care must be taken in building the embankment to keep the slopes at both the end and on the sides of the dump as even as practicable, so that the stones when dumped do not catch on each other and form holes thus honeycombing the bank. Should this take place it is liable to cause settlement of the bank under the track; if it is on the slope the stones will in time slip and take their natural position causing the side of the bank to slide from under the track. To prevent this long poles must be kept at a convenient place on the dump to be used by men standing to one side of the rocks lodged on the slope and bear them down without being themselves in the line of the slid- ing rock. This provision must be made when large masses are put in the damp, but it is not so necessary when stone is loaded in carts and cars by hand. Rock dumps should not be brought to grade, but should be built to within three feet of grade and stone placed by hand to fill the openings; this should be followed by a course of smaller CONSTRUCTION. 113 stone, and on this should be placed spauls* to bring the embankment to grade. Tunnels should be avoided wherever possible; they are expensive to construct and maintain. The alignment requires great care in the instru- ment work, and a high grade transit must be used. While it is not always possible to lay a tangent through a tunnel, yet curves should not be used until it has been thoroughly demon- strated that a tangent is not possible without greatly increased cost; there should never be a level grade through a tunnel. In the construc- tion of a short tunnel, the drilling can be done by hand at less expense than by compressed air drills. The conditions met with are so various and call for so many different methods to over- come the difficulties that no attempt is made here to go into detail.f In a general way, however, it may be stated that the methods of excavating are as follows: a. Excavation may begin at the bottom and proceed upward, or, h. Excavation may begin at the top and pro- ceed downward. c. The entire area of the tunnel may be ex- cavated. d, A heart, kernel or core may be left stand- ing. The methods of timbering may differ, as for instance: ■'^^'Spauls'* are the small stones produced by blasting or the larger stones broken by sledges. fFor more exhaustive information the reader is referred to the work on tunneling by Henry S. Drinker, E. M. 8 Vol. 13 114 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. e. The tunnel may be supported by rafter tim- bering, or, /. Longitudinal bar timbering may be used Fig. 61. EXAMPLE OF CRISTINA METHOD OF TUNNELING. The manner of building the masonry may differ, thus: q. The masonry may be begun at the founda- tions and the abutments erected before the arch, or, CONSTRUCTION. 115 h. The arch may be turned first and the abut- ments built last. The engineer in charge of a tunnel must keep constantly in mind that there is always a pres- sure, more or less great, on the false work ex- erted by the material composing the hill or mountain in all directions — bottom, top and sides. In Europe there are five general methods used to support the roof of the tunnel during construction; they are known as the English, Belgian, German, Austrian and Cristina. The last has been used by Italian engineers in the Alps, and is fairly illustrated by Fig. 61. The other European methods have as many timber braces, etc., but the arrangement is different; the reader is referred to the work mentioned previ- ously for the details of them. One of the methods adopted in America is il- lustrated in Fig. 62. It was used on the Cincin- nati Southern Railway. Air compressors and drills are illustrated by Figs. 63 and 65. To hasten the construction of tunnels, shafts are often sunk and the work carried on from both sides of the shaft. Where shafts are used or at the end of a tunnel where the grade descends into the tunnel, pumping plants of liberal capac- ity must be installed to enable the working head to be relieved promptly of water, should a large quantity be encountered. The masonry will con- sist of the foundation, invert, abutments and arch; they must be of the best material and work- manship, laid with thin joints and paralleled beds or courses. The backing must be thorough- 116 BUILBINO AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, CONSTRUCTION. 117 ly rammed between the rock or soil and the ma- sonry, so that the pressure will be uniformly Fig. 63. AIR COMPRESSOR. Fig. 65. ROCK DRILLS FOR TUNNEL WORK. distributed over the masonry. Openings must be left in the masonry for drainage, and recesses 118 BUILDING AND RE PAIRING RAILWAYS, must be made at intervals for workmen to use when trains are passing through the tunnel. If the tunnel is long, provision must be made for ventilation; this is a difficult problem, and the methods tried have been numerous, such as shafts, a division of a double track tunnel by a parti- tion, stacks with a fire at the base, blowers op- erated by steam, compressed air or water power. Fig. 68 illustrates the method of ventilating the Mont Cenis Tunnel. Attempts have been made in Europe to use iron framing to support the roofs of tunnels, also for centers for the masonry; the methods are known as the Menne and Rziha Systems. The inventors claim they are successful, but while timber is plentiful in America, these systems are not likely to be extensively used. The Detroit River Tunnel for the Michigan Central Railroad is a case in which the tunnel was excavated by the use of a shield and com- pressed air, and the tunnel lined with cast iron made in segments of a circle and bolted together as put in position. Earth banks, at all openings, bridges, cross- ings of streams and places where the water at any stage of a stream or river reaches the em- bankment should be protected by rip rap;^ the amount of rip rap used need not be alike in all cases, but a good failing and one not often made is to have too much. This rip rap should be a good hard stone of the largest size that can * **Rip rap" consists of broken stone placed on an earth bank to protect it from the wash of a stream or the action of waves. CONSTRUCTION. 119 be handled, and should at no place be less than two feet thick measured at right angles to the slope. Where a railroad parallels a river which is sub- ject to ice gorges and the ice floes are large, the rip rap should not be less than three feet thick, measured at right angles to the slope; in such cases, however, the opinions of experienced men differ regarding the size of rock to use.^ Retaining walls should never be built too light. A safe practice is to make a retaining wall three feet thick at the top and batter the face three inches to the foot, or offs'et the back one foot to each four feet of height. Thus, a retaining wall fifteen and one-half feet high would be six feet ten and one-half inches thick at the base where the batter is made on the face, and where it is built by offsets on the back it would be six feet thick at the base and three feet thick at the top under the coping (see Figures 69 and 70). *A case in point was where a large river in the Atlantic Coas : States of North America was paralleled on one side by a canal, and on the other side by a railroad. The railroad company used large stone hoisted on to dump carts by a derrick for the rip rap with the interstices filled with smaller stone. The canal com- pany used for rip rap what is known by quarrymen as "one and two men stone" dumped without placing by hand. During an ice jam in the river, the railroad embankments at numerous points were carried away by the ice floes catching on the large rock and carrying the rock out of position. The action of the ice on the canal embankments was to displace the small stone where the large floes struck it, and the stone above at once slid down and replaced those carried away; the canal embankments were not damaged to nearly as great an extent as those of the railroad. The theory of the Superintendent of the canal was ''small stone make the best rip rap to stand an ice jam if you have enough of them.'' 120 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING RAILWAYS. Openings should be made in the wall to ai'ow water to escape, if there is any indication of its being likely to collect behind the retaining wall. Figure 71 shows how contractors will take out a cut if not looked after. Drainage is one of the main features the engi- Fig. 68. VENTILATION OF MT. CENIS TUNNEL. neer must keep in mind; he must never loi^e an opportunity to get a dry road bed; all cuts should, therefore, l3e made with a grade through them; the character of the material through which a cut is made must carefully be examined, for if a water bearing strata of clay or gravel exists, prompt meas - CONSTRUCTION. 121 ures must be taken to prevent slides. This is done sometimes by making trenches up the slope at intervals through the cut and filling these trenches S'-o" -^ z\ vfe, Ki (r 6^0 > 1^ 3-0" > i '/oyt. ] Tigs. 69 and 70. RETAINING WALLS. with small stone leading to the side ditches, or, better still, by putting in an under drain. Ditches well back from the slope must be made to carry 12'^ BUILDING AND REPAIUING RAILWAYS. off the surface water to the end of the cut, and not allow it to pass down the slope into the cut. Borrowpits must be connected by ditches to give drainage to openings, and, where there are no bor- rowpits, ditches must be made to protect embank- ments from being washed by water coming down slopes. Where ditching is resorted to, to reduce Fio. 71. Showing how a cut can be full width at grade and the material taken out at slope stakes and yet all the material will not be excavated. openings in embankments, ample bermes must be left and the changes in direction made by easy curves. Where water is allov/ed to come down slopes against an embankment and flow off by a ditch through a knoll, the embankment must be reinforced by earth and, if possible, stone in suffi- cient quantity to keep the embankment from being softened by the water standing against it. CONSTRUCTION. 123 It must never be forgotten that a well drained roadbed is afEected less by frost in winter, dam- aged less in rainy seasons and costs less to keep in good order. The practice is to use cast iron pipe of the style used for water mains in cities, for culverts and small pile bent bridges; some roads, however, use wrought iron pipe for this purpose. Cast iron is admitted to stand corrosion better than iron or steel, and in time will probably be used to the exclusion of iron or steel riveted pipe. Streams of considerable size can be carried under or through embankments by using several lines of large sized cast iron pipe, and building retaining walls of masonry or concrete at each end of the culvert. Care must be taken to have the earth packed firmly around the pipe and against the retaining walls, so that the water will be forced to pass through the pipe, and not be per- mitted to wash away the embankment. This ap- plies with equal force to stone arched and open culverts. Where stone cannot be secured to pave the spillway* at the discharge end of cast iron pipe culverts, the original sod must not be disturbed for a distance of at least twenty feet on each side extending across the entire right of way. This is a choice point for the contractor to use for a bor- rowpit, and must be looked after closely. Spillways and spaces between the walls of stone arched culverts and open culverts must be care- fully paved with stone not less than eighteen *A * 'spillway" is the outlet of a culvert or drain. 124 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, inches long, set on end and close together, the in- terstices being filled with spauls. All open culverts, bents of pile and trestle bridges and abutments of bridges should be at right angles to the track. If for any reason this cannot be done, the bridge seat must be so arranged that the end of the bridge will be at right angles to the track. The location of the bents for pile and trestle bridges must be carefully made; this requires the center line of the railroad to be given for each bent, the axis of the bent transversely to the line of the railroad; and these points must be carefully referenced by hubs which will not be destroyed by contractors, workmen or timber haulers. In giving the location for driving the piling and the cut off for the piling, the work must be done de- liberately and carefully, and all work of line and elevation re-run and checked. Bridge abutments and piers require the greatest care in location; steel tapes only should be used, and they should be used with a spring balance. The tape should be stretched on a level piece of ground to the same tension and two hubs driven at the distance measured on the sight of the bridge and the distance measured between the hubs. Generally the length of spans is decided upon first. In such case the length of the spans should be carefully measured on level ground and hubs driven at the proper distances, and the measure- ment with a long steel tape and balance taken in the reverse order mentioned. Where the streams are of considerable width, the piers will have to CONSTRUCTION, 125 be located by triangulation, using a high grade transit for the purpose. The foundations for pile and trestle bridges are secured by driving piles in the ground and sawing Fig. 72. STEAM PILE DRIVER. them ofE at the proper elevations for the caps of pile bridges and sills of trestle bridges; figure 72 gives a view of a pile-driver. The experience of the engineer is called into play to decide when 126 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. a pile has been driven sufficiently; the timber in a pile can be shattered by over-driving so it will possess very little strength to support a load; neither will it support the load if not driven sufficiently. Rules are given by Trautwine, Wellington and others re- garding this subject; a rule much in use is to stop driving when six blows with a two-thousand pound hammer falling a distance of twenty feet fail to drive the pile over one inch. This rule, however, must be used with judgment. There have been cases where piles would settle a foot at each drop of the hammer, and, if left over night, they could not be started by the hammer, and yet these piles are today successfully support- ing heavy trains on a trunk line.* Again there are frequent cases where piling could not be secured of sufficient length to reach the bottom of the soft strata of cedar and tamarack swamps where the material did not possess the property of closing around a pile and supporting it as in the preceding case. In such cases the support for the roadbed has been secured by laying long logs transversely to the line of the road close to- gether, and building an embankment on them.f There are yet other cases where the soil is of a nature that durmg a prolonged season of dry, hot weather the soil becomes so hard that a pile is with difficulty driven into it, yet during the rainy season this soil becomes soft and spongy. Great *This case was in marshy ground where quick sand settling around the pile gave it the necessary support. tThis is known as corduroying a swamp. CONSTRUCTION. 127 difficulty is encountered in such soils to get the piling down a sufficient depth during dry weather to support the load during wet seasons and not shatter the pile by overdriving. The foundations for abutments and piers are secured in a number of ways; in a general way they can be given as follows: (a) Where a pier is built outside of a stream during low water the earth is excavated below the water line, or to the rock; the water is kept out by pumps; where rock is not reached or a firm soil capable of bearing a weight of four to five tons per square foot, piling is driven, the tops sawed off and a timber grillage* built on top to carry the masonry. Recently a mass of concrete about six feet thick, in which the tops of the pil- ing project three feet, has been used instead of timber grillage. {h) Where a pier is located in a stream of mod- erate depth of water, sheet piling is driven in two rows around the foundation, and the space tilled with clay and rammed tight and the foundation secured as described above. In greater depth of water, piling is driven and the tops sawed off level at or near the bed of the stream, and a caisson sunk on to the piling and the masonry built in the caisson. Where the bed of the stream is rock, the foundation has been secured by making the bottom of the caisson to correspond with the ir- regularities of the rock and sinking the caisson ^"Grillage" consists of square timbers placed on top of the piling to distribute the weight of the masonry evenly on each pile. 128 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. directly on to the rocky bed of the stream. Where there is great depth of water or an allu- vial formation subject to changes of channel by floods, the pneumatic caisson is resorted to. * All piers and abutments require rip rapping and other necessary measures taken to protect them from damage by ice where the stream is subject to ice jams. The masonry for piers, abutments and culverts, need not be of a quality known as first-class; but it must be well bedded and bonded and built solid, no voids being allowed. The bonding must apply to the backing as well as the face stone, so as to approach as near as possible to a monolith. The stone used should be large and the coping thick, and of a quality which will not deteriorate on exposure to the weather, or crush under the weight which it will have to support. Where a stream is shallow, and subject to sud- den overflow and drift, which would carry away false work, low water tracks are used to extend the road. These low water tracks leave the located line at each'side of the valley and when possible are laid parallel to and a sufficient distance from the located line, so that they can be used to deliver ma- terial required for constructing the bridge. The low water track is carried across the steam on a low trestle securely anchored to the bed of the stream so that when a rise in the river takes place it will not be washed away. This low water track per- mits the rapid extension of the line and gives ♦This is a large subject and the reader is referred ito the liter- ature treating of it mentioned hereafter. CONSTRUCTION. 129 facilities to forward track and construction ma terial, and it has even been used in operating the road for some months before the bridging was completed. High water in streams of this nature seldom interferes with the operating of trains for more than a few hours at a time, and the drift would carry away any trestle bridge or false work which obstructs the stream. The approach to a bridge from a new bank should be supported on a mud sill; after the em- bankment has fully settled, piling or masonry can be used to replace the mud sill as desired. Masonry can be saved by omitting an abutment and making the approach to the first pier on a trestle, or better still, a plate girder. The grade must be surfaced true before ballast is put on; or for track, if the ballasting is to be done after track laying. For this purpose the engineers give center and grade stakes, the grade stakes being placed every one hundred feet on tangents, and every fifty feet on curves. Two grade stakes are required for each center stake; one five feet each side of the center; on curves the grading should be made to conform to the elevation to be given the outer rail. The inside grade stake to he depressed as much below the grade line as the elevation to be given the outer rail, and the outside grade stake to he 7'aised the same amount."^ Monthly estimates are made as the work prog- *This is the method adopted by one of the Eastern Trunk Lines of North America and is believed by some to cause a train to ride more evenly when entering and leaving a curve. 9 Vol. 13 130 BUILDING AND REP AIMING RAILWAYS. resses and progress profiles made, showing the work done both in excavation and embankment. The resident engineer takes account of the num- ber of men, teams, etc., in each gang as he passes over the work daily and makes a monthly report, as per accompanying form (7 2 A), to the division Columbian /?? Co. S>tockdale Br^^nch FORCE REPORT FOR THE MONTH OF ISO THE FOLLOWINO NUMBERS OP MEN,TEflM6.£TC REPRESENT THE AI4QUNT WORK\NG,ONE DAf. 1 ^ 2 to ! i 1 REMARKS. Fig. 72A. FORM OP FORCE REPORT. engineer. * At the end of each month the resident engineer gives line and grade over all work done during the current month, and the division en- gineer goes over the work and takes notes of the stations between which work has been done dur- ing the current month. The record he keeps is in the following form (72B). The resident engineer furnishes the quantities *This report is generally called a "force report.'* CONSTRUCTION. 131 in a report to the division engineer, and he com- pares their quantities with those calculated in his office from the center heights and slope of the ground and with the force account. The division engineer forwards the estimates for sections and also the force account for sec- tions to the chief engineer, who compares them with the data secured from the preliminary survey OJLeZi^ ^ Oi fl O Ph fl a CO > •^ ^ CONSTRUCTION. 163 164 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, MARION n I I ■T\ / ! \ \ I IM ADISO NI \ \ \ .A Fig. 5?^*5«^ -"5??^ n 80d. \ I ^^ "A u \ /. i IRON SIGNS. Supported by channel or tee iron posts embedded in a concrete base. Forming a permanent sign which only requires occasionally to be repainted. CONSTRUCTION. lUa i 12; o o o 13 PLH a 166 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Fig. 80f. SHEFFIELD SECTION GASOLINE MOTOR CAR. Showing a complete outfit of tools on the car for the day's work. This car will, on level track and in ordinary weather, make five miles in twenty minutes. By its use no time is lost going to or from work and the men are ready to put all their energy into the day's work. Should additional tools be required during the day one man can take the car to the toolhouse or nearest station and thus quickly obtain the necessary supplies. In the event men are required at another point this motor car affords the means of transporting them promptly and quickly. An inspection car similar generally to an automobile of this type is also in use. It will seat nine persons and can be operated at any speed up to thirty-five miles an hour. CONSTRUCTION. 167 Fig. 80g. BONZANO RAIL JOINT. SIDE VIEW. That part of the splice-plate which fits between the under side of the head of the rail and the top of the base of the rail is made in the usual manner. The lower part of the splice-plate projects outwardly beyond the edge of the rail and is on a level with the base of the rail, giving additional bearing on the ties and lateral stiffness to the rail. The middle part of the projecting flange is turned down to an angle of about ninety degrees without a cutting. The horizontal flanges forming the end bearings of the top member of the splice and also the bearing for the gusset shaped tie bars which connect the depending flange or lower member with the horizontal flanges, form an economi- cal, strong and rigid truss, as shown in plate. Fig. 80h. ONE HUNDRED PER CENT SPLICE BAR. This is a modified form of the fish plate, having greater depth of metal at the rail joint than the ordinary fish plate, and can only be used where the rail joint comes between the ties. 168 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Fig. 80i. SEMAPHORE STAND. This Semaphore Switch Stand is designed to provide an effective and satisfactory signal for switches thrown by hand. The ordinary color and shape target is replaced by a position signal in the form of a semaphore blade. It is equipped with revolving lamp or spectacles as required. It can be adapted to any form of stand having a revolving mast. CONSTRUCTION. 169 I Fig. 80j. THE BUDA OSCILLATING SURFACE CATTLE GUARD. This cattle guard is designed on an entirely new principle. It is well known that all animals are afraid of an insecure footing. This cattle guard swings free of the ties, and when an animal places its foot on the guard it oscillates, thus deterring the animal from passing over it. 170 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Fig. 80k. AMERICAN GUARD RAIL FASTENER. Under the present conditions of heavy traffic, a reliable guard rail fastener is one of the essential requirements of a good track. - The guard rail brace, and base plate extending under both the guard rail and the rail of the main track, are thoroughly fastened together by rivets, and to further secure the brace three track spikes pass through both the brace and the base plate. CONSTRUCTION. 171 Fig. 801. THE GRAHAM COMBINED GUARD RAIL. AND FROG BRACE. This brace is a stationary gauge and is placed between the guard rail and frog, and cannot be applied unless the frog is in perfect gauge. It always maintains the correct gauge. This guard rail brace never requires re-spiking and no other braces are needed at these points. The use of this brace effects a considerable saving in material used at each frog, and also a saving of labor in re-spiking the guard-rail. The dangerous point of the switch is made as safe as any part of the track. It should be placed two to four inches ahead of point of frog and firmly spiked to the ties. Fig. 80m. GUARD RAIL CLAMP. Made of malleable iron or steel. 172 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. A. 13 Fig. SOn. TIE PLUG. A shows the hole in a tie after a spike is withdrawn. B is a wooden plug, slightly larger than a track spike. C shows this wooden plug driven in the hole in the tie after the removal of the spike. Note— After removing the spikes from a tie, all holes should be filled with plugs before the tie is used again. CHAPTER VI. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIAL. The standard sizes and quality of the various materials and devices which are used on a new line of railroad are largely determined before the reconnoissance is made, and are in every case definitely decided upon before the located line is finally adopted. STRUCTURES. The financial success of the enterprise will largely depend on the selection of the proper standards for the different structures along the line. Thus if it is decided to erect substantial structures for stations, shops, storehouses, etc., on a new line, the greatest care must be exer- cised, or it may be found that a substantial and costly structure has been placed at a point where very little business is being done. Inasmuch as trading and manufacturing cen- ters spring into existence at unexpected points, it is advisable to keep the first cost of the road down to the minimum, consistent with economy of operating. After the country has been devel- oped and the character of the business deter- mined, then more substantial and permanent structures can with advantage be adopted. (173) 174 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, GAUGE. The gauge or distance between the rails, is the first point to be decided; a large majority of the mileage in America is four feet eight and one- half inch gauge, and it is perhaps safe to state that this is the gauge of the majority of the rail- way mileage of the world. Discussion as to the best gauge has been carried on ever since rail- way building commenced, and was quite spirited from 1870 to 1883, when there was a strong sen- timent in favor of a narrower gauge than four feet eight and one-half inches, which was then and is now called the Standard Gauge. In 1880 there were 4,000 miles of railway having a gauge of three feet, and such lines were then and are now called narrow gauge.* The advocates of the narrow gauge claimed for it the following advantages; First — Ability to haul heavier loads. Second — Ability to pass around sharper curves. Third — That the road could be constructed for less money, and Fourth — That the pajang load hauled was a larger percentage of the dead load hauled than on roads having standard gauge. As the standard and narrow gauge roads ex- isted and were operated in 1880, these claims were correct, but only the second and third are due to the gauge. The load hauled by a locomotive depends on the relation existing between the horse-power ^Appendix E gives a list of the gauges of railroads that are or have been in use in different countries. STANDABDS OF C0N8TBUCTI0N. 175 and the weight on the drivers, as the load to be hauled increases, the weight on the drivers and the horse-power of the locomotive must be cor- respondingly increased; it is not economy to have the weight of ^the drivers designed for a greater load than the horse-power of the engine will pull; this would be a case of a dead load having no earning capacity. On the other hand, if the horse-power is greatly in excess of the weight on the drivers, the result is that the driv- ers spin round on the track (slip) when a load suitable to the horse-power is attached to the lo- comotive. The discussion of the gauges referred to taught the managers of the broad gauge roads that their locomotives could be designed to se- cure greater efficiency or economy. The second claim of the narrow gauge advocates possessed but small value, except in extremely rough and difficult country, and then only at exceptional points. The third claim, which they considered one of their strong points, is not so strong as it appears; where a new line is to be built to de- velop a country, and the business will be light for some years, the bridging, rails, locomotives and cars can be built of a light, cheap standard and the rolling stock kept on the line; bulk ma- terial, such as live stock, grain, wool, etc., can be handled in foreign cars of connecting lines, where the shipment is to a point off the line; this method saves the expense of transferring bulk shipments at terminals, and the bridging, track and rolling stock would cost about the same as for a narrow gauge. The saving in the 176 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. grading for a surface road averaging six feet cut and fill, placing fifty cents per yard for the av- erage price paid per cubic yard of material moved, would be $1,200.00 per mile. A light broad gauged road equipped as above described has, in addition to the advantage of handling bulk freight, the further advantage that the earnings can be used to equip it for heavy traffic as the business of the country is developed, and all improvements can be made to conform to the equipment used on the older roads. At the time of the discussion in favor of the narrow gauge the capacity of the narrow gauge freight cars was a much higher percentage of the dead load than that of the broad gauge freight cars. This educated the managers of the broad gauge roads, and to=day there are freight cars of 80,000 pounds capacity and 36,000 pounds weight or dead load, while in 1880 the capacity was about the same as the dead load. As a rule, all new lines built in a country where railroads already exist should be of the same gauge as existing ones. This will enable freight to be handled more cheaply than where there has to be a transfer from one car to an- other at terminals. The fact that there was a narrow gauge mileage of 4,000 miles in 1880 and a mileage of 3,000 miles in 1899 points con- clusively to the fact that the standard gauge is more economical to operate. CUTS AND FILLS. The next point to be decided is the width at STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 177 grade of the cuts and fills. On a standard gauge road, the following table gives the widths used on some of the lines in North America: SINGLE TRACK. Eartli Rock Name of Road. Embankment. Excavation. Excavation. New York Cent. & Hudson River 16 ft. 19 ft. 17 ft New York, New Haven & Hartford .18 ft. 18 ft. 18 ft. Lake Shore & Michigan Southern 16 ft. 23f ft. Baltimore & Ohio 17 ft. 19 ft. 18 ft. Southern Pacific 16 ft. 19 ft. Northern Pacific 14 ft. 20 ft. 16 ft. Chicago & Nor.-West 20 ft. 24 ft. 22 ft. Tratman recommends 16 ft. 20 ft. 18 ft. Often used on new lines with earth ballast 14 f t . 18 f t . 16 ft. The slopes adopted are generally as follows: For earth cuts 1 horizontal to 1 vertical. For rock cuts \ ** to 1 '' For rock cuts over 30 feet cutting.^ " to 1 " Earth embankments IJ *' to 1 *' Rock embankments \\ ** to 1 *' The slopes of earth cuts near depots in towns and suburban districts of large cities are often flat- tened to H to 1 and 2 to 1 and rounded off at the top and sodded. Narrow Gauge Sections. The widths of cuts and fills for narrow gauge railroads can be made less than for a Standard gauge. A deduction of two feet can be made where the gauge is three feet. Controlling Points. The points which control the width of rock cuts are the room required to 17S BUILDING AND BEPAIRINO RAILWAYS. clear the lower steps on the platforms of passenger cars. The long cars and their truss rods are also a factor which has to be taken into account as clearance must be provided for them. The character of the material through which an earth cut is made, and the amount of surface drainage into the cut, are the factors in deter- mining the slope of an excavation and the width at gradOo There are often cases where the sur- face drainago is diverted by ditches sometimes called berme ditches ten or fifteen feet back from the edge of the slope to the end of the cut to prevent the water running down the face of the excavation, and where the character of the material will stand a slope of i or f to 1. In such a case a largo saving is made, but the en- gineer who attempts this must have had experi- ence in handling material. There are some gravels and clays which will stand at a steeper slope than 1 to 1. However, with the clays, their lines of cleavage or seams may cause fail- ures under the most promising circumstances. Mr. Tratman in ^'Railway Track and Track Work " in treating on the widths at grade of cuts and fills says: *'The surface at subgrade is almost invariably crowned at the middle to drain off water to the sides, the only exception of which the writer is aware being on the Eastern Railway of France, where the surface is made slightly concave, and tile drains are led from the bottom of the hollow to the face of the bank. The roadbed may be formed in different ways to throw off the water STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 179 reaching it through the ballast: (1), it may have one or more planes from each side to the center; (2), it may have a curved surface with a rise of 3 to 6 inches for single track and 6 to 8 inches for double track; or (3) it may have a flat center por- tion with planes each side of the ditch. In regions of ordinary rainfall the best plan is to give a slope, as it will throw off water better than a flat curve. The more solid and compact the surface of the roadbed is made before the bal- last is applied, the better will be the drainage, and the latest specifications prepared by Mr. Katte, Chief Engineer of the New York Central Railway require the subgrade to be as nearly homogeneous in composition and consistency as practicable for a depth of 18 to 24 inches, solidi- fied to uniform resistance by thorough ramming or rolling, and truly graded in regular drainage planes, having a rise of 6 inches for a double track roadbed 27 feet wide on a bank. In some cases the roadbed is inclined on curves to give the proper superelevation to the track, but this practice is not general. *'In some cases the slope of the roadbed is con- tinued to meet the toe of the slope in cuts, but with earth or other poor ballast and in country with ordinary rainfall, it is better to have a ditch reaching well below subgrade, so as to effectually drain the roadbed. The drainage of the track is effected by the ballast, the crowning of the sub- grade and by side ditches in cuts, which latter carry away the water from the ballast and road- bed, and this drainage is one of the most import- ISO BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. ant items in maintaining a good track, its im- portance increasing as the quality or quantity of the ballast decreases, and increasing also in rela- tion to the extent of rainfall. Climatic condi- tions are, of course, to be considered in designing the form of cross-section of roadbed, heavy ditch- ing not being required in dry regions with light soil. On roads through country with a moder- ate rainfall, the ditches should, nevertheless, be of ample capacity to carry off the storm water in occasional heavy rains. The ditches should be parallel with the track, not made to wind around stumps or holders, and must be graded so as to pass all water freely and to thoroughly drain the roadbed and keep both ballast and roadbed firm and dry. The width should increase towards the ends, and if the standard width does not give sufficient capacity, the ditch should be widened on the outer side. ''The distance from the rail to the ditch varies according to the nature of the soil, and the bot- tom should be about 16 to 24 inches below the crown of sub-grade. An average arrangement in ordinary material is a distance of 7 feet from the rail to the edge of a ditch 24 inches wide on top, 18 inches wide on the bottom, with the bottom 8 inches below center of roadbed on single track, or 12 inches on double track. In wet cuts the ditches may be lined with cement, or in narrow cuts (especially where the earth slides or bulges) they may be lined with plank or old ties with struts across the top. Sub-drains of tile, brush, or wooden boxes may be laid as STANDABDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 181 required. Where it is necessary to carry water from the ditch on one side to the ditch on the other side, of the track, or from a center ditch to the side ditches (as on double track) box drains of wood are laid in the ballast. These box drains are usually 12x12 inches inside, 12 to 16 feet long, made of 2-inch plank with the ends sloped to conform to the slope of the ballast, and having four or six flat strips 2x6x16 inches across the top. The ditches may be carried under road crossings by cast-iron pipe, clay, sewer or culvert pipe, or wooden box drains. The first is prefer- able, as wood soon rots and lets dirt fall in to clog the drain, and clay pipe is liable to be broken, as there is generally very little cover over it. The size of the pipe varies according to the amount of water to be carried, but is gener- ally 6 to 10 inches, while the box drain is usually about 8x10 inches, having plank sides and bottom and a top of cross strips nailed close together." Sections of the roadbed and ballast used on some railroads are shown in Figs. 81 to 89. Fig. 81. EARTH BALLAST.— GALVESTON, HOUSTON & HENDERSON RAILWAY. 1S2 BUILDING ^iND JRj^P AIMING B^ULWAYS. -5-2\ i 3-e*i •{ > 6V 7'fe 9t7'*/o" • 7-9 Fig. 82. GRAVEL BALLAST.— GALVESTON, HOUSTON & HENDERSON RAILWAY •-e'-o' I ^■^.r^TTr-TT^^^^^;^;^:^^ ^f .^w\\\\\\\\\\VVV'^U\\\U'J W\VU\\U'v^WU';\\\V\Cv - r/i- s-'^ 6 1 -0 1^ ••! X^ ;<9"^ /2'> 9";l < LV>i -t-'^"" tIC A-»^ Bj i< .^/ > .si^:^ 00 GO STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 185 ■8-0 Oi T,tJ Fig. 89. BURNT CLAY BALLAST.— C. B. & Q. R. R. The sections used in some of the American and foreign tunnels are shown in Figs. 90 to 94. 186 BUILDING ^{ND EEPAIBING RAILWAYS. m \iim//////^ ////////////My/. }< a V!- o" ->2-5"!^ Fig. 91. SECTION OP TUNNEL AT PORT PERRY.-P. V. &. C. RY. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 187 ^^iUiL^ -^ Fig. 92. SECTION OF TUNNEL. OX THE INSBRUCK-BOZEN LINE OF AUSTRIAN SOUTHERN RY CO. (I Vol 13 188 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Fig. 93. SECTION OF TUNNEL USED BY GOVERNMENT RAILWAY OF EAST INDIA. STANDAJRDS OF CONSTBUCTION. I 189 Fig. 94. SECTION OF IRON TUNNEL. UNDER ST. CLAIR RIVER USED BY GRAND TRUNK RY. BALLAST. Newly constructed roads and the branches of some of the larger systems are largely ballasted with earth, or rather, are not ballasted at all, 190 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, either for the reason that financial conditions prevent or the traffic is so light as not to require it. In this case the methods adopted to support the track are fairly illustrated by the sections of the roadbed of the Galveston, Houston & Hen- derson Railway and the Illinois Central Railway where the earth is filled over the center of the tie level with the top of the rail, sloping out to the bottom of the tie at its end; this gives drain- age by conveying the water off the bank rapidly, and permits the moisture under the tie to drain out at the end. The objections to this plan- are that the earth over the center of the tie tends to rot it and the lack of support at the end makes it difficult to hold the track to line. However, in the country where these sections are used, the rainfall at some seasons of the year is heavy and continuous and the sections adopted are the best for such climatic conditions. Where the rainfall is not so great and where the ground is more or less frozen during the winter, the earth (and ballast also when used) is not placed on top of the tie. The various kinds of ballast used can be classed as follows: Stone, slag, gravel, sand, cinders and burnt clay. The requirements of a good ballast are that it shall \)e durable; of a character that will allow water to drain off freely; that it will be free from dust and of such a quality and form that it will remain in position and hold the tie. The material which most nearly fills all the above requirements is trap rock and the harder granites. However, circumstances compel the STAXDABDS OF CONSTRUCTIOX. 191 adoption of the best means at hand, and any hard stone which will break into cubical form is used. Shales which break into flat sheets crush into powder, and do not give good drainage, they should, therefore, not be used. The practice of some roads is to lay a bed of large stone 6 to 9 inches thick on the subgrade, and on this place a layer of 6 to 10 inches of stone broken to a uniform size of li to 2 inches; however, care must be taken to first fill the openings in the top of the large stone with spauls before placing the broken stone ballast. The ties are placed on top of the broken stone and broken stone filled in around them up to and level with the tops of the ties. Another method is to place the crushed stone di- rectly on the subgrade; the Pennsylvania Rail- way do this, using 10 inches of stone under the tie. Some roads require the ballast to be broken to such a size that the largest stone will pass through a 2i-inch ring and others through a 3- inch ring. The smallest size used must not be less than one inch cube. In these cases the stone is broken by a crusher and run through a screen which separates the different sizes. The larger size should be laid on the subgrade and the smaller size form the top of the ballast. On this subject Mr. Tratman states: " In some cases a layer of gravel is laid upon a bottom layer of broken stone, but this is not gen- eral, and it is not to be recommended though claimed to combine the good drainage of stone with economy in material, as gravel is in general cheaper and more easily procured. The 2i-inch 192 BUILDING AND REPAIRINO BAILWAYS. stone is sometimes covered with a top dressing of 1-inch stone, and the Pennsylvania Railway in some places lays small broken stone over the reg- ular ballast and covering the ties, the purpose be- ing to deaden the sound in the cars. The new steel ties for the New York Central Railway will be entirely covered with ballast except over the rail fastenings. This practice is not good Avith wooden ties as a rule, as it leads to rotting by keeping the ties damp, and prevents inspection, but in very hot, dry regions, it may be permissible in order to protect the ties from the sun. Stone ballast should be handled with forks and not with shovels so as to avoid putting dirt into the track, as the dirt hinders the drainage and affords a chance for weeds to grow. From a main- tenance point of view it may be noted that stone ballast on a poor road involves greater ex- pense for renewal and maintenance (perhaps at a time when little money is available) than when gravel is used. ''Slag. — Furnace slag or cinder is extensively used on roads in the vicinity of blast furnaces and iron works. It is about as durable as broken stone and in other ways almost as good, though it is sometimes said that ties decay in it more rapidly than in stone ballast. If properly drained, however, the difference is but small. It is con- sidered that it should be as free from lime as possible, but a reported corrosion of rails on slag ballast does not seem to be substantiated. Mr. Mordecai, Assistant Chief Engineer of the Erie Railway, states that furnace companies are gen- STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 193 erally glad to supply the material free on cars at the furnaces, in order to get rid of it. It does not require a great deal of labor to break it up and costs about as much to put under the track as stone, possibly a little less. It should be broken to a 2-inch or 2i-inch ring, and like stone, it should be handled by forks, so as to be free from dust and uirt. There should be at least 10 inches of slag under the ties. The tamping is done in the same way as with stone, though Mr. Morde- cai thinks that slag requires a little more tamp- ing in the middle of the Itie, so as to keep the track in good condition for easy riding. It gives excellent results, keeps the track in good line and surface, and does not heave as much as gravel. On the Chesapeake & Ohio Railway it has been used for some years, the average depth under the ties being 12 inches, and Mr. Frazier, Chief En- gineer, states that it is very satisfactory and economical. The bulk of this slag is as small as ordinary gravel, and is loaded with a steam shovel. The engineer has been able to get it in this condition by arranging with the furnaces to pour the hot slag from the pots down an incline 30 to 40 feet, when the slag spreads out and cools very rapidly. This gives it the appearance of broken china, instead of the porous sponge-like appearance of the large lumps of slag handled in the ordinary way. On the Lehigh Valley Rail- way a 12-inch bed of slag is sometimes put under the ties, and then covered with anthracite ashes filled in between the ties. The cross-section is usually formed similar to that for broken stone, 194 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. and an important feature of slag ballast is that owing to the sharpness of its edges it checks people from walking on the track. It is exten- sively used in England, where it is run from a furnace onto a traveling belt and suddenly cooled by water, which hardens it and breaks it up at the same time. In view of its low cost and its excellence as ballast, it might well be adopted by many roads which now use an inferior gravel on their main tracks. If the traffic is heavy, the improved condition of track and the reduced cost of maintenance would probably warrant the ex- pense for transportation of slag ballast from the furnaces. '' Burnt Clay — This has been used in England and other foreign countries for over twenty years, and its use is extending in this country — mainly in the West. The most suitable material is brick clay (or almost any clay that has not too much sand) and gumbo, or clayey earth, and experiments have been made with the ' black wax ' earth of Texas. The site for burning is cleared of top soil, and a row of old ties, cord- wood, etc., about three feet high, is laid the length of the kiln 500 to 4,000 feet. This is covered with a few inches of slack coal, or slack and lump mixed, upon which is thrown a layer of clay 9 to 12 inches thick. The wood is then lighted at intervals, the openings being closed when the fire is started. As the burning pro- ceeds, another layer of coal is placed, and an- other layer of 6 to 9 inches of clay, and these layers are repeated from time to time until the STANDABDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 195 finished heap is about 20 feet wide and 10 feet high. One ton of slack coal will burn 4 to 5 cubic yards of clay, and the cost varies from 35 to 85 cents per cubic yard loaded on the cars. About 1,000 cubic yards per day can be burned in a kiln 4,000 feet long, about 50 men being employed. The work is usually done by con- tract, the company furnishing the land, side- track and coal. Partial estimates are given on kiln measurements, and the final estimate is made from car measurements when loaded out, so that worthless material is not paid for. The ballast is light (40 to 50 pounds per cubic foot), easily handled, gives good drainage, is free from weeds, is not dusty, and is in general satisfactory, requiring renewal in six to eight years. It is said to crush rather easily under the ties and to necessitate shovel tamping, but the writer does not consider that shovel tamping is necessary with any ballast under ordinary conditions. The cross-section is formed similar to that for stone ballast, and there should be at least 12 inches under the ties, as this ballast must be used liber- ally to give good results. Further particulars of the manufacture and use of this material are given in the writer's paper on ' Improvements in Railway Track ^ (Transactions, American Society of Civil Engineers, March, 1890), and in 'Engi- neering News,' New York, November 16, 1893. The cost per cubic yard of ballast in the track is about $1.05, distributed as follows, the price for the first item being variable: 196 BUILDING AND HE PAIRING RAILWAYS. Contract price for burning 38 cents. Average cost of coal 21 * - Loading on cars 8 Distributing 9 Putting under track 22 Interest and depreciation 4 Land 1 Miscellaneous expenses 2 Total cost per cubic yard $1 . 05 '^The burnt clay ballast used on the St. Louis, Keokuk & Northwestern Railway is a black, clayey soil or gumbo, and the railway company contracted for it burned in the pit, the company laying the necessary tracks, furnishing the old ties and slack coal for burning, and loading and hauling the burned ballast. The cost on cars at the pit was estimated at 65 to 70 cents per cubic yard, which is higher than usually estimated, but a number of small items were included which are sometimes overlooked. The burnt ' black wax ' soil ballast on the Texas Midland Railway is said to cost $1.00 per cubic yard in the track, and to have the advantage of being absorbent, so that in ordinary rainfalls most of the water is taken up by the ballast (which does not soften) and does not go through to the roadbed. ''Gravel. — This material is more used than any other in this country and is of very varying quality. It may be sandy and dusty or loamy (when weeds will grow, drainage will be affected and the track will heave) or else full of large stones, which make an irregular and rough riding track. The best gravel should be clean and coarse, and as far as possible of uniform size and quality. It does STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 197 not give as good drainage as stone, but a fairly coarse and clean gravel will be generally satis- factory. It is good economy to use plenty of gravel, giving at least 8 inches (or better 10 in- ches) under the ties, as it will enable a fairly good track to be maintained nearly all the year through without excessive work. It can be tamped by picks or bars, the latter being gener- ally preferred, and is easily taken care of. In Europe the gravel is sometimes thoroughly washed by machinery to free it entirely from earth and sand. ^' There are varying opinions as to the cross- section depending upon the quality of the mate- rial and the climatic conditions. Thus with good, clean, coarse gravel, or in warm, dry le- gions, it is better to make the section as with broken stone, bringing the ballast level with the tops of the ties and shouldering it out 6 to 12 inches from their ends. With inferior fine or loamy gravel (and this is the quality most gener- ally met with) or where water and frost have to be considered, it is better to slope the ballast from the middle of the tie to the ends, to allow the water to drain off and not be held back by the rails, the ballast being one inch clear below the rail base. The slope may be made continuous with that of the roadbed to the ditch, and may be to the bottom of the end of the tie or a little higher, so as to leave part of the end embedded, out this latter arrangement is likely to retain water along the ends of the ties. In some cases the ballast is flat on top for about 3 f eet^ and then 19S BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. slopes down under the rails to the bottom of the ties. Fine gravel is sometimes filled in 2 or 3 inches above the ties at the middle, but in wet country this keeps the ties damp and leads to rotting, though in dry country it may protect them from the sun and from hot engine cinders. The Houston & Texas Central Eailway fills in the gravel between the rails to the level of the under side of the rail heads. On double track the bal- last is usually sloped towards the middle of the roadbed to form a central drain which should be at least 6 inches below the ties, and is sometimes carried down to the surface of the roadbed. Cross box drains in the ballast carry the water to the side ditches. At stations on the Southern Pacific Railway the ties rest on 8 inches of ballast, and cinders are filled in nearly to the underside of the rail heads between the rails and between the main and side tracks. '* Cinders. — Engine cinders make a cheap and serviceable ballast which will last for some time under light traffic. Being porous it drains well and does not hold moisture. It is easily handled by the shovel, does not heave much with the action of the frost, and prevents weeds from growing. The principal objection is that it makes a very dusty track until after some length of service, when the rain and traffic compact the material very thoroughly. It is very generally used for sidetracks and yards* With a wet roadbed, and with earth or mud ballast in the spring, or in wet weather when the earth is too soft to fulfill its purpose; a good layer of cinders will much facil- 8TANDABDS OF CONSTBUCTION. 199 itate maintenance, and in very bad cases the mud holes or wet spots may be dug out and filled with cinders. The cinders should not be laid on earth ballast, however, when the frost is coming out of the ground or this action will be checked, and it will be late in the season before it is thoroughly out. In cross-section the ballast is sometimes formed the same as for broken stone, and on side tracks it may either be sloped down to form a drain between that and the main track as on the Baltimore & Ohio Railway, or be filled in level, as on the Erie Railway. The cinders are some- times applied upon a bed of stone or slag ballast upon which the ties rest. " Sand. — This makes a fairly good ballast under light traffic, but unless it is very coarse it requires constant attention and renewal, involving con- siderable maintenance work as it flows from under the ties with the pumping motion of the ties, and is gradually drifted away by the wind and washed away by the rain. It is generally shaped the same as gravel, but if well shouldered out from the ends of the ties and level with them as on the Minneapolis, St. Paul & Sault Ste Marie Railway (shaped the same as broken stone bal- last) it Avill hold the track better, and there will be much less flowing from the ties. Owing to its instability it does not keep track well in align- ment. It is convenient to handle and drains fairly well, but it heaves in winter, makes a dusty track, and is very hard on the journals and ma- chinery. In India sand ballast is often covered with a layer of broken stone or broken brick to 200 BUILDING AND BE P AIMING BAILWAYS, prevent strong winds from blowing it away. Special grasses or bushes may also be used as wind breaks in sandy districts." TIES. The quality of the cross-tie has an important bearing on the stability and permanence of the roadbed and the cost of maintenance. Ties can be divided into three general classes: (a) wood untreated; {b) wood treated with a preservative process, and (c) metal. The kinds of wood used for ties vary, of course, with every country. The different woods used in the United States for ties approximate the fol- lowing proportions: oak, sixty-two per cent.; chestnut, five per cent.; pine, seventeen per cent.; cedar (red, white and California), seven per cent.; hemlock and tamarack, three per cent. ; cypress, two per cent. ; redwood, three per cent. ; other kinds, one per cent. The requirements of a good tie are: (a) abil- ity to hold a spike against the strain exerted on the spike by the rail; (b) it must not be brittle and split when the spike is driven; (c) the wood should not yield or be compressed by the rail; {d) it should withstand the pressure of the bal- last (when stone) without being crushed; (e) its size should give sufficient bearing surface to sup-, port the load imposed without the rail sinking into the tie, or the tie being pressed into the bal- last, or become broken; (/) finally, it should be durable. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 20] White oak makes the best tie, both for wear and durability; it generally fails from decay rather than wear; the life of a white oak tie is about eight years under heavy traffic, and some- times twelve years under light traffic. Chestnut oak is the second best variety of oak, and lasts about seven years. The other varieties of oak are not of sufficient durability to be used much. Chestnut is equal in durability to white oak, but being a softer wood the rail cuts into it more, and it is not suitable for use on curves. Several varieties of pine are used, yellow and Louisiana and Texas long leaf pine being among the best; while they are not hard woods they do not de- cay rapidly, and their life on tangents is about seven years, where the traffic is heavy; under light traffic they have lasted ten years. Cedar ties give satisfaction with a light traffic when used on tangents, but the rail cuts into them and they do not hold the spikes well, especially on curves; their life can be placed at about eight years. Hemlock and tamarack are used in sec- tions where they grow, on account of their cheapness; they are soft timber and do not hold the spikes well; the rail cuts into them, and they rot quickly; their life is probably from four to six years. Cypress may be classed with the long leaf pine as to wear and durability; it will average about eight years service. Red- wood is very durable, but, being soft, its length of service is determined by the time the rail will cut into it and destroy it from wear; its or- dinary life on the Southern Pacific Railway is 202 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING BAILWAY8. given from five years up, depending on the amount of traffic. The cause of decay in timber is given clearly in the report of a committee on Preservation of Timber to the American Society of Civil En- gineers on June 25th, 1885, which is as follows: *' Pure woody fiber is said by chemists to be composed of 52.4 parts of carbon, 41.9 parts of oxygen and 5.7 parts of hydrogen, and to be the same in all the different varieties. If it can be entirely deprived of the sap and of moisture, it undergoes change very slowly, if at all. '^ Decay originates with the sap. This varies from 35 to 55 per cent, of the whole when the tree is filled, and contains a great many sub- stances, such as albuminous matter, sugar, starch, resin, etc., with a large portion of water. *^ Woody fiber alone will not decay, but when associated with the sap fermentation takes place in the latter (with such energy as may depend upon its constituent elements), which act upon the woody fiber and produce decay. In order that this may take place, it is believed that there must be a concurrence of four separate condi- tions: '' First — The wood must contain the elements or germs of fermentation when exposed to air and water. *^ Second — There must be water or moisture to promote the fermentation. ''Third — There must be air present to oxidize the resulting products. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 203 '* Fourth — The temperature must be approxi- mately between 50° and 100° F. Below 32° F. and above 150° F. no decay occurs. "When, therefore, wood is exposed to the weather (air, moisture and ordinary tempera- ture) fermentation and decay will take place, unless the germs can be removed or rendered in- operative. ''Experience has proven that the coagulation of the sap retards, but does not prevent, the de- cay of wood permanently. It is, therefore, necessary to poison the germs of decay which may exist, or may subsequently enter the wood, or to prevent their intrusion, and this is the of- fice performed by the various antiseptics. " We need not here discuss the mooted ques- tion between chemists whether fermentation and decay result from slow combustion {Erema causis) or from the presence of living organisms {Bacte- ria, etc.)."^ The following table, giving the life of un- treated wooden railway ties, is taken from Bul- letin No. 9, Forestry Division, U. S. Department of agriculture: LIFE OF WOODEK RAILWAY TIES. Railways. Ties. Av. life, years. Delaware & Hudson White oak, 7 to 12 Chestnut, 5 to 10 Lake Shore & Mich. Southern . . White oak, 6 Lehigh Valley White and rock oak, 8 ** Cypress, 8 '* Chestnut, 8 ** Yellow pine, 7 * Report A. S. C. E., June 25th, 1885, pp. 288 and 289. 12 Vol. 13 204 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Railways. Ties. Av. life, years. Pennsylvania White oak, 5 to 6 '* Rock oak, 5 to 6 Allegheny Valley White oak, 9 Central of N. J Oak, 3 " * * Yellow pine, 8 •* Chestnut, t> Baltimore & Ohio Oak, 8 Boston & Maine Chestnut, cedar and hemlock, 5 to / Michigan Central Oak, 6 to 9 Cedar, 6 to 9 ** Tamarack, 4 ** , Hemlock, 4 Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis White, burr and chestnut oak; wild cherry, honey locust and black walnut. ab't 9 Alabama Midland Yellow pine, 5 to 6 Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis White or post oak, 6 Mo., Kas. & Texas White, post and burr oak, cherry and sassafras, 6 to 8 Burlington, Cedar Rapids & Northern White oak and cedar, 8f Flint & Pere Marquette Hemlock, 5 . . ..White oak, 8 to 9 Cedar, 8 to 10 Chicago & Alton. Oak, 8 ♦• '' Cedar, 6 Chicago & Northwestern White oak, 6 to 8 Cedar, 10 to 12 *• ** Hemlock, 5 to 7 Minn., St. Paul & Sault Ste Marie Cedar and oak, 8 to 10 STANDABDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 205 Railways. Ties, Av. life, years. Minn., St. Paul & Sault Ste Marie Hemlock and tama- rack, 6 to 7 Minn., St. Paul & Sault Ste Marie Red spruce, 6 Denver & Rio Grande Yellow pine, | Oak, 6 to 10 Union Pacific Pine, 5 to 8 •* Red spruce 8 White cedar, 8 to 9 •* Pine (burnettized), 7 to 9 '« Oregon fir and pine, 4 to 7 * * Tamarack, 5 Louisyille & N ashville White and post oak, 7 to 8 Chicago, Burl'gton & Quincy . .Oak, cedar, 8 ..Yellow pine, 5 to 7 Treated wood ties. In taking up the subject of ties and other timber treated with wood pre- servatives the investigator is confronted with a lack of reliable data. This lack of knowledge on the subject has retarded the adoption of preserva- tive methods to a great extent. Advances in the price of ties have brought out the fact that available supplies of the more dura- ble hardwoods have been so far exhausted as greatly to diminish the possible supply. Timber owners have naturally not been slow to avail themselves of this fact and the railroads in many sections of the country are casting about for a remedy. An obvious solution is to follow Euro- pean practice, and to resort to the chemical treatment of the more perishable woods, which are still abundant and comparatively cheap. From a paper by W. W. Curtis, read before the American Society of Civil Engineers, May 17th, 206 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, 1899, the inference may be drawn that the prob- lem of treating the softer and cheaper woods, so as to secure a cross tie that will last sufficiently long to make the investment a financial success, has been solved for the United States. He says th^t ''during the last twelve years something like 10,000,000 cross ties have been treated, and dur- ing the present year there Avill probably be 1,- 500,000 ties treated." Poor's Manual give the mileage of railways in the United States on December, 31st, 1898, as follows: Mileage 184,894.33 miles. Second track, sidings, etc 60,344.54 ** Total track 245,238.87 *' Taking 2,700 ties per mile and the average life of a tie as eight years, this would require nearly 83,000,000 ties yearly for renewals; besides which perhaps 17,000,000 more are required for new constructions; taking the average price of hard and soft wood ties at 40 cents each, and the average cost of labor in takiag an old tie out and putting a new tie in the track at 15 cents, the cost of re- newals alone to the railroads of the United States would be nearly $45,650,000 per year. The only prospect of securing a reduction of this yearly expense appears to be in the adoption of ties treated by some preservative process, and the use of tie plates on ties made from the dura- ble soft woods. It must not be forgotten, how- ever, that cheapness of process is not the only consideration to be taken into account. The ob- STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 207 ject sought by treating the ties is to increase their life in the track, and this can only be se- cured by adopting some method which has been thoroughly tried and is honestly carried out. European experience covers a period of forty to fifty years, and in the United States it has been carried on on a considerable scale for over four- teen years. The results prove that wood can be effectually protected from decay for a period long enough to add fifty to one hundred per cent, to the life of the tie. An important point which railroads using preservative processes should in- sist upon being faithfully carried out is the rec- ord of the life of the tie. This is one of the most neglected though essential points. To determine this the tie should be stamped on the end with the date it was treated. In France and Germany a galvanized nail, having the date stamped on the head, is driven in the top of the tie in addi- tion to stamping it and a similar practice is being adopted in the United States. Where the ties are thus marked the only further requirement is to record where they were laid and when they are removed, and all that is ne 'pessary is a simple blank by which the section foreman can report the date the tie was stamped, what portion of the road it was removed from, and the cause of removal.* During the last one hundred years scores of processes have been experimented with, chiefly *The Southem Pacific Railway Company seems to have kept the most complete records of treated ties of any road in the United States. 208 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. in Europe, and hundreds of failures have occurred. It has been ascertained that the choice of chem- icals to be employed is limited to a few, and that not only must the most appropriate process be selected, in view of the character of the wood to be operated upon, its cost or value, and its subse- quent exposure, but also that minute care must be observed in the various operations incident to the process. The importance of this is evident when it is considered that time is the only sure test, and that ten or fifteen years must elapse be- fore it is positively known whether a thorough success has been achieved. In a general way the approved methods of pre- serving timber may be classed as follows: Kyanizing — or use of corrosive sublimate. Burnettizing — or use of chloride of zinc. Creosoting — or use of creosote oil. Boucherie — or use of sulphate of copper. There are a number of other methods, but at present burnettizing and creosoting appear to be the most used in the United States. There are a number of conditions which affect the value of preservative processes, as shown by the wide variation of the life of treated ties. Thus the time of the year the timber is cut and the amount of moisture in the tie at the time it is treated are among the known factors bearing on the results obtained by the treat- ment. The theory of the process of wood preservation is to withdraw the moisture or sap and to intro- STANDABDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 209 duce into the pores of the wood an antiseptic to prevent decay. The American literature on the subject is limited; the report of the committee to the American Society of Engineers on June 25th, 1885, and the paper read by Mr. Curtis be- fore the same Society on May 17th, 1899, are about as full as can at present be procured. On page 377 of the report above referred to, Mr. C. Latimer, Chief Engineer of the Atlantic & Great Western Railroad, stated that his experience showed ''that white oak ties last eight years on the grade and nine years on bridges." ''Eleven years ago the white oak ties cost fifty cents, to-day (1885) they cost forty-five cents per tie."^ The same engineer on page 378 states: "If any process can be obtained which will double or add fifty per cent, to the life of cedar or hemlock ties, of course there is an immense economy in it." In regard to the price of cross ties, it must be borne in mind that while for a period of several years there may be no permanent change in the price, yet the source of supply is constantly being reduced, and each year a tie of poorer quality is being accepted; there must, therefore, come a time when contractors will realize that the source of supply is being reduced, and a permanent rise in the price will take place * A condition that tends to discourage investments in this di- rection is the uncertainty regarding the price that timber will command in the future. The cheapening of freight rates some- times enables the supply of cross ties to be procured from dis- tricts which a few years before were considered inaccessible. •210 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. which will doubtless be followed by a period of approximately uniform prices. Thus considered oak ties may be said to have advanced from 16 to 65 cents per tie in the last forty years. Preservative processes it must be remembered will augment the supply of wooden ties, inas- much as some of the softer woods now rejected will be available when treated; thus the hem- lock of the Northern States and the lob lolly and short leaf pine of the Southern States properly treated will make excellent ties. There can be no doubt that wood preserving processes have been measureably successful. In the paper of Mr. Curtis before referred to he states: ''The experiei.ce of American roads with treated ties may be concluded to be gener- ally favorable. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway officials, after twelve years trial on a large scale, believe they are getting from eleven to twelve years service from mountain pine hav- ing a natural life of about four years, while from natural (untreated) white oak they get but six years in heavy main line service, and from cedar ten years under light service." Good results with treated ties are also reported from the fol- lowing roads: Union Pacific Railway; Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railway; Pittsburg, Ft. Wayne & Chicago Railway; Duluth & Iron Range Railway; Southern Pacific Railway, The expe- rience of the English, French and German rail- roads is that pine ties are made to last from fif- teen to thirty years by chemical treatment, the life depending upon the process adopted. STANDABD8 OF CONSTRUCTION. 211 The cost of treating woods varies greatly in the different processes and methods; it is also affected by the price of chemicals used, the vol- ume of the business done, the skill and efficiency of the men employed, cost of coal, etc. The rail- road manager contemplating the adoption of a preservative process for his road will have to take into account the conditions on his line, con- sidering the character of the timber he can pro- cure, and to adopt the method and processes best suited for such timber. A German report on railways* gives the following information: TIES TREATED BY CHLORIDE OF ZINC. Kind of tie Oak Beech Pine Cost of crude tie $1.49 $1.01 $0.84 Absorption, lbs 24.2 34 34 Cost of treatment $0.13 $0.15 $0.16 Total cost $1.62 $1.16 . $1.00 Average life, years 15 9 12 Cost per year $0,108 $0.13 $0,083 TIES TREATED BY CREOSOTE. Absorption, lbs 15.4 66 50.6 24.3 79.2 79.2 Cost of treatment $0.21 $0.50 $0.43 .29 .59 .57 Total cost $1.70 $1.51 $1.27 1.78 1.60 • 1.41 Average life, years 24 30 20 28 34 23 Cost per year $0,071 $0.05 $0,063 .063 .047 .061 The life of ties can be prolonged to some ex- tent by a study of the nature of the various * Published in the * ' Organ of the Progress of Railroads, ' ' Se- ries 1897. Wiesbaden. 21i> BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. woods used. In this relation Mr. B. E. Fernow, of the United States Department of Agriculture, Forestry Division aptly points out that not only the different species of wood in practical use show varying durability, that is, resistance to decay, but the same species exhibits variation according to the locality where it is grown and the part of the tree from which the wood is taken, and even its age seems to influence dura- bility. Young wood, he observes, is more sus- ceptible of decay than old wood; sap wood is less durable than the heart. The idea that young wood is more durable because it is young, which seems to prevail among railway managers, must, he says, be considered erroneous. On the contrary, young wood, which contains a large amount of albuminates, the food of fungi, is more apt to decay, other things being equal, than the wood of older timber. Sound, mature, well grown trees yield more durable timber than either young or very old trees. Rapid growth exhibited in broad annual rings and due to favorable soil and light conditions, yields the most durable timber in hard woods, and only as far as the growth in the virgin forest has been slow, ought there to be a difference in favor of second growth timber. In conifers, however, slow growth with narrow rings, which contain more of the dense summer wood in a given space, yields the better timber. In piling ties, he recommends that they should be placed in squares, with not over fifty ties in a pile, in such a manner that one tier shall contain six to nine STANDARDS OF CONSTBUGTION. 213 ties, separated from each other by a space equal to about the width of the tie; the next tier to consist of one tie placed crosswise at each end of the first tier. The bottom tie should consist of two ties, or better, poles, to raise the pile from the ground. The piles should be five feet apart. The piling ground should be somewhere in the woods, or at least away from the sun, wind and rain, so as to secure a slow and uniform season- ing. If dried too rapidly, the wood warps and splits, the cracks collect water, and the timber is then easily attacked and destroyed by rot. He points out that the best method of obtaining proper seasoning, in a shorter time, without costly apparatus, is to immerse the prepared tim- ber in water from one to three weeks, in order to dissolve and leach out the fermentable mat- ter nearest the surface. This is best done in running water — if such is not at hand, a tank may be substituted, the water of which needs, however, frequent change. Timber so treated, like raft timber, will season more quickly, and is known to be more durable. The application of boiling water or steam is advantageous in leach- ing out the sap. Referring to the decay of rail- way ties, he ascribes the lack of durability to two causes, viz.: (1) a mechanical one, the breaking of the wood fiber by the flange of the rail and by the spikes, a.nd (2) a chemical or physiological one, the rot or decay which is due to fungus growth. These causes work either in combina- tion or, more rarely, independently. The cut- ting of the wood may be prevented by the use of L'U BUILDING AND REPAIRlJS(jt RAILWAYS. tie plates. The damage caused by the spikes may be lessened as pointed out elsewhere. In reference to drainage he suggests that rock bal- last is best drained, and hence the best record comes from such roadbeds; gravel is next best, and clay or loam the worst. On the other hand, where soft wood ties like chestnut are used, the hard rock ballast, while unfavorable to decay, reduces their life by pounding and cutting. Sand ballast seems to vary considerably; a sharp, coarse, silicious (not calcareous) sand with goo(5 underdrainage should be next to gravel, while some reports give a heavy black soil and loam as better than sand. The reason why sand, although offering good drainage, is favorable to decay, may be sought in its great capacity for heat, which induces fermentation. Referring to wood preservatives, Mr. Fernow says in France wooden ties are universally subjected to preservatives; that similar practices are quite general in Eng- land and throughout Europe, caused by the scarc- ity of wood, and its great cost. He ascribes lack of interest in the subject in the United States to ignorance, to unwise economy, to cheapness of wooden ties, and to the fact that the flange cut- ting of the rail is even more destructive than de- cay. He recommends the use of tie plates in order to prevent this. The following table gives the size of ties used by some of the railroads in the United States: Length. Width. Thickness. Railway. Feel. Inches. Inches. Inches. Pennsylvania Railway .... 8 6 7 Southern Pacific Cypress . . 10 10 7 STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 215 Length. Width. Thickness. Railway. Feet. Inches. Inches. Inches. Southern Pacific Cypress 9 10 7 '* " Pine 8 8 6 Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe ..80 6 Chicago & Northwestern 8 8 6 New York Central 8 8 7 Pittsburg & Lake Erie 8 6 9 7 Ties are spaced differently on different roads. The following table gives the spacing used to a thirty foot rail by some of the roads in the United States: Pennsylvania, Main Line 14 wide ties. * ' Sidings 12 ties. Northern Pacific 16 ' ' Chesapeake & Ohio 18 '* Central Ry. of New Jersey 16 ** Southern Pacific, Main Line 17 * ' *' " Branches 15 *' The joint ties should be the largest ones and should be more closely placed than the others to give a better bearing for the rail ends. The following table gives the number of ties per mile of single track: CROSS TIES PER MILE. Center to Center. Ties per Mile. 18 inches 3,520 21 " 3,017 24 ** 2,640 27 - 2,347 30 " 2,112 No. of ties per 30-ft. raU 12 2,112 " 14 2,464 *' 16 2,816 *« «« *' «< '* 18 3,108 216 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, Metal ties have been used to a large extent in some countries where timber is scarce or decays rapidly. There is a great variety of styles and patents, but in a general way they can be classed under three heads, viz: Longitudinal Supports. This method is accom- plished by placing iron plates under each rail, and holding the two rails together by means of rods or iron bars. The metal plates are of vari- ous designs and dimensions. This method has been used more in Germany and Austria than anywhere else; the Germans are not, as a rule, satisfied with it and it is being abandoned. The method is still favored by some Austrian roads. Bowls and Plates. This is a modified form of longitudinal supports. Cast iron bowl shaped plates are used in place of wrought iron or steel plates in the longitudinal method; these are con- nected by rods or bars of iron to hold the rails to gauge — they are mostly used in India and South America. Metal Ties are the third style and these are designed after the wooden cross tie, with such changes as become necessary in a change from wood to iron or steel. This form of metal tie is more largely used than any other. The latest reliable data of the mileage of metal ties in use in Europe is given in Bulletin No. 9 United States Department of Agriculture, For- estry Division, and the figures given there are used in the following tables: STANDABDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 217 SUMMARY OF TRACK IN EUROPE LAID WITH METAL TIES. Countries. Longitudinal, Cross tie. Total miles, Total miles, miles. miles. 1894. 1890. England 73 73 70 France 128 128 52 Holland 322 322 329 Belgium 176 176 115 Germany 3,580 8,025 11,605 8,787 Austria & Hungary.. 62i 154 216J 123 Bosnia 12 12 Switzerland 480 480 397 Spain 7 7 7 Portugal 1 1 J Sweden & Norway... i i i Denmark 18 18 18 Russia ........ 2 7 9 Turkey (Europe) 71 71 71 '' " (Asia) 309 309 Greece 28 28 Totals 3,644i 9,811J 13,456 9,970 SUMMARY OF TRACK LAID WITH METAL TIES BY GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS. 1894 1 1890 Miles of metal track Total miles of track. Miles of metal track Total miles of track. Europe 13,456 2,401 234 14,586 4,416 2* 137,000 5.675 12,000 22,000 21,500 190,000 1 9,970 1,290 186 9,314 3,764 2 132,071 5 200 Africa Australia 10,640 19 106 Asia South America ' Central " West Indies ' Mexico North America 20,701 174,000 Totals 35,095 388,175 24,526 361,718 *Ten miles of track on the New York Central Railway are not included; the metal ties were purchased but were not yet laid. 218 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. The following countries are the principal users of metal ties: Countries. Mileage, 1894. British India 13,655 Grermany 11,605 Argentine Republic . . 3,638 Cape Colony 906 Egypt 866 All other countries 4,425 Totals 85,095 The report already referred to gave the follow- ing mileage of metal ties in the United States in the 1894 Summary of Railways using metal ties in the United States: Roads. Length in feet of track laid with metal ties. 1894. 1899. Chicago & Western Indiana 1,000 none Delaware, Lackawanna & West- ern 250 Long Island 950 New York Central 1,320 Further use disc*t'd. Philadelphia & Reading 5,280 none Minor experiments (estimated). 500 Use discontinued. Totals 9,300 European practice has proven the metal tie to be economically successful under the conditions which prevail there. To prevent the metal tie being lifted by frost or lowered when the ground thaws, the ballast must allow the water to drain off and through it readily; the German practice is to drain the water off down to a point below the frost line. The ballast should be stone broken to go through a 2-inch ring. The tie should be well bedded in STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, ^19 the ballast to hold it in line. The experience abroad with metal ties, is that more labor is re- quired in tamping them the first year or two than in the case of wooden ties, but after this they require much less labor to tamp them than wooden ties do. There are several causes w^hich have prevented the introduction of the metal ties into the United States, the greatly in- creased first cost over wooden ties being the prin- cipal one; to assist in overcoming this they have been made too light to stand the effects of corro- sion. The cost of metal ties weighing 100 pounds was in 1894 from $2.00 to $2.25 per tie, depend- ing on the method of fastening'the rail to the tie. Another reason for their unpopularity in the United States is that they have been tried on roadbeds not properly ballasted and drained for metal ties and have been looked after by section men who were not favorably impressed with their utility. Further it may be stated that in a num- ber of cases their trial was on too small a scale. It is doubtless true that the use of the metal tie is probably a factor which will not receive prac- tical consideration from the hands of railroad managers in the United States for sometime in the future. The line along which present econom- ical practice points is the use of tie plates and rail braces on our untreated ties and this will probably be followed by a more general use of preservative processes to lengthen the life of the wooden tie. Following are some illustrations of metal ties: Fig. 95 illustrates the metal tie used by the Dela- 13 Vol. 13 220 BUILDING AND BE P AIMING RAILWAYS. ^ o d C8 •d a id d § •a ►J O >. ^ c8 d d s5 ^ EH g C3 8TANDABDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 221 f^'-^-t ->i'Vz!f -f «l K I I ^.1- >. , d) .. a«, 5i^ / .< -a •a 03 O o O 222 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING RAILWAYS. ware, Lackawanna & Western Railway. Fig. 96 illustrates the metal tie used by the New York Central Railroad. The literature on metal ties is well given by Bulletins Nos. 4 and 9, United States Department of Agriculture, Forestry Division Synopses of re- ports on their use in the Netherlands and Switz- erland in the Engineering News for 1898. TIE PLATES. To prolong the life of the cross-tie by prevent ing the rail from cutting into the tie, tie plates have been introduced. There are three general styles, based on the following principles: First, ribs are placed on the under side of the tie plate running in the direction of the length of the plate, these are driven into the tie and separate, but do not break up the fiber of the wood; with this style of tie plate the greatest resistance to the movement of the plate is in the direction of across the tie or in the length of the rail; the spikes on both sides of the rail being connected by the tie plate, both resist the lateral move- ment of the rail and are assisted by the friction and end resistance of the ribs pressed into the tie. The spikes used with this tie plate are sub- jected to the wearing action of the rail, but to a less extent than without it. Some forms of this style have a rib which comes in contact with the outside of the rail base to assist the spikes in re- sisting the lateral motion of the rail. Fig. 97 illustrates an example of this style. Second, lugs are placed on the under side in such a posi- STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 223 tion that their largest surface is resisted by the end wood of the tie when there is a lateral press- FiG. 97. WOL.HAUPTER TIE PLATE. Witli rib to resist the lateral motion of the rail. ure produced by a passing train; on the top of the plate there is placed a lug against which the outside of the base of the rail is placed. The lateral movement of the rail is resisted by the spikes as in the first case, and also the greater resistance of the lugs against the end wood of the tie. The base of the rail, during its lateral movements, is resisted by the lug on top of and extending across the plate, thus relieving the spikes of the wearing action of the base of the Fig. 98. GOLDIE CLAW TIE PLATE. With lug to prevent the lateral movement ol the rail.] 224 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING RAILWAYS. rail. Fig. 98 illustrates an example of this style. Third, this method aims to have the Fig. 99. THE C. A. C. TIE PLATE. Fig. 100. THE "SERVIS • TIE PLATE. < Fig. 101. WOLHAUPTER ARCH GIRDER TIE PLATE. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 225 plate bolted or spiked to the tie and the rail fast- ened rigidly to the tie plate. This is Sandberg's type of tie plate. Figs. 99, 100 and 101 illus- trate other makes of the first two styles. The same objection applies to the third style of tie plate, which was found to the use of screws in- stead of spikes to fasten the rail to the ties; by the use of screws the rails were held rigidly to the tie and the wave action produced by the train on the rail caused the tie to work more (or pump the ballast) than where spikes were used, thus increasing the cost of track repairs. Where tie plates are not used on all the ties in a track they will be found of special benefit under the following conditions: On heavy grades and sharp curves they prevent the cutting of the tie and canting the rail and preserve the gauge without the use of rail braces. In tunnels where the moisture tends to soften the tie, they pre- vent the rail cutting into it and preserve the gauge. On swampy ground where the roadbed yields under the weight of the train, they pre- vent ties being cut into by the rail, which leads to excessive creeping of the rails. On long bridges, elevated roads, in busy freight yards, where trains are frequent, track deteriorates rap- idly, and the cost of labor making repairs and renewals is large. At road and street crossings where the planking keeps the ties moist they deteriorate quickly. Ties which have been cut into by the rail can be used again by adzing them down, plugging the spike holes with hard wood and using a tie plat€. 226 BUILDING AND EEPAlRING RAILWAYS. Of the various styles each has its advantages and objections. The friends of the first style claim that the metal is not properly distributed in the second and they will sometimes buckle when a heavy transverse strain is produced by a passing train on a curve; those favorable to the second style claim that the lack of a shoulder to support the base of the rail and not having the resistance of the end wood of the tie to oppose a movement of the tie plate does not hold the track to gauge as well as the second style of plate and permits the spikes to be injured more. There are, it may be ^id, conditions where each claim is well founded, and the selection of style will depend on the conditions of traffic, grade and alignment. RAILS. The rails now used are manufactured of steel, iron having gone out of use on account of the greater length of life of steel and the price being reduced to a point where there is no longer a saving in the use of iron. Formerly each road had its own standard section for the rails used. This resulted in a great v^ariety of forms of sec- tions, some of which, however, were practically the same, differing only in minor details. In 1873 the American Society of Civil Engi- neers appointed a committee to report upon the forms, sizes, manufacture, tests, endurance and breakage of rails and also the comparative econ- omy of iron and steel. In 1883 the same body appointed another committee to consider the STANDABDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 227 proper relation to each other of railway wheels and rails. This led to the appointment of a third committee to prepare designs for standard rail sections. In Appendix J there is a cut showing the section adopted and the dimensions for rails of different weights. Mr. E. E. R. Tratman in his work on '' Track and Track Work " speaks of rails as follows: " Tie plates should be used with heavy traffic, as the attempt to get a very wide base support in the rail flange usually results in a section which is not adapted to good rolling. Flat-topped rail heads have been advocated, but the metal in the head does not get so much work or squeeze from the rolls, and is thus of less dense texture on top than is desirable. This was found with rails rolled in England 25 or 30 years ago for the New Orleans & Chattanooga Railway. In addition to this, the lateral play of the wheels would soon wear the top to a curved section. The usual top radius is 12 or 14 inches, though the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway makes it 18 inches, and any radius less than 12 inches is objectionable. The best distribution of the metal is probably that of the American Society of Civil Engineers recommended sections, pro- vided that the rails are of good material and thoroughly rolled, the rolling being as slow and cold as practicable. ''The rapid increase in weight of locomotives and cars and train loads has led to the use of heavier and stiff er rails in the sense of girders to carry the increased loads, but in many cases without correspondingly wider heads to sustain 228 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RMLWAYS. the increased wheel pressure ratios per square inch of surface contact between rails and wheels. The resulb in some such cases has been that the metal of both tires and rails has been overtaxed, excessive wear and flow taking place, and neither wheels nor rails giving as good service as had been expected. With this in view, Mr. P. H. Dudley designed a set of rail sections whose type is shown by the 100-lb. rail of the New York Central Railway. It will be noticed that the fillets are of large radius, and that the narrowest part of the web is above the centre line. This gives extra resistance to twisting, so that the head will not bend over the web, nor the web over the base. The following is from a state- ment by Mr. Dudley: ''The static pressures under passenger car wheels on rail heads 2i to 2f inches wide, range from 30,000 to 100,000 lbs. per square inch, while those of locomotive driving wheels range from 110,000 to 150,000 lbs. To sustain such wheel pressures without undue flow and wear, requires not only broad heads, but a high grade of metal in the rails. Comparisons of tire records on the New York Central Railway before and after the use of the Dudley 80-lb. rail (5^ inches high, 5 inches width of base, 211 inches width of head and h inch corners of head) show that w^ith an increase of 40 per cent, in weight per driving wheel the mileage per \q inch of wear per tire is about the same for the heavier locomotives on the 80-lb. rails, as formerly for the lighter loco- motives on the 65-lb. rails. The former carried STANDAllDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 229 17,600 lbs. per wheel, and averaged 19,300 miles per -h inch wear of tire. The latter carried 13,- 360 lbs. per wheel, and averaged 19,400 miles per A inch wear. Since the general use of this 80-lb. rail, the locomotives rarely go to the shop to have the driving wheel tires turned unless other repairs are needed, the wear of the tires no longer determining when the engines must go to the shop, as was the case when running on the 65-lb. rails. The mileage before re-turning the tires is from 150,000 to 185,000 miles. These facts show the value of the broad heads in in- creasing the life of tires as well as of rails. '' Mr. Sandberg, the European rail expert, favors wide heads, with large corners, and his type of section is represented by the 72-lb. rail of the Canadian Pacilic Railway. In 1894 he changed his sections somewhat in detail, his modified 100-lb. rail being 5f inches high, %\ inches wide, with a head 3 inches wide, having i-inch top corners. He increased the width of the head, but retained the round form with large corners and a top radius of 6 inches. He admits that sharper corners may be used with the American type of rolling stock, having the short, rigid wheel base of the trucks instead of the long, rigid wheel base of European cars with fixed axles, but it may be doubted whether this distinction is of much im- portance. The width of rail base was increased, so as to avoid the use of tie plates, for while he advocates their use, he has found it difficult to get trhem introduced by European railways. The rail section has suffered in consequence, and even 230 BUILDING AND REPjURING RAILWAYS. with oak ties (and almost certainly with softer ties) the rails will still cut under heavy traffic and wheel loads. One reason for the disfavor with which tie-plates are regarded in Europe is probably the size and weight and cost, and the difficulty of securing flat plates firmly to the tie, so as not to cause rattling. It may be mentioned that some of the so-called Sandberg 'Goliath' rails are modified from the original to a section for which Mr. Sandberg disclaims responsibility. " Double-Head Rails, In Europe the double- headed rail, carried in cast-iron chairs, was early designed, having two symmetrical heads, so that the rail could be reversed and both ends be util- ized for w^ear. Some of the sections were of hour-glass section, with two pear-shaped heads. The indentation of the lower head by the chairs, however, made the turned rails very rough rid- ing, and the rails were also found liable to break, so that as early as 1858 the bull-head section was introduced, having the lower head only large enough to give a seat in the chair and a hold for the wooden key or wedge which secures the rail in the chair. Some years ago about ten miles of 80-lb. iron double-headed rails were laid on the Boston & Worcester Railway (now part of the Boston & Albany Railway), but after ten years' service the track was relaid with T-rails. The bull-head rail is now the standard in England, and is also used somewhat extensively in Euro- pean countries, India, etc. The Pennsylvania Railway has some of the 90-lb. bull-head rails of the London & Northwestern Railway, laid for ex- STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 231 perimental purposes, some on steel ties, and others in cast-iron chairs on wooden ties, but this track has not been able to stand the heavy traffic on this road. One of the great objections to these rails is that they require two heavy cast- iron chairs (weighing 26 to 56 pounds each) on every tie, merely to hold the rail up. These chairs involve much really useless material, and the wear of the rails in the chairs limits their life, being even more than the wear at the joints. Many of these rails have rounded heads, but in some of the modern heavy sections the head has vertical sides and sharper top corners. Many countries now recognize the disadvant- ages of the bull-head rail, and are adopting a more economical, but equally efficient track of T-rails on metal tie plates. In England, how- ever, the erroneous idea very generally prevails that a T-rail track is in itself unsafe, and this has even led to the introduction of double-head rails for colonial railways, involving much un- necessary expenditure, which would have been better applied to the construction of a greater mileage of a more suitable type of track. The English track, as built, is very strong and sub- stantial, but very expensive, and an equally good track can be made and maintained at less ex- pense with heavy T-rails. Mr. Freund, of the Eastern Railway of France, has made investiga- tions from which he concluded that theory and experiment show that a T-rail secured to oak ties by screw spikes is as safe from lateral dis- placement as a bull-head rail in chairs or a T- i>32 BUILDING AND REPAIIUNG RAILWAYS. rail with tie plates on pine ties. He further con- cluded that the T-rail comes nearer to giving its proper service than the bull-head rail, because the life of the latter is limited by the wear of the surfaces in contact wath the chairs, and not by the wear of the running surface. In most Euro- pean countries, except England, T-rails are exten- sively used, but they are very generally of poor design and very much too light for the traffic, and the consequent poor results in service are among the reasons for the disfavor with which the T-rail section is regarded for main tracks in Europe. European engineers are not, as a rule, well informed as to modern American track, or the successful results of service of good rails under severe conditions of fast, heavy and con- tinual traffic. In some cases a narrow-based T- rail has been adopted, carried in cast-iron chairs, very similar to those for double-headed rails, and secured by large wooden keys, which make an objectionable fastening." In Appendix J the sections of rails used by several American and foreign roads are given; these sections differ from that adopted by the American Society of Engineers, some very mate- rially. Some fifty American roads, most of them western, have adopted the standard section recom- mended by the American Society of Engineers. The tendency is toward heavier rails. In speaking of this, and the road-bed on which they are used, Mr. Tratman remarks: ''In regard to the growing increase in the use of heavy rails, it may be pointed out that while it is most desira- STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 233 ble to have rails of ample weight for the traffic, the rail is only one part of the track, and that improvements in ballast, ties, fastenings, joints, etc., are of equal importance in the construction and maintenance of a first-class track. The lay- ing of rails should also be very carefully and thoroughly done, though this is a point that is frequently neglected to a greater or less extent. For instance, new rails carelessly laid on old ties may be given a wavy surface, or permanent set, due to careless handling or to uneven bearing surfaces, which cannot afterwards be remedied and w^ill materially reduce the beneficial results intended to be obtained by the new rails. With an ordinarily good track, on which light rails are replaced by heavier rails, the work of mainten- ance and renewals should be very much reduced, owing to the increased weight and stiffness of the rails, which reduces the deflections, so that the joints can be kept in better condition. The number of ties should not be reduced for heavier rails, as the rail should not be independently considered as a bridge or girder resting upon piers. A fairly large number of ties and fasten- ings greatly facilitates the maintenance and ad- justment of surface, line and gauge to ensure an easy riding track, more so than when the supports and fastenings are 33 to 36 inches apart, as with English track.'' There have been some trials of rails longer than 30 feet, which is the standard length. Some roads are experimenting with 60 foot rails and others with 4 5 -foot rails. At this date the experience is not considered favorable to 234 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS their adoption, as the expense of handling them proves to be greater per ton or foot than for the 30 foot lengths, beside which they become bent more easily. The street railway companies have made con- tinuous rails by electric welding, and some ex- periments in this line have been made by steam railroads. Mr. Tratman describes one as follows: " Continuous rails, with the ends welded together in the track, are being tried on street railways, and some experiments have been made on steam railways with rails laid without expansion spacing and spliced by riveted angle bars. In June, 1889, Mr. T. T. Gleaves laid on the Durham Di- vision of the Norfolk & Western Railway^ three miles of the continuous * self-surf acing ' track patented in 1886 by Mr. P. Noon an, a section foreman. The rails were 56-lbs. per yard, laid on ordinary ties completely buried in the earth, and the spike heads were left |-inch clear above the rail base, so that the wave motion or undulation of the rails would not affect the spikes or ties. As this motion was in advance of the wheels, there Avas no battering of the ties, and the mo- tion of a train was said to have been as smooth and easy as on heavy rails in stone ballast. The joints were secured by splice bars with |-inch rivets, making the rails continuous and without any allowance for expansion. At each end of the three-mile section were switch points to allow for the expansion of long stretches of rail, and at frogs and switches at stations of course the rails could move longitudinally. The track ^ STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 235 was turfed over, and three-inch terra cotta drain tiles were inserted to carry the water out beyond the track. After being laid, the track was not lined or surfaced for eighteen months, the only maintenance expense being for a watchman, al- though engines weighing 104,000 lbs. were fre- quently run over it at a speed of fifty miles per hour. The ties were found to decay more quickly by being buried in the earth and becom- ing water-logged, as might have been expected, and the track got somewhat out of surface, owing mainly to the fact that it was not laid on a com- pact roadbed, but in wet clay cuts and on banks that settled in sags. During the same period of eighteen months, there were expended $1,890 in labor for keeping the adjoining three-mile sec- tions in fair condition. With such a track on good ballast some interesting results might be expected." The Illinois Steel Company's standard specifi- cations for steel rails adopted January 1st, 1897, are as follows: Section 1. The section of the rail throughout its entire length shall conform to the American Society of Civil Engineers Stand- ard ( ) pounds per yard. The fit of the fishing or male templet shall be perfectly main- tained. When the rolls are new the section of the rail may be one sixty -fourth (g^ of an inch low. As the rolling proceeds, a variation not exceeding one-thirty-second (3^2) ^^ ^^^ inch in ex- cess of height over templet may be permitted in a delivery of ten thousand (10,000) tons of rails, after which the rolls must be reduced to standard height of such sections. The standard of measure to be Brown & Sharp United States Standard Steel Vernier Caliper Rule. WEIGHTS. Sec. 2. The weight of the rail shall be kept as near to ( ) pounds per yard as is practical after complying with Section No. 1. The rails shall be accepted and settled for according to actual weights. 14 Vol. 13 l36 building and REPAIRING RAILWAYS^ LENGTHS. Sec. 3. The staudard length of rail shall be thirty (30) feet, at a temperature of seventy (70) degrees Fahrenheit. Shorter rails having length of twenty-nine (29) to twenty-two (22) feet, inclusive, shall be accepted to the extent of ten (10) per cent, of the entire order. A variation in length of one-fourth (i) inch over or under the specified length will be allowed. CAMBERING AND STRAIGHTENING. Sec. 4. Care to be taken in cambering the rails so as to reduce the amonnt of work in the straightening press to a minimum. The rails must be straight in all directions as to both surface and line, without twists or kinks. FINISH. Sec. 5. The rails must be smooth on the head and base, and free from all mechanical defects and flaws, and must be saw^ed square at the ends; the burrs made by the saws must be carefully chipped and filed off, particularly under the head and on the top of the flange, to insure proper lit of the angle bars. DRILLING. Sec. 6. The drilling for the bolts to be in strict conformity with the blue print attached, or the dimensions given. Holes imperfectly drilled to be filed to proper dimensions. All holes must be accurate in every respect. BRANDING. Sec. 7. The section number, name of maker, year and month, to be rolled on the side of the web. The number of the heat to be stamped in the side of the web. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Sec. 8. The chemical composition of standard rails under seventy (70) pounds ])er yard to be as follows: Carbon 37 to .45 Phosphorous not to exceed 10 Sulphur not to exceed 05 Silicon.. 07 to .15 Manganese 70 to 1.10 'I'he chemical composition of rails seventy (70) pounds and over per yard to be as follows: Carbon 45 to .55 Phosphorous not to exceed 10 Sulphur not to exceed 05 Silicon 10 to .20 Manganese 80 to 1.00 STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 237 TEST INGOTS. Sec. 9. From each heat one test ingot shall be cast 2ix2ix8 inches long. This to be drawn down at one heat by hammer- ing to a test piece three-eighths (|) inches square by eighteen (18) to twenty (20) inches long. The same when cold to be required to bend to a right angle without breaking. This bar must be bent by blows from a hammer. CUTTING TO BLOOMS. Sec. 10. After cutting off or allowing for the sand on the top end of the ingot, at least twelve (12) inches more of seemingly solid steel shall be cut off that end of the bloom. If after cutting such length the steel does not look solid, the cutting shall be con- tinued until it does. INSPECTION. Sec. 11. The inspector representing the purchaser shall have free entry to the works of the manufacturer at all times while his contract is being filled and shall have all reasonable facilities afforded to satisfy him that the rails are being made in accord- ance with these specifications. The manufacturer shall furnish daily the carbon determina- tions of each heat and a complete chemical analysis of at least one heat of each day and night turn in which each element is to be determined. NO. 2 RAILS. Sec. 12. The requirements for No. 2 rails shall be the same as for No. 1, except that they will be accepted with a flaw in the head not exceeding one-fourth {\) inch, and a flaw in the flange not exceeding one-half (i) inch in depth. No. 2 rails to the extent of five per cent. (5^) of the entire order will be received. The aim of manufacturers of rails is to produce hardness to resist wear and toughness to resist fracture. Carbon gives the metal hardness, and each individual designer has his particular opinion as to the exact amount of carbon to use to pro- cure the best result. The heavier the rail the larger the per cent, of carbon which must be used. Silicon makes the steel fluid and dense, this producing solid ingots and reducing crystalli- zation. Sulphur tends to make the metal seamy and phosphorous makes it brittle. Manganese is 23S BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. used for chemical purposes. Not only the opin- ion of the designer, but the chemical constituents and their proportions in the ores used together with the Aveight of rail to be produced, affect the proportions of the chemical constituents of the rail. The economical question in the specifica- tions of steel rails has been stated very clearly by Mr. Ashbel Welch, Chairman of the Rail Commit- tee of the American Society of Engineers as fol- lows: '' An unwise saving of a dollar to the manu- facturer, or a little unfaithfulness in the work- man, will probably reduce the value of the rails ten or twenty dollars. Ten or fifteen per cent, added to the ordinary work on rails would double their value. An expert rail maker knows this very well, but he cannot put the $10 extra work on a ton in order that it may be worth $60 more to the purchaser, who will not allow him any part of the $10 out of the $60 he makes. The railway agent who purchases may also know all this, but he cannot follow his own judgment, for he knows his directors will say he paid $10 more than the market price. It is thus that the inter- ests of stockholders are sacrificed." The life of steel rails cannot be determined by the number of years they have been in use; those on one road may have had, during a given period, two or three times the number of trains passing over them than those in another road had. The tonnage which has passed over the rail is a bet- ter means of comparing the relative value of the rail and its life. Mr. A. M. Wellington states on this subject: ''The life of first-class 60 to 80- STANDARDS OF CONSTBUCTION. 239 pound steel rails was given by Wellington in his ' Economical Theory of Railway Location ' (1887) as about 150,000,000 to 200,000,000 tons. There are from 10 to 15 lbs. of metal, or f-inch to f-inch depth of head available for wear, and abra- sion takes place at the rate of about 1 lb. per 10,000,000 tons, or r\-inch per 14,000,000 to 15,000,000 tons of traffic. The rate of wear is increased about 75 per cent, by the use of sandbj the locomotives. The failure of modern rails, as a rule, is due more to deformation of section at and near the joints than to abrasion proper, and this deformation and crushing are largely due to the heavily loaded driving wheels, the wear from which is estimated at 50 to 75 per cent, of the total. Heavy freight engines may have three or four driving axle loads of 30,000 to 38,000 lbs. on a wheel base of 12 to 15 feet. The area of contact between the driving wheels and rails is an oval about 1 x f inch, or with worn tires or worn rails IxH inches, with an area of 1.07 square inch. The maintenance of rails ought not to exceed i cent or 1 cent per train mile, but it is very generally as much as 3 cents, owing partly to work on side tracks. About half the metal in the rail head is available for wear, but the full depth of wear is not obtainable in main track, as the rails would then be too rough for service; about i-inch is the limit of wear in main track, the rails being then removed to branch or side tracks." In Appendix J the following tables relating to rails and fastenings are given: 'J40 BUILDING AND BEPAIHING EAILWAYS, Table No. 1 ; Tons per mile and feet of track per ton, of rails of different weight per yard. Table No. 2; Number of splice bars and bolts for one mile of single track. Table No. 3; Number of fastenings required to a ton of rails of different weight per yard. Table No. 4; Pounds and kegs of railroad spikes required for one mile of track, given for different sized spikes and rails of differ- ent weight. Table No. 5; Gives the weight per 1,000 for standard track bolts of various sizes, and for bolts with square and hexagon nuts. Table No. 6; Gives the average number of track bolts of various sizes in a keg of 200 pounds. Table No. 7; The amount of expansion of steel rails and the size of the shim for each change of ten degrees of temperature from 30 to 130 Fahrenheit. Appendix J also gives the practice of the. Northern Pacific Railway, in allowing for expan- sion; here the rule specifies that the thermome- ter must be read in the shade, which would make the allowance for expansion greater than if the reading was taken in the sun and is a safer practice. SPIKES. There have been numerous methods tried to fasten the rail to the cross-tie. Screws of differ- ent patterns and other devices have been tried, but the general practice is to use the ordinary railroad spike shown in Fig. 102, cut A. This is STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 241 not, however, an altogether satisfactory spike, but when the first cost and cost of maintenance are taken into consideration, it is considered more satisfactory than anything yet produced. Fig. 102, cut C, show^s the way the fibre of the wood is damaged by driving an ordinary railroad spike into a cross-tie. The Goldie spike, Fig. 102, cut B, illustrates a spike designed to accomplish all that the ordinary railway spike does and yet not damage the fibre of the wood to so great an ex- tent. CutA. Cute. CutB. Fig. 102. The holding power of the spike depends on the nature of the tie, the conditions under which the LM2 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. spike is driven, and the length of time it has been in the track. The force exerted by the rail when a train passes over it tends to lift the spike oat of the wood; this takes place on a tangent, and is in- dependent of any lateral pressure produced by the swaying motion of the train. The holding power of newly driven spikes has been found by experiments to vary from 1,500 pounds to 7,000 pounds, the latter being one of those cases, prob- ably, where the conditions were more favorable than exist in actual practice. In a good oak or pine tie the resistance of a newly driven spike for a 75-lb. rail would probably be about 3,500 pounds. RAIL JOINTS AND FASTENINGS. The best method of fastening the rails together is a controversy not yet settled. There are a number of different methods in use. With the constantly increasing weight of engines the method of connecting the rails becomes a vital question. The fish plate is used only where the traffic is light and heavy locomotives have not yet been introduced. The angle bar (Fig. 103) is a decided improvement on the fish plate, and is used by roads having a moderately heavy traffic; it gives lateral stiffness to the joint and a greater bearing surface on the tie. The continuous rail joint (Fig. 104) gives a greater bearing on the tie and a support to the base of the rail in addition to the advantS^ges of the angle bar; this form of joint STANDABDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 243 16 Fig. 103. Angle Bars used on a 75-lb. rail of American Society of Civil Engineers' Standard. Fig. 104. CONTINUOUS RAIL JOINT. 244 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING BAILWAYS, is used on a number of roads some of which have the heaviest engines and greatest number of trains in this country. Figures 105, 106, and 107 represent the Weber rail joint, the Truss rail joint and the Common Sense rail joint, all de- Section Fig. 105. WEBER RAIL JOINT. Side View. Fig. 106. TRUSS RAIL JOINT. Section. Side View. Fig. 107. "COMMON SENSE" RAIL JOINT. Sl\iNDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 245 B\ 1- o si^i : o flj " u. 1£ I UJ CL cn tn it 246 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, signed to accomplish the same object as the con- tinuous rail joint. They are used by roads having heavy traffic. Fig. lOS gives a view of a joint adopted by the Chicago & Northwestern Railway Company to secure the advantages claimed for the continuous rail joint without having to dis- card the angle bars; the objectionable feature with this fastening is that the upward wave mo- tion has no greater resistance at the joint than with the angle bar alone; the plate assists in preventing the joint becoming low and adds lateral stiffness when the spikes are well driven. There are two functions to be performed by rail joints. One is to resist the rapid blows from the wheels of the engines and cars of fast pas- senger trains, and the other the slower blows from freight trains. The weight on the driving wheels of the new passenger locomotives of the high speed type is less than the new style of locomo- tives for freight. The latest style of freight loco- motives for the Illinois Central Railway, for in- stance, will have a weight on each driver of 24,000 pounds, while the new high speed pas- senger locomotives for the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern Railway will have a weight on each driver of 22,000 pounds. A 60,000 pound capa- city car fully loaded will have from 11,000 to 12,000 pounds weight per wheel. In the case of a tonnage train consisting of a twelve wheel engine and one hundred loaded cars (as on the Illinois Central Railway) passing over a rail joint, there will be four blows of 24,000 pounds made by the engine and 260 blows of from 11,000 to 12,000 STANDABDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 247 pounds made by the wheels of the freight cars. When this is considered the importance of a good rail joint becomes apparent. The length of rail joints varies from 48 inches with six bolts to 24 inches with four bolts. The spacing of the ties under the rail joints is not uniform; some roads place the joint between the ties, others place a tie directly under the joint; theoretically the former will permit the rail to respond to the w^ave action more fully than the latter, and those advocating the first style of spacing the ties claim it makes an easier riding track on account of the wave motion of the rail not being so greatly interfered with. The ques- tion of even* and brokenf rail joints appears from the practice to tend to a decision in favor of even joints on tangents and broken joints on curves. Track bolts are made to a standard size; some roads, however, have their own design. In Ap- pendix J, Table No. 5 gives the weight per 1,000 bolts with square and hexagon nuts. Table No. 6 gives the sizes used for rails of different weight, and the number in a keg of 200 pounds. Fig. 109 illustrates the styles of track bolts used. The constant vibration at rail joints when trains are passing over them, causes the nuts to turn and the bolts to become loose; this prevents * When both rails in a track are laid so that the joints are directly opposite each other, the track is said to be laid with "even" joints. t When the joint in one rail is laid opposite the center of the other rail, the track is said to be laid with * 'broken'' joints. -48 BUILDINO AND llEPAIEING RAILWAYS. Length — Square Nut. .Hexagonal Nut. Fig. 109. TRACK BOLTS. the joint fastening from doing the work for which it was designed. To overcome this, vari- ous styles of nut-locks have been used; in a gen- eral way they can be placed in four classes: First — The use of washers partially made of rubber or papier mache. Second — Metal washers with a spring action which are designed to keep the nut pressed tight against the threads of the screw on the bolt. (Fig. 110 represents the ''Verona" nut-lock, which is of this type.) @i@ Fig. 110. STYLES OF "VERONA" NUT LOCKS. STANDAEDS OF CONSTBUCTION. 249 Third — An elastic nut designed to clasp the bolt and hold this nut in position by the increased fric- tion between the threads on the nut and bolt. (Fig. Ill represents the ''National/' which is of this class. ) Fourth — A nut with an elongated base forming a spring to keep the nut pressed tight against the threads on the bolt. (Fig. 112 represents the Fig. 111. Elastic Self-locking Steel Nut ('•National") Fig. 112. JOINT SPRING NUT LOCK. joint spring nut of this class.) Loose nuts not only mean loose and low joints, but wear on the angle bars and rails and broken joint bolts, and hence are to be obviated. RAIL BRACES. To keep the track to gauge, rail braces are used on curves, and, if soft wood ties are used, 250 BUILDING AND EEPAluING RAILWAYS. they can be used to advantage on tangents. They should always be used for the guard rails and lead rails of turnouts or switches. They should be well designed for their work, or the outer edge of the rail will cut into the tie, as shown by Fig. 113. Two designs of forged steel braces for rails are shown in Fig. 114. The tie Fig. 113. Shows how a rail-brace will fail to support the rail where it cuts into the tie, or the rail Drace is not properly designed. Fig. 114. FORGED STEEL RAIL BRACES. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 251 plate when used reduces to some extent the ne- cessity for rail braces by giving a hard surface into which the edge of the base of the rail will not cut when a lateral strain is exerted by the train; it also assists in holding the track to gauge by bringing the resistance of the spikes on both sides of the rail to oppose a lateral movement of the rail. SWITCHES. In the selection of switches there are three styles to choose from, the stub switch, the split switch and switches of special design or patents, varying from the first two. The stub switch consists of two movable rails connected by rods to hold them to gauge and cause both rails to be moved parallel when thrown by the lever; the ends of these rails rest on a head block or chair. The main line rails and the rails leading to the side track are held firmly by the head block or chair, Fig. 115 represents this style of switch. The split switch is known as the old English Point Switch, which has been in use in Fig. 115. STUB SWITCH. Showing head blocks and ground throw for moving switch xdAis, 15 Vol. 13 252 BUILDING AND EEPAIRINO RAILWAYS, England since 1830 and is now coming into gen- eral use in the United States. The Lorenz Switch and the Clarke- Jeffrey Switch are split switches. Fig. 116 illustrates this style. The Fig. 116. SPLIT SWITCH. With Pony Switch Stand.— Suitable for yards. third class of switches is designed for special purposes; are protected by patents and they mostly aim to give a continuous rail for the main line. MacPherson's Improved Safety Switch and Frog is devised to lift the train over the rail of the main line without the use of a frog* when being switched on to a siding. This switch is in use on some of the great railroad systems. The Wharton Switch is designed to leave the main line rails unbroken at the switch stand, but a STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 253 frog is used where the inside rail of the side track crosses the main line rail. It has been in use for a number of years and is well known. The Duggan Switch is designed to accomplish the same purpose as the Wharton Switch, by having the switch rail work in a vertical instead of a horizontal plane. The principal objection to the stub switch is that the pounding of the ends of the rails at the head block by the passing wheels causes the rails to bind at the head block when the expansion becomes great, and thus brings about the derail- ment of trains. Their use should be confined to side tracks, but they are not to be recommended for use even there. Frogs can be placed in three general classes: rigid, spring rail and swing rail. The manufact- urers of frogs and switches make about four styles of rigid frogs. Fig. 120 illustrates a filled Fig. 120. RIGID FILLED FROG. frog. These frogs are made in two styles; in one of them the metal between the rails is in two pieces, and the other two pieces where they come together at the point of the frog are welded to- gether, thus making a stiffer frog and giving more support to the point. Fig. 121 represents a chuck filled frog which is lighter than the filled 254 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. SECTION CD S€CTI0NAB Fig. 121. RIGID CHUCK FILLED FROG. frog and suitable for yards or a road with light traffic. Fig. 122 rej)resents a clamped frog, the ver«0« imowti simr ciuip snuoM immsH imio etim Fig. 122, RIGID STEEL CLAMP FROG. clamps being made of steel. This is sometimes called a yoked frog. Fig. 123 represents a frog riveted to a plate I to f inches thick, the rivets being countersunk on the under side of the plate to give a flat bearing on the ties. In addition to the styles of rigid frogs mentioned, some roads have styles of their own, differing somewhat in detail, and the various makers also differ in the details of manufacture and style. Eigid frogs STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 255 SECTION A-B. Fig. 123. SElCTlDN C-D. RIGID PLATE RIVETED FROG. should not be used in main track of roads doing a large business; they may, however, be used on branches and in yards to advantage to reduce the expense of construction. Spring rail frogs have been called into use to prevent the pounding at the frog and secure a smooth riding main track; the spring rail frog is considered to have overcome the weak point in the track caused by a frog of the rigid type. Fig. SECTION AB » SECTIOUGB Fig. 124. SPRING RAIL FROG WITH ANCHOR BLOCK. 124 represents one style of a spring rail frog, the block at A B is so combined with the track rails 256 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. and rails in the frog that it forms a frame to prevent the loose spring rail from creeping; the spring rail is channeled to prevent worn w^heels from striking it. Fig 125 represe^its the ''Eureka" Fig. 125. "EUREKA" SPRING RAIL FROG. Spring Rail Frog. All four ends are spliced sol- idly together as in a rigid frog. The hinge rail is attached to the main rail by a bolt hinge (see section I J); this allows the rail to move freely and prevents its creeping; it iy attached to the movable part of the running rail by strong, bolts passing through both rails and a wrought iron filling (see section E F). This makes this mov- able part strong throughout. Manufacturers have a number of other styles of spring rail frogs, and some roads have patterns of their own. Spring rail frogs and movable points are being used in place of frogs to secure a smooth riding track. Fig. 126 represents a movable point cross- ing, which is used in place of a frog by connect- STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION', 257 Fig. 126. MOVABLE POINT CROSSING. ing the levers at the movable point with the switch stand. The Coughlin switch rail frog is designed to leave the main line track unbroken at the frog, there being no guard rail or frog required for the main line. The principle of this spring rail frog is in use on the Lehigh Valley Railway and Western Maryland Railway. It can be used with the split switch or Wharton points. The spring rail frog used with the McPherson improved safety switch accomplishes the same object that the Coughlin switch rail frog does, except that a guard rail is required on the main line track. On account of the varying angles at which roads cross each other, crossing frogs have to be especially made in each instance. They are made of steel rails cut to length and shape, and fitted 258 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, Fig. 129.. CROSSING FROGS. ANGLES 60° TO 90'. and strongly bolted together. Fig. 129 represents one type of crossing frog; the rails butt against each other and are solid filled throughout, and Fig. 130. CROSSING FROGS. ANGLES 45° TO 60^ STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 259 securely clamped with angle bars having six bolts through them; the corners are supported by heavy bottom plates. In Fig. 130 the crossing differs from the preceding one, in that the rails at the obtuse angles are solid instead of being butts. Fig. 131. CROSSING FROGS WITH EXTRA HEAVY ANGLE IRONS. Fig. 131 represents a crossing where the angle irons are very heavy and have eight bolts; bot- tom plates extend the length of the crossing or can be put under the corners only as desired. Fig. 132 is the same crossing shown in Fig. 129, only modified for a street railroad. By making the flangeway on the street railroad as narrow as possible, the life of the crossing is increased. Fig. 133 represents another style of crossing for a steam and street railroad, this is known as a jump crossing, the rail of the steam railroad not 260 BUILDING AND RE PAIRING RAILWAYS, Fig. 132. CROSSING FROGS FOR STEAiM AND STREET RAILROADS. being grooved for the flanges of the wheels of the street cars. 99UNNINC ffifi sr/fcerpr p * g -3 Running bail unois turbcd Fig. 133. JUMP CROSSING FROGS FOR STEAM AND STREET RAILROADS. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 261 Switch stands are so arranged that they throw the switch and display a signal at one opera- tion; the signal is arranged to indicate a clear track on the main line or show the train crew that the switch is open to enter the siding. With all split and safety switches where the train can trail through and open the switch, an automatic or safety switch stand should be used to prevent either the points of the switch or the switch rod being damaged. Figs. 134 and 135 illustrate a Fig. 134. *RAMAPO" SAFETY SWITCH STAND, AS IT APPEARS WHEN HAD?^ THROWN BY HAND. 2G2 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING RAILWAYS. s>AV\VC^^&^^.'^X Fig. 135. ••RAMAPO" SAFETY SWITCH STAND AS IT APPEARS WHEN HALF THROWN BY WHEELS PASSING THROUGH THE SWITCH. safety switch made by the Ramapo Iron Works. This firm have recently added an adjustable crank to their safety switch stand; it assures the switch stand of being able always to fit the throw of the BTANDABDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 263 switch, and to take up any lost motion that may accumulate from wear and avoid the necessity oi adjustable head rods, or of shimming out the rod to keep the gauge. There is an endless variety of switch stands, and the types only will be given here. Fig. 136 represents a switch stand for a Fig. 136. THREE-THROW SWITCH STAND. three-throw switch which can be used on the main line or in a yard where there is room for a high switch stand. In a large yard it is better to use low switch stands, as high ones are liable to 264 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Fig. 137. AUTOMATIC PARALLEL GROUND-THROW SWITCH STAND. Fig. 138. Fig. 139. LOW PONY SWITCH STAND. LOW PONY SWITCH STAND WITH SAFETY BOTTOM CAP. STANDAMDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 265 prevent the signals on other switch stands from being seen. Figs. 137 to 140 illustrate such stands. p^^^^^sSt^ ^A^ 'n:i.ii|i TJinigl^ Fia. 140. GROUND-THROW SWITCH STAND WITH WEIGHTED LEVER. Some of the various designs for signals or targets on switch stands are given in Fig. 141, and Fig. 142 illustrates a method of elevating the signal or target at a dangerous point. Fig. 141. DESIGNS FOR TARGETS OH SIGNALS TO BE USED ON SWITCiH STANDS. Fig. 142. TARGET TRIPOD FOR SWITCH STANDS. (266) STANDABDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 267 Fig. 143. *»HALEY'* SEMI-STEEL BUMPING POST. 16 VoM3 268 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. BUMPING POSTS. There are several designs of bumping posts, the latest are of metal. Fig. 143 illustrates the Haley post which is made of semi-steel, and the spring is made of coil spring steel. The impact is received on a plunger and the blow taken up by two double coil springs, thus reducing the shock on rolling stock to a minimum. The anchorage under the rails shown in the cut can in some cases be omitted. The Haskell bumping post is made of steel rails and cast steel. The main or base rails form support for diverging braces, and it can be securely anchored. The Ellis bumping post. Fig. 145, is a wooden one, Fig. 145. "ELLIS'' BUMPING POST. which has been in use for about ten years on a number of roads. BRIDGES. The selection of bridges must be largely left to specialists and each stream crossed will have to be considered separately; one stream must be crossed with the grade line high above flood water; here a deck bridge can be used with ad- vantage, thus reducing the cost of piers. (See Figs. 149, 151 and 155.) At another crossing STANDAEDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 269 Fig. 146. THROUGH PLATE GIRDER BRIDGE. Fig. 147. PERSPECTIVE VIEW OP THROUGH PL.ATE GIRDER BRIDGE. Fig. 148. THROUGH PRATT TRUSS. A B is the lower chord, to which the bridge floor is attached. C D is the upper chord. A C and B D are the end posts. C E F G and all such verticals are called intermediate posts or verticals and are known as vertical members. C F E G and all such diagonals are called tie-braces or tension braces when the strain is a tension or pull and a tiestrut or strut-tie when the strain is a compressive one or a push— in either case they are known as oblique members. 270 BUILDING AND REPAIRINO RAILWAYS. the grade line is so low that a through bridge can only be used. (See Figs. 148 and 150.) Again the nature of the stream may prevent false work from being used in the erection of all or part of a bridge and resort will have to be made to a cantilever style. (See Fig. 165») The stream may be navigable and the channels change at different stages of the river, necessitating a high bridge or two or more draw spans. (See Fig. 160.) The width of the stream and the amount of shipping using the stream may be such that a biscular bridge must be resorted to. (See Fig. 163.) Some of the points which must be considered in designing a bridge are: The relation between the length and the height of the truss, so that the metal will be economically used in the chords and braces. The width of the pannel must be so proportioned, that unnecessary expense will not be incurred for connections for the floor system and lateral bracing; no rule can, how- ever, be laid down for this; it is necessary for the designer to study each peculiar case. The lateral diagonal and portal bracing require care- ful attention, also the floor system. The decision as to whether the bridge is to be pin connected or riveted connections depends on conditions; more rapid erection can be accomplished with pin connections; at busy terminal points or near yards where a number of trains pass over bridges and there is danger of derailment, a lattice riv- eted bridge can be used to advantage; with this style one of the members may be disabled with- STANDABDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 271 Fig. 149. DECK PRATT TRUSS. A B is the lower chord. C D is the upper chord to which the bridge floor is attached. A C and B D are the end posts. E F, G H, etc., are vertical members. C P, E H, F G, etc , are oblique members. In the Pratt Truss the aim is to place the oblique members at an angle of 45° that being the most economical an^le; but sometimes the height of the truss E F is greater than the length of the panel P H and this feature has to be waived to secure economy in other directions. Fig. 150. THROUGH WARREN TRUSS. A B is the lower chord, to which the bridge floor is attached C D is the upper chord. A C and B D are the end posts. C E, E P, F G, etc., are oblique members. The Warren truss has no vertical members. The principle of this truss is a combination of equilateral triangles which geometrical figure is the stiffest form of framing; however, there are cases when the length of the panels A E, E G, etc., and the height of truss or vertical distance between the top and bottom chords are such that another form of triangle has to be adopted; in such cases the designer tries to make the angle E A C and A E C as near 45° as possible. Fig. 151. DECK WARREN TRUSS. A B is the lower chord. C D is the upper chord to which the bridge floor is attached A C and B D are the end posts. A E, E F, F G, G H, etc., are the oblique members. out stopping traffic over the bridges. (See Figs. 154 and 155.) The forms of truss used in modern practice are as follows: Plate girder is used for short spans; under special conditions it can be used for spans 75 to 100 feet long, however, it is used mostly for spans of 50 feet or less. Figs. 146 and 147 illustrate a plate girder bridge. For longer span than can be economically built with a plate girder, a Pratt or a Warren truss of simple type would be used (See Figs. 148 to 151.) These trusses may be used up to 150 feet span, as the span increases modifications of these trusses are made to afford points for supporting the floor system as shown by Figs. 152 to 157. When the span becomes what is styled a long span, reaching say over 300 or 400 feet, further modifications are found to give economical con- struction; these modifications are shown by Figs. 158 to 160. The 525 foot span erected at Hen- derson, Kentucky, in 1885 was a truss similar to that illustrated by Fig. 158. The following bridges were built with a truss similar to that represented by Figs. 158 and 159. Havre de Grace, Maryland, in 1886, span 515 feet. Ceredo, W. Virginia, Kentucky, '' 1893, '' 521 '^ Covington, '* 1888, ^' 550 ** The truss used for the bridge at Memphis, Tenn., erected in 1892, was similar to that shown by Fig. 160. The channel span was a cantilever having a span of 791 feet and the two spans west of the channel were each 621 feet. The cantilever, arch and bowstring bridges are merely modifications of the trusses described* STANDAEDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 273 Fig. 152. WHIPPLE TRUSS OR DOUBIiE INTERSECTION PRATT. The height required for the clearance of a train is about 18 ft. above the rail, and in the preceding trusses (Figs. 148 to 151) the panels are made to ap- proach as near as possible to this distance. As the length of the span Is in- creased, the height of the truss must be increased, and to place the oblique members at or near an angle of 45° in a Pratt truss or 60° in a Warren truss, the length of the panel must be increased. Modifications must now be made of the simple trusses to afford intermediate points to support the floor system. The Whipple truss is a modification of the Pratt truss made for this purpose; A B C D represents a panel of a Prait Truss; an extra vertical E P and extra obliques D E and E G are added to afford support to the point E to support the floor system. MODIFIED FORM OP WARREN TRUSS. As the length of the Warren truss is increased and the height of the truss also Increased, making the points A and B of the triangle ABC too far apart to support the floor system, a vertical C D is added to support the floor at the point D. Fia. 154. SINGLE LATTICE GIRDER— MODIFIED FORM OP WARREN TRUSS. This is another method of accon^plishing what is illustrated by Pig. 153, and in addition stiffens the upper chord; this is two Warren trusses A B C D P G H and A' B' C D' F' G' H' placed together; the latter one affords points B' D' G' for supporting the floor system and points C and F' for supporting or stiffening the upper chord. 274 BUILDING AND BEPAIBING BAILWATS. the cantilever is merely two spans placed with say their centers on piers, the shore ends anchored and the space between the two spans over the stream or canyon bridged by a truss bridge; the cantilever may be a deck or through bridge; Fig. 165 illustrates a cantilever bridge. The arch bridge is merely a truss with the lower chord built in the form of an arch. The bow- string bridge generally has the top chord in the form of an arch, though sometimes the lower chord is in the form of an inverted arch; Fig. 159 illustrates a bowstring bridge. The draw bridge illustrated by Fig. 161 represents the usual style with a center pier and a channel on each side of the center pier. Where a pier is not allowed to be built in the channel, bob-tailed draw bridges having the short span weighted are sometimes used, see Fig. 162. There has recently been in- troduced another style of draw bridge especially suitable to be used in a narrow channel, known as the Scherzer rolling lift bridge; the advantages over the old styles are as follows: (a) No center piers obstructing the channel. (&) No dock space wasted, (c) When opened it completely closes the roadway and prevents a train from running into the draw. It can be designed as an arch or cantilever. Fig. 163 illustrates this. There are two general methods of determining the strains or loads the various members of a bridge are subjected to; one is by platting the loads or strains and is called ''Graphical" statics or ''Graphical Method.'' The other method is a 8TA2^BARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 275 tr- ^ , c- e" 0" t> r \ /\ /\ /\ /\ ^\ /v .:/ \^/ \^ \/ N/ \^ *"\ /\ /K /^\ /\ /\ .."^^ \/ \x X/ \/ \/ \/\ S-.. e' fl* C" c o" Q- ^■ Fig. 155. DOUBLE LATTICE GIRDER— MODIFIED FORM OF WARREN TRUSS Where tlie length of the truss becomes too great to use the form shown by Fig. 154, this form can be used to support the intermediate points B" B' C" on the lower chord and C" C D'" on the upper chord, ABODE F G being the simple Warren truss with three others — A' B' C D', etc. A" B" C" D", etc, A'" B"' C" D'", etc., added. Fig. 156. DECK BALTIMORE TRUSS— MODIFIED FORM OF PRATT TRUSS. This Is Fig. 148 inverted to make a longer span for a deck bridge than Fig. 149 is suited for; the floor system is supported by the addition of oblique members A B and A' B' and vertical members A C D E, etc. Fig. 157. THROUGH BALTIMORE TRUSS— MODIFiSD FORM OF PRATT TRUSS. This is another method of accomplishing what is done by the Whipple truss. (Fig. 152.) The panels as A B CD have but one oblique D B, to this is added the oblique C E and the vertical E F to support the floor system at F L>76 BUILDING AND RE PAIRING RAILWAYS. mathematical one, based on the laws of me- chanics.* The various members of a bridge must be so designed and connected that the strains will be in the direction of their axis; all strains tending to buckle or shear the members must be avoided in making the design, and in the erection care must be taken that all members are placed as designed, no shortening or lengthening to be allowed, as this would tend to throw a greater strain on some members than they were designed to bear. The manufacture of steel has reached such a high standard that the bridge designer knows definitely what. duty it will perform, and bridge designing has become as near an exact science as can be expected of anything produced by human agency. The expansion and contrac- tion of the bridge is allowed for by an arrange- ment of rollers on which one end of the bridge rests. t The piers to support the bridges can be masonry or iron cylinders filled with concrete, the selection of the style to adopt depending on local conditions. Wooden truss bridges are now seldom used on new lines. Pile bridges and frame trestles are now used to cheapen the cost where there is much filling required; they are, however, used as temporary structures especially on lines which do much business; they are replaced as the re- *Tlu? details of these two methods are treated a ery fully by A. J. DuBois and Merriman and other authors, see Appendix K. fThe expansion of rails on draw bridges is discussed under the .subjict of track. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 277 Fig. 158. LONG SPAN BALTIMORE TRUSS — MODIFICATION OF WARREN TRUSS. , This is a method in a long span of supporting the floor at three inter- mediate points in a panel as is done by the double lattice girder Fig. 155, ABCDEFGHIis the simple Warren truss, oblique members J K L M, etc., and vertical members C M, N L, O D, F J, E K, etc., are added to support the floor system at N O P, etc, and to stiffen the upper chord at M K, etc. Fig. 159. LONG SPAN BALTIMORE TRUSS— ALSO KNOWN AS THE ARCHED TRUSS, THE BOWSTRING TRUSS AND THE CAMELBACK TRUSS. As shown by panel D D' and E E' this is modifled form of a Pratt Truss; AB, B C, C D, D E. E F, etc., D' E', E' F'. etc., are the oblique members of the Pratt trussiB B', C C, D D', E E', F F', are the vertical members of the Pratt truss. To support the floor system at G H I, etc., the oblique members LB. MC',N C, and the vertical members LG, MH,NI, O J, P K, are added. The pressure exerted by the top chord is carried to the abutment at A by the members already alluded to, and the segment of a circle or arch'made by the members A B, B C, and C D, of the top chord which act as an arch. This form of truss ;s suitable for long spans and is econom- ical in the use of metal. 1178 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. sources of the company permit by earth em- bankments, or in the case of heavy fills, by steel viaducts and arched culverts with earth embank- ments. Fig. 166 illustrates a pile trestle, while Fig. 167 illustrates a framed one; in each of the illustrations short stringers reaching from the center of one bent to the center of the adjoining bent are used; where long stringers reaching from the center of one bent to the center of the second bent are used and are laid with broken joints, a stiff er structure is secured, and the labor in erecting is less than with short stringers; the short stringers have the advantage of costing less and require less labor to replace them when it becomes necessary to make renewals. The stringers are fastened to the caps in Fig. 166 by both passing through a corbel which is drift bolted to the cap. Another method is shown in Fig. 167; here the stringers rest directly on the cap and blocks are placed between them, the stringers are bolted to the blocks and the blocks are drift bolted to the cap. The longitudinal bracing shown in Fig. 167 is dimension timber instead of planking, similar to that used for sway braces as shown in the end elevation; this is a departure made by the Chi- cago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad on one of its new lines. This method makes a stiff bracing and is economical in the use of timber. A stone arched culvert, well designed and the masonry properly laid, is a '* permanent structure'^ in the fullest sense of the term, and this fact is more generally appreciated by the Eastern trunk lines STANDilRDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 279 Fig. 160. ANOTHER MODIFICATION OF THE WARREN TRUSS FOR LONG SPANS. This is type of the truss used for the bridge across the Mississippi River at Memphis, Tenn. The lower chord is 75 feet above high water. The span is 621 feet. This is a modification of the lattice girder, Fig. 154: to adapt it to long span bridges, the vertical members, E F, E' F', etc. are added to support the floor system at F F', etc., and to stiffen the upper chord at E E'. etc; the horizon- tal brace H G is added to stiffen the end post A A'. With this truss and the arched truss, Fig. 159, the floor system has to be made stronger than for the others, illustrated, as the distances apart of the points of support are greater. Fig. 161. DUL.UTH-SUPERIOR BRIDGE. This draw bridge is made of two trusses connected with a tower on the draw or center pier by tie or tension braces. Four track bridge (two sten.m railroad and two electric tracks) consist- ing of center draw span, 485 feet, and two side spans, 300 feet each. Total weight. 3, 230 tons. Draw span operated by electrical power. Note— The essential point is to show the draw span. 2S0 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. than by the Western ones. . The arched culvert can be built with one or more spans, and all streams except the larger on^s can be crossed ^ith them. Fig. 168 illustrates an arched culvert. The proper thickness to give the arch will depend on the span S, the rise R, and the amount of fill A. The proper thickness B of the side walls depends en the pressure on the arch. Taking a given depth of fill as the length of the arch is decreasea the amount of masonry in the wing walls is in- creased. It is the engineer's duty to determine the length which is the most economical, anc* this cannot be tabulated except for cases where the ground is level transversely with the line of the road. Cast iron pipe laid through an embankment can be used to convey a fair sized stream, or the drainage of considerable area of country. These pipes are used from one foot to three feet in diameter, and several lines of pipe can be laid together when necessary to secure the proper capacity. They are generally made in twelve- foot lengths, but some roads have the larger sizes made in six-foot lengths. Fig. 169 illus- trates a cast-iron pipe culvert and Fig. 170 illus- trates one with wing walls at the inlet and outlet. Drainage is secured through low embankments by open culverts. In such cases the track can be supported by wooden stringers or steel I beams, Fig. 171 illustrates an open culvert. STANDAMDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 281 Fig. 162. BOB-TAILED DRAW BRIDGE— MODIFIED FORM OF WARREN TRUSS, SHORT SPAN COUNTER-WEIGHTED. This draw bridge also consists of two trusses similar to Fig. 153, but in this case the end posts are connected to the tower and form a part of the tower. ^89e?are5Brr?^ IjSJHiiiegy, Fig. 163. SCHERZER ROLLING LIFT BRIDGE. Fig. 165. CANTILEVER BRIDGE. 282 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. \ M' "^r- ':..'> '-ii„^.»i;^ Y/^^\y'''^>^^'^''yyyy ^y^^^^^>^y>yy^yy'^y>^^J^,>^^^J>?y>^J>^^^^^^^ >iu- Fig. 166. PILE TRESTLE BRIDGE. Fig. 167. FRAMED TRESTLE tiTANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 283 m M ^B HfiLf Pi.A/>t SlcriON Thhoucm C2? ^eCTiorv Throuom £ f Fig. 168. STONE ARCHED CULVERT. ^y>/?y//ym/}> * Fig. 169. CAST IRO I PIPE CULVERT WITHOUT WiNG WALLS. 1/ Vol. 13 J84 BUILD I NO AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. -t — 1 r_ ^^'''''^^^■ !^' '^ ''^ -'^'''!^^''^^^^ ^ ' ^^^ y_^^^^^^^l^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^^^'^^^::^\^\^\\^^^ s^\^ vvp^^ ^ ^^/y>?^/^^/W//'y> Fig. 170. CAST IRON PIPE CULVERT WITH WING WALLS. PLAfsf Fig. 171. OPEN CULVERT. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 2S5 WATER SUPPLIES. The importance of the water supply has been discussed in a previous chapter, the selection of pumps, storage tanks and accessories will here be considered. Windmills, probably, are used more as a source of power to pump water for railroads than all other appliances in the United States; the other sources of power are steam and gas. Wheels as large as 30 feet in diameter are used on windmills; their stroke is from 2 to 24 inches and the plungers of the pumps are from 2 to 10 inches in diameter. Where larger supplies of water are required than a windmill can be relied upon to give, a steam and gas or gasoline pump can be used. The gas or gasoline pump has only been recently introduced for this purpose. A steam pump for deep non-flowing artesian wells is illustrated by Fig. 172. When pumping from a well, pond or stream by a steam pump, the pumping plant re- quired is shown by Fig. 173. Fig. 174 represents one of the makes of gasoline engines and pumps designed for railroad water supply. A design •for a pump house and machinery is shown in Fig. 175; this shows a gasoline engine belted to a pump. To supply locomotives with water large amounts are required at intervals more or less frequent depending on the number of trains. To obtain an economical plant, provision must be made for storing the water as it is pumped and running the pumping plant steadily; this per- 2Sr, BUILDING AND ME PAIRING RAILWAYS, Fig. 172. PUMP FOR A DEEP WELL. STANDABDS OF COMSTBUCTION, mits of a small pumping plant being used, and on a branch or where but few trains are run one man can attend to pumping water for several water stations. The water tanks generally used are 16 feet high and 24 feet in diameter and con- tain 50,000 gallons. They should be placed high enough above the rail to give the water sufficient force to fill the tender rapidly and not unneces- sarily delay trains; some roads are placing the bottom of the tank twenty feet above the rail. The tanks are made of wood and are supported on wooden or iron posts. Fig. 176 illustrates Fig. 173. COMMON FORM OF SETTING UP A PUMPING PLANT FOR A WATER STATION. JS8 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, Fig. 174. COMBINED GASOLINE ENGINE AND PUMP. one supported by wooden posts. Some, however, are supported by wrought iron columns and the advisability of using steel in place of wood for constructing railroad water tanks is being dis- cussed. A submerged water station consists of a cylin- der submerged in a well, the cylinder contains a movable piston; the top of the cylinder is con- nected with a pipe which leads up to a post where it can be coupled to the boiler of a loco- motive; when steam is turned on the piston is depressed and water is forced out of the cylinder through a jiipe leading to a stand pipe. Mr. E. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 289 H. McHenry, Chief Engineer of the ISIorthern Pacific Railway, is the inventor and it is in use on the Northern Pacific and Duluth, Missabe & N^orthern Railways. Where the water supply is procured from an elevated point and is piped to the track or from a city water- works, a stand pipe or v^ater column is used; where the road is a double track one water column can be placed between the tracks; » i±J ■Iff " - .0 : .7) -^ ; ; ' -.y.-:... y... J ts>< 4'; "Wrfg-t f/a/if S/eyaf/ot JL-.t 6\/s Ccfrt/s. /"u/TJfi (^OI7 Fig. 175. ; 36 •30 1* Fig. 180. TRACK TANK. A— Cross section of roadbed. B— Cross section of tank. C— Partial longltu dinaJ section of tank. *Table No. 8, Appendix J, gives the capacity of single acting md duplev pumps and the fittings required. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 293 is to prevent their freezing and two methods have been adopted to overcome this: one is to inject live steam at points along the line of the tank about 40 feet distant from each other. The other method is to tap the tank at the center and connect it with a suction pipe of a pump and pump the water out of the center of the tank, pass it through a heater and return it at each end of the tank; the latter method gives the best results. Track tanks are in use on a number of roads. (See Fig. 1 80 which gives details. ) COALING. The method adopted for storing and handling coal is important; a badly arranged coal station may require an unnecessary amount of labor in handling the coal which in the course of a few years would equal the cost of the plant. There are three general methods in use. The one used the most consists of a shed about 20 feet wide having the main line on one side and a side track for coal cars on the other. The side next to the siding is boarded up as high as the sides of the gondolas or coal cars. The length of the shed depends on the amount of coal required to be stored. At the center of the shed a platform is erected having a hand crane on it and space for the storage of coal buckets, which are made of iron and contain one-half ton of coal each. A narrow gauge track is laid along one side of the shed^ if the shed is much wider than 20 feet the track should be laid in the center. The coal buckets are placed on cars to move them to and 294 BUILDING AJSfD REPAIRING RAILWAYS. from the crane to the coal pile; as fast as they are loaded they are placed on the platform, which is the same height above the rail as the top of the tender. Fig 181 shows a plan of such a coal- CENTEH OF SlOE TRACK /''■^rS-'^L-:''' o ^ 8' - ->; ; Fig. 181. PLAN OF A COALING STATION WHERE BUCKETS ARE USED. ing station, which is arranged to save handling part of the coal by shoveling it direct from the car into the buckets which are placed on a car on the track D, the buckets being hoisted through the opening E on to the platform C. The track A is used for the car when the buckets are loaded from the coal stored in the shed, Another style used more extensively on lines having a large traffic is an elevated coal shed with pockets con- taining enough coal to coal up a tender; these stations can be arranged to unload the cars by dumping from the side or bottom. However they are generally arranged for the cars to be unloaded by hand as a large amount of the coal STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 295 is handled by cars having no arrangement for dumping. These stations can be placed between the two main line tracks of a double track road; the coal cars are pushed up an incline track on a grade of 5 or 6 per cent, to the coal shed which is on trestles or the side of a cut. Fig. 182 re- BA3£' Of" T}fli> Fia. 182. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF A CLINTON COALING STATION. presents a section of such a coaling station. Where the traffic becomes so heavy that four or more tracks are required, the coal for locomotives is placed in the tender of the locomotive from a bridge spanning the tracks. The storage shed is elevated on a trestle or the side of a cut, a track laid in the coal shed passes over a turn-table where a track from the shed leads to the bridge over the main line tracks. Scales are placed at 296 BUILDING AND REP AIMING RAILWAYS, a point where all coal taken from the shed can be weighed. The coal is loaded into cars of a style which can be easily dumped; under the rails on the bridge there is a hopper terminating in a spout to which a movable section is attached. The operation of loading a tender is as follows: The cars are kept loaded and are pushed from the coal shed out on the track leading to the bridge, when a train pulls up with the tender under a hopper the movable spout is let down, the coal cars are run to the hopper and the coal dumped and the empty car pushed forward, leav- ing room for a second car to discharge its load into the hopper. In this way the necessary number of cars to load the tender are rapidly unloaded, the movable spout is raised and the train proceeds. Where the men are trained for the work the oper- ation is very rapid. The empty cars are run back into the coal shed, being switched around those which were not unloaded. The skill of the engineer is displayed in adapt- ing the various plans to the conditions of the business and the topography of the country — - aiming always to reduce the cost of labor and de- tention of trains to a minimum. TURNTABLES. With the increased weight and length of en- gines, the styles of turntables in use a few years ago are not able to do the work required of them at present. Attention is now being given to im- proving the bearings at the center to secure a distribution of the weight of engine and turn- STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 297 table, so that the table can be quickly and easily turned. Turntables are now made from thirty to seventy feet in length, and of both wrought and cast iron. The two styles are illustrated by Figs. 183 and 184. Turntable centers are illus- trated by Figs. 184, 185 and 186. Fig. 183. CAST IRON TURNTABLE. (Made by William Sellers «& Co., PhiladelpMa, Pa.) 298 BUILDING AND liEPAIHING RAILWAYS. STANDARD 60 rr. TURNTABLE NO. 2 TMC KMO WUMC CO. . Fig. 184. WROUGHT IRON TURNTABLE. (Made by the King Iron Bridge Co.) Fig. 185. A TURNTABLE CENTER USED BY WILLIAM SELLERS & CO STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 299 Fig. 186. SPECIAL. SIXTEEN ROLLER CENTER FOR TURNTABLES. (Made by C. L. Strobel.) BUILDINGS. In regard to the character of the buildings to be erected, the uncertainty of the development of the country must be borne in mind. Another point to 18 Vol. 13 300 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING RAILWAYS, be considered is the effect produced by improve- ments made in the arrangement of the interiors, decoration, methods of lighting, heating and ven- tilation,improvements in plumbing and sewerage; in private dwellings the improvements along these lines have been such that a period of about ten years makes a residence, once modern and de- sirable, old-fashioned and undesirable unless re- modeled. It is altogether probable this improve- ment of design, etc., will continue at a more rapid rate in the future than in the past. While railroad structures are probably not affected so much by this improvement as dwellings, yet on account of competition it must be considered. For this reason it is not the greatest economy to erect buildings of a character to last for a long period. It is also difficult to design a building for the present, and provide for extensions to be built when business increases; the increased busi- ness often takes place along unexpected lines and is of a character which could not be anticipated. The growth of the country and the expansion of business, while increasing the receipts of a rail- road, also greatly increase the expenditure made to provide facilities to handle the business. These reasons tend to make careful railway managers use buildings which the public are protesting against and which they are not satisfied with. For the larger buildings such as terminal depots, general offices, depots both passenger and freight at large cities or manufacturing centers, hotels and even offices and shops at division head- quarters, it is impossible to lay down any general STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 301 C4 o o o o o o M > I— I ►:; w EH Eh O O 302 BUILDIXG AND HEPAIItTNG RAILWAYS. plan to be adopted, as the conditions are so dif- ferent. Fig. 187 is a plan of a frame depot suitable for a new line in a sparsely settled country. Living rooms are provided for the agent and his family; a passing track but no house track is provided for. Fig. 188. • SMALT. FRAME DEPOT. Fig. 188 is a plan of a frame depot suitable to be used where business is light or moderate and where the agent's family can secure a house away from the depot to live in. Fig. 189 is a plan of a frame depot for a station doing a fair business. A house track is provided for, which can also be used as a team track for carload freight. All of these depots when built in a northern climate should be set on a stone foundation or some other provision made to keep the floors warm. The floor of the warehouse should be of two-inch plank and the waiting rooms, offices and living rooms double floored, the top one being of STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 303 K»A»-> *■ o Eh P H tS3 m 00 Q O % g Q 304 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, hard maple. The doors in the warehouse should be sliding, six feet wide and seven feet high; the other outside doors should be three feet wide and seven feet high. The inside doors can be two feet six inches wide and seven feet high. No windows should be placed in the ware- house, they afford opportunity for petty thieves to ascertain whether fruits, etc., are on hand and tempt them to pilfer. A transom should be placed over the end door. The waiting ^ I I I. o o G^A/ I -X- I I CO 00 I I U LfiDIEt Coal OIL I I- b. 1 I I V I N _^^_ <- - - s' Fig. 190. OUTBUILDINGS FOK SMALL DEPOTS. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 305 room and office windows are often made of twelve lights, each eight by sixteen inches, which give a good light for clerks to work in; one feat- ure about windows in a room where clerks are employed is to have them well up above the floor, as the light is required on the books and papers the clerks are working on and not on the floor. Coal and oil should never be kept in a depot. Fig. 190 illustrates out buildmgs for small de- pots. In these provision is made for storage of coal and oil and for filling lamps. When the business becomes so large that the freight and passenger business cannot be accommo- dated in one station building, a passenger station should be erected. Fig. 191 illustrates a brick one which has been found convenient. One roof covers all the buildings and extends six and one- half feet beyond the outside walls all around, thus affording shelter and leaving the platform unobstructed by posts or columns. The building can be heated by steam or hot water from a boiler in the baggage room. Where the ticket sales are large the ticket sfeller should have but one ticket window to attend. Where there is a roof over the platform there should always be a window placed in the office above the platform roof to give light for the clerks to work during cloudy weather or when a train is standing in front of the depot; the importance of this can only be real- ized by those who have to work in such offices where there is no window above the platform roof. The present practice is tending toward placing station platforms on a level with the top of the 306 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. \o" --f o w o o M o STANDABBS OF CONSTRUCTION, 307 rail and making them of vitrified brick; however, very good results have been secured with small limestone screenings; they pack hard and wear well and can be cheaply repaired. Fig. 192 illustrates a stock pen used by a acAi,e Houat RE CEiV I NC> s ELS. ' Fig. 192. PLAN OP STOCK YARD. Note— Where stock pens are built on an extensive scale (as at points where large shipments are made), the alleyway should be 12 feet wide, so that teams can be driven through with loads of hay, and the feed be distributed in the receiving or feeding pens. country stock buyer ; provision is made for re- ceiving pens, feeding pens with sheds and load- ing pens ; the addition of the second runway B enables two cars to be loaded at one time. This plan can be varied to suit the volume of business; where range cattle are to be shipped it will be necessary to add a fence C. D. to enable the herders to get the cattle into the pens. 'K)S BUILDING AND EEP AIMING RAILWAYS. IP V ^'-^. / P STANDABDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 309 Fig. 193 is a plan of a roundhouse and small repair shops. The roundhouse is heated by indi- rect radiation from a coil of steam pipes placed in the blower room; the air is driven by a blower through the coils of steam pipes and conveyed to the roundhouse in overhead sheet iron pipes and discharged in the pits under the locomotives. Provision is made by a wrought iron pipe placed overhead and steam hose couplings to take the live steam from a locomotive which has just come in and convey it to one that is about to go out. The hydraulic pit for removing drivers is really a part of the machine shop. In the blower room are placed air compressors for handling the sand and operating the ash lift. Fire hydrants H are placed in each stall. <0 o o 4 J /6' i <^--/2'-6" "csl Center of Side TRacK Fig. 194. PLAN OP BRICK STOREHOUSE FOR SUPPLIES. 310 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, A brick storehouse is illustrated by Fig. 194. The oil room is paved with stone flagging, and no wood work is in the room except the window frames; some roads provide for the storage of oils in tanks set in the ground, the oil being pumped out as required. C^/V7-£r/? OP" GlOe TRBCK _ V STOR€ ' ROOM rOR^ h 3/9/siO I ^ • I I I on Sfl/>^. &\ Z/A<' 2/' ->' Fig. 195. PLAN OF STOREHOUSE FOR SAND. A sand house is illustrated by Fig. 195. The dried sand is placed in a hopper A, and carried by a current of air (which only takes up the fine sand) to an elevated tank; from this tank the sand box on the locomotive is filled by gravity in the same way that water is supplied to a tender. ASH PITS. To reduce the expense in loading ashes at roundhouses, air hoist ash pits have been intro- duced. Fig. 196 illustrates the method of using compressed air for this purpose. The bucket F STANDAEDS OF CONSTBUCTION. 311 li^m^wm' Fig. 196. ELEVATIOM OF A BENT OP AN AIR HOIST ASH PIT. is placed under the locomotive when the ashes are drawn; it is then pushed down the inclined track G to the position shown in Fig. 196, and is attached to the piston rod B which works in the^ cylinder A; the attendant then turns a valve at E, and the compressed air causes the piston and 312 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. piston rod B to rise in the cylinder A, thus lifting the bucket F and the attached truck level with the top of the car; another valve at E is then opened and the compressed air is admitted into the cyl- inder C drawing in the piston rod D, and bring- ing the cylinder A and bucket F over the car. The bucket is then dumped and the ashes dis- charged into the car. The attendant then re- verses the air in cylinder C, and the cylinder A and bucket F are brought back to the original position; by reversing the air in cylinder A the bucket F is lowered on to track G and can then be run under the track supported by the cast iron yokes H where it is in position to be filled again. A number of these bents can be placed together, and the operation can be carried on continuously. By this method one man can do the work heretofore requiring a gang of men, their number depending on the number of loco- motives handled. Where the ashes are handled without an air hoist, the track is lowered, so that the journals of the car wheels are on a level with the bottom of the ash pit to afford easy shoveling. PAVEMENT OF TEAM TRACKS IN FREIGHT YARDS. The paving to be used at team tracks in freight yards is quite an item of expense. The cheapest pavement is broken stone, having the large size in the bottom and the small size on top, covering the latter with a layer of screenings or fine gravel; no rolling is required, the traffic can make the road. The greater part of the cost of street improvements in cities is caused by the STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 313 impatience of the public to have a perfect sur- face to the macadam at once; the same condi- tions can be secured later by allowing the traffic to do the work performed by the steam roller. Brick pavement is cheaper than granite, and where the soil is thoroughly compacted and is sandy no concrete base is required, two courses of brick on sand will answer; under other con- ditions six inches of concrete and one course of brick should be used. Where good hard burnt bricks cannot be secured and a first-class pave- ment must be laid granite or trap blocks should be used. SIGNALS.*^ The method of signaling to adopt will depend on the amount of traffic and number of trains. A light business can be handled by signals dis- played at telegraph offices indicating clear track or a stop required for train orders; such signals are operated by hand by the operator from the oflBce. Fig. 198 represents a style of this kind. Where there are a number of fast trains some automatic system should be resorted to; in this case the power to operate the signals is obtained from electric batteries and the circuits are opened and closed by the passing trains. Fig. 199 illus- trates the signal used — a white disc indicates the track is clear to the next signal or block, a red one indicates the train has not yet reached the next signal or block. Fig. 200 shows the lever * The subject of signal! ag is fully treated in the volume, " Train Service." 314 BUILDING AND HEP AIRING RAILWAYS. 1 Fig. 198. Fig. 199. TRAIN SIGNAL OPERATED BY STATION AGENT. AUTOMATIC ELECTRIC SIGNAL. operated by the engine to open and close the electric circuit. Another method used to ac- complish the same purpose is illustrated by Fig. 201. By this method the operator displays a danger signal after the train has passed his tower and leaves it at danger until he is notified by the operator at the next tower that the train has passed, when he changes it for clear track. The first method costs more to install but is safer and less expensive to operate. Both meth- ods are called the Block System. At crossings^ STAJS^DABDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 315 Fig. 200. Fig. 201. LEVER OPERATED BY ENGINE TO OPEN AND CLOSE ELECTRIC CIRCUIT. BLOCK SIGNAL OPERATED BY TELEGRAPH OPERATOR. yards and terminal points interlocking plants are used, the principle applied here being an ar- rangement by which the switches are thrown by levers placed in a tower and are operated by hand; the mechanism is so arranged that switches, where any two or more opened at the same time might lead to a collision or derail a train, are locked so only one can be opened, and to open a second one of the set the first must be closed. The signals for clear track or 19 Vol. 13 31G BUILDING AND BEPAIRING RAILWAYS. danger are operated at the same time the switch is thrown. Fig. 141 illustrates some of the sig- nals used on switch stands to indicate in the day time clear track or danger; at night lanterns are placed on the switch stands displaying a red light for danger and a green light for clear track; it is not advisable to use a white light for clear track, as the white light in a lantern may be taken for the signal on a switch stand. The dif-* ficulty with a switch light is to get one which Fig. 202. Fig. 203. SWITCH LAMP UPPER DRAUGHT. SWITCH LAMP LOWER DRAUGHT. STANDABD8 OF CONSTRUCTION. 317 will not blow out under all conditions, often a lantern which will not remain lighted on the signal at a telegraph office will give satisfaction on a switch stand. The manufacturers make them with a down draught and an up draught. Figs. 202 and 203 represent these styles. The character of lamps used on a semaphore with the block system is illustrated by Fig. 204; in this Fig. 204. SEMAPHORE SIGNAL. LAMP-UPPER DRAUGHT. case the light displayed by the lantern is white and the colors red and green are produced by colored lenses attached to the semaphore Fig. 201. FENCES. For a number of years the barbed wire fence was the principal one used to enclose the right of 318 BUILmNG AND REPAIRINO RAILWAYS. Fig. 205. BARBED WIRE FENCE. way — Fig. 205 represents this style of fence. The barbed wire fence was followed by the woven wire fence, the McMullen, Lamb and Page being of this class. Fig. 206 represents the Fig. 206. PAGE WOVEN WIRE FENCE. u 1 • ( if \ 9 • 1 I f 1 ' 1 M 1 . i 1 . 1 Hi ^ •', 1 "— 4- \ b \ < ^ \ \ - Fig. 207. JONES* WIRE FENCE. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 319 Page Woven Wire Fence. There is now coming in use for railways a wire fence woven on the field; the Jones and Cyclone being of this type. Figs. 207, 208 and 209 illustrate them. In Fig. 208. FLEXIBLE CLAMP USED IN MAKING JONES' WIRE FENCE. Fig. 209. CYCLONE WIRE FENCE AND THE MACHINE FOR MAKING IT. 320 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING RAILWAYS, place of cedar posts, which have been exclusively used until recently, iron posts are now being in- troduced; the weak point with an iron post is its rusting in the ground. To overcome this The Indestructible Post Co., of Brazil, Ind., are mak- ing terra cotta bases, which are set in the post holes and the inside partially filled with a thin grout of Portland cement; in this grout the iron post is set, thus leaving only that part of the post which can corrode above the ground where it can be inspected and painted. Fig. 210 repre- sents this style of base. ^WF^^. Fig. 210. TERRA COTTA BASE FOR IRON POSTS FOR FENCES AND SIGNS. CATTLE GUARDS. To completely fence in the right of way, a cattle guard is necessary to be placed where the fence line crosses the track at crossings. For- merly cattle guards were mere open pits and the track was carried over them on beams of wood with the edges chamfered. They were found to be expensive to maintain and have been aban- STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 321 American Cattle Guard. Fig. 211. CATTLE GUARD. Fig. 212. CLIMAX STOCK GUARD. Fig. 213. SHEFFIELD CATTLE GUARD. 322 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING RAILWAYS. doned, surface guards being now used almost ex- clusively. Figs. 211, 212 and 213 represent some of the stj^les used. TRACK SCALES. The revenue of a railv^ay is based on the rate per 100 pounds, and it is therefore vital to have the weights correct. Car load freight is weighed on track scales, and as the traffic becomes heavy and the schedule faster, the delay caused by weighing becomes annoying to shippers. To overcome this and permit rapid weighing an at- tachment to the track scales has been made and is known as the Automatic Weighing and Re- cording Attachment. Fig. 214 gives a view^ of one make of track scales. Fig. 214. RAILROAD TRACK SCALES. ARCH BRIDGES AND CONCRETE STEEL CONSTRUCTION. Arch Culverts: The general practice on new lines, is to carry the track over ravines and the smaller streams on pile and trestle bridges. These structures are a constant source of expense and if not kept in proper repair become danger- ous. As the traffic of a line becomes heavy and STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 323 the income of a company increases, it is the general practice to replace these pile and trestle bridges by embankments and arched culverts or stone arch bridges. The actual money economy of the wooden structure as compared with the stone arch culvert is not so great as might be supposed, for the rea- son that although the cost of the pile or trestle bridge is small there is a constant outlay for repairs; while on the other hand the stone arch culvert and earth embankments while costly to construct need but little outlay afterwards for repairs. But even where the cost of each when capital- ized is the same, the stone arch culvert has this advantage, it is usually constructed during times of financial prosperity and when a financial depression comes the management has a struc- ture on which but a nominal sum is required annually to keep it in repair. Figs. 215, 215a and 215b show the various parts of an arch culvert, and the terms used to designate them are as follows: Abutment A, the masonry which rests on the foundation and affords the support for the springer or skewback and the masonry backing to the arch. Springer B, in a semi-circular arch the lowest or first arch stone. Skewback B, in a segmental arch the top of the abutment where it is dressed off on a radial line to receive the first arch stone. Spring Line S, the line formed by the inner lower edge of the springer for a semi-circular (324) (325) 326 BUILDING AND BEPAIEING BAILWAYS. Fig. 215b. PERSPECTIVE VIEW OP A SEMI-CIRCULAR ARCH. arch or the inner top edge of the skewback for a segmental arch. Ring Stone V, the stones dressed to dimension which show on the face of the arch, they are also called voussoirs. Span, the horizontal distance between the spring lines. Rise^ the vertical distance from the spring line to the highest point of the inside of the arch. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 327 Voussoirs V, the ring stone which shows at the end of the arch. Keystone K, the central or top voussoir or ring stone. Crown C, D, the crown of an arch is the highest part of the ring stone. Haunchj the haunch of an arch is that portion between the crown and the spring line. Spandrel. The spandrel is the face wall of the culvert which is above the Ring Stone. Wi7ig Wall, the wall which connects with the spandrel and abutment to support the sloping portions of the embankment. Soffit S, T, S, the inner or concave surface of the arch. Intrados, the curved line formed on the soffit by the intersection of a vertical plane at right angles to the axis of the arch. Exti^ados^ the curved line formed on the outside of an arch by a vertical plane at right angles to the axis of the arch. Arch Sheeting^ the voussoirs which do not show at the end of the arch, being both the crown and haunch. Backing, masonry with horizontal and vertical joints carried over the skewback or springer and haunch of the arch. String Course, a course of ring stone or vous- soirs extending the full length of the arch. Coursing Joint E, is the radial joint of a string course. Heading Joint H, is one in a plane at right angles to the axis of the arch. 328 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. A semi-circular arch is illustrated by Fig. 215 the line of intersection of the inside of the arch and a plane at right angles to the axis of the arch is a semi-circle. A segmental arch is illustrated by Fig. 215a the line of intersection of the inside of the arch and a plane at right angles to the axis of the arch is less than a semi-circle. There are other forms of arches but these two are the principle ones used for railroad bridges; among the other forms are the elliptical, three center, etc. The first step taken in designing a stone arch culvert or bridge is to make a careful topogra- phical map of the stream and its approaches on both sides; the axis of the arch should be at right angles to the alignment of the railroad and such an arch is called a right cylindrical or elliptical arch. Should a survey show that a right arch will not be suitable or possible the axis of the arch may be placed at some other than a right angle with the alignm ent of the railroad. An arch so built is called an oblique or askew arch. The following are some of the reasons which compel the use of the oblique or askew arch; a stream hav- ing a rapid fall and large volume of water cross- ing the right of way at an acute angle if checked suddenly by trying to turn it through a right arch is liable to scour out the foundation, unless expensive work is done to protect the foundations for the abutments and wing walls; if the banks of a stream are rock it may be too expensive to make the necessary excavation to put in a right STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 329 arch or the cost of procuring land to enable the channel of a stream to be diverted may be so great that an oblique or askew arch must be used; however it should be the aim of the engineer in all cases to locate the axis of the arch as near as possible to a right angle with the alignment of the railroad. Having decided the direction of the axis of an arch, the next step is to determine the size of the opening, w^hich is fixed by the span, rise of the arch and height of the abutments. Fig. 215c gives some of the various styles used for planning the wing walls. When the style shown at A is used the slope must be protected by rip rap as shown in Figure 168 — styles B, C, and D require less rip rap. Placing the wing walls at an angle of 30 degrees with the axis of the arch (as in styles C and D) is often done. A common prac- tice is to make a return on the abutment as at X style C this is easier to construct than the style shown at D but style D has the advantage over all the others of affording less obstruction to drift passing through the opening; it also con- forms to the laws of the flow of water through openings better than other styles. For smaller openings it is quite common to use the semi-circular arch, but this is not deemed economical construction. A segmental arch with a central angle of 120 degrees for the same span as a semi-circular arch has but 77 per cent the length of intrados compared with the semi-circu- lar arch. Or if the length of intrados is taken as the same in both styles of arch, then the seg- 330 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. ^ ^ 4--- ' 3 < fa >^ n:j STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 331 mental arch with a central angle of 120 degrees has a span 33 percent greater than the semi- circular arch. The segmental arch has a greater thrust on the abutments and theoretically requires heavier ones. Practically bridges of this class have much more masonry in the abutments than the thrust of the arch requires. The result of practical experience appears to be that the support of the embankment requires these heavy abutments. The dimensions for wing walls and spandrel are fixed by the same laws, which govern retain- ing walls — which they practically are. Volumes have been written on the theory of the arch but engineers have not as yet united on any one theory, and from the nature of the masonry in the arch the calculations are considered by some engineers as of doubtful value and are used as aids in deciding on the dimensions for the arch; the safer coarse is to be guided by the dimensions used by engineers in the construction of arches of similar span which time has shown to be safe. The following table gives the dimensions of some stone arch bridges which have been erected a number of years: 332 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. o ^ 00 a o u o»oooiftot^oi>irsoooico t^ ot'-oot^ioaioosaiooii-itootcxrjiciot^ ^ ^ >r o OCOOirH o Tt«0 lOQO r-H a)p-4 '^so'^ ^ ofl ^.^2 fl a CI ^ o -^^ 5- a- W.J:; •*< (X)-* a- m a, w^w ^ ^^ C.2 O tHOCO lO COiO ^ O i-H C a a QOWOOiOQOCOOCOasOt-iOO-^OCOOOp^rHtO«DTfO i-l rH iH i-H CM rH t-t o bo 05.-3 .50 o O) be c tic'CS c8 c8 M "2 --^ C3 fl C3 ^ 'Oh .^ tf :0 I'd I-S raj o« : t- c3-: ^fl c3 bc^ "SH^ -o e8i2 s: t, o ceXJ feCQc/3CQfflO c S § ^ bD.T: W 5h r^^ G^ ,fe, L-- „- _ .. ^ <1? . "U 2pq c o o-S 0) •5'd t-i O) tn ^ ^ eo O -tJ > .1 .^6 -^ d c8 be ^5 STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 338 Concrete : Within recent years the manufact- ure of cement in America has rapidly developed so that its cost has been so reduced that it has become available for extended use in railway construction. Along with this decrease of cost of cement great improvements have been made in machinery for crushing rock and for mixing it with cement, thus producing concrete at a price which allows of its use on an extended scale, and as this material possesses the elements of great strength and practical indestructibility it has become a most important factor in the building and repairing of railways. Concrete is a mixture of stone, sand, cement and water in such proportions that the sand fills the voids in the stone and the cement fills the voids in the sand and forms a coating on the sand and sbone. Sufficient water is used to make a mortar of the cement and to wet the surface of the stone and sand. The stone used in making concrete can be of a quality that could not be used for masonry; for instance a stone which the frost would disinte- grate can safely be used for concrete provided it is hard and possesses the required crushing and tensile strength required in the concrete. Stone of a uniform size, has a larger percent- age of voids, than when mixed sizes are used, the objection to the use of stone of a uniform size is that more sand is required and hence more cement; thus increasing the cost. For this reason some engineers allow the run of the crusher to be used; and only screen out the fine dust from the broken stone. 334 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. A stone which breaks with angular surfaces, as a cube, is preferable to one which crushes with spherical or curved surfaces, the rough angular surface affording a better surface for the adher- ence of the cement than a smooth curved surface. For this reason gravel is not deemed as good for concrete as crushed stone. The surface of the stone must be free from dirt or foreign substance, to enable the cement to adhere to its surface. If gravel is used it should be washed on account of its often being coated more or less with loam. Where the construction is massive, large pieces of stone can be bedded in the concrete, thus not only reducing cost but adding strength especially if these stones are so bedded that their base lies- in one course of con- crete and their top in another course. Sand commonly known as sharp sand, is pre- ferred, for the same reason that rough angular stone is found better than smooth. Bank sand is also open to the same objection as gravel, the particles of sand being more or less coated with loam, so that the cement cannot adhere to the true surface of the sand. For this reason sand should be washed where inspection shows it to contain loam. Loamy sand when moist will soil the hands or a handkerchief, and when slightly moistened and compressed in the form of a sphere and laid on a table will tend to hold its shape, while clear sand will at once fall to pieces. Sand is really rock crushed by nature, and the dust screened from crushed rock is angular and can be used as sand or can be mixed with sand STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 335 and used in making concrete. Some engineers permit the run of the crusher to be used in making concrete, and do not require the fine screenings to be separated from the larger stone; the objection made to this method is that with the sand added and the screenings left in the stone it is difficult to secure the proper propor- tion of fine material to fill the voids in the stone. Cements are of two classes commonly known as "Portland" and "Natural" cement. Portland cement has a higher tensile strength and will sustain a greater compressive force or weight, than the natural cements; it also possesses hydraulic properties and will "set" or harden under water; hence it is often called "hydraulic" cement. Light concrete construction and all outside work in massive concrete construction, should be laid, or made, with Portland cement. In a general way it may be said that the voids in crushed rock which will pass through a 2i inch ring are taken to be 50^ of the volume of the stone, and the voids in sand are found to be from 40^ to 50^ of the volume of the sand. This is the reason that the usual proportions specified for cement, sand and stone are one volume of cement, two volumes of sand and four volumes of stone. The object aimed at in deciding on the proportions are to use an amount of cement slightly in excess of the voids in the sand, result- ing in a mortar rich enough to thoroughly coat with cement each grain of sand and the surface of the rock and fill all voids. Cement used in 336 BUILDINO AND EEPAIRINO RAILWAYS. excess of the amount necessary to accomplish the above result is not only a waste of money but an injury to the work on account of the strains produced in the concrete masonry by the chemical action of the cement in setting. The sand when used in proper proportions will fill the voids in the rock. An ideal concrete is one in which the mass of rock is rammed close together, the voids of this mass of rock being com- pacted with sand and the voids of the sand filled with cement and the entire surface of sand and stone coated with cement. Hence the finer the cement the more thoroughly the surfaces of the stone and sand are coated and the more com- pletely the voids in the sand are filled. Wherever the work to be done will require a large amount of concrete the voids in the stone as actually used, also in the sand, should be determined and the proportion of cement, sand and stone used which will make a solid mass. Cement is furnished packed in barrels, or loose in sacks of a capacity of four sacks to a barrel. The volume of a cement barrel is usually about 3i cubic feet. In making concrete it is not wise to fix the proportions by barrels for the sand and rock are loose or not compacted, while the cement is; if, therefore, one barrel of compacted cement is used to two barrels of loose sand the mortar will contain more cement than is necessary. Good results have been obtained by emptying several barrels of compacted cement on a plat- form and then shoveling the cement back into barrels again, leaving it unpacked the same as the sand and stone; the increase in volume of the STANDARDS OF CONSTRdOTION. 337 cement varies from hO% to 60^. Taking the volume of a compacted barrel of cement as H barrels of loose cement, and the voids in the sand and stone at 50/2 then a correct proportion for a concrete would be as follows : One barrel of compacted cement Three barrels of loose sand Six barrels of loose rock A more exact method of determining the pro- portions is as follows : Thoroughly dry the sand, and weigh one cubic yard, then determine the amount of voids in the sand: and weigh an amount of cement equal in volume to 5^ more than the voids in the sand. We now know the weight of cement required for one cubic yard of sand and need not pay any further attention to the amount of moisture in the sand. Cement is always housed and protected from the weather and by proportioning it by weight a uniform amount is obtained; sand and stone are not usually protected from the weather and their proportions should be determined by measure. The amount of water to be used in making concrete cannot safely be specified. The sand and stone cannot be kept housed from the weather. At one time they are both perfectly dry, again, after a storm, they are saturated with water. The only practical way is to specify the required consistency of the mixture and use the necessary amount of water to secure it. The stone should always be moistened before placing it in the mixture. As a general rule water should be added to the mixture until the concrete 338 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. becomes a quaking mass like liver or jelly; in this condition it can be rammed easily and cheaply and assures a solid mass. Concrete of this con- sistency when rammed will have a layer of soft mortar on top which requires the workmen to wear gum boots but should not be fluid enough so that the workmen are wading in the concrete as in mud. There are certain conditions which require the use of a dry concrete as in the filling of a pneu- matic caisson and repairs to the foundations of piers, abutments and retaining walls. In such work the concrete should be as dry as possible, consistent with the proper setting of the cement, to enable it to be thoroughly compacted. Concrete is now made by machinery. There are two types of machines in use for this purpose, known as the ''Continuous" and ''Batch" mixers. To properly supply the material to a continuous concrete mixer, there should be two platforms arranged so that the material can be proportioned for two separate batches; while the workmen are shoveling into the mixer the material placed on one platform another batch of material is being placed on the second platform. The material should be placed on the platforms in the following manner, first a form, generally rectangular, without a bottom or top the cubic contents of which is equal to the amount of stone for one batch should be filled with the crushed stone and lifted up and passed over to the second platform; on top of the stone should be placed another form of the same length and width as STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 339 the first and of the proper height to hold the required amount of sand ; after filling this form with sand it should be lifted up and passed over to the second platform; on top of the sand a third form, of the same length and width as the first and of the proper height should be placed to hold the required amount of cement ; after this form has been filled with cement it should be lifted and passed to the second platform. Some engi- neers shovel the mixture as above made direct into the mixer and depend on the mixer entirely to thoroughly mix the material: others turn the batch over once or twice with shovels before it is shoveled into the mixer. Gravity mixers (Figs. 215d, 215e and 215f) represent types of '^continuous'' mixers. In the use of this style of mixer the material for the batch must be placed on an elevated platform or hillside as in Fig. 215g. The ''Drake'' mixer (Fig. 215h) can boused as a continuous or batch mixer. The view shows an attachment for feeding and grading the material, thus doing away with the necessity of preparing a properly proportioned batch on a plat- form or in a bin. In Fig. 21 5i the Drake mixer is shown on a car with a conveyor attached to the car, to carry the concrete to the bridge or retaining wall. In the rear of the car on which the cement mixer is placed are the cars contain- ing the stone, sand and cement. The ''Cockburn" mixer (Fig. 215j) is another type of a continuous mixer. Here the mixing is not done by curved disks attached to a shaft, as 340 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. in the Drake mixer. The mixer is a rectangular box, with blades attached to the inside and by the rotary motion of the box on its longitudinal axis the material is repeatedly turned over and conveyed from one end of the mixer to the other. The '^Ransome" continuous mixer, is a cylinder with a spiral riveted to the inside of the cylinder, the cylinder revolves on rollers and the material which is fed at one end of the cylinder is conveyed by the spiral to the other end. Fig. 215k shows Fig. 215d. GRAVITY CONCRETE MIXER, USING BAFFLE PINS ONLY. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION, 341 Funnef ^SUde •' Ba^W /^ Barffie? /^ 4 Discharge Fig. 215e. GRAVITY CONCRETE MIXER, USING BAFFLE PLATES ONLY. Fig. 215f. GRAVITY CONCRETE MIXER, USING BOTH BAFFLE PINS AND PLATES AS MADE BY THE CONTRACTORS' PLANT CO. The attendant who loads the barrows sees the material as it is being mixed and regulates the supply of water. 342 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, a plant with this style of mixer. The manufac- turers also make a batch mixer, which can be used as a continuous mixer by the addition of a hopper, as shown in Fig. 2151; this mixer is a Fig. 215g. THE METHOD OF USING A GRAVITY CONCRETE MIXER. - revolving cylinder. By means of the lever shown in the cut the pan in front can be turned up so as to charge the mixer, and to discharge the contents the pan is turned down as shown in the cut. Fig. 215m shows this mixer in practical use. The ''Cube" mixer, is a batch mixer. In it the axis of revolution passes through two opposite corners of the cube; a revolving motion can be given the cubical box so that it can be charged at one end of the revolving axis and emptied at the other. Fig. 215n illustrates this style of mixer. The "Smith" mixer is a batch mixer and con- STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 343 Fig. 215h. DRAKE CONCRETE MIXER, WITH AUTOMATIC FEEDING AT- TACHMENT. 344 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 345 sists of two cones attached at their bases and caused to revolve on the axis of the cones, as in the cubical mixer a revolving motion can be given the mixer, so that it can be charged at the apex of one cone and the material discharged at Fig. 215j. THE COCKBURN BARROW AND MACHINE CO.'S CONCRETE MIXER. the apex of the other cone. Fig. 215o shows this machine in the position to discharge a mixed batch and receive the material for a new batch. Water is supplied to the mixture in all of these machines by perforated pipes, the supply being controlled by a valve, and in all of them, except the Cockburn mixer the attendant can see the material as it is in the process of being mixed and thus can adjust the amount of water as desired for a wet or dry concrete. Engineers and contractors are still debating the question as to which is the best method, continuous mixing or mixing in batches. 346 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 347 Fig. 2151. RANSOMK'S CONCRETE MIXER. Concrete Steel Construction: Arch bridges are now being built of concrete, reinforcing the con- crete with steel beams. This gives a stronger bridge than a steel bridge or a masonry arch bridge. The concrete holds the steel in true line and pre- vents any tendency to buckle or bend when under a strain. On account of the constantly increasing weight, speed and length of trains, bridges have to sustain not only greater loads but suffer greater shocks and consequent greater vibration than formerly. As the aim of a masonry arch bridge, 348 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 349 Fig. 215n. CUBICAL CONCRETE MIXEH. or the reinforced concrete steel bridge, is to secure a roadbed similiar to that in a cut or on an embankment, the designer of the concrete steel bridge who reduces the dimension of the concrete on account of the additional strength secured from the steel beams, may in a few years find his struc- ture too light for the heavier and longer trains. Some of the causes which have led to the 350 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 351 adoption of concrete and concrete steel construc- tion are (1) the facility with which this kind of construction can be used at places where stone which will stand the weather is difficult to secure or if it can be obtained is expensive. (2) the comparative ease with which material for this style of construction can be obtained and the rapidity with which the work can be done. (3 ) the ability to use less skilled labor to advantage, than where stone cutters and masons are required. The cost of concrete steel construction is less than masonry. In some cases as much as 30/S in cost is claimed to be saved but this will of neces- sity depend on local conditions. At one locality the cost of a stone which will stand the weather may be expensive and at another it could be secured at a moderate figure — again the differ- ence in the cost of cutting and dressing stone secured from different quarries must be consid- ered. For these reasons the percentage of saving in any contemplated work will differ according to local conditions. There are several methods of using metal and concrete, which are protected by patents, the methods can be divided into two general forms. First using the merchant sizes as found in the metal trade. Second specially designed forms to carry out the ideas of inventors. The **Melan" system, where beams and other merchant forms are imbedded in the concrete belongs to the first class, this style is shown in Fig. 215p. The ''Thacher'^ system uses merchant steel or 352 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Fig. 215p. MELAN ARCH BRIDGE, OVER FALLS CREEK, INDIANAPOLIS, IND. iron bars and to increase the adbesion of the concrete, steel rivets are placed in the bars. These two systems are types of the first forms, the following systems are types of the second forms. Corrugated bars, specially rolled with enlarged ribs on the rods to increase the adhesion of the concrete and make the concrete and steel a more uniform mass. This is illustrated in Fig. 215q and the method of incorporating it in the con- crete is shown in Figs. 215t and 215u. Twisted bars are another method adopted to increase the STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 353 Fig. 215q, CORRUGATED STEEL BARS. adhesion between the concrete and metal. These are illustrated in Fig. 215r and the method of incorporating them in the concrete is the same as shown for the Corrugated bars. Thachers patent bars are round steel rods flattened at Fig. 215r. TWISTED STEEL BARS. intervals of equal distance apart as shown in Fig. 215s and they are used in the concrete in the same manner as the corrugated or twisted bars. The adhesion between steel and concrete has been found to be from 500 to 700 pounds per Fig. 215s. THACHER PATENT BARS, 354 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 355 Fig. 215ii. CONCRETE ARCH RODS. square inch, and the object of the various forms of steel bars described is to increase this by mechanical means. The corrugated or twisted bar of steel is not only held in the concrete by the force of the concrete adhering to it but is held by an additional force which amounts to that necessary to crush the concrete if the rod were pulled or driven through the mass after it had set around the rod. The coefficient of expan- sion of concrete has been found to be 0.0000055 and of steel to be 0.0000065 for each change of one degree of temperature by Fahrenheit ther- mometer. Properly reinforced concrete steel, according to a French authority, M. Considine, will sustain an elongation, or tension, of 1 in 1000 without rupture, while plain concrete will fail under an elongation of 1 in 10000. The metal distributes the elongation through the mass, while in plain concrete the elongation takes place at the weak- est point which becomes the point of rupture. In this chapter the discussion is confined to the 356 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. application of reinforced concrete steel to bridge construction. The use of concrete steel is also applicable to retaining walls, floors, grain bins, etc. In an arch the rods are placed as near the in- trados and extrados as can be done and not weaken the mass of concrete or produce cracks; this distance is usually about six inches. The object aimed at is to secure the same result as is obtained from the top and bottom flanges of a plate girder. The rods are placed on a Mne with the intrados and extrados and also parallel with the axis of the arch, this is illustrated in figures 215t and 215u. A concrete steel arch bridge, in which the old structure was utilized, is shown in figures 215t and 215u. The piers of the old bridge are made a part of the new bridge and the method of bind- ing the new concrete work to the old piers by short lengths of corrugated steel rods is shown in Fig. 215t. The corrugated rods for the arch are put in position on the falsework before the con- crete work is commenced and the concrete is made thin and packed around them, care being taken to have the concrete thoroughly rammed and its thorough adhesion to the rods secured. In the actual work of concrete steel bridge construction the amount of concrete laid each day extends from one abutment to another and the arch is completely finished for the distance covered by the days work; on commencing the second days work the surface of the concrete laid the previous day is thoroughly drenched with water to secure a bond with the second days STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 357 Fig. 215v. BIG MUDDY BRIDGE, WEST VIEW. work where the two join in the arch; this is shown in Fig. 215p where the concrete has been laid from the abutment up to the crown of the arch on one side of the span, and concrete is being laid from the pier up the other side of the span to join the concrete already laid. By this method a ring of concrete is laid each day, the width of the ring depending on the size of the bridge and the number of cubic yards that can be laid each day. . To secure a finish on the face of the concrete, no stone is laid in the mortar close to the forms. 858 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. k Fig. 215w. BIG MUDDY BRIDGE. View of transverse spandrel arch adjacent to south abutment, look- ing west. In this view the concrete work of the west half is completed, a portion of the pier between this and the next arch north is built, and the skeleton steel work is all in place and adjusted ready for the construction of the molds. The mortar placed directly against the form varies according to the kind of finish desired; generally the mortar used is one part Portland cement and one part sand. In places w^here it is desirable to have an attractive appearance given the structure, fine crushed stone is added and w^hen the forms are removed the mortar is washed out with brushes giving the structure the appear- ance of solid rock. Other methods of construction are adopted. STANDARDS OF CONSTRUCTION. 359 In Fig. 215v a different principle has been adopted. Here the object aimed at is to secure economy in construction by the use of concrete and at the same time secure the advantages of a stone arch. To attain this no steel rods were used in the arch proper, and the concrete in the arch Avas laid in courses parallel with the axis of the arch, or in other words the concrete was laid in string courses, and each course allowed to set before another course was laid against it. The spandrel and spandrel filling were made of reinforced con- crete steel, the steel used being old rails tied together with iron rods as shown in Fig. 215w. This bridge consists of three 140 feet spans. Fig. 215x is a view of the central span. 360 BUILDING AND BEP AIRING RAILWAYS. CHAPTER VII. CONSTRUCTING TRACK. When the work of the tracklaying force with the track machine, as described in another chap- ter, is finished, the track is far from being com- pleted. The tracklaying force has left only the main line with such sidings as were necessary for handling material and the construction trains. Some of these sidings were temporary and de- signed only to meet the needs of construction operations; such will have to be abolished. An- other and smaller force follows the tracklaying force, its mission being to complete the track (without the tracklaying machine) by laying the required permanent sidings, passing tracks, house tracks, team tracks, private tracks, switches, cross-overs, derailing devices, guardrails, frogs, etc., and, if necessary, widening the gauge and making the necessary elevation of rails at curves, so that the track may be in condition for the operation of trains. Passing tracks should be located as decided, jointly, by the engineering or construction de- partment and the operating department; they should be made somewhat longer than the largest tonnage train, or trains will be delayed in pass- ing. If possible they should be placed at sum- mits or where there is enough length of level or (361) 362 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. light grade for the locomotive to work to advant- age before a heavy grade is reached. It is de- sirable on many accounts that passing tracks should be at stations, but if business does not de- mand a depot and an agent at such points, pro- vision should be made for a telegraph operator to be stationed thereat for the purpose of attending to orders relative to the movement of trains. Water stations should, if possible, be placed at passing tracks, so that through trains will be de- layed as little as possible. It is, however, a diffi- cult problem to secure at one point favorable conditions for a water station, proper grades, the best location for a station, and the proper dis- tance between passing tracks to get the most economical service from locomotives and train crews. House tracks are not essential at small depots where a limited amount of business is done and where carload lots can be handled on a passing track as is sometimes done on branches or on a track to an elevator or warehouse. Where the business warrants a house track, and trains are not frequent, as on branches, the house track can be used as a passing track. When, however, the business at a station becomes large, both house tracks and passing tracks Avill have to be pro- vided. Team tracks are necessary when the volume of business is such that a track or tracks are re- quired exclusively for carload shipments. Transfer platforms are necessary at points where carload lots of merchandise are to be dis- CONSTRUCTING TRACK. 363 tributed into cars for way or local freights; this operation in the conduct of traffic, takes place under the following conditions: (1) At junction points of two railway systems. (2) At junctions between the main line and branches. (3) Some lines at terminal points or large jobbing centers load merchandise into the cars promiscuously for points over say 300 miles distant, and run these cars out by fast freight. This freight and the freight picked up by the local freights is distributed at a certain point into cars for local freight trains running beyond the 300 mile point. Private track or tracks to manufacturing plants, elevators, warehouses, etc., are laid as the business develops, and provision should be made in the original plan of yards and switches for such growth as far as possible. The arrangement of tracks as often used at a small town is shown in Fig. 216. Fig. 217 gives the arrangement of tracks at a junction of two systems where the business is conducted by a joint agent. An arrangement of tracks at a point where a branch connects with the main line is shown by Fig. 218; in this case it is assumed that the locomotives on the main line run through or are not changed at this point. For a point where locomotives are changed on account of the length of run or change of grade, Fig. 219 repre- sents the tracks, buildings, etc., often used. These plans are only intended to present the essential re- quirements; the arrangement of the tracks in actual practice will depend on the topographical 364 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS EB" a 1 fig - ■?_ Fig. 216. PLAN OF TRACKS FOR A SMALL COUNTRY TOWN. A— Main line track. B— Passing track. C~House track. D— Depot. E— Coal and oil house and out buildings. G— Section foreman's tool house. H— Elevator and warehouse. K— Stock pens. L— Water tank. Fig. 217. PLAN OF TRACKS FOR A JUNCTION OF TWO RAILWAY SYSTEMS. A A'— Main line tracks. B B'— Passing tracks. C— Passenger Depot. D— Freight Depot. E— Transfer platform. G— Transfer track. H—House track also team track. 1— Siding connecting main line tracks. conditions or lay of the ground, the character and volume of the business, the local conditions as to whether the point is a manufacturing, mining or agricultural center, etc. The main line should have as few switches in it as possible, and to this end three throw switches are largely used; the cost of yards can be reduced and economy in handling cars secured by the use of three throw and slip switches; however, where CONSTRUCTING TBACK. '\Q5 Fig. 218. PLAN OF TRACKS FOR A JUNCTION OF A BRANCH WITH THE MAIN LINE. A-Main line. B— Branch. C-Passing track. D— House track . E— Transfer track. G Hand 1-Sidings. K-Coal track. M-Depot. O-Trans- fer platform.^, P-Coal shed. Q-Water tank. R. R -Stand Pipes S- Koundhouse. T— Elevator and warehouse. V— Stock pens. L and L'— Section foreman's tool house. <*uu x-. Fig. 219. PLAN OF TRACKS AND BUILDINGS FOR A YARD WHERE LOCO- MOTIVES ARE CHANGED AND WHERE THE GRADES ALTER, THUS CAUSING A CHANGE IN THE TON- NAGE OF TRAINS EACH SIDE OF THE YARD. A— Main line track. B B' B''— Lead tracks. C— Coal shed track. D and B — Coaling tracks for locomotives. E— Ashpit track for cleaning fire boxes of locomotives. G — Track for ashes cars, -x— Track to machine shop, store- house and sand shed. I— Track connecting the lead tracks B and B' so loco- motives can reach the sand shed M, ash pits L and coal shed K without using the turntable. K— Coal shed. L— Ash pit. M— Sand tank. N— Sand shed and sand dryer. O— Machine shop. P— Storehouse. R— Roucdhoust. S— Sorting and storage tracks. T— Water tank. 866 BUILD I KG AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. o CM fe a O o tf . go %% so Ss W« E^ ^^ Sh Pm hh M O ^« ft. Q 2g ^° M n CONSTRUCTING TRACK, 367 there is no interlocking plant and they are oper- ated by a switchman, an error on his part when not observed by the engineer will result in de- railing the engine, if nothing worse. In Fig. 219, :^5^,^5^;§j:^[55?wnt5iG?^ Fig. 221. VIEW OF A THREE THROW SPLIT SWITCH. by adding a third lead track B, and using slip switches, cars can be taken from the center of the storage tracks to the main line or from one storage track to another. Fig. 220 illustrates the construction of a combination slip switch cross- ing. A view of a three throw split switch is given by Fig. 221 and Fig. 222 shows the con- struction at the switch points. In laying out sidetracks and yards, the correct location of the frogs and rails from the headblocks to the frogs and from the frogs to the sidings is a mathematical problem, though it is often done by 368 BUILDING AND REPAIEINQ RAILWAYS. BOTTOM CQNNEC TION SIDE CONNECTION Fig. 222. arrangement op the switch points for a three throw spl.it switch. the section foreman's eye, often to the injury of the rails and rolling stock.* Often in practice the frog angle and switch point of a split switch and the rail thrown and frog angle of a stub switch are taken as part of the curve of the rail from the headblock to the frog. This is not mathematically correct, especi- ally with the angle of the frog. The Elliot Frog & Switch Company have given dimensions in de- tail for laying out switches where the switch point and frog angle are taken as tangent to the curve of the rail from the headblock to the frog; Figs. 223 to 230 are single throw split switches •'^The authors on railway location and problems connected with laying out curves, etc., give the mathematical demonstra- tions of side track work. See Appendix K. CONSTRUCTING TRACK. 369 ^^#:^5c ^ ^33'-J 1IO0LE ORDINATE IN lO FT= 05-^32 ■ 30- =4|t5V FiG. 223. SINGLE THKOW SPLIT SWITCH Xo. 6; RIGID FROG 6 FEET LONG* Fig. 224. SINGLE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 7; RIGID FROG 7 FEET LONG. Fig. 225. SINGLE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 7; RIGID FROG 12 FEET LONG. 20 Vol. 13 370 BUILDING AND BEFAIRINO BAILWAYS. and rigid frogs, while Figs. 231 to 234 are for the same style of switch but with a spring rail frog. Plans with details for the location of the crotch or center frogs and their number for three throw split switches are given in Figs. 235 to 242. A number ten frog is probably more often used in the main line than any other, for the reason that a very good (though not a mathematically correct) switch can be obtained by using two thirty foot rails between the switch point and the frog, and thus avoiding cutting rails. In Appendix J, Table ISTo. 9, is given a list of switch ties for single throw split switches, using frog Nos. 4 to 11 inclusive. Table No. 10, Appendix J, gives a list of switch ties for three throw split switches using frogs, Nos. 6 to 11 inclusive. Stub switches are used to some extent at present on branches and in yards. The names of the parts of a stub switch are given in Fig. 243 and in Appen- dix J, Table No. 11, is given the data to lay out a single and a three throw switch for a standard gauge. Table No. 12, Appendix J, gives the data for laying out a single and three throw switch for a narrow (three foot) gauge. A bill of switch ties for standard gauge single throw stub switches is given in Table No. 13, Appendix J, while Table No. 14 gives a bill of switch ties for a narrow (three foot) gauge, single throw stub switch. The tables and data so far given are for switches in a straight track. Where the main line is curved, special calculations are required for each case, and the solutions of such problems are given in the work previously referred to. CONSTRUCTING TRACK. 371 Fig. 226. SINGLE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 8; RIGID FROG 8 FEET LONG. Fig. 227. SINGLE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 9; RIGID FROG 9 FEET LONG. Fig. 228. SINGLE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 9; RIGID FROG 12 FEET LONG. 372 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Crossovers are necessary on doable track rail- roads to enable Avest or north bound trains to reach sidings on south or east bound tracks and vice versa. Fig. 244 illustrates a crossover and its use. Fig. 245 is a plan of a crossover. The length of the leads are given in Figs. 223 to 230 and the distance D between the points of the frogs in the main line track is given in Table 15, Appendix J. A rule often used by track men to calculate the distance between the points of frogs at crossovers is as follows: From the distance between the gauge lines of parallel tracks, sub- tract the gauge of the track, multiply the re- mainder by the number of the frog, and the result will be the distance between the points of the frogs. Care should be taken to place cross- overs so that trains will run through the switches as shown in Fig. 244 and not against the point of the switch; this reduces the liability of accidents from derailment. Derailing switches should be placed on all side tracks where the grade is such that cars are liable to run onto the main line. The safest construction is to place derailing switches at all sidings connected with the main line; high winds will cause light box cars to move on a side track, or careless switching when a fast train is due has occasioned freight cars to run into a switch and caused accidents. Fig. 246 illustrates a derailing switch operated from the switch stand which operates the main line switch; when the switch is set for the main track the de- railing switch is set to throw a moving car off the siding on the opposite side from the main line track. CONSTRUCTING TRACK, 373 Fig. 229. single throw split switch no. 10; rigid frog 10 feet long. ?ff I SIN&LE THROW. t ill .lip '^'o-- SWITCH ANGLC IMO' -, si> CLOSURE 65'3^' MIDDLE ORDINATE IN 10 FT-oiScQfjt- Fig. 230. single throw split switch xo. 11; rigid frog 11 feet long. Fig. 231. single THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 7; SPRING RAIL FROG 15 FEET LONG. 374 BUILDING AND REPAIHING RAILWAYS, i,< ^* •vhOOlE OADinaTE: in iOFT* 0:t>ii ' JO- • E^" F Fig. 232. SINGLE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 8^; SPRING RAIL FROG 15 FEET LONG. Fig. 233. SINGLE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 9; SPRING RAIL FROG 15 FEET LONG. p Fig. 234. SINGLE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 10; SPRING RAIL FROG 15 FEET LONG, CONSTRUCTING TRACK, 375 Fig. 235. THREE THROW SPLIT SWITCH No. 6; RIGID FROG 6 FEET LONG. t-.'^"Ts-.^'<^- -■•> Fig. 236. THREE THROW SPLIT SWITCH WITH No. 7; RIGID FROG 7 FEET LONG. Fig. 237. THREE THROW SPLIT SWITCH WITH No. T; RIGJD FROQ J? FEET LONG. 376 BUILDING ^IND HE PAIRING RAILWAYS. ' ^-IVo.--- -J ~rr- Fig. 238. THREE THROW SPLIT SWITCH WITH No. 8; RIGID PROG 8 FEET LONG. Fig. 239. THREE THROW SPLIT SWITCH WITH No. 9; RIGID FROG 9 FEET LONG. Fig. 240. THREE THROW SPLIT SWITCH WITH No. 9; RIGID FROG H FEET LONG. CONSTRUCTING TRACK, 377 ■=<,=:::j;^^ — as' Qjr — >( FiG. 241. THREE THROW SPLIT SWITCH WITH No. 10; RIGID FROG 10 FEET LONG. ,2n- ment had only extended over a period of five years. MAINTENANCE OF WAY. SS9 ating expense, and upon which force depends \ery largely the financial success of the railroad, has not, as a rule, received the attention its im- portance demands. On some systems the maintenance of way de- department is directly under the engineer, in other cases directly under the superintendent, and in other cases there is a division of author- ity. The roadniasters, who are the officials in actual charge of the track, in some cases report direct or through the engineer to the superin- tendent, and in other cases report to an officer who in turn reports to the engineer. The tendency is to place men in charge of naintenance of way who have had a technical training; but before they can be of any great service they must also have received a practical training. All men who graduate from a tech- nical school or college do not possess that prac- tical turn of mind essential to the successful engineer. Some railroad systems place the young engi- neers in section gangs where they can learn the practical work and are then advanced to section foremen, supervisors of several gangs of section men, and then to roadmasters; this method se- cures men who have both practical and scientific knowledge and who have proved their adapta- bility to the work and ability to manage men. There are two distinct features to be considered in the organization of the roadway department. The first is the execution of that which is to be done; the next, the inspection of that which has 390 BUILDING AND REP AIMING RAILWAYS. been done. Under some circumstances, the duties of execution and inspection are combined in one individual; in the broadest sense, how- ever, there should be no community of interests between the inspector and the man who is di- rectly responsible for the work. The man who executes or directs the execution of work is nat- urally inclined to magnify its excellence and ex- cuse its imperfections, but he who views it with the practiced eye of a critic, whose judgment is not tempered with self-interest, will give an esti- mate of certain and just value. Road inspection will therefore be considered under a separate heading, as a distinct system, instituted to meet the increasing exaction of modern railroading. In the organization of the roadway service there should be no division of authority or re- sponsibility; all orders should proceed from a responsible head, and all reports should ulti mately reach his office and be consolidated by him for the information of superior officers. This head is variously termed the roadmaster, superintendent of roadway, engineer, etc. Un- der this officer come the supervisors, division roadmasters, or assistant engineers, as the case may be; also timber inspectors, pump inspec- tors, and frequently bridge and building inspec- tors; then come the gang foremen, etc., who in turn employ their own laborers. Under such an organization, with a proper system of rules and accounts, a road may be extended to almost unlimited proportions by a simple addi- tion to the number of divisions and subdivisions. MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 391 and ai] enlargement of the central office. A di- vision roadmaster or supervisor is rarely capable of supervising more than one hundred miles of single track or fifty miles of double track road. On our more important lines, a section of single track should not exceed six miles, and section- houses should be placed as near a telegraph office or station as possible. The foreman should have the care of track and property of the company on his section, and should be held accountable for their proper care and maintenance. As far as possible the roadmaster should lay out the work for his foremen. Foremen should be shown the value of thorough system, of plan- ning the week's work ahead so as to economize time and to accomplish a little more than the proper week's allowance. For this reason it is very essential for the roadmaster to establish the proper allowance of labor, and to issue a little in * advance of requirements the necessary material. Foremen should not be permitted to work por- tions of a day at points widely separated, as the loss of time in going from one place to another will easily consume a large percentage of the day's time. The regular inspection, which fore- men should be required to make at least twice a week over every part of their sections, should be made in such a manner that they will use as little time away from their regular work as possible. The following rules for the guidance of em- ployes in the roadway department are in the main generally appropriate.^ * I copy them substantially as I find them^ 39i> BUILDING AND HE PAIRING RAILWAYS. General Rules. — Each employe whose duties require it must have the book of rules with him while on duty. Any employe who does not clearly understand the rules must ask an explanation of his superior officer. Employes must report violations of rules by other employes which endanger life or property, or which prevent them from discharging their own duty. Employes while on duty must refrain from profane or violent language, personal altercation, and from using intoxicating drinks. Each employe is hereby warned that while on the tracks or grounds of the company, or in work- ing with or being in any manner on or with its cars, engines, machinery or tools, he must ex- amine, for his own safety, the condition of all machinery, tools, tracks, cars, engines, or what- ever he may undertake to work on or with, be- fore he makes use of or exposes himself on or with the same, so as to ascertain, so far as he reasonably can, their condition and soundness; and he is required promptly to report to his superior officer any defect in any track, machin- ery, tools or property of said company affecting the safety of anyone in operating upon or with the same. Supervisors, inspectors, foremen and conduc- tors must keep a daily record of their occupation, showing in detail the work done, material used, and the time of each person employed under their immediate supervision. Red must not be worn in a conspicuous man- ner. Supervisors, conductors, section foremen and foremen of all other gangs, during work hours. MAINTENANCE OF WAY, 893 must not leave their respective division, train, section or gang, without written permission from the roadmaster. In case of accident to train or road, the highest officer in the roadway department, or the oldest foreman in continuous service present at the time will have charge of the work until relieved by some one higher in authority. Supervisors must pass over their divisions on trains, and foremen over their sections on hand cars, during stormy weather, and must know that all is safe before allowing trains to pass. Con- ductors must keep in telegraphic communication with the roadmaster and the master of trains during the continuance of storms, and be pre- pared tt) move on shortest notice. Hand cars must not be towed at the rear of trains, and must not be on the track after dark, nor in foggy weather unless protected by proper signals in front and rear. Standard plans and specifications for the con- struction and location of all structures will be furnished and officers and foremen must inform themselves of such standards and work entirely in conformity with them. Trains must be expected at all times. Foremen and officers must provide themselves with reliable watches before entering upon their duties,. and see that they are always in order and conform to standard time. When watchmen are left with danger signals, they .must be supplied with tools and required to work. When dangerous places are found, or while work is being done that renders the road unsafe for the passage of trains, the person in charge 394 BUILDING AND RE PAIRING RAILWAYS, must attend to the placing and maintaining of danger signals on the engineer's side of track in both directions. In no case must they be nearer than fifteen telegraph poles, and on a continuous down grade in the direction of the work the sig- nal must be placed at least twenty telegraph poles from the work. When such points come on a curve, the signal must be placed at the fur- ther end of the curve. If either signal cannot be clearly seen from the work and from an ap- proaching train, a watchman must be left with it. Whenever signals of the roadway department are disregarded, immediate report must be made to the roadmaster. Slow boards must be posted at a distance of ten telegraph poles on each side of the place where the speed is to be reduced. When two or more hand cars may be following each other over the road, they must maintain an interval of at least two telegraph poles apart. Supervisors or Assistant Roadmaster s : Must test track levels once a week, and see that they are used in surfacing track; must see that fore- men are supplied with the full number of tools required; and that they are in proper order; must carry with them on their hand car a standard track gauge, an ax, six torpedoes, a red and white lantern, and a red flag; must examine switches, frogs and turntables once a week, and see that they are in proper order; must see that turn- tables and car guards are provided with proper means to securely lock them; must see that their foremen are provided with the proper forms for making reports, and with copies of all rules and schedules; must pass over their respective diyis- MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 395 ions at least once a week on a hand car, once a week on an engine, and as often as possible on the rear of a train; must see that signs are placed where required, and are kept in proper order; must see that fences are kept in proper order. Reports of the resignation, discharge, removal, suspension, transfer, death, injury, sickness, or marriage of any foreman must be sent at once to the roadmaster. Foremen: Must be familiar with the regular code of signals and the proper position and use of torpedoes; must work when their entire attention is not required in directing their men; must report promptly in detail to the super^^Lsor any accidents to persons or trains; must notice the signals carried by passing engines; must examine every switch, frog and guard rail on their respective sections at least three times every week, and keep them in good order. The length of a section and the number of men allotted to each gang should be governed by local conditions, whether single or double track and the volume of traffic. A section of double track should be about four miles long, and of single track about six miles long. On roads having a large traffic, each section gang should consist of a foreman and one and one-half men per mile of double track, with an additional allowance of one man for every two miles of sidings. On single track each gang should consist of a fore- man and one man per mile of track, with an additional allowance of one man for every two miles of sidings. Taking these proportions as a basis, sections may be varied in length as locality and circumstances make necessary. Generally speaking no section should be so reduced in 396 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. length that its proportionate allowance of force would be less than six men and a foreman. Watchmen should be counted extra. All extra work should be calculated to be done by a special gang and ballast train; or extra men should be allowed section foremen. Each section should have a tool house large enough to accommodate a hand car and a full complement of tools. Ballasting. Ballasting when done on a large scale, as is the case when changing from an earth roadbed to one of gravel, slag or broken stone, is done by special gangs, and when repairs to the ballast are done on a small scale the work is done by the section gang. Tracks should be laid alongside of a gravel bank of sufficient capacity to allow switching a train of empty cars alongside the steam shovel, while the loaded ones are being taken out, the object in view being to proportion the forces so that all can work steadily and have no interrup- tions caused by the steam shovel being idle wait- ing for empty cars, or the gang placing the bal- last under the ties being idle waiting for ballast. By using a steam shovel to load the cars with gravel, and a ballast unloader the force on the gravel train can be reduced to a small train crew. Wherever a change is being made from an earth roadbed to one ballasted with gravel, slag or stone, the earth between and at the ends of the ties should be cast out on to the slopes of the embankments and removed entirely from cuts and placed where the embankments are narrow; the aim should be to secure ?. roadbed as near the standard section as possible before the ballast is- put on. MAiyiENAJ^CE OF WAT. 397 There have recently been introduced special cars for handling ballast. Thus the Rodgers ballast car dumps the ballast in the center of the track, the last car in train of ballast cars having a plow for cleaning and flanging the track. The amount of ballast to be distributed is regulated by the amount of opening given to the doors of the hop- per in the bottom of the ballast car and the speed of the train. When a large amount of ballast is to be deposited, it is done by running the ballast train over the track two or more times. A nother car for handling ballast is the Good- win Steel Gravity Dump Car. It is dumped by one man by means of compressed air which operates to move the dumping attachments of all the cars in the train at the same time. The bal- last can be dumped all on one side of a rail or both sides, or all on the outside of both rails or all on the inside of both rails. When the ballast, used is broken slag or stone, care should be taken to have a sufficient supply to draw from before putting the surfacing gang at work. It is advisable in case of any class of ballast to have a sufficient quantity distributed along the track before the surfacing gang is put to work in order to guard against delays in delivery. A plant is required to prepare stone ballast which should be located at a quarry,* storage bins should be provided of capacity sufficient to load at the least a train of cars; it is still more economical, however, to have the capacity of the plant such that when the cars are put in service they can be kept continuously employed until the work is completed. 398 BUILDING AND BE P AIMING RAILWAYS. Fig. 258. SECTIONAL PERSPECTIVE VIEW GATES STONE CRUSHER FOR BALLAST. REFERENCE TABLE. The names of the tion may be found in 1. Bottom Plate. 2. Bottom Shell. 3. Top Shell. 4. Bearing Cap. 5. Oil Cellar Cap. 6. Spider. 7. Hopper. 8. Ercentric. 9. Bevel Wheel. 20. Wearing Ring. 11. Bevel Pinion. several parts designated by numbers in the above illustra- the following table: 12. Band Wheel. 13. Break Hub. 14. Break Pin. 15. Oil Bonnet. 16. Dust Ring 17. Dust Cap. 18. Head. 19. Concaves. 22. Chilled Wearing Plates. 24. Octagon Step. 25. Main Shaft. 26. Upper Ring Nut. 27. Lower Ring Nut. 28. Steel Step. 29. Lighter Screw. 30. Lighter Screw, Jam Nut. 31. Counter Shaft. 33. Oiling Chain. MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 399 A large sized Gates stone crusher is illustrated by Fig. 258; this is of the rotary style which is taking the place of those having a jaw worked by a reciprocating motion. The drawing gives the details of the crusher and Fig. 259 shows the Fig. 259. GATES REVOLVING SCREEN FOR SCREENING CRUSHED STONE. rotary screen used to separate the crushed stone into the various sizes desired. A plant with storage bins and three loading tracks is shown by Fig. 260. To economically operate this plant the loading tracks should be on a light grade sufficient to easily move the loaded cars by hand; the empty cars should be placed at the high end of the siding and run under the storage bins by hand. After they are loaded they should be run by hand to the lower end of the loading tracks, thus avoiding the use of a switch engine. A portable railroad ballast plant is often usec^ where rubble stone can be obtained withoM quarrying as is often the case along rocky blufts 400 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, and hillsides. After the supply of rubble stone has been exhausted at one point the plant can be readily moved to another. Fig. 260. ARRANGEMENT OF STONE CRUSHER, ELEVATOR SCREEN AND STORAGE BINS FOR A RAILROAD BALLAST PLANT. Placing the ballast under the ties should be done by lifting the track six inches at a time by two track jacks, one at each rail and opposite each other. If the lift is more than six inches at a time, the joints and fastenings are liable to be injured. Fig. 262 illustrates a Jenne track jack and Fig. 263 illustrates the trip jack — both styles are made with long, narrow bases, so they can be placed between the ties. MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 401 Fig. 262. JENNE TRACK JACK FOR HEAVY BALLASTING, SURFACING AND GENERAL TRACK REPAIRS. Fig. 263. x'RIP JACK FOR ballasting, SURFACING AND GENERAL TRaCK repairs. 22 Vol. 13 402 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Tools. The following list of tools for a section gang of six men is made from a list of tools used by roads in the Eastern, Central and Western States. Name of Tools. Number Illustrated by Required. Figure Nos. 2 264 3 1 265 1 1 266 2 267 1 268 1 4 269 6 270 1 271 1 272 1 273 6 274 3 275 1 1 276-277 2 278 4 2 2 1 279 1 280 1 281 1 282 2 283 2 283 2 283 4 284 285 286 287 288 6 289 4 6 290 4 2 Adzes *' handles Axes ** handles Auger for post holes Brooms *Brush hooks * '' *' handles *Ballast hammers * '* forks *Brace and bits Cars, hand *' push Chisels, track Claw bars Ditch line 100 feet long Drills, ratchet or track drills, Files Flags, red " green '* white Grindstone *^Hoes, grub or mattocks Hatchets or hand axes ♦Hammer, hand, for nails Lanterns, red . " green ** white Lining bars, wedge point Oil can Oiler Punches , Pinch bars , Padlock and chain Picks, earth " " handles * " tamping " " handles Rakes MAINTENANCE OF WAY 403 Name of Tools. Rail tongs ' ' forks Saws, hand * ** cross cut Scythes " snaths, * * stones *Spirit level ^Square, tie *Spike puller " mauls. " ** handles, *Sledges *' handles Shovels " scoop " long handled *Track lever or lifting bar " jacks . ' ' gauges ' ' level board *Tamping bars Torpedoes Tape line 50 feet long *Tool boxes Wire stretchers Wrenches, track monkey *Wheel barrows Water bucket ** dipper keg Spike'hole plugs [ ^^i^hed as required Number Required. 3 2 1 1 4 4 2 1 1 1 4 4 2 2 6 6 1 1 2 2 1 4 12 1 1 1 4 1 3 1 1 1 Illustrated by Figure Nos. 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 262-263 305-306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 The tools marked with an ^ are not required by all section gangs; a brush hook and grub hoe will be needed in a timbered country but not in a prairie section of the country; ballast or nap- ping hammers and sledges will be needed where the country is rocky and ballast is often made of the rocks found along the right of way, but will 404 BUILDING AND HEP AIMING HAILWATS, not be required where the country is barren of stone. Fig. 264. ADZE. Fig. 265. CHOPPING AXE. Fig. 266. Fig. 267. AUGER FOR BORING HOLES IN BROOM FOR REMOVING SNOW THE GROUND TO PLACE FENCE POSTS IN. FROM SWITCHES, FROGS, ETC MAINTENANCE OF WAY, 405 Fig. 268. BRUSH HOOK FOR CUTTING DOWN SMALL SAPLINGS. Fig. 269. Fig. 270. BALLAST OR NAPPING HAM- MER TO BREAK MEDIUM SIZED STONE TO PROPER SIZE FOR BALLAST; WEIGHT ABOUT FOUR POUNDS. BALLAST FORK FOR HAND- LING SLAG OR STONE BAL- LAST, SO THAT THE FINE DIRT WILL NOT BE SHOVELED WITH BALLAST. B. Fig. 271. BRACE A AND BIT B FOR BORING HOLES IN TIES WHERE SPIKES HAVE BEEN DRAWN PREPARATORY TO PLUGGING THE SPIKE HOLE. 400 BUILDING ANp REPAIRING RAILWAYS. I Fig. 272. HAND CAR FOR SECTION GANG. MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 407 CO 6 Q < O P P' ^. << P &:3 o o 408 BUILDING ^iND RE POURING EjULWAYS. Fig. 274. TRACK CHISEL FOR CUTTING RAILS, ETC. Fig. 275. CLAW BARS. A— HAVING NO HEEL. B— WITH A. HEEL. USED FOR PULLING SPIKES AND BOLTS. Fig. 276. PERFECTION TRACK DRILL FOR DRILLING BOLT HOLES IN RAILS. FEED AUTOMATIC OR HAND AS DESIRED. MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 409 Fio. 277. Q AND C SELF-FEEDING RAIL DRILL. OVER OR UNDER RAIL CLAMPS USED AS PREFERRED. Fig. 278. HAKD FILE FOR SMOOTHING THE ENDS OF RAILS BEFORE PLACING THEM IN THE TRACK, 410 BUILDING AND BEP AIMING BAILWAYS, Fig. 279. HERCULES GRINDSTONE MOUNTED WITH TREADLE. Fig. 280. GRUB HOE. (A) FOR CUTTING THE ROOTS OF SMALL SAPLINGS. MATTOCK. (B) SOMETIMES PRE- FERRED TO A GRUB HOE. PICK MATTOCK. (C) SOMETIMES PREFERRED TO A GRUB HOE. Fig. 281. HATCHET. (A) WITH A CLAW FOR DRAWING NAILS. (B) WITH A NOTCH IN FACE FOR DRAWING NAILS. HAND AXE. (C) FOR LIGHT CHOPPING. Any of these can be used for the same purpose as a hand hammer. MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 411 Fig. 282. HAMMER FOR NAILING AND DRAWING NAILS. RAILROAD LANTERN. Tlie color of the light depends on the color of the glass globe used. c 3 Fig. 284. LINING BARS FOR THROWING TRACK WHKN LINING IT. Fig. 285. OIL CAN FOR CAR OIL. Fig. 286. SPRING OILER FOR OILING HAND PUSH CARS. 412 BUILDING AND RE PAIRING RAILWAYS. Fig. 287. TRACK OR RAIL. PUNCH. RAILROAD PADLOCK Used with a chain to lock hand or push cars by passing the chain through the two wheels on the same side of the car and fastening the chain by passing the padlock hasp through two links of the chain. Fig. 289. PICK FOR LOOSENING EARTH, CLAY OR HARD GRAVEL. Fig. 290. TAMPING PICK WITH ONE POINT ENLARGED FOR DRIVING THE BALLAST UNDER THE TIES; THIS IS USED FOR TAMP- ING STONE AND SLAG BALLAST. MAINTENANCE OF WAY, 413 ^iG. 291. RAIL. TONGS FOR LIFTING RAILS. The head of the rail is gripped by the curved ends and the long bent ends serve as handles for the workmen to carry the rail. Fig. 293. HAND SAW. Used in repair- ing gates, lences inf3 i>the* iight Vo?l5 Fig. 294. CROSS CUT SAW. Used in removing heavy drift from culverts and bridges and other heavy work. Fig. 292. RAIL FORK FOR TURNING RAILS. The slotted end is run over the base and the fork handle is used as a lever or the tapered end of the handle placed in the bolt hole and the slotted end is used as a iever to turn the rail. Fig. 295. SCYTHES. A. Light, for grass and weeds. B. Heavy, for bushes and small saplings. Fig. 296. SCYTHE SNATHS OR HANDLES. 414 BUILDI^O AND IIEPAIEING RAILWAYS. Fig. 297. SPIRIT LEVEL FOR DETERMINING THE TRUE HORIZONTAL OR PERPENDICULAR. Fig. 298 A. C. SPIKE PULLERS. Cant hook or centennial bar, works on the same principle as a cant hook is used 10 turn a piece of timber. Shackle Bar— This uses the rail as a fulcrum and aims to pull the spike without bending ir. The common claw bar is mostly used for pulling spikes. See Fi?. 274. Is an attachment which can be used with a claw bar, etc. Will draw spikes from between contiguous rails, guard rails, switches, frogs, and at platforms; can also be used on bridges and in tunnels and cuts; can be attached to any claw bar, and will bend the spike less than when pulled in the usual way. Is made of tempered steel, and is light, strong, dura- ble and cheap. MAINTENANCE OF WAY, 415 Fig. 299. Fig. 300. SPIKE MAUL. For driving spikes into the ties. STONE SLEDGE HAMMER. Used to break boulders or rocki sliding into cuts and other work of this class. Fig. 301. RAILROAD SHOVEL. For tamping earth, sand and some varieties of gravel ballast and for ditching, etc. Fig. 302. SCOOP SHOVEL. For handling gravel, cinders, snow or other light material or very soft wet earth which will run off an ordinary shovel. Fig. 304. tryxCk lever or lifting bar, used for heavy track work.' Fig. 303. LONG HANDLED SHOVEL. For digging deep trenches or deep holes as for telegraph poles. Fig. 305. HUNTINGTON S TRACK GAUGE. Cac also be used to square ties with the rail, though there are roads having a special tool for squaring the ties with the rail. -iU ]3UILDi:SG AKB EEPAIRIISQ RAILWAYS. Fig. Mchenry track gauge. It is similar to the Huntington Gauge shown in Fig. 305, the special fea- ture being the arrangement for accurately gauging curves which is now left almost entirely to guess work. Five steel shims, each ^-inch thick (shown in enlarged end cut) each representing three degrees of curvature, provide for properly gauging curves up to 15 degrees. For straight track the shims are pushed up out of the way. The change is easily and quickly made. Fig. 307. A-COMMON TRACK LEVEL. B— DUPLEX TRACK LEVEL. Contains two level glasses, one fixed in the board, the other attached to a movable indicator arm. By moving the indicator arm until the level glass attached to it comes true, it will show on the scale exactly how much out of level the track is. For use on curves it can be set at the proper elevation for the outside rail which can then be raised until the bubble indicates level position. It is convenient and accurate. This level can be arranged to serve also as a track gauge. C-MCHENRY INVOLUTE TRACK LEVEL. In this level, means for adjustment are provided and it can be used on dead level or for elevations up to six inches. The proper amount of elevation is secured by means of a steel plate fitted into a slot at one end of the level. This plate is curved in such a way as to raise the level from the rail to the full limit of six imhes while keeping the contact point with the rail at the same relative position. In addition to these styles, a board six inches wide, fifteen feet long, and one and one-half inches thick, having two spirit levels is used to test the levels across two tracks, to detect low joints before they are noticeable to the eye and to detect any vertical or horizontal bending of the rails. MAINTENANCE OF WAY, 417 I C I c TAMPING BAR USED TO TAMP ALL. CLASSES OF BALLAST EXCEPT SLAG AND STONE. Fig. 309. TORPEDO, Used to ^ive warning to an approaching train during foggy weather or at night that the track has been damaged or that there is some obstruction ahead; it contains an explosive which gives a loud noise when the engine passes over it, thus warning the engineer. Fig. 310. RAILROAD TOOL CHEST. Chest 6 feet long, 2 feet 2 inches broad, and 2 feet 4 inches high, of good heavy, seasoned pine lumber with hardwood handles on either side, cover of two thicknesses of matched plank running different ways with a strip of canvas between, making it water-tight; all has one coat of good metallic paint, and chest has hasp, staple, lock, etc., complete. The following list of tools for gang of— say 6 men is generally sent with the chest: 1 Red Flag. 2 Tamping Bars. 1 Track Level 1 Green Flag. 2 Lining Bars. 1 Rail Fork. 1 White Lantern. 2 Spike Mauls. 1 Pair Track Tongs. 1 Red Lantern. 6 Shovels. 3 Chisels. 1 Adze. 2 Picks. 1 Oil Can. 1 Claw Bar. 1 Track Gauge. 1 Water Pail. 1 Axe. 1 Track Wrench. 1 Drioking Cup. The list of Tx)ols here given is largely used by the railways on the prairies of Illinois and adjoining states. 23 Vol. 13 418 BUILDING AND liEPAIEtNQ RAILWAYS. Fig. 311. TRACK WRENCH. Used to tighten the nuts at rail joints; the tapered end is used to insert in the bolt holes of the splices and rails to bring them into line for in- serting the bolt. Fig. 312. MONKEY WRENCH. This can be adjusted to fit nuts of different Fig. 313. RAILROAD BARROW. The policy of trying to provide every appli- ance to meet any and all emergencies is not wise; precaution against accident can be carried so far as to incur so great an expense that the road would be embarrassed financially. Some railway systems furnish each section gang only such tools as are necessary in actual work and a small stock of tools for emergency work is kept at the head- quarters of the roadmaster. The character of a workman may be deter- mined by his tools. If found in proper order and ready for any emergency, he may be classed as a first-class foreman. Good tools are necessary for good work. Foremen should be provided with MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 419 suitable boxes and racks for their tools and should not allow them to become mixed. There should be a systematic inspection of tools by the roadmaster. Every foreman should be required to have his full number of tools in efficient condition at all times. Spirit levels should be tested and adjusted at each inspection. Hand Cars. At stations where there are yards requiring a number of switch lights, section men on some roads are required to put them up and take them down. To facilitate this work cars especially designed are used ; Fig. 315 illustrates Fig. 315. FOUR-WHEELED ECLIPSE LIGHT WEIGHT CAR, WITH HEAD- LIGHT AND BOXES FOR LANTERNS AND TOOLS SUITABLE FOR TUNNEL USE. 41^0 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. a car suitable for taking out a large number of switch lights; it is also equipped with ahead light and can be used for tunnel work. The roadmaster should be provided with a velocipede to enable him to get over his territory or to make a close inspection of special portions of it. Fig. 316 represents such a car — it can be Fig. 316. VELOCIPEDE CAR. carried on the platform of a baggage car or m the baggage car as desired. Drainage, Drainage is by far the most im- portant factor in maintaining a good track, water being its worst enemy; the duty of every section foreman is to lead it away from the roadbed. Time spent in perfecting the drainage will be re- MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 421 paid by decreasing the labor required on other work.*^ The roadbed in cuts and on fills should be kept in such a condition that the water falling on it during rains or melting snow will run off at right angles and not run down the grade in gullies or depressions so that large quantities run off at one point, thus cutting away the embankment. Bolting. Bolting should be done by placing two bolts in each splice and tightening sufficiently to hold the rail to line; afterward the remaining bolts should be placed as soon as possible: the nuts will require tightening several times during the first sixty days on new track, but they should not be tightened with such force as to iujure the threads or grip the rail so tight as to prevent expansion. Spiking. Spiking should be done by driving the spike vertically to a true bearing against the rail base and driving should be stopped when the spike comes to a tight bearing on the rail or the head of the spike will be damaged.f Lining. Lining should be done to stakes set by the engineer. One rail should be lined up from the track centers, and the other rail lined by bringing it to the proper gauge with the line rail. Where track is badly out of line it should be thrown only part of the distance at one move- ment, shifting the entire length a foot or eighteen ^This subject was discussed in the chapter on Construction and what was stated there applies with equal force to the main- tenance of way. tSee "Spiking" in first article of Appendix J. 422 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. inches at a time and repeating this until it is brought approximately to line. When the line rail is brought to the exact line at one point the following procedure should be adopted: Set up a stake, rod or spirit level on end so one edge comes against the gauge side of the rail, then proceed to bring the line rail to line at another point some 150 to 200 feet distant from this point to the first one, direct the section men which way to throw the track, throwing first the joints then the centers and quarters; when the track is brought close to line the foreman must put his eye close to the rail to detect bends which can- not be seen standing; after one section is lined take up another and so proceed through the entire work. To correct errors the sections should be lined from both ends. The outer rail on curves must be the line rail and the widening of gauge made with the inner rail. On curves the align- ment must be watched closely and in the absence of the engineers' center stakes the curvature should be tested by the rule given in table No. 18, Appendix J. Gauging the track must be given careful attention.*^ Joints and centers should be gauged first and afterwards as many points as may be necessary to bring the rail into true gauge with the line rail; track gauges must be placed at right angles to the line rail and their accuracy must be tested by the roadmaster at least once during the season. Track on curves must be gauged frequently to keep it in gauge. *\n this connection the reader should note what is said in chapter on "Track" and in Aj^pendix J. Also Table No. 16, Appendix J. MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 423 Surfacing. Surfacing must be done to stakes set by the engineer. When the work is being done in long stretches a straight edge or long track level must be placed on the tops of the stakes on each side of the track and the track raised by track jacks so that the rail touches the level. The ties at this point should then be thoroughly tamped. The same method of pro- cedure will be adopted at the next pair of engi- neers' stakes and so on. The intermediate rails can be brought to grade by placing blocks four to six inches high at each of the above points and by the foreman sighting from one block to the other and a section man holding a third block between the joints and centers of all the rails to be brought to grade; this latter work should be done on the line rail; then with a long straight edge or track board the points between the joints and centers can be brought to grade. The other rail can be brought to grade with the track level. This level should often be tested by reversing it on a level surface. Where the length of the track to be surfaced is short or only slightly out of sur- face in spots and the amount to be lifted is small, a track jack need not be used — the lifting in sach cases can be done with bars. On curves and spirals the proper elevation must be given. "^ At bridges the track should never be raised above the exact grade; no allowance should be made at such places for the trains bringing the track to grade. Once a year a general surfacing *See elevation of outer rail on curves in chapter on "Track", Appendix J and Table No. 17, Appendix J. 424 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWATS. should be done over the entire section; the track should be raised just enough for proper tamping; section men are inclined to raise it too much if not carefully watched. Where the ballast is stone, slag or coarse gravel, the track will have to be raised one to two inches to secure thorough tamping, while with sand, cinders, earth, or fine gravel a rise of one-half to one inch can be made by tamping without disturbing the bed of the tie. This work can be done to advantage after the re- newal of ties which sljould be early in the season and again before winter. Tamping. Tamping is done at the same time as surfacing. The amount of track lifted off its old bed for surfacing and tamping at any one time should never be of a greater length than can be fully tamped between trains; both rails should be brought to surface before the tamping is fully done. Earth, sand and gravel ballast can be tamped by two men on opposite sides of the tie working with a shovel pressing the ballast by a prying motion under the tie; more satisfactory work, however, is done by finishing the tamping with tamping bars. Coarse, clean gravel, slag and stone ballast requires more force to drive it under the tie and a tamping pick is used for this purpose. On new track the full length of the tie should be tamped, on old track a foot each side of the rail should be tamped firmest and the center of the tie but slightly or not at all, this prevents the track from becoming center bound, which in- creases the tendency to get out of line, and also the liability of the ties breaking at the center. MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 425 Joint ties should be tamped first and the others afterwards, bringing the rail to grade with the joint. The ties at crossings, switches and frogs should be tamped very thoroughly. Low joints will be a frequent trouble in track on a new road and the uneven settlement of the embankments will require a great deal of extra labor and watchfulness on the part of the section force. Tie Renewals. Tie renewals are generally de- cided by the roadmaster jointly with the section foreman. These renewals should never be in long continuous stretches, but on the basis of what is known as ^'spotting" the ties. The section foreman should go over his section and mark those ties which he thinks are unfit for further service; afterward the roadmaster accompanies him and he decides the number of ties to report for each mile and section; and the management decides how many their resources will permit them to allow for the next season. When ties are renewed in long continuous stretches, a large percentage of them again require renewal at the same time. This is liable to occur during a period of financial depression, while if the renewals were made on the method called ''spotting," careful attention to the tie renewals could be so managed as to greatly decrease the expenses at such a period. New ties are distributed as ordered by the roadmaster in the early spring or late winter months, so that the section force can commence putting them in the track as soon as the frost is 426 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. out of the ground. Mr. Tratman states :^ '' For tie renewals in gravel ballast, the ballast is cut away from the ends of the ties and loosened along their sides. The spikes are then drawn and the rails raised slightly by jacks, just enough to allow of the old tie being knocked out and a new one slipped in on the same bed. The ballast should not be dug out under the tie unless the new tie is of greater thickness (which it should not be), as the less the tie beds are disturbed the better for the maintenance of the track surface. This general rule may, however, be modified where only one or two ties are to be renewed in a rail length, but in this case a loosening of the side of the tie bed will usually enable the old tie to be taken out and the new one put in without much disturbance of the bed,and without the disturbance of the adjacent track which is incidental to rais- ing by jacks. With stone, slag or coarse gravel ballast, which is liable to fall onto the tie bed when the tie is removed, it is necessary to dig out the ballast at one side of the tie, and to knock the tie sideways into this trench. Some foremen prefer this plan with earth or common gravel, h\\\j the amount of digging required is liable to disturb and loosen the ballast. This plan may, however, be employed Avhen two adjacent ties have to be renewed. If the ties are not uniform, the larger ones should be selected for the joints and for curves; and the wider end should be placed under the outer rail on curves. The ties 'Railway Track and Track Work," Tratman, pp. 295, 296. MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 427 should be properly spaced, placed square across the track (or radially on curves) and their ends should be lined at one side of the track. It is rarely economical to turn old ties except where tie plates are to be applied, and then it is prob- ably better to turn the ties than to adze out new seats on the old worn faces. If the traffic is heavy, each tie should be tamped and have the outside spikes driven at once. Otherwise, a number of ties may be renewed in succession; one man going ahead to cut the earth or gravel from the ends of the ties, two men pulling spikes, and two men raising the track with jacks. If only one jack is to be had, the rail first raised should be blocked up, and the jack then put under the other rail. When 20 or 30 ties have been thus put in, three men are sent back to do the spiking, one holding up the ties with a bar and two driving the spikes. The new ties should be tamped each day as put in, the tamping being done thoroughly with a bar or pick. The ballast is then filled in between the ties and dressed to proper shape. If the new ties are shovel-tamped, or only partially tamped with bars and then left to be finished a few days later, the old ties will be disturbed and a soft spot probably caused, especially if rain falls before the tamping is done. No train should be allowed to pass over untamped track, the foreman taking it for granted that it is safe. At the end of each week the ties re- moved should be i)roperly piled on the right of way, at a convenient distance from the track if they are to be loaded on cars, or midway between 4128 BUILDING AND EEPAIRING RAILWAYS. the track and the fence if they are to be burned. They should not be left in the ditches or scat- tered about the right of way. Ties may be burned in small piles of 5 to 10 or in large piles of 50, but the former is usually the better and safer plan. The piles should not be near the track as the intense heat is injurious to the paint and varnish of cars. Large piles should be burned in damp weather to reduce the danger from fire, and in all cases the burning piles should be watched to prevent fire from spreading to fences, fields, etc."* Tie Plates. Tie plates of various styles and their use have been described in another chapter. The method of preparing the tie to properly bed them, and the method of placing them true to gauge, will now be stated. The Ware tie plate surfacer and gauge is probably more used than any other; it admits of both ends of a tie, how- ever roughly hewn,being brought to the same plane at points where tie plates are to be embedded or rails to rest. The tie plates can be embedded into the ties before they are placed in the track and when hewn ties are used, whether tie plates are used or not, they can be properly surfaced at the points where the rails are to rest, in advance of the work of putting ties into the track. The Ware tie plate surfacer and gauge is illustrated by Fig. 318. To practically apply this tool, it is to be first adjusted so that the heads 1 and 2 will be the *The reader is referred to Appendix J for practice of Penn- sylvania and Northern Pacific Railways. MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 429 =.=^ 2 7^ b D b Wf H J=^ ?~~Er7TM B I ' ■■■■■ ■■ ' ■■■■:=| pr- ?^ J/ r "N LI! 477 4 ^X,0 ^!!^^' Fig. 318. THE WARE TIE PLATE SURF ACER AND GAUGE. E is a perspective of the combined Tie Plate Surf acer and Gauge. H Is an elevation of the tool showing its use on a tie to ascertain the level of the same at points where the tie plates are to be embedded. I is a plan showing the tool as used to square and gauge the tie plates. K is an elevation showing the tool as used for testing the level of the em- bedded tie plates. L is the plan showing the implement as used for gauging tie plates after ties are put in the track. 430 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. proper distance apart to correspond with the de- sired track gauge and with the dimensions of the tie plates that are to be used. The surfacers, 4, are brought accurately into the same plane, and the thumb screw, 8, is then tightened to secure the adjustable head. Where hewn ties are to be used, it will gen- erally be necessary to determine the level of the points where the tie plates B are to be embedded or set. This is accomplished by laying the in- strument on the tie, as shown in H, with the surfacers 4 placed flatwise on the proposed loca- tions of the tie plates. If these points are found to be not sufficiently in the same plane, the sur- facers 4 will indicate the uneven places that will have to be leveled with an adze. The tie being shown to be level, or substantially so, at re- quired points, the tool will then be turned partly over, as shown in I, so that the straight edges 5 will be in contact with the spots where the tie plates B are to be located. Each straight edge 5 forms a square with the inner face of the ad- jacent surfacer. One of the plates is then put into the angle formed by the straight edge 5 and inner side of the surfacer 4, on what is known as the line end of the tie. Thus, this tie plate is accurately squared to the position to be occupied by the rail. The tool is then removed, leaving the tie plate in position, and this tie plate can be set or em- bedded into hardwood ties by the means of a suitable wooden beetle without the use of any- thing to protect the most frail tie plate from Injury. MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 431 The tool is then put back on the tie in the position represented in I, so that the second tie plate can be placed to accurately conform to the required position with relation to the tie plate pre- viously set. The tool having been again removed, this second tie plate will now be embedded the same as the first. If desired, the tool can now be applied as shown in K, with the surfacers 4 turned flatwise, to test the surface level of the tie plates. The position and level of these tie plates being found satisfactory the tie is now ready to be placed in the track. It will be obvious that by the aid of this tool the plates can be quickly and accurately applied to a tie at the required gauge or distance apart before the tie is placed in the track and in such relation to the rail bases that there will be no difficulty in subsequently entering through the holes B the spikes that are to secure the rails. To apply tie plates to ties already in the track, see L, from which will be seen that the fixed head 1 has the end of its surfacer 4 made on a concave or arc 10 with end points 11 in the same plane; this will enable that end of the in- strument to be placed closely and accurately against the web or base of the rail that is already in the track. Thus, if it is desired to apply tie plates to ties that are in the track, the spikes must be drawn from the rails under which they are to be embedded and the rails moved out on the end of the ties, the same as is usually done in the work of changing rails. By this means 432 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. the rail is entirely out of the way of embedding plates. If the ties, at points where the plates are to be set, are known to be sufficiently level to allow the plates to be properly embedded, the work of embedding can now proceed, by first plac- ing the fixed head 1 as shown in L and the adjustable head 2, having been previously adjusted to the required gauge by the means of thumb screw 8, a tie plate will be placed against the square end of surfacer 4 of the adjustable head and against 12 where it will be ready to embed as before described. For economical and expeditious work of apply- ing plates in this way, it has been found advisable to get as many spikes drawn as safety will allow, plug all spike holes and do all adzing possible before disturbing the rails. Then, when there is sufficient time between trains to allow of such work being done, put all the men with claw bars at work to draw the remaining spikes and move the rails out on the end of the ties as befoie de- scribed, then organize the men three in a gang, one man to carry the gauge and place the plates in the square; the other two men with wooden beetles settle the plates into the ties. The first blow, at least, should be given by a man standing at right angles with the longitudinal ribs of the tie plate, if such plates are beiug used; this will cause the plate to settle more accurately. When sufficient number of plates have been embedded to allow rails to be moved into position, turn back one of the embedding gangs to move the rails in onto the plates and spike them; thus MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 433 keeping the different parts of the work going at the same time, so that should an unexpected train arrive there would be little delay in mak- ing the track passable. By using this method plates can be embedded with surprising rapidity and perfectness. B^ails and rail joint fastenings. Rails and rail joint fastenings were discussed in the chapter on ''Standards" and the reader is referred to that chapter. Ditches and embankments. All ditching in cuts, dressing up of embankments and ballast should be done in a manner to retain the standard cross sections adopted. Under no conditions should earth be taken off the shoulder of an embank- ment to be used in raising track or ballasting; neither should earth be taken from the slopes to build out the shoulder of an embankment — this leads to a slackness in the slope as shown in the chapter on* 'Construction," Fig. 45. The bermes should not be robbed to secure material for slack embankments, they keep the water away from the roadbed and aid in drainage. Small repairs to embankments can be made by the section gang cleaning ditches in the cuts and taking the material with a push car to the point it is needed on the embankment. When the slopes of embankments need extensive repairs it is cheaper to put on a work train or a gang with teams, plows and scrapers if the embankment is not over 6 to 8 feet high. This gang should take the material from the ditch or on the outside of the ditch; under no circumstances should the 24 Vol. 13 434 BUILDING JiJTl) EEPAIItlJSO HjULWAYS. berme be disturbed. As the freezing of winter followed by the thawing and rains of spring brings down large quantities of material from the slopes of some cuts, various devices have been designed to aid in saving labor in removing it. Fig. 319 represents the American Railway Ditch- ing Machine, which is designed to do this work. Fig. 319. AMERICAN RAILWAY-DITCHING MACHINE. For cleaning and ditching mud cuts. For scraping in dry cuts after same have been plowed. Simple in construction and economical in operation. Durable and easily handled; it can be quickly moved out of the way of pass- ing trains. Reversible, works either way without turning car or engine. Will scrape both ditches at the same time. The buckets are used in the same manner as an ordinary scraper. Directions for using the American Railway Ditching machine. —If possible use an air-brake locomotive with this machine. See that slack be- tween car and engine is well taken up, so as to prevent unnecessary jerking. Strengthen spring-hangers in the ordinary car, as the strain, at times,is quite severe. This result can be accomplished by putting in additional hangers. Use as small a wheel on car as possible; 20-inch wheels are the best size, although the ordinary flat car wheel will do the work. Sivitches. — Switches were discussed in a gen- eral way in the chapter on *' Standards," and MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 435 430 BUILDING AND HE PAIRING EAILWAY8. more in detail in the chapter on ^' Track," to both of which the reader is referred. A Clarke- Jeffrey Split Switch is illustrated by Fig.. 320. This is the original split switch first used in the United States; the improvements introduced by various makers have had for their purpose the taking up of the wear of the switch points, thus preserving the true gauge and reducing the liability of the flanges of the wheels entering be- tween the rail and switch point. The bridle rods have been modified to give greater stiffness in order to preserve the gauge, and in the Transit Split Switch (Fig. 321) they have been reduced to one and placed alongside a tie, thus facilitat- ing the operation of tamping the ties and not being in the way of snow and ice. The Channel Split Switch (Fig. 322) has no bridle rods. The slide plates, in some cases, are extended across the track from rail to rail, and planed out for the base of the rail to set in, thus preserving the gauge (see Figs. 321 and 322). There are makes of switch stands which admit of this being done. Fig. 135 represents one. The adjustment for the wear of the points is taken up by some makers at the switch stand; Fig. 321 shows a method of doing it with the head and bridle rods. Fig. 323 illustrates the Lorenz Safety Split Switch. The peculiarity of this switch consists in the safety appliance being a heavy spring at- tached to a bridle rod at the point of the switch; this spring is strong enough to cause positive motion of the switch points, yet when a car from a siding runs into the switch, the spring will give MAINTENANC\tJ OF WAY, 437 M I HI o EH • ? CO 5 2 ^ 438 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. MAINTENANCE OF WAY, 439 ''^"EJ i i Fig. 823. LORENZ SAFETY SPLIT SWITCH. and permit the car to pass through and the spring will throw the 'switch points back to the^'r orig- inal position. Illustrations of some of the v^arious styles of connecting rods to connect switches with switch Rigid Connecting Rod with Safety End, used with Switches that have large pin on Head Rod with Safety Clip, as used on the Dodd- ridge Safety Switch. Rigid Connecting Rod with Jaw End, used with Head Rod having Flat End. Spring Connecting Rod. Fig. 324. VIEWS OF DIFFERENT CONNECTING RODS. A is used with the bridle red. C is a guhstitute for the spring on the Lorenz switch. 440 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING RAILWAYS, stands are given in Fig. 324, and an illustration of some of the bridle rods and methods of attach- ing them to the rails of stub switches and switch points of split switches is given in Fig. 325. Fig. 325. VIEWS OF DIFFERENT STYLES OF BRIDLE RODS AND METHODS OF CONNECTING THEM TO THE RAIL. Frogs. — Frogs were discussed in the chapter on ^^ Standards;" Figs. 326 and 327 illustrate two styles of yoked frogs. One is made by the Ram- apo Iron Works, and the other Strom frog by Pettibone, MuUiken & Co. Both aim to prevent Fig. 32f\ RAMAPO YOKED FROG. MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 441 Fig. 327. STROM CLAMP OR YOKED FROG. A— For sidings. B— For crossings at small angles. the yoke slipping by different methods. In the Ramapo frog the clamp is turned up flatwise, and is anchored by a rod bolted to the rail; this rod passes through the yoke key, and a nut screwed tight against the key and fastened by a nut lock. The cut represents the point and wing rails con- nected by a notch, though they can be planed straight as with the Strom frog if desired. With the Strom frog the main point of difference is that the clamp or yoke is bent edgewise and the ends of the clamps are forged to fit the rail sec- tions, thus doing away with the yoke key; the yokes are driven on tight, and anchored by stay rods which pass over the end of the wing rails and through the yokes. Cotters are placed in the stay rods to prevent the yokes or clamps from slipping. Foot guards are required at all frogs, and guard rails to prevent section and train men from get- ting their feet fastened so they cannot escape from approaching trains. Fig. 328 illustrates a 442 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. frog having wooden foot guards, and Fig. 329 illustrates the use of iron foot guards. Fig. 328. FROG WITH WOOD FOOT GUARDS. Fig. 329. FROG WITH IRON FOOT GUARDS. Ordering frogs and switch points or tongues often leads to confusion on account of the section foreman or clerk not thoroughly understanding when they are right or left hand. A good rule is to stand at the head block and look towards MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 443 O CO CO 6 w o ^ w >^ §! « fe o S CO CO O < ^ Eh M CO O M §§ Q o o 1-1 444 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. the frog; if the frog is on the right hand it is a right hand frog, or if it is on the left hand it is a lefb hand frog; the same rule applies to the switch points or tongues of a split switch and to the head blocks of a stub switch. Fig. 330 illustrates a right hand switch and Fig. 331 illustrates a left hand one. The names of the different parts of a frog and their uses are illustrated by Fig. 332. Instructions for taking the angle of a frog are given in Fig. 333. Tables No. 11 and 12, ©""" ^ Fig. 332. RIGHT HAND FROG. With the names of the different parts; the names would be the same with a left hand frog only the main and side points would change positions. The main point connects with the main line rail and the side point with the side track rail. Fig. 333. TO TAKE THE ANGLE OF A FROG. M:Wi8ure A-B andC-D and add them together, then divide the distance B-C by their sum. Example: Distance A-B-=8", C-D=4", then 8-f-4=12. The distance B-C=72", 72^12=6 or No. 6 Frog. Caution. In measuring be careful that all measurements are made on the running line. MAlNTENAJfCE OF WAY. 445 Appendix J, give the angles of frogs of different numbers. Headblocks or headcliairs are made of either cast or wrought iron. Fig. 334 illustrates Fig. 334. HEAD BLOCKS OR HEAD CHAIRS FOR STUB SWITCHES. Xos. I and 2 for right hand main line rail. Nos. 4 and 5 for left hand main line rail. Nos. 2 and 4 for single throw switch. Nos. 4 and 5 for three throw switch. Nos. 6 and 7 cast iron rail braces. Fig. 335. BRYANT PORTABLE RAIL SAW, Capable of sawing a rail up to 100 lbs. per yard. 446 BUILDINO AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, a pair for single and three throw switches. The chapter on ''Track" and the tables in Appendix J give instructions about laying out side tracks. In laying out sidings and placing guard rails it is often necessary to cut the rails — this should always be done with a rail saw. Fig. 335 illus- trates a Bryant portable rail saw and the rails should be properly curved before laying them. Fig. 336 and 337 illustrate rail benders. Fig. 336. RAIL BENDER AND STRAIGHTENER. Place Bender over rail as shown above, turn up nut on center screw with Jong wrench furnished with each machine, until set for desired curve, tten place socket wrench on pin in center roller, put long lever on top of socket and then one or more men at each end of lever can turn center roller, which causes the machine to move forward on rail, bending same as it moves. To straighten rails, place machine on opposite side of curve and then op- erate as above. The number of men necessary to do the work Is governed by weight of rail and curvature desired. Switches and frogs require constant attention to keep them in good working order and safe for fast trains; in the winter the ice and snow must MAINTENANCE OF WAT, 447 CO CO 6 ^ o J2; c3 H >> ^ X5 W *§ § i ^ o EH r. <^ s P4 Ci^ (D w ^ ^ e3 o O ^ b o 1^ ^ CC ^ « o O ^ w ■^ o w m M 73 c3 4^ c4 a 1 Eh C8 W if o c8 «o CO ^ Q H W E^ 448 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. be removed promptly after each storm. The Roadmasters' Association in 1898 recommended for split switches — points fifteen feet long prop- erly reinforced and provided with stop lugs, two adjustable tie bars, a wrought iron plate extend- ing through under both rails with rail braces, slide plates under main rail heavy enough not to bend and to have rail braces on the outside. Creeping rails. Creeping rails are another source of trouble in maintaining track. * Creeping takes place at switches more frequently than any- where else. It is not so troublesome, however, with the split switch as with the stub switch. The Roadmasters' Association discussed this sub- ject at their annual meeting in 1898 and came to the following conclusion: The creeping is not alike for both rails; in double track roads the rails creep in the direction of the traffic; the movement is greater on down than up grades and is worse where tracks have to be laid over marsh or soft yielding sub-soil. On single track it is most noticeable on down grades, and where there are descending grades from both directions, the rails creep down and come together in the valley. On curves the outer or high rail creeps the more and where there are successive reverse curves especially on grades, the creep starts on tangents at the approach and continues on the high rail to end of first curve, then the opposite rail on reverse curve shows the more creep. In other words the high rail in each *The movement of the rail in the direction of its length is called "creeping." MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 449 successive curve is found to creep more than the low rail. The cause of creeping is because of a rolling load passing over the rail which depresses the track directly under it and produces a corre- sponding elevation and depression ahead and be- hind it which may be likened to a wave motion. Mr. F. A. Delano, Superintendent of Freight Terminals of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad assisted by Mr. J. E. Howard of the Watertown Arsenal found by experiment that the ground near a locomotive weighing 110,000 pounds on a track having sixty-six pound rails resting on oak ties, seventeen to a thirty-foot rail, and in gravel ballast, the greatest depression was 0.161 inch under the middle driver. Under similar conditions, but with cinder ballast instead of gravel, the depression under the middle driver was 0.230 inch. The depression of the ground caused by 125,000 pound locomotive under the above conditions with gravel ballast at a poiiit opposite the main driver was as follows: Distance from the rail, 31 inches, depression 0.047 inch. ies which are received for repair of track the following Spring can be distributed and used advantageously to make a temporary snow fence on cuts where needed. The ties may be laid along in line with their ends lapping each other, about one foot slats or pieces of board can then be put across the ends of the ties where they lap and a new line of ties laid along on top of them until the snow fence is of the proper height. " Clearing the track of snow in the winter be- longs to the roadmaster's department. No man should be trusted with full charge of a snow plow outfit unless it be known that he understands the MAINTENANCE OF WAY, 469 best methods to be employed in opening up the road for traffic after a blockade. The man in charge of a snow plow outfit should be informed of the exact condition of the road, the depth of snow, the length of drifts, and the location of the same, as nearly as possible, before starting on the road. He should have good live engines and willing engineers. The plow itself should, like the engine and engineer, be the best that can be procured and of a pattern that could throw snow out of a cut eight or ten feet deep. Small plows, fenders, or other makeshifts, which are only good to clean the rails of light snow, or gouge a hole through a big cut should be left at home and not taken out to buck snow. When there is a large quantity of it to be moved, the extra time and labor expended in shoveling and pulling such craft out of the snow would purchase a good plow in one trip over the road. Another engine and car with a conductor, train crew and shoveling gang, should follow close behind the snow plow during the day time, and should be coupled in behind the plow when running after dark. The second engine should be used as a helper in striking deep snow, and to pull out the plow engine whenever it is stuck fast in a snow drift. All cars attached to the helper engine should be left behind on the clear track when both engines run together to buck a drift of snow. The pilot should be removed from the engine which is used for a helper so that a close coupling can be made when both engines are used together. The less slack there is between 470 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. two engines coupled together the less liability ia there of the hind engine pushing the front engine off the track. This is most liable to happen on a curve track, or where hard snow is encountered. Two engines should never be allowed to buck snow with a long car coupling between them or with a caboose or other car between the engines, as either arrangement endangers the lives of the men on the train and often results in a wreck. There is no necessity for using two engines be- hind the snow plow to buck snow which one engine can as well throw out. If the snow is not too hard one good heavy engine and plow will clear the track of a snow drift three to five feet deep and from five to eight hundred feet in length, at one run.* '' Two good locomotives coupled together be- hind the plow, managed properly, will remove any snow which it is advisable to buck. Snow drifts which are higher than the plow cannot be cleared from the track successfully without first shovel- ing the snow off the top of the drift, except when the drift is very short. Where the top of the snow drift is shoveled off, it should be opened wide enough to allow the plow to throw out of the cut the snow left in it. On roads where a flanger is used and made to pull behind an engine on a train, it should be sent with the snow plow *0n account of the invention of the rotary snow plows it is not likely that snow plowing with a plow on the front of a loco- motive will be done to any great extent in the future, especially where cuts are deep and long and snow is hard. But when the snow is soft and not too deep on the track the old way of getting rid of it is still apt to be practiced. MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 471 helper and used to clean out the snow left be- tween the track rails by the snow plow. When the snow is reported hard, those in charge of snow plow outfits should be very careful to have their engines and plow in as perfect condition as possible. They should run no risk; every snow drift should be examined before running into it, and each end should be shoveled out enough to leave a clean flangeway and a face that would let the plow enter under the snow and keep it down upon the rails. The tendency of hard snow is to lift the plow up over the top of the drift and throw the engine off the track. Whenever the euds of the drifts are not faced as before mentioned there is always great danger when entering or leaving short, shallow drifts of hard snow, while, on the contrary, there is little or no danger in plowing soft deep snow at the greatest speed the engine can make. ''The engines with a snow plow outfit should always take on water and fuel to their full capacity at every point on the road where a sup- ply can be obtained, no matter whether it is tiable to be used or not. When it is at all prob- able that progress will be slow on account of hard or deep snow, a car loaded with coal should be taken along by the helper engine. If there is plenty of snow the supply of water can easily be made in the engine tanks by commencing to shovel snow into them before they are more than half empty. ''Every snow plow, engine and helper engine should be supplied with a piece of steam hose 472 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. which can be attached to the syphon cock and reach from it to the water hole in the back of the tank. With this hose an engine steaming well can quickly make a full tank of water from snow shoveled into the tank. It is also useful to thaw out the machinery or clean the track rails of ice. ''In plowing snow the length of runs and the speed of the engine should always be in propor- tion to the depth and length of the snow drifts. If the drifts are deep and long and likely to stick the plow, a good long run should be taken on the clear track so that the plow engine may acquire its greatest speed before striking the drift. A good engineer who has had some practice in bucking snow will so handle his engine that very little shoveling by the men will be needed. ''It is not advisable to start out on the road with a snow plow outfit during a heavy storm, but everything should be ready to make a start as soon as the storm is over. The snow plow should be attached to the best and heaviest en- gine in service on the division where it is used. "The man in charge of a snow plow outfit should use his best judgment and have his wits about him at all times, that he may not be caught on the road with a dead engine or be wrecked, and block the road for other trains. It is much bet- ter for the Company's interests and those of all others concerned when all accidents are avoided, even should it take much longer time to open up the road. "The engineer of the snow plow engine should sound the whistle frequently when approaching MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 473 a cut, so that section men if working there will be warned in time to get out of the cut. When the snow plow is making repeated runs for a big snow drift, the signal to come ahead should never be given until all the snow shovelers have left the cut. It is very difficult for men to climb out of a cut where the snow is deep, and many acci- dents have occurred where approaching trains have failed to warn the men in time, or where the men have neglected to look out for the dan- ger until it was too late. If the men with the snow plow are always on the alert and careful and conscientious in the discharge of their duties, the safety of all concerned will be assured and the work will progress rapidly. " When a snow drift is so long and deep that it may stick the snow plow twice, the best policy is to shovel out snow enough from the approach end of the drift to enable the snow plow to go through in the second run. In this way the labor of digging out the engine a second time may be avoided. "All very hard snow should be broken up by the men and the crust thrown out before striking it with a snow plow. The shock felt when a snow plow vStrikes a hard drift is sometimes very great and often damages the machinery or knocks the plow from the track. The force of concus- sion may be materially lessened by having the men clean a good flange way, and then shovel out of the face and top of the drift enough snow to make a gradual incline of about one foot to the rod. Besides reducing the force of the shock 474 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. the above method of preparing a hard snow drift enables the snow plow to open a much greater distance at a run.* Snow Plows. The Rotary snow plow is illus- trated by Fig. 344. The leading features of the * Rotary' are: 1. The machinery of the Rotary is much simpler, very much stronger, and is better ad- apted for the work it has to perform than that of any other steam snow plow or excavator. 2. The machinery of the Rotary is underneath the floor of the pilot house and cab, and is se- curely fastened to the extra heavy steel and iron frame which carries the machine, and is so cov- ered with iron plates as to secure absolute safety to those operating it. 3. Owing to the perfect mechanical principles upon which the Rotary is constructed, its weight is properly distributed over its trucks and varies but a few thousand pounds when in working order. 4. The Rotary is the only steam snow plow which has a perfect working ice cutter and flanger which will absolutely protect it from de- railment by snow or ice. 5. The Rotary is the only steam snow plow which cuts the snow from the bank and dis- charges the same at a single revolution. 6. The Rotary is the only steam snow plow ever operated which has not spread the rails and broken down bridges, and is consequently the only steam snow plow which can be run out ahead of trains with safety. ***The Trackman's Helper." Kindelan, pp. 240-253. MAINTENAI^GE OF WAT. 475 O CO o < o 476 BUILDING AND REPjURING RAILWAYS. Seasons^ Work. "As to the seasons for doing the different kinds of work, it may be said that general improvements, tile drainage, reballasting, etc., can best be carried on from late spring to late autumn, but all such work should, as far as possible, be planned and arranged for beforehand, so that the track may not be disturbed for re- ballasting just after the section gang has com- pleted a thorough surfacing. Work trains and floating gangs for ditching, ballasting, widening cuts, etc., and special gangs on new interlocking plants, rearrangement of yards, repairing or building structures, etc., may be worked at any time from the end of one winter to the beginning of another. For the ordinary work on the sec- tions no set rules or program of procedure can be formulated, as the requirements vary in dif- ferent sections of the country. In general, how- ever, the year may be divided into four seasons, and the work done during these seasons prac- tically as outlined below: Spring. "As soon as the winter is over, all likelihood of snow past, and the frost coming out of the ground, the work of reducing and re- moving the shims should be commenced. The frost will, of course, remain longer in the road- bed in cuts than on exposed banks. Low joints must be raised, spikes driven, bolts tightened, cattle guards and road crossings cleared and re- paired, ditches cleaned, fences repaired, portable snow fences taken down and piled, rubbish and old material cleared from the right of way, and the necessary lining and surfacing done to put MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 4.77 the track in good condition previous to the more extensive work later in the season. At the same time sign posts and telegraph poles are straight- ened, fences repaired, and side tracks and yards overhauled. The gang (if not already increased) is then increased to its maximum number and the work of renewing ties is commenced, the ties having been previously distributed on the section. About four days a week should be spent in putting in the ties, all ties being fully tamped as soon as they are in place. The other two days are spent on other necessary work. On some roads the tie renewals are done quickly at the beginning of the season, while on others this work is spread out through the season. The former is by far the better plan, as the continued disturbance resulting from the latter plan is very detrimental to the maintenance of good track. When the ties are all in, the work of thorough lining and surfacing preparatory for the heavy summer traffic is commenced. The lining is done first on account of the bad line resulting from the tie renewals, but the surfacing should follow very closely. The gauging is done at the same time. Ballasting is done after the new ties have been put in. In surfacing, care must be taken not to raise the track too much, but only to give a uniform surface, the track being raised out of a face only about once in four or five years. Sumrner. " Besides the work of surfacing, rail renewals may be done at any convenient time between spring and winter. The new rails are sometimes laid before the ties are renewed, but 478 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. it is better to put the ties in first and have them thoroughly tamped up, especially if there are many bad ties. A general inspection of spikes, bolts, nuts and nutlocks is then to be made. All worn, bent, broken or improperly driven spikes are removed, the holes plugged, and new spikes are driven. Broken or loose bolts are made good. Switches and switch connections, frogs, guard rails, etc., need to be carefully inspected and re- paired. As fast as the regular surfacing is com- pleted, the ballast should be dressed to the stan- dard cross-section, and the toe of slope lined to a * grass line' about 5 feet 6 inches from the rail. Tile drainage, correction of signs, and general work not interfering with the track itself can best be done during the summer. Spare time can also be spent in trimming up yard tracks, and clearing yards and station grounds. Autumn. ''Weeds should be cut at least once a year and the best time for this is just before seeding. The grass on the right of way should be mowed, bushes cleared and trimmed, and in cases where fires cause trouble, a fire guard may be formed by plowing a narrow strip about 50 feet on each side from the track. Burnt or decayed trees likely to fall near the track should also be re- moved, and the dry brush, old ties, etc., may now be burned. Old material should also be cleared up. About a month before the commencement of the winter or rainy season, a general surfacing, lining, gauging and dressing of the track should be done starting at the farther end of the section and working steadily to the other end. The MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 479 track itself should be put in condition at the same time and the spikes and joints seen to. When this is done ditching must be undertaken, the ditches being cleaned out and improved where necessary to give the necessary width and grade. The more thoroughly this work is done the better will the track be during the winter. Trenches should also be cut under switch rods to prevent water or snow collecting around them and freezing. The culverts and waterways must then be cleared of brush and obstructions, and any signs of scour or undermining looked for, while streams should be examined above and below the culverts and any obstructions removed. After this there is plenty of work to be done in cutting and burning weeds, repairing fences, repairing and erecting snow fences, and stacking additional portable snow fences where they will be needed. Track signs and telegraph poles have to be in- spected and cattle guards and crossings cleaned up. Yards and side tracks may be profitably cleaned, drained, leveled up and repaired before the snow falls. Winter. ''The winter work with reduced track forces is largely that of inspecting the track and making small repairs; also looking after the spikes, bolts, frogs and switches. Such work will occupy the time between snow storms or in fine weather. During snow storms the switches, frogs and guard rail flangeways must be kept clear as also all signal and interlocking. connections. Salt is used to melt the snow but oil afterwards should be applied to all moving parts, such as slide 480 BUILDING AND REPAIRINO RAILWAYS. plates, bell crank levers, etc., as the salt water has a tendency to rust the iron, making the parts move hard. In heavy snow storms the section men must work in clearing the track and help the snow gang or shovelers. In the intervals of fine weather rails, ties, lumber, fence material, etc., may be distributed, ready for spring work. Heav- ing of the track by frost has now to be expected, and proper precautions must be taken to keep the track in surface by shimming, while in very bad places blocking may be necessary. The ditches should be examined as soon as any thaw sets in, and kept clear of ice or packed snow, so as to allow free passage for the water."* Changing Rails. On roads having heavy traffic, it is customary to change rails on Sundays, pre- paring the track on week days. On roads with light traffic, rails can be changed at any time. One side of the track should be changed at a time. Preparijig Track Material for Sunday Work. Rails and splices generally require to be filed on the ends to a uniform surface, so as to remove projections; this work is therefore included in preparing the track, though properly speaking it should be done at the mill. The following is the organization of men for such work, namely: The first thing to be done is to put four men on the car of splices, two on each end, to file and inspect the splices, each man having a small bench to lay the splice on to facilitate the filing; after they are filed they should be thrown on a car, laying them at right angles to each other the full length of the splice; this will facilitate their being ^''Railway Track and Track Work." Tratman, pp. 288-289. MAINTENANCE OF WAY, 481 counted. When the men have sufficient room on the car they are filing on, they should pile the splices behind them in like manner. Rails, splices, bolts, nut locks and plugs should be dis- tributed at the same time as the rails. It is neces- sary, however, to have half of the cars which are loaded with rails turned on a turntable or Y block to admit of their being unloaded, with the brand on the outside of the rails as they will be put in the track. Unloading Rails. Care should be exercised in unloading rails. Rails, on gondola cars espe- cially, should be let down to the ground on skids, and each skid should be provided with a pulley on the upper end, placed below its surface; a rope with a hook sufficiently large to receive a rail should be used through this pulley for lower- ing the rails to the ground; each skid should be provided at its lower end with a round iron pro- jection, around which the rope is turned for the purpose of controlling the rails while being low- ered. Two men on the ground, operating the ropes raise the hooks to the upper end of the skids, when one foreman and twelve men (hand- ling seventy-six-pound rails) will place the rail in the hooks and lower the same to the ground. The first named two men, in addition to lowering these rails, will lift the skids as the car is moved ahead. On another car are the rails for the other side of the track, the men being similarly organ- ized. Unloading a rail on each side prevents moving the train so often and obviates the men passing from one car to another. Time may be saved by unloading two rails from each car be- fore moving the train ahead, unloading the next two rails one rail length ahead of the last two. 27 Vol. 13 482 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, Two men on the splice car will distribute the splices, bolts and nut locks, and two men with a basket will distribute the plugs from the supply car. Filing Rails, Etc. As soon as the rails are un- loaded, men should be set at work to file the ends of the rails underneath the heads and up- per side of the base. After the rails are unloaded, the men should be organized as follows, namely: One foreman and eight men with tongs should string the rails along the outer edge of the ties; one man with an adze should level any project- ing ends of same, and one man should tack-spike all unspliced ends of each four rails. For six- bolted splices, six men should bolt the rails and lay the splices, bolts and nut locks at each un- spliced end. Four men should remove all the bolts that can be removed with safety from the rails in the track; these men should also put the nut locks, or washers and nuts, on each bolt as it is removed. Four men should pull the spikes that can be pulled with safety, those remaining being left slightly started. On tangents, four spikes to each rail are sufficient to leave unpuUed, leaving one of these spikes at each joint; on curves, six spikes to the rail should be left, and one in the slot hole. These spikes should be pulled on the inside when the same sized rails are to be used, and when of different base, the in- side of one rail and outside of the other should be pulled, which will admit of their being laid retaining the same gauge. When pulling spikes on curves, they should be pulled on the side hav- ing the ties cut down the least, which will more readily admit of ties being adzed. Four men should be at work score-adzing each tie on the MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 483 side from which the spikes are removed, keeping well on the outside of the spikes. As each sub- gang finishes its work, it should clear the ballast between the ties and underneath the rails; the other foreman should look after the sub-gangs, except rail stringers. Two boys should be en- gaged in carrying water for the men. In all, forty men will prepare in the above manner one mile of track per day. On double track, one track should be used to distribute from, allowing schedule trains to pass on the other, flagging all other trains and allowing them to pass as they arrive.* Jointing Rails. As it is impossible to change rails and have them joint on the old ties, it is necessary that these ties be changed to admit of the slot holes being spiked, and thus prevent the rails from running. Moving Old Track. Improvements of line, especially double tracking, when the old line is being improved at the same time, render it neces- sary to either take up and relay the old track or move it over to the new line. When the change * Gang for Changing Rails on Sunday.— The same gang of men that prepared the track at the rate of one mile per day will change the rails at the same rate, organized as follows, namely; Men removing bolts 4 Men throwing out rails 2 Men adzing ties 13 Men spiking rails, joint slot holes, quarters and centers 4 Foremen 2 Men pulling spikes 4 Men plugging spike holes 2 Man guiding and testing adzing with single-headed spotting boards with face one-half inch broad 1 Water boys 2 As adzing is more or less on account of ties being cut into, these men will require to be increased or diminished accord- ingly. The remainder of the spiking can be done by this gang the next day, as well as tamping up all ties that are loose or low, especially the joint ties. They should also go over all bolts with wrenches and tighten them up. 484 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. of line is within twenty feet throw, it is cheaper to move the track than to take it up and relay. This work, like changing rails, is usually done on Sundays. It is, however, possible to be done in the week, if there is an occasional half hour or so between trains. It requires skill and scientific ability. Proper Care of Engineers^ Stakes. Grade stakes set by engineers for top of rail for new line should be set so as to be clear of the track when it is being moved to place. If, however, the same grade is to be retained, the foreman in charge should put two intelligent men to trans- ferring the level of the lower rail, using a long straight edge and track level for this purpose. The engineers' center line stakes are liable to be in different positions relative to the old track to be moved, necessitating the latter passing over these stakes in many cases. In order to obviate as much as possible the liability of their being moved, they should be driven sufficiently low to clear the bottom of the rail. Another manner of dealing with these stakes is to pull the spikes out of each tie surrounding the same, so as to allow of the track being moved and leave those ties un- touched. This, however entails considerable ex- pense. Another manner of dealing with these stakes is to transfer them so as to be entirely clear of the track when moving. Too great care cannot be taken with these stakes, in order to facilitate the lining and surfacing of the track so changed. Preparing Track for Sunday Work. The bed for the track on a new line should be ballasted and leveled off on tangents, and elevated on curves so that the bed will be within two inches MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 435 of the bottom of the ties. It is necessary to pre- pare this bed with more than ordinary care, so that when the track is moved over to its new position trains can be allowed to pass with- out the necessity of holding them until the track is tamped. All trains, however should run slowly over this track. When old track is to be thrown entirely clear of the old bed, it is not necessary to dig it out between the ties, but only to loosen it up with a pick, so as to make it easier to throw. This loosening might be omit- ted, but in that case it would take half as many more men to pull the track out of the old bed. If old track is to be thrown less than the length of a tie, the part occupying the old bed should be dug out slightly below the bed of the ties, and the remainder loosened with a pick. This being done, the track is ready to be thrown. Moving the Track on Sunday, It is neces- sary that good judgment be used in determining what amount of track can be moved to allow ne- cessary trains to pass without being held, and also to determine the proper place to cut the track so as to prevent the necessity of pulling it longitudinally more than one foot each way. The men may be divided into sub-gangs of not more than thirty men with two foremen each, and a certain piece of track allotted to them. This number of men will admit of being divided, us- ing one gang behind the other in throwing the track, or have one surfacing while the other is finishing the lining and surfacing later. When throwing the track it should not be moved more than twelve inches at any time; this saves the rails and splices and prevents twisting the ties. Rail cuts, to allow for expansion or contraction, 486 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. should be at the center of curves, or at as many more places as the degree of the curve and dis- tance to be thrown render necessary. Not less than six men should be placed at each cut, so as to employ three in cutting rails and three drill- ing; they should first remove the splices from two joints, one on each rail, and pull the spikes on the sides opposite to which the track is thrown so that the ties will be taken along as the track is moved. In order to pass trains after curves have been moved, the line should be changed on the tangents by reversed curve. When the track is in place, two men in each gang with sledge ham- mers should be put at work tapping the ties to proper space and square to the rail. Track in cinder may be tamped only with shovels and tamped with bars later, after it has consolidated. To Move Track During the Week. After the track is prepared, it is necessary to know how much shorter or longer it wall be when moved. This can be ascertained by setting temporary stakes. They should be placed on the line of rail where its position will be when changed, measuring along this new line to the similar rail of the old track, after which this latter rail should be measured between the same points; thus the difference between them is obtained. This can only be done correctly by using a steel tape. When moving track during warm weather, the track to be changed should be first exam- ined, and for every tight or close joint one- eighth inch allow^ed for expansion; the sum of these ^allowances must be taken into considera- tion in ascertaining the difference between the two rails. The rails should then be cut and drilled ready for use. When the time selected MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 487 to make the change arrives, and the last sched- ule train has passed, gangs should begin to throw the track, always throwing toward the point or points cut loose. As soon as the throw- ing of the track is started, the rails at these points are replaced by those already cut. When the track is finally thrown to position, the ends can be spliced and bolted. Policing. ''This work includes the general maintenance of the roadway in neat and proper condition, and is to be attended to continually. Weeds must be kept cut and trimmed to the grass- line; ballast properly dressed and sloped; ditches cleaned; rubbish picked up, and spare mate- rial properly placed. Combustible material must be kept cleared from around bridges, trestles, signal posts, etc., dirt and gravel must be re- moved from bridge seats and trestle caps, and care taken to prevent ballast from working over onto the bridge abutments or falling into streets below. Large loose stones may be neatly piled around the bases of signal posts, sign posts, etc., to keep vegetation from growing. All trees that are in danger of falling on the track, or that in- terfere with the passage of trains, or obscure the view must be removed or trimmed. If they are on private land, and the owners object to such work, a report must be made as to the circum- stances. Any interference with or obstruction of ditches, culverts, etc., by land owners must be prevented or a report made thereon. '*A11 old track material, links and pins, or other material from cars, old ties, rubbish, etc., must be picked up and removed from the track, 488 BUILDING AND REPAIBINO RAILWAYS. all scrap being carried to the section tool house to be properly sorted and properly disposed of. All scrap iron, lumber, etc., must be neatly piled on platforms. New material, such as rails, ties, etc., must be properly piled or stacked, and no material should be thus piled within eight feet of the track. '' Care should be taken to have a neat and tidy appearance of the section, with track full spiked and bolted, switches cleaned and well oiled, cattle guards and road crossings in good condi- tion, fences in repair and wing fences at cattle guards kept whitewashed, ballast evenly and uniformly sloped and free from weeds, sod line cleanly cut at foot of slopes, and grass and weeds not allowed to grow too high before cutting. Side tracks in yards should also be kept free from weeds and rubbish, old paper, scrap, etc. Station grounds also must be kept neat. Signs must be upright and in good repair. Section houses must be clean and tidy with tools, track material, scrap, etc., properly sorted and placed. ''Every possible means, consistent with gen- eral attention to track work, should be taken to keep people from walking on or at the side of the track, and from using the railway as a public path. This is specially necessary near cities where the traffic is heavy. In such cases where people habitually walk on the track, a liberal covering of coarse broken stone or slag, or even cinders may be laid upon the ballast between the rails and tracks and upon the berme at the edge of the roadway. This will soon drive off those MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 489 persons who cannot comfortably walk on the ties. This matter is far too often neglected, and rail- ways are themselves partly responsible for the habit which the public has acquired of treating the tracks as a public way. Station Grounds and Buildings. ''In order to have a good reputation for the road on the part of the public, it is very desirable that the grounds at stations should be kept clean and tidy and free from rubbish. On some roads this work is dele- gated to the station agent, who has his men attend to it, while on other roads it is part of the section gang's work. The latter is the better plan if the force is sufficient and the work is done by direction of the roadmaster, the station agent not being given authority to employ the section men for this purpose when he thinks proper. On roads having stations with lawns, flower beds and nice grounds, a special force is sometimes kept to attend to them. For instance the Boston and Albany Railway has on each of its principal di- visions a gardener with 5 to 12 men who grade, plant and seed the grounds, and take care of them. These men cut the grass with lawn mowers and do the weeding, trimming of shrub- bery, etc. They also attend to places where the banks are graded and seeded. This force is in- cluded in the roadway department. The Penn- sylvania Railway also employs landscape en- gineers and a large force of gardeners and spends large sums of money in making and maintaining attractive grounds. As a result it has a reputa- tion for the appearance of its stations. Some 490 BUILDING AND EEFAIMING BAILWAYS. western roads including the Fremont, Elkhorn & Missouri Valley Railway have adopted the policy of making a 'park" at most of the stations, sod- ding the ground and planting trees. It is speci- ally important to have attractive grounds and pleasant surroundings at important stations and at junctions where passengers may have to change trains or to stop over for connecting trains. ''In all ordinary cases, however, much may be done by foremen and station agents who are not , averse to putting in a little time in improving the appearance of the station grounds. The agent especially should see that the grounds and plat- forms are kept free from old papers and other rubbish. A plot of turf, cinder or gravel path- way, a flowerbed, a creeper on the building or on a pile of rock work, can be had with little trouble and have a great effect upon the general appear- ance of a station. The approaches and surround- ings on the town side of the station should be cared for as well as the grounds on the railway side. The platforms should be convenient and in good repair and the fences kept in repair. Many a division superintendent and roadmaster can aid materially in maintaining a good appearance along the road by fitting up a car with brake pumps and paint tanks for painting by compressed air, the Avork being done rapidly and economically by a few men, and being applicable to stations, freight-sheds, ice-houses, pump houses, section houses, signal houses, signal towers, cabins, sta- tion fences, signal posts, and signs, etc., and also MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 491 for white wnshing cattle guard fences, interior of sheds, etc. 'They aids, spaces between the tracks, etc. at stations should be neatly leveled, and covered with ashes, and should be kept in order by the section men, but strict rules should be made and enforced against the scattering of ashes and cin- ders from engines (which should be dumped at specified points) the sweeping of rubbish and dirt from the station onto the track, and the sweep- ing out of refuse and dirt from the cars upon the track. Every station should have a can or bin for waste paper and rubbish which should be emptied at intervals into a dirt car; similar re- ceptacles should be provided at yards or places where cars are cleaned. At large terminal yards one man may be kept busy cleaning up paper and rubbish. It is a good plan to have station inspectors to see that the stations, waiting rooms, closets, etc., are kept in proper and sanitary con- dition, and that the grounds are properly cared for. Cleanliness should be enforced in every case, but the standard of appearance will, of course, vary according to the financial condition of the road and the size of the force. The same is true of section boarding houses and tool houses. Old Material, "In all renewals and the period- ical policing of the track, cleaning up of yards, etc., it must be borne in mind that new material must be properly used and cared for, and not wasted, and also that no old material should be simply thrown away as useless. Even if really 492 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, useless for railway purposes, the material in the aggregate has a certain selling value, which, if the material is thrown away, is wrongfully lost to the Company. These remarks apply also to the wreckage and scrap resulting from train acci- dents and the burning of cars. Record must be kept of the disposal of all scrap and old material. '*01d rails should not be left hidden in the grass and weeds of the right of way, but properly piled for shipment as they may be used for side tracks or branches, sold for scrap, or even made into new rails of somewhat lighter section by heating and rerolling. Old ties have rarely much value, but if thrown away, sold, burnt, used for cribbing, etc., all unbroken spikes should first be pulled, and when ties are burned the ashes should be raked over for spikes. In piling old rails, the splice bars and bolts should all be re- moved, good splice bars sorted in pairs and broken bars kept separate. Nuts and bolts, if good, should be kept together, but broken bolts should have the nuts removed and kept separate. Many spikes that now go from the track to the scrap heap (or down the bank) might be used over again if properly driven in the first place and properly drawn. Foremen should be careful to see that all track and car material, etc., is picked up regularly and that their men do not get in the habit of flinging old bolts, spikes, etc., down the bank. In removing bolts, the nuts should be unscrewed properly, the bolt taken out, and the lock and nut put back on the bolt. If, however, the nut is so rusted or wedged on the bolt that MAINTENANCE OF WAT, 493 it will not unscrew, it is more economical to knock off the nut with the end of bolt in it, with a sledge, than to waste time in forcing the wrench. Only good discipline and good manage- ment of men can insure the exercise of proper judgment as to when to knock off nuts in this way. If a wedge or rusted bolt has to be knocked out, care should be taken not to hit the head of the rail. ''At the section tool house the scrap should be piled and sorted (as described under 'Policing') nuts taken off broken bolts, etc., this work being done in wet or stormy weather or when the men cannot work on the track. All scrap iron, lum- ber, etc., must be piled neatly on platforms, car scrap, links, drawbars, couplers, etc., being kept separate. Small scrap, such as bolts, nuts and spikes, may be kept in shallow boxes or in old spike and bolt kegs. Rails may be piled on the right of way at mile posts, but should not be piled with splice bars and bolts left on. Old ties may be stacked on the right of way until per- mission is given to burn them, the ties removed being piled at the end of each day's work and not left in the ditch or on the roadbed. '' Under this heading it will be appropriate to refer to the treatment and disposal of the mate- rial found in the general scrap pile at the division points or main shops, which subject has been dis- cussed by Mr. J. N. Barr of the Chicago, Mil- waukee & St. Paul Railway in a paper before the Western Railway Club. The style of material delivered for the scrap pile is significant of the 494 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, character of the men sending it, as for instance one man who is somewhat careless and finds it easier to nse new material than to sort out the serviceable from the unserviceable scrap at his tool house, will send in many old bolts and nuts that are good for further use. In some cases it may be advisable to go to the expense of putting in a set of small rolls, to bring odd sizes of iron to standard sizes for bolts, plates, etc. ; a shear (perhaps operated by an airbrake cylinder with 4 feet lever and 6 inch jaw) for cutting rods, or even to build a small furnace for heating angles, etc., to be rerolled. Of course it must be borne in mind that while with a single large scrap pile at one large central shop it may be economical to carefully sort and handle the material and treat it as above noted, this may not be the case with several smaller piles at divisional shops. Also, that in some cases an article made by treat- ing scrap may be more expensive than a newly purchased article of the same kind. These are matters for the exercise of judgment and cal- culation in order to insure real economy. *'In most scrap piles there is a great propor- tion of bolts. These may be sorted as to their diameters and length and stored in compart- ments. Stub ends of |-inch to 1-inch bolts, about b\ inches long, may be used for making track bolts, a bolt heading machine at the shops being equipped Avith suitable dies. Nuts may be cleaned of rust by pickling in a weak solution of hydro- chloric acid and then used again, or if damaged they may be slightly compressed by dies in a bolt MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 495 heading machine and then retapped. Plates and shapes may be utilized for small plate girders to cross culverts, etc. Lining bars, crawbars, wrenches, etc., may be successfully made from scrap steel tires, and the slide plates for switches may be made from elliptic springs, the plate being heated to a cherry red and then put in a bulldozer, where it is sheared off and has two square holes punched at one operation. Old flues, which bring little as scrap, make good fencing for station grounds, posts for track signs, or grates for cinder pits, where fireboxes are cleaned out. Old fish plates or plain splice bars may be sheared to length and stamped to shape for rail braces. **In sorting, care should be taken to pick out any new or practically uninjured material which may, by accident, or carelessness have got in with the scrap. When sorted the stuff should be ar- ranged so as to be easily seen and got at, but dis- crimination should be exercised so as not to store a lot of miscellaneous material on the chance of its being of some possible use eventually."* Inspection. Inspection of tracks should be made daily by the track walker, twice a week by the section boss, and once a week by the roadmaster. Figs, 345 and 348 illustrate inspection cars suit- able for roadmasters, engineers, superintendents and others when examining track or other por- tions of the property distant from depots. The following is a description of a motor inspection car, designed for inspection purposes. * "Railway Track and Trackwork," Tratman, pp. 311-315. 4v,^6 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Fig. 345. INSPECTION HAND CAR. Especially designed for light uses in track work; made as light as pos- sible, consistent with strength Two revolving chairs on front platform. Weight, with chairs, 470 lbs; without chairs, 390 lbs. Wheels, wood centre, light pattern, 22 inches diameter,- or 20-inch light steel, as desired. The car weighs about 300 pounds and can be quickly put on and removed from the rails by one man, being so arranged that it can be pushed about on one wheel by lifting up one end. Gasoline and an electric battery supply the motive power. The battery consists of a series of eight dry cells, which with proper care will run the car over 900 miles. To start the car is simply to turn on the gaso- line, move a lever which connects the battery with the cylinders — the work of but a few sec- onds. To stop — the gasoline and battery are turned off and the brakes applied. As it can be started in a few seconds, as fre- quent stops as desired can be made and no delay MAINTENANCE OF WAT. 497 Fig. 348. DOUBLE OR FOUR- WHEELED MOTOR CAR, FOR INSPECTION PURPOSES. A variation of the Motor car is the double type. In this case two com- plete single three-wheeled motor cars are used, and after discarding the third wheel, together with the arm and brace rod, the two main frames are joined by a seat that runs across the front of both, containing ample room for four persons. Back of this, but between the two main frames, is a plat- form upon which a considerable amount of hand baggage or tools can be carried if desirable. At the rear of the car the two driving axles are united by a connecting shaft having universal couplings, by which means any pro- pelling impulse communicated to either of the rear drivers is received by both. There is also on each of the main frames a rear seat for an operator, making a capacity on the device for six persons. Each main frame having its full double engine, there is ample power for use of the car with its full load under all ordinary circumstances. These double cars are so arranged that they can be disconnected at any time and used as two three- wheeled cars. experienced when ready to proceed. A speed of over thirty miles an hour can be developed on a straight level track, so that the car affords a quick and satisfactory means of getting over the ground. The speed is always under the control of the operator, and the car can be run as fast or as slow as desired. It is inexpensive to operate. A gal- lon of gasoline will ordinarily run the car over seventy-five miles. Provision is made for carry- ing with the car four gallons, or sufficient for a run of about 300 miles. It will carry three per- sons; the operator who sits in the rear, and two passengers on the front seat, which is shown open in the cut, but which folds up for convenience when not in use. 28 Vol. 13 498 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING BAILWAY8. On some railroad systems there is an annua] inspection, this generally is done in the Fall. This inspection covers track and the property generally. ''The annual inspection of the Wabash Rail- way is conducted to determine the condition of each section and division of main track and sid- ings, in the following particulars: 1, line and surface; 2, level; 3, joints, ties and switches in the main track; 4, drainage; 5, policing; 6, sid- ing (meaning all tracks outside of the main track, and these must be inspected, marked and kept separately from markings on main track). These conditions shall be determined by a system of marking for every mile of road; 10 shall indicate perfection ; 5 shall indicate a condition unsafe for a speed of 25 miles per hour, and the worst possible condition, intermediate numbers being used to indicate intermediate conditions. "The annual report shall show the total ex- pense for labor for the year on each mile of main track, and each mile of side track, the rating being determined as hereinafter set forth. The yard sections shall be classified together for the first and second premiums the same as the dis- tricts. ''The final rating of each section, for classifica- tion, shall be made as follows: The conditions noted under the markings Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 shall be reduced to an average rating, which, in a column of the report shall represent the gen- eral average for conditions noted on main track. The general average of conditions under marking MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 499 No. 6 in its column, will indicate the general average of conditions noted on all sidings. " Sections having iron rail shall be allowed one point over steel rail, sections having steel rail in service eight years and upwards, half a point, provided this difference does not increase the re- sult above 10. This point will be added to final average and will not be noted by the inspectors. The sections on each division roadmaster's ter- ritory showing the highest general average shall be rewarded by a premium of $35.00 to the sec- tion foreman and the second highest average by $25.00. *'l. Line. — True line means straight line on tangents and uniform curvature on curves so far as the eye can detect. When these requirements are fulfilled the condition must be represented by 10. ''Continuous and very apparent deviations from the true alignment over the entire length of one mile, w^hich would limit the maximum speed for the safe passage of trains to 25 miles per hour, must be represented by 5. A condition of align- ment which would be difl3.cult for a train to pass, should be recorded as 0. ''Conditions intermediate between those de- scribed above shall be indicated in the proper ratio representing these conditions. "Surface. True surface means a uniform grade line between changes of grade, and the conditions must be noted as in regard to line. "2. Level. The inspector must watch the level index and must note unusual oscillations of 500 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING RAILWAYS, the car due to imlevel track on tangents, want of uniformity of elevation on curves, or unequal gauge. ''If the inspector can detect no vibration or oscillation of the car due to unlevel track on tangents, and want of uniformity on elevation of curves, he will record the condition as 10 and in- termediate conditions must be recorded as already noted. ''3. Joints, ties and switches. A perfect joint is one that is fully bolted and tight. Ties must be properly spaced as per standard plan, and fully spiked with four spikes in each tie. Ends of ties, one side must be parallel with rail. Switches must be placed exactly as shown in standard specifications. When these are fulfilled the con- dition must be represented by 10 and intermedi- ate conditions recorded as already noted. '%, Drainage. The ditches shall be uniform and free from obstruction, and with sufficient in- cline to afford proper drainage. Ballast should be uniform and equally distributed. Any condi- tion less than described in the foregoing will be represented by such fraction of 10 as it bears to the required condition. ''5. Policing. This shall consist of the follow- ing items, and a perfect condition in all these re- spects shall be represented by a marking of 10. ''A. Cross ties and iron must be piled accord- ing to the general rules. '' B. Grass, bushes and weeds should be kept cut close to the ground within limits of right of way, and not allowed to grow closer than within MAINTENANCE OF WAT, 501 6 feet of the rails. Stumps and logs should be cleared from within limits of right of way. ''C. Road crossings must be in accordance with standard plans and must be clear and safe for the passage of animals and vehicles. ''D. Signs must be placed in position as re- quired in standard clearance diagram. ''E. Cross and line fences shall be kept in re- pair after being constructed by fence gang. They shall be of standard plans. Cross fences and cattle guards shall be clear of all grass and weeds, and shall be whitewashed. ''Any conditions less than prescribed in fore- going subdivisions will be represented by such fraction of 10 as it bears to the required condi- tion. ''Expense. The section which is maintained at the least expense shall receive 10 points. The amount of expense on each section to be deter- mined as follows: From the aggregate expense of the year shall be deducted the cost for extra work, such as placing ties, rails, ballast and ditch- ing for which credit will be made as follows: Ties in rock ballast credited at 20 cents per tie; ties in gravel, cinder or earth ballast 8 cents per tie; rock ballast credited at $2.50 per car; other bal- last at $1.00 per car; rail laid credited at $1.50 per 100 feet, ditching at $1.00 per 100 feet. After this deduction is made the section show- ing the least expense will be marked 100, which, divided by 10, will give the rating of that section. For each additional $10.00 of expense over the lowest section for all other sections, deduct one point from 100 points, the remainder after being 502 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. divided by 10 shall be the rating of that section regarding expenses on the general report, and shall be recorded as the average expense of all miles on that section. ''The inspection committee snail consist of six or more persons or shall be arranged as shown on the accompanying form. (The form or card is 9i inches long and 6 inches high with ten lines under the heading.) The general superintend- ent will assign duties to inspectors on the day of inspection. The placing of different members of general committee on the several sub-commit- tees will be performed by the officer in charge of inspection. Each member of these committees will be furnished with a form showing the condi- tions which he must note upon which he must indicate the rating of each mile. " The officer in charge of inspection shall take up all forms when rating has been placed thereon, and make a general report to the general superin- tendent showing the rating of all sections as hereinbefore described, showing the names of all persons entitled to a premium. The general superintendent will then cause the awards to be made, and have signs placed on sections to which premiums have been awarded, which will indi- cate the standing of that section on each subdi- vision. " The form of the report is as follows, being printed on sheets about 12 inches wide and 24 inches high. The line of the first prize is printed in heavy faced type and that of the second prize in italics."* * " Railway Track and Track Work/' Tratman, pp. 337-340 MAINTENANCE OF WAY. 503 1 ■asuadxa 1 to I* CO P r Policing. •S90ua^ «D «o •aSBUiBja ift Com- mittee No. 2. 2 per- sons. saqoams 'saiipuBsiuiof r|« o •sSmpis •80'Bjjns •aucq CO ©J - 03 •310BJ1 apis •i^oBj^ ui^H •noi509S •ic >u^s la -^ o O H O W 0^ ;z5 o o 504 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. d u 08 w " "" •• * Q rt s & - s - : 6 -d N « S '-I Pi . . a P4 : p4 •uonoas raniraajci o3 c3 22 00 Tf tr in •SniiBJ qS-bjqay ^ OS ^ 00 00 OS 00 00 00 •asuadxa 10 CO oi «o OS 10 OS CO OS •I-Bjauaf) 5D 00 oi OS CO OS os' •QSBni^ja 00 00 OS OS OS CO 0; •510'Bai ni-Bin 00 (M CO CO CO 'sgqoiTMS pui?. san 'siniop 00 OS OS OS OS •sSuipis 00 •ao-Bpns 00 Oi 00 00 o-l OS OS CO OS ^ OJ w •anil CJ 00 OS OS OS •joq-Bi joj aiini J9d asuadxg Os' CO s 3 1 •saiini 'q;Suai: CO «D OS ^^ g vO 1-H OS OS (M •joq-Bi Joj 9sn9dxa i^^ox 00 OS K? 00 OS OS ee ■j: d 03 '^ c8 a 2 0) d 0) Pi CD 0) 2 13 1 <1 Q 'Ji fo ^ t-3 •-5 ^ fl a 1 q3 ^ CO 6D g S3 CO ^3 a .9 .J £ w tf c3 •noTioas § - (M 00 (>j (M w l^UILDINO AND BEPAIRINO MAILWATS. that a worn-out tie possesses no value, its removal is diflBcult. The alignment of the track is also seriously disturbed.* The expenses attending a poor bridge are rela- tively greater than those of a poor rail or tie. The cost of removing such a structure may, indeed, exceed the original outlay. Leaving out of consideration, however, the cost of mainte- nance of cheap bridges, the incidental outlay they involve for persons killed or injured, property destroyed or damaged and the injury suffered by equipment (to say nothing of loss of revenue a company suffers by the distrust engendered in the mind of the community) is out of all proportion to the saving effected by the erection of an unsafe structure of this kind. In reference to structures of a temporary char- acter, such as depots, platforms, roundhouses, workshops and water stations, that we find uses to which old and worn-out ties may be put, namely: " To patch temporarily broken fences; to make footings for washing embankments; for temporary platforms for piling rails; fuel for drying sand at sand stations; fuel for sectionmen. Sawing up old ties for wood is also profitable to a company in many locali- ties." They may also be used by a company for starting fires and other purposes. * Ties manufactured from what we call soft woods are not only not able to withstand the w^ear and tear of a heavy busi- ness, but they decay much more quickly than oak and other hard wood ties. The cost, however, of transporting the latter and inserting them in the track is not greater than for the former; it is, therefore, manifestly for the interest of every company to use the latter when the difference in the purchase price is not greater than the subsequent difference in the length oi time the ties will last. MAINTENANCE AND OPE BAT ION. 563 clustered about many new enterprises, the inci- dental loss to the company erecting them in many cases far exceeds the cost of a first-class edifice. It follows, therefore, that the erection of such structures is inexcusable, except in those instances (not so frequent as supposed) where the necessities of a company render it un- avoidable. The injury to rolling stock and machinery by the use of inferior lubricants aptly illustrates the folly of buying material of inferior quality. The difference in first cost is oftentimes so marked, however, as to secure the purchase of the latter article. When this is so the charge upon the books for lubricants appears as a reduction of outlay and is quite likely to excite the admiration of directors and owners. The actual cost is never known, but comparisons will exhibit increased consumption. The destruction engendered will appear in the returns under other headings, which seemingly have no connection with it. The extra outlay will be seen in disbursements for repairs and renewals of equipment, for new axles, brasses and other parts of machinery, and in all the accounts incident to the working of trains, such as repairs of equipment, disbursements for people killed and injured, losses, damages, and services of lawyers and doctors. The increased cost may be traced step by step through all the labyrinths of the service, in the stoppage of trains, in the diminished usefulness of the plant, and in the myriad of expenses incident to the detention of 564 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. business. Every conceivable expense follows in the train of hot journal boxes, broken axles, torn up tracks, derailed trains and kindred mishaps that ever attend the use of poor lubricants. In connection with the cost of wheels, axles, frames, springs, bolts, nuts and kindred applian- ces, we find, as in the case of oils, that the relative cost of a good and a bad article is not alone manifest in the first price. The cost of the poor article will further appear in added disbursements for people killed and injured, losses and damages and all the multitudinous expenditures that attend accidents to trains. Other interests, foreign to the immediate pur- pose, attend the use of supplies. It frequently occurs that the purchase of material is made to facilitate the securing of business or the placating of someone. When this is so, the price represents the value of the article and the benefit derived from its purchase. Many other things, such as a desire to foster local interests, affect the source from which supplies are drawn, inducing the purchaser, it may be, to pay a rate above the mar- ket price. In such cases, of course, the indirect gain is expected to oft'set the direct loss. Prac- tices of this kind are of frequent occurrence. Generally, however, it may be said that the emer- gency that warrants going out of the general market to purchase presupposes an extreme case, and one, therefore, not to be considered as a factor in a general review of the procurement of railway material. MAINTENANCE AND OPEBATION. 565 The interests of a railroad are identical with those of the country in which it operates. It en- deavors, consequently, in every way to advance the affairs of its co-laborers — the local producer and consumer. But this assistance, however val- uable and real, never appears under specific head- ings on the books of the railroad. When aid is extended, as I have shown in the purchase of sup- plies, the added cost cannot be fixed, under any head, in the accounts. Separation, therefore, is not attempted; the total price paid for the mate- rial is charged to operating expenses, although a portion might, with more propriety, be charged to traffic. Particular operating accounts are thus burdened with disbursements foreign to their purpose. Before attempting to fix the cost of operating a company's property, it is apparent from the foregoing, we must know the circumstances at- tending its purchase and use of materials, includ- ing prime cost, indirect cost, distance supplies are hauled, cost of hauling, service of equipment, ex- pense of substitution, storage, shrinkage, interest, insurance, etc. The difference between affairs as they exist and as they are supposed to exist in the purchase and use of supplies, illustrates very fairly the dif- ference between practice and theory in railway operations. To the amateur the railway prob- lem is like a shallow cistern that may be dipped dry with a drinking cup, but to the practical worker and thinker it represents, in its economy, the problems of a mighty sea. :^6Q BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. Management of railroads requires that those who direct affairs shall be men trained in the discharge of business, fitted to govern, whose judgment has been trained by years of observa- tion, practical work and restraint. Men self- controlled and self-contained, forcible, luminous in their conception of great problems, and yet capable of employing simple and economical ex- pedients. They must possess, in fact, the busi- ness ability of the trader with the executive force of the general and statesman. They must be edu- cated in minor offices. No railway can afford to educate an officer in the position of an officer; it is at once too expensive and too demoralizing. The cost of working a property is greatly af- fected by the quality of the traffic and the length of haul. This is, perhaps, more particularly the case with freight than passenger business, for the reason that the former entails current expenses unknown to the latter. The expenses of railway companies now en- tailed for loading, unloading and storing freight are, in many respects, foreign to the original in- tent and purpose of common carriers, and, in many instances, not necessarily a part of their office. In some countries, notably in Great Britain, railway companies contract with teaming com- panies or employ carts of their own to haul MAINTEN^iNCE AND OFEBATION. 567 merchandise to and from stations. Much of the freight, however, is loaded by the shipper directly, upon the cars.* The freight rate charged by English companies does not uniformly include either the cost of loading, unloading or covering the goods. When such services are performed by the railway it makes a special charge therefor. It also makes an additional charge, in many cases, for cost of building and working side tracks. In America, on the other hand, it is usual for tho railroad companies to load and unload freight, and while they do not generally attend to the col- lection or delivery of freight at terminal points, they nevertheless place it in a secure warehouse, which they generally own and control.f No direct charge is made in America for load- ing or unloading, no matter what the length of haul. Nor is anything exacted specifically for the use of a company's warehouses, except in those cases where goods remain for an unreason- able length of time. A charge for demurrage is made in the case of cars that are not unloaded * The box or inclosed freight car so universally in use in America is little known upon English lines, the flat or open car being used by them, merchandise loaded upon it being covered, when necessary, with a tarpaulin. This vehicle is much lighter than the box car; indeed, it is much shorter and lighter than our flat or open car. f The exception to this rule is in the case of express com- panies, who conduct what in England is denominated " the par- cels traffic;" these companies not only collect much of the freight transported by them, but deliver it (in large towns) to the consignee, the charge for this service (within certain Um- its) being embraced in the general rate. 568 BUILDING AND MEPAIRING RAILWAYS. within a specified time, if it is the duty of the consignee to unload the freight. No charge is made by American companies for the use of side tracks. In England a special charge is made when traflBc is hauled but a short distance. Thus, the rate for six miles, or any fraction thereof, may be the same as for twelve miles. This is in addi- tion to the supplementary charge for loading, unloading, etc. Our custom with respect to this class of business is doubtless in practice not materially different, but the basis for the charge is not so well understood. The omission operates in favor of the shipper.^ The practices in this country in connection with loading, unloading and care of freight have assumed the habit of a fixed custom, though the duty does not properly fall within the province of a carrier. This is demonstrated, if demonstra- tion were necessary, by the discrimination which companies make against particular classes of freight, a discrimination the public acquiesces in. It is, perhaps, true that the labor can be per- formed by the railway to better advantage and at less expense than by its patron, but this does * In reference to the manner of settlement between the different lines for through traffic, or that which passes over several lines of railway, it is said to be the custom in England to deduct from the gross amount charged for performing the service a specified sum for terminal expenses, varying in amount as between London and provincial towns; this sum is apportioned between the companies receiving and delivering the traffic, after which the balance is divided upon the basis agreed upon, whatever it may be. MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION. 569 not alter the fact. It was at one time supposed that the community would provide cars required to do business, and would attend personally to the loading and unloading of freight, while the railway company would provide the track, and in some cases the motive power. It is the office of a carrier to transport the freight that is offered, not necessarily to load and unload it; that is the business of the owner. However, it is my purpose in this connection to notice the custom, not to suggest its change or modification. Practices are not uniform as to the articles which owners must load or unload, but vary according to real or supposed necessities of busi- ness. Usually, however, our carriers discrimi- nate only against coarse articles of freight, such as are bulky and not easily damaged, such as coal, grain, lumber, ores, pig iron and similar articles. From the foregoing it is apparent that a com- pany's outlay for station labor, warehouse and yard room is largely dependent upon the charac- ter of its business. If made up of freight which the carrier undertakes to handle, the terminal charges will be much greater than in other cases. These charges are incidental in character and contemplate an outlay for grounds, tracks, ware- houses, platforms, yards, elevators, depots and other machinery necessary to the economical and expeditious discharge of business. They vary so 570 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. greatly that before attempting to compute the expense of conducting a traffic their cost must be carefully ascertained. Terminal facilities, moreover, that cost but little at one point may involve enormous outlay at another. Thus, depot grounds and yard room that can be provided for a few dollars in an interior tov^n, cost millions of dollars in a great city. * The interest upon the capital invested in these facilities, whatever it may be, becomes a fixed charge upon the property and must not be overlooked in determining the cost of doing business. In reference to cost of handling different kinds of traflBc, the greatest difference exists, but the extent of this difference is little appreciated. Thus, the expense for station labor in connection with the movement of fifty thousand cars of coal, earning perhaps a million of dollars, will hardly be more than that for handling a few crocks of butter or the worn-out effects of an itinerant preacher. Differences of this character con- tinually occur in the operations of railroads and will ever confound those who seek to make a law or institute a practice that place them upon a common level. As soon might 'we prescribe a given quantity of food, drink, air or clothes for men, without reference to their appetite, health, labor or size. Terminal expenses, permanent and otherwise, are not governed by the revenue derived from a business, but are the same in all cases, whether the traffic is desirable or otherwise. MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION. 571 Nor are terminal expenses affected by the length of the haul. Thus, it costs as much to handle a consignment of merchandise destined to a neigh- boring town as to a point a thousand miles away; the number of laborers is the same, the clerical force the same, the facilities the same, the risk of accident and theft the same. The through traflBc of railroads may be said to represent the long haul in contradistinction to local business, which represents the short haul, and while the terminal expenses are the same in either case, local traflBc necessitates frequent stop- page of trains, with all the expenses incident thereto. They form a sensible burden, never to be lightly considered or overlooked in estimating the diflSculties and expenses of operating. Within certain bounds the profitableness of a business is dependent upon the length of haul. It is an aphorism in railway management that the equipment of a company earns money only when in motion. Anything, therefore, which retards that motion, acts to the disadvantage of a carrier. To continue: the station facilities necessary to accommodate the suburban travel of a metro- politan road must be quite as elaborate as for a more profitable business — for long haul traflBc, for instance. The expense that attends it is much greater than for ordinary traflBc, because it is fixed in cities or their immediate neighbor- hood, where values have reached the highest point. This business, instead of paying a higher 572^' BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, rate than traffic requiring less costly accommo- dations, is awarded a less rate. This difference is oftentimes more than is justified by the quan- tity handled. A low rate is given from a desire to stimulate traffic. It represents also the differ- ence between wholesale and retail business. Suburban residents represent an average haul each day equal to so many trains (a fixed quan- tity), while isolated passengers, gathered at widely separated points, represent the retail element of trade. While it is true that terminal expenses inci- dent to traffic must be considered in fixing the rate, it is also true that no recognized or uniform practice can be observed. The judgment of the compiler of the tariff, based on the peculiarities of the business, must determine the rate for the time being. A more formal basis is not practicable. Few companies could provide the terminal facilities they do if their trade were wholly local. The profits they derive from through business enable them, for the moment, to carry the bur- den of the less profitable traffic. It is a generally accepted belief that the local business of a road is the more remunerative, for the reason that it is not subjected to the disturbing influences which surround through traffic. This was the case at one time, but long ago ceased to be so. Multiplicity of roads paralleling and in- tersecting each other oftentimes compels them to compete for local business quite as much as for through traflBc. I MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION. 573 The cost of soliciting business is to some ex- tent a terminal expense. It varies greatly upon different lines. The expense of one line for ad- vertising and soliciting agents, for illustration, will be treble that of another. This difference may be occasioned by the disadvantages of the company's line or the special character of the business. It will be seen from the foregoing brief and imperfect consideration of the subject that spe- cial items of cost connected with the handling of traffic cannot be overlooked in studying the dis- bursements of railways. This fact should be re- membered by legislators and others in attempting to enforce uniform rates and conditions. Each company must be considered apart and the con- ditions attending its traffic duly and exhaustively studied. CHAPTEK XIII. MAINTENANCE — FIXED OPERATING EXPENSES. Expenditures do not grow relatively with a traflBc. The outlay upon a heavily worked line is not proportionately as great as upon a line less busy. One of the reasons is that a large propor- tion of the disbursements of a company comes under what are called fixed expenses. Many expenses of this character are not affected at all, or only remotely, by an increase or decrease in business. However, these expenses are never the same relatively upon different roads."^ The fixed expenses of a railroad may be termed the minimum cost of operating. After they are provided for, every dollar of income a property can be made to earn without increasing such expenses, represents, obviously, a decided gain. This is well understood and represents a principle *Tlie term fixed expenses or charges is used in a double sense in railway nomenclature; first, it applies generally to the operating expenses, interest and rentals of railroad companies, and, second, to those expenses connected with the immediate working of the property that are not affected at all, or only lightly, by the amount of its traffic, such as superintendence, salaries of station agents, fiagmen at crossings, bridge tenders, etc. The last named should be called "fixed operating expenses" or «< fixed expenses," while the former should be called ** fixed charges." (574) FIXED OPERATI}iG EXPENSES, 575 that lies at the foundation of the practice of granting a relatively low rate when the traffic is unusual in quantity or can be handled without adding relatively to cost. A brief summary of fixed expenditures may be properly given here; and, first, I may mention those relating to organization. This must be maintained with little, if any, reference to the amount or profitableness of the business done. All of a company's affairs are dependent upon the preservation, unimpaired, of its legal status. This obligation is imperative, and while the dis- bursements on this account may be small com- pared with many others, they are, nevertheless, considerable. Many expenses intervene, without much, if any, reference to the amount of traffic. Thus the mail must be carried and delivered punctually, no matter how small it may be; the convenience of the public must also be provided for at stations and elsewhere, and the number of specified trains (which the custom of the country or the charter of the company compels it to operate) must be run each day. In matters such as these the discretion of the management is very limited indeed. The outlay incident to the movement of trains is the same for wages of men engaged, whether the cars are loaded to repletion or travel com- paratively empty. This is also true, relatively, of other train expenses, such as fuel, oil, li j^hts, attendance, wear and tear, etc. Someone also, 576 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. must be on hand at stations to open the com- pany's waiting rooms, see that they are kept clean and comfortable, preserve order in and about the buildings, keep the platforms and track unobstructed, ticket such passengers as present themselves, receive and discharge goods, and an- sv^er questions asked by patrons. The wages paid the incumbents of these offices must moreover be such as to secure faithful men, competent to perform the maximum amount of service required. And so it is with the organiza- tion of the force as a whole — with general and local officers, superior and petty heads, including foremen and others. Each must, in his place, be competent to perform, at a moment's notice, the greatest amount of service that the necessities of the company require. An exigency arises and passes in railway life like the flight of an express train. There is no time for consultation, no time to study text-books, no time to examine rules and regulations, or to write to superior officers for instructions; the company at such times must have someone on the spot competent to act. Such necessities must be provided for without reference to the general run of business, and in so far as this is so, they constitute a fixed expense. An agency that may, at any moment, be called upon to handle a hundred carloads of freight cannot be intrusted to the care of a person who could perhaps manipulate half that number with facility, but would break down under greater re- sponsibility. The agent must, in his turn, select FIXED OPEBATING EXPENSES. 577 subordinate servants with a view to like contin- gencies. What is true in this respect of the agent and his assistants applies with equal force to con- ductors of trains, foremen of shops, track bosses and superintendents of bridges. It applies, with redoubled force, to managers. The exigencies of railway service require men of special training, of peculiar qualifications, of minute practical knowledge. There are no exceptions to this rule in any department or branch of the service. Su- pervisory officials, especially those in immediate charge of the property, must be as well skilled as the directing manager. They must possess gen- eral knowledge, as well as particular acquaintance with the immediate position they hold. This in- volves intimate acquaintance with the property as a whole — its defects, resources and peculiari- ties. This presupposes long association, years of observation and thought. Attainment is im- possible otherwise. Without prolonged associa- tion the knowledge oflBcials bring to the discharge of their duties is incomplete, oftentimes imprac- ticable. The personnel of a railroad organization may not, therefore, be changed hastily or unadvisedly without detriment, for the property is the crea- ture of the operative and its value dependent upon his capacity and fidelity. He must ever be considered in forming an estimate of its present or prospective value. In every department of railway service we dis- cover carefully selected men of capacity and 33 Vol. (3 olS BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, resources^ the superiors of "their fellows, singled out with reference to present and prospective emergencies. From the character of these men we may judge intelligently of the discernment and trustworthiness of the managers. The importance of the duties (present and pros- pective) performed by various classes of officials is apparent in the compensation allotted them. The official in charge of a pass high up on a mountain side, or having the care of a difficult morass or hazardous piece of track, no matter where it may be located, is paid a higher rate of wages than his neighbor, whose skill and respon- sibility are less. Selections in every case are based on fitness. A track foreman who might be trusted in the absence of danger could not be depended upon to act with intelligence and pre- cision in case of a wreck or the washing away of a roadbed. A bridge superintendent who un- derstands how to keep in repair the property intrusted to his charge under ordinary circum- stances, might be exceedingly awkward if called upon at a moment's notice to construct an entire structure. In the same way a conductor who might know how and when to start or stop a train, how tickets should be collected or cars received into or detached from a train, would not, perhaps, know what to do in case his train was thrown from the track or lost its rights. All these things are thought of and anticipated. In the selection of men to fill petty offices of responsibility, as well as those of greater degree, FIXED OPERATING EXPENSES, 579 every varying circumstance must be carefully considered by the appointing power. Selection or continuance in the service require, frequently, extra wages. Thus extra wages are paid some^ times to meet exigencies that never arise. These we may term constructive expenditures. They are much the same upon all lines, without refer- ence to the business done. The cost of caring for a property is not affected by what it earns to so great an extent as is gen- erally supposed. A competent and trustworthy manager must in any event be employed to look after its affairs. The amount paid him is dictated by the extent of the property and the ability and faithfulness of the man. This is true to a certain extent of all the officers of a company. The salaries of minor oflBcials are more dependent upon the business done. This is also true of sub- ordinate servants, but a large proportion con- stitutes a fixed expense, not dependent, except remotely, upon the amount or profitableness of the business. At the headquarters of every company an ex- pensive force must be maintained. * It is made up of assistants, and is the subsidiary brain of the enterprise, without which the organization would fall to pieces of its own weighto It con- sists of skilled men. They carry on the general business of the company as between the corpora- tion and the public; also as between the former and employes on the line of the road. They are, as a rule, discreet and able men, well disciplined 580 BUILDING AND REPAIIiING liAILWAYS, in their offices, and commanding the respect of the public and the obedience of the employes of the company on the line. The number and salaries of these assistants are not materially influenced by the fluctuations of trade, except when it ex- tends over a considerable period of time. They may be said to be fixed in the offices they occupy. Increase or decrease of traffic does not affect them. The explanation of this is found in the difficulty of filling their places. The knowledge they possess is the result of laborious training and years of familiarity with their particular duties. Except when business is depressed for a very considerable period, it is inexpedient as well as expensive for a company to make any change or reduction in its general office force. A reduc- tion of wages is practicable, but not a reduction in number. The traffic of a company may be paralyzed by a great storm, or its business disturbed by the failure of a crop or through the diversion of trade, without lessening its fixed expenses. Up to a certain point, addition to traffic is not followed by corresponding increase in either the number or wages of employes. There is no in- crease in the number or pay of watchmen at crossings and bridges, track patrol, or persons in charge of tunnels or bridges. No increase in the number of agents at stations, of the principal ticket sellers, of the men employed in connection with the customary trains, of foremen and their assistants, busied in keeping the track in order, FIXED OPEBATIHG EXPENSES. 581 or of the force at shops and roundhouses and depots of supply. When, however, traffic increases beyond a certain point, expenditures for wages will in- crease beyond what the profitableness of the added traffic warrants. This increase will con- tinue until the traffic again roaches a point where the maximum amount of labor is ex- acted. Within certain limits, the elasticity of every organization enables it to accommodate an in- crease of business without addition to its number, just as a considerable increase is possible in the number of guests at a hotel without any addition to the number of attendants. Let us suppose the maximum of this increase to be fifty guests. This number may be added without increased cost for service to the proprietor, but at this point the addition of a guest will necessitate the employ- ment of an additional clerk, another waiter, an assistant porter, and so on through the list of attendants. This outlay is, of course, out of all proportion to the added income and has, there- fore, the effect of increasing the relative cost of operating the house. It is, however, unavoidable, and so it is in the working of railroads. We will suppose a passenger train is added to the list of those already operated by a company. Only a small percentage of the patrons of this new train is made up of new passengers. The traffic of the line simply readjusts itself to the increased facil- ities. The convenibx^je which the new train offers 582 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. the public will add a few passengers, but there is no marked addition to the business, and until there is an increase commensurate with the added facilities the company is a loser, for the reason that under the new order of things its train serv- ice is performing only the minimum labor of which it is capable, while before it performed the maximum amount. The same rule applies to freight trains and is noticeable in all departments of the service. At a certain time in the growth of a traffic, it thus appears, the outlay is much greater than the income. Subsequent growth of business may warrant the increase, or it may not. In determining such questions (and they are of continual occurrence in the operations of a rail- road) the judgment of the officer upon whom the responsibility rests is sometimes colored and con- fused, so that intelligent action is not to be ex- pected in every case. So far as the writer's observation extends, the only means of testing the possibilities of a company's trafiic is to add new trains. There is this to be remembered in connection with additions made to the number of employes of a well appointed railway company (in contra- distinction to a new enterprise), its well disciplined organization enables it to utilize the cheapest quality of labor of the kind it needs. This is impossible in the other case. The first only requires an increase of mechanical force, not of constructive ability. The effect of such addition is, of course, to reduce the average cost of doing FIXED OPEBATING EXPENSES. 583 business; a consummation every manager labors unceasingly to bring about. The effect I have pointed out of determinate expenses or cost as it is influenced by labor of a certain character is quite as marked in other departments of the service. Thus, disbursements for interest on bonds are not affected even re- motely by fluctuations of business. This is equally true in many instances of taxes, assess- ments being based on the supposed value of the property rather than upon its revenue producing qualities. Many of the guaranties also w^hich business compels a company to enter into are not affected one way or another by earnings. The amount paid for rent of buildings and grounds is only nominally affected by the increase or decrease of earnings. Any permanent decline of business in the end necessitates a readjustment of contracts and leases, but as agreements con- nected with buildings and grounds are usually entered into for a series of years, the expenses they entail cannot be hastily diminished. Also the cost to a company of keeping its fences, gates and crossings in order is not increased or diminished, perceptibly, by the business it does. The amount disbursed for these purposes is de- pendent upon other causes, over which a com- pany has very little control. The expense of maintaining the permanent structures of a company depends quite as much upon natural influences as upon the business 584 SUILDIlsG AND REP^UBING RAILWAYb, done. Under the most favorable circumstances bridges and culverts w^ill crumble, buildings will fall to the ground, fences, gates and crossings will succumb to climatic and other influences, embankments and cuts will be rendered unsafe, ditches will fill up, the roadbed will require bal- last and careful attention, and ties will decay and the rails become unfit for use. All these things will occur, whether business be light or heavy, if a constant stream of money is not poured out day by day. The expenses of a company also depend largely upon the nature of renewals. These, it is ap- parent, will be influenced by the length of time the property has been in operation and the thoroughness with which it was originally con- structed. At first, cost of maintenance will be very light upon a well constructed road, but with the lapse of time it will steadily increase, the maximum being reached at the point at which the average durability of such property is reached. This period will vary in different sections and under different circumstances, according to climate, nature of material used and amount of busi- ness done. Under ordinary circumstances, the average should not be reached under ten years, or whatever time may represent the average durability of rails, ties, spikes, equipment, plat- forms, fences, buildings, bridges, culverts and similar property. FIXED OPERATING EXPENSES. 585 Generally, it may be said that the amount of business determines the duration of equipment, while weight and speed measurably determine the duration of rails. Turning to another feature of the case (the machinery of railroads), the difference between the wear and tear of that used and unused is not nearly so great as it would seem at first glance. The cost of preserving unemployed machinery in good order is not noticeably less, as every manu- facturer is aware, than the cost of keeping it in order when employed. The subtle influences of idleness are as destruc- tive to man's work in this case as idleness is to man himself. The machinery he constructs with such infinite care and labor requires constant attention, otherwise it quickly becomes worthless. The amount of fuel necessary to haul the mini- mum load of a train is a fixed charge. The fuel consumed by a locomotive hauling thirty cars is not relatively as great as when hauling one-third that number, yet the appurtenances necessary to the successful operation of the train are prac- tically the same; the lubricants used upon the locomotive are substantially the same; the lights and furniture are the same; the conflagrations which the locomotive causes are the same; the accidents are the sam e ; the number of incautious people killed or injured is the same; the num- ber of cattle run over and crushed is the same; the number of switches to be turned at meeting points is the same; the wages of the train force 586 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. are the same; the telegraphic orders that pass back and forth between different train oflBcials are the same; all the varied expenses con- nected with the use of water are practically the same. As I have stated, the cost of keeping up the organization of a company is not noticeably dif- ferent, whether the business is large or small, productive or otherwise. The expenses which the laws require must be met without reference to receipts; bulletins must be ported as the law prescribes; tariffs must be promulgated, agree- ments made, notices of elections posted, trustees remunerated, traveling expenses met, complicated and expensive returns rendered, lawyers em- ployed, and insurance duly looked after. These expenses are in the main inherent and in no wise dependent upon the productiveness of business. When, therefore, we see a partially loaded train winding its way across the country, or remark a yard filled with idle equipment, we must not conclude that the owner has reduced his expenses to conform to the business he is transacting, or that it is possible for him to do so. On the contrary, we may truthfully believe that many of his expenses have not been lessened at all. And we may remember another fact, namely, that the owners are never disregardful of the circumstance that profits arise out of the business that is carried on after the fixed ex- penses have been met, and hence in fostering business they need no spur. To them, therefore, FIXED OPERATING EXPENSES. 587 may safely be left the development of the busi- ness of their lines. Out of it grows their profit; without it their roads are worthless. No one is so much interested as they, no one so wise in the solution of vexed questions. CHAPTER XIT. MAINTENANCE — COST OF OPERATING AFFECTED BY FACILITIES. The cost of operating a road is affected favor- ably or otherwise according as its facilities are ample or not. To enable a company to secure the most favor- able results possible it must be able to carry forv^ard its repairs and renewals at the most opportune season of the year and have appliances fitted to their economical and rapid performance. It must be in good condition financially and pos- sess machinery fitted to its wants and adequate to carry on its work. Many of the differences noticeable in the cost of working railway properties are attributable to differences in facilities. A company that is not provided with adequate equipment for doing its business suffers many expenses that would under other circumstances be avoided. In addition to this loss, the traffic that it cannot for the moment accommodate will, when it can, seek other channels, and thus its revenue will be lost. Moveover, current expenses will be increased in many cases, while loss of business will swell the percentage of operating expenses to revenue. (688) FACILITIES AFFECT COST OF OPERATIXO. 5S9 A superabundant equipment, on the other hand, is unprofitable to its owner. Its possession in- volves loss of interest on cost and the expense of keeping it in order. In addition to this, the effort to find employment for it is quite likely to lead its owners into excesses, of one kind or another, but mainly in the direction of unnecessary rate cutting and other foolish competitive efforts. The disposition of railway companies to en- croach upon each other, coupled with a belief inherent in the breasts of many of those who serve them that they can create business, has been the cause of many of the disasters that have wrecked railway properties. What I have said in reference to the necessity of restricting the machinery and rolling stock of a company within necessary bounds, applies equally to its property as a w^hole. While a prop- erty must be maintained at a point commensurate with the needs of business, it must stop there. Contingent wants that may never occur should not be anticipated, but left to be met w^hen the exigency arises. While owners thus restrict themselves they will remember that prosperity cannot be attained or maintained without adequate facilities. When needs are inadequately provided, revenue that should accrue for extending and strengthening the property is lost. A company thus unhappily situated cannot compete successfully with an alert rival. It is avoided by many who would, under other circumstances, give it support, w^hile 590 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. its expenses are swollen unnecessarily by its improvidence. Railway managers, it may be said, understand the importance of keeping a property in good condition. The difficulty is, and always wall be, to make the owners equally alive to the fact. Absorbed in the prospect of a dividend, secure in the belief that the management will provide the necessary ways and means for meeting renewals and improvements, they lack apprehension and interest. They do not refuse to make provision for the company's wants, they simply ignore the matter. To meet together from time to time and authorize an expected dividend, is too often the consummation of earthly responsibility on their part. They listen with approval to the remarks of the chairman, congratulate the manager upon his energy and efficiency, and disperse, leaving him to get along as best he can. Thus, his wishes are disregarded and the strength of the property wasted. The truthfulness of this is apparent in many ways and it is needless to say that the losses resulting are always disproportionate to the saving effected. Innumerable instances might be cited, if neces- sary, to illustrate the necessity of a company supplying itself with needed appliances. Thus, a company that does not possess adequate tracks, convenient sidings or sufficient yard room can- not handle its traffic with the celerity and economy it could if it possessed such facilities. Again, the company that is able to make its track FACILITIES AFFECT COST OF OPERATING, 591 repairs and renewals at the period of the year most advantageous for such work will be able, manifestly, to do so more economically than its less f ortungcte neighbor. It is essential, above all things, to the prosperity of a company, that it should be able to make its repairs and renewals as occasions for them arise. An unsafe bridge, an insecure culvert, or a defective axle or wheel may involve the destruction of a train which, with collateral losses, will amount to .thousands of dollars. And it must be remembered that the losses that result to a company from accidents of this kind can never be known, for the reason that they entail loss of public confidence in the methods of a company. Thus, to the known loss there must be added indirect loss occasioned by diversion of traffic. It is in details of operation that losses accruing from improvident management are most marked. Thus, a battered rail in the track of a busy line will so rack the equipment passing over it that the cost of repairs will many times outweigh the value of a new rail. The same is true of a line imperfectly ballasted, or one where the align- ment is wrong. The cost of keeping locomotives and machinery in good condition is very much dependent upon the carefulness with which they are kept cleaned and housed when not in use. The rolling stock that is kept well painted and in good repair is not so expensive to maintain as the equipment that is neglected and, while present outlay for repairs, 592 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, cleaning, housing and painting may be a burden, it will result in more satisfactory returns to owners than a contrary course. What I have said in reference to machinery and rolling stock applies to every branch of the service. Thus, the increased disbursements to meet interest on money expended for overhead bridges or viaducts at busy points is, in many cases, more than counterbalanced by freedom from accidents and saving in wages and other expenses. The wisdom of providing needed appliances for conducting business is perceptible, everywhere, in reduced expenses. Thus, the introduction of a new piece of machinery, a copying press, a pat- ent ink, a new blank or other contrivance in- tended to simplify or cheapen, frequently renders a reduction of the force possible, or prevents an increase otherwise unavoidable. Innumerable illustrations of this nature might be cited. The usefulness and perpetuity of a plant is in- definitely heightened and prolonged by its main- tenance at a high state of efficiency. This is particularly the case with machinery and equip- ment, as I have noticed. Such property should be maintained at the maximum state of efficiency. The life of a car, locomotive or stationary engine may be greatly prolonged by prompt repair of the various parts as rendered necessary, while neglect will hasten the general breaking up. The necessity of maintaining property is well understood by managers; but they are often FACILITIES AFFECT COST OF OPERATING. 593 overruled in the matter, not being allowed the funds necessary to carry on needed repairs. There can be no doubt of the shortsightedness of such a policy, and a company thus adminis- tered is an unsafe enterprise to invest in. 34 Vol. ii;^ CHAPTER XV. MAINTENANCE — THINGS THAT ENTER INTO THE MAINTENANCE OF A RAILROAD. Railway maintenance presents itself under various aspects, such as the preservation of the material property, the maintenance of the rights of railways under their charters or acts of incor- poration, the building up of the esprit de corps of the forces (a matter of vital importance to the public, the owner and the employe), the educa- tion of officers and employes in the things that pertain to railway operations, and so on. All these phases of the subject receive nrore or less attention throughout these volumes. They are a part of the science of railways and not the less important because not forming a part of the daily thoughts of oflBcers and employes. The particular phase of railway maintenance which I wish to consider in this chapter relates mainly to the effect of certain influences. I have mentioned in another place the possi- bility that through the unwise exactions of labor it may some time be found necessary to close up a railway, or group of railways, for a longer or shorter period, because of the impossibility of procuring men to operate them. Such a contin- gency does not seem likely, nor did it seem likely (594) THWGS AFFECTING MAINTENANCE. ^^5 a few years ago, when a great system, extending over several states, was suddenly paralyzed for a similar reason. Yet the event actually occurred. Moreover, the circumstances were such as to suggest the possibility of its recurrence. Let us suppose that for some reason every railroad man, or the great bulk of them, struck, as they did in the particular section I have referred to. In such event, the operation of railroads would be impos- sible. No other course would be left to owners but to shut up their property. Where labor has the disposition to organize and act in concert over a great extent of coun- try, everything is possible. The nineteenth cen- tury is peculiarly the age of possibilities of this nature. Centralization is its watchword. We observe it in the growth of corporations, man- ufactories and other enterprises. It was the concentration of capital, perhaps, that suggested the centralization of labor — the delegating to an agent the right to arbitrarily control the many. The co-operative organization of labor, however, is more extended than that of capital. The lat- ter is necessarily restricted and isolated in its efforts. Labor groups great masses of men em- ployed far apart over wide areas of country. If these organizations are not wisely governed, they will ultimately involve a corresponding centralization of capital. Certainly they will render the continuance of business under exist- ing conditions impossible. Not only will the railway system be broken up, but all other 590 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. industrial interests will be disturbed, and in many cases destroyed. In the event railways were closed under cir- cumstances such as I have named, the duration of the suspension would depend very largely on the disposition and ability of the people to pro- tect those w4io sought to reopen them. Mean- while the calamities that would grow out of the upheaval would require many years to heal. What conditions would attend a general cessa- tion of railway operations? Could the owners of railroads permit their property to lie idle? Do railroad companies possess the passive element that is so great a source of strength to capital invested in other enterprises ? It is here that a secret of the power of capital lies. Its growth, beneficent influence and perpetuity depend upon the possession of this source of strength. When no longer able to exercise this negative force, it wall cease to exist. What is the effect of idleness upon railroad property? Wherein does it deteriorate? What is the extent of the deterioration? What out- lay does the maintenance of a railway involve? Should owners suffer a great loss in the effort to maintain the rights of their property, or should they effect an immediate settlement with disaf- fected employes, on the best terms possible? It is upon such questions that the contingency of a railway company closing its affairs for six months, or a year, or two years, may hinge, and upon the wisdom and courage governing those THINGS AFFECTING MAINTENANCE. 597 making the decision, the future of mankind may depend. Let us suppose that a railway company decides, in view of the fact that it can no longer operate its property in harmony with what it considers to be its interest and the interest of the public, to close its business until such time as its just rights are accorded. What would be the expense of maintaining its property under such conditions? The question is an interesting one and suggests careful inquiry. In the event of the suspension of a railway, what would be the effect upon the property? What would be the minimum amount it would be necessary to expend to preserve it from seri- ous deterioration ? These questions cannot be definitely answered. Having no income, cost, it is manifest, would have to be raised by assess- ments if no reserves were laid by to meet such contingencies. But in regard to reserves: Is it not incumbent upon every company to possess, according to its ability, a reserve fund of this nature? Is it not a part of the machinery of maintenance? Tlie fund need not be unproduc- tive. Judiciously placed, it will be a source of income as well as strength. Its effect, moreover, will be evinced in the market value of a com- pany's securities. It will be in the nature of a guaranty, enabling its possessor to meet every call upon him. With such a fund taxes could be paid, sinking funds met, interest on mort- gages satisfied, and the expense of maintenance 598 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. provided for a period proportionate to the ex- tent of the fund, without reference to current receipts. It may be assumed, I think, in the event a company found it necessary to suspend business, that the great bulk of its bondholders would waive interest payments for awhile. The reserve fund would provide for the balance. The amount of the fund should depend upon the amount of taxes, interest, tolls, sinking funds and expense of maintenance. Expenditures for the last named purpose are imperative. They must be met as they accrue, otherwise the owner suf- fers enormous usury for neglect to preserve his property. Would the cost of maintenance be so great as to prevent the proprietor meeting it? I think not, if he possessed a moderate reserve fund. Stripped of all glamour, railway property dif- fers very little from other property used in manu- facturing, except that it is scattered over a wide territory. In the case of private manufacturers, their property lies within a narrow limit and when not in use the gates are shut and the pub- lic excluded, so that, no matter how great its value, its guardianship is compassed within the care of a watchman. He not only serves to pro- tect the property, but helps to prevent its deteri- oration. Unfortunately, this simple disposition is impossible in the case of railroad property. Widely scattered, it is everywhere exposed. Its greatest security lies in the diflPiculty of destroy- ing or removing it. This renders it possible for THINGS AFFECTING MAINTENANCE. 599 the police force of a country to look after its protection (if it is so inclined) without material outlay. This feature would be of especial value to a company compelled to stop business. Only that portion of its property endangered by fire would require especial guardianship. Even here the risk would be slight. Moreover, in consider- ing the safety of railroad property under condi- tions such as I have named, we must remember that the state must aid the proprietor, he being a taxpayer. In the event it does not, it must reimburse him for any damage he suffers. Losses, therefore, that arise from the acts of mobs or lawless combinations must be reim- bursed and thus will not fall upon the proprie- tors of railroads, except in so far as they are taxed with others. The exercise of reasonable precautions in the preservation of the property of a railroad is, however, under all circumstances a duty. This duty railway companies have never disregarded. So that, in the event they closed their properties, they would still continue to ex- ercise general and constant watchfulness. The expense of this would be chargeable to mainte- nance. Would the duty require special watch- men, or would the force required to keep up the organization be sufficient? I think the latter. In determining, therefore, the force necessary to maintain a property, we also cover its protecting force, except in isolated cases. The maintenance of the property of a railroad involves many things not capable of demonstra- 600 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS, tion in advance; contingencies that we cannot foresee nor estimate, because dependent upon circumstances and the peculiar features of a property. In considering the cost of maintaining a road, the cost of maintenance of organization must not be overlooked. This latter, hov^ever, in the case of a property closed to business, would depend upon whether the cessation was for a long or short period. If the former, the cost would not be nearly so great as if the stoppage were for a short period. If the cessation were likely to extend over a long period, the traflBc organiza- tion, or that portion of the force connected with or growing out of the conduct of business, could be wholly dispensed with, or so greatly reduced as to be no longer distinguishable as an organiza- tion. If, however, the stoppage were only for a short or indefinite period, it would be necessary to preserve at least the nucleus of an organiza- tion, such portion of the force as would render the resumption of business practicable without great delay.* If the stoppage were likely to continue over a long period, many expenses that under other circumstances would be necessary, might be avoided. Thus the cost of keeping up the road at a point that would permit the daily movement * Unless, indeed, it was assumed that the whole force might be brought together again at will, in which event the whole traffic force might be dispensed with. This is what would prob- ably be done. THINGS AFFECTING MAINTENANCE. 601 of trains at ordinary rates of speed would not be required. It would not be necessary to repair from day to day the inroads pf storms or the damages caused by frost, and expenses attending the use of bridges, culverts, buildings and ma- chinery might be wholly avoided, or it would be necessary at best to give them only cursory atten- tion. Effort would be directed merely to pre- serving the property from permanent injury. Thus maintained, considerable time would be required to place it in shape for resuming active operations when the embargo was lifted. Build- ings would have to be put in order, tracks re- paired, bridges and culverts looked after, and a thousand things attended to before general re- sumption would be possible. The delay would be unavoidable, as the resources of the strongest company would not warrant it in keeping up its property at the maximum point of efficiency throughout an indefinite period. In attempting, therefore, to determine the cost of maintain- ing a property without reference to traffic, all the conditions must be known. If resump- tion of business were likely to occur within a reasonable time, the expense of maintenance would not be much less than during active operations. The disintegration of property from natural causes is very nearly the same, whether used or not. If cessation of business were likely to extend over an indefinite period, th^ advisability of reducing expenses would be so great that we 602 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. may be sure every outlay would be cut down to the lowest possible figure."^ The maintenance of a property covers many great expenses arising from natural causes. Little has been done to determine the amount of these expenses aside from traffic. Few things are less understood. Every expense being primarily due to traffic, no attempt has been made to effect a separation. Business being the incentive to construct a railway, the whole cost of operat- ing is properly chargeable thereto. Thus, rates must conform to cost, or if they fall short bank- ruptcy follows. Many expenses do not depend except primarily on traffic, but in attempting to separate the cost of maintenance arising from natural causes from that due to traffic, I do not wish to be understood that such expenditures are distinct from traffic or that traffic has no obliga- tion to bear the burden. Any attempt to separate the fixed expenses of maintenance from those occasioned by traffic must be largely speculative, but a separation, however imperfect, cannot but possess great interest to those who own and operate railways. It enables them to view many questions from a higher standpoint than they otherwise would, and proves valuable in directing inquiry into other * It is possible, in the event a railroad company found it impossible to operate its property, that the wisest course to pursue would be to dismiss the whole force. Such a course, it is probable, w^ould be thought the safer one to pursue and the one most likely to bring about a quick and satisfactory settle* ment. THINGS AFFECTING MAINTENANCE, 603 and collateral subjects. Knowledge is not of so much value for a specific thing as for its contin- gent revelations and the thoughts it suggests. And so it will prove here. Even the most imper- fect statement of the expenses of maintenance of railways affords suggestions in other directions to those who do not regard the information in itself of value. Thus, while a manager may not care what relation fixed expenses of maintenance bear to total expenses, yet the information is valuable to him in other directions or in special instances. Take the case of track rails for illus- tration. Experts with whom I have communi- cated as to the relative deterioration of rails from climate and traffic, have stated that a rail would remain fit for use forever, if trains were not run over it. Others put the deterioration from climatic causes at two per cent. ; others again at five per cent., and so on. As a matter of fact, the deterioration of rails from climatic causes, while not great, is marked and cumulative. Deteriora- tion of other material is much greater. How- ever, I cannot enter here into a scientific dis- cussion of the effect of climatic infiuences upon material. I am not competent to do so. I merely cite the case of rails to illustrate the lack of information on the subject by those whose duties lie wholly in this particular depart- ment. The natural decay of railway property is, in many cases, much greater than the damage occa- sioned by use. Where the business is great the 604 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. relation of fixed expense of maintenance to traflSc is, of course, less. Whatever a property suffers from natural de- cay is a fixed expense. Cost of organization is also, to a certain extent, a fixed charge. It is, however, never the same. It is much less, rela- tively, for a company actively engaged than when the contrary is the case, for the reason that in the former instance a proportion of the cost is merged in current business. Thus, a superintendent will not only maintain the property, but also superin- intend its business. In either case he is essential, and while he must possess greater diversity of knowledge to enable him to attend to both these duties than to either singly, yet the increased cost is not great. The number of skilled laborers required in the operations of railroads is much greater than is supposed. They form, to a certain extent, part of the organization, but embrace many men not usually classed under this head. Everyone under- stands that an engineer must be technically qual- ified; the value of skill upon the part of the fireman is also understood. The necessity of technical knowledge on the part of machinists is equally well known; but minor officials, clerks and foremen must also possess technical skill of a high order, coupled with a practical knowledge of the property and its business. This is not so well known. No class of labor possesses so much technical knowledge as the clerical force of a railroad, and by clerical force I mean the body of THINGS AFFECTING MAINTENANCE. 605 employes concerned in the movement of traffic, including those connected with accounts and finances. They are the fingers of the organiza- tion, and, in a great sense, its intellectual force. The affairs of a railroad are so great, and extend over so wide a range of thought, that managers can do little more than use the information the clerical force collects. This force, however, in the event of the stoppage of business on a rail- road, would have nothing to do, and, therefore, would be dispensed with. But only those who have watched the growth of a railroad, and the patience required to build up an efficient force, can estimate the loss its abandonment would finally entail. However, necessity does not rec- ognize distinctions of this kind. If, therefore, through upheavals of labor or other disorders, a railway were compelled to suspend business in- definitely, it would come out of the struggle stripped of its organization in this respect. No attempt, therefore, need be made here to deter- mine the fixed expenses for such railroads on this account. A fixed expense of Organization (or Manage- ment) under normal conditions is the pay of officers and employes necessary to the conduct of traffic. This force embraces the management, heads of departments and chiefs of bureaus and their immediate assistants. Those, in fact, pos- sessing a knowledge of the departments and versed in the company's affairs. Such a force cannot be secured at will, and business cannot be 606 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. carried on without it. It grows with the cor- poration, and should become more efficient every year. The necessary force of a road also em- braces the agents at stations, and if business is great, their immediate assistants; those, in fact, who possess high technical knowledge. They constitute a fixed charge. Those engaged in mechanical or simple work about the offices, warehouses and other buildings do not, as they may be replaced at will. The cost of watching a property is not a fixed expense, or at least is only partially so, as this duty may be performed by employes who form a part of the fixed cost. The nucleus of a train force is a fixed expense of maintenance. In the case of conductors and baggagemen it embraces, let us say, ten per cent, of the force. The skill of this body constitutes the nucleus of a complete organization. In the same way ten per cent, of the engineers and firemen may be denominated as fixed. Such a train force would prove ample to guard the rolling stock and machinery and maintain it in a high state of efficiency. The technical force retained by a company (under the conditions I have named) may be further utilized in the physical maintenance of the property, and thus serve a double purpose. Employes occupied in soliciting business do not constitute a fixed expense. Similarly, operat- ing expenses covering personal injuries, con- tingent expenses, stationery, printing, supplies, advertising and lubricants belong to traffic, or THINGS AFFECTING MAINTENANCE. 607 if any portion is a fixed expense it is nominal only. The forces of a railroad that constitute a fixed charge will find, in the main, active employment, even if the property is closed. However, it does not necessarily follow that there would be no re- duction in the wages of this force. On the con- trary, it is probable that a very large reduction would be made. The necessity of such a course and its justness would be apparent, and would be cheerfully acquiesced in. The amount of this reduction would, it is probable, approximate fifty per cent. That it would involve hardship, goes without saying, but as this hardship would ex- tend to the owners of the property as well, it would be borne cheerfully. If the suspension were likely to be of long continuance, the re- duction would be even greater. However, fifty per cent, may, I think, be estimated as the aver- age. In reference to the force it would be neces- sary to discharge (in the event of suspension), it is probable the majority of the men would await re-employment. This would certainly be the case if the stoppage were not likely to be of long duration, or if the circumstances attending dis- missal did not involve personal animosities. It would be apparent to men thus situated that their interests would be more likely to be con- served by awaiting re-employment than by seek- ing engagement elsewhere. It might be necessary in some cases (as it would indeed be both politic and wise wherever possible), to allow this wait- 608 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. ing force a small sum monthly. Such a course would be eminently humane, if the resources of a company permitted. I assume, of course, in sug- gesting this gratuity, that harmony of relation- ship exists between employer and employe. The best of feeling should ever be maintained between railroad companies and their employes. It is possible, indeed probable, that the latter may have more or less grievances, real and imagined, but that these grievances are such as to justify indifference or disloyalty is impossible. Nor can they be so great as not to be more likely to be amicably arranged by conciliatory measures than by strikes or other violent means. The interest of the proprietor in those who operate his prop- erty is too intimate, too vital, to permit him to disregard their welfare or to refuse to remedy just causes of complaint. And above all, employes should not, in enumer- ating their own grievances, forget those of the employer. No intelligent person who has ob- served the operation of corporations carried on by hired agents but must have noticed innumer- able instances of neglect on the part of such agents, of manifest inefficiency, gross wasteful- ness, inattention to duty, idleness, and other evi- dences of disregard of the interests of the owner. Every such instance is a legitimate and proper subject of complaint on his part, and while he may seek to prevent such acts, still his efforts in this direction, no matter how watchfully or intel- ligently directed, can never be wholly success! uL THINGS AFFECTING MAINTENANCE. 609 Employes, therefore, while enumerating their grievances, should not be unmindful of those of their employer. In the case of a railroad, the identity of the proprietor is so covered up in the multiplicity of ov^ners, in the rules and regulations of the service, and in the acts of managers and others, that we cannot wonder the employe sometimes forgets there is an owner — a man like himself; and in do- ing so fails to recognize his rights and forgets his own duties and responsibilities. If the owner possessed greater personality, were present on the ground, were a person to whom the employe could listen and might appeal, he would appre- ciate his existence more vividly. In considering, therefore, the relations which exist between capital and labor in connection with railroads, the first thing for the employe to do is to dismiss his prejudices; to remember that if he, has^ grievances, so also has the owner, and that, as a' rule, the grievances of the latter are more real than those of the employe. No railway employe,' not blinded by passion, but knows that he is, as a rule, fairly treated. The grievances of employes are often more imaginary than real, and when real come, not from the owner, as a rule, but from those he is compelled to trust. The remedy does not, there- fore, lie in indiscriminate attacks upon property, but in an appeal to owners. Too great care cannot be exercised by employes of corporations not to confound the owner with 35 Vol. 13 610 BUILDING AND BEPAIBINQ RAILWAYS. the manager. The owner will never, it is safe to say^willf uUy or persistently disregard the welfare of his employes. Their interests are so inaliena- bly connected with his, that to treat them un- fairly would be suicidal. This truth is not always remembered by employes. No one who is depend- ent upon the good will and fidelity of others for the maintenance of his interests, like the owners of railroads are, can afford to permit them to remain in ignorance of his good intentions. On the contrary, his duty and interest alike demand that he should cultivate such relations with them as may, at all times, assure them of his friendly interest in their welfare. Men who intrust the management of their property to others must do so unqualifiedly, but such delegation of power should never extend to the relinquishment of the right and duty of look^ ing after the welfare of their employes. A pro- prietor will ever consult his welfare by such manifestation of interest in his servants, and any neglect to fulfill this cardinal duty of ownership will redound to his injury. By many owners manifestation of such interest is thought to be subversive of discipline. The answer to this is that when an owner cannot come in contact with his employes without jeopardizing discipline, it ought not to require an outbreak of his servants, or the destruction of his property, to convince him that there is a defect somewhere in the method of administering his property. Discipline that is dependent upon terrorism, upon ostracis- THINGS AFFECTING MAINTENANCE. Gil ing (or sequestrating) the employe, upon separat- ing him from the acquaintance or sympathy of the owner, is a gross perversion of responsible methods of government, and wherever practiced may be accepted as evidence of a disregard of the rights of owners. If the history of corpora- tions in the United States teaches one fact more clearly than another, it is that the owners of corporate property must personally interest them- selves in the affairs of their employes, lest their personality be forgotten and their property lost. Ownership of property presupposes the duty of guardianship, including a paternal interest in the operative, and its preservation to the owner will ever depend upon the general and wise exercise of his duty in this regard. Continuing our examination of the cost of maintaining a railroad. This cost is much in- creased by the interference offered by traflBc. Thus, repairs of track are retarded by the passing of trains and the diverting influences that attend their movement. Necessary repairs to equip- ment and machinery are oftentimes delayed be- cause of the pressing need for their use in handling traflBc. Many other instances might be cited if necessary. Insurance of property is a fixed expense, ex- cept in so far as it covers current traflBc. Prac- tices in regard to insurance are not uniform. In some cases it is the policy to insure every- thing. Other companies restrict their insurance to particular instances of special importance. 612 BUILDING AND BE PAIRING BAILWAT8. Others, again, do not insure at all. I do not know that the circumstances likely to attend a cessation of business would be such as to require that a company's policy in this respect, whatever it might be, should be changed. Risk from the movement of trains and the conduct of business generally would, it is apparent, be much less than under normal conditions, while damages arising from the acts of mobs would have to be made good by the government. No two com- panies view the question of insurance from the same standpoint, and no estimate can, therefore, be made as to the extent of a company's expend- itures in this connection. After considerable observation of the effect of insurance and non- insurance, I should not think a company justified in expending a large amount in this direction unless its surplus were abundant and well assured. The magnitude of its interests renders it quite proper for it to assume risks of this nature. The cost of insuring the property of a company may be reduced to the minimum, in the event of stop- page of business from a strike or otherwise. Whatever is paid in this direction constitutes a fixed charge. Considered from the standpoint of organization and proprietorship, the taxes of a property con- stitute a fixed expense without reference to the basis upon which they are predicated. In this last respect the widest differences exist. In some cases taxes are based on real and personal prop- erty. In others upon earnings. The amount and THINGS AFFECTING MAINTENANCE. 613 value of outstanding capital is sometimes the factor. When the tax is based on property, the levy v^ould be the same if the road v^ere not operated, though it is possible a reduction might be made under such circumstances. Certainly it should be, as it is manifest that property of this kind v^hich is earning nothing is, constructively at least, worth nothing and ought not to be taxed except upon a nominal basis. Practically, however, only a small reduction would probably be made. When taxes are based on earnings, it is manifest that a cessation of business would mean cessation of taxes, unless the stoppage were so prolonged as to suggest some other basis. In any event, however, the extent of a company's obligations for taxes, whatever they may be, become, in the case of an idle property, a fixed charge. It is impossible to determine accurately what proportion of the cost of maintaining railway property arises from climatic causes. Two methods suggest themselves by which to estimate the amount. The first is by a survey of the property in which every feature shall be ascer- tained. This method is the best when practicable. But, unfortunately, it is not generally practicable. The second that suggest itself is the relation which cost of maintenance bears to the total cost of operating. It is only approximate and not reliable for our purpose. Different properties are affected by different climatic influences. Thus, the railways of the North and the South have dissimilar conditions to 614 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. meet. Those of each section necessitate peculiar outlays. Thus, deterioration of wood in the South is much more rapid than in the North, but, on the other hand, Northern roads suffer greatly from frost and the abrupt changes peculiar to a cold country. The conditions most favorable to the preservation of material are a mild, dry climate, but it is probable the roads of the South have, on the whole, advantages over those of other localities in the cheapness with which they operate and maintain their properties. More than anything else, fixed expense of maintenance is dependent upon quality of mate- rial, the measure of intelligence evinced in locat- ing and constructing a line, and finally the skill exercised in protecting the property. The nature of the structure is important; stone is more durable than wood; brick more lasting than grout. But the duration of the structure is largely dependent upon the care with which it is con- structed and looked after. This rule applies to the roadbed and its ballast as fully as to build- ings and other structures. The cost of keeping rolling stock in repair is greatly increased by deterioration from natural causes. This deterioration is greater when the plant is actively employed than if carefully housed, as much of it would be if not in use. The facilities of railroads every day become more ample, but they do not as yet generally contemplate placing passenger and freight cars under cover when not in use. This adds greatly to the cost THINGS AFFECTING MAINTENANCE. 615 of their maintenance. Referring to the cost of preserving equipment, an interesting writer on the subject says: "A locomotive taken into the shop and covered v^ith tallow would be ready for service with very slight repair to the stack and other parts. The atmosphere would have a greater effect upon freight cars, and it would be necessary to paint them at periods (probably of considerable length), even if not in use, as they would suffer from dry rot and other causes. With regard to passenger cars on the same basis, the percentage would not be so great as freight cars, as the material and finish are bet- ter, but they would require a coat of varnish, at long intervals, to preserve the outside paint." The wear and tear of equipment from traffic is, of course, proportionate to its use, but cost will ever depend largely upon the intelligence and promptness with which repairs are made. If locomotives are not properly painted, cleaned and housed; if passenger cars are not kept cleaned, painted and varnished; if freight cars are not kept painted and repaired as needed; if machinery is not carefully looked after, the dete- rioration will be rapid and marked. The tele- graphic plant of a company, including lines, furniture, tools, machinery, batteries, instru- ments and other appurtenances, suffers constant deterioration from natural causes, and although lines are much better constructed than formerly, the deterioration has only been lessened, not obviated. 616 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS.*^ It is apparent from the foregoing that differ- ences exist, and ever will exist, as to the outlay of railroads, that arise from natural causes. Accurate data, therefore, in regard to a partic- ular road will not be conclusive in regard to others. It will, however, afford an approximate estimate in many cases, for however greatly rail- ways differ from each other in particular things, they are generally uniform. If, therefore, data were obtainable for several railroads, this aver- age would afford a glimpse, at least (but not more), of railways similarly situated. I have this data for a period of twenty years, for rail- ways thirty-five hundred miles long, located in a temperate climate, subject to such extremes of heat and cold as are to be found in the great lake region of the United States. Conditions here, as regards wages and cost of material, are those of American railways generally. The results are embodied in the appendix hereto.* They show the relation that particular items of maintenance bear to the total cost of maintenance. Also the pro- portion that cost of maintenance bears to other expenses. They also show cost arising from climatic causes, and the expense of maintaining a nucleus of organization. I have not attempted to give the aggregate cost in dollars and cents, but to show the relation which cost bears to the current cost of operating, so that the reader has only to ascertain what each operating expense ' Appendices C and D. THINGS AFFECTING MAINTENANCE. 617 amounts to upon a road to ascertain approx- imately what the fixed expense is. The maintenance of a railway involves, as I have pointed out, innumerable things. Some I have specified; others only hinted at. It in- volves, directly and indirectly, the books, blanks, forms and stationery of a company; its furni- ture, fixtures and appliances; a proper system of accounts; the telegraph; responsible methods of handling money; the purchase, inspection, care and use of material; the proper employment of labor; the government of the corporation; the handling of traffic; the issuance of tariffs and classifications; the movement of trains; above all, the maintenance of the track. I have said much about the latter. The theme is an impor- tant one. That of equipment and machinery is nearly, if not quite, as great. This subject, how- ever, I refer to in the book devoted to Equip- ment, and so shall not discuss it here further than to point out that cost is dependent here, as elsewhere, upon the care and foresight exercised. Paint, and its accessory, varnish, I may say in a word, are important agents in this connection. Material of this nature must be of the best qual- ity, though the difference in cost between good and bad material will constantly tempt the pur- chaser to buy the latter. In the preparation of paints, ingredients require to be carefully weighed and measured. The material must also be pure and finely ground. The colors used re- quire to be harmonious and permanent. Work 618 BUILDING AND REPAIRING RAILWAYS. of this nature cannot be hurried. Thus, varnish must be thoroughly dry and hard before being exposed to the weather, and in order to secure this ample covered space, well lighted, ventilated and heated, is required. If conditions necessitate it, artificial means of drying must be resorted to. In order to secure the best results, the varnish, after it is applied, should be well rubbed in, so as to close the pores. In England, where much at- tention has been given the subject, a coat of raw linseed oil, from which all the fatty material has been extracted, is applied to the varnish. In cleaning, care must be taken to avoid harmful or destructive methods, such as the use of very hot water or chemicals, otherwise the varnish on a car may be quickly ruined after the vehicle leaves the shop. In painting, questions of color are not, as would seem at first glance, entirely matters of taste. Advocates of light colors claim that the varnish holds better in such cases, that it is easier to clean, wears better, and does not absorb the heat as much as dark colored paint. On the other hand, dark colors show the dirt less and require less material. In concluding, I repeat what I have so fre- quently had occasion to call attention to, namely, that cost of maintaining railroads (and operating them as well) is dependent upon the nature, location and business of properties, the thorough- ness with which they are built and the effective- ness and foresight exercised in keeping them in order. THINGS AFFECTING MAINTENANCE. 619 I have not attempted to elaborate tte subject unduly, but to point out its more salient features and the line of inquiry to be considered. I have sought also, indirectly, to make clear to those who impose obligations upon railroads the neces- sity of their discriminating; of tempering the w^ind to the shorn lamb; of remembering that while the enforcement of arbitrary enactments without reference to local conditions will simplify official labors, the result will be disastrous to the properties concerned. The business of a railroad, like every other business, is a matter of detail and must be so considered. It is just as proper to make hats of a uniform size for all men as to prescribe fixed conditions for railroads. As well might the expenses of the government be col- lected by a uniform charge per head on men, women and children, without reference to their ability to pay, as to seek to make one railroad the measure of other railroads. APPENDIXES. (621) APPENDIX B. RELATION THE VARIOUS ITEMS OF TRACK LABOR BEAR TO EACH OTHER. Labor, handling rails 3.68 per cent. Labor, handling ties 9.56 Labor, ballasting 12.31 Labor, ditching 4.78 " Labor, freshet repairs 92 " Labor, watching track 1.25 " Labor, clearing track of snow and ice 6.62 " Labor, clearing track of weeds and grass 7.35 " Labor, general repairs to track (including cut- ting rails) 53.53 100.00 RELATION THAT VARIOUS ITEMS OF TRACK EXPENSES BEAR TO TOTAL TRACK EXPENSES. Labor, handling rails 2.23 per cent. Labor, handling ties 5.79 Labor, ballasting 7.35 " Labor, ditching 2.89 Labor, freshet repairs 45 ** Labor, watching track 67 " Labor, clearing track of snow and ice 4.01 " Labor, clearing track of weeds and grass 4.45 " Labor, general repairs of track (including cut. ting of rails) 32.52 Rails, ties, miscellaneous track material and tools 39.64 100.00 (628) APPENDIX C. RELATION VARIOUS CLASSES OF MAINTENANCE BEAR TO TOTAL COST OF MAINTENANCE. Maintenance of track 44 . 25 per cent. Maintenance of bridges and culverts 6 . 68 " Maintenance of buildings 6 . 98 " Maintenance of fences, gates and crossings. . . 2.46 " Maintenance of equipment 39 .63 100.00 RELATION OF THE COST OF MAINTAINING THE PROP- ERTY OF A ROAD TO ALL OTHER OPERATING EX- PENSES. Maintenance of property 38 . 62 per cent. Other operating expenses CI. 38 100.00 (624) APPENDIX D. PERCENTAGE OF THE TOTAL COST OF OPERATING DUE TO MAINTENANCE OF ORGANIZATION AND THE PREVENTION OF THE DESTRUCTION OF THE PROPERTY FROM NATURAL CAUSES. Name of Account. Kenewal of rails Kenewal of ties Eepairs of roadway and track Bepairs of bridges, culverts and cattle guards Repairs of buildings Eepairs of fences, road crossings and signs Repairs of locomotives Repairs of passenger cars Repairs of freight cars Telegraph expenses (mainte- nance) Agents Clerks Train force Salaries general officers and their chief assistants Law expenses Oil, waste and tallow Stationery and printing Contingencies (and miscella- neous) Insurance Fixed Charges Other Than Operating. Taxes Interest on funded debt Sinking fund requirements Leases, contracts and agreements. Percentage of the Total Operating Expense that Comes Under the Head op Fixed Charges. 70 57 75 70 95 8.5^ In the case of a g I railroad not in opera j^tlon the 10 J would be. . . expense '5f 9 10 50 ' 25 12.5 50 50 1 1 1 10 100 100 100 100 In making these es- timates the wages of ^the force retained are reduced fifty per cent. Except where taxes are based on earnings, or special reductions can be secured. 36 Vol. 13 (625) APPENDIX E. GAUGES OF RAILROADS THAT ARE OR HAVE BEEN IN USE IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. Australia New South Wales. Victoria South Australia.., Queensland Austria Argentine Republic. . Belgium Brazil. British India.. Canada Cape Colonies. Ceylon Chili Denmark Egypt France Great Britain . Holland Hungary Ireland Italy Japan Mexico New Zealand . . . North Germany . Norway Nova Scotia Panama Peru Portugal Russia Spain Sweden Switzerland Tasmania Turkey United States Uruguay Republic. Gauge. Ft. In. 4 5 5 3 4 IMe 4 1 Me 4 5 1 Me *4 8 5 5 4 3 4 t4 *5 *6 4 4 5 4 3 *3 5 4 3 4 *5 4 5 5 5 4 4 3 4 *2 t3 4 16 4 8^2 3 3 6 S% tre tre 3 6 tre 6 6 6 8% 6 8/2 8K2 2 81/2 8^2 3 S% 6 3 8% 6 81/2 8X 6 6 8^2 8!/2 6 8^2 10 8^2 Gauge. Ft. In. *4 *5 t4 *5 8^ 8/2 2 8/a 8/2 9 8^2 Gauge. Ft. In. *3 *§5 *4 5 *3 6 1/2 Gauge. Ft. In. *3 8^ 3 6 * Gauges in use at present time, January, 1897, t Standard Narrow. i Standard Broad. § Standard of Ireland. I Mount Washington. if Sterling Mountain. APPENDIX F. QUANTITY OF MATERIAL REQUIRED TO LAY ONE MILE OF RAILROAD TRACK ON THE BASIS NAMED. Description. Weight PER Yard. Tons. Number. SIZE. 65 lbs. 102i\,*^ 352 30 feet in length. 72 " 113iWo 352 30 " " Rails « 80 " 125iVtj% 352 30 " " 85 *' 133iWo 352 30 " *' s 90 •• 141iU% 352 30 '' '' •» Ties 3,017 ^6 inches thick, by 8 inches wide, by 8 feet long, laid < at a distance of 21 inches from center to center of each tie. Spikes 12,068 r5Yz inches long and j% inch ) thick , measured under l^head. Baseplates.... 352 Angle Bars . . . . . 704 Bolts.., 1.408 Nut Locks 1,408 Tie Plates 6,034 'Number required provid- ed a plate is put on each end of every tie. They <; are seldom used continu- ously, however, but, as a rule, only on bridges, tres- ^tles and curves. Ballast to the depth of 12 inches under the ties, with a surface of 10 feet, requires 3,060 cubic yards for one mile of track (627) APPENDIX G. Table showing increase in weight of locomotives from 1880 to 1900, those given being the largest and heaviest of their respective dates. 1880. Name of R. R. using the Locomotive. Wt. on drivers lbs. Total Wt. lbs. Driving Wheel Base. Total Wheel base. Class of Locomotive. Boston& Albany. 52,000 93,800 64,250 77,000 108,750 96,200 8 wheel type. Consolidation. Fast Passenger. Fitchburg.... Phil. & Reading* 14 ft. 9 in. 6 - 6 " 22 ft. 8^ in. 21 - 1 *' 1900. Illinois Central.. Illinois Central.. Union Lake Shore Grand Trunk. .. N. Y. Central... Fitchburg 193,200 232,200 15 ft. 9 in. 194,000 214,000 16 " 3 " 208,000 230,000 15 " 7 " 133,000 171,600 16 '^ 6 " 125,000 166,000 15 " 8 " 126,000 164,000 14 '- 8 " 130,000 164,000 15 '* 9 " 26 ft . 6 in. 24 ♦* 5 " 24 '' " 27 " 4 " 26 " U " 26 " '• 26 '' 6 ♦* 12 wheel freight. Consolidation. Consolidation. 10 wheel passenger. 10 wheel passenger. 10 wheel passenger. 12 wheel or masto- don type. ♦Engines 411 and 506. (628) APPENDIX H. DETAILED RULES GOVERNING THE LOCATION OF RAIL- WAYS.^ ORGANIZATION. The Construction Department will have charge of all sur- veys and construction in connection with the building of new railways or extensions of existing lines. The Engineering Department will have charge of all surveys and engineering connected with the work of improving lines already built. The organization of the Construction Department will be as follows: (1) Chief Engineer, reporting to the President. (2) Division Engineers, with jurisdiction as assigned by the Chief Engineer. (3) Assistant Engineers in charge of the construc- tion of a line, or other work of importance, reporting to Divi- sion Engineers. (4) Locating Engineers, reporting to Division Engineers or to Assistant Engineers as directed. (5) Resident Engineers, in charge of the construction of a section of new road, or a subdivision of some work, reporting to Assistant Engineers. The organization of the Engineering Department will be as follows: (1) Chief Engineer reporting to the Gen- eral Manager. (2) Division Engineers, having charge of the engineering workiupon lines in operation, reporting to the Chief Engineer, and also acting as Division Engineers of the Construction Department upon special assignment by the Chief Engineer to such work. (3) Assistant Engineers, in charge of special work, reporting to Division Engineers. The duties of the Engineering Department will be as fol- lows : 1. To secure and maintain records of the physical charac- teristics of the railway, including roadbed, track, ballast, *These rules are in force on the Northern Pacific Railway. (629) 630 APPENDIX H, bridges, culverts and other structures. The records should show number or quantity, location, type, dimensions, condi- tion, cost and date of construction, in all necessary details. 2. To make general inspection of all such structures annu- ally, and such other examinations in special cases as may be necessary at all times; to furnish reports on their condition, and estimates and recommendations covering repairs, renew- als and replacements in the manner and on the forms pre- scribed. 3. To prepare and maintain correct station and right of way plats, standard track and other profiles, standard maps and plans, and all general engineering records. 4. To supervise and direct all work of special character, as assigned by General Manager and Chief Engineer. 5. To inspect and report condition of all ordinary and spe- cial work to insure compliance with standard plans and speci- fications. 6. To prepare plans, specifications and estimates for all duly authorized work, when necessary, to prepare forms of proposal and contracts for such work, and to award contracts when approved by the General Manager. 7. To furnish all necessary stakes, centers, elevations, cross sections and measurements required for the execution of routine or special work, and otherwise to aid and supple- ment the Division forces to the best advantage of the railway company. Engineers will have no authority over roadmasters, bridge foreman or any regular force of the several Division Superin- tendents, except as it may be conferred upon them in special cases by the General Manager, General Superintendent, or Superintendent, but they must report to the proper official any neglect or failure to execute work in accordance with the duly authorized plans, specifications or instructions governing such work. None other than routine work will be undertaken without formal and sufficient authority, confirmed by approved Im- provement forms (1363), or. by special direction of the General Manager, General Superintendent or Assistant General Super- intendent transmitted through the Chief Engineer or the Division Engineers. APPENDIX H. 631 No work affecting safety or regularity of trains must be undertaken without previously notifying the Superintendent of the Division upon which the work is to be performed, and the subsequent execution of the work must conform to the orders, rules and regulations established by the Superinten- dent to insure safety. All necessary track or bridge work in connection with such work will be performed by the division force, under the instructions of the Superintendent or his roadmasters or bridge foremen. Salaries and wages of special forces employed under the direction of an engineer, unless specially excepted, will be carried on the Superintendents' rolls, the engineer making time returns in the manner prescribed by the standard rules in force on the Division. Before the beginning of each season's work Assistant Engi- neers will be furnished with a list of the various improve- ments authorized. The limits within which track laying and ballasting are to be prosecuted should be ascertained in ad- vance and levels run over such sections and profiles sent to the Division Engineer, plotted to a double vertical and single horizontal scale. The Division Engineer will locate the proper ballast grade line and Assistant Engineers will compute quan- tities in cubic yards of material required for bank widening, raising sags and ballast. At the close of each season's work Assistant Engineers will furnish a detailed report of the various improvements completed, giving full notes and sketches wherever neces- sary. LOCATION. (THEORY.) "Engineering is the art of making a dollar earn the most interest." A railway is a commercial enterprise and is constructed solely for profit. The factors affecting profits are: 1. Gross earnings. 2. Operating expenses. 3. Fixed charges. The effect on such factors, of differences of route, location, details and construc- tion cost must be determined before the final route of least cost and greatest value can be fixed. 632 APPENDIX H. The combined sum of operating expenses and interest charges is least when interest charges on additional expendi- tures are no longer saved in reduced cost of operating ex- penses, and when additional operating expenses are no longer saved, in reduced interest charges. Accordingly, the eco- nomic value of each factor affecting the cost of operating must be ascertained and carefully compared with its corresponding effect on construction cost, in order to secure the most eco- nomical ratio between operating expenses and construction cost. The principal factors affecting cost of operation, with which the Engineer has to deal, are: Volume of traffic, gradients, distance, rise and fall, curvature and maintenance of railway, for which economic values are elsewhere given under appro- priate heads. The sums which may be profitably expended for improving the character of the railway location and construction vary most directly with the number of trains to be operated over the new railway, for which reason the ''train mile" is usually adopted as the operating unit. The commercial effectiveness of ''operation'' is reflected In the average cost of transporta- tion per net ton mile, which may be regarded as the commer- cial unit. The least cost of transportation is secured when the lowest train mile cost is combined with the largest net tonnage per train. And the earning power of the invested capital is greatest when least cost and greatest net tonnage per train are combined with the lowest economic capital expenditure. Under these conditions only does "a dollar earn the most interest." GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. The rules governing location are intended for use in the field, and it is expected that they will be closely followed. The ability of the engineer will be determined by this standard. Before any new road is located, the Chief Engineer will indicate the character and purpose of the line, and will give the number of trains for which the line is to be located. After the completion of the preliminary surveys he will also APPENDIX H, 633 determine the rates and proper adjustments of the ruling grades and the maximum degree of curvature to be adopted. All locations must be approved by the Chief Engineer before construction is begun. Each railway location should be specially considered with reference to its effect upon receipts, operating expenses, and fixed charges, the character and direction of the expected traflac and the class and number of trains to be operated over it. The selection of route, adjustment of location details and character of construction will be determined in accordance with the ascertained conditions of lowest operating expense and least construction cost for each case. Locating engineers will furnish weekly reports, stating progress and giving all other items of general interest pertain- ing to their work, especially information concerning present or prospective sources of traflSc, its locality, character and amount. Strict compliance with the instructions is expected concern- ing the preparation of maps, profiles, records and estimates. Graphic tables for computing quantities on transverse slopes for use in preliminary estimates will be furnished by the rail- way company. So far as practicable, all maps, profiles, estimates and gen- eral records will be completed while the surveys are in prog- ress, avoiding all unnecessary accumulations at the close of the work. Competent engineers will avoid much unnecessary loss of time and money by making preliminary reconnoissances in person, using pocket compass, hand level and "aneroid" when necessary. When there are several alternate routes careful examination will usually prove it unnecessary to make instru- mental surveys over them all. Rapid exploration lines, especially when in timber, should be run with compass bearings; in many cases the method of stadia readings will also expedite progress. The time- honored custom of conducting explorations from behind the transit should be changed for a more intelligent method. The reconnoissance should be of an area rather than of a consecutive line, all lines or combinations of lines connectin'^ controlling points being studied as a whole. It ehould be the 634 APPENDIX H. effort of the engineer to first ascertain the position, character and limiting effect of controlling points, natural or otherwise; afterwards connecting such points most advantageously, and finally filling in intermediate details to the best advantage. No local conditions of rocky slopes, swamps, brush, timber, etc., should be allowed to unduly influence the Engineer as to their real effect upon the total estimate. He should also remember that alternate lines will be compared upon the basis of completed cost, and not on the cost to subgrade only, and finally that it is not the object of location to secure a line of uniform low cost, but of least total cost. It is a common error to reject routes with short sections of heavy construc- tion cost in favor of more uniform although inferior routes of greater total cost. The route of best grades and alignment should always be first projected, working back to the final and most econom- ical route. Working in the reverse order usually results in in- ferior location. The possibility of obtaining a very good line should not preclude the search for a better one; the greatest and most costly location errors occur most frequently in prairie regions. Valley locations are usually projected from "point to point" on the line of shortest distance, when the stream is unimpor- tant, otherwise the convex angles of the stream on one side and the slopes on the other form controlling points, if not modified by the additional latitude of choice afforded by the two sides of the stream, or any combination of same. Bench, plateau or prairie locations are usually projected on routes of most uniform grade and direction between controlling points. Commercial centers, stream crossings and controlling elevations form the principal controlling points. Mountain locations are subject to greater restrictions, and are usually fixed with reference to the position and height of the summit, the distribution and amount of rise and fall to be overcome and the relation between the adopted gradients and the corresponding length and cost of line. The summit is, of course, the principal controlling point; other points are generally accidental or artificial, as deter- mined by local topographical conditions and the rate of grade adopted for the descent. Such lines are usually located de- APPENDIX H. 635 scending from the summit along a uniform grade contour to an intersection with the ''bottom" line of lower grades. All locations should be made with regard to future perma- nent construction and every effort used to reduce the amount of temporary construction which may be required to the least limits. Many opportunities for stream diversion are neglected, even in cases where the cost of the bridging otherwise re- quired is many times in excess. When construction funds are limited, adopt lower standards of construction, lay temporary gradients and use short sec- tions of temporary line around or over tunnels and sections of heavy work, if necessary to avoid sacrificing future benefits arising from a properly located route. Such lines may be economically revised at some future time, while the revision of a generally faulty 'location" might involve such large ex- penditure as to make a remedy forever impracticable. Exercise extreme care in fixing the locations for stations, water tanks, coaling plants and crossings, and in adjusting grades for same, to reduce the cost and disadvantages of train stops to the minimum. Train stops on or near the foot of grades should always be avoided if possible, and when not avoidable for any reason, the rate of grade should be compensated to facilitate the start- ing of trains. A proper reconnoissance report conveys a graphic impres- sion of the features of the region and route traversed, and con- tains the fundamental elements affecting operation and con- struction cost. The engineer should separate the routes re- ported upon into natural divisions of similar characteristics, giving distances, grades and controlling points of each. He should describe, classify and approximately estimate the ma- terial to be moved and other work to be performed, giving averages per mile and totals for each section, and furnish an approximate estimate of the cost per mile and total cost of the completed railway. Small scale maps and profiles showing general features, elevations and distribution of ruling grades should accompany such reports, whenever necessary. The fundamental principle of good location is common sense. VOLUME OF TRAFFIC. Fixed charges are but slightly, or not at all, affected by variations in volume of traffic. ''General" operating expenses 636 APPENDIX E. are affected only by considerable changes of volume, while the more direct expenses of operation vary more or less closely with the tonnage or passengers transported. The effect on cost of operation of the number of trains operated is much more direct, than of the actual number of passengers or tons transported, hence the effect on the cost per train-mile is used as the basis for all economic comparisons, and the actual cost per train-mile should be as- certained in all cases, when possible. Under practical conditions, the first trains operated cost more, and additional trains cost less than the average cost of all. The average cost per train-mile for the United States is probably not far from $1, and this amount may be used for convenience, when more exact data are lacking. When the number of trains is affected without affecting the total cars or tonnage, the cost per train-mile added or saved, may be assumed at 60 cents, in default of more exact data. The cost of assistant engine service, extra cost of heavier engines and of all other items affecting the cost per train- mile, under special conditions, must be added or subtracted from the train-mile cost first assumed (see Ruling Grades). If better estimates of cost are nol available, estimate assist- ant engines at $7,500 per annum (per day of 12 hours) and heavier engines in the ratio of 15 per cent, increase of cost per train-mile for doubling weights on driving wheels. The total cost of assistant engine service should be divided by the number of trains served. Passenger trains are but little affected in number or length by some classes of rise and fall and gradients and should be excluded in all such cases. For the purpose of comparison capitalize the annual cost of train expenses at 6 per cent. DISTANCE. Minor changes not aggregating over two miles, in an engine stage, do not usually affect train wages, nor track force; train expenses and renewals are slightly affected. The capitalized value of this class of distance per daily train per annum may be considered as 25 cents per foot, to which should be added its construction cost, at say $3 per foot, when the actual cost is not known. APPENDIX H, 637 Greater changes, but not adding to the number of engine districts usually increase both train wages and track force. The assumed value of this class per daily train per annum is 60 cents per foot ($3,168 per mile). The actual construc- tion cost should be added to the total thus obtained. Considerable changes, adding to the number of engine dis- tricts and the number of trains operated, should be valued in accordance with the ascertained cost of similar service under similar conditions, but otherwise may be valued on the basis of $1 per train-mile, equivalent to $6,083 capitalized value per mile of distance per daily train per annum, adding all con- struction cost of railway and extra equipment to the amount obtained by multiplying this sum by the actual number of daily trains (each way). The effect of distance on receipts is sometimes most seri- ous, and a still further sum must be added in such cases, when the effect is sufficiently tangible. CURVATURE. The cost of operating curvature varies with the angular degrees of curvature operated, and is but little affected by the length of curve radius. The operating value of curvature per degree is assumed at $7 per daily train per annum, but to this should be added the commercial value of lost time, if any, and also all extra con- struction cost of rail-braces, tie-plates, spikes and guard rails. Curves exceeding 14 degrees per station should not be used without due necessity and usually require both guard and "hold-up" rails for safety. A maximum curve, unlike a maximum grade, is not limiting, and does not justify the use of similar curvature elsewhere on the same engine district. All curves of 3 degrees and over must be provided with ter- minal transition curves, changing 1 degree with each chord of 50 feet. On mountain lines this rate of transition may be doubled if necessary. Curves less than 300 feet in length will not be used. The minimum tangents between reversing curves must not be less than the chord length of the transition curves; the minimum tangents between curves in the same direction must not be less than 500 feet 638 APPENDIX. H. Curvature on maximum gradients must be compensated at. a rate not less than .04 feet per degree. Use standard rules for super-elevation of outer rail. RISE AND FALL. The effect on operation of minor gradients and small undula- tions, within ^'velocity limits" is very small, and its capital- ized value is assumed at $2 per foot per daily train per annum (one way). Limiting curvature and train stops on grades of this kind will greatly increase the cost of operation, and should be avoided in any event. The value of rise and fall on grades of considerable rise exceeding velocity limits, but not requiring use of brakes and sand, is $7 per foot per daily train. The value of rise and fall on grades requiring the use of brakes and sand is $22 per foot per daily train, and $30 per foot if on ruling gradients. The limiting effect on train weights, of long sections of more or less continuous rise, may considerably exceed that due to maximum gradients. This effect occurs oftenest on valley lines with low ruling gradients. Train weights may be limited either by ruling gradients which tax adhesion, or by time requirements, which tax the engine boiler. The product of speed and train resistance is horse-power and with fixed conditions of speed and engine horse-power, the train resistance is also fixed. Hence, the train weights over the division may be fixed by the average scheduled speed, and the engine horse-power at limits far below those fixed by ruling gradients. Under such conditions the average and not the maximum resistance controls the train weights. Compute engine horse-power by the simple formula. RxS 375 In which P is horse-power; R, resistance of total train In pounds; S, speed in miles per hour; and 375 a constant factor. (See Fig. 1 for horse-power of typical engines in use on the N. P. Ry, in 1898). APPENDIX H. 639 ooo's* ooo'ss ooo'9a ^ OOO'Sl o H W EH o > I— 1 o o o o Q O « o O :?; o w c/: (/) K 640 APPENDIX H. 8 i ^ S S2 % ►H OO «i APPENDIX H. 641 Vertical curves are required on summits at all grade inter- sections not less than 50 feet in length for each charge of one-tenth in rate of grade. In "sags" the rate of change should not exceed 0.05 feet per station. In theory, the rate of change should be such as to maintain equality between the rolling resistance and the "acceleration of gravity" of each car throughout the varying rates of speed. RULING GRADES. Grades which limit the maximum weights and length of trains, are termed "Ruling Grades." Maximum grades, which may be operated by heavier engines, or by assistant engines, are not necessarily ruling grades. The economic value of changes in rates of grades is deter- mined by the relative total cost and number of trains, required on each rate of grade to transport the same number of cars and tons. The practical rule is as follows : Multiply the daily number of trains saved or added by the ascertained cost per train-mile, by the length of the division in miles, and by the number of days in the year, the result will be the annual saving or added cost, resulting from such change in rate. To obtain the capitalized value, divide this result by the proper interest rate. When actual values are not known, assume the rate of 60 cents per train-mile (see Volume of Traffic), which capitalized at 6 per cent, is $3,650 (one way only). The cost of operating heavier engines, assistant engines and all other items of expense added or saved, should be computed in addition and capitalized, if necessary (see Vol- ume of Traffic). Every effort must be made to maintain the lowest practicable and economical rate of grade over the entire engine district. When sections of high grade are unavoidable, it is fre- quently practicable to concentrate such "rise and fall" into short sections, which may be economically operated by use of assistant engines. The ruling grade of each engine district should be adjusted with reference to those of the adjoining districts, or to con- ditions of local traffic, in such a manner as to avoid unneces- sary "breaking and making up" of trains. When not practica- ble to secure this by grade adjustment alone a combined ad- 37 Vol. 13 642 APPENDIX H. justment of grades and engine, weights will effect the same end. The ratio of rates of ruling grades to each other at points of intersection should preferably be in proportion to the tractive powers of the available types of engines. On sections of great rise and fall (mountain crossings, etc.) it should be the aim of the engineer to produce the maximum and minimum ruling grades to an intersection, if possible, and in any event to reduce the sections of different rates to the least number. Ruling grades may be of different rates, but equal limiting effect, when adjusted for unbalanced volume of traffic. Train stops on maximum grades must be compensated as fully as practicable, and not less than 3.5 feet in any case. Compensation is not only provided for the increase in starting friction over rolling friction, but in addition to permit trains to acquire speed more rapidly. Train stops near the foot of a long grade are most limiting in this respect. VIRTUAL GRADES. The motion of a train represents stored energy, derived from the engine or gravitation, and, under appropriate condi- tions, the power of the engine may be in part absorbed in imparting speed to the train, or augmented by the surrendered momentum of the train. When rolling and grade resistances exceed the applied force, motion is retarded and energy released in definite proportions, and conversely, when applied force is in excess, motion is accelerated and energy imparted in like proportions. The moving energy of the train at different speeds is given in Fig. 2 in terms of "Velocity Head," which is the vertical height, through which the train would be lifted, at each degree of speed by its momentum alone. Fig. 2. DIAGRAM SHOWING LENGTHS OP VELOCITY GRADES. APPENDIX E. 643 Formula for Determining the Average Virtual Grade. 1 r T (^-) a.) 20 t W Sy =» average virtual grade expressed in per cent. T = mean cylinder tractive power in lbs. for given initial and terminal speed. -W = weight of train in tons of 2,000 lbs. ; including engine and tender. R = mean train resistance in lbs. per ton of train. Note— The maximum virtual grade for a given train-load (W) is found by inserting in above formula the train resistance (R) and the cylinder tractive power (T) for minimum speed (10 miles per hour). Example: In above diagram is shown the length of velocity grades for engine Class D 3 Mogul, pulling a train weighing 1,250 tons (including engine and tender) for an initial speed of 30 miles and a terminal speed of 10 miles per hour. The difference in velocity heads (A M) taken from Table of Velocity Heads = 31.95 — 3.55 = 28.4 feet. The average virtual grade (Sy) is calculated from formula: 1 20 r T 1 1 r 11,743 1 R I 7.3 =0.1047 per cent L W J 20 L 1,250 J T => 11,743, taken from table of mean cylinder tractive power. K = 7.3, taken from table of mean train resistance. The length of velocity grades from A to a, b, c, d, e, etc., is found by con- struction, as shown in the above diagram, or may be found by calculation from the formula d 1 = , in which 1 = length in stations of 100 f t. ; d = difference in ve- S — Sy locity heads for the given initial and terminal speed; S= cent., and S^ = virtual grade, as found from formula (1). tual grade of the above example is 1 f 17,850 1 = I — 4.7 I = 0.479 per cent. 20 L 1,250 J actual grade in per The maximum vir- Table of Mean Train Resistance in Pounds per Ton for Loaded Cars. Initial. -Speed 45 40 35 30 20 15 iO Terminal. 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 R. 10.6 9.4 8.3 7.3 6.5 5.8 5.2 4.7 Table of Velocity Heads. (Velocity head = 0.0355 v2.) v speed in miles per hour. Speed Velocity Speed Velocity in miles head in miles head pr hr. Inft. pr hr. inft. 10 3.55 28 27.83 11 4.30 29 29.86 12 5.11 30 31.95 13 6.00 31 34.12 14 6.96 32 36.35 15 7.99 33 38.66 16 9.09 34 41.04 17 10.26 35 43.49 18 11.50 36 46.01 19 12.82 37 48.60 20 14.20 38 51.26 21 15.67 39 54.00 22 17.19 40 56.80 23 18.79 41 59.68 24 20.46 42 62.62 25 22.20 43 65.64 26 24.00 44 68.73 27 25.88 45 71.89 644 APPENDIX i/. The engine tractive power is least at high speed and short "cut off," and greatest at low speed and "full stroke/' as shown in Fig. 1. The mean tractive power of these engines from different rates of speed to ton miles per hour is given by the table following Fig. 1, or may be deduced from the diagram. The maximum available power for overcoming rolling and irade resistance is represented by the product of the train v^eight and its velocity head, added to the product of the mean engine tractive power, and the time or distance over which the power is exerted, illustrated, in short, in the effect produced by "taking a run at the hill." I Fig. 3. DIAGRAM OF TRAIN RESISTANCE IN POUNDS PER TON. (From A. M. Wellington's Railway Location.) APPENDIX H. 645 Rolling resistance for trains at all speeds is given by Fig. 3, from which mean resistances between different rates of speed may also be readily computed. The simplest rule for computing grade resistance is as fol- lows: Resistance (in lbs. per ton) i= rate of grade (in feet) X 20. A gradient of equivalent resistance to the force exerted by the engine is the ''virtual grade," or real resistance taxing the engine cylinders. The virtual grade line may be plotted with the assistance of Figs. 1, 2 and 3, or computed in accord- ance with the general principles before given. "Momentum" or velocity grades may be used with due caution to avoid increasing rate of ruling grades, or to avoid large construction expenditures otherwise necessary. In all such cases train stops, grade crossing and limiting or dan- gerous curvature must be avoided. Velocity grades requiring freight train speeds in excess of 30 miles per hour must not be used, nor should such grades be laid out for speeds in excess of that obtainable under or- dinary working conditions. MAINTENANCE AS AFFECTED BY LOCATION. The cost and difficulty of maintaining track and roadbed may be greatly affected by the general characteristics and local details of the selected route, and all such conditions should receive careful consideration during the location of the route. The greatest differences may exist, even between the two sides of the same valley, as one side may be subject to con- tingencies of drifting snow, slides, cloudbursts, stream en- croachments or "washouts," from which the other side is wholly free. Conditions of greater shade, due to forest or bluffs, may cause longer duration of snow, frost and moisture, or local peculiarities of soil, and the character and number of lateral streams to be crossed may all contribute towards the increased cost of maintenance. Additions to cost of maintenance arising from faulty details of "construction," may not be properly considered in connec- tion with the subject of "Location," unless resulting directly 646 APPENDIX H. or indirectly from the character of the location, such as un- necessary increase in number and length of bridges, grade crossings in lieu of possible under or overcrossings, faulty arrangements of grades, affecting yard and station expenses, and other items of like character. All additions to operating expenses, arising from such causes should be included in equations of alternate routes, capital- izing same if necessary, at the ruling rate of interest. Note:— The table of Velocity Heads and the economic values given for "Distance," "Curvature" and "Rise and Fall" are derived from Welling- ton's *' Economic Theory of Location," the values have been capitaliEc* at 6 per cent. APPENDIX I. DETAILED RULES GOVERNING SURVEYS AND CON- STRUCTION OF RAILWAYS AND LISTS OF SUP- PLIES REQUIRED IN THE FIELD.* SURVEYS AND CONSTRUCTION SURVEYS. The railway company will furnish instruments, transporta- tion, camp equipage and subsistence while parties are em- ployed in the field. Each individual will provide himself with all personal articles, such as drawing instruments, cloth- ing, blankets, etc. All survey lines diverging from any constructed line must be connected with it by measurement, so that the initial point can be located upon the map of such constructed line. Stations will be uniformly 100 feet long each, and num- bered consecutively. It is not necessary to set stakes at each station in all cases on preliminary lines; this may be left to the discretion of the chief of the party. Mark stakes on alternate lines with distinguishing letter A, B, C, etc. Mark stakes on located lines *'L." Mark point of curvature "P. C." or "P. S.," point of tangency "P. T." on the stakes of the be- ginning and end of all curves. Mark stakes at the "P. C." or "P. S.'* with the degree and direction of the curve. Ties must be secured to all township and subdivision lines whenever crossed. Give station number of intersection, angle of intersection, distance along the line to the nearest corner or quarter corner. Whenever possible, make the intersection by running through between the two corners. When line is located through villages or towns, take neces- sary measurements, tieing the center line to the plats, and secure tracings of the town plats as contained in the county ♦These rules are in force on the Northern Pacific Railway. (647) G48 . APPENDIX I. registrar's office, with all dates and certificates contained in original, and send these copies to the office of the Chief Engineer. Tie in all property and land lines and locate all buildings that are near the line. Check all angles by needle reading, or by doubling the angle or both. Check all measurements by chain or tape. Check chains frequently by steel tape or level rod. Keep all instruments in proper condition and good adjust- ment. Always establish a substantial and permanent bench at the initial point of all surveys, and at short intervals along the line. Use the sea level datum, and if one has to be assumed, ascertain its relation with the standard datum at the first opportunity, and correct all elevations accordingly. All level notes must be checked at the end of each day's work by adding the backsights and the foresights, and ascer- taining the difference. MAPS, PROFILES AND RECORDS. Maps of located lines, made in the field, will be usually drawn to a scale of one inch to 800 feet; in broken and diffi- cult localities, one inch to 400 feet. General maps to be sent to the office of the Chief Engineer may be drawn to a scale of one inch to 4,000 feet, etc. The maps will be made in con- formity with the standard specimen sheets furnished from the office of Chief Engineer. Maps, plans and profiles are to be drawn with the top of the paper to northward or westward, and the letters and fig- ures are to be right side up toward the top or toward the left hand side of the paper, and must otherwise conform with the specimen profiles. Maps and profiles should give names of all rivers and streams, names of owners or occupants of houses, ranches or farms passed by the line, etc. Put on all the information nec- essary to enable another person to fully identify any locality. Be certain to note on profile all extreme high or extreme low watermarks, wherever found, even if only approximate. The meridian should be drawn on all maps, both true and magnetic, when both are known. APPENDIX /. 649 On each drawing of any kind put name of engineer, initial of draftsman, date, place, etc. On both ends of the outside of the paper, give the title in full of the map, plan, sketch or profile. Tracings of maps and profiles of all lines run must be sent to the office of the Chief Engineer, distinctly marked with the name of the line, streams, and all other information necessary to identify the locality. Tracings of located lines showing government and property lines, streams and date of commencing and completing sur- vey, must be made and sent promptly to the office of the Chief Engineer, as soon as each section of twenty miles has been finally located, for the purpose of filing map of definite location m the land office. All changes of line made after the map of definite location has been filed in the general land office must be approved by the engineer in charge before being adopted, and as soon as made, reported to the Chief Engineer with a tracing of new and old line, and tracing profile of the part altered. Topography on general maps should be given for a distance of 1,500 feet on each side of the center line, and further when necessary to show important features. In order to facilitate plotting contour topography, the notes should give distances of contours from the center line. All courses of line must be given in reference to the true meridian, and for that purpose an observation must be taken upon starting the survey and the true course recorded in the field books, as the work progresses. An additional observation should be taken for the correction of meridianal convergency whenever the extent of the survey shall attain a departure of one-half degree of longitude. Curves and bearings of tangents shall be noted on the maps and profiles in the manner shown on the samples furnished. When practicable give true bearings instead of magnetic. State which is given. To avoid cumulative errors, when platting lines, all angles must be laid off from some standard bearing, using the calcu- lated course for this purpose. This can be done best by laying off any convenient bearing in the general direction of the sur- 650 APPENDIX J. vey and transferring all angles turned from this line by parallel rules or triangles, to the last point scaled. This will, on located lines, require all tangents to be calculated from intersection to intersection. Indicate on the map, or otherwise, the width and extent of extra right of way necessary for stations, side tracks, "Ys," borrowpits, etc., on the line of the road. Profiles, when completed, shall contain all the information called for on the sample copy furnished from the office of Chief Engineer, and arranged in the manner shown thereon. The original profiles must be made on the regular profile paper. Tracings must be made in sections of twenty miles from the original profile, and sent to the office of the Division Engineer, from which the necessary blue-prints will be made for contractors. Intersecting grades are to be connected by vertical curves, having a rate of change of grade per station of 0.05 feet, except on summit curves where the rate of change may be 0.1 foot, or more per station. Profiles should show alignment drawn in red near the bot- tom of the paper. The direction of the curve is shown by drawing the radial lines to an intersection on their proper side, at the middle of the curve. Progress profiles will be sent each month to the Chief Engineer's office, properly colored to show all work done to and included in the last estimate, on the part of the road in charge of the engineer. These profiles must show all work done during the preceding month; not only grading, but de- tails of bridges and culverts built, with their exact location; description and location of all buildings, or structures of any kind, wells dug, main track, sidings, or "Ys" laid, etc. The depth that piles are driven below the surface of the ground should be indicated by dotted lines, showing the point of lowest pile in bent; the mud sills of trestles should be shown by a short heavy line, and on steep side hills the elevation of each mud sill should be indicated in the same way. Prints from "Solar" negatives of tracing profiles in the Chief Engi- neer's office will be furnished for progress profiles. The com- pleted profiles will be retained in the office of the Division Engineer at the close of the work. APPENDIX I. 651 The standard progress colors are as follows: January Chrome yellow. July Sepia. February Carmine. August Emerald green. March Payne's gray. September Cobalt blue. April Deep chrome. October Vermilion. May Prussian blue. November Indian red. June Burnt Sienna. December Sap green. Track profiles must be prepared in all cases when neces- sary for the guidance of the contractor, showing, in addition to the ordinary alignment notes of the profile, the number and length of rails to each tangent, the number of long and short rails in each curve, and the ordinates to which they are to be curved. Field books must indicate each day's work, giving date. The flyleaf of each book must show in ink the name of the branch or division, nature of survey, kind of notes, name of engineer, name of instrumentman, or topographer, and the terminal points contained in the book. See that all sub- jects contained therein are properly indexed and that all notes of adopted or abandoned lines are properly marked as such. Have notes so plain that they may be understood by any one. The original field notes should be sent in to the general oflice when the survey is completed. In case the original notes are not in good condition have them copied in new book, giving a revised and complete record of alignment, levels, topography, right of way notes and other data per= taining to the line. Diaries will be furnished to engineers and instrumentmen on construction. Details of each day's work must be entered, giving dates of staking out work, commencement and com- pletion of work on excavation, bridges and buildings; rise and fall of streams and other data of future value. These diaries must be returned to the Assistant Engineer at the close of the work. RIGHT OF WAY. As soon as the construction of a line has been ordered the Division Engineer will issue the necessary instructions for securing the right of way, which will be uniformly 100 feet in width, except where additional land is required for 652 APPENDIX I. station grounds, borrowpits, wide slopes or other purposes. The right of way should be secured as rapidly as possible, contracts for same being taken and forwarded immediately to Division Engineer's office, where deeds and vouchers will be made. The right of way agent will be under the orders of the Division Engineer, but will consult freely with the Assist- ant Engineer in charge of the line, and will make all agree- ments as to fences, cattle guards, road crossings, ditches, etc., subject to his approval. The description of irregular tracts which are acquired by the company will be by metes and bounds, obtained by actual survey. The description of right of way through government subdivisions will be made in the following form: A strip, piece or parcel of land 100 feet in width, situated in the northwest quarter of the northwest quarter of section 10, in township 2 north, range 1 west (S. 10, T. 2 N., R. 1 W.), Madison county, Montana, and having for its boundaries two lines that are parallel with and equidistant from the center line of the railroad of the Railway Company, as the same is now located (and constructed). For a more particular description, reference may be had to the plat drawn upon and made a part of this deed. The description of lots in platted tracts should be in the following form: Lot seven (7), block six (6), in Smith's addition to Helena, Lewis and Clarke county, Montana, according to the recorded plat thereof. All plats drawn upon deeds should give ties to the gov- ernment survey points or to some fixed and indestructible points, so that the land can be located from the description and the plat. As soon as the right of way has been definitely secured, plats of the same will be prepared in Division Engineer's office, conforming to standard scale and plan furnished by Chief Engineer, to whom they will be forwarded when com- pleted, accompanied by the deeds. ESTIMATES. A careful estimate must be made showing the probable cost of every located line and of every structure or special APPENDIX I. 65-3 work upon which a report is ordered. Great precaution must be taken to include everything necessary to complete the work ready for operation or use. This applies to work to be done by both the Construction and Engineering Depart- ments. In case it is necessary to make the estimate before the exact quantities are determined, it must be replaced by an- other whenever the data can be obtained. In monthly and partial estimates, make returns of grad- ing to nearest ten yards, and masonry to nearest five yards. Monthly statement (form 106), showing expenditures to date and comparison with the preliminary estimate, will be prepared by Assistant Engineer at the close of each month and sent to Division Engineer, who will note and forward to the Chief Engineer. No estimate or statement of quantities will be given to contractors or sub-contractors not bearing the certificate of the Assistant Engineer. The standard record book, form No. 62 of the Company, will be furnished each engineer in charge of a residency. The notes are to be written in ink, when final. The record should contain cross-section notes, and all other data per- taining to calculation of quantities, classification in detail, ground and grade elevations, alignment, material or labor accounts; and the data for every item embraced in the final estimate. A summary will be made giving the final estimate in sections of one mile, conforming to the mile-posts of the branch or division. The record must be kept up, as far as possible, while work is in progress, and must be turned in to the Assistant Engineer at the close of the work, and finally checked in the office of the Division Engineer. GENERAL. The plans and work of the company are its private prop- erty and must not be imparted to any one. Reports must be made to the immediate superior of the engineer or em- ployee, and to no one else. The rates of pay of all employees will be fixed by the Chief Engineer, and no change of rate so fixed shall be made without his authority first obtained. 654 APPENDIX 7. Damage, destruction or loss of property of the Company fhrough carelessness or wilfullness, must be made good by the individual at fault. Engineers in immediate charge of parties are responsible for all Company property in their charge, and are expected to prevent extravagance and waste in the use of supplies of all kinds furnished by the Company. Locating and resident engineers will forward a weekly re port to their superior officers, reporting progress of work ana all other general items of interest, pertaining to the work. This will be accompanied by the force report. All engineers must make themselves familiar with the conditions of the contracts and specifications for work under their charge; they should attend to any reasonable request of contractors, furnish them heights, lines, stakes, plans, etc., whenever necessary, and in general do all things requisite to enable contractors to work to advantage and without delay. During construction each line will be divided into resi- dencies of convenient length, as directed by Division Engi- neer, each in charge of a Resident Engineer, and provided with such assistants, camp equipage, transportation and other outfit as may be necessary. The nature of the work and the various facilities must be carefully considered as soon as the construction is ordered, so that competitive proposals may be obtained for every- thing that will be required. Each Assistant Engineer in charge of a line will submit, for approval of the Division Engineer, a list of all buildings, sidings, Ys, etc., with proposed location of same, required on his work. The Division Engineer should submit all pro- posed plans for station or terminal facilities to the proper officials of the Operating Department for criticism, and their suggestions must receive careful consideration. The arrangement of all stations and terminals and the ap- purtenant tracks, the location of water tanks, and all mat- ters having a bearing upon the operation of any line, should also be submitted for criticism before construction. Engineers must prosecute their work economically and will be expected to work to the estimates closely. APPENDIX I. 655 All structures will be built in accordance with the stan- dard plans of the Company, and no deviation will be made from same except by authority of the Chief Engineer. Stan- dard plans will be furnished from Chief Engineer's office, and at the close of each piece of work all that have been used on same, by engineers or contractors, will be returned to Division Engineer. The usual classification of grading will be earth, loose rock and solid rock. If cemented gravel or soft rock in place or other distinctive material exists in considerable quantities, the fact must be reported to the Chief Engineer in order that it may have a proper classification assigned to it. In staking out grading, have number of station marked on face of center stake, and cut or fill on its back. On slope stakes have cut or fill marked on the face, and number of station on the back. Banks must be made full and regular. Care must be taken to avoid sags between stations. The roadbed throughout must conform strictly to the standard plan. In regions swept by strong winds, where the snow-fall is liable to be great and drifting to occur, all structures will be put on that side of the track opposite the prevailing winds. Usually this will be the southerly side, and station buildings, water stations, switch stands and every kind of structure that can cause the formation of drifts, will be put on that side. Sidings and spur tracks should be put on the same side, where practicable. When embankments are rip rapped to protect them from action of water, that part of embankment upon which the rip rap is placed should generally be made with slope not less than two to one. If the embankment has been finished at a steeper slope, the rip rap should usually be so placed that its exterior slope shall be two to one. Surface ditches must be laid out with great care to pre- vent water from running down the slope of cut, or against embankments, or being carried to any point where it can act injuriously upon any part of the work. The ditches should be made of ample size; not less than one foot wide 656 APPENDIX /. at the bottom in any case; and if the area is considerable from which water may accumulate, they should be made two feet wide or more at the bottom. Material excavated in their construction should usually be thrown on the side toward the cut. In few matters is there more opportunity to show good judgment than in judiciously disposing of sur- face water about cuts. All cuts must have surface ditches and thorough drainage. In turning streams care must be taken to make embank- ments across old channels strong enough to resist the action of currents. In such cases the width of the embankment should usually be made not less than ten (10) feet from the center line on the side against which the current will act, with slope of two to one. In cases of soft, spongy, or sliding material, this width should be increased on the exposed side. It should be borne in mind that it is less costly to build an embankment with excess of strength at first, than to have it washed out and be compelled to rebuild it. In turning rapid, turbulent streams, take special and full precautions to prevent the new embankments from being washed away while building before they are high and strong enough for effectual resistance. In building culverts and other waterways of perishable ma- terials, ample allowance in size must be made for reconstruc- ing them at a future time of durable materials. Wherever practicable iron culvert pipes should be hauled ahead and placed in position before the embankments are completed. Vitrified tile pipe of double strength will be used under road crossings. In building permanent box culverts of stone or brick, the smallest opening to be allowed is nine square feet, clear of all obstructions. The height of the opening of a culvert should never be less than its width. The greatest care should be taken to secure the foundations of all culverts and water conduits. Stream diversions, even when of considerable magnitude, usually prove much cheaper in first cost and also in subse- quent maintenance than the bridging otherwise required, particularly when the excavated material is used in embank- ments. APPENDIX I. 657 The natural "scour'* of the stream may sometimes be re- lied upon to widen channel excavations of small original cross-section, but in all cases due precautions must be taken to insure final cross-sections of full and ample proportions. Pile and trestle bridges, not required in part or in whole for waterway, are too frequently constructed in order to save time or to avoid real or supposed diflSculties in forming the embankments. The maintenance cost of such bridges is many times in excess of that of embankments of equal first cost, and no bridges of this character should be built unless the cost of the embankments otherwise necessary exceeds both the first cost of such bridges and the subsequent cost of filling same by train or otherwise. Thorough drainage is a maxim to be impressed on the mind and practice of every one engaged in construction, and engineers must beware of being deceived or misled in so- called "rainless districts,'* for experience proves that some- times (perhaps at long intervals), most destructive and un- controllable fioods occur in such localities. Top of bridge stringers will be set 0.25 foot above regular profile grade, and regular grade changed about 100 feet to meet it. This will apply in all cases, unless otherwise ordered. In the construction of pile and trestle bridges a competent inspector should be retained, whose duty it shall be to keep a record of all piles driven. The inspector's record must show length of piles, depth to which each pile is driven, sinking in inches by the last three blows of the hammer, weight of hammer, and fall in feet of same, and amount of piles cut off. Engineers should endeavor to secure, wherever practicable, at reasonable expense, undergrade or overhead highway crosrings. Bridges and culverts can frequently be utilized at slight expense for undergrade crossings for stock by making necessary openings in right of way fence. Before the completion of the work, all construction material left over and scattered along the line must be picked up and returned to the material yard. Refuse will be burned or otherwise disposed of. 38 Vol. 13 658 APPENDIX L SUPPLIES FOR 14 MEN, 30 DAYS. 400 lbs. Flour. 50 lbs. Buckwheat flour. 40 lbs. Oatmeal. 30 lbs. Cornmeal. 150 lbs. Sugar. 20 lbs. Salt. 10 lbs Tapioca 10 lbs. Sago. 10 lbs. Baking Powder. 2 lbs. Mustard. 1 lb. Pepper, ground. % lb. Ginger, ground. % lb. Cinnamon, ground. 1/4 lb. Allspice, ground. 100 lbs. Ham. 100 lbs. Bacon. 25 lbs. Dried beef. 25 lbs. Codfish. 400 lbs. Potatoes. 1 case Pears. 1 case Cherries. 2 cases Tomatoes. 2 cases Peaches. 2 cases Corn. 1 case Peas. 1 case Condensed milk. 50 lbs. Coffee. 10 lbs. Tea. 40 lbs. Lard. 12 packages Yeast cakes. 25 lbs. Cheese. 50 lbs. Beans. 25 lbs. Rice. 10 lbs. Corn starch. 1 box Macaroni. 10 lbs. Barley. 1 box Soap. 1 bottle Lemon extract. 1 bottle Vanila extract. 10 lbs. Currants. 1 box Raisins. 5 gallons Syrup. 6 bottles Pickles. 20 lbs. Onions. 1 gallon Vinegar. 6 bottles Tomato catsup. 1 case Corned beef. 3 lbs. Baking soda. 50 lbs. Evaporated apples. 50 lbs. Dried peaches. 50 lbs. Dried prunes or plums. ^ lb. Nutmegs. 1 box Soda crackers. 12 boxes Matches. 1 box Candles. 2 lbs. Lye. 10 lbs. Sal soda. 60 lbs. Butter. 8 bottles Worcestershire sauce. 1 case Coal oil. Eggs, fresh meat and vegetables as required, if they can be obtained from the farming community. ENGINEER EQUIPMENT AND STATIONERY (FOR ONE FIELD PARTY). 1 Transit. 1 Level. 1 Chain, 10 extra links, 1 extra handle. 4 Flag poles. 2 Level rods. 1 Hand level. 1 Barometer. 1 Pocket compass. 1 Clinometer. 1 Protractor, paper. 48 Thumb tacks. 6 Camel hair brushes. 1 Scale, triangular, decimal. 1 Straight edge, 36 ins., steel, nickel plated. 1 Drafting board and trestles. 1 Stationery chest, tray and board. 2 Hand axes and extra han- dles. 3 to 6 Axes and extra handles. 1 Hatchet. 2 balls Twine. 2 yards Red flannel. 2 yards White flannel. 1 Sounding rod, 3 joints, 8 ft. each. 6 6-H Pencils. 12 4-H Pencils. 12 No. 2 Pencils. 12 Timber leads. 100 Manila envelopes, large. 100 Manila envelopes, small. 6 Colored pencils, red and blue. 12 Penholders. 1 box Assorted pens. 12 Crow quill pens. 1 Slab for India ink. 2 Inkstands. 1 Pocket inkstand. 2 Pads letter paper. 2 Pads notepaper. 2 Pyramids pins. 6 Rubber erasers. 1 Steel eraser. APPENDIX I. 659 1 Water keg, 2 gallons. 2 Brush hooks. 2 50-ft. Tapes in cases, 2 without cases. 1 Bottle mucilage. 2 Bottles India ink. 1 stick India ink. 1 pint Combined writing fluid, stone bottle. 1 small bottle Red ink. 2 doz. Shipping tags. 2 doz. Shipping tags. 5 Transit books. 10 Level books. 10 Typography books. 6 Scratch blocks. 12 Blotters. 1 Time check book. 1 doz. Property reports. 1 block Vouchers. 12 papers Tacks, 8 oz., tinned. 3 quires Wrapping paper. 3 quires Foolscap. 3 quires Journal paper. 1 box McGilTs paper fasteners. 50 sheets Cross-section paper, lOths. 4 Triangles, 10, 8, 7, and 5 ins., 30 and 60 degrees. 30 yards Drawing paper, 24 ins wide. 1 roll Plate A profile paper, divided. 1 roll Tracing cloth, 30 ins. 1 Stylus book, with carbons. 24 Time returns. 1 Book of receipts. 1 Pad. 1 Book rules and regulations. 1 Book transportation rules. 1 box Rubber bands, assorted. 2 Tin map cases, 6x36 ins. 2 lbs. Keil. 2 quires Legal cap. In the case of extended explorations beyond civilization a necessary supply of medicines should be provided. CAMP EQUIPMENT (FOR ONE FIELD PARTY). 4 Tents and flies, 14x14 or 14x16. 1 Grindstone. 1 Monkey wrench. 1 Spade. 1 Hand saw. 1 Cross-cut saw. 1 Alarm clock. 1 Two-gallon keg. 1 Washtub, board and boiler. 1 bundle Sail twine and needles. 1 Sail palm. 10 yards Canvas. 2 Three-cornered files. 1 Flat file. 10 yards Toweling. 1 Scrub brush. 1 Broom. 3 Candlesticks. 3 Stand lamps and 6 chim- neys. 2 Stewpans. 1 Water pail. 2 Griddles. 1 Coffee mill. 4 Drip pans, 12x17. 1 Five-gallon dish pan. 1 Five-gallon bread pan. 4 Large iron spoons, 12 ins. 1 Soup ladle. 1 Cake turner. 1 Steel. 3 Butcher knives. 1 Chopping bowl. 1 Flesh fork. 1 Biscuit cutter. 36 Teaspoons. 36 Tablespoons. 36 Knives. 36 Forks. 1 Carving knife. 1 Carving fork. 1 Tea kettle. 1 Tea strainer. 24 Coffee cups. 2 Candle lanterns. 3 Washbasins. 2 Dippers. 1 Lunch basket. 1 Dinner table. 2 Trestles for tables. 1 Cook table. 2 Sibley stoves, sheet iron. 1 Cook stove. 3 pieces pipe, with dampers. 12 pieces Pipe without dampers. 2 iron pots. 1 Three-gallon coffee pot. 1 Two-gallon tea pot. 1 Large frying pan. 1 Small frying pan. 2 No. 28 Stew kettles, galvan- ized iron. 24 Pint cups. 36 Plates. 1 No. 24 Stew kettles, galvan- ized iron. 12 Pie plates. 4 Three-quart Pans. 660 APPENDIX I. Chopping knife. Pepper boxes. Sieve. Steamer. Colander. Can openers. Meat saw. Potato masher. Rolling pin. Nutmeg grater. Bread board. 10 yards Oil cloth. 4 Four-quart pans. 4 Six-quart Pans. 18 pint Pans. 3 Tin pot covers. 2 Three-gallon Galvanized wa* ter pails. 1 Two-gallon Tin water pail. 1 Pick and handle. 2 Mess chests. 5 lbs. lOd. Nails. 100 ft. %'iVL, Manila rope. APPENDIX J. DETAILED RULES GOVERNING CONSTRUCTION OF TRACK OF RAILWAYS* AND VARIOUS SPECIFICATIONS AND TABLES, GIVING DETAILS IN REGARD TO MATERIAL USED IN CONSTRUCTION. TRACK AND BALLAST. Preparation of Roadbed. — The standard width of single track roadbed at sub-grade is 14 feet on embankments, 20 feet in earth cuts and 16 feet in rock cuts unless otherwise ordered. All narrow banks must be widened to the standard width from centers, as established by the engineer. Transition curves will be used at the end of all curves of 3 degrees and upwards. The rate of change per degree of curvature should preferably not exceed 1 degree for each chord of 50 feet in length, except on mountain grades, where the chord may be reduced to the minimum length of 25 feet, when necessary. Short sags should be avoided, and in all cases vertical curves should be provided at grade intersections, for which the engineer will establish line and grade wherever re- quired. The roadbed at sub-grade should be crowned to facilitate drainage by raising the center 4 to 6 inches higher than the sides, making due allowance for ballast in establishing final grade elevation. Ditches in cuts should be taken out in accordance with the standard cross-section as follows: In earth, 3 feet, wide at sub-grade, 1 foot deep, with side slopes 1 to 1. In rock 1 foot wide at sub-grade, 1 foot deep, vertical sides. Material used for ballasting, widening banks or raising sags should be procured at points where the removal of * These rules are in force on the Northern Pacific Railway. (661) 662 APPENDIX J, same will benefit the roadbed by widening cuts, reducing grades or ditching. Engineers will give this subject their special attention. Ties. — The number of ties per rail will necessarily vary with the width of the ties furnished and will usually be from fifteen to seventeen ties per rail length. The minimum width between ties must not be less than ten inches. On construc- tion, ties will be laid two feet c. to c, or 2,640 ties to the mile. The best ties will be selected for use at joints, with faces not less than eight inches nor more than ten inches wide, and must be so placed that the outside bolt will come about the center of ties; the maximum spacing between ties at joints must not exceed ten inches. "Rail cut" ties must be adzed to uniform bearing, old spike holes plugged, and joint ties properly spaced for sus- pended joints, after the new rails are laid, and before the ballast is distributed. In order to maintain the standard gauge, three lines of spikes must be drawn if old steel rails are replaced by rails of wider section. Distributing Rails. — The rails may be distributed either from the end or sides of train. If distributed from the sides, both ends of rail must be dropped simultaneously. Skids will invariably be used whenever necessary to unload into piles. In all cases the greatest care must be used to avoid in- jury to rails by dropping them on hard substances or uneven surfaces. Curving. — Rails in curves of over 2 degrees must be sep- arately curved, and before being placed in track. An Emerson rail bender or bender of similar type will invariably be used for this purpose. The sledging of rails is positively prohib- ited. Particular care must be given to insure uniform curvature of the rail throughout its length, in accordance with the fol- lowing: table of middle ordinates: Degs. Ins. Degs. Ins. Degs. Ins. Degs. Ins. 1 H 6 1t% 11 2i% 16 3?a 2 % 7 \% 12 2if 17 4 3 W 8 H 13 3iV 18 4Ji 4 1 9 21/8 14 3i«s 19 4!4 5 1^ 10 2% 15 3!4 20 4i% NOTE.— Ordinate at quarters equals three-quarters of middle ordinates. APPENDIX J. 663 Placing Rails in Track. — The rails must be laid to line and gauge, and placed in track consecutively, throwing out both rails from the old track ahead, as the new rails are laid when the track is relaid. Split points will be used for closing track for passage of trains. Accurate expansion cannot be secured if long stretches of rails are fastened up to one side of track and subsequently thrown into line, and this method is prohibited. The track will be laid with even joints on tangents and broken joints on curves, except on sections of frequent curva- ture and short tangents less than 1,000 feet in length, where broken joints will be maintained throughout. To pass from even joints on tangents to broken joints on curves, cut and use a rail according to the following rule: Cut rail at point distant from center of rail one-half inch for each degree of central angle of curve, using short rail on inner side of curve. For consecutive curves with short inter- vening tangents, obtain the separate sums of right and left central angles, subtract the lesser from the greater, and the difference will be the required angle. Use short rail on inner side of this angle. The length of the short rail must not be less than ten feet. ''Short rails" may be used in inside line of rails in curves of large central angle, in order to maintain position of joints near center of outer rail, and in such cases the above rule must be modified correspondingly. Notes for length of cut or short rails will be furnished in advance by the engineer. Track centers will be furnished by the engineer every 200 feet on tangents, every 50 feet on curves and every 25 feet on easement curves. The track must be laid to conform accurately to the line established. To insure perfect alignment at rail ends, the rails should be brought squarely together, the splices placed and care- fully bolted before spiking. Perfect alignment at rail ends is of great importance in order to prevent excessive flange wear. The position of the brand on the rail is immaterial, whether right or left, inside or outside, but its position must be uni- form with the contiguous rails, and the brand should not be alternated on the same line of rails. 664 APPENDIX /. When relaying track, a convenient method of unloading rails from end of car is by means of two 30-foot lines, equip- ped with grab hooks on each end, one end to be made fast to joints and the other end to slots in ends of rails, using the engine for moving the cars. This insures proper spacing, and is more economical than unloading from the sides. Use roller at end of car when drawing off rail. Expansion. — Proper allowance must be made for expansion, according to temperature, as follows: Temp. Ins. Temp. Ins. 100° 40 t\ • 80° yV 20 H 60° H A Proper expansion must be secured by the use of iron shims, provided in accordance with the above specifications, except where track is laid on a steep grade, when sawed wooden shims of proper thickness will be provided. These shims must be left in place until track is full spiked, bolted and thoroughly anchored. In order to prevent rails from "creeping," it is absolutely essential that each individual rail shall be so thoroughly anchored as to insure freedom from contact with adjoining rails. Creeping cannot be prevented if a number of consecu- tive rails are in contact. Bolting. — The Harvey grip, or other approved form of bolt, should be used. At the time the rail is laid, two bolts should be placed in each splice, and tightened sufficiently to hold rails in line. The remaining bolts should then be placed and tightened as soon as possible. Nuts should be tightened a second or third time within thirty days after track is laid. Inspect the rails before angle bars are tightened, and take out kinks or bends by the rail bender. The nuts must be screwed up firmly before joints are spiked. Gauging. — The standard gauge will be as follows: On tangents 4 ft. 8mns On curves of l,2and3° 4 *' 8^ " On curves of 4, 5 and 6° 4 *' %%. On curves of 7, 8 and 9° 4 *' 8| On curves of 10, 11 and 12° 4 " 9 On curves of 13, Hand 15° 4 *' 93^ The extra width of gauge on curves should be uniformly decreased or tapered off, on the easement curve, from point of full curve to point of tangent. APPENDIX J. 665 Joints and centers should be gauged first and the track gauge must be applied at as many points as may be necessary to insure perfect and uniform gauge. Easement curves must be spiked to gauge at five different points within each rail length, and all track must be accu- rately gauged when spiked. Suitable track gauges for use on tangents and curves, which will insure the retention of the proper gauge during the operation of spiking, must be used. All track gauges must be tested by the engineer or roadmaster at the beginning of the working season, and the date of inspection recorded. Spiking. — Track must be full spiked, with inside and out- side spikes driven in opposite sides of the tie. Spikes must be set half their own width from edge of rail and driven verti- cally to a full bearing on foot of rail. The prevalent practices of driving sloping spikes, or of giving them a final lateral blow to close the spikes against the rail will not be permitted. So far as possible the spikes will be driven in the best wood in the tie, which is usually at the outer edge, and must not be redriven in old holes. Elevation. — The elevation (in inches) of outer rail upon curves will be made in accordance with the following table: TABLE OF ELEVATION OF OUTER RAILS ON CURVES. De- gree 15. 20. Rat 25. e of spee( 30. i in 35. miles per hour 45. 50. 60. of curve ins. ins. ins. ins. ms. ins. ins. ins. ins. 1 % K 1^5 r% U U\ l/s 1% 2n 2 H H U% 1% 2% 2H 3A 4M 3 /b H IM m 2/^ 3/8 4 4ii 7,'s 4 s It^ 1% 2% 3M 4^ 5^ 6^ i 5 h% 2j\ 3 4 5K 6i ^ 6 % h% 2/^ 3^ 4ii 6% 7 Uh n% 2% 4^8 b% 8 u\ 21/8 Sj% ^h m 9 u% 2% ^l 5A 10 iVt 2% 4^8 5if 12 IM 3H 4if 7^8 15 2i\ m 6i% 18 2^8 4H .... 20 2if 5M ... The greatest elevation must not exceed six inches unless otherwise directed. The elevation of outer rail on curves must necessarily be adapted to speed and other local conditions with due regard to safety, comfort and economy of track maintenance, for all classes of trains. 666 APPENDIX J-. The elevation on mountain grades should not exceed that required for 25 miles per hour. The elevation of outer rail must not be continued beyond the tangent point, but should decrease uniformly along the easement curve from point of maximum curvature to tangent point. To ascertain the elevation required at points on easement curves, trackmen are required to use a cord of standard length, the middle ordinate of which will be equal to the proper elevation, as follows: Speed. Length of cord. Speed. Length of cord. 20 miles per hour 31.74 ft. 40 miles per hour 63.48 ft. 25 miles per hour 39.68 ft. 45 miles per hour. . . .7L42 ft. 30 miles per hour 47.61 ft. 60 miles per hour 79.35 ft. 35 miles per hour 55.55 ft. This method is applicable to all curves, and aids in maintain- ing true alignment, as all ordinates should be equal on full centered portions of curves, and ordinates must decrease uni- formly on easement curves from full elevation to zero at tan- gent point. In using the cord to ascertain elevation, it should be stretched and firmly held at both ends against the inner face of rail on inside of curve. The middle ordinate will then be equal to the required elevation and can be measured by a foot rule, or by attaching a short piece of graduated tape to the cord at its center. All track levels must be tested by the engineer or roadmas- ter at the beginning of the working season, and the date of inspection recorded. Sluggish bubble tubes should be re- placed. Tie-plates. — The standard form of tie-plate will be used, with the standard 72-lb. rail section, in lieu of rail braces. Tie-plates will be used whenever necessary to prevent tie cutting, generally on curves of 3 degrees or over, depending upon local conditions. The widest margin must invariably be placed on the outer side of rail. On tangents and light curves, but two spikes will be used in each plate. On sharper curves, three or four spikes will be used, when necessary. In cases of unusual difficulty in main- taining gauge on mountain grades and sharp curves, before APPENDIX J. Q^7 applying tie-plates the ties may be dappe'^ to allow a sufficient inclination to the rails to check any tendency of the rails to overturn, or to spread, observing due care to maintain gauge. In laying these plates, the line side of the tie is marked, and the plate put on, the other plate being then put on in its proper position by gauging it from the line plate with a gauge rod having lugs to fit the spike holes. The plates may be forced into the tie by a hydraulic press, or in the track by striking vertically with a paver's rammer, or with a short section of rail provided with cross-bar handles. In putting plates on before the rails are laid, a wooden or metal block should be placed on the plate to distribute the blow. If put on. after rails are laid, the rail may be lifted, the plate slipped in, an iron plate placed upon each projecting end of the plate, and these two plates struck simultaneously by two strikers with spike mauls; or, one end of the plate may be settled into the tie, and the free end then driven with a sledge, causing the flanges to plow their way through the wood under the rail. Rail Braces. — Rail braces will be used when necessary with rail sections for which tie-plates are not provided, generally on curves of 4 degrees and upwards. On curves of less de- gree, double spiking will usually be sufficient. The braces should always be placed in pairs on the opposite ends of the same tie. Frogs and Switches. — Switches must be put in track in accordance with the standard plans. When temporary sid- ings are put in, the main line rails must not be cut, but short closure rails must be provided to fill the space between frog and the adjacent rail. Double spiked short rails should be used for this purpose. Ballasting. — All spikes should be driven down before ballast is distributed. Ballast should not be distributed until road- bed is of full width and all unsuitable material removed. When material is unfit for use as ballast, it should be cleaned out from bottom of tie and used for widening the banks. Where there is trouble in heaving, or wet spots, the material should be taken out to such depth and in such a manner as to insure perfect drainage. Care must be taken to avoid wasting ballast down the sides of slopes, or otherwise. 668 APPENDIX /. The depth of ballast will be determined in accordance with the local conditions, and the character and amount of ballast already in place, if any. In general, not less than 8 inches of good material will be required under ties. Tamping. — Tamp the entire length of ties on new track. Special pains should be taken to insure thorough tamping from end of tie to 1 foot inside of rail. On old track the center should be filled and lightly tamped. Tamp joint and second ties thoroughly. Thorough tamping of the second tie from joints is of equal importance with that required by the joint ties, and will prevent the formation of cracks starting from upper edge of splices by reducing the up- ward deflection of joints when a wheel is over the second tie. Material for filling and ballasting must not be taken from, slopes of embankments. When ballasting is completed the track must be in perfect line, surface and gauge, in accordance with the stakes furnished by the engineer. Ballast Cross-Section. — Rock ballast should be filled in level with top of tie from center to 2 feet outside of rail, slopes 1 to 1. Gravel ballast must be finished to the standard cross-sec- tion, which is as follows: At the center and for 1 foot on each side thereof, the top ol ballast will be even with the top of ties, and thence carried out with a straight uniform slope, passing 4 inches above bottom of ties at ends, to a point 2^^ feet outside of rail, thence to an intersection with the roadbed, with slopes of 1^/^ to 1. If material is used which is more or less impervious to water the slopes should be carried to an intersection with roadbed on a line with bottom of ties at ends. The practice of crowning the ballast above top of tie at cen- ter causes dusty track and rots the tie at the center, and is not permitted, except when absolutely required for drainage on account of the character of material used for ballasting. Supervision. — The engineer will furnish all necessary eleva- tions, stakes and notes, and will make frequent inspections during the progress of track laying, in order to insure com- pliance with the specifications, promptly reporting defects to the roadmasters and superintendents. APPENDIX J. 669 SPECIFICATIONS FOR STANDARD ROADBED AND TRACK.* 1. Roadbed. — The surface of the roadbed should be graded to a regular and uniform sub-grade, sloping gradually from the center towards the ditches. 2. Ballast. — There shall be a uniform depth of six (6) to twelve (12) inches of well broken stone, or gravel, cleaned from dust, by passing over a screen of one-quarter-inch mesh, spread over the roadbed and surfaced to a true grade, upon which the ties are to be laid. After the ties and rails have been properly laid and surfaced, the ballast must be filled up as shown on standard plan; and also between the main tracks and sidings where stone ballast is used. All stone ballast to be of uniform size, the stone used must be of an approved quality, broken uniformly, not larger than a cube that will pass through a two and one-half (2i/^) inch ring. On embank- ments that are not well settled, the surface of the roadbed shall be brought up with cinder, gravel or some other suita- ble material. 3. Cross-ties. — The ties are to be regularly placed upon the ballast. They must be properly and evenly placed, with ten (10) inches between the edges of bearing surface at joints, with intermediate ties evenly spaced; and the ends on the out- side on double track, and on the right-hand side going north or west on single track, lined up parallel with the rails. The ties must not be notched under any circumstances ; but, should they be twisted, they must be made true with the adze, that the rails may have an even bearing over the whole breadth of the tie. For all tracks on main line and branch roads the rules governing the use of cross-ties shall be as follows: a. First-class cross-ties shall be used in tracks where pas- senger and freight trains run at full speed. b. For tracks where the trains run at slow speed new sec- ond-class ties shall be used. For all tracks in yards, or tem- porary tracks laid for construction purposes or otherwise, second-class and cull ties, or good second-hand ties taken out of main track shall be used. ♦Used by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company. 670 APPENDIX J. c. On all running tracks where the weight of rail is sev- enty pounds per yard and over, fourteen ties shall be used to each thirty feet of track, and for all tracks in yards and for temporary use, not more than twelve ties shall be used for each thirty feet of track. d. In removing cross-ties from the main tracks, they shall be taken out only as they become unfitted for service, in the manner generally known as "spotting ties,** and not by entire renewals in continuous sections, and Sub-division Foremen will be held responsible for the proper observance of this rule. It shall be the duty of the Supervisor or his Assistant to walk over the track with the Foreman and personally in- spect the ties to be renewed before he authorizes the same to be taken out and replaced with new ones. 4. Line and Surface. — The track shall be laid in true line and surface; the rails are to be laid and spiked after the ties have been bedded in the ballast; and on curves, the proper elevation must be given to the outer rail and carried uniformly around the curve. This elevation should be commenced from fifty (50) to three hundred (300) feet back of the point of curvature, depending on the degree of the curve and speed of trains, and increased uniformly to the latter point, where the full elevation is attained. The same method should be adopted in leaving the curve. 5. Joints. — The joints of the rails shall be exactly midway between the joint ties, and the joint on one line of rail must be opposite the center of the rail on the other line of the same track. A Fahrenheit thermometer should be used when lay- ing rails, and care taken to arrange the openings between rails in direct proportion to the following temperatures and dis- tances: At a temperature of zero (0^), a distance of five sixteenths (5-16) of an inch; at fifty degrees (50^), five thirty- seconds (5-32) of an inch; and in extreme summer heat, of say one hundred degrees (100^) and over, one sixteenth (1-16) of an inch must be left between the ends of the rails of thirty feet in length to allow for expansion. The splices m,ust be properly put on with the full number of bolts, nuts and nut- locks, and the nuts placed on inside of rails, except on rails of sixty pounds per yard and under, where they shall be placed APPENDIX J. 671 on the outside, and screwed up tight. The rails must be spiked both on the inside and outside at each tie, on straight lines as well as on curves, and the spikes driven in such posi- tion as to keep the ties at right angles to the rails. 6. Gauge. — The gauge of the track shall be four feet eight and one-half inches at all points, excepting on curves of four (4) degrees and over, or on heavy grades against the traffic, or on tracks used exclusively for freiirht trains, where the gauge shall be four feet nine inches. The standard distance between gauge lines of the guard rail and the wing rail of frogs shall be four feet five inches in all cases. 7. Switches. — The switches and frogs should be kept well lined up and in good surface. Switch signals must be kept bright and in good order, and the distance signal and facing point lock used for all switches where trains run against the points, except on single-track branch roads. 8. Sidings. — All company sidings shall be kept in as good order as practicable, using for this purpose second-class rails and ties, or the partly-worn materials taken from main tracks. Owners of private sidings must be required to keep their sidings in safe condition for use at all times. Throw-off points must be used to prevent cars on siding being run or blown out on main tracks. For spur sidings the end should be curved away from the main tracks. 9. Ditches. — The cross-section of ditches at the highest point must be of the width and depth as shown on the stand- ard drawing, and graded parallel with the track, so as to pass water freely during heavy rains and thoroughly drain the ballast and roadbed. The line of the bottom of the ditch must be made parallel with the rails, and well and neatly de- fined, at the standard distance from the outside rail. All nec- essary cross-drains must be put in at proper intervals. Earth taken from ditches or elsewhere must not be left at or near the ends of the ties, thrown up on the slopes of cuts, nor on the ballast, but must be deposited over the sides of embank- ments. Berme ditches shall be provided to protect the slopes of cuts, where necessary. The channels of streams for a considerable distance above the road should be examined, and brush, drift and other obstructions removed. Ditches, cul- 672 APPENDIX J. verts and box drains should be cleared of all obstructions, and the outlets and inlets of the same kept open to allow a free flow of water at all times. 10. Road Crossings. — The road-crossing planks shall be se- curely spiked; the planking on inside of rails should be three- quarters (%) of an inch, and on outside of rails it should be one-eighth ( % ) of an inch, below the' top of rail, and two and one-half inches from the gauge line. The ends and inside edges of planks should be beveled off as shown on standard plan. 11. Policing. — Station platforms, fences and grounds at sta- tions shall be kept clean and in good order, and the telegraph poles, mile posts, whistle boards, bridge boards and other standard signs kept in proper position, and trees near the tele- graph line should be kept trimmed to prevent the branches touching the wires during high winds. All old material, such as old ties, rails, splices, car material, etc., shall be gathered up at least once a week and neatly piled at proper points. Briers and undergrowth on the right of way must be kept cut close to the ground. 12. Use of materials. — Proper judgment and caution must be exercised by Assistant Engineers, Supervisors and Foremen against extravagant use of materials, as they will be held strictly responsible for the same, and for any deviation from these specifications. SPECIFICATIONS FOR CROSS-TIES.* No. 1 Pole Ties must be well and smoothly hewed or sawed out of sound, straight, thrifty timber; must be eight feet long, with sawed ends, and uniformly six inches thick between faces; each face side to be eight inches wide, or wider, at the narrowest place inside the bark, and the faces to be straight, truly lined and parallel with each other. Ties sawed six inches by ten inches wide, or wider, and free from wane, shakes or unsoundness of any kind will be accepted as No. 1. No. 2 ties must be the same as No. 1, except that each face side of hewed or sawed pole ties may be not less than six *Used by the Chicago 6l Northwestern Railway Co. APPENDIX J. 673 inches, and of manufactured split ties, and of sawed ties not less than eight inches. No. 1 and No. 2 ties must be piled separately. Inspections monthly. All Ties to be delivered on ground at or above the grade of railway track, within thirty feet of same, subject to the in- spection and count of the Purchasing Agent, or any authorized Agent of the Company, whose action in counting and receiv- ing or rejecting the ties offered shall be final and conclusive. Table and Figure giving dimensions of rails of the Ameri- can Society of Engineer's Standard; Fig. 379. RAIL SECTION. 39 Vol. 13 674 APPENDIX J. Percentage of Metal: In the Head In the Web In the Flange., Base, inches Height *' RadofWeb, " '* Head, '* Angle A, Degrees Angle B, " Dimension C, inches D, " E, *' g', " ;....' *• H. - I, ♦• J, " K. " L, " too 90 80 75 70 65 60 lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. per per per per per per per yd. yd. yd. yd. yd. yd. yd. 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 21 21 21 21 21 21 21 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 f>% 5% 5 4fg- 4% 4/b 4H 5M 5% 5 m 4% 4/« 4K 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 2% 2^ 2V4 2^ 2/« 2^? 2^8 n% U^ \V^ Ml 1-^ 1^% U^ 3«\ 2^f 2% 2^t 2-^1 2% 2hl 3t.V 5.«, % U u U ^ T*". ^ 1% ^ l". ^% Vr t'b T^ t'b T^S T^« i'b ^ M M H ^ ^/i H M K H K M M H A T^e %i -11 il U U 1^6 1^6 1^6 i'b i'b I'e r\ 55 lbs. per yd. 42 21 37 4x^6 12 12 13 13 2H m Fig. 380. PENNSYLVANIA R. R. STANDARD RAIL. SECTION. 100 pounds per yard and standard joint. 2 bars, 34 inches long, 78.7 lbs, bolts, % x 4»4 inches, 7.5 lbs APPENDIX J. 675 6k|;<.|*- -5 - Fig. 381. NEW YORK CENTRAL & HUDSON RIVER R. R. STANDARD RAIL SECTION. Weight 80 pounds per yard. Type P. H. Dudley section for rails, having fillets of large radius and the narrowest part of the web is above the center line. 676 APPENDIX J. Fig. 382. PHILADELPHIA & READING R. R. RAIL SECTION. 79 pounds per yard. Type of R. H. Sayre section for rails, with top corners of large radius sides sloping outward from the top. and APPEJSDIX /. 677 I Fig. 383. ARGENTINE GREAT WESTERN R'Y, SOUTH AMERICA STANDARD SECTION. 70 pounds per yard. Tyi)e of Mr. Sandberg's section for rails, having wide heads with large corners. 678 APPENDIX J. Fig. 384. MEXICAN RAILWAY CO., LIMITED, STANDARD RAIL SECTION. 82 pounds per yard. APPENDIX J. 679 ' Fig. 385. EAST INDIA RAILWAY CO., INDIA, STANDARD RAIL SECTION. 75 pounds per yard. Standard joint. 2 bars, 19 inches long, 34.0 lbs. 4 bolts, 1 in. x 4M in. long, 6.5 lbs. 680 AFP EN BIX J. TABLE No. 1. Tons per mile and feet of track per ton of rails of different weight per yard: Pounds per Gross Tons per Feet of Track Pounds p.er Gross Tons per Feet of Track Yard. Mile. PER Ton of Rails. Yard. Mile. PER Ton of Rails. 48 75-43 70.00 84 132.00 40.00 49 77.00 68.57 85 133.57 39.53 50 78.57 67.20 86 135.14 39.07 51 80.14 65.88 87 136.71 38.62 52 81.71 64,62 88 138.29 38.18 53 83.29 63.40 89 139.^ 37.75 54 84.86 62.22 90 141.43 37.33 55 86.43 61.09 91 143.00 36.92 56 88.00 60.00 92 144.57 36.52 57 89.57 58.95 93 146.14 36.13 58 91.14 57.93 94 147.71 35.75 59 92.71 56.95 95 149.29 35.37 60 94.-29 56.00 96 150.86 35.00 61 95.86 55.08 97 152.43 34.64 62 97.43 54.19 98 154.00 34.29 !^ 99.00 53.33 99 155.57 33.94 64 ICO. 57 52.50 100 157.14 33.60 65 102.14 51.69 lOI 158.71 33.27 66 103.71 50.91 102 160.29 32.94 67 105.29 50.15 103 161.86 32.62 68 106.86 49.41 104 163.43 32.31 69 108.43 48.70 t05 165,00 32.00 70 1 10.00 48.00 106 166.57 31.70 71 i'i.57 47.32 107 168.14 31.40 ' 72 113-14 46.67 108 169.71 31.11 73 114.71 46.03 109 171.29 30.83 74 116.29 .45.41 no 172.86 30.54 75 117.86 44.80 III 174.43 30.27 76 i 19.43 44.21 112 176.00 30.00 77 121.00 43.64 "3 177.57 29.73 78 J22,57 4308 114 179.14 29.47 79 124.14 42.53 "5 180.71 29.22 80 125.71 42.00 116 182.29 28.97 81 127.29 41.48 U7 183.86 28.72. 82 128.86 40.98 X18 185.43 28.47 83 130.43 40.48 119 187.00 28.24 120 188.57 28.00 TABLE No. 2. Splice bars and bolts for one mile of track. Length Number of Number of Bolts Required. Number of of Rail, Feet. Splice Bars Required. Rails or Com- plete Joints. 4-Hole Splice. 6-Hole Splice. 24 880 1,760 2640 440 25 844 1,688 2532 422 26 812 1,624 2436 406 27 782 1,564 2846 391 28 754 1,508 2262 377 30 704 1,408 2112 352 33 640 1,280 1920 320 APPENDIX J, 681 TABLE No. 3. Number of fastenings required to the ton of rails. Weight of Rail per yard. 24-foot 25-foot 26-foot 27-foot 28-foot 30-foot 33-foot Rail. Rail. Rail. Rail. Rail. Rail. Rail. Pounds. Joints. Joints. Joints Joints. Joints. Joints. Joints. 12 23.33 22.40 21.53 20.74 20.00 18.66 16.96 16 17.50 16.80 16.15 15.55 15.00 14.00 12.72 20 H.OO 13.55 12.92 12.44 12.00 11.20 10.18 25 11.20 10.74 10.32 9.95 9.68 8.96 8.14 30 9.83 8.94 8.60 8.29 8.00 7.46 6.78 35 8.00 7.68 7.38 7.11 6.86 6.40 5.81 40 7.00 6.71 6.45 6. -22 5.99 5.60 5.09 45 6.22 5.96 5.74 5.52 5.33 4.97 4.52 50 5.60 5.37 5.16 4.97 4.79 4.48 4.07 55 5.09 4.88 4.69 4.52 4.36 4.07 3.70 56 5.00 4.79 4.61 4.44 4.28 4.00 3.63 60 4.66 4.47 4.30 4.14 4.00 3.73 3.39 62 4.51 4.33 4.16 4.01 3.86 3.61 3.28 64 4.37 4.19 4 03 3.88 3.74 3.50 3.17 65 4. .30 4.13 3.97 3.82 3.69 3.44 3.13 67 4.17 4.00 3.85 3.71 3.58 3.34 3.03 70 3.20 2.90 75 2.98 2.71 80 2.80 2.54 85 2.63 2.39 90 2.48 2.26 95 2.35 2.14 100 2.24 2.03 TABLE No. 4. Spikes required per mile of track. Size Measured Average Number Per Keg of 200 pounds. Ties Two Feet Be- tween Centre and RAIL USED. Under Head. Four Spikes per Tie, Makes per Mile. Weight per yard. Inches. Pounds. Kegs. f>Vi X ^% 375 5632 = 28.16 45 to iro 5 Xi«5 400 5280 = 26.4 40 to 56 5 Xl/2 450 4692 = 23.46 40 W2^V^ 530 3984 = 19.92 35 4 xH 600 3520 = 17.60 30 4ya X /h 680 3104 = 15.52 25 4 x/s 720 2932 -= 14.66 25 31/4 X /s 900 2356 = 11.73 20 2^2 x% 1342 1572 = 7.86 16 2^/^ X ^ 1800 1172 =, 5.86 12 682 APPENDIX J. TABLE No. 5. Giving the weight of standard track bolts; pounds per 1,000 bolts with square nuts. Diam. 2 2K 2% 2% 3 SH 3H 8% 4 4H 4!/2 43^ 5 Diam Wt.of 1000 Nuts inches in. in. in. in. in. in. m. in. in. in. m. in. in. inches H 260 274 288 302 316 330 344 358 372 386 400 414 428 H 112 1% 352 370 388 406 424 442 460 478 496 514 532 550 568 ^F 146 % 454 476 498 520 542 564 586 608 630 652 674 696 718 % 218 % 626 658 690 722 754 786 818 850 882 914 946 978 1010 % 245 % 858 901 944 98 < 1030 1073 1116 1159 1202 1245 1288 1331 1374 % 374 1 1155 1210 1265 1320 1375 1430 1485 1540 1595 1650 1705 1760; 18 15 1 525 \% 1595 1666' 1737 1808 1879 1950 2021 2092 2163 2234 2305 2876 2447 1^8 747 Pounds per 1,000 bolts with hexagon nuts. Wt.of Diam. 2 2H 2% 2% 3 ^V, 3H 33/i 4 Wa 4H, m 5 Diam. 1000 inches in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in.! in. m. in. in. in. inches Nuts. "•A 253 267 281 295 309 32:^ 337 351 365 379 393 407 421 V^ 93 1% 32V 345 363 381 399 417 435 453 471 489 507 525 543 122 % 436 458 480 502 524 546 568 590 612 634 656 678 700 % 182 % 597 629 661 693 725 757 789 821 8n3 885 917 949 981 Yat 216 % 822 865 908 95 i 994 1037 1080 1123 116611209 1252 1295 1338 % 316 1 1087 1132 1187 12'i2;i297 1352 1407 1462 151711572 1627 1682 1737 1 462 Ws 1513 1584 1655 1726| 1797 1868 1939 2010 2081. 2152|2223 2294 2365 1^8 685 TABLE No. 6. Average number of track bolts in a keg of 200 pounds. Size of Bolt. Square Nut. Hexagon Nut. VTeight of Rail. IMx^s 8 pounds. 19£xi/2 940 12 and 16 pounds. 2 Xl/2 793 20 pounds. 2H^V^ 763 25 pounds. 2% X % , 733 25 pounds. 2Y2 X % 390 425 30 pounds. 2^ X % 379 410 35 pounds. 3 X % 366 395 40 and 46 pounds. 3 xM 250 270] 31^ xM 243 261 3!^xM 236 253 3^xM 229 244 4 x% S%x% 222 170 236 180 } 50 pounds and upwards c 8%x% 165 175 4 x% 161 170 4^x % 157 165 4^2 X % 153 160 APPENDIX J. 683 TABLE No. 7. Showing amount of expansion of steel rails and thickness of shim required for a 30-foot rail, as given by Mr. W. C. Downing, Engineer of Maintenance of Way of the Vandalia Line. VARIATIONS. Temperature Thickness of Ex- Degree pansion Shim Fahrenheit In Decimals of In Fractions of in Inches. an inch. an inch. — 30 .3744 24-64 6-16 — 20 .3510 23-64 6-16 — 10 .3276 21-64 6-16 .3042 19-64 5-16 10 .2808 18-64 5-18 20 .2574 16-64 4-16 30 .2340 15-64 4-16 40 .2100 14-64 4-16 50 .1872 12-64 3 16 60 .1638 10-64 3-16 70 .1404 9-64 3-16 80 .1170 7-64 2-16 90 .0936 6-64 2-16 100 .0702 5-64 1-16 110 .0^68 3-64 1-16 120 .0234 1-64 1-16 1^0 .0000 " The rails are supposed to be in contact at a temperature of 130 degrees Fahrenheit. 684 APPENDIX J. TABLE No. 8. Capacity of duplex and single acting pumps. Size of 1*1111 I p. 3 t Dinmeter o Pipes. f c.- 2l r:% 5s i ^ i S J i 5 r^ H^ ^ •/ "* vT^ ■-« c; «v Of " — ^ a)-t- o ti t S "" Si: cc _c'^ "i? — S ^ ,A 5 2 IS .tc o^ •- ^ 5 ^ -zB. «- o |3 c y — (2 5^- J 5o ^^ 6:5§i ^ '^ oL 5 i? A^ 3 2>^ 4 .06 100 to 200 12to 24 ^ % vx 1 210 29Kxll>^ 5^ 4X 5 .31 100 to 150 62 to 93 1 IX 3 2 570 39>^xl6 G 5 6 .51 100 to 150 102 to 153 1 1>^ 4 3 840 45 xl7 6 r,^ C .07 100 to 150 134 to 201 1 1>^ 4 3 1240 49 xl7 7 c 10 1.22 75 to 150 183 to 366 IK 2 5 4 1790 72 x23 8 7 12 2.00 75 to 125 300 to 500 VA 2 6 5 2780 79 x28 8 8 12 2.61 75 to 125 391 to 652 Wz 2 6 5 3720 82 x35 8 10 12 4.08 75 to 125 612 to 1020 iy2 2 8 7 6200 90 x43 8 10 15 5.10 60 to 100 612 to 1020 1;^ 2 8 7 6300 96 x43 10 8 12 2.61 75 to 125 391 to 652 2 2^ 6 5 3940 82 x35 10 10 12 4. OS 75 to 125 612 to 1020 2 ^Yz 8 7 6300 90 x43 10 10 15 5.10 60 to 100 61 2 to 1020 2 2K 8 7 6400 96 x43 10 12 12 5.87 75 to 125 880 to 1468 2 2>^ 10 8 10350 90 x56 10 12 15 7.34 60 to 100 880 to 1468 2 3>2 10 8 10800 96 x56 12 10 12 4.08 75 to 125 612 to 1020 2>^ 3 8 7 6600 91 x43 12 10 15 5.10 60 to 100 612 to 1020 2>^ 3 8 7 6800 96 x43 12 12 12 5.87 75 to 125 880 to 1468 2y2 3 10 8 10408 90 x56 12 12 15 7.34 60 to 100 880tol468'2^ 3 10 8 10990 97 xnO 12 14 15 9.99 60 to 100 1200 to 2000 2>^ 3 12 10 15930 97 x56 12 14 18 12.00 50 to 85 1200 to 2039 2>^ 3 12 10 16550122 x5(> 12 15 18 13/77 50 to 85 1377 to 2340 2K 3 12 10 16550 126 x57 The gallons delivered by a single acting pump are one-half the amount given in the table, APPENDIX J. 685 TABLE No. 9. Switch Tibs. Gauge, 4 feet, 8J4 inches. Number of Switch Ties for Split Switch- es, Single Throw, for Frogs of Following Numbers. Length. Feet. In. 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 13 13 13 14 14 15 15 Size. Feet. In. 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 Head Blocks, 16 feet, in. : 10 in. x 12 in. Common Switch Stand. Head Block, 16 feet, in.; lOin.x 12 in. 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 1 2 3 2 3 3 3 1 2 2 2 3 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 1 1 2 2 3 3 2 1 1 2 2 2 3 1 2 2 2 3 2 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 1 1 2 2 2 3 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 2 1 2 2 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 When automatic switch stands are used omit the first switch tie and use two head blocks. When pony switch stands are used the head block should be 13 feet 6 inches long. 686 APPENDIX J. TABLE No. 10. Switch Ties. Gauge, 4 feet, 8^ inches. Number of Switch Ties for Split Switch- es, Three Throw, for Frogs of Following Numbers. Length. Size. 6 7 8 9 10 11 Feet. In. Feet. In. 8 3 7 10 3 3 3 3 3 3 8 6 7 10 3 3 3 3 3 3 9 7 10 5 5 5 5 5 5 9 6 7 10 2 2 4 4 4 4 10 7 10 3 2 3 3 3 3 10 • 6 7 10 2 2 2 3 2 3 11 7 10 1 2 2 2 2 8 11 fl 7 10 2 2 2 2 2 3 12 7 10 1 2 2 2 2 2 12 6 7 10 2 2 13 7 10 3 3 3 3 3 3 13 6 7 10 2 2 14 7 10 2 2 2 3 2 2 15 7 10 2 2 3 3 2 3 16 7 10 1 2 2 2 3 3 17 7 10 2 2 2 3 2 3 18 7 10 2 2 3 3 3 3 19 7 10 2 2 2 3 3 3 20 7 10 1 2 2 2 3 2 21 7 10 2 2 2 2 2 3 22 7 10 1 2 2 2 2 3 23 7 10 2 2 3 3 3 2 24 7 10 1 1 1 1 1 1 Head Blocks. 16 feet, inches— 10 in. x 12 in. 1 1 1 1 1 1 When automatic switch stands are used omit the first switch tie and use. two head blocks. When pony switch stands are used, the head block should be 13 feet 6 inches long. APPENDIX J. 687 TABLE No. 11. Data for Stub Switches, 4 feet,8i inch Gauge, throw-off Switch Rail, 5 inches. d c ^3 1 1. %2 J i . 2 < to 2 3 00 3 J2 2 = i-s |2 it* b. Co Di CO H S ^50 oi4' 11.3 6 9032- 26048' 215.7 12.0 24.1 36.1 4.2 13035' 13.5 7 80 lO' 19034' 294.3 14.0 28.1 42.1 4.9 110 37' 15.8 8 7010* 150 0* 382.5 16.2 31.8 48.0 5.7 100 8' 17.9 9 60 22- IPSO* 484.9 17.4 36.1 54.0 6.4 90 r 20.2 10 5044' 9035' 598.5 19.9 40.1 60.0 7.1 8 O o o o o o u 9 u 2 u dj M u o (0 Size. Length. 6 s o 6 s o 00 d d s O i IZ 1 ^ 6 "A d ^ i d 10x12 16 feet. 1 1 1 1 1 7x 9 9 feet. 2 2 3 4 5 7x 9 9 feet, 6 inches. 2 3 3 3 4 7x 9 10 feet. 2 3 3 8 3 7x 9 10 feet, 6 inches. 3 3 3 3 3 7x 9 11 feet. 2 2 3 3 8 7x 9 11 feet, Cinches. 2 2 3 3 3 7x 9 12 feet. 2 2 2 2 3 7x 9 12 feet, 6 inches. 1 4 2 2 3 7x10 13 feet. 2 3 2 2 2 7x10 13 feet, 6 inches. 1 1 1 2 2 7x10 14 feet. 1 1 1 2 2 7x 9 14 feet, 6 inches. 1 1 2 2 2 7x 9 15 feet. 2 2 2 2 2 7x 9 15 feet, 6 inches. 1 1 2 2 2 7x 9 16 feet. 1 2 1 2 2 TABLE No. 14. Bill of switch ties for a narrow (three foot) gauge single tlirow stub switch, using a number 10 frog. 6 pieces, 6 inches x 8 inches, 8 feet long. 6 *' " •' 9 6 •• - ♦' 10 4 *' " '* 12 Cross ties in main track can be 6 in- ches X 7 inches, 6 feet long. APPENDIX J. 689 TABLE No. 15. Table giving distance D Fig. 245 being the distance be- tween the actual point of the frogs of a cross-over on 4-feet 8% -inch gauge. TRACK CENTERS. "C." No. of Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. In. Ft. III. Ft. In. Frog. 11 6 12 12 6 13 13 6 14 14 6 15 15 e 16 6 11 6^8 14 5% 17 5^8 20 5% 23 5% 26 4% 29 4% 32 4% 35 45^ 38 3^8 7 13 7K 17 \% 20 6^ 24 Q\ 27 6M 31 0% 34 %% 38 41 53^ 44 11J^ 8 15 7J^ 19 7 23 65i 27 6^ 31 6^ 35 6 39 53/^ 43 5J^ 47 5J^ 51 5 W. 16 8 20 1051i 25 m 29 4% 33 7IX 37 10 42 0% 46 3% 50 654 54 9 d 17 8 22 W 26 7^ 31 1%: 35 7 40 OK 44 6H 49 OK 53 6 57 UK 10 19 85^ 24 7^8 29 7^ 34 7% 39 7H 44 6% 49 %% 54 6^8 59 6K 64 h% 11 21 9H 27 3 32 9 38 3 43 8^8 49 2^ 54 8% 60 2^ 65 8^8 71 2J^ TABLE No. 16. Widening the gauge of standard gauge track on curves as recommended by the Roadmasters* Association in 1898. Amount to Widen the Gauge, degree inches Degree of Curve. .0 .0 .0 .0 .0 ■ % Amount to Widen the Gauge. 10 degrees % inches Degree of Curve. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 % 40 Vol. 13 690 APPENDIX J. 5& (D o o "3 2g O c8 en to u o ^§ © rt Oil ©so © o ^ "*^ u^ .^ © o tjc:^ © ® S E-i ©•;:; •• +J p in bo Oi-i^c<»cooo:o»^5^>coTji»o«ot-ooc»o--©iccTjiko«oi>c»oso r^H tl(MCOCCC0'3'TiiU5?O«OJ>a0OS ,-(,-( ^ ,-1 ^C\j(MCt-QOO5OS ^»-iT-n-i-t(MWr-OOJOC»a> :^;5t;;^::^;^;^^ :^;^;^:^;j^ ^^t::^;^ ^:^^ :^::^^ ;:jt::^;^ r-i r-^ i~i '^ r-i Tt Gi ti Qi (^ ccKKi CO CO ^ ^ ^ -ft la \a la ttito -t^-^-^-^^x^^ .. ;:i=t^^ :^:^;^ ^:^^ ;^:^;§^ ;^:^;§^ :^^ HN(MC^(MC>JW S OJ O) o n > ui x.^^ >> .2 -d «§ s xi ffl kS ri !»^ n 5 o s o p be o o o ca Tt a 0) 5 53 is 3 cd ^ ^ «0 ^ ^j (D cn w O © -^ « r ^o ^ ;=; ^ CD ^ ;a : §§ r^ O , © 0) o ^ Odd 2"^ ° d oS d d'3 6 g 5J Pk Odg'if^ a ©to .2 -2 ^ o o^ P >fl J3 ^B 22 :: > (D .^ gajOddg^.^g^-^Od OO^jS ^ d M !S P>. c3 00 ^^ i>oovrto O O '5 O a d ^S .a •CO 86 43 +3 P P 03 d d ■« 03 C« !/3 M t- ,^ oooooo :^ t ^ tlDbc d C a tn So* g -d APPENDIX L. 719 C€ rl 4^ a 50 o W < W : -^ Q '^ q *f o 2 ^ n .S' tic « ,K 0, bc.S r :^x3- p fl oj rs o » • or" —< . eer^W^ <^ e3 c •;: d'-jcZ).2-2 p c8 a; 2.S !d : O ;::^^ o a., --) !.« ^ >-( a .^^ a C3 a: D C3 U^ ..-H rn __ L OS ai^^^ ^:-^a 5 f .£. f-t CO -M .^5 : So bo >5 >» •— • •o fl + + 43 5 • N ■^ o o COIM a w o <» O) . >> P1 fH G (X) I -M fl I MO O i ^3 i o o . 0*^ : •e ^ o^2o O) en r^ $f O O So a ^- •-1 §QOoiOO O'^ O ■00 :s Tfo o a . o ; •c . c3 o o < 4-3 43 4 WQOC .Ifl . ' S^oo '.'^ \ t* • O)^ • O .QO •43 O roo-^ :<« : \Ci :o;2; o o 43 4J Oqo 2 © © M d (-1 .a ^ o cSoOOftp^^H^H.^K: u Pi 3 O CUc/i INDEX. Abutment ! 323 Abutments 127 Adjusting an Old Line to Meet New Conditions 146 Angle Bars, Number Kequired for One Mile of Track 627 Arch, Axis of 328 Arch Bridges and Concrete Steel Construction 322 Arch Culverts 322 Arch, Segmental 328, 331 Arch, Semi-circular 328, 329 Arch Sheeting 327 Ashpits 310 Axis of Arch 328 Backing 327 Ballast 181, 189 Ballasting 396, 667, 668, 669 Base plates. Number Required for One Mile of Track 627 Bolts, Number Required for One Mile Track 627, 680 '' Number of Per Keg 682 ' ' Track 247 ' ' Weight of Per Thousand 682 Bolting 421, 664 Borrowpits 95, 132 Bridges 24, 268 Bridges, Detailed Rules Governing 708 * ^ Maintenance of 519 Bridge, Stone Arch, Designing of 328 Bridge Stone Arch, Table of Dimensions of 332 Bridging Timber 134 Buildings 299, 489 ^^ Detailed Rules Governing 708 Burnt Clay Ballast 194 Buildings, Maintenance of 519 Bumping Posts 267 Camp Party 67 Cattleguards 320 Cements 335 Cinder Ballast 198 Clearing Right of Way 458 Coaling 293 (720) INDEX, { 721 Commissary Party 67 Concrete 333 Concrete Mixers 338 Concrete, Proportions for 337 Concrete Steel Construction 322, 347 Concrete Steel Construction, Cost of 351 Construction 90 * * Accounts 541 ' * Authorities on 693 * ' Detailed Eules Governing 647 * * Material Used in 661 '' Standards of 173 Controlling Points 177 Coursing Joint 327 Crossings 453, 672 Crossovers 372 Crown 327 Culverts 123, 133, 280 '' Detailed Eules Governing 708 Culvert, Stone Arch, Designing of 328 Curves, Elevation of Eails on ^^^. 690 * ^ Widening Gauge on 689 Cuts 92, 106, 176 Depots 302 ^ * Erection of 145 Development of Eailway 21 Ditches 180, 433, 671 Drainage 120, 179, 420 Draughtsmen 67 Economy of Wooden Structure as Compared with Stone Arch Culvert 323 Engineer, Assistant 91 '' Division 90 Engineers, Locating 47 Embankments 92, 103, 112, 118, 122, 433 Estimates— Monthly 130 Evolution of Eailway 21 Excavation 92, 106 Explosives, Use of Ill Extrados 327 Facilities — Effect of on Cost of Operation 588 Fences 317, 456 Field Supplies 647 Fills 100, 176 Foremen 395 Frogs 253, 367, 440, 667 '' —Early Forms of 39 722 INDEX. Fuel Supply 145 Gauge 174, 671 Gauges Used in Different Countries 626 Grade — Surfacing 129 Gravel Ballast 196 Hand Cars 419 Haunch 327 Heading Joint 327 Intrados 327 Joint, Ties 215 Joints, Introduction 19, 670 • * Early Forms of 33 '' Eail 216, 242 Keystone ...327 Leveling Party •. 63 Line, Old, Adjusting to Meet New Conditions 146 Lining 421 Location 83 * ^ Authorities on 693 '^ Detailed Eules Governing 629 Locating Party 83 Locating Eailways 47, 83 Locomotives, Curves Showing Horse Power of 639 '' Increase in Weight of— 1880 to 1900 628 Locomotive, Invention of 24 Lubricants, Effect of Quality of 563 Machinery Used in Eeconctruction 153 Maintenance Accounts 541 * ' Authorities on 69S *' —Cost of 544 ** — Fixed Operating Expenses 574 '' —Force 388 '' of Way 386 '' Eelation of Various Classes to Total Cost of.. 624 ' * — Eules Governing 392 ' ' Things that Affect . .^ 594 Material — Classification of 131 Effect of Quality of 559 Old 491 ' ' Standards of , 173 Middle Ordinates, Table of 691 Narrow Gauge Sections 177 Nutlocks 248 ^^ Number Eequired for One Mile of Track 627 Overhaul 132 Operation — Cost of 544, 588 INDEX. 723 Operating, Cost of — Percentage Due to Maintenance of Or- ganization and the Prevention of the Destruction of the Property From Natural Causes 625 Operating Expenses, Fixed 574 Openings — Size of 94 Ordinates Middle, Table of 691 Piles, Life of Different Kinds of 718 Piling 134 Piers 127 Policing 672 Preliminary — Survey 58 Pumps, Capacity of 684 Water 288 Rail Braces 249, 667 ^ ^ Fastenings 242 ^ * Expansion Xumber for Eails per Ton 681 ' ' Section • 673 Rails 226 ' ' Changing 480 ' ^ Creeping 448 ^ ^ Curving 662 ' ^ Dimensions of 673, 674 ' ' Distributing 662 ' ' Early Supports of 28 ' ' Early Forms of 22 ' ' Effect of Quality of 559 ' ' —Elevation of, on Curves 382 ^ ' Expansion of 451, 683 ' ' Filing 482 ' ' Jointing . 483 ^^ Number Required to Lay One Mile of Track 627 ' ' Placing in Track 662 ' ' Tons Used per Mile and Feet 680 ' ' Unloading 481 Rebuilding, Reasons for 146 Reconnoissance 47 Reconstruction — Conducting Transportation 150 Reconstruction — Curvature 152 Reconstruction — Distance 152 Reconstruction — General Explanation 150 Reconstruction — Gradients 152 Reconstruction — Maintenance of Equipment 149 Reconstruction — Maintenance of Way 148 Reconstruction — Method of Arranging Tracks for Yards and Terminals 154 Reconstruction of Old Line 154 Reconstruction — Rise and Fall 153 Reconstruction — Summary 151 724 Il^DEX. Eeports of Other Eoads, Value of When E^constructing 147 Eesistance, Train 644 Eetaining Walls 119, 121 Eight of Way — Clearing 95 Eing Stone 326 Eise 326 Eoadbed 178, 661, 669 Eoundhouses 309 Eoutes — Locating 55 Sand Ballast 199 Sand Houses 310 Scales, Track 322 Scrap 491 Season's Work 476 Shimming 454 Sidings 671 Signs 453 Signals 313 ' ' Switch 265 Side Tracks 144 Skewback 323 Slag Ballast 192 Snow Fences 464 ' ' Plows 469, 474 ' ' Eemoving 463 Soffit 327 Span 326 Spandrel 327 Spandrel, Dimensions of 331 Spikes 241 '' Number Eequired for One Mile Track 627, 681 Spiking 421, mo Splice Bars, Number for One Mile Track 680 Springer 323 Spring Line 323 Stations 489 '' Coaling 293 '' —Erection of 145 Stakes, Engineers ' — Care of 484 Stock Pens. 307 ' ' Yards 307 Stone Ballast 190 Storehouses 309 String Course 327 Structures 173 Supervisors 392, 394 Supplies, Field 647 Surfacing 144, 423 INDEX, «W Survey — Preliminary 58 Surveys, Detailed Eules Governing 647 Switch Stands 261 Switches 251, 367, 434, 667, 671 '' — Earlv Forms of 39 '' Data for 687, 689 ' ' Ties Required for 685, 686, 688 Tamping 424, 667 Tanks, Track 292 Targets - 265 Taxes 612 Terminals, Effect of Cost of 486 Ties 200, 662, 669 * ^ Bearing Surface on Ballast. , 692 ' ' Effect of Quality of 561 ' ' Metal 217 ' ' Number of to Rail 387 ^' Number Required for One Mile of Track 627 ' ' Number Required for Switches 685, 686, 688 * ^ Renewals of 427 '' Size of 214 * * Specifications for 672 ^ ^ Spacing 215 ' ' Wood— Life of 203 * ' Wood — Preservation of 205 Tie Plates 222, 666 '^ ^^ Number Required for One Mile of Track 627 Timber, Bridging 134 '' Decay of 202 ' ' Life of Different Kinds of 719 Topographical Party 65 Tools, Track 402 Track, Authorities on 693 ' ' Bolting 421 ' ' Constructing 361 ** Construction of — Detailed Rules Governing 661 ' ' Drainage 420 ^ * — Early Method of Constructing 32 *' Expenses, Relation of Various Items to the Whole. . . . 623 ' * Inspecting 495 ^^ Labor, Relation of Various Items to Each Other 623 Tracklaying 134 ' ' Machines 137 Track, Lining 421 * ^ — Moving During Week 486 ' ' Old— Moving 483 * * — Moving on Sunday 485 '' —Policing , 487 726 INDEX, Track — Preparing for Sunday Work . 484 ' ' Scales 322 * ^ Shimming 454 * ' Spiking 42] * ' Sprinkling 452 * ' Surfacing 423 * ^ Tamping 424 Tracks, Team 312 Train Eesistance 644 Transit Party 61 Tunnels 113, 185 Turntables 296 Velocity Grades, Length of 642 Voussoirs 327 Water Supply 144 ' ' Supplies 285 Water Tank 155 Way, Maintenance of 386 Wing Wall 327 Wing Walls, Dimensions of . 331 Wrecks 505 Wood for Ties 200 Kirkman^s Complete Works THE SCIENCE OF RAILWAYS This great work is of inestimable value to those who look for advancement in railway service; also to those who by greater knowledge of railway affairs seek to become more useful to their employers. It is a library of Reference and Instruction ; a recognized standard work on railways, at once concise, clear anp comprehensive. It represents forty-five years of continuous effort on the part of the author, who has had fifty years of practical experience as a railway officer and employe. Thus through his thorough acquaintance with the business, coupled with years of study, aided by the advice and co-operation of railway men of genius and vast experience in different departments of the service, he has been able to complete this great and lasting exposition of railway affairs. The volumes constituting the series are sold only in complete sets. They are as follows : Motive Power Buii^ding and Repairing Raii^ways Engineers' and Firemen's Hand- Operating Trains BOOK E1.ECTRICITY APPI.IED TO RAII^ROADS Air Brake Locomotive Appi^iances Cars Coli^ection of Revenue Organization Genera i. Accounts and Cash Passenger Traffic and Accounts Safeguarding Expenditures Freight Traffic Basis of Raii^way Rates THE ROMANCE OF GILBERT HOLMES A romance of the Mississippi Valley in the early days, told with captivating power. Strong in plot, the most stirring adventures are interwoven with a love story which is idyllic and full of charm. "Of the beauty and delicacy of the author's touch there can be no question."— Chicago Tribune. "Each chapter contains something of interest. The love story gently and gracefully per- vades the whole book.*' — Vanity Fair. *' A vivid and stirring picture of adventure, incident and romance that holds the interest of the reader from the start. A pretty love story runs through the book, told with so much delicacy and tenderness that it is a distinct charm." — Baltimore American. " Wherever opened something beautiful is found."— The Christian Nation, New York. PRIMITIVE CARRIERS In portfolio form, embracing fifteen hundred beautiful engravings, portray- ing the primitive peoples of the world and their methods of carriage in every age and quarter of the globe. " A more interesting series of illustrations it would be difi&cult to imagine, or one that could give more clear and positive instruction in the history of humanity." — New York Sun. "A superb volume, original in conception and unique in literature and art." — Chicago Tribune. PUBLISHERS : THE WORLD RAILWAY PUBLISHING COMPANY, CHICAGO. Deacidified using the Bookkeeper pr( Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide Treatment Date; April 2004 PreservationTechnologk A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATIO 1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive Cranberry Township, PA 16066 (724)779-2111 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS V ••V# .*.% /«V»VtiV\'jW