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'/^, ^.^^i'-^ PRIZE ESSAY. 
 
 THE TEACHER'S MANUAL: 
 
 BEING 
 
 AN EXPOSITION 
 
 OF 
 
 AN EFFICIENT AND ECONOMICAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION. 
 
 THE "WANTS OF A FREE PEOPLE. 
 
 BY THOMAS H. PALMER, A. M. 
 
 " First, must the dead-Utter of ' Education' own itself dead, and drop, piece- 
 meal, into dust, if the living spirit of ' Education,' freed from this, its charnel 
 house, is to arise on us, and with new healing on its wings." — Carlvle. 
 
 <.. 
 
 BOSTON: 
 
 MARSH, CAPEN, LYON, AND WEBB. 
 
 1840. 
 

 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1840, by 
 
 Marsh, Capen, Lyon, and Webb, 
 in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. 
 
 4 J 
 
 
 EDUCATION PRESS. 
 
^O PREFACE. 
 
 
 f 
 
 My main objects, in the present Treatise, are fourfold : 
 
 I. To show the inequality, inefficiency, and wasteful- 
 ness of our present system of education : or, to use the 
 words of the motto to the title, to show that it is a mere 
 *' dead letter," and cause it to ^^ own itself dead, and 
 drop, piecemeal, into dust," so as to enable its "living 
 spirit, freed from this, its charnel-house, to arise on us, 
 with new healing on its wings." 
 
 II. To show that an equal, complete, and efficient, 
 system would be productive of an immense saving, both 
 of time, and money : 
 
 First, by dividing the schools into two classes, so as to 
 have all the primary schools kept permanently ^ in place 
 of for short terms, and the central, or high schools, during 
 the Winter. 
 
 Secondly, by thus providing situations for a body of 
 permanent, experienced, femaie teachers, looking solely to 
 their profession for a support, who should take the place 
 of the inexperienced, young girls, who now have recourse 
 to teaching, for mere temporary purposes. 
 
 Thirdly, by the establishment of Normal Schools, the 
 
 time and resources of which should not be squandered in 
 
 teaching what can readily be acquired elsewhere ; but 
 
 which should confine their attention to real desiderata, and 
 
 1* 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 be discontinued, as totally unnecessary, as soon as good 
 models should be spread over the land. 
 
 Fourthly, by providing libraries of school-books as 
 well as of books for circulation, and by establishing a 
 system of exchanges among the districts. 
 
 III. To examine, thoroughly, the whole system of 
 education, going into the most minute details, wherever 
 it is found defective or injurious, and passing, more rapid- 
 ly, over such parts as require little or no amendment. 
 
 IV. To make a commencement on the hitherto-neglec- 
 ted subject of Morals, for primary schools, and to place 
 Discipline on its proper foundation, the Conscience. 
 
 Many other topics are treated of, incidentally, such 
 as the division of towns into Districts, the laying out 
 of School lots, erecting, lighting, warming, &c., of 
 Schoolhouses, town and county Conventions of Teach- 
 ers, &c. ; the whole being designed to present a complete 
 and liberal System of Education, suited to the wants of 
 a Free People, in whose hands the whole system of gov- 
 ernment may be safely entrusted. 
 
 For many years, I have been in the habit of entering, 
 in a commonplace book, my own thoughts, as well as 
 extracts from the publications of the day, on the subject 
 of Education. As this was commenced, long before I 
 had any intention of writing on the subject, I have sel- 
 dom used any discriminative marks, between my own 
 ideas and those of others. It is not improbable, there- 
 fore, that, in this Essay, in which, of course, I made free 
 use of my commonplace book, I may sometimes uncon- 
 sciously have used the words or ideas of others, without 
 giving them proper credit. Should this prove to be the 
 case, in a few instances, I trust the writers and the public 
 will accept of this apology. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Page 
 
 Introductory, 9 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 Who are our Schoolmasters ? 12 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Physical Education, 20 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 Intellectual Education, 24 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 Intellectual Education, Continued, 31 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 Moral Education, 50 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 Recapitulation, 54 
 
 PART II. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Introductory, 57 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 Physical Education, 59 
 
8 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Page 
 
 Physical Education, Continued, 70 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Physical Education, Continued, 92 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 Intellectual Education, 94 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 Intellectual Education, Continued, . . . . . 100 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Intellectual Education, Continued, 112 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 Intellectual Education, Continued, 140 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 Intellectual Education, Continued, 182 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 Intellectual Education, Concluded, 190 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 Moral Education, 193 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Moral Education, Continued, 258 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 Conclusion, 259 
 
THE TEACHER'S MANUAL 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INTROD UC TORY. 
 
 •' I call, therefore, a complete and generous education, that which fits 
 a man to perform, justly, skilfully, and magnanimously, all the offices, 
 both private and public, of peace and war." — Milton. 
 
 In the following pages, it is proposed to inquire, what 
 are the requisites for a good education for the whole peo- 
 ple, and what are the best means of attaining them ; in 
 other words, to present the picture of a good district and 
 town school ; or, as they are sometimes called, a primary 
 and high school. It is also proposed to inquire into the 
 best means of equalizing the benefits of education ; or, 
 more properly speaking, of bringing the means of a thor- 
 ough education within the reach of every child in the 
 community. As having an important bearing on these 
 subjects, the local situation and internal arrangement of 
 schoolhouses will also be taken into consideration. The 
 J^ormal School, or Seminary for Teachers, will also claim 
 its due share of attention. 
 
 All this, however, will not be sufficient for the attain- 
 ment of the great object, which at present occupies so 
 much of the attention of many modern philanthropists, — 
 the physical, intellectual, and moral, improvement of the 
 community, through the medium of schools. The great 
 body of society, particularly in New England, are per- 
 fectly satisfied with their present system. It is generally 
 
10 
 
 supposed, that the people owe all that shrewdness and 
 intelligence for which they are so remarkable, and all 
 their industrious and moral habits, to the District School. 
 Hence, it is a very natural inference, that the system can- 
 not be so faulty and imperfect, as is frequently represent- 
 ed ; and that, in fact, it would be rather a hazardous ex- 
 periment, in any way to meddle with it. Before, therefore, 
 we can expect to succeed in producing any beneficial 
 changes, especially where these changes are of a radical 
 nature, it is necessary, clearly and explicitly to show the 
 fallacy of these views. One of the most important ob- 
 jects of this treatise, then, will be, an exposition of the 
 deficiencies and defects of the system now in use, and a 
 demonstration of the fallacy, which would refer all, or 
 even most, of our moral and intellectual worth to School 
 Education. 
 
 Let it, however, be distinctly understood, that all the 
 deficiencies, defects, and evils, which will be pointed out, 
 do not exist in every public school. Our system of in- 
 struction is at present in a state of transition. Ten years 
 ago, the primary schools were conducted in a uniform 
 routine. In discipline, books, arrangement of studies, 
 and mode of tuition, all were aHke. But, so far is this 
 from being the case now, that it would probably be diffi- 
 cult to find two schools conducted on exactly similar prin- 
 ciples, on any one of these points. Hence, no descrip- 
 tion can possibly suit every case. The only practicable 
 method of tracing out and eradicating all the defects of 
 our present system of education, then, is to present a 
 complete and correct picture of the schools in their worst 
 state ^ and to call upon each teacher or parent to apply 
 such features only, as are strictly applicable to his mode 
 of tuition. 
 
 For instance, if there be any school in which reading 
 is taught intellectually rather than mechanically ; where 
 the child has learnt to read in an easy, unaffected man- 
 ner ; his tones all natural, and his delivery exactly as if he 
 were talking on the same subject with his brothers and 
 sisters ; if, from first to last, he has understood every 
 word he has uttered, before his lesson was finished ; if he 
 
INTRODUCTORY. 11 
 
 has never read any thing, without being able to close his 
 book, and give a clear, intelligible statement of it ; then, 
 the remarks on readings in this treatise, have no reference 
 whatever to that school. But, let them not, therefore, 
 be condemned, as inapphcable. There are schools, where 
 the pupils are not so favored ; where they have been 
 taught to read in a stiff, unnatural manner, without any 
 attention to the sense ; to utter, like parrots, mere sounds, 
 without bestowing a thought on the ideas they are intended 
 to convey. It is only to such schools, that all the remarks 
 on reading are meant to apply. 
 
 Between these two kinds of schools, there are various 
 grades. And it is to be hoped, that no teacher, because 
 every remark on any one subject is not appHcable to him, 
 will, therefore, reject the whole. As was remarked in 
 speaking of the more perfect school, if the whole be not 
 applicable, let that only be used, which will suit the case. 
 Nothing more was meant to be apphed to that school. 
 
 Similar remarks apply to all the branches treated of, 
 whether they relate to physical, intellectual, or moral cul- 
 ture. In the case of morals, for instance, if the pupils 
 have been trained to feel , distinctly, the happiness of vir- 
 tue, the misery of vice ; the delights arising from general 
 sympathy and the social affections, and the sordid nature 
 of selfishness ; to see, clearly, the beauty of placability, 
 forbearance, kindness, and good temper ; the hatefulness 
 of moroseness, malevolence, and cruelty ; the advantages 
 of industry, perseverance, economy, and temperance ; the 
 disadvantages of indolence, instability, extravagance, and 
 intemperance ; the complacency arising from love to God, 
 obedience to his commands, and resignation to his will ; 
 it is probable, that the teacher of such a school may not 
 derive much personal advantage from the remarks on the 
 deficiencies of the moral department of the schools. Such 
 a teacher, however, loill not think them unnecessary. 
 He will know, that, however happy may be the excep- 
 tions, the field of morality generally lies almost wholly 
 untilled ; full of little else than poisonous plants and foul 
 weeds ; and he will prize them, even though they may not 
 apply to his own highly-favored school. 
 
12 THE teacher's MANUAL. 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 
 WHO ARE OUR SCHOOLMASTERS ? 
 
 It is very important, especially at the present moment, 
 that we should have a clear, distinct idea of the real value 
 of our primary schools. Let us, then, carefully and can- 
 didly inquire, what knowledge they do impart to the mass 
 of the people, to those who have no further advantages of 
 school education, leaving, of course, entirely out of view 
 those gifted minds which are scattered sparsely over 
 every country, who, rise, in spite of every impediment, 
 and to whom, in fact, mankind are chiefly indebted, for 
 their steady progress from barbarism to civilization. 
 
 1st. They teach Reading. This art may be consid- 
 ered in two points of view : 1 . Reading for others, or 
 reading aloud. Many years are commonly spent in the 
 attempt to gain this accomplishment ; and very few make 
 any progress, worthy of the name. For where shall we 
 find a reader, who can keep up an interest in an audience 
 for half an hour ? It would appear, then, that the time, 
 labor, and money, expended in learning to read alo'ud. is 
 little better than thrown away. 2. Reading for ourselves, 
 or silent reading. Have the pupils of the district school 
 acquired this, to any good purpose ? Has it opened to 
 them the door of science ? Do they make any practical 
 use of it .'' Are we a reading people ? Alas ! I fear 
 these questions must be answered in the negative. The 
 boundless stores of knowledge, instead of being at the 
 command of every member of the community, remain as 
 completely a sealed book, as if still shut up in the learned 
 languages. Some, it is true, do contrive to spell out a 
 little in the newspaper, and others regularly read their 
 Bible. But is it to any good purpose ? Is their reading 
 more than a form ? Have we not reason to fear, that an 
 accurate examination would show, that it is little else than 
 a muttering or enunciation of mere sounds, and that, under 
 the heavy labor of bringing them forth, the sense generally 
 escapes ? 
 
WHO ARE OUR SCHOOLMASTERS ? 13 
 
 2d. They teach Orthography. Spelling has nothing 
 to do with our present purpose, which relates only to the 
 heart and intellect. It will be fully noticed, in another 
 chapter. 
 
 3d. They teach t^n^/imeiic. The/orm of this science 
 is taught in our schools, but its true principles, buried 
 under a multiplicity of mechanical rules, escape the search 
 of the scholar. He generally forgets the rules a short 
 time after leaving school, though a sufficient knowledge is 
 generally retained for the common business-transactions 
 of the farmer and mechanic. Should more than this be 
 necessary, it must be learned elsewhere. What wonder- 
 ful returns for the labor of years ! more might be acquired 
 in three months, under an intelligent instructor who should 
 pursue a rational course. The great advantage, also, which 
 might be derived from the study of this science, the ac- 
 quisition of habits of reasoning and patient investigation, 
 is entirely lost. 
 
 4th. They teach Geography. But for what purpose ? 
 A knowledge of geography is of exceedingly little use to 
 any but readers, to whom, indeed, it is indispensable. 
 Those who do not read will forget almost the whole in a 
 very short time. 
 
 5th. They teach English Grammar , which claims the 
 high merit of enabling its students to speak and write the 
 English language with purity and propriety. But do those 
 who have studied it speak whh propriety ? Is their lan- 
 guage, in any respect, different from that of those around 
 them, who have never opened a book on grammar ? As 
 to writing, the critical eye of a grammarian may, it is 
 true, detect an error of syntax ; but other sources must 
 be resorted to, for the art of composition.^ For this, the 
 structure of sentences, not the mere relations of words, 
 must be understood, and the mind must be stored with 
 ideas. Neither of these can be derived from grammar. 
 Such are the studies that occupy the chief part of the 
 time in the primary schools, with, sometimes, in addition, 
 a little writing, and a smattering of natural history. And 
 can it be possible, that the intelligence and sterling worth, 
 for which the community are distinguished, are derived 
 2 
 
14 THE teacher's MANUAL. 
 
 from such scanty sources as these ? The idea is prepos- 
 terous. Whence, then, are they derived ? An attentive 
 observation of the progress of a child, from birth to matu- 
 rity, will, it is beheved, solve the problem. Let us make 
 the attempt. 
 
 Man's true nature is spiritual. He is " a living soul^^^ 
 
 clothed, FOR THE PURPOSES OF EDUCATION, With a 
 
 fleshly garment. 
 
 At birth, he possesses, along with the seeds of every 
 virtue, and its opposite vice, a capacity for the most un- 
 bounded knowledge : but all these, as yet, lie dormant, 
 undeveloped. There is one exception, however, which 
 is, as it were, the germ, or rather the foundation, of all his 
 future acquisitions. By instinct, which is nothing less than 
 God working within him,* he has the power of moving 
 certain muscles. He can cry, suck, swallow, open his 
 eyes. Hunger, which has been denominated the sixth 
 sense, is the main cause of all these motions. 
 
 By imperceptible degrees, his muscular powers are 
 extended. In some three or four months, by the exer- 
 cise of his hands, he acquires faint notions of form and 
 distance : in other words, he has learned to see ; and 
 now begins to recognise the affectionate being, whose 
 unremitting tenderness watches over his safety, and hourly 
 nourishes him from her own bosom. Delighted with his 
 acquisitions, his thirst for knowledge is continually on the 
 increase. Every object, within his reach, is eagerly seized 
 and examined. His eyes, his ears, his hands, his mouth, 
 are in constant requisition. During his waking hours, he 
 cannot be kept still a moment. To the unobservant, he 
 seems as if inspired with an intense spirit of mischief, an 
 ardent love of destruction. But nothing can be more 
 contrary to the fact. All these movements are caused 
 by the divine love of knowledge, as yet neither broken 
 
 * " The bee works most geometrically, without any knowledge of 
 geometry ; somewhat like a child, who, by turning the hand of an 
 organ, makes good music, without any knowledge of music. The art 
 is not in the child, but in him who made the organ. In like manner, 
 when the bee makes its comb so geometrically, the geometry is not in 
 the bee, but in that great Geometrician, who made the bee, and made 
 all things, in number, weight, and measure." — Reid. 
 
WHO ARE OUR SCHOOLMASTERS ? 15 
 
 by disappointment, nor nnisled by the false philosophy that 
 deals in nothing but empty sounds. In the strange world 
 in which he finds himself, every thing is a marvel ; the 
 most common object to us is, to him, full of interest. 
 Hence, not satisfied with skimming the mere surface of 
 things, he tears them apart, or dashes them in pieces, in 
 search of more complete information. It signifies not, 
 that these actions may be partly or wholly instinctive. 
 This is the way, the only way, in which knowledge can be 
 acquired. 
 
 For the next nme or twelve months, his education pro- 
 ceeds with the most surprising rapidity. In addition to 
 the immense number of objects, with whose quahties he 
 has made himself familiar, he has learnt to balance and 
 support his body, to walk, and, wonderful to relate, he 
 can perform the miracle of, — speech ! What an increase 
 of interest does this last give to his studies ! To the 
 knowledge of qualities, he now adds that of names, not 
 mere dead vocables, but living language, the materials of 
 thought. Our little philosopher now begins to trace re- 
 semblances, to distinguish differences, to generalize, to 
 form his classifications, his theories. To one class of ob- 
 jects, he gives the name of mart, to another, tree, to a third, 
 stone. And all this, without even the slightest offer of 
 instruction from others. His store of knowledge is all of 
 his own collecting. If he has assistance, it is from Na- 
 ture alone. 
 
 From the age of one year, to that of four or five, the 
 child, under the tuition of his first instructress. Nature, con- 
 tinues steadily and rapidly to advance in the knowledge 
 of his vernacular language. But how does he contrive to 
 add new words to his stock ^ Deals he in theory, or in 
 practice ? Is it by means of the elements of words, or 
 definitions^ or grammars ? Must he know the names of 
 letters and syllables, before he can acquire a word ; and 
 must he rely, for a knowledge of its meaning, on dictiona- 
 ries, or oral definitions ? No, truly. Nature's method 
 is directly the reverse of that of man. By observation he 
 learns a few names, in constant use ; and he acquires the 
 knowledge of verbs, qualities, and particles, by observing 
 
16 THE teacher's MANUAL. 
 
 their connexion with those known names : in other words, 
 by the context. Who ever thought of explaining to a 
 child the meaning of the words, good, bad, love, this, he, 
 from, to, for, &c. Only let the attempt be made, and its 
 utter futility will quickly appear. 
 
 Meanwhile, his knowledge of things increases as fast as 
 his stock of wordsr His sphere of observation is rapidly 
 extended, and all his senses are engaged in philosophical 
 investigations into the nature of the objects around him ; 
 the minerals, vegetables, animals, and works of art, which 
 adorn the earth ; the sun, moon, and stars, which embel- 
 lish the heavens. 
 
 While the intellectual powers of the child are thus in a 
 state of progressive developement, his physical education 
 is by no means at a stand. If he have received a moder- 
 ately healthy constitution from his parents, he delights to 
 spend his time in the open air, where his lungs can have 
 full play, and where his limbs may expand and gain 
 strength, by unrestricted exercise. The children of the 
 poor have here a decided advantage over those of the 
 rich ; for such, unfortunately, are the weakness and folly 
 of the latter, that the health of their offspring is too fre- 
 quently sacrificed, at the shrine of their vanity and love of 
 display. Fashion, that insatiable Moloch, is not content 
 with the consecration, by its devotee, of his own soul, 
 purse, and person. It demands, that his child shall pass 
 through the fire ; that, at whatever risk to his health and 
 intellect, his body shall be converted into a mere clothes- 
 screen for the display of the frivolous fancies of the tailor 
 and milliner. Where such a sacrifice has been consum- 
 mated, it is vain to look, either for strength of body or 
 vigor of intellect. The unfortunate little victim must 
 neither run, chmb, wade, roll, nor play. The clothes 
 must neither be torn nor soiled. Every thing must give 
 way to the clothes. And, finally, the child, if he survive, 
 grows up a mere dandy ; " a clothes-w^earing man ; a man 
 whose trade, office, and existence, consists in the wearing 
 of clothes." When shall this base idolatry come to an 
 end ? When shall the Moloch of Christendom be pulled 
 from his throne, and cast into that fire, wherein so many 
 
WHO ARE OUR SCHOOLMASTERS ? 17 
 
 of his victims have perished. This can be accomplished 
 only by a radical change in female education. Female 
 influence is, here, all in all. 
 
 But to return. During this portion of his life, too, the 
 moral sense of the child begins to be developed. He 
 perceives, that there are many other beings in the world 
 besides himself, some of whom have the same claims that 
 he has, on the attention of his parents. He finds out, that 
 he cannot have his own way in every thing ; that to at- 
 tempt it is only to subject himself to suffering ; that it is 
 necessary that he should, in some degree, respect the rights 
 of others. Should his parents, at this period, have suffi- 
 cient tact, to notice and encourage the first appearance 
 of sympathy with the joys and sorrows of others^ an an- 
 tagonist to the selfish principle will soon be more or less 
 developed, that may neutralize many of its evil effects ; 
 while, on the contrary, should this be neglected, and his 
 selfish views and actions be encouraged, as is too fre- 
 quently the case, it may probably attain a degree of 
 strength, that may tinge his maturer age with the darkest 
 colors, seriously affecting both his future usefulness and 
 happiness. For no truth in morals is more certain, than 
 that no one can be happy who fives for himself alone ; 
 and that the stronger the affections, the greater the chance 
 for felicity. 
 
 But who is the great, moral schoolmaster, at this 
 critical period of the child's life ? It is public opin- 
 ion, acting through the conversation and example of his 
 parents, of his brothers and sisters, and of his other play- 
 fellows. It is the combined power of the whole human 
 race^ which may correctly be denominated custom, or 
 TRADITION. Through this medium, Moses and the Proph- 
 ets, Christ and his Apostles, Luther, Calvin, Faust, his 
 pilgrim forefathers, Penn, Washington, Franklin, and 
 even Watt, Fulton, and McAdam, combine, in mould- 
 ing this precious germ of immortality. Among this host 
 of worthies, however, many evil influences throw their 
 quota into the formation of what may be considered tra- 
 dition. The folfies and vices of the surrounding world ; 
 the superstitions of our Saxon and Norman ancestors ; 
 2* 
 
18 THE teacher's MANUAL. 
 
 nay, the dark blot of slavery, which stains so large a por- 
 tion of our country, contributes its share in the formation 
 of character, even where it has never existed. 
 
 The child has now arrived at the age, at which it is 
 usual for his school education to commence, the results of 
 which have already been noticed. Let us continue to 
 observe the results of his education from other sources. 
 
 His childish associates now continually increase in 
 number, and, with their extension, his ideas proportion- 
 ally expand. Nature, hkewise, is beheld on a larger 
 scale. He begins to discover, without the aid of books, 
 that the world is not all contained within the narrow cir- 
 cle of his horizon. He hears of richer climes, of the 
 extensive wilds of the unbounded West, and of the crowd- 
 ed marts along the Atlantic coast, in his native land, and 
 of distant seas and foreign lands, beyond them. His pa- 
 rents take him to the House of God, of whom, already, 
 he has attained some vague, undefined notion. Here, 
 however, whatever may be the case in after years, as yet 
 he gains but little direct instruction. The teacher in that 
 important school is commonly too full of his learning, or 
 has not the talent (and it is one of the first order) of ac- 
 commodating his language to the comprehension of our 
 pupil, and of the other children of larger growth^ who lis- 
 ten to his instructions. The indirect influence, however, 
 is powerful.- — The town meeting begins to attract his no- 
 tice. He swallows, with avidity, the pohtical knowledge 
 to be picked up in that arena, and acquires some general 
 ideas of his rights and duties. The district school 
 meeting, also, proves to him a source of information. 
 In those two schools, our future legislators receive their 
 chief training. But most of his knowledge of justice, 
 forms of law, rights, and wrongs, is derived from our ju- 
 dicial establishmentSjfrom the more solemn, formal courts 
 in the county town, to the more simple dispensation of 
 right in the justice's office. 
 
 Such, independently of the teachings in the district 
 schoolhouse, are the principal seminaries for training our 
 youth in knowledge and in virtue. Many other influ- 
 ences, for good and for evil, might be enumerated. But 
 these are sufficient for our purpose. 
 
WHO ARE OUR SCHOOLMASTERS ? 19 
 
 And now, reader, what thinkest thou of the supply of 
 virtue and intelhgence, furnished by our primary schools ? 
 At the great table of knowledge, where our youth are fed, 
 where their physical powers and intellectual and moral 
 faculties are nourished and expanded, from their first ap- 
 pearance in the infant, to their full growth in the perfect 
 man, whsit proportion is supplied by School Education 
 as it is ? Is it really more than 
 
 " A beggarly account of empty boxes," 
 
 " thinly scattered, to make up a show ?" — Shakspeare. 
 
 Are not most of our district schools, places where foun- 
 dations are laid, upon which no superstructure is to be 
 reared ; acquisitions made merely for the rust and the 
 moth to corrupt ?* 
 
 We shall presently see, what different results might rea- 
 sonably be expected from the School, as it should be : 
 where real knowledge should be dispensed, instead of its 
 semblance ; kernels, in place of husks and shells. Mean- 
 while, let us continue our examination of the School as 
 it is^ under the different aspects of physical, intellectual, 
 and moral, education.! 
 
 * In a Report on the State of Education in Bengal, published by or- 
 der of the government of that country, the following melancholy picture 
 is drawn of the state of the schools. We leave it to every one to de- 
 cide for himself, how much of it is applicable to those of New England. 
 " The scholars are entirely without instruction, both literary and oral, 
 regarding the personal virtues, and domestic and social duties. The 
 teacher, in virtue of his character, or in the way of advice or reproof, 
 exercises no moral influence on the character of his pupils. For the 
 sake of pay, he performs a menial service, in the spirit of a menial. 
 On the other hand, there is no text or school-book used, containing any 
 moral truths or liberal knowledge ; so that education, being limited 
 entirely [chiefly] to accounts, tends rather to narrow the mind and 
 confine its attention to sordid gai?i, than to improve the heart and en- 
 large the understanding. 
 
 t In an address delivered at Worcester, Massachusetts, a few years 
 ago, the orator said, " We see the magic influence of our schools, in the 
 habits of industry, sobriety, and order, which prevail in the commu- 
 nity ; in the cheerful obedience yielded to the laws ; and in the acts 
 of charity and benevolence, which are, every day, multiplied around 
 us." This sentence, to be correct, should be read thus : " If properly 
 conducted, we should see the magic influence of our schools, in the 
 habits of industry, sobriety, and order, which would prevail," &c. 
 That the community do possess habits of industry, sobriety, and order. 
 
20 THE teacher's MANUAL. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 Physical education relates to the body. To it be- 
 long the proper training and strengthening of all its pow- 
 ers, and the avoidance of every thing calculated to injure its 
 structure. Nature, here, is the great preceptress. If we 
 only attend to her warnings, we shall seldom go wrong ; 
 and, when we neglect them, we are sure of punishment, 
 more or less severe. Our present duty, then, will be, 
 chiefly, to point out the deviations from Nature's course, 
 while the child is at school. 
 
 The first and most striking error, in physical education, 
 is the unnecessary confinement to which the child is sub- 
 jected. At the early age at which he first goes to school, 
 nothing can be more painful, nor more pernicious. No 
 one that has observed a youth, between the age of three 
 and six, can doubt, that Nature requires, that he should be 
 almost constantly in motion, during his waking hours. At 
 this period, he is all activity, for ever engaged in some em- 
 ployment, by which he is acquiring knowledge, at the 
 same time that he is developing and strengthening his 
 physical powers. How painful, then, how unnatural, must 
 be his situation in school ! Pent up, for nearly six hours a 
 day, confined to one seat, and that, generally, a very uneasy 
 one, where, notwithstanding, he is forced to sit perfectly 
 still and silent, without employment, (for the pretence of 
 study, at that age, is truly ridiculous,) how irksome must 
 be his condition, how prejudicial to his health ! And what 
 aggravates the evil is, that it is wholly unnecessary. For 
 the extended confinement defeats the very purpose for 
 which it is imposed. " The body and mind," says Sterne, 
 " are like a jerkin and its lining. If you rumple the one, 
 
 is undoubtedly true ; but the speaker attributed them to a wrong source. 
 Nor can any one doubt, that the schools might easily be so modified, 
 as to have a powerful influence in improving and extending such ben- 
 eficial habits. 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 21 
 
 you rumple the other." Besides the injury to his health, 
 his mind becomes heavy and dull, and his progress, con- 
 sequently, is not half what it would be under a more 
 rational course. What that course should be, will be 
 pointed out in its proper place. 
 
 The next evil, imperatively calling for a remedy, is the 
 improper location of the schoolhouse. This, from a pal- 
 try spirit of niggardliness, is usually placed, immediately on, 
 nay, sometimes even in, the highway, to the constant an- 
 noyance of the school, from dust and noise, when it is in a 
 populous neighborhood. There is, commonly, no play- 
 ground. The scholars must either use the road for that 
 purpose, to the manifest danger of their own lives and 
 limbs, as well as those of passing strangers ; or they must 
 trespass on the adjoining property, thus giving rise to dis- 
 putes and feuds in the community, and, among themselves, 
 to a want of respect for the property of others, leading to 
 various injurious results. 
 
 In many places, there is no woodhouse ; or, if there be 
 one, it is too small, to accommodate the children, during 
 recess, in bad weather. They are, consequently, confined 
 at such times to the schoolroom, where the checked 
 prompting of Nature to play and exercise spends itself in 
 injuring and destroying the school-furniture. 
 
 The schoolroom is too small, either for convenience, 
 comfort, or health. The seats are narrow, and too high 
 for many of the children, so that their feet hang dangling, 
 thus adding to their uneasiness, increasing their restless- 
 ness, preventing praper attention to their books, and hav- 
 ing, also, a direct tendency to produce deformity in the 
 Hmbs. For, if the seat be narrow, half the thigh, only, 
 rests upon it ; if too high, the feet do not reach the floor. 
 Now, most children go first to school while many of their 
 bones are still in the forming state, httle else but gristle, and 
 when any of the numerous joints may be easily loosened 
 or distorted. " They go almost as early as when the Chi- 
 nese turn their childrens' feet into the shape of horses' 
 hoofs; or when some tribes of Indians make their children's 
 heads as square as a joiner's box. And, at this period of 
 life, the question is, whether the seats shall be conformed 
 
22 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 to the children, or the children deformed to the seats. Let 
 any man try the experiment, and see how long he can sit 
 in an upright posture, on a narrow bench or seat, without 
 being able to reach the floor with his feet, and, consequent- 
 ly, with the whole weight of his feet and the lower part 
 of his limbs acting with the power of a lever across the 
 middle of the thigh bones. Yet, to this position, hundreds 
 of children are regularly confined, month after month ; and, 
 while condemned to this unnatural posture. Nature inflicts 
 her punishments of insupportable uneasiness and distress 
 on every joint and muscle, if they do sit still, and the 
 teacher inflicts his punishments, if they do not. A gentle- 
 man, extensively known to the citizens of this State, for 
 the benevolence of his character, and the candor of his 
 statements, who, for the last twenty years, has probably 
 visited more of our common schools, than any other per- 
 son in the State, writes to me as follows : ' I have no hes- 
 itation in repeating, what I have so often publicly declar- 
 ed, that, from the bad construction of our schoolhouses, 
 there is more physical suffering endured by our children 
 in them, than by prisoners in our jails and prisons.' "* 
 There are no convenient places under the desks, for put- 
 ting away the books and slates. The closet for hats and 
 coats is small and inconvenient, or altogether wanting, so 
 that the children acquire disorderly and wasteful habits 
 with their clothes, either throwing them, carelessly, on the 
 benches, or heaping them on the table, which leads to a 
 scene of tumult and disorder at the close of the school. 
 The room is badly ventilated, so that, in cool weather, 
 when the doors and windows aire kept shut, the children 
 are forced to breath the same air, over and over, until it 
 has become unfit for respiration, thus laying a foundation 
 for debility and disease. 
 
 The lighting of the room, also, frequently becomes a 
 source of serious evil. Furnishing too much light is a 
 prominent error in American architecture. The eye 
 quickly accommodates itself to a moderate portion, and 
 the glare of sunshine is always pernicious. A northern 
 
 * Report of the Secretary of the Board of Education of Massachu- 
 setts, on the subject of schoolhouses. 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 23 
 
 exposure gives a steady light, and is therefore always cho- 
 sen by the painter and the engraver, who are also careful 
 to avoid cross lights. Children, beginning to strain their 
 ey€s with small characters, are placed under similar circum- 
 stances, and parents would act wisely, if they made for 
 them a similar choice. But, if the building will not admit 
 of such an arrangement, by all means let there be window- 
 curtains, effectually to exclude the direct rays of the sun. 
 
 The building is, generally, badly adapted for retaining 
 the heat in Winter. When constructed of wood, the un- 
 derpinning admits the passage of the cold air under the 
 floor, and there is no plastering below, to intercept it. 
 The feet, consequently, are always cold, and, where that 
 is the case, there can be neither comfort nor health. The 
 window-sashes are sufficiently loose to admit air, and, as 
 there is no warm air introduced to supply the place of 
 that which is consumed by the fire, and carried oiF by the 
 draught, a steady stream of cold air enters by every crev- 
 ice, laying the foundation for incurable pulmonary and 
 bronchial complaints. 
 
 The management of the stove, in Winter, is almost al- 
 ways bad. Any one that chooses is allowed to fill it ; 
 and, as children have httle judgment in such matters, and 
 think only of the present moment, it is commonly crammed 
 so full, that those who are near, to escape roasting, are 
 forced to open doors, or windows, or both. Matters re- 
 main in this state, till a chill is felt, when another child 
 undertakes to mend the fire, who generally brings about 
 pretty much the same result. And thus goes on a regu- 
 lar alternation of freezing and roasting, whose consequen- 
 ces it does not require the knowledge of a physician to 
 foretell. A share of the blame, frequently, should fall on 
 the prudential committee. From a false economy, or 
 want of forethought, and, sometimes, from want of a wood- 
 house, the fuel is green, or dry, soft wood, and the school 
 have Hobson's choice, a great fire or none. For want 
 of a basin of water on the stove, too, the air becomes un- 
 naturally dry and unwholesome, especially where a large 
 fire is constantly kept up. Lastly, although the ceiling 
 is low, the stove-pipe is carried the whole length of the 
 
24 
 
 room, over the heads of the scholars, so as almost literally 
 to roast their brains. Who can see the bloodshot eyes 
 of the suffering children without commiseration ? 
 
 There is, generally, neither mat nor scraper. In muddy 
 weather, quantities of dirt, — in Winter, a great deal of 
 snow, — are necessarily carried into the schoolroom on the 
 clothes of the children, thus giving rise to filthy, careless 
 habits, in addition to the direct inconvenience. A basin 
 and towel, one would think, were indispensable, where so 
 many young children spend the day ; yet such articles 
 are always among the missing, as plainly appears from the 
 situation their books are in. Even a pail and tin drink- 
 ing-cup, are not always to be found. Lastly, however far 
 off may be the spring or well, no pains are taken to fur- 
 nish the school with water, which, consequently, has fre- 
 quently to be lugged a considerable distance. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 
 
 Having thus noticed some of the most prominent de- 
 fects in Physical Education, let us next direct our atten- 
 tion to the culture of the intellect, and inquire, if there be 
 no defects there. 
 
 It may, perhaps, however, be proper to observe, that 
 our classification of the subject into the three branches of 
 Physical, Intellectual, and Moral, Education, though ex- 
 tremely convenient, is by no means perfect, or unobjec- 
 tionable. So intimate are the relations of the body and 
 mind, that, as has been before observed, no effect, of 
 consequence, can be produced in the one, without corres- 
 ponding changes appearing in the other. For instance, 
 it is sufficiently obvious, that the deleterious effects of the 
 alternations of heat and cold in our Winter schools, and 
 the sufferings of children from their painful postures, are 
 not confined to their bodies, but must also seriously affect 
 their intellectual education. Again, a cultivated intellect 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 25 
 
 is the only sure foundation for a pure morality, which must 
 ever be at a low ebb amidst intellectual darkness. And, 
 on the other hand, each reflects on and illuminates the 
 other. For as, in a clear intellect, the happiness, arising 
 from religion and a life of virtue, may be distinctly seen 
 and appreciated ; so, in a mind, unclouded by passion, 
 the intellect can have full play, and its pleasures are in- 
 creased in a duphcate ratio. On this account, it is some- 
 times difficult to decide to which class certain subjects 
 belong. That of Discipline , for instance, has an impor- 
 tant bearing on each of the three classes. The same may 
 be said of the subject of Teacher's Seminaries. And 
 the amusements of children would be appropriate either to 
 Moral or Physical Education. There are ^ew classifica- 
 tions, however, to which similar remarks would not ap- 
 ply.* But it by no means follows, that they should be 
 abandoned. It is only necessary, that the reader should 
 be cautioned, that such classifications are merely approxi- 
 mations, not strictly correct. The rule we shall adhere 
 to is, that each subject shall be arranged under that head 
 to which it appears most closely related. 
 
 Under the head of Intellectual Education, the most 
 prominent object, the one, indeed, on which all the oth- 
 ers depend, is that of the qualification of teachers. 
 Without good teachers, it is vain to look for good schools. 
 And how can we have good teachers, unless they have 
 encouragement, properly to prepare themselves for their 
 arduous and responsible task. In every profession, but 
 that of teacher, employment can be had during the whole 
 year ; or, if there be a season when business is regularly 
 at a stand, the emoluments are proportionally greater ; 
 or, matters are so arranged, that one kind of occupation 
 can be pursued at one season, and another for the rest of 
 the year, as in the case of the tanner and shoemaker. 
 In this profession, alone, except in the cities and large vil- 
 lages, no one can gain even a scanty subsistence. For 
 
 * The celebrated botanical classification of Linnaeus has the same 
 defect. Several of the classes have been entirely abolished by modern 
 botanists ; and, even in those remaining, several plants have been re- 
 moved from one class to another. 
 3 
 
26 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 the plan universally practised, of alternating male schools, 
 in Winter, and female, in Summer, renders it impossible 
 for a teacher to gain a living, unless the wages should, at 
 the very ^least, be doubled. With respect to male teach- 
 ers, this is comparatively of less importance ; as the col- 
 lege vacations are purposely arranged, so as to allow the 
 students to attend to the Winter schools. But the female 
 teachers are thrown out of employment precisely at that 
 season, when it is most difficult to procure any other. The 
 unavoidable consequence, then, of this alternating system, 
 is, that there is hterally no such profession as that of a 
 female teacher. The whole business is conducted by raw 
 apprentices, in place of experienced workmen, — young 
 girls, just grown up, who adopt it, not with any view of 
 obtaining thereby a subsistence, but merely for some tem- 
 porary purpose. One, for example, wishes to complete 
 her education at a distant boarding-school ; a second wants 
 some article of dress, too costly for her parents to furnish; 
 a third is anxious to procure some musical instrument ; a 
 fourth wishes to avoid the necessity of attending to her 
 father's dairy. For objects such as these, school-keeping, 
 for a few months^ is the universal resource. And this is 
 almost the sole dependence of the whole country, for fe- 
 male teachers. But what can be expected from inexpe- 
 rienced, young girls, who engage in teaching with views 
 like these ? Is it not rather surprising, that they effect so 
 much as they do ? 
 
 Nor is this the sole evil attending the alternating sys- 
 tem. It does not merely exclude from the profession all 
 who have not other means of maintaining themselves ; but, 
 independently of this, it is a ruinous system. For, when 
 a teacher opens a school, she is, of course, totally ignorant 
 of the habits, manners, and capacity, of her pupils ; and 
 they understand as Httle of her methods of tuition and dis- 
 cipline. Some time will elapse, before the school can 
 work smoothly, before both parties thoroughly understand 
 each other. Should she prove unequal to the task, her 
 engagement will still generally be completed ; for, as her 
 incompetency, probably, is not discovered, before the ex- 
 piration of half her term, most parents will rather submit 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 27 
 
 to the Inconvenience a little longer, than give rise to con- 
 tention in the district, by insisting on a change. It is a 
 common saying, " Her engagement will soon be over. 
 We shall soon have a better teacher." Vain expectation ! 
 How can we expect a better, when we have only raw, 
 inexperienced, young girls to choose from .'' 
 
 But, even supposing the school to be satisfactory, a 
 considerable part of each term must be lost in organizing, 
 and getting to understand each other ; and, before much 
 progress can be made, the term is at an end, and the good 
 teacher must give way to another, differing, probably, in 
 habits, disposition, and methods of tuition, and, of course, 
 as before, profoundly ignorant of the pupils. Would it 
 be possible, for the best trained teachers, with the best 
 system of tuition, to effect much good, under such an ar- 
 rangement ? 
 
 It appears evident, then, if we really intend our children 
 to receive a good education, that this alternating system 
 must be abandoned, and that female teachers, at least, 
 must have permament schools. Seminaries for teachers, 
 alone, can never effect the object. We must be able to 
 show, that a maintenance can certainly be derived from 
 the profession, before we can expect any properly to pre- 
 pare for it, and before females in middle life, however 
 well prepared, can look towards it as a means of support. 
 When we have done this, many years will not elapse, be- 
 fore w^e shall have a large body of competent teachers. 
 
 Let the office be established, and a sufficiency of in- 
 cumbents will not long be wanting. A substitute for this 
 alternating system, more economical, as well as more 
 efficient, will be found in its proper place. 
 
 Seminaries for teachers have been established in va- 
 rious parts of the country, sometimes as independent 
 schools, at others, as branches of academies or colleges ; 
 but, as yet, the beneficial results have been trifling. The 
 proper object of these institutions, it is to be feared, has 
 been -too frequently lost sight of. The plan has com- 
 monly been, to extend the knowledge of the students to 
 the higher branches of learning, rather than to instruct 
 them in the art of teachings more especially the art of 
 
28 
 
 teaching the elements of school learning, — reading and 
 arithmetic. To render a seminary for teachers really 
 useful, the instructer must go back to numeration and the 
 A, B, C, for it is here that the great deficiency lies.* 
 
 The practical part, also, is wanted in these semina- 
 ries. Theory, alone, is not sufficient. A school of 
 children, of from five to ten years of age, attached to 
 such institutions, is altogether indispensable. Here, also, 
 the capacity of children of different ages must be studied, 
 and the teachers must make themselves familiarly ac- 
 quainted with the extent of their vocabularies. For want 
 of this knowledge, the most serious yet ridiculous blun- 
 ders are committed. 
 
 In a late visit to Philadelphia, T was invited to attend 
 a lecture from a teacher of some eminence in that city, 
 before the pupils of the pubhc schools. At the appoint- 
 ed hour, I found the directors of the schools assembled, 
 and two or three hundred children of both sexes, appa- 
 rently between the ages of six and ten. The speaker, 
 shortly after, took his place, and, to my great surprise 
 and disappointment, delivered a well-written lecture, 
 which lasted about three quarters of an hour, on the ex- 
 tent and importance of the exact sciences ! ! At the 
 commencement of the discourse, the eyes of the httle au- 
 ditors were fastened on the speaker witli an expression 
 of eager expectation and delight. But alas ! it would 
 not do. To them, the language and subject were alike 
 ''heathen Greek ;" and soon, very soon, the attempt to 
 follow the lecturer had to be abandoned in despair. Ea- 
 ger expectation was succeeded by listlessness and fatigue, 
 and a most wearisome sitting had the poor little souls to 
 endure. 
 
 The effect of such misplaced lectures, as these, cannot 
 fail to be highly injurious to their auditors. They blunt 
 the intellectual perceptions, give rise to habits of dreamy 
 wandering of mind, and are destructive of the valuable 
 
 * The French Minister of Instruction makes the same complaint. 
 He stated officially, a few years ago, that *' very few primary teach- 
 ers who came from the new JVormal Schools had learned the secret of 
 good methods, and the pri7iciples of rational education." 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 29 
 
 faculties of observation and attention, without which, all 
 attempts to confer a good education are futile. It may 
 be said, that this is an extreme case ; and it is to be hoped 
 that it is so ; but still, there can be no doubt, that there 
 exists among teachers, a deplorable ignorance, (or, which 
 amounts to the same thing, carelessness,) as to the extent 
 of the vocabulary and capacity of their auditors : a re- 
 mark, by the way, applicable to others, besides school 
 teachers. This is a subject well worthy the attention of 
 visiters and superintendents of Teacher's Seminaries. 
 
 Discipline is a subject of the first importance in schools. 
 Without subordination and good government, no school 
 can make any considerable progress. The principal er- 
 rors, on this head, may be thus enumerated : 
 
 1. Discipline may be too lax, and the efficiency of the 
 school destroyed by noise and confusion. Efforts are 
 occasionally made to restrain disorder, but these are mo- 
 mentary only, and affairs quickly relapse into their usual 
 state. 
 
 2. Discipline may be so strict, as, without intervals 
 of relief at regular short intervals, may prove alike hurt- 
 ful to the physical and mental powers of the pupil. The 
 necessity for relaxation and exercise has been so fully 
 shown, as to make it unnecessary, here, to add another 
 ^vord. But, although unreasonable confinement defeats its 
 object, that is no objection to good discipline. Let it 
 be brief in its period, and it cannot be too strict in degree. 
 
 3. A still more grievous error, and by far the most 
 common, is a want of firmness. The rules are strict, 
 but they are seldom carried into effect ; and, when they 
 are, relaxation immediately follows. We have been told 
 of a teacher, who frequently relaxed discipline to such a 
 degree, that the whole school was in an uproar. Awak- 
 ened thus from his stupor, he would seize his cane, and be- 
 labor all round, till order was completely restored. This 
 state of quiet, however, would last but a short time. 
 The universal silence would soon be broken by a low 
 whispering, which, remaining unnoticed, gradually in- 
 creased in intensity, ending, finally, in loud talk, laughter, 
 and jumping across the benches, which, of course, brought 
 
 3* 
 
30 
 
 about the same round of general whipping, universal si- 
 lence^ &c. This picture is probably highly exaggera- 
 ted ; but there are few, who have not seen schools man- 
 aged, more or less, on the same principles. 
 
 4. Some- teachers resort to the rod, even on the most 
 trifling occasion. It is always in their hands, and seldom 
 long unemployed. Thus, both master and scholar are 
 brutified and debased, the law of love becomes extinct in 
 their bosoms, and nothing can produce the slightest effect 
 on the pupil, but pure force. 
 
 5. Others have so little command of their temper, as 
 to indulge in habitual scolding. They speak harshly to 
 the pupils for the merest trifle, the natural consequence 
 of which is, that their reproofs lose all their effect. Such 
 a course operates injuriously on the temper, both of teach- 
 er and pupil. Fretfulness and irritability pervade the 
 whole school. 
 
 6. The moral sense of the pupil is seldom, if ever, 
 appealed to. Every regulation is grounded on mere au- 
 thority ; no attempt being made to show, that nearly all 
 the benefits, flowing from good discipline, result to the in- 
 dividual advantage of the pupil. So far is this occa- 
 sionally lost sight of, that, sometimes, the children will 
 learn to regard themselves and teacher as opposites to 
 each other ; as having two distinct interests ; it being their 
 master's object to lay on restrictions, and abridge their 
 liberty, while it is their business, by all sorts of means, 
 combination among themselves, concealment, trick, false- 
 hood, or open disobedience, to bafile his watchfulness, 
 and evade his severity. 
 
 7. Finally, there are -some teachers, whose manners 
 and habits are essentially vulgar. These will pinch the 
 ears, and pull the hair of their pupils ; or, still worse, 
 beat them about the head with a book, a cane, or what- 
 ever happens to be in the hand. Such punishments as 
 these are altogether wrong. They are dangerous ; and 
 seldom fail to excite resentment in place of contrition, the 
 main legitimate object of punishment. 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 31 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION, CONTINUED. 
 
 Is there, then, nothing good in our system of public 
 instruction ? Is it, throughout, a mass of blunders ? By 
 no means. It contains much that is good, though, as has 
 been seen, there is mingled with it much that is evil. 
 But, as the present question is, how shall it be purified 
 of its errors, and rendered as efficient as possible, it would 
 be altogether out of place to speak, here, of its advan- 
 tages, or its beauties. Let us continue, then, our search- 
 ing inquiry into its errors and deficiencies, so that, when 
 we come to prepare our improved system, we may knxDw 
 how to avoid every thing that may have the slightest ten- 
 dency to impede our progress, or, in any manner, lessen 
 its efficiency. 
 
 Although many of the remarks, which follow, will be 
 apphcable to the higher branches of learning, yet our 
 chief attention will be devoted, at present, to the initiatory 
 steps. The proper management of these is of the very 
 first importance, and, unfortunately, this is the very part 
 of education that has attracted least attention. The teach- 
 ing of reading, spelling, and the alphabet, has been con- 
 sidered a task that any one might execute. We forget, 
 that to this point can be traced nearly all our bad habits, 
 habits which exert so prejudicial an effect on the whole 
 future course of study, and which no after discipline can 
 completely remove. Let us, then, in future, avoid this 
 serious error. Let us no longer consider it as unworthy 
 of our attention ; nor turn, with an eye of indifference, 
 from the basis of knowledge, fully convinced, that on the 
 solidity of the foundation, depends all the beauty and use- 
 fulness of the structure. 
 
 The first branch of knowledge, to which the attention 
 of the child is directed on entering school, is Reading. 
 Hitherto, as was shown in the second chapter, his studies 
 have been altogether dehghtful. His progress has been 
 
S2 THE teacher's MANUAL. 
 
 constant and rapid ; for, as yet, he has dealt with nothing 
 but real knowledge. No barren sounds, no unintelligible 
 words have occurred, to embarrass and impede him. But 
 now, very different becomes his situation. A book is 
 placed in his hands, which he is told he must learn to 
 read J that he may know how to become wise and good, 
 and he is delighted with the prospect. But, alas ! how 
 grievous the disappointment ! For months, nay, some- 
 times for years, his studies consist of nothing but mere 
 sounds, to which it is impossible he can annex any idea 
 whatever. His school-hours are solely occupied with 
 As and Bs, abs, ebs, and ibs. Now, what must be the 
 effect of all this, upon an intelligent child ? Surely, it is 
 sufficiently evident, that his active mind cannot be exclu- 
 sively employed in such tiresome drudgery. For this is 
 nothing but a mere affair of memory, in which the reason 
 and judgment of the child is never called into action. 
 The natural, the unavoidable, result of such a process is, 
 that he acquires a habit of mechanically repeating those 
 sounds, while his mind is occupied with objects of a to- 
 tally different nature. He can repeat his A, B, C, his 
 ab, eb, ib, &c. ; and, all the while, his mind can be far 
 distant, at play with his schoolmates, or at the family 
 fireside. And thus, at the very outset, the child lays the 
 foundation of the grand impediment to the easy attainment 
 of knowledge, the impassable barrier to self-education, — 
 the habit of mental wandering. 
 
 This plan of education is the synthetic method, which, 
 commencing with elements, joins them to form compounds, 
 and, again compounding those, forms them into the sub- 
 stances with which we are acquainted. Thus, should we 
 be taught mineralogy according to this system, we should 
 first have to learn the names of all the elements of which 
 stones were composed, and then, by joining them in the 
 proper proportions, we should form stones. But such is 
 not the method in which we are instructed by Nature. It 
 is, in fact, doubtful, whether we are acquainted with any 
 elementary substance. It is true, our chemical works 
 give us a list of some fifty or more substances, which are 
 called elements ; but it is doubtful, whether any one of 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 33 
 
 them really is so. They should be considered only as 
 elements, according to the present state of knoidedge. 
 Future discoveries will probably reduce the number, or 
 totally change the whole list. But to return. Nature's 
 mode of teaching is altogether analytic. She first pre- 
 sents us with a group, forming a perfect whole, and then 
 instructs us how to analyse it, or divide it into its compo- 
 nent parts. For instance : a child knows a tree, and can 
 name it, long before he has ever heard or thought of 
 leaves, twigs, branches, trunk, or root ; a house, before 
 he has become acquainted with shingles, boards, brick, 
 stone, or lime ; a man, before head, limbs, neck, or body. 
 At a more advanced period of his education, he ex- 
 tends his knowledge by new analyses. For instance : he 
 examines into the nature of leaves, &c., of trees ; of 
 stones and lime, which enter into the formation of a 
 house ; of flesh and bones, which form the man. Were 
 he to wait till he knew the A, B, C of Nature, before 
 he made himself acquainted with the objects around him, 
 he would never know them at all. Let not the above 
 remarks be understood as objecting to the inductive 
 method of philosophizing. Science can have no sure 
 foundation, save on observation, experiment, and induc- 
 tion. But it by no means follows, that the knowledge of 
 reading must be acquired by the same method, especially 
 by young children, whose reasoning faculties are as yet 
 undeveloped. Besides, it will be found, that even the 
 sciences are taught, chiefly, by analysis. It is in the 
 cultivation of science by the philosopher, not in its com- 
 munication by the teacher, that induction is indispens- 
 able. 
 
 Having thus pointed out the serious evil, arising from 
 the synthetic mode of teaching reading, namely, the habit 
 of mental wandering, or thinking of one thing while read- 
 ing another ; having shown, also, that Nature, in her 
 teachings, follows the opposite course, that of analysis ; 
 it would appear, that all that is necessary, to induce every 
 reasonable mind to approve of the change, is, to show its 
 practicability in the present case. This, however, can 
 be correctly ascertained by experiment, only. And, al- 
 
34 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 though every teacher can make the experiment for him- 
 self, (and it is one which will require but a short time 
 sufficiently to test,) yet it may be satisfactory to know, 
 that every trial, hitherto made, which has come to the 
 knowledge of the writer, — and those are by no means 
 few in num.ber, — have proved eminently successful. He 
 would also state, that he has tested the plan on the young- 
 er members of his own family, with similar success. The 
 first subject of these last experiments was a boy between 
 four and five years old, who, in the space of three months, 
 without previous knowledge of either letters or words, 
 simply by receiving a lesson for about five minutes a 
 day, the rest of his time spent in amusement, learnt to 
 read all the lessons in Worcester's Primer in a beautiful 
 style, and, what was still better, intelhgently. He would, 
 therefore, urge a similar trial on every parent anxious for 
 the improvement of education, and particularly for the 
 removal of that barrier to self-instruction, the pernicious 
 habit above referred to. A minute description of this 
 method of tuition will appear in its proper place. All 
 that is necessary further to observe here is, that the chief 
 difference between the two methods is in the order of the 
 steps. Letters and syllables must be learned in the new 
 as well as in the old method ; but, by a change in the 
 time of teaching them, they are acquired with less than 
 half the difficulty, and without any danger of acquiring 
 bad habits, which are so difficult to eradicate. 
 
 The reading course, which we have seen commence 
 so inauspiciously, does not generally improve much in its 
 progress. A great deal of time, it must be acknowledged, 
 and much labor, are expended in the endeavor to remedy 
 what should never have been allowed to be formed, viz., 
 bad habits in reading. But all such efforts are commonly 
 vain. The teacher himself rarely reads well ; and, when 
 the pupil has acquired the stiff mechanical habits which 
 the synthetic course never fails to generate, the remedy 
 is altogether beyond his reach. Had the child read in- 
 telligently, from the first ; had none of his time been mis- 
 pent in reading words without connexion, and consequent- 
 ly, to him, without meaning ; it might have been possible. 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 35 
 
 even for a teacher who did not read well himself, to have 
 trained up a school of good readers. For, whatever may 
 be the opinion of those who have bestowed little attention 
 on this subject, good reading is the natural gift, bad 
 reading, entirely an artificial acquirement. For almost 
 every child speaks naturally and fluently ; and, when he 
 knows the words, why should he not read in the same 
 style ? Simply, because, in the course of learning these 
 words, he has acquired bad habits, habits arising entirely 
 from the practice of attending to sound, unconnected with 
 sense. We all know how completely man is the crea- 
 ture of habits, and how difficult it is to change them, when 
 once formed. How, then, can it be expected of a child, 
 especially when under the charge of a teacher who is ig- 
 norant of the cause of the evil, as well as of the means 
 of cure ? 
 
 But reading well aloud, though a desirable accomplish- 
 ment for all, and indispensable for a public teacher, who 
 seeks for extensive usefulness, is not so valuable to the 
 whole community, as the power of reading silently with 
 intelligence ; and, if the latter had generally been achieved 
 in our schools, we might, perhaps, have been content to 
 spare the former. Unfortunately, however, this is by 
 no means the case. The great improvements in school- 
 books, of late years, have doubtless been productive of 
 much benefit in this respect ; and, where the method of 
 questioning, which has been introduced into nearly all, 
 has been thoroughly and steadily followed, the evils aris- 
 ing from the faulty commencement may, with much labor 
 to both teacher and pupils, have finally been overcome. 
 Truly happy would it have been for the community, had 
 this generally been the case ; but, unfortunately, too many 
 teachers have not, or rather fancy they have not, the time 
 necessary for the questioning process : as if it were pos- 
 sible there should not be time for the most important part 
 of education, reading understandingly. Surely no other 
 study can compete with it, as to utility. Surely every 
 thing else should give way to this. But it is to be feared, 
 that this neglect does not arise from want of time, but 
 rather from an indisposition in the teacher properly to task 
 
36 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 his own mind. For this is a matter that cannot be at- 
 tended to mechanically, like most of the other operations 
 of the school. It requires equal attention in teacher and 
 pupil. Had answers been given to the questions, proba- 
 bly the want of time would never have been urged as a 
 reason for their neglect. But answers would have com- 
 pletely nullified the process ; the object being, to cause 
 the pupil to exert his thinking powers. 
 
 There is one mode of using these questions, however, 
 which is little better than their total neglect. The chil- 
 dren are allowed the time, nay, even directed, to study 
 out the answers. Where this mode is adopted, we shall 
 never find intelligent reading. The answers are picked 
 out and committed to memory ; and then the reading is 
 performed mechanically, without an effort to combine 
 sense' with sound. The sole dependence for the recita- 
 tion is on the memory. It is evident, that, where this 
 method has been adopted, the children, in after life, will 
 not be readers ; or that, at all events, their reading will 
 not extend beyond novels or tales. 
 
 Orthography. 
 
 In the old-fashioned school, a vast deal of time is spent 
 to very little purpose, in the acquisition of spelling ; it 
 being commonly found, that the most adroit speller in the 
 class cannot write half a dozen lines without orthograph- 
 ical blunders. What can be the cause of so signal a fail- 
 ure, with such an appearance of proficiency ? The sub- 
 ject well deserves examination. 
 
 1. The columns of the spelling-book are committed 
 to memory ; and, when the student can spell the whole 
 orally, he takes it for granted that he is a proficient in 
 orthography. But this by no means follows ; for the 
 number of words in the largest spelling-book does not ex- 
 ceed seven thousand, whereas there are upwards of eighty 
 thousand words in the English language. 
 
 2. The words in the spelling-book are selected and ar- 
 ranged, chiefly with a view to teach the elements of read- 
 ing ; and it does not contain half the anomalies of orthog- 
 raphy. Indeed, the greatest number of these anomalies 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 37 
 
 occur in the words in most common use, few of which 
 are to be found in any spelling-book. 
 
 3. It is found, by experience, that spelling well orally, 
 and writing orthographically, are really different acquire- 
 ments ; and that a child, very expert in the former, may 
 be very deficient in the latter. Nothing can show, more 
 strikingly, the folly of the oral method of teaching spel- 
 ling, than this fact, the truth of which is now generally 
 acknowledged. Of the generation now on the stage of 
 life, whose education has been confined to the district 
 school, although, at least, one third of their time was spent 
 in drilling from the spelling-book, not one in ten can write 
 a letter of even a few lines without blundering in orthog- 
 raphy. 
 
 But the spelling-book is not merely used for teaching 
 orthography. The general opinion is, that reading can 
 be acquired by no other means. No one seems, for a 
 moment, to doubt the truth of the proverb, " We must 
 spell, before we can read." This, however, is a point 
 well deserving serious examination. For it is here, that 
 nearly all the bad habits that prevent intelligent reading 
 have their origin. Let us, then, candidly inquire, wheth- 
 er it be really necessary " to spell, before we can read ;" 
 whether, in fact, spelling, that is, naming the letters, be 
 of any assistance, whatever. 
 
 Commencing with the elementary syllables, then, ab, 
 eb, ib, &c,, let us carefully note the sounds of their con- 
 stituent letters, and, joining them, observe whether they 
 have any resemblance to the sounds of the syllables : thus 
 a, b, will be found to make aibee ; e, b, to make eebee ; 
 i, b, eyebee ; o, b, obee ; and u, b, youbee. Now, what 
 resemblance is there between the sounds aibee and ab; 
 eebee and eb, &c. ? Evidently none. 
 
 The same discrepancy will be found to exist, on com- 
 paring the sounds of words with those of their constitu- 
 ents. For instance : before a child is allowed to read 
 the word bat, he is directed to say bee-ai-tee ; before cat, 
 see-ai'tee ; mat, emm-ai-tee ; rat, ar-ai-tee ; sat, ess-ai- 
 tee ; and, before he is allowed to pronounce which, he is 
 required to say doubleyou-aitch-eye-see-aitch ! But, lest 
 4 
 
38 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 it should be supposed that an unfair selection of words 
 has been made, in order to place the subject in a ludi- 
 crous point of view, let us examine a line, with which we 
 are all familiar, — the initiatory sentence in Webster's old 
 spelling-book, — 
 
 " No man may put off the law of God." 
 
 The manner in which we were taught to read this, — 
 'and this manner still prevails in most of the schools, — was 
 as follows : 
 
 En-nOy no, emm-ai-en, man, emm-ai-ivy^ may, pee-you- 
 tee, put, o-double-eff, off, tee-aitch-ee, the, ell-ai-double- 
 you, law, o-eff, of, gee-o-dee, God. 
 
 What can be more absurd than this ? Can we wonder, 
 that the progress of a child should be slow, when we 
 place such unnecessary impediments as these, in his way?* 
 
 The fallacy on this subject lies within a nut-shell. It 
 arises wholly from confounding the names with the powers 
 of the letters. If these were similar, there might be some 
 excuse for a course of this kind ; though even then it 
 would be highly objectionable, on account of the sense 
 being destroyed by the recurrence of barren sounds be- 
 tween every word ; but, when the names of the letters and 
 their powers are so different, a perseverance in this sys- 
 tem of tuition is wholly inexcusable. 
 
 * Since the above was written, I have cut the following anecdote out 
 of a southern newspaper : 
 
 " The Woods of Lancashire are a distinguished family for character, 
 wealth, and talent ; the eldest son, John Wood, has been returned 
 member of Parliament for Preston several times, and proved himself a 
 steady supporter of civil and religious liberty. A laughable circum- 
 stance took place upon a trial in Lancashire, where the head of the 
 family, Mr. Wood, senior, was examined as a witness. Upon giving 
 his name, Ottiwell W^ood, the judge, addressing the reverend person, 
 said, ' Pray, Mr. Wood, how do you spell your name ?' The old gen- 
 tleman replied, — 
 
 'O double T 
 I double U 
 E double L 
 double U 
 double O D ;' 
 Upon which the astonished lawgiver laid down his pen, saying, it was 
 the most extraordinary name he had ever met With in his life, and, after 
 two or three attempts, declared he was unable to record it. The court 
 was convulsed with laughter. ' ' 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 39 
 
 The late Dr. Thornton, who, for many years, presided 
 over the Patent-Office at Washington, perceiving the ab- 
 surdity of learning to read by the repetition of sounds hav- 
 ing no similarity to those of the words, published, in 1790, 
 a pamphlet, entitled,' Cadmus, or a Treatise on Written 
 Language,' in which he proposed that every letter should 
 be named according to its power ; and, there being more 
 sounds than letters in the English language, introduced a 
 sufficient number of new characters to supply the defi- 
 ciency. To carry out this design, however, an entire 
 new system of orthography became necessary, which the 
 Doctor seriously proposed should be immediately carried 
 into effect, not perceiving, apparently, that its adoption 
 would render useless all the English books now in exis- 
 tence, and force us all to go back to school to learn to 
 read ! For this extraordinary production, the Magellanic 
 gold medal, and the tide of Cadmus were awarded to the 
 learned doctor, by the American Philosophical Society ! 
 Had the author known, that reading could be learnt with- 
 out the intervention of any names of letters, he might have 
 saved his labor, and our wise philosophers might have 
 elsewhere bestowed their gold. 
 
 Writing. 
 
 This important branch of education is generally aban- 
 doned to itinerant teachers, on the plea of its requiring too 
 much of the time and attention of the teacher of the pub- 
 lic school. This would undoubtedly be correct, if he 
 had to rule and set all the copies, and make and mend all 
 the pens. But, surely, this cannot be necessary. Ruled 
 books might be procured, and printed models of calligra- 
 phy, large enough to be distinctly seen by the scholars, 
 when hung on the walls ; and it would be an excellent ex- 
 ercise for the larger pupils to assist, by turns, in the pen- 
 making department. 
 
 But the child should be a good writer, before ever he 
 takes pen in hand. As soon as he enters school, he 
 should be provided with a slate ; and he should com- 
 mence written arithmetic and composition, as soon as he 
 is able to form the necessary characters. Were this prop- 
 
40 THE teacher's MANUAL. 
 
 erly attended to, all would be good writers ; for the chief 
 difficulty, here, as well as in reading, lies in the breaking 
 up of those bad habits, which ought never to have been 
 formed. 
 
 Where writing is taught in the district school, the most 
 important elements, viz., the manner of holding the pen, 
 and the position of the body, arms, and hands, are sadly 
 neglected. General instructions on these points are com- 
 monly given, but they are not sufficiently insisted on, and 
 enforced. The consequence is, that a cramped, stiff 
 manner of writing is acquired, and, if writing is much 
 practised before a better school be resorted to, the pupil 
 is exceedingly apt, in a very short time, to fall back into 
 his old manner, which has become, as it were, a second 
 nature. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 The same pernicious error, which was noticed in 
 speaking of the mode of teaching reading and writing, pre- 
 vails in this science, viz., a neglect of the foundation ; a 
 hurrying of the initiatory steps. Without clear, distinct 
 notions of numeration, no satisfactory progress can ever 
 be made in arithmetic ; and yet there are schools, where 
 it is not taught at all ; where the pupil commences with 
 addition, and is left to acquire a knowledge of the local 
 value of figures as best he may. And even in those 
 schools where it is taught, the subject is passed over, too 
 rapidly ; valuable deductions, that might be drawn from it, 
 being entirely omitted. What these are, will appear in 
 their proper place. 
 
 The four fundamental processes, addition, subtraction, 
 multiplication, and division, are by no means sufficiently 
 practised. In addition, in particular, after a while, the 
 columns ought to be long, such as the pupil will probably 
 meet with, when he comes to practise them in stores, 
 counting-houses, banks, and other public offices ; and, in- 
 stead of adding, by single figures at a time, he should be 
 accustomed to take from two to five figures at once ; for, 
 unless he can do this with ease, he will never be an ex- 
 pert accountant. This mode of adding will be found, 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 41 
 
 after a little practice, to be more easy, than the formal, 
 tedious mode of taking one at a time. A great many ab- 
 breviations ought to be pointed out in multiplication ; and 
 the Italian method of performing division, now in use 
 over all the continent of Europe, which employs only half 
 the number of figures used in the old-fashioned way, ought 
 also to be adopted. 
 
 The subject of decimal fractions is treated of, separ- 
 ately from that of whole numbers, in all our treatises on 
 arithmetic, and in an advanced section of the book. 
 This arrangement is highly exceptionable ; and is, prob- 
 ably, the principal reason why so many complain of the 
 difficulty of understanding decimals, when, in fact, the 
 subject is so exceedingly simple. Many persons, who 
 have gone through two or three courses of arithmetic, 
 have declared, that they never could thoroughly under- 
 stand decimals. Their extreme simplicity confuses them ; 
 as, from their position in the work, they are led to imagine, 
 there must be something, behind, which they do not see ; 
 something beneath the surface, which their efforts fail to 
 bring to light ; a notion, that confuses and mystifies the 
 whole subject. Let us see whether any difficulty could 
 possibly arise, if decimals were taught in connexion with 
 whole numbers. 
 
 And, first, let us suppose that notation of whole num- 
 bers had been explained to the pupil, so that he under- 
 stood that figures increased tenfold in value by being 
 moved one place to the left, and decreased tenfold by 
 being moved to the right ; and that they were named 
 accordingly, viz. 
 
 
 3 D 
 W 2 2. 
 
 ~ .2 Eh H =3 "^ a^ w 
 i^ o a c ."S 
 
 .-73 . . ^ P a; G 
 
 2, 4 3 7, 8 9 5 
 
 What difficulty could any child have, in understanding, 
 
 that, when we had to place figures still further to the right, 
 
 it became necessary to use a dot, (.) to show the place 
 
 of units, which no longer occupied the right-hand place ; 
 
 4* 
 
42 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 and that the same names were used for the numbers ten 
 times, &c., less than units, as for those tenfold, &c., 
 greater ; only that we added th to them ; the one to the 
 left of units being called tensj that to the right tenths ; the 
 2d to the left, hundreds, the 2d to the right, hun- 
 dredths, &c. 
 
 If a number, containing decimals, were now written on 
 the black board, say, 
 
 468,326.4589 
 the child would have no difficulty in naming the figures, 
 if he were told, always to begin with units. For, pro- 
 ceeding to the left, as in whole numbers, he would have 
 6 units, 2 tens, 3 hundreds, &c.; or to the right, 6 units, 
 4 tenths, 5 hundredths, &c. It should also be explained, 
 that he might either name them 4 tenths and 5 hun- 
 dredths, or 45 hundredths ; 4 tenths, 5 hundredths, and 
 8 thousandths, or 458 thousandths, &c. It should then 
 be shown to him, that, by moving the dot one, two, or 
 more places to the right or left, he would change the unit's 
 place, and, consequently, every figure in the number would 
 be decreased or increased, tenfold, a hundredfold, a thou- 
 sandfold, &c. Finally, the reason should be given, for 
 calHng the figures, to the right of the units, fractions, and 
 decimal fractions. All this would be perfectly intelligible 
 to a class of children about six years old, if shown on the 
 black board. Here would be a convenient place to show 
 the use of the 0, commonly called cipher, but more prop- 
 erly ^^wre of place ; its sole use being, to show the p/ace 
 of the significant figures. Thus, let these four numbers 
 be written on the board, 
 
 600 006 .600 .006 
 and let it be explained, that the character is of no use, 
 unless it intervenes between some significant figure and 
 the unit's place. The class should then be called on to 
 point out, in which of these four numbers the character 
 was necessary, and in which it was useless. 
 
 The repetition of this lesson on the black board, for 
 three or four days in succession, would fix the fact, thor- 
 oughly, in the mind of the class, that whole numbers and 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 43 
 
 decimal fractions were named on the same principle ; 
 both, in fact, being decimals^ or numbers reckoned by 
 tens. 
 
 Let us next examine, in what consists the difference 
 between addition, subtraction, muhiphcation, and division, 
 of whole numbers and of decimals, so as to ascertain, 
 whether it is better to teach them separately, or together. 
 
 In addition of integers, figures of the same denomina- 
 tion are placed over each other, because it is most conve- 
 nient, as those differing in denomination cannot be added 
 together. For instance, if it be proposed to add 234, 1 56, 
 and 798 together, we should place them thus : 
 
 234 
 156 
 
 798 
 
 because the figures 4, 6, and 8, being of one kind, viz., 
 units, could be put together ; and also, for the same rea- 
 son 9. 5, and 3, tens, and 7, 1, and 2, hundreds. We do 
 not place them thus : 
 
 234 
 156 
 798 
 because the 6 and the 3 ; and the 8, 5, and 2 ; and the 9 
 and 1, being of different denominations, make neither 9, 
 nor 15, nor 10, of any denomination. The same holds 
 true of decimals ; and no intelligent child could, for a 
 moment, be at a loss, how to place them, if he knew how 
 to place integers, and the reason why. The process of 
 adding is precisely the same, in both ; and the tens of one 
 denomination are considered as units in the next higher, 
 also for the same reason ; viz., because ten of one de- 
 nomination make one of the other. Why, then, should a 
 distinction be made between addition of integers and of 
 decimals, when there is no difference ? 
 
 Exactly the same remarks apply to subtraction. Let 
 us, therefore, pass at once to mukiplication, which should 
 be elucidated by an example on the black board, like the 
 following : 
 
44 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 243687 
 842 
 
 487374 
 974748 
 1949496 
 205184454 
 
 Now, let us suppose that the muhiplicand, instead of 
 being a whole number, had a dot (.) between the 3 and 
 6 ; then, of course, we have used it as if it were 1000 
 tincies greater than it is ; consequently, our product is 1000 
 times too large, but can easily, as we have seen in page 
 42, be made 1000 times smaller, by placing a dot be- 
 tween the two fours, which removes the unit's place from, 
 the first to the fourth figure from the right hand. Again : 
 suppose that the multiplier, instead of 842, should have 
 been 8.42 ; then we shall have multiplied by a number 
 100 times too large ; consequently, our product, being 
 also 100 times too large, will have to be changed once 
 more, by removing the dot two places more to the left, 
 between the 1 and 8. By repeating a similar process 
 and explanation, a few times on the black board, an in- 
 telhgent child, unprompted, will come to the conclusion, 
 that there must always be as many decimal places in the 
 product as in both factors ; and, vice versa, as many in 
 both factors as in the product. Now, multiplication of 
 decimals differs from that of integers in no other respect, 
 than in having a dot to show the place of units. 
 
 In division, let it be taken for granted, that the child 
 knows that the divisor and quotient are factors of the 
 dividend. Or, if he does not, he may learn it, by being 
 asked, what two numbers are the factors of the third, in 
 the following example in division : 
 
 8|24_ 
 3 
 
 Now, then, let us suppose, that it is required to divide 
 24 by 8. The quotient, you observe, is 3. But sup- 
 pose the number had been 2.4, what would the quotient 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 45 
 
 then be ? The numbers 8 and 2.4 are given, and, of 
 course, not to be altered, then what is this 3 ? Recollect, 
 you yourself found out, that there must be as many 
 decimal places in both factors, as in the product. Now, 
 you say, that 2.4 is the product, in which there is one 
 decimal place ; and, as there is none in the factor 8, how 
 many must there be in the other factor ? One, you say ; 
 that is, the quotient is 3 tenths. 
 
 But suppose our dividend, or product, had been .24 in- 
 stead of 2.4. Here, then, the product having two deci- 
 mal places, whilst there is none in the divisor-factor, of 
 course, there must be two in the quotient-factor. But, 
 as there is only one figure in the quotient, we must place 
 a for the other ; and the question is, whether it should 
 be put after it, or before it. If we place it after it, and 
 then place our dot .30, we find it to be useless, because 
 it does not change the value of the 3 ; therefore, it must 
 go before,. 03. 
 
 The last possible case of any difficulty is, when the 
 divisor is a decimal, thus .8, and the product, or dividend, 
 a whole number. The rule that we discovered, above, 
 was, that there must be as many decimal places in the 
 product, as in both factors. Now, there being one in the 
 given factor, and none in the product, we must put one 
 in the product, but without changing its value ; thus, 
 24.0. If we now perform the division, we shall have 
 30 for the quotient, which is the correct answer. 
 
 It will probably appear somewhat extraordinary to a 
 child, that when 24 is divided by .8, the quotient should 
 be larger than the original number, viz. 30 ; and this 
 would be a proper place to explain the apparent contra- 
 diction, which may be done as follows : Dividing one 
 number by another, is finding how many times the one 
 number is contained in the other. How many Is are 
 there in 24 .'* Answer, 24. But, as .8 is less than one, 
 of course there must be more of them, viz. 30. 
 
 It is probable, that all this may appear a little com- 
 plicated in the reading ; but, when shown on the black- 
 board, it will be readily understood by every child who 
 can understand division of integers ; especially if they 
 
46 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 have been properly trained to habits of attention by the 
 other exercises of the school. 
 
 Having thus shown, that, from their great similarity, 
 decimals should be taught simultaneously with integers, 
 or, at all events, alternately ; that is, 1. Numeration of 
 integers ; 2. Numeration of decimals ; 3. Addition of 
 integers ; 4. Addition of decimals, and so on ; it may 
 be proper to notice, in this connexion, another error com- 
 mitted in most of our treatises on Arithmetic, leading to 
 similar results ; that is, leading students to imagine a 
 difficulty, where there is none in reality. The error, al- 
 luded to, consists in making separate articles of addition, 
 subtraction, multiplication, and division^ of Federal money , 
 as if they, in any respect, differed from the same proces- 
 ses in decimals. There is, generally, even an article de- 
 voted to reduction of Federal money; as if any thing 
 more was necessary, in reducing one sort of coin'' into 
 another, than a mere change of the unit's place. Thus, 
 
 45678 mills 
 
 may be changed into cents, by placing a dot between the 
 7 and 8, thereby dividing it by 10, the number of mills in 
 a cent ; into dimes, by placing the dot between 6 and 7 ; 
 into dollars, by placing it between 5 and 6 ; and into ea- 
 gles, by placing it between 4 and 5 ; reduction, descen- 
 ding, carrying the dot backwards on the same principle. 
 There is, also, a deficiency, when treating of Federal 
 money, in not explaining the etymology of the names of 
 the coins, which, when understood, makes the subject 
 perfectly plain. It might be done thus : a dollar is con- 
 sidered the unit ; the meaning of dime, is tenth ; of cent, 
 hundredth ; of mill, thousandth ; consequently, 
 
 44.368 dollars 
 
 may be read, either 44 dollars, 3 tenths, (or dimes,) 6 
 hundredths, (or cents,) and 8 thousandths, (or mills ;) or 
 44 dollars, 36 hundredths, (or cents,) and 8 thousandths, 
 or (mills ;) or 44 dollars, and 368 thousandths, (or 
 mills ;) or, finally, as 10 dollars make an eagle, (so call- 
 ed, from an eagle being the ensign, or arms of the United 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 47 
 
 States,) the 44 dollars may be considered as 4 eagles 
 and 4 dollars. 
 
 Before leaving the subject of decimals, it may not be 
 improper, here, to enter a protest against the novelty in- 
 troduced by some authors, of using a comma instead of a 
 dot, to indicate the place of units ; that character being 
 already appropriated to a different purpose, viz., the di- 
 vision of large numbers into series of threes, for the con- 
 venience of reading them readily. Thus, when the com- 
 ma is used for both, it is impossible to say whether 
 
 346,789 
 
 stands for 346 thousand and 789 ; or 346 and 789 thou- 
 sandths. Other authors, again, have, very improperly, 
 taken the liberty of leaving out the separating commas, 
 altogether, in large numbers; thus rendering them ex- 
 ceedingly difficult to be read. The eye can readily dis- 
 tinguish four figures, at a glance. But, when the number 
 consists of more than four, they should always be separa- 
 ted, by commas, into series of threes. 
 
 But the chief impediment to the thorough acquisition 
 of arithmetic lies in the multiplicity of RuleSj with which 
 our popular treatises are burdened. Perhaps it would 
 be well, if these books consisted merely of a collection 
 of questions, systematically arranged, so as to lead the 
 students into a knowledge of the principles of the science, 
 somewhat on the plan of Colburn's ' Mental Arithmetic.' 
 Every teacher ought to be able to give a clear demon- 
 stration of the whole subject on the blackboard, on simple, 
 philosophical principles. If this were properly done, 
 children might be completely versed in arithmetic, by the 
 time they reached the age of eight or nine. A specimen 
 will be given, in another part of the treatise, of the man- 
 ner of conveying this sort of practical instruction on the 
 black board, and, at the same time, a more simple and 
 natural classification of the whole subject will be offered. 
 We shall attempt to supply, also, a very important omis- 
 sion on the part both of books and teachers, viz., the dif- 
 ferent modes in which the working-out of questions may 
 be shortened by cancelling, division, &c. By such ab- 
 
48 
 
 breviations, not only a vast amount of time and labor is 
 saved, but several of the most important principles of 
 arithmetic are brought out and elucidated. 
 
 The last error to be noticed, on the subject of written 
 arithmetic, is the prevailing custom of furnishing ready- 
 made tables of addition and multiplication for the student. 
 This is, probably, one of the most injurious species of 
 labor-saving machinery. The habit of relying on ready- 
 formed tables, instead of forming them for one's self, may 
 be classed with that of depending on mechanical rules, and 
 the practice of getting the teacher to work out the difficult 
 problems, instead of simphfying the subject by a few lead- 
 ing questions. These are perversions, which tend to con- 
 vert a science, that is probably one of the best adapted to 
 lead the mind into trains of reasoning, and habits of pa- 
 tient investigation, into a means of leading youth into im- 
 plicit, blind reliance on the dicta of books and teachers : 
 an admirable method of preparing the community to be- 
 come the ready dupes of demagogues, quacks, and fa- 
 natics. 
 
 Mental Arithmetic. 
 
 This branch of the science of numbers, properly taught, 
 has a tendency to produce the most valuable results. Col- 
 burn's little work, on this subject, is by far the best that 
 has yet appeared. It is nothing but a mere collection of 
 questions, but so admirably arranged, that the student can 
 proceed onward, step by step, from the simple question 
 of how many fingers are on the hand, to the most com- 
 plicated and abstruse problems, almost without the aid of 
 a teacher, and all the while forming his own rules. But 
 the acquisition of arithmetic is one of the smallest advan- 
 tages that may be derived from the proper use of this 
 work. If the child is not allowed to study it ; if he is 
 never allowed to see the questions at all ; and if they are 
 never read to him till his class is called upon to recite ; 
 and if he is regularly required to state the manner in which 
 he worked them, and his reasons for the adoption of such 
 a course, he will thus acquire habits of strict attention to 
 the person by whom he is addressed ; of patient investi- 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 49 
 
 gation, and of examining and noting the operations of his 
 own mind ; habits of infinitely more value, than the mere 
 acquisition of science ; habits, in fact, which will give 
 him the mastery over all the sciences, at will. 
 
 But, by the mode in which this book is generally used 
 in schools, all these important advantages are lost. The 
 pupil is allowed to study out the questions at his leisure ; 
 sometimes, even, to work them out on the slate, and then, 
 committing the answers to memory, or annexing them to 
 the questions, he is merely expected to repeat them, when 
 called upon, at his recitation. This unfortunate result 
 has generally arisen, no doubt, either from the incapacity 
 or slothful habits of the teacher. For, of course, it is 
 necessary, in order to secure all the advantages of this 
 study, that the teacher should, himself, perform the ope- 
 ration simultaneously with his pupil. 
 
 The most serious error, however, into which teachers 
 have fallen on this subject, has arisen from considering 
 mental, as a substitute for written arithmetic, in place 
 of an introduction and an assistant to the latter. A 
 moment's reflection, one would think, would show that 
 it could never be depended on, for any but petty business- 
 transactions. Long accounts, and all questions in which 
 many large numbers are involved, are totally unsuited to 
 mental arithmetic. A knowledge of written arithmetic, 
 consequently, is an indispensable requisite of a good edu- 
 cation. 
 
 Geography, History, JVatural History, Ghrammar, S^c. 
 
 The higher branches of education are taught in the 
 schools, in a much more satisfactory manner, than the 
 fundamental studies which have been noticed ; and, in 
 some degree, serve to rub off the rust, acquired in pursu- 
 ing the initiatory steps. But there is one error, which 
 runs more or less through the whole system ; viz., the 
 charging the memory with words instead of ideas. In 
 all studies, there is too much of what is called, commit- 
 ting to memory. This is an error, however, which, it is 
 believed, will disappear, as soon as a more rational plan 
 is adopted, of teaching the fundamental branches. When 
 5 
 
50 THE teacher's MANUAL. 
 
 the mind shall be developed and disciplined, by a proper 
 mode of acquiring reading and arithmetic, the folly of 
 attaching value to the mere repetition of words will be 
 generally seen and acknowledged. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 MORAL EDUCATION. 
 
 Alas ! what a blank is here ! How little, how very 
 little, has even been attempted, towards developing and 
 giving a proper direction to the social affections and moral 
 feelings of early youth ! And yet, when we examine 
 with care the httle that has been done ; when we see 
 with what crude notions, nay, even with what false prin- 
 ciples, the instructers of early youth have come to their 
 important task ; we feel inclined to ask, whether it would 
 not have been better, that nothing had been done ; that the 
 whole subject had been left unoccupied. For, with what 
 sordid, mercenary motives, have young children been in- 
 cited to the love and practice of virtue ! One is praised 
 for goodness, and rewarded with a doll; another, with 
 *' books with prints in them ;" a third, with sweetmeats. 
 In one school-book, we are told that " the boys thought 
 how good James and George were, to give them part of 
 their cakes, and said, they would share with them, when 
 they had good things, too. Were not James and George 
 good boys ?" In another, there is an account of a good 
 boy assisting a dog, a half-starved horse, and a blind man, 
 in the morning, who, in the evening, cooperate to rescue 
 him from thieves. In a third, where a story is related of 
 a dishonest boy punished by a broken leg, and honest 
 Harry rewarded with a hat-full of apples, it is wound up 
 by the statement, that ' ' Harry carried the fruit to his 
 mother, and told her, he was now convinced that children 
 were always happiest when they did right." Now, what 
 kind of moral perceptions can be expected from youth, 
 who, in their tender years, have been fed merely by such 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 51 
 
 trash as this. Nothing but tangible rewards and punish- 
 ments ! Good for good, evil for evil ! Is this the spirit 
 of the Gospel of Christ ? " Do not even the publicans 
 the same ?" Is it any thing more than one of the innu- 
 merable forms of selfishness ? the mere spirit of trade ? a 
 m.ere barter of benevolence ? Every one, at all conver- 
 sant with the state of infancy, must be aware, that nothing 
 of the raercantile spirit is to be found there. Children 
 are naturally selfish ; that is, they think only of them- 
 selves, or, rather, know little of others ; but what they do 
 give, they give freely, without price. Whilst endeavor- 
 ing to correct this selfish spirit, then, let us be careful not 
 to instil a worse. Let us not dig up the soil, and plant 
 it with thistles. Much higher motives than these can be 
 appreciated by very young children. They can as readily 
 perceive the beauty and dignity of goodness as we can. 
 They need not the stimulus, either of praise or rewards, 
 to excite them to well-doing. Show them a noble exam- 
 ple, and they will instantly follow it. Shall we not, then, 
 try to prolong, a little, this beautiful state of artlessness ; 
 to make a few better impressions, before we initiate them 
 into the world of traffic ? Is there not too much of the 
 mercantile spirit in the community ? Is it not disgusting, 
 to see a child calculating to a day the period of his ma- 
 jority, when his parents shall have no longer a claim on 
 his services ^ To see parents and children, who dwell 
 in one house, eating at different tables ? brothers and sis- 
 ters, bargaining closely, like utter strangers ? husband and 
 wife, with separate purses ? 
 
 Again, when dissuasives from vice are wanted, with 
 what trickery and deceit are children assailed ! We have 
 seen, above, the dishonest boy punished with a broken 
 leg, as if the good and bad were not alike subject to such 
 casualties ; and, in the same spirit, one of our most pop- 
 ular spelling-books commences the reading lessons with 
 she following sentence : 
 
 " A dog met a bad boy, and bit him." 
 
 This is the genuine old-fashioned style of frightening 
 'nto obedience ; a practice still so prevalent, that it is 
 
52 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 not uncommon to hear a mere child using similar threats 
 to his juniors : so readily do they copy our bad exam- 
 ples. The trick may answer a momentary purpose ; but 
 what sort of impression must the child receive, when he 
 finds, as assuredly, sooner or later, he must, that he has 
 been deceived by his parents or moral instructers ? A 
 powerful modern writer says, that " a father is the young 
 child's deity." Alas ! that his implicit confidence should 
 so soon be rooted out ! 
 
 We have, in our country, talents of the very first or- 
 der. Could they be devoted to a nobler purpose, than to 
 rescue youth from such moral bunglers as these ? Could 
 that be considered degrading employment, to genius of the 
 highest rank, which would tend to elevate the whole com- 
 munity in the scale of virtue .'' Sometimes, it is true, we 
 are told that the Bible is all-sufficient for this purpose. 
 But surely this is a mistaken view of things. God, in 
 his wisdom, has provided materials, in abundance, for the 
 food of man ; but nowhere, in the temperate climes, are 
 spontaneous products superior to crabs and sloes. In 
 vain may the sun shine, and the dews of heaven descend, 
 on the most fertile soil. Unless the skill and industry of 
 the husbandman be exerted, it will bring forth little else 
 than thorns and. thistles. , In like manner has the bounty 
 of Providence supplied all sorts of materials for the cloth- 
 ing of man ; but in no case whatever are they fitted for 
 use. It is the same in the moral world. In his various 
 revelations, God has furnished all the elements of virtue ; 
 but man is required to exert his intelligence, ere the 
 precious fruits of goodness can be formed and ripened. 
 And, in fact, it is only theoretically, that this is denied. 
 Practically, it is admitted by all. Else, why so vast 
 an apparatus of colleges and theological seminaries ; of 
 churches and preachers ; of commentaries, tracts, and 
 sermons ? No ! the Bible is not, of itself, sufficient. 
 All the great truths are here ; but its moral lessons re- 
 quire to be expanded and applied. They must be brought 
 to bear on all the various situations in which it is possible 
 for man to be placed ; and, above all, its language must 
 be accommodated to the opening faculties, the unripened 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 53 
 
 intellect, of early youth. O ! how sweet, how blessed, 
 will be the memory of the pioneer, who shall first sow the 
 genuine seeds of duty and happiness in the virgin soil of 
 infancy ; who, in stories, written in a style equally pure 
 and simple, shall exhibit, by suitable examples^ entirely 
 devoid of authoritative dogmas, the beauty of Virtue, the 
 deformity of Vice ; shall awaken in the youthful soul the 
 delights of the social affections ; inspire it with gratitude 
 and piety ; with frankness, generosity, and forbearance 
 under injuries ; with resignation, humility, and fortitude ; 
 and, above all, with a sacred regard for Truth ! It is 
 through SCHOOL-BOOKS and schools only, that a genu- 
 ine REFORMATION Can blcss the world. The seeds 
 sown from the pulpit fall among thorns ; "and are choked 
 with cares, and riches, and pleasures, of this life, and 
 bring no fruit to perfection."* 
 
 These remarks, it will readily be perceived, apply only 
 in the case of early youth. There is no lack of moral trea- 
 tises, or moral lectures, for manhood, or even for the 
 more advanced stages of youth. But these come too late. 
 The passions, and the sordid animal appetites and pro- 
 pensities, of our nature, having remained unchecked since 
 infancy, have thus been yearly adding strength to strength ; 
 and the conscience, led astray by these powerful emo- 
 tions, and obscured and darkened, from want of exercise, 
 either fails to respond at all, or answers wrong, when ap- 
 pealed to. No ! if we would have our youth habituated 
 to attend to the Divine Light within, what Bacon beau- 
 tifully calls the '' sparkle of the purity of man's first estate," 
 it must be developed and cultivated in infancy. The 
 Christian poet, Cowper, observes, that, 
 
 " In early days the conscience has, in most, 
 A quickness which, in later life, is lost.'^ — 
 
 Tirocinium, 1. 109, 110. 
 
 And the best of all authority assures us, that "of swc/i is 
 the kingdom of Heaven. " How important, then, that this 
 state of comparative innocence should be preserved ; that 
 conscience, while in its purity, should be awakened and 
 
 * Luke viii. 14. 
 5* 
 
54 
 
 cherished ; and that our youth, from their most tender 
 age, should be habituated to consult it on every occasion ; 
 and not only to consult it, but to listen to its monitions ; 
 for, if we summon conscience, and neglect her dictates, 
 we only harden ourselves in guilt. The bane of educa- 
 tion, in all its branches, is the absurd practice of neglect- 
 ing the first steps, of allowing bad habits to spring up, and 
 become a part of our nature, in the illusory hope of root- 
 ing them out, in after life. Alas, it is then, indeed, a 
 labor dire and weary wo. In some instances, doubtless, 
 it may be effected ; but, in all cases, the eradication is im- 
 perfect ; and, in most, the attempt is a total failure. It is 
 both shorter and easier, to proceed from ignorance to 
 knowledge, than from error. They, who are in the last, 
 must unlearn^ before they can learn to any good pur- 
 pose ; and the first part of this double task is, by far, the 
 most irksome and difficult, for which reason, it is seldom 
 undertaken. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 RECAPITULATION. 
 
 Hitherto, gentle reader, our journey together has 
 been almost wholly over rough acclivities, with but little 
 to reheve the weariness of the ascent. Having now, 
 however, reached the top, before we descend into the 
 more pleasing and more flowery vale before us, it may, 
 perhaps, be profitable, to take a retrospective view of 
 our past labors, and inquire, what are their results. May 
 we not conclude, then, 
 
 I. That the School is not the only place, where our 
 youth receive instruction ; but that, indirectly, they derive 
 much of their education from 
 
 1. Observation and Experience. 
 
 2. The Conversation and Example of their 
 
 parents and companions. 
 
RECAPITULATION. 56 
 
 3. Public Opinion, or Tradition. 
 
 4. Public Worship. 
 
 5. The Town Meeting. 
 
 6. The District School Meeting. 
 
 7. The Judicial Establishments. 
 
 II. That our Direct Instruction, or School Education, 
 is weak, trifling, and of small extent, compared with our 
 Indirect Instruction. 
 
 III. That, in Physical Education, Nature is our great 
 instructress, and that our duty is chiefly negative ; name- 
 ly, to deviate as little as possible from the course she 
 indicates. 
 
 IV. That the unnecessary confinement, to which the 
 child is subjected in early life, is alike prejudicial to his 
 physical powers, and to the developeraent of his intellec- 
 tual faculties. 
 
 V. That the location and internal arrangement of most 
 of our schoolhouses are highly objectionable, tending to 
 enervate the mind, as well as to weaken the bodies of our 
 youth. 
 
 VI. That the imperfect qualification of our teachers 
 arises, in a great measure, from the fact, that, owing to the 
 plan of alternating male and female teachers in the Winter 
 and Summer schools, it is impossible for either to gain a 
 support from the profession. 
 
 VII. That, in order to induce females properly to 
 qualify themselves, permanent situations must be provided 
 for them, in the primary schools. , 
 
 VIII. That the waste of time, by the pupils, and 
 other inconveniences, arising from the perpetual change 
 of teachers, occasion a serious loss to the community. 
 
 IX. That Seminaries for Teachers too often mistake 
 the object of their institution, by endeavoring to extend 
 the knowledge of their students to the higher branches of 
 learning, instead of imparting to them the art of teaching. 
 
 X. That the Discipline of schools is defective, either 
 by being too lax and wavering, or, when sufficiently strict, 
 by not allowing frequent intermissions, at stated periods ; 
 also, by the vulgar practices of the teacher, and by too fre- 
 quent recurrence to scolding and brute force. 
 
66 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 XL That the initiatory branches of education are, by 
 far, the most important ; and yet, that they are those which 
 are generally intrusted to the most incompetent instruc- 
 tors . 
 
 XII. That the pernicious habit of mental wandering, or 
 reading one thing while thinking of another, naturally arises 
 from the synthetic mode of teaching reading. 
 
 XIII. That, by the analytic method, this pernicious 
 habit is avoided, while, at the same time, the progress of 
 the pupil is much more rapid. 
 
 XIV. That experience shows, that the oral method 
 of teaching orthography is deceptive, and generally fails 
 to produce good spellers. 
 
 XV. That the mode of teaching reading, by means of 
 spelling, is absurd, and highly pernicious. 
 
 XVI. That writing, as taught in our district schools, 
 generally eventuates in a stiff, cramp hand. 
 
 XVII. That the fundamental processes of arithmetic 
 are seldom properly taught, or sufficiently practised ; that 
 the general arrangement of the subject is defective ; and 
 that the different modes of abbreviation are not pointed 
 out. 
 
 XVIII. That the important advantages, w^hich might 
 be derived from the practice of mental arithmetic, are gen- 
 erally lost, by the mode in which it is studied. 
 
 XIX. That the practice of committing words to memo- 
 ry^ instead of acquiring ideas, is still too general in the 
 study of the higher branches of learning. 
 
 XX. That the subject of moral education is sadly 
 neglected in schools, and the little, that is attempted, gen- 
 erally founded on false principles. 
 
 XXI. That it is through school-books and schools, 
 only, that a genuine Reformation can be effected in the 
 community. 
 
THE TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 PART II 
 
 " Theoriarum vires, arctaet quasi semutuo sustinente partiuni adap- 
 tione, qua, quasi in orbem cohserent, firmantur."* — Bacon. 
 
 " I shall not detain you longer in the demonstration of what we 
 should not do ; but straight conduct you to a hill-side, where I will 
 point ye out the right path of a virtuous and noble education, laborious, 
 indeed, at the first ascent, but also so smooth, so green, so full of good- 
 ly prospect and melodious sounds, that the harp of Orpheus was not 
 more charming." — Milton. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 Having now accomplished the unpleasant and invidi- 
 ous, but not less important and necessary, duty, of point- 
 ing out the principal errors and deficiencies of the present 
 system of Popular Education, the more pleasing task re- 
 mains, of constructing a new and more perfect system of 
 instruction. In the performance of this duty, although 
 we shall consider ourselves completely unrestricted in 
 the choice of materials, yet shall we sedulously endeavor 
 to guard against the error of seeking after mere novelties. 
 Whatever, therefore, is truly valuable in the old system 
 shall be retained ; but nothing, whether new or old, shall 
 
 * The strength of a theory depends greatly on the mutual adapta- 
 tion and adhesion of its parts ; like an arch, the several portions of 
 which reciprocally strengthen and support each other. 
 
58 
 
 be adopted, without a thorough examination into its sound- 
 ness and fitness. 
 
 In this second part, we shall endeavor to preserve the 
 same arrangement of subjects, so far as it shall be con- 
 venient and practicable, divided, as before, into the three 
 heads of Physical, Intellectual, and Moral, Education. 
 
 Under the head of Physical Education, will be noticed 
 the division of towns into school districts ; the gradation 
 of schools ; the size, situation, and ornamenting, of school 
 lots ; the construction and internal arrangement of school- 
 houses, with plans for warming and ventilating them ; 
 school terms and school hours ; and discipline ; all of 
 which will be found to have an important bearing on the 
 health. 
 
 In treating of Intellectual Education, teachers' semina- 
 ries and the qualifications of teachers will form an im- 
 portant item ; and the best modes of conducting studies, 
 especially in the primary schools, will receive a full dis- 
 cussion. 
 
 In the uncultivated region of Moral Education for 
 schools, where 
 
 " The world is all before us, where to choose," 
 
 while we shall use our best endeavors, so to direct our 
 steps, as to execute all that our weak efforts are capable 
 of accomplishing, we shall be equally watchful to avoid 
 even the slightest appearance of evil. As adventurous 
 pioneers in this great wilderness, we shall try to select a 
 fertile spot, such as shall not only produce abundantly for 
 present use, but which, at the same time, may form a not 
 ahogether useless corner, at a future period, when the 
 whole region shall blossom as a garden. 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 59 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 Formation of Districts. 
 
 The proper division of a town into districts is a mat- 
 ter of considerable importance, particularly in thinly set- 
 tled neighborhoods, where a great temptation exists to 
 multiply them too much, in order to have the schoolhouse 
 sufficiently near to accommodate the younger branches 
 of families. In such cases, it should never be forgotten, 
 that it is infinitely better to have a good school, which, 
 with the exception of vacations for a few weeks in 
 Spring and Autumn, shall be kept permanently, though 
 at a considerable distance, than to have a poor school 
 close at hand, and kept but for six or eight months in the 
 year. Even should it be too far off for children under 
 six years of age, all their time will not be lost, though it 
 be spent in nothing but harmless amusement. They will 
 acquire strength of body, and their knowledge and love 
 of Nature will be all the while constantly on the increase. 
 If, in addition, the mother, or an elder sister or brother, 
 should spend only ten or fifteen minutes a day, in teach- 
 ing them to read in a judicious manner, and showing them 
 how to hold a pencil, so that they may scribble on their 
 slates at pleasure, such children will probably overtake 
 most of those who have attended school from the most 
 tender age.* 
 
 Care should be taken, however, not to run into the 
 
 * Dr. Humphrey, President of Amherst College, in his ' Thoughts 
 on Education,' observes, " I am strongly impressed with the belief, 
 that, if the experiment could be fairly tried upon a great scale, those 
 infants that are rightly managed in other respects, but who do not 
 know^ a letter, till they are five years old, would ultimately surpass, 
 both in strength and acquirements, such as begin their studies two or 
 three years earlier. I have no doubt, that ten of the latter are serious- 
 ly injured, both in body and mind, by taxing the brain too early, where 
 one of the former suffers in his education, by not commencing early 
 enough." 
 
60 
 
 opposite extreme. One mile should be the greatest dis- 
 tance from the primary schoolhouse to the furthest house 
 in the district. Such a district might probably be about 
 one and a half miles square, containing about two and one 
 fourth square miles. A town of six miles square would, 
 therefore, contain sixteen. If a district of this size could 
 not support a good permanent female school, with the 
 assistance it received from the pubhc funds, a larger 
 amount should be furnished by the town, or, rather, by 
 the State. 
 
 The manner, in which school-funds are distributed in 
 New England, under the appearance of the most rigid 
 equality, is, in reality, exceedingly disproportionate and 
 unjust. Such distributions are generally made per capita ; 
 that is, in proportion to the number of scholars in a dis- 
 trict. But, surely, the intention of the Legislature must 
 have been, to put all, as far as practicable, on an equal 
 footing, as to the means of education, and not the grant- 
 ing an equal sum of money to each child. And yet it 
 requires but a moment's consideration to perceive, that 
 one dollar, in one situation, will go as far as five, in 
 another. In practice, then, it would appear, that the 
 object of the Legislature, in dealing equally with all, is 
 completely frustrated. 
 
 Nor is this all. Not only are great numbers of the 
 poorer classes injured, in their future prospects, by this 
 partiality, but the whole community suffer by the pro- 
 cedure. A tax for the support of education can only be 
 justified on the principle, that it is essential to the safety 
 of the State, that all should be enlightened. What, 
 then, shall we think of the government of an intelligent 
 commonwealth, like Massachusetts for instance, which 
 shall raise a tax of nearly half a million of dollars, annually, 
 for her schools, and yet allow it to be so partially distrib- 
 uted, that in some portions of the State education shall 
 be thorough, in others almost wholly inefficient ? The 
 same remark holds good of every State, in which this 
 mode of distributing school money prevails. But are 
 not the inhabitants of Boston, Portsmouth, Hartford, 
 Burlington, and of every rich and populous town, inter- 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 61 
 
 ested in having the benefits of education extended to the 
 poorer, and hitherto neglected, corners of our land ? Shall 
 such spots be suffered to become pestiferous little nests 
 for rearing dupes for demagogues and impostors, nurse- 
 ries for the inmates of penitentiaries and poor-houses ? 
 Surely not. Whatever our Legislatures can do, at all, 
 they can and ought to do, properly and effectually. A 
 very slight addition to the tax for education would entire- 
 ly remove this serious difiiculty. In most States, in fact, 
 it might probably be effected without any additional tax, 
 by a slight change in the mode of distribution.* 
 
 In the more thickly-settled parts of the country, and 
 in the villages, it may not be necessary to have the dis- 
 tricts quite so large as in the more sparsely-settled spots. 
 But even there, it will be found unprofitable to have them 
 small. For, if the schoolhouse be properly constructed, 
 and of sufficient size, great advantages would arise from 
 liaving a large number of scholars together. Let us sup- 
 pose, for instance, that there are two hundred children 
 under twelve years of age, in a district not too large for 
 conveniently collecting them into one building. This 
 number would be enough for what would be considered 
 four large schools ; and, in fact, four teachers, in separ- 
 ate establishments, could scarcely do them justice. But, 
 so great are the advantages of a division of labor, that 
 the same number of teachers in one school of two hun- 
 dred would be abundantly competent to their task, and 
 the school would be much more efficient, than one with 
 a single teacher, even with not more than thirty scholars. 
 For such a school as has been mentioned, besides a room 
 large enough to hold all, with convenience, there should 
 be three recitation rooms. In one of those, a teach- 
 er should be exclusively occupied with the younger read- 
 ing classes ; in the next room, another teacher, with the 
 older reading classes ; in the third, should be the recita- 
 tions of geography and arithmetic, with illustrations on 
 
 * The Legislature of Vermont have, in their present session, (Octo- 
 ber, 18.39,) made a slight approximation to equality, by directing that 
 one fourth of the public money for schools should be distributed equal- 
 ly among the districts, and the remaining three fourths, per capita. 
 
62 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 the blackboard. The fourth teacher should attend to 
 the discipline and general arrangement of the school, and 
 overlook the writing exercises and arithmetical operations 
 on the slate, in the large hall. That such an arrange- 
 ment would be very much superior to those in our com- 
 mon schools, is evident, from the fact, that each teach- 
 er would be almost exclusively confined to one branch, 
 and that, the recitation rooms being separate, the studies 
 could be pursued without the slightest hindrance. 
 
 Of the arrangements necessary for the scholars of 
 twelve years of age, and over, we shall presently speak. 
 
 Gradation of Schools. 
 
 The evils, arising from the present system of alterna- 
 ting male and female schools, have already been noticed, 
 [Part I, Chap, iv.] The following plan for a gradation 
 of schools will, it is beheved, not only obviate these 
 evils, but place our whole system of education on a more 
 efficient footing. 
 
 Let a female school be kept in every district, through- 
 out the year, with the exception of two short vacations ; 
 the teachers being engaged, not for any specific time, but 
 as long as both parties remain suited. Let the studies, 
 in such schools, be confined to reading, writing, compo- 
 sition, (which, of course, includes orthography, and a 
 certain extent of grammar, and the structure of senten- 
 ces,) arithmetic, and geography. Let these be consid- 
 ered as the primary schools, through which every child 
 must, of necessity, pass, to prepare himself for a differ- 
 ent series of studies, in a higher grade of schools, to be 
 called Central, or High Schools. Of these, let there be 
 one, or, in large, populous towns, two, in each town. 
 Generally, these central schools would only be kept dur- 
 ing the Winter ; though some of the larger villages might, 
 perhaps, afford them employment throughout the year. 
 In such cases, additional assistants would be wanted dur- 
 ing the Winter season, when the larger children of the 
 farmers, &c., would generally attend. To prevent the 
 younger children, who lived convenient to those central 
 schools, from pressing in, too soon, and, at the same time, 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 63 
 
 to avoid the invidiousness of preliminary examinations, it 
 would be well to adopt, as an undeviating rule, that no 
 instruction should be given in the branches taught in the 
 primary schools, excepting in composition, which should 
 be attended to, on a more extended scale, one afternoon 
 in the week. 
 
 The central schools should be considered as town 
 schools, and, of course, should be partially supported by 
 a proportion of the public funds from all the districts. It 
 would not be proper, however, that these contributions 
 should be in an equal ratio. They should be adjusted 
 on some principle favoring the districts, in proportion to 
 their distance from the schoolhouse. It would scarcely 
 be practicable to suggest a rule, that would apply, fairly, 
 in all cases ; but something like the following might,^ 
 probably, be satisfactory in the greater number : — Let 
 such neighborhoods, (within certain limits,) as would 
 agree to furnish the schoolhouse, or make the most liber- 
 al offer towards that item of expense, have the right of 
 fixing the site, and also have the use of the building for 
 purposes not inconsistent with its character, when not 
 occupied as a school. With respect to the other expen- 
 ses, that part of the teachers' wages, not paid by the pub- 
 lic money, might be raised by an equal tax on the schol- 
 ars ; while, in addition, the expense of board might be 
 defrayed by those living within one mile of the school- 
 house, and of the fuel by those within from one to two 
 miles. The more distant families would thus be com- 
 pensated for the inconvenience of their remoteness, by 
 their exemption from these expenses. Besides, as the 
 children would not probably be prepared for the central 
 school, till about the age of twelve, the increased dis- 
 tance would then be a matter of but trifling moment. 
 
 Attached to the central schoolhouse, there should al- 
 ways be a long shed, for the accommodation of the teams 
 of the distant families, who would probably make some 
 arrangement to furnish such a convenience, by turns ; 
 while those, who were unprovided, might pay a reasonable 
 portion of its expense, by their labor. The schoolhouse 
 itself should be on a scale sufficiently large, to admit of 
 
64 
 
 a few lodging-rooms for those female pupils, whose health 
 might be too delicate to go, daily, to their distant homes. 
 Here, with trifling inconvenience, and without any ad- 
 ditional expense, save the transport of their provision and 
 a little necessary furniture from home, they might board 
 themselves. But the boys should, in all cases, return 
 home ; as it is more important, that they should be un- 
 der the eye of their parents, and as they, generally, have 
 more or less morning and evening duties to perform. 
 
 The distance from the furthest corner of the town would 
 probably, in no case, exceed four or five miles. Should 
 there be any pupils to whom it might be inconvenient to 
 furnish means of conveyance, daily ^ it might easily be 
 arranged, that they should have longer tasks, and attend 
 the school for recitation, only two or three times a week. 
 And, if their leisure time was properly spent at home, it 
 is highly probable, that improvement would be more rap- 
 id, under such an arrangement, than where the school 
 was attended constantly. For it would certainly have the 
 tendency, in most cases, to induce habits of patient per- 
 severance, and confidence in one's own exertions, — habits 
 of much more importance than the mere attainment of 
 science. In all schools, there is too much leaning on the 
 teacher, too little patient research and self-dependence. 
 
 As the languages and higher branches of mathematics 
 should be taught in the central schools, it would be ne- 
 cessary to have a gentleman of liberal education at its 
 head ; but, probably, so great has been the improvement 
 of female education within a few years, there would be 
 little difficulty of procuring a sufficiency of well-qualified 
 assistants of that sex. 
 
 The advantages arising from this plan of graduating 
 the schools are fourfold : 1. Its tendency to produce a 
 body of capable^ experienced^ female teachers. 2. Its 
 efficiency. 3. Its economy. 4. Its equality. 
 
 1. Its tendency to produce a body of capable, experi- 
 enced, female teachers. In the fourth chapter of the pre- 
 ceding part of this work, it was shown, that, in the 
 country parts of New England, owing to the prevailing 
 system of alternating male and female schools, there was. 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 65 
 
 literally, no such profession as that of teacher. The 
 central school system, if generally adopted, would soon 
 remove this evil, so far as female teachers are concerned. 
 In every district, we should have a permanent female 
 school ; and, when it is considered what immense num- 
 bers of young women flock to the manufacturing estab- 
 lishments, there cannot be a reasonable doubt, that these 
 much more eligible and independent situations would soon 
 be filled by well-qualified incumbents. Only create a de- 
 mand for teachers, and a steady supply will soon be ob- 
 tained. As to the central schools, these situations may 
 be conveniently filled from the senior classes of the col- 
 leges, whose vacations are generally arranged with a view 
 to Winter teaching. 
 
 2. Its efficiency. Surely, no argument can be neces- 
 sary to demonstrate the superior efficiency of this plan. 
 It is apparent, at the first glance, that the younger classes 
 will be highly benefited by a permanent school, conduc- 
 ted by a teacher educated with a view to that employ- 
 ment, and who will, consequently, devote to it her whole 
 attention ; a teacher, who will have an opportunity of be- 
 coming acquainted with the various dispositions and char- 
 acters of her pupils, — a knowledge so necessary to suc- 
 cessful tuition, — and time to apply that knowledge to their 
 benefit ; advantages, which temporary teachers can never 
 possess. The younger classes will also be relieved from 
 the intrusion of the elder classes in Winter, a circum- 
 stance which will, at least, double the efficiency of the 
 school for that season of the year. But its main effi- 
 ciency will arise from its permanency. During the first 
 weeks of a school, children cannot study with the same 
 facility, nor are they able to make the same progress, as 
 afterwards. Even men cannot rally and apply their 
 whole mental forces, on the first day of commencing an 
 unaccustomed work. Hence, a change of teachers is, of 
 itself, a great misfortune. Teacher and pupils must be- 
 come acquainted with one another ; they must understand 
 one another's powers and ways, before the school can ad- 
 vance. Besides, females are by far the best teachers of 
 young children. They have more quick apprehension 
 6* 
 
66 
 
 of character, more enduring patience, more expansive 
 benevolence, higher purity, more dehcate taste, and more 
 elevated moral feelings, than men ; and, above all, the 
 young more willingly and readily receive instruction from 
 them, because the severity of discipHne is relieved by 
 their tenderness and affection. In the central school, the 
 older children will find well-qualified teachers, whose at- 
 tention will not be distracted by such a multiplicity of 
 studies, as now occupy their attention in the Winter 
 schools, and will, therefore, be able to devote their un- 
 divided attention to the higher branches. The pupils, 
 too, can pursue their studies with much greater ease and 
 effect, when uninterrupted by the constantly-recurring 
 recitations of beginners. 
 
 3. Its economy. On this head, it is only necessary to 
 remark, that, by the employment, in Winter, of only one 
 or two men, with a sufficient number of female teachers, 
 instead of fifteen or twenty men, as at present, such a 
 saving will be effected, as will enable the districts to keep 
 their primary schools ten months in the year, and pay two 
 teachers in the central school, without any increase of the 
 expense of tuition. 
 
 Let us suppose, for instance, that a town was divided 
 into sixteen districts, in each of which, a female school 
 was kept for four months in Summer, and a man's school 
 three months in Winter ; and that the wages paid, were 
 six dollars for the female, and fifteen dollars for the male, 
 school. This, for the sixteen districts, would be, 
 
 64 months, female school, at $6 . . $384 
 48 " male " 15 . . 720 
 
 $1104 
 
 This amount, applied to the central school system, 
 would give, in every district, say ten months school : 
 
 160 months, at $6 $960 
 
 4 months, central school, at $25 . 100 
 4 " assistant to do. . 11 . 44 
 
 $1104 
 Thus, the younger children would have ten months' in 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 67 
 
 place of seven months' schooling, and the elder pupils a 
 first rate school, by themselves, for four months, in place 
 of a wretched, crowded one, for three months. 
 
 4. Its equality. At present, the advantages of educa- 
 tion are distributed in a manner exceedingly unequal. 
 By the proposed plan, with the exception of college 
 graduates, we should approach, as nearly as possible, to a 
 state of equality ; and, what is still better, all would be 
 loell educated, and at a rate so low, as could hardly be 
 felt by the poorest member of the community.* 
 
 Such are a few of the advantages of the Central School 
 System. When they are compared with the only disad- 
 vantage, which, it is believed, can attend it, namely, the 
 increased distance of some of the older scholars, how 
 completely does the latter sink into insignificance ! 
 
 Ye genuine philanthropists and true patriots ! your as- 
 sistance is invoked, towards carrying into operation this 
 most important measure, which only waits for a com- 
 mencement, to spread, rapidly, through our country. If, 
 by your advice, influence, and example, you can hasten 
 the formation of a body of capable and experienced fe- 
 male teachers, you will do more for your country, than 
 if you were to be the means of discovering the rich- 
 est mines of gold and silver within her territory ; you will 
 confer greater benefits on your countrymen, than by 
 pointing out new sources of trade, more easy and rapid 
 means of intercommunication, or new principles of prac- 
 tical science. Such a body, weak as it may appear, will 
 operate as an impregnable wall of defence, alike against 
 external and internal foes. It will be the surest stay for 
 our invaluable political institutions ; the radical cure for 
 
 * The above plan of a graduation of the public schools, was first 
 publicly proposed by me, in the Spring of 1830, and endeavors made 
 to obtain the legislative sanction, in the Autumn of that year. The 
 novelty of its provisions, however, by exciting the fears of some, and the 
 prejudices of others, caused its failure in that, and in two other, sessions. 
 It has steadily continued to gain friends, however, and will probably 
 soon be authorized by law. Meanwhile, the Legislature of Massachu- 
 setts have taken up the subject, and deprived us of the honor of its 
 first introduction, by sanctioning it in that intelligent and powerful 
 State, where, it is to be hoped, its provisions will soonhave-a fair trial. 
 
68 
 
 intemperance and vice ; an effectual remedy for political 
 and religious fanaticism ; and a certain means of putting 
 a final stop to all sorts of quackery and imposture. May 
 not your countenance and aid be relied on, in this holy 
 cause ? Do not suffer the coldness, with which your first 
 efforts will be met by the community, to discourage you. 
 There is a natural propensity in man, to cling to estab- 
 lished institutions, and reverence hereditary usages, which 
 was wisely ordained by the Creator, to give stability to 
 the forms of society. But this disposition, although, 
 perhaps, it thus contributes more to the good than to the 
 evil of the' race, should not be blindly yielded to, by the 
 more intelligent. For it also serves to perpetuate every 
 species of error, and to retard the progress of society to- 
 wards the highest and best condition of which the nature 
 of man is capable. It has been well remarked, '' that it 
 is an encouraging observation, that no good measure was 
 ever proposed, which, if duly pursued^ failed to prevail 
 in the end." We have a strong proof of this, in the ef- 
 forts made to suppress the slave-trade and extirpate 
 slavery, in the British Parliament. Mr. Wilberforce agi- 
 tated this subject for twenty or thirty years, before he 
 was able to carry his point. But he had the exquisite 
 happiness, before his death, to see slavery completely 
 abolished, and that dark stain wiped away from the isles 
 of the West. May this striking example of the effects of 
 perseverance not be lost upon us ; may it encourage us 
 to obedience to the Bible precept, " Let us not be iceary 
 in well-doing."* 
 
 In our endeavors to do good, however, let us be par- 
 ticularly careful not to injure the cause, by the hasty 
 adoption of half-way measures. The grand object should 
 be, to engage the toion^ not a few individual districts, in 
 the measure. If the community, in which we reside, will 
 not, at once, accede to the plan, it would be well, care- 
 fully to consider, whether it would not be preferable to 
 postpone operations, until public sentiment can be recti- 
 fied on the subject, rather than precipitately engage in 
 
 * Gal. vi. 9. 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 69 
 
 measures, which, although good in themselves, and, per- 
 haps, the best that can be done for the present, may yet 
 prove an obstacle to future complete success. Festina 
 lente : we frequently get along fastest, by moving slowly. 
 Let us weigh the matter well. If we gather together the 
 more intelligent and richer districts only, the measure 
 fails where it is most needed ; for it is much to be feared, 
 that the others will thus be permanently excluded, and, be- 
 ing too much scattered to form a union among themselves, 
 our system of permanent schools will be on too small a 
 scale, to exert much beneficial influence on the whole peo- 
 pie. We shall have a part of our youth well educated ; 
 but, all around us, will be scattered those pestiferous 
 nests of ignorance and vice, already alluded to. No ! In 
 commencing the glorious work of reforming the commu- 
 nity through the medium of the schools, let us determine 
 to take high grounds. O ! let us not allow selfish mo- 
 tives to urge us either to precipitancy, or to the adoption 
 of contracted views. Let us wait with patience, till our 
 little community is fully prepared ; at the same time 
 taking every legitimate course to hasten this preparation. 
 Wherever tw^o or three are met together, let the subject 
 be canvassed ; at the town and district meeting, as well 
 as in private society ; let it be discussed in public lec- 
 tures ; and, above all, let that powerful engine, the press, 
 be wielded in its behalf. Let our flag have this motto, 
 and let it be nailed to the mast : A permanent school in 
 every district for the smaller scholars ; one [or two'] good 
 central schools for the older classes.* 
 
 * In New England, towns generally contain about thirty-six square 
 miles ; and therefore should, and probably do, have from twelve to twen- 
 ty schoolhouses. But it appears from the abstract of the Massachusetts 
 School Returns, for 1837, that the average number in that State does 
 not exceed ten schools in a town, and that a considerable number 
 of towns contain from two to seven districts only. In these small 
 towns, of course, some modification of the central school system would 
 be necessary, before all its advantages could be realized. In some 
 situations, there might be a union of two towns, in respect to the cen- 
 tral school. This plan, however, could not, perhaps, be adopted in all 
 cases ; as it is probable, that some natural impediment has given rise 
 to those minute subdivisions of territory. In the worst possible case, 
 however, where a school for the larger children could not be support- 
 
70 THE teacher's MANUAL. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 PHYSICAL EDUCATION, CONTINUED. 
 
 School Lots. 
 
 It would be unreasonable to expect, that all the fol- 
 lowing suggestions on the subject of school lots and 
 schoolhouses, however much they may be approved, 
 will be universally, or even generally, carried into effect. 
 In many instances, poverty will be pleaded as the excuse. 
 But this cannot be an available plea. For, where the 
 district is poor, the land is generally of trifling value ; 
 and, as to the slight difference of expense between a 
 good and a wretched schoolhouse, it certainly is not to 
 be put in competition with the health of the children. 
 Leaving entirely out of view the intellectual and moral 
 evils connected with the inferior building, true economy 
 would dictate the erection of a good structure, sufficient- 
 ly spacious for the evolutions of the school and the 
 health of its inmates. 
 
 Our duty, however, is in no wise altered by this cir- 
 cumstance. If only afeio school lots be arranged, el few 
 schoolhouses be constructed, in a better taste than for- 
 merly, our design will be, in a great measure, accomplish- 
 ed. For the constant tendency of mankind is towards 
 improvement. We never go backward. And it requires 
 only a few good models, scattered through the country, 
 to bring about, in a very short time, a manifest change 
 for the better, every where. 
 
 School lots should always be in a pleasant and health- 
 
 ed, independently of the primary schools, great benefit would still 
 result from the substitution of a permanent female school, instead of 
 the alternating system. There can be no doubt, that, under a compe- 
 tent permanent instructress, the pupils would be better educated be- 
 fore they arrived at the age of twelve, than they now are altogether. 
 If there be any districts really unable to support a female school ten 
 months in the year, they ought to receive the necessary assistance from 
 the State treasury. Suicidal, indeed, would be the policy that would 
 refuse it. 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 71 
 
 fui situation, and never less than half an acre in extent. 
 The public road is, surely, a very improper, in fact, dan- 
 gerous, place, for large groups of children at play ; and 
 yet, if there be no ground attached to the schoolhouse, 
 they must either use that, or trespass on the neighboring 
 property, — a temptation to which we should be careful 
 not to expose our youth, especially at school, where ev- 
 ery evil influence should be sedulously avoided. By all 
 means, then, let them have hberal space for exercise and 
 amusement. 
 
 The lot should be enclosed by a neat and substantial 
 fence, with two or three openings, sufficiently large to ad- 
 mit a man, yet narrow enough to exclude cattle. There 
 should be a gate, or a part of the fence should be so con- 
 structed as to admit of being taken down in Winter, to 
 admit teams with wood, and a horse and snow-plough,* 
 to clear a passage from the highway to the schoolhouse 
 door. The lot may be ornamented with a row of trees 
 inside the fence, and two or three small, irregular groups 
 of the handsomest native forest trees, scattered, without 
 order, in the grounds. 
 
 On the south side of the schoolhouse, there should be 
 a border of flowers ; and the east and west sides of the 
 building should be decorated with roses and honeysuckles. 
 It would be well, to have this little spot of cultivated 
 ground covered with straw and boards, in Winter, and, 
 every Spring, dug up and well manured by the commit- 
 tee, leaving the after-culture to be managed by the schol- 
 ars, under the direction of the teacher. In the lot, there 
 should be a circular swing, f and a few poles and ladders 
 for gymnastic exercises. 
 
 These little accommodations for the children will pro- 
 
 • A snow-plough may be made of two pieces of plank eight or ten feet long, 
 Joined at an acute angle, with one or two round sticks passing through, to 
 strengthen them. A horse, attached to the apex, will clear off the snow in a 
 few minutes. 
 
 t The circular swing ia made, by placing two horizontal beams or 
 yards, at right angles to each other, on the top of an upright shaft, so 
 fitted that the beams will turn easily on the shaft. From each of the 
 four ends of the beams a rope is suspended, the lower ends of which 
 reach to within four, five, or six feet of the ground. Four children 
 seize on these ends, and run round and round, leaping and hanging bj^ 
 the rope. The shaft may be twenty feet high ; the longer the beams 
 or arms are, the better, as that increases the circumference of the circle. 
 
72 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 bably appear trifling to many readers, and altogether un- 
 worthy the notice of a writer on education. Nothing, 
 however, should ever be considered a trifle, which can, 
 in any measure, exert an influence on the moral character 
 of youth. Children must and will have their amuse- 
 ments. And it is right that it should be so ; for God 
 has placed an abundance of innocent pleasures within 
 our reach. Had He intended otherwise. He would never 
 have decorated Nature with such splendid hues ; endovv- 
 ed flowers with such delightful fragrance ; furnished us 
 with the natural music of the grove ; nor given us tastes, 
 which can be gratified without the slightest rebuke from 
 the conscience. But, unfortunately, when left entirely 
 to themselves, youth will frequently engage in amusements, 
 hurtful to the temper, leading to gambling habits, or con- 
 nected with cruelty to the brute creation. Such are 
 games of violent competition, or of chance ; the practice 
 of torturing insects, or of setting dogs, cats, and chicken- 
 cocks, against each other. It is a matter of the first im- 
 portance, then, that children should acquire a taste for 
 the beauties of Nature ; which nothing is more likely to 
 awaken, than the cultivation of plants. In another re- 
 spect, its tendency Is useful. The flower-bed is a beau- 
 tiful embellishment for the farmhouse ; it is one of the 
 cheapest and most refined of the sensual pleasures ; tends 
 to inspire a love of home ; and is seldom, if ever, con- 
 nected with such as are grovelling in their essence, or 
 degrading in their tendency. How^ very much more de- 
 sirable is such a taste in the community, than the mean 
 competition for showy and expensive furniture and dress, 
 the silly aping of city fashions, which the influx of weahh 
 is spreading through the land ! Were the agricultural 
 population sensible of their own value and importance, 
 they would set an example to the community, in place 
 of copying, at second-hand, the follies of Paris and 
 London. 
 
 Construction and Internal arrangement' of Schoolhouses. 
 
 It would be impracticable to describe a schoolhouse, 
 which would serve as a model for every situation, and 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 73 
 
 every kind of school. But some general principles may 
 be laid down, which will easily admit of sufficient modi- 
 fication to suit every case. 
 
 In the first place, the building should be substantial, 
 and constructed of the best materials. A good school- 
 bouse adds to the value of every house and farm in the 
 district, and that in a much greater ratio than the mere 
 difference of expense between a good and a poor one. 
 Brick or stone would be preferable, where easily to be 
 l)rocured ; but, whatever be the material, let the building 
 be thoroughly constructed. The form should be oblong, 
 and, if possible^ one of the longer sides should front the 
 south, this exposure being both warmer in Winter, and 
 cooler in Summer, and affording better means for a 
 steady light in the schoolroom, as will be presently 
 shown. At the east or west side, should be the wood- 
 shed, at least as large as the schoolhouse, so as to afford 
 room for the children to exercise in, in bad weather. It 
 should be closely boarded, with a window on the east or 
 west, and a door on the south, to serve, also, as outer 
 door to the schoolhouse. On three sides of the wood- 
 house, the boards near the ground should be fixed with 
 hinges, to be raised up in Summer, for a free circulation, 
 to season the wood, of which a full supply of the best to 
 be had (which is always the cheapest) should be laid in, 
 towards the close of Winter. 
 
 The underpinning of the schoolhouse should be stone 
 and lime, to prevent the cold air affecting the floor, so as 
 to chill the children's feet. The walls of the schoolroom 
 should not be less than ten feet high, to prevent injury to 
 the health in cold weather, when the room is shut up, from 
 re-breathing the same air.* With the same view, there 
 should be a constant supply of warm air flowing into the 
 room, which may easily be thus obtained : Let there be a 
 double bottom to the stove, the lower fitting closely to the 
 
 * See Report of the Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Educa- 
 tion, on the subject of schoolhouses. It is much to be desired, that 
 every State, that either possesses, or proposes to institute, a system of 
 public education, should publish an edition of this admirable treatise, 
 for gratuitous distribution. 
 7 
 
74 
 
 THE teacher's MANUAL. 
 
 upper by the four edges, and by the flanges, marked, 1, 
 2, 3, 4, 5. Let there be two openings in the back part 
 
 o .. -- o 
 
 1 ' / I 
 
 of the plate ; the one at A, communicating with the out- 
 ward air, by a pipe, which passes through the floor, and 
 thence through the south wall ; the one at B, communi- 
 cating with the schoolroom. From the above figure, 
 it will be perceived, that the outward air, entering at A, 
 will pass six times, lengthwise, across the hearth of the 
 stove, before it passes into the room, at B. It will thus 
 be sufficiently warmed, and yet, being protected, by the 
 ashes, from the great heat to which the sides of the stove 
 are exposed, it will not be burned, i.e. deprived of its 
 oxygen, and thus rendered unfit for respiration, as air 
 heated in furnaces commonly is, in a greater or less de- 
 gree. By coming out at the back part, it will not be 
 liable to be drawn in at the door of the stove. There 
 will thus be a continual interchange of fresh, warm air, 
 for the fouler air passing into the stove to supply the 
 draft. The heat of this air should not be greater than 
 is pleasant to the hand, being regulated, reciprocally, by 
 the quantity of ashes in the stove, and, directly, by the 
 intensity of the fire. Such a stove-plate as has been de- 
 scribed, might be procured at any furnace. Where it 
 cannot be had, its place might be supplied, in some de- 
 gree, by removing the legs of the stove, and placing it on 
 a small chamber of brick, furnished with openings and 
 tube, as described above. But this, although better than 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 75 
 
 receiving cold air through every crack and crevice, as at 
 present, would be vastly inferior to the double-bottomed 
 stove. A room, supplied with either of these contriv- 
 ances, however, would be so full of air, as to cause it to 
 press outwardsj besides furnishing a supply for the draft 
 of the stove, instead of having cold air continually press- 
 ing in. As a stove dries as well as heats the air, there 
 should always be an iron basin of water standing on it, as 
 a counteraction. 
 
 The floor of the room should be horizontal, there being 
 some disadvantages, and no advantages, in the amphithe- 
 atrical form, if the teacher's seat be raised, so as to com- 
 mand a view of the whole room. 
 
 The arrangement of the seats, for pupils and teachers, 
 should be as follows : Across each end of the schoolroom 
 there should be an open space of eight or ten feet, and 
 along the north and south walls, a space of three feet. 
 Inside of these spaces, the desks and seats for the schol- 
 ars should be placed, in parallel lines, lengthwise of the 
 room, with aisles between, never having more than two 
 children at a desk. One would be better. The aisles 
 should be eighteen inches wide, if there be only one child 
 for each desk ; three feet, if there be two. The allow- 
 ance of desk-room, for each pupil, should not be less 
 than eighteen inches ; two feet would be better. The 
 front of the desks may form the backs of the seats. 
 These backs should slope a little backwards. The seats 
 should be a foot in width, not perfectly level, but a little 
 lower behind. The edge of the desk should be at such 
 a distance from the seat, as to allow those who write, to 
 lean a little over their slate or paper, without bending the 
 neck or body. The desks should not be less than eigh- 
 teen inches wide. That part of the top, furthest from the 
 scholar, should be level, for three or four inches ; the resi- 
 due, with a slight inclination, say an inch and a half in a 
 foot. There should be a shelf under the desk, for books 
 and slates ; or the desk may be a box, with a cover hung 
 on hinges for a lid. Into the horizontal part of the desk, 
 the inkstands may be let ; so loosely, however, as to al- 
 low of their being taken out to be filled ; and so deep, that 
 
76 
 
 their tops will be on a level with the desks. They may 
 be covered with a metallic lid, resembhng a butt-hinge, 
 to rise or fall ; or, which is better, with a common shde, 
 or with a flat, circular piece of pewter, having a stem 
 projecting on one side, like the stem of a watch, through 
 which a nail or screw may be driven, not tightly, but so 
 that the cover may be made to slide over or off the ori- 
 fice of the inkstand, on the nail or screw, as a hinge. 
 
 The height of the seats should be ascertained, by the 
 builder calling in children of different ages, to try them, 
 before they are finally fixed, placing the younger in front. 
 But, as there is a continual change in the proportion of 
 different ages attending any one school, there should be 
 a number of planed pieces of plank and blocks put away 
 in the corner of the woodhouse, in order that the teacher 
 may always be able so to arrange the seats, that every 
 child may sit at his ease, an object as important, in re- 
 spect to his mental improvement, as to his bodily health. 
 
 Across that end of the room furthest from the door, 
 there should be a platform four feet wide, about sixteen 
 inches above the floor, in the middle of which should be 
 placed the teacher's desk, with a moveable chair. Along 
 the whole wall behind the teacher, should be cases for the 
 library and apparatus, and also for the proper arrangement 
 of the botanical and mineralogical specimens, to be collec- 
 ted by the whole school. Behind the teacher's chair, the 
 work of the cases, for about six feet, should be plain, to 
 serve as a large blackboard ; the rest may be of pannelled 
 work. The stove should stand in the middle of the space, 
 at the opposite end of the room. The backs of the seats 
 next the stove, should be high enough to protect the 
 heads of their occupants from the heat. The stove-pipe 
 should pass, horizontally, into the chimney built in the 
 woodhouse, without the use of perpendicular pipe to 
 roast the children's brains. If the room be properly 
 finished, it will be sufficiently warmed by the stove itself, 
 and the supply of heated air. Near the stove, should be 
 a pail and tin cup ; and, if there be no house or spring 
 near, a pump should be placed near the door. As the 
 children, while at play, frequently soil their face and 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 77 
 
 hands, economy, as it regards their books, and a decent 
 regard for cleanly habits, point out the propriety of a 
 basin and towel. At this end of the room, there should 
 be a moveable blackboard, about three feet square. 
 
 A clock would be a desirable article, in a conspicuous 
 ])art of the schoolroom, within view of the teacher's 
 desk. If it struck the quarters, so much the better. 
 
 It will have been observed, that, one end of the build- 
 ing being occupied by cases^ and the other covered by 
 the woodhouse, the room can be lighted only from the 
 two sides. This arrangement was intentional, being con- 
 sidered superior to that of hghting the room from all 
 sides. Cross-lights are extremely prejudicial to the eye ; 
 and a window behind the teacher would only prevent the 
 pupils from seeing his countenance distinctly, without be- 
 ing of material use to him. If the house has been 
 placed in the best position, namely, with one of its sides 
 facing the south, the light will only be from the north and 
 south, the former being the steadiest possible, and the latter 
 can be made nearly so, by white cotton curtains, or Vene- 
 tian bhnds. Should curtains be preferred, care should be 
 taken completely to exclude the sunshine, as a narrow 
 streak of light is more prejudicial than a broad beam. 
 The teacher should always have an eye to this difficulty. 
 If the sunshine be permanently excluded from the room, 
 it is believed, that it will never be found necessary to 
 raise the south windows for air, at all ; but, should this 
 not be the case,some plan of fixing the curtains may easily be 
 adopted, that will prevent their being blown aside, and to 
 keep the glare from the scholars' desks. Pegs should be 
 fixed to the two sides and to the stove-end of the room, 
 for hanging the hats and cloaks. These should be num- 
 bered, and every scholar should know his number, which 
 should be fixed at the opening of the school. 
 
 As a blank wall at the end of the building w^ould be 
 rather unsightly, it will be proper to have false windows 
 outside, unless the district be sufficiently liberal to allow 
 a Doric portico, which would render them unnecessary. 
 At all events, there should be a small cupola, and a bell, 
 which should be rung by a monitor, appointed weekly, by 
 7* 
 
78 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 the teacher. There should be a mat inside, and a scraper 
 outside, of the inner door, that is, the door from the wood- 
 house. Should the number of pupils be fifty or more, 
 an assistant teacher would be found useful ; and a recita- 
 tion room might be fitted up in the corner of the wood- 
 house next the schoolroom. Should the number amount 
 to eighty, or more, two assistants would be found more 
 profitable than dividing the district ; and, as two recitation 
 rooms would be required, they might easily be fitted up 
 in the upper part of the woodhouse. 
 
 If the highway should pass the school in a northerly 
 direction, the gable or portico would form the front of the 
 schoolhouse. If it ran westwardly, the north or south 
 side of the building would be the front. But the road 
 might pass in neither direction, but between the two. 
 In this case, the advantages of the most favorable mode 
 of lighting the schoolroom, and the most pleasant expo- 
 sure, both for Summer and Winter, must be sacrificed to 
 appearance, or the building put far enough back in the 
 lot, to obviate the awkward appearance it wOuld present, 
 standing neither perpendicular nor parallel to the road. 
 In such a case, the advantages and disadvantages should 
 be maturely considered, and care taken not to sacrifice 
 too much to mere appearance. 
 
 School-terms and School-hours, 
 
 Enough has been said to show the importance of a per- 
 manent teacher for primary schools. But a month's va- 
 cation in the Spring, and another in the Autumn, would 
 probably have no injurious effect on the scholar, and 
 would be acceptable to the teacher, as a relaxation from 
 her toil. The school should not be kept longer than six 
 hours a day, divided into two equal portions, with an hour 
 or two's intermission, between. The practice, getting 
 into use, in some of the cities, of throwing the two peri- 
 ods into one, cannot be too severely reprobated. Six 
 hours a day, then, would be sufficient for the older schol- 
 ars : longer periods would not be profitable. For chil- 
 dren between seven and ten, four hours a day would be 
 quite enough ; and children under seven should never be 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 79 
 
 confined longer than an hour at a time making two hours 
 a day. Longer periods than these would not only injure 
 the health, but defeat the purpose, by producing dulness 
 and inactivity of mind. Perhaps the best arrangement 
 would be the following : 
 
 Forenoon. 
 
 Children, over ten, commence at . . 9, A. M, 
 
 '* from seven to ten, .... 10, " " 
 
 " under seven, II5 " " 
 
 Dismissed, together, at . . . . . 12, M. 
 
 Afternoon. 
 
 Commence, together, at 1, P. M. 
 
 Children, under seven, dismissed at . 2, '' " 
 
 " from seven to ten, . . . 3, " " 
 
 " over ten, 4, " '' 
 
 Where the little ones are too far from home to go alone, 
 they would have a woodhouse and a fine yard for exer- 
 cise, till their brothers and sisters could accompany them. 
 In Winter, they should be freely admitted to the stove, 
 on condition of perfect order and silence. 
 
 Discipline. 
 
 Perhaps there is no subject on which teachers differ 
 so essentially as on that of discipline. Some are severe 
 in their exactions, and rely, almost entirely, on brute 
 force, for the maintenance of order, to the manifest inju- 
 ry of the moral and intellectual faculties of the child ; for 
 punishment, it is to be feared, though it may succeed in 
 producing order, has but too frequently the effect of ex- 
 citing and inflaming the bad passions of its subject. Oth- 
 ers, on the plea that they cannot be always scolding and 
 whipping, are lax in their discipline, forgetful, or rather, 
 perhaps, ignorant, that their plan actually requires more 
 of both, than any other course. Are not both of these 
 systems, however modified, radically wrong ? Is it not 
 possible to discover one, founded on the better principles 
 of human nature, less tyrannical than the former, and 
 
80 
 
 less destructive of order than the latter ? So valuable 
 an object is certainly worth trying for, even at the risk 
 of failure. Let us make the attempt. 
 
 One of the most characteristic distinctions, between man 
 and the inferior animals, is the faculty of perceiving the 
 difference between right and wrongs and the instinctive 
 feeling of approbation of the one, and disapprobation of 
 the other. This is, indeed, the essential moral power, to 
 which all others are subordinate and subsidiary, and with- 
 out which, they would be perfectly inefficient. It is the 
 sense of duty ; in other words, it is conscience. This facul- 
 ty is one of the first which is developed in the child ; and 
 it is, commonly, far more pure than in the adult. In the 
 latter, it is too frequently obscured by neglect, perverted 
 by the influence of the passions, and misled by our inter- 
 ests, and by the prejudices arising out of our numerous 
 associations. Thus, to use the language of Scripture, 
 it is " seared with a hot iron;" useless, or worse than 
 useless ; failing to perform its appropriate office of promp- 
 ter or reprover ; silent, when it should speak with a voice 
 of thunder ; or speaking so feebly and equivocally, as 
 only to mock and deceive. But, in a young child, this 
 faculty is fresh from the hands of its Maker, and has not 
 yet been exposed to any of those influences which tend to 
 lead it astray. Hence, if our question is only clearly 
 understood, we shall seldom, if ever, fail to receive, in 
 reply, a correct discrimination between virtue and vice, 
 from early childhood.* Would it not appear, then, that 
 this is the principle on which disciphne should be based ? 
 Surely, there can be no difficulty in showing a child, that 
 it is for his advantage that a school should be orderly and 
 quiet, and that it is ivrong^ either that he should waste the 
 time, or obstruct the progress of others, or that his time 
 
 * President Humphrey, in the Essay ah"eady quoted, says, *' I am 
 strongly inclined to believe, that infants have a kind of moral instinct, 
 which stands in the place of reason, and which is nothing less than the 
 ' law of the Lord,' ' written upon their hearts.' In other words, that 
 there is an innate feeling of moral distinctions, which invites congenial 
 culture, almost from the birth, and which is very early blunted by 
 adverse influences, both internal and external. If so, here is an addi- 
 tional motive for the early commencement of moral education." 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 81 
 
 should be wasted, or his progress obstructed, by his fel- 
 lows. All that is necessary is, that the simple question 
 should be stated to him, to insure a correct reply. 
 
 But there is a still more important advantage than the 
 mere regulation of the school, arising from placing disci- 
 pline on this foundation. It leads to the continued exer- 
 cise and improvement of this most important principle of 
 our moral nature. It gradually, without show or effort, 
 leads us into the habit of referring every thing to con- 
 science, — a habit of asking ourselves continually, ' Is 
 this right V and that, at a time of life when our principles 
 are all un warped by those prejudices and passions, which 
 obscure or pervert our vision at a later period. 
 
 Suppose that a teacher, on commencing her school, 
 were to address her pupils in some such way as the fol- 
 lowing, modified, of course, by the peculiar circumstances 
 of the case: 
 
 " Please to give me your attention, for a few minutes. 
 I wish to consult* you all, how it will be best to manage 
 this school. Do you know why your parents built this 
 house, and why they go to the expense of having a school 
 kept here ? I can tell you. It was to make you, chil- 
 dren, mse, and good^ and happy. But you all know, 
 that you could not learn much, if the school was noisy, 
 and disorderly. How could I hear the classes rightly, 
 if you were talking, or moving about the school ? — 
 [Pause.] — Do you think it would be right, for [John] 
 to talk, and prevent [William] from getting along with 
 his studies ? Do you think it would be right, for me to 
 allow any one to run about, or talk, so as to disturb the 
 others ? All of you, who think it would be right,for me 
 to allow this, will please to stand up in your places. 
 What ! do none of you think it would be right, for me 
 to allow it ? Well, then, I wish all of you, who think it 
 would be wrong in me to allow it, to stand up. — You all 
 think it would be wrong, then. Now, do any of you wish 
 
 * Although it would be well, in most instances, to consult the school, 
 the children should distinctly understand, that the teacher has authority 
 to enforce lohat is right, independently of their decisions, which cannot 
 be presumed, on all occasions, to be correct. 
 
82 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 me to do wrong ? But you all know, that I have been 
 placed here to teach you, and to prevent any of you from 
 injuring or hindering the others. I am sure, then, that 
 none of you wish me to cheat* your parents, or injure 
 you, by allowing the least disorderly conduct or noise in 
 this school. And I assure you, that I cannot suffer it, 
 because I know it would be wrong. 
 
 " But I wish this to be a pleasant school, as well as a 
 profitable school. I know that it would be painful for 
 [little] children, like you, to sit perfectly still, and not 
 speak a word for two or three hours at a time. And I 
 will not ask you to do any thing so disagreeable. There- 
 fore, every half-hour, [or quarter, if children are mostly 
 small,] I shall touch this bell, so, [or clap my hands,] 
 for you to step out into the aisles, and sing, and march 
 round the room, [or converse.] And, as soon as I touch 
 the bell again, so, I shall expect every one instantly to 
 sit down in his place, and resume his studies. Now, let 
 every one, that can sing, join me in a song, and all the 
 rest pay attention, so as to learn. 
 
 * We 'II all love one another, 
 We '11 all love one another, 
 We '11 all love one another. 
 
 As children ought to do. 
 
 * We '11 love our teachers, also, 
 Our fathers and our mothers, 
 Our sisters and our brothers. 
 
 As children ought to do.' " 
 
 This lecture on discipline will be long enough for the 
 first day. For we must be careful, if we would have 
 attentive auditors in children, not to talk to them too long 
 at a time. The following day, the subject may be thus 
 resumed : 
 
 "We had some talk, yesterday, about the management 
 of the school. Who can tell me what we thought would 
 be right, and what we thought would be wrong ? All, who 
 remember, may hold up the right hand. John, do you 
 
 * Children should never be taught, either by example or precept, to 
 call bad actions by soft names. Let cheating, lying, and stealing, re- 
 ceive their own proper appellatives. 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 83 
 
 tell US what would be right. — Mary, do you tell us what 
 we said would be wrong. You will please to recollect, 
 then, that we all agree, that it is icrong to look, or speak, 
 or touch any one, who is at his studies. If there is any 
 thing we wish to say or do, we should wait till the bell 
 rings. I know that waiting will be a little hard for you 
 at first. But you will soon get accustomed to it ; and 
 then it will be quite easy. It is Hkely some of you may 
 forget, and break the rule, by whispering, or touching one 
 another. Now this would be wrong ; but it would be 
 much worse for you to deny it, or to try to hide it. For 
 this would be either telling a he, or acting a he, a thing 
 that no good child will ever do. No liar can ever be 
 respected or loved. Now, whenever I think the rule is 
 broken, I will tap on the blackboard, thijs. And then 
 I expect that the scholar who has broken the rule will 
 stand up, and say, that it was he that did it. And, if he 
 is sorry for his fault, I shall ask the other scholars to for- 
 give him. I say, the other scholars ; for it is not me that 
 he will have wronged, but the whole school, by making 
 them lose their valuable time. I do n't wish you to tell 
 of one another. We should not be too ready to see or 
 talk of one another's faults. We shall all have enough 
 to do, to find out and correct our own. 
 
 " There is one thing more, I wish to say to you, to- 
 day. There has been a good deal of pains taken, to fix 
 up this room for study, and I think it would be best that 
 we should use it for no other purpose. Whenever we 
 are in this room, then, let us recollect, that we are here 
 to learn to be good, and to be useful. We have a fine 
 woodhouse and lot for play. So there is no occasion to 
 use the schoolroom for playing. Let us have no wrest- 
 ling, then, no noise, nor confusion, at any time, in this 
 room. Whether I am here or not, let all be peace and 
 order. As soon as you come in, go and hang up your 
 hat and coat on your own peg, and take your seat. Un- 
 less you are very cold, it is best not to go to the stove. 
 But, if you do go there, be quiet and poHte ; take your 
 regular turn to warm yourself; and, as soon as you are 
 warm, go to your seat, and make room for others. Will 
 
84 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 it not be much more pleasant to have quiet and orderly 
 behavior here, than to have this room a scene of racket, 
 and disorder, and noise ? When you feel inclined to 
 have a little fun or play, you can easily go into the wood- 
 house, or take a run out of doors. But here, all should 
 be calmness, peace, and order. 
 
 " But it may happen, that one or more of you may be 
 heedless, when I am not here, and break this good rule. 
 I should be very sorry, were that the case. But, should 
 it happen, I hope that some of you, who are more atten- 
 tive, will mildly tell him how wrong it is, and how sorry 
 I shall be to hear it. And if he then stop, perhaps it 
 will be best to say nothing more about it, in hopes such a 
 thing may never happen again. But it will not do to let 
 the Httle culprit go on, to spoil all your harmony, and 
 injure your tempers. If he will not stop, those who are 
 good must consult, as to who will be the most proper to 
 tell me. If it be a boy who acts badly, perhaps it will 
 be best for the oldest girl to let me know ; if a girl, the 
 oldest boy." 
 
 In these two little talks, the whole subject of discipline 
 in the school has been discussed. But a teacher should 
 exercise a healthful influence out of school, as well as in 
 it. She should frequently advise them as to their amuse- 
 ments, pointing out the bad tendency of those that lead to 
 gambling, or that are connected, directly or remotely, with 
 cruelty to animals. She should also, sometimes, visit 
 them at play, and even occasionally join with them. 
 
 But we have now to inquire, by what means our one 
 simple rule of perfect order and regularity is to be carried 
 into effect. Fortunately, these are exceedingly simple. 
 The first approaches to disorderly conduct must be uni- 
 formly noticed in a mild, but determined tone. Defec- 
 tive discipline arises, chiefly, from a want of firmness and 
 steadiness in the teacher, and too great laxity at the com- 
 mencement of the school. In most cases, the mere notice 
 of the beginning of evil will suffice to put a stop to it. 
 But, should it not prove so, all business should immedi- 
 ately he laid aside, until the restoration of perfect discipline. 
 The teacher should, at once, inform the little culprit, 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 8§ 
 
 mildly but firmly, that the operations of the school are 
 totally suspended, till order is restored. This apparent 
 waste of time will prove the truest economy. Every 
 minute so spent will save hours, before the expiration of 
 the term. After a short, silent pause, the offender may 
 be asked, " If it be right, that he should thus disturb the 
 school ?" and '' If he be sorry for his conduct ?" Should 
 the answers be favorable, the teacher may say, '' As he 
 repents, I suppose we must forgive him. Shall we do 
 so ?" When forgiven, the teacher may say, " I trust 
 you will be very careful in future ; you see you have made 
 [thirty] of us lose, each, [ten] minutes of valuable time, 
 that ought to have been spent in study. That is a loss to 
 us of [five] hours, altogether. But I presume you did not 
 think of that, or you never -would have acted so." But, 
 if no answer, or improper ones, be returned to these 
 questions, the rest of the school may be directed to stand 
 up, and give attention. They may then be asked, " Is 
 this child acting correctly ?" — " Must we all submit to 
 him, and have our good rule broken ?" — " Would this 
 be right ?" If still obdurate, the next course might be, 
 to appoint tv/o boys and two girls to step out with the 
 little culprit, and reason with him, on the incorrectness 
 of his course. If the obstinacy continue after this, two 
 of the boys may be despatched for one of the committee. 
 Meanwhile, perfect silence should be kept in the school, 
 and all studies laid aside. To the committee, when he 
 appears, say, " Here is a child who refuses to conform 
 to the rulds of the school, and persists in disturbing us. 
 It will be necessary, I fear, for you to punish him, or 
 reheve us of his presence." Is there any child who 
 could resist such a course as this ? If so, he is fit only 
 for a house of refuge, and should not be allowed the priv- 
 ilege of the school, till his parents brought about a change 
 of conduct. But what would be the effect of such disci- 
 pline upon the others ? Would they not distinctly see 
 the folly of such behavior, and feel, that it could not pass 
 with impunity ? Corporal punishment, and even violent 
 scolding, has but too frequently the effect of inflaming the 
 passions of the teacher, and exhibiting him in a very un- 
 
86 
 
 amiable light, before those who ought to love and rever- 
 ence him. It has also the tendency, with some, to ex- 
 cite a dislike to study. Others, again, are of so sensitive 
 a disposition, that, in the words of a quaint old author, 
 " to such a lad, a frown is a whipping ; and a whipping, a 
 death." In a third, it will awaken a spirit of bitterness, 
 or of defiance. But all children are strongly affected 
 by the opinions of their playmates. Many a little hero, 
 who would triumph in a sound wdiipping, would quail un- 
 der the distinctly-expressed disapprobation of his com- 
 panions, ehcited as above.* 
 
 * Just as I had written the above, one of our best teachers happening 
 to call, I read it over to him, and asked his opinion, as to the efficacy 
 of this method of governing a school. " The better to enable you to 
 judge," replied he, " I will relate to you a circumstance, which hap- 
 pened at the school in your district, when I taught there, a few years 
 ago. As there is no play-ground attached to the school, the scholars, 
 of course, as you know, amuse themselves during recess, in the road ; 
 and sliding on a board down the long hill, above the school, is a favor- 
 ite exercise, in Winter. One morning, a neighbor, who lived half-way 
 lip the hill, called, to request me to try to prevail on the scholars to 
 desist from this amusement, as they made the road so slippery, that the 
 females of the family were afraid to step out of doors. I told him I 
 would talk to them about it, but, as my authority was confined to the 
 school, it was doubtful whether it would be of much use. According- 
 ly, as soon as the children were assembled, I briefly stated the facts, 
 and asked, if they were willing to desist. ' I pretend to no authority 
 over your amusements,' said I ; ' I merely ask, if you think it right to 
 continue this play, when you find it so inconvenient for our neighbors. 
 Now, I wish all of you who think it right, to hold up your hands.' 
 Not a single hand was raised. ' Now,' continued I, * let us try it the 
 other way. All who think it wrong, will please to hold up their hands.' 
 At these words, a general rustle was heard in the school, and, on look- 
 ing around, I observed that every hand was raised. Immediately, one 
 of the boys, with eyes sparkling with humor, asked, if it was right for 
 the girls to vote. ' Yes, James,' said I ; ' when we are considering 
 about right and wrong, I wish all, girls as well as boys, to vote. And 
 now, children, who, among you, are willing to give up what you all 
 think is wrong ? I should be sorry to spoil your play ; but, if you will 
 give up sliding in the road, I will go out with you, and we will try and 
 find some other place for amusement. Now, all who are willing to 
 stop sliding, hold up your hands.' Every hand was again raised. At 
 intermission, I accordingly pointed out an adjoining field, v/here their 
 favorite play might be pursued, though it was a far inferior situation to 
 the one they had relinquished. It appeared, however, that three of the 
 boys, brothers, after trying the new spot, repented of their promise, 
 and, presuming on what I had said about want of authority over their 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 87 
 
 There are two very opposite kinds of discipline, in 
 schools ; the one founded on the passion of fear, the 
 other, on that of love. Every other variety is either a 
 modification, or a mixture of these. It is generally sup- 
 posed, that the influence of fear is the most certain and 
 easy. That it is the most certain is rather a doubtful 
 point ; but, if by easiness is meant that it costs but httle 
 thought to the teacher, there can be no doubt that it is 
 sufficiently easy. It is both easier and quicker, to give a 
 blow than a reason ; but one reason may secure obedi- 
 ence, better than a hundred blows. It may be generally 
 observed, that children, who act only from a fear of pun- 
 ishment, acquire a slavish habit of feeling ; and, after 
 having committed an offence, they will not hesitate to 
 avail themselves of those unworthy expedients which low 
 cunning can suggest, in order to escape detection, and its 
 dreaded consequences. But there is one point of view, 
 in which the subject is seldom, if ever, considered, which 
 is undoubtedly the most important of all, namely, its moral 
 effect on the community. The children of one genera- 
 tion form the community of the next ; consequently, 
 whaiever general moral effect is produced on youth, may 
 be correctly said to influence the whole community. 
 
 amusements, repaired to the old spot, and again commenced their fa- 
 vorite play. But this the other boys would not allow. They all went 
 to the road, and, as the recusants would listen to no remonstrance, the 
 boys tumbled them into the snow, every time they came down the 
 hill ; and, as even this failed to stop them, two of the majority, at last, 
 jumped on their sled, and broke it to pieces. A struggle was the con- 
 sequence, in which the culprits had the worse. In the afternoon, com- 
 plaints were entered, on both sides, which, after a patient hearing, I 
 proposed should be disposed of in the same way as the question in the 
 morning. Accordingly, having recapitulated what had been said and 
 agreed on at that time, I requested all who thought it wrong to break 
 the agreement to give up the sliding place, to hold up their hands. 
 Every hand in school was raised, except those of the three infringers, 
 on whose countenances the powerful effect of public opinion was in- 
 stantly manifest. 'This is all right,' I observed ; .' but we have anoth- 
 er question to decide. It was undoubtedly wrong for these boys to 
 break their agreement ; but was it right for any one to take the law 
 into his own hands, and to use them ill, and break their sled. I wish 
 you all calmly to think of this, and give your vote, whether it was wrong 
 or not.' The decision now was una?iimous : which at once put an 
 end, both to the quarrel, and the sliding on the road." 
 
88 
 
 Now, the effect of fear is limited to the teacher's pres- 
 ence, nay, even to his sight ; for his eye is closely watch- 
 ed by the little mischief-makers. - The moment his at- 
 tention is occupied in one place, the mischief breaks out 
 in another. Like an army in an enemy's country, he 
 holds only the actual ground he stands upon. Has not 
 such a course as this the effect of making us all more or 
 less eye-servants 9 Must not its influence be very per- 
 nicious on the practice of virtue, the performance of our 
 daily duties to God, as well as to man ? For it cannot 
 be denied, that there are few, very few, indeed, who 
 have an abiding sense of the presence of God. Compare 
 such an influence as this, with that of love ! In the one 
 case, the heart asks. Who sees us 9 in the other. Is this 
 right 9* Is it not worth while, then, to give this system 
 a fair trial ? But let it be, indeed, a/afr trial. No half- 
 way measures must be pursued. We must begin, by de- 
 manding, at once, perfect order. There must be no 
 communication, under any pretence, between the pupils, 
 during the periods allotted to study. The slightest ap- 
 proaches to disorder must be instantly noticed, and 
 stopped. And we must not demand impossibihties. 
 The periods of study must be short ; in no case, exceed- 
 ing half an hour ; with very young children, a quarter ; 
 
 * Since writing the above, I have read a speech of Mr. Preston, 
 United States Senator from South Carolina, at a political meeting in 
 Philadelphia, in which he lavishes the most unbounded praise on Mr. 
 Clay, for a sentiment, which, if education were on a proper footing, 
 would be too common to attract notice. 
 
 " I have heard him utter," said Mr. Preston, *' in his closet, senti- 
 ments, which, had they fallen from the lips of one of the ancients of 
 Greece or Rome, would have been repeated with admiration to the 
 present day. On one occasion," continued Mr. P. "he did me the 
 honor to send for and consult with me. After stating what he propo- 
 sed, I suggested, whether there would be no danger in it, whether such 
 a course would not injure his own prospects, as well as those of the 
 Whig party, in general. His reply was, ' I did not send for you to ask 
 what might be the effect of the proposed movements on my prospects^ 
 but whether it was right ; I had rather be right, than be President.^ 
 Such sentiments as these indicate the loftiness of the man, and the 
 high purposes of his soul ; and they should call forth the admiration 
 and confidence of the Nation. They point to him as the most worthy 
 to wield her destinies." 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 89 
 
 with intermissions of a few minutes, for change of posture 
 and conversation. The children must have employment ; 
 they cannot, if idle, be kept out of mischief. The room 
 must be comfortable, as to heat and fresh air ; and the 
 seats and desks must be easy and convenient. And the 
 teacher must indulge in no harshness, but show that he 
 loves his pupils ; and this is a matter in which children 
 are seldom deceived. Unless all these things are atten- 
 ded to, it will not be a /air trial ; the failure will be cer- 
 tain. 
 
 In accordance with this plan, rewards of all kinds, and 
 even emulation and praise, should be eschewed. To the 
 latter, one exception may be made. A slight degree of 
 praise may be useful, in stimulating the slow and heavy- 
 scholar. In all other cases, the complacency and de- 
 lights of well-doing are amply sufficient. 
 
 It would add much to the probabihty of success, if the 
 plan was previously submitted to the committee, and their 
 sanction obtained. When this has been done, it should 
 be mentioned to the pupils, at the opening of the school. 
 
 But it is probable that some teachers may be incredu- 
 lous, as to the good effects of this species of discipline ; 
 and that others may be devoid of the calmness, steadi- 
 ness, and firmness, requisite to carry it into effect. To 
 all such, a few general observations, on the nature and ef- 
 fects of the system of punishments, may be useful. It 
 seems to have been reserved for modern times, to eluci- 
 date, clearly, the true nature and design of punishment, 
 which, by enlightened legislators, is no longer regarded in 
 the light of an expiatory and vindictive process ; but 
 rather, as intended to serve, at once, the purpose of cor- 
 recting and ameliorating the offender, and of deterring 
 others from the commission of similar crimes. This 
 view of the subject is expressly sanctioned by the dec- 
 larations of Holy Writ ; and might, indeed, have been 
 ascertained, long ago, by a careful and attentive study of 
 those sacred records, in which our Divine Legislator has 
 been pleased to reveal the motives which have influenced 
 the dispensations, both of his providence and grace. He 
 is there described as chastening us, not for his pleasure, 
 8* 
 
90 
 
 but for our profit. In imitation, then, of this gracious 
 procedure of our Heavenly Father, we should keep 
 steadily in view the ultimate good of the faulty individual, 
 and let him see, that such is our chief design in inflicting 
 upon him temporary suffering and privation. 
 
 1. First, then, the system of discipline, whatever may 
 be its nature, should be uniform, systematic, and im- 
 partial. The teacher should have the plan thoroughly 
 digested in his own mind, and act steadily upon it, not 
 being severe one day, and lax the next ; and not passing 
 over, in one child, what he punishes, in another, without 
 very sufficient reasons, which should be explained to the 
 school. Such a course would be the worst of tyranny, 
 and would destroy all the influence of the teacher over 
 the school, and render him the object of hatred, instead 
 of love. 
 
 2. The teacher should never attempt to govern by a 
 long, formal set of rules. It is impossible to make rules 
 which will suit all cases ; and, even if it were possible, a 
 child could never remember them. He ought, then, ra- 
 ther to endeavor to inspire right feelings, and they will 
 govern his actions. If we love what is good, we shall 
 think and do what is good. 
 
 3. When punishments are resorted to, care should be 
 taken that they be not too severe. Unnecessary or ex- 
 cessive severity should be avoided ; because it will tend 
 either to keep up a perpetual irritation, or give rise to a 
 hardened, callous feeling ; or, what is, perhaps, still 
 worse, induce permanent and irretrievable depression. It 
 is a correct and well-founded observation of the illustrious 
 Locke, that " those children, who are the most chastised, 
 rarely prove the best men ; and that punishment, if it be 
 not productive of good, will certainly be the cause of 
 much injury." In determining on the kind of punish- 
 ment, reference should always be had to the character of 
 the pupil, so as neither to awaken bitterness or defiance, 
 nor to break the spirit of a mild and susceptible child. 
 
 4. Punishments should seldom, if ever, be inflicted 
 before the school. The effect upon them will be much 
 increased by their uncertainty as to its nature and de- 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 91 
 
 gree. And besides ; if the culprit be taken aside, and 
 calmly remonstrated with, punishment may frequently be 
 rendered unnecessary ; or, if it must be inflicted, he will 
 sooner yield in private, than when the eyes of his com- 
 rades are upon him. In this situation, pride generally 
 induces obstinacy, which often leads to the very worst 
 effects. 
 
 5. The punishment should be administered with calm- 
 ness, and an affection, which should be real, and not a 
 mere show. For thus it will have a much more powerful 
 effect. Anger, or the indulgence of a vindictive feeling, 
 should be sedulously guarded against. Angry punish- 
 ments will never do good ; for anger shows, even to a 
 child, that the teacher is incapable of governing himself. 
 Besides, we cannot, when angry, see things in their true 
 colors ; we cannot weigh them with care ; and, if we are 
 hasty with our punishments, they will sometimes fall on 
 the innocent. This would, indeed, be a most serious 
 misfortune. Should it ever happen, no time should be 
 lost in making an ample apology to the sufferer, before 
 the whole school. 
 
 6. We should be particularly careful, never to punish 
 for real incapacity or innocent weakness. Surely, this 
 must appear sufficiently reasonable to all ; and yet, it is to 
 be feared, that it is a rule too frequently broken. The 
 slow and the dull should rather be encouraged, than dis- 
 heartened by reproach and punishment. A double share 
 of patience, mildness, and attention, should be exercised 
 towards them. 
 
 7. In estimating the measure of punishment, for any 
 offence, we should regard rather the motive than the con- 
 sequences of the action ; the intention with which it was 
 performed, rather than the effects that may result from it. 
 Hence, children should not be punished for mere acci- 
 dents, but mildly cautioned against similar carelessness, 
 in future ; or, if they are subject to heedlessness, it may 
 be necessary to subject them to some inconvenience, or 
 privation, as the natural consequences of their want of care. 
 
 8. There is a certain class of punishments practised 
 by some teachers, which ought to be banished from every 
 
92 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 school. Pinching the ears, pulling the hair, beating about 
 the head, with a book, a cane, or whatever happens to 
 be in the hand ; these, if once indulged, grow into habits 
 of equal severity and caprice. They are, in their nature, 
 vulgar and offensive ; and, being received as indignities, 
 never fail to excite the resentnient of the sufferers. 
 
 9. But, whatever may be the punishment, it should be 
 continued, till it answers its end. If a child gains the vic- 
 tory by his obstinacy, the efficiency of the school is to- 
 tally ruined. This consideration makes it a matter of the 
 very first importance, that the nature and degree of each 
 punishment should be well weighed, beforehand, so that 
 we may feel sure it will be effectual. 
 
 10. Finally, we should neither exact nor even allow 
 o( promises of future amendment. Nothing is so readily 
 given, and nothing is so fragile, as a child's promise. 
 We are directed by Christ, to ask, that God would 
 not lead us into temptation. Let us practise towards 
 children, what we ask from our Maker. Let us never 
 tempt them into useless promises, which we know will be 
 broken, and thus harden their tender minds in iniquity. 
 The question should be, Are you good ? not, Will you 
 be good ? But this subject is too important, for full dis- 
 cussion in this place. It will again be noticed, under the 
 head of Moral Education. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PHYSICAL EDUCATION, CONTINUED. 
 
 Recapitulation. 
 
 In taking a retrospective view of our inquiries, on the 
 subject of physical education, we appear to have arrived 
 at the following conclusions : 
 
 I. That, in the formation of school districts, it should 
 always be borne in mind, that a ^ood^ permanent school, 
 within a moderate walk for children of six or seven years 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 93 
 
 of age, is much preferable to a poor school, for a few 
 months in the year, close at hand. 
 
 II. That the distribution of the pubhc funds, per cap' 
 itttj is not only unjust, as regards the scholars, but highly 
 injurious to the public welfare. 
 
 ILL. That, as large schools possess many advantages 
 over small ones, the number of teachers, and not of 
 schools, should be increased, as population becomes 
 more dense. 
 
 IV. That in every town, there should be, at least, 
 tvvo grades of schools, in which the whole population 
 should receive a thorough education. 
 
 V. That the plan of graduating the schools, if proper- 
 ly reduced to practice, would rapidly produce a body of 
 capable and experienced female teachers, — an object of 
 the very first importance to the community. 
 
 VI. That this plan is also, in every respect, more 
 efficient, economical, and equal. 
 
 VIL That the plan should not be carried into exe- 
 cution, in any tovvn, until the people are prepared to re- 
 ceive it ; and, then, it should be general, not partial. 
 
 VIII. That school lots should be on pleasant and 
 healthful situations, and never less than half an acre in 
 extent. 
 
 IX. That they should be neatly fenced, and provided 
 with accommodations for amusement and exercise. 
 
 X. That schoolhouses should be neat and substantial 
 structures, and placed with reference to the most equable 
 heat and light, rather than merely to correspond with the 
 highway. 
 
 XI. That the woodshed should be at least as large 
 as the schoolhouse, so as to afford room for exercise and 
 play for the children, in bad weather. 
 
 XII. That some apparatus should be affixed to the 
 stove, so that the schoolroom may have a constant supply 
 of fresh warm air. 
 
 XIII. That care should be taken, that such air be not 
 burnt, i. e. its oxygen abstracted by violent heat, during 
 the process of warming it. 
 
 XIV. That the schoolroom should afford ample space 
 
04 THE teacher's MANUAL. 
 
 for the evolutions of the school, and that the seats and 
 desks should be commodious and comfortable for the 
 children of all the different ages, likely to occupy it. 
 
 XV. That the discipline should be uniform and per- 
 fect, the product of love and reason, rather than of fear ; 
 and that it should be supported by constant appeals to the 
 Conscience. 
 
 XVI. That the school-discipline founded on love has 
 a beneficial, and that founded on fear, an injurious, effect 
 on the whole community. 
 
 XVII. That the disciphne of the school should re- 
 ceive the sanction of the prudential committee. 
 
 XVIII. That the legitimate design of punishment is 
 not vengeance, but the melioration of the offender, and 
 the example to the community. 
 
 XIX. That the discipline of schools should be uniform, 
 systematic, and impartial. 
 
 XX. That punishments should be mild, but always 
 effectual, administered with calmness, and with a due re- 
 gard to the motives of the offender. 
 
 ^ XXI. That promises of future amendment should 
 neither be exacted nor received. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 
 
 Introductory. 
 
 " What is a man. 
 
 If his chief good , and market of his time 
 Be but to sleep and feed ? A beast, no more." — 
 
 Shakspeare. 
 
 Among the various popular errors, which tend to re- 
 tard the improvement of society, there is none, perhaps, 
 more pernicious, than the opinion, that the main object 
 of school education should be the acquisition of know- 
 ledge. The cause of this mistake is the notion, univer- 
 sally prevalent, that school learning, instead of being 
 merely one of the means of acquiring an education, is 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 95 
 
 education itself. This is an error, the removal of which 
 imperatively calls for the united efforts of intelligent phi- 
 lanthropists ; for, until this is effected, our schools can 
 never even approach to that degree of improvement, 
 which they ought to attain. The chief, may we not say 
 the sole, concern of man on earth is Education ; and 
 the great business of schools and colleges is, to prepare 
 him to enter on this course of education with ease and 
 effect. To do this properly, three things are requisite. 
 
 1. He must be taught to read. Reading is the great 
 key to knowledge. He, who has properly acquired it, 
 has all the stores of learning, which have been accumu- 
 lating for nearly six thousand years, completely at his 
 command. There is no art or science, of which he may 
 not make himself master. Whenever he pleases, he can 
 converse with Moses, Socrates, Seneca, Cicero, or 
 Jesus. He can summon before him the founders of na- 
 tions, all the warriors and mighty monarchs of antiquity, 
 and question them as to their actions and motives. The 
 philosophers and cultivators of science, of all ages and 
 of all climes, are constantly in waiting, ready, at his call, 
 to throw all their stores at his feet. He may acquaint 
 himself with all the productions of Nature and art to be 
 found on the globe. He can make himself familiar with 
 the most trifling, as well as the most valuable, stone, or 
 flower, or fruit, from the furthest region of the earth, at 
 his own fireside. Nor is his knowledge confined even to 
 the globe he inhabits. Without leaving his own house, 
 he can examine, through Herschel's great telescope, the 
 planetary worlds, rolling around him, and he can call on 
 Lalande and Laplace to explain all the wonders of the 
 heavenly bodies, and all the seeming intricacies of their 
 motions. 
 
 Reading makes a man a denizen of all nations, a con- 
 temporary of all ages. Carlyle, in his ' Sartor Resar- 
 tus,' says, " Fortunatus had a wishingrhat, which, when 
 he put on, and wished himself any where, behold he was 
 there. By this means had Fortunatus triumphed over 
 space, annihilated space ; for him, there was no Where, 
 but all was Here. Were a hatter to establish himself in 
 
96 
 
 the Wahngasse of Weissnichtwo,* and make felts of this 
 kind for all mankind, what a world we should have of it ! 
 Still stranger, should, on the opposite side of the street, 
 another hatter establish himself; and, as his fellow- crafts- 
 man made space-annihilating hats, make time-annihila- 
 ting ! Of both would I purchase, were it with my last 
 groschen ; but chiefly of this latter. To clap on your 
 felt, and, simply by wishing that you were any ivhere, 
 straightway to be there ! Next, to clap on your other 
 felt, and, simply by wishing that you were any when^ 
 straightway to be then ! This were, indeed, the grand- 
 er ; shooting, at will, from the fire-creation of the world 
 to its fire-consummation ; here, historically present in the 
 first century, conversing, face to face, whh Paul and Sen- 
 eca ; there, prophetically in the thirty-first, conversing 
 also, face to face, with other Pauls and Senecas, who, as 
 yet, stand hidden in the depth of that late time !" 
 
 Does not reading give us the possession of two felts, 
 in a considerable degree resembling those for which our 
 poetic historian was willing to part with his last groschen ? 
 When we clap on both these hats, may we not, in an in- 
 stant, transport ourselves into Athens, in the first century, 
 to hear Paul deliver his celebrated speech before the 
 Areopagitae ? Then, by a wish, may not the time-anni- 
 hilating hat place us some three centuries backwards, to 
 listen, in the same city, to the philippics of Demosthe- 
 nes ? and, two centuries further, to hear Herodotus re- 
 cite his history at the Olympic games ? and anon, by the 
 aid of both our felts, twenty centuries later, on the deck 
 of the Santa Maria, on that important morning, whose 
 dawn first disclosed to civilized man our Western world ? 
 We hear the solemn Te Deum sung by the crews of the 
 little barks on that joyful occasion, and join in their 
 
 * Wahngasse of Weissnichtwo, — literally, Whimsey-street of 
 Know-not-where. Carlyle appears to have fixed his amiable profes- 
 sor, Teufelsdrockh, {literally, Devil's drug ; Scottice, Devil's dung ; 
 assafcetida,) in the same place where Scott located the Monastery 
 over which the mild, peace-loving Abbot, Ambrosius, presided, viz., 
 in Kennaquair, Anglice, Know-not-where. Wonder if the professor 
 never selected the ruins of its splendid abbey, as the site of his pro- 
 found ruminations. 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 9f 
 
 tears and mutual gratulations. When, ho ! presto ! in 
 the tvvinklhig of an eye, we find ourselves seated amongst 
 our countrymen, in a splendid steam-boat, gliding, as by 
 magic, on a mighty river, amongst towering mountains, 
 or whirled along by fire upon the land, in the rapid car. 
 And, as soon as the slightest degree of fatigue is felt, 
 hey ! in an instant, we are at our own fireside, our whole 
 family seated around us. Nay, have not our hats another 
 wonderful property, which even that of Fortunatus did 
 not possess .'' Are they not so expansible and elastic, as 
 conveniently to accommodate any number required, be- 
 neath their ample shade } Cannot we carry our family 
 and friends along with us, in our miraculous excursions 
 any where and any when .'' 
 
 2. But, in order that all these advantages may be de- 
 rived from reading, the faculty of attention must be fully 
 developed. By constant exercise of this power, the 
 scholar must be enabled, at any time, to bend his whole 
 mind to the subject with which he is engaged, to the ex- 
 clusion of all others. This is an indispensable requisite. 
 It is from the want of this, that our schools have hitherto 
 been, in a great measure, useless to the mass of the com- 
 munity. When completely acquired, i. e., when a child 
 can merely read with attention, all the impediments to 
 self-education are completely removed. He may make 
 of himself what he pleases. It is attention which con- 
 stitutes the great difference between the wise man and 
 the fool ; it hes, indeed, at the foundation of all intellec- 
 tual culture. Fortunately, this power, as will presently 
 be shown, is easily acquired in early life. But the 
 longer its cultivation is delayed, the more difficult its at- 
 tainment, until, at length, it becomes almost impossible 
 to acquire it to any degree of perfection. 
 
 3. The third indispensable requisite of school educa- 
 tion, is the habit of observation. The difference in 
 mankind, as to this important habit, is immense. Vast 
 numbers of persons pass through life, without seeing or 
 hearing any thing but what relates to the most gross and 
 common concerns. As to every thing else, they seem 
 to be in a state of dreamy unconsciousness. In the lan- 
 
 9 
 
98 
 
 guage of Scripture, " Seeing, they see not ; and hearing, 
 they hear not ; neither do they understand." Others, 
 again, seem to Hve with all their senses wide awake. 
 The one has nothing in view but the acquisition of prop- 
 erty, or the indulgence of the grosser propensities of his 
 nature. The other, without necessarily neglecting any 
 of his more common duties, is not wholly absorbed in 
 them. Nature appears to him in all her beauty, and 
 continually converses with him in strains of the most 
 exquisite poetry. What appears mere nakedness and 
 ruggedness, to the one, is, to the other, a scene of sub- 
 limity and beauty. Hence, while the one sees the mere 
 body, the husk, as it were, of Nature, the other looks 
 inward, and converses with her soul ; 
 
 " Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks , 
 Sermons in stones, and good in every thing." — 
 
 The faculty of observation, then, must be developed at 
 school, in order to prepare the scholar fully to enjoy all 
 the advantages oiFered in the great School of Nature. 
 
 These, then, are the three great requisites of intellec- 
 tual education, in our common schools. But these are, 
 by no means, all. The whole of the intellectual facul- 
 ties should receive such a training, as will bestow on the 
 mind a proper degree of vigor, symmetry, and proportion. 
 
 A great deal of knowledge will, it is true, be acquired 
 in every school that is properly conducted. But still, 
 this should be considered as incidental, not as the inain 
 object of the school. The teacher should not direct 
 much of his attention to this point. The grand objects 
 he should have continually in view, towards which he 
 should unceasingly press forward, should be, to teach 
 reading without bad habits, and to develope the faculties 
 of observation, attention, reflection, reason, judgment, 
 memory, imagination, and taste. 
 
 Nor will this be so difficuh a task for the teacher, as 
 may, at first sight, appear. The proper mode of teach- 
 ing reading will be exhibited, in all its details, in a subse- 
 quent chapter ; a mode which will not only avoid the 
 formation of bad habits, but which will, if fully carried 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 99 
 
 out, tend to the developement of all the valuable facul- 
 ties of the human mind. The same may be said of com- 
 position, perhaps, in a still greater degree. The mathe- 
 matics, including arithmetic, both mental and written, 
 when taught on true principles, and divested of all me- 
 chanical rules and unnecessary tables, will cooperate to 
 the same valuable end. And, finally, the study of the 
 learned languages will tend to fill up all the little vacan- 
 cies or omissions of the former studies. Thus most, or 
 all, of the studies in both grades of schools, if properly 
 pursued, will regularly and constantly tend to produce 
 the desired effect. 
 
 Much difference of opinion exists on the comparative 
 value of the mathematics and classical studies, as means 
 for disciplining the mind. The truth seems to be, that 
 neither are complete means for that purpose. The 
 mathematics, independent of their value as indispensable 
 steps towards the attainment of the exact sciences, are 
 invaluable aids for developing the faculties of attention, 
 reflection, and reason. They deal, however, exclu- 
 sively with certainties. And, as the most important 
 concerns of our hfe, in which our judgment is required, 
 are probabilities only, it follows, that we must look else- 
 where for means of developing some of our most valua- 
 ble faculties. Here, the classics, or study of the dead 
 languages, opportunely steps in to our assistance, and 
 aids in bringing out our judgment, memory, imagination, 
 and taste. If, then, we would have pupils completely 
 fitted to enter the great College of Nature, neither of 
 these important branches must be neglected. And, if 
 both are properly and thoroughly taught, they will be 
 fully prepared to enter on that grand course of study^ 
 which, if it is ever destined to close, will close but with life. ' 
 
100 THE teacher's MANUAL. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION, CONTINUED. 
 
 Teachers^ SeminaHes. 
 
 The great object of these seminaries should be, to 
 furnish instruction, such as is not only necessary to pre- 
 pare teachers for the important and complicated duties 
 of their profession, but such, also, as is not elsewhere to 
 be procured. For, in truth, there would be but small 
 advantages derived from the estabhshment of an institu- 
 tion of this sort, the whole, or even the greater part, of 
 whose attention should be devoted to teaching the math- 
 ematics, the sciences, and the dead and living languages. 
 This species of knowledge can be readily obtained in 
 most of our established academies and colleges. But 
 what is really wanted is, an institution where teachers 
 shall learn to read properly, a point in which most of 
 them are sadly deficient ; where they shall acquire the 
 Art of Teaching ; the best and easiest manner of un- 
 folding and cultivating the various faculties of the human 
 mind ; of directing the inquirer in his search after truth ; 
 and of teaching him the arts of observation, classifica- 
 tion, and investigation. In such a school, the pupils 
 should be alternately teachers and scholars ; that is to 
 say, they should be initiated into the practice^ as well as 
 into the theory^ of the art of teaching. They should be 
 required, by turns, to lecture to each other, on all the 
 subjects brought under the notice of the school ; and to 
 visit the neighboring district schools, for the purpose of 
 trying their qualifications as teachers under the eye of 
 their instructer ; or regular periods may be appointed for 
 receiving classes from the neighboring schools, with that 
 view. Each pupil should also be required to take turns 
 in lecturing from the blackboard, of the great value of 
 which but few of the teachers seem, as yet, to have an 
 adequate idea, or else are ignorant of the mode of bring- 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 101 
 
 ing it into practical use. And, finally, the subject of 
 morals and discipline should be fully discussed, and every 
 member of the school daily questioned on these subjects, 
 until they have become perfectly famihar. 
 
 How should these seminaries be supported ? As the 
 object is not the individual advantage of the teacher, but 
 the general good, of course, the expense should be borne 
 by the public. But, in fact, the necessary expense 
 would be a mere trifle, should the system of central 
 schools be carried extensively into operation. For, as 
 it is chiefly, if not exclusively, the primary schools that 
 require the aid of these teachers' seminaries, and as 
 these schools would be supplied by permanent teachers, 
 a new race of w^ell-educated youth would be ready to 
 take their place, before the teachers who had been edu- 
 cated at the seminary had left the stage. In fact, in a 
 very few years after such institutions had been in opera- 
 tion, every district school would present a model, from 
 which those, who wished to devote themselves to teach- 
 ing, might learn the true art, in a very short time. 
 Teachers' seminaries, then, are only wanted tempora- 
 rily, if other matters are properly arranged. 
 
 With respect to their number, let us take Massachu- 
 setts as an example. In this State, three would be 
 abundantly sufficient. One might be located at Boston, 
 another at Worcester, a third at Northampton. Or, if 
 the Legislature is incredulous as to their effects, and 
 not willing to establish three, a trial might be made by 
 one at Boston, to be held at Worcester and Northampton 
 the second and third years. 
 
 The school ought to be free to all who should sub- 
 scribe to its regulations, and provide themselves with 
 suitable books, which need not exceed two or three. 
 The total expense to the State might probably be about 
 fifteen hundred or two thousand dollars per annum, for 
 six years. If the situation of Principal to such an insti- 
 tution were conferred on a person of suitable talents, 
 and sufficient enthusiasm for the cause, the benefit to the 
 State would be incalculable. A similar arrangement 
 
 might be adopted by every other State, that took suffi- 
 9« 
 
102 THE teacher's MANUAL. 
 
 cient interest in the improverinent of universal education. 
 If this cheap and practicable mode of diffusing informa- 
 tion should be generally adopted, — and it only waits for 
 some public-spirited legislature to take the lead, — the 
 schools throughout the land would be revolutionized, in 
 the course of a very few years. And our colleges must 
 follow suit. For they could not exist, without advancing 
 at least, pari passu^ with the schools. 
 
 Qualification of Teachers. 
 
 The indispensable literary quahfications of a teacher 
 of the primary school are, reading, orthogYaphy, writing, 
 arithmetic, the principles of composition, and geography. 
 But it is very desirable, that she should possess a know- 
 ledge of book-keeping and vocal music, in order that she 
 may teach them ; of moral and intellectual philosophy, 
 the philosophy of grammar, history, algebra, and geome- 
 try ; as, though not intended to be studied in the primary 
 school, they are necessary for her own intellectual im- 
 provement, and to enable her to teach, with effect, the 
 branches that are studied there. If, then, a young 
 woman possess a thorough knowledge of the first six 
 mentioned branches, she may consider herself qualified 
 to commence a school. But, as these observations apply 
 only to the present state of education ; as, in a few years 
 hence, it is probable, that no one will even propose to 
 assume the profession, without much higher qualifica- 
 tions ; such primary teacher ought, without delay, to set 
 about the acquisition of all the branches mentioned. 
 Should she be really qualified by Nature for teaching, 
 she will hardly find any difficulty in these studies, which 
 she cannot conquer alone. At all events, if insuperable 
 difficulties should occur, there are few situations where 
 she will not be able to find willing assistance to overcome 
 them. 
 
 Where the central-school system has not gone into 
 operation, the literary qualifications of the teacher should 
 considerably exceed what has here been stated. 
 
 The literary qualifications of a teacher of the central 
 se4i0ol^ ought to be, 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 103 
 
 1. The Mathematics : viz. their general principles: 
 algebra, geometry, conic sections, and fluxions ; and 
 their application : plane and spherical trigonometry, men- 
 suration, navigation, surveying, and civil engineering. 
 
 2. The Classics : or a knowledge of the dead lan- 
 guages. 
 
 3. The Modern Languages : French, Spanish, Ital- 
 ian, and German. 
 
 4. Grammar, Rhetoric, and Composition. 
 
 5. Natural History : viz. the mineral kingdom, mine- 
 ralogy, geology, and meteorology ; the vegetable king- 
 dom, botany ; the animal kingdom, zoology, ornithology, 
 entomology, ichthyology, and conchology. 
 
 6. Chemistry and Natural Philosophy. 
 
 7. History, Mental and Moral Philosophy, Political 
 Economy, Physiology, and Comparative Anatomy. 
 
 8. Drawing, and Vocal Music. 
 
 Teachers with such extensive qualifications could 
 not now be procured ; but none less qualified than the 
 members of the senior classes of the colleges ought to 
 be thought of. If the central-school system, however, 
 should go extensively into operation, the colleges would 
 he forced to enlarge their course of study, as the fresh- 
 man class from the central school would be nearly equal 
 to the present graduates ; and so, every year, we should 
 have better teachers. Thus, the general adoption of this 
 system would no less advance the education of profes- 
 sional men, than that of the great body of the people. 
 This is the true method of improving education. Begin 
 at the foundation, and the whole superstructure ascends. 
 Elevate the common school, and the colleges must rise. 
 
 With respect to intellectual and moral qualifications, 
 both grades of schools demand similar requisites. 
 
 1. The teacher should understand the object of edu- 
 cation. He should no longer contract its usefulness to 
 the ignoble object of enabling men to conduct the mere 
 business of life. He should have a strong and clear per- 
 ception of the truth, that the object of school education 
 is not even principally to acquire knowledge, but to form 
 habits of mental industry, to train the mind to find pleas- 
 
104 
 
 lire in intellectual effort, and to inspire a love of know- 
 ledge for its own sake. 
 
 2. The teacher should be a good reader, able to make 
 the hearer feel and perceive all that the author intended. 
 This, however, is so rare a talent, that, until teachers' 
 seminaries have been some time in operation, it will be 
 nearly in vain to look for it. 
 
 3. He should be able to illustrate and simplify every 
 thing he teaches, and, therefore, should have the power of 
 communicating his ideas with clearness and precision. 
 He should know how to make children think, by means 
 of appropriate questions. He should, also, be apt at 
 finding means of rousing sluggishness, and correcting 
 waywardness ; of inciting the idle to diligence ; of 
 strengthening good principles where they exist, implant- 
 ing them where they are deficient, and, in all, forming 
 habits of order, industry, patience, and obedience. 
 
 4. He should possess decision and firmness ; patience 
 and perseverance ; uniformity of temper, and complete 
 self-command. 
 
 5. He should be pleasant and affectionate, and well 
 quahfied to sympathize with children. Empty profes- 
 sions of interest and attachment will not succeed ; chil- 
 dren, in this respect, cannot be deceived. There is 
 nothing that so invariably begets its like, as love. If the 
 teacher desires his pupils to love him, — and this is what 
 every teacher should desire, — it is only necessary for 
 him to love them. He should also show, that he takes 
 an interest in their sports, and sometimes unbend, so far 
 as to take a share in them. He should appear gratified 
 at their simple efforts to please, by presenting a flower, 
 an apple, a cake, or any other token of regard ; be wil- 
 ling to comply with every request, and to grant every 
 indulgence, not incompatible with duty, or their own 
 good ; but firm in refusal, when compliance would be 
 wrong. 
 
 6. The moral character of the teacher should be un- 
 impeachable, in every respect. He should be a pattern 
 of neatness, and order ; and, to crown all, and which, in 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 105 
 
 fact, embraces the whole matter, he should be a lover 
 and steadfast follower of Truth. 
 
 Duties of the Prudential Committee, as to choice of Teacher. 
 
 When the primary school shall be conducted by per- 
 manent teachers, the importance of a judicious selection 
 will be much enhanced ; and it is to be hoped, that the 
 affair of wages will then form but a minor consideration. 
 The committee, to whom the choice is intrusted, should 
 well consider the responsibility he assumes ; that it is 
 not, as heretofore, a mere temporary arrangement, but 
 one, on which may depend the weal or woe of the whole 
 rising generation of the district. The inquiry into the 
 moral character, and other quahfications of the candidate, 
 can never be too close and strict ; for it now assumes a 
 tenfold importance. When a good teacher has been se- 
 cured, it would seem proper, that she should not be sub- 
 ject to dismissal from the caprice of every new com- 
 mittee. It is, at least, worthy of consideration, whether 
 it should not require the vote of the district to bring the 
 contract to a close. 
 
 Conventions of Teachers. 
 
 Having thus shown how teachers are to be instructed, by 
 means of institutions for that purpose ; the quahfications 
 they ought to possess, before they enter on their profes- 
 sion ; and the duties of committees, in making a selection ; 
 it will now be proper to inquire into the best means for 
 teachers to adopt, in order to continue and extend the, 
 course of improvement on which they have entered. It 
 is one of the laws of man's nature, that he is to move al- 
 ways, to stop never. His career must either be forward 
 or backward. And more particularly is this the case at 
 the commencement of any course, before his knowledge 
 has become fixed by habit. From this principle arises 
 the importance of teachers' establishing societies among 
 themselves, for mutual advice, encouragement, and im- 
 provement. 
 
 It is highly probable that great differences will exist, 
 in respect to the capacity and talents of the pupils in the 
 
106 THE teacher's MANUAL. 
 
 Teachers' Seminary. Some will quickly understand and 
 appropriate all that is brought before them. Every little 
 hint will lead to careful examination and reflection, and 
 frequently bring out much good, which was never in the 
 contemplation of the teacher. Others, of a more slow 
 and mechanical disposition, will originate nothing of them- 
 selves, and, in many cases, will but partially catch the 
 views of the teacher. Some will carry improvements 
 into effect in their true spirit, and meet with complete 
 success in carrying them into practice ; others will act 
 on the dead letter, only, and will fail. It becomes, then, 
 a matter of the first importance, that a free interchange 
 of thought and sentiment should exist between them, that 
 the weak may be encouraged by the strong, and that the 
 timid may be strengthened by the success of the more 
 bold. In this manner, also, any false hypotheses that 
 may have been advanced by their teacher may at once 
 be quashed, after its unfitness has been demonstra- 
 ted by so extensive an experiment as could be carried 
 on by such a society. 
 
 As soon, then, as the schools are generally in opera- 
 tion, a meeting of all the teachers in town should be 
 called, through the medium of the pulpit, or in any other 
 convenient mode. At this first meeting, the plan of op- 
 erations might be determined on. These might be : 1. 
 A recital of the experience of teachers, particularly as 
 to improvements, or new modes recommended in the 
 Teachers' Seminary, or in education periodicals. 2. 
 Recitals of the modes of discipline practised in the sev- 
 eral schools, and remarks on their advantages and disad- 
 vantages. 3. Discussions on both these subjects. 4. 
 Reading, from works on education, or periodicals. 5. 
 Lectures. Such meetings could either be held weekly, 
 once a fortnight, or once a month, according to circum- 
 stances, at some central schoolhouse, or other convenient 
 place. The officers of the society might be a president, 
 vice-president, and secretary, which last should keep a 
 regular journal of proceedings, to be copied into a bound 
 book. At the last meeting, previous to each vacation, 
 every member should be required to furnish returns of 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 107 
 
 the state of his school for the past season ; specifying the 
 number of children under seven years of age, between 
 seven and ten, and above ten, discriminating the boys 
 and girls of each class ; also, the average attendance, 
 -and what measures, if any, had been adopted, to pro- 
 duce regularity, and their success. The various studies 
 attended to should also be specified ; the books used, 
 with remarks on their comparative value ; the size and 
 nature of school libraries, where they existed ; the meas- 
 ures adopted to induce careful usage of books, and 
 their success ; and remarks on the mode of discipline 
 and system of tuition, noticing failures as well as suc- 
 cessful experiments. An explanatory lecture on the ar- 
 rangement and value of such returns, at a previous meet- 
 ing, would be highly salutary. Or this might be prepared 
 by some gentleman of intelligence and zeal, and circula- 
 ted through the districts,through the means of some edu- 
 cation periodical. The returns might be filed by the 
 secretary, and embodied by him, at leisure, into one 
 report ; or, if there were a central school, this last duty 
 might be performed by the principal of that institution. 
 In each county, there ought to be a convention of 
 teachers, annually, or semi-annually ; those counties that 
 are inconveniently large being divided into two districts. 
 Such conventions might either be attended by all the 
 teachers, or by a delegation from each town. Similar 
 offices to those of the town conventions would probably 
 be found convenient. If so, it might be made the duty 
 of the secretary^ besides keeping the records, to receive 
 and digest into one the reports from the town societies, 
 which it should be the business of the principal of the 
 central school, or of the deputations from the respective 
 towns, to present to the convention. At these meetings, 
 resolutions on the subject of education, and, especially, 
 respecting proposed improvements, or such as have been 
 already tried, might be proposed for discussion. As a 
 large majority of the members, both of the town and 
 county societies, would probably be females, the discus- 
 sions should assume as much of a conversational style as 
 possible, in order to prevent the ladies from withholding 
 
108 
 
 their valuable experience and suggestions. In the towns 
 where the county conventions are held, it is very desira- 
 ble, that some of the influential inhabitants should assume 
 the care of providing accommodations for the teachers 
 during the sitting of these conventions. Their object 
 being public good, and not the individual advantage of 
 the members, it would be a great oversight to discourage 
 attendance, by making them a source of expense. In 
 the town where the writer resides, with a scattered popu- 
 lation not exceeding tw^o thousand, accommodations were 
 provided, a few years ago, for two hundred teachers, 
 without charge, during a convention which lasted for four 
 successive days. The same spirit would, no doubt, be 
 shown by any town in New England, where individuals 
 were found willing to step forward, and propose the 
 arrangement. If the subject were properly presented 
 to the Legislature, the State would undoubtedly make 
 a small appropriation, to cover the expense of printed 
 forms of returns, &c., and receive, in return, a copy for 
 the use of the government. 
 
 School Libraries. 
 
 There is one difficulty attending the improved modes 
 of education, which, in some places, has proved rather 
 annoying. But this, like most of the evils of life, will 
 be found, on a full and fair examination, to be rather 
 imaginary than real ; or rather, if not actually a good in 
 itself, capable, by proper management, of resulting in a 
 good. The difficulty alluded to is the expense, arising 
 from the great number of books required in all our im- 
 proved schools. For not only is the course of educa- 
 tion very much extended, but a much greater variety of 
 reading books becomes absolutely necessary for the 
 younger classes. Where the old, mechanical mode of 
 teaching reading is practised, one, or at most, two, kinds 
 of reading books are all that are requisite. For, in this 
 mode of reading, if reading it may be called, which 
 scarcely differs from the inane chatter of a parrot, a 
 book may be conned over nineteen times, and, on the 
 twentieth, be still as new as ever. But, when a book has 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 109 
 
 only been read once, or, at most, twice, according to tlie 
 improved method, the contents have become perfectly 
 familiar to the whole class. And to make them recom- 
 mence would obviously much impede their progress, 
 directly as well as indirectly. Hence, every few weeks, 
 there is a call for a new book ; a call which must be 
 answered, or education is at a stand ; but which, at the 
 same time, becomes a serious tax to a large family in 
 humble circumstances. 
 
 Happily, the remedy for this difficulty is equally ob- 
 vious and simple. Libraries are money-saving institu- 
 tions, mental levers, — bringing within the reach of the 
 poor what was formerly considered the exclusive privi- 
 lege of the rich. And nowhere can their effects be more 
 beneficial than in a school. Indeed, they are indispen- 
 sable to universal education. For not only do they re- 
 duce the school expenses to the merest trifle ; but they 
 provide food for the craving, irrepressible appetite for 
 knowledge, which has been created there. How can 
 any one pretend to be friendly to a good universal edu- 
 cation, and yet in opposition to district hbraries ? Why 
 take pains to create a desire for knowledge, in the com- 
 munity, and obstinately refuse the only means of gratify- 
 ing it .'' When you have given a person a taste for 
 knowledge, and the means of gratification, he can hardly 
 fail of being a happy man ; unless, indeed, a most per- 
 verse selection of books is put into his hands. He is 
 placed in contact with the best society, in every period 
 of history ; with the wisest, the wittiest ; with the ten- 
 derest, the bravest, and the purest, characters, which 
 have adorned humanity. It is hardly possible, but that 
 his character should take a higher and better tone, from 
 the constant habit of associating with a class of thinkers, 
 to say the least of it, above the average of humanity. 
 It is morally impossible, but that the manners should 
 take a tinge of good breeding and civilization, from hav- 
 ing constantly before one's eyes, the way in which the 
 best bred and the best informed men have talked and 
 conducted themselves, in their intercourse with each 
 other. There is a gentle but perfectly irresistible coer- 
 10 
 
110 THE teacher's MANUAL. 
 
 cion, in a habit of reading, well directed, over the whole 
 tenor of a man's character and conduct, which is not the 
 less effectual, because it works insensibly, and because 
 it is really the last thing he dreams of. It civilizes the 
 conduct of men, and suffers them not to remain barba- 
 rous= Another of the great advantages of reading is, 
 that it furnishes us with interesting and safe topics of 
 conversation with our friends. To Hve with books is to 
 inhabit a region far above the din, and turmoil, and petty 
 vexations, which unnecessarily engross the minds of 
 some, who pretend to cultivation. It is very difficult 
 to talk of people, without violating the laws of charhy 
 and of truth ; it is, therefore, best to avoid it. By sub- 
 stituting books, and the vast variety of characters and 
 opinions which they present, ample scope for the ex- 
 pression of thought and' feehng is afforded, for the dis- 
 cussion of various questions, for sharpening each other's 
 wits by coUision of sentiment, correcting the judgment 
 by comparison and discrimination, and strengthening the 
 memory by repetition and quotation. 
 
 School hbraries ought to consist of two kinds of books : 
 viz. books for the use of the school, and books for circu- 
 lation. Of the former, there should be a great variety 
 for the reading classes, and not more than four or five of 
 a kind. For, as they will only be needed while the 
 classes are reciting, one book will answer very well for 
 two scholars. Of the books for study, such as geogra- 
 phies and treatises of written arithmetic, a sufficient num- 
 ber will be wanted, to supply one for each student. 
 The remainder of the library should consist of a sufficient 
 variety of subjects, from the simplest story-book for the 
 child of six years, to the most valuable works on history, 
 biography, poetry, miscellanies, and science ; with a 
 sprinkling of the best novels of Scott, Cooper, Goldsmith, 
 Johnson, Richardson, Miss Burney, Miss Austen, &c. 
 A list of suitable books will be found in the Appendix. 
 
 The district library may be supported as follows : Let 
 the sum of forty, fifty, or sixty dollars, or more, be raised 
 by subscription, or by a tax on freehold property, for the 
 first commencement ; and let it be supported and enlarged 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. Ill 
 
 by a tax on the scholar, or other inhabitants, at the follow- 
 ing rates, viz. 
 
 For each person, over eight years of age, for every 
 school-term of six months, or less, .... 25 cts. 
 For each child, under eight, 12 J." 
 
 Every inhabitant of the district, vi^hether attending 
 school or not, to have the privilege of using the circulat- 
 ing hbrary, by payment of the tax ; but na books to be 
 carried away by any one, till a bond from some respon- 
 sible person was deposited in the hands of the librarian, 
 for each person using them, to insure proper treatment, 
 and the return of the books. 
 
 A deduction of twenty per cent, ought to be made, from 
 the tax of those who own no real estate. The reason 
 for this discrimination is, that the Hbrary will actually in- 
 crease the value of all the real estate, the owners of 
 which are, consequently, the most interested in the es- 
 tablishment. The tax should be made payable in ad- 
 vance. 
 
 The district teacher should be the librarian. She 
 should inspect every book, carefully, that was brought 
 into the library, and take a memorandum of any injury 
 that accrued to the books, for which proper fines should 
 be levied. The librarian should herself be responsible 
 for injury done to the books used in the school, it being 
 a part of her duty to teach the pupils how to use the 
 books, and to see that they are properly taken care of. 
 
 The purchasing committees of the several districts in 
 the town ought to meet, occasionally, to consult as to the 
 purchase of books, and appoint one purchaser for the 
 whole town ; so that they might be procured at the low- 
 est prices, and to prevent the same book being purchased 
 for different libraries. Once a year, or oftener, they 
 might meet, to make exchanges of books, by which each 
 individual would have the privilege of using, at one time 
 or another, all the books in town. 
 
 What an addition it would be to the happiness and wel- 
 fare of society, were such establishments as these spread, 
 universally, over our country ! O, what a beautiful pros- 
 
112 THE teacher's MANUAL. 
 
 pect for the true patriot, to see the fireside of every peas- 
 ant made cheerful by the delights of science ; to find, 
 every where, the long, dreary Winter evening trans- 
 formed into a season of delightful mental recreation ; to 
 hear, in every cottage, 
 
 " The poet or historian's page, by one 
 Made vocal for the amusement of the rest," 
 
 while the other members of the family were busily en- 
 gaged in their various useful avocations. The storm, 
 truly, might rage without ; but within, would be a holy 
 calm. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION, CONTINUED. 
 
 Having now, in imagination, erected our schoolhouse 
 in a pleasant situation, remote from noise and dust, in a 
 lot of sufficient size for exercise and amusement, neatly 
 fenced, shaded, here and there, with clumps of trees, dec- 
 orated with flowers, and furnished with accommodations 
 for healthful gymnastics ; having constructed the building 
 of sufficient size and height, on correct principles as re- 
 gards heat, air, and light; with seats and desks so as to 
 place the pupils of every age perfectly at their ease ; with 
 a woodhouse large enough to contain fuel for the Winter, 
 and ample room over and above for exercise for the schol- 
 ars in bad weather ; having provided an excellent hbrary 
 of books, for the school as well as for general circulation, 
 slates and pencils for every pupil, however small ; having 
 made a good selection of a teacher, educated at an excel- 
 lent teachers' seminary, who has engaged to devote her 
 whole attention to the school, without limit, as to time ; 
 having established a correct system of disci phne, founded 
 on the best principles of human nature ; — all that remains 
 is, to point out the proper mode of carrying into efl^ect 
 the principles laid down in the teachers' seminary, in de- 
 tails sufficiently minute, especially so far as regards the 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. tl3 
 
 first steps, the foundation of education ; fully persuaded, 
 that, if this be well done, there is Httle danger of failure 
 in the higher branches. Let us, then, commence with a 
 young pupil, as ignorant of literature as the negro child 
 in Central Africa, and proceed regularly with him, through 
 most of the studies of the primary school. For the sake 
 of perspicuity, we shall not follow the child backwards 
 and forwards, from one study to another ; but pursue each 
 subject to its close, and then take up the next, and, when 
 we have thus examined each subject, separately, close the 
 subject by remarks on the order and arrangement of 
 studies. 
 
 Reading and Orthography. 
 
 Worcester's Primer is an admirable little book for be- 
 ginners. We shall use it, therefore, as our First Book. 
 Commencing with a child ignorant of his letters, we 
 should turn to page 15, where we find pictures of a man, 
 a cat, a hat, and a dog, opposite the corresponding names, 
 in capitals, as well as in small letters. The teacher may 
 commence thus :* 
 
 Teacher. What is that ? 
 
 Child. A man. 
 
 T. That is the picture of a man. Would you not like 
 to know the icord man ? 
 
 C. Yes. 
 
 T, (pointing to the word.) There it is. Look at it 
 well, that you may know it, again. Now, do you think 
 you shall know it ? 
 
 To this question, the child generally answers, yes. 
 
 T, (turning to page 17 .) Whichof these words (point- 
 ing to Man, Dog, Cup) is Man ? 
 
 Unless the child has been brought up in habits of at- 
 tention by his parents, his heedlessness will be apparent, 
 by his ignorance of the word. And this will generally 
 be the case. So, turning back to page 15, the teacher 
 can say, 
 
 * In order that what follows may be fully understood, the reader 
 should have a copy of the Primer before him, and turn to the pages 
 indicat€d> 
 
 10* 
 
114 
 
 T. You are wrong. See, it does not look like that. 
 You should give more attention. Look at it again, (page 
 15, trace the form of the word with a pointer.) Are 
 you sure you will know it now ? 
 
 C. Yes. 
 
 Most children will now know the word. But a few 
 will be found so heedless, as still not to have given any 
 attention. With these, there will be some difficulty. 
 But, as soon as their attention can be caught, the instant 
 one word is known, the spell is broken, and all will go 
 smooth. Persevere with the first word. If you cannot 
 succeed in the first lesson, give him two, three, four. 
 Have a little patience. In some favorable moment, you 
 will gain his attention, and the difficulty, then, is over. 
 Such is the testimony of many teachers. 
 
 One word is enough for the first lesson. And now 
 comes an exercise, which must always, without one sol- 
 itary exception^ follow reading. There must be no ex- 
 cuse for want of time. The teacher must take time, 
 whatever else he may slight. 
 
 T. What have you been reading about ? 
 
 C. About a man. 
 
 At the second lesson, see if he can still point out the 
 word, man, (page 17.) If not, repeat, as before. But 
 if he knows it, show him the next word, and say, that is 
 cat. There is no occasion to make further use of pic- 
 tures, for the present. Turning, again, to page 17, — 
 
 T. Which of these words (man, cat, hat) is cat .'' 
 
 When he knows this word, conclude, as before : 
 
 T. What have you been reading about to-day ? 
 
 C. A cat. 
 
 T. Nothing else ? 
 
 C: Yes, a man. 
 
 By a similar process, the other seven words will readily 
 be learned by the child. But it is scarcely possible to re- 
 peat, too often, in this stage of education, that a minute ex- 
 amination of the child, as to what he has read, must be gone 
 into, at the close of every lesson. No excuse can be ad- 
 mitted, unless the house be on fire, or tumbling about 
 your ears. Should the teacher find there is not time, the 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 115 
 
 lessons may be made shorter, or fewer given per day. 
 Three a week, with questioning, are of far more value 
 than twenty without. The developement of the faculty 
 of attention, the formation of a habit , is all important. If 
 that be done early, there will be no difficulty in educating 
 the child. It ought, then, to be commenced at the^r^^ 
 lesson, and never, for a moment, be lost sight of, during 
 the whole course of education. 
 
 Until our schools are completely reformed, as to read- 
 ing, great care will be necessary, to prevent beginners 
 from acquiring the prevailing bad habits. One of the 
 most pernicious of these is, the practice of raising the 
 voice at the end of every word, when they are separately 
 pronounced, as by beginners. It is exceedingly difficult, 
 not to say impossible, to overcome such habits, when fully 
 formed ; v/hile nothing, but a little attention on the part 
 of the teacher, is necessary to prevent their formation. 
 Let, then, the attention of all the teachers of the primary 
 school be wide awake on this subject. One hour, at the 
 commencement, is worth days, weeks, months, at a later 
 period. It is also highly important, that our little begin- 
 ners pronounce the consonants full and strong, at the end 
 of syllables and words ; more especially, when they are 
 doubled. The )' requires particular attention. In such 
 words as far, star, farm, barn, born, burn, &c., the usual 
 practice is merely to lengthen the sound of the vowel, omit- 
 ting the sound of the r altogether ; and, in such words as 
 mild, build, field, mind, the d is almost uniformly omitted 
 by common readers and speakers. Let the teacher, then, 
 take especial care of the consonant sounds. The vow- 
 els may be mispronounced, but can never be omitted. 
 It is in the consonants, that articulation essentially con- 
 sists. Webster, in his dictionary, uniformly calls them 
 articulations. They may be said to form the thews 
 and sinews of speech ; and their distinct utterance, con- 
 stitutes one of the chief distinctions between good and 
 bad speakers. Sheridan says, that, " in several northern 
 counties of England, there are scarce any of the inhab- 
 itants who can pronounce the letter r at all. Yet it would 
 be strange to suppose, that all these people should have 
 
116 THE teacher's MANUAL. 
 
 been so unfortunately distinguished from other natives of 
 this island, as to be born with any peculiar defect in their 
 organs, when this matter is so plainly to be accounted 
 for, upon the principle of imitation and habit." Yes : 
 such defects, undoubtedly, do arise principally from imi- 
 tation and habit. But the animal and intellectual tem- 
 perament has also some connexion with this subject. 
 '' A sluggish action of the mind," says Dr. Porter, of 
 Andover, " imparts a correspondent character to the ac- 
 tion of the vocal organs, and makes speech only a suc- 
 cession of indolent, half-formed sounds, more resembling 
 the muttering of a dream, than the clear articulation we 
 ought to expect, in one who knows what he is saying. 
 Excess of vivacity, on the other hand, or excess of sen- 
 sibility, often produce a hasty, confused utterance. Del- 
 icacy speaks in a timid, feeble voice ; and the fault of 
 indistinctness is often aggravated in a bashful child, by 
 the indiscreet chidings of his teacher, designed to push 
 him into greater speed in spelling out his early lessons ; 
 while he has little familiarity v/ith the form and sound, 
 and less with the meaning, of words." 
 
 But to return to our Primer. In lesson 2d, pages 18, 
 19, will be found nine other words, to be learned as in 
 lesson 1st, turning to page 20, to see if they are known. 
 
 Our pupil having thus acquired a small stock of words, it 
 may here be proper to commence their analysis, by show- 
 ing him, that each of these words is formed out of three 
 characters, called letters, of which he should now learn the 
 names. He may also be told, that these letters are of 
 two kinds, capital and small letters, generally differing in 
 shape. As it is useful to know the order of the alphabet, 
 for consulting dictionaries, &c., it will be proper to teach 
 letters in that order, taking care, however, always to 
 show him the one he is acquiring in some wordr, as well 
 as in the alphabet, and only learning one letter at a time. 
 This exercise should not interfere with the reading les- 
 sons. These should still go on, so that he may daily 
 add to his stock of words. 
 
 As soon as the child has become acquainted with the 
 names of his letters, and this will generally be in a few 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 117 
 
 weeks, — for now that a child sees, distinctly, the use of 
 books, he will rapidly acquire any knowledge connected 
 with them ; as soon as he knows his letters, then, a new 
 exercise may be added to his lesson, namely, spelling 
 some of the words that he has just read. The teacher, 
 however, should be contented with his spelHng them on 
 the book^ at first ; afterwards getting him, by degrees, to 
 try to remember their form, so as to spell without book. 
 But this orthographical exercise must be kept entirely 
 unconnected with reading. The absurd practice of 
 spelling a word, in order to learn its pronunciation, must 
 never be resorted to. 
 
 Nor should the child ever be allowed to study out^ as it 
 is called, but, more properly, commit to memory, his spel- 
 ling lessonsc The object should be to get the child into 
 a habit of observing the form of words, while reading. 
 If he attain this habit, and it is one of easy acquisition, 
 he will be a correct speller ; but, without it, although he 
 should commit to memory the contents of all the spelling- 
 books in existence, he never will. Any one, who doubts 
 this, has only to inquire, how he became acquainted with 
 the orthography of the terms of science, the various in- 
 flections of the nouns, pronouns, verbs, &c., and a vast 
 number of proper names. From his speUing-book ? Cer- 
 tainly not ; very few of them are to be found there ; but, 
 simply, by having met with them in the course of his 
 reading. Another still more unanswerable argument lies 
 in the fact, that, in the study of foreign languages, we 
 never think of resorting to this absurd practice, and we 
 are very seldom at a loss for their orthography. In fact, 
 it has been observed, that foreigners generally spell more 
 correctly than natives, because they read the language 
 with more attention, and never trouble themselves with 
 spelling-books. When we come to. speak of composi- 
 tion, another mode of improving in orthography will be 
 developed. 
 
 In lesson od, page 23 of the Primer, the pupil is first 
 introduced to short sentences ; and here his reading prop- 
 erly commences. Each picture in this lesson is accom- 
 panied by two sentences, and some of the words con- 
 
118 THE teacher's MANUAL. 
 
 tained in the first, are repeated in the second. Accord- 
 ingly, when the pupil has pronounced the words of the 
 first sentence, after the teacher, he should be required to 
 point out those same words in the line below ; and, as 
 soon as he knows all the words in both, the teacher should 
 say,— 
 
 T. Now you have named the words. But this is not 
 reading. Listen to me. I shall first name the words, 
 and then read them : A — nice — fan. A nice fan, (the 
 teacher reading the article a, rapidly, and the two em- 
 phatic words, slowly and forcibly.) This — is — a — nice 
 — fan. This is a nice fan. (Here are three strongly 
 emphatic words, and two that should be run over, rapidly 
 and slightly.) Now do you name the words, and after- 
 wards read them. 
 
 These two sentences are enough for a lesson. As 
 soon as the pupil has read them properly, as well as can 
 be done by a good reader, the teacher, closing the book, 
 asks, 
 
 T. What have you been reading about ? 
 
 C. A fan. 
 
 T. What sort of a fan ? 
 
 C. A nice fan. 
 
 Before we pursue our lessons further, it will be proper 
 to point out a few errors in pronunciation, which, owing 
 to their producing an emphasis on the wrong word, are 
 very injurious to good reading, more especially, as they 
 are words of very frequent occurrence. The errors al- 
 luded to lie in the sound of the article, a ; in the letter 
 /i, at the beginning of several of the pronouns, namely, 
 he, him, his^ and her ; and their compounds, himself] 
 herself, &c. ; and the letter y, in the words my and thy. 
 
 Jl is either a letter, or an article. As the former, it 
 is pronounced like a in fate ; as the latter, Hke a in the 
 second syllable of liar, palace, rival, abbacy ; (see Wor- 
 cester's ' Pronouncing Dictionary,' Boston, 1838.) Most 
 speakers and readers, in New England, however, intend 
 to pronounce the tcord, a, the same as the letter, a ; but, 
 so great is the inherent impropriety of giving the long 
 sound to, and, of course, placing emphasis on, so insig- 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 119 
 
 nificant a word, that, whenever the speaker or reader is 
 fully occupied with his subject, he is sure to pronounce 
 it right ; it being only when he thinks of the pronuncia- 
 tion^ that he gives it the wrong sound. The consequence 
 is, that bad, stiff speakers pronounce it uniformly ; while 
 good speakers pronounce it sometimes the one way and 
 sometimes the other. The same remarks will apply to a 
 large number of words compounded with a, such as about^ 
 afraidj around^ aivay^ &c., only that the error, in the 
 compound words, lies rather in the accent, than in the 
 emphasis. For, when we give the long instead of the 
 obscure sound of « to these words, we necessarily accent 
 both syllables, which is contrary to the genius of the En- 
 glish language, which admits but of one accent in dissyl- 
 lables. The only exception given by orthoepists to this 
 rule, is the word, amen ; and this is, really, no exception, 
 at all, as it is a Hebrew, not an English, word.* 
 
 Another error, with respect to the indefinite article, is 
 this : The word was originally one, as may readily be per- 
 ceived from the analogy of all the languages derived from the 
 Latin, {unus, Latin ; un, une, French ; uno, una, Span- 
 ish ; hum, huma, Portuguese ; un, una, Italian.) Thence 
 it was corrupted, or shortened, into an, the last letter of 
 which is dropped, for the sake of euphony, when it is 
 followed by a word having a consonant sound at the com- 
 mencement. Hence, when the h is not pronounced, as 
 in the words, hou?', honest, the n should be retained ; 
 but, when it is pronounced, as in hair and hat, the n 
 should be dropped. Unfortunately, most printers, to 
 whom such affairs are generally intrusted by authors, un- 
 able to discriminate, or unwilling to take the trouble, have 
 retained the n in all cases before the h. The consequence 
 is, that bad readers, and they are more than ten to one, 
 pronounce the n, whether the h is silent or not, because 
 they find it printed so, calling it an house, instead of a 
 house ; an hair, instead of a hair, &c. The same remark 
 applies to the word one, pronounced wun ; union, pro- 
 nounced yuneyun, and other similar cases, where the n 
 
 * The obscure sound of all the vowels is precisely the same : as 
 liar, brier, irregular, idol, sulphwr, trn]y. 
 
120 THE teacher's MANUAL. 
 
 should be dropped, for the sake of euphony. All these 
 originate in the same naanner as the former ; simply by 
 the printer discriminating by his eye^ in place of his ear. 
 They ought to be printed and read, such a one ; a union ; 
 a useful man^ &c. A somewhat similar error occurs in 
 most of our English Bibles, and is copied by many of the 
 ministers in their pulpits, but nowhere else. In old 
 times, before politeness introduced the use of you and 
 your in place of thee and thy., the words mine and thine 
 were used,for the sake of euphony, in place of my and thy^ 
 when the following word commenced with a vowel sound. 
 Hence, in the Bible, we have my people, mine ear ; my 
 son, mine eye ; consequently, we should also have my 
 house, my heart, mine honor, mine heir. But, the printers 
 having committed the same blunder here, we have mine 
 house and mine heart, for my house and my heart ; and 
 this error in typography leads to the same error in pronun- 
 ciation as was noticed respecting an house, an hat. 
 
 The next error, to be noticed, relates to the pronunci- 
 ation of the letter /i, in certain cases. H \s an anomaly 
 among letters, being neither vowel nor consonant, but 
 simply, as Webster observes, " the mark of a stronger 
 breathing., than that which precedes the utterance of any 
 other letter." It never can be sounded without some de- 
 gree of emphasis ; hence, ahhough orthoepists have given 
 no rule on the subject, no good reader or speaker ever 
 pronounces it in the personal pronouns mentioned above, 
 unless they are emphatic words in the sentence. This 
 will be at once perceived, by reading aloud the following 
 lines, when it will be found, that the h is pronounced in 
 the words printed in small capitals, but not in those which 
 are in the Itahc character, and with an apostrophe (') 
 placed before them. 
 
 If HE command, who dares oppose } 
 Wide as '/le spreads ^his golden flame. 
 To HIM who washed us in ''his blood. 
 Behold ''him present with ''his aid. 
 Were but our hearts prepared like his. 
 He sent ^his son with power to save. 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 121 
 
 With respect to the demonstrative pronouns, it may be 
 observed, generally, that poor readers and speakers pro- 
 nounce them, uniformly, with too much emphasis, so as 
 frequently to change the sense. 
 
 The words thy and mi/, should have the long sound of 
 i, when emphatic ; on other occasions, its obscure sound. 
 
 The following words, and their compounds, are almost 
 uniformly pronounced properly in conversation, and im- 
 properly in reading : hasten, chasten, fasten, Hsten, glis- 
 ten, christen, moisten ; castle, nestle, trestle, wrestle, 
 thistle, whistle, epistle, bristle, gristle, jostle, apostle, 
 throstle, bustle, justle, rustle ; in all of which the t should 
 be omitted in pronunciation ; and in the word clothes, the 
 th should be omitted. An innovation has lately been in- 
 troduced, in some parts of New England, in the accentu- 
 ation of the word legislature, by, laying the stress on the 
 second syllable, which is believed to be entirely devoid of 
 respectable authority. Sheridan, Walker, Jones, En- 
 field, Fulton and Knight, Jameson, Webster, and Wor- 
 cester, all place the accent on the first syllable, and Perry 
 on the third. Such innovations should be discountenanced 
 by every good speaker, as leading to interminable confu- 
 sion. 
 
 The above remarks are intended for the use of the 
 teacher. As they all relate to unnatural, acquired errors, 
 a very slight degree of care, on his part, will prevent their 
 being copied by beginners ; but some pains will be neces- 
 sary, to break the older pupils of their bad habits in this 
 respect. These errors would not have been noticed here, 
 had the WTiter been able to refer to any book where they 
 have been pointed out : but, unfortunately, they seem to 
 have been totally overlooked ; and it was thought wrong to 
 omit them, as they essentially interfere with good reading. 
 
 There are many other errors or imperfections in read- 
 ing, not even alluded to by authors treating of this sub- 
 ject ; but, unfortunately, most of them are only capable 
 of being exemplified in a proper manner orally. It is 
 to be hoped, however, that, before long, teachers' semi- 
 naries will be established, where this, and other serious 
 errors in teaching, will be fully rectified. Meanwhile, 
 11 
 
122 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 we shall close this part of our subject, by noticing two 
 prominent imperfections in readers, generally. 
 
 The first is, the neglect of proper pauses at the stops. 
 The directions, generally given in schools, are, to stop at 
 a comma as long as we can count one ; at a semicolon, 
 so long as to count tioo ; a colon, three ; a period, /oitr. 
 The two last are, evidently, too much. Perhaps a better 
 rule would be, at a comma, one ; at a semicolon, colon, 
 or period, two ; at the end of a paragraph, or change of 
 subject, four. But this, though not much more than half 
 the length of the pauses generally directed, is longer than 
 is ever practised. Most readers make no stop at all, at 
 either comma, semicolon, or colon ; they merely lengthen 
 the sound of the last syllable, and they stop not longer 
 than to count one at a period. In this manner, the words 
 and ideas become so huddled together, that it is very dif- 
 ficult to follow, and catch the sense. The teacher ought 
 to insist on a complete cessation of sound at a comma, a 
 cessation of double the length at the other points, and 
 this, again, to be doubled, on a change of subject. 
 
 The other defect to be noticed, is the want of sufficient 
 variety of expression. There is too much sameness in 
 the degree, both of force and of rapidity. The emphatic 
 words should be pronounced strong and slow, and the 
 other words softly and rapidly. Language is made up 
 of words and syllables ; and these syllables, like notes in 
 music, are of all possible lengths. It is a rude and incor- 
 rect distinction, which the Latin readers have made, in 
 classifying them merely into long and short. The word 
 all, in length of sound, may be represented by a minim, 
 the longest note in modern music ; but the word indivis- 
 ible, though composed of five syllables, should be spoken 
 in a time equally short ; consequently, each syllable, in 
 the latter word, is only one fifth of the length of the mon- 
 osyllable. If we inspect the fine adagios of Haydn and 
 Beethoven,v we shall find them composed of sounds, va- 
 rying in length, from the slowest note to those of the 
 greatest quickness ; and if we examine a speech of Shak- 
 speare and Milton, we shall find them also composed of 
 words ponderous and slow, mingled with particles and 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 123 
 
 syllables of great rapidity. The strong expressions, prop- 
 erly sustained by the voice, invariably convey the sense. 
 The smaller words, the mere links oManguage, should be 
 driven together. This subject cannot easily be exempli- 
 fied in writing ; but, in general terms, it may be said, that 
 the reading in schools would be much improved, if the 
 force of the emphasis were at least doubled, and the ra- 
 pidity of the other words also at least doubled. 
 
 Having thus pointed out some of the principal errors 
 to be avoided in reading, we are now prepared to resume 
 our lessons in Worcester's Primer. As the vocabulary 
 of the pupil extends, so should the proportionate length 
 of his lesson. For some little time, he will have to be 
 told how to pronounce every new word ; but he will soon 
 acquire, of himself, correct notions of the powers of the 
 letters, which will enable him to find them out, himself. 
 The teacher may aid him in this, by uttering the sound 
 of the power (not the name) of the letter, at the beginning 
 of the word, about which he is at a loss. For instance ; 
 suppose he did not know the word a^oss. The teacher 
 might give the sound or or cro. When he comes to words 
 of more than one syllable, he may be assisted, by covering 
 the second syllable till he had pronounced the first, &c. 
 But, on no account, should a child be directed or allowed 
 to spell a word, in order to ascertain its pronunciation. 
 The folly of this practice has been fully shown, in Part 
 I. Chapter V., which see. When a child has been stopped 
 .for a word, he ought to read the sentence over again, so 
 that he may not lose the idea ; and the teacher ought to 
 keep steadily in mind, that the sine qua non^ the grand 
 object of the school, is to teach the child to connect 
 words with ideas. 
 
 There is considerable inconvenience in forming chil- 
 dren into classes, until they can read with some degree of 
 fluency ; but, if the teacher is much pressed for time, he 
 can collect half a dozen little ones round him, though he 
 ought, perhaps, to give lessons to each separately. 
 
 After the pupil has gone through the Primer, his les- 
 sons, for a day or two, may consist of examining the pic- 
 tures, separately, and telling his teacher what was said 
 
124 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 about this, what about that. An excellent exercise, too, 
 for giving him a command of language, and improving his 
 power of observation, would be, to make him explain all 
 the larger prints, and point out what was on the foreground, 
 what on the background, the right, the left, &c., requir- 
 ing him to mention the most minute particulars. 
 
 If he is found to be well acquainted with the book, 
 which will generally be the case on the first reading, if 
 the teacher has done him justice, he should now begin a 
 new one. The author of the Primer has furnished an 
 excellent series of books ; but, unfortunately, when the 
 child has gone through the first, he is not yet prepared to 
 take up the second. And this is a defect attached to 
 every series we have seen. The next books in order, 
 then, should be, the ' Easy Primer,' (printed by Merriam, 
 Springfield,) the ' Franklin Primer,' the ' Columbian 
 Primer,' Gallaudet's ' Picture Defining Book,' ' Juvenile 
 Lessons,' or any other books containing short and easy 
 sentences, suited to infantile capacity.* Works on ge- 
 ography, history, &c., (see Chapter I.,) may follow. 
 Pushing a child forward, faster than he is prepared to go, 
 is a serious evil, in all our schools ; more especially, in 
 reading. If he is put into long sentences before he can 
 read short ones, fluently, he must give so much attention 
 to the pronunciation, that he has none to bestow on the 
 sense. But, while this evil must be sedulously avoided, 
 the child must not be kept reading the same book over 
 and over. This, truly, would be avoiding Scylla to fall 
 on Charybdis. During the first year, he should read a 
 number of books of nearly the same grade, till his vocab- 
 ulary has become sufficiently extensive to enable him to 
 read long sentences with tolerable ease, on the first trial. 
 The school library will afford this variety, without addi- 
 tional expense to the parent. 
 
 There is a danger attendant on the use of the improved 
 
 * * The Little Philosopher,' by Jacob Abbot, is an excellent reading 
 book, after the ' Juvenile Lessons.' Let the class read the questions, 
 by turns, and the teacher, after the reading of each question, indicate 
 what child shall give the answer ; which should be done as rapidly as 
 possible. Let the large print be read through first, reserving the small 
 print to a second reading, or review. 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 125 
 
 first books, which teachers should be careful to avoid, 
 else it may be productive of bad consequences. The 
 books are so interesting to children, that they Hsten to 
 their schoolmates' reading, and thus, sometimes, get 
 familiar with the sentences and stories, before they can 
 read them, insomuch that, by the help of the attendant 
 picture, or a knowledge of only the first word, they go 
 fluently through their lessons, as if they were reading 
 them, when, in fact, they know little more than the first 
 word of the sentence or story. This, however, can 
 easily be discovered, by asking them words out of the 
 middle of the sentences, or occasionally making them 
 read a sentence backwards. The evil can never attain 
 any head with an attentive teacher, especially after hav- 
 ing been warned of the danger. 
 
 After reading a little geography and history, newspa- 
 pers would afford admirable lessons for the reading 
 classes. These might, no doubt, be procured from the 
 parents, without charge ; and, when there was only one 
 of a kind, the children might read by turns, or pass it 
 from hand to hand. Eveiy part might be read, and 
 every part might furnish a useful lesson. Let us ex- 
 amine the first that comes to hand, which proves to be 
 one from Philadelphia. Here we find various advertise- 
 ments of different lines from Philadelphia to Pittsburg, 
 which might give rise to interesting descriptions of canals 
 and railways, and of a country, two hundred miles of 
 which was a wilderness, traversed only by packhorses, 
 less than forty years ago. These advertisements are 
 followed by a broker's call for small notes, or shinplas- 
 ters, sales of raisins, of wine, looking-glasses, whips, 
 buffalo robes, spectacles, cedar-ware, anthracite, cabinet 
 furniture, hats, macaroni, nails and spikes, Bordeaux 
 almonds, stoves, &c. ; notices of companies for insur- 
 ance on lives, fire insurance companies, exchange offices, 
 loan companies, coal companies ; lectures on phrenology, 
 ' on the Augustan age,' ' on the life and writings of Shak- 
 speare,' ' on the cause of storms ;' balls, concerts, thea- 
 tres, soup-house tickets, auctions, houses and farms for 
 sale, &c. ; with quack medicines, for the certain cure of 
 11* 
 
126 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 every disorder incident to man, except vice, old age, and 
 death. Leaving the advertisements, we have political 
 remarks and discussions, legislative proceedings, news 
 from Texas, accounts of war and revolution in Mexico, 
 discussions on free banking, accounts of a dreadful inun- 
 dation, reviews of new books, sales of stocks, a list of 
 letter-bags at the Exchange, and, lastly, a list of mar- 
 riages and deaths. V/hat a fine scope would here be 
 presented, for questions and discussions by the pupils, 
 and explanations by the teacher ! What an opportunity 
 for practical illustrations of geography and history ! And 
 could a fitter time ever occur, for im.pressing on the 
 mind of the pupil the necessity, of receiving all pohtical 
 disquisitions with caution ; of always remembering the 
 motto, Jludi alteram partem ?* an impression, which 
 might be much strengthened, by having papers on differ- 
 ent sides of the great political question, which can prob- 
 ably be procured in every town. One newspaper, one 
 single sheet, might afford interesting subjects for inquiry 
 and discussion for a school, for months. How many 
 books might these readings cause to be searched, which 
 might, otherwise, have lain closed ! What expansion 
 of mind, in the little world of school, by the proper re- 
 view of the newspaper ! 
 
 " This folio of four pages, happy work ! 
 Which not even critics criticise, — 
 What is it, but a inup of busy life, 
 Its fluctuations, and its vast concerns ?" — Cowper. 
 
 The reflections, which it excites in the mind of the 
 amiable poet, are so appropriate, that a quotation from 
 them may, perhaps, be pardoned. 
 
 " 'T is pleasant, through the loopholes of retreat, 
 To peep at such a world ; to see the stir 
 Of the great Babel, and not feel the crowd ; 
 To hear the roar she sends through all her gates, 
 At a safe distance, where the dying sound 
 Falls, a soft murmur, on th' uninjured ear. 
 Thus sitting, and surveying thus, at ease, 
 The globe and its concerns, I seem advanced 
 
 * Hear the other side. 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 127 
 
 To some secure and more than mortal height, 
 That liberates and exempts me from them all. 
 It turns, submitted to my view, turns round. 
 With all its generations ; I behold 
 The tumult, and am still. The sound of war 
 Has lost its terrors ere it reaches me ; 
 Grieves, but alarms me not. I mourn the pride 
 And avarice, that make man a wolf to man ; 
 Hear the faint echo of those brazen throats, 
 By which he speaks the language of his heart, 
 And sigh, but never tremble at the sound. 
 He* travels and expatiates ; as the bee, 
 From flower to flower, so he, from land to land ; 
 The mannersj custom, policy, of all. 
 Pay contribution to the store he gleans ; 
 He sucks intelligence in every clime. 
 And spreads the honey of his deep research. 
 At his return, — a rich repast for me. 
 He travels, and I too. I tread his deck. 
 Ascend his topmast, through his peering eye 
 Discover countries ; with a kindred heart 
 Suffer his woes, and share in his escapes ; 
 While Fancy, like the finger of a clock, 
 Runs the great circuit, and is still at home."t 
 
 Before leaving the subject of reading, let us urge, once 
 more, on the teacher, the importance of allowing nothing 
 to be read in school, without requiring a full account of 
 it from the class. iVt first, this may be educed by ques- 
 tions ; but, as soon as possible, the child should be led, 
 by degrees, to give an account of his reading, without this 
 aid. And, where questions are used, great care must be 
 taken to avoid leading ones, such as, " Was Jane a good 
 girl .'' Did she want some plums .?" instead of, " What 
 kind of a girl was Jane .'^" or, " What was said of 
 Jane .f"' Let there also be questions relating to the 
 general train of thought, and to topics growing out of it. 
 Let there be questions which will lead the little logician 
 to the exercise of his reflecting and reasoning powers, 
 and to the developeraent of his moral feelings. Great 
 care must be taken, to prevent guessing at answers. 
 The children should be made to understand, that they 
 must not attempt to answer, unless they have a distinct 
 recollection of the subject. By the use of leading ques- 
 
 * The editor. t ' Task,' Book iv. 1. 88^ &c. 
 
128 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 tions, and by allowing guessing, some teachers have suf- 
 fered this most admirable discipline for the mind to de- 
 generate into a mere form. The use of books with 
 printed questions is also apt to produce evil effects, 
 unless care is taken by the teacher. For, sometimes, a 
 pupil will select the words of the book furnishing the 
 answers, and commit them to memory, and thus appear 
 fully master of a subject, of which he is profoundly ig- 
 norant. In order to keep the attention of the whole 
 class wide awake, it will be proper, fi7'st to give the 
 question, and then to name the pupil who is to answer ; 
 letting it be always understood, also, that each child is 
 liable to be called on, any number of times, and must al- 
 ways be ready. 
 
 Terms should be explained to children in a way suited 
 to their capacity, not by formal definitions, or by synony- 
 mous expressions. This last is merely the substitution 
 of one word for another ; and, very frequently, the last 
 is more unintelligible than the first, and, besides, creates 
 the habit of resting satisfied with mere sounds, instead of 
 ideas. But the explanation should be given by going 
 back to simple, elementary truths, and by illustrations, 
 drawn from objects and events with which they are fa- 
 miliar.* But the child himself should be called on, for 
 the signification of words and phrases in the lesson ; and 
 he should be accustomed to examine the context for 
 their meaning. He should also be required to give his 
 
 * I called , one day, at the parsonage, with a neighbor of ours, a Mrs. 
 Moodey. After a pause, "Mr. Pottle," said she to the minister, 
 *' I am almost ashamed to confess my ignorance, but you said some- 
 thing, in your last discourse, which I did not exactly understand." 
 *' Well, madam," said he, with a loud voice and a stern expression, 
 *' and pray what was it?" " O, dear sir," she replied, evidently 
 confounded by his manner, " I don't doubt, in the least, that it was 
 owing to my weak understanding ; but you said, sir, — speaking of the 
 wiles of Satan, — 'as if as though to circumvent thee.'" "Oh, — 
 ah, — yes, Mrs. Moodey," he answered, "I well remember that ex- 
 pression. The meaning of those words, madam," raising his voice to 
 a terrible pitch, and striking his hand violently upon the table, " the 
 meaning of those words is this, Mrs. Moodey, — as if as though 
 TO CIRCUMVENT thee!" " Oh, dear me, parson Pottle," cried 
 Mrs. Moodey, with a trembling voice, " how very clear you make it 
 now !" — ' Temperance Tales,' A^'ol. v, p. 115. 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 129 
 
 opinions about matters of fact, the object of actions men- 
 tioned, and the thing settled Idj any chain of reasoning. 
 
 It is not to be expected, that all the teachers, into 
 whose hands this book may fall, will believe in the prac- 
 ticability of this mode of teaching reading ; and some 
 may probably carry their incredulity so far, as not even 
 to be willing to give it a trial. These last, however, it 
 is believed, may find useful suggestions, even after dis- 
 carding, entirely, the new mode of teaching ; and it is to 
 be hoped, that prejudice will not induce them to reject 
 all, because a part does not accord with their views. 
 To those who are willing to give it a trial, we would 
 say, let it be a fair trial ; be sure that it is perfectly un- 
 derstood, and that the course pointed out be followed ex- 
 actly, and we have no fears for the result ; for the exper- 
 iment has repeatedly succeeded, even under circumstan- 
 ces by no means favorable. And let it never be forgot- 
 ten, that, although the progress of the child is much more 
 rapid than by the old method, this is a matter of but 
 secondary importance. It is in the avoidance of the 
 bad habits^ engendered by the synthetic course, that its 
 chief merit consists. It is because the child sees the 
 value and use of his daily acquisitions immediately ; 
 because he unites sense with sound from the very first, 
 that a trial is so urgently pressed upon the teacher. Let 
 a fair trial be given, then, and, above all, let there be a 
 hope, a desire, of success. 
 
 The spelling lessons should be regularly continued 
 after the reading, the teacher selecting suitable words out 
 of the chapter read, until the pupils can write composi- 
 tions of some length, when they may be discontinued 
 altogether, as writing is by far the surest mode of ac- 
 quiring a knowledge of orthography. 
 
 There are so many anomalies in the English language, 
 that rules for pronunciation are not generally of much 
 service to young students. There are two, however, of 
 such extensive application, that it will be well for the 
 teacher, occasionally, to exemplify them on the black- 
 board, as an exercise for his pupils. 
 
130 
 
 1. The vowels at the end of a syllable have the sound 
 from which they are named ; namely, 
 
 Ba, Be, Bi, Bo, Bu. 
 But, when the vowels are followed by a consonant, 
 their sound is changed, and becomes short ; as, 
 Bat, Bet, Bit, Bot, But. 
 The original sound is restored, by placing an e after 
 the consonant ; as. 
 
 Bate, Bete, Bite, Bote, Bute. 
 F, when a vowel, has precisely the sound of i, under 
 similar circumstances ; as, 
 
 By, Byt, Byte. 
 
 2. C and G have two sounds, the one hard, the other 
 soft. They are soft before e, and i, and y ; in every 
 other situation, they are hard ; as, 
 
 Car, Centj Cit, Cot, Cut, Cynthia^ Music. 
 
 Gas, Gentle, Gin, Gone, Gun, Gymnastics, Hog. 
 
 There are numerous exceptions to the second rule ; but, 
 as these occur only in famihar words, the pupil is not 
 likely to go astray. 
 
 Teacher. What is the use of the two e's in George } 
 and the u, in guest and guilt .'' Pronounce the following 
 words, — gybe, gypsum, nys. 
 
 Writing. 
 
 There are various modes of teaching waiting, between 
 which there is probably little matter for choice. We 
 shall present one, for the convenience of the teacher, 
 without insisting that it is the best ; though we know it will 
 make good writers, if properly taught, at the proper time. 
 
 Every child should be shown how to hold and move 
 his pencil, and how to sit at his desk, while writing, as 
 soon as he enters school. The body should have a reg- 
 ular slope, from the seat to the crown of the head ; no 
 bend. The seat should be so far back, as to allow of 
 this position. The left arm should rest on the desk. 
 The right should also rest on a point a httle below the 
 elbow, the little finger slightly touching the desk, but not 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 131 
 
 pressing on it. The pen and pencil should lie on the 
 second finger, and be held, not too firmly, by that finger 
 and the thumb. The forefinger should rest on the pen 
 or pencil, to keep it steady. The two fingers should be 
 extended their full length ; the thumb a little bent. The 
 fingers and thumb should be kept steadily in that position, 
 the motions being all made with the forearm. The down- 
 ward motions should all be parallel. One of the greatest 
 faults in writing is the carrying the downward motions 
 in difl^erent directions. The ends of the r, o, v, and w, 
 should not descend, lest they degenerate, as they are very 
 apt to do, with rapid writers, into n, «, and u. For the 
 first week or two, the teacher, standing or sitting where 
 he can see all the writers, should keep a constant eye 
 upon them, to see that all the positions and movements 
 are steadily kept. If this is done, those of the class, who 
 have acquired no bad habits from previous use of the pen 
 or pencil, will soon write well. 
 
 The first beauty in writing is legibility. Every thing 
 should give way to this. Flourishes may be useful, in 
 giving freedom of hand, but they should be practised by 
 themselves, and never introduced into writing, least of all 
 when writing a signature. The plainer the writing, the 
 more difficult to counterfeit it. Besides, if the name be 
 illegible, we have no clue wherewith to decipher it. For 
 other words, we have the context. In proper names, 
 we have nothing. A merchant in Boston lately returned 
 to the post-office a letter, containing an order for goods. 
 The signature was so elegantly written, as to be quite 
 illegible. The same remark applies to figures. If each 
 character is not plain, we have no means of ascertaining 
 the amount. Hence, it should be considered a rule, from 
 which not the slightest deviation should be allowed, that 
 figures and proper names must be written plain. 
 
 The second beauty, in writing, is the getting as much 
 within a small compass, as comports with legibility. No 
 one can read with ease, unless his eye can comprehend 
 the longest word, or several short ones, at a glance. 
 Therefore, although it may be permissible to write loose- 
 ly until the pupil can write fluently, he should begin to 
 draw together his letters as soon as possible. 
 
132 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 The pupil should not be made to write too slow. It is 
 easier to write moderately fast : and it is desirable to write 
 a rapid hand as soon as possible. Care should be taken, 
 however, not to run into extremes in this point. In- 
 deed, if the pupil is never allowed to contract bad hab- 
 its as to sitting, and as to holding and moving the pen, 
 there is no fear but what he will soon be a rapid writer. 
 But almost every thing depends on commencing right. 
 
 Draining. 
 
 Drawing should be taught simultaneously with writing ; 
 that is, as soon as the pupil can hold a pencil. It should 
 be practised, at first, on the slate, on which the very 
 youngest child may be usefully employed, in forming 
 vertical, horizontal, and oblique lines, triangles, squares, 
 rectangles, &c. Then might follow the division of these 
 lines, by the eye, into two, three, four, five, six, &c., 
 parts. The pencil should be held in the same manner 
 as the pen. While the pupils use slate-pencils, they 
 should have quills or tin tubes, as holders, and their 
 pencils should be sharp enough to make fine lines. 
 
 As soon as the child can draw straight lines, join them 
 neatly together, and divide them, by the eye, into any 
 given number of equal parts, he should commence draw- 
 ing natural objects from some book. In ' Parley's Maga- 
 zine,' vols. vi. and vii., will be found excellent directions, 
 and a great variety of suitable objects. By the use of 
 these, the teacher may instruct the young pupils, though 
 she herself have no practical knowledge of the subject. 
 But, as it is very desirable she should possess the practi- 
 cal, as well as theoretical, knowledge, she ought to teach 
 herself, at the same time she is giving lessons to others. 
 
 The great object, however, should be, to enable the 
 pupils to draw from Nature ; and the following will prob- 
 ably be found one of the easiest modes of commencing 
 such a practice. Let the pupil be seated at a table, di- 
 rectly before a window commanding a prospect of some 
 suitable objects for drawing, such as a house or barn, 
 with trees, fences, &c. The seat should be at such a 
 distance from the window, that a sufficient number of 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 133 
 
 objects to form a picture, may be seen through one pane, 
 the sky filling one third or one half of it. The pupil 
 should now be told to consider the pane as a picture, 
 placed before him to copy ; and let him use his best en- 
 deavors, to make a correct transcript of it on his slate or 
 paper. At first, it would very much facihtate his oper- 
 ations, if three, four, or five threads were fastened hori- 
 zontally, and as many vertically, across the pane, at 
 equal distances, thus dividing it into nine, sixteen, or 
 twenty-five squares, or rectangles. His slate or paper 
 should be ruled with lines, representing that part of the 
 sash around the pane. The first time he attempts such a 
 drawing, perhaps it would be well to divide his slate or 
 paper into squares, or rectangles, corresponding to those 
 of the pane. When every suitable object, that can con- 
 veniently be seen from the windows, has been copied, his 
 table can be placed in the fields, and a small frame placed 
 on it, to represent the pane. All such artificial aid 
 should, however, soon be laid aside, and the pupil ac- 
 customed to rely on his eye alone, without other assist- 
 ance than a piece of pasteboard on his hat or his knee. 
 The chief difficulty, in drawing from Nature, lies in the 
 fact, that we see things neither in their true situation, nor 
 form, nor proportionate size. The appearance of the 
 landscape is chiefly the work of our own imagination. 
 Take, for instance, the size of an object. If we look at 
 a house, about half a mile off, and when we turn away, 
 some one ask, how big it appeared to us, compared to 
 some object in the room, the answer will be very wide, 
 indeed, of the truth. If again, we were asked, " Did the 
 house appear as large as your thumb nail, held at arm's 
 length ?" we should be apt to laugh, heartily, at the ab- 
 surdity of the question ; and yet, in fact, it would fall short 
 of the reahty ; for, if the thumb were held in that position, 
 and so as to appear at the side of a moderate-sized house, 
 we should find that, in reality, the nail appeared much 
 the largest. As another instance, take the form of an 
 object. The appearance which a cylinder really pre- 
 sents to us, is that of a plane rectangle ; and the reason 
 why it appears to us a cyhnder, is our knoioledge^ acquir- 
 12 
 
134 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 ed by the sense of feeling, that all apparent rectangles, 
 shaded in that peculiar manner, are, in fact, cylinders. 
 These facts should be pointed out to the pupil ; and he 
 should be told, that, in order to draw correctly, he must 
 accustom his eye to see things as they are presented to 
 it by Nature ; that is, as the infant sees them. 
 
 When the child is expert in linear drawing, he may be 
 taught shading ; but perhaps this is too much to ask from 
 the primary school, and may be postponed till he enters 
 the central school. The primary teacher ought, howev- 
 er, by all means, to point out to her pupils the effects 
 of shade in Nature, directing their attention, with that 
 view, to stove-pipes, the outside of houses, trees, woods, 
 clouds, &c. 
 
 If possible, this study should be carried forward in the 
 central school, either by a regular drawing-master, or by 
 the aid of books. But, even if it should not, the pupils 
 will never regret the time spent in its practice in the pri- 
 mary school. Linear drawing is indispensable to many 
 professions and trades, and highly useful in many others ; 
 and it would, if generally disseminated, be a powerful 
 means of increasing the innocent enjoyments, good feel- 
 ings, and good taste, of a community. As one of the 
 means of preserving good discipline in a young family, 
 it is invaluable. All children have more or less taste for 
 it ; and, if encouraged by a few instructions in school, it 
 would provide interesting and quiet occupation for young 
 children, in bad weather, in the evening, and at other 
 seasons, whereby the idleness, mischief, and unseasonable 
 noise and rudeness, which create so many bad feelings in 
 famiHes, might be much abated. In addition to its direct 
 advantages, drawing is indirectly useful, by the disciphne 
 it gives to the eye, hand, powers of observation, mem- 
 ory, invention, and taste, and, in some degree, to the 
 other mental faculties. 
 
 Elocution and Composition. 
 
 These branches of education are classed together, on 
 account of their intimate connexion, as school studies, as 
 well as by Nature. In both, the principal requisite is a 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 135 
 
 mind well stored with ideas, not in a confused mass, but 
 arranged in symmetry and order. Their difference lies, 
 chiefly, in their manner of expression ; the one being 
 oral, the other by writing. 
 
 These important studies have hitherto been sadly neg- 
 lected in our schools. They have, it is true, received 
 some attention in our higher seminaries ; but, as has al- 
 ready been remarked of some other studies, this attention 
 comes at too late a period. Superior minds, undoubted- 
 ly, will force their way, in spite of every impediment ; 
 but, of the great mass, who delay the cultivation of the 
 talent of expressing their thoughts with effect, either by 
 the tongue or the pen, till after the age of twelve or four- 
 teen, few, very few, indeed, will ever attain proficiency. 
 Is this a desirable state of things ? In every country, 
 the power of expressing one's-self, with force and per- 
 spicuity, ought to be considered as an essential in a lib- 
 eral education. Without it, a man is a mere cipher in 
 society. But, in our country, we should look for more 
 than this. For every man ought to prepare himself for 
 taking a part in her public business. Even should he 
 never aspire to a seat in her State or National councils, 
 he owes it as a duty to himself and to his country, to let 
 any talent he may possess appear, at least, in her prima- 
 ry assemblies. Yet, for want of the general cultivation 
 of this talent, the whole legislative business of the coun- 
 try is abandoned to those whose pursuits make them talk- 
 ers by profession ; and who, in the habit of arguing, with 
 equal interest, upon the wrong as upon the right side, lose 
 the nice discrimination which ought to be the attribute 
 of the statesman. This is not meant as any disparage- 
 ment to the conduct of the profession. It would be a 
 monstrous evil, were lawyers to assume a right to decide 
 upon the justice of a cause before a hearing, and to refuse 
 to undertake the defence of those whom they did not think 
 were in the right. No ! this is the prerogative of the 
 judge and jury ; and a lawyer is bound to present his 
 client's cause in as fair a light as the nature of things 
 will allow. But, independent of the evil habit of long 
 talking, the very fact, that it is the duty of their profes- 
 
136 
 
 sion to seek for arguments on one side only, and that 
 not always the strongest, disqualifies them, in a consider- 
 able degree, from being enlightened legislators. Their 
 technical knowledge is, undoubtedly, indispensable in the 
 halls of legislation, and will always secure them a strong 
 influence there ; but it will be a manifest improvement, 
 when the profession shall be confined to a due and proper 
 share in the representation of the country. If, then, we 
 would shorten the extravagant length of our legislative 
 debates ; if we would enable every man, who has an 
 original or useful thought, to bring it forward for the ben- 
 efit of his country, with brevity, force, and perspicuity, 
 let us use our best endeavors to spread these important 
 gifts, generally, through the community ; and, to effect 
 this, they must be cultivated in our primary schools. 
 
 The process of teaching elocution and composition 
 may be commenced as follows : Let the teacher write a 
 noun on the blackboard, say, for instance, the word man ; 
 and let every child in school be directed to form a sen- 
 tence with it, or, at least, to say something about it, tell- 
 ing them to say something different every time, and not 
 to use the words or ideas of those who precede them 
 in the exercise. Choose two or three of the brightest- 
 looking children to commence ; but, if all seem at a loss, 
 the teacher may give a (ew examples, thus : The larger 
 children may make sentences like these, — I saw a man, 
 dressed in black, walk past the schoolhouse, yesterday ; 
 the man that lives in the brick house is very sick. The 
 smaller children can say, — A tall man ; a poor man ; a 
 black man ; a good man^ &c. This exercise should be 
 pursued every day, taking care, not to repeat the same 
 word for the subject, and carrying the whole school steadi- 
 ly forward, by slow degrees, but always forward, from 
 simple to compound, from shorter to longer sentences. 
 When the pupils have become familiar with exercises on 
 nouns, adjectives may be chosen as subjects, such as 
 good, bad, industrious, lazy, &c. These will be found 
 to require more thought to produce a variety ; and it may 
 be found necessary to give out two or three in one exer- 
 cise. Sentences formed from pronouns, verbs, adverbs, 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 137 
 
 &.C.5 may follow. Meanwhile, the teacher should care- 
 fully study Town's ' Analysis of Derivative Words,' and 
 become as familiar as possible with its principles, pre- 
 paratory to introducing it into school. Parker's ' Progres- 
 sive Exercises in English Composition' should also be 
 examined with the same view. A copy of each of these 
 books should be procured by the committee, for the use of 
 the school ; and, when the teacher has sufficiently studied 
 them, a part of both may be written on the blackboard, 
 and commented on every day, and exercises given out for 
 the students. But the teacher should not rely altogether 
 on printed books. The book of Nature is always open, 
 and the pupils should be accustomed to draw, liberally, 
 from that inexhaustible source. Let their powers of de- 
 scription be exerted on the objects around. Let them be 
 led to view Nature with the eye of a poet and a painter. 
 Let them be encouraged to think and talk of the grandeur 
 of the heavens, now illumined by the dazzling beams of the 
 King of Day, now by the milder rays of the Queen of 
 Night, surrounded by her thousand sparkhng attendants ; 
 at one time dazzling us by the splendid hues of morning 
 and evening ; at another, delighting us with the mildness 
 of the azure, or the ever-changing hues and forms of the 
 clouds in a Summer's day. Point out to them the ever- 
 varying, ever-beautiful foliage of the forest, whether arising 
 from the mild zephyrs of Spring, the fervid heats of Sum- 
 mer, the cool evenings of Autumn, or the biting frosts of 
 Winter. And direct the attention to the sublimity of our 
 mountain scenery, and the softer beauty of the plain, 
 checkered by the hand of industry, and fertilized by the 
 meandering river. 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to observe, that all these exer- 
 cises in elocution will be performed with equal ease and 
 grace, because they will be without effort, and because 
 they will have been acquired almost unconsciously. Paint 
 to yourself our little pupils, collected around their teach- 
 er, expressing their simple thoughts in earnest but correct 
 language, and compare this scene with that of a boy of 
 fourteen or sixteen, called on to stand, for the first time, on 
 the floor, to recite some piece, on which he has labored 
 12* 
 
138 
 
 for days or weeks. Can there be a greater contrast, of 
 stiffness and ease, of awkwardness and grace ? 
 
 Occasional walks with the teacher will be useful in fur- 
 nishing topics. Sometimes the woods may be visited, 
 and the attention of the school directed to the sweet mu- 
 sic and gay plumage of the feathered race, to the beauti- 
 ful vistas formed by the trees, the graceful arching of the 
 tops, waving in the breeze ; 
 
 *' While, beneath, 
 The checkered earth seems restless, as a flood 
 Brush'd by the wind." 
 
 At Other times, the walk may lie along the course of 
 the brook or river, where the willow dips its pendant 
 boughs, and the rapid trout glides swiftly. Or it may rise 
 the hill, to survey the beauties of an extended prospect. 
 
 These walks should also be improved by the collection 
 of botanical and mineralogical specimens, of which more 
 in its proper place. 
 
 The mill, the manufactory, and the shop of the mechan- 
 ic, will also form profitable places of occasional resort ; 
 but leave should always be previously obtained for such 
 visits, and the assistance of the proprietor requested, to 
 explain the various machinery and operations. Such 
 walks will form an abundant resource for topics, both of 
 discourse and composition. 
 
 It is important, that all expressions indicating gloom 
 and discontent should be discouraged, and an opposite 
 spirit developed and fostered. The terms gloomy weath- 
 er^ disagreeable season of. the year, &c., should be shown 
 to be inappropriate, ungrateful, and productive of discon- 
 tent and misery. It should be explained to the pupils, 
 that, to the eye of intelligence, the bounty and goodness of 
 God is alike conspicuous, in all seasons, and in all places ; 
 in the rain, as well as in the sunshine ; in the storm, as 
 well as in the calm. It has been well observed, that 
 "It is the mind that maketh well or ill. The elements 
 of pain and pleasure are every where. A contented dis- 
 position can derive pleasure from almost every thing ; a 
 discontented temper from nothing ; but is always busy in 
 detecting deficiences,and feeding dissatisfaction with com- 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 139 
 
 parisons. The one gathers all the flowers, the other, all 
 the nettles, in his path. The one reahzes all the pleas- 
 ure of the present good, the other converts it into pain, by 
 pining after something better, which is only better because 
 it is not present, and which, if it were present, would not 
 be enjoyed." The celebrated Boz observes, that '' Men 
 who look on Nature and their fellow-men, and cry that all 
 is dark and gloomy, are in the right ; but the sombre colors 
 are reflected from their own jaundiced eyes and hearts. 
 The real hues are delicate, and require a clearer vision." 
 
 There is another class of these grumblers, who make 
 themselves and all around them wretched, because they 
 conceive that gloom renders them infere^im^. All such 
 ought to be laughed out of their folly, as soon as it appears. 
 
 The little pupils should be encouraged, whenever they 
 differ in opinion from any sentiment advanced, to give 
 the reasons for their dissent, with politeness, but with per- 
 fect freedom. It is not thought advisable, however, to 
 recommend the institution of debates, with the previous 
 appointment of individuals to different sides. Such ex- 
 ercises are apt to degenerate into a struggle for victory, 
 rather than a search for truth. Our youth should be 
 educated for judges, not for advocates. They ought 
 distinctly to understand, that almost every sentiment and 
 opinion has, at least, two sides from which it may be 
 viewed ; that the one is generally good, till the other has 
 been heard ; and that it is alike their duty and interest, to 
 examine subjects /or themselves in every point of view. 
 
 What has as yet been advanced, on this subject, may 
 be thought, perhaps, chiefly to relate to elocution ; but the 
 fact is, that nearly all of it applies equally to composition. 
 What has been spoken may also be written ; and there 
 will be little or no difficulty, if we commence at the prop- 
 er time and place. . Nearly all the difficulties in educa- 
 tion arise from commencing in the middle, or at the wroiig 
 end. As soon, then, as the child can form and join his 
 letters, let him commence the practice of composition, 
 and follow it up steadily as long as he remains in school. 
 Few are aware how improvable is the faculty of ex- 
 pressing thoughts upon paper. The gigantic increase 
 
140 
 
 of the muscles in a blacksmith's arm, from his wielding 
 the hammer so frequently ; the proverbial strength of the 
 memory, by exercise ; or the miraculous sleight which 
 the juggler acquires, by practice, with his cup and balls ; 
 is not more certain, than that he, who daily habituates 
 himself to writing down his ideas with what ease, accura- 
 cy, and elegance, he can, will find his improvement ad- 
 vance, with hardly any assignable limit. Nor will his 
 style, only, improve. It is a hackneyed truth, that, " in 
 learning to ivrite with accuracy and precision, we learn to 
 think with accuracy and precision." Besides this, the 
 store of thought is, in a twofold way, enlarged. By the 
 action of the mind, in turning over, analyzing, and com- 
 paring, its ideas, they are incalculably multiplied. And 
 the researches, prompted by the desire to write under- 
 standingly upon each subject, are constantly widening 
 and deepening the bounds of knowledge. Thus, wheth- 
 er a person wishes to enrich and invigorate his own mind, 
 or to act whh power on the minds of others, we say to 
 him. Write ! 
 
 Elocution and composition have an intimate connexion 
 and mutual bearing on each other. It has been said, 
 that " reading makes a full man ; speaking, a ready man ; 
 and writing, an exact man." All are necessary to con- 
 stitute the well-educated man. 
 
 Before concluding this subject, it should be mentioned, 
 that the inditing of letters to parents, teachers, brothers 
 and sisters, and companions, should be added to the nu- 
 merous topics for composition already mentioned. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION, CONTINUED. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 The error, that has been so repeatedly noticed, again 
 appears here. The study is commenced too late. Very 
 young children can readily understand, not only concrete, 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 141 
 
 but abstract, numbers. Indeed, it will be found, that, 
 within certain Hmits, the effort is much less in young than 
 in older children ; that is, of three boys of equal capaci- 
 ty, who know little or nothing of numbers, one of six, the 
 others of eight and ten, years of age, their progress will 
 be more nearly inversely, than directly, as their respect- 
 ive ages. In our improved schools, then, let mental 
 arithmetic be commenced simultaneously with reading, 
 which last, indeed, is an object of much more difficult at- 
 tainment than the first. 
 
 Mental Arithmetic. 
 
 For beginners, a numeral frame should be procured, 
 but of a different kind from the one manufactured for 
 schools in Boston. This latter is a frame with twelve 
 wires passing across, on each of which are twelve balls, 
 painted, alternately, of two different colors. Such a 
 frame, as it does not correspond with our decimal system 
 of arithmetic, can be but of little use. For our purpose, 
 an old slate frame will answer very w^ell. The vertical 
 sides should be pierced for eleven wires, ten of which 
 should be at equal distances, the eleventh further apart, — 
 say double the distance. On each wire should be placed 
 ten beads, half of one color and half of another, — say 
 blue and yellow, — arranged as follows : three yellow, two 
 blue, two yellow, three blue. Thus we shall have one 
 hundred beads, on ten wires, to represent units, and ten, 
 on the eleventh, to represent hundreds ; and so arranged, 
 by twos, threes, fives, and tens, that any number, not 
 exceeding one thousand, can be read off as easily as by 
 the use of ciphers. 
 
 Let us now take a class, who cannot count. The 
 teacher, holding the frame so that the beads are all on 
 one side, and passing one of those on the upper wire 
 across to the opposite side, says, " There is one bead. 
 Repeat, after me, one bead ; (passing another across,) 
 two beads ;" &c., till all the ten are passed across, and 
 named. Then repeat the operation, omitting the word 
 bead, till all can readily count from one to ten. This is 
 enough for the first lesson. The second lesson should 
 
142 
 
 be a repetition of the first, with this addition : When the 
 three yellow beads are passed across, say, " Now, try to 
 recollect three." Then pass three across on another wire, 
 and ask, how many there are. If they do not know, 
 count the first three again, and repeat, on different wires, 
 till they know three, at a glance. In like manner, make 
 them familiar with four, five, six, seven ; and for eight, 
 nine, ten, direct their attention to the other side, as eight 
 on one side may be known by two on the other ; nine, 
 by one, and ten, by none. This may probably be too 
 much for the second lesson. The teacher must take care 
 not to fatigue the little pupils, by too long exertion. 
 
 As soon as the class has become familiar with the first 
 ten numbers, and able to name them on the frame, at a 
 glance, the difficulty is pretty much over ; as the others 
 are chiefly a repetition of the first ten. In teaching them 
 we should, at first, call them by their original names, 
 before we introduce the class to their common^ or contrac- 
 ted names, as this will explain the system of numbers, 
 which will tend to simplify every part of arithmetic. The 
 class, then, should be told, that ten has three different 
 names ; namely, 
 
 1. One ten, standing by itself, is called, . . ten. 
 
 2. One ten, joined to another number, . . teen. 
 
 3. More than one ten, .... . . ty. 
 
 Applying this to the frame, pass the ten beads on the 
 
 first wire across, and then say, ''There is ien." Now, 
 one bead across from the second wire, " There is one- 
 teen ; another will make twoteen ; three, threeteen ; four, 
 fourteen ;" &c., to nineteen ; and, passing the last one 
 across, " Now we have tivoty.''^ Then, by passing the 
 beads of the third wire singly across, we shall have, twoty- 
 one^twoty-twOj &c., to threety ; and, continuing the oper- 
 ation, fourty^ fi^^iy-) sixty ^ &c., to ninety-nine^ the last 
 bead gives tenty^ or a hundred. We have seen classes, 
 who have gone, at once, from ten to one hundred ; and, 
 at the next lesson, could name any number required, on 
 the frame, not exceeding one hundred ; and, by telling 
 them that each bead on the eleventh wire stood for one 
 hundred, their knowledge extended to one thousand. 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 143 
 
 When they have become familiar with the nomencla- 
 ture, which will be in three or four lessons, the abbrevi- 
 ations, which are few and simple, may be explained. The 
 most difficult are the two first, oneteen^ hooteen^ which 
 are changed to eleven^ twelve ; the others are very sim- 
 ple, namely, threeteen and threety are shortened to thirteen 
 and thirty ; Jiveteen and fivety^ to fifteen and fifty ; lastly, 
 twoty is twenty ; and fourty is forty. 
 
 This explanation is principally intended for those who 
 know nothing of arithmetic. But it would be profitable 
 for the whole school to go over the frame once or twice, 
 as there are few who have clear notions of the meaning 
 of ty and teen. 
 
 Our little pupils, having thus acquired the nomencla- 
 ture of numbers, the fundamental processes of addition, 
 subtraction, multiplication, and division, may now be com- 
 menced. The first two should be taught simultaneously 
 on the frame : thus, passing two beads and two beads, 
 the class will see they make four ; and, if two be taken 
 from four, two will remain. If this be practised a very 
 few minutes every day, in a week or two the class will 
 add or subtract, instantly, any two numbers, not exceed- 
 ing one thousand. Multiplication and division should also 
 proceed simultaneously. Thus, taking eight beads, ask, 
 how many twos it contains ; and, if one of the class sep- 
 arate them on the wire into twos, all will see there are 
 four ; consequently, four twos make eight, and eight con- 
 tains four twos. It will not be necessary to go further 
 than the fifth hne in multiplication and division ; as the 
 higher numbers will be more readily taught from Colburn's 
 ' First Lessons,' of which anon. The frame need now 
 be no longer used as a regular exercise, but should al- 
 ways be convenient to the teacher's desk ; as, if proper- 
 ly used, it will be of much advantage to the class. 
 
 For very small children, Fowle's ' Mental Arithmetic' 
 should precede Colburn's ' Lessons ;' but those of seven 
 or eight years of age may pass, at once, into Colburn. 
 Of these books, there should be only one copy in school. 
 Any intelligent teacher can use them, even though un- 
 practised in mental arithmetic. When this is the case, 
 
144 
 
 however, she should work out every question, mentally, 
 along with the class. The main advantage of mental 
 arithmetic is, the wonderful manner in which it disciplines 
 some of the most important faculties of the mind, partic- 
 ularly those of attention, abstraction, and reasoning. But 
 to gain these advantages, in any considerable degree, the 
 pupils should distinctly know, that the questions are nev- 
 er to be repeated. They must give their ivhole attention, 
 while the question is reading, and they must retain the 
 whole in their minds, until they have found the answer, 
 and explained the process by which it was discovered. 
 The books ought to be used thus : The teacher reads, 
 '' Your brother William gave you nineteen cents, your 
 brother John, ten, and your cousin Mary, two. How 
 many have been given to you, in all .'"' 
 
 C. {after consideration.) Thirty-one. 
 
 T. How do you know ? 
 
 C Because brother William gave me nineteen, broth- 
 er John, ten ; now ten and nineteen make twenty-nine ; 
 and cousin Mary gave me two ; twenty- nine and two 
 make thirty-one. 
 
 T. Very well. Twelve men are to have ninety-six 
 dollars for performing a piece of work. How much is 
 due to each ? 
 
 0. Eight dollars. 
 
 T. Why ? 
 
 C. Because, as the twelve men were to have ninety- 
 six for their work, and as there are eight twelves in nine- 
 ty-six, of course each man would have eight. 
 
 I now give a question in a more advanced stage. 
 
 T. A cistern has two cocks ; the first will fill it in 
 three hours, the second in six hours ; how long would it 
 take both to fill it ? 
 
 C. Two hours. 
 
 T. Why ? 
 
 C. Because if the first can fill it in three hours, it will 
 fill one third of it in one hour ; and if the second will fill 
 it in six hours, it will fill one sixth in one hour ; but one 
 third is equal to two sixths ; therefore, both will fill three 
 sixths, or one half, in one hour ; or the whole, in two hours. 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 145 
 
 Some of the exercises in addition, in Colburn's * First 
 Lessons,' are so easy, though not the less important, that 
 there is some danger of the class allowing their minds 
 to wander, and yet answering correctly. This may be 
 checked, by varying the questions, as follows : Instead 
 of, Nine and four ? Nineteen and four ? Twenty-nine and 
 four ? Thirty-nine and four ? regularly increasing the 
 number o( ty^ let them be varied, thus : Twenty-nine and 
 four ? Forty-nine and four ? Thirty-nine and four ? Fif- 
 ty-nine and four ? &c. 
 
 It requires some tact, to gain the utmost advantage from 
 mental arithmetic ; but it is easily acquired. The main 
 point is, that the attention of the teacher be kept wide 
 awake. The dull and slow must be allowed time ; the 
 bright must not be suffered to monopolize the answers. 
 At the same time, it will not do for the answers to be re- 
 ceived, in the order in which the pupils stand in the class ; 
 for, in this case, only one child would be occupied at 
 once. Each pupil would attend only to his own ques- 
 tion ; whereas all should be occupied, and should actu- 
 ally solve every question put to the class. The best plan, 
 then, is, for each to hold up a finger, when ready to an- 
 swer, leaving the teacher to select whose turn it shall be. 
 Thus, every one might have an equal chance. The dull 
 and the bright, however, ought not to be together, but in 
 different classes. In fact, it would be well to have the 
 classes differently arranged, for each separate study. 
 Some are bright at reading, and dull in arithmetic, and 
 vice versa. To chain the dull to the bright has bad 
 effects on both. 
 
 The Pestalozzian plates, at the end of Colburn's book, 
 may or may not be studied, at the option of the teacher. 
 They are explained in the 'Key,' page 141. At all 
 events, they should be clearly understood by the teacher. 
 
 Abbreviations in Mental Arithmetic. — The following 
 abbreviations have never before been published. They 
 may probably not only be useful to the student, but lead 
 to the invention of others, equally profitable. 
 
 To multiply by 5. Take half the number, and multi- 
 13 
 
146 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 ply by 10. We take half, because multiplying by 10 
 gives double of multiplying by 5. Thus, 5 X 64 = 
 ^^- X 10 = 32ty, or 320. When the number is odd, 
 halving leaves a remainder of 1, which, of course, is one 
 5. Thus, 73 X 5 = V- X 10 = 36ty and five, or 365. 
 
 Let us next proceed to 15, 20, 25, 30, &c., and af- 
 terwards take up the intervening numbers. 
 
 Fifteen is 10 and half of 10 ; therefore, increasing any 
 number a half, and multiplying by 10, is the same as mul- 
 tiplying by 15. Thus, as 64 and half of 64 make 96, 
 64 X 15 = 96ty, or 960. When the number is odd, 
 proceed as above, in speaking of 5. Thus, 75 X 15 = 
 112ty and five, or 1125, and the square of 15 is 22ty and 
 five, or 225. 
 
 Twenty being two tens, to multiply by 20, double the 
 number, and multiply by 10. Thus, 20 X 45 = 90ty, 
 or 900. 
 
 Twenty-five is one fourth of 100 ; therefore, to mul- 
 tiply by 25, take ^ of the number for hundreds : every 
 unit in the remainder is one twenty-five. Thus : 
 
 24 X 25=^X 100 = 600. 
 
 25 X 25 = -V- X 100 = 625. 
 26X25 = 2^X100 = 650. 
 
 27 X 25 = -V- X 100 = 675, &c. 
 
 Fifty is half of 100 ; therefore, to multiply by 50, take 
 ^ the number for hundreds. Thus, 24 X 50 = ^ X 100 
 = 1200. 
 
 Thirty is thrice ten ; therefore, to multiply by 30, take 
 thrice the number, and multiply by 10. Thus, 24 X 30 
 = 72ty, or 720. 
 
 Let us now examine the intermediate numbers, which 
 are all done on one principle. Fourteen times any num- 
 ber is 15 times that number, less once the number ; and 
 13 times any number is 15 times the number, less twice 
 the number. Thus, 14 X 24 = 15 X 24, less once 24 ; 
 and 13 X 24 = 15 X 24, less twice 24. Again, 16 X 
 24 = 15 X 24, more once 24 ; and 17 X 24 = 15 X 24, 
 more twice 24. Thus, by connecting two numbers less. 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 147 
 
 and two numbers more, with our 15, 20, 25, 30, &,c., 
 we have all the intermediate numbers. 
 
 Division is performed by reversing these processes ; 
 that is, multiplying, where division is shown above ; and 
 dividing, where multiplication is indicated. Though not 
 so easy as multiplication, some practice in it will be 
 useful. 
 
 This system of abbreviations may seem obscure or dif- 
 ficult, perhaps, to those who have never practised mental 
 arithmetic. But nothing is hazarded in the assertion, 
 that, where Colburn's Arithmetic is used, as pointed out 
 above, the class will understand and apply it with ease 
 and rapidity, before they have gone half through that 
 work. The teacher may exemplify the abbreviations for 
 himself, on the slate ; but they should be performed by 
 the school, exclusively in the mind. 
 
 It is a matter of the first importance, that the teacher 
 should have a distinct idea of the objects to be gained by 
 the practice of mental arithmetic ; as, otherwise, the main 
 advantages that might result from it will assuredly be lost. 
 Let it be constantly borne in mind, then, by the teacher, 
 that the knowledge of arithmetic is not the chief benefit 
 to be derived from it, but one of secondary importance. 
 It is the mental discipline, the- power of abstraction, the 
 habit of attention and of reasoning which it developes, 
 that constitutes its chief value. But all these advantages 
 are lost, if the child is allowed to study the book ; more 
 especially by working out the questions on the slate. 
 They can only be completely attained, by calling on the 
 class to solve each question mentally, merely from hear- 
 ing it once read, and then to give a clear account of his 
 mental operations. And, so beautifully are the questions 
 arranged, so completely does the knowledge gained in 
 each question, come into requisition in those that follow, 
 that, if the plan of study be commenced right, and strictly 
 followed, the most intricate and difficult questions will 
 give no trouble to the class. 
 
 It may, perhaps, be incredible to some, but it is not 
 the less true, that Colburn's book may be gone through, 
 and correct notions be attained of the principles of arith- 
 
148 
 
 metic, without the knowledge of a single character. A 
 child, who can neither write nor read, who has never even 
 seen a figure, will probably acquire ihis knowledge more 
 readily than those who fully understand them. Notwith- 
 standing this, however, as the knowledge of figures is an 
 indispensable part of education, and as its acquisition is 
 much the easiest in early youth, as soon as a child can 
 hold his pencil correctly, and can write the ten charac- 
 ters, he should proceed to the practice of 
 
 Written .Arithmetic. 
 
 JSTotation. — The method of expressing large numbers 
 and of performing large operations, by words, is so incon- 
 venient and tedious, that, from the earhest periods known, 
 characters have been invented to express them more con- 
 cisely. Almost every ancient nation had a method pe- 
 culiar to itself ; only three of which, however, are neces- 
 sary to be known by the American student. 
 
 The first is the Greek mode, in which the first nine 
 letters of their alphabet represented the numbers from 1 
 to 9, and the next nine letters represented the tens from 
 1 to 9 ; that is, 10, 20, &c., to 90. The hundreds they 
 represented by the other letters, supplying what were 
 wanting by other marks, or characters ; and in this order 
 they proceeded, using the same letters, again, with differ- 
 ent marks, to express thousands, tens of thousands, &c. 
 This method of notation is now only used in Greek books, 
 to denote the numbers of chapters, sections', &c. 
 
 The second is the Roman method, which is now used 
 by all the European nations, and their American descen- 
 dants, for distinguishing dates, chapters, and sections of 
 books, &c. This, like the Greek, is derived from the 
 alphabet, but in a different order. The origin of the 
 Roman numerals is sufficiently evident ; and, as a know- 
 ledge of this origin is not only an aid to its acquisition, 
 but will enable the student to recall it to mind when for- 
 gotten, an explanation of it will not be considered out of 
 place here. 
 
 The ten fingers present so obvious and convenient a 
 mode of numeration, that every tribe and people, hitherto 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 149 
 
 known, except the Chinese, and an obscure tribe men- 
 tioned by Aristotle, have had recourse to them. The 
 Romans not only used the digits, or fingers, as the foun- 
 dation of their method of computing, but also derived 
 from them several of their characters. Thus, a finger, 
 represented by I, stood for one ; two, three, and four 
 fingers, represented by II, III, and IIII, stood for two, 
 three, and four. By holding up the hand, with all the 
 five fingers extended, a tolerably correct representation 
 of the letter V will appear, formed by the thumb and in- 
 dex finger. In like manner, VI is one hand and a finger 
 of the other ; VII, a hand and two fingers, &c. ; while 
 X represents both hands, considered as two Vs, joined 
 by their apices ; or it may be formed, by holding up both 
 hands, one thumb resting across the other. C and M, 
 being the initial letters of centum and mille, the Latin 
 words for 100 and 1000, stood for those numbers. L 
 and D, representing half of C and M,* stand for their 
 halves, 50 and 500. This was undoubtedly the arrange- 
 ment of the first Roman numerals ; but, as the eye does 
 not readily distinguish more than three similar characters, 
 at a glance, a plan was adopted, to prevent the recurrence 
 of more than three, by making a smaller number, when 
 placed before a larger, to be subtracted in place of added. 
 Thus, in place of II II, we have IV = 5 less 1 ; for 
 Villi = 5 + 4 = 9, we have IX = 10 — 1 = 9 ; for 
 XXXX = 4 tens, we have XL = 50— 10 ; for LXXXX 
 = 50 + 40 = 90, we have XC = 100—10 = 90. 
 
 When this form of numeration has been explained to 
 a class, they ought to be questioned on the blackboard, 
 till the subject has become perfectly familiar. A some- 
 what complicated question is subjoined, as a specimen. 
 
 T. What number is MDCCCXLIV ? 
 
 C. M is 1000; D, 500; three Cs, 300; together 
 1800; X, 10, to be taken from L, 50, leaves 40 ; I, 1, 
 from V, 5, leaves 4 : altogether, 1844. 
 
 T. What does the I represent ? 
 
 C. A finger. 
 
 * The C was originally written, C. lialf of which is L ; half the 
 M, A, only wants a little rounding, to tfansrorria it into D. 
 
 13* 
 
150 THE teacher's MANUAL. 
 
 T, TheV? 
 
 C. A hand. 
 
 T. TheX? 
 
 C. Two hands. 
 
 T. The C } the L ? the M } the D ? 
 
 The third system of characters representing numbers, 
 is that which is commonly called the Arabic, though now 
 generally allowed to be of Indian origin. It was intro- 
 duced into Europe about A. D. 1130. This is so very 
 much superior to all others, that it is hardly credible that* 
 our long and complicated arithmetical operations could 
 have been performed before it came into use. The char- 
 acters in this system indicating numbers, (commonly call- 
 ed the significant figures.,) are only nine. They have 
 most probably received their origin, also, from the fingers, 
 but in a different manner from the Roman numerals ; 
 some of the marks consisting of vertical, others of hori- 
 zontal lines. The following are supposed to be the ori- 
 ginal forms of the characters : 
 
 123456789 
 
 I = = n5BgB^ 
 
 Thus, 1 is represented by a vertical line, as in the Ro- 
 man system ; 2, by two horizontal ones ; 3, by three do. ; 
 4, by a square, or two vertical and two horizontal lines ; 6, 
 by three horizontal and two vertical ; 6, three horizontal 
 and three vertical ; 8, (two fours,) two squares ; 7, two 
 squares, less one vertical ; lastly, 9, evidently borrowed 
 from the Greek 9, (^, theta.) The 7 also is, by some, 
 supposed to be borrowed from the Greek ^, (zeta^) to 
 which it bears a considerable resemblance. All the char- 
 acters have been rounded to their present form, by rapid- 
 ity in writing. 
 
 These nine characters have each two values, viz., their 
 simple value, as one, two, three, &c., and their local 
 value, which depends on their distance from the place of 
 units, which is always the first on the right hand, unless 
 Otherwise indicated by a mark, which shall be explained 
 presently. Thus, in the following number, 6666 ^ we 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 161 
 
 have six, four times repeated ; but every time the char- 
 acter represents a different value, the first on the right 
 hand representing the units, (or ones,) and, therefore, 
 simply six ; the second, 6 ty, or lens ; the third, 6 tens 
 of tens, or hundreds ; the fourth, 6 tens of tens of tens, 
 or thousands ; and, if there were more, they would still 
 go on, increasing tenfold, to infinity. Thus we perceive, 
 that the fundamental law of the Arabic system is, that a 
 removal of a figure one place towards the left increases 
 its value, tenfold ; and, on the contrary, its removal tow- 
 ards the right decreases it, tenfold. 
 
 In addition to the nine characters mentioned above, 
 there is one which does not consist of lines, like the sig- 
 nificant figures, but, on the contrary, is entirely round, 
 to express that it has in itself no value, its sole use being 
 to occupy the place of some denomination, which may be 
 wanting, and which, therefore, instead of its customary 
 name of cipher, may be appropriately termed figure of 
 place. Thus, to represent six hundred and five, (605,) 
 it is necessary to have a character that has no value, in 
 itself, to stand in the place of tens ; otherwise, the 6 
 would be 6 tens or ty, in place of 6 hundred. 
 
 Whenever the figures representing any number con- 
 sist of more than four, they should be divided, by com- 
 mas, into series of threes, the unit being counted as the 
 first, whether they extend to the right or left of it. 
 
 Every fig^ure, besides its simple name, (one, two, three, 
 &c.,) has two other names, which may be hkened to the 
 Christian and family names of children, as exempHfied in 
 the following table : 
 
 BiUions. Millions. Thousands. Units. 
 
 . 
 
 in 
 
 r 
 
 05 
 
 CO 
 
 -73 
 
 xn 
 
 "h 
 
 ^ 
 
 xh 
 
 to 
 
 rj 
 
 ■^ 
 
 c 
 
 
 • -H 
 
 C 
 
 a 
 
 
 c 
 
 a 
 
 
 /jj 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 0) 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 cu 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 0) 
 
 a 
 
 H 
 
 D 
 
 w 
 
 Eh 
 
 P 
 
 w 
 
 Eh 
 
 p 
 
 w 
 
 H 
 
 P 
 
 3 
 
 6, 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 7, 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 6, 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 B 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 1-5 
 
 W 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 o 
 
 1-5 
 
 s 
 
 s 
 
 o 
 
 -> 
 
 w 
 
 S 
 o 
 
 Eh 
 
 
 Brown. Smith. Graham. Jones. 
 
152 
 
 Carrying out our simile, we may say, that, in every 
 family, excepting in the one on the exireme left, there 
 mast always be three chairs for the boys, none of which 
 must ever be empty ; for, if any boy be absent, a block 
 (cipher, or figure of place, 0) must occupy his chair, till 
 he returns. For the sake of brevity, we never name 
 any of the Johns, nor the family name of Jones. For 
 instance, instead of saying John Brown, John Smith, 
 &c., we merely say Brown, Smith, &c., and Bill Jones 
 and Tom Jones are merely called Bill and Tom. Ap- 
 plying this to the real local names of the figures, we never 
 make use of the word units ^ at all. Whenever either or 
 both local names are wanting, units is always understood. 
 For instance, when we say, two, we mean two units of 
 units, and when we say six thousand, we mean, six units 
 of thousands. Let, now, a series of figures be written on 
 the blackboard ; let one of the class divide them into 
 series of threes, and exercise the class in naming them, 
 irregularly, till all become quite familiar with the subject. 
 Again, write several figures of the same kind, thus : 
 
 6 5 4 3 2 1 
 4 4 4 4 4 4, 
 
 and ask, how many times is the second 4 greater than the 
 first ? how many times is the third greater than the first ? 
 the fourth, than the first ? the fourth, than the second ? the 
 fourth, than the third ? &c. Again, how many times is 
 the first contained in the second ? the first in the third ? 
 the second in the sixth ? &c. 
 
 T. What is the name of the first series of threes ? 
 
 C. Units. 
 
 T. The third.? 
 
 C. Millions. 
 
 T. The second ? the fourth ? &c. 
 
 T. Repeat the three names of the first series. 
 
 C. Units, tens, hundreds. 
 
 T. Repeat the three names of the third series. Are 
 they the same in every series } 
 
 T. What name is never used ? 
 
 C. Units. 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 153 
 
 Again, write 
 
 4 6 
 
 T. How much is the 4 ? the 6 ? What is the use of 
 the figures of place ? 
 
 C To show the place of the 4 and the 6. 
 
 T. If I remove the 6, will the value of the 4 be 
 changed ? Will the value of the 6 be changed, if I re- 
 move the 4 ? Why not ? 
 
 C. Because, as we name from the right, the 6 will still 
 stand in the place of tens of units, whatever change we 
 make in the figures on its left. 
 
 T. If I place a 6 on the right of the sum, thus, 
 40606, are the other 6 and 4 changed, and how ? 
 
 T. Fifty-two millions, six thousand, and twenty. How 
 many figures are necessary to represent this sum ? How 
 many of them are significant figures ? 
 
 Questions similar to the above, having been repeated, 
 till the notation of integers has become quite familiar to 
 the class, the teacher may turn to the article Arithmetic^ 
 in Chap. V. of Part I., of this book, where directions are 
 given, how to explain and comment on notation of deci- 
 mals. The class will then take their books and slates, 
 and proceed to express, in figures, numbers given in 
 words, using all the examples given in the books of arith- 
 metic, both in integers and decimals. Should the class 
 not be familiar with the practice of rendering words into 
 figures, after they have exhausted all the questions in 
 their book of arithmetic, the teacher should make new 
 ones, or procure them from some other book. The pu- 
 pils can never be expert in arithmetic, till this subject is 
 perfectly understood. 
 
 Addition. — This rule is perhaps more used in busi- 
 ness than any other in arithmetic. The student, before 
 he leaves it, should be able to add long sums, rapidly and 
 correctly, such as are found in merchants' books, &c. If 
 he has practised mental arithmetic, long sums may be giv- 
 en him at once ; if not, he may commence with shorter 
 ones, and gradually lengthen them. As soon as he ac- 
 quires a httle proficiency, he should begin to add two or 
 
154 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 three figures at once, preparatory to which, he may be 
 exercised, as follows : 
 
 T. How many does 6 want to make up 10 ? 
 
 C. Four. 
 
 T. How many does 4 ? 7 ? 9 ? &c. 
 
 T. How many does 6, 7, 4, &c., want, to make 11 ? 
 
 T. How many do the same numbers want, to make 
 12? 
 
 When the class can answer such questions instantly, 
 their attention should be directed to the fact, that adding 
 10 to a number does not change its units, that adding 11 
 or 12 increases the units by 1 or 2, and that adding 8 or 
 9 decreases them 2 or 1 . 
 
 T. What effect has adding 8 on the units ? 
 
 T. What effect has adding 12, 10, 11, 9 .? 
 
 A little practice on the following, and a few similar 
 sums, will so accustom the class to add two or three 
 figures, at once, as to make it nearly as easy as adding a 
 single figure at a time. 
 
 1st. 
 
 2d. 
 
 3cl. 
 
 a h c 
 
 de f 
 
 g h i 
 
 1 3 5 
 
 2 1 8 
 
 342 
 
 987 
 
 32 3 
 
 4 3 3 
 
 7 74 
 
 5 8 1 
 
 7 7 4 
 
 34 8 
 
 37 2 
 
 6 6 1 
 
 4 5 5 
 
 4 34 
 
 8 1 2 
 
 6 67 
 
 3 1 6 
 
 5 2 3 
 
 22 3 
 
 248 
 
 284 
 
 899 
 
 743 
 
 595 
 
 584 
 
 1 3 1 
 
 37 6 
 
 5 38 
 
 4 5 4 
 
 9 6 7 
 
 3 7 5 
 
 2 1 5 
 
 74 8 
 
 747 
 
 45 3 
 
 1 39 
 
 column a. 
 
 every two 
 
 figures make 
 
 > make 11 
 
 ; in c, even 
 
 7 two make 1^ 
 
 In the 
 every two make 11 ; in c, every two make 12. In d, 
 every three figures make 10 ; in e, every three make 11 ; 
 in /, every three make 12. In ^, every two alternate 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 16S 
 
 figures, viz., first and third, and second and fourth, &c., 
 make 10 ; in /i, the first and fourth, second and third, 
 fifth and eighth, seventh and sixth, &c., make 10; the 
 column i goes on a different principle, which is, that 
 whenever three figures follow, in regular order, their sum 
 is equal to three times the middle one ; that is, the sum 
 of 9, 8, and 7 is 3 times 8 ; 4 + 5 + 6 = 3x5; be- 
 cause, if 1 be taken from the largest and added to the 
 smallest, all three would be equal. Let the teacher point 
 out to the school, or to a class, the different combinations 
 in the columns a, 6, c, (/, &c., and then write some col- 
 umns of figures, at random, and he will be surprised, how 
 quickly the little pupils will catch the different combina- 
 tions, and add them together. A smart child, after a 
 little practice, will run his eye up a column, and tell its 
 contents, almost instantaneously. 
 
 Addition of decimals should be practised, simultaneous- 
 ly with addition of integers, and the reasons for placing 
 the figures explained, as given in Chap. V. Part I. The 
 reason for carrying the tens should also be explained on 
 the blackboard, as follows, by which it will become obvi- 
 ous to sight. 
 
 426 426 
 
 789 789 
 
 325 325 
 
 20 1540 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 1540 
 
 Subtraction. — The only difficulty about subtraction re- 
 lates to the borrowing. Some teachers fail in explaining, 
 why we borrow from one figure and pay to another ; or, 
 as the boys call it, borrow from Peter and pay Paul. The 
 most simple mode of explanation, and perhaps the most 
 simple mode of performing the operation, is as follows : 
 
 From 46384 
 
 Take 13946 
 
 Leaves 32438 
 
156 
 
 We cannot take 6 from 4 ; but the 84 may be consid- 
 ered as 70 and 14 ; then 6 from 14 leaves 8. Now, as 
 we have used one of the tens, take the 4 from the remain- 
 ing 7, which leaves 3. For the same reason, we take 9 
 from 13, and 3 from 5 ; one of the 6 thousands having 
 been taken to make 13 hundreds. 
 
 Multiplication. — If mental arithmetic has been prop- 
 ]y attended to, the student will have no occasion for the 
 multiplication table. If it has not, the table ought to be 
 learnt, while he is practising addition and subtraction. 
 But he should not be allowed to copy it from a book. 
 He should make it for himself, the teacher only showing 
 him how to proceed, thus : 
 
 2 times 1 = 3X1 = 
 
 2 " 2= 3x2= 
 
 2 '' 3= 3X3 = 
 
 &c. &c. &c. &c. 
 
 In the mathematics, nothing should be taken on trust, 
 except tables of weights, measures, &c., and names of 
 the characters. 
 
 The table, or a part of it, being learnt, let questions 
 be set for him, multiplying by 2, 3, 4. When he comes 
 to 5, it may be abbreviated, thus : 
 
 263584 
 5 
 
 1317920 
 
 Namely : suppose the largest factor to be multiplied by 
 10, by annexing a cipher, which, being double the amount, 
 has only to be halved for the true product. 
 
 When he comes to multiply by 9, suppose it to be 
 multiplied by annexing a cipher, and then, as the largest 
 factor is once too many, he has only to subtract it, name- 
 ly, 5 from 0, 4 from 5, 2 from 4, &c. 
 
 3679245 
 9 
 
 33113205 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 157 
 
 Multiplying by 11, may be performed by addition, 
 by supposing the largest factor to be repeated, one of 
 them standing one figure to the left of the other. It may 
 be shown on the blackboard, as No. 1, and done, after- 
 wards, as No. 2, namely, by supposing the process in 
 No. 1 to be before you. 
 
 No. 1. No. 2. 
 
 426389 426389 
 
 11 11 
 
 426389 4690279 
 426389 
 
 4690279 
 
 In No. 2, the process is as follows, namely : 9 is 9 ; 
 8 and 9 make 17 ; carry 1 to 3 is 4, and 8 are 12 ; &c., 
 adding (after taking the first figure on the right by itself) 
 each figure to the one next it to the left. 
 
 When the multiplier is any number between 12 and 
 20, the process may easily be performed at one opera- 
 tion. Thus : 
 
 No. 1. No. 2. 
 
 3216 3216 
 
 16 16 
 
 19296 51456 
 
 3216 
 
 51456 
 
 By examining No. 1, it will be readily perceived, that 
 the three lines might have been contracted into one, by 
 adding in the right-hand figure, after multiplying the first 
 figure by 6. Or the rule may be expressed thus : Mul- 
 tiply by the units' figure of the multiplier, continually ad- 
 ding in the adjoining right-hand figure of the multiplicand. 
 
 Multiplying by 25, may be performed by one opera- 
 tion, by conceiving the largest factor to be multiplied by 
 100, and then dividing by 4, 25 being J of 100. Other 
 abbreviations in multiplication will be shown, connected 
 with division. 
 
 14 
 
158 
 
 THE TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 Division.— The operations in division, by more than 
 one figure, occupy a great deal of space, and require 
 many figures. They may be much contracted, by placing 
 the divisor and quotient on the same side of the dividend, 
 and performing mentally the subtraction of the products, 
 given by the divisor and each figure of the quotient, as 
 shovv^n in the following example ; 
 
 Dividend, or product, 17589 39, divisor, or factor. 
 
 198 
 
 39 451, quotient, or factor. 
 
 Having found that 39 will go 4 times in 175, we say 4 
 times 9 are 36, which, instead of setting down as usual, 
 we subtract from the 5 by borrowing 4 tens, which gives 
 the remainder 9 ; then 4 times 3 are 12, and 4 borrowed 
 make 16, from 17 leaves 1. To the 19 we bring down 
 the 8, and proceed, as before. This is the Itahan meth- 
 od ; which, being quite as easy as the old formal English 
 mode, is strongly recommended, by its conciseness, to 
 our American youth. The divisor and quotient being 
 factors of the dividend, (see Chap. V. Part I.,) affords 
 another good reason for placing them together. 
 
 Abbreviations. — When the divisor is any of the num- 
 bers in the following Table of Divisors, the quotient may 
 be found in two lines, at most, by short muhiplication and 
 division, as in the adjoining rules. From their simplicity, 
 they require neither explanation nor proof. 
 
 To divide by 5, multiply by 2, and divide by 10 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 70 
 
 
 45 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 90 
 
 
 55 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 110 
 
 
 75 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 300 
 
 
 125 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 1000 
 
 
 175 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 700 
 
 
 275 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 1100 
 
 
 375 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 3000 
 
 
 625 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 5000 
 
 
 875 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 7000 
 
 
 1125 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 9000 
 
 
 1375 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 11000 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 159 
 
 The above rules for division may be converted into 
 rules for multiplication, by changing the divisors into mul- 
 tipliers, and the multipliers into divisors ; thus : 
 
 To multiply by 175, multiply by 700, and divide by 4 
 " 375 " 3000 '' 8 
 
 " 1375 '' 11000 " 8 
 
 &c. &c. &c. 
 
 A great many other abbreviations might be mentioned, 
 here ; but, as they are much more easily understood, when 
 explained on a blackboard, than when merely detailed in 
 words, the subject is left to lecturers in teachers' semina- 
 ries, to whose attention it is earnestly recommended. A 
 year would be profitably spent, by all the pupils in the 
 primary schools, in the practice of abbreviating arith- 
 metic. 
 
 In each of the processes of addition, subtraction, mul- 
 tiplication, and division, questions in decimal fractions 
 should be practised, simultaneously with those in integers. 
 For an explanation of the manner of placing the dot, see 
 Chap. V. Part I. Questions in Federal money, which 
 are, in fact, questions in decimals, should also be worked 
 out at the same time. 
 
 Vulgar Fractions. — This part of arithmetic, from the 
 defects of our popular school-books, is seldom clearly 
 apprehended by the pupil. We shall, therefore, even at 
 the risk of swelling this treatise beyond its proper limits, 
 endeavor to present a clear and comprehensive view of 
 the subject. 
 
 The term vulgar, in connexion with fractions, means 
 common. They are so called, because every kind of 
 fraction may be expressed in that way, whereas decimal 
 fractions can only express those whose unit is divided 
 into 10, 100, 1000, &c., parts. The name, or denomi- 
 nation of decimals, like those of integers, depends on their 
 distance from the unit's place, and their value increases 
 or diminishes, tenfold, by moving to the left or to the 
 right. Thus, in the following number, 
 ab c def 
 222.222, 
 
160 
 
 c d e 
 
 the denominator of 2 is units ; that of 2, tenths ; 2, hun- 
 dredths. We see, then, that, if we wished to express any- 
 other kind of fraction than tenths, hundredths, &c., we 
 should have to resort to some other device. The one, 
 that has been adopted, is, to write their denomination^ or 
 name, directly under them. Thus | is a vulgar fraction, 
 whose denomination is fourths, and its number three. 
 The difference, then, between a decimal and a vulgar 
 fraction, is, that the denomination of the former is known 
 by its distance from the unites place ; whereas the denom- 
 ination of the latter is known by the figure written under 
 it, hence called its denominator. As the lower figure, 
 then, is called the denominator, because it expresses the 
 denomination, or name, of the fraction, so the upper fig- 
 ure has been called the numerator, because it expresses 
 the number it contains. In the fraction |, then, 3 is the 
 number it contains, or its numerator ; and 4, their value, 
 or denomination, or denominator. 
 
 The whole of the above may be concisely expressed, 
 thus : The value of integers and decimal fractions is 
 known from their distance from the unites place ; that of 
 vulgar fractions from the figures written under them. 
 
 To make the subject still more clear, let us examine it, 
 in a different point of view. 
 
 The word fraction implies division. It signifies, that 
 one whole, (an apple, a loaf, a stick, &c.,) or unit, has 
 been divided into a certain number of equal parts, which 
 number is expressed by the denominator, or name of the 
 fraction, while the numerator expresses the number of 
 those parts which it contains. Thus, our fraction | means, 
 that a unit has been divided into four parts, hence called 
 fourths, three of which are expressed by the fraction. 
 
 If we have 19 apples to divide among 4 boys, we shall 
 see the use of fractions. Thus, 
 
 4)19 
 
 ~4...3 
 shows, that there will be four to each boy, and three re- 
 maining. Now, if we cut each of these three into 4 parts, 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 161 
 
 we shall have 12 fourths to divide among the 4 boys, 
 consequently, 3 fourths (or |) for each. We see, then, 
 that the above quotient might have been properly expres- 
 sed by placing our divisor 4 under the remainder 3, thus : 
 4)19 
 
 4.3 
 
 A vulgar fraction, then, always expresses division, the 
 lower figure being the divisor, the upper, the dividend, 
 and the whole, (|,) the quotient. In fact, a vulgar frac- 
 tion may be expressed in three ways, thus : 
 
 3-r-4 3:4 i 
 
 each of which simply means, that 3 is to be divided by 4. 
 Having found, then, that the numerator of a fraction is a 
 dividend, and the denominator its divisor, it is plam, that 
 the following fractions are all equal to one another. 
 
 a 
 
 b 
 
 c 
 
 d 
 
 e 
 
 / 
 
 i 
 
 X 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 16 „ 
 — , &c 
 
 ¥ 
 
 ¥ 
 
 4 
 
 ~6 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 J 
 
 16' 
 
 each being equal to one integer, or 1 . We see, also, 
 that, if we multiply or divide both terms of the fraction, 
 by the same number, we do not change its value. For, 
 if we multiply both terms of the fraction a by 4, we shall 
 have the fraction i, and both have the same value, name- 
 ly, 1. Again : if we divide both terms of the fraction x 
 by 4, we shall have the fraction c, but the value remains 
 the same, namely, 1. 
 
 Very different, however, will be the effect, if we mul- 
 tiply or divide one, only, of the terms of the fraction. For 
 it is easy to be seen, that, by multiplying the numerator 
 of the fraction c by 2, v/e have f, (eight fourths,) the 
 double of J, (four fourths ;) and by dividing the numerator 
 of the same fraction c by 2, we have only f , half of f . 
 It appears, then, that, if we multiply or divide the numer- 
 ator by any number, we multiply or divide the fraction 
 by the same number. 
 
 But, on the contrary, by multiplying the denominator 
 of i by 2, we have -f-Q, only half of f , since there are the 
 same number in both, and a sixteenth is only half of an 
 14* 
 
162 
 
 eighth ; and, by dividing the denominator by 2, the frac- 
 tion is doubled, since the number is still the same, but 
 the denomination or value is doubled, a fourth being 
 double of an eighth. It appears, then, that, if we multi- 
 ply or divide the denominator^ we produce the contrary 
 effect on the fraction. 
 
 Collecting together these three important deductions 
 from the three last paragraphs, we may form a general 
 rule, by stating, that, 
 
 By multiplying 1 the numerator, the frac- { multiphed. 
 
 By dividing ) tion is \ divided. 
 
 By multiplying ) the denominator, the { divided. 
 
 By dividing ) fraction is \ multiplied. 
 
 xJ J- -J- ( both, the fraction is unchanged. 
 
 - From the latter part of the above table, it is evident, 
 that a number, in a fractional form, may be expressed in an 
 infinite variety of vi^ays. Take, for instance, J ; it may 
 be multiplied without end, as follows : 
 
 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 
 
 — — — — — — — , &c., 
 
 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 
 
 all of which are exactly equal. Or, taking ^, 
 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 
 
 ^Q 
 
 3 6 12 24 48 96 192 384' 
 
 all of which are also equal. The first of each of these 
 series, | and J, is the most simple form of the fraction, 
 and it is often important to know how to find it from any 
 of the others. This is called reducing it to its lowest 
 terms, and may evidently always be done by dividing it 
 by such numbers as will divide both its terms. But, as 
 it will frequently be difficult to find out, by mere inspec- 
 tion, what divisors will answer, and as, even then, it 
 would often be necessary to perform a great number of 
 operations, it is important to discover a mode of finding 
 out, at once, its greatest common divisor. This may al- 
 ways be done, by dividing the greater of the two terms 
 by the less ; then the less by the remainder of the first 
 division ; then this remainder by the remainder of the 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 163 
 
 second division; then this second remainder by the third; 
 and so on, till we arrive at an exact quotient : the last di- 
 visor will be the common divisor sought ; or, if it prove 
 to be 1, the numbers have no common divisor. Let us 
 apply this to the fraction, ^ff. 
 
 Dividend 384 164, first divisor. 
 
 2, quotient. 
 164 56, first remainder and second divisor. 
 
 2, quotient. 
 56 52, second remainder and third divisor. 
 
 1, quotient. 
 52|4, third remainder and fourth divisor. 
 
 Net quotient |l3, greatest common divisor. 
 
 We can make ourselves certain, that this last divisor 
 will always be the greatest common divisor, by tracing 
 the above operation backwards, as follows : as 4 divides 
 52, it will divide 56, which is once 4 more ; as it divides 52 
 and 56, it will also divide 164, which is twice 56 and 52 ; 
 and, as it divides 56 and 164, it will also divide 384, 
 which consists of twice 164 and 56. It is also evident, 
 that there can be no divisor greater than 4, since 4 must 
 be divided by it. 
 
 It is not always necessary to find the greatest common 
 divisor, in order to reduce a fraction to its lowest terms. 
 It can frequently be done by inspection, in which the pupil 
 will be much aided by the following remarks : 
 
 Every even number, — that is, every number terminated 
 by 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, — is necessarily divisible by 2 ; for, in di- 
 viding by 2, only 1 can remain from the tens. If nothing 
 remain, the last number to be divided will be or 2, 4, 
 6, 8 ; if 1 remain, the last number will be 10, 12, 14, 
 16, 18, all of which are divisible by 2. 
 
 Every number, whose two right-hand figures are divisi- 
 ble by 4 or by 25, is itself divisible by 4 or by 25 ; be- 
 cause both these numbers will divide one hundred without 
 remainder, and, consequently, any number of hundreds. 
 
 Every number whose three right-hand figures are divi- 
 
164 
 
 sible by 8 or by 125, is itself divisible by 8 or by 125 ; 
 for, as one thousand is divisible by 8 or by 125, any 
 number of thousands is equally divisible. 
 
 Every number terminated on the right by a cipher or 
 by 5, is divisible by 5 ; because 10, or any number of 
 10s, is divisible by 5. 
 
 Every number, the sum of whose significant figures is 
 divisible by 3 or by 9, is itself divisible by 3 or by 9. 
 Thus, the number 
 
 426,213 
 is divisible by 9, because, as 100,000 consists of 99,999 
 and 1, 100,000, divided by 9, will leave a remainder of 
 1, and 400,000, a remainder of 4. For a like reason, 
 20,000 will leave a remainder of 2, 6000, of 6, 200, of 
 5, &c. ; that is, each of the figures in the above or any 
 other number, if divided by 9, will leave a remainder 
 equal to the simple value of the figure ; and, if the sum 
 of all the remainders is divisible by 9, of course, the 
 whole number is divisible by 9. But the sum of the 
 above remainders is divisible by 9 ; therefore, the number 
 is divisible by 9. The same demonstration will answer 
 for 3. Therefore, every number^ the sum of whose sig- 
 nificant figures is divisible by 9 or by 3, is itself divisible 
 by 9 or by 3. And every number divisible by 9 is also 
 divisible by 3, although every number divisible by 3 is 
 not divisible by 9. 
 
 Thus we can tell, almost by a glance, whether any num- 
 ber can be divided by 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 25, or 125. 
 
 T. What will be the remainder, if we divide 326 by 
 25 ? Tell by inspection. 
 
 T. What will be the remainder, if any, of dividing 
 6892736 by 4 ? by 9 ? by 3 ? 
 
 As soon as the teacher has fully explained to his class, 
 on the blackboard, all that has been stated above, relative 
 to fractions, and ascertained that it is thoroughly under- 
 stood, the pupils should practise, on the slate, the reduc- 
 tion of fractions to their lowest terms, and the teacher 
 proceed as follows, on the blackboard. 
 
 An integer, or whole number, may be represented in a 
 fractional form, by placing a unit under it, as its denomi- 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 165 
 
 nator. Thus, 6 or 8 may be written f , f . An integer 
 may also be represented in connexion with a fraction. 
 Thus, -^^ contain the integer 2 and f more. For, as | 
 are equal to 1, -^/=2 ; therefore, V- = 2f ; or this re- 
 sult may be obtained, by actually performing the division 
 indicated by --i-. Thus, 
 
 8 )19 
 21 
 
 Every fraction, then, whose numerator exceeds its 
 denominator, contains a whole number, which may be 
 obtained by performing the division indicated. Such 
 fractions are called improper fractions ; and, when the 
 division is performed, (as above,) the quotient, if it con- 
 sist of an integer and fraction, is called a mixed number. 
 The improper fraction may evidently be reproduced, by 
 multiplying the whole number by the divisor of the frac- 
 tion, adding in the numerator, and replacing the denomi- 
 nator of the fraction. 
 
 [Let the pupils now practise on the slate, the reduc- 
 tion of improper fractions to mixed numbers, and vice 
 versa.'] 
 
 From the table given page 162, we see that a fraction 
 can be multiplied two ways : namely, by muhiplying its 
 numerator, or by dividing its denominator ; and that it 
 can also be divided in two ways : namely, by dividing its 
 numerator, or by multiplying its denominator. Hence it 
 follows, that multiplication^ alone, according as it is per- 
 formed on the numerator or denominator, is sufficient, both 
 for the multiplication and division of fractions. Thus, -^^ 
 multiplied by 5, makes ^j, and divided by 5, makes y^. 
 
 [Here give suitable examples, for practice, both in 
 multipHcation and division of fractions by whole numbers.] 
 
 Multiplication and division of fractions by fractions, 
 may be thus exemplified : Multiply f by y. 
 a a 
 
 3 4 
 
 b b 
 
 First, the 4 may be considered a whole number, and 
 mutiplying by it, gives ^ ; but it is not 4, but the sev- 
 
166 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 enth part of 4 ; therefore, our -^ is 7 times too much. 
 Accordingly, if we divide by 7, by multiplying the de- 
 nominator, we shall have ^f , the true answer. Hence, 
 the common rule. Multiply the numerators^ for a neic 
 numerator J and the denominators^ for a new denominator. 
 Divide tV by f . 
 
 b a 
 
 a b 
 
 Dividing y^^bySgives 3^^; but our divisor is not 3, but the 
 fifth part of 3 ; therefore, we have divided by a number 
 5 times too large, and our -i^ is 5 times too small. There- 
 fore, multiplying it by 5, gives M? the correct answer. 
 But, if we mark our two first factors a, and our two sec- 
 ond factors 6, it will appear, that, if we had reversed the 
 divisor, we might have proceeded, as in multiplication. 
 Hence, our common rule in division. Reverse the divisor^ 
 and proceed as in multiplication. 
 
 'These two demonstrations should be repeated on the 
 blackboard, by every member of the class, till the subject 
 has become perfectly familiar. 
 
 The term fractions of fractions is sometimes given, to 
 expressions like this : § of |-, which signifies the product 
 of such fractions. That the word 0/, here, represents 
 multiplication, appears from expressions with which all 
 are familiar. For instance ; every one knows that J of 6 
 is 2. Now, by multiplying, we have | = 2. Again, J of 
 12 is 3 ; multiplying gives us -^-^- = 3. 
 
 The process of multiplying fractions may frequently be 
 very much abbreviated. Thus, in the question | of f of 
 f of f of x^(j of J of f = how much ? 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 d 
 
 / 
 
 3 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 % 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 — 
 
 X 
 
 — 
 
 X 
 
 — 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X — 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ u 
 
 a' 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 e 
 
 10 
 
 The whole afl^air consists merely in striking out factors 
 and divisors that are equal, and may be thus demonstra- 
 ted. It would be a waste of time to multiply | by 5, 
 marked 6, and then to divide by 5, also marked b. The 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 167 
 
 same reasoning allows us to strike out the two 8s, mark- 
 ed/, the two 9s, marked e ; and, going on thus, we have, 
 at length, nothing left but tV, which is the true answer. 
 The same abbreviation may be practised in division, after 
 we have reversed the divisor, and thus changed the divis- 
 ion into multiplication. 
 
 Many cases occur, in which abbreviations may be made, 
 although the w|?ole number may not, at once, be struck 
 out, or even though all the factors may never disappear. 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 3 a^^ 64^ 3 
 
 aX^6^.^ 35~35' 
 b^ 
 
 a^ bm- 3 3 
 6 ^ ^ am-^ 5 "~10' 
 
 2 
 
 No. 1 is thus abbreviated : divide a 2 and a 8 by 2 ; 
 which gives a new denominator 4 ; then strike out the 
 two denominators b 4 and b 4, and the numerator 6 16. 
 In No. 2, divide the two a s by 4, the two 6 s by 7, and 
 the two c s by 4. 
 
 [Here give examples, for practice, in multiplication 
 and division of fractions by fractions, which should be 
 examined by the teacher, to see if all the possible abbre- 
 viations have been made.] 
 
 Many young students find it difficult to comprehend, 
 why multiplying by a fraction should lessen^ and dividing 
 increase a number. But this difficulty may be removed, 
 by explaining, that multiplying by a number is taking it as 
 many times as there are units in the multiplier ; that, con- 
 sequently, when we multiply by 2, the product will be 
 twice the multiplicand ; when we multiply by 1, the pro- 
 duct will be once the multipHcand ; and when we multi- 
 fly by ^, the product will be half the multiplicand, &c. 
 n division, when the divisor is 5, the dividend is five 
 times the quotient ; consequently, the quotient is one fifth 
 of the dividend. And if the divisor be a fraction, ^, for 
 instance, the dividend can be but half the quotient, or the 
 quotient double of the dividend. 
 
 Let it be remarked here, once for all, that all the expla- 
 
168 THE teacher' 
 
 nations will appear somewhat abstruse and difficult, when 
 merely given in words ; but, when illustrated by numbers, 
 on the blackboard, as these and what follow are intended to 
 be, they will readily be understood by any intelligent child. 
 
 Mdition and Subtraction of Vulgar Fractions. — It 
 will be recollected, that, in multiplication and division of 
 integers, it is not necessary that the multiplicand and mul- 
 tiplier, or the divisor and dividend, should be of the same 
 denomination ; for 6 thousand could be multiplied or di- 
 vided by 3 units, as readily as 6 units could. The same 
 remark apphes to fractions ; for | can be multipHed or 
 divided by f , just as easily as by f . This, however, is 
 not the case with addition and subtraction, either in inte- 
 gers or fractions. For 2 units cannot be added to 3 hun- 
 dred, in any other manner, than by naming or writing 
 them, one after the other, as they do not make 5 of any 
 denomination ; and, in like manner, § and | cannot be 
 added, until they are changed into the same denomination. 
 In subtraction, 6 units cannot be taken from Sty, without 
 first reducing one or more of the ty, into units. In frac- 
 tions, also, f cannot be taken from | until their denomi- 
 nation is made the same, by changing the form of one or 
 both. Thus it appears, that, although we can multiply 
 or divide fractions, however they may differ in denomi- 
 nation ; it is always necessary that they should have the 
 same denominator before they can be added or subtract- 
 ed ; and that the same remark applies to integers. It 
 becomes necessary, then, to point out the simplest mode 
 of reducing fractions to the same denominator. 
 
 Suppose, then, we w^ished to add or subtract | to or 
 from f . If each term of the first fraction be multiplied 
 by 5, the denominator of the second ; and each term of 
 the second be multiplied by 3, the denominator of the 
 first, the value of both will be unchanged, and they will 
 have the same denominator 15, namely ; i% and if. In 
 this form, there is no difficulty, either in adding or sub- 
 tracting them ; and the process, which has been applied 
 to the above fractions, may be appHed to any other. In 
 general, then, to reduce any two fractions to the same 
 denominator, the two terms of each of them must be mul- 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 169 
 
 tiplied by the denominator of the other. And any num- 
 ber of fractions are reduced to a common denominator, 
 by multiplying the tivo terms of each by the product of the 
 denominators of all the others ; for it is plain, that the 
 new denominators are all the same, since each is the pro- 
 duct of all the original denominators and that the new 
 fractions have the same value as the former ones, since 
 nothing has been done except multiplying each term of 
 these by the same number. 
 
 It frequently happens, that fractions can be reduced to 
 a common denominator by a shorter and more simple 
 process. 
 
 XT . 2 3 XT ^ 1 2 5 
 
 No. 1. — — . No. 2. — — — . 
 
 4 8 4 3 6 
 
 Thus, in No. 1, it is readily perceived, that the f can 
 be reduced to eighths, by multiplying both terms by 2, 
 which renders it unnecessary to alter the f at all ; and, in 
 No. 2, we can see, at a glance, that all the fractions can 
 be brought to twelfths, by multiplying both terms of J by 
 3, of I by 4, and of | by 2. In these cases, the denom- 
 inators 8 and 12 are called the least common multiples. 
 Where the least common multiple cannot be found by 
 inspection, it may be attained by the following rule : 
 
 1. Place the given numbers, of which you wish to find 
 the least common multiple, one after another, in a horizon- 
 tal line. 2. Divide as many of these numbers as possi- 
 ble, by any common measure, or divisor, setting under- 
 neath the several quotients, together with the undivided 
 numbers. 3. Proceed with this second rank of numbers, 
 as with the first ; and so on, till no further division of 
 any two numbers can be made. 4. Multiply together 
 the several divisors and the last rank of numbers, and the 
 product will be the least common multiple required. 
 When the numbers have no common measure, (in which 
 case, they are said to be primes to each other,) then it 
 follows, that the product of these numbers will be their 
 least common multiple. 
 
 Required, the least common multiple of the denomina- 
 tors 14, 18, 20, 24. 
 15 
 
170 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 24 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 2520, least 
 common multiple. 
 
 The principle, on which the above rule is founded, is, 
 that when any two or more numbers have a common fac- 
 tor, it need not be used but once. Now, in the first hne, 
 all the numbers have the factor 2, which need only be 
 used once. In the second line, 9 and 12 have the com- 
 mon factor 3. In the third line, 10 and 4 have the com- 
 mon factor 2. We therefore only require the factors in 
 the last line, and the divisors, each, once ; which will be 
 found to give a number 48 times less, than if we had used 
 the first rule, of multiplying each by the product of all the 
 others. 
 
 In practice, it will be found convenient, always to 
 change mixed numbers or integers, when they occur, into 
 improper fractions. 
 
 [Here give examples, for practice, in addition and 
 subtraction.] 
 
 All that now remains, on the subject of fractions, is, tiJ 
 show the method of changing decimal into vulgar, and 
 vulgar into decimal fractions, — processes which maybe in- 
 ferred from what has already been said. For, as it was 
 shown that the only difference between these two kinds 
 bf fractions was, that vulgar fractions had their denomi- 
 nations expressed by the figures written under them, while 
 the denomination of decimal fractions was implied by 
 their distance from the dot which marked the place of 
 units, it is plain, that a decimal is converted into a vulgar 
 fraction, simply by writing under it its value, or denomi- 
 nation ; while a vulgar fraction is converted into a deci- 
 mal, by performing the division indicated by its denomi- 
 lEiator. Thus, .6 = fjy or |, and, by performing the 
 division on either of the vulgar fractions, we have again .6. 
 
 [Reduction, and addition, subtraction, multiplication, 
 and division of compound numbers, may now be prac- 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 171 
 
 tised. These are, in general, sufficiently explained in our 
 common school-books.] 
 
 Proportion.— After the class have sufficiently practised 
 the various modes of increasing and decreasing numbers, 
 both simple and compound, integers and fractions, they 
 should begin to apply their knowledge to the solution of 
 arithmetical questions, most (or properly speaking, all) 
 of which may be referred to Proportion. But, first, it 
 is necessary that a few terms, of frequent occurrence, be 
 defined. 
 
 Ratio, or the relation or comparison of two numbers 
 as to quantity, is the quotient arising from dividing the 
 one by the other, and is thus expressed ; 8:4, or f . 
 This ratio is evidently 2. 
 
 The first term of a ratio is called the antecedent, the 
 second the consequent. 
 
 In a ratio, both terms must relate to quantities of the 
 same nature. Thus, there is a ratio between 9 horses 
 and 3 horses, but there can be none between 2 horses 
 and 4 barns, because they are not capable of comparison 
 as to quantity. This observation should be particularly 
 attended to, for, in the old-fashioned method of stating 
 proportion, things of different natures are mingled togeth- 
 er, rendering the subject difficult of explanation. Thus, 
 the question, — If 7 lbs. of sugar cost 75 cts., how many 
 lbs. can I buy for $6 i^ — used to be stated thus : 
 
 cts. lbs. cts. 
 
 75 ; 7 : : 600 ; 
 a mode which is highly objectionable, as contrary to the 
 definition of ratio, there being no ratio between 75 cts. 
 and 7 lbs. 
 
 Proportion is the combination of two equal ratios- 
 Thus : 
 
 No. 1. No. 2. 
 
 a b c d abed 
 
 4 : 2= 16: 8, 3:9=1:3, 
 
 are proportions, the two ratios in each being equal ; those 
 in No. 1 being 2, those in No. 2, J, (one third.) 
 
 The first and last terms of a proportion are called the 
 extremes ; the two middle terms, the means. 
 
172 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 It is evident, from the mere inspection of any propor- 
 tion, that the antecedent of the first ratio contains, or is 
 contained, as many times in the antecedent of the second, 
 as the consequent of the first contains, or is contained, in 
 the consequent of the second ; and, from this equality, it 
 follows, that the product of the means is equal to the pro- 
 duct of the extremes. For, if the numbers of the second 
 ratio be double (treble, one half, or any other number of 
 times) that of the first, it is evident, that the product of 
 the antecedent of the first with the consequent of the sec- 
 ond, will be double (treble, one half, or any other number 
 of times) the product of the two terms of the first ratio ; 
 and that the product of the consequent of the first with 
 the antecedent of the second, will also be double (treble, 
 one half, or any other number of times) the product of the 
 two terms of the first ratio. Consequently, these products 
 are equal, because they are both double (treble, one half, 
 or any other number of times) the product of the terms 
 of the first ratio ; and this equality will occur in all cases, 
 whatever. Now, as these equal products are those of the 
 extremes and means, we thus have the rule of proportion : 
 The product of the means is equal to the product of the 
 extremes. 
 
 [Let this be demonstrated, a few times, on the black- 
 board, till it has become famihar. It will be intelligible 
 to the youngest member of the class, if he has made such 
 progress in mental arithmetic, as to have acquired a com- 
 mand of his attention. ~\ 
 
 When any three terms of a proportion are given, the 
 fourth can easily be found. For, if one of the means be 
 wanting, we have only to take the product of the ex- 
 tremes, and, as that is equal to the product of the means, 
 if we divide by the given mean, the quotient will be the 
 other. In like manner, if one of the extremes be wanting, 
 it can be found by dividing the product of the means by 
 the given extreme. Thus, in the two following propor- 
 tions, in which x stands for the unknown number : 
 
 No. 1. 4:6=a;:18. No. 2. a;: 4=3:6. 
 
 1. The product of the extremes 4 X 18 =72, which, 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 173 
 
 being also the product of the means, dividing by the given 
 mean, (6,) will give the other, (12,) which here is rep- 
 resented by X. 
 
 2. The product of the means 4 X 3= 12, divided by 
 the extreme 6, gives the other, 2. 
 
 It appears from the above, that it is of no consequence 
 which term of the proportion is wanting. If any three 
 are given, the fourth can be found. But, as it will be 
 more convenient for the student always to place the un- 
 known terra last, we shall regularly pursue that course. 
 Let us now proceed to the solution of questions, which 
 we shall copy from Adams's ' New Arithmetic' But we 
 shall work them out in a manner entirely different. 
 
 Rule of Three. — 1. If a piece of cloth, 4 yards long, 
 cost 12 dollars, ichat will be the cost of a piece of the 
 same cloth, 7 yards long ? 
 
 Our first business is, to ascertain, what it is that is 
 wanted, which will be known from the words asking the 
 question. In the above, we know it to be money ; be- 
 cause the question is, " what will be the cost .^" There- 
 fore, 12 dollars is one of the terms of the imperfect ratio. 
 Accordingly, we write it thus, \2 : x ; the x representing 
 the unknown number. The other ratio is one of yards., 
 and the numbers 4 and 7. To know in what order to 
 place them, we read the question, and say, More^ or 
 less ? As 7 yards will evidently cost more than 4, the 
 answer is. More. Having thus ascertained, that the con- 
 sequent X is more than 12, the other ratio must be placed 
 in the same order, that is, making its largest term the 
 consequent : 
 
 4 : 7 = 12: a;. 
 
 We might now proceed to take the product of the 
 means, (7 X 12,) and dividing by the given extreme, 
 (4,) would show the amount of the other, represented 
 by X ; but, as this, and almost all other questions, can 
 readily be abbreviated, it will be proper to examine 
 the proportion more particularly, with that view. At a 
 ^nce, then, it will be perceived, that the 7 and 12 are 
 factors, according to the rule, and 4 a divisor. But, as 
 15* 
 
174 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 we found, when investigating fractions, that, when there 
 were both factors and divisors in a computation, the result 
 was the same, if we divided both a divisor and a factor 
 by the same number, it appears that, if we divide 4 and 
 12 by 4, we shall have the same proportion, 
 
 1:7 = 3: a;, 
 
 in which cc^ the answer, is seen, by inspection, to be 21. 
 
 2. If a horse travel 30 miles in 6 hours, how many 
 miles will he travel in 11 hours, at that rate.'' [Ask 
 again, More^ or less ?] 
 
 6 : 1 1 = 30 : a; 
 Dividing by 6, 1:11= 5 : a?= 55, by inspection. 
 
 3. At $54 for 9 barrels of flour, how many barrels 
 may be purchased for $186 ? \_More^ or less ?] 
 
 54: 186 = 9 : x 
 Dividing by 9, 6 : 186 = 1 : a; 
 
 '' "6, 1: 31 = 1 :a;= 31, by inspection. 
 
 Many of these questions may be still further shortened, 
 by abbreviating, mentally, while first stating them. Thus : 
 
 4. If 3 men perform a certain piece of work in 10 
 days, how long will it take 6 men to do the same } 
 
 Dividing by 3, 2 : 1 = 10 : a;=: 5, by inspection. 
 
 Fellowship. — 1 . Two men own a ticket ; the first owns 
 I, the second |, of it. The ticket draws a prize of $40. 
 What is each man's share .'' 
 
 First man, 1 fourth. 
 Second man, 3 fourths. 
 
 T 
 
 First man's proportion, 4 : 1 =40 : a; = 10, by inspection. 
 
 Second'^ '' 4: 3 = 40: a; 
 
 Dividing by 4, 1 : 3= 10 : a;=30 «' '« 
 
 40, proof. 
 
 2. Two persons have a joint stock in trade. A puts 
 in $250, and B $350 ; they gain $400. What is each 
 man's share ? 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 175 
 
 A's stock, 250 
 B's " 350 
 
 600 
 Dividing by 200, mentally, 
 3 : 250 = 2 : a; = evidently J of 500 = $166| 
 3 : 350 = 2 : a; = 1 of 700 = $2334 
 
 Proof, $400 
 3. A bankrupt is indebted to A, $780, to B, $460, 
 and to C, $760 ; his estate is v^^orth only $600. How 
 must it be divided ? 
 
 A's debt, $780 
 B's '' 460 
 C's " 760 
 
 $2000 
 Dividing by 200, mentally, 
 
 10 : 780 = 3 : a; = 234, by inspection. 
 10 :460 = 3 : a;= 138 '' '' 
 
 10 : 760 = 3 : a; = 228 " " 
 
 $600, proof. 
 Fractions. — 1 . If ^^ lb. of sugar cost ^V o^ ^ shilling, 
 what will ff of a lb. cost ? 
 
 n 33_^ x_ 
 30 ' 43 ~ 15 ' x' 
 By reversing our divisor, ^^, the whole proportion is 
 changed into multiplication of fractions. 
 
 ^ . 30 33 7 a: 
 
 Reversmg, _x-X-=--. 
 
 2 3 7 42 
 Dividing by 11 and by 15, — X — X — = 2i ^^^ shilling. 
 
 2. If tV of a ship costs $252, what is ^ of her worth ? 
 16 3 252 
 Reversing, Y ^ 32 ^ ^~' 
 
 3 36 
 Dividing by 16 and 7, — x — = $54, by inspection. 
 
176 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 This question might as readily have been performed in 
 one line, by reversing and dividing at the same time. 
 
 Every question is not susceptible of such abbrevia- 
 tions ; but a vast majority may be thus considerably short- 
 ened, and a large number entirely so, as above, so as to 
 require no multiplication. The pupil should be encour- 
 aged even still further to shorten such questions, by re- 
 solving all the abbreviating processes into one, mentally, 
 while stating the question. Such a habit is easily ac- 
 quired. Children of both sexes, under nine years of age, 
 have solved questions like the above, without writing them 
 down, at all, merely by inspecting the book. Where 
 questions cannot be sufficiently abbreviated to be solved 
 by inspection, recourse must be had to the rule, Product 
 of means = product of extremes. 
 
 Compound Proportion. — Proportion is said to be com- 
 pound, when the imperfect ratio is not equal to another 
 given ratio, but is compounded of several relations, or ra- 
 tios. Take, for instance, the following question : 
 
 1 . If a man travel 273 miles in 13 days, travelling only 
 7 hours in a day, how many miles will he travel in 12 
 days, travelling 10 hours in a day ? 
 
 Here it will be perceived, that the question, — How many 
 miles ? — -depends neither entirely on the number of days, 
 nor on the number of hours travelled in each day, but is 
 influenced by both. It might be resolved into two ques- 
 tions of simple proportion ^ but it is more easily and sim- 
 ply treated as one, of compound proportion, solved, how- 
 ever, on the same principles. 
 
 Days. Days. Miles. Miles. 
 
 Hours 7:10^^^^'^' 
 
 Dividing 273 by 13 and by 7, or by their product, 91, 
 
 1 • 12 ? 
 
 -, i jQ > 3 : a: = 360, by inspection. 
 
 2. If 6 men build a wall, 20 feet long, 6 feet high, and 
 4 feet thick, in 16 days, in lohat time will 24 men build 
 one, 200 feet long, 8 feet high, and 6 feet thick ? 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 177 
 
 24:6 
 20 : 200 
 
 6:8 
 
 4:6 
 
 Contracting, X-^ 
 16: a:. ^ 
 
 "€l 2 
 -SOO-10 
 
 4 
 
 44-:rp = S0, 
 by inspect. 
 
 This was done by dividing 24 and 8 by 8 ; 20 and 200 
 by 20 ; 3 and 6 (first ratio) by 3 ; 6 and 6 by 6 ; 4 and 
 16 by 4. It is hardly necessary to observe, that, in these 
 abbreviations, all the Is have been omitted, as the mul- 
 tiplying or dividing by that number can produce no change. 
 
 3. If 56 lbs. of bread be sufficient for 7 men 14 days, 
 how much bread will serve 21 men 3 days ? 
 
 '^ :21 ) -^ 
 14: 3r • 
 
 Contracting by 7 and 14, ) i ! q ( 4 : a; = 36, by inspect. 
 
 There being a greater variety of numbers in compound 
 proportion, it admits of contractions more frequently than 
 simple proportion, though there may be some questions, 
 which are not susceptible of any. When multiplication 
 has to be performed, it should be recollected, that the 
 left-hand extreme and the first mean, consist of several 
 nuro.bers, the product of which being severally taken, we 
 proceed as in simple proportion. The teacher should 
 be careful to impress on his pupils the necessity of asking 
 the question, More^ or less 9 previously to the writing 
 down of every ratio. Thus, in the last question, let the 
 pupil say, How much bread ? 56 : x. If 56 be sufficient 
 for 7, how much for 21 ? More, or less ^ More. Then 
 the consequent must be the greater ; 7 : 21. If 56 be 
 sufficient for 14 days, how much for 3 ? More, or less ? 
 Less. Then the antecedent must be the greater ; 14 : 3. 
 
 4. If $100 gain $6, in one year, what will $400 gain 
 in 9 months ? 
 
 100 : 400 ) . Dividing by 100 ( 1 : 2 ) 
 
 12:9 \^'^' and 6 and 2, ll:9\^ '^~^^' 
 
 Interest. — Let the subject of interest be explained from 
 any of the popular books on arithmetic ; adding. 
 
 The words, per cent., per ann.., are either expressed or 
 
1?S THE teacher's MANUAL. 
 
 understood, in every question respecting interest, imme- 
 diately after the rate. 
 
 Per cent, means /or every hundred. 
 
 Per ann. means /or every year. 
 
 When the rate is not expressed, six is always under- 
 stood. 
 
 For instance, in the following question, What is the 
 interest of ^11. 04 for 1 year, at 3 per cent. ? the words, 
 per annum, are understood. And in the question. What 
 is the interest of $150 for 16 days ? the words, at 6 per 
 cent, per ann.., are understood, and must be supplied, in 
 stating the question. From the want of a clear under- 
 standing of the terras employed, many pupils find the sub- 
 ject of interest exceedingly difficult. Let the teacher re- 
 peatedly question his class, till he is sure they are thor- 
 oughly understood. 
 
 Case I. — Principal, time, and rate, given, to find the 
 interest or amount. 
 
 1. What is the interest of $11.04, for 1 year, at 3 per 
 cent. .'' 
 
 100 
 lyr. 
 
 > 3 : a;= .3312, by inspec. 
 
 2. What is the interest of $150, for 16 days ? 
 100 : 150 ) ^ Divide by 1000 ( 1 : .15 K 
 360: 16 J ^ •^- and 6. ^ 6 : 16 J ^ * '^• 
 
 Divide by 6, that is, the upper by 3, the lower by 2. 
 
 1 : .05 ? . , . 
 
 . r^>oc:.4, by mspection. 
 
 3. 'What is the interest of $1000, for 120 years ? 
 Divide by 100. ) } ! 12O I ^ ' ^=P^^^^ ^7 inspection. 
 
 4. What is the interest of $520.04, for 30 years and 
 6 months ? 
 
 100 : 520.04 ) ^ 
 12:366 p-^- 
 
 Divide by 100 and by 12, that is, 366 by 2, and 6 by 6. 
 
 Dividing by 100, j : 
 
 1 yr. 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 179 
 
 1 : 5.2004 
 
 I 1 :x = 
 
 1:183 ^^.^-951.6732. 
 
 5. What is the interest of $400, for 10 years, 3 months, 
 and 6 days ? 
 
 100 : 400 If. 
 360 : 3696 \^ '^' 
 
 Divide by 1000 and 6. j | .' gl 6 ( ^ : a; = $246.40. 
 
 6. What is the amount of £100 for 8 years ? 
 
 100 : 100 
 
 1 :8 
 
 i6:x =48, interest, by inspection. 
 ' 100, principal. 
 
 £148, amount. 
 Case II. — The time, rate per cent., and amount, giv- 
 en, to find the principal. 
 
 1. What sum of money, put at interest at 6 per cent., 
 will amount to $61.02 in 1 year and 4 months ? 
 
 Here, as we have only one amount given, we must find 
 another at the same rate and time, to complete the ratio. 
 Let us find the amount of $100. 
 100: 100 
 12: 16 
 
 ^ '.X. 
 
 Divide by 100 and 12. j , ; g ( 1 : a: = 8, interest. 
 ^ * ^ 100, principal. 
 
 $108, amount. 
 
 Amt. Amt. Princ. 
 
 108 : 61.02= 100 \x. 
 Removing the dot, viz. multiplying by 100, and dividing 
 by 108, gives a: = $56.50. 
 
 2. What principal, at 8 per cent., in 1 year and 6 
 months, will amount to $85.12 ? 
 100 : 100 
 12: 18 
 
 8 :x. 
 
 Divide by 100 and 12. < . J ^ > 2 : a;= 12, interest. 
 ' ' ' 100, principal. 
 
 $112, amount. 
 
180 THE teacher's MANUAL. 
 
 112: 85.12= 100: a? = $76. 
 Removing the dot, and dividing by 112, gives the an- 
 swer, $76. 
 
 3. Suppose I owe a man $397.50, to be paid in a 
 year, without interest, and I wish to pay him now. How 
 much ought I to pay him, w^hen the usual rate is 6 per 
 cent. ? Evidently, such a sum, as, put to interest, would, 
 in 1 year, amount to $397.50. Such a sum is called the 
 present worth of $397.50. 
 
 100: 100 > ^ ^ . 
 
 > 6 : a? = 6, mterest. 
 
 ^ 100, principal. 
 
 $106, amount. 
 Removing dot, and dividing by 106, 
 
 106 : 397.50 = 100 : a; = $375. 
 
 Case III. — Time, rate, and interest, given, to find the 
 principal. 
 
 1. What sum of money, put at interest 16 months, will 
 gain $10.50, at 6 per cent. ? 
 
 6 : 10.50 } .^^ 
 16:12 5100:0;. 
 
 Divide by 12 and ( 1 : 1050 ) ^ , ,^,^1.25, by inspec. 
 remove dot. ^8:1 ) j j t 
 
 2. A man paid $4.52 interest, at the end of 1 year 
 and 4 months. What was the principal ? 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 Divide by 12 and ^ 1 
 
 remove dot. ( 8 
 
 3. A man received for interest, at the end of a year, 
 $20. What was the principal ? 
 
 \\\^\ 100 : a; = $3331, by inspection. 
 
 Case IV. — Principal, interest, and time, given, to find 
 the rate per cent. 
 
 J. If I pay $3.78 interest, for the use of $36, for 18 
 months, what is the rate per cent. ? 
 
 4.52 ) 1^^ 
 125100:0:. 
 
 452 ) 
 
 - > 1 :a; = 56.50, by inspection. 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 181 
 
 Here we suppress the dot, and strike out 100 ; divide 
 36 and 12 by 12 ; and divide 378 by 3 X 18 = 54. 
 
 2. If I pay $2.34 for the use of $468, 1 month, what 
 is the rate per cent. ? 
 
 468-:i-ee- 
 
 1 :4^ '^^""^ 
 6 
 Case V. — Principal, rate per cent., and interest, given, 
 to find the time. 
 
 1. The interest on a note of $36, at 7 per cent., was 
 $3.78. What was the time ? 
 
 JQ^ ' IQ Q ^ 
 
 >e^ ! q ^p [ -4^* a?= 18 months. 
 18 
 
 2. On a note of $600, paid interest $20, at 8 per cent. 
 What was the time .'' 
 
 4^: x = 5. 
 
 ^ 
 
 5 
 
 The different cases of simple interest, then, are noth- 
 ing more than compound proportion. If care be taken 
 that the subject required is made the imperfect ratio, and, 
 with respect to each of the other ratios, the question be 
 always asked, What effect will it produce on the answer ? 
 will it make it more or less ? the student can never be at a 
 loss in stating the question. If the answer be, tMbre, of 
 course the consequent must be the greater. If Less, the 
 antecedent. A very few questions, worked out on the 
 blackboard by an intelligent teacher, will give his pupils 
 a practical knowledge of the whole system of arithmetic, 
 which could not be easily attained by any other means ; 
 and they will be able to perform such questions as the 
 above, after a little practice, with still fewer figures. 
 16 
 
182 
 
 In this mode of teaching, the pupil is not embarrassed 
 by a multiplicity of rules ; there is but one simple rule, 
 the equality of the means and extremes. 
 
 The other subjects generally connected with arithmetic, 
 namely, compound interest, involution and evolution, 
 arithmetical and geometrical progression, properly belong 
 to algebra ; and are best understood in that connexion. 
 Should the teacher, however, prefer the old course, these 
 can be taught from any of the popular treatises on arith- 
 metic. When a teacher introduces the system here pre- 
 sented, he should caution his class to pay no attention to 
 the rules laid down in the books from which they will 
 copy their practical questions, unless otherwise directed. 
 Mingling the two systems would produce nothing but in- 
 ^X,tricable confusion. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION, CONTINUED. 
 
 Geography. ~ 
 
 This science should be taught, as much as possible, 
 upon maps ; and the reason why all maps are imperfect 
 should be pointed out. Every school should possess a 
 small globe. Each pupil should have his skeleton maps, 
 to be filled up from time to time ; and, whenever any 
 place is mentioned, either in the course of reading or in 
 composition or elocution exercises, the teacher should in- 
 quire where it is ; and whether it is on their maps.- If 
 its situation is not known, the name should be written on 
 a corner of the blackboard, till the gazetteer is consulted. 
 It would be well, if one set of skeleton maps were appro- 
 priated to this especial use, and hung up in a conspicuous 
 part of the room. The geographical treatise should be 
 used as a reading book, and never conned, or committed 
 to memory. ' Parley's Geography' should be the first 
 book on this subject. 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 183 
 
 History. 
 
 Parley's First, Second, and Third, Books of History 
 are good introductions to this science. In reading histo- 
 tory, maps should always be consulted. They elucidate 
 and give an air of reality to the subject. The teacher 
 should satisfy himself, by appropriate questions, that the 
 pupils have clear notions, both of the time and place of 
 the events recorded. The American edition of Lavoisne's 
 ' Genealogical, Historical, Chronological, and Geograph- 
 ical Atlas,' and the ' American Atlas,' on the same plan, 
 would form invaluable additions to the school library, in 
 the hands of a skilful teacher. 
 
 Human Physiology. 
 
 An admirable little work for children, oh this subject, 
 by Mrs. Jane Taylor, has been published by the Ameri- 
 can Common School Society of New York, which might 
 be used as a reading book, after ' Juvenile Lessons,' with 
 great advantage. After a portion of it has been read, 
 both question and answer, by the class, without study, let 
 them close their books, the teacher read the questions, 
 and the pupils give answers, in their own words. 
 
 Botany. 
 
 Some popular treatise on botany should be read aloud 
 by the teacher, illustrated, as much as possible, by living 
 plants. Specimens of all the plants growing in the neigh- 
 borhood should be collected, whilst in flower, pressed, and 
 dried, for the Herbarium. A Folium should also be 
 formed, consisting of well-preserved specimens of leaves, 
 of every variety of size and shape. A few macerated 
 leaves would be interesting in the folium. A considera- 
 ble number of specimens of each kind, both of plants and 
 leaves, should be preserved, so as to exchange with dis- 
 tant schools, lyceums, or individuals making collections. 
 
 No amusements more completely absorb the attention 
 or efforts of youth, than the collecting, arranging, label- 
 ling, and exchanging, natural specimens. And, when chil- 
 dren and youth are thus engaged, they have neither time 
 
184 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 nor disposition to devote to vicious pleasures. Their 
 kind and generous propensities are also called into vigo- 
 rous exercise, by exchanges and presents ; and they are 
 thus prepared for an enlightened and liberal course of ac- 
 tion, in vi^hatever department of society they may be called 
 to take a part. 
 
 Mineralogy and Geology. 
 
 We are not, it is to be feared, yet prepared to carry 
 these sciences into our common schools, though it is high- 
 ly desirable that they should form a branch of study there. 
 It is to be hoped, that some of the votaries of these sci- 
 ences vi^ill, ere long, have sufficient patriotism to devote 
 their talents tow^ards so simplifying them, as to bring their 
 elements, at least, within the reach of early youth. What 
 immense advantages might not be derived for our coun- 
 try, nay, for the v^^orld, from a million of schoolboys, 
 spread all over the land, each with hammer in hand.* 
 
 Agncuhure. 
 
 In the country schools, it is highly important, that the 
 boys should acquire correct ideas of the nature of soils, 
 the effects of manures, the best kinds of tools and stock, 
 and the most profitable methods of cultivation ; on all 
 which subjects the majority of our farmers are deplora- 
 bly ignorant. The American Common School Union 
 have published, in New York, an excellent little work on 
 this subject, entitled the 'Farmer's School Book.' 
 
 Vocal Music. 
 
 The introduction of vocal music into our schools is an 
 object of great importance. Regarded merely as a re- 
 fined pleasure, it has a favorable bearing on public mor- 
 als. Let taste and skill in this beautiful art be spread 
 
 * Since writing the above, I have met with Professor Mather's ' Ge- 
 ology for Schools,' an admirable little book, but the science is not suf- 
 ficiently simplified for children from eight to ten years of age, the best 
 season for enlisting youth in active pursuits of this nature. Perhaps 
 a knowledge of mineralogy can only become general through the me- 
 dium of the Normal Schools. But the question recurs, can it not be 
 still mare simplified for early youth ? 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 186 
 
 among us, and every family will have a new resource ; 
 home, a new attraction. Social intercourse will be more 
 cheerful, and an innocent public amusement will be fur- 
 nished to the community. Public amusements, bringing 
 multitudes together, to kindle with one emotion, to share 
 the same innocent joy, have a humanizing influence ; and, 
 among these bonds of society, perhaps no one produces 
 so much unmixed good as music. What a fulness of 
 enjoyment has our Creator placed within our reach, by 
 surrounding us with an atmosphere which may be shaped 
 into sweet sounds ! And yet this goodness is almost lost 
 upon us, through want of culture of the organ by which 
 this provision is to be enjoyed. 
 
 In addition to this consideration, it ought to be remem- 
 bered, that vocal music forms a very interesting part of 
 Divine worship ; and that, in most Protestant churches, 
 it is the only part of the service in which the congregation 
 can join. How desirable, then, it is, that no one should be 
 excluded from a share in this species of Divine homage ! 
 
 The opinion is still entertained, in many parts of our 
 country, that a musical voice and ear has been conferred 
 by Providence only on a favored few. But, fortunately, 
 this absurd prejudice is fast dying away, under the lauda- 
 ble exertions of the Boston Academy of Music, and the 
 accounts given by travellers of the universal cultivation 
 of vocal music in Europe. No rational mind, who has 
 fully examined the subject, can doubt, that the only rea- 
 son why music is not equally common here, is, that the 
 cultivation of the voice is delayed till it is too late. Like 
 every other part of the body, it must be exercised in 
 early youth, if we would have it attain strength and pro- 
 ficiency. What use should we have of our limbs, or of 
 our power of speech, if both were left entirely without 
 practice till the age of eighteen or twenty ? And yet this 
 is the course adopted with respect to music. During the 
 years of infancy, while the vocal organs are delicate and 
 pliable, it is totally neglected ; and, because we cannot 
 attain a command over it at an adult age, after it lias be- 
 come inflexible from want of use, we blame Nature, for 
 not giving us a voice ! 
 
 16* 
 
186 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 If, then, we desire this beautiful accomphshment to be 
 universal, let us use the proper means. As soon as a 
 body of permanent female teachers have been procured, 
 in any town, for the primary schools, let a good teacher 
 of vocal music be procured from the Academy, for one 
 year ; and let it be considered a duty for the primary 
 teachers to attend, whether they have a musical voice or 
 not^ with a view of introducing it as a regular exercise in 
 the schools. If the teacher be incapable of leading the 
 singing in her school, she can teach the elements of the 
 science, and let one of the pupils be the leader. When 
 once vocal music is fairly introduced into the common 
 schools, the object is accomplished for ever. For, where 
 music is heard in every house, it will come as naturally 
 to children as speech. 
 
 As a school exercise, music cannot fail to produce ad- 
 mirable effects. Its power of soothing the passions into 
 peace, and of allaying mental fatigue, is every where ac- 
 knowledged. In this point of view, if a moderate share 
 of time be devoted to it, it will be found to hasten, rather 
 than retard, the progress of the other studies ; to cause a 
 gain, rather than a loss, of time. As a mental discipline, 
 also, it ranks as high as any part of the mathematics, of 
 which, indeed, it forms, in some respects, a branch. 
 
 The Higher Branches of Education. 
 
 So much space has been devoted to the studies of the 
 primary school, that but little can be afforded to the high- 
 er branches of the central schools and colleges. This, 
 however, becomes less a matter of regret, as the chief 
 errors in education lie in the cultivation of the first branch- 
 es. Let but the principles^ laid down in treating of read- 
 ing and arithmetic, be carried out, in the study of the 
 languages, and the higher branches of the mathematics ; 
 let every thing be taught thoroughly and intellectually, 
 avoiding, dihgently, all mere mechanical routine ; let 
 things, rather than words, be the object of pursuit, and, 
 instead of cultivating the memory exclusively, let every 
 intellectual faculty have its due share of attention, and all 
 will be well. 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. - 187 
 
 Arrangement of Studies, and Order of Recitation. 
 
 In the primary school, it should be distinctly recollect- 
 ed, that the main points, to which every thing else should 
 bend, are the acquisition of re«c?wg WITH intelligence, 
 and the developement of the mental faculties, by a judi- 
 cious system of questioning after the reading exercises, and 
 by the practice of mental and written arithmetic, and of 
 composition. If the hours of attendance vary with the 
 respective ages of the scholars, probably the best order 
 of recitation would be as follows : 
 
 1. At nine o'clock, when the eldest scholars assemble, 
 let them mutually examine each other's compositions, pre- 
 pared at home the evening before, and mark the errors. 
 When these are disputed, let the teacher be the umpire. 
 
 2. Exercises in elocution ; a certain number being 
 called on, by rotation, to narrate some little event, or 
 describe some natural object. This always to be done 
 standing. 
 
 3. Exercises in mental arithmetic. 
 
 At ten o'clock, on the entrance of the second class, the 
 first class to take their slates, and practise written arithme- 
 tic the rest of the forenoon. The second class to pursue 
 a similar course to that of the first, taking up their written 
 arithmetic on the entrance of the third class, at eleven. 
 
 Eleven o'clock. The third class go through their 
 reading exercises, singly, or in classes, each to be fol- 
 lowed by questioning, spelhng a few words from the les- 
 son, and a short exercise on the numeral frame, or men- 
 tal arithmetic. 
 
 Afternoon. The whole school being assembled at 
 one, a short story, or description in natural history to be 
 read by the teacher to the whole school, followed by 
 questioning, and a few easy sums in mental arithmetic. 
 The rest of the hour to be occupied by reading, &c., of 
 the third class, which is to be dismissed, at two. 
 
 Two o'clock. The second class pursue a similar 
 course. Illustrations on the blackboard. Dismissed at 
 three. 
 
 Three o'clock. First class, a similar course. 
 
188 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 The Wednesdays (or any other convenient day) 
 should be devoted to elocution, composition, reading by 
 the teacher on botany, or some other easy science, and, 
 in pleasant weather, the teacher should accompany the 
 school in an afternoon ramble to the woods or fields, in 
 quest of botanical specimens, or (by permission) in 
 visits to mills, manufactories, furnaces, &c. 
 
 The exercises of the forenoon might be arranged as 
 follows : nine o'clock, first class, elocution, and exami- 
 nation of compositions, by teacher. These should be 
 longer and more studied than those of other days. Ten 
 o'clock. First class at written arithmetic ; second class, 
 elocution, and examination of composition, by teacher. 
 Eleven o'clock. The whole school listen to reading on 
 botany, or whatever interesting subject may then be on 
 hand, followed by thorough questioning of the whole 
 school. A few minutes should be reserved for asking 
 each class what progress they think they have made in 
 each study, during the week. 
 
 When the afternoon is unfavorable to going abroad, it 
 may be spent, alternately, in conversation and reading of 
 some interesting subjects ; or the usual exercises may be 
 resumed, and the afternoon walk postponed to the next 
 fair day. 
 
 The first hour, of every Thursday afternoon, may be 
 devoted to the principles of vocal music, illustrated on 
 the blackboard, from the ' Manual,' of the Boston Acad- 
 emy. For this purpose, the large board should have the 
 five lines of the staff painted either twice or four times 
 across it. As soon as the children are able to sing, 
 a song or hymn should be struck up at each signal for 
 short relaxation from study. 
 
 Studies in the Central School. 
 
 The arrangement of the mathematical studies should 
 somewhat depend on the time each student will probably 
 have to bestow on them. If he is of such an age, as to 
 render it probable that he can go through the whole 
 course, perhaps the best plan will be to go through the 
 theoretical, and then the practical, part, as follows : 1. 
 Algebra, geometry, conic sections, differential and inte- 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 189 
 
 gral calculus. 2. Trigonometry, plane and spherical, 
 mensuration, surveying, navigation, and civil engineering. 
 But when the student has arrived at an age which renders 
 it probable that he will not have time for the whole 
 course, a different arrangement should be adopted. 
 After algebra and geometry, should follow plane trigo- 
 nometry, and then such other practical subjects, as he 
 may have a particular call or taste for. 
 
 The dead languages should be studied at the same 
 time with the mathematics. The extent to which they 
 should be pursued, should also depend on the time the 
 student will probably be able to devote to them. It 
 should be such as to allow of the acquisition of at least 
 one living language. 
 
 The order, in which the living languages should be stud- 
 ied, should be, unless peculiar circumstances call for a 
 different arrangement, French, Spanish, Italian, German, 
 Portuguese. 
 
 Rhetoric and the philosophy of grammar should be at- 
 tended to, at the commencement of the course. All 
 other Enghsh studies may be safely left to the care of the 
 student himself, if his faculties have been drawn out and 
 improved by a judicious course in the primary school. 
 Where there is a good apparatus belonging to the school, 
 however, lectures or reading from scientific works will be 
 highly profitable, followed by strict questioning. The 
 pupils should be encouraged to form an extensive botani- 
 cal and mineralogical cabinet for the school. It is very 
 desirable, that the teacher should advise his pupils, as to 
 their course of private reading, in history, biography, 
 metaphysics, political economy, politics, such other sci- 
 ences as are not studied in school, the English classical 
 writers, poetry, and a few of the best works of fiction. 
 
 One day in the week should be devoted to elocution 
 and reading of compositions, which should be of a higher 
 cast than those of the primary school, embracing criti- 
 cisms on English literature. 
 
 A knowledge of ancient geography should be acquired, 
 whilst perusing the classics, by the filling up of skeleton 
 maps. A comparative view of ancient and modern geog- 
 
190 THE teacher's MANUAL. 
 
 raphy may be formed, by writing the ancient names on 
 these skeletons, with red ink, and the modern, with black. 
 Every student should form such maps for himself. He 
 should also make biographical tables, on the model of 
 those of Priestley or Le Sage. 
 
 A little time should be allowed for drawing, especially 
 when it has been commenced in the primary school. 
 Short musical exercises should relieve the tedium of 
 study, at intervals, during the day. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION, CONCLUDED. 
 
 Recapitulation. 
 
 In taking a retrospective view of our examination of the 
 subject of intellectual education, may not the following 
 be regarded as legitimate conclusions ? 
 
 I. That the true mode of improving intellectual educa- 
 tion is, to begin at the foundation ; that, if the common 
 school be elevated, the college must rise. ' 
 
 n. That man's chief concern on earth is education ; 
 and that the business of schools and colleges is simply to 
 prepare him to enter on his great course, with ease and 
 effect. 
 
 in. That reading is the great key to knowledge ; that 
 he, who really possesses it, has every species of know- 
 ledge at command ; but that, in order to render it effec- 
 tual, the faculty of attention must be fully developed. 
 
 IV. That the full developement of the faculties of ob- 
 servation, reflection, reason, judgment, memory, imagi- 
 nation, and taste, is necessary to the enjoyment of all 
 the advantages of the great school of nature. 
 
 V. That the mathematics and classical studies are both 
 necessary, to the proper developement of these faculties. 
 
 VI. That themain objects of teachers' seminaries 
 should be, teaching to read properly ; the theory and 
 practice of the Jlrt of Teaching ; the use of the Black- 
 
INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 191 
 
 hoard ; the best manner of training youth in habits of 
 Virtue ; and a mode of Discipline founded on correct 
 principles. 
 
 VII. That the expense of these seminaries would be a 
 mere trifle to any State ; and that, if the common schools 
 were placed on a proper footing, they would be wanted 
 but for a few years. 
 
 VIII. That the indispensable literary qualifications of 
 a teacher of the primary school are reading, orthography, 
 WTiting, arithmetic, geography, and the principles of com- 
 position ; but that, as many other requisites are desirable, 
 and will soon become indispensable, it is the duty of every 
 teacher, steadily to extend and improve her knowledge. 
 
 IX. That no one, less qualified than the members of 
 the senior class of college ought ever to be thought of as 
 a teacher of the central school ; and that we ought, as 
 soon as possible, to look for much higher qualifications. 
 
 X. That both grades of teachers should clearly under- 
 stand the true object of education ; that they should be 
 patterns of neatness and of order ; possess uniformity of 
 temper, decision and firmness, patience and persever- 
 ance ; be pleasant, affectionate, and disposed to sympa- 
 thize with children ; of an unimpeachable moral charac- 
 ter ; and, to sum up the whole in one qualification, lovers 
 and steadfast followers of truth. 
 
 XI. That, in the selection of a teacher, wages should 
 form but a secondary consideration ; but that the inquiry 
 into the moral character, and other qualifications, can 
 never be too strict. 
 
 XII. That town and county meetings of teachers are 
 indispensable, towards the regular advance of improve- 
 ment in education. 
 
 XIII. That district hbraries should contain a good se- 
 lection of the best school-books, as well as books for cir- 
 culation ; and that, in order to extend the usefulness of 
 such libraries, a regular system of mutual exchange should 
 be adopted. 
 
 XIV. That, in order to produce habits of attention, 
 children must constantly^ not occasionally, give an ac- 
 count of their reading, in school, in their own words. 
 
192 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 XV. That, in order to the attainment of orthography, 
 children must acquire a habit of observing the form of 
 
 - words, ivhile reading. 
 
 XVI. That giving the a the long, in place of the ob- 
 scure, sound, and pronouncing the h where it ought to be 
 silent, lead to important errors of emphasis, and, conse- 
 quently, of sense ; and that the want of a complete cessa- 
 tion of sound after points, and of sufficient variety of 
 force and rapidity of utterance, renders reading tame and 
 heavy, and thereby destroys its utihty. 
 
 XVII. That the exercise of minutely and accurately 
 describing pictures, gives to children a command of lan- 
 guage, and improves their powers of observation. 
 
 XVIII. That the xeading of newspapers, in schools, 
 accompanied by suitable explanations, by the teacher, 
 would convey much useful and practical information. 
 
 XIX. That writing and drawing should be commenced 
 simultaneously with reading. 
 
 XX. That, in writing, legibility is a beauty of the first 
 order, and that as much should be brought within the com- 
 pass of the eye as distinctness will allow. 
 
 XXI. That, in the impressions made on the mind, by 
 the organ of sight, the imagination plays an important 
 part, and that to distinguish between the impressions 
 of imagination and reahty is the chief difficulty in draw- 
 ing from Nature. 
 
 XXII. That drawing disciplines the eye and hand, 
 and improves the powers of observation, memory, inven- 
 tion, and taste ; that, by providing interesting and quiet 
 occupation for children, it assists io preserving good dis- 
 cipline in families ; and that it is indispensable in many 
 professions and trades, and highly useful in others. 
 
 XXIII. That it is of the first importance in a free 
 country, that elocution and composition should be univer- 
 sally cultivated, and that this can never be effectually 
 done, unless commenced in early youth. 
 
 XXIV. That mental arithmetic forms an admirable 
 introduction to written arithmetic ; and that the latter 
 should be based on principles, not on mechanical rules. 
 
 XXV. That the chief advantage of mental arithmetic 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 193 
 
 is the intellectual discipline it affords, to which the knowl- 
 edge of the science is but of secondary importance. 
 
 XXVI. That, by the aid of abbreviations, and by 
 proper arrangement of the subject, written arithmetic may 
 be acquired by young children, in a very short time. 
 
 XXVII. That geography should be principally taught, 
 by filling up skeleton maps. 
 
 XXVIII. That botany should be studied in the pri- 
 mary school, and that a herbarium and a folium should be 
 formed by the pupils. 
 
 XXIX. That vocal music is of great importance, and 
 can easily be made a branch in our primary schools. 
 
 XXX. That the mathematics, the dead languages, 
 (followed by the living languages,) rhetoric, and the phi- 
 losophy of grammar, should be studied, simultaneously, in 
 the central school. 
 
 XXXI. That the practice of composition and elocu- 
 tion should be continued and extended in the central 
 school ; and that a comparative view of ancient and mod- 
 ern geography should be acquired, while reading the 
 classics, by filling up skeleton maps, with the ancient 
 and modern names in ink of different colors. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 MORAL EDUCATION. 
 
 '* Can the Ethiopian change his skin ? or the leopard his spots ? 
 Then may ye also do good, who have been accustomed to do evil." 
 — Jer. xiii. 23. 
 
 «' Train up a child in the way he should go, and, when he is old, he 
 will not depart from it." — Prov. xxii. 6. 
 
 We have already had occasion [Part I. Chapter VI.] 
 to notice and lament the total want of moral education, 
 in our primary schools ; a deficiency which some have 
 attempted to justify, from the great variety of rehgious 
 faith and modes of worship existing in the community, 
 and the danger of converting the school into an engine 
 17 
 
194 
 
 of religious proselytism. But surely this is a reason 
 which will not stand the test of examination. Because 
 one branch of moral duty (that which relates to religious 
 doctrine) is properly rejected, on account of this pecu- 
 liarity in the state of society, does it follow that every 
 species of moral training must be excluded ? Does not 
 this circumstance rather enhance the necessity of a pe- 
 culiar attention to that part of moral instruction to whicli 
 no such objection can apply ? Is there not an extensive 
 field, which may be regarded as common ground, in re- 
 spect to which every portion of society, whatever be 
 their religious belief, are perfectly agreed ? Is there 
 any parent, who does not desire his child to be trained 
 to the practice of virtue, and to the avoidance of every 
 vicious habit ? that he should be inspired with venera- 
 tion, gratitude, and love, to God ? that he should be hon- 
 est, faithful, humane, and gentle ; obedient to his pa- 
 rents, true to his word ? that he should possess moral 
 courage and self-control ; industry, perseverance, econ- 
 omy, and temperance ; patience, fortitude, magnanimity, 
 and cheerfulness ? Surely not. On these and such 
 like points, we shall meet with perfect unanimity. 
 
 The force of these considerations is much increased 
 by the reflection, that moral training, to be effectual, 
 must be commenced in early youth. And here we 
 have once more to lament the same fundamental error, 
 so repeatedly noticed in our review of intellectual edu- 
 cation, — the adoption of a wrong course in the j^r5^ steps. 
 Thus, while some would frighten children into goodness, 
 or place morality on an equally false foundation, others 
 would leave youth almost without instruction, in the de- 
 lusive hope, that experience will teach wisdom, that they 
 will know better^ as they advance in life. But, alas ! 
 what then availeth knowledge ? In a state of innocence, 
 knowledge is all in all. But, when the mind has become 
 accustomed to guilt, which makes its approaches, per- 
 haps, in the guise of pardonable frailties, rising, by slow 
 degrees, into blacker and blacker shades of vice ; at first, 
 attacking only occasionally, and finally becoming settled, 
 by habit, into a part of man'^s very nature ; when the 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 195 
 
 passions, hitherto dormant, are gradually awakened, and, 
 from the total want of resistance, are enabled to fix their 
 roots deep in the soul ; then mere knowledge is power- 
 less. In this state of mind, hardly any thing short of 
 miraculous power will restore, man to the state of child- 
 like innocence from which he has departed. 
 
 If, then, we would renovate society, we must not wait 
 for the maturity of reason, and then expect to root out 
 evil habits that have grown with our growth and strength- 
 ened with our strength. It is from the beginnings of 
 vice, that we must be saved, if we would be saved from 
 vice itself. The conscience must be developed on the 
 first dawning of reason ; it must be cultivated and strength- 
 ened by constant appeals to its jurisdiction ; and a habit 
 must be acquired, of listening to, and following, its moni- 
 tions.* 
 
 * The following observations were intended for another meridian ; 
 but they are so applicable to our situation, that we cannot resist the 
 temptation of copying them. 
 
 " What is tht^ naturp. of the education of the hunnbler classes, which 
 is extending in England, and has been so long established in Scotland ? 
 Is it of a kind to impart useful, practical knowledge for resource in life ? 
 Does it communicate to the pupil any light on the important subject of 
 his own nature and place in creation ; on the conditions of his physical 
 welfare, and his intellectual and moral happiness ? Does it, above all, 
 make an attempt to regulate his passions, and train and exercise his 
 moral feelings, to prevent his prejudices, suspicions, envying, self- 
 conceit, vanity, impracticability, destructiveness, cruelty, and sensu- 
 ality ? Alas ! No. It teaches him to read, write, and cipher, 
 and leaves him to pick up all the rest as he may. It forms an in- 
 structive example of the sedative effects of established habits of think- 
 ing, that our ancestors and ourselves have so contentedly held this 
 to be education, or the shadow of it, for any rank of society. Read- 
 ing, writing, and ciphering, are mere instruments ; when attained, as 
 they rarely or never are, after all, by the working class, to a reasona- 
 ble perfection, they leave the pupil exactly where he would find him- 
 self, were we to put tools into his hands, the use of which, however, 
 iie must learn as he may. We know well, that he will be much more 
 prone to misapply his tools, and to cut himself with them, than to use 
 them aright. So it is with his reading ; for, really, any writing and ac- 
 counting of this class^ even the most respectable of them, scarcely de- 
 serve the name, and may be here put out of the account. Reading 
 consists in the recognition of printed characters, arranged into syllables 
 and words. With this most abstract accomplishment may co-exist un- 
 regulated propensities, selfish passions, sensual appetites, filthy and in- 
 
196 
 
 If these views be correct, our course, here, is plain 
 and obvious. First, we should exclude every subject, 
 having the slightest reference to religious faith or modes 
 of worship, confining ourselves, exclusively, to those topics 
 which will unequivocally command the assent and appro- 
 bation of all. And, secondly, we should point out the 
 best mode of developing the moral faculties of children, 
 of strengthening their good habits, and repressing those 
 which tend to evil. Towards these important ends, 
 then, shall our most zealous endeavors be directed ; and, 
 though our weak efforts may not be able to accomplish 
 much, we shall have reason to be well satisfied, if we 
 can only make a beginning in the right course. 
 
 Of all the moral powers, the most important is that 
 denominated Conscience, or the faculty by which we 
 are enabled, instinctively and instantaneously, to feel ap- 
 probation of what we consider as right, and disapproba- 
 tion of what we consider as wrong. This is a faculty 
 which may and ought to be developed in very early 
 youth ; for then it is pure and uncontaminated ; and not, 
 as too frequendy in afterlife, perverted by the appetites, 
 passions, and prejudices. It is also of the first import- 
 ance that it should be called into action, and be kept con- 
 temperate habits, profound intellectual darkness, and moral debase- 
 ment ; all adhering to a man as closely after, as before, he could read ; 
 and, be it marked, these qualities will give their bias to his future vol- 
 untary reading, and assuredly degrade and vitiate its character ; it will 
 tend to strengthen his prejudices, deepen his superstitions, flatter his 
 passions, and excite his animal appetites. Well is all this known to 
 the agitator, the quack, and the corrupter. They know, that the man- 
 ual laborer can read ; but they know, as well, that he is incapable of 
 thinking, or detecting their impositions, if they only flatter his pas- 
 sions. No just views of life have ever been given him ; no practical 
 knowledge of his actual position in the social system. We are always 
 told, that the majority of criminals cannot read, as if the mere faculty 
 of reading would have diminished the number of criminals. This is a 
 great delusion. For the reasons I have stated, mere reading might 
 have increased the number of criminals ; it would be quite ineffective 
 in diminishing them. But, if the investigation had gone the length of 
 ascertaining with which of the criminals had an attempt at moral train- 
 ing and useful knowledge ever been made, we should have found that 
 column of the table a blank, and something like cause and effect 
 would begin to dawn upon us. It is needless to pursue so obvious a 
 matter further." — Simpson, on Popular Education. 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 197 
 
 stantly in use ; for, like all the other faculties, it is cher- 
 ished and strengthened by exercise, enfeebled and dead- 
 ened by inaction. We see what power of muscle the 
 arms of the blacksmith acquire, by the habitual use of the 
 ponderous sledge ; and we learn, what wonderful strength 
 the memory attains, in those who constantly exercise that 
 faculty. In like manner, are all our moral faculties 
 strengthened by use, and weakened by disuse ; and none 
 more so than the faculty of conscience. " The more 
 frequently we use our conscience," says President Way- 
 land, " in judging between actions, as right and wrong, 
 the more easily shall we learn to judge correctly con- 
 cerning them. He who, before every action, will delib- 
 erately ask himself, ' Is this right, or wrong ?' will sel- 
 dom mistake what is his duty. And children may do 
 this, as well as grown persons." 
 
 The teacher, then, who would perform his duty, by 
 developing the moral, as well as the intellectual, faculties 
 of his pupils, should suffer no opportunity of appeahng 
 to the conscience to pass unimproved. As an example 
 of the manner of making such appeals, let us suppose a 
 class was engaged in reading the following story of 
 
 THE ILL-NATURED BOY. 
 
 There was once a little boy, who was so unfortunate 
 as to have a very bad man for his father, who was always 
 surly and ill-tempered, and never gave his children either 
 good instructions or good example ; in consequence of 
 which, this little boy, who might, otherwise, have been 
 hap^oier and better, became ill-natured, quarrelsome, and 
 disagreeable to every body. This httle boy had a cur 
 dog, that was the exact image of himself. He was the 
 most troublesome, surly creature imaginable, always 
 barking at the heels of every horse he came near, and 
 worrying every sheep he could meet with ; for which 
 reason, both the dog and the boy were disliked by all 
 the neighborhood. 
 
 One morning, his father got up early to go to the tav- 
 ern, where he intended to stay till night, as it was a holy- 
 17# 
 
198 
 
 day ; but, before he went out, he gave his son some 
 bread and cold meat, and told him, that he might go and 
 divert himself as he would the whole day. The little 
 boy was very much pleased with this hberty ; and, as it 
 was a fine morning, he called his dog Tiger to follow 
 him, and began his walk. He had not proceeded far, 
 before he met a little boy that was driving a flock of 
 sheep towards a gate, that he wanted them to enter. 
 " Pray, master," said the little boy, " stand still, and 
 keep your dog close to you, for fear you frighten my 
 sheep." " Oh ! yes, to be sure," answered the ill- 
 natured little boy ; " I am to wait here all the morning, 
 till you and your sheep have passed, I suppose ! Here, 
 Tiger, seize them, boy !" Tiger, at this, sprang forth 
 into the middle of the flock, barking and biting on every 
 side ; and the sheep, in a general consternation, hurried 
 each a separate way. Tiger seemed to enjoy this sport 
 equally with his master ; but, in the midst of his triumph, 
 he happened, unguardedly, to attack an old ram, that had 
 more courage than the rest of the flock. He, instead 
 of running away, faced about, and aimed a blow, with 
 his forehead, at his enemy, with so much force and dex- 
 terity, that he knocked Tiger over and over, and, but- 
 ting him several times while he was down, obliged him to 
 hmp, howhng, away. The ill-natured little boy, who 
 was not capable of loving any thing, had been very much 
 diverted with the trepidation of the sheep, and now laugh- 
 ed heartily at the misfortune of his dog ; and he would 
 have laughed much longer, had not the other little boy, 
 provoked beyond his patience at this treatment, thrown 
 a stone at him, which hit him full upon the temples, and 
 almost knocked him down. He immediately began to 
 cry, in concert with his dog ; and, perceiving a man 
 coming towards them, who, he fancied, might be the 
 owner of the sheep, he thought it most prudent to es- 
 cape as speedily as possible. But he had scarcely re- 
 covered from the smart which the blow had occasioned, 
 before his former mischievous disposition returned, which 
 he determined to gratify to the utmost. He had not 
 gone far, before he saw a little girl leaning against a 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 19^ 
 
 fence, with a large pot of milk at her feet. "Pray," 
 said the little girl, " help me up with this pot of milk. 
 My mother sent me out to fetch it this morning, and I 
 have brought it above a mile upon my head ; but I am 
 so tired, that I have been obliged to stop to rest me ; 
 and, if I don't return home presently, we shall have no 
 pudding to-day ; and, besides, my mother will be angry 
 with me." " What ?" said the boy, " you are to have 
 a pudding to-day, are you, Miss .^" " Yes," said the 
 girl, " and a fine piece of roast beef; for there are uncle 
 Will, and uncle John, and grandfather, and all my cous- 
 ins, to dine with us ; and we shall be very merry in the 
 evening, I can assure you ; so, pray, help me up, as 
 speedily as possible." " That I will. Miss," said the 
 boy ; and, taking up the jug, he pretended to fix it upon 
 her head ; but, just as she had hold of it, he gave it a 
 little push, as if he had stumbled, and overturned it upon 
 her. The litde girl began to cry violently ; but the 
 mischievous boy ran away, laughing heartily, and saying, 
 " Good bye, little miss ; give my humble service to uncle 
 Will, and grandfather, and the dear httle cousins !" 
 
 This prank encouraged him very much ; for he thought, 
 that now he had certainly escaped without any bad con- 
 sequences. So he went on, applauding his own ingenu- 
 ity, and came to a green, where several little boys were 
 at play. He desired leave to play with them, which they 
 allowed him to do. But he could not be contented long, 
 without exerting his evil disposition ; so, taking an oppor- 
 tunity, when it was his turn to fling the ball, instead of 
 flinging it in the Way he ought to have done, he threw it 
 into a deep, muddy ditch. The little boys ran, in a great 
 hurry, to see what was become of it ; and, as they were 
 standing all together upon the brink, he gave the outer- 
 most boy a violent push against his neighbor ; he, not be- 
 ing able to resist the violence, tumbled against the next, 
 that next against another, by which means, they all soused 
 into the ditch together. They soon scrambled out, al- 
 though in a dirty plight, and were going to punish him for 
 his ill behavior ; but he patted Tiger upon the back, 
 who began snarling and growling, in such a manner, as 
 
200 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 made them desist. Thus, this little mischievous boy es- 
 caped, a second time, with impunity. 
 
 The next thing that he met with was a poor jackass, 
 feeding, very quietly, in a ditch. The little boy, seeing 
 that nobody was within sight, thought this was an oppor- 
 nity of plaguing an animal that was not to be lost ; so he 
 went and cut a large bunch of thorns, which he contrived 
 to fix to the poor beast's tail, and then, setting Tiger at 
 him, he was extremely diverted to see the fright and ag- 
 ony the creature was in. But it did not fare so well with 
 Tiger, who, while he was baying and biting the animal's 
 heels, received so severe a kick upon his head, as laid 
 him dead upon the spot. The boy, who had no affection 
 for his dog, left him with the greatest unconcern, when 
 he saw what had happened, and, finding himself hungry, 
 sat down by the wayside, to eat his dinner. &c. &c. 
 
 The reading of this story might be followed by such 
 questions as these : What kind of a boy have you been 
 reading about ? What was the cause of his being so ill- 
 natured, quarrelsome, and disagreeable ? Does he de- 
 serve punishment for his pranks ? Must he not be in 
 continual fear of it ? Whether should we pity or hate 
 him ? Can he be happy, with such a disposition ? Can 
 any body love him ? Was it right, to set Tiger on the 
 sheep ? Who made those sheep ? Will God be pleased, 
 to see us torment or injure any of the creatures that he 
 has made ? What did the boy do to the little girl ? 
 Was that right ? Can there be any real pleasure in act- 
 ing so ? Is it right to laugh, when we see an accident 
 happen to any one ? What should we do, when we see 
 such an accident ? When he played with the boys, what 
 did he do with the ball ? Was that right ? Do you 
 think the boys will let him play with them again ? What 
 did he do to the boys ? Was that right ? How would 
 you feel, if you were to see a boy act so ? Whose part, 
 do you think, would you take ? What did the boy do to 
 the jackass ? Was that right ? Should you like to see 
 boys play such tricks ? Could you love such a boy ? 
 Do you think you would choose him for your playmate ? 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 201 
 
 Would you like to have him live in the same house with 
 you ? Would you like to have such boys Hve in the 
 town ? Can a good boy delight to torment any creature ? 
 Have we a right to tease or hurt any creature, that does 
 not belong to us ? Have we a right to torment a crea- 
 ture that does belong to us ? Why not ? 
 
 But, as our school-books present us with but few mor- 
 al lessons, we must not rely entirely on this source, for 
 the developement of the conscience. Nor, in fact, would 
 this be desirable. The litde occurrences that take place 
 in school, or come within the knowledge of the scholars, 
 will present more useful and practical occasions for ap- 
 peals to the moral sense than fictitious narratives. But 
 even these will not happen with sufficient frequency for 
 our purpose. It will be found highly useful, for every 
 school to be provided with a Table of Duties for constant 
 practice, and still more so, for every child to have a Dai- 
 ly Record^ for the purpose of self-examination. The fol- 
 lowing are specimens of such Record and Table, with 
 suitable explanations. 
 
 RECORD OF DUTIES FOR DAILY SELF-EXAMINATION. 
 
 The object of the following record is to bring every 
 child, as early as possible, to the knowledge of his duties, 
 and assist him in their performance. It is intended to be 
 written or printed, with blank columns for every day in 
 the year, to be filled up by the child himself, with straight 
 m.arks, (thus, I,) for faults or deficiencies, and round marks, 
 (thus, O,) when he considers himself blameless. In addi- 
 tion to the daily record, there should also be two columns, 
 in separate tables, for every week, month, and year ; thus 
 affording a summary and comparative view of the state of 
 his mind, from one period to another, and distinctly show- 
 ing, whether he is improving, stationary, or retrograding. 
 At the end of the table should be one or two blank leaves, 
 for reflections on the past, and resolutions for the future, 
 by the pupil ; or, when he is very young, for advice from 
 his parent or teacher. 
 
 The manner of using the Daily Record is as follows : 
 
202 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 Let the following questions be slowly read by the teacher 
 to his class, at the close of school ; or, in the evening, by 
 the parents to their children ; or by each child, for him- 
 self ; making sufficient pause, at the end of each, for re- 
 flection as to the answer, the nature of which will suggest 
 the kind of mark to be inserted in the column for the day. 
 The numbers attached to the questions correspond with 
 those annexed to the several duties in the Table. Thus, 
 the first question, 1. Have I told any lies to-day ? cor- 
 responds with the first article in the table, namely, 1. 
 Truth. If, on the first day of January, the conscience 
 answers, JVo, to this question, the pupil should put an O, 
 opposite the word Truth, and under January 1. But if 
 the conscience will not allow of a negative, the mark of 
 reproof, I, should be inserted ; and so with all the other 
 duties, and the other dates. 
 
 In the weekly record, extending from one to fifty-two, 
 (the number of weeks in a year,) there should be two 
 columns for each week, one for the number of marks of 
 blame, I, the other for the number of credit marks, O. 
 Thus, if, in the daily record for the first w^eek, there 
 are four marks of blame opposite the word Truth, and 
 three credit marks, they should be written thus, |4 I|3 O. 
 The same course should be pursued with the monthly and 
 yearly record, each of which should also have two col- 
 umns. 
 
 The pupils should show the weekly, monthly, and year- 
 ly, records to their parents or teacher, who should offer 
 encouragement, or mild reproof, or both, according to 
 circumstances. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 1. Have I told any lies to-day ? 2. Have I spoken 
 the exact truth, neither more nor less ? 3. Have I so 
 spoken, as always to convey the truth to others ; or so as 
 to mislead them, although my words were really true ? 
 Is not this the same as telling a he ? 4. Have I been 
 honest, taking nothing but what w^as really my own ? 5. 
 Have I used the property of my parents and others, so 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 203 
 
 as not unnecessarily to injure it ? 6. Have I been obe- 
 dient to my parents ? 7. Have I acted as if I loved 
 them ? 8. Have I acted towards my brothers and sis- 
 ters as if I loved them ? 9. Do I love all my friends ? 
 
 10. Have I been grateful for every mark of kindness ? 
 
 11. Have I been faithful to my friends, by taking their 
 part, when injured, either by word or deed ? 12. Have I 
 treated all my superiors in age and station with proper 
 respect ? 13. Have I allowed myself to show, or even 
 to feel, anger or revenge ? 14. Have I felt fretful or sul- 
 len ? 15. Have I been pohte to all, — acquaintance and 
 friends, as well as strangers ? 16. Have I been uniform- 
 ly mild in my manners, and used no roughness of speech .'' 
 17. Have I been pleased to see others happy, and sorry 
 to see others suffer, or to see them act amiss ? 18. In 
 talking or thinking of others, have I looked more at their 
 follies or faults, than at their goodness ? 19. When I 
 have seen others injured, have I felt for them, and taken 
 their part ^ 20. Have I been liberal, and ready to share 
 with my friends and playmates ? 21. Have I been 
 ready to forgive those who have injured me .'' 22. Have 
 I been careful not to injure the property of others ? 23. 
 Have I been cruel to animals ? 24. Have I been asham- 
 ed or afraid to do what was right ? 25. Have I acted 
 right, even when I felt a wish to do wrong ? Have I 
 striven to gain a command over myself? 26. Have I 
 been very careful to do the right, and avoid the wrong ? 
 27. Have I been anxious to learn what was good or 
 useful ? 28. Have I idled away my time, when I ought 
 to have been busy ? 29. Have I been impatient, or have 
 I been persevering in my studies or work ? 30. Have 
 I been careful, or wasteful, of my food, clothing, or books ? 
 31. Have I been greedy, or ate or drunk more than was 
 proper ? 32. Have I been patient in pain, sickness, or 
 trouble of any kind ? 33. Have I been cheerful, or 
 have I allowed myself to imagine affairs to be worse than 
 they really were ? 34. Have I allowed myself to think 
 '' how good I am," or have I looked rather to my faults, 
 and felt sorry they were still so many ^ 35. Have I 
 been neither bashful nor affected .'* 36. Have I kept 
 
204 
 
 THE teacher's MANUAL. 
 
 my dress, books, and bedroom, neat and clean ? 37. 
 Have I put my books, clothes, and tools, in their proper 
 places ? 38. Have I been anxious for improvement, 
 both in my conduct and in my studies ? 39. Do I re- 
 gard my Maker with reverence and awe ? 40. Do I feel 
 very grateful for His uniform kindness ? 41. Have I a 
 strong feeling of love towards Him ? 42. Do I feel a 
 perfect confidence in His goodness and care ? 43. Do 
 I feel completely resigned to His will, assured that He 
 always acts for the best, though I may not understand 
 it ? 44. Is my sorrow for doing wrong of such a na- 
 ture, as to lead me to do right, or does it produce no 
 change in conduct and disposition ? 45, 46, 47, &c., to 
 be filled up, at the discretion of the parents, or under 
 their direction. 
 
 A few of these questions will require some explana- 
 tion for the youngest children. It is thought better to 
 leave this to parents or teachers, than to be very diffuse. 
 
 
 RECORD. 
 
 
 
 
 I. 
 
 25. 
 
 Self-control. 
 
 1. 
 
 Truth. 
 
 26. 
 
 Vigilance. 
 
 2. 
 
 Exaggeration. 
 
 27. 
 
 Docility. 
 
 3. 
 
 Sincerity. 
 
 28. 
 
 Industry. 
 
 4. 
 
 Honesty. 
 
 29. 
 
 Perseverance. 
 
 5. 
 
 Faithfulness. 
 
 30. 
 
 Economy. 
 
 6. 
 
 Obedience. 
 
 31. 
 
 Temperance. 
 
 7. 
 
 Love to parents. 
 
 32. 
 
 Patience. 
 
 8. 
 
 Brotherly love. 
 
 33. 
 
 Cheerfulness. 
 
 9. 
 
 Friendship. 
 
 34. 
 
 Humility, 
 
 10. 
 
 Gratitude. 
 
 35. 
 
 Simplicity. 
 
 11. 
 
 Fidelity. 
 
 36. 
 
 Neatness. 
 
 12. 
 
 Respect. 
 
 37. 
 
 Order. 
 
 13. 
 
 Good temper. 
 
 38. 
 
 Desire of excellence. 
 
 14. 
 
 Good humor. 
 
 
 III. 
 
 15. 
 
 Politeness. 
 
 39. 
 
 Veneration. 
 
 16. 
 
 Mildness. 
 
 40. 
 
 Gratitude. 
 
 17. 
 
 Sympathy. 
 
 41. 
 
 Love. 
 
 18. 
 
 Charity. 
 
 42. 
 
 Confidence. 
 
 19. 
 
 Indignation. 
 
 43. 
 
 Resignation. 
 
 20. 
 
 Generosity. 
 
 44. 
 
 Repentance. 
 
 21. 
 
 Magnanimity. 
 
 45. 
 
 
 22. 
 
 Respect to property. 
 
 46. 
 
 
 23. 
 
 Kindness to animals. 
 
 47. 
 
 
 
 II. 
 
 48. 
 
 
 24. 
 
 Moral Courage. 
 
 &c. 
 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 205 
 
 But this Record would form a useful exercise, not 
 merely for the scholars ; the greater part of it is equal- 
 ly applicable to the teacher. Should she make a selec- 
 tion ibr her own use, the following questions might be 
 added, as referring to some of her peculiar duties. 
 
 Were my pupils punctual in attendance, to-day ? 
 Have I taken proper pains to show them and their parents 
 the importance of punctuality, as a duty, both to them- 
 selves and to the other members of the school ? Do 
 they improve in this respect ? Have I introduced clean- 
 ly and orderly habits ? Has my conduct been a pat- 
 tern in this respect ? Has there been no rude conduct 
 around the stove } Has the room been of the proper 
 temperature to-day ? If not, was it not owing, in some 
 degree, to my inattention ? Have I attended properly to 
 excluding the glare of sunshine ? Are the windows prop- 
 erly curtained ? Are there a mat, scraper, pail, dipper, 
 basin, and towel, in the room ? If any of these are want^ 
 ing, have I made proper representations to the commit- 
 tee ? Have I taken sufficient pains to teach the scholars 
 to use their books without injury ? Is the discipline on 
 the best possible footing ? Do the children improve in 
 reading ? Are they fast leaving off their bad habits in 
 this respect ? Do I never neglect questioning them, as 
 to what they have read ? Do their habits of attention 
 and observation improve ? Have I taken proper pains 
 to cause them to use right positions of hand and body, in 
 writing ? Do they make visible improvement ? Do 
 they steadily improve in elocution and composition ? 
 Do they use no grimace nor awkward motions, in the 
 former ? Are the orthography, punctuation, and gram- 
 mar, properly attended to, in the compositions ? Do 
 they advance, in propriety of expression and command of 
 language, or do I allow them to hang back, or remain 
 stationary ? Have I formed a list of local improprieties 
 of speech ? Do I frequently exercise the scholars with 
 it ? Has this exercise any practical effect, in correcting 
 their language ? Do my pupils improve in written arith- 
 metic ? Can they add long sums rapidly ? Do they 
 habitually use all the abreviations I have taught them ? 
 18 
 
206 
 
 Have I taken sufficient pains in this respect ? Can they 
 explain the reasons for every operation ? Do I frequent- 
 ly call on them to do this ? Do they make much pro- 
 gress in mental arithmetic ? Do I myself perform the 
 questions simultaneously with them ? Do 1 frequently 
 require them to describe and give reasons for their men- 
 tal operations ? Do I never allow them to have the 
 book ? Do I encourage the slow, and prevent the bright 
 from doing more than their share ? Do I see that all the 
 pupils perform every question ? Is not my classifica- 
 tion capable of improvement ? Have I given this impor- 
 tant subject sufficient attention ? Do my pupils advance 
 in their other studies ? Do they appear to love and re- 
 spect me ? If not, do I feel sure I am not to blame ? 
 Have I explained the nature of the Record for Self-ex- 
 amination to all the parents and guardians ? Have I daily 
 practised it with those whose parents have placed them, 
 in this respect, under my care ? Is there any apparent 
 moral improvement ? Do I take sufficient pains to pre- 
 vent its degenerating into a mere form, by my inattention ? 
 Do I embrace every opportunity of referring my pupils 
 to the Table of Virtues ? Do I take sufficient pains in 
 explaining the terms to the younger pupils ? Do I pos- 
 sess uniformity of temper, decision and firmness, patience 
 and perseverance ? Am I uniformly pleasant and affec- 
 tionate in my manners, and at all times disposed to sym- 
 pathize with my pupils ? Do I never allow myself to 
 deviate, in the slightest degree, from truth, either in 
 thought, word, or action ? 
 
 The Table on the opposite page, printed on sufficient- 
 ly legible type, in three columns, one for each species of 
 duties, should be hung up in the schoolroom, to be stud- 
 ied as follows : Let a class be placed before the table, 
 and the teacher open his ' Manual,' at the explanations 
 given below ; and then let the pupils and teacher, alter- 
 nately, read the 'Duties,' and their respective explana- 
 tions. The observations enclosed within brackets, [thus,] 
 need not be read to the pupils. They are meant exclu- 
 sively for teachers and parents. The younger classes will 
 not be able to understand the explanations. They should 
 have the Table explained by examples and illustrations. 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 
 
 207 
 
 TABLE OF THE VIRTUES, WITH THEIR OPPOSITE VICES. 
 
 I. Duties to God. 
 
 1. Faith.— Unbelief. 
 
 2. Veneration. — Heedlessness ; 
 
 slavish dread, or supersti- 
 tious fear. / 
 S. Gratitude. — Ingratitude. 
 
 4. Obedience. — Disobedience. 
 
 5. Confidence. — Distrust. 
 
 6. Resignation. — Querulousness, 
 
 despondency, fear of death. 
 
 7. Repentance. — Hypocrisy,pre- 
 
 sumptuousness. 
 II. Duties to Ourselves. 
 
 8. Moral courage. — Cowardice. 
 
 9. Self-control. — Indecision. 
 
 10. Forethought. — Want of ditto. 
 
 11. Firmness. — Obstinacy. 
 
 12. Self-examination, vigilance. — 
 
 Carelessness. 
 
 13. Industry. — Indolence. 
 
 14. Prudence, circumspection. — 
 
 Imprudence, rashness. 
 
 15. Discretion. — Indiscretion. 
 
 16. Vigilance. — Suspicion. 
 
 17. Pro-vidence. Profusion, prod- 
 
 igality. 
 
 18. Perseverance. — Irresolution, 
 
 instability. 
 
 19. Economy. — Carelessness, ex- 
 
 travagance, or niggardliness. 
 
 20. Temperance.— Gluttony, drun- 
 
 kenness. 
 
 21. Contentment. — Discontent. 
 
 22. Modesty. — Indelicacy. 
 
 23. Patience, fortitude. — Impa- 
 
 tience, pusillanimity. 
 
 24. Calmness, cheerfulness, seren- 
 
 ity. — Irritability, fretful- 
 ness, despondency, gloom. 
 
 25. Self-respect, humility. — Pride, 
 
 vanity, haughtiness, love of 
 dominion, conceit, pedan- 
 try. 
 
 26. Desire of excellence. — Jeal- 
 
 ousy, envy. 
 
 27. Simplicity. — Bashfulness, af- 
 
 fectation, ostentation. 
 
 28. Neatness. — Foppery, love of 
 
 display. 
 
 29. Docility. — Indocility. 
 
 30. Obedient temper. — Impatience 
 
 of control. 
 
 III. Duties to Others. 
 Sec. I. — Justice. 
 
 31. Truth. — Falsehood, perjury. 
 
 32. Sincerity. — Exaggeration, de- 
 
 ceit. 
 
 33. Integrity. — Dishonesty. 
 
 34. Fidelity. — Unfaithfulness. 
 
 35. Conscientousness, respect for 
 
 others' property, or rights. 
 — Want of ditto. 
 
 36. Impartiality. — Partiality. 
 
 Sec. II. — Benevolence. 
 
 37. Social affections, viz., conju- 
 
 gal, parental, filial, and fra- 
 ternal, love ; friendship. — 
 Perfidy. 
 
 38. Humanity. — Inhumanity. 
 
 39. Mercy. — Unmercifulness. 
 
 40. Forbearance, placability. — 
 
 Implacability, moroseness, 
 spite. 
 
 41. Charity. — Uncharitableness, 
 
 scandal, defamation. 
 
 42. Tolerance. — Intolerance. 
 
 43. Generosity ,liberality. — Greed- 
 
 iness, avarice, imprudence. 
 
 44. Kindness. — Oppression, cru- 
 
 elty to animals. 
 
 45 . Magnanimity. — Meanness. 
 
 46. Good-temper. — Ill-temper. 
 
 47. Good-humor. — Fretfulness. 
 
 48. Indignation. — Anger, resent- 
 
 ment. 
 
 49. Sympathy. — Selfishness,envy. 
 
 50. Politeness. — Impoliteness. 
 
 51. Affability. — Reserve. 
 
 52. Kindness in conversation. — 
 
 Petulance. 
 
 53. Tenderness. — Harshness. 
 
 54. Mildness. — Rudeness. 
 
 55. Gentleness. — Obstreperous- 
 
 ness. 
 
 56. Respect for age and station. 
 
 —Want of ditto. 
 
 57. Punctuality.— Want of ditto. 
 
S08 THE teacher's MANUAL. 
 
 On the first reading, five or six lines of the Table will 
 suffice for a lesson, after which, let the teacher question 
 the class closely, to see if the explanation has been thor- 
 oughly understood. This exercise should be repeated, 
 till the whole subject is perfectly familiar. The teacher, 
 however, should not wait till all the table is understood, 
 before he begins to use it ; for practical references will 
 illustrate the subject better than any formal explanation. 
 The manner of using it is as follows : Whenever an oc- 
 casion offers, either in the course of reading, or in the 
 sentiments and conduct of the pupils, or in the occurrences 
 of the neighborhood, let the class, the school, or the in- 
 dividual, as the case may be, consult the table, and point 
 out to the teacher, to what virtue or vice the action or 
 sentiment should be referred. One or two examples will 
 illustrate this : After the reading of the story of the ' Ill- 
 natured Boy,' given above, the teacher may ask, " To 
 what part of the table may this boy's conduct be referred ?" 
 Jlns. " To inhumanity ; to cruelty to animals ; and to 
 deceit, (in his treatment of the little girl.") 
 
 " Caesar, having found a collection of letters, written 
 by his enemies to Pompey, burnt them, without reading : 
 ' For,' said he, ' though I am upon my guard against an- 
 ger, yet it is safer to remove its cause.' " 
 
 T. To what virtues may these sentiments be referred ? 
 
 C. To prudence, vigilance, magnanimity, and self- 
 command. 
 
 T. How was his prudence shown } 
 
 C. By refusing to look at what might have made him 
 angry. 
 
 T. His vigilance ? 
 
 C By his forethought, that the letters might have bad 
 effects on him. 
 
 T. His magnanimity ? 
 
 C. A mean man seeks every occasion of anger against 
 his enemy, a great soul despises it. 
 
 T. His self-command .'' 
 
 C. By his carrying out his determination not to look 
 at the letters, notwithstanding the temptation of knowing 
 the counsels and plans of his enemies. 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 209 
 
 But, although no opportunity should be lost, of making 
 such references to the Table, in order to give his pupils 
 a facility in naming and classifying sentiments and actions, 
 yet the teacher should ever bear distinctly in mind, that 
 these are but subsidiary means of attaining our great end, 
 and not the end itself. The grand object should be, the 
 formation of a habit of referring our own emotions and 
 actions to their proper source ; a habit of constantly ask- 
 ing ourselves J " Is this right, or wrong ?" A good mor- 
 al teacher, then, will be continually on the watch for op- 
 portunities of leading his pupils to put such questions to 
 themselves, and will consider the judgement they may be 
 called on to exercise, as to others, as chiefly useful, in so 
 far as it leads to this happy result. 
 
 The Table of Virtues is not offered, either as complete, 
 or as classified in the best possible manner. In both res- 
 pects, it is highly probable that it is imperfect. In future 
 editions, should this work be found sufficiently useful to 
 merit such an honor, it is to be hoped that it may be im- 
 proved ; and, with that view, the author will be happy to 
 avail himself of the suggestions of practical teachers and 
 others, who may think it worthy of notice. Meantime, 
 however, it may be observed, that, probably, every attempt 
 at classification will be found Hable to some objection. 
 In the present, it is readily granted, that, although there 
 is a great convenience in referring the duties to the heads 
 under which they stand, for the sake of easy reference, 
 yet, in fact, all our duties may practically be referred to 
 any of them. To ourselves^ because every one is bound, 
 both by interest and duty, diligently to seek the highest 
 improvement of which his nature is capable ; to God, 
 because this is the great purpose for which he has endowed 
 us with such valuable faculties ; to society, because no 
 one can be neutral, but must, by his influence and exam- 
 ple, either prove the source of good or evil to the com- 
 munity. But still, it is believed, it will be found, that all, 
 or most, of the virtues and vices in the Table, will have 
 a greater bearing towards the class under which it is ar- 
 ranged, than to either of the others. 
 18* 
 
210 THE teacher's MANUAL. 
 
 EXPLANATION OF THE TERMS IN THE TABLE. 
 
 I. Duties to God. 
 
 1. Faith. — Unbelief. — The word faith has many 
 meanings. Here, it signifies, believing in a great and 
 good Being, who made us, continually protects us, and 
 gives us every thing that we possess, tlnbeliefh a crime, 
 because every one may and ought to know that there is 
 a God ; and because many of our duties cannot be prop- 
 erly performed, unless we beheve in His existence. For 
 instance, we can neither feel gratitude for His favors, nor 
 resignation to His will ; and without these and other vir- 
 tues, there is no happiness. 
 
 2. Veneration. — Heedlessness ; slavish dread, or su- 
 perstitious fear. — Veneration is the feeling we experience 
 towards the great and good. God is its highest object. 
 It desires to find out excellence, and to repose on it. It 
 renders self, lowly, humble, and submissive. Heedless- 
 ness here refers to a total want of thought of the Supreme 
 Being. The kind of dread or fear , alluded to, is not that 
 salutary fear, which is derived from a knowledge of our 
 guilt ; but that, which arises from mistaken views of the 
 character of God. 
 
 Numbers three and four require no explanation. 
 
 5. Confidence. — Distrust. — The former relates to the 
 presence, the latter, to the absence, of that firm reliance, 
 which all should repose in the unremitting kindness and 
 watchful care of our Heavenly Parent. 
 
 6 . Resignation. — Querulousness, despondency, fear of 
 death. — Resignation is that calm state of mind, arising 
 from the confidence described in the last article. Quer- 
 ulousness is a habit of mournful complaint, always more 
 or less connected with the notion, that we are hardly or 
 unjustly dealt with. Some otherwise good people indulge 
 in this habit, under an idea that it renders them interesting, 
 forgetful that it implies both ingratitude and disobedience 
 to the will of God. " x\nd it is to be feared, that many 
 pious people cherish gloomy views of life, both among 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 211 
 
 themselves and their children, because they think it nec- 
 essary to wean the heart from the pleasm-es and posses- 
 sions of this world. They speak of it habitually, there- 
 fore, as a vale of tears, a path of thorns and briars, through 
 which we must pass, in our journey to another world. 
 This is, certainly, an erroneous view of life, and is the 
 fruitful source of many evils. It disgusts the young and 
 the cheerful with religion and religious people, who be- 
 come associated, in their minds, with moody dulness, or 
 revolting gloom. But the effect of these views, upon per- 
 sons of a melancholy temperament, is even worse. They 
 are apt to sink deep into the mind, and, coinciding with 
 the tendencies of the heart, to overshadow the whole being 
 with the dismal mist of habitual despondency. In such cas- 
 es, insanity is the frequent result. And where this does not 
 happen, where the mind is sustained by religious hope, still, 
 how desolate is the existence of that individual, who is 
 trained to look upon this world only as a scene of sorrow 
 and trial ! And, beside, is it not a false, unprofitable, and 
 impious, view of existence ? Has God given this world to 
 us, as a curse ? There is, doubtless, a great deal of mis- 
 ery in the world ; but it is chiefly brought upon us by our 
 own misconduct. And, moreover, the balance of pleas- 
 ure infinitely outweighs the pain."* — Despondency is the 
 same evil habit, indulged to a greater extent, and connect- 
 ed with the idea, that our real or imaginary sufferings are 
 permanent. The first approaches of both should be 
 checked and discountenanced. The fear^of deaths here 
 alluded to, is totally unconnected with the retributions of 
 eternity, but intimately connected with the distrust of 
 our Heavenly Father, mentioned above. It arises from 
 a fear of the pangs supposed to attend the dissolution 
 of the connexion between the body and soul, and a sort 
 of indistinct notion, that man, himself^ not his mere shelly 
 is deposited in the grave. Such expressions as. King 
 of Terrors, the cold grave, the dark grave, &c., refer 
 to such feelings. Blair thus alludes to them, in his beau- 
 tiful poem : 
 
 * Parley's * Fireside Education.^ 
 
212 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 The grave, dread thing ! 
 
 Men shiver when thou 'rt named ; Nature, appalled. 
 
 Shakes off her wonted firmness. Ah ! how dark 
 
 Thy long-extended realms and rueful wastes, 
 
 Where nought but silence reigns, and night, dark night /" 
 
 Such sentiments are false and injurious to happiness, and 
 directly the opposite of confidence in the power and good- 
 ness of God, and cheerful resignation to His will. Young, 
 in his ' Night Thoughts,' takes the true view of the subject : 
 
 " Why start at Death ? Where is he? Death, arrived, 
 Is past ; not come, or gone, he 's never here. 
 Ere hope, sensation fails ; black-boding man 
 Receives, not suffers. Death's tremendous blow. 
 The knell, the shroud, the mattock, and the grave, 
 The deep, damp vault, the darkness, and the worm ; 
 These are the bugbears of a Winter's eve. 
 The terrors of the living, not the dead. 
 Imagination's fool, and error's wretch, 
 Man makes a death, which Nature never made ; 
 Then, on the point of his own fancy, falls, 
 And feels a thousand deaths in fearing one.". — JYightlV. 
 
 A late popular writep observes, that, "In the whole 
 course of our observation, there is not so misrepresented 
 and abused a personage as Death. He has been vilified, 
 as the cause of anguish, consternation, and despair ; but 
 these are things that appertain, not unto death, but unto 
 life. How strange a paradox is this ! We love the dis- 
 temper, and loathe the remedy ; preferring the fiercest 
 bufFetings of the hurricane to the tranquillity of the har- 
 bor. The poet has lent his fictions, the painter his col- 
 ors, the orator his tropes, to portray death as the grand 
 destroyer, who, for a perishable state, gives us that which 
 is eternal ! Can he be styled the enemy, who is the best 
 friend only of the best, who never deserts tliem at their 
 utmost need, and whose friendship proves the most valu- 
 able to those who live the longest ! Can he be termed 
 the prince of phantoms and of shades, who destroys that 
 which is transient and temporary, to establish that which 
 is real and fixed ! And what are the mournful escutch- 
 eons, the sable trophies, and the melancholy insignia with 
 which we surround him, the sepulchral gloom, the mould- 
 ering carcass, and the slimy worm ? These, indeed, are 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 21o 
 
 the idle fears, and empty terrors, not of the dead, but of 
 the living. The dark domain of death, we dread, indeed, 
 to enter, but we ought rather to dread the ruggedness of 
 some of the roads' that lead to it ; but, if they are rugged, 
 they are short, and it is only those that are smooth, that 
 are wearisome and long. But perhaps he summons us 
 too soon from the feast of life. Beit so ; if the exchange 
 be not for the better, it is not his fault, but our own. — 
 Or he summons us late ; the call is a reprieve rather 
 than a sentence ; for who would wish to sit at the board, 
 when he can no longer partake of the banquet, or to live 
 on to pain, when he has long been dead to pleasure ? 
 Tyrants can sentence their victims to death, but how 
 much more dreadful would be their power, could they 
 sentence them to life ? Life is the gaoler of the soul in 
 this filthy prison, and its only deliverer is Death ; what 
 we call death, is a passport to life. True wisdom thanks 
 Death for what he takes, and still more for what he brings. 
 Let us, then, like sentinels, be ready, because we are 
 uncertain, and calm, because w^e are prepared. There 
 
 ie nothing formidable about death, but the consequences 
 
 of it, and these, we ourselves can regulate and control. 
 The shortest hfe is long enough, if it lead to a better, and 
 the longest life is too short, if it do not." 
 
 " And what is death ? Death has been styled the 
 king of terrors. But to whom ? To none, surely, ex- 
 cept the wicked and superstitious. To the disciples of 
 enlightened piety, — the ' followers after righteousness and 
 truth,' death is really the highest happiness. 
 
 '• 'Man dives in death, in brighter worlds to rise ; 
 The grave's the subterranean road to bliss.' 
 
 '' But what is death } Death is an exemption from 
 the toils, the perplexities, the various ills, that ' flesh is 
 heir to.' It is the enlargement of the soul from the nar- 
 row limits of mortality ; from the oppressive restraints of 
 an existence circumscribing its enjoyments, its observa- 
 tion, and intelligence, to the bounded confines of a single 
 locality,— a mere point. Death is the affranchisement 
 of the soul from this straitened state of inadequate enjoy- 
 
214 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 ment, to the glorious freedom of the Sons of God ; with, 
 probably, the freedom of ranging where it wills, through- 
 out the boundless field of creation ; of visiting, pursuant 
 to its own desire, every portion of that ilhmited expanse ; 
 and of enjoying the ineffable delight of unconfined obser- 
 vation and knowledge. 
 
 '' While connected to the body, with no other avenues 
 of intelligence than the corporeal senses, the soul, in the 
 exercise of its powers, is much restricted. The body, 
 composed of material matter, and hence subject to the 
 attracting influence of gravitation, naturally preponderates, 
 in common with every other affianced substance, to its 
 maternal earth ; and, by no possible effort, can be disen- 
 gaged from this connexion. The soul, therefore, insep- 
 arably conjoined to its material tenement, participates in 
 this restriction, and, except some indistinct perceptions 
 of the adjacent heavens, in its views of exterior Nature, is 
 confined, entirely, to terrestrial objects. And even of 
 these objects, of this world's garniture and occupants, 
 there are, doubtless, many things existing, whereof, from 
 the destitution of organs to apprehend them, we are utter- 
 ly ignorant. ' Millions of spiritual creatures walk the 
 earth, unseen.' 
 
 "Pent up within its opaque abode, with only five, 
 small, imperfect openings, through which to look upon 
 surrounding Nature, and many of these objects, indubita- 
 bly, from their minuteness, or immaterial nature, being 
 uncognizable by our bodily organs, the soul, in this almost 
 entombed state, looking abroad only through a medium so 
 contracted and imperfect as the corporeal senses, and 
 upon objects subtile beyond sensorial perception, must 
 necessarily remain totally unapprised of numerous exist- 
 ences, even in immediate proximity to our own persons. 
 
 " But what is death ? Death is the breaking down of 
 this intervening partition between the soul and undiscov- 
 ered existences ; imparting to that spark, immortal, the 
 unrestrained exercise of its perceptive powers ; it is the 
 disengagement of intellectual light from material darkness ; 
 it is that benign agency, whereby the soul, as the butterfly 
 from the chrysalis, is set at large, to roam, observe, re- 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 215 
 
 joice, in the plenitude of its newborn being. This, 
 when ' the good man yields his breath, for the good man 
 never dies,' is, under the Adorable Supreme, the work 
 of Death." 
 
 7. Repentance. — Hypocrisy^ presumptuousness. — Re- 
 pentance is such a sorrow for doing wrong, as will lead us 
 to repair it, as far as it is in our power, and to avoid all 
 occasions for it in future. Hypocrisy is of various kinds. 
 The species here referred to, is that sort of repentance, 
 which bears no fruit. The presumptuousness spoken of, 
 is that kind which believes, or pretends to beheve, that 
 it never does wrong, and hence has no need of repent- 
 ance. 
 
 II. Duties to Ourselves. 
 
 8. Moral Courage. — Cowardice. — The kind of cowr- 
 age here alluded to, is not physical, but mental courage, 
 — courage to do right, and to endure such wrongs as are 
 without remedy ; courage to resist importunity and bad 
 example, and to follow out what we deem right, in spite 
 of the sneers of the foolish or wicked. The man who 
 possesses this courage will never be a duellist. Moral 
 cowardice is the reverse of all this. Its subject looks not 
 to the approval of God, or of his own conscience, but to 
 the opinions of the weaker part of his species, for the reg- 
 ulation of his conduct. 
 
 9. Self-control. — Indecision. — Of all the powers of 
 the human mind, none, surely, is more valuable, than that 
 of self-control. " He that ruleth his spirit," saith Solo- 
 mon, '' is better than he that taketh a city." Conquer- 
 ors, who have subdued nations, have often been slaves to 
 their appetites and passions. They overcame fleets and 
 armies, but they could not overcome themselves. Knowl- 
 edge, without the power of self-control, is utterly powder- 
 less. Paul, in his Epistle to the Romans, vii. 19, pre- 
 sents us with a picture of a mind in this condition. '' For 
 the good that I would, I do not ; but the evil which I 
 would not, that I do." Ovid, in his ' Metamorphoses,' 
 has a similar idea : 
 
216 THE teacher' 
 
 " Video meliora, proboque ; deteriora sequor."* 
 
 "The great principle and foundation of all virtue," 
 says Locke, "lies in this : that a man is able to deny 
 himself his own desires, cross his own inchnations, and 
 purely follow what reason directs as best, though the ap- 
 petite lean the other way." 
 
 [What is the cause of the intemperance that has des- 
 olated, ay, that still continues to desolate, our land ? 
 What is it, that carries our youth forward, with irresistible 
 force, as soon as they are fairly engaged in a career of 
 gaming, or in any other vicious course ? Feels not the 
 drunkard the headache, that "nails him to a noonday 
 bed ?" Sees he not, in the sad examples scattered 
 around, the certain ruin that awaits him and his family ? 
 Feels not the gamester the 
 
 -" pangs 
 
 For property stripp'd off by cruel chance ?" 
 
 Yes, alas ! too surely do both feel their present pain, and 
 see their future ruin. But, 
 
 *' Whosoe'er the villain takes in hand, 
 
 Their joints unknit, their sinews melt apace, 
 
 As lithe they grow as any willow wand, 
 
 And of their vanquished force remains no trace." 
 
 Castle of Indolence. 
 
 The efforts of the Temperance Society have been high- 
 ly praiseworthy, and the results truly wonderful. Yet, 
 after all, they have only been hacking at one of the branch- 
 es of the great Tree of Vice which overshadows the land. 
 Let their efforts be crowned with complete success, so 
 as to render unnecessary the machinery of periodicals, 
 ?igents, and pledges ; and, before the lapse of another gen- 
 eration, the branch at which they had been hewing would 
 begin again to throw out its shoots as vigorous as ever. 
 It is only by the constant, unwearied use of the axe, that 
 it can be kept within bounds. But let the Society, with- 
 out withdrawing their attention from the branch they have 
 so sorely mangled and lopped, let them now attack the root 
 with the same spirit and force that have hitherto character- 
 
 * I see and approve the better, yet follow the worsen 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 217 
 
 ized their proceedings, and should we not have reason to 
 expect, with the blessing of God, the downfal of the whole 
 tree ? But, dropping our metaphor ; is not the root of 
 most, or of all the evils that beset mankind, a want of the 
 habit or power of self-control ? Is it not possible, by a 
 course of training in early youth, to bestow, on all, more 
 or less of this most important gift ? Is not the great mass 
 of the community in total ignorance as to any means of 
 producing this effect ? And could the vast amount of tal- 
 ents and wealth which the Temperance Society have at 
 command be better employed, than in enlightening the 
 community on this most important subject ? Would not 
 this be one of the surest means of rooting out intemperance? 
 The difference between the present efforts and the one 
 recommended, is, that, by the former, the snake is only 
 scotched, by the latter, killed, or, at least, deprived of its 
 power of mischief. The former have got the monster 
 down, and, as long as the struggle is continued, he can be 
 kept down ; but let them relax, and leave him to himself, 
 he will recover breath, rouse himself, and, sooner or later, 
 be as mischievous as ever. The latter would pull out his 
 fangs, and render him for ever harmless. But the main 
 advantage of the latter lies in this : that, when we have 
 once succeeded in the introduction of a course of dis- 
 cipline which shall be really efficient, in establishing the 
 supremacy of the mind over the body, it is done for- 
 ever. For, notwithstanding the assertions of some grum- 
 blers, the course of mankind is still upward. Any essen- 
 tial improvement in education, now that literature is so 
 universally diffused, can never be lost, can never be aban- 
 doned, except for a better. We may fly from one extreme 
 to another ; from an excess of severity to an excess of 
 laxity, and vice versa. 'But we shall move to and fro, 
 only because both are wrong. Once place us right, and 
 there we shall stay. 
 
 " The great purpose of all good education and disci- 
 pline," says Dr. Channing, " is to make a man master of 
 himself to excite him to act from a principle in his own 
 mind, to lead him to propose his oicn perfection, as his 
 supreme law and end." Blessed will be the day which 
 19 
 
218 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 shall see so powerful an engine as the Temperance So- 
 ciety devoting its energies to enlighten the community, as 
 to the best and easiest mode of developing the most im- 
 portant of all the faculties ; when the pulpit, the press, and 
 the forum, shall unite, to throw their focal rays on that 
 portion of domestic education which teaches how to 
 make the rising generation masters of themselves, to give 
 the intellectual and moral faculties the supremacy over 
 the animal nature ! Meanwhile, let us contribute our 
 humble mite, by endeavoring to show^ how the primary 
 school may be brought to aid in this noble cause ; and, 
 however small our contribution may prove, if it should 
 be found of any value, may we not hope for its extension 
 and improvement by abler pens.]* 
 
 The only sure method, of acquiring the habit of self- 
 control, is by practice in early youth. Opportunities of 
 self-denial must be sought out, and youth must be encour- 
 aged to practise it daily. Such practice, however, to 
 be useful, must be entirely voluntary ; and children should 
 be led, as soon as possible, to undertake it, without 
 prompting. Every example met with, in the course of 
 their reading, should be minutely examined and dwelt on, 
 and the pupil should be asked, whether he thought he 
 could do the like. Many noble instances of this virtue 
 are to be found in the history of ancient Rome. The 
 pupil should also be encouraged to the endurance of pain, 
 by good advice and suitable examples. 
 
 * The following observations are from Dr. A. Combe's admirable 
 work on the Physiology of Digestion. " It seems to me that much 
 more might be accomplished, if we did not confine ourselves so exclu- 
 sively to the mere inculcation of abstinence from intoxicating liquors, 
 but concerned ourselves more in improving the general character, as 
 the surest road to reformation, and in providing resources, by means 
 of which, the reformation, when once effected, might be fully confirm- 
 ed. The temperance which is produced by elevation of mind, and an 
 improved state of moral feeling, will be not only much more benefi- 
 cial in its consequences, but infinitely more proof against temptations, 
 than that which is observed merely in fulfilment of a vow ; and, unless 
 something be made to come in the place of the enjoyment which is 
 withdrawn, the danger of a relapse will continue to be great." May 
 we not anticipate, that the delights of literature will supply the place 
 of those social enjoyments, so generally connected with the excesses of 
 intemperance ? 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 219 
 
 The great difficulty, in the acquisition of self-command , 
 lies in the commencement. Let a child once feel that he 
 can overcome temptation, and he will speedily acquire a 
 spirit of confidence, that will enable him to triumph over 
 every obstacle. 
 
 Indecision is a species of the moral cowardice, des- 
 cribed in the preceding article. He who is subject to it 
 may possibly attempt many things, but his wavering mind, 
 turned aside by every petty obstacle, can accomplish 
 nothing valuable. His place is among the common herd, 
 who follow wherever their leader directs. 
 
 10. Forethought. — Want of forethought. — This virtue 
 is intimately connected with that of self-control. Neither 
 is complete without the other. Some persons may be 
 said to live exclusively in and for the present. It is all 
 in all to them. They neither look before nor behind. 
 
 Children should be early accustomed to look forward, 
 and to make their little sacrifices in view of a greater 
 future good. Most of the moral blunders that men com- 
 mit, are owing to their affixing too great importance to 
 the present moment, and never looking ahead. Let us 
 be happy to-day, provided it does not prevent our being 
 happy to-morrow, is a maxim founded on true philosophy. 
 In the language of the poet, 
 
 " Pleasure, we all agree, is man's chief good ; 
 Our only contest, what deserves the name. 
 Give pleasure's name to nought, but what has passed 
 The authentic seal of reason, which defies 
 The tooth of time ; when past, a pleasure still. 
 Dearer on trial, lovelier for its age, 
 And doubly to be prized, as it promotes 
 Our future, while it forms our present, joy. 
 Some joys the future overcast, and some 
 Throw all their beams that way, and gild the tomb. 
 Some joys endear eternity; some give 
 Abhorred annihilation dreadful charms. 
 Are rival joys contending for thy choice ? 
 Consult thy whole existence, and be safe ; 
 That oracle will put all doubt to flight." — Young. 
 
 1 1 . Firmness. — Obstinacy.- — The former may be called 
 perseverance in a good cause ; the latter, perseverance in 
 a wrong one. The man of firmness listens to reason ; 
 the obstinate man shuts his ears. 
 
220 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 12. ^elf-examination^ vigilance. — Carelessness. — 
 These virtues have been sufficiently noticed under the 
 head of ' The Record.' By vigilance^ is here meant a 
 careful watchfulness over one's self. 
 
 13. Industry.— Indolence. — Habits of industry cannot 
 be too early formed. But we fear that our primary 
 schools have hitherto rather assisted in forming the oppo- 
 site habit of indolence. Work while we work, and play 
 while we play, should be the motto. Teachers cannot 
 be too much on their guard on this subject. The impor- 
 tance of cultivating industrious habits in youth, derives 
 much force from the consideration, that God could just 
 as easily have provided sustenance for us without, as with, 
 our cooperation. But where, then, would have been the 
 happiness that flows from the numerous virtues dependent 
 upon this provision of Nature, such as temperance, hon- 
 esty, disinterestedness, benevolence, patriotism, the filial, 
 parental, and conjugal, duties, all of which derive their 
 very existence from the necessity of laboring for support ? 
 But, although industry is undoubtedly a virtue, it may, by 
 excess, run into a vice. There are many, who make 
 themselves completely the slaves of business ; who seem 
 to think, that life was given for the sole purpose of ac- 
 quiring and securing property. Such persons make the 
 same mistake with the miser ; the only difference is, that 
 the latter gloats over his gold, the former, over his houses, 
 lands, and other possessions. Both mistake the means 
 for the end ; a mistake, by the way, discernible in most 
 of the follies of life, and on which a volume might be 
 written, without exhausting the subject. Industry, then, 
 is to be encouraged and commended ; but it is not to 
 be converted into an idol, upon whose altar our health, 
 or the whole of our time, is to be sacrificed. A suffi- 
 ciency of time should be reserved to ourselves, and 
 allowed to others, not only for the performance of our 
 duties to God, but for mental recreation and improvement, 
 and the cultivation of all the social affections. 
 
 14. Prudence, circumspection. — Imprudence, rashness, 
 timidity. — One of the ancient philosophers says, " Begin 
 nothing, of which you have not well considered the end." 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 221 
 
 '^ Take care of irrevocable deeds." This is the substance 
 of these virtues. Early cuhure is here particularly desi- 
 ral)le, because both are repugnant to the natural habits 
 and feelings of the young. Never fail to apply every 
 case that occurs, either in action or in reading,to the table. 
 
 15. Discretion. — Indiscretion. — This virtue is of the 
 same nature with those last mentioned, but less in degree. 
 
 16. Vigilance. — Suspicion. — In this connexion, i;i^i- 
 lance signifies a watchfulness of the conduct of others. 
 It sometimes runs into the extreme of suspicion, which 
 is a mean vice. 
 
 17. Providence. — Profusion, prodigality. — Another 
 virtue of the same species, but including action. The 
 bee, the ant, and the beaver, are provident. This virtue 
 is also intimately connected with those in numbers 9 and 
 10, — Self-control and Forethought. Each is necessary to 
 the perfection of the others. 
 
 18. Perseverance. — Irresolution, instability. — Youth 
 has, naturally, more courage than perseverance. It is prone 
 to idolize genius, and to despise pains-taking, plodding 
 industry. It wants to accomplish, in a short period, en- 
 terprises which require much time ; and to effect, by one 
 brilliant achievement, objects which cost others many 
 painful efforts. But this is contrary to the laws of Na- 
 ture. All that is great, and noble, and lasting, is the re- 
 sult of time, and persevering resolution. He who expects 
 it will be otherwise in his own case, will, in general, be 
 miserably disappointed. He may have courage to grap- 
 ple with the greatest difficulties for a moment ; but, if 
 he has not resolution to struggle with them as long as 
 they stand in his path, he must be content with obscurity. 
 
 Property may be gained by speculation, or by fraud ; 
 but, when acquired in this way, it is, often, soon scattered. 
 In gaining an estate by patient industry, a man usually 
 forms economical and thrifty habits, which keep hita from 
 squandering what he has gotten. His mind becomes grad- 
 ually suited to his change of circumstances, and he does 
 not launch out into extravagant and ruinous expenses. 
 But, when a man grows rich by some lucky speculation, 
 or in some similar way, he is not prepared to bear this 
 19* 
 
222 
 
 sudden change of circumstances. He is too much elated 
 by prosperity. He is apt to feel, that there is no end to 
 his riches. He thinks there is, in his case, no need of 
 economy, it is so easy to get money. As the proverb 
 says, "Light come, light go." He ventures upon ex- 
 penses which are beyond his income, and is soon reduced 
 to want. Or, perhaps, his successful speculation has made 
 him feel that the gains of industry and economy are too 
 slow ; that others may plod on in the old road of frugali- 
 ty and labor, but he will take a shorter and easier road to 
 wealth. So he runs other hazards ; but fails in his cal- 
 culations. Grown desperate by disappointment, he ven- 
 tures on other schemes, still more hazardous, and plunges 
 into ruin. 
 
 God often so orders events, that estates, gotten by 
 grinding the poor and the fatherless, or by defrauding 
 creditors, are soon wasted. Sometimes, the same love 
 of display, or the same ambition, which causes persons 
 to be dishonest, leads them to a style of living beyond 
 their means. Sometimes they resort to the bottle, for 
 relief from the stings of conscience, become intemperate, 
 make bad bargains, spend their property, and die beggars. 
 And, even if they continue to keep their money, they often 
 do not enjoy it. They find they are neither loved nor 
 respected by their neighbors and acquaintance ; and that 
 even the poor, honest man holds a higher station in soci- 
 ety than they. 
 
 As, then, perseverance is not, naturally, the virtue of 
 youth, it is the more incumbent on instructers to take 
 efficient measures for exciting and promoting it. The 
 words, " Try ; try again ;" should be inscribed in some 
 conspicuous situation in the schoolroom, and the pupil's 
 attention directed to them, in every case of difficulty. 
 Perhaps the following lines might be found useful, if 
 committed to memory by the school ; and, still better, 
 if the words were arranged to appropriate music, and 
 occasionally sung. The two following illustrations might 
 also be read and commented on, and followed up by 
 others, drawn from history and biography. This object 
 should also be kept in view, in the study of arithmetic, 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 223 
 
 and other branches of mathematics, and the languages. 
 The teacher should avoid giving assistance or explana- 
 tions too readily, but rather lead the student to finding 
 out for himself, by appropriate questions ; thus bringing 
 intellectual training to aid in the formation of the moral 
 character. The opposite vices, irresolution and insta- 
 bility^ refer, the former, to a wavering before action, the 
 latter, to the too easy abandonment of useful projects. 
 
 TRY, TRY AGAIN. 
 
 ' Tis a lesson you should heed. 
 
 Try, try again ; 
 If at first you do n't succeed. 
 
 Try, try again ; 
 Then your courage should appear, 
 For, if you will persevere. 
 You will conquer, never fear ; 
 
 Try, try again. 
 
 Once, or twice, though you should fail, 
 
 Try, try again ; 
 If you would, at last, prevail, 
 
 _ Try, try again ; 
 If we strive, 'tis no disgrace. 
 Though we may not win the race ; 
 What should you do in the case? 
 
 Try, try again. 
 
 If you find your task is hard. 
 
 Try, try again ; 
 Time will bring you your reward. 
 
 Try, try again ; 
 All that other folks can do, 
 Why, with patience, should not you ? 
 Only keep this rule in view, 
 
 Try, try again. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE VIRTUE OF PERSEVERANCE. 
 
 1. TiMouR THE Tartar was once forced to take shel- 
 ter from his enemies in a ruined building, where he sat 
 alone, for many hours. To divert his mind from his 
 hopeless condition, he fixed his observation on a little 
 ant, that was carrying a grain of corn, larger than itself, 
 up a high wall. He numbered the efforts it made to ac- 
 
224 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 complish this object. The grain fell sixty-nine times to 
 the ground, but the insect persevered, and, the seventieth 
 time, it reached the top of the wall. This sight gave 
 him courage at the moment it was most needed, and he 
 never forgot the lesson it conveyed. 
 
 A somewhat similar story is related of Robert Bruce 
 and a spider, in Scott's ' Tales of a Grandfather,' vol. I. 
 
 2. Edmund Stone was an eminent mathematician, 
 who lived about a century ago. His father was garden- 
 er to the Duke of Argyle, who, walking one day in his 
 garden, observed a Latin copy of Newton's 'Principia' 
 lying on the grass, and, thinking it must have been brought 
 from his own library, called some one to take it back to 
 its place. Upon this, Stone, who was then in his eigh- 
 teenth year, claimed the book as his own. "Yours?" 
 rephed the Duke, '' do you understand geometry, Latin, 
 and Newton ?" "I know a little of them," rephed the 
 young man. The Duke was surprised ; and, having a 
 taste for the sciences, he entered into conversation with 
 the young mathematician. He asked him several ques- 
 tions, and was astonished at the force, the accuracy, and 
 the candor of his answers. '' But how," said the Duke, 
 "came you by the knowledge of all these things ?" Stone 
 rephed, " A servant taught me, ten years since, to read. 
 Does one need to know any thing more than the twenty- 
 four letters, in order to know every thing else that one 
 wishes ?" The Duke's curiosity redoubled : he sat 
 down on a bank, and requested a detail of the whole 
 process by which he had become so learned. " I first 
 learned to read," said Stone ; " the masons were then 
 at work upon your house. I approached them one day, 
 and observed that the architect used a rule and compas- 
 ses, and that he made calculations. I inquired what might 
 be the meaning and use of these things, and I was in- 
 formed that there was a science called arithmetic. I 
 purchased a book of arithmetic, and I learned it. I was 
 told there was another science, called geometry. I bought 
 the necessary books, and I learned geometry. By read- 
 ing, I found that there were good books in these two sci- 
 ences, in Latin. I bought a [grammar and] dictionary, 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 225 
 
 and I learned Latin. I understood, also, that there were 
 good books of the same kind in French. I bought a 
 [grammar and] dictionary, and I learned French. And 
 this, my lord, is what I have done. It seems to me 
 that we may learn every thing, when we know the twen- 
 ty-four letters of the alphabet." 
 
 19. Economy. — Carelessness, extravagance, niggard- 
 liness. — Economy has not unreasonably been ranked 
 among the virtues ; for, like the others, it implies self- 
 control, and is productive of the happiest consequences. 
 The good education of children, physical, intellectual, and 
 moral ; the careful attendance of old age ; the calmness 
 of mind, so necessary to the good conduct of middle life ; 
 and that independence of circumstances, which alone can 
 completely secure against mercenary motives, are all re- 
 ferrible to this quality. Lessons of carefulness and econ- 
 omy cannot be too often repeated in our schools ; for the 
 contrary habits of carelessness and wastefulness, notwith- 
 standing all the advantages this nation enjoys, have already 
 done immense mischief. Many families waste and throw 
 away nearly as much as they use ; probably one third 
 of the expense of housekeeping might be saved by sys- 
 tem and frugality. The teacher, however, should be 
 careful to draw the Hne distinctly between economy and 
 niggardliness ; between the frugal man and the miser. 
 " There is," saith Solomon, " that scattereth, and yet 
 increaseth ; and there is that withholdeth more than is 
 meet, but it tendeth to poverty." The picture presented 
 to the child should be, not the miser, denying himself 
 the means of living ; but the farmer and mechanic, ena- 
 bled, by the assistance of the capital arising from his 
 economical habits, to acquire a constantly-increasing meas- 
 ure of leisure, and of the comforts of life, with a decreas- 
 ing amount of labor. 
 
 20. Temperance. — Intemperance. — Excessive indul- 
 gence in sensual pleasures, of any kind, is not merely in- 
 jurious by the positive evil it creates. It not only destroys 
 the health, and has an injurious influence on the capacity 
 for usefulness, but it destroys the taste for intellectual 
 pleasures, and has a fatal effect on every virtuous habit. 
 
226 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 He, who has abandoned himself to sensual pleasures, has 
 weakened every faculty of his mind, and has rendered 
 himself, in a greater or less degree, incapable of resisting 
 any seduction from moral good. Man, however, is con- 
 tinually liable to run into extremes. In avoiding one spe- 
 cies of intemperance, we should beware of going too far, 
 of passing the bounds of temperance, and returning to the 
 same vice, on another tack. Temperance signifies mod- 
 eration : both of the opposite extremes are intemperance. 
 There are two species of this vice, however, in which it is 
 impossible to run into an extreme, and from both of which 
 youth need an especial warning in early life. These are, 
 the use of tobacco, in any shape, and drinking, not for 
 nourishment, but for pleasure. The pernicious effects of 
 habits of this nature have been so repeatedly and fully 
 pointed out, that no teacher can want instruction on these 
 points. Only let it be remembered, that prevention is 
 better than cure. Wait not for the appearance of the 
 evil, before the warning is given. In many cases, it may 
 then be too late. 
 
 It is the great error of mankind, that, in the pursuit of 
 happiness, they commonly seek for it in violent gratifica- 
 tions, in pleasures too intense in their degree to be of 
 long duration, and of which even the frequent repetition 
 blunts the capacity of enjoyment. There is no lesson 
 more useful to mankind, than that which teaches, that the 
 most rational happiness is averse from all turbulent emo- 
 tions ; that it is serene and moderate in its nature ; that 
 its ingredients are neither costly in the acquisition, nor 
 difficult in the attainment, but present themselves almost 
 voluntarily to a well-ordered mind, and are open to every 
 rank and condition of life, where absolute indigence is 
 excluded. 
 
 Man is possessed of a twofold nature. Like the infe- 
 rior creatures, he has pleasure in eating, drinking, sleep- 
 ing, and exercising his limbs ; and one of the greatest 
 obstacles to improvement is, that most of the race are 
 contented with these enjoyments, and consider it painful 
 to be compelled to seek higher sources of gratification. 
 But to man's animal nature have been added, by a boun- 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 227 
 
 tiful Creator, moral sentiments and reflecting faculties, 
 which not only place him above all other creatures on 
 earth, but constitute him a different being from any of 
 them,-— a rational and accountable creature. These fac- 
 ulties are his highest and his best gifts, and the sources 
 of his purest and most intense pleasures. They lead him, 
 directly, to the great objects of his existence, obedience 
 to God and love to his fellow-men. But this peculiarity 
 attends them, that, while his animal faculties act powerful- 
 ly of themselves, his rational faculties require to be culti- 
 vated, exercised, and instructed, before they will yield 
 their full harvest of enjoyment. 
 
 The intellectual pleasures have this peculiar and su- 
 perlative advantage over those that are merely sensual, 
 that the most delightful of the former require no appro- 
 priation of their objects in order to their enjoyment. The 
 contemplative man, who is an admirer of the beauties of 
 Nature, has an ideal property in all its objects. He en- 
 joys the hill, the vale, the stream, the wood, the garden, 
 with a pleasure more exquisite, because more unalloyed, 
 than that of their actual possessor. To him, each enjoy- 
 ment is heightened by the sense of that unremitting boun- 
 ty which furnishes it ; nor is he disquieted by the anxiety 
 of maintaining a possession of which he cannot be de- 
 prived. How truly may he exclaim with the poet : 
 
 " I care not, Fortune, what you me deny ; 
 You cannot rob me of free Nature's grace ; 
 You cannot shut the windows of the sky. 
 Through which Aurora shows her brightening face ; 
 You cannot bar my constant feet to trace 
 The woods and lawns, by living streams, at eve ; 
 Let health my nerves and finer fibres brace. 
 And I their toys to the great children leave ; 
 Of fancy, reason, virtue, nought can me bereave." 
 
 Castle of Indolence. 
 
 21. Contentment. — Discontent. — ''When a lad, an 
 old gentleman took the trouble to teach me some little 
 knowledge of the world. With this view, I remember, 
 he one day asked me. When is a man rich enough ? I 
 replied, when he has a thousand pounds. He said. No. 
 Two thousand ? No. Ten thousand ? No. Twenty 
 
228 
 
 thousand ? No. A hundred thousand ? which I thought 
 would settle the business ; but he still continued to say, 
 No. I gave it up, and confessed I could not tell ; but 
 begged he would inform me. He gravely said, lohen he 
 has a little more than he has, and that is, — never ! If he 
 acquires one thousand, he wishes to have two thousand ; 
 then five, then ten, then twenty, then fifty ; from that his 
 riches would amount to an hundred thousand ; and so on, 
 till he had grasped the whole world ; after which he would 
 look about him, like Alexander, and weep for other worlds 
 to possess." 
 
 But there are other causes of discontent, besides those 
 arising from our circumstances. And, perhaps, one of 
 the most prominent of these relates to the weather. It 
 is either too hot or too cold, too wet or too dry. But it 
 is not Nature that mistakes about the, weather, but our- 
 selves. What sort of effect would it produce in the world, 
 if such things were regulated by falhble human perception 
 of what is best } Could we trust them in any other per- 
 son's hands, or would any person trust them in ours ? 
 The following just remarks are extracted from the philo- 
 sophical lectures of the late Dr. Smith, of Princeton, N. 
 J. "It has been frequently and justly remarked, that 
 the universe is governed by general and constant laws, 
 which never change their operation according to the de- 
 sires of men, or convenience of particular parts of the 
 system, which sometimes appear to be productive of ac- 
 cidental and partial ills. A tempest here, a drought there, 
 a contagion, or an earthquake, may involve individuals in 
 distress ; but the fixed and unvarying laws of the physical 
 world are among the greatest blessings to mankind. 
 Among other benefits, they lay a foundation for the ex- 
 istence of the most useful sciences, which could have no 
 principles on which to rest in a providence of expedients 
 and accommodations to individual convenience. They 
 serve to awaken inquiry ; to exercise ingenuity ; to en- 
 courage industry ; to afford principles on which to ground 
 a prudent foresight and precaution, and to promote the 
 exercise of all the virtues which are assisted by the sta- 
 bility of Nature." 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 229 
 
 Another fertile source of discontent is the supposed in- 
 equality and mystery attending the dealings of Providence. 
 But such appearances will vanish, when the general laws 
 of Nature are properly scanned. These laws may be 
 divided into three great classes, — physical, organic, and 
 moral, — each of which operates independently of the oth- 
 er two. Each requires obedience to itself. Each, in its 
 own specific way, rewards obedience, and punishes diso- 
 bedience. And happiness can be attained, solely, by obe- 
 dience to all these Divine institutions. If we neglect, or 
 attempt to counteract, the physical and organic laws, we 
 shall suffer for our folly, however pure and noble may be 
 our moral conduct. And, on the other hand, however 
 attentive we may be to the laws which govern our frame, 
 we can never be happy, if our moral and intellectual nature 
 be neglected. Let us suppose, for instance, tliat of two 
 vessels, sailing from the same port, at the same time, and 
 for the same island in the Pacific, one, which was entirely 
 unseaworthy, had on board, missionaries, who had sacri- 
 ficed all their prospects for the service of God, and the 
 best interests of the human race ; while the other was 
 laden with rum, and manned with monsters of iniquity. 
 Could it be considered a mystery, if the same hurricane 
 which sent the unseaworthy missionary ship to the bottom, 
 should carry the sound vessel, with its lading of iniquity, 
 safely, to its destined port ? Again : would it imply any 
 mystery or inequality in the ways of God, should a man, 
 who observed the rules of temperance and of exercise, 
 enjoy robust health, and attain a green old age, although 
 he might cheat, lie, and blaspheme ; while another, who 
 violated these rules, should suffer constant pain and sick- 
 ness, and sink into a premature grave, however pure and 
 holy his conduct ? Certainly not. If we violate the phys- 
 ical and organic laws, we shall receive the appropriate 
 punishments of pain, sickness, and premature death, as 
 certainly as we shall suffer from violations of the moral 
 code. To be happy, we must fulfil all the laws to which 
 our Divine Governor has subjected us. And the punish- 
 ment annexed to a breach of the one, imphes no more 
 20 
 
230 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 mystery or instability, than those annexed to a breach of 
 the others. 
 
 Let our teachers, then, and, more especially, our pri- 
 mary teachers, endeavor to check this too prevalent dis- 
 position to discontent, by their own example, and by im- 
 proving every suitable occasion of exposing its folly and 
 unreasonableness. They will thus much increase the stock 
 of happiness ; for, although apparently trifling, the occa- 
 sions of discontent occur so frequently, as to form, in the 
 aggregate, a large mass, which must have a material effect 
 on the happiness of society. 
 
 22. Modesty. — Indelicacy. — What a beautiful trait in 
 all, but especially in the female sex, is modesty ! and how 
 disgusting the opposite vice ! But modesty does not con- 
 sist, as some appear to imagine, in the choice of words. 
 On the contrary, too great a fastidiousness in expression 
 betokens rather a want of delicacy in ideas. Fortunately, 
 this kind of folly is fast wearing out, through the example 
 and influence of such writers as Mrs. Barbauld and Miss 
 Edgeworth, who, in their valuable writings for youth, al- 
 ways give to every thing its proper name, without peri- 
 phrasis. It is truly laughable, to observe how far this sort 
 of squeamishness can be carried. Of some species of 
 animals, it is considered an outrage against decency to 
 pronounce the name of the male ; of others, that of the 
 female ; of others, again, the names of neither male nor 
 female are admissible ; while, strange to say, there are 
 many, of which the names of neither sex are offensive. 
 AH such follies flow from false dehcacy. They are the 
 very reverse of modesty, which consists in purity of ideas. 
 
 23. Patience, fortitude. — Impatience, pusillanimity. — 
 These two virtues bear such a resemblance to each oth- 
 er, as to allow of being included in one article. Both 
 signify a virtuous endurance of pain and assaults. The 
 former has more relation to time, than the latter. 
 
 24. Calmness, serenity, cheerfulness. — Irritability, 
 fretfulness, gloom, despondency. — These pleasant states 
 of mind, are the results and rewards of the other virtues 
 that have been noticed. Speaking of the opposite vices 
 of fretfulness, &c., SuUivan, in his ' Moral Class-book,' 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 231 
 
 says, ^' Many persons pass much of their time in a state 
 of inquietude and constant irritation, although they are in 
 health, and have the means of satisfying the common wants 
 of life, and even abundantly. As to the present, they have 
 some unreasonable desire, which cannot be satisfied ; or 
 which cannot be, without causing a suffering more intol- 
 erable than the unsatisfied desire. As to the past, they 
 dwell on the memory of some good, which they think might 
 have been obtained ; or on some wrong or blunder, by 
 which some good was lost. As to the future, they dread 
 some possible evil, and the more, because of the uncer- 
 tainty of its nature, and of the time and manner of its 
 coming, and which may never come. There are many 
 persons, who are habitually discontented. They find ev- 
 ery thing goes wrong. The weather is bad ; their food 
 is not as they would have it ; no one does any thing in 
 the right time, or right manner ; or that is done, which 
 should not be ; or that is omitted, which should be done. 
 Such persons are always groaning, sighing, or grumbling. 
 They dislike every body, and every body dislikes them." 
 With respect to those persons, whose fretfulness and 
 gloom arise from their circumstances and station, Mrs. 
 Barbauld, in her Essay against ' Inconsistency in our Ex- 
 pectations,' has presented some views, which are well 
 worthy of their consideration, " We should consider the 
 world," says she, " as a great mart of commerce, where 
 fortune exposes to our view various commodities, — rich- 
 es, ease, tranquillity, fame, integrity, knowledge. Every 
 thing is marked at a settled price. Our time, our labor, 
 our ingenuity, are so much ready money, which we are to 
 lay out to the best advantage. Examine, compare, choose, 
 reject ; but stand to your own judgment ; and do not, 
 like children, when you have purchased one thing, repine 
 that you do not possess another, which you did not pur- 
 chase. Such is the force of well-regulated industry, that 
 a steady and vigorous exertion of our faculties, directed 
 to one end, will generally insure success. Would you, 
 for instance, be rich ? Do you think that single point 
 worth the sacrificing every thing else to ? You may then 
 be rich. Thousands have become so, from the lowest 
 
232 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 beginnings, by toil, and patient diligence, and attention to 
 the minutest articles of expense and profit. But you must 
 give up the pleasures of leisure, of a vacant mind, of a 
 free, unsuspicious temper. If you preserve your integri- 
 ty, it must be a coarse-spun and vulgar honesty. Those 
 high and lofty notions of morals, which you brought with 
 you from the schools, must be considerably lowered, and 
 mixed with the baser alloy of a jealous and worldly-mind- 
 ed prudence. You must learn to do hard, if not unjust, 
 things ; and, for the nice embarrassments of a delicate and 
 ingenuous spirit, it is necessary for you to get rid of them 
 as fast as possible. You must shut your heart against 
 the Muses, and be content to feed your understanding 
 with plain, household truths. In short, you must not at- 
 tempt to enlarge your ideas, or pohsh your taste, or refine 
 your sentiments ; but must keep on, in one beaten track, 
 without turning aside, either to the right hand or to the 
 left. ' But I cannot submit to drudgery like this. I feel 
 a spirit above it.' 'Tis well : be above it, then ; only 
 do not repine that you are not rich. 
 
 " Is knowledge the pearl of price ? That, too, may be 
 purchased, by steady application, and long, solitary hours 
 of study and reflection. Bestow these, and you shall be 
 wise. ' But,' says the man of letters, ' what a hardship 
 is it, that many an illiterate fellow, who cannot construe 
 the motto of the arras on his coach, shall raise a fortune, 
 and make a figure, while I have little more than the com- 
 mon conveniences of life !' Et tihi magna satis ! Was 
 it in order to raise a fortune, that you consumed the spright- 
 ly hours of youth in study and retirement ? Was it to 
 be rich, that you grew pale over the midnight lamp, and 
 distilled the sweetness from the Greek and Roman spring ? 
 You have, then, mistaken your path, and ill-employed 
 your industry. ' What reward have I, then, for all my 
 labors .-*' What reward ! A large, comprehensive soul, 
 well purged from vulgar fears, and perturbations, and 
 prejudices ; able to comprehend and interpret the works 
 of man, — of God. A rich, cultivated, flourishing mind, 
 pregnant with inexhaustible stores of entertainment and 
 reflection. A perpetual spring of fresh ideas ; and the 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 233 
 
 conscious dignity of superior intelligence. Good heaven ! 
 and what reward can you ask besides ? 
 
 ^' ' But, is it not some reproach upon the economy of 
 Providence, that such a one, who is a mean, dirty fellow, 
 should have amassed wealth enough to buy half a nation ?' 
 Not in the least. He made himself a mean, dirty fellow, 
 for that very end. He has paid his health, his conscience, 
 his liberty, for it ; and will you envy him his bargain ? 
 Will you hang your head, and blush, in his presence, be- 
 cause he outshines you in equipage and show ? Lift up 
 your brow with a noble confidence, and say to yourself, 
 1 have not these things, it is true ; but it is because I 
 have not sought, because I have not desired, them ; it is 
 because I possess something better. I have chosen my 
 lot ; I am content and satisfied. 
 
 " You are a modest man ; you love quiet and indepen- 
 dence, and have a delicacy and reserve in your temper, 
 which renders it impossible for you to elbow your way 
 in the world, and be the herald of your own merits. Be 
 content, then, with a modest retirement, with the esteem 
 of your intimate friends, with the praises of a blameless 
 heart, and a delicate, ingenuous spirit ; but resign the 
 splendid distinctions of the world, to those who can bet- 
 ter scramble for them. 
 
 '^ The man, whose tender sensibihty of conscience, and 
 strict regard to the rules of morality, make him scrupulous 
 and fearful of offending, is often heard to complain of the 
 disadvantages he hes under, in every path of honor and 
 profit. ' Could I but get over some nice points, and 
 conform to the practice and opinion of those about me, I 
 might stand as fair a chance as others for dignities and 
 preferment !' And why can you not ? What hinders 
 you from discarding this troublesome scrupulosity of 
 yours, which stands so grievously in your way ? If it be 
 a small thing to enjoy a healthful mind, sound at the very 
 core, that does not shrink from the keenest inspection ; 
 inward freedom from remorse and perturbation ; unsullied 
 whiteness and simplicity of manners ; a genuine integ- 
 rity, 
 
 * Pure, in the last recesses of the mind ;' 
 20* 
 
234 
 
 if you think these advantages an inadequate recompense 
 for what you resign : dismiss your scruples this instant, 
 and be a slave-merchant, a parasite, or, — what you 
 please." 
 
 To those whose gloom arises from more general views 
 of life, the following verses, from an Enghsh periodical, 
 may suggest wiser and more correct sentiments : 
 
 THE WORLD. 
 
 '* Talk who will of the world as a desert of thrall, 
 Yet, yet, there is bloom on the waste ; 
 Though the chalice of life hath its acid and gall, 
 There are honey drops, too, for the taste. 
 
 *« We murmur and droop, should a sorrow-cloud stay. 
 And note all the shades of our lot ; 
 But the rich scintillations that brighten our way, 
 Are basked in, enjoyed, axiA forgot. 
 
 "Those who look on mortality's ocean aright 
 Will not moan o'er each billow that rolls, 
 But dwell on the glories, the beauties, the might, 
 As much as the shipwrecks and shoals. 
 
 *' How thankless is he, who remembers alone 
 All the bitter, the drear, and the dark I 
 Though the raven may scare, with its wo-boding tone. 
 Do we ne'er hear the song of the lark ? 
 
 •' We may utter farewell, when 'tis torture to part ; 
 But, in meeting the dear one again, 
 Have we never rejoiced, with that wildness of heart. 
 Which outbalances ages of pain ? 
 
 " Who hath not had moments so laden with bliss. 
 When the soul, in its fulness of love. 
 Would waver, if bidden to choose between, thb 
 And the Paradise promised above ? 
 
 ** Though the eye may be dimmed with its grief-drop awhile. 
 And the whitened lip sigh forth its fear. 
 Yet pensive, indeed, is that face, where the smile 
 Is not oftener seen than the tear. ^ 
 
 ** There are times when the storm-gust may rattle around ; 
 There are spots where the poison-shrub grows ; 
 Yet are there not hours when nought else can be found 
 But the south wind, the sunshine, and rose ? 
 
 •' O haplessly rare is the portion that's ours, 
 And strange is the path that we take. 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 235 
 
 If there spring not beside us a few precious flowers, 
 To soften the thorn and the brake. 
 
 *' The wail of regret, the rude clashing of strife, 
 The soul's harmony often may mar ; 
 But I think we must own, in the discords of life, 
 'Tis ourselves that oft waken the jar. 
 
 •' Earth is not all fair, yet it is not all gloom ; 
 And the voice of the grateful will tell, 
 That He who allotted Pain, Death, and the Tomb, 
 Gave Hope, Health, and the Bridal as well. 
 
 •* Should fate do its worst, and my spirit, oppressed. 
 O'er its own shattered happiness pine. 
 Let me witness the joy in another's glad breast, 
 And some pleasure must kindle in mine. 
 
 *' Then say not the world is a desert of thrall; 
 There is bloom, there is light on the waste, 
 Though the chalice of life hath its acid and gall. 
 There are honey-drops, too, for the taste." 
 
 25. Self-respect^ humility. — Pride j vanity., haughti- 
 nesSj love of dominion, conceit, pedantry. — Self-respect 
 is not a very happy term for this trait of character. It 
 means such a sense of the dignity of man's nature, as will 
 be an effectual preservative against its debasement. '' A 
 due sense of the dignity of man," says Dr. Young, in the 
 ' Centaur not Fabulous,' '' evidently includes the whole of 
 our duty. It inspires high veneration and great gratitude 
 to God who gave it ; it inspires a reverence for ourselves, 
 which is of the utmost moment to our character and 
 peace ; and it inspires a proper regard for all mankind, 
 as equal sharers in it ; which regard would prevent infin- 
 ite mischief, and banish half the miseries of life." Self- 
 respect always looks forward, never behind. It looks 
 upward, to a high standard of perfection, which it has 
 formed in its own mind, and towards which it continually 
 strives with all its energies. When we do look back on 
 our course, it should be with humility ; it should be to 
 compare our doings with the standard we have set be- 
 fore us. Our feeling should be, not pride, that we have 
 done so much, but mortification, that we have so far fal- 
 len short, and determined resolution to do better, in future. 
 Haughtiness is the abuse of the sentiment of self-respect. 
 
236 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 It looks on the rest of mankind as inferior, instead of joint 
 occupants of the dignified station in which God has plac- 
 ed us. Love of dominion requires no explanation. Van- 
 ity^ conceit^ and pedantry refer to displays of our fancied 
 gifts or acquirements. Vanity commonly relates to the 
 body, conceit, to the mind ; pedantry is a boastful display 
 of learning. All three are disgusting, and can only ex- 
 cite contempt. 
 
 26. Desire of excellence. — Jealousy.) envy. — He, who 
 possesses this virtue, desires to be elevated, but not by 
 the depression of others. His object is the improvement 
 of his own mind. The jealous and the envious also de- 
 sire to rise, but it is at the expense of their neighbors, 
 whose acquirements and possessions are to them a source 
 of pain. Desire of excellence is a source of happiness ; 
 jealousy and envy, of nothing but wretchedness. 
 
 27. Simplicity. — Bashf nines s., affectation., ostentation. 
 — These quahties relate to manners. Simplicity of man- 
 ners arises from a proper degree of humility. Its pos- 
 sessor is not puffed up with ideas of his own consequence. 
 Bashfulness^ affectation, and ostentation., all spring from 
 the same root, — too much self-contemplation, and over- 
 weening ideas of our own consequence. 
 
 28. Neatness. — Foppery., love of display. — ^These 
 traits relate, chiefly, to clothing and furniture. They are 
 intimately connected with those in the last article, exhib- 
 iting nearly the same state of mind. 
 
 29. Docility. — Indocility. — Docility., or teachable- 
 ness, always accompanies true knowledge. The more 
 one knows, the clearer he sees his own deficiencies, and 
 the more anxious he will be to remove them. On the 
 contrary, the ignorant are indocile, having generally a 
 high opinion of their own acquirements. 
 
 30. Obedient temper. — Impatience of control. — The 
 obedient and tractable child is beloved by all, and is in 
 the surest way of acquiring wisdom ; whereas impatience 
 of control leads to innumerable evils. In adult age, the 
 virtuous trait appears in a conformity to the laws of God 
 and of our country. 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 237 
 
 III. Duties to Others. 
 
 Sec. I. Justice. 
 
 31. Truth. — Falsehood^ perjury. — Truth is one of 
 the most important of the virtues. A man of truth is 
 one who is true to his God, to himself, to his fellow-men. 
 This is not a mere verbal nicety. Does not the man 
 who is unfaithful to his duties practically deny, though 
 not in express words, his obligations to perform them ? 
 A liar is the most despicable and wretched of all charac- 
 ters. Even the lowest and most depraved consider 
 themselves disgraced, when charged with the guilt of ly- 
 ing. How important, then, how sacred, is the duty of 
 training youth in a strict regard to truth ! [And yet, how 
 sadly defective the practice ! In many families, nay, 
 may we not say in most, the whole system of family gov- 
 ernment is founded upon hes. Children are cheated in 
 their amusements, in their food, and in their dress. If a 
 child has to take physic, he is told that it is something 
 good for him to drink ; if reluctant, he is told that his 
 mother will go and leave him, or that he shall be sent 
 away, or some other such lie. Sooner or later, all these 
 will infallibly be discovered to be deceptions by the child, 
 and then, what must be his moral impressions, when he 
 finds that his parents, who almost stand to him in the 
 place of the Deity, pay no regard to truth .'' Another 
 fertile source of mischief is the practice of pacifying 
 children with promises never performed, nay, in many 
 cases, never intended to be performed. If it be neces- 
 sary, for instance, to take any thing from them, they are 
 reconciled by the promise of something else, a promise 
 which is instantly forgotten, as a matter of no consequence. 
 But it is a matter of the very first consequence. Chil- 
 dren are the very last persons to whom promises should 
 be broken, because they cannot comprehend the reasons, 
 if any there be, why they are not kept. Such promises 
 should be scrupulously redeemed, though at a great incon- 
 venience, and even when inadvertently made ; for the 
 child's moral habit is of infinitely more importance than 
 
238 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 any such inconvenience can be to the parent. Another 
 most injurious practice is the exaction of promises from 
 children. When a child acts improperly, the uniform 
 course, both of parents and children, is to demand, on 
 pain of punishment, a promise of better behavior. But, 
 if the consequences were better considered, this would 
 be the last course that would be adopted. For, as it is 
 almost certain, from the thoughtlessness and forgetfulness 
 natural to childhood, that this promise will be broken, 
 we are thus leading him into a hahit of disregarding his 
 pledged word. Besides, it is wholly unnecessary. When 
 does a law or a lawgiver require a promise of obedience ? 
 Never. The question to a child, if any be necessary, 
 when he has acted wrong, should be, Are you good now ^ 
 not, Will you be good ? Let us, then, consider it an 
 undeviating rule, that promises are never to be exacted 
 from children ; but that, on the contrary, they are to be 
 discouraged from offering them hghtly and inconsiderately. 
 As soon as they are of a fit age to understand it, the 
 sacred nature of a promise ought to be explained to them, 
 and they should be advised, rarely thus to pledge their 
 honor ; but, when their word has once passed, to hold it 
 inviolate as an oath. What a beneficial change would 
 the general adoption of such a rule produce in society ! 
 what a mass of evil would it not prevent ! and what pos- 
 sible inconvenience could it produce !] 
 
 32. Sincerity. — Exaggeration, deceit. — There are 
 many persons, who, although they would scruple to tell 
 a direct falsehood, yet have no hesitation in using lan- 
 guage which may convey a false impression. This is 
 deceit, the opposite of sincerity, which avoids every 
 means of deceiving, whether by silence, speech, or ac- 
 tion. He only is the man of truth, who will not inten- 
 tionally/ deceive in any manner, whatever. There is 
 another species of falsehood, which is but too prevalent, 
 namely, the spirit of exaggeration, by which circumstances 
 are magnified or lessened. So general is this practice, 
 that we can place but httle dependence upon facts, not 
 received from first hand. " Accustom your children," 
 says Dr. Johnson, '' constantly to this : if a thing hap- 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 239 
 
 pened at one window, and they, when relating it, say that 
 it happened at another, do not let it pass, but instantly 
 check them ; you do not know where deviation from 
 truth will end. It is more from carelessness about truth, 
 than from intentional lying, that there is so much falsehood 
 in the world. Some men relate what they think, as what 
 they know : some men, of confused memories and habit- 
 ual inaccuracy, ascribe to one man what belongs to 
 another ; and some talk on, without thought or care. A 
 {ew men are sufficient to broach falsehoods, which are 
 afterwards innocently diffused by successive relaters." 
 The habit of exact attention, which an improved state of 
 intellectual education will, it is to be hoped, render gen- 
 eral, will materially assist in abating this serious evil. 
 But an improved state of morals is necessary to its com- 
 plete removal. 
 
 33. Integrity. — Dishonesty, — These require no labored 
 explanation. It is sufficiently evident, that " Honesty is 
 the best pohcy," and that " the way of the transgressor," 
 in this respect, " is hard.'''' 
 
 34. Fidelity. — Unfaithfulness. — Although there are 
 ^QVf., making any pretension to character, who would 
 steals yet too many are unscrupulous in betraying their 
 trust. A " breach of trust," however, though considered 
 venial, in the eye of the law,* will ever be considered 
 stealing by every honorable man. 
 
 35. Conscientiousness ; respect for the property or 
 rights of others. — Want of ditto. — Very young children 
 have no idea of the nature of property. This ought to 
 be explained to them as soon as possible ; and, in order 
 to induce proper habits, they ought never to be allowed 
 to handle any thing belonging to their brothers and sisters, 
 without leave. The nature of the right to property held 
 in common still more needs explanation. For instance, 
 the rights of others are infringed, when the common 
 
 * The object of the law, ia refusing to punish, criminally, breaches 
 of trust, is doubtless to render men more cautious in their mercantile 
 transactions. Were it otherwise, a looseness in the mode of conduct- 
 ing business would become general, as the law would be depended on 
 for that care, which men themselves ought to exercise, thus immensely 
 increasing the serious evil of litigation. 
 
240 
 
 property vested in schoolhouses, and other public build- 
 ings, is injured ; or by the destruction of milestones, 
 guideboards, &c. On the continent of Europe, this 
 wanton spirit of destruction is said to be totally unknown. 
 In the large cities, there are numerous pubHc institutions 
 of great utility, such as botanic gardens, collections of 
 paintings and statuary, &c., open to the public, indiscrim- 
 inately, which could not exist in our country, owing to the 
 prevalent barbarous habit of destructiveness. An Amer- 
 ican traveller through Europe, observing, one day, an oc- 
 casional wisp of straw tied around the fruit-trees that 
 hned the road, inquired the reason from a fellow-travel- 
 ler. " This is done by the owners," replied he, "to 
 show that they bear a superior kind of fruit, which they 
 wish to reserve for themselves." " Is it possible ?" re- 
 turned the American ; "in our country, such a mark 
 would insure their destruction." " What," resumed the 
 stranger, " have you no schools in your country ?" 
 
 36. Impartiality. — Partiality. — This virtue and vice 
 are confined to adults. It relates to the conduct of pa- 
 rents towards their children, or of judges, and other public 
 officers. It is inserted in the Table, because it may be 
 necessary to refer to it, in the course of reading. 
 
 Sec. II. BENEvoLEifCE. 
 
 37. Social affections : viz. Conjugal, parental, filial^ 
 and fraternal love ; friendship. — Perfidy. — Conjugal 
 love relates to the mutual affection of husband and wife ; 
 parental love, to the affection of parents to their children. 
 As they have reference merely to adults, it is unnecessa- 
 ry to speak of them here. Filial love is the affection 
 of children to parents, of which obedience is the fruit. 
 Children owe their parents a debt which can never be 
 paid. More helpless than the young of any other animal, 
 children, for months and years, have been the objects of 
 unremitting care. What anxious days, what sleepless 
 nights, have they occasioned, which nothing could have 
 supported but the most ardent love ! How endless, then, 
 the debt of gratitude ? But obedience is not less the 
 interest than the duty of children. Where can they find 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 241 
 
 a friend like a parent ? Whose counsels will be so 
 wholly disinterested ? Besides, so kindly has our Crea- 
 tor arranged our constitution, that we gain rather than 
 lose, by the voluntary payment of such debts. 
 
 " A grateful mind, 
 
 By owing, owes not ; but still pays, at once 
 
 Indebted and discharged ; what burden, then ?" — Milton. 
 
 Perhaps nothing can exibit this beautiful truth, in a more 
 striking point of view, than the following circumstance, 
 which occurred in France a few years ago. 
 
 In Paris, there is an institution, called the Household 
 Hospital, into which aged widows and widowers are ad- 
 mitted, on payment of about two hundred dollars each, 
 which secures them a room, and meat, drink, clothing, 
 firing, pocket-money to the amount of about one dollar 
 and fifty cents a month for the remainder of their days, 
 and burial at their close. For a married couple, to obtain 
 a double room, and set up a household apart, a further 
 trifling gratuity is required ; or, rather, eighty of the best 
 bed-rooms are thus appropriated, and the remaining eigh- 
 ty bestowed gratuitously on couples wholly destitute of 
 resources. Nothing can be neater or cleaner than the 
 chambers allotted to either class, opening from an airy cor- 
 ridor, several hundred feet long, having, opposite to each 
 door, its locker, for wood and charcoal. The service of 
 the whole establishment is conducted by forty nuns. 
 Sisters of Charity., and the exquisite and delicate neat- 
 ness of their kitchens, laundry, and gallery of linen pres- 
 ses, do honor to their jurisdiction. Abundance of the 
 most wholesome food, such as rice stewed in broth, 
 meat, vegetables, and stewed fruit, are at all hours in 
 preparation in a kitchen, which has the airiness and ele- 
 gance of a varnished Dutch toy. 
 
 An English gentleman residing in Paris had frequently 
 noticed the cheerfulness, the affectionate disposition, the 
 untiring industry of James, the errand-man, who was 
 occasionally employed as drudge of all work at his hotel. 
 "Walking one day in the outskirts of the city, he observed 
 21 
 
James seated, side by side, with the driver of a small cart, 
 loaded with a bed, two chairs, and a chest of drawers, and 
 singing and laughing so heartily with his companion, that 
 he immediately concluded, that these must be the Httle ar- 
 ticles of furniture he had provided for his marriage with 
 Josephine, the nursery-maid, to whom his attentions had 
 for some time been very obvious. But, to his surprise, 
 he found, that their destination was very different ; that 
 James was carrying them to the Household Hospital, for 
 the accommodation of his parents. The rest of the story 
 will be best told in the Englishman's own words. 
 
 '^ Is it, then, for your parents, my good lad," cried I, 
 " that you are taking all this trouble .'"' 
 
 '' Trouble /" reiterated James, in a stinging accent. 
 " Why, for five years past, the pleasure of fixing the old 
 folks in peace and comfort, for the rest of their lives, 
 has been my dream by night, my care by day. Trouble, 
 Sir ! ever since I chanced to be sent here on an errand 
 by old Matthew's grandson, I have kept saying to my- 
 self, ' James, my boy ! yonder is the place for the old 
 folks. Manage to scrape together as much as will secure 
 their old age an asylum in the Household Hospital, and 
 you may henceforth sleep in peace.'' With that end in 
 view, I have toiled early and late. Two hundred dollars 
 is a trifle, when one looks back on the earning of it ; but 
 when one looks f or ivard^ the task seems hopeless. Twice, 
 too, I have been cruelly thrown back. I was blockhead 
 enough to lend sixty dollars, two Winters back, to a coun- 
 tryman, — a brother Auvergnat, — who had drawn a bad 
 number for the conscription ; and though, by working 
 hard, he might have paid me the money twice over, the 
 fellow made off from Paris a few weeks afterwards, and 
 has been heard of no more, — which was far from del- 
 icate of him, as the debt was a debt of honor, and re- 
 garded a brother Auvergnat. Monsieur may, perhaps, 
 recollect, that he jeered me for being out of spirits, the 
 Carnival before last, and gave me a dollar to keep 
 Shrove- Tuesday with ? That was the very time I lost 
 my money ; and that was the first I put, for luck's sake, in- 
 to my new money-box. And luck it brought me, sir, — for, 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 243 
 
 the very next week, the Count threw me a double gold 
 Napoleon, because he happened to drive his cabriolet 
 over my foot, as I stood chopping wood in the court- 
 yard. It is true, I had a hard matter to hobble about for 
 six weeks afterwards, the frost having got into the wound. 
 But what was that to the good fortune of having gained 
 seven dollars at a stroke .'*" 
 
 '' But, my good James," cried I, much affected by the 
 recollection of his hard labors, and their scanty reward, 
 *' why not apprise me of the object you had in view ?" 
 
 " Because I knew Monsieur's good heart might lead 
 him to do more than was altogether convenient to him. 
 You paid me well, sir, for my services ; and to have 
 hinted a wish for further gains would have been begging. 
 And yet, about three months ago, sir, when I happened 
 to meet Anthony, the great-grandson of old Matthew^, 
 crying in the street, and heard from him, that the good old 
 man was not expected to get through the night, and I 
 went home, and broke my money-box, and found only 
 fifty-five dollars, to add to the hundred and twenty register- 
 ed to my name in the Savings Bank, I own, I had half 
 a mind to implore of Monsieur the favor of a loan, of 
 the twenty-five wanting, to make up my two hundred, in 
 case of poor old Matthew being called away. By God's 
 will, however, the old chap was spared, to toddle on a 
 few months longer, and, luckily, in the busiest time of the 
 year. Bless your heart ! I have stayed up, night after 
 night, this Winter, at the masked balls, at the opera, or 
 at Musard's, till seven o' clock in the morning, which is 
 an ugly hour to look in the face when you have had no 
 sight of a pillow, and the snow too thick on the ground to 
 admit of sleeping on one's wheelbarrow, at the corner of 
 the stxeet, during the day-time. However, there's an end 
 to all things ! All 's over ! All 's safe ! Last night my 
 money was deposited with the Treasurer of the Hospit- 
 al, to the last half-penny ; and there's yet left behind," 
 quoth he, jingling his pockets, and glancing good humor- 
 edly at the porter, '' enough to afford a handsome gratui- 
 ty to those who are about to have charge of the old 
 folks." 
 
244 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 My answer consisted in a hearty shake of the errand- 
 man's horny hand. 
 
 '' Monsieur must perceive," faltered he, as if apologiz- 
 ing for not having appealed to my assistance, " that it will 
 afford twice the pleasure, both to the old people and my- 
 self, that this asylum is secured to them by my own, in- 
 dustry, and not by the help of others. 'Tis a foolish 
 thought, my good sir, for the like of us ; but you see, 
 poor as we are, and Christians too, we are proud. This 
 is not a common almshouse, sir. The Household Hos- 
 pital is a place where respectable folks are admitted, for 
 pay. I would not have shoved poor father and mother 
 into the Charity-ward, any more than into a lazar-house ! 
 nor I would not have liked to see them beholden to 
 any but their own son, so long as he had arms to work 
 for them. But all fear's at an end. Twenty cabriolets 
 may drive over me now, or twenty choleras attack me. 
 I have a right to be sick or sorry when I please. I have 
 a right to sleep in my bed o'nights, and look the Count's 
 saucy chap of a groom in the face by day. The old 
 folks are safe. Whatever may happen to me, here is 
 their birth, with food, raiment, and pocket-money, so long 
 as it pleases God to spare them. It is a mightier relief 
 than people dream of, to be relieved from all further anx- 
 iety concerning one's father and mother." And James 
 wiped his forehead, at the mere recollection of his past 
 cares and present ease of mind. 
 
 '' But all this time I am forgetting the cart," cried 
 James. And, having hurriedly arranged with the porter to 
 meet him in the chamber at three o'clock, he entreated 
 me to return at the same hour, and be witness of the old 
 people's inauguration. 
 
 It was three o'clock, within three minutes, when I re- 
 turned. On attaining the corner, the empty cart of my 
 friend James stood at the gateway of the hospital. 
 
 " The old people are arrived, then ?" said I, to the 
 porter. " Arrived ! and I fear in some trouble," he re- 
 plied ; " for my wife, who helped to escort them, was 
 seen running from the house just now, to the infirmary, to 
 fetch one of the nuns some ether." 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 245 
 
 The odor of that powerful restorative reached me, the 
 moment I entered the gallery containing the little house- 
 hold chamber of the new comers. The door was ajar, 
 the opposite window open. I heard the ominous sound 
 of human sobs within. 
 
 My heart sank in my bosom. The joy of the old 
 people had been too much for them. One of poor James's 
 parents had, perhaps, fallen a victim to the agitation and 
 hurry of removal. Peeping anxiously in, I prepared my- 
 self for the sad spectacle of expiring age. 
 
 *' He is better now," were the first words that struck 
 ray ear, as I entered the room. When, lo ! wonder of 
 wonders ! I descried poor James, with his bronzed cheeks 
 white as ashes, sitting propped in his chair ! while the nun, 
 sister Patronille, and a venerable-looking peasant couple, 
 administered to his aid. It was the strong man who had 
 fainted. — Overcome by the exquisite delight of installing 
 his parents in their long-wished abode, consciousness had 
 for some minutes been suspended in the Herculean frame 
 of James the errandman. 
 
 Fraternal love relates to the affection which ought to 
 exist between brothers and sisters. " How good and 
 how pleasant it is," says the Psalmist, ^* for brethren to 
 dwell together in unity." It is " as the dew of Hermon, 
 and as the dew that descended upon the mountains of 
 Zion." What, indeed, can be a more captivating sight, 
 than that of a whole family united as one, in the bonds of 
 love ? And what more odious, than family jars and quar- 
 rels ? Have you brothers and sisters at home ? Look 
 not abroad, then, for friendship, for where can you find 
 one "that sticketh closer than a brother." There is 
 something so holy and pure in the mutual affection of a 
 brother and sister, that, wherever it exists, we may rest 
 assured that the heart is right. Oh ! what a mistake do 
 those commit, who neglect to cultivate so precious a gift, 
 when God hath placed it in their power. Parents and 
 teachers should strive to sooth the little asperities that will 
 occasionally arise in so intimate a connexion, and lead 
 21* 
 
246 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 their charge to take a pride in mutually sacrificing their 
 little whims to each other. 
 
 Friendship is the extension of this species of love to a 
 wider range. We should be extremely cautious in the 
 choice of friends, for nothing has a worse moral effect, or 
 gives greater pain, than a breach of friendship ; and it can- 
 not be enduring, where the dispositions are opposite. 
 True friendship cannot exist between the good and the 
 bad, between the liberal-minded and the selfish. When 
 we have chosen wisely, however, our friend should be 
 treated with confidence, with uniform kindness, with re- 
 spect, with fidehty, and with constancy, — a constancy that 
 should survive even the grave. " Some persons," says 
 a French writer, "believe that there are no longer any 
 duties to be fulfilled beyond the tomb ; and there are but 
 few who know how to be friends to the dead. Though 
 the most magnificent funeral pomp be the tears and the 
 silent sorrow of those who survive, and the most honora- 
 ble sepulture be in their hearts, we must not think that 
 tears which are shed from the sensibility of the moment, 
 and sometimes, too, from causes, which, in part, at least, 
 relate to ourselves, acquit us of all our obligation. The 
 name of our friends, their glory, their family, have still 
 claims on our affection, which it would be guilt not to feel. 
 They should still live in our heart, by the emotions which 
 subsist there ; in our memory, by our frequent remem- 
 brance of them ; in our conduct, by our imitation of their 
 virtues." 
 
 Perfidy is the breach of any of the social affections, 
 particularly that of friendship. The perfidious are deserv- 
 edly shunned and detested by all. 
 
 38. Humanity. — Inhumanity. — Humanity signifies 
 ithe feeling which leads us to treat the whole human race 
 with kindness. Inhumanity is the reverse. 
 
 39. Mercy. — Unmercifulness. — Mercy signifies the 
 forgiveness of injuries ; the kind treatment of an enemy. 
 Shakspeare has some beautiful lines on this subject : 
 
 " The quality of mercy is not strained ; 
 It droppeth, as the gentle dew of heaven 
 Upon the place beneath : it is twice blessed : 
 It blesseth him that gives, and him that takes.** 
 
MORAL EDUCATION.' 247 
 
 The gospel attaches great importance to this virtue. 
 Christ directs us to ask forgiveness of our sins on the con- 
 dition that we pardon others ; and, not satisfied with the 
 simple direction, he immediately repeats the injunction, 
 in two other forms of words : " For, if ye forgive men 
 their trespasses, your heavenly Father will also forgive 
 you : But if ye forgive not men their trespasses, neither 
 will your Father forgive your trespasses."* He also 
 most strikingly enforces this virtue, in his last moments, 
 when his enemies were wreaking their vengeance on him, 
 by a most cruel death : '' Father, forgive them, for they 
 know not what they do." The beauty and delights of 
 mercy ought to be exemplified in very early youth, and 
 habits of mutual forgiveness formed, while the temper is 
 pliant. 
 
 40. Forbearance^ placability. — Implacability, morose- 
 ness, spite. — These are the same virtues in a slighter de- 
 gree ; or they may be considered merely as manners. 
 They are of much importance, however, as occasions for 
 them occur so frequently. Moroseness is peevishness, 
 displayed in a rough manner ; spite is habitual malice, 
 shown in small matters. Those who entertain them must 
 needs be unhappy. 
 
 41. Charity. — Uncharitableness, scandal, defamation. 
 — Charity is that frame of mind, which habitually puts 
 kind constructions on the actions of others, and looks on 
 the favorable, rather than the unfavorable points of char- 
 acter. Uncharitableness is not the vice of early youth. 
 Very little pains, therefore, at its first appearance, will 
 check its growth. Its true, perhaps its only, cure is in 
 that culture of the intellect, which will create a general 
 interest in better subjects of conversation. Where a com- 
 pany take delight in books, the character of their neigh- 
 bors will be a less frequent topic. Scandal, perhaps, 
 marks the folly of the head, as much as the uncharitable- 
 ness of the heart. 
 
 42. Tolerance. — Intolerance. — Intolerance arises from 
 the same source as the vices of the preceding article, name- 
 
 * Matt. vi. 12, 14, 15. 
 
248 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 ly, ignorance. It is also susceptible of the same cure, a 
 better intellectual education. An ignorant man thinks 
 that those who differ from him are actuated solely by 
 blindness or obstinacy. He makes no allowance for the 
 varied circumstances in which men are placed, which cause 
 their views and opinions so essentially to differ ; and it 
 never for a moment enters his mind, that he may be wrong. 
 When men shall be properly educated, there will be but 
 little intolerance in the world. 
 
 43. Generosity, liberality. — Imprudence, greedi- 
 ness, avarice. — Generosity and liberality are directly op- 
 posed to that spirit of selfishness, which would appropri- 
 ate every thing to itself. They are beautiful traits in in- 
 fancy, and easily cultivated. The child wants but little 
 encouragement to induce him to share his apples and 
 cakes with his companions. Let this practice become 
 universal, and we shall have a happier world to live in. 
 There will be little danger of its running into imprudence, 
 if habits of self-control and forethought (see numbers 9 
 and 10) have been properly cultivated. Children, howev- 
 er, should never be rewarded for liberality. Giving away, 
 without self-denial, is not liberality. The approbation of 
 their own bosoms, and the sight of the pleasure they oc- 
 casion, should be the sole reward, and it is more than suffi- 
 cient to repay their sacrifices. 
 
 Selfishness is a great bar to the enjoyment of happiness, 
 whose only unalloyed, legitimate source is found in pro- 
 moting the happiness of others. Children should be contin- 
 ually called on to consider what will please their brothers 
 and sisters, as well as their parents. They should be 
 taught to share with them every little present, and be 
 led, by degrees, to think less of themselves, and more of 
 others. If a child should say, that, by sharing his apple 
 or cake, there will be none left for him, (a common ex- 
 pression,) he should be answered, — Never mind that ; 
 do n't you wish to please your friends or brothers ^ (as the 
 case may be.) "I wish to go with you this afternoon, 
 mother," said an amiable little girl," but brother wishes 
 to go too ; and, as we can 't both go, I will stay at home." 
 Who would not love a child of such a spirit .■* As chil- 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 249 
 
 dren grow up, and their acquaintance extends beyond the 
 family circle, the same practice should be gradually exten- 
 ded. " Don't you think your little schoolfellows, John 
 and Mary," said a fond mother to her boy, " don't you 
 think they would be pleased, if you were to save some of 
 these nice plums for them ?" And, his countenance falling, 
 she added, '> Do n't you think it would give you more 
 pleasure to see them so happy, than if you were to eat 
 them yourself?" 
 
 Greediness and avarice are the opposites to generosity 
 and liberahty. The former is general, the latter apphed 
 chiefly to the passion for money. 
 
 44. Kindness. — Oppression, cruelty to animals. — 
 Children should be taught to be uniformly kind to all 
 around them. At first, oppression and cruelty generally 
 arises from mere thoughtlessness. The sooner, then, 
 the wickedness of such a course is pointed out, the 
 better. Perhaps, the duty of tenderness to the brute 
 creation is most properly placed on the ground, that God 
 is their and our common parent and protector. But there 
 is another point of view, well deserving attention, namely, 
 the tendency, which either viewing or inflicting torment 
 has, to harden the heart. Can he, who, in his tender years, 
 has amused himself with torturing flies, and, as his strength 
 increased, extended his tyranny over fowls, dogs, horses, 
 and cattle, can such a one be expected to prove an affec- 
 tionate brother, a kind master, a tender parent ? Will 
 he be likely to sympathize with the misfortunes of his 
 neighbors ? Will he treat his parents, in their old age, 
 with tenderness and care, or will he view them as a bur- 
 den, and look forward, with anxiety, to their final removal? 
 
 " Any thing to keep him quiet," answered an appar- 
 ently-fond mother to my remonstrance, on seeing her 
 supply her infant with flies and bugs, to torment. Mis- 
 guided woman ! whose will be the fault, when thy child, 
 whose heart thou thyself hast contributed to harden, shall 
 exhibit its proper fruits, harshness and contumely towards 
 thee, towards all mankind ? 
 
 " There is one trait of character in our American 
 boys," says the author of 'Fireside Education,' '* which 
 
250 
 
 I think deserves to be checked ; and that is, the incessant 
 war that they carry on against familiar birds and the lesser 
 quadrupeds. As soon as a boy can hurl a stone, he be- 
 comes a Nimrod, and goes forth as a mighty hunter against 
 the bluebirds, cat-birds, swallows, and robins, that venture 
 into our gardens, orchards, and fields. Not even the lit- 
 tle wren, that comes with his fair offer of a dozen beauti- 
 ful songs a day, for the rent of some nook or cranny about 
 the house, is safe from the whizzing missile. Not even 
 the little sparrow, that would build beneath your window, 
 is tolerated. Not even the litde ground-squirrel, that 
 enhvens the woods, is permitted to eat his nut in safety. 
 And, when the boy becomes a youth, the same extermi- 
 nating war is carried on, though with a different weapon. 
 With a fowling-piece in his hand, he roams the orchard 
 and the field, slaughtering, without discrimination, jays, 
 woodpeckers, sparrows, blackbirds, bob-o-links, and the 
 rest of the feathered family. 
 
 " Now, is not this all wrong ^ Does not this partake 
 »of cruelty } And, besides, is it not obvious folly ? For 
 my own part, I love to see the birds enlivening the land- 
 scape. The rigor of our climate drives them away for 
 half the year ; but I mourn when they are gone, and re- 
 joice at their return. They are a great resource to those 
 who will observe them. Their songs, however varied, 
 are ever beautiful. Their forms, habits, and capacities, 
 are themes of interesting study. It is delightful to see 
 them building their nests, rearing their young, pursuing 
 their food, and displaying their various musical gifts. 
 Why, then, should we drive these creatures away ? 
 Some of them, it is true, are thieves, and take more 
 cherries and corn than we are willing to spare them, and 
 I approve of necessary scarecrows and suitable pelting, in 
 these cases. But why banish the whole feathered race, 
 most of whom are not merely innocent, but absolutely 
 useful in diminishing the number of noxious insects ? It 
 is not so in other countries. In England, birds generally 
 are protected and cherished. I do not speak, now, of 
 pheasants, partridges, and other game, which are shelter- 
 ed in the parks, and preserved from all but his lordship's 
 
MORAL EDUCATION, 251 
 
 shot ; but, throughout the whole country, the sparrows, 
 bulfinches, goldfinches, thrushes, blackbirds., and other 
 little songsters, are permitted to hve, almost without mo- 
 lestation. They are seen, by hundreds, in every hedge 
 and field. Many of them are almost domesticated around 
 the houses ; and, even in the cities, such as Liverpool, 
 Manchester, Birmingham, London, and others, amid the 
 smoke of coal, the din of factories, and the throng of 
 people, you see thousands of these little birds. In the 
 heart of an Enghsh city, I have sometimes waked up, in 
 the morning, and, from the bursting melody of finches 
 and sparrows around, have imagined myself to be in the 
 country. 
 
 " Why is it that our custom, in respect to birds, is so 
 different in America ? Have we derived from our pil- 
 grim fathers a spirit of extermination ? Because the first 
 settlers of this country cut away the forests, slaughtered 
 the Indians, smote the bear and the bison, hunted down 
 the panther and the wolf, have we derived from them a 
 spirit of extirpation, which, now that the monsters of the 
 forest are slain, is given up by men, but lives in our chil- 
 dren, and vents itself on cat-birds and sparrows ? I 
 know not ; but, be this as it may, I mourn over the soli- 
 tude which is gradually gathering over the landscapes of 
 New England, from the absence of the feathered songsters; 
 and I mourn over that spirit of wanton cruelty, which makes 
 man the enemy, instead of the friend, of harmless birds." 
 
 It is to be hoped, that, by the introduction of botany 
 and mineralogy into the schools, our youth may visit the 
 fields and groves for other and better purposes than the 
 wanton destruction of so interesting a part of creation ; 
 and that parents and teachers will embrace so good an 
 opportunity of checking this unamiable characteristic. 
 
 It is an error to imagine that creatures in misery are 
 the only objects of benevolence, and that it has no func- 
 tion but the excitement of pity. It is a wide-spreading 
 fountain of generous feeling, desiring for its gratification, 
 not only the removal of pain, but the maintenance and 
 augmentation of positive enjoyment ; and the happier it 
 can render its objects, the more complete are its satisfac- 
 
252 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 tion and delight. Its exercise is a source of great pleas- 
 ure to the individual himself ; and, from the nature of the 
 human faculties, every person, without injuring himself, 
 has it in his power to confer prodigious benefits ; or, in 
 other words, to pour forth the most copious streams of 
 benevolence on others, by properly gratifying their various 
 feehngs and intellectual faculties." 
 
 45. Magnanimity. — Meanness. — These traits relate 
 to greatness of mind, and its opposite. Magnanimity is 
 shown in passing over trifling injuries, and, in this sense, it 
 is connected with forbearance and mercy. But in noth- 
 ing is it more strikingly displayed, than in the confession 
 of an error in opinion or practice ; in nothing is mean- 
 ness more obvious, than in the obstinate adherence to er- 
 ror, or in shutting the eyes to facts, to prevent conviction. 
 Yet, how rare is this display, either in the walks of private 
 life, or in the halls of legislation. Some people, in ar- 
 guing with children, teach them to be disingenuous, by the 
 uncandid manner in which they proceed. They show a 
 desire for victory, rather than for truth ; they state the 
 arguments only on their own side of the question, and 
 they will not allow the force of those which are brought 
 against them. Children are thus piqued, instead of being 
 convinced ; and, in their turn, they become zealots in sup- 
 port of their own opinions ; they hunt only for arguments 
 in their own favor, in place of seeking after truth ; and 
 they are mortified, when a good reason is brought on the 
 side of the question opposite to that on which they hap- 
 pen to have enlisted. To prevent this, we should never 
 argue, nor suffer others to argue, for victory, with our 
 children. We should not praise them for their clever- 
 ness in finding out arguments in support of their own 
 opinion, but we should praise their candor and good sense, 
 when they perceive and acknowledge the force of their 
 opponent's arguments. They should not be exercised as 
 advocates, but as judges ; they should be encouraged to 
 keep their minds impartial, to sum up the reasons they 
 have heard, and to form their opinion from these, without 
 regard to what they may have originally asserted. We 
 should never triumph over children for changing their 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 253 
 
 opinions. " I thought you were on my side of the ques- 
 tion," or, " I thought you were on the other side, just 
 now," is sometimes tauntingly said to an ingenuous child, 
 who changes his opinion when he hears a new argument. 
 It is no proof of his want of judgment, when he changes 
 his opinion in this manner, that he vibrates, continually, 
 from side to side. Do you think it a proof that your 
 scales are bad, because they vibrate with every addition- 
 al weight that is added to either side ? Debating societies, 
 it is to be feared, have somewhat of the same tendency 
 with that of the injudicious reasoners already alluded to, 
 that of leading young people to seek for victory, rather 
 than truth. We have now, and always shall have, a 
 sufficiency of lawyers in the community ; but every child 
 should be trained to be a good juror, a good legislator, a 
 good judge. It may be asked, whether a man is properly 
 fitted to exercise the elective franchise ; nay, still further, 
 whether a man can be (except by chance) a sound, con- 
 sistent Christian, who is incapable of loeighing arguments, 
 of looking at tvv-o sides of a question. 
 
 46. Good temper. — III temper. ) Good and ill tem- 
 
 47. Good humor. — Fretfulness. ) per display them- 
 selves in the more important cases ; good humor and 
 fretfulness in the more frequent and trifling occasions. 
 A good-tempered man may be fretful at trifles ; but sum- 
 mons his philosophy to bear more important ills. A 
 good-humored man will laugh at what occasions fretful- 
 ness in others ; but may succumb, and lose command of 
 himself, on an important occasion, when he has most 
 need of it. Both qualities are good in themselves ; each 
 is incomplete without the other. 
 
 4S. Indignation. — Jlnger., resentment. — Indignation 
 is the anger we feel at seeing others injured. Anger is 
 the instant passion we feel on receiving an injury our- 
 selves. Resentment is anger long retained. The first 
 is a proper sentiment. The second is excusable, within 
 proper bounds. The third is always wrong. 
 
 49. Sympathy. — Selfishness^ envy. — Sympathy is that 
 emotion by which we enter into, or participate in, the 
 joys and sorrows of others. Selfishness expresses the 
 22 
 
254 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 total want of such feelings. Envy is the reverse of sym- 
 pathy. It causes us to feel sorrow at the joys, and joy 
 at the sorrows, of others. As sympathy is not only due 
 to all, but tends greatly to the happiness of its possessor, 
 it should be carefully cultivated in youth. Selfishness 
 and envy, in like manner, should be repressed, as not 
 only injurious to others, but as a source of misery to all 
 who cherish them. 
 
 50. Politeness. — Etiquette. — Impoliteness. — Bolitencss 
 does not consist, as some appear to suppose, in forms of 
 speech, or gesticulations of body. It resides in the 
 mind ; and, in fact, is nothing less than the carrying out, 
 extensively, the great Christian precept, '' Whatsoever 
 ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to 
 them.'' The Quakers, as a body, possess the essence 
 of pohteness, without its forms. When you enter a 
 house, you are received with attention, but with the ut- 
 most ease. Should you stay to eat, you partake of the 
 family meal ; there is no unusual delay, no fuss, or run- 
 ning about, to show you what trouble you cause them. 
 You at once find yourself easy, and at home. — Grace- 
 fulness of behavior consists in an easy and natural mo- 
 tion and gesture, and looks denoting kindness and good 
 will to those with whom we converse. If a child's heart 
 and temper are formed to civility, its outward expression 
 will come in due time. Did parents consider these ob- 
 vious things, they would bestow their chief attention on 
 the mind, and not make themselves, their children, and 
 their visiters, perpetually uneasy about what they con- 
 sider the graces. True grace has been defined, the art 
 of being easy in company, and of making all others easy 
 about us. It consists in indiscriminate attention, in ac- 
 commodating our conversation to the particular tastes, 
 habits, and inclinations, of those we are in company with ; 
 in never even glancing on our own affairs, but always 
 paying the most minute regard to those of others. How 
 disgustingly selfish and impohte is the conduct of those 
 who talk continually of their own affairs ! Etiquette is 
 something very different from politeness. Every clime 
 and country has its different modes and fantastic ceremo- 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 255 
 
 nies, to compensate for the absence of the proper spirit 
 of intercourse. Politeness is the same over all the world. 
 It resides in the generous bosom of every color and name. 
 How ridiculous, then, is their folly, who, regarding only 
 the external expression, labor to recommend themselves 
 by tricks and forms, which require little more than the 
 imitative faculties of a well-bred monkey to practise ! 
 Politeness should not be confined to our intercourse with 
 strangers. It should be extended to every member of 
 the household. For the more intimate our connexion 
 with any one, the more necessary it is to guard ourselves 
 against taking unwarrantable liberties. For the very rea- 
 son that we are so much together, we should take care 
 to do nothing disagreeable to each other. 
 
 51. ^ffaMlity. — Reserve. — Affability is politeness, 
 exercised towards those who are young, or in an inferior 
 station. It is necessary, to complete the character of a 
 truly polite man. 
 
 52. Kindness in conversation. — Petulance. — ^' There 
 is no way," says the Rev. Horace Hooker, " in which 
 men can do good to others, with so little expense and 
 trouble, as by kindness in conversation. ' Words,' it is 
 sometimes said, 'cost nothing.' But kind words are 
 often more highly valued than the most costly gifts ; and 
 they are always regarded as among the best tokens of a 
 desire to make others happy. We should think that 
 kind words would be very common, they are so cheap ; 
 but there are many, who have a large assortment of all 
 other language, except that of kindness. They have 
 bitter words, and witty words, and learned words, in 
 abundance ; but their stock of kind words is small. The 
 churl himself, one might suppose, would not grudge a 
 little kindness in his language, however closely he clings 
 to his money ; but there are persons, who draw on their 
 kindness with more reluctance than on their purses. 
 
 '' Some use grating words, because they are of a mo- 
 rose disposition. Their language, as well as their man- 
 ners, shows an unfeeling heart. Others use rough words, 
 out of an affectation of frankness. They may be severe 
 in their remarks ; but then they claim that they are open 
 
256 THE teacher's manual. , 
 
 and independent, and will not be trammelled. They are 
 no flatterers, they say ; and this they think excuse enough, 
 for all the cutting speech which they employ. Others 
 wish to be thought witty ; and they will, with equal in- 
 difference, wound the feehngs of friend or foe, to show 
 their smartness. Some are envious, and cannot bear to 
 speak kindly of others, or to them, because they do not 
 wish to add to their happiness. And some are so ill- 
 bred, that they seem to take delight in using unkind 
 words, when their intentions are good, and their feelings 
 are warm. Their words are rougher than their hearts ; 
 they will make sacrifices of ease and property, to pro- 
 mote your comfort, while they will not deign to employ 
 the terms of courtesy and kindness. Of these, the Scots 
 have an expressive proverb, that ' their bark is worse 
 than their bite.' Many a man w^ould be loved for his 
 liberal deeds, if his tongue, by its harshness, did not re- 
 pel affection. And he often wonders why his friends 
 seem to care so little for him, when they are very grate- 
 ful to others, from whom they receive not half so many 
 favors. Some are caustic and severe in their language, 
 for the sake of showing their superior acuteness and dis- 
 crimination. They would rend in pieces a cloth of gold, 
 to detect a defective thread, which had escaped the less 
 keen observation of others. They are always on the 
 watch, to spy out some fault in character, or in composi- 
 tion, which others overlook ; that they may appear to 
 have uncommon discernment, and rare skill in criticism. 
 
 " If the happiness of others is not motive enough for 
 kind words, we may find a motive in their influence on 
 ourselves. The habit of using them will, at length, 
 conform our feelings to our language. We shall become 
 kind, not only in our speech, but in our manners, and in 
 our hearts. On the other hand, to make use of carping, 
 harsh, and bitter, words, seldom fails to sour the disposi- 
 tion, and to injure the temper." 
 
 56. Respect to age and station, — Want of ditto. — One 
 would think, that the very circumstance of our all wishing 
 or expecting to live to old age, would induce a general 
 respect for persons in that period of life, independent of 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 257 
 
 the injunctions of religion. Yet how different is the fact ! 
 The word old has almost become a term of opprobrium. 
 Steele relates, that, at Athens, during a public represen- 
 tation of some play exhibited in honor of the Common- 
 wealth, an old gentleman came too late for a place suita- 
 ble to his age and quality. Many of the young Athe- 
 nians, who observed the difficulty and confusion he was 
 in, made signs to him that they would accommodate him, 
 if he came where they sat. The good man bustled 
 through the crowd accordingly ; but, when he came to 
 the seats to which he was invited, the jest was to sit 
 close, and expose him, as he stood, out of countenance, 
 to the whole audience. The frolic went round the Athe- 
 nian benches. But, on these occasions, there were also 
 particular places assigned for foreigners. When the good 
 man skulked towards the boxes appropriated to the Lac- 
 edemonians, that honest people rose all up, to a man, 
 and, with the greatest respect, received him among them. 
 The Athenians, being suddenly touched with a sense of 
 the Spartan virtue, and their own degeneracy, gave a 
 thunder of applause ; and the old man cried out, " The 
 Athenians understand what is good, but the Lacedemo- 
 nians practise it." 
 
 57. Punctuality, — Want of ditto. — Want of punctuali- 
 ty is a serious evil. It not only causes a vast deal of time to 
 be .uselessly squandered, but it is the means of disturbing 
 the devotions of the pious, in all our places of worship. 
 The common saying, ''It is always one till it is two," 
 leads to a general hanging back, at every kind of public 
 meeting, until it becomes impossible to say, when busi- 
 ness will be attended to. The more intelligent part of 
 the community ought to endeavor to break up the loung- 
 ing habit, produced by this spirit of procrastination. Let 
 them determine, that one shall mean one, and two, two ; 
 and that, when a meeting is called at a particular hour, 
 the business shall be commenced when that hour arrives, 
 and the evil will soon be at an end. A short time since, 
 in a village in the neighborhood of London, a committee 
 of eight ladies, who managed the concerns of an institu- 
 tion, which had been formed for the rehef of the neighbor- 
 22* 
 
258 THE teacher's manual. 
 
 ing poor, agreed to meet on a certain day, at twelve 
 o'clock, precisely. Seven of them attended punctually, 
 at the appointed hour ; the eighth did not arrive till a 
 quarter of an hour after. She came in, according to the 
 usual mode, with " I'm very sorry to be behind in the 
 time appointed, but really the time slipped away with- 
 out my being sensible of it. I hope your goodness will 
 excuse it." 
 
 One of the ladies, who was a quaker, rephed, " Truly, 
 friend, it doth not appear clear to me that we ought to 
 accept of thy apology. Hadst thyself only lost a quarter 
 of an hour, it would have been merely thy concern ; but, 
 in this case, the quarter must be multiplied by eight, as 
 we have each lost a quarter ; so that there have been two 
 hours of useful time sacrificed, by thy want of punctuality." 
 
 If every one had to pay for the time he caused others 
 to lose in this way, what a bill some of us w^ould run up ! 
 The teacher should be careful to check this spirit in the 
 young. 
 
 . CHAPTER XII. 
 
 MORAL EDUCATION. 
 
 Recapitulation. 
 
 The following appear to be the results of our inquiries 
 on the subject of moral education : 
 
 I. That, at present, there is a total want of moral 
 training in our schools. 
 
 II. That, though the branch of morals relating to re- 
 ligious faith and modes of worship is properly excluded 
 from the public schools, this circumstance only serves to 
 enhance the necessity of attention to the other parts of 
 moral instruction. 
 
 III. That the practice of virtue and the avoidance of 
 vice should be carefully cultivated and enforced, in early 
 youth, it being too late to commence, when opposite habits 
 have become fixed, and the passions fully developed. 
 
MORAL EDUCATION. 259 
 
 IV. That the conscience should be developed, on the 
 first dawning of reason, and cherished and strengthened, 
 by constant use. 
 
 V. That this may be done by a suitable mode of ques- 
 tioning on the reading lessons, and on the occurrences in 
 the school and neighborhood. 
 
 VI. That a Daily Record for self-examination, with 
 an appropriate series of questions, would be highly useful. 
 
 VII. That every school ought to be provided with a 
 Tabular Catalogue of the Virtues and their opposite 
 Vices, with suitable explanations, to which constant ref- 
 erence should be made by the pupils. 
 
 VIII. That the teacher ought daily to ask himself, 
 whether he has performed all his duties towards his 
 school. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 COxVCLUSION, 
 
 The following quotation, from Mrs. Austin's Preface 
 to her translation from Cousin's Report on Education in 
 Prussia, forms an appropriate close to the whole sub- 
 ject. 
 
 " It seems to me, that we are guilty of great inconsis- 
 tency, as to the ends and objects of education. How in- 
 dustriously have not its most able and most zealous cham- 
 pions been continually instilling into the minds of the peo- 
 ple, that education is the way to advancement, that ' knowl- 
 edge is power ;' that a man cannot ' better himself ' 
 without some learning ! And then we complain, that 
 education will set them above their station, disgust them 
 with labor, make them ambitious, envious, dissatisfied ! 
 We must reap as we sow. We set before their eyes ob- 
 jects the most tempting to the desires of the most uncul- 
 tivated men ; we urge them on to the acquirement of 
 knowledge, by holding out the hope that knowledge will 
 enable them to grasp these objects : if their minds are 
 corrupted by the nature of the aim, and embittered by the 
 
260 
 
 failure which must be the lot of the mass, who is to 
 blame ? 
 
 " If, instead of nurturing expectations which cannot be 
 fulfilled, and turning the mind on a track which must 
 lead to a sense of continual disappointment, and thence 
 of wrong, we were to hold out the appropriate and attain- 
 able, nay, unfailing^ ends of a good education; the gen- 
 tle and kindly sympathies ; the sense of self-respect, and 
 of the respect of fellow-men ; the free exercise of the 
 intellectual faculties ; the gratification of a curiosity that 
 ' grows by what it feeds on,' and yet finds food for ever ; 
 the power of regulating the habits and the business of life, 
 so as to extract the greatest possible portion of comfort 
 out of small means ; the refining and tranquilhzing enjoy- 
 ment of the beautiful in Nature and art, and the kindred 
 perception of the beauty and nobility of virtue ; the 
 strengthening consciousness of duty fulfilled ; and, to 
 crown all, ' the peace that passeth all understanding ;' if 
 we directed their aspirations this way, it is probable that 
 we should not have to complain of being disappointed, 
 nor they of having been deceived. Who can say, that 
 wealth can purchase better things than these ? and who 
 can say, that they are not within the reach of every man, 
 of sound body and mind, who, by labor not destructive 
 of either, can procure for himself and his family, food, 
 clothing, and habitation ?" 
 
 In our country, if a young man take a single step 
 beyond a common English education, it is considered 
 as a matter of course that he is preparing himself for 
 one of what are called the learned professions ; as if gen- 
 eral knowledge and well-disciplined minds were totally 
 unnecessary for farmers, mechanics, and tradesmen ! Go, 
 little book ! if thou shouldst succeed, in any degree, in 
 undeceiving the community of this grievous error, in de- 
 monstrating the practicability and necessity of a thorough 
 education for all, my time will have been well spent, my 
 labors will have met with an ample reward. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 LIST OF BOOKS FOR A DISTRICT SCHOOL LIBRARY ; 
 AND FOR A LIBRARY FOR AN AGRICULTURAL TOWN, 
 OR A CENTRAL SCHOOL. 
 
 1. — For the District School. 
 
 Parley's Magazine, published 
 
 monthly. 
 Parley's Tales about Europe. 
 Asia. 
 Africa. 
 America, 
 the Sea. 
 Islands in 
 Pacific. 
 Every Day Book. 
 Book of Bible Stories. 
 Christmas Tales. 
 Abbott's Rollo learning to Talk. 
 " to Read, 
 at School, 
 at Vacation, 
 at Work, 
 at Play. 
 Rollo's Museum. 
 
 " Experiments. 
 Child at Home. 
 Hoary Head. 
 M'Donner. 
 School-Boy. 
 Caleb in Town. 
 " "the Country. 
 The Garden, by S. G. Goodrich. 
 Life of Washington, by do. 
 Child's History of the United 
 States, by Charles A. Goodrich. 
 Uncle Philip's Conversations with 
 
 the Children about the Whale- 
 fishery and Polar Seas, 2 vols. 
 
 about the 
 
 Trees of America. 
 
 with Young 
 
 Persons. 
 The Young Crusoe, by Mrs. Hof- 
 
 iand. 
 The Children's Robinson Cru- 
 soe. 
 The Swiss Family Robinson, 2 
 
 vols. 
 Robinson Crusoe, by Defoe. 
 Alexander Selkirk, the real Rob- 
 inson Crusoe. 
 Goodrich's Life of Columbus. 
 
 " " Franklm. 
 
 Mrs. Barbauld'fe Prose Hymns, 
 Poems for Infant Minds, by the 
 . Taylor family. 
 Miss Edgeworth's Frank. 
 
 Harry and Lucy. 
 Rosamond. 
 C Parent's Assist- 
 \ ant. 
 
 Popular Tales. 
 J Tales of Fash- 
 l ionable Life. 
 Moral Tales. 
 Mrs. Barbauld's Lessons for Chil- 
 dren. 
 
262 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Mrs. Child's Biographical Sketch- 
 es. 
 Berquin's Children's Friend, 4 
 
 vols. 
 Evenings at Home. 
 Sandford and Merton. 
 Scott's Tales of a Grandfather, 8 
 
 vols. 
 Miss Sedgwick's New England 
 
 Tale. 
 Illustrations of Lying, by Mrs. 
 
 Opie. 
 Gallaudet's Child's Book on the 
 
 Soul. 
 Gallaudet's Natural Theology. 
 Constance Latimer, with other 
 
 Tales, by Mrs. Embury. 
 The Palfreys, a Tale. 
 Conversations of a Father with his 
 
 Children. 
 Weems' Life of Washington. 
 " Franklin. 
 
 Weems' Life of Penn. 
 
 '< " Marion. 
 
 Parley's Poetic Stories. 
 The Young Emigrants, published 
 
 by Carter and Hendee. 
 Fruit and Flowers. 
 Cottagers of Glenburnie, by Mrs. 
 
 Hamilton. 
 Rasselas. 
 Love Token for Children, by Miss 
 
 Sedgwick. 
 Panorama of Professions and 
 
 Trades. 
 Sigourney's Olive Buds. 
 
 " History of Marcus 
 
 Aurelius. 
 Dunlap's History of New York. 
 My Early Days. 
 Cook's Voyages. 
 The Robins, by Mrs. Trimmer. 
 Introduction to the Knowledge of 
 
 Nature, by do. 
 
 2. — For the Town Library. 
 
 Plutarch's Lives. 
 Anacharsis' Travels. 
 Translations of the following 
 works : 
 
 Herodotus. 
 Thucydides. 
 Xenophon. 
 Demosthenes. 
 Arrian. 
 Livy. 
 Tacitus. 
 Caesar. 
 Sallust. 
 Cicero. 
 Lingard's History of England, 14 
 
 vols. 
 Robertson's Charles V. 
 " Scotland. 
 
 " America. 
 
 India. 
 Hallam's Middle Ages. 
 Russell's Modern Europe. 
 
 Ramsay's Universal History, 9 
 
 vols. 
 Boswell's Life of Johnson. 
 
 " Tour to the Hebrides. 
 Marshall's Life of Washington. 
 History of England, by Sir Jas. 
 
 Mackintosh. 
 Taylor's (or Moore's) History of 
 
 Ireland. 
 Crowe's History of France. 
 Bancroft's History of the United 
 
 States. 
 Guizot's History of Civilization. 
 Sparks' Life of Ledyard. 
 
 *« American Biography. 
 Lockhart's Life of Scott, 7 vols. 
 Southey's Life of Cowper. 
 Mrs. Child's Biography of Lady 
 
 Russell and Madame Guyon. 
 Lives of the Signers of the Dec- 
 I laration of Independence. 
 I The Federalist. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 263 
 
 Chipman's Principles of Govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Marshall on Federal Constitution. 
 
 Mackintosh on Law of Nature 
 and Nations. 
 
 American's Guide, containing all 
 the Constitutions, Slc. 
 
 Dr. Humphrey's Tour, 2 vols. 
 
 Irving's Tour on the Prairies. 
 " Astoria. 
 " Sketch Book. 
 
 Nuttall's Manual of Ornithology. 
 
 Carpenter's Scripture Natural 
 History. 
 
 Ware's Smallie's Philosophy of 
 Natural History. 
 
 Smith's Class Book of Anatomy. 
 
 Bell's Lessons on the Human 
 Frame. 
 
 Abbott's Abercrombie on the In- 
 tellectual Pow^ers. 
 
 Abbott's Abercrombie on the Mo- 
 ral Feelings. 
 
 Combe, on the Constitution of 
 Man. 
 
 Mudie, on Man. 
 
 Wayland's Elements of Moral 
 Science. 
 
 Political Economy. 
 
 Martineau's Illustrations of Polit- 
 ical Economy. 
 
 Addison's Works. 
 
 Johnson's Works. 
 
 Dick's Works. 
 
 Bridgewater Treatises. 
 
 Walton's Lives. 
 
 Winslow's Young Man's Aid. 
 
 Brougham's Discourse on Natural 
 Theology. 
 
 Abbott's Mother at Home. 
 
 Neal's Charcoal Sketches. 
 
 Sartor Resartus, by Carlyle. 
 
 Humboldt's Travels in South 
 America. 
 
 Hall's Voyage to the Eastern 
 Seas. 
 
 Lesslie, Jameson, and Murray's 
 Narrative of Discovery and Ad- 
 venture in Africa- 
 
 Lander's Expedition to the Ni- 
 ger. 
 
 Paul's Letters to his Kinsfolks, 
 
 by Sir Walter Scott. 
 Works of John Milton. 
 
 " of James Thomson. 
 Poems of William Cowper. 
 
 " of Wordsworth. 
 
 " of Southey. 
 
 " of Bryant. 
 
 " of Percival. 
 Goldsmith's Entire Works. 
 Chaptal's Chemistry applied to 
 
 Agriculture. 
 Fessenden's Complete Farmer. 
 Davy's Elements of Chemical 
 
 Philosophy. 
 Herschell's Astronomy. 
 
 " Discourse on Natural 
 
 Philosophy. 
 The Heavens, by Mudie. 
 The Earth, by do. 
 
 Library of Entertaining Knowl- 
 edge. 
 The Old Bachelor, 2 vols. 
 The British Spy, 2 vols. 
 Franklin's Works. 
 Works of Jane Taylor, 3 vols. 
 Don Q,uixote, 4 vols. 
 Mrs. Opie's Tales, 6 vols. 
 Miss Edgeworth's Works. 
 Cooper's Spy. 
 
 " Bravo. 
 
 Pilot. 
 
 " Last of the Mohicans. 
 
 Irving's Tales of a Traveller. 
 
 Sketch Book. 
 Brown's Arthur Mervyn. 
 
 " Edgar Huntley. 
 
 Village Pastor and his Children, 
 
 from the German. 
 Paul and Virginia. 
 Scottish Chiefs. 
 Temperance Tales. 
 Permanent Temperance Docu- 
 ments. 
 Miss Sedgwick's Works. 
 Mrs. Sigourney's Works. 
 Henry's Mackenzie's Works. 
 A Good Gazetteer. 
 Lavoisne's Atlas of History, &c. 
 American Atlas on the plan of La- 
 
 voisne. 
 
THE SCHOOL ADVERTISER NO. U. 
 
 AUGUST, 1839. 
 
 THE SCHOOL LIBRARY. 
 
 MARSH, CAPEN, LYON, AND WEBB, 
 
 109, Washington Street, Boston, 
 
 AllE NOW PUBLISHING, UNDER THE SANCTION OF THE MAS- 
 SACHUSETTS Board of Education, a collection of ori- 
 ginal AND selected WORKS, ENTITLED, ' ThE ScHOOL 
 
 Library.' 
 
 The Library will embrace two series of fifty volumes 
 each ; the one to be in 18mo., averaging from 250 to 280 
 pages per volume ; the other in 12mo., each volume con- 
 taining from 350 to 400 pages. The former, or Juvenile 
 Series, is intended for children of ten or twelve years of 
 age and under; the latter for individuals of that age, and 
 upwards, — in other words, for advanced scholars and their 
 parents. 
 
 The Library is to consist of reading, and not school, 
 class, or text books ; the design being to furnish youth with 
 suitable works for perusal during their leisure hours ; works 
 that will interest, as well as instruct them, and of such a 
 character that they will turn to them with pleasure, when 
 it is desirable to unbend from the studies of the school 
 room. 
 
 The plan will embrace every department of Science and 
 Literature, preference being given to works relating to 
 our own Country, and illustrative of the history, institutions, 
 manners, customs, &c., of our own people. Being intended 
 for the whole community, no work of a sectarian or de- 
 nominational character in religion, or of a partisan char- 
 acter in politics, will be admitted. 
 
 The aim will be to clothe the subjects discussed, in a 
 popular garb, that they may prove so attractive, as to lure 
 
2 
 
 the child onwards, fix his attention, and induce him, sub- 
 sequently, to seek information from other and more re- 
 condite works, which, if put into his hands at the onset, 
 would alarm him, and induce a disgust for that which 
 would appear dry and unintelligible, and of course, un- 
 interesting. 
 
 The intention is not to provide information for any one 
 class, to the exclusion of others, but to disseminate knowl- 
 edge among all classes. The Publishers wish the children 
 of the Farmer, the Merchant, the Manufacturer, the Me- 
 chanic, the Laborer, — all to profit by the lights of science 
 and literature, that they may be rendered the more virtu- 
 ous and happy, and become more useful to themselves, to 
 one another, to the community, and mankind at large. 
 To accomplish this desirable end, the Library will em- 
 brace so wide a range of subjects, that every child may 
 find something which will prove useful and profitable to 
 him, whatever his situation, circumstances, or pursuits, in 
 afterlife may be. 
 
 The project is one of great extent, and vast importance; 
 and, if properly carried out, must become of inestimable 
 value to the young. Whether the anticipations of the 
 Publishers, with regard to it, will be verified, time must 
 determine ; but from the intellectual and moral, theoretical 
 and practical character of those who have engaged to aid 
 in the undertaking, they have good grounds for presuming 
 that much will be accomplished, and that by their united 
 efforts many obstacles, now existing to the mental, moral, 
 and physical improvement of youth, will be removed, or at 
 least be rendered more easily surmountable. 
 
 Among the individuals already engaged as writers for 
 one or both Series, may be mentioned — the Hon. Judge 
 Story, Jared Sparks, Esq., Washington Irving, Esq., Rev. 
 Dr. Wayland, Professor Benjamin Silliman, Professor Den- 
 nison Olmsted, Professor Alonzo Potter, Hon. Judge Buel, 
 Dr. Jacob Bigelow, Dr. Robley Dunglison, Dr. Elisha 
 Bartlett, Rev. Charles W. Upham, Rev. F. W. P. Green- 
 wood, Rev. Royal Robbins, Rev. Warren Burton, Ar- 
 thur J. Stansbury, Esq., E. C. Wines, Esq., Robert Ran- 
 toul, Jr., Esq., Professor Tucker, and Professor Elton. 
 
 Mrs. Sarah J. Hale, Mrs. E. F. Ellet, Mrs. Emma C. 
 Embury, Mrs. A. H. Lincoln Phelps, Miss E. Robbins, 
 
3 
 
 Miss E. P. Peabody, Miss Mary E. Lee, Miss Caroline 
 Sedgwick. 
 
 No work will be admitted into the Library, unless it be 
 approved by every member of the Board of Education ; 
 which Board consists of the following individuals, viz., 
 His Excellency Edward Everett, Chairman, His Honor 
 George Hull, Rev. Emerson Davis, Edmund Dwight, 
 Esq., Rev. George Putnam, Robert Rantoul, Jr., Esq., 
 Rev. Thomas Robbins, D. D., Jared Sparks, Esq., Hon. 
 Charles Hudson, and Hon. George N. Briggs. 
 
 The following works, have been printed, and constitute 
 the first ten volumes of the 12mo. series, viz. 
 
 LIFE OF COLUMBUS, by Washington Irving, a 
 new edition, (revised by the author,) including a Visit to 
 Palos, and other additions, a portrait of the Great Naviga- 
 tor, a Map, and several illustrative engravings. 
 
 PALEY'S NATURAL THEOLOGY, in two volumes, 
 with selections from the Dissertations and Notes of Lord 
 Brougham and Sir Charles Bell, illustrated by numer- 
 ous wood cuts, and prefaced by a Life of the Author ; 
 (with a portrait;) the whole being newly arranged and 
 adapted for The School Library, by Elisha Bartlett, 
 M. D., Professor of the Theory and Practice of Physic and 
 Pathological Anatomy in Dartmouth College. 
 
 LIVES OF EMINENT INDIVIDUALS, CELEBRA- 
 TED IN AMERICAN HISTORY, in three vols., with 
 portraits of Robert Fulton, Sebastian Cabot, and Sir Henry 
 Vane, and autographs of most of the individuals. 
 
 Vol. I. WILL CONTAIN 
 
 Life of MAjoR-aENERAL John Stark, by His Excellency Edward Everett. 
 " David Brainerd, by Rev. William B. O. Peabody. 
 
 " Robert Fulton, by James Renwick, LL. D., Professor of Natural Phi- 
 losophy and Chemistry^ in Columbia College, New York City. 
 " Captain John Smith, by George S. Hillard, Esq. 
 
 Vol. II. WILL CONTAIN 
 
 Life of Major-general Ethan Allen, by Jared Sparks, Professor of History 
 in Harvard University. 
 " Sebastian Cabot, by Charles Ilayward, Jr., Esq. 
 " Henry Hudson, by Henry R. Cleveland, Esq. 
 
 " Majoh-general Joseph Warren, by Alexander H. Everett, LL. D. 
 " M\jor-general Israel Putnam, by O. W. B. Peabody, Esq. 
 " David Rittenhouse, by Professor James Renwick, L L. D 
 
Vol. III. WILL CONTAIN 
 
 Life of William Pinkney, by Henry Wheaton, LL. D., Author of History of 
 
 the Northmen. 
 •' Sir Henry Vane, by Rev. Charles W. Upliam. 
 " Major-general Anthony W^ayne, by John Armstrong, Esq. 
 " William Elleey, by EdAvard T. Channing, Esq. 
 *' Major-general Richard Montgomery, by John Armstrong, Esq. 
 
 THE SACRED PHILOSOPHY OF THE SEASONS, 
 illustrating The Perfections of God in the Phenomena of 
 the Year. In 4 vols. By the Rev. Henry Duncan, D. D., 
 of Ruthwell, Scotland; with important additions, and some 
 modifications to adapt it to American readers, by the Rev. 
 F. W. P. Greenwood, of Boston. 
 
 The great value and interesting nature of these volumes, to every 
 class of individuals, will be seen, at once, by a perusal of the following 
 Table of Contents. The work contains a paper for every day in the year. 
 
 VOL. I.— WINTER. 
 
 I. Sunday. — Goodness of God to his Rational Creatures. The Character im- 
 pressed on Nature — Compensation. Contrivance. 
 
 COSMICAL arrangements. 
 
 Globular Figure of the Earth. Circulation in the Atmosphere and Ocean. 
 The Atmosphere. Ignis Fatuus. ii. Sunday. — General Aspect of Winter. 
 Phosphorescence. Aurora Borealis. Meteoric Showers. Variety of Climates. 
 Practical Effect of the Commercial Spirit produced by a Variety of Climates,^ 
 Adaptation of Organized Existences to Seasons and Climates, iii. Sunday.— 
 The Omnipresence of God. Adaptation of Organized Existences to the Tropical 
 Regions. Adaptation of Organized Existences to Temperate and Polar Climates. 
 The Balance Preserved in the Animal and Vegetable Creation. Night. — Its Al- 
 ternation with Day. Sleep. Dreaming, iv. Sunday. — The World a State of 
 Discipline. 
 
 the starry heavens. 
 
 General Remarks. Gravitation and Inertia. The Planetary System. The 
 Sun as the Source of Light and Heat. Motions of the Planets. Resisting Me- 
 dium. V. Sunday. — Divine and Human Knowledge compared. The Satellites. 
 Relative Proportions of the Planetary System. Distance of the Fixed Stars. 
 Immensity of the Universe. Nebulse. Binary Stars. 
 
 THE microscope. 
 
 VI. Sunday. — Discoveries of the Telescope and Microscope compared. Won- 
 ders of the Microscope. — Infusory Animalcules. 
 
 hybernation of plants. 
 Plantfs and Animals compared. Adjustment of the Constitution of Plants to 
 the Annual Cycle. Physiological Condition of Plants during Winter. 
 
 hybernation of insects. 
 Instinct, vii. Sunday.— On Seeing God in his Works. Reason in the Lower 
 Animals. Eggs. Various States. Bees. The Snail. The Beetle, viii. Sun- 
 day. — Greatness of God even in the Smallest Things. 
 
 MIGRATIONS OF BIRDS AND QUADRUPEDS DURING WINTER. 
 
 Birds. Birds which partially migrate. Quadrupeds. 
 
 Christmas-Day. No Season Unpleasant to the Cheerful Mind. ix. 
 Sunday. — Proofs of Divine Benevolence in the Works of Creation. 
 
MIGRATION OF FISHES. 
 
 The Sturgeon, the Herring, the Cod, &c. Cetaceous Animals. Migration frcra 
 the Sea into Rivers. Migration of Eels. 
 New-Year's-Day. 
 Migration of the Land-Crab. x. Sunday.— J-Tzn^er an Emblem of Death. 
 
 HYBERNATION OF QUADRUPEDS. 
 
 Clothing. Storing Instincts. Torpidity. 
 
 HYBERNATION OF MAN. 
 
 Privation stimulates his Faculties. Provisions for his Comfort. Adaptation 
 of his Constitution to the Season, xi. Sunday. — The Unceasing- and Universal 
 Providence of God. 
 
 INHABITANTS OF THE POLAR REGIONS. 
 
 The Esquimaux. Food and Clothing. Dwellings and Fire. 
 
 FROST. 
 
 Provision for causing Ice to Float on the Surface. The Expansive and Non- 
 conducting Power of Ice. Amusements connected with it. xii. Sunday. — 
 Winter not Monotonous. — Boundless Variety of Nature. Effects of Frost in the 
 Northern Regions. Agency of Frost in Mountainous Regions. Hoar Frost. — 
 Foliations on Window-Glass, &c. Beneficent Contrivances relative to Snow. 
 Sagacity and Fidelity of the Dog in Snow. 
 
 Its Phenomena consistent with the Mosaic Account of the Creation, xiii. 
 Sunday. — The Difficulty of Comprehending the Operations of Providence. Suc- 
 cessive Periods of Deposit. Successive Periods of Organized Existences. State 
 of the Antediluvian World. Indications of the Action of the Deluge at the Period 
 assigned to it in Scripture. Cuvier's Calculation respecting the Deluge. Effects 
 of the Deluge on the Present Surface of the Earth, xiv. Sunday. — The Deluge 
 a Divine Judgement. 
 
 VOL. II.— SPRING. 
 
 COSMICAL ARRANGEMENTS. 
 
 General Character of Spring in temperate Climates. Increasing Temperature 
 of the Weather, and its Effects. Color and Figure of Bodies. Mountains. Rain. 
 Springs, i. Sunday. — Advantages of Vicissitude. Rivers. 
 
 REPRODUCTION OF VEGETABLES. 
 
 Vegetable Soil. Vegetation. Preservation and Distribution of Seeds. Long 
 Vitality of Seeds. Developement of Seeds and Plants, ii. Sunday.— ^na^o^-y 
 of Nature. The Vital Powers of Plants. Flowers.— Their Form, Color, and 
 Fragrance. Their Organs of Reproduction, and their Secretion of Honey. The 
 Violet. 
 
 reproduction op animals. 
 
 The Animal Structure. — Cellular Texture — Membranes, Tendons, and Liga- 
 ments. Secretion, Digestion, and the Circulation of the Blood, iii. Sunday. — 
 ^^ The Same Lord over All." The Animal Structure. Gastric Juice. Muscular 
 Power. Nature of the Proof of Creative Wisdom derived from the Animal Frame. 
 The Lower Orders of Animals. The Higher Orders of Animals. 
 
 INSTINCTS connected WITH THE REPRODUCTION OF ANIMALS. 
 
 General Remarks. Parental Affection. Insects. — Their Eggs. iv. Sunday. 
 -On the Uniformittj or Sameness in the Natural and Moral fVorld. Insects.— 
 Care of their Offspring, exemplified in Bees and Wasps. The Moth. The Bury- 
 ing-Beetle. The Ant. Gall Flies. Deposition of Eggs in the Bodies of Animals, 
 and in Insects' Nests. Birds — Their Eggs. Prospective Contrivances, v. Sun- 
 day.— On the Domestic Affections. Birds. — Relation of their Bodies to external 
 Nature. Pairing. Nest-building. The Grossbealv. The Humming-bird. vi. 
 Sunday, — Regeneration. Birds. — Nests of Swallows. Hatching of Eggs, and 
 rearing the Brood. Quadrupeds. — The Lion. The Rabbit. Instincts of the Young. 
 
Man. — Effects of protracted Childhood on the Individual. Effects of protracted 
 Childhood on the Parents and on Society, vii. Sunday. — On Christian Love. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 The Difference between the Operations of Reason and Instinct, as affording 
 Arguments in Favor of the Divine Perfections. Origin of Agricultural Labor. 
 Origin of Property in the Soil, and the Division of Ranks. Effects of Property 
 in the Soil. Benefits derived from the Principles which Stimulate Agricultural 
 Improvement. The Blessings of Labor, viii. Sunday. — Spiritual Training by 
 Affliction. Nature of Soils. Formation of Soils. Management of Soils. — Drain- 
 ing. Irrigation. Blair-Drummond Moss. Products of the Soil. — Dissemination 
 of Plants. IX. Sunday. — The Sower. Dissemination of Plants. — The Cocoa- 
 Nut Tree. Mitigation of Seasons occasioned by Cultivation. The Labors of the 
 Husbandman wisely distributed over the Year. The Corn Plants.— Their Mys- 
 terious Origin. Their Distribution over the Globe. Wheat, x. Sunday. — Sab- 
 bath Morning. The Corn-Plants.— Barley, Oats, Rice, Maize, and Millet. 
 Leguminous Plants. — Peas and Beans. Esculent Roots. — The Potato. Vegetable 
 Substances used for Weaving. The Flax Plant, xi. Sunday. — True Science the 
 Handmaid of Religion. Vegetable Substances used for Weaving. The Cotton 
 Plant. Vegetable^Substances used for Cordage.— Hemp. Vegetable Substances 
 used for Paper. 
 
 anniversary of the death and resurrection of CHRIST. 
 
 The Sacrament of the Supper. The Crucifixion. The Grave, xii. Sunday. 
 — The Resurrection. 
 
 Enjoyment equally Distributed. The Enjoyments of the Poor in 
 SsBiNG. The Woods. 
 
 retrospective view of the argument. 
 
 The Power and Intelligence of the Creator. The Goodness of the Creator. 
 The Use and Deficiency of Natural Religion. 
 
 VOL. III.— SUMMER. 
 
 COSMICAL arrangements. 
 
 I. Sunday.— SMmwier the Perfection of the Year. Increased Heat. Internal 
 "Heat of the Earth. Increased Light. Electricity. Clouds. Dew. n. Sun- 
 day. — Scriptural Allusions to the Deiv. Adaptations of the Faculties of Living 
 Beings to the Properties of Light and Air. 
 
 vegetables. 
 
 Growth of Vegetables. Principles on which Horticulture is founded. History 
 of Horticulture. The Turnip. Brassica or Cabbage, iii. Sunday. — Spiritual 
 Light. Various Garden Vegetables. Flowers — The Rose. Fruits. Ingrafting. 
 The Gooseberry and Currant. The Orchard, iv. Sunday. — Spiritual Soil. Pro- 
 ductions of Warm Climates used for Human Food. — The Banana. The Date Palm. 
 Trees used for other Purposes than Food. Vegetable Substances used in Tan- 
 ning. Vegetable Fixed Oils. Vegetable Oils — Essential and Empyreumatic. 
 Vegetable Tallow and Wax. v. Sunday. — Spiritual Ctilture. Vegetable Life 
 in the Polar Regions. 
 
 animals. 
 
 Connexion between the Vegetable and Animal Kingdoms. The Sensorial Or- 
 gans. Sensation and Perception. The Argonaut and Nautilus. The Coral In- 
 sect. VI. Sunday. — The Invisible Architect. Insect Transformations — Cocoons 
 — The Silk-Worm. Insects— Their Larva State. Their Pupa or Chrysalis State. 
 Their Imago or Perfect State. The Building Spider. Spider's Webb. vii. Sun- 
 day. — Spiritual Transformation. Insects — Legionary and Sanguine Ants. The 
 Lion Ant— The Q,ueen-Bee. Physiological Character of Vertebrated Animals. 
 Reptiles— The Tortoise — The Serpent, viii. Sunday. — The Old Serpent. Rep- 
 tiles— The Saurian Tribes. Birds— Their Relative Position. The Bill. Their 
 Power of Flying. Their Power of Vision. Their Voice. Their Selection of 
 Food. IX. Sunday. — The Ascension of Christ. Birds— Their Gregarious Habits. 
 Domestic Fowls— The Cock, the Turkey, and the Peacock. The Goose and the 
 Duck. Birds of Prej^ — The Vulture. The Eagle. Predaceous Animals— Their 
 
Offices in Nature, x. Sunday.— CAr/s^ the Judge of the World. Quadrupeds— 
 Their Characteristics. Their Bodily Organs. The Bat. The Mouse. Ruminat- 
 ing — The Goat and Sheep. Sheep Shearing, xi. Sunday.— C/irtsf, the Good 
 Shepherd. Quadrupeds — The Shepherd's Dog. Ruminating — The Cow. Thiclv- 
 sltinned — The Hog. The Horse and Ass. The Elephant. Reflections on the 
 Domestic Animals, xii. Sunday. — The Destruction of the World, and the 
 Renovation of the Human Frame in a Future State. Fishes. Man — His Ex- 
 terna] Structure. His Intellectual Powers. His Moral Powers. Physical Effects 
 of Climate. Moral Eifects of Climate, xiii. Sunday. — The Confusion of 
 Tongues. Man — Human Language. 
 
 Haymaking— Pleasures of Rural Scenery. 
 
 The Variety, Beauty, and Utility of Organized Existences. 
 
 retrospective view of the argument. 
 Adaptation. Future Existence. Discipline. 
 XIV. Sunday. — The Day of Pentecost — One Language. 
 
 VOL. IV.— AUTUMN. 
 
 PHENOMENA, PRODUCE, AND LABORS OF THE SEASON. 
 
 General Character of Autumn. Autumn in the City. Famine in the beginning 
 of Autumn. Autumnal Vegetation. Progress of Vegetation in the Corn Plants. 
 Harvest, i. Sunday. Stability of Nature. Gleaning. The Harvest Moon. 
 Harvest-Home. Storing of Corn. Birds. — Their State in Autumn. 
 
 THE WOODS. 
 
 Their Autumnal Appearance, ii. Sunday.— T/ie Poivers of the World to come. 
 The Woods. Their Uses. Various Kinds and Adaptations of Timber. 
 Origin of the Arts. — Food, Clothing, and Shelter. 
 
 HUMAN FOOD. 
 
 Its Principle. The Moral Operation of the Principle. Its Supply not inad- 
 equate. III. Sunday. — Christians '■''Members one of another." Provision for 
 the future. — Soil still uncultivated. Improved Cultivation. Means now in Ex- 
 istence. Vegetable and Animal Food. Fruits— Their Qualities. Drink, iv. 
 Sunday.—" The Bread of Life." Milk. Wine. Tea and Coffee. Sugar. The 
 Pleasures connected with Food. Comparison between the Food of Savage and 
 Civilized Man. v. Sunday. — " Give us this Day our daily Bread." Agriculture 
 of the Greeks.— Their Harvest. Agriculture of the Romans. Their Harvest. 
 Progress of British Agriculture. Modern Continental Agriculture. 
 
 HUMAN CLOTHING. 
 
 Its Principle. Its Primitive State, vi. Sunday. — The Emptiness of Human 
 Attainments. Its Ancient History. Commercial History of the Raw Material. 
 The Silk Manufacture.— Its Modern History. History of Mechanical Contrivances 
 connected with it. Rearing of the Cocoons, &c. The Cotton Manufacture.— Its 
 Foreign History, vii. Sunday. — The Intellectual and Moral Enjoyments of 
 Heaven. The Cotton Manufacture. — Its British History. Improvement of Ma- 
 chinery. Its American History. — Introduction of Steam Power. The Woollen 
 Manufacture. — Its History. The Art of Bleaching. The Art of Dyeing. — Ita 
 Origin and Ancient History, viii. Sunday.— TAe Social and Religious Enjoy- 
 m.ents of Heaven. The Art of Dyeing. — Its Modern History. Its Chemical 
 Principles. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Its Principle. Its original State. — Materials employed. Tools employed. Its 
 Modifications by the Influence of Habit and Religion, ix. Sunday. — The Chil- 
 dren of the World wiser than the Children of Light. Architecture. — Ancient His- 
 tory and Practice.— Egypt. — Thebes. The Pyramids. India. — Excavated Temples. 
 Central Asia. — Tower of Babel, or Temple of Belus. Babylon. Nineveh. Petra. 
 Greece, x. Sunday. — Divine Strength made perfect in Human Weakness. Rome. 
 The Gothic Style. Britain. Bridges. Aqueducts. Railways, xi. Sunday. — An 
 Autumnal Sabbath Evening. Prospective Improvement of Locomotive Power. 
 Lighthouses — The Eddystone Lighthouse. The Thames Tunnel. 
 
CLOSE OP AUTUMN. 
 
 Miscellaneous Reflections on Autumnal Appearances. The Landscape at the 
 Close of Autumn, xii. Sunday. — The Fall of the Leaf . 
 
 GENERAL SUMMARY OF THE ARGUMENT. 
 
 Government of the World by General Laws. Government of the World by a 
 Particular Providence. Contrast between Savage and Civilized Life, as regards 
 the Arts. A s regards Domestic Comforts. As regards Commerce. As regards 
 Moral Cultivation, xiii. Sunday. — "TAe Harvest is the End of the World." 
 
 The preceding ten volumes are now ready for delivery ;- 
 and they will be followed, with all due despatch, by the 
 subjoined, among others, provided they are approved by 
 the Board of Education. 
 
 LIFE OF WASHINGTON, (with a portrait, and nu- 
 merous engravings,) by the Rev. Charles W. Upham, 
 Author of ' the Life of Sir Henry Vane.' 
 
 THE PURSUIT OF KNOWLEDGE UNDER DIF- 
 FICULTIES ; in two volumes, with Preface and Notes, 
 by Francis Wayland, D. D., President of Brown Uni- 
 versity. 
 
 THE PURSUIT OF KNOWLEDGE UNDER DIF- 
 FICULTIES, illustrated by incidents in the Lives of 
 American Individuals ; in one volume, with Portraits. 
 
 HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY, in two volumes, with illustra- 
 tive wood cuts, by Robley Dunglison, M. D., Professor 
 of the Institutes of Medicine in the Jefferson Medical College, 
 Philadelphia ; Author of ' Elements of Hygiene,' * The Medi- 
 cal Student,' 'Principles of Medical Practice,' Sfc. Sfc. 
 
 CHEMISTRY, with illustrative wood cuts, by Benja- 
 min Silliman, M. D., LL. D., Professor of Chemistry, 
 Mineralogy, S^c. in Yale College. 
 
 ASTRONOMY, by Dennison Olmsted, Professor of 
 JYatural Philosophy and Astronomy in Yale College. 
 
 This work will be a popular treatise on the Science ; it will also enter 
 fully into its history, and consider the subject of Natural Theology, so 
 far as it is related to Astronomy. 
 
 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, by Professor Olmsted. 
 Both of these works will be very fully illustrated by diagrams and 
 wood engravings. 
 
9 
 
 THE USEFUL ARTS, considered in connexion with 
 the Applications of Science ; in two volumes, v/ith many 
 cuts, by Jacob Bigelow, M. D., Professor of Mateina 
 JM[edica in Harvard University, Author of ' the Elements of 
 Technology,^ Sfc. S^c. 
 
 We subjoin a summary of the Topics discussed in the several chap- 
 ters of this Important Work, that its nature and objects may be the 
 more clearly understood. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Outline of the History of the Arts in Ancient and Modern Times. 
 
 Arts of the Egyptians, Assyrians, Jews, Hindoos, Chinese, Greeks, Romans, 
 Dark Ages, Modern Times, Nineteenth Century. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Of the Materials used in the Arts. 
 
 Materials from the Mineral Kingdom — Stones and Earths — Marble, Granite, 
 Sienite, Freestone, Slate, Soapstone, Serpentine, Gypsum, Alabaster, Chalk, 
 Fluor Spar, Flint, Porphyry, Buhrstone, Novaculite, Precious Stones, Emery, 
 Lead, Pumice, Tufa, Peperino, Tripoli, Clay, Asbestus, Cements, Limestone, 
 Puzzolana, Tarras, Other Cements — Maltha. Metals — Iron, Copper, Lead, Tin, 
 Mercury, Gold, Silver, Platina, Zinc, Antimony, Bismuth, Arr^enic, Manganese, 
 Nickel. Combustibles, &c— Bitumen, Amber, Coal, Anthracite, Graphite, Peat, 
 Sulphur, Materials from the Vegetable Kingdom — "Wood, Bark, Oak, Hickory, 
 Ash, Elm, Locust, Wild Cherry, Chestnut, Beech, Basswood, Tulip Tree, Maple, 
 Birch, Button Wood, Persimmon, Black Walnut, Tupelo, Pine, Spruce, Hemlock, 
 White Cedar, Cypress, Larch, Arbor Vitae, Red Cedar, Willow, Mahogany, 
 Boxwood, Lignum Vitse, Cork, Hemp, Flax, Cotton, Turpentine, Caoutchouc, 
 Oils, Resins, Starch, Gum. Materials from the Animal Kingdom — Skins, Hair, 
 and Fur, Q,uills and Feathers, Wool, Silk, Bone and Ivory, Horn, Tortoise Shell, 
 Whale Bone, Glue, Oil, Wax, Phosphorus. Materials used in Painting, Dyeing, 
 and Varnishing. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Of the Form and Strength of Materials. 
 
 Modes of Estimation, Stress and Strain, Resistance, Extension, Compression, 
 Lateral Strain, Stiffness, Tubes, Strength, Place of Strain, Incipient Fracture, 
 Shape of Timber, Torsion, Limit of Bulk, Practical Remarks. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 The Preservation of Materials. 
 
 Stones, Metals, Organic Substances, Temperature, Dryness, Wetness, Antisep- 
 tics. Timber — Felling, Seasoning. Preservation of Timber. — Preservation of 
 Animal Texture— Embalming, Tanning, Parchment, Catgut, Gold Beater's Skin. 
 Specimens in Natural History — Appert's Process. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Of Dividing and Uniting Materials. 
 
 Cohesion. Modes of Division — Fracture, Cutting Machines, Penetration, Bor- 
 ing and Drilling, Turning, Attrition, Sawing, Saw Mill, Circular Saw, Crushing, 
 Stamping Mill, Bark Mill, Oil Mill, Sugar Mill, Cider Mill, Grinding, Grist Mill, 
 Color Mill. Modes of Union — ^Insertion, Interposition, Binding, Locking, Ce- 
 menting, Glueing, Welding, Soldering, Casting, Fluxes, Moulds. 
 
10 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 Of Changing the Color of Materials. 
 
 Of Applying Superficial Color — Painting, Colors, Preparation, Application, 
 Crayons, Water Colors, Distemper, Fresco, Encaustic Painting, Oil Painting, 
 Varnishing, Japanning, Polishing, Lacquering, Gilding. Of Changing Intrinsic 
 Color — Bleaching, Photogenic Drawing, Dyeing, Mordants, Dyes, Calico Printing. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 The Arts of Writing and Printing. 
 
 Letters. Invention of Letters, Arrangement of Letters, Writing Materials, 
 Papyrus, Herculaneum, Manuscripts, Parchment, Paper, Instruments, Ink, Copy 
 ing Machines, Printing, Types, Cases, Sizes, Composing, Imposing, Signatures, 
 Correcting the Press, Press Work, Printing Press, Stereotyping, Machine Print- 
 ing. History. 
 
 CHAPTER Vin, 
 Arts of Designing and Painting. 
 
 Divisions, Perspective, Field of Vision, Distance and Foreshortening, Defini- 
 tions, Plate II — Problems, Instrumental, Perspective, Mechanical Perspective, 
 Perspectographs, Projections, Isometrical Perspective, Chiaro Oscuro, Light and 
 Shade, Association, Direction of Light, Reflected Light, Expression of Shape. 
 Eyes of a Portrait — Shadows, Aerial Perspective, Coloring, Colors, Shades, Tone, 
 Harmony, Contrast, Remarks, 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Arts of Engraving and Lithography. 
 
 Engraving, Origin, Materials, Instruments, Styles, Line, Engraving, Medal 
 Ruling, Stippling, Etching, Mezzo-tinto, Aqua Tinta, Copperplate Printing, Col- 
 ored Engravings, Steel Engraving, Wood Engraving. Lithography — Principles, 
 Origin, Lithographic Stones, Preparation, Lithographic Ink and Chalk, Mode of 
 Drawing, Etching the Stone, Printing, Printing Ink. Remarks. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Of Sculpture, Modelling, and Casting. 
 
 Subjects — Modelling, Casting in Plaster, Bronze Casting, Practice of Sculpture, 
 Materials, Objects of Sculpture, Gem Engraving, Cameos, Intaglios, Mosaic, 
 Scagliola. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 Of Architecture and Building. 
 
 Architecture— Elements, Foundations, Column, Wall, Lintel, Arch, Abutments, 
 Arcade, Vault, Dome, Plate I, Roof, Styles of Building, Definitions, Measures, 
 Drawings, Restorations, Egyptian Style, The Chinese Style, The Grecian Style, 
 Orders of Architecture — Doric Order, Ionic Order, Corinthian Order, Caryatides, 
 Grecian Temple, Grecian Theatre, Remarks, Plate IV, Roman Style, Tuscan 
 Order, Roman Doric, Roman Ionic, Composite Order, Roman Structures, Re- 
 marks, Plate V, Greco-Gothic Style, Saracenic Style, Gothic Style, Definitions, 
 Plate VI, Plate VII, Application. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Arts of Heating and Ventilation. 
 
 Production of Heat— Fuel, Weight of Fuel, Combustible Matter of Fuel, Water 
 in Fuel, Charcoal, Communication of Heat, Radiated and Conducted Heat, Fire 
 in the Open Air, Fire Places, Admission of Cold Air, Open Fires, Franklin Stove, 
 Rmnford Fire Place, Double Fire Place, Coal Grate, Anthracite Grate, Burns' 
 Grate, Building a Fire, Furnaces, Stoves, Russian Stove, Cockle, Cellar Stoves, 
 and Air Flues, Heating by Water, Heating by Steam, Retention of Heat, Causes 
 of Loss, Crevices, Chimneys, Entries and Sky Lights, Windows, Ventilation, Oh- 
 jects, Modes, Ventilators, Culverts, Smoky Rooms, Damp Chimneys, Large Fire 
 
11 
 
 Places, Close Rooms, Contiguous Doors, Short Chimneys, Opposite Fire Places, 
 Neighboring Eminences, Turncap, &c.. Contiguous Flues.' Burning of Smoke, 
 
 CHAPTER XIII, 
 
 Arts of Illumination. 
 
 Flame — Support of Flame, Torches and Candles, Lamps, Reservoirs, Astral 
 Lamp, Hydrostatic Lamps, Automaton Lamp, Mechanical Lamps, Fountain Lamp, 
 Argand Lamp, Reflectors, Hanging of Pictures, Transparency of Flame, Glass 
 Shades, Sinunibral Lamp, Measurement of Light, Gas Lights, Coal Gas, Oil Gas, 
 Gasometer, Portable Gas Lights, Safety Lamp, Lamp without Flame, Modes of 
 procuring Light. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Arts of Locomotion. 
 
 Motion of Animals, Inertia, Aids to Locomotion, Wheel Cariage=i. Wheels, Rol- 
 lers, Size of Wheels, Line of Traction, Broad Whf^els, Forn? of Wheels, Axletrees, 
 Springs, Attaching of Horses, Highways, Roads, Pavements, McAdum Roads, 
 Bridges, 1, Wooden Bridges, 2, Stone Bridges, 3, Cast Iron Bridges, 4, Suspen- 
 sion Bridges, 5, Floating Bridges, Rail Roads, Edge Railway, Tram Road, Single 
 Rail, Passings, Propelling Power, Locomotive Engines, Canals, Embankments, 
 Aqueducts, Tunnels, Gates and Weirs, Locks, Boats, Size of Canals, Sailing, Form 
 of a Ship, Keel and Rudder, Effect of the Wind, Stability of a Ship, Steam Boats, 
 Diving Bell, Submarine Navigation, Aerostation, Balloon, Parachute. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Elements of Machinery. 
 
 Machines, Motion, Rotary or Circular Motion, Band Wheels, Rag Wheels, 
 Toothed Wheels, Spiral Gear, Bevel Gear, Crown Wheel, Universal Joint, Per- 
 petual Screw, Brush Wheels, Ratchet Wheel., Distant Rotary Motion, Change of 
 Velocity, Fusee, Alternate or Reciprocating- Motion, Cams, Crank, Parallel Mo- 
 tion, Sun and Planet Wheel, Inclined Wheel, Epicycloidal Wheel, Rack and Seg- 
 ment, Rack and Pinion, Belt and Segment, Scapements, Continued Rectilinear 
 Motion, Band, Rack, Universal Lever, Screw, Change of Direction, Toggle Joint, 
 Of Engaging and Disengaging Machinery, Of Equalizing Motion, Governor, 
 Fly Wheel, Friction, Remarks. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 Of the Moving Forces used in the Arts. 
 
 Sources of Power, Vehicles of Power, Animal Power, Men, Horses, Water 
 Poiuer, Overshot Wheel, Chain Wheel, Undershot Wheel, Back Water, Besant's 
 Wheel, Lambert's Wheel, Breast Wheel, Horizontal Wheel, Barker's Mill, Wind 
 Power, Vertical Windmill, Adjustment of Sails, Horizontal Windmill, Steam 
 Power, Steam, Applications of Steam, By Condensation, By Generation, By Ex- 
 pansion, The Steam Engine, Boiler Appendages, Engine, Noncondensing Engine, 
 Condensing Engines, Description, Expansion, Engines, Valves, Pistons, Parallel 
 Motion, Historical Remarks, Projected Improvements, Rotative Engines, Use of 
 Steam at High Temperatures, Use of Vapors of Low Temperature, Gas Engines, 
 Steam Carriages, Steam Gun, Gunpowder, Manufacture, Detonation, Force, Pro- 
 perties of a Gun, Blasting. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 Arts of Conveying Water. 
 
 Of Conducting Water — Aqueducts, Water Pipes, Friction of Pipes, Obstruction 
 of Pipes, Syphon, Of Raising Water, Scoop Wheel, Persian Wheel, Noria, Rope 
 Pump, Hydreole, Archimedes' Screw, Spiral Pump, Centrifugal Pump, Common 
 Pumps, Forcing Pumps, Plunger Pump, Delahire's Pump, Hydrostatic Press, 
 Lifting Pump, Bag Pump, Double Acting Pump, Rolling Pump, Eccentric Pump, 
 Arrangement of Pipes, Chain Pump, Schemniiz Vessels, or Hungarian Machine, 
 Hero's Fountain, Atmospheric Machines, Hydraulic Ram, Of Projecting Water. 
 Fountains, Fire Engines, Throwing Wheel. 
 
12 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 Arts of Combining Flexible Fibres. 
 
 Theory of Twisting, Rope Making, Cotton Manufacture, Elementary Inven- 
 tions, Batting, Carding. Drawing, Roving, Spinning, Mule Spinning, Warping, 
 Dressing, Weaving, Twilling, Double Weaving, Cross Weaving, Lace, Carpeting, 
 Tapestry, Velvets, Linens, Woolens.) Felting') Paper Making' 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 Arts of Horology. 
 Sun Dial, Clepsydra, Water Clock, Clock Work, Maintaining Power, Regulat- 
 ing Movement, Pendulum, Balance, Scapement, Description of a Clock, Striking 
 Part, Description of a Watch. 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 Arts of Metallurgy. 
 
 Extraction of Metals, Assaying, Alloys, Gold, Extraction, Cupellation, Parting, 
 Cementation, Alloy, Working, Gold Beating, Gilding on Metals, Gold Wire, 
 Silvery Extraction, Working, Coining, Plating, Copper, Extraction, Working, 
 Brass, Manufacture, Buttons, Pins, Bronze, Z/eaci, Extraction, Manufacture, Sheet 
 Lead, Lead Pipes, Leaden Shot, Tin, Block Tin, Tin Plates, Silvering of Mirrors, 
 Iron, Smelting, Crude Iron, Casting, Malleable Iron, Forging, Rolling and Slit- 
 ting, Wire Drawing, Nail Making, Gun Making, Steel, Alloys of Steel, Case Hard- 
 ening, Tempering, Cutlery. 
 
 CHAPTER XXL 
 
 Arts of Vitrification. 
 
 Glass, Materials, Crown Glass, Fritting, Melting, Blowing, Annealing, Broad 
 Glass, Flint Glass, Bottle Glass, Cylinder Glass, Plate Glass, Moulding, Pressing, 
 Cutting, Stained Glass, Enamelling, Artificial Gems, Devitrification, Reaumur's 
 Porcelain, Crystallo-Ceramie, Glass Thread, Remarks. 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 Arts of Induration by Heat. 
 
 Bricks, Tiles, Terra Cotta, Crucibles, Pottery, Operations, Stone Ware, White 
 Ware, Throwing, Pressing, Casting, Burning, Printing, Glazing, China Ware, 
 European Porcelain, Etruscan Vases. 
 
 A FAMILIAR TREATISE ON THE CONSTITU- 
 TION OF THE UNITED STATES, by the Hon. Judge 
 Story, LL. D., Author of ' Commentaries on the Constitu- 
 tion,' <S|'c. 
 
 LIFE OF DR. FRANKLIN. 
 
 SELECTIONS FROM THE WRITINGS OF 
 FRANKLIN, by Jared Sparks, LL. D., Professor of His- 
 tory in Harvard University, Author of ' the Life and Writings 
 of Washington,' ' the Life and Writings of Franklin,' S^c .^c. 
 
 CHRISTIANITY AND KNOWLEDGE, by the Rev. 
 Royal Robbins. 
 
 The design of this Work is to show what Christianity has done for 
 the human intellect, and what that has done for Christianity. 
 
13 
 
 THE LORD OF THE SOIL, OR, PICTURES OF 
 AGRICULTURAL LIFE ; by Rev. Warren Burton, 
 Author of The District School as it Was,' «^c. Sfc. 
 
 SCIENCE AND THE ARTS, by the Rev. Alonzo 
 
 Potter, D. D., Professor of Moral Philosophy and Rhetoric, 
 in Union College, Schenectady, JY. Y. 
 
 The design of this Work is to call attention to the fact that the Arts 
 are the result of intelligence — that they have, each one its principles 
 or theory — that these principles are furnished by Science, and that he, 
 therefore, who would understand the Arts, must know something of 
 Science ; while, on the other hand, he who would see the true power 
 and worth of Science ought to study it in its applications. The work- 
 will be made up o^ facts, illustrating and enforcing these views — so ar- 
 ranged as to exhibit the invariable connexion between processes in Art, 
 and laws in JVature. The importance of such a work requires no 
 comment. 
 
 AGRICULTURE, by the Hon. Judge Buel, of Albany, 
 Editor of ' the Cultivator. ' 
 
 This Work is intended as an aid to the Young Farmer, and from 
 the known character of the gentleman who has it in hand, there can be 
 no doubt but that it will be executed in a highly satisfactory manner. 
 The following, among other subjects, will be therein treated of, viz. 
 
 1. The Importance of Agriculture to a Nation. 
 
 2. Improvement in our Agriculture practicable and necessary. 
 
 3. Some of the principles of the new and improved Husbandry. 
 
 4. Agriculture considered as an Employment. 
 
 5. Earths and Soils. 
 
 6. Improvement of the Soil. 
 
 7. Analogy betvs^een Animal and Vegetable Nutrition. 
 
 8. Further Improvement of the Soil. 
 
 9. " *' by Manures, Animal and Vegetable. 
 
 10. " " by Mineral Manures. 
 
 11. Principles and Operations of Draining. 
 
 12. Principles of Tillage. 
 
 13 Operations of Tillage, &c. &c. 
 
 Due notice will also be taken of alternating crops, root husbandry, mixed hus- 
 bandry, the management of pasture and meadow lands, the garden, orchard, &c. 
 
 Cuts, illustrative of the various operations spoken of and recommended, will 
 be given. 
 
 GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY, by Charles T. 
 Jackson, M. D., Geological Surveyor of Maine and Rhode 
 Island. 
 
 STATISTICS OF THE UNITED STATES, by 
 George Tucker, Professor of Moral Philosophy in the Uni- 
 versity of Virginia, tduthor of ^ the Life of Jefferson, ' <Src. Sfc. 
 
14 
 
 AMERICAN TREES AND PLANTS, used for medi- 
 cinal and economical purposes and employed in the Arts, 
 with numerous engravings ; by Professor Jacob Bigelow, 
 Author of ' Plants of Boston,^ ' Medical Botany ^^ Sfc. Sfc. 
 
 MORAL EFFECTS OF INTERNAL IMPROVE- 
 MENTS, by Robert Rantoul, Jr., Esq. 
 
 LIVES OF THE REFORMERS, by Rev. Romeo El- 
 ton, Professor of Languages in Brown University. 
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF DISTINGUISH- 
 ED FEMALES, by Mrs. Emma C. Embury, of Brooklyn, 
 JV. F. 
 
 SKETCHES OF AMERICAN CHARACTER, by 
 Mrs. Sarah J. Hale, Editor of ' the Ladies' Book,' Author 
 of the ^Ladies'' Wreath,' ' Flora's Interpreter,' Sfc. 8^c. 
 
 DO RIGHT AND HAVE RIGHT, by Mrs. Almira 
 H. Lincoln Phelps, Principal of the Literary Department 
 of the Young Ladies' Seminary, at West Chester, Pa., 
 Jormerly of the Troy Seminary, JY. Y., Author of 'Familiar 
 Lectures on Botany,' 'Female Student,' S^c. 
 
 The object of this Work may be gathered from the following re- 
 marks of Mrs. Phelps. " A popular work on the principles of law, with 
 stories illustrating these principles, might be very profitable to people 
 in common life, as well as to children. The ward cheated by a guard- 
 ian, the widow imposed on by administrators or executors, the wife 
 abandoned by a husband, with whom she had trusted her paternal in- 
 heritance, the partner in business, overreached by his crafty associate, 
 for want of a knowledge of the operations of the law, — all these might 
 be exhibited in such a way as to teach the necessity of legal knowledge 
 to both sexes, and to all ages and classes." 
 
 SCENES IN THE LIFE OF JOANNA OF SICILY, 
 by Mrs. E. F. Ellet, of Columbia, S. C. 
 
 This is written with a view to young readers, and for the purpose of 
 illustrating important historical events. 
 
 The Publishers have also in preparation for this Series, 
 a History of the United States, and of other Countries, a 
 History of the Aborigines of our Country, a History of 
 Inventions, Works on Botany, Natural History, &c. &c. 
 Many distinguished writers, not here mentioned, have been 
 engaged, whose names will be in due time announced, 
 although at present, we do not feel at liberty to make them 
 public. 
 
15 
 
 Among the works prepared, and in a state of forward- 
 ness, for the Juvenile Series are the following, viz. 
 
 MEANS AND ENDS, OR SELF TRAINING, by Miss 
 Caroline Sedgwick, Author of ' The Poor Rich Marij 
 and Rich PoorMan,^ ' Live and Let Live,^ ' Home,^ S^c. Sfc. 
 
 NEW-ENGLAND HISTORICAL SKETCHES, by 
 N. Hawthorne, Author of' Twice Told Tales,^ ^c. 
 
 CONVERSATIONS AND STORIES BY THE 
 FIRE SIDE, by Mrs. Sa^rah J. Hale, 
 
 FAILURE NOT RUIN, by Horatio G. Hale, A. M. 
 
 TALES IN PROSE, blending instruction with amuse- 
 ment ; by Miss Mary E. Lee, of Charleston, S. C. 
 
 PICTURES OF EARLY LIFE :— Stories; each in- 
 culcating some moral lesson ; by Mrs. Emma C. Embury, 
 of Brooklyn, JV. Y. 
 
 FREDERICK HASKELL'S VOYAGE ROUND 
 THE WORLD, by H. G. Hale, A. M., Philologist to 
 the Exploring Expedition. 
 
 BIOGRAPHY FOR THE YOUNG, by Miss E. Rob- 
 bins, Author of' American Popular Lessons,^ Sequel to the 
 same, Sfc. 
 
 THE WONDERS OF NATURE, by A. J. Stansbury, 
 Esq., of Washington City ; illustrated by numerous cuts. 
 
 WORKS OF ART, by the same ; illustrated by numer- 
 ous cuts, 
 
 PLEASURES OF TASTE, and other Stories select- 
 ed from the Writings of Jane Taylor, with a sketch of her 
 life, (and a likeness,) by Mrs. S. J. Hale. 
 
 SELECTIONS FROM THE WORKS OF MRS. 
 BARBAULD, tvith a Life and Portrait. 
 
 SELECTIONS FROM THE WORKS OF MARIA 
 EDGEWORTH, icith a Life and Portrait. 
 
 SELECTIONS FROM THE WORKS OF MRS. 
 SHERWOOD, with a Life and Portrait. 
 
 SELECTIONS FRpM THE WORKS OF DR. 
 AIKIN, with a Sketch of his Life, by Mrs. Hale. 
 
 CHEMISTRY FOR BEGINNERS, by Benjamin Sil- 
 LiMAN, Jr., Assistant in the Department of Chemistry, Min- 
 eralogy, and Geology in Yale College ; aided by Professor 
 
 SiLLlMAN. 
 
16 
 
 MY SCHOOLS AND MY TEACHERS, by Mrs. A. 
 H. Lincoln Phelps. 
 
 The author's design, in this work, is to describe the Common Schools 
 as they were in New-England at the beginning of the present century ; 
 to delineate the peculiar characters of different Teachers ; and to give 
 a sketch of her various school companions, with then- progress in after 
 life, endeavoring thereby to show that the child, while at school, is 
 forming the future man, or woman. 
 
 It is not the intention of the Publishers to drive these 
 works through the Press with a railroad speed, in the hope 
 of securing the market, by the multiplicity of the publica- 
 tions cast upon the community; they rely for patronage, 
 upon the intrinsic merits of the works, and consequently 
 time must be allowed the writers to mature and systematize 
 them. The more surely to admit of this, the two Series 
 will be issued in sets of five and ten volumes at a time. 
 Besides the advantage above alluded to, that will result 
 from such an arrangement, it will place The School Li- 
 brary within the reach of those Districts, which, from the 
 limited amount of their annual funds, would not otherwise 
 be enabled to procure it. 
 
 The works will be printed on paper and with type ex- 
 pressly manufactured for the Library; will be bound in 
 cloth, with leather backs and corners, having gilt titles 
 upon the backs, and for greater durability, cloth hinges 
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 The larger Series will be furnished to Schools, Academies, 
 &c., at seventy-Jive cents per volume, and the Juvenile Series 
 at forty cents per volume ; which the Publishers advisedly 
 declare to be cheaper, than any other series of works that 
 can be procured at home or abroad, bearing in mind their 
 high intellectual character, and the style of their mechanical 
 execution. 
 
 The Publishers solicit orders from School Committees, 
 Trustees, Teachers, and others, for either or both Series, 
 and wish particular directions how, to whom, and to what 
 place the books shall be forwarded. 
 
 Annexed are Specimen Pages of the two Series. 
 
THE ARTERIES, 
 
 271 
 
 carried into the reservoir, and they fill it half full of water, 
 C ; the mouth of the pipe, D, which is to convey away 
 the water, reaches into the water in the reservoir. As 
 the water rises, the air is compressed : so that, although 
 the pumps act alternately, the elasticity of the contained 
 air acts uninterruptedly in pressing on the surface of the 
 water, and raising it by the tube, D, in an equable stream. 
 The elasticity of the contained air, fills up the interval 
 between the actions of tHe pumps, and admits of no in- 
 terruption to the force with which the water is propelled 
 upwards. 
 
 Surely these are sufficient indications of the necessity 
 of three powers acting in propeUing the blood from the 
 heart. The first, is a sudden and powerful action of 
 the ventricle : the second, is a contraction of the artery, 
 somewhat similar, excited by its distention : the third, 
 though a property independent of hfe, is a power permit- 
 ting no interval or alternation ; it is the elasticity of the 
 coats of the artery : and these three powers, duly adjust- 
 ed, keep up a continued stream in the blood-vessels. It 
 is true, that when an artery is wounded, the blood flows 
 
308 
 
 NATURAL THEOLOGY 
 
 The superior sagacity of animals which hunt their 
 prey, and which, consequently, depend for their liveli- 
 hood upon their nose, is well known in its use ; but not 
 at all known in the organization which produces it. 
 
 The external ears of beasts of prey, of Hons, tigers, 
 wolves, have their trumpet-part, or concavity, standing 
 forward, to seize the sounds which are before them — 
 viz., the sounds of the animals which they pursue or 
 watch. The ears of animals of flight are turned back- 
 ward, to give notice of the approach of their enemy from 
 behind, whence he may steal upon them unseen. This 
 is a critical distinction, and is mechanical ; but it may be 
 suggested, and, I think, not without probabiHty, that it 
 is the effect of continual habit. 
 
 [Heads of the hare and wolf, showing the different manner 
 in which the ears are turned. — Am. Ed.] 
 
 The eyes of animals which follow their prey by night, 
 as cats, owls, &c., possess a faculty not given to those 
 of other species, namely, of closing the pupil entirely. 
 
OF COLUMBUS. ^ 61 
 
 It is difficult even for the imagination to conceive the 
 feehngs of such a man, at the moment of so subhme a 
 discovery. What a bewildering crowd of conjectures 
 must have thronged upon his mind, as to the land which 
 lay before him, covered with darkness. That it was 
 fruitful was evident from the vegetables which floated 
 from its shores. He thought, too, that he perceived in 
 the balmy air the fragrance of aromatic groves. The 
 moving light which he had beheld, proved that it was the 
 residence of man. But what were its inhabitants.'* Were 
 they like those of other parts of the globe ; or were they 
 some strange and monstrous race, such as the imagina- 
 tion in those times was prone to give to all remote and 
 unknown regions? Had he come upon some wild island, 
 far in the Indian seas; or was this the famed Cipango 
 itself, the object of his golden fancies? A thousand 
 speculations of the kind must have swarmed upon him, 
 as he watched for the night to pass away; wondering 
 whether the morning light would reveal a savage wilder- 
 ness, or dawn upon spicy groves, and glittering fanes, and 
 gilded cities, and all the splendors of oriental civihzation. 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 First Landing of Columbus in the J^ew World. — Cruise, 
 among the Bahama Islands. — Discovery of Cuba and 
 Hispaniola. [1492.] 
 
 When the day dawned, Columbus saw before him a 
 level and beautiful island, several leagues in extent, of 
 great freshness and verdure, and covered with trees like 
 a continual orchard. Though every thing appeared in 
 the wild luxuriance of untamed nature, yet the island was 
 evidently populous, for the inhabitants were seen issuing 
 from the woods, and running from all parts to the shore. 
 They were all perfectly naked, and from their attitudes 
 6 I. 
 
286 
 
 A VISIT TO PALOS. 
 
 residence of Martin Alonzo or Vicente Yafiez Pinzon, 
 in the time of Columbus. 
 
 We now arrived at the church of St. George, in the 
 porch of which Columbus first proclaimed to the inhabi- 
 tants of Palos the order of the sovereigns, that they 
 should furnish him with ships for his great voyage of dis- 
 covery. This edifice has lately been thoroughly repaired, 
 and, being of sohd mason-work, promises to stand for 
 ages, a monument of the discoverers. It stands outside 
 of the village, on the brow of a hill, looking along a Httle 
 valley toward the river. The remains of a Moorish 
 arch prove it to have been a mosque in former times ; 
 just above it, on the crest of the hill, is the ruin of a 
 Moorish castle. 
 
 I paused in the porch, and endeavored to recall the 
 interesting scene that had taken place there, when Co- 
 lumbus, accompanied by the zealous friar Juan Perez, 
 caused the public notary to read the royal order in pres- 
 ence of the astonished alcaldes, regidors, and alguazils ; 
 but it is difficult to conceive the consternation that must 
 have been struck into so remote a little community, by 
 this sudden apparition of an entire stranger among them, 
 bearing a command that they should put their persons 
 and ships at his disposal, and sail with him away into the 
 unknown wilderness of the ocean. 
 
 The interior of the church has nothing remarkable, 
 
THE COTTON PLANT. 335 
 
 work of creation and the work of grace revealed in the 
 word of God. Proofs corroborative of the authenticity 
 of the Bible, have been gathered from those very sources 
 which formerly were applied to by the skeptic for his 
 sharpest weapons ; and at this moment, (such is the secu- 
 rity with which Christianity may regard the progress of 
 knowledge,) there does not exist in our own country, nor, 
 so far as I am aware, in any other, one philosopher of 
 eminence who has ventured to confront Christianity and 
 philosophy, as manifestly contradictory. May we not 
 venture to hope that, in a very short time, the weak darts 
 of minor spirits, which from time to time are still permit- 
 ted to assail our bulwarks, will be also quenched, and the 
 glorious Gospel, set free from all the oppositions of sci- 
 ence falsely so called, shall walk hand in hand over the 
 earth with a philosophy always growing in humility, be- 
 cause every day becoming more genuine. C. J. C. D. 
 
 TWELFTH WEEK— MONDAY. 
 
 VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES USED FOR WEAVING. THE COTTON- 
 
 PLANT. 
 
 The cotton-plant, another vegetable substance, exten- 
 sively used in manufactures, differs materially from that 
 already described, in its properties, appearance, and hab- 
 its. Instead of being generally diffused over temperate 
 climates, it belongs more properly to the torrid zone, and 
 the regions bordering on it ; and instead of being chiefly 
 confined to one species, as to its pecuhar and useful qual- 
 ities, its varieties seem scarcely to have any limit, extend- 
 ing from an herb* of a foot or two in height, to a treef 
 
 * Gossypium herbaceum, or common herbaceous cotton-plant. 
 
 t Bombax ceiba, or American silk cotton-tree. — [The Baobab, or 
 Adansonia digitata, an enormous and long-lived tree, also belongs to 
 this family. But it is incorrect to call these trees " varieties " of the 
 cotton plant. They are nearly allied to it, indeed, but they stand in dif- 
 ferent divisions of the great order of malvacecz, or mallows ; and the 
 downy contents of their pods are of little use compared with true cotton. 
 —Am. Ed.] 
 
378 GLOSSARY. 
 
 Coup de mairij (French terra,) a military expression, denoting an in- 
 stantaneous, sudden, unexpected attack upon an enemy. 
 
 Dulce et decorum, est pro pairia mori, It is delightful and glorious to 
 die for one's country. 
 
 EjlJigies Seb. Caboti Angli filii Joannis Caboti militis aurati. As 
 will be seen by the text, where this inscription occurs, (p. 121,) 
 there is an ambiguity in the application of the last two words. The 
 other part of the inscription, may be rendered, " the portrait (or 
 likeness) of Sebastian Cabot, of England, son of John Cabot." 
 Milesy or militis, means, literally, a warrior, or soldier, or officer 
 of the army ; and in the English law, sometimes indicates a knight. 
 Auratus, or aurati, means gilt, gilded, or decked with gold. Eques 
 means a horseman, or knight, who was frequently called eques aura- 
 tus, because, anciently, none but knights were allowed to beautify 
 their armor, and other habiliments, with gold. 
 
 En jnasse, in a body, in the mass, altogether. 
 
 Eques, and Eques auratus. See Effigies. 
 
 Fasciae, {ip\. fascines,) a bundle of fagots, or small branches of trees, 
 or slicks of wood, bound together, for filling ditches, &c. 
 
 Formula, {p\. formula:,) a prescribed form or order. 
 
 Geoicetlc, relating to the art of measuring surfaces. 
 
 Gramina, grasses. 
 
 Green Mountain Boys, a term applied, during the Revolutionary War, 
 to the inhabitants of Vermont, (Green Mountain,) particularly those 
 who were in the army. 
 
 Gymnotus, the electric eel. 
 
 Habeas Corpus, "you may have the body." A writ, as it has been 
 aptly termed, of personal freedom ; which secures, to any individual, 
 who may be imprisoned, the privilege of having his cause imme- 
 diately removed to the highest court, that the judges may decide 
 whether there is ground for his imprisonment or not. 
 
 Hipparckus, a celebrated mathematician and astronomer of Nicsea, in 
 Bithynia, who died 125 years before the Christian era. He was 
 the first after Thales and Sulpicius Callus, who found out the exact 
 time of eclipses, of which he made a calculation for 600 years. He is 
 supposed to have been the first, who reduced astronomy to a science, 
 and prosecuted the study of it systematically. 
 
 Loyalists, Royalists, Refugees, and Tories. In the times of the Revo- 
 lution, these terms were used as technical or party names, and were 
 sometimes applied indiscriminately. Strictly speaking, however, 
 Loyalists, were those whose feelings or opinions were in favor of 
 the mother country, but who declined taking part in the Revolu- 
 tion ; Royalists, were those who preferred or favored, a kingly gov- 
 ernment ; Refugees, were those who fled from the country and 
 sought the protection of the British ; and Tories, were those, who 
 actually opposed the war, and took part with the enemy, aiding 
 them by ail the tneans in their power. 
 
 Magnetic Variation, a deviation of the needle in the mariner's com- 
 pass, from an exact North and South direction. 
 
 Master-at-arms, an officer appointed to take charge of the small arms 
 in a ship of war, and to teach the officers and crew the exercise of 
 
18mo. pages. 
 
 MARY BOND IN A SICK-ROOM. 129 
 
 ring it all the time. Of course I do not make it 
 every 'time it is wanted, for sometimes, when I 
 want it extra good, I boil and stir it a full hour, 
 and then I put it away in a close vessel and in a 
 cool place. For Raymond, or for any one get- 
 ting well, and free from fever, I put in a third 
 wheat flour, and half milk. You see it is a very 
 simple process, sir." 
 
 '' Yes — simple enough. But it is to these 
 simple processes that people will not give their 
 attention," 
 
 Mary had the happiness of seeing Raymond 
 sitting up before their parents returned, and when 
 they drove into the great gate, and up the lane, 
 he was in his rocking-chair by the window, watch- 
 ing for them. They had heard of his illness, and 
 were most thankful to find him so far recovered. 
 The Doctor chanced to be present when they 
 arrived. '' O, Doctor !" said Mrs. Bond, after 
 the first greetings were over, "how shall I ever 
 be grateful enough to you .'"' 
 
 '' I have done very little, Mrs. Bond," replied 
 the honest Doctor. " In Raymond's case, medi- 
 cine could do httle or nothing. Nature had been 
 overtasked, and wanted rest and soothing. Under 
 God, Raymond owes his recovery to Mary." 
 
 "O, mother!" exclaimed Raymond, bursting 
 into tears, '' she is the best sister in the w^orld !" 
 
 " She is the best sister in the two worlds !" 
 cried little Grace Bond, a child of five years old. 
 
 A source of true comfort and happiness is such 
 a child and such a sister as Mary Bond ! — a light 
 
138 THE LOST CHILDREN. 
 
 US, as soon as we are missed ; let us keep on 
 and perhaps we may find some other path." 
 
 The poor children proceeded on their course, 
 unconscious that every step was taking them deep- 
 er into the forest, until, completely bewildered by 
 the thick darkness, and overcome with fatigue, they 
 could go no further. " Let us pray to God, and 
 then we can lie down, and die in peace," said 
 George ; and the innocent children knelt down on 
 the fallen leaves, and lisped their simple prayers, 
 as they were accustomed to do at their mother's 
 side. 
 
 "We must try to find some shelter, George," 
 said Kate, as they arose from their knees, " this 
 chill air will kill you, even if we escape the wild 
 beasts." As she spoke, the light of a young 
 mooij which faintly illumined the depths of the 
 wood, enabled her to discover a hollow log lying 
 near. Tearing off some branches from the brittle 
 hemlock tree, she piled them around the log, in 
 such a manner, as to form a sort of penthouse ; 
 and, placing George within the more effectual 
 shelter of the log, she lay down by his side. Worn 
 widi fatigue, notwithstanding their fears, the chil- 
 dren soon fell into a profound sleep ; and the 
 beams of the morning sun, shining through the 
 branches which formed their covering, first awoke 
 them from their peaceful slumbers. 
 
 Their little hearts swelled with gratitude to the 
 merciful God, who had preserved them through 
 the perils of the night, and the morning hymn which 
 was wont to resound within the walls of their