Class /_J 
 
 Book . (^ 
 
 CORTlglltly?. 
 
 COFUilCHT DEPOStr. 
 
BASIC INDUSTRY LIBRARY 
 
 ROBERT MORRIS CLUB 
 
 National Association Credit Men 
 
 Vol. I 
 
 DETROIT, MICHICxAN 
 1917 
 
Copyright 1917 
 
 by the Robert Morris Club 
 
 National Association of Credit Men 
 
 Detroit. Michigan 
 
 / 
 
 )c:,A-i739«9 
 
 OCT 12 1917 
 
The Tanning Industry 
 
 Prepared by 
 
 A. Heath Onthaiik 
 
 Nationtd Shawinut Bank 
 
 Boston, Massachusetts 
 

 Table of Contents 
 
 Page 
 I. Historical Introduction 7 
 
 II. General Considerations 8 
 
 III. Raw Materials 9 
 
 A. Domestic Sources 9 
 
 B. Foreign Sources 10 
 
 C. Organization of the Domestic Market 12 
 
 D. Organization of the Foreign Market .13 
 
 E. Tanning Materials 17 
 
 IV. Tanning 19 
 
 A. Sole Leather 19 
 
 1. Vegetable Tanning Process 20 
 
 2. Chrome Tanning Process 23 
 
 B. Upper Leather 24 
 
 C. Patent Leather 27 
 
 D. Amount of Product 27 
 
 E. Contract Tanning 28 
 
 F. Costs 29 
 
 G. Tanneries 29 
 
 1. Geographical Distribution 31 
 
 2. Location of Tannery 31 
 
 3. Tannery Construction •32 
 
 4. Tannery Equipment 33 
 
 H. Labor 33 
 
 I. By-Products : 34 
 
 J. Financing 34 
 
 V. Leather Market 36 
 
 A. Organization 36 
 
 B. Domestic Market 37 
 
 C. Foreign Market 38 
 
 D. Sole Cutting 38 
 
 E. Substitutes for Leather 39 
 
 ./I 
 
THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 A* 
 
 I. Historical Introduction 
 
 SO far as it is possible to know, the process of tanning hides and 
 skins is as old as mankind itself. The knowledge of this import- 
 ant trade was possessed by the ancient Egyptians, for engravings 
 on their tombs depict the process of tanning. In China specimens of 
 leather have been discovered with other relics which prove them to be 
 over three thousand years old. When the European explorers came to 
 America they found the Indians using tanned skins and hides for cloth- 
 ing and for their wigwams. Thus the story of the first tanner goes 
 back beyond the ages of which history has an account. 
 
 Probably the original process of curing skins was that of simply 
 cleaning and drying. Then the use of smoke, sour milk, various oils, 
 and the brains of the animals themselves was found to improve the 
 texture of the leather, and later use was made of certain astringent 
 barks and vegetables which effected permanent changes in the texture 
 of the skins and stopped decay. The Romans used leather which they 
 tanned with oil, alum, and bark, but the present methods of tanning 
 were introduced into Europe by the Moors when they conquered Spain. 
 
 The first tanners came to America with the early settlers, and there 
 are records of the establishment of tanneries in Virginia and in Lynn, 
 Massachusetts, as early as 1630. The growth of the industry in the 
 new country is denoted by the fact that in 1650 there were fifty-one 
 tanners in Massachusetts Bay Colony. The primitive methods of 
 tanning continued in use until 1790, when the use of lime to unloosen 
 the hair was introduced. Shortly before the Civil War the use of 
 machinery gave the industry in this country an enormous advantage, 
 which was increased later by the introduction of chrome tannage. 
 
THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 II. General Considerations 
 
 Leather may be defined as the skin of an animal, or some part of 
 such skin, tanned, tawed, or otherwise dressed for use. 
 
 Tanning is the general term for the process which produces the 
 chemical change in the hide or skin, resulting in the formation of 
 leather. This chemical change takes place in the following manner: 
 the tannin— the main chemical agent — which is in the vegetable 
 tanning extract, and the gelatine of the hide have an affinity for each 
 other, and when a complete contact is made between the two, the 
 necessary chemical change takes place. 
 
 There are two main classes of leather: — 
 
 (1) Hea\'y, or "sole" leather, 
 
 (2) Light, or "upper" leather. 
 
 These classifications reflect differences of two main characteristics in 
 the leather; first, the kind of raw material used, and second, the use to 
 which the leather is to be put. 
 
 Heavy, or sole, leather is made from cattle hides, buffalo hides, and 
 other thick and heavy hides. The main uses for the leather produced 
 from these hides are: 
 
 (1) Sole leather for shoes, 
 
 (2) Belting. 
 
 Light, or upper, leather is made from several kinds of skins, the 
 most important of which are: 
 
 (1) Calf and kip, 
 
 (2) Sheep and lamb, 
 
 (3) Goat and kid, 
 
 (4) Horse and colt, 
 
 (5) Pig, 
 
 (6) Kangaroo. 
 
 The products which result from the tanning of these skins are like- 
 wise more numerous, the main ones being: 
 
 (1) Upper leather for shoes, 
 
 (2) Glove leather, 
 
 (3) Harness leather, 
 
 (4) Upholstery leather, 
 
 (5) Bookbinding leather, 
 
 (6) Fancy leather goods. 
 
THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 III. Raw Materials 
 
 The source of raw materials used in the tanning industry is in truth 
 the whole world, for products from every part of the globe have their 
 functions in the processes of producing leather. The domestic market 
 yields large quantities of some classes of materials, but little or noth- 
 ing of other essential raw substances; the same may be said in a general 
 way of the foreign market. 
 
 A. Domestic Sources 
 
 This country is the largest producer of beef cattle in the world, and 
 consequently its largest producer of cattle hides. Hides and skins are 
 really a by-product of the meat packing industry, and the number 
 available each year depends on the demand for meat rather than on 
 the demand for leather. 
 
 In 1909, the last year for which are available complete figures of the 
 Census Bureau, there were taken off in this country 13,764,686 cattle 
 hides, and there were treated by tanners the same year 20,516,332. In 
 other words, the domestic supply of cattle hides during 1909 was 67% 
 of the total number of hides treated. In 1914, a total of 19,726,774 
 cattle hides were treated. There were imported during the same year 
 7,743,303 cattle hides, leaving 11,983,471 hides as the product of the 
 domestic slaughterers, or 60.7%. 
 
 It is apparent, therefore, that in spite of the enormous amount 
 of hides produced in this country, the domestic supply will suffice for 
 only a little more than one-half the demand. 
 
 It is well to note at this point that there are two main classes of 
 domestic hides, viz.: "packer hides" and "country hides." The packer 
 hides get their name from the fact that they are taken off at the 
 slaughter houses of the meat packers, and for several reasons are dif- 
 ferentiated from the country hides, which are taken off by country 
 butchers, or other slaughterers. The main difference in these classes 
 of hides is in the quality of the hide and the percentage of leather which 
 the hide yields. The large meat packing-houses, slaughtering as they 
 do thousands of cattle daily, keep a large force of men and boys steadily 
 employed doing nothing but flaying. As a result they become so 
 expert that the hides are seldom cut or mutilated. The packer hides 
 are also kept in better condition because of better and standard 
 methods of salting. Another advantage arising from the large take-off 
 is that the packers can keep a wide selection of different weights and 
 grades in stock, facilitating purchasing. Country hides, on the con- 
 trary, are apt to be cut because of poor methods of flaying, and to lack 
 a uniform appearance. They are not always properly handled, which 
 detracts from the amount and quality of the leather which the tanner 
 produces. There is, furthermore, an additional expense incident to 
 collecting these country hides from many places, and by reason of the 
 nece.ssary sorting and classification at the point of distribution. All 
 these facts are reflected in the prices of the two classes of hides, packer 
 hides usually bringing from two to four cents more per pound than 
 country hides. 
 
 By far the larger amount of domestic hides taken off are packer hides, 
 as the following figxires will show: 
 
10 THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 1909— Number of packer hides 12,356,046 
 
 Number of country hides 1,406,640 
 
 13,762,686 
 
 The main distributing points for cattle hides are naturally in the 
 West, and Chicago easily overtops all the other cities in the number of 
 cattle slaughtered, and consequently in the number of hides produced. 
 Following Chicago come in order of their importance, St. T.ouis, Kan- 
 sas City, Omaha, Ft. Worth, St. Joseph, Sioux City, Oklahoma City, 
 St. Paul, and Denver. 
 
 As regards the other raw materials there is a greater diversity of 
 domestic sources of supply. This country produces a large amount of 
 calfskins, but can by no means meet the domestic demand, as shown 
 below: 
 
 Calf and Kip Skins. 1914 
 
 Number treated 16,067,793 
 
 Number imported . 8,451,929—52.6% 
 
 Domestic supply 7,615,864—47.4% 
 
 The distributing points for domestic calfskins correspond in importance 
 to those for cattle hides. 
 
 The domestic supply of sheepslcins, large as it is, is far from enough 
 to supply the tanners' demands, as the following figures show: 
 
 Sheep and Lamb Skins. 1914 
 
 Number treated 40,090,198 
 
 Number imported 26,535,258—66.2% 
 
 Domestic supply 13,554,940—33.8% 
 
 In the slaughter of sheep, Chicago is again the predominant market, 
 with no close competitor. The other main distributing points are 
 Omaha, Kansas City, St. Joseph, and St. Louis. 
 
 The domestic supply of goatskins is practically nil, and this country 
 is almost wholly dependent on imports for that class of raw material. 
 The following figures show the extent of this dependence: 
 
 Goat and Kid Shins, 1914 
 
 Number treated 37,755,867 
 
 Number imported 36,895,204—97.7% 
 
 Domestic supply 860,663— 2.3% 
 
 B. Foreign Sources 
 
 Hides and skins are imported into the United States from practically 
 every country of the earth, but in each class of imports there are cer- 
 tain countries which send the predominant supply. In considering 
 these foreign sources of raw materials for the tanning industry, com- 
 parison will be made on the basis of conditions before the war, since 
 this will show the normal course of trade. 
 
 The greatest producing district of cattle hides next to the United 
 States is Argentina. That country shi])s large supplies of hides to 
 Europe, and also supplies our tanners with the greatest portion of our 
 imported hides. The chart on page 42 shows that in 1912 Argentina fur- 
 
THE TANNING INDUSTRY 11 
 
 nished one-third of the total imports of hides into this country, and 
 even under the unusual conditions now prevailing, with enoi'inously 
 increased hide imports, the same ratio is being supplied by this one 
 nation. 
 
 South America is a very fertile field for cattle raising, and several 
 others of its countries send large amounts of hides to the United States. 
 Under normal conditions the one which leads the others is Uruguay, 
 which ships great quantities of hides from Montevideo, and also sends 
 many hides to Argentina to be exported from Buenos Aires. During 
 the war Brazil has also sent lai-ge shipments of hides to this country, 
 as have also Colombia and Venezuela. 
 
 In ordinary times Canada is the second largest source of imported 
 hides, closely followed by Mexico. The one other large source of hides 
 is France, and it may also be said that the French hides are of excep- 
 tionally fine quality, due to the care which the French peasants take 
 of their cattle. 
 
 From the statistics of imports the supply of calfskins seeins to be 
 divided very equally, but these figures, though showing truly the 
 country of shipment, do not reflect the country of origin with the same 
 veracity. Russia is undoubtedly the greatest source of calfskins, but 
 many of these skins are shipped out through Germany. Despite this 
 fact, in normal times, Russia ships the largest amounts of calfskins to 
 this country; at present the supply is entirely shut oft' because of an 
 embargo on shipments of skins declared by the Russian Government. 
 
 Germany is the next largest single source of calfskins, many of 
 which are undoubtedly Russian in origin. This supply is also shut off 
 at present by reason of the activity of the British navy. Netherlands 
 and France furnish large supplies of calfskins, and the extent to 
 which the Dutch supply consists of reshipments may be seen from the 
 drop in the volume of trade since 1914. The other countries of Europe 
 together form another large source of supply, and South America also 
 sends a considerable amount of calfskins. 
 
 In imports of sheepskins Great Britain has a marked ascendency over 
 all other competitors, supplying about forty per cent of our receipts 
 from outside sources in normal times. This trade also may safely be 
 said to be made up largely of reshipments, since the Colonial wool and 
 sheepskin trade is still in the hands of British agents to a large extent. 
 
 The other main countries of shipment are Argentina, Russia, and 
 Oceania, including Australia and New Zealand. In normal times these 
 three countries send about an equal amount of sheepskins to this 
 country, but at pi-esent the Russian supply is cut oft', and the Argen- 
 tine supply, with its large German market obliterated, is flowing to the 
 United States in unprecedented quantities. 
 
 In the foreign supply of goatskins for this country, one district again, 
 the East Indies, has an enormous lead, amounting under norinal 
 conditions to over forty per cent of the total. A large portion of this 
 East Indian trade is with British India. China stands second to the 
 East Indies as a producer of goatskins, but the margin of leadership 
 over its other competitors is slight. 
 
 A considerable supply of goatskins comes from the United Kingdom, 
 Russia and Brazil, and as shown on the chart on page 45, their 
 shipments are almost equal in amount. They are closely pressed, 
 moreover, by Argentina and Africa. 
 
12 THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 C. Organization of the Domestic Market 
 
 The channels of trade by which the hides and skins reach the tanner 
 are many and diverse in most cases. In comparison with the foreign 
 market, however, the organization of the domestic market is very 
 simple. 
 
 The market for packer hides is about the simplest possible. The tan- 
 ners buy directly from the packers who slaughter the cattle. This is 
 the only possible manner in which packer hides may be obtained, and 
 the only variation in the procedure comes when the tanner buys through 
 a broker at the primary market. This broker knows the tanner's needs, 
 and by a personal selection of the hides, can buy for him the exact 
 kind which his business demands. For this service the broker usually 
 receives a fee of one-half of one per cent. 
 
 As regards country hides, the agencies which bring the hides to the 
 tanner are more numerous, as is shown by chart on page 47. From 
 the farmer or country butcher, who slaughters the cattle, the hides 
 and skins may go directly to a large collector, or "hide dealer," or 
 through a small collector to the dealer. It is the function of this 
 hide dealer to collect, cla.ssify, and assort the wide variety of hides 
 which he receives, and to job them out to the tanning trade. The hide 
 dealer has in some cases grown to very large proportions, and undoubt- 
 edly his field is wide enough to allow him to expand greatly. The hide 
 dealer usually sells direct to the tanner, but a small amount of business 
 is also done through commission men. 
 
 The domestic sheepskin market shows a simple organization, since 
 most of this business also is in the hands of the packers. From the 
 slaughterer the pelts go either direct to the pullery, where the wool is 
 removed, or go to a collector, who in turn .sells to the pullery. From 
 the puller the skins may go to the tanner in any one of three ways: first, 
 by direct sale; second, by sale through a commission man; third, by sale 
 to a merchant or jobber, who may assort and regrade the skins, and 
 who jobs them out to his customers, usually small tanners. 
 
 The terms of purchase in domestic trade are very strict, due, of 
 course, to the close hold the packers have on the market. For packer 
 hides the terms are invariably a sight draft against the bill of lading. 
 This is also the general practice in the purchase of country hides, with 
 one exception where a di.scount of one percent for remittances within 
 five days after receipt of the hides at the tanner's station is allowed, and 
 a few others where a longer term of credit is allowed, but a higher price 
 for the hides is charged, as an offset. 
 
 There is a further difference, however, in the terms of shipment. On 
 all packer hides the goods are shipped f. o. b. Chicago, no matter what 
 the point of origin o[ the hides may be. The tanner, therefore, pays 
 the cost of transportation from Chicago to the tannery, the packer 
 making up any difference in freight from the point of shipment to 
 Chicago. On country hides, on the contrary, the terms are f. o. b. 
 shipping point. 
 
 The financing of domestic purchases of hides is usually carried out 
 through banks, the tanner giving his own note against a loan. This is 
 the general custom, and applies wherever the tanner is entitled to a line 
 of credit. Where this method of financing is not available to the tanner, 
 he may use the next best way by obtaining his hides on trust receipt. 
 This method is briefly as follows: — the tanner makes an agreement with 
 
THE TANNING INDUSTRY 13 
 
 a bank to take up the drafts on shipments of hides, the agi'eement to run 
 for a period stipulated by the bank; when the shipment of hides arrives 
 the bank takes up the draft, thereby coming into possession of the 
 documents attached and with them full title to the hides; the bank 
 then allows the tanner to take the goods on a trust receipt, the title 
 remaining in the bank, but the hides being delivered to the tanner for 
 tanning; at the same time the tanner gives the bank his personal note 
 payable at the termination of the period agi-eed upon for the amount 
 of the value of that specific shipment of hides; this procedure is repeated 
 on the receipt of every shipment of goods until the tanner's line of credit 
 is used up; by that time the tanner has probably sold enough leather to 
 be able to pay one or more of his notes, which he does, thus permitting 
 the bank again to take up the drafts coming with new shipments. It is 
 usually customary for the bank to renew the notes at maturity, the 
 tanner paying the interest for the period of the note. 
 
 If neither of these methods of financing is open to the tanner, he must 
 have recourse to borrowing from some person or fii'm in his own line of 
 business. This usually is done through a leather merchant who agrees 
 to finance the tanner's shipments of hides provided that the tanner 
 will send his product to the merchant for marketing. 
 
 D. Organization of the Foreign Market 
 
 The organization of the foreign market for hides and skins differs to 
 such a wide e.xtent with each country of origin that it is practically 
 impossible to describe exactly the course the goods will follow in reach- 
 ing the tanner in this country. In general, however, the hides follow 
 one of the courses shown by the chart on page 49. 
 
 The chart showing the organization of the European market will hold 
 in a general way for the methods of distributing hides and skins all over 
 the world. As is the case in the United States with country hides, the 
 main course is for the hides to reach a hide dealer who is large enough to 
 conduct an e.xport trade alone or through other agencies. The trade 
 which brings this raw material to the hide dealer is apt to be subdivided 
 very finely. Not only do the hides come from farmers, butchers, small 
 collectors, and through local auctions, but each one of these agencies 
 may be multiplied two or more times, until the goods have passed 
 through the hands of seven or eight dealers, each one exacting a profit, 
 before they reach the hide merchant. Nor does the intervention of the 
 middleman end here. From the merchant who collects and assorts 
 these hides and skins to the American tanner is a long distance, only 
 bridged by the intermediation of further auctions, commission men, or 
 brokers, although some of the largest tanners may be in a position to 
 buy direct. It should be emphasized that this complicated oi-gani- 
 zation of the foreign hide trade does not apply to every country : the trade 
 in continental countries usually goes by as direct a line as possible. 
 
 A word should be said in explanation of the continental auctions. 
 These are of three kinds: 
 
 (Ij local auctions. 
 
 (2) national auctions. 
 
 (3) the London auctions. 
 
 The local auctions are, as the name signifies, public sales held at 
 various small towns and cities at which the farmers and butchers dis- 
 pose of their hides to collectors or hide dealers. 
 
14 THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 The national auctions are enormous trading affairs, attracting pro- 
 ducts from whole nations, and at which the volume of business is very 
 great. These fairs do not confine themselves to trading in any one line 
 of commodities, and the business carried on in hides and skins is only a 
 small part of the total. Perhaps the greate.st of such national auctions 
 is the Russian fair held at Nizhni-Novgorod. To this fair are sent 
 goods of all sorts from all over the Ru.ssian Hmpire, and there is an 
 especially large market for Russian hides and skins. 
 
 The third set of auctions, the London auctions, are in a class by them- 
 selves. These auctions are held continuously and consist of sales of 
 imported hides almost exclusively. The hides and skins taken off in 
 Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and British India, come to 
 England in large volume, due to the fact that many hide merchants of 
 these countries are financed by English commission men. These com- 
 mission men, therefore, have a hold on the goods collected in the colo- 
 nies, and because there is always a ready market in London, the hides 
 and skins are sent there for sale and reshipment. 
 
 The South American hide market presents a situation differing from 
 other foreign markets in several respects. The one main point of differ- 
 ence is that the market is divided into packers, or "frigorificos," and 
 country hide collectors, or "saladeros," similar to the market in the 
 United States. The principal hide and skin districts are also divided 
 on this same basis, the frigorificos being located mainly in Argentina 
 and Uruguay, and the saladeros doing most of their business in Brazil. 
 In general it may be said that in South America, as in this country, the 
 packer hides dominate the market. 
 
 The saladeros collect their hides and .skins in the usual manner, i. e., 
 from the lai'ge farmers, butchers, and small collectors. After the goods 
 are in the hands of the saladeros, however, their course to the American 
 tanner does not differ from that of the frigorifico hides. This line of 
 export trade corresponds in general to the methods used in other foreign 
 countries, with the commission man playing the chief part in both cases. 
 In a few cases large American tanners have their own buying agents in 
 South America, but this is unusual. The course of trade in most cases 
 is as follows: 
 
 Since the South American packers do not hold their hides for high 
 prices, preferring to realize on their product immediately, there is always 
 a supply of hides on the market. South American commission men get 
 a quotation from the frigorificos or saladeros, and cable an offer to 
 their American representative, or to an American commission man 
 with whom they trade. The American representative figures what the 
 price will be including cost and freight or cost, in.surance and freight, 
 and on this basis quotes a price for hides to American tanners. The 
 latter usually make a counter offer, which is cabled to South America, 
 and after the customary dickering, the deal is closed. Shipment may 
 be made immediately if the hides are ready to be shipped, but in many 
 cases the hides must be salted, which takes about four weeks. 
 
 Buenos Aires is the greatest South American exporting center, draw- 
 ing to it most of the hides and skins which are to be exported from 
 Argentina and some from Uruguay. Of these exports the United States 
 takes by far the greatest amount, except in shipments of sheepskins. 
 Montevideo is also a large shipping point for Uruguayan hides and 
 skins, but some of these go through Buenos Aires if the market there is 
 
THE TANNING INDUSTRY 15 
 
 more favorable. Most of the hides are shipped dry, but recently a 
 tendency has become noticeable to increase shipments of wet hides. 
 
 The Brazilian hide situation differs in several respects from that in 
 Argentina. The greatest part of the hide trade is carried on through sal- 
 aderos, the few frigorificos being in the southern district, and shipping 
 through Buenos Aires as well as through Brazilian ports. The general 
 method of doing business is through large exporting houses located in 
 seacoast cities. These export houses finance the small collectors who 
 gather together the skins from inland districts, by means of barter 
 trade. This is interesting enough to deserve further explanation. 
 The small collector trades not only in hides and skins but in every- 
 thing needed to supply the needs of interior stores. He buys what he 
 needs from a coast town merchant, and on shipping his hides and 
 skins to a hide collector, makes arrangements with the latter to pay 
 his bill at the coast merchant's. It is a general practice for the Brazil- 
 ian hide merchant to send his goods on consignment to an American 
 commission house, and this is true not only of Brazil but also of all 
 South and Central American trade. 
 
 Dry South American cattle hides usually cost at least eight cents 
 more than domestic packer hides, but this does not necessarily mean 
 that the cost of a pound of leather obtained from domestic hides will 
 be lower than the cost of leather from South American hides. The 
 worth of a hide is due to the amount of leather which it will yield on 
 being tanned. Ameiican hides come from the packer with eighteen 
 or nineteen pounds of flesh and dirt on them for which the tanner pays, 
 but which do not go to make up into leather; that is, there is a pure 
 loss of this amount. South American hides, on the other hand, are 
 given a light fleshing before they are shipped which reduces the flesh 
 and dirt waste to about ten or twelve pounds. Of most importance, 
 however, is the fact that most South American hides are shipped dry, 
 whereas domestic hides are pickled, and arrive at the tannery contain- 
 ing many pounds of pickling liquid. The weight of this liquid is like- 
 wise an entire loss to the tanner, and is the main reason for the extra 
 price for the imported hides. The tanner, therefore, will get several 
 more pounds of leather out of a South American cattle hide than out 
 of a domestic hide of the same weight. The increased yield of leather 
 is more than enough to compensate for the higher purchase price of 
 South American hides, and the apparent discrepancy amounts to little 
 or nothing in the end. The above does not hold in the case of imported 
 hides shipped in a wet condition, and their price is usually a little 
 below that of doinestic hides. 
 
 The large number of middlemen involved in carrying on South 
 American and other foreign trade in hides and skins is noticeable, and 
 gives rise to the question of their need. It would undoubtedly be more 
 beneficial to the domestic tanner if some of the exporting agencies could 
 be dispensed with, especially the services of more than one commission 
 man. This leads to a consideration of the functions of these inter- 
 mediaries and their methods of doing business. 
 
 It may be said in a general way that the American tanner knows 
 little of the methods of importing hides, and being unable to study the 
 question exhaustively because of pressure of other business, is content 
 to leave the dealing entirely in the hands of a commission man. This 
 often results in the tanner being treated harshly if he happens to fall 
 into the hands of an unscrupulous dealer. 
 
16 THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 The natural tendency of a commission man is to use his excess 
 capital in merchandising, or outright buying and selling of hides if a 
 favorable opportunity presents itself. This is the case in the South 
 American trade to a great extent, and is a wholly legitimate method 
 of trading if not abused, since the usual commissions of one-half of 
 one per cent to two per cent will not result in extraordinary profits. 
 The commission merchant may use his situation, however, to advance 
 his own interests at the expense of his customer, by manipulating the 
 purchases, exchange, or weights. 
 
 The financing of foreign shipments of hides resembles in its general 
 features the financing of domestic shipments, that is, it is done 
 
 (1) by cash payment, 
 
 (2) by the buyer authorizing the seller to draw a draft against 
 
 him with documents attached, 
 
 (3) by establishing a letter of credit through a national or 
 
 private bank, or trust company, 
 
 (4) by conducting a similar arrangement through a leather 
 
 merchant or commission house. 
 
 The usual methods of settling for a shipment of hides by cash pay- 
 ment are to remit by cable, or to purchase a bill of exchange which is 
 sent to the shipper. 
 
 In the second method of financing imports the American buyer 
 notifies the shipper to draw his draft against him. The shipper, there- 
 fore, having shipped his merchandise, presents a draft against the pur- 
 chaser with documents attached to his bank, which may pay him im- 
 mediately the face value of the draft minus interest and commission, 
 or may wait until the draft is collected before paying him this sum. 
 The foreign bank then sends the draft to its American correspondent, 
 which acts purely as a collection agent. It presents the draft to the 
 purchaser, who accepts it, receiving therefor the shipping documents 
 attached. At the end of the period stipulated, the draft matures and 
 is taken up by the purchaser. 
 
 The third method, which is the one used most commonly, is carried 
 out through a national or private bank, or trust company. The pur- 
 chaser opens a letter of credit at his American bank for an amount 
 to cover fully the amount of his jjurchase of hides, and authorizes the 
 shipper to draw on this bank. The shipper receives his money im- 
 mediately after shipment as explained above, and the draft with 
 documents attached, on arrival in this country, is accepted by and 
 becomes an obligation of the purchaser's bank. This bank then allows 
 the purchaser to obtain possession of and carry into the tanning pro- 
 cesses this shipment of hides, requiring, however, that these specific 
 hides shall be identifiable at any time, and also retaining full title to 
 the ownership of the hides. This letter of credit is granted, where 
 the purchaser is entitled to such a line of credit, for a period up to six 
 months, and is renewable in some cases. Letters of credit run for a 
 differing length of time depending on the country of origin, the general 
 terms of credit being: 
 
 (1) To South American countries— 90 days; 
 
 (2) to Far Eastern countries - 4 months; 
 
 (3) to European countries 4 to 6 months. 
 
 Where the purchaser's credit does not permit him to make use of a 
 letter of credit, the tanner must go to a domestic leather merchant or 
 
THE TANNING INDUSTRY 17 
 
 commission house for aid in financing iiis shipments. In this case the 
 merchant will take up the shipper's draft which is made out against 
 him, and will deliver the merchandise to the tanner only on condition 
 that he is able to pay for it. If the tanner is unable to do this, the 
 merchant places the hides in a warehouse, delivering them in whole or 
 in lots as the tanner makes payment. In cariying out this method, 
 it is customary for the merchant or commission man to conduct his 
 foreign payments by opening a letter of credit at a bank, as explained 
 above, which his credit standing will allow him to do. 
 
 No definite rule can be laid down concerning the terms of purchase, 
 since they differ with each individual purchase, and are covered in the 
 quotation of the price per pound which the commission man makes to 
 the tanner. Shipments may be made f. o. b. shipping point, in which 
 case the tanner pays the insurance and freight separately, or may be 
 made f . o. b. point of import, in which case the insurance and freight are 
 figured into the price of hides quoted. 
 
 E. Tanning Materials 
 
 Many kinds and classes of materials are used by tanners to trans- 
 form the hides into the finished product, leather. The scope of this 
 report does not pei-mit an enumeration in full of these materials, or an 
 explanation of their uses, but it is necessary to touch upon the most 
 important of these, viz. the tanning extracts. 
 
 Tannin, or tannic acid, which is the active transforming agent, is 
 abundantly found in a very large number of plants, and there are, in 
 consequence, a great number of tannins. They all have the common 
 properties of being astringent and drawing together the tissues, of 
 forming insoluble compounds with gelatine or gelatinous tissue, and 
 of being soluble in water to a greater or less extent. There are two 
 general classes of tannins: 
 
 (1) pyrogallols, which make a light-colored leather, not as harsh 
 as the other classes of leather, and which decompose, yielding ellagic 
 acid which has watei-proofing qualities and gives weight; 
 
 (2) catechols, which are darker in color and yield reds and tannin 
 anhydrides which deposit in or on the leather. The tannins of each 
 class which are most generally used in this country are as follows: — 
 
 Pyrogallols 
 
 1. Chestnut wood; which comes on the market in the form of crude 
 and decolorized liquid extracts. It contains 25% to 31% of tannin. 
 
 2. Oak wood; also a liquid extract similar to the chestnut, contain- 
 ing 24% to 27% of tannin. 
 
 3. Myrobalans; which is the fruit of an East Indian tree, contain- 
 ing 27% to 38';"o of tannin, and producing a very light-colored leather. 
 
 4. Sumach; the ground leaves of a Sicilian plant, containing about 
 28% of tannin, and producing a nearly white and very beautiful 
 leather. It is used solely for tanning the best moroccos and the finer 
 leather. 
 
 5. Divi-divi; the dried seeds of an Indian tree, containing 40% to 
 45% of tannin, and yielding a white leather. 
 
18 THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 Catechols 
 
 1. Hemlock; which reaches the market as bark or as a Hquid 
 extract, contains 25% of tannin, and yields a dark red leather. 
 
 2. Quebracho; a tree which grows only in the southern part of 
 South America, chiefly in Argentina and Uruguay. It reaches the 
 market as a liquid of from 2o' [ to 35' <' tannin, or as a solid containing 
 about 65' t of tannin. It is rather harsh and yields a light red tannage. 
 
 3. Mangrove; coming either as bark or a liquid from Africa, and 
 containing 60',^ tannin. 
 
 4. Gambier; the product of a Singapore shrub, generally used as a 
 preparation for coloring or in combination with other tannins. 
 
 In addition there are two other very important tanning materials 
 which do not fall into either of the above classifications, ^iz: 
 
 1. Oak bark; the bark of the white oak tree, yielding 12% to 14% 
 tannin, and producing the best leather known. 
 
 2. Valonia; the ground acorn cups of the Turkish and Greek oaks, 
 containing 32%: to 36% tannin, and yielding a tough but firm leather. 
 
 This list does not pretend to include every kind of tanning material, 
 but only those vegetable agents most commonly used by domestic tan- 
 ners. In addition there are two mineral tanning agents in general use, 
 (1) bichromate of potash or bichromate of soda, and (2j alum. 
 
 Tanners usually purchase these tanning materials by contracting 
 for a year's supply from the extract dealers or from the importers. The 
 supply of quebracho is almost entirely in the hands of a single concern, 
 but the market is open on other materials. 
 
THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 19 
 
 IV. Tanning 
 
 Like most other industries, tanning does not produce a uniform, 
 standardized product. Certain classes and gi-ades of leather are pro- 
 duced, but within those grades the differences may be very wide, due 
 to the fact that the methods of no two tanners are absolutely alike. In 
 any description of the methods of producing leather, therefoi-e, it must 
 be borne in mind that the explanation reflects the general conditions 
 only, and that to describe in detail every process would be to describe 
 the details of every tannery in the country. 
 
 A. Sole Leather 
 
 There are four principal tannages of sole leather: 
 
 (1) oak, 
 
 (2) union, 
 
 (3) hemlock, 
 
 (4) chrome. 
 
 The name of the tannage, however, does not mean that only that 
 specific kind of extract is u.sed. An oak tannage, for instance, is made 
 up of a certain amount of oak extract or bark, but contains other 
 extracts, such as chestnut, and indeed, this tannage is characterized 
 chiefly by the light color of the leather produced rather than by the 
 content of the tanning extract. Union tannage derives its name from 
 the fact that the extract is a mixture of oak, chestnut, and hemlock. 
 Quebracho may also be used in some of the processes of the vegetable 
 tanning. 
 
 The proportion of each of the classes used may be obtained from the 
 figures of the Census Bureau for 1914, and the following table will show 
 the extent of the use of each class of tanning, with a comparison with 
 the figures for 1909 and 1899: 
 
 
 1899 
 
 1909 
 
 1914 
 
 
 Sides 
 
 % 
 
 Sides 
 
 % 
 
 Sides 
 
 % 
 
 Total 
 
 15,472,072 
 
 
 17,805,252 
 
 
 18,075,482 
 
 
 Hemlock 
 
 9,810,996 
 
 63.42 
 
 7,963,728 
 
 44.7 
 
 5,626,696 
 
 31.3 
 
 Union 
 
 3,096,162 
 
 20.01 
 
 5,756,227 
 
 32.3 
 
 6,588,799 
 
 36.4 
 
 Oak 
 
 2,562,814 
 
 16.56 
 
 3,805,861 
 
 21.4 
 
 5,267,936 
 
 29.1 
 
 Chrome 
 
 2,100 
 
 0.01 
 
 279,436 
 
 1.6 
 
 592,051 
 
 3.2 
 
 It is apparent that hemlock tannage is decreasing both actually and 
 relatively, with a corresponding increase of oak and union tannage. 
 This is in part due to the limitation of the supply of hemlock bark; 
 originally the United States had apparently unlimited supplies of 
 hemlock bark, but it has been cleaned up to a large extent in recent 
 years. The use of chrome tannage appears to have spread, but can 
 not be said to cut much of a figure in the sole leather business even 
 now. The reasons for this will be considered later. 
 
20 THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 /. Vegetable Tanning Process 
 
 As has been stated above, tanning processes are by no means the 
 same in every tannery. In a description of the methods of transform- 
 ing hides and skins into leather, therefore, the processes must be regarded 
 as typical of a general class rather than as being standardized and uni- 
 formly used. 
 
 Hides are received at the tannery in any one of four different con- 
 ditions: 
 
 (1) "j^reen," or "fresh," direct from the slaughter house, 
 
 (2) wet salted, 
 
 (3) dry salted, 
 
 (4) sun-dried, or "flint" hides. 
 
 The first tannery operation, therefore, is to wash and clean the hides 
 and to bring them back as nearly as possible to the flaccid condition 
 in which they left the animal's back. This is accomplished by two 
 processes. When ready to be sent through the tannery the hides are 
 first put in a huge drum about twelve feet in diameter, containing 
 water, called a "soak-wheel," which is revolved rapidly for thirty 
 minutes. This has the effect of removing much of the salt and soften- 
 ing the hides. The hides then go directly to soak vats, which are pits 
 into which the hides are laid flat, and are then filled with water. Here 
 the hides remain for two days for the purpo.ses of (1) softening them 
 further by swelling and opening up the fibres as much as possible, 
 (2) removing any other putrefactive refuse and dirt. 
 
 The next process is that of depilation, or unhairing. Before the hair 
 is actually taken off, the skin must be prepared by an operation of 
 liming, for the purpose of loosening the hairs in their follicles, so that 
 they may be removed more easily. From the soak vats, therefore, the 
 skins go to the lime vats, being first suspended in a weak lime solution 
 for one day to prepare them for the other liming. For four more 
 days the hides are limed, being placed in a stronger solution each day, 
 which on the fourth day is heated and kept at 7G^ F. After pa.ssing 
 through the liming vats the hides are unhaired immediately in an 
 unhairing machine, which removes the hair by means of revolving 
 spiral knives. 
 
 The flesh which has remained on the hide is removed at this point 
 by a fleshing machine which scrapes off practically all the extraneous 
 matter. The hides are then washed in a paddle wheel and go to the 
 trimmers, who lay them on beams and complete the fleshing by trim- 
 ming the flesh off the edges which the fleshing machine has not reached. 
 From the trimming beams the hides go to a graining table where any 
 short hairs remaining are scraped off with knives. 
 
 The hides are now ready to take the tanning extracts except for the 
 fact that they contain lime which would prevent the tannic acid from 
 taking effect. The hides are placed in a paddle wheel containing water, 
 therefore, and paddled for twenty minutes or so, for the purpose of 
 removing the lime. 
 
 One result of the unhairing and fleshing processes has been to squeeze 
 out some of the lime and water which have filled the hide fibres, an 
 undesirable loss of weight in hide substance. To bring the hides back 
 into a plump condition in which they will be fit to take the tanning 
 liquors, therefore, they are placed in vats of water — "cold pools" — 
 and kept there overnight. The hides are suspended on frames which 
 
THE TANNING INDUSTRY 21 
 
 are kept agitated by a system of mechanical rockers, in order tliat the 
 water will touch all parts of the hide. 
 
 The processes described above have been carried on in what is known 
 as the Beam House; the hides now go to the Yard, and come for the 
 first time into contact with the tanning liquors. As in the cold pools 
 the hides are suspended in vats on poles which are kept agitated by 
 rockers. These vats are built in the form of twenty to a section, the 
 vats of every section having a connection with each other by pipes. 
 The hides remain suspended in these pits for eighteen days, a stronger 
 liquor being pressed over them each day in the following manner: — 
 the hides from the cold pools are placed in the tail rocker pit, next to 
 the pit holding the weakest liquor. This weak liquor is then allowed 
 to run through the connecting pipe into the vat containing the fresh hides ; 
 similarly the next strongest liquor is pressed over the hides which 
 have been suspended one day, and so on, until the vat which has con- 
 tained hides for seventeen days — the "head rocker" — receives the 
 newest and strongest liquor. It is seen, therefore, that every day the 
 liquor is pumped one vat further along, until it reaches the tail rocker, 
 where it has lost much of its strength, and is fit to press over new hides. 
 
 The hides then go to the press layers, pits in which they are laid 
 down flat on top of one another, where they remain for twenty days. 
 Bark is sprinkled between the hides as they are laid into the vats, and 
 the liquor is stronger than in the rockers. The vats are in sections simi- 
 lar to the rocker pits, except that there are only ten vats per section, 
 and the liquor is changed every other day instead of every day as in 
 the rockers. 
 
 The next two processes, called the "first layer" and the "second 
 layer," correspond closely to the operation of the press layers. The 
 hides are laid away, bark being sprinkled between them in both layers, 
 remaining in the first layer for seven days, in the second layer for twelve 
 days. The liquor of the first layer is stronger than that which is press- 
 ed over the head rocker hides, and the liquor of the second layer is 
 stronger than that of the first layer; both liquors remain in the vats 
 unchanged for the full time the hides remain there. 
 
 On coming out of the second layer the bellies of the hides are cropped 
 off, leaving what are called "backs," which form the best portions of 
 the hide. The backs and bellies then go into a third layer, where they 
 stay for thirty-four days. They are laid down flat as in the other layers, 
 backs on the bottom and bellies on top, and no bark is sprinkled 
 between them. The liquor is again stronger, and in order to increase 
 the strength quebracho may be introduced at this point. When the 
 backs come out of this last layer they are split down the middle or line 
 of the backbone, forming two backs. The hide is now in four pieces, 
 two backs and two bellies. 
 
 The backs and bellies now go to a bath of hot water, or "hot pool," 
 where they remain for fifteen or twenty minutes, for the purpose of 
 clearing out and cleaning oiT the sediment accumulated in the layers. 
 Thence they go to the extract wringer, which is a simple wiinger, through 
 which the hides are run to squeeze out the liquor and dry the hides 
 sufficiently to permit them to take up the extract in the next operation. 
 The following process consists in placing the hides in a large drum, 
 similar to the soak wheel in the first operation, into which is run a very 
 concentrated extract, at a temperature of 150^ F., and to the amount 
 of twenty-five per cent of the weight of the hides. The drum is revolved, 
 
22 THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 "milling" the hides, for an hour and a half, resulting in adding consid- 
 erable weight to the stock. 
 
 From the extract wheels the hides go to the tempering vats, which 
 contain a fairly strong mixture of quebracho or other extract, where 
 they remain for four days, for thepuiposeof settingtheextractabsorbed 
 in the extract wheel. The liquor increases in strength while the hides 
 are in it, because the extract absorbed in the wheel is so much stronger 
 than that in the tempering vats. 
 
 When the extract has been set in this manner the hides are bleached. 
 They are hung on frames which are fixed over a series of five baths 
 containing the following liquids at a temperature 126- F. except the 
 fifth; 
 
 (1) hot water, 
 
 (2) solution of soda in water, 
 
 (3) a 2% solution of sulphuric acid, 
 
 (4) a 1.5% solution of sulphuric acid, 
 
 (5) cold water. 
 
 The stock is lowered into each of these baths in succession for seven 
 minutes at a time, coming out with a clear, light color. 
 
 From the bleach the backs and bellies go to another wTinger -the 
 "oil wringer" — where they are again wrung dry to make room for the 
 oil to be absorbed in the next operation. This latter consists of milling 
 in a drum, called an "oil wheel," which contains mineral oil, sugar 
 and salts. The bellies are milled for twenty minutes, the backs for 
 thirty jninutes, for the purpose of giving color, weight, and pliability. 
 
 The stock is then hung up in a room overnight to dry, to allow the 
 oil to soak in. No circulation of air is permitted in this room, as it 
 would destroy the result aimed for. The next morning the stock is 
 "set out" by being run through a machine which smooths the grain by 
 pressure of a revolving cylinder. After setting out, the stock is dried 
 until it is bone dry in rooms in which currents of hot air are circulated; 
 this takes five or six days. After being thoroughly dried the stock is 
 dipped in a solution of sugar and salts to add weight, piled under a 
 cover over night and set out again, or "reset," the next day. 
 
 At this point some of the backs are divided into shoulders and bends, 
 the latter being the most de.-irable portion of the hide, and the treat- 
 ment of the bends and shoulders differs. The bends are piled over 
 night, and the next morning are sponged and rolled out under rollers 
 which exert great pressure, making the leather compact and smooth. 
 They are then dried for six or seven hours, piled over night again, and 
 rerolled the next morning. The shoulders, bellies and backs after being 
 reset are hung up over night, and are sponged and rolled the next 
 afternoon; following this they are piled up over night, and given a 
 second rolling the next morning. 
 
 After rolling, bends, backs, bellies, and shoulders are all given a 
 "finish dry" of four days for bends, backs, and shoulders, and three 
 days for bellies. They are then washed on the grain, dried, brushed up 
 to get a glossy surface, and are ready for shipment. 
 
 The most noticeable part of this process is the extraordinary length 
 of time necessary to turn out hides as the finished product. The time 
 required for tannery operations alone is from four to five months, and 
 if a two or three months' supply of hides is kept on hand, as is the case 
 in most tanneries, this time also must be added to the period between 
 
THE TANNING INDUSTRY 23 
 
 purchase of material and shipment of product. Considering an addi- 
 tional period of credit to the buyer of one or two months, the 
 total time between purchase of material and i-eceipt of money for the 
 finished product mounts up to between seven and ten months. 
 
 2. Chrome Tanning Process 
 
 It was with the object of diminishing the time necessary to tan hides 
 that the chrome tannage was adopted. Chrome tanning consumes 
 only a few days as compared to months required by the older method, 
 and it produces a leather which is soft and pliable, of close texture, 
 and resistant to water. 
 
 Chrome tannage differs from vegetable tannage in not producing a 
 complete chemical change in the fibre of the hide. It consists of a 
 partial chemical combination between the hide fibre and the chrome 
 salts, and a partial mechanical deposition of chrome oxide in and on 
 the fibres, which are plated with chrome, whereas in vegetable tanning 
 the interstices are filled up with vegetable extract. To make the 
 chrome tanned hide flexible oil is worked into the interstices to take 
 the place of the extract. 
 
 The preparation for tanning, or beam shop work, is much the same 
 for chrome tanning as for vegetable tanning, and need not be explained 
 further. After fleshing the hides are washed for the pui-pose of removing 
 any sur]>lus lime. They are then put through a process called "bating" 
 which has for its object the smoothing and toughening of the grain. 
 This consists of paddling the hides in a mixture of a chemical deliming 
 agent together with a bacterial agent at a temperature of 90 ' F. for one 
 to two hours. This chemically neutralizes the lime, rendering it soluble, 
 and depletes the grain of the hide to the i-equired degree. The hides 
 are then "pickled" in a mixture of sulphuric acid and salt, which acts 
 as a preservative, keeping the hides from putrefaction, and acting as a 
 preparation for the chrome tannage. 
 
 The tannage operation itself is what is known as the "one-bath" 
 process. The hides are paddled for forty-eight hours or more in a 
 solution of bichromate of soda or potash, muriatic acid, and a reducing 
 agent of glucose, sugar, or flour, which together form a basic chrome 
 sulphate. The length of time for paddling the hides depends primarily 
 on their weight, heavier hides requiring a longer treatment, but the 
 one essential is that the hides shall be thoroughly struck throu.uh with 
 the tanning liquor. After this process, the goods are laid in a pile for 
 three or four days, to allow the chrome to be fixed in the fibre. They 
 are then drummed in a solution of some alkaline carbonate to neu- 
 tralize the acid and remove any excess. Following this the hides are 
 tacked out on frames, given a coat of oil to finish oft' the grain and 
 increase the pliability and are dried until they are bone dry, which 
 takes at least three or four days. The chrome tanning processes are 
 now finished and most chrome sole leather is sold in this state. 
 
 It is desirable in some cases, however, to have a heavier and sturdier 
 product, and in such instances the chrome leather is sent through one 
 additional process. After drying, the leather is immersed in a bath of 
 molten wax and resin, or other material, which is heated to a tempera- 
 ture of 160^ to 180 F. and left until entirely saturated. It is then dried 
 again and is ready for shipment. This extra process fills out the inter- 
 stices between the fibre, and corresponds to the stuffing of oil and salts 
 given to vegetable extract leathers. 
 
24 THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 In spite of the great advantage of chrome tannage in shortening the 
 time for the tanning processes, thereby releasing the tanner's working 
 capital many more times a year, there are certain disadvantages which 
 are responsible for the proportionately small amount of chrome sole 
 leather tanned. Perhaps the largest factor determining the amount of 
 chrome leather manufactured is the demand. The slower processes of 
 vegetable tannage have always been and still are considered to result 
 in superior leather, which is in demand for all branches of sole leather 
 manufactures. These opinions are backed up with certain facts which 
 make vegetable tanned sole leather more desirable. This leather, for 
 instance, is said to be easier on the foot of the wearer when it is in 
 shoes, is a better non-conductor of heat and cold, and is thicker than 
 chrome leather. The latter, however, is .said to be a better non-con- 
 ductor of water, and to be more durable. The advantages of vegetable 
 tanned sole leather, however, so far outweigh the advantages of the 
 chrome that it will probably always be used to a far greater extent, 
 except in cases where great tensile strength is needed. 
 
 It should be understood that all tanning of sole leather is for stock, 
 with the exception of one general class of the business to be noted later. 
 This is possible because the product is practically uniform and can be 
 readily disposed of at any time during the year. 
 
 B. Upper Leather 
 
 There is a greater diversity in methods of upper leather tanning than 
 in sole leather tanning, due to several rea.sons. In the first place, the 
 product is more varied than in sole leather tanneries because of the 
 wider range of u.ses to which upper leather may be put. It is custo- 
 mary for upper leather tanneries to specialize on making certain classes 
 and grades of upper leather. This tendency to specialize in product is 
 furthered by the larger number of kinds of raw material which may be 
 used in tanning upper leather, e. g. calfskins, sheepskins, goatskins, 
 etc., whereas, sole leather tanneries are confined to one general kind of 
 raw material, e. g., cattle hides. This results in tanneries concentrat- 
 ing on one or two of these classes of raw material instead of trying to 
 cover the whole field. A third tendency which makes for specialization 
 is the possibility of using more than one kind of tannage, but it is not 
 usual for the average sized tanner to tan with more than one kind. 
 In short, then, the upper leather field is one of specialized tanneries 
 because 
 
 (1) it is preferable to concentrate on one cla.ss of product, 
 
 (2) this class of product is obtainable only by use of one kind of 
 raw material, 
 
 (3) this cla.ss of product and this grade of raw material are best 
 tanned by one kind of tannage rather than by several kinds. 
 
 There is one exception to the.se reasons for specialization. It is 
 stated that the general practice is to choose the class of raw material 
 and the kind of tannage which will best turn out the grade of product 
 desired. Some tanners, however, prefer not to insist on the class of raw 
 material being uniform, but will take any material which they can 
 get, producing several grades of products, and adapting the tannage 
 to that end. 
 
THE TANNING INDUSTRY 25 
 
 There are three classes of tannages for upper leather in general use: — 
 
 (1) vegetable, 
 
 (2) chemical, 
 
 (3) retan. 
 
 Under these generic headings is a multitude of kinds of tanning 
 agents, most of which have been described briefly supra. The principal 
 tannages of each class are: 
 
 (1) Vegetable: 
 
 (a) oak, 
 
 (b) hemlock, 
 
 (c) sumach, 
 
 (d) quebracho. 
 
 (2) Chemical: 
 
 (a) chrome, 
 
 (b) alum, 
 
 (3) Retan. 
 
 Of these tannages chrome is by far the most predominately used, an 
 estimate placing chrome upper leather as sixty per cent of the total 
 upper leather tanned. 
 
 Of the vegetable tannages, the oak and the hemlock processes 
 correspond closely to the processes used in tanning sole leather, and 
 require no further description. The sumach tannage produces a 
 pliable, soft, almost white leather, used largely for shoe linings, but it is 
 not of great importance in upper leather tanning. It must be remem- 
 bered that in upper leather tanning, as in sole leather tanning, 
 methods of individual tanneries differ greatly. 
 
 Since sheepskins are the only skins which reach the tanner already 
 unhaired, the first operation in the great majority of cases in upper 
 leather tanning is that of unhairing. For this there are two processes 
 available, viz. ( 1 ) the lime process, as described above for sole leather, 
 and (2) the sulphide of sodium process. In the latter the skins are 
 placed in vats containing a solution of this chemical, which dissolves the 
 hair. 
 
 There are two processes used in tanning upper leather by a chrome 
 tannage, one of which, the one-bath process, is similar to that described 
 for chrome sole leather. The second process, or "two-bath process," 
 is used mainly for goatskins. Up to the actual process of tanning it is 
 like the one-bath process, except that for all upper leather the opera- 
 tion of bating is performed more thoroughly. 
 
 In the two-bath process the skins are then paddled or milled in a 
 drum containing a solution of bichromate of soda or potash and 
 muriatic acid until they are struck through, which consumes from one 
 to four hours, depending on the heaviness of the skins. They are next 
 placed in the second bath, consisting of a solution of hyposulphite of 
 soda, and paddled for about a half day, which serves to reduce the 
 chromic oxide and fix it in the fibres. 
 
 The skins are then washed, shaved, and are ready for coloring. This 
 is accomplished by revolving them in a drum containing the dye for a 
 period varying from one-half hour to one hour, depending on the 
 strength of the color desired. They are next sorted and fat liquored, i. e., 
 revolved in a drum containing an emulsion of oil and soap, which 
 restores a certain amount of natural oil to the skins, rendering them 
 more soft and pliable. They are then washed again and run through 
 
26 THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 putting out machines, which takes the stretch out of the skins. At this 
 point they are dried for the first time, and since they are sold by the 
 square foot it is necessaiy to obtain as much area as possible. For this 
 reason the skins are tacked to wooden frames, so that in drying the 
 shrinkage will be reduced to a minimum. 
 
 At the end of this drying the skins are hard and stiff, and must be 
 made pliable, which is accomplished by the "staking out" process. The 
 skins are first seasoned with a solution which fills out the grain, and 
 after drying again are "machine staked," i.e., put through a machine 
 which pulls the skins first one way and then another, serving to make 
 them soft. The skins are then "rolled" under a circular wheel on which 
 there is great pressure, which smooths out the skin and frees it of 
 wrinkles. If the skins have been dyed black, they are "glazed," i.e., 
 given a shiny finish, or they may be "embossed," i.e., treated by a 
 machine with engraved rollers which brings out the grain. They are 
 then run through an almost human machine which measures the num- 
 ber of square feet of the skin, are bundled, and are ready for shipment. 
 
 Sheepskins arrive at the tannery from the pullery already unhaired 
 and "pickled," i.e., treated with a liquor containing one per cent of 
 sulphuric acid and seven per cent of salt, for preservative purposes. 
 They are first sorted into gi'ades according to the kinds of leather into 
 which they are to be made, are rinsed to take out the pickling liquor, 
 and are then pressed in a hydraulic press for three to four hours under a 
 weight of .seventy-five to one hundred and fifty tons, for the purpose of 
 removing the grease and dirt. This process causes the skins to be 
 pressed together into large cakes, and to separate them they are placed 
 in drums, or "pin wheels," which are revolved rapidly until the skins are 
 separated. Following this the skins are run through a fleshing machine 
 and are then ready for any one of the tanning processes. 
 
 Skins tanned in sumach follow the usual course of the preliminary 
 operations and are then hung in vats containing the sumach liquor for a 
 period of six days. On removal they are thoroughly dried, and pass 
 through the other processes of coloring, drying, staking, rolling, glazing, 
 and measuring as described above. 
 
 The alum tannage and the quebracho tannage are very much the 
 same as the chrome processes in that the actual tanning is accomplished 
 by revolving the skins in a drum containing the tanning liquor. The 
 time for milling is about one hour for the alum tannage, but is increased 
 to seven hours when quebracho is the tanning agent. The remaining 
 processes are practically the same as in chrome tannage, except that 
 one additional operation is sometimes added to increase the pliability, 
 viz. "knee staking." This consists of pulling the skins over a rounded 
 steel edge, using the knee to get a good leverage. 
 
 Calfskins and cattle hides which are tanned in vegetable extract or 
 in chrome are often split for use as upper leather. This operation is 
 usually inserted just before the hides are to be tanned; after an inspec- 
 tion and sorting the hides are sent through a machine which splits the 
 hides into two layers, the correct thickness being taken off the top, or 
 "grain" side. Following another inspection to see that the grain splits 
 are uniform in thickness and quality the splits go to the tanning drums 
 or vats. 
 
THE TANNING INDUSTRY 27 
 
 There is one other general class of tannage used, known as retan. 
 This is, as its name indicates, a double tanning, consisting of a primary 
 chrome tannage followed by a vegetable extract tannage. 
 
 C. Patent Leather 
 
 When it is desirable to make the tanned skins into patent leather, 
 it is necessary that some of the grease be taken out of the skins in oi-der 
 that the finish may get a good hold on the grain of the skin so that it 
 will not peel off in wearing. This process, known as "degreasing," is 
 accomplished by hanging the skins in large tanks and giving them a 
 naptha bath varying in length according to the nature of the skins and 
 the process used in tanning. 
 
 The skins after degreasing are ready for the patent leather process, 
 or "japanning." They are first laced by ropes to large wooden frames 
 and pulled absolutely taut. The ne.xt operation is to apply evenly a 
 daub coat consisting of a preparation of linseed oil, collodion, amylace- 
 tate and a color, which furnishes a foundation for the coat of japan 
 and prevents it from striking through the grain and fibres of the skin. 
 The treated skins are then dried in the sun for about six hours, follow- 
 ing which they are rubbed down lightly with pumice to remove dust im- 
 perfections and smooth the coat. A second daub coat, drying and 
 pumicing is given in most cases, and the skins then go to the finishing 
 room to be japanned. This process consists in giving the hides or 
 skins a coat of varnish of which linseed oil reduced with turiDentine 
 is the chief ingredient. This coat is dried on by placing the frames to 
 which the skins are lashed in ovens heated to 140 F. for twelve to 
 twenty-four hours. This is followed by another sunning of from six to 
 eight hours to complete the process. 
 
 Under normal conditions it takes from two to three weeks for any 
 one lot of skins to work through the japannery. This same lot has been 
 in the tannery, on the average, from four to five weeks, so that about 
 seven weeks elapse since the skins were started through the tannery pro- 
 cesses until the time they are ready to ship to the buyer. 
 
 Patent leather, like all other upper or light leather, is sold by the 
 square foot. This is true also of chrome sole leather, which is an excep- 
 tion to the rule, as all other sole leather is sold by the pound. 
 
 Japanned leather, or as it is more commonly known, patent leather, 
 was formerly manufactured under a patent, whence it receives its 
 name. The basic patents have now expired, however, and the right 
 to produce this class of leather is open to any person. 
 
 D. Amount of Product 
 
 The rapid increase of production of leather in this country is shown 
 clearly by the chart on page 51. From a product valued at $157,2.37,597 
 in 1869, the production rose to $367,201,708 in 1914. It is note- 
 worthy, also, that practically all of this increase occurred within 
 the past twenty-five years, and that the increase since 1899 has 
 
2S 
 
 THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 Sole leather is easily the most valuable class of leather produced, 
 with upper leather a good second. The table below will show the 
 relative value of each class of leather manufactured in 1914: 
 
 Class 
 
 Value 
 
 % 
 
 Total 
 
 $341,796,436 
 
 100.0 
 
 Sole leather 
 
 116,188,059 
 
 33.9 
 
 Upper leather 
 
 85,051,550 
 
 24.9 
 
 Cattle side upper 
 
 32,939,139 
 
 9.6 
 
 Harness leather 
 
 20,969,169 
 
 6.1 
 
 Patent leather 
 
 15,590,812 
 
 4.5 
 
 Upholstery leather 
 
 14,328,358 
 
 4.2 
 
 Fancy leather 
 
 8,775,968 
 
 2.5 
 
 Belting 
 
 8,369,584 
 
 2.4 
 
 Of the upper leather tanned the 
 the following table will show: 
 
 largest amount is of calfskins, as 
 
 Upper Leather, Total 
 
 $ 85,051,550 
 
 100.0% 
 
 Calf and Kip 
 
 41,812,734 
 
 49.2% 
 
 Goat and Kid 
 
 26.113,234 
 
 30.7% 
 
 Sheep and Lamb 
 
 10,fc.85,175 
 
 12.8% 
 
 Cabretta, Kangaroo, etc. 
 
 4,198,017 
 
 4.9% 
 
 All other 
 
 2,042,390 
 
 2.4% 
 
 E. Contract Tanning 
 
 There is one large class of tanning which has not yet been 
 mentioned — tanning on contract. This grade of work amounted to 
 $25,405,272 in 1914, or 6.9';o of the total value of leather products for 
 that year, and an increase of almost 19*^^ over the figures for 1909. It 
 is easily seen, therefore, that a class of work of such importance deserves 
 special attention. 
 
 The nature of contract tanning is well indicated by its name: the 
 tanner operates his tannery under a contract from another person, who 
 supplies the raw material, and disposes of the leather. The tanner's 
 function is merely to tan all the hides or skins which come to him, for 
 which he receives a certain commission. 
 
 Tanners who do work on contract are obviously those who are not 
 able to finance themselves sufficiently, and who, rather than to meet a 
 
THE TANNING INDUSTRY 29 
 
 loss because of fixed charges, will place their tanneries at the disposal 
 of some leather merchant or other person who has skins which he 
 desires to have tanned. This condition may not always obtain with a 
 tanner, and it may be that he will tan for a commission only until he 
 can finance his own purchases and sales, or during periods of depression 
 when it is difficult to find a market for his goods through his own 
 agencies. Taking on this business is usually not from choice but from 
 necessity, and the contract tanner, like the small boy, is hopefully 
 awaiting the time when he will grow up and be self-supporting. 
 
 This relation of contract tanning to the financial condition of the 
 tanner is paralleled by the relation to the size of the tanner. The 
 tanner who works on contract is usually the owner of a small tannery, 
 such a one, for instance, as would tan a hundred cattle hides a day, or a 
 con-esponding number of skins. The small size of a tannery is a funda- 
 mental reason for the tanner receiving a fixed price per hide instead 
 of financing his entire business. 
 
 A third relation which bears on this problem is the tendency of shoe 
 manufacturers and other producers of leather manufactures to inte- 
 grate. Having a plentitude of capital, they are likely to buy up a ship- 
 ment of skins or hides, have them tanned on contract, and take the 
 finished product for their own use. This inclination to integrate is 
 increasingly noticeable, and is responsible in many cases for the con- 
 tinuance of tanners who do their work on contract. 
 
 F. Costs 
 
 It is difficult to make any statement concerning the costs of tanning 
 which will adequately cover the subject, as it will be realized that prac- 
 tices of individual tanneries differ widely, and with them, the costs. In 
 sole leather tanneries using vegetable extracts, the proportions of costs 
 may be said to be close to the following: 
 
 Raw Material Cost 70% 
 
 Tanning Cost 25% 
 
 Labor Cost 05% 
 
 For upper leather tanneries it would be almost impo.ssible and useless 
 to attempt to lay down definite percentages of costs, for several reasons. 
 As has been pointed out already, no two tanneries make exactly the 
 same kind and grade of product. The methods of tanning, furthermore, 
 are so diverse, and the tanning extracts used are so varied, that it 
 would be impracticable to average costs on these different bases. And 
 lastly, the raw material may be of several different classes, and from 
 every quarter of the globe, which has a wide effect on costs. It would 
 be the part of discretion, therefore, not to set down any ratio of costs 
 for upper leather tanneries. 
 
 G. Tanneries 
 
 The number of establishments tanning hides and skins in this coun- 
 try has shown a steady decrease, according to figures of the Census 
 Bureau. 
 
30 
 
 THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 This will be shown by the following table: 
 
 Year 
 
 1869 
 
 No. of 
 
 Establ. 
 
 No of No. of 
 
 Wage Earners ' Wage Earners 
 I per Estab. 
 
 7,569 
 
 1879 
 
 5,628 
 
 
 
 1889 
 
 1,787 
 
 
 
 1899 
 
 1,306 
 
 52,109 
 
 47.5 
 
 1904 
 
 1,049 
 
 57,239 
 
 54.6 
 
 1909 
 
 919 
 
 62,202 
 
 67.7 
 
 1914 
 
 740 
 
 
 
 It is apparent that the tendency is to decrease the number of estab- 
 lishments and to increase their size. This may be attributed to two 
 main causes: 
 
 (1) Magnitude of the operations. 
 
 (2) Integration by packers and leather goods manufacturers. 
 
 The description of the processes necessary in tanning hides given 
 above shows, more than anything else, that tanning is a big as well as a 
 long operation. The necessity for a large amount of capital with which 
 to finance the purchase of hides and skins, their passage through the tan- 
 nery, and the sale of leather betokens that only a business conducted 
 on a broad scale can survive the competition, unless it resorts to 
 contract tanning. With the growth of enormous tanning concerns this 
 need of enlarged tannery operations has become more and more 
 apparent, until at the present time it may be said that the "small 
 tanner" of a few generations ago is non-existent, except as a commis- 
 sion tanner. 
 
 This growth in size may be laid to the tendency of packers and manu- 
 facturers of leather products to integrate as much as to the general 
 tendency towards enlarged units of business. Some time ago several of 
 the largest packers sought to provide an outlet for the hides and skins 
 which are the by-products of their trade by getting control of certain 
 tanneries. The result was to bring this large force into the leather 
 market as well as into the hide market, and to provide another power 
 urging large scale production. Recently this same desire to integrate 
 further has been manifested by the packers, as a result of which several 
 more independent tanneries have been brought under their control. 
 
 The inclination to integrate has also been evident on the part of 
 shoe manufacturers and other producers of leather products who have 
 wished to control their raw material supply. This has taken two forms, 
 contract tanning and entire control of tanneries, usually those of a 
 medium or large size. 
 
THE TANNING INDUSTRY 31 
 
 Thus the independent tanner is being squeezed from two sides, by 
 the large scale production and competition of the packers' subsidiaries, 
 and by the cutting off of his market by reason of integration by manu- 
 facturers of leather products. 
 
 Geographical Distribution 
 
 Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, New York, and New Jersey easily 
 overtop all other states in the number of tanneries located there. 
 (See Appendix B.) When the number of tanneries is compared to the 
 value of product by states, however, a different aspect of the situation 
 is presented. Pennsylvania, for instance, with 163 establishments 
 produced over seventy-seven million dollars worth of leather in 1914. 
 Massachusetts, with 132 establishments, produced only forty luillion 
 dollars worth of leather, whereas Wisconsin, on the contrary, with but 
 32 establishments, produced forty-four million dollars worth of leather. 
 
 This throws a Hght on the size of the establishments in the various 
 states, and also on the class of product manufactured. The largest 
 tanneries are liable to be producers of sole leather, a tendency which is 
 truly reflected in Pennsylvania, which is the greatest sole leather di-s- 
 trict in the country. The western states are, as a rule, larger produce's 
 of sole leather, whereas the eastern states, being near the points of 
 importation, tend to specialize in upper leather. 
 
 Pennsylvania has no near competitor to dis])ute her title of largest 
 leather producing state in the country, putting out 23.8% of the total 
 value of leather produced. Wisconsin ancl Massachusetts were running 
 a close race for second place, with no other states very close, as shown 
 by the chart on page 52, together with the other states which are large 
 producers of leather. 
 
 Location of Tannery 
 
 There are certain conditions affecting the location of a tannery which 
 are worthy of mention. 
 
 The necessity for locating a tannery near the source of bark supply is 
 not as strong now as it was a generation ago. The prime need of such 
 a location at that time is reflected in the great number of tanneries in 
 Pennsylvania, which was formerly the largest source of hemlock bark, 
 and also in the tanneries located in the South, v.-hich is the region sup- 
 plying most of the chestnut wood and oak b:;rk. With the introduction 
 of quebracho, chrome, and alum tannage, and with the increased use 
 of extracts of the bark instead of the bark itself, the necessity for 
 proximity to the bark supply does not figure greatly. 
 
 Probably the most important consideration in the location of a 
 tannery at the present time is that it should be placed where the supply 
 of hides or skins necessary for the class of leather which it produces 
 shall be readily available. This means that a tannery using imported 
 skins may find its best location near the coast, in order to save freight 
 charges to inland points. The same applies to the use of domestic 
 hides and skins, for every section of the country produces hides pecu- 
 liar to itself and whose characteristics are more oi- less better adapted 
 for one purpose than for another. Southern hides, for example, are 
 best adapted for light harness leather and some grades of shoe leather, 
 and any tannery producing such kinds of leather would naturally find 
 its best location in the South, so far as its supply of raw material is 
 concerned. 
 
32 THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 A second very important consideration affecting the location of a 
 tannery is the market for that particular class of leather which the 
 tannery produces. The greatest shoe district of the country, for 
 instance, is in eastern Massachusetts, which makes Massachusetts, or 
 at any rate, the East, a desirable location for sole and upper shoe 
 leather tanneries. This applies in equal measure to the location of 
 tanneries near other shoe manufacturing districts, glove making 
 districts, or any district in which leather products are manufactured in 
 large amounts. 
 
 A third consideration is the quantity and quality of the labor supply 
 available in the town or city in which it is planned to locate the tannery. 
 As in all other manufacturing industries, it is not only essential that 
 the supply of labor be constant and be sufficient to meet all demands, 
 but also that it should have some degree of aptitude for the work. It 
 has been found that districts where trade spirit runs high yield a very 
 desirable class of labor. 
 
 There are certain financial considerations which also play a part in 
 the determination of a tannery location. A tannery, and especially a 
 japannery, requires a large amount of land, which brings the initial 
 cost to a high figure. The cost of land, therefore, is ah important item 
 to be considered. This applies with equal force to the surrounding land 
 which is vacant and which may be needed later for expansion. 
 
 It is not requisite that a tannery be in the immediate vicinity of a 
 good banking centre, for sufficient accommodation can be obtained if 
 it is within a day's mailing distance of the bank. 
 
 A good supply of soft water is necessary for tanning purposes. It is 
 also essential that the tannery wastes be carried off in a sanitary man- 
 ner, either by the sewage system, or by disposition in a stream which 
 does not have any immediate connection with the source of water 
 supply. 
 
 Tannery Construction 
 
 Little attention seems to have been paid in the past to the most 
 eflTicient methods of tannery construction, and the subject has but 
 recently attracted any amount of serious attention. 
 
 Since the processes of tanning are practically continuous, the best 
 layout for a tannery is one by which the material will move through in the 
 straightest possible line. This problem has been met by one tannery by 
 the construction of a U-shape building, with the railroad tracks pass- 
 ing the open end of the building; the raw material is brought in at one 
 end of the building and the finished product is shipped out at the other 
 end. 
 
 In general a single story building is desirable e.xcept for the space 
 where the drying operations are performed, where multiple stories are 
 necessary to give sufficient room. The warehouse is also of multiple 
 stories, but need not be located at the tannery. It is common practice, 
 indeed, in cases where the company is large enough, to have a ware- 
 house in a leather distributing center, for the purpose of facilitating 
 the purchase of leather by giving the purchaser an opportunity to 
 examine the product. 
 
 Contrary to conditions in many other industries a tannery need have 
 no special advertising value, and also need have no re-sale value. In 
 cases where the tannery has a city warehouse, advertising value may 
 be a necessary condition. 
 
THE TANNING INDUSTRY 33 
 
 Tannery Equipment 
 
 The most fundamental consideration in the question of tannery- 
 equipment is the class of product to be manufactured and the method 
 of tannage to be used. Equipment for a vegetable extract sole tannery 
 is very different fi-om a tannery producing light or upper leather by 
 either vegetable or chemical tannages. In the latter case, the need of 
 having the leather soft and pliable necessitates the use of much m^ore 
 machinery, and of a different class than that used for sole leather. 
 
 The use of machinery has a definite limit because of the fixed daily 
 output of a tannery where vats are used in the tanning operations. 
 In a sole leather tannery using vegetable extract, for instance, the vats 
 will hold only a certain number of hides, resulting in the possible com- 
 pletion of only a definite number per day, viz. those which have passed 
 through the previous processes. The same is true of the tannages where 
 vats are not used, except that the output is slightly more elastic. 
 
 The amount of machinery used depends to a large extent on the 
 class of product. Upper leather tanning, for example, is mainly done by 
 machinery, the propoi'tion of pui-ely manual work being very small. 
 Sole leather tanning, requiring the constant movement of hides from 
 vat to vat, uses a larger percentage of manual labor. 
 
 H. Labor 
 
 Practically all the labor in a tannery is unskilled, the only exceptions 
 being the foremen. The machine work which men are required to per- 
 form can be learned easily, and no high degree of intelligence is required 
 of any of the laboi'ers. Because of the simplicity of the processes, there 
 is little effort made to train the workers systematically, new men being 
 placed in a department and given instruction by the foreman. 
 
 Little welfare work is done by the tanners, as the men are in general 
 well paid for the amount of labor required. This is again apparent 
 from the small hold the unions have on tannery employees. Some 
 attempts have been made to unionize tannery operatives, and the 
 I. W. W. has also endeavored to spread its gospel among them, but 
 without any noticeable eflect. This is partly due to the satisfaction of 
 tannery employees and partly to the mixture of nationalities, which 
 does not make for homogeneity. 
 
 Tannery labor is usually very well satisfied, and consequently the 
 labor turnover is not large. Men who leave the tanneries of ten go into 
 shoe factories, but that tendency is decreasing, and the desire to 
 remain a "tannery man" seems strong enough to hold most men to 
 their jobs. 
 
 Since most of the labor of a tannery is unskilled, and consists in 
 pushing trucks or running a simple machine, the rate of wages is not 
 exceptionally high though it can not be said that the men ai-e under- 
 paid. Common laborers are generally paid about .$2.25 a day, and 
 workers on machines receive in the vicinity of $3.00 a day. The day 
 rate is the method of payment in most cases, especially for common 
 labor, but there is a tendency to put machine workers on a piece rate. 
 Profit-sharing or bonus systems are not used in tanneries, as the indus- 
 try does not seem to adapt itself to such methods. 
 
 The hours of labor vary in the great majority of cases from fifty-four 
 to sixty hours per week, or 96.5';o of the total, according to the census 
 of 1909. There were practically no wage earners laboring over sixty 
 
34 THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 hours a week, and only 3.4"^ of the total under fifty-four hours. The 
 limited amount of the daily output has a marked effect on the hours of 
 actual labor. As has been explained above, only a definite number of 
 hides can go through a tannery owing to the limited number of vats or 
 drums and the impossibility of expediting the process. When this 
 number of hides has gone through the tannery processes for one day, 
 therefore, nothing remains to be done. Thus, though the specified 
 hours of labor may amount to nine hours a day, it is quite certain that 
 the actual working period will amount to a substantial reduction from 
 that time, often as much as an hour or more. This shortened working 
 period, together with the very fair wages give good reasons for a 
 workman's desire to be a "tannery man." 
 
 I. By-Products 
 
 There are two main classes of by-products resulting from the tanning 
 processes, (1) hair, and (2) fleshings and trimmings. 
 
 Hair comes from the process of unhairing the hides or skins, and may 
 be put to many uses, as to stuff chairs, cushions, etc. The best white 
 hair, moreover, is mixed with wool and commands a higher price than 
 does the brown hair. After the unhairing process the hair is sorted 
 according to colors and according to length, there being a difference in 
 the length of the hair according to whether the hide was taken off in 
 winter or in summer. It is usually sold to a middleman who collects 
 and grades the hair before disposing of it to the manufacturer who 
 needs such material. 
 
 Fleshings and trimmings come from the various fleshing and trim- 
 ming processes, and are used in the manufacture of glue. The flesh- 
 ings are collected, and sold directly to glue manufacturers without the 
 intermediation of any dealer. 
 
 J. Financing 
 
 It must be apparent that the necessity of outside financing of tanners 
 differs with the class of leather produced. Upper leather, for instance, can 
 be manufactured in periods varying from three to six weeks, or more, 
 allowing a turnover of product of five to six times a year. Sole leather, 
 on the other hand, requires from one to six months for tanning, accord- 
 ing to whether a chrome or a vegetable extract tannage is used, and in 
 the latter case, which is the predominant way of tanning this product, 
 the turnover can not be more than twice a year. Hence, a sole leather 
 tanner is obviously in need of more working capital, which he is not 
 always capable of furnishing himself. 
 
 Leaving aside differences in tannery products, and speaking of 
 conditions in general, it is clear that the length of time necessary to 
 put out the finished product in the tanning industry requires that the 
 tanner be able to finance himself amply, or that he have some sure and 
 ready source of capital outside his business. Especially is this true as 
 regards purchases of hides and skins at certain seasons of the year, or 
 even regularly over the whole year. 
 
 In estimating the character of the risk assumed in granting a line of 
 credit to a tanner, the inventory of raw material, material in process, 
 and finished product may be considered as first class current assets. 
 There is always a ready market for the raw material and for the finished 
 product, both of which can be disposed of at a little sacrifice. Material 
 in process has a higher value than raw material, and has an increasingly 
 
THE TANNING INDUSTRY 35 
 
 higher value every day it stays in the tannery. It does not seem, there- 
 fore, that a banker takes a risk of any large degree in considering 
 inventory as a good basis for loaning. 
 
 When the tanner imports any or all of his raw material, the reasons 
 for extending credit are reinforced on both sides; on the side of the 
 tanner, who is called upon to finance himself for the extra period of ship- 
 ment, and on the side of the bank which may protect itself in additional 
 ways if necessary with the assurance that it is only a matter of time 
 before that shipment of materials will be turned into cash. It is abso- 
 lutely essential from the tanner's point of view that he finance his 
 imports through a bank, especially if he buys most of his raw material 
 at periodical auctions such as the Nizhni Fair, which comes once a year 
 and makes an enormous call on his resources. 
 
 In this connection it is well to emphasize the arrangement often 
 made with tanners by banks allowing them to renew their notes given 
 on foreign or domestic shipment. At no increased risk, and with the 
 realization that every day adds new value to the material on which the 
 loan is based, the bank may renew the loan until the shipment for which 
 it was extended has passed through the tannery, and has been converted 
 into cash. The beneficial result on both the individual tanner and on 
 the tanning industry is not hard to foresee if this practice is increased. 
 
THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 V. Leather Market 
 
 A. Organization 
 
 The largest market for leather in this country is Boston, which is the 
 recognized center of the leather trade, not only for sole leather, but also 
 for upper leather. The other main sole leather markets in order of rela- 
 tive importance are New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, and St. Louis. 
 There are only two other very important upper leather centers, viz.. 
 New York and Chicago, although Philadelphia is recognized as the 
 greatest center for glazed kid, or morocco. The reason for the pre- 
 dominance of Boston is its proximity to the greatest boot and shoe 
 manufacturing district of the country, as well as because of the large 
 tanning industry in eastern Massachusetts. 
 
 The main method of selling leather is by direct sale from the tanner 
 to the manufacturer of leather products, practically ninety per cent 
 of the leather being sold in that manner. The tanner himself does not 
 always sell the leather, however, often organizing a separate company 
 in which he has an interest to market his product. 
 
 The chart on page 58 will show the other methods of distributing 
 leather. The jobber, or leather merchant, plays a large part in the 
 marketing of leather which is not sold direct to the manufacturer. 
 In some cases this merchant employs a commission man to aid in the 
 purchase of leather, but this course is used in a very few cases. The 
 manufacturer may also buy through a comm.ission man, although this 
 method also is used but little. The only other large domestic market 
 for leather is the sole cutter, whose function is to cut sole leather into 
 shapes readily u.sable by shoe manufacturers; he may sell his product 
 direct to the manufacturer, or he may distribute through a findings 
 jobber and findings retailer. 
 
 The foreign market for leather, like the foreign market for hides, is 
 much more finely divided than the domestic market. There is a further 
 complication in that the manufacturer of leather products is seldom in 
 the market himself for leather, most of the trade being handled by 
 "factors." These factors finance the shoe manufacturers and dispose 
 of their products, somewhat as the American leather merchants do 
 in the case of contract tanners. This arrangement makes the factors the 
 largest purchasers of leather in the foreign market, except for large 
 co-operative societies which do their own manufacturing. 
 
 The general organization of the foreign market is shown by the chart 
 on page 54. The American end of the distribution of leather is 
 handled by a jobber, a commission man, or the American represent- 
 ative of foreign factors. A few American tanners have resident selling 
 agents in some of the foreign countries, but this is not the general cus- 
 tom. As has been stated, the factor is the main distributive agency on 
 the foreign end, although some trading is done through commission 
 men. 
 
 The terms of sale in the leather trade are very easy as compared 
 with the terms of purchase of raw material. The following list will 
 show the discounts allowed for prompt payment in the various classes 
 of trade: 
 
 Sole leather 4%, 10 days; 3%. 30 days; 2%, 60 days; 
 
 Upper leather 5%, 10 or 30 days; 4%, 60 days; 
 
 Harness leather 2%, 30 days; 
 
 / 
 
THE TANNING INDUSTRY 37 
 
 Fancy leather 2%, 10 days; net, 30 days; 
 
 Book leather 3% or 2%, 10 days; 
 
 Upholstery leather 2%, 10 days. 
 
 In addition to the long discounts allowed in the sole leather and 
 upper leather trade, it is the custom to give twenty days' antedating 
 on practically all bills, thus giving the full discount for thirty days 
 instead of ten. These discounts are rigidly adhered to in practice, and 
 it is found that most customers take up the maximum discount. It 
 is interesting to note that large and small purchasers receive identical 
 treatment, no extra discounts for purchases of large quantities of 
 leather being allowed. 
 
 The terms of sale on foreign purchases are from sight to ninety days' 
 draft. 
 
 B. Domestic Market 
 
 The method of selling to domestic purchasers is, as has been stated, 
 mainly by direct sale to the manufacturer. The sale may be con- 
 summated by the tannery office, by the selling office, or by traveling 
 salesmen. In general, the principal way in which leather is sold is from 
 the selling office of the tannery, located in some leather center. This 
 is especially true if there is a warehouse in connection with the sales 
 office, for many buyers prefer to examine the leather before closing a 
 deal for its purchase. Salesmen are used to a large extent in creating a 
 demand for the tannery's product. 
 
 The middleman plays an important part in the leather trade despite 
 the comparatively small proportion of business done through him. The 
 leather merchant, or wholesaler, is very useful to the tanner, or to the 
 tanner's sale agency, in cleaning up job lots, and in taking off his 
 shoulders the bother of catering to the small manufacturer of leather 
 products. The merchant is willing to take greater credit risks, and 
 since he specializes in the selling end of the trade, he can do this with 
 greater safety. The commission man, acting as selling agent for the 
 tanner, is also a significant factor in the leather trade. The main portion 
 of his business is in selling at the leather centers for tanners who are 
 located in other parts of the country. A great number of these com- 
 mission men employ their excess capital by buying hides to be tanned 
 on contract. 
 
 The tendency to cut out the middleman is not being felt strongly in 
 the leather trade. This is due in great part to the fact that the tanners 
 are already selling most of their product through their own agents, 
 wherever it is possible, and what trade remains is either undesirable 
 because of its size and credit risk or cannot be reached by direct means 
 so advantageously. 
 
 Sales of leather do not show any marked seasonal fluctuation, the 
 market being very steady the year round. The highest point in deliv- 
 eries of leather usually comes around October, when shoe manu- 
 facturers are stocking up for their next run, and the low point comes in 
 the spring, usually April. The effect of the shoe manufacturers' seasons 
 does not seem to be felt gi'eatly in the leather trade, due, no doubt, to 
 the fact that although shoe factories must stock up for each new run, 
 their demand for leather is practically continuous. 
 
 Advertising is not depended on to any great extent as a method of 
 demand creation. Trade magazine advertisements are carried in large 
 number by tanners and their selling agents, but rarely does the effort 
 
38 THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 extend beyond this, and it may be classed as general publicity adver- 
 tising. 
 
 Shipments of leather are made from the tannei-y or warehouse, f . o. b. 
 shipping point in practically all cases. Foreign shipments are also 
 made under this rule. 
 
 Competition in the domestic leather market is very keen in most 
 cases, verging at times on the cut-throat variety among some dealers. 
 There is no dominating factor in the market, although it is estimated 
 that the United States Leather Company controls about 40 'i of the 
 output of sole leather, and a few other tanners control another 20% 
 of this trade. The market is so open, however, that no ruling influence 
 can be exercised by any one concern, as a buyer can readily find a 
 market elsewhere if he discovers an attempt to control prices or supply. 
 Another factor making for an open market is the umbrella policy of 
 the United States Leather Company, which endeavors to keep the small 
 independent in business rather than forcing him to the wall, since the 
 operations of a large number of small dealers tends to steady and 
 strengthen the leather market, rather than causing marked rises and 
 falls on a false basis. 
 
 C. Foreign Market 
 
 Our largest markets for sole leather and for glazed kid upper leather 
 exports are shown by the charts on pages 55 and 56. The United 
 Kingdom is seen to be our greatest foreign market for sole leather by 
 a wide margin, although doubtless much of this leather is for re-export. 
 In ordinary times Japan takes about as much leather as the remaining 
 countries of Europe combined. (See Appendix C.) 
 
 In imports of our glazed kid leather the United Kingdom again leads 
 all other nations by a wide margin. Germany and Netherlands are 
 ordinarily large importers of this class of leather, and the remainder of 
 Europe is a good market. This condition reflects great credit on our 
 upper leather tanning industry, for we lead the world in producing 
 goatskin and kid leather. 
 
 The main competition in our foreign trade comes from Germany 
 and Austria, which are large producers of sole and upper leather. 
 Present conditions, of course, have absolutely eliminated all such 
 competition, which accounts for the rapid increase of exports of leather — 
 amounting to an increase of over 43% during 1915 and 1916, for sole 
 leather and 30% for glazed kid. The possibilities of holding the in- 
 creased foreign trade after the close of the war do not look very hopeful 
 because of the strong competition bound to come from the central 
 empires as soon as they are able to procure a sufficient supply of raw 
 material, and to satiate their domestic demand. 
 
 D. Sole Cutting 
 
 There is one division of the market for leather which has not been 
 described as yet, and which is becoming of increasing importance— the 
 sole cutting business. The function of this branch of the leather indus- 
 try is to cut leather into shoe soles of various sizes and grades, and to 
 distribute them to shoe manufacturers, which serves to fill the need of 
 the manufacturer of a special kind of product requiring only a few 
 grades of leather. 
 
THE TANNING INDUSTRY 39 
 
 No figures are obtainable on the extent of this business, but it is 
 known that it is steadily increasing. Thei-e is a noticeable tendency, 
 furthermore, for tanners to take on these operations to provide a 
 dependable outlet for their product and, of course, to reap the benefit 
 of any additional profit. This field is primarily suited for large tanners 
 whose product is diverse, for they may cut a large assortment of grades 
 of soles, but the small tanner is by no means prevented from establish- 
 ing a sole-cutting department, as he may speciaHze in selling one or two 
 grades of cut soles. 
 
 E. Substitutes for Leather 
 
 There has been a tendency in recent years to strive to find substi- 
 tutes for leather, due primarily to the rise in prices for the tanners' 
 product. Since the start of the European war this inclination has been 
 strongly emphasized until at the present time substitutes for leather are 
 in very general use. These substitutes are of two general classes, cor- 
 responding to the classes of leather: 
 
 (1) substitutes for sole leather, 
 
 (2) substitutes for upper leather. 
 
 The principal substitutes for sole leather include rubber, and a 
 composition material of leather and rubber; the chief substitute for 
 upper leather is cloth. Rubber is a widely used substitute for leather, 
 but its use is due more to desire for additional comfort rather than 
 because of reasons of expense. The composition sole material has come 
 on the market only recently, and seems to be filling a real need at the 
 present time because of its comparative inexpensiveness. The question 
 of its relative worth brings forth widely different claims, but it is the 
 general opinion that this material will outwear leather if it wears evenly. 
 The difficulty is that the substitute sole is liable to crack under extreme 
 heat or cold, whereas leather seems to have a porousness which allows 
 it to suit itself to differing conditions of temperature and humidity. 
 
 The chief substitute for upper leather, cloth, can not be judged 
 entirely on the grounds of intrinsic value because of the fact that there 
 is no small degree of style element involved in its use. Where this con- 
 dition obtains, such a substitute may well be as popular in times of low 
 leather prices as in times when leather demands a high price, since style 
 is the overwhelming reason for its use. 
 
 The competition from these substitutes has been keen during the 
 past few years and will undoubtedly continue to be of such extent for 
 the period of the war and immediately afterwards, or, in a word, while 
 leather prices remain high. The present scale of prices is forming an 
 urnbrella under which substitutes are readily salable, but when leather 
 prices slump, and the margin between them and substitute prices 
 decreases, the competition of the substitutes will be felt more severely. 
 It is foolish to suppose that these substitutes as composed at present 
 can ever take the place of leather, but as a supplement to leather they 
 undoubtedly have a large field. Their influence now is most beneficial, 
 as it serves to steady the leather market and to prevent leather prices 
 from climbing to even more lofty heights. 
 
THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 41 
 
42 
 
 '1' H K 'i' A N N 1 N G INDUSTRY 
 
THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 4:5 
 
44 
 
 THE T A N N 1 N (7 1 N D I' S T li Y 
 
 HJHTr::r;] IMPORTS OF SHEEPSKINS 
 
 TOTAL 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 BRITISH OCEANIA 
 
 ARGENTINA 
 
 RUSSIA 
 
THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 45 
 
 eg:: 
 
 :V:. 
 
 IMPORTS OF GOATSKINS 
 
 TOTAL 
 
 EAST INDIES 
 
 CHINA 
 
 BRAZIL 
 
 <^-^^o UNITED KINGDOM 
 RUSSIA 
 
 —X- 
 
 WM\^MW 
 
 I,- 
 
 :]1± 
 
 ::3t: 
 
 m 
 
 -£ 
 
 :'[]»: 
 
 -Ait-.-.-.-. 
 
 -.i".l-. 
 
 :$2: 
 
 i-^ 
 
 .-.ii: 
 
 ;;:5: 
 
 »*c^ij_ 
 
 '■list it fit* 
 
 .-u. 
 
 t-i 
 
 # 
 
 "Sff 
 
 llliL 
 
 I? 
 
 it!': 
 
 ip^i 
 
 I 
 ■ 1 
 
 t- J-i 
 
 M 
 
 U±iJ 
 
■I() 
 
 ■nil': 'I'ANNINC INDUSTUV 
 
 ORGANIZATION OF THE DOMESTIC MARKET 
 
 PACKER HIDES 
 
 PACKFP 
 
 BROKER I 
 
 TA N N E R 
 
THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 47 
 
 ORGANIZATION OF THE DOMESTIC MARKET 
 
 CONTINUED 
 
 COUNJTRV HIDES 
 
48 
 
 THK TANNING INDrsTRY 
 
 ORGANIZATION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 DOMESTIC SMEEPSKIN MARKE" 
 
 COMMISSION MAN 
 
 TANNER I 
 
THE TANNING I N D ir S T R Y 
 
 49 
 
 ORG AN12 ATlOtJ Of" FOREIGN HIDE MARKETS 
 
 EUROPEAN 
 
50 
 
 'Pill', tank'inm; iMnrsTUV 
 
 ORGANIZATION OF FOREIGN HIDE MARKETS 
 CONTINUED 
 
 SOUTH AMeRlCAN 
 
 TANN£R [ 
 
TIIF, TAN N INC, INDl'STRV 
 
 51 
 
52 
 
 TIIK TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 rr—rrrrnT 
 
 mm^ 
 
 VALUE OF LEATHER PRODUCED BY STATES, 1914 
 
 Me 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 WISCONSIN 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS 
 
 NEW JERSEY 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 MICHIGAN 
 
 ILLINOIS 
 
 WEST VIRGINIA 
 
 DELAWARE 
 
 OHIO 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 VIRGINIA 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA 
 
 KENTUCKY 
 
 tfe#ffinnriliiin;rnFfnHn#fEHt^fiFfnfTTiil"i?T^m#;^ 
 
THE T A N N I N (I 1 N D If S T R Y 
 
 53 
 
 ORGAN I Z AT ION OP THE DOMESTIC LEATHER MARKET 
 
 50L£ CUTTEP [ | SELLING ORgj'N [ 
 
 f=lNDlNG5 JOBBER | 
 
 FINDlNOjS RETAILER 
 
 jobber") — ^ CQM'N r-lAt-, I 
 
54 
 
 THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 ORGAMIZATION OP TME FOREIGN LEATHER MARKET 
 
 T u R E R I 
 
T H K T A N N I N ( ; I N D IT S T R V 
 
 55 
 
56 
 
 TllK TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
THE TANNING INDUSTRY 67 
 
 Appendix A 
 Appendix B 
 Appendix C 
 
68 
 
 THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 Appendix A 
 
 Imports 
 Total a 
 
 
 1908 
 Lbs. 
 
 1909 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1910 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1911 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Total 
 
 328,446,882 
 
 572,776,503 
 
 460,607,078 
 
 424,876,67^ 
 
 Cattle Hides 
 
 137,922,575 
 
 279,044,262 
 
 221,969,098 
 
 170,649,23^ 
 
 Calfskins 
 
 
 47,062,988 
 
 53,157,553 
 
 82,631,18( 
 
 Sheepskins 
 
 20,138,987 
 
 63,711,930 
 
 59,669,263 
 
 57,434,46( 
 
 Goatskins 
 
 75,857,983 
 
 115,167,176 
 
 100,719,480 
 
 91,064,556 
 
 
 Since July 1 
 
 
 
 Imports of Cattle Hie 
 
 Argentina 
 
 30,097,803 
 
 75,716,335 
 
 57,534,654 
 
 50,046,895 
 
 Canada 
 
 25,564,022 
 
 32,375,820 
 
 29,955,538 
 
 27,818,650 
 
 Mexico 
 
 15,024,716 
 
 25,389,620 
 
 31,633,682 
 
 22,259,302 
 
 France 
 
 10,365,000 
 
 22,261,677 
 
 12,196,842 
 
 12,688,160 
 
 Uruguay 
 
 8,269,637 
 
 23,954,701 
 
 14,284,726 
 
 6,518,688 
 
 Imports of Calfski 
 
 Russia 
 
 
 
 15,387,689 
 
 17,266,289 
 
 Germany 
 
 
 
 8,735,764 
 
 20,697,377 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 
 
 3,018,501 
 
 7,372,601 
 
 France 
 
 
 
 2,262,744 
 
 4,962,412 
 
 Other Europe 
 
 
 
 18,047,073 
 
 18,429,558 
 
 South America 
 
 
 
 4,750,308 
 
 4,673,520 
 
THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 59 
 
 Hides and Skins 
 
 By Classes 
 
 1912 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1913 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1914 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1915 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1916 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 615,105,439 
 
 497,879,316 
 
 556,194,541 
 
 646,271,307 
 
 727,010,405 
 
 303,530,775 
 
 223,564,715 
 
 308,050,216 
 
 408,632,111 
 
 404,901,341 
 
 114,859,364 
 
 76,454,032 
 
 66,915,534 
 
 48,914,776 
 
 62,657,181 
 
 68,230,511 
 
 68,205,805 
 
 65,943,961 
 
 75,086,576 
 
 101,530,219 
 
 95,323,388 
 
 89,677,275 
 
 75,855,063 
 
 79,287,484 
 
 104,226,005 
 
 
 
 
 
 by Principal Countries 
 
 101,241,806 
 
 45,243,705 
 
 93,986,530 
 
 145,414,537 
 
 136,285,332 
 
 34,411,348 
 
 48,011,196 
 
 40,351,186 
 
 30,576,663 
 
 24,998,659 
 
 30,712,246 
 
 28,457,714 
 
 37,750,732 
 
 50,808,523 
 
 32,374,236 
 
 19,727,143 
 
 17,792,387 
 
 16,376,786 
 
 3,315,144 
 
 1,882,552 
 
 12,414,648 
 
 3,398,522 
 
 16,722,951 
 
 40,051,832 
 
 39,905,328 
 
 by Principal Countries 
 
 35,618,531 
 
 24,329,173 
 
 9,368,067 
 
 
 
 21,771,692 
 
 14,189,723 
 
 10,592,526 
 
 
 
 8,494,641 
 
 8,322,114 
 
 11,313,504 
 
 4,428,407 
 
 6,557,310 
 
 6,243,197 
 
 3,706,051 
 
 6,494,750 
 
 6,632,629 
 
 5,726,937 
 
 23,724,798 
 
 14,067,790 
 
 17,386,087 
 
 11,525,627 
 
 14,079,800 
 
 5,060,281 
 
 1,156,199 
 
 2,690,292 
 
 7,291,488 
 
 9,538,148 
 
60 
 
 THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 Appendix A — Continued 
 Imports of Hides and Skins 
 
 Imports of Sheepskii 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 
 32,272,834 
 
 27,839,190 
 
 27,500,830 
 
 Russia 
 
 
 2,634,250 
 
 3,518,556 
 
 4,812,119 
 
 Br. Oceania 
 
 
 7,495,275 
 
 8,444,966 
 
 6,051,497 
 
 Argentina 
 
 
 4,261,522 
 
 4,999,931 
 
 5,857,612 
 
 Imports of Goatskii 
 
 East Indies 
 
 28,136,982 
 
 51,590,855 
 
 42,500,600 
 
 41,797,305 
 
 China 
 
 7,121,813 
 
 9,540,407 
 
 13,072,066 
 
 10,066,201 
 
 Brazil 
 
 4,073,443 
 
 4,256,816 
 
 3,651,088 
 
 2,818,571 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 3,238,923 
 
 4,359,906 
 
 4,734,652 
 
 5,196,655 
 
 Russia 
 
 3,607,616 
 
 5,899,312 
 
 4,420,607 
 
 3,256,961 
 
THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 61 
 
 by Principal Countries 
 
 27,709,604 
 
 28,563,976 
 
 23,608,815 
 
 29,273,143 
 
 24,897,795 
 
 8,557,617 
 
 7,730,534 
 
 7,197,696 
 
 22,840 
 
 
 6,705,597 
 
 8,626,973 
 
 9,960,855 
 
 11,689,728 
 
 
 6,368,068 
 
 4,547,911 
 
 6,753,032 
 
 10,157,619 
 
 17,987,619 
 
 by Principal Countries 
 
 42,448,889 
 
 37,575,746 
 
 30,260,161 
 
 35,579,480 
 
 43,597,174 
 
 7,266,489 
 
 8,406,743 
 
 6,916,607 
 
 9,589,951 
 
 15,384,557 
 
 3,772,538 
 
 3,998,172 
 
 3,465,847 
 
 6,256,859 
 
 5,400,122 
 
 5,564,716 
 
 5,595,240 
 
 4,837,778 
 
 5,131,795 
 
 3,845,270 
 
 7,282,897 
 
 6,845,757 
 
 4,647,884 
 
 48,180 
 
 
62 
 
 THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 Appendix B 
 
 Tanneries and Leather Production by Principal 
 States, 1909 
 
 
 No. 
 Estab. 
 
 Wage Earners 
 
 Value of Products 
 
 
 Av'ge No. 
 
 % 
 
 Rank 
 
 Amount 
 
 % 
 
 Rai 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 163 
 
 14,008 
 
 1 
 
 
 $77,926,321 
 
 23.8 
 
 1 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 32 
 
 7,548 
 
 3 
 
 
 44,667,676 
 
 13.6 
 
 2 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 132 
 
 10,252 
 
 2 
 
 
 40,002,079 
 
 12.2 
 
 3 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 86 
 
 5,560 
 
 5 
 
 
 28,430,955 
 
 8.7 
 
 4 
 
 New York 
 
 109 
 
 5,688 
 
 4 
 
 
 27,642,383 
 
 8.4 
 
 5 
 
 Michigan 
 
 24 
 
 2,291 
 
 8 
 
 
 15,331,104 
 
 4.7 
 
 6 
 
 Ilhnois 
 
 29 
 
 3,001 
 
 7 
 
 
 14,911,782 
 
 4.5 
 
 7 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 20 
 
 1,571 
 
 11 
 
 
 12,450,592 
 
 3.8 
 
 8 
 
 Delaware 
 
 16 
 
 3,045 
 
 6 
 
 
 12,079,225 
 
 3.7 
 
 9 
 
 Ohio 
 
 36 
 
 1,884 
 
 9 
 
 
 10,127,836 
 
 3.1 
 
 10 
 
 California 
 
 40 
 
 1,398 
 
 12 
 
 
 9,336,545 
 
 2.9 
 
 11 
 
 Virginia 
 
 39 
 
 1,590 
 
 10 
 
 
 8,266,850 
 
 2.5 
 
 12 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 39 
 
 832 
 
 13 
 
 
 5,415,495 
 
 1.7 
 
 13 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 18 
 
 630 
 
 14 
 
 
 4,240,795 
 
 1.3 
 
 14 
 
64 
 
 THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 Appendix C 
 
 Exports 
 
 Exports of 
 
 
 1908 
 Lbs. 
 
 1909 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1910 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1911 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 27,330,224 
 
 27,453,801 
 
 33,014,945 
 
 36,485,637 
 
 Other Europe 
 
 1,296,574 
 
 2,032,135 
 
 2,445,376 
 
 2,119,325 
 
 Japan 
 
 2,203,945 
 
 2,144,574 2,011,435 
 
 2,869,142 
 
 Exports of Upper 
 
 y 
 
 
 1908 
 
 Sq. Ft. 
 
 1909 
 
 Sq. Ft. 
 
 1910 
 
 Sq. Ft. 
 
 1911 
 
 Sq. Ft. 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 
 
 2,536,596 
 
 39,776,473 
 
 Germany 
 
 
 
 594,614 
 
 12,014,927 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 
 
 797,687 
 
 10,180,861 
 
 Other Europe 
 
 
 
 1,085,537 
 
 14,750,321 
 
 
 Since July 1 
 
 
 
 
 Exports of Upper 
 
 
 1908 
 
 Sq. Ft. 
 
 1909 
 
 Sq. Ft. 
 
 1910 
 Sq. Ft. 
 
 1911 
 
 Sq. Ft. 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 4,263,399 
 
 7,987,354 
 
 
 Since July 1 
 
 
 
 
THE TANNING INDUSTRY 
 
 65 
 
 of Leather 
 
 Sole Leather 
 
 1912 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1913 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1914 
 Lbs. 
 
 1915 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 1916 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 38,150,837 
 
 26,588,513 
 
 48,070,485 
 
 46,584,175 
 
 50,754,672 
 
 1,851,416 
 
 2,150,554 
 
 1,466,828 
 
 29,441,458 
 
 25,606,541 
 
 2,642,771 
 
 1,322,553 
 
 589,406 
 
 1,190,848 
 
 4,721,026 
 
 Leather — Kid 
 
 1912 
 
 Sq. Ft. 
 
 1913 
 
 Sq. Ft. 
 
 1914 
 
 Sq. Ft. 
 
 1915 
 
 Sq. Ft. 
 
 1916 
 
 Sq. Ft. 
 
 47,297,131 
 
 39,486,018 
 
 39,425,207 
 
 45,694,124 
 
 52,313,361 
 
 14,374,556 
 
 15,410,380 
 
 7,239,688 
 
 
 
 10,325,473 
 
 8,138,722 
 
 3,835,742 
 
 7,130,799 
 
 6,593,583 
 
 14,943,414 
 
 13,835,658 
 
 11,290,401 
 
 24,638,671 
 
 27,354,458 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Leather — Calfskins 
 
 1912 
 
 Sq. Ft. 
 
 1913 
 
 Sq. Ft. 
 
 1914 
 
 Sq. Ft. 
 
 1915 
 
 Sq. Ft. 
 
 1916 
 
 Sq. Ft. 
 
 8,377,525 
 
 9,576,669 
 
 7,162,956 
 
 14,896,591 
 
 21,226,840