THE 
 
 MEDITERRANEAN 
 
 A MEMOIR 
 
 PHYSICAL HISTORICAL AND NAUTICAL 
 
 BY 
 
 REAK-ADMIEAL WILLIAM HENEY SMYTH, K.S.F., D.C.L., 
 
 ONE OF THE BOARD OF VISITORS OF THE ROYAL OBSERVATORY ; 
 
 SOME TIME 
 
 FOREIGN SECRETARY AND VICE-PRESIDENT OP THE ROYAL SOCIETY, 
 
 VICE-PRESIDENT AND DIRECTOR OF THE SOCIETY OF ANTIQUARIES, PRESIDENT OF 
 
 THE ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, 
 
 PRESIDENT OF THE ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, 
 
 AND VICE-PRESIDENT AND CHAIRMAN OF THE UNITED SERVICE INSTITUTION 
 
 OF LONDON: 
 
 CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTE OF FRANCE; 
 
 HONORARY MEMBER OF THE ROYAL IRISH ACADEMY; AND OF THE SCIENTIFIC ACADEMIES 
 
 OF NAPLES, PALERMO, FLORENCE, BOSTON, WASHINGTON, 
 
 AND NEW YORK. 
 
 LONDON 
 JOHN W. PARKER AND SON 
 
 MDCCCL1V 
 
 N\ 
 
 454 
 
j} e> i 3 
 
/ 
 
 TO 
 
 // 
 
 REAR-ADMIRAL SIR FRANCIS BEAUFORT, K.C.B. 
 
 F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., ETC. 
 HYDROGRAPHER TO THE ADMIRALTY. 
 
 St. John's Lodge, near Aylesbury, 
 Jan. 2Mh t 1854. 
 
 My dear Beaufort, 
 
 I KNOW not to whom I could in any case have addressed 
 my hydrographical treatise so appropriately as to you, who have so 
 long and ably presided over the surveying department of the navy. 
 But nearly half a century of professional acquaintance, including 
 thirty years of intimate friendship, with the knowledge of you which 
 they have given as a man, a seaman, and an officer, leave me 
 wholly unable to say whether I ought rather to inscribe this work 
 to you as a public compliment, or as a mark of private regard. 
 To you, then, I submit the present exposition of the state of our 
 knowledge of the Mediterranean Sea at the time of my return to 
 England in the close of the year 1824; only regretting, on various 
 counts connected therewith, that you were not holding office at 
 that period. 
 
 This work, as you are aware, has long been meditated, but has 
 ' hung fire' for the completion of the surveys in the Archipelago, so 
 that it might only just precede a complete Sailing-Directory for 
 the whole Inner Sea. The unexpected breaking off of Captain 
 Graves, however, towards the very close of those operations, and 
 
 b 
 
vi DEDICATION. 
 
 their consequent suspension, determined me to proceed with my 
 part at once. For this and two or three other reasons, together 
 with the loss occasioned by the destructive conflagration of the 
 printing-office of Messrs. Savill and Edwards, the book is later 
 in its publication than was intended. Still the delay has been 
 of no actual detriment to the Service, since my charts — which, 
 in fact, are working diagrams of all the labour — have long been 
 engraved and circulated by the Admiralty ; while, as you can tes- 
 tify, my observations and memoranda have always been accessible 
 to inquirers. 
 
 The undertaking, though heavy, is nevertheless not wanting 
 either in interest or importance : the Mediterranean Sea, so secondary 
 in extent compared with others, being, per se, of vast surface, with 
 many of its characteristics on the grandest scale. Besides, viewing 
 it as the actual site where the intellectual culture to which we are 
 most directly indebted was first developed, it cannot but be regarded 
 for its portentous historical occurrences ; nor will a sailor forget 
 that it is the sea whereon the fleets of Carthage, Greece, and Rome 
 contended in former days, and those of Spain, France, Italy, and 
 England in later times. ' The grand object of travelling/ said 
 Dr. Johnson to General Paoli, ' is to see the shores of the Mediter- 
 ranean. On those shores were the four great empires of the world ; 
 the Assyrian, the Persian, the Greek, and the Roman. All our 
 religion, almost all our arts, almost all that sets us above savages, 
 has come to us from the shores of the Mediterranean/ 
 
 It might appear strange that a coast of such paramount interest 
 should still have required surveying in the present day; but the 
 following pages may, in part, account for the necessity. To what 
 is hereinafter mentioned, it may be prefaced, that useful knowledge 
 has recently spread as largely over the waters as upon land ; much 
 
DEDICATION. vii 
 
 of which must be ascribed to sundry of its older trammels being 
 thrown overboard, and much to the progressive improvement which 
 time naturally and surely creates. Since you and I first dabbled 
 in these matters, a vast stride has been made in hydrography; and 
 the results are seen in more efficient instruments, better astrono- 
 mical tables, sounder nautical directions, and more correct charts. 
 Instead of a Lunarian being a l rara avis' in our ships, as of erst, 
 there is now a very host of them afloat; and chronometers, then so 
 scarce, are at present to be found in every ship of consideration. 
 Meantime, the various branches of available science have been so 
 steadily advancing among seamen of all nations, that besides a 
 higher practice in mechanical navigation, they possess a more 
 accurate information respecting the phenomena of winds and 
 oceanic currents than heretofore. Already the elements are nearly 
 reduced to subjection by the union of science and practical seaman- 
 ship, so that sea-passages are wonderfully shortened within memory ; 
 and these beneficial effects are on the eve of being strengthened in 
 utility by a systematic arrangement and impartial discussion of 
 connected facts, as proposed by the energetic Lieut. Maury, of the 
 United States Navy. In a word, although incompetence may 
 sometimes appear in the van, to the serious detriment of the public 
 interests and character, the true place and substantial advantage 
 of real talent is fast gaining recognition; whence it must follow 
 that inchoate notions, and arbitrary assumptions, will inevitably 
 succumb to experienced skill, and the logical reasonings of 
 induction. 
 
 It would be deeply important to our knowledge of the terrestrial 
 attributes of our globe, were the profundity, form, and physical 
 nature of the ocean ascertained; but an enormous amount of 
 labour and money must be consumed, before positive conclusions 
 
vni DEDICATION. 
 
 can possibly be arrived at over such an immensity. Indeed, a 
 complete oceanic survey may be beyond human power ; but, to the 
 best of my opinion, a sub-aqueous map of the Mediterranean is 
 within our compass. Towards an object so truly valuable to 
 science, the following pages, it is hoped, may prove a trustworthy 
 pioneer ; albeit my inquiries were mainly directed to our maritime 
 requirements in 1810, the date of my commencing operations in 
 that sea. Still, in conducting examinations and gathering every 
 information in my power, neither toil, responsibility, nor personal 
 expense, were ever spared by 
 
 Your truly attached friend, 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Pakt I. 
 
 A Chorographical Yiew of the Shores of the Mediterranean 
 Sea, with especial reference to their Produce and Com- 
 merce. 
 
 Introductory matter . . 
 The Snores of Spain . . 
 t The Spanish Islands . . 
 The Coast of France . . 
 The Coast of Western Italy 
 Of the Italian Islands . . 
 The Adriatic Sea ... 
 
 10 
 13 
 
 17 
 28 
 34 
 
 The Shores and Islands of West- 
 ern Greece 48 
 
 The Archipelago, Black Sea, and 
 Levant 61 
 
 The North Coast of Africa . . 83 
 
 Statistics of the British Depen- 
 dencies ... . , . . . 100 
 
 Part II. 
 
 Of the Currents, Tides, and Waters of the 
 Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 Preliminary matter 104 
 
 Volcanic Zone 106 
 
 Physical speculations . . . .113 
 Divisions and sub-divisions . . 123 
 
 Temperature 124 
 
 Colour 125 
 
 Luminosity 126 
 
 Component substances detected 127 
 Specific Gravity 131 
 
 Adventure Bank 136 
 
 Extent of the Mediterranean 
 
 Sea 139 
 
 Supply 140 
 
 Fluvial system 143 
 
 Evaporation 145 
 
 On the Currents 151 
 
 On the Tides . • 171 
 
 Ichthyology 192 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Part III. 
 
 Of the Mediterranean Winds, Weather, and 
 Atmospherical Phenomena. 
 
 On the Climate and Meteorology 210 
 On the author's Registers . . 212 
 Barometer and Thermometer . 216 
 
 Rain 217 
 
 Probable degree of Change in 
 
 Climate 223 
 
 Malaria 225 
 
 Winds and Weather . . . .230 
 
 Prognostics 238 
 
 Electric agency 262 
 
 Waterspouts 263 
 
 Compazant 267 
 
 Mirage 288 
 
 Fogs . . ■ 290 
 
 Dew 292 
 
 Damage by Lightning .... 302 
 
 Part IY. 
 
 Of the Surveys and Geographical Investigations in the 
 Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 In the early ages 310 
 
 Classic Surveys 314 
 
 Ptolemy's grave error .... 321 
 
 Comparison of ancient points . 325 
 
 In the Middle Ages 325 
 
 The Arabians .326 
 
 The Venetians 328 
 
 Early Portolani 329 
 
 marked therein, and 
 
 since omitted 332 
 
 Modern operations 336 
 
 The author's surveys .... 353 
 
 Captain Gauttier 359 
 
 The Adriatic survey .... 363 
 Officers of the Aid 'dud. Adventure 375 
 
 Course pursued 380 
 
 Catalogue of the Charts . . . 394 
 
 Part V. 
 Of the Orthography and Nomenclature adopted ; the Geo- 
 graphical Points — or Co-ordinates of Latitude, Longi- 
 tude, and Height — of the Mediterranean Shores; with 
 the Variation of the Magnetic Needle, and other Notanda. 
 
 He-measurement of the arc be- 
 tween Palermo and Malta . . 420 
 Daussy's examination of the 
 
 question 421 
 
 Dip of the horizon 426 
 
 On the Use of Symbols . . .427 
 
 On Abbreviations 428 
 
 Simple Symbols 430 
 
 Prefatory matter 406 
 
 Causes of change in Greek 
 
 names 410 
 
 Orthography of Arabian names . 414 
 Arrangement of the tabulated 
 
 points 416 
 
 On the normal position of 
 
 Palermo Observatory . . . 417 
 
CONTENTS. xi 
 
 Appendix. 
 
 I. The opening of a Road into central Africa 473 
 
 II. On Graham Island 498 
 
 The Index 501 
 
 ERRATA. 
 
 The reader is earnestly requested to correct, with his pen, the following 
 oversights of the press. 
 
 46, line 20, for ' Chinuera,' read 'Chimera.' 
 
 47, last line of the note, for 'futile' read ' fictile' fragments. 
 67, line 10 db imo, for 'Psitoriti,' read 'Psiloriti.' 
 
 92, last line, for ' 1820,' read ' 1821.' 
 149, after line 22, in the heading of the last column of the table, for cubic 
 
 ' inches,' read ' miles. ' 
 218, line 2 db imo, Brewster's formula, insert x before cos. lat. 
 375, for Assistant-Surgeon ' Beg,' read ' Begg.' 
 396, No. XIV., for Port ' Cross,' read Port ' Cros.' 
 
THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA, 
 
 PiART I. 
 
 A CHOROGRAPHICAL VIEW OF THE SHORES OF THE 
 MEDITERRANEAN SEA, WITH ESPECIAL REFER- 
 ENCE TO THEIR PRODUCE AND COMMERCE. 
 
 § 1. The Mediterranean Shores of Spain. 
 
 THE Mediterranean Sea, equally remarkable from its 
 position in the midst of the most civilized nations, 
 and its connexion with many memorable events in ancient 
 and modern history, is that vast central gulf emphatically 
 styled in the Sacred Scriptures the Great Sea ; justly 
 receiving that appellation, as being the largest assemblage 
 of waters known to the earliest writers of those records : 
 and indeed its importance was truly paramount among the 
 ancients, as it was the grand key to both portions of the then 
 known world. 
 
 By the word Mediterranean, or midland, we understand 
 water enclosed either wholly or nearly by land ; but the 
 term was not applied to this sea by any classical writer. 
 The ancient Greeks seem to have had no general name for 
 it, — Herodotus merely calls it ' this sea/ and Strabo the 
 ' sea within the columns/ that is, within Calpe and Abyla. 
 By their present descendants it is called Aspri Thalassa 
 ("Ao-Trp Qakao<ra) the White Sea, to distinguish it from 
 the Euxine, which they call Mavri Thalassa (Maupw 
 QoiXouro-a) the Black Sea. It was gradually designated the 
 Grecian Sea, and then the Mare internum; while Mela 
 terms it mare nostrum. Though some of the Arabians 
 described it as the Green Sea, it was Bahr-Rum, the 
 
 B 
 
 Mediterra- 
 nean Sea. 
 
2 MEDITERRANEAN SHORES OF SPAIN. 
 
 Greek or Roman Sea, with most of them ; among our own 
 seamen it has long been specialized as the Straits. Geo- 
 graphically speaking, however, the term Mediterranean is 
 now more strictly applied to the whole expanse between 
 the South of Europe, Asia Minor, and the north coast 
 of Africa; extending from the Straits of Gibraltar to the 
 shores of Syria, including the Sea of Marmora, the Euxine, 
 and the Palus Maeotis. It is separated from the Red Sea 
 by the Isthmus of Suez ; from the Atlantic Ocean, though 
 their waters unite, by the Strait of Gibraltar, and commu- 
 nicates with the Black Sea by the Dardanelles and the 
 Canal of Constantinople. 
 
 The political and social events which have occurred on 
 the shores of this remarkable part of the ocean, are closely 
 connected with the history of almost every country in the 
 world ; but independently of its classical and historical asso- 
 ciations, the Mediterranean still confers invaluable advan- 
 tages upon the numerous occupiers of its coasts, and through 
 them on the interior of the surrounding continents. It is 
 moreover the great bond of intercourse between the nations 
 of Europe, Asia, and Africa, although it appears as if it had 
 been destined to keep them asunder. Beautifully diversified 
 with islands, and bounded by almost every variety of soil, 
 its products are proportionally various ; and from its com- 
 munication with the Atlantic, it facilitates commerce with 
 every part of the globe. Here navigation made its earliest 
 efforts ; and the comparative shortness of the distances 
 between port and port, by rendering the transit easy, even 
 to imperfect vessels, tended to promote and diffuse civili- 
 zation, it being an unquestionable axiom, that whatever 
 is calculated to make men better acquainted with each 
 other, whether the inhabitants of distant lands or neigh- 
 bours, must inevitably produce beneficial results for the 
 whole. But though commerce is and has been both vast 
 and various in this sea, its energies cannot be said to have 
 attained their full development, clogged as they have been 
 
MEDITERRANEAN SHORES OF SPAIN. 3 
 
 by impolitic curbs and impositions ; nevertheless under 
 numerous vexatious restrictions, direct employment and 
 subsistence are still afforded to many hundred thousands of 
 those people who have access to its shores. 
 
 Our ancestors had acquired some acquaintance with Medieval 
 Mediterranean traffic as early as the time of the Crusades ; 
 but like all other nations of Europe at that period, they were 
 ignorant of the principles of commerce, as well as destitute 
 of the capital by which it is made steady and lucrative. 
 In the 12th year of Henry VII. (1497), as shown by an act 
 of Parliament, our goods were exported to Genoa and 
 Venice, yet they seem to have been carried entirely by 
 foreign ships and traders ; the argosies of Shakspeare being 
 Ragusan vessels. According to Hakluyt, our first trade of 
 moment with this sea, in English bottoms, began in 1511, 
 just before the Turks obtained possession of Chios, to 
 which port our vessels traded, and where, two years after- 
 wards, a consul* was appointed to superintend our interests. 
 The year 1550 found the tall ships of our merchant adven- 
 turers carrying on a commerce with Sicily, Candia, Cyprus, 
 and Syria; by which the germs of the Levant Company 
 were matured. 
 
 Sailing from England, the first Mediterranean feature Spain, 
 the voyager falls in with is Spain (Iberia), a country of 
 proud recollections and interesting story. But the political 
 events of the last half century have severed her colonies, 
 destroyed her fleets, and irretrievably damaged her com- 
 merce. Still her national character for persevering effort in 
 warfare is remarkable, whether shown in her struggles, as 
 with the Saracens and in the succession campaigns, or in the 
 arduous contentions which have taken place on her own soil, as 
 those between Rome and Carthage, or those in which she took 
 part when overrun by the armies of France, and occupied by 
 her English allies. Yet her formidable barrier on the north, 
 
 * It is therefore erroneous to call John Tipton, who was appointed to 
 Algiers in 1581, the first English Mediterranean consul. 
 
 B 2 
 
4 MEDITERRANEAN SHORES OF SPAIN. 
 
 her being posited as it were between Europe and Africa, and 
 her station between two seas, would show that nature intend- 
 ed that Spain should remain integral, extend commerce, and 
 facilitate intercourse with other nations. Still the enormous 
 chains of mountains which traverse the peninsula, and a want 
 of navigable rivers, added to a host of moral causes, have been 
 serious obstacles to her prosperity. Spain indeed, as Wilson 
 shows in his History of Mountains, may be considered to be 
 composed of a series of elevation-terraces, which, projecting 
 successively their rugged edges towards the south, present 
 a flight of gigantic steps from the Pyrenees to the Strait 
 of Gibraltar, and from the Rock of Lisbon on the Atlantic 
 shore to Cape Creux on the Mediterranean. 
 Gibraltar. The northern shores of the Strait of Gibraltar, after 
 
 passing Cadiz (Gadir) and Cape Trafalgar,* are marked 
 by the isle of Tarifa — the southernmost point of Europe — 
 and the fortified rock of Gibraltar (Calpe), which is a vast 
 body of limestone of the oolitic period, elevated 1430 feet 
 above the level of the sea, with a handsome free-port town 
 at its base. This peninsular mass — about two miles and a 
 quarter long by nearly three quarters of a mile broad, with 
 a circuit of between four and five miles — is joined to the 
 continent by a low sandy neck, which towards the Medi- 
 terranean has an elevation of several feet above its opposite 
 side abutting on the bay, an effect occasioned by the strong 
 Levant winds and waves along what is termed Back-strap 
 Bay. Here a fair system of government, full toleration in 
 worship, and the prosperous results of an open free port, 
 together with the energy and taste of its English residents, 
 have made an otherwise barren and burning rock a scene 
 of commercial activity and luxurious abode; but as such 
 minute circumstances are hardly admissible in so cursory a 
 glance as this, we must hurry onwards, especially because the 
 
 * Between Cape Trafalgar and Tarifa, and near Bolonia tower, are the 
 ruins of Bcdon; this was the ancient place of embarkation for Tangier 
 (Tingis), in Africa, apparently to avoid being set through the Strait by the 
 current, which might happen more to the east. 
 
MEDITERRANEAN SHORES OF SPAIN. 5 
 
 statistical details of Gibraltar, as a British colony, will be 
 found at the close of the present chapter. To the south, 
 this important ocean-strait is bounded by that part of the 
 coast of Africa which extends from Cape Spartel to the 
 fortress of Ceuta; and between those two points lie the 
 port of Tangier and the lofty cliffs of the Sierra Bullones, 
 or Ape's Hill. Here it is fabled that Hercules set up the 
 pillars on Calpe and Abyla, to commemorate the extent 
 and termination of his territorial conquests ; hence the 
 geographical terms Fretum Herculeum, Fretum Gadi- 
 taneum, and Columnarium, formerly applied to a spot 
 which was long deemed to be the ne plus ultra of navi- 
 gation, if not the extremity of the earth. It was called 
 Bah-ez-zakak, the Gate of the narrow Passage, by the 
 Arabs, then the Gut by our seamen and pilots. Through 
 this strait a stream from the Atlantic is continually flowing ; 
 but before we speak of the waters of this sea, it will be as 
 well to take a rapid view of the lands forming its boundaries. 
 
 The Mediterranean shores of Spain extend about 780 Spanish 
 
 . . ., Coast. 
 
 geographical miles in a north-east direction from Gibraltar 
 to Cape Creux, where the French domain commences, and 
 present a great variety of plains and mountains bounded 
 by a highly fertile though not well-wooded coast, indented by 
 numerous harbours and bays. Some of the mountains in 
 Catalonia consist of granite, but the prevailing formation of 
 the coast is limestone. In Granada, among other mineral 
 riches, are many valuable varieties of marble ; at Tortosa 
 are the celebrated quarries of jasper; and the hills of 
 Becares and Filabres, near Alicant, are reported to be 
 entirely composed of a pure white statuary marble. Most 
 of the streams descending from the heights are rather 
 torrents than rivers, swollen to a great width in the winter 
 and spring, yet very low in the summer. Their mouths 
 generally form petty trading anchorages for the small 
 coasters which carry for the larger and more frequented 
 ports. The principal products are corn, maize, rice, wine, produce. 
 
6 MEDITERRANEAN SHORES OF SPAIN. 
 
 oil, brandy, olives, wool, salt, alum, kermes, barilla, potash, 
 esparto mats and cordage, turpentine, soap, dates, raisins 
 and other dried fruit, aniseed, flax, saffron, honey, wool, 
 cottonades, cotton, linen, silk, iron, lead, zinc, antimony, 
 manganese, copperas, and grana — a species of cochineal. 
 Though the materials for commerce are thus numerous 
 and valuable, from the mistaken system of restriction so 
 long followed by the Spanish government, the prosperity of 
 its subjects is not only crippled, but almost annihilated. 
 Entering into details, there will be found between Gibraltar 
 and Malaga a chain of lofty mountains, parts of which, as 
 near Ronda (Acinipo vel Arunda), for example, offer the 
 scenery termed by the French les belles horreurs; the country 
 is fine, but with various waste and barren spots, nor are there 
 many littoral points of note. Estepona and Marbella (Sal- 
 duba), are two of the loading places for the coasters alluded 
 to above, and Frangerola, a very ancient fortress, is noted for 
 
 Malaga. its anchovy fishery. Malaga (Malacha) itself is a fine large 
 city, with striking public buildings ; but its harbour is rapidly 
 filling up by the detritus poured in during the freshes of 
 the Guad-al-Medina. Between Sacratif, or Carchuna Point, 
 and Cape de Gata, and even to Moxacar, the coast is in 
 general very high, the only interruptions being at the 
 mouths of the small rivers, where are formed playas, or 
 triangular plains, from one to several miles in extent, open 
 to the sea, and extending to the foot of the mountains, the 
 washings of which have formed the rich alluvial soil 
 generally found in these plains. 
 
 rorts and Passing the loading places of Almunecar (Menoba), Sala- 
 
 piaces. brena (Salembina), Motril (Hexi), Castel de Ferro, and Adra 
 (Abdera) we arrive at Almeria (Murgis), once renowned 
 for commercial enterprise, but now merely exporting some 
 barilla and lead. To the north-north-east of Cape de Gata 
 (Prom. Charidemum) is Carthagena (Carthago nova), 
 which, though one of the three royal ports of the kingdom, is 
 
 Carthagena. miserably neglected, and its marine arsenal, constructed at 
 
MEDITERRANEAN SHORES OF SPAIN. 7 
 
 a vast expense, is nearly ruined. This is a consequence of 
 the inertness of the government, the apathetic dulness of 
 the heavy Murcians, and the deleterious miasma of its 
 marshes, by which it is subjected to the severe visitations 
 of an endemic bilious fever. The whole district was called 
 Campus Spartarius, from the abundance of esparto, or 
 Spanish-broom, which grew there. Between Carthagena 
 and Valencia the coast is generally low and sandy, but 
 broken by various loading places and ports, of which the 
 most important is Alicant (Lucentum), a commercial town 
 situated in the northern extremity of the bay, and at the 
 foot of a castled hill. Its vale of Huerta is fertile but un- Alicant. 
 wholesome ; few of its cultivators escaping fever or ague, 
 not a little assisted by the waters of the vast tank, or rather 
 artificial lake, el Pantano. It is, however, the entrepot of 
 the productions of Yalencia and Murcia, and its custom- 
 house was long the most valuable that the Spanish monarchy 
 could boast. Passing Altea, the coves of Cape S. Martin, 
 Denia (Dianium), and the River Xucar (Sucro), we arrive 
 at the great plain on which the city of Yalencia stands, the 
 finest of the whole coast, and so fertile that it is called 
 La Huerta, the garden;* but there is no port in the whole Valencia. 
 Sucronian Gulf where any shelter is afforded in onshore 
 winds, except within the moles of the Grao, at the mouth of 
 the Guadalaviar (Turias), nearly three leagues off. Just 
 below these moles is the great lake of Albufera, four leagues 
 long and two broad, full of fish, and separated from the 
 sea by a narrow sandbank. Pestilential exhalations arise 
 from many parts of this otherwise beautiful and productive 
 plain, but especially in the extensive rice-grounds. Yalencia, 
 which has borne its present appellation since the time of 
 the Romans, is one of the smallest provinces of Spain, 
 
 It is necessary to keep in mind that a slight difference in this phrase 
 makes a great modification of its meaning. La Huerta is a kitchen or 
 market-garden, for the growth of vegetables and pot-herbs ; El Huerta is a 
 walled fruit-garden, or orchard. Quantities of dates, and etiolated palm- 
 branches for festivals, are brought from Elche (llicu). 
 
8 
 
 MEDITERRANEAN SHORES OF SPAIN. 
 
 though one of the richest and most populous, from the 
 fertility of its soil; but even here — from the languid system 
 of husbandry, the extent of waste lands, the want of easy 
 communication with the interior, and the irregularities of a 
 feeble government — there is no immediate danger of popu- 
 lation pressing upon subsistence. In comparison with the 
 other Spanish provinces of the Mediterranean shore, its 
 numbers are very striking; yet in submitting them it 
 should be remembered that by Andalusia is meant what is 
 now restricted to the kingdom of Seville ; for in the Middle 
 Age statistics that rich and powerful province included 
 Seville, Cordova, Granada, Jaen, and the districts of Sierra 
 Morena, an extent of 27,550 square miles, comprehending 
 a space so beautiful and delicious, that the Moors fancifully 
 imagined heaven to be suspended over it. These are the 
 figures for 1810 : — 
 
 
 Total 
 
 No. to a 
 
 Leagues of 
 
 
 inhabitants. 
 
 square league. 
 
 Sea Coast. 
 
 Andalusia . . 
 
 . . 755,000 
 
 ... 1009 . 
 
 . 20 
 
 Granada . . 
 
 . . 700,000 
 
 860 . 
 
 . 57 
 
 Murcia . . . 
 
 . . 383,226 
 
 582 . 
 
 . 22 
 
 Valencia . . 
 
 . . 830,000 
 
 ... 1285 . 
 
 . 69 
 
 Catalonia . . 
 
 . . 859,000 
 
 856 .. 
 
 67 
 
 Mumedro. Murviedro (Mutos viejos) is more remarkable for the 
 beauty of its prospects, its Moorish walls, and its being the 
 site of the ancient Saguntum, than for the trade which is 
 now carried on ; its exports being, as well as those of its 
 neighbours Benicarlo and Yinaroz, a small quantity of wine 
 and brandy. Much benefit was expected from these places 
 when the attention of government was drawn to the 
 capacity of the mouth of the Ebro, in 1792; but, as with 
 most of the works and projects of that day, the attempt was 
 abortive, owing both to deficient means, and the prevalent 
 dogma that had Providence intended such things, they would 
 
 Kiver Ebro. have been so ordered. The Ebro (Iberus), the largest river 
 in Spain, rising in the heights of the Asturias, and pursuing 
 its course in an easterly direction between the Pyrenees and 
 one of their secondary branches, passes Tortosa (Dertosa), 
 
MEDITERRANEAN SHORES OF SPAIN. 9 
 
 and enters the Mediterranean from the shore which we have 
 now reached, after flowing nearly 400 miles. As this river had 
 accumulated two marshy peninsulas and several sandy islets 
 at its mouth, an attempt was made to improve the port of 
 Alfaques, formed by a peninsula, by building the town of Aifaques. 
 San Carlos, and cutting a canal to Tortosa, to carry large 
 vessels to a point which the velocity of the stream precludes 
 their reaching by the river during great part of the year. 
 This spot, and the adjacent low grounds, are severely 
 scourged after the summer months by el fiebre periodico, 
 arising from the bad air exhalations. 
 
 Between the Ebro and Barcelona are numerous small 
 towns, with coves where vessels take in cargoes ; but the 
 principal place is Tarragona (Tarracd), still surrounded by Tarragona, 
 ancient Roman walls : this place gained a melancholy noto- 
 riety in the late war with France, from the slaughter of its 
 inhabitants by Marshal Suchet. Barcelona (Barcino), lying Barcelona, 
 in rather too moist a situation between the rivers Llobregat 
 (Rubricatus), and Besos, is the capital of Catalonia, and 
 boasting 160,000 inhabitants, is the second city of Spain in 
 population and commerce. It is well built, and possesses 
 manufactories of silk, gauze, lace, cotton, canvas, leather, Produce, 
 woollens, cutlery, paper, fire-arms, soap, and glass, which 
 together with wine, spirits, cork, and fruit, form the great 
 articles of export. The port is made by art, having little 
 depth, and that depth is daily diminishing by the sand 
 thrown up during easterly gales, the mole preventing any 
 offset ; while the anchorage in the roads is exposed to all 
 sea-winds. The coasts of Valencia and Catalonia have Changes of 
 
 Coast. 
 
 gained considerably on the sea, from the incessant agency 
 of the Ebro, the Llobregat, the smaller streams, and the 
 numerous torrents, which deposit vast quantities of silt, and 
 form lines of shoals parallel to the shores, lessening the 
 general depth of water for some distance out. 
 
 From Barcelona to the north-eastwards, the shore 
 presents a quick succession of small towns and villages, pos- 
 
10 
 
 MEDITERRANEAN SHORES OF SPAIN. 
 
 Mataro. 
 
 Palamos. 
 
 sessing little trading coves, and remarkable for pleasant 
 situations and cleanliness. Among these, the place of most 
 consideration is Mataro (Illuro), which has 25,000 inhabi- 
 tants, various manufactories, and a thriving trade. But from 
 Mataro to the frontiers of France, we scarcely meet any 
 town deserving of notice, though the country continues fine, 
 and there are many neatly built places of traffic. The roads 
 of Palamos and Kosas are good and extensive ; and as the 
 worst wind, the tramontanes, comes from the land, it never 
 occasions serious mischief. The comparatively little fortress 
 of Santa Trinita, which governs the town and anchorages of 
 Rosas, has more than once made a resolute defence against 
 assailants. Its capture was a difficult exploit to the French* 
 when Figueras, the boasted Bulwark of Catalonia, though 
 full of ammunition and provisions of all kinds, with a gar- 
 rison of 9000 men, disgracefully fell before General Perignon, 
 in 1794, and with it the important district of Ampurdan, of 
 which Port Ampurias (Emjporiw) is the capital. Beyond 
 Rosas, there is a rocky peninsula or head-land, of which the 
 chief projecting points are the Capes Norfeo and Creux. 
 From this, the most eastern part of Spain, the Pyrenees, 
 stretching westward in a straight line of 270 miles, form a 
 strong natural barrier between the French and Spanish ter- 
 ritories : while from the sea their lofty summits produce a 
 continually varying series of striking objects. Alpine lime- 
 stone, old red sand-stone, and transition rocks, reposing on 
 mica, slate, or granite, are the principal constituents of these 
 mountains. 
 
 Balearae. 
 
 § 2. The Spanish Islands. 
 
 rpHE ^Balearic Islands, comprehending Majorca, and 
 -■- Minorca, with Cabrera, Ayre, and several smaller islets, 
 lie off the coast of Valencia, and hence that part of the 
 Mediterranean was formerly called the Iberian Sea. Some 
 
SPANISH ISLANDS. 11 
 
 recent legislative enactments have included Iviza and its 
 dependencies among the Baleares; but the geographical 
 distinction is warranted by Strabo, who distinguishes the 
 two groups under the names Gymnesice and Pityusce. Pityusae. 
 Yet it is possible, that the Cretan geographer meant to in- 
 clude both Pityusae and Gymnesiae under the generic name 
 of Balearides, his words being ' of the isles lying in front 
 of Iberia (we find or have) two Pityusae and two Gymnesiae, 
 but they call them Balearides/ Whether he means all four 
 or only the two last, is not clear. However, from what 
 Diodorus Siculus and Pliny say, it is probable that he meant 
 to give the name of Balearides only to the Gymnesiae 
 Considering that this last group possesses but about 275 
 miles of coast, and the Pityusae only 73, they are densely 
 populated, the numbers standing thus in 1810 : — 
 
 Total No. to a 
 
 inhabitants. square league. 
 
 Majorca 140,700 ... 1256 
 
 Minorca 31,000 ... 1257 
 
 Iviza and Formentara . 15,290 ... 1019 
 
 Majorca, the larger island, is nearly square in shape, Majorca, 
 with a mountainous surface, and generally rocky coast, with 
 deep water around : hence its aspect is varied, with a 
 delicious climate, insomuch that an almost vernal tempera- 
 ture is to be found on the higher grounds in the greatest 
 heat of the summer, and except on the mountainous ridges, 
 the winters are mild and pleasant. There are no rivers, 
 properly speaking; but the arroyos — streams or rather 
 torrents — are often impetuous during rains, and the Bierra, 
 the largest of them, has frequently occasioned great damage 
 and loss of life in the vicinity of Palma, the capital of the 
 island, and still preserving its ancient name. This is a fine 
 town, with a haven and good road-stead ; but though in the 
 thirteenth century one of the chief markets of Europe, it 
 has now comparatively but little commerce. The other 
 principal resorts for shipping are Alcudia and Pollenza 
 (Pollentia), both of which are extremely unhealthy in 
 
12 SPANISH ISLANDS. 
 
 autumn ; and the chief exports are wine, oil, salt, canvas, 
 silk, coarse linens, and woollens, dried fruits, honey, mill- 
 stones, limestone, and marble. 
 
 Minorca. Minorca is smaller than Majorca, as implied by the 
 
 names (major et minor insula) ; and it is more level, its 
 only remarkable elevation being a central hill, Mount Toro, 
 with a convent on its summit. Besides the Creek of Ciuda- 
 della — the capital, Port Fornelles, and several resorts of 
 minor consideration, this island possesses the capacious 
 harbour of Port Mahon (Portus Magonis), one of the finest 
 and most commodious places for shipping in this sea, and, 
 save occasional summer visitations of marsh fever, one of the 
 most healthy. Here, during the late war, have I seen a potent 
 and magnificent fleet of English men-of-war wintering from 
 before Toulon, each ship in a roomy berth ; although there 
 were no fewer than six large three-deckers, and twenty-five 
 two-deckers, besides numerous frigates, sloops, and brigs, 
 in the highest state of efficiency. It was a glorious sight ! 
 
 Pityusaj. I n mid-distance from Majorca to Cape San Martino of 
 
 Valencia, lie the Pityusse islands, a classical name, supposed 
 to have been derived from the pine trees with which the 
 larger one was covered. • This denomination comprehends 
 Iviza, Formentera, Conejera, Bledas, and various smaller 
 islets and rocks. Iviza, the Ebusus of the ancients, is hilly 
 and stony in many parts, but in others very fertile, pro- 
 ducing corn, oil, wine, and fruits of many kinds ; and the 
 mountains are well wooded with pines, firs, and junipers. 
 There are several ports affording good anchorage to mode- 
 rate-sized vessels ; but the best is before the town of Iviza, 
 the capital, where much salt and timber are embarked. 
 Coium- Between the Balearic Islands and the coast of Valencia, 
 
 at about the distance of ten leagues from the latter, lie the 
 Columbretes (Colubraria), a group of volcanic rocks, which, 
 for the reasons I have given in the first volume of the 
 Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, I cannot but 
 deem to have been the Ophiusa of the earlier ancients. 
 
 bretes. 
 
MEDITERRANEAN COAST OF FRANCE. 13 
 
 The harbour on the east side of the largest islet, is evidently 
 the mere broken mouth of an ancient crater. Finding that 
 they were unknown in detail, in order to distinguish the 
 several rocks, I named them after the most scientific officers 
 in the Spanish navy, as they now appear on the plan pub- 
 lished by the Admiralty. 
 
 § 3. The Mediterranean Coast of France. 
 
 FROM the Mediterranean shores of France, as well as of Changes of 
 . Coast. 
 
 Spain, the sea has retired in several places, and gained 
 
 upon none. Indeed, in no other closed sea, are there so many 
 well ascertained accessions of land at the mouth of large rivers. 
 Thus Aigues Mortes, which in the thirteenth century was a 
 sea-port, is now five miles inland ; Miquelon and Psalmody 
 were islands in the year 815, and in 1820 they were two leagues 
 from the sea ; and even some of the present vineyards of Agde, 
 were covered by the sea only a century ago. By the advance 
 of the land upon the sea, owing to the alluvium of the 
 Argeus, the ancient port of Frejus was converted into a pes- 
 tilential marsh, and at a later period into terra firma, half a 
 mile from the sea. But the greatest accession of new land 
 is that which forms the delta between the two mouths of the 
 River Rhone, where old lines of guard-towers and sea-marks 
 occur at different distances from the present beach, and 
 indicate the successive retreats of the sea in comparatively 
 recent times. 
 
 Between Cape Creux and the River Yar, a space of France, 
 about 300 miles, the Mediterranean is bounded by the 
 southern shores of France — a mighty state, whether empire, 
 kingdom, or republic — shores which I have visited both in 
 war and in peace. On passing the Cape, the coast of the 
 Department of the Eastern Pyrenees continues mountainous 
 and rocky ; then succeed the low and marshy flats of the 
 
14 MEDITERRANEAN COAST OP FRANCE. 
 
 rivers Aude and Herault, in which are many extensive 
 etangs or salt lagoons communicating with the sea, the 
 principal ones being those of Leucate (Leucata), Sijean, 
 Gruisson, and Thau, which are intersected by a navigable 
 canal. Coast-ways, after leaving Spain, the first town of 
 Port France is- that which gives a name to the insignificant Port 
 Vendre (Portus Veneris), and the second is its congener 
 Callioure. A low coast and bad lee-shore, as well as an 
 insalubrious one, extend along the front of the ponds, to 
 which the principal inlet is the port of Narbonne (Narbo 
 Martins), once a flourishing maritime place, now ten miles 
 inland. East-north-east of this, the fort of Brescou, on an 
 insulated rock, announces the approach to the ancient town 
 Cette. of Agde {Agatha), formerly the capital of a county. Cette 
 (Setius), was built on a narrow tongue of land which sepa- 
 rates the pool of Thau from the sea, its haven being the prin- 
 cipal outlet of the great Canal of Languedoc in 1666 : it has 
 Montpeiiier. also become the port of the adjacent city of Montpellier (Mons 
 Pessulanus vel Puellarum), so celebrated for its excellent 
 climate, and its school of medicine. Here they embark the 
 wines of Lunel and Frontignan ; the perfumery, preserves, 
 liqueurs, wines, calicos, woollens, snuff, soap, cream of tartar, 
 vitriol, and verdigris of Montpellier ; and the salt, as also 
 tunnies, sardines, anchovies, and other fish of the neighbour- 
 Rhone, hood. Beyond this, the mouths of the Rhone (Rhodanus) 
 form a number of islands, a great part of which are nearly 
 level with the sea. The largest of them, named Camargue, 
 has nearly the shape of a Delta, with the city of Aries 
 (Arelate), at its apex : but it is properly a mere assemblage 
 of little marshy islets and sand-banks accumulated along the 
 former seashore, with the great brackish lagoon of Yalcares 
 occupying the centre. Between this and Port de Bouc, is 
 La crau. the singular stony desert called La Crau (Campus Lapideus), 
 a space of more than 150,000 acres, entirely covered with 
 boulders and rolled shingle. This name is not to be con- 
 founded with Les Graus du Rhone (Gradus Rhodoni), a 
 
MEDITERRANEAN COAST OF FRANCE. 15 
 
 designation of the mouths of the river ; this word, * Graus/ 
 seems to have meant a landing place at such locality, as 
 with the Grao of Spain, and the Grado of Italy. 
 
 The principal mouth of the Rhone is its eastern branch, Guifof Foz. 
 or that which flows into the Gulf of Foz, where, during 
 freshes, it disembogues with such force and rapidity, as to 
 carry its own waters far into the sea. This was practically 
 proved by the watering of Sir Edward Pellew's fleet in the 
 late war, when his ships anchored in the offing south-east of 
 the Tour de St. Louis, and skimmed as much potable water 
 as there was occasion for : at three quarters of a mile from 
 the shore, the fresh run was about three feet deep, and it 
 was taken during the morning lulls. 
 
 Between the Gulf of Foz and the River Var, the 
 Comte de Provence of former days, the coast is undu- 
 latory, and indented with numerous ports, coves, and bays, 
 where vessels of all descriptions may find a berth. Of these, 
 Martigues (Maritima) at the entrance of an extensive Martigues. 
 lagoon communicating with the sea, often called Vetang de 
 Berre, is of importance from furnishing both fish and salt 
 for commerce. Marseilles (Massilia) is a maritime city of Marseilles. 
 the first class, having upwards of 120,000 inhabitants, and 
 maintaining a commercial activity second to none in France ; 
 the approach to its secure haven is marked by the rocky 
 isles of Planier, Ratoneau, and Pomegue. Eastwards of 
 Marseilles, the towns of Cassis and Ciotat are resorted 
 to by coasting traders, and the muscat wines of this depart . 
 ment are largely exported. Passing these, and rounding 
 that well-known headland Cape Sicie,* we enter the harbour 
 of Toulon (Telo Martins) the second naval port of France, Toulon, 
 so celebrated for its arsenal and fortifications; but the 
 business of the place, independently of the government 
 establishments, is not very great. Flour, wine, brandy, oil, 
 
 * I say well-known, because it was in the sight of our officers and sea- 
 men of the blockading fleet for months together. I had a tolerable spell of 
 it myself in 1811 and 1812. 
 
16 MEDITERRANEAN COAST OF FRANCE. 
 
 olives, dried fruits, tobacco, and other productions of the 
 neighbourhood, besides soap, coarse woollens, cordage, 
 morocco-leather, chocolate, vermicelli, and other manu- 
 factures, are the principal articles of commerce ; and some 
 merchant vessels are built at this place. 
 
 From Toulon eastward, we enter the great bay or road of 
 iiy&res. Hyeres, all the projecting points of which are strongly 
 fortified ; lying within the Porquerolles (Stcechades) islands, 
 and having the beautiful town of Hyeres (Olbia vel Arece) 
 and its ever-fruitful gardens on an adjacent eminence. 
 It should be remarked, en passant, that this is said to be the 
 only place in Europe north of Italy, where the orange 
 flourishes without artificial shelter in winter. The whole 
 of this expanse of water forms a superb anchorage for any 
 number of ships; and in August, 1811, the English block- 
 ading fleet, though fired at in passing, took up a berth 
 there out of gun-shot. A French division consisting of 
 three first-rates and ten two-deckers, came out of Toulon on 
 the following day ; but on the speedy appearance of some of 
 our fleet, one of which was the Rodney, of seventy-four 
 guns, (the ship in which I was then serving,) they retreated 
 to their moorings, and we returned to the Bay of Hyeres, 
 where we remained for three weeks at single anchor. 
 During this time the topsail yards were swayed to the mast- 
 heads every evening, strong divisions of guard-boats properly 
 stationed, with every possible preparation for any sudden 
 emergency. Such was the contrast afforded to this scene 
 when I last sailed among those islands in the Adventure, 
 that scarcely a vessel was to be seen; and I passed with 
 perfect impunity close to the point of Porquerolles, where I 
 had formerly seen those noble first-rates the Caledonia, 
 Ville de Paris, Temeraire, and Hibernia, receive and return 
 a heavy cannonade, while they drifted past under a light 
 morning air ! 
 
 The coast from Hyeres Bay to the Italian boundary 
 is more or less elevated ; and has many bays, coves, and 
 
COAST OF WESTEEN ITALY. 17 
 
 indentations between the rocky headlands, as those of St. Coast 
 Tropez or Grimaud (Aihenapolis), Frejus (Forum Julii), Na- 
 poule or Cannes, Gourjean, and Antibes (Antipolis) ; which 
 are improperly termed gulfs by the native pilots and mariners. 
 From Antibes a low sandy beach turns to the north-eastward, 
 where, and at the distance of about two leagues, is the mouth 
 of the river Var (Varus), which separates France from Savoy, The var. 
 the boundary being marked by a toll-house in the middle 
 of the floating bridge across the stream. This turbid river, 
 which rises in the ramifications of the Alps, between 
 Barcelonette and Colmars, has a course of about twenty-five 
 leagues to the sea, where its bed is above a mile in breadth. 
 It runs so rapidly during freshes from the mountains 
 or the melting of snows as to prevent the erection of a 
 permanent bridge ; at such times, the floods of the Var, 
 freighted with silt, discolour the sea-waters to a consider- 
 able distance from the shore. 
 
 § 4. The Coast of Western Italy. 
 
 T? XCEPT illustrious Greece, the classical region of Italy Italy. 
 -■-^ (Hesperia) is more calculated to awaken enthusiasm 
 and contemplation than any other on earth; for to that 
 most interesting and beautiful country, the rest of Europe is 
 largely indebted for the practice of various branches of polity, 
 science, art, and rural economy. Italy, like the expiring 
 eagle, has been sorely wounded by arrows feathered from 
 her own wing, and has long since descended from her high 
 estate ; but though morally degenerate, she still boasts all 
 those physical advantages which raised her to a world-wide 
 distinction. What a potent arm of power and civilization 
 she might still exert, were not all the several states at utter 
 enmity with each other, so that she could not become an inte- 
 gral kingdom, nor scarcely a federative republic ! Although 
 
 C 
 
18 COAST OF WESTERN ITALY. 
 
 inhabitants of a soil where climate, religion, language, 
 manners, and customs are all in substance nearly uniform, 
 however varied in community and government, there is no 
 bond of common national feeling ; all being alike in one 
 quality only, that capacity of indulging hatred of one an- 
 other which feeds implacable factions, and engenders distrust 
 and disunion. I have lately been assured that the popu- 
 lation has rapidly increased, and now amounts to upwards 
 of twenty-five millions, an assertion for which proof is not 
 given. The numbers furnished by my friend and colleague, 
 General Visconti, for the year 1820, are founded on a 
 census taken by order of Napoleon about the year 1810. 
 
 Square d^„i„+:„„ To the 
 
 Miles. Population. squaremi i e „ 
 
 Naples and Sicily . . 
 Kingdom of Sardinia 
 Lombardy and Venice* . 
 Ecclesiastical State . . 
 Grand Duchy of Tuscany 
 Duchy of Parma . . . 
 States of Modena . . . 
 Duchy of Lucca . . . 
 Republic of San Marino 
 
 43,600 ... 6,750,000 ... 162 
 
 27,400 ... 3,976,000 ... 146 
 
 18,920 ... 4,054,600 ... 212 
 
 14,500 ... 2,350,000 ... 168 
 
 8,500 ... 1,182,900 ... 140 
 
 2,280 ... 377,000 ... 121 
 
 2,060 ... 370,000 ... 190 
 
 420 ... 138,000 ... 328 
 
 40 ... 7,000 ... 175 
 
 Gulf of Arriving at the coasts of what was anciently termed 
 
 Liguria, the space between the Yar and Genoa is known as 
 the Riviera di Ponente (Western beach) ; and that from 
 Genoa to Spezzia as the Riviera di Levante (Eastern beach) ; 
 in both cases with relation to Genoa as a centre. The 
 whole consists of rocky precipices flanking lofty mountains, 
 intersected by fruitful valleys, and varied with a succession 
 of picturesque towns and villages through a length of about 
 175 miles. There is a considerable coasting-trade along the 
 shores of the Gulf of Genoa, the produce being oil, rice, 
 fruit, hemp, silk, velvet, anchovies, and palm-branches, with 
 which last articles, San Remo has the exclusive privilege of 
 supplying Rome for its religious festivals. 
 
 * By a census taken in 1825, the population of Austrian Italy had 
 increased to 4,237,000; of whom 500 were Armenians, 700 Greeks, 5600 
 Jews, 66,500 Germans, and 4,163,700 Italians. 
 
COAST OF WESTERN ITALY. 19 
 
 Nizza, or Nice (Niccea), the first maritime town on the Nice. 
 Riviera di Ponente, with its commodious little artificial 
 port, is agreeably placed on the banks of the Paglion, a 
 mountain torrent, at the foot of Mont Albano, the citadel 
 of which protects both Nice and the capacious harbour 
 of Villa Franca on the east. The whole of this neighbour- Vi ^ anca 
 hood indicates that great geological changes have occurred, 
 not only in the position of rocks and strata, but even in the 
 relative height of land and water. The hollows and fissures in Geological 
 
 ° changes. 
 
 the rock now above water are frequently found to contain shells 
 similar to those which now exist in the Mediterranean ; and 
 strong marks of upheaving were pointed out to me by that 
 obliging local naturalist, Dr. Risso. Between Nizza and Coast 
 
 towns 
 
 Ventimiglia (Albium Intemelium), lies the little princi- 
 pality of Monaco (Portus Herculis Monceci), and further 
 eastward are the considerable trading towns of San Remo, 
 Port Maurizio (Portum Maurici), Oneglia, Alassio, Al- 
 benga (Albium Ingawnum), Finale, Noli, Vado (Vada 
 Sabata), and Savona (Savo) ; which last, beautifully situated, Savona. 
 strongly fortified, and commanding as well the waters as 
 the Cornice, or great road of the Riviera, has been absurdly 
 and unwisely sacrificed to the commercial jealousy of 
 Genoa, to please whose prejudices the harbour, which 
 was roomy and good, was partly choked up in 1525. Not- 
 withstanding this and other injuries it carries on a con- 
 siderable trade, the port being still very secure, though 
 fit only for vessels of about two hundred tons. In the 
 beautiful ravines and valleys of this space both intermittent 
 and remittent fevers are occasioned by the summer exha- 
 lations ; and it will be recollected that Napoleon, who must 
 have had early knowledge of malaria at Ajaccio, was 
 charged with having sent Pius VII. to Savona, that he 
 might fall a victim to the marsh miasmata. 
 
 Genoa (Genua), one of the handsomest cities in Europe, Genoa. 
 is built on the declivity of a hill flanking the Ligurian 
 Apennines, in the deepest recess of the wide gulf which 
 
 c 2 
 
20 COAST OF WESTERN ITALY. 
 
 forms a crescent from the frontiers of France to those of 
 Tuscany. Its port, fatto per for 'za as the Italians term it, 
 is formed by two moles, sixteen or eighteen feet above the 
 level of the water, the heads of which are about three hun- 
 dred fathoms asunder. This people have been well known 
 for ages, as essentially commercial, and although its fleets 
 are no longer the terror of the Levant, its tendency to 
 maritime superiority is still manifest, its ships, though few, 
 being in excellent order, and its sailors among the best of 
 Italy. Even in its palmy days, although the government 
 was highly aristocratic, the nobility of Genoa were allowed 
 to be engaged in manufactories of velvet, silk, and cloth ; to 
 farm the duties ; to speculate in foreign commerce, and to 
 hold shares in merchant vessels ; but all other business and 
 handicrafts were strictly forbidden. 
 
 To the east of Genoa, along the populous shores of 
 the Riviera di Levante, the succession of towns and villages 
 is almost as quick as to the west. Running past Bisagno 
 and Nervi, the first place of consideration in a nautical 
 
 Porto Fino. point of view is Porto Fino {Portus Delphini), a cove with 
 a small pier-haven between two lofty promontories, which 
 form conspicuous guides for the coasting voyager. Rapallo, 
 Lavagna (JSntella) — where the only quarry of slate in Italy 
 is worked — Chiavari, Sestri di Levante (Segeste), Moneglia 
 (Monilium), and various sea-side villages, lead to Porto 
 
 Gulf of - Yenere and the capacious Gulf of Spezsia (Portus Lwwnsis), 
 which latter has good soundings throughout, and is one of 
 the finest and safest bays in the Mediterranean. The im- 
 portance of this place being represented to Napoleon, he 
 was led to contemplate making it one of his great naval 
 stations; and the plans consequently drawn up by his 
 engineers being obtained by Lord William Bentinck, at the 
 surrender of Genoa in the year 1814, his lordship, to whom 
 I acted as naval aide-de-camp, kindly submitted them to 
 my examination. 
 
 Although the independent states of Massa and Lucca 
 
COAST OF WESTERN ITALY. 21 
 
 are considered as forming the eastern boundary of the 
 duchy of Genoa, it must geographically be said that Spezzia 
 is succeeded by the coast of Tuscany ; and indeed it was Tuscany, 
 formerly held to be the limit of Liguria to the south. Passing, 
 therefore, the Magra (Macro), a mountain-stream which 
 enters the sea at the Marinella of Luni (Lunce Portus), 
 and running by Pietra Santa (Lucus Feronice), Via-Heggio 
 (Fossae Papiriance), and the mouth of the Arno (Portus 
 Pisanus), we arrive at Leghorn — the mouth of Tuscany, Leghorn. 
 and one of the busiest ports of Italy. The prosperity of the 
 place is owing to the sound judgment which prompted the 
 establishment of a free port with full religious toleration 
 and liberal immunities. Boasting no splendour of antiquity, 
 although the site of Portus Herculis Liburni, it became 
 a place of importance on the fall of the neighbouring Porto 
 Pisano, which succumbed to the joint operations of the 
 Arno, the sea, and the Genoese, in filling and choking it. 
 By careful drainage the malaria around it has been greatly 
 diminished, but still the climate is so damp as to justify the 
 proverb — Pisa pesa a chi posa. Leghorn suffered greatly 
 under the rule of Napoleon ; but it is now a prosperous 
 Porto-Franco again, supplying a large part of the interior 
 with foreign goods, and exporting coarse woollens, cotton, 
 silk, maize, oil, iron, paper, potash, marble, alabaster, coral, 
 anchovies, platted straw for hats and bonnets, and artificial 
 flowers. The fishery of anchovies is very productive. This 
 fish enters the Mediterranean in large shoals by the Strait 
 of Gibraltar in the spring, for the purpose of breeding, after 
 which it retires again to the depths of the Atlantic. 
 
 From Leghorn the coast of Tuscany extends south-east- 
 wards as far as the bold promontory formed by Mount 
 Argentero ; and there are various loading-places between, small porta. 
 as Vada (Vada Volaterrana), Cecina, Porto Baratto (Popu- 
 lonium), Piombino, Fullonica — where there are the prin- 
 cipal smelting bloomeries or works of the iron from Elba — 
 Castiglione, Telamone (Portus Telamo), Port San Stefano, 
 
22 COAST OF WESTERN ITALY. 
 
 and Orbitello, in the middle of the lake of that name, the 
 eels of which are equally celebrated and profitable. These 
 places are on the margin of the sea-side marshes, known as 
 
 Maremme. the Maremme, -unwholesome lowlands, diffusing with more 
 or less virulence their pestilential exhalations along the 
 whole west coast of Italy. Those of Tuscany, through 
 drainage and tillage, have been of late greatly improved, 
 but continue to be very deadly in summer. Of the portion 
 now before us, the river Ombrone {Umbro) and its affluents 
 form a principal drain, if such a term can properly be used 
 in speaking of the Tuscan maremme and paludi, the 
 pestiferous exhalations of which furnished Dante with his 
 disgusting parallel of the tenth gulf in hell.* In the 
 heights around, most of the women have been married two 
 or three times, because only the men leave their houses to 
 labour in the marshes, where they are tempted by fatigue 
 sometimes to sleep, though at the risk of illness and death. 
 
 Changes of The sea has retreated from Telamone, and left a mere 
 
 coast. 
 
 morass; while Domitian's Port, under the northern cliffs 
 of Monte Argentero (Mons Argentarius), is submerged. 
 The coast of Tuscany, from Carrara to this port, may be 
 estimated at about 140 geographical miles. 
 
 The Tuscan islands lying opposite to this coast are, 
 Gorgona (Urgo), Capraja (JSgilori), Elba, Giglio (Igilium), 
 Pianosa (Planasia), Monte Christo (Oglasa), and some 
 Elba. smaller islets. Of these, Elba (JUthalia sive Ilva) merits 
 a distinct mention on account of its excellent harbours and 
 bays, abundance of iron and other mineral productions, 
 its picturesque beauty of scenery, and its having been 
 allotted by the Congress of Vienna as a Barataria for the 
 
 * Dante, in Canto xxix. of the Inferno, visits the decima oolgia — 
 
 Qual dolor fora, se degli spedali 
 
 Di Val-di-chiana, tra '1 luglio e '1 settembre, 
 E di Maremma, e di Sardegna i niali 
 
 Fossero in una fossa tutti insembre ; 
 
 Tal era quivi ; e tal puzzo n' usciva, 
 Qual suol venir dalle marcite membre. 
 
COAST OF WESTERN ITALY. 23 
 
 fallen Napoleon. Elba itself is somewhat less than fifty 
 miles in circuit, and the islets immediately adjacent are its 
 dependencies. 
 
 Rounding Argentaro to the southward, the first Roman Roman 
 town is at Port Ercole (Portus Cossanus sive Herculis) ; 
 between which and Terracina, a space of 150 miles, lies the 
 west coast of the Papal States, for the most part an open 
 and exposed beach on which the sea-winds drive a heavy 
 surf. The shore consists principally of low unhealthy flats, 
 interrupted at certain points by a bolder and better country. 
 Nearly in the mid-distance of this space, the celebrated 
 river Tiber discharges its waters by two principal branches Tiber. 
 through its marshy delta still called Isola Sagra (Insula 
 Sacra) ; off which there is good anchorage within sight 
 of St. Peter's lofty cross. The scantiness of the Medi- 
 terranean tides renders the estuaries of its rivers nearly 
 useless for the purposes of navigation and commerce ; a 
 great and lasting disadvantage to these countries, especially 
 as most of the streams have a rapid descent: and that aid 
 which causes the current to turn, and bear the laden ship to 
 the busy mart, is here wanting. My schooner-rigged barge, 
 riding in the middle of the river opposite the Dogana — with 
 its ensign and pendant, its morning and evening gun, and 
 its well-disciplined crew — was an object of great admiration 
 to the Romans of all ranks and conditions. Though trading 
 vessels resort to Fiumicino, the southern mouth of the 
 Tiber, and to various other little ports in this territory, the 
 main harbour of the States of the Church on this side 
 is Civita Vecchia (Centum-cellce sive Trajani Portus), civita 
 
 "VgccIik 
 
 a town fortified by that universal genius, Michael Angelo ; 
 and possessing fine specimens of Trajan's marine works.* 
 
 * Besides the havens of Centum-celhe, Portus Trajanus in Etruria, and 
 Ancona, I am inclined from examination to think that Trajan greatly 
 enlarged and improved the work of Claudius, at the Port of Ostia : wherein 
 I agree with the Scholiast of Juvenal, in his commentary on the passage 
 where that poet describes the narrow escape of his friend Catullus from 
 shipwreck. 
 
24 COAST OF WESTERN ITALY. 
 
 But between the Tiber and Terracina (Anxur), especially 
 near Porto d'Anzo (Ceno Portus) and Nettuno (Antium) 
 are ruins of piscinae, baths, and villas of the old Romans, 
 among which is Astura, so long the residence of Cicero, and 
 still retaining its name, now submerged in the sea, which 
 thus proves its encroachment on this part of the coast. It 
 will be recollected that this same space is the margin of the 
 pontine Pontine Marshes (Pontince Paludes), a district so notorious 
 
 Marshes. v ' i t i_ 
 
 for its aria cattiva, and consequent deserted state, although 
 once the principal element of the power of the Volsci, and 
 the prosperous site of thirteen cities on a territory now 
 without even a village, despite of its being rich beyond con- 
 ception in cattle, timber, and vegetable wealth. These 
 paludi, or fens, are occasioned by the quantity of water 
 carried into the plain by innumerable streams that rise at 
 the foot of the mountains to the east of Rome, which, for 
 want of sufficient declivity, creep sluggishly over the level 
 space, and sometimes stagnate in pools, or lose themselves 
 in the sands. Here, fermenting with decayed vegetable 
 matter, and acted on by a fervid climate, malaria is pro- 
 duced; — that invisible enemy which poisons the fairest 
 portions of Italy, otherwise so salubrious, and renders man 
 a sufferer from his cradle to his early grave. There is every 
 appearance that the basin of these marshes was once a gulf 
 of the sea, which has been gradually filled up by the 
 alluvium from the mountains ; and that Monte Circello 
 (Circeii prom.) was an island when Homer wrote, whether 
 he ever meant the place or not. 
 
 The kingdom of Naples, extending over the southern 
 part of Italy, abounds in beautifully varied scenery, and 
 is remarkably fertile, insomuch that its commerce, though 
 pretty good, might easily be made much better, but for the 
 arbitrary system of duties and impolitic restrictions on 
 Coast of trade. The western coast of this kingdom, which we 
 have now reached, is generally bold, and indented by many 
 deep bays — usually termed gulfs by the native pilots, — 
 
COAST OF WESTERN ITALY. 25 
 
 such as those of Gaeta, Naples, Salerno, Policastro, Sant 
 Eufemia, and Gioja : and its extent, from Terracina to 
 Cape Spartivento is about 370 miles. In this space there 
 are numerous small ports and caricatori, or loading places, 
 and various tolerable anchorages for large ships in all winds 
 from the eastward. The chief exports are wine, fruit, oil, 
 olives, cheese, maccaroni, silk, aloes, wool, argols, lichens 
 for dyeing, pozzolana, potash, hemp, and leather. 
 
 Gaeta (Gaieta) is a strong fortress on the rocky pro- Gaeta. 
 montory of La Santa Trinita, which is joined to the main- 
 land by a narrow isthmus, whence it has obtained the 
 appellation of little Gibraltar : there is a haven for small 
 vessels, and its road offers excellent anchorage, especially in 
 front of Mola (Formice). Before the bay is a group of 
 small volcanic islands, — namely, Palmarola (Palmaria), 
 Ponza (Pontia), Gianuti, Zannone (Sinonia), Yandotina, 
 and some smaller rocks : they are bold, and the channels 
 among them very deep ; but all have evidently lost much 
 of their original extent by the destructive force and degra- 
 dation of surf and atmosphere. The Bay of Naples (Par- Naples. 
 thenope sive Neapolis) is of a semicircular form, sur- 
 rounded by mountains, among which the still-active vol- 
 cano, Vesuvius, rises to the height of 3880 feet; and by 
 its smoke acts as a pharos to vessels in the offing. The 
 limits of this bay, still called Grater by the native hydro- 
 graphers, are Cape Miseno and the isles of Ischia (jEnaria) 
 and Procida (Prochyta) on the north, and Cape Campanella 
 (Minervo3 prom.) with the isle of Capri (Caprece) on the 
 south. The combination of such scenery with objects so 
 memorable and celebrated, is as remarkable as it is strik- 
 ing: the beautiful city winding along the shores of this 
 bay, its villas and villages, its picturesque heights and 
 islands, its intensely interesting remains of classical an- 
 tiquity, and even its earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, all 
 combine to fill the spectator's mind with delight. Although 
 this is not the place for archaeological recollections, yet 
 
26 
 
 COAST OF WESTERN ITALY. 
 
 Paestum. 
 
 Coast 
 towns, 
 
 who can forget Baise and Herculaneum, Pompeia and 
 Stabia ! Nor can we but give a glance to the southward; 
 and ask who can believe in the idle story of Psestum's 
 stately temples having only been discovered in 1755 ? 
 These interesting relics may have been unnoticed by anti- 
 quarians — perhaps from the moral and physical impedi- 
 ments of lawless men and pestiferous air — but were 
 assuredly well known to seamen, being conspicuously 
 visible from every offing of the Bay of Salerno (Salemum) ; 
 and l i pilieri di Pesto ' were given as a sea-mark, long 
 before Sebastian Gorgoglione, the pilot, wrote his very 
 popular Portolano. 
 
 Continuing along the Lucanian coast, from the Galli 
 rocks (Sirenusce insulce) and picturesque shores of Amalfi 
 to the southward, a rich line of coast is presented, with all 
 varieties of beach and cliff, hill and valley, and towns and 
 villages. Of the latter the principal are Policastro (Pyxus), 
 Amantea (Lampetice), Tropea (Prostroproea), Scylla (Scyl- 
 Iceum), and Reggio (Rhegium). The territory affords a 
 substantial trade in corn, wine, oil, honey, wax, silk, fruits, 
 and legumes of all kinds ; while the shores yield tunnies, 
 sword-fish, pilchards, sardines, and various other fishes ; 
 but all the lower grounds are exceedingly unhealthy. The 
 m. Cocozzo. great sea-mark of the coast is the elevated Monte Cocozzo, 
 which is the highest of the Calabrian Mountains, for the 
 greater part of the year covered with snow. 
 
 It is decided, upon what appears to be sound geological 
 evidence, that a great part of the Italian coast has been 
 raised and lowered several times within the historical era, 
 while the sea must have ever maintained the same level ; 
 although it may once have washed the foot of the nearest 
 Apennine. The mouth of the Tiber has advanced greatly, 
 and lowered its level, even in the last eighteen centuries; 
 for Ostia, and the port Claudius, are now far inland ; while 
 nearly the whole delta, called Isola Sagra, has been formed 
 since that period. Between the Tiber and Terracina, the 
 
 Geological 
 changes. 
 
COAST OF WESTERN ITALY. 27 
 
 old port of which has long been filled up, the coast is 
 strewed with remains of ancient villas and works, which 
 in some places — as at Nettuno and Anzo — are far in the 
 sea. Homer appears to have heard Monte Circello de- 
 scribed as an island, since his account of the place tallies 
 very fairly with what the Pontine marshes would now 
 suggest; and in the age of Theophrastus, this hill was a 
 mile from the shore. By the joint actions of the marl 
 and peat of the marshes, the vast alluvial deposits, and 
 perhaps the detritus of the decreasing Ponza islands 
 thrown up by the sea, this mass of transition limestone 
 has become a promontory ; and its cliffs, as well as some 
 of those on the coast of Calabria, bear unequivocal testimony 
 of a former submersion, from being thickly perforated by 
 the borings of recent mollusks at the height of more than 
 one hundred feet above the present level of the sea. In 
 the Abbate Romanelli's description of Capri, published in 
 1816, he says — 'Near the eastern summit there is also a 
 singular calcareous mass, closely pierced by mitoli and 
 vermi litofagi, which indication of the pholades proves the 
 sea to have formerly reached that height : and this was con- 
 firmed to me by Professor Scipio Breislak, at Milan, on his 
 showing specimens which he had taken from a summit of 
 that island, colla suo propria mano. But the master-key in 
 evidence of geological cycles of great extent on this coast, 
 is offered in the interesting ruins of the temple of Jupiter 
 Serapis, near Pozzuoli, in the bay of Baise, and about 
 one hundred feet from the sea. Of this temple there are 
 three columns still standing, which are profusely drilled, 
 to the height of from twelve to eighteen or nineteen 
 feet, by the perforations of the lithodomus, a bivalve still 
 existing in the adjoining sea. When I first visited these 
 ruins, in the spring of 1814, the pavement seemed to be 
 rather above the level of the Mediterranean ; yet it would 
 appear to be slowly sinking again, since in 1850 there were 
 upwards of two feet of salt water over it. The whole line 
 
28 ITALIAN ISLANDS. 
 
 of the adjacent coast between the downs and the beach, 
 is of modern formation, consisting of beds of pumice and 
 sand, with recent marine shells, lateritious fragments, 
 and water-worn pieces of pottery. From every evidence, 
 direct as well as inferential, it may be safely concluded that 
 the land has risen and fallen twice since the Christian era ; 
 and that each movement of elevation and subsidence has 
 exceeded twenty feet. 
 
 § 5. Of the Italian Islands. 
 
 rpHIS term, in chorographical parlance, does not include 
 **- the isles which lie near the coasts of Tuscany or 
 Naples ; but is especially applied to Corsica, Sardinia, 
 and Sicily, with their dependencies. The two first lie 
 north and south of each other off the west coast of Italy, 
 in nearly a straight line, stretching across the sea between 
 Genoa and Tunis for 80 leagues ; and though separated 
 only by the Strait of Bonifaccio, exhibit many remarkable 
 
 Corsica. differences, both moral and physical. Corsica may be con- 
 sidered as one vast mass of granite rising to a height of 
 8700 feet above the level of the sea, with a banda or 
 plateau on each side, of about 310 miles in circuit; it 
 possesses a great variety of minerals, and is clothed with 
 forests of oak, beech, fir, cedar, cork, ash, and chestnut trees. 
 It holds the third rank among Mediterranean islands, and 
 its produce is corn, wine, oil, olives, legumes, carobs, fruits, 
 silk, honey, wax, marbles, coral, tunny, botarghe, and salt. 
 
 Sardinia. Sardinia, although from the small sinuosity of its coasts 
 
 it has a circuit of little more than 500 miles, is upwards of 
 140 miles in length from north to south, with an average 
 breadth of 60 miles ; and, as I have elsewhere said, until 
 I had myself established the admeasurement, I considered 
 Sicily, from a very prevailing error, as the largest of the 
 
ITALIAN ISLANDS. 29 
 
 Mediterranean islands ; and though the difference is trifling, 
 I now subscribe to the assertion of that very early hydro- 
 grapher Scylax, who is somewhat technically called, by my 
 venerable friend Major Rennel, ' the Pilot/ and who, ac- 
 cording to Cluverius, says, c Maxima est Sardinia, secunda 
 Sicilia, tertia Creta, quarta Cyprus, quinta Eubcea, sexta 
 Corsica, septima Lesbus/ It is a much lower island than 
 Corsica, few of its mountain summits exceeding 3000 feet in 
 height ; and Gen-Argentu, its culminating peak near the 
 centre, being only 5276 feet. A chain of primitive rock 
 runs from north to south down the east side of the 
 island, but there is a large volcanic district extending 
 through its centre, and jutting out in many places to 
 the west coast. This is its great physical diversity from 
 Corsica, and the principal moral peculiarity may be said to 
 be, that Sardinia still retains the feudal system ; but there 
 are also various points of difference in other respects 
 which struck me during my occasional visits, some of which 
 are recorded in my published account of that island. Their 
 produce however is similar, as well as their fisheries, and 
 both have their coasts indented with excellent bays, 
 harbours, and roadsteads ; unhappily there is another point 
 of resemblance, since all the low grounds are fatally infected 
 in the summer months with intemperie, or malaria, which 
 in some spots is truly deadly.* The trading places of 
 Corsica are Bastia (3fantinum), Porto Yecchio, Bonifaccio, 
 Ajaccio, Calvi, and San Firenzo : of Sardinia the principal 
 ones are Cagliari (Garalis), Sassari, Alghero, Oristano, San 
 Pietro, Ogliastro, Terra-nova, La Maddalena, Longo-Sardo, 
 and Castel-Sardo : the eastern shores of both islands are 
 less indented with bays than the western, and it is espe- 
 cially so with regard to Corsica ; where the sea is receding 
 
 * For instance, in my Sketch of Sardinia (page 295) I mention the 
 pestilential atmosphere on the western coast, as authorizing the oft-repeated 
 proverb : — 
 
 A Oristano che ghe va, 
 
 In Oristano ghe resta ! 
 
30 ITALIAN ISLANDS. 
 
 from that side, so much that Alleria, once a Roman seaport, 
 is now upwards of a mile inland. 
 
 Sicily. The island of Sicily is separated from the continent by the 
 
 celebrated Faro, or Strait of Messina (Stretto Mamertino), 
 where every appearance justifies the popular belief that 
 a violent disruption, or subsidence of strata, has taken 
 place at some one remote period. Although this island 
 is actually in surface rather smaller than Sardinia, it 
 has a circuit of 550 miles of winding coast, and is com- 
 monly deemed as of greater importance ; and may be so 
 justly, whether its geographical position, historical celebrity, 
 climate, or produce, be the circumstances considered — in 
 each and in all of these, it assuredly is one of the most 
 interesting and important islands in the world. As is 
 implied by its ancient name, Trinacria, it is terminated 
 by three remarkable promontories, and intersected through- 
 out by ranges of hills, between which are valleys and plains 
 of the most exuberant fertility ; but unhappily these are the 
 usual seats of malaria, some of them being notoriously 
 pestiferous. None of the hills are of any very con- 
 siderable height except Mount Etna, the most remarkable 
 volcano of Europe, which rises to the elevation of 10,874 
 feet.* It appears from the sea, on every side of the island, 
 like a vast dome towering over all the other mountains. 
 
 Ports of The ancient ports of Palermo (Panormus) have been 
 
 Sicily. . . 
 
 filled up in comparatively recent ages, but it possesses a 
 very capacious mole harbour, by which a great traffic is 
 
 * I must here show a gratifying coincidence in the determinations of 
 the several stations on this mountain, made by two observers without any 
 knowledge of each other's operations : — 
 
 Smyth, 1814. Herschel, 1824. 
 
 Grotta delle Capre 5,362 5, 423'6 English feet. 
 
 Bishop's Snow-store 7,410 7,103*8 
 
 The English House 9,592 9,5927 
 
 The summit of Etna 10,874 10,872'5 
 
 Several other places were evidently as corroborative, but that the observa- 
 tions were taken at different spots ; as, for instance, my height of Nicolosi 
 is 2449 above the sea at the Convent, and Herschel 's 2,232*8 at Gremellaro's 
 House. (See Captain Basil Hall's Patchwork, vol. iii. ch. 3.) 
 
ITALIAN ISLANDS. 31 
 
 maintained. Besides its numerous caricatori, or authorized 
 loading-places, and its artificial ports, Sicily boasts the fine 
 harbours of Messina (Mesana vel Z ancle), Augusta, Syracuse, 
 Trapani (Drepanum), and Milazzo (Mylce); and there are also 
 various other excellent road-anchorages for the largest ships. 
 Hence there is a busy traffic ; and, notwithstanding the moral 
 causes which deaden the physical energies of its resources, 
 the exports are still both valuable and various. An enume- 
 ration of its principal branches of trade sufficiently proves 
 this, for they consist of corn, wine, oil, fruit, manna, honey, Produce, 
 wax, saffron, carobs, liquorice, sumach, marbles, sulphur, 
 nitre, barilla, salt, linseed, amber, cantharides, coral, cork, 
 flax, rice, silk, hides, soap, cheese, squills, rags, cotton, 
 wool, madder, orchil, timber, fish, botarghe, tobacco, and 
 all kinds of leguminous vegetables. 
 
 The arenaceous and shingly conglomerate to which I Hard 
 
 & J . . & beaches, 
 
 have alluded in my Memoir on Sicily, occupies a great part 
 of the beaches around the island ; and is very observable 
 between Cape Granitola and Sciacca. Indeed a compound 
 of this kind, replete with shells, fills up the hollows in most 
 of the older rocks in Sicily. On facts connected with this, 
 I have also stated that it is unlikely that the Faro of 
 Messina has increased in width for many ages ; from thence 
 to Scaletta, the beach is generally hardened into a compact 
 conglomerate of which small mill-stones are made on the 
 spot. This may probably proceed from the water which 
 percolates through the fiumare, holding carbonate of lime 
 in solution, and precipitating travertine. 
 
 On the north coast of Sicily are situated the Lipari Li P ari 
 
 islands. 
 
 Islands, so long famed as the jEolian, or Vulcanian 
 group ; consisting of Alicudi (Ericodes), Felicudi (Phceni- 
 codes), Salina (Didyme), Lipari (Lipara), Vulcano (Hiera), 
 Panaria (Hicesia), Stromboli (Strongyle), and some smaller 
 rocks. The islands are generally precipitous and bold-to, 
 except in the vicinity of Panaria ; but as all the dangers 
 are marked on the chart, they are easily avoided. The 
 
32 
 
 ITALIAN ISLANDS. 
 
 group is entirely volcanic, and yields sulphur, nitre, alum, 
 arsenic, pumice, various salts, and specular iron. Lipari is 
 the largest, most fertile, and best inhabited ; but Stromboli 
 is the most remarkable on account of its unceasing eruptions, 
 which have gained it the name of the lighthouse of the 
 Mediterranean. A feature in the hydro-geology of these 
 islands may be noticed. Most of them present steep cliffy 
 fronts on the west, and descend in moderate slopes on the 
 eastern side; the former plunging at once into deep water, 
 and the latter offering a gradual suite of regular soundings. 
 A similar peculiarity is also found in many other parts of 
 the world. 
 
 ustica. To the west of the Liparis, and north of Palermo, lies 
 
 Ustica, a small but well-cultivated volcanic island, where 
 the best barilla of these markets is prepared. Off Trapani 
 are the isles of Maretimo (Hiera), Levanso (Bucinna), and 
 Faviguana (Jfigusa); and to the south of Sicily are Pan- 
 tellaria (Cossyra) — a place of exile for state delinquents, — 
 the uninhabited Linosa, Lampedusa— Prosperous enchanted 
 island — and Lampion Bock. 
 
 Every one is aware of the vastness of phlaagrean erup- 
 tions in these districts, and the numerous extinct as well as 
 active cones exhibit the cause of a long series of changes. 
 And I think the term ' volcanic agency' may be also applied 
 to those emissions of mud, petroleum, and sulphuretted 
 hydrogen, of which an example is given in my account of 
 Sicily, at the Maccaluba near Girgenti (page 213). 
 
 Malta. Malta (Melita) also ' was anciently an appanage of the 
 
 crown of Sicily, but having been granted by Charles V. 
 to the Knights of the Order of St. John of Jerusalem on 
 their being driven out of Rhodes in 1530, its superb harbour 
 was impregnably fortified as a barrier against the Turks, 
 and it became one of the most celebrated spots of modern 
 times until within a century ago, when unequivocal symp- 
 toms of moral degeneracy began to be manifested. From 
 its position between Sicily and Africa, it commands the 
 
ITALIAN ISLANDS. 33 
 
 channel which connects the two great basins of this sea, 
 and was therefore, in the recent struggles, too important 
 a station to be left in the paralyzed hands of the Knights. 
 In 1798, the French made an almost unresisted conquest 
 of it ; but after a blockade of almost two years — 
 vigorously maintained by the inhabitants themselves on 
 land, and by the British fleet at sea — they were compelled 
 to relinquish it to the English, to whom it was finally ceded 
 at the general peace of 1815. By Scylax, the Maltese isles 
 were reckoned among the appendages to Carthage, and 
 Melita Africana was distinguished from Melita Illyrica; 
 but by a British act of parliament, Malta is now included 
 in Europe, notwithstanding that the customs, language, 
 and simple mode of life of the natives are a very decided 
 evidence of their affinity to the Arabs in Barbary. 
 
 The island of Malta — as well as its dependencies, Gozo 
 (Gaulus), Comino, and Filfla — is composed of calcareous 
 rock, abounding in petrifactions and fossil remains, and 
 generally of an undulating surface, but with some hills, 
 as the Benjemma range of above 500 feet, and the Guardia 
 of Gozo, which is 570 feet high. There is sufficient local 
 evidence that these isles, with a present circuit of about 
 sixty miles, have lost much by disintegration. The utmost 
 industry has been exerted to fertilize every interstice among 
 these otherwise sterile rocks, the soil being — except in 
 a few favoured spots — not more than eight or ten inches 
 deep ; and their campi artificiali afford proofs of laborious 
 industry. Yet moral energy here overcomes physical defects, 
 for the isles are exceedingly productive, although their corn 
 is barely sufficient for a five months' subsistence of the 
 numerous population ; the fruits are finer than those of the 
 adjacent countries, and luxuriant crops of sulla (Hedissarum 
 coronaria) form the most substantial and nourishing fodder 
 for horses and cattle. But the principal branch of their 
 industry is the cultivation and manufacture of cotton, of 
 which the two best kinds — the Gallipoli and Nankin — - 
 
 D 
 
34 
 
 THE ADRIATIC SEA. 
 
 the one white, and the other yellowish brown, have a 
 staple combining length and silkiness in a superior degree. 
 We refer the reader to the close of this chapter, for farther 
 statistical particulars respecting this colony. 
 
 Adria. 
 
 Adriatic 
 gulf. 
 
 § 6. The Adriatic Sea. 
 
 A LTHOUGH archseology is not our object in this sketch 
 •^ of the borders of the Mediterranean, a geographical 
 definition of the term Adriatic must be given, lest it might 
 be supposed that the views of Veryard, Giorgi, and Bryant, 
 can be assented to by one who has critically examined both 
 Malta and Meleda. 
 
 The Adriatic Sea is considered to have gained its name 
 either from the very ancient city of Adria, or Hadria, 
 now some fifteen miles inland, at the farther end of 
 the Gulf of Venice, or from Atri in the Abruzzo ; but 
 the latter seems untenable. The name is, perhaps, first 
 mentioned by Herodotus, who, however, seems to apply 
 it rather to the country around the coasts than to the sea 
 itself; although he asserts (Clio, 163) that it was first of 
 all explored by the Phocseaus. Thucydides tells us (lib. i.) 
 that Epidamnus, now Durazzo, is a city on the right 
 hand as you sail into the Ionian Gulf ; it is the Hadri- 
 acus Undas of Virgil, while Horace makes the Arbiter 
 Adrise wash the Calabrian coast ; and Pliny, who calls 
 the Adriatic the second gulf of Europe, expressly places 
 Cape Lavinium and the town of Croton — both of Cala- 
 bria Ultra — on its shores. Strabo describes the Iapygian 
 and Ceraunian shores as the line of separation in these 
 divisions. He admits that the mouth or strait belongs to 
 both, yet it is obvious that the lower part was colonized 
 
 from Ionia, the upper from Adria; the name therefore 
 of the first part of this sea is termed Ionian, and the 
 
THE ADRIATIC SEA. 35 
 
 inner part up to its recess, Adriatic ; ' but now/ he says, 
 (circa AD. 18,) ' the latter is the name even of the whole 
 sea :' and this statement is strengthened by the fact of the 
 Gulf of Venice being called the Upper Sea (mare superum) 
 by the Latin writers. In a splendid copy of Ptolemy, lent 
 to me by his late E.H. the Duke of Sussex, which was 
 printed at Rome in the year 1478, Mare Adriaticum appears 
 in uncial characters on tabula secunda, in the space between 
 Sicilia and Corcyra ; on tabula sexta it is below Bruttium 
 and Messene ; on tabula septima it is marked in the offing 
 of Leontium, in Sicily ; and on the tenth plate it is opposite 
 to the space between Zacynthos and the Strophades. 
 
 Hence it is evident that the Adriatic Sea was held to 
 be that vast expanse of waters contained in the Upper, 
 the Ionian, and the Sicilian Seas — in fact, that it extended 
 both to the north and south, from the narrows which some 
 have chosen to assume as its mouth. But these were con- 
 vertible terms; for, as we have just seen, Thucydides cites 
 the position of Epidamnus as in the Ionian waters, and 
 St. Paul's ship was driven up and down in Hadria : the 
 Adriatic Sea, says Heschius, ' is the same with the Ionian 
 Sea/ a definition that might have suppressed arguments 
 which have been conducted with more vehemence than 
 judgment. The upper portion of this space, so appropriately 
 designated the Gulf of Venice, is of moderate depths — from Depths, 
 twelve to twenty fathoms between Istria and Venice, and 
 about 100 near its centre; between this and the entrance 
 there is a basin which has upwards of 500 fathoms ; and at 
 the narrows between Otranto and Valona are 350 fathoms, 
 deepening suddenly towards the Ionian Sea. The southern 
 division of the Adriatic is as yet unfathomed ; at least, 
 I have had occasion, in searching for reported dangers, 
 to try for soundings with from 400 to TOO fathoms of line, 
 without at any time striking the bottom. The flat lands 
 around this sea are subject to malaria in summer. 
 
 Cape Spartivento, or wind-splitter (Herculeum prom.), E ^Sb-i 
 d2 
 
36 THE ADRIATIC SEA. 
 
 is the south-eastern extremity of Calabria, and between it 
 and Cape Santa Maria di Leuca, the coast is indented by 
 the bays or gulfs of Squillace (Scylleticus Sinus) and 
 Taranto, with the petty ports and coves of Gerace (near 
 Locri), Catanzaro, Cotrone (Groto), Strongoli (Petilia), 
 Roseta, Cesareo (Sasina), and Gallipoli (Gallipolis). Ta- 
 ranto (Tarentum), seated in the north-west angle of the 
 gulf named after it, was once the rival of Rome, and had 
 an excellent port at the mouth of a fine river, which be- 
 coming choked up from neglect, commerce deserted it : 
 still, however, it boasts nearly 20,000 inhabitants, and 
 derives some consideration from its fisheries. Indeed, the 
 bays of the whole coast, from the Faro of Messina, abound 
 with excellent fish. 
 
 Hard ^he Calabrian beaches offer many specimens of arena- 
 
 beaches. J l 
 
 ceous conglomerate with the calcareous cement, so largely 
 occurring in Sicily. Off Cape Rizzuto, a two-fathoms shoal 
 may possibly be the remains of the Ogygia vel Calypsus 
 Insula of Pliny, which, with four others on this coast, are 
 Changes of considered as having been swallowed up. On the west side 
 
 coast. & r 
 
 of the Gulf of Taranto there are symptoms of the sea's 
 having receded from the coast, owing to the alluvia carried 
 down by the rivers, and the marine deposits thrown up. 
 This is well shown at the margin of the once fertile plains 
 of Metapontum, between the rivers Bradano (Bradanus) 
 and Basiento (Gasuentus) ; where a square tower called Torre 
 di Mare, built by the Angevine kings as a station for coast- 
 guards, is now above a mile distant from the shore. 
 Gulf of Doubling Cape Santa Maria di Lucca (Iapygium prom.), 
 
 V GH1CG. 
 
 under which a black rock called Maleso marks the boundary 
 of the Bay of Taranto, we enter the Gulf of Venice by the 
 narrow mouth denominated the Strait of Otranto. On ex- 
 amination, the navigator will perceive the wide difference 
 which exists between the two sides of this sea, the eastern 
 shore being generally rocky, replete with islands and ports of 
 bold approach, but deficient in inhabitants, provisions, and, 
 
THE ADRIATIC SEA. 37 
 
 in many parts, also in potable water ; the western coast, 
 on the contrary, is comparatively shallow, and almost 
 without any ports of capacity, yet — excepting some parts 
 of Puglia — populous, and abounding in provisions, water, 
 and articles of trade. 
 
 The west side of the Adriatic is bounded by Italy, in the East coast 
 beaches of which are frequent specimens of the calcareous 
 concretion above-mentioned ; and here the soundings are 
 more regular than on the opposite coast, with an approach 
 of considerably less boldness — a consequence of the main 
 current's setting along the shores of Albania, Dalmatia, and 
 Istria, and returning by those of Friuli, Venice, Romagna, 
 the Abruzzi, and the Capitanata. Besides numerous road- 
 anchorages between Otranto (Hydruntum) and the mouth 
 of the Po, there are the ports of Brindisi (Brundusium), Trad ™s 
 Monopoli (Egnatia), Bari (Barium), Barletta, Manfre- 
 donia (Sipontum), Viesti (Apenestce), Ortona and Ancona 
 — which retain their ancient names and sites — Sinigaglia 
 (Sena Gallica), Fano (Fanum Fortunce), Pesaro (Pisau- 
 rum), Rimini (Ariminium), Comacchio, Chioggia (Fossa 
 Claudia), and some places of less note, to which busy 
 coasters resort. The exports are corn, rice, legumes, Produce, 
 fruits, vegetables, oil, wine, cotton, wool, silk, manna, salt, 
 hemp, cheese, soap, timber, glass, and liquorice. The 
 great lakes between Peschichi and Termoli (Interamna), 
 named Lesina (Lacus Pantanus) and Varano (Portus 
 Garnai), have immemorially been celebrated for the 
 abundance, variety, and excellence of their fish ; but their 
 borders are unhealthy. 
 
 The uniformity of this western line of coast is broken in 
 three principal places, — namely, first, at Testa di Gargano, 
 or Mount Sant' Angelo (Promontorium Garganum), near 
 which lie the four Tremiti Isles (Insula Diomedece) ; 
 secondly, at Mount Conero (Cumerium prom), between 
 Loretto and Ancona ; and thirdly, at the Delta formed by 
 depositions at the mouths of the Po (Eridanus and Padus). River Po. 
 
38 THE ADRIATIC SEA. 
 
 This river, which has been celebrated even as c rex fluvi- 
 orum/ has its source in the Grison Alps, and after flowing 
 from west to east for more than 280 miles, discharges itself 
 into the Adriatic by seven different channels, sometimes, 
 during freshes, with such violence, that Tasso says it carries 
 war, not tribute, to the sea. At these times the Po renders 
 the water of the sea brackish, to a considerable distance out, 
 by diluting its saltness : at which opportunities our frigates 
 cruising off Goro used to replenish their water by skimming 
 the surface just out of gun-shot. The ravages of this river 
 have made a great exertion of hydraulic engineering requi- 
 site for preventive purposes ; and the embankments, ren- 
 dered absolutely necessary by its repeated deposits, have 
 raised its bed many feet above the plain through which it 
 flows, keeping the whole country of Ferrara and the Polesino 
 in constant fear of a flood ; and therefore it is a perpetual 
 source of anxiety and expense. 
 
 TheApen- It should be observed that, between the heights of An- 
 cona and Mont Sant' Angelo, the celebrated chain of the 
 Apennines — the true mountain-system of Italy — runs nearly 
 parallel to the sea-line of the Abruzzi, and comparatively 
 near ; thereby influencing the seasons and agriculture of the 
 intervening space. The population of the plains may be 
 said to have nearly reached the utmost verge of subsistence ; 
 but the slopes of the mountains are extremely populous, and 
 the immense forests of sweet chestnuts maintain a great 
 proportion of the inhabitants of the district — and this at an 
 elevation where no food for man could be procured in our 
 climate. Among the summits seen from this part of the 
 Adriatic, the peaks of Monte Corno (Precuti), or the Gran 
 Sasso d'ltalia, 9500 feet high, and Monte Majella (Palenus), 
 nearly as high, are very striking. 
 
 Venice. The territory of Venice extends from the northern 
 
 mouth of the Po, across the head of the gulf as far as the 
 bay of Trieste ; the greater part of this extent is com- 
 posed of low marshy islets and lagoons, formed by the 
 
THE ADRIATIC SEA. 39 
 
 many neighbouring rivers; as the Brenta (Medoacus 
 major), the Adige (Athesis flumen), the Piave, the Taglia- 
 mento (Tilaventum), &c. In the midst of these rises the 
 once potent city of Venice, between which and the Adriatic 
 — however frequently the gorgeous ceremony of marriage 
 has taken place — there may now be said to have been a 
 lasting, if not final divorce, although a semblance of union 
 is still maintained. This singular capital is built upon 
 half a hundred little islets or banks, consolidated by piles, 
 and intersected in every direction by canals and smaller 
 watercourses (canaletti), serving the purposes of streets 
 and lanes, but navigated by the gondola ; which, notwith- 
 standing its sable, hearse-like appearance, is a commodious, 
 well-furnished boat, swiftly sculled by a single waterman. 
 
 Beyond point Sdobba, the land becomes steeper and the istria. 
 water deepens, as we approach the territory of Istria ; which 
 is bounded on the north-west by the river Isonzo, and on 
 the south by the Gulf of Quarnero ; and unlike the parts we 
 have just left, has a coast which is generally bold, broken, 
 and irregular, with a mountainous interior formed by an 
 offset of the Julian Alps. Such, at least, are the hydro- 
 graphical boundaries ; but the portion usually designated 
 the Peninsula, is only about forty-five miles long. The 
 chief occupation of the inhabitants, who are mostly of 
 Sclavonian origin, is agriculture ; they also attend to some 
 minor manufactures, and to fishing. The country produces Produce, 
 in small quantities, oil, wine, fruits, corn, honey, wax, silk, 
 leather, tallow, timber, and salt ; and has abundant 
 quarries of freestone and marble, whence excellent lime is 
 abundantly obtained by calcination. 
 
 The chief loading-places of Istria are Castel Duino istrian 
 (Pucinum Castellum), Trieste (Tergeste), Capo d' Istria 
 (/Egida), Pirano, Parenzo (Parentiurn), Orsera, Rovigno, 
 and Pola ; there are also many smaller resorts. Of all these, 
 Trieste, a flourishing seaport, claims the pre-eminence ; 
 having lately become the commercial victor of Venice, and 
 
40 THE ADRIATIC SEA. 
 
 the most important of the Austrian port-marts. It has a 
 very secure artificial harbour, and an outer road with a 
 moderate depth of water ; but this anchorage is exposed to 
 the wind from the west and south-west quarters, and 
 specially subject to the violent gust called Bora. Now 
 
 Poia. Pola is a roomy haven, with many advantages, yet, from 
 
 the malaria on its shores, it is all but deserted ; and it is not 
 a little singular, considering its position, that it should be 
 exempt from the visitations of the Bora. The tonnara, or 
 tunny-fishery, claims its chief marine attention, and is a 
 source of considerable profit. Most of the tunnies are sent 
 fresh to Venice, but the surplus is eviscerated on the spot, 
 cured with the highly-prized Istrian salt, and packed off 
 for general markets. It is singular that Pola still preserves 
 its most ancient name, for that which the Romans gave it 
 — Pietas Julia — has long disappeared. 
 
 Croatia. The east coast of the Adriatic, from Cape Promontore 
 
 to Ragusa, is more bold and picturesque than that of Istria, 
 being flanked by numerous islands, some of considerable 
 size, and others mere rocks; here exhibiting productive 
 cultivation, there neglect and barrenness. The water 
 between them is deep, and the shores mostly bold and 
 precipitous, insomuch, that a fleet may generally work to 
 within half a cable's length on either side ; and sailing 
 among the sinuous channels of the Quarnero is easy and 
 pleasing, except that the Bora often renders it an unsafe 
 
 Monte navigation — nor are the gusts off Monte Maggiore, or 
 
 ' Caldero (4530 feet high), to be disregarded. Between 
 
 Istria and Dalmatia lies the State of Croatia (Liburnia) — 
 
 Horv'dth Orszdg of the natives — of which the principal 
 
 coast-towns along the Morlachian shores are Fiume — the 
 
 great seaport proper of Hungary — Porto Re, and Karlo- 
 
 pago. Between the two latter is Segna, the whole plain of 
 
 which was evidently once a harbour. 
 
 Gulf of The Gulf of Quarnero (Sinus Flanaticus or Liburni- 
 
 ' cus) takes its name from the four principal islands, Cherso 
 
THE ADRIATIC SEA. 41 
 
 (Cripsa or Crecca), Veglia (Curicta or Cyractica), Arbe 
 (Scar dona), and Pago (Cissa, afterwards Paganorum 
 insula), the two latter of which are close to the mainland. 
 Cherso is joined by a causeway bridge to the island and 
 mount called Osero (isle), whence they are generally consi- 
 dered as one; their soil is uneven and stony, but they 
 abound in cattle, vines, olives, and honey; and possess, 
 among other ports, the fine harbour of Lossin Piccolo, 
 which is at once spacious and land-locked. Veglia is the Vegiia. 
 largest, as well as the most fertile and populous of the 
 Croatian group, though some of the arable grounds of Aj:be 
 are in greater esteem. Pago is not more noted for the Pago, 
 tortuosities of its form than for the extraordinary variability 
 of its climate, and the wildness of the inhabitants. It is 
 singular that those neighbours — Cherso, Osero, Lossin, 
 Canidole, and Sansego — should abound with fossil bones ;* 
 and there are symptoms of the whole of the islands having 
 once joined the continent. It should also be recollected 
 Osero was formerly A bsorus and A uxerum; whence the 
 immediate isles of the vicinity were called Absyrtides. 
 
 Leaving Croatia, we enter the province of Dalmatia, Daimatia. 
 the government of which, including Ragusa, extends from 
 Obrovazza — south of Karlopago — to Lastua, beyond Budua, 
 the last being properly in Albania, but that there is about 
 the Bocche di Cattaro a sort of variable frontier. The 
 whole district is mountainous and generally barren ; though 
 towards the interior there are extensive forests of timber. 
 Its chief ports are Novigradi, on a sea lake ; Zara (Jadara), zara. 
 the fortified capital, with a spacious harbour, well-furnished 
 arsenal, and 8000 inhabitants ; Scardona on the Kerka, Scardona. 
 which flows into the Adriatic near Sebenico, after forming 
 
 * The bone-breccia of these islands appears to be identically the same 
 conglomerate with those of Gibraltar, Cerigo, and other places in the 
 Mediterranean. A large collection had recently been sent from Lossin 
 Piccolo to Vienna, just before my arrival in that port, in which Dr. Capone, 
 my informant, found relics of oxen, deer, and other rodentia. 
 
42 THE ADRIATIC SEA. 
 
 several cascades and five magnificent falls in its course of 
 about fifty miles : Sebenico, on the declivity of a rocky hill, 
 near the lake of Kerka (Titium), is a well-built town of 
 
 Towns and 4000 inhabitants, with a castle ; Ragosniza, a good port, 
 with a poverty-struck village ; Trau (Tragurium), a town 
 on the main, with a suburb on the Isle of Bua, having 3000 
 inhabitants, the two connected by a mole with a draw- 
 bridge for the passage of vessels ; Salona, still enjoying its 
 ancient name ; Spalatro (Palatium), one of the most com- 
 mercial ports of Dalmatia, is a fortified city, with a popula- 
 tion of 8000 people, bearing many traces of former prospe- 
 rity and Diocletian's munificence ; Almissa (Oncenum), 
 at the mouth of the river Cettina (Nestus or Tilurus) ; 
 Macarska (Rataneum or Rhcetinum), a little, open town, 
 with a small port; Fort Opus and Sabioncello, on the 
 shores of the gulf into which the Narenta empties itself ; 
 the once powerful maritime city of Ragusa,* and its 
 splendid canal of Calamota ; Ragusa Vecchia (Epidaurus) ; 
 Cattaro, with its unique and noble broad of waters, called 
 le bocche — formerly Sinus Rhizonicus — meandering amid 
 precipitous mountains ; and the small ortified town and 
 harbour of Budua (Buthoe). 
 
 Aspect and The mountainous tract at the back of these towns — for 
 
 produce. 
 
 the most part wild, rugged, and barren — is industriously 
 cultivated towards the shore. A general want of water, 
 with an arid soil, however, render Dalmatia unsuitable for 
 agriculture, and therefore it was of old better known for 
 piracy than for commercial enterprise; yet it has long 
 exported considerable quantities of corn, wine, oil, figs, 
 almonds, cheese, salt, wool, brandy, maraschino and other 
 liqueurs, honey, fr * i its, sardines, and tunny. There is much 
 timber in the interior, but the forests near the coast have 
 
 * Ragusa politically ceded certain portions of her territory to the Turks, 
 in order to avoid a more dangerous intimacy with Venice. From the 
 qualities and disposition of the inhabitants, the city has been termed the 
 Paris of the Adriatic. 
 
THE ADRIATIC SEA. 43 
 
 been exhausted. A principal feature of the whole is the 
 range called Montenegro (Czernagora), consisting chiefly Monte- 
 
 . . negro. 
 
 of the cretaceous or Mediterranean limestone, so extensively 
 developed from the Alps to the Archipelago ; and which is 
 commonly remarkable for its bare and craggy character. 
 The general height is about 3000 feet, with a few higher 
 summits ; and the slopes are gentle in the direction of the 
 inclination of the strata, with precipices at the outcroppings, 
 which give a fine variety to the scenery. It is inhabited 
 by a race of hardy and warlike mountaineers, who have 
 managed to maintain their independence between the 
 Turks, whom they abhor, and the Austrians, for whom they 
 care not ; and no man moves without his gun and poniard. 
 They are under the rule of a Yladika, or Prince-Bishop, by 
 whom I was received, in 1818, with marked kindness and 
 hospitality, in the fortified convent of Stagnevitch, on an 
 elevated slope on the south side of Mount Giurgvitch. 
 This was the celebrated Peter, of the clan Petrovitz, who 
 succeeded to his dignity so far back as the year 1777 ; and 
 who so heroically defeated Mahmoud Pasha in 1795. His 
 dominion is perhaps the only independent country in 
 Europe which does not contain either a town, or any village, 
 or cluster of habitations, large enough to be compared to 
 one, although with a surface of more than 400 square miles. 
 Conformity of religion, decorations of knighthood and 
 presents from the Emperor Paul, and the distant position of 
 the power, combined to induce the Montenegrini to prefer 
 the friendship of Russia to that of Austria ; and the politic 
 predilection was increased by the favours and courtesy of 
 the Emperor Alexander. They are, however, surrounded 
 by extremely jealous, and even inimical neighbours.* 
 
 * It was here that the existence and views of the secret society, called 
 the Hetaeria, for the emancipation of the Greeks, were revealed to me, and 
 which, as the trial-outbreak was to occur in the Ionian islands, I was in 
 duty bound to disclose to the British government, through Sir Thomas 
 Maitland. This certainly placed the projects of the Hetserists in peril, but 
 
44 THE ADRIATIC SEA. 
 
 Dalmatian The numerous islands appertaining to this line of coast 
 
 islands. . . f r & 
 
 appear to have originated in the breaking up of the lower 
 grounds, by some violent action, leaving their limestone- 
 summits above water : from the salient position of the pro- 
 montory terminating in Point Planca, they are divided 
 into two distinct groups, which the Greek geographers 
 designated the Absyrtides (above-mentioned) and Libur- 
 nides (Strab. vii.). They trend north-west and south-east, 
 greatly longer than broad, and form various fine channels, 
 here called canale, and named from the nearest adjacent 
 island ; which being bold, with scarcely a hidden danger, give 
 a variety of secure passages for ships between them. These 
 islands are generally poorly supplied with potable water, 
 and some of them suffer greatly from the want of it ; they 
 are, therefore, not fertile, although scantily affording oil, 
 wine, honey, wax, olives and other fruit. Some of them 
 are miserably off, so that I found many families unable to 
 afford themselves the use of bread, except on festivals. 
 The principal islands are Scardo, Grossa (Lissa), Incoro- 
 nata, Zuri (Cratece), Solta (Olynta), Brazza (Brattia), 
 Lesina (Pharos), Lissa (Issa), Curzola (Corcyra Nigra 
 vel Meloena), TAgosta (Tauris), Melada (Melita), and 
 many smaller ones ; replete with ports and harbours, some 
 of which are upon an extensive scale. South of Lissa, and 
 nearly in the centre of the Adriatic Sea, stands the rocky 
 Peiagosa. isle of Pelagosa, and west of the latter is Porno, a pyramidal 
 rock 100 feet high, with a dangerous shoal off its north 
 end: as Pelagosa is a very important sunset point of 
 departure for all passing Adriatic traders to take the bear- 
 ing of, I requested of Baron Prochasca, in 1818, on stated 
 grounds, that a lighthouse might be erected there by the 
 Austrian Government, which has been done. 
 
 no choice was left me ; and within sixteen months afterwards I was called 
 upon to co-operate with General Sir Frederic Adam, in suppressing the 
 dangerous insurrection at Santa Maura. This was precisely what I had been 
 informed, although the plea was about a new tax. 
 
THE ADRIATIC SEA. 45 
 
 Between Dalmatia and the Gulf of Lepanto, the eastern Albania, 
 shores of the Adriatic are formed by the coast of Albania, 
 which, in the greater part of its northern portion, is of 
 moderate height, and in some places even low and un- 
 wholesome, as far as Valona, or Avlona (Aulon), where it 
 suddenly becomes rugged and mountainous, with precipi- 
 tous cliffs descending rapidly to the sea. This is the 
 Khimara range, upwards of 4000 feet high, once much Mount 
 
 . Khimara. 
 
 dreaded by ancient navigators as the Acro-Cerauman pro- 
 montory. Some of the inland hills are so clearly seen over 
 the intervening land between Durazzo and Avlona, that 
 many vessels coming down this sea have been deceived, and 
 consequently wrecked on Samana, the shelvy point formed Point 
 by the river Toberathi, or Krevasti, the Apsus flumen of 
 yore. Among those heights none is more remarkable than 
 Monte Pegola, which has an altitude of 7764 feet ; and is 
 perhaps thus named from being near the beds of asphaltum, 
 or mineral pitch, of Selenitsa. 
 
 The coast of Albania, though its limits are not strictly 
 denned, is generally held to extend from Antivari on the 
 north, to the Gulf of Lepanto on the south : the space 
 between the former and Avlona answers to the ancient 
 Illyricum, and Lower Albania to Epirus; both are still 
 inhabited by a desperate race, who usually are at once 
 soldiers and robbers. The principal Adriatic ports of this Ports, 
 district are — Antivari, which is thought to have been 
 named from being nearly opposite to Bari, in Italy; 
 Dulcigno (Olcinium), long a nest of pirates, who by means 
 of the river Boiana, frequently ravaged the shores of Lake 
 Scutari ; Alessio (Lissus), a town of fishermen on the 
 banks of the Drino (Drilo), the largest of the Illyrian 
 rivers, which communicates with the Ocrida Lake (Lych- 
 nidus Palus) ; Durazzo (Epidamnus, postea Dyr- 
 rhachium), a fortified town at the head of an excelleut bay 
 for anchorage ; Yalona, a very tolerable town on the east 
 side of a spacious and beautiful gulf, which is rendered 
 
46 
 
 THE ADRIATIC SEA. 
 
 Valona. 
 
 Palaeste. 
 
 Geological 
 changes. 
 
 additionally secure by the isle of Sasseno; and Port 
 Palermo (Panormus), a fortified cove at the foot of the 
 Khimara range. Of these places, Valona is the first in 
 maritime consideration, since the bay will accommodate 
 fleets with anchorage, water, wood, provisions, fish, and 
 refreshments in abundance ; and its exports are timber, 
 gall-nuts, corn, oil, wool, mineral pitch, and salt. The site 
 of Oricum, which stood in the southern part of this bay, 
 was (1818) occupied only by two or three huts, among 
 vestiges of an aqueduct. 
 
 Between Valona and Port Palermo, the coast is in- 
 dented with numerous little coves, which were heretofore 
 the resort of piratical vessels lying in wait for their passing 
 prey : but none of them recalled the < quiet station for ships 
 amidst the rocks and dangers of the Ceraunian coast/ which 
 Caesar describes (Bel. Civ. iii. 6). On the hills above Aspri 
 Rouga — Strada Bianca of the Italian pilots — is Paleassa, 
 which may be the site of Palceste, from which Caesar 
 marched in one day to Oricum, and took it. Near it is 
 Chimara (Ghinuera), which gives name (Chimariots) to 
 the inhabitants of the whole mountain-range. 
 
 The basin of the Adriatic Sea seems to be a continuation 
 of the original trough-shaped longitudinal valley of the Po ; 
 separating the parallel ranges of elevated secondary strata 
 of the Apennines, and of the Illyrian mountains. The head 
 of this gulf consequently receives all the waters that flow 
 from the southern descent of the Alps and the mountains of 
 Carniola, between the Po and the Isonzo ; a space in which 
 the sea also receives the Adige, Brenta, Piave, Livenza, the 
 Tagliamento, and numerous minor streams, each carrying 
 down, in freshes, enormous quantities of mud and gravel into 
 the lagoons, or vast extent of shallows which border the 
 intervening shore. By these means Aquileia, which once 
 may have stood near the sea, has long been an inland town ; 
 Adria, which was a station for the Roman fleet, is now 
 more than fifteen miles inland ; and Ravenna, formerly 
 
THE ADRIATIC SEA. 47 
 
 on piles surrounded by lakes and saltpans, and only- 
 bearable from being purified by the tide, as Strabo says, 
 is now in the midst of gardens and meadows ; while Portus 
 Classis, its ancient harbour, has become a marsh four miles 
 from the sea, from which it is separated by the celebrated 
 Pineto, or forest of pines. Spina, with its adjacent Ostium, 
 a Pelasgic town at the most southern branch of the Po, 
 was, in the time of Scylax, about two miles and a half 
 from the sea ; but in less than six hundred years afterwards, 
 Strabo describes it as being ninety stadia, or more than 
 eleven miles inland : nor could Strabo or Pliny find any 
 vestiges of the two islands called Electrides, which the 
 more ancient historians placed at the mouth of the Po, — 
 or of the amber from which they derived their name. 
 
 Still, although the draining of so large a portion of the 
 Alps and Apennines may, with the successive depositions 
 of the sea, have formed the greater part of old Lombardy,* 
 and though there are many circumstances favourable to 
 the encroachment of the land on the sea and rivers, I am 
 not inclined to think the increase has been so great or so 
 rapid as some of my Italian friends have inferred. In 
 mentioning ancient ports, it is not always meant that they 
 were close to the sea ; swamps, ditches, and stagnant pools 
 formed, in fact, the principal feature of all the tract in 
 question ; and there is nothing to prove that these marshes 
 were ever covered by the Adriatic within the period of 
 history. The lagoons may have been contracted, but 
 Padua, as in the time of Livy, is seventeen miles from the 
 
 * In the recent operation of boring for an Artesian well at Venice, four 
 different beds of peat were passed through, at the respective depths of 18, 
 29, 48, and 126 metres ; proving that at four different epochs, the surface, 
 which appears to have been slowly subsiding, was covered with fresh-water 
 lakes, of small depth. Again, at Adria, where it has been shown by excava- 
 tion that it stands on the ruins of two former towns, the progress of alluvial 
 deposits which may have occurred within a space of 3000 years, is demon- 
 strated : the first town arrived at being on a level several feet below the 
 present surface, exhibited Roman vestigia ; the second, at a greater depth, 
 appeared to be earlier, the futile fragments being wholly Etruscan. 
 
river. 
 
 48 THE SHORES AND ISLANDS 
 
 sea, while Brondolo and Chioggia remain the same as 
 described by Pliny ; and even at the delta of the Po, which 
 has so vast a power in transporting mud and silt, a com- 
 parison of the best old map of Ferrara, shows an increase of 
 about twenty-five yards per annum between the years 1200 
 and 1600, latterly accelerating; certainly a very consider- 
 able rate of increment, but greatly inferior to what is now 
 occurring, for instance, at the head of the Gulf of Persia. 
 Assumed One more point. Scylax, who we may also remark is 
 followed by Scymnus Chius, assumed a very dispropor- 
 tionate extension of the Adriatic, placing its innermost 
 angle near the Ister, an arm of which falls into it; and 
 Pomponius Mela assumes that Istria thus derived its name. 
 Apollonius Khodius — the Alexandrian poet, and no great 
 authority in such a case — makes Jason's fleet fly before 
 that of Mt&, across the Euxine, up the Ister, and thence 
 into the Adriatic ; and the Abbate Fortis thought he per- 
 ceived in the nuviatile sands of Sansego and Ossero, evidence 
 of the arm which Jason descended. Having inspected the 
 locality, I am as much surprised at Fortis as Pliny was at 
 Cornelius Nepos, for believing in the existence of such a 
 river. Aristotle seems to have believed that the fish called 
 Trichias passed from the Danube into the Adriatic. 
 
 § 7. The Shores and Islands of Western 
 Greece. 
 
 Western ^PHIS designation is applied generally, rather than in a 
 Greece. J_ strictly geographical sense, to the space between 
 Avlona and Cape Malea, including the Septinsular and the 
 Greek Islands — all of which have had, in our times, a 
 resurrection from that political death with which, for many 
 ages, they had been struck, and which, Greece being the 
 land — kxt e£oxw — of enthusiastic aspiration, gave joy to 
 every civilized country. 
 
OF WESTERN GREECE. 49 
 
 The principal Albanian ports on the Ionian sea, after Albanian 
 quitting Port Palermo, and passing the loading-place under 
 Agioi Saranta (Onchesmus), are first — Butrinto (Buthro* 
 turn), opening into the Channel of Corfu ; Gominitse, near 
 the mouth of the Calamis (Thyamis) ; Mourtzo, the outer 
 isle of which still bears the name of Sybota ; and then the 
 once piratical Parga (Torone), which, with other Venetian Parga. 
 possessions, was ceded to the Porte in March, 1800, by a 
 treaty, in which England had no part ; but, from circum- 
 stances, this cession became obligatory on the English. It 
 forms no portion of my present plan to revive particulars, 
 but as I was in Sir Thomas Maitland's confidence, and was 
 actually at Parga after it was left by its inhabitants, as well 
 as before Ali Pasha's troops were admitted, I feel it proper 
 to state, that the accounts given of that unfortunate event 
 in the Edinburgh Review* are completely erroneous. 
 
 Between Parga and Previsa there are the little ports of Phanari. 
 San Giovanni and Phanari, the last being at the mouth of 
 the Glyki (Glykis limen and Acheron), and on the margin 
 of the mountainous district of Suli, emphatically named 
 Kakosouli by the Turks, from the calamities and evils they 
 encountered in its subjection. Previsa (near Actium and 
 Nicopolis), the chief commercial place of Lower Albania, 
 stands at the mouth of the Gulf of Arta (Ambracius Gulf of 
 sinus), a sheet of water navigable for vessels of the largest 
 size when the bar is passed. Near the south-eastern 
 extremity of the gulf, and on a hill in command of the Port 
 of Kervasara, are the Cyclopian walls and other remains of 
 Argus Amphilochicum ; and from thence round by Ruga 
 and Yonitsa to the western point (Anactorium), the whole 
 shore exhibits traces of former importance. The sanitary 
 condition must at that period have been better, and the 
 country morally more safe ; for now, in addition to a veer- 
 and-haul government, the gulf is unhealthy during the 
 
 * No. LXIV. Vol. 32. 
 
50 THE SHORES AND ISLANDS 
 
 summer months, at which time remittent fevers of a dan- 
 gerous type are common, especially in the lower grounds. 
 
 The state of the pavement of a Koman road on the 
 northern shore of the gulf, with indications marked by the 
 clay-levels, and other signs of submergence, give an idea of 
 local depression. Politically, the centre of this gulf is now 
 the boundary between Turkish Albania and the new king- 
 dom of Greece ; but agreeably to local hydrography, we 
 shall continue the name of Albania to Lepanto, although 
 the portion between Previsa and the River Aspropotamo 
 {Achelous) is named Karnia (Acarnanice). On this coast 
 we meet Port Kandela (Alyzia) ; the excellent Bay of 
 Dragomestre (Astacws), once crowned by a large town and 
 fortress, but now nearly deserted ; and then the embouchure 
 
 Achelous. of the Aspropotamo, the most considerable river of Greece. 
 Herodotus described it as gradually connecting the 
 Echinades with Acarnania, 2300 years ago ; and Thucy- 
 dides predicted (1. ii. § 102) that as the river was rapid, and 
 brought down great quantities of sand, those islands must 
 in time form part of the mainland. The distance between 
 them and the main has become considerably contracted 
 since that prediction was made ; and the present designa- 
 tion of the Achelous — c White River' — is from the turbid 
 tint of its muddy waters, which so whiten the sea around 
 the Kurzolari (Echinades) group, that I was somewhat 
 startled on first sailing through them. Oxia, the largest of 
 these, and the nearest to the mainland, was probably the 
 Dulichium of Homer ; but I can find no confirmation for 
 the conjecture. To the south of this stream lies one of its 
 
 Missoiun- accretions, Port Scropho ; and to the east of it is Misso- 
 lunghi (Melitepalus), at the entrance of an extensive salt 
 lagoon, having Natolica (Cyniapalus) at its head. With 
 sufficient littoral advantages for active commerce, the 
 Albanians have hitherto confined their energies to piracy 
 and a petty trade in timber, oil, wool, valoni or dye acorns, 
 fish, botarga, and general provisions. 
 
 ghi. 
 
OF WESTERN GREECE. 51 
 
 We now enter the Gulf of Lepanto, or Corinth (Sinus Gulf of 
 Corinthiacus),eb sheet of water above seventy miles long from 
 east to west, and about twelve or thirteen miles broad towards 
 the middle, exclusive of the gulfs of its northern inlets under 
 Parnassus and Delphi ; having bold shores, carrying from 
 seven to ten fathoms close in, and a central depth of more Depth, 
 than 250 fathoms — no bottom having been struck with that 
 quantity of line out. The entrance of this gulf is defended 
 by two castles on projecting points, which are not much 
 more than a mile and a half distant from each other, and 
 are known as the Dardanelles of Lepanto (Rhium and 
 Antirrhium) ; the town of which name (or rather towns), 
 once Naupactus, stands on the side of a hill a little within 
 the northern castle called Roumili — properly Rum-ili-Kisar, 
 i. e., castle of the Eoman (Greek) land. To the east of this 
 place, and on the same shore of the gulf, are several bays, 
 affording good anchorage for large vessels, as Salona Ports. 
 (Crissa), Galaxidi (Tolophon), Aspra-Spitia (Anticyra), 
 Port Sarandi (Mychos vel Tiphce) under Mount Zagora 
 (Helicon), Dobrena (Thisbe), Ghermano (JZgosthena), and 
 Livadostro (Creusa). The eastern extremity of the gulf 
 terminates in two bays ; that of Livadostro on the north, 
 that of Corinth (Corinthus) to the south, where the Morea is Corinth, 
 joined to Greece by an isthmus, over which, and in the city 
 of Corinth, the air is so bad, that all those inhabitants who 
 can, abandon the place during the summer months. From 
 the wretched dogana,* which is the sole representative of 
 the once busy Lechceum, to the Morea castle, at the mouth 
 of the gulf, is a comparatively depopulated district ; yet at 
 Sicyon — the ruins of which are on a hill between two 
 streams, the ancient Asopus and Helisson — luxury was in 
 the ascendant, and there the fine arts took their birth, as 
 
 * Before the insui'rection, my friend, Kyamil Bey, ruled in Corinth, where 
 his family had governed for above a century, during which the district was 
 as prosperous as any in Greece. I received much attention from him, and 
 regretted his fate. 
 
 E 2 
 
52 
 
 THE SHORES AND ISLANDS 
 
 Bura and 
 Helice. 
 
 was well testified by its illustrious citizens, Zeuxis, Lysippus, 
 Apelles, and Timarchus. The present chief place of con- 
 
 vostitsa. sideration is Yostitsa (JEgium), from whence the produce 
 of the adjacent country is conveyed in boats to Patras. 
 When I was there in 1820, it was a prosperous and 
 busy town, the landing-place of which was marked by a 
 plane tree of forty feet girth, arid 100 feet in height, around 
 which were fourteen brass cocks for supplying water from the 
 purest of springs ; a few months afterwards, the whole was 
 desolated by the Turks, even to the destruction of this noble 
 tree. Between Yostitsa and the Dardanelles of Lepanto, 
 the extensive sandy point of Drepano induced a distin- 
 guished antiquary to think that it marks the site where 
 Bura and Helice were swallowed up, as mentioned by Pausa- 
 nias (Archaics, ch. xxiv.), and Ovid (Metam. lib. xv.) ; but 
 I see no reason to doubt that catastrophe's having occurred 
 at the base of Mount Meliala, to the east of Yostitsa, accord- 
 ing to the usual supposition. In all the lower grounds of 
 this district, malaria is to be expected ; and the fine vale of 
 Kalavryta is singularly unhealthy in the fall of the year. 
 
 Directly off the coasts of Lower Albania and the Morea 
 lie the Ionian Islands, or Septinsular Eepublic ; a group 
 formerly subject to Yenice, but occupied during the late 
 wars by different belligerents in succession, and finally 
 assigned by the Congress of Yienna to the protection of 
 Great Britain. The United Ionian Islands — in order of 
 constitutional precedence — are Corfu (Corcyra), Cepha- 
 lonia, Zante, Leucadia, Ithaca, Cerigo, and Paxo, together 
 with their numerous dependent islets. Their population 
 amounts to about 200,000, all of whom have toleration in 
 religion, and equal rights in the eye of the law : and these 
 assuredly form the basis of true liberty. The Ionian flag 
 bears the lion of St. Mark, but with that proof of especial 
 protection — the British union — in the upper angle ; the 
 appearance of which in those seas, was the signal of disso- 
 lution to various hordes of pirates. 
 
 Corfu. Corfu, called Korphi (in the plural) by the present 
 
 Ionian 
 Islands. 
 
OF WESTERN GREECE. 53 
 
 Greeks, is the seat of government, and though of rugged 
 surface, abounds with olive-trees, and has some very fertile, 
 but unhealthy plains,* producing corn, oil — which is its 
 chief export, wine, fruit, and flax ; and salt is obtained in 
 considerable quantities by desiccation in some extensive 
 and shallow lagoons, which communicate with the sea. The 
 anchorage is at once roomy, convenient, and secure ; but 
 Port Govino, the former arsenal, has become so unhealthy, Port 
 from the increase of malaria through defective drainage, 
 that its use is discontinued. The island is about thirty-five 
 miles long by twelve miles at its greatest breadth ; it is 
 extremely picturesque, the west shore being an abrupt pre- 
 cipice, with exuberant foliage overhanging the sea. Off Fano. 
 its north end there are some rocky islets, the most important 
 being Fano (Othronus), which has sometimes been called 
 the key of the Adriatic. 
 
 Eight miles south of Corfu, and about ten miles west of Paxo. 
 Epirus, is Paxo (Paxos), the smallest of the septinsular 
 group ; steep and rocky, but well covered with olive-trees, 
 producing the best oil in the Ionian Islands. Quitting its 
 excellent little port, Gaio, and passing the almost desert 
 isle of Anti-Paxo, we arrive at Leucadia, or Levkadhia, an 
 island about sixty miles in circumference, which has long 
 been called Santa Maura by the Italians ; it is very moun- Santa 
 tainous, yet, being cultivated in every possible part, is 
 tolerably productive, and has a considerable export of wine 
 and oil. The north-east extremity of the island is separated 
 from Acarnania only by a narrow channel, which is supposed 
 to have been cut by the Corinthians when Leucadia was a 
 peninsula. The slip of land thus severed is called the Placca, The piacca. 
 and resembles a work of art, but it is a body of gravel and 
 sand cemented by calcareous matter into so compact a mass, 
 that excellent mill-stones are made from it. The strong 
 castle of Santa Maura stands close to this, and is divided from 
 
 * The large and fertile plain called Val di Roppa, is delineated as a 
 spacious harbour in the early maps. 
 
54 THE SHOKES AND ISLANDS 
 
 Amaxiki, the head town of the island, by extensive lagoons, 
 which are crossed by light canoes, appropriately called 
 monoxyla. Among the dependent islets, Meganisi (Aspa- 
 lathia) holds the first place, as its name imports ; but since, in 
 the insurrection of 1819, it became a station for spies, I was 
 under the necessity of disarming the inhabitants, and, for a 
 time, restricting intercourse with their neighbours. 
 
 cepha- Cephalonia (Cephalonia) is the most considerable in ex- 
 
 tent of all the Ionian Islands, being 180 miles in circuit, and 
 its coasts are indented with deep bays and ports, of which the 
 harbour of Argostoli is the most important, being spacious 
 enough for the largest fleets, and secure in all winds ; on it 
 stood the very ancient cities of Palle and Kranii. The 
 highest elevation of the island, and indeed of the Ionian 
 group, is that anciently named Mount ^Enos, the Montenero 
 of modern geography, which is 5300 feet above the sea ; it 
 was formerly clothed with a fine forest, of which vestiges 
 still remain, but the greater part was wilfully burnt by the 
 natives The destruction of timber during the conflagration 
 was enormous ; and though the fire occurred before the occu- 
 pation by the English, the mountain still presented a singular 
 appearance of desolation when I visited it in 1820 ; nor should 
 it be forgotten, that by this wanton ruin an injurious effect 
 is considered to have been made on the climate. This lofty 
 mountain crosses the island, the ramifications of it spread 
 over the whole space, and jut out into the sea in various 
 parts, forming bold headlands ; while, among the lower pro- 
 jections, the valleys are tolerably well cultivated, producing 
 currants, oil, cotton, fruit, wine, brandy, and liqueurs : their 
 corn suffices only for half the annual consumption, the 
 deficiency being supplied from the Morea ; but as there is 
 a pretty sure market for their currants — which not unfre- 
 quently amount to upwards of 4,000,000 lbs. in one year — 
 they are not dissatisfied. 
 
 ithaca and The small island of Ithaca stretches along the north-east 
 side of Cephalonia, divided by a narrow channel clear of 
 
OF WESTERN GEEECE. 55 
 
 dangers. It is a rugged, broken, calcareous mountain, yet 
 carefully cultivated in all places of promise, and producing 
 excellent currants, wine, and oil, which are embarked at the 
 secure and — as implied by the name — deep port of Yathi. 
 Between Ithaca and the mainland there are numerous little 
 uninhabited islets which afford pasturage for the sheep 
 and goats of the Ithacan peasants ; the principal of these 
 are Atoko, Provati, Pondico, Modi, Mokri, and Oxoi. The 
 northernmost of these may have been the Taphii or Teleboce 
 of Homer, and the southern are the Kurzolari group 
 already mentioned. Ithaca has always been called Ithaki, 
 or Theaki, by the natives, thus unequivocally retaining its 
 ancient name ; but the Italian geographers have dubbed it 
 Val di Compare, and Cefalonia-piccola. 
 
 South of Cephalonia, and opposite to Castel Tornese in zante. 
 the Morea, lies the fine and fertile island of Zante (Zacyn- 
 thus), about seventy miles in circumference, with a popula- 
 tion of upwards of 40,000 souls. The aspect of Zante is 
 highly picturesque : two chains of mountains, and the sea 
 to the south, enclose an extensive plain of about ten or 
 eleven miles in length by nearly eight broad, and beauti- 
 fully interspersed with villages and country-seats. It is 
 entirely covered with gardens and vineyards, producing 
 corn, wine, oil, fruits, vegetables, and the currants so re- 
 nowned for their excellence, as well as the quantity annually 
 exported — abundant years yielding above 6,000,000 lbs. 
 Moreover, the springs of mineral pitch at the end of this 
 plain — opposite the small isle of Marathonisi (Marathe) — 
 visited and described by Herodotus so long ago as the fifth 
 century before our era, are still skimmed for economic pur- 
 poses, so that about 100 tons of bitumen are procured from 
 them every year. The epithet, however — 6\risi$, nemorosa 
 — of Homer and Virgil, is no longer applicable to Zante, 
 the only wood on the island being the olive-groves on the 
 great plain. The town is on the north side of Monte Scopo 
 (Elatos mons), and has a capacious mole. 
 
56 
 
 THE SHORES AND ISLANDS 
 
 stamphane. About fourteen miles to the south of Zante, lie the two 
 small islets vulgarly called Stamphane' or Strivali ; on the 
 largest of which there is a strongly-fortified convent, with a 
 capital garden, and an abundant supply of excellent water. 
 They were anciently assigned to Elis, under the name 
 Strophades; but they are now the property of Zante. 
 
 Cerigo. Quitting Zante for the remaining island included in the 
 
 Septinsular Republic, we have to sail upwards of forty 
 leagues to reach Cerigo,* the ancient Cythera, a moun- 
 tainous island with well-cultivated valleys, and a fair pro- 
 duce in corn, wine, oil, cotton, fruit, cattle, sheep, and goats. 
 Midway between Cerigo and Candia are some lesser de- 
 
 Cerigotto. pendent islets, of which Cerigotto (JEgilia) is the only one 
 of consideration. We must now return to the mainland ; 
 but further statistical details of the Seven Islands will be 
 found at the end of this chapter. 
 
 Though the arts, sciences, virtues, and glories of Greece 
 have waned, and many of her river-gods have nearly ex- 
 hausted their urns, still her soil, her climate, mountains, 
 and valleys, remain as of old ; and though the sometimes 
 mawkish ecstasy of the classic enthusiast may be eschewed, 
 he is not to be envied who can traverse such a country 
 without emotion. Thus, from vivid recollections, the whole 
 shores of the Gulf of Corinth which we have so recently 
 passed, teem with interest to scholars, patriots, and artists ; 
 and we return to the southern castle of the Dardanelles of 
 Lepanto, to resume the clue with invigorated incitement. 
 
 The Morea. The Morea (Peloponnesus) has been compared in shape 
 to a mulberry-leaf; but more probably it derived its name 
 from the Slavonian word for maritime, though others insist 
 that it is so called from this country having been the first 
 to which silkworms, with the moms-tree, were imported 
 
 * This Italianized orthography is here used, because it is adopted by the 
 Ionian government, though Tzerigo (pronounced Cherigo) is used by the 
 modern Greeks. It is a Slavonian name, introduced by the settlers called 
 Tzacones, in the eighth and ninth centuries. 
 
OF WESTERN GREECE. 57 
 
 from Persia. Its coasts are deeply indented with bays and 
 islets : while the interior forms an elevated table-land, 
 traversed by numerous ridges of hills, which enclose spacious 
 basin-plains ; and there are also other extensive and fertile 
 grounds, producing, even under imperfect culture, corn, 
 cotton, silk, oil, flax, tobacco, gums, galls, currants, and 
 most other fruits. Timber is obtainable, notwithstanding 
 the lamentable devastation which the forests have under- 
 gone, in great part by the wanton rapacity of the inhabi- 
 tants themselves; and fine pines, planes, chestnuts, and 
 oaks, still clothe the inland mountains, especially in 
 Arkadhia (Arcadia). The acorns of the Quercus cegilops, 
 sold as a mordaunt in dyeing black, and known as 
 the valania of commerce, are exported in considerable 
 quantities. 
 
 From the Morea Castle, a sandy beach turns south-west- Patras - 
 ward to the landing-place and mole of Patras (Patrce), 
 which beautifully-situated city stands on an elevated ridge 
 projecting from a declivity of Mount Voidhia (PaTiakaicum) ; 
 but the grounds around are unhealthy in the season of 
 malaria. The semicircular bay here presented is bold and 
 clean, with gradual soundings and good anchorage all along, 
 where the largest ships can ride in perfect safety. Round- 
 ing Cape Papas, the south-west extremity of the Gulf of 
 Patras, a deep bay is found between it and Cape Tornese, 
 in the bottom bight of which are the Venetian ruins of 
 Klarenza, near the ancient Gyllene, — a place said to give 
 their title to the English dukes of Clarence. From Cape 
 Tornese (Chelonatas prom.) to the next projecting head- 
 land, Cape Katacolo, the shores are low and wooded, and 
 
 on the summit, near the middle, stands Castel Tornese, an Castei Tor- 
 
 ... . nese * 
 
 old Venetian fortress, with an inconsiderable village ; below 
 
 it there is a creek that affords occasional shelter to small 
 
 vessels, into which the Iliaco (Peneius) discharges its 
 
 waters, after flowing through the vestiges of Palseopoli 
 
 (Elis), and past the unhealthy town of Gastuni (CEnoe f). 
 
58 
 
 THE SHORES AND ISLANDS 
 
 Passing Cape Katacolo (Ichthys), and standing to the 
 south, we enter a large open bay called the Gulf of 
 Arkadhia, on the southern part of which the shores rise in 
 a succession of woody hills, while the northern merges into 
 the low maritime plains of the Eleia, through which flow 
 the river Kufeia and its tributaries. This stream, the prin- 
 
 Aipiieius. cipal river of the Morea, is the ancient Alpheius, the 
 name of which is but slightly traceable in Rufeia ; it has 
 its source a little beyond Mount Pholoe, and flowing in a 
 westerly direction through the vales of Elis and Olympia* 
 disembogues into the sea through a marshy beach, below 
 the thriving town of Pyrgo (Pyrgi). South-eastward of 
 this mouth, and below the Skala Rufeia, are the extensive 
 lagoon fisheries of Giagiapha and Kaiapha : where, by good 
 engineering, this river might be made to facilitate the trade 
 of the interior. But the unwholesomeness of the air must 
 not be forgotten. 
 
 Passing Cape Konello (Cyparissium prom), the 
 southern point of the Gulf of Arkadhia, and the coast-isle 
 of Prodano (Prote), we arrive at the excellent and spacious 
 harbour of Navarino (Pylus), formed by the main on the 
 east, by the peninsula of Pale'o Avarino on the north, and 
 in front by the long narrow isle called Sphagia (Sphacteria), 
 which defends it from the sea-winds. The entrance is at 
 the south end of this isle, nearly opposite to the new town 
 and fortress of Navarino (Neo-Castro), which stand on a 
 promontory running out from the foot of Mount Lykodamo 
 (Temathia). 
 
 Four miles and a half to the south of Navarino is the 
 
 Modem. fortified town of Modon (Methone prius Pedasus), with the 
 islands of Sapienza and Skhiza, or Cabrera ((Enussce), near 
 it. The space between this and Cape Gallo (Acritas 
 
 Prodano. 
 
 Navarino. 
 
 * From the probability of votive offerings to the Alpheius, at the Olympic 
 games, and other sacrifices, my late friend, Sir Patrick Ross, then Governor 
 of Zante, was desirous of promoting a party to drag that river in 1820. The 
 Greek outbreak, in that very year, thwarted the project. 
 
OF WESTERN GREECE. 59 
 
 prom.) forms a large bay, carrying deep water very nearly 
 to its respective shores. Off Cape Gallo lies the isle of 
 Venetico (Theganusa), with the Mourmaki rocks (Thy rides) 
 to the south of it ; and at about thirty-four miles south- 
 eastward of the latter is Cape Matapan (Tcenarum pi*om.), 
 forming the headlands of the Gulf of Koron (Messeniacus Koron. 
 sinus). Near the head of this gulf the rivers Bias and 
 Pyrnatza (Pamisus) empty themselves, not far from the 
 town of Kalamata (Calamce) ; between that and Matapan, 
 the most noted places are Kitries (Gerenia), Porto Yitylo vityio. 
 ((Etylus), and Djimova, or Tzimova : the two last forming 
 a united firm of very free traders, who dread nothing but 
 the south-west gales, which beat dead upon their shores, and 
 shut their vessels in, — yet these co-acting ' powers' cordially 
 hate each other. The two sides enclosing this expanse of 
 waters present widely different features : on the west stands 
 the city of Koron (Mpea f), one of the most commercial 
 places in the Morea, in a fertile country covered with olive 
 grounds and gardens ; while the eastern side is formed by 
 the mountainous and craggy declivities of Mount St. Elias, 
 or Makryno (Taygetus), inhabited by the Mainotes, an Mount 
 unsubdued people of the Braccio, or district of Maina, the ayge 
 tract we are treating of. The shores are exceedingly bold-to, 
 there being a depth of 120 fathoms at a short distance 
 from the shore ; and at a league out I found 479 fathoms. 
 The coast of Maina, on both sides, is serrated with coves, Maina. 
 and inaccessible retreats, which till very recently were the 
 resort of the most determined and barbarous pirates in the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 Respecting the geological condition of this neighbour- Geology, 
 hood, M. Bobbaye, in his memoir on the alterations pro- 
 duced by the sea on calcareous rocks along the shores of 
 Greece, by examining the littoral caverns worn in the lime- 
 stone cliffs, and noticing the lithodomous perforations, came 
 to the conclusion that there are four or five distinct ranges 
 of ancient sea-cliffs, one above the other, at various eleva- 
 
60 SHORES ETC. OF WESTERN GREECE. 
 
 tions in the Morea, which attest as many successive eleva- 
 tions of the country. There is a volcanic mass at Modon, 
 which was described by Strabo, resembling the Monte 
 Nuovo near Baise, in Italy. 
 
 Koiokythia. Rounding Cape Matapan, and between it and the isle 
 of Cervi (Onugnathus), lies another spacious gulf, namely, 
 that of Koiokythia (Laconicus sinus), with water altoge- 
 ther deep, there being no bottom to be found with 350 
 fathoms of line at two leagues from the shore, the lead only 
 striking ground at a near approach. The Ma'inote shore, 
 by Porto Kaio or Quaglio (Amathus), and other coves, pre- 
 sents a cheerless assemblage of rugged precipices and rocky 
 mountains. But after passing Marathonisi, or Fennel Isle 
 (Cranae), we arrive at the head of the gulf, where the 
 
 Eurotas. Vasili-potamo (Eurotas), or Royal River, discharges itself, 
 near the three islets Trinisi (Trinasi), after its course 
 through the long valley that slopes between the two ranges 
 of mountains, which detach themselves from the central 
 highland near Megalopolis, the principal town. These pro- 
 jecting into the sea, form the promontories of Matapan 
 (Tamarium) and St. Angelo, or Kavo Malea (Mated). The 
 Vasili-potamo — sometimes called Iri — is navigable for 
 boats at its entrance ; and on the banks of a small tributary 
 about eight leagues inland, is the city of Mistra (Messe of 
 Homer), an important post for the defence of the ancient 
 Sparta or Lacedwmon, from which it lies about four miles, 
 nearly due west. The best anchorages on the east side of 
 the gulf, are Port Rupina (Asopus) and the Bay of Vatica 
 (Boeaticus sinus), between Cervi and Cape St. Angelo. 
 
61 
 
 § 8. The Archipelago, Black Sea, and Levant. 
 
 IN consequence of the hydrographical treaty I made at 
 Paris in November, 1820, which is particularized in 
 Part IV., my own acquaintance with the regions above 
 named was restricted to a couple of cursory visits along the 
 east coast of the Morea, the shores of Attica, some of the 
 outermost of the Cyclades, and the west end of Candia. 
 But as I possess exact information from such authorities as 
 Gauttier, Beaufort, Graves, and other experienced friends, 
 the rapid sketch here given may be relied upon ; at least, 
 so far as it serves to fill up the proposed outline of the 
 Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 From Cape St. Angelo (Malea prom.) the east coast of East coast 
 the Morea commences ; and passing the singularly situated Morea. 
 town of Monembasia, commonly called Napoli di Malvasia 
 (Minoa near Epidaurus Limera), it trends northward to 
 the Gulf of Nauplia (Argolicus si/nus) ; and as the city of 
 Argos is a mile arid a half inland, the principal town and 
 port of the gulf is Napoli di Romania (Wauplia), with a 
 fortress of some strength at the foot of Mount Palamides, 
 admirably placed both for defence and commerce. The 
 eastern side of this gulf — along the shores of the ancient 
 Hermione — has many bays and islets ; and between it and 
 the Gulf of iEgina, are the barren islands of Spetzia and Spetzia. 
 Ydhra or Hydra (Tiparenus and Aperopia), with their de- 
 pendent rocks, among which the most remarkable is that of 
 Poro (Calaurea). Here the activity and industry of the 
 natives have wrung advantages from sterility, proving the 
 triumph of moral over physical action ; and when I visited 
 them, although nearly all Greece was in a state of torpor, 
 they had formed a kind of independent republic, and were 
 
62 
 
 THE ARCHIPELAGO, 
 
 Hydra. the carriers of a large portion of the Levant trade. Hydra 
 then had upwards of 4000 excellent seamen, and about 150 
 ships, of which no fewer than 80 were of 300 tons burden 
 and upwards, and most of them well manned and armed. 
 Such was the rock of which it was said, that its layer of 
 soil was so thin, as not to afford the Hydriotes sufficient 
 earth to bury their dead. 
 
 From the Gulf of Nauplia we will now run round the 
 
 MgetL-a Sea. coasts which form the periphery of the iEgean Sea, and 
 afterwards glance at the numerous islands with which that 
 space is studded. The name of this sea, by the way, has 
 undergone various corruptions. Tradition delights in refer- 
 ring its designation to the death of iEgeus ; but Strabo de- 
 duces it from an islet called Mgee (Alyai). Some derive it 
 from Aiycuov TrsXayos-, fancifully assumed to mean the Goat 
 Sea ; but the Venetians of the Levant seem to have first 
 used the term ' Arcipelago/ for it does not appear that the 
 Greeks ever used such a word, nor is it likely they would. 
 From that came the general use of Archipelago ; and this 
 led to the Arches of English sailors ! 
 
 Between the capes of Skyllo and Colonna (Schyllomm 
 and Sunium) the Gulf of Enghia (Saronicus sinus) sepa- 
 rates the Morea from the continent of Greece on the east. 
 It is serrated with bays and good anchorages, the most 
 frequented of which are Kalavria (Calaureia), Pidavro 
 (Epidaurus), Kenkries (Cmchreice), Kalamaki (Schcenus), 
 Koluri (Salamis), and the famous Porto Leone (Peirceus) 
 of Athens. Nearly in the middle of this interesting gulf, 
 stands the Enghia of Venetian seamen ; but Dapper is 
 right in saying that name is not known to the natives 
 (Archipel., p. 138), among whom it seems to have always 
 borne its ancient name, JUgina. It is a hilly island with 
 fertile valleys, about six leagues in circumference, and with 
 a population of nearly 4000. Porto Leone, with its de- 
 pendent coves (Munychia and Phalerum), though small, 
 and exporting little except oil, is a very convenient and 
 
 Gulf of 
 Enghia. 
 
 Salamis. 
 
 Peiraeus. 
 
BLACK SEA, AND LEVANT. 63 
 
 completely sheltered port for a limited number of vessels of 
 size, which can ride in from four and a half to nine fathoms 
 water ; at least, such were the soundings early in 1820, and 
 there is not much alteration to be apprehended from the 
 small percolation of the supplies now yielded by the nearly 
 exhausted urns of the Cephyssus and Ilyssus. The air, 
 however, of Athens is singularly dry and elastic, delicious 
 and wholesome. 
 
 Rounding Cape Colonna and the Temple of Sunium, Cape Co- 
 we pass the long rocky Macronisi (Helena) and its port of 
 Mandri; and at about three leagues more to the north- 
 wards, we enter Port Raphti (Prasice), the finest harbour 
 on the Athenian coast, taking its modern name from a 
 sedent statue, considered to be in a tailor's attitude. Still 
 further on, we reach the beach which margins the famous 
 plain of Marathon, and arrive at the boundary of Bceotia. 
 Lying along these coasts, is the island of Negropont (Maoris Negropont. 
 post Euboea), the south-east point of which is Cape Mandili 
 (Gercestus prom.), and the north-west is Cape Lethada 
 (Genceum prom.). They are about ninety miles apart, the 
 intervening land being elevated ; insomuch that Mount 
 Elias, above Karystus, is 4750, and Mount Delphi (Dirphe) 
 7300 feet above the sea. Negropont is separated from the 
 main by the Egripo (Euripus), a channel so narrow at Euripus. 
 about half its length, that the two shores are connected by 
 a bridge ; whence it has been inferred that Euboea was torn 
 from the Boeotian coast by an earthquake, or some other 
 convulsion. Running along the outer and precipitous, iron- 
 bound shores of Negropont, we find the narrow channel 
 of Trikhiri separating Thessaly and the northern end of 
 Euboea ; the form of which will be best understood by a 
 reference to the charts. Trikhiri is a busy commercial town Trikhiri. 
 on the eastern shore of the entrance to the great gulf of 
 Volo (Pagaseticus sinus) ; but leaving this on our right, 
 and sailing westward, we enter the bay of Zituni (Maliacus 
 sinus), in the south-west angle of which, and on the side 
 
64 THE ARCHIPELAGO, 
 
 Thermo- of Mount (Eta, is the celebrated pass of Thermopylae, 
 Passing the Lithada islets, and turning down the channel 
 
 Taianta. of Atalante or Talanta (Opuntius sinus), the depth of the 
 water appears to correspond with the height of the land, 
 for under Mount Telethrius no bottom is found with 220 
 fathoms of line within half a mile of the shore It then 
 shoals gradually towards Egripo, where the channel is only 
 100 yards wide ; south of this it again opens out, and there 
 are several good anchorages on the coast of Negropont, 
 especially among the Petalio (Petalice) Islands. 
 
 skyro. Off the middle of the outer coast is the island of Skyro 
 
 (Scyros), which is, as some imagine ^yiupos implies, both 
 rugged and rocky ; but its shores are bold-to. North- 
 
 Khmidromi west of Skyro, and off the Trikhiri Channel, is the Khilli- 
 dromi (Peparethus) group of islands, trending to the north- 
 east across the entrance of the Gulf of Salonica, to the 
 extent of about forty miles. These are Skiatho (Sciathus), 
 the westernmost isle, Skopelo (Scopelus), Khelidromi 
 (Halonesus), Sarakino, or Peristeri (Eudemia), Seanghero 
 (Skandyle), Pelago (Solymnia), Ioura (Jos), Piperi (Pepa- 
 rethus), and several other stony and uninhabited islets. 
 
 Returning to the main, north of this rocky group, and 
 between Cape San Dimitri (Sepias prom.) and Kassandra 
 (Posidium prom.), an extensive gulf penetrates into Mace- 
 donia ; at the head of which is the important harbour 
 Salonica. and entrepot of Salonica (Thessalonica), a city of 60,000 
 inhabitants, and one of the most commercial places in 
 Turkey. The coast which forms the west side of this fine 
 inlet exhibits a magnificent range of mountains, including 
 Mount Plessidi (Pelion) 5200 feet high, Kissavo (Ossa) 6100 feet, 
 and Elymbo (Olympus), which last is 9850 feet above the 
 sea. The river Salambria (Peneus) runs through the Bogaz, 
 or celebrated vale of Tempe, thence between the bases 
 of Elymbo and Kissavo, and into the Gulf of Salonica : 
 from the exposure of the strata in its course through 
 the hills, it is suggested that some great cataclysm 
 
BLACK SEA, AND LEVANT. 65 
 
 broke through the range, and drained the great basin of 
 
 Thessaly : this being the process by which Nature has 
 
 often contrived to get rid of lakes, and to substitute dry 
 
 lands in lieu of them ; factas ex cequore terras — thus, in 
 
 time, yielding bread in place offish. 
 
 Eastward of this gulf, and separated from it by the 
 
 peninsula of Kassandra (Pallene), the deep bay anciently 
 
 called the Toronaicus sinus is passed, and that of Monte Monte 
 
 . Sallt0 
 Santo (Singitius sinus) entered. The latter gulf is 
 
 divided from the following one of Contessa, or Rendina 
 (Strymonicus sinus), by the Agion-oros, or Holy Moun- 
 tain of the modern Greeks, the famous Athos of their fore- 
 fathers. This has been considered an extraordinary mount 
 in all ages ; among the ancients, from the fancies of Xerxes, 
 Dinocrates, and those who told of its extravagant elevation ; 
 and among the moderns, from its numerous churches, 
 monasteries, and monks. Its height is now pretty well 
 known to be about 6500 feet, and its summits are seen 
 even from Cape Sigeum and the plain of Troy. Its pre- 
 cipitous slopes descend at once into an almost unfathomable 
 sea, as from 80 to 100 fathoms are carried to within a 
 quarter of a mile of it ; and many trading vessels keep under 
 sail while embarking their cargo of nuts and other fruit. 
 
 The waters between Monte Santo and the Dardanelles 
 are broken into two large divisions by the mountainous 
 island of Tasso (Thasos) ; and the mainland is again Thasos. 
 indented by the Gulfs of iEnos (Stentoris palus) and Saros 
 (Melus sinus). The former receives the River Maritsa 
 (Hebrus) the source of which is in the Balkan mountains 
 (Hcemus) : it is navigable for large boats to Adrianople, the 
 second city in Turkey. Off Saros lie the abrupt islands of 
 Samothraki (Samothrace) and Imbros ; and in the mid- 
 distance, between Monte Santo and the Dardanelles, is the 
 quadrilateral Stalimini, or Lemno (Lemnos), with two ports, Lemnos. 
 of which that on the south has considerable capacity, though 
 it has not yet obtained the importance which its maritime 
 
 F 
 
66 
 
 THE ARCHIPELAGO, 
 
 Tenedos. 
 
 Anatolia. 
 
 Scala. 
 
 Smyrna. 
 
 population would appear to demand. About six leagues to 
 the south-west of this port lies the isle of Ayio-Strati 
 (Nea), with a village and roadstead, and the very small 
 adjoining islets, called Roubos and S. Apostoli, whence it 
 had anciently a name in the plural number — Nece. It was 
 sacred to Minerva, but latterly has only been notable for its 
 export of velanidi, or valania. 
 
 Running our coast-directory eastward from Saros, we shall 
 pass the mouth of the Dardanelles without stopping for the 
 present ; but going between the straight coast which trends 
 from Cape Janizary (Sigeum) to Cape Baba (Ledum), 
 and Taushan-adassi (Lagussce) or Hare isles, and Tenedos — 
 which still retains its ancient name — we pass the sandy beach 
 skirting the Plain of Troy, extending to the base of Mount Gar- 
 garah (Ida), which is 5700 feet high. Here commences the 
 western coast of Anatolia, the country of the East anciently 
 called Asia Minor, which stretches away to the southwards 
 as far as Cape Krio (Cnidus), and beyond it. Throughout 
 its whole extent the shore is indented by a rapid succession of 
 bays and coves, sprinkled with islands and islets, and teem- 
 ing with anchorages and loading-places, though there is 
 little trade except in timber, oil, wool, and valania. Some 
 of these stations have scala as an addition to their names : 
 a term signifying ladder or stairs, because such aids were 
 common in harbours. This term is so much used in the 
 Levant that the phrase fare scala, in the language of the 
 native seamen, means to touch at any port ; and in many 
 places on this coast, where the shore is very steep, there 
 were nights of steps cut in the rocks, to facilitate landing. 
 
 Among the bays and ports of this interval, the first and 
 most important, in a maritime and commercial view, is 
 Smyrna, the third city in Turkey, at the head of the fine 
 gulf of that name. Here the population is estimated at 
 not less than 70,000 ; and it is the great emporium of the 
 Levantine trade. The nations of Europe have each a consul 
 resident at Smyrna ; and there has long been a distinct 
 
BLACK SEA, AND LEVANT. 67 
 
 quarter of the town allotted to the European inhabitants, 
 who are under the especial protection of their respective 
 consuls, and enjoy great privileges. The beautiful suburb 
 of Bournabad is interspersed with handsome houses, in 
 the midst of gardens and vineyards. Between Smyrna 
 and Cape Krio are several deep bays, the first being that 
 of Scala-nova (Neapolis), between which and the ruins of 
 Claws on the north, the river Mendere (Caystrus), after 
 flowing under the remains of Ephesus, enters the sea : 
 then follow the Gulf of Mandeliyah (Bargyliacus vel 
 Jassicus sinus), into which flows the tortuous Maddro 
 (Meander) ; the Gulf of Kos, or Boudrum (Ceramicus 
 sinus) ; and the Gulf of Doris (Doridis sinus). These, from 
 the abundance of fine havens and anchorages, possess extra- 
 ordinary capability, although, in a maritime and commercial 
 sense, they are greatly neglected; but nothing can lessen 
 their interest to the antiquary and the scholar, for the whole 
 space teems with vestiges of ancient skill, energy, and power. 
 Such are the shores which bound the waters of the 
 Archipelago on the west, the north, and the east. The 
 south is marked by a range of islands extending in a 
 crescent from the Morea to Asia Minor, with its convexity 
 towards the Levant Basin. The western branch of this 
 curve has the large island of Candia, or Kriti (Crete), as its Candia 
 bulwark, an island which, though mountainous, is fairly 
 cultivated and very productive. In the centre rises Mount 
 Psitoriti, from 'T^Xopsiriov (Ida), which rises to the eleva- 
 tion of upwards of 6700 feet, with a bare summit, but the 
 ramifications are covered with forests ; and it not only 
 serves as an excellent landmark to sailors, but is also a 
 means of ascertaining the state of the atmosphere, and 
 consequent weather at sea. The north coast is serrated 
 with ports and bays, but the south side presents nearly a 
 rugged front to the on-shore winds ; passing vessels, there- 
 fore, are not wont to go between the Gozze isles (Claudos 
 of St. Paul), although there is ample room between them 
 
 F 2 
 
68 THE ARCHIPELAGO, 
 
 and the main. The country is singularly beautiful ; but 
 although it affords wine, oil, fruit, cotton, silk, honey, wax, 
 cheese, soap, liquorice, and timber for export, its trade — 
 under Ottoman rule and restriction — is comparatively small 
 in regard to its fertility and capacity. Candia is forty-six 
 leagues long by about ten broad, at its widest part. The 
 principal maritime resorts are Grabusa (Coryca), in the 
 Castro or fort of which I obtained permission to make a 
 station ; Canea (Cydonia) ; and from thence rounding Cape 
 Maleca (Ciamon prom.) — called Acrotiri by the natives — 
 we enter the most spacious harbour of the island, sailing 
 between the fortified islet of Suda (Leucce) and the paleo- 
 castro of Aptera. Keeping to the east we find Armyro 
 (Amphimalla), Retimo (Rithymna), Candia (Cytcewni), 
 Megalo-castron (Matium), Spinalonga (Chersonesus), and 
 Sitia (Mia) ; all of which bear substantial evidence of the 
 skill, wealth, and power of the Venetians. 
 Rhodes. At the opposite or north-east portion of the crescent in 
 
 question stands Rhodes, a very considerable island, and 
 the key of the important pass which it commands. Its 
 northern shores are low, rising inland to a high and tabled 
 mountain ; the southern declivities of which end in a sandy 
 but tolerably fertile soil. On the north-east extremity of 
 the island are its two well-known harbours, over the 
 entrance to the smaller of which stood the celebrated 
 Colossus of brass : but Rhodes is of higher interest in a 
 nautical point of view, on account of its inhabitants — who 
 for ages ruled the Mediterranean Sea — having promulgated 
 a very early code of Laws, which became the standard for 
 the decision of controversies relative to maritime affairs 
 throughout the whole of Europe. 
 Scarpanto. Nearly midway from Rhodes towards Candia, the 
 barrier between the Archipelago and the south-eastern part 
 of the Mediterranean is completed by the mountainous and 
 arid island of Scarpanto (Carpathus) and its dependants, 
 Caxo (Casos), Caxopulo, with some smaller rocks : the 
 
BLACK SEA, AND LEVANT. 69 
 
 word pulo is of frequent occurrence in modern Greek, and 
 
 is merely a diminutive form — perhaps derived from the 
 
 Latin ulus — used to express a subsidiary islet. 
 
 The ancients, in order to systematize the wilderness Division 
 . . . . . ofthe 
 
 before them, and facilitate reference, divided the islands of islands. 
 
 the Archipelago into two distinct portions — the Cyclades 
 and the Sporades : the former were thus named from their 
 lying in something like a circular position around Delos ; 
 the latter signifying dispersed, from their scattered position 
 along the coast of Anatolia. Those on the left of a 
 navigator sailing through the middle of the iEgean towards 
 the Hellespont, were considered as belonging to Europe ; 
 those on the right, to Asia Minor. And this has generally 
 been observed, saving that Dionysius Pariegetes, in his 
 geographical hexameters, expressly claims Delos and its 
 neighbours for Asia. Since the recent recognition of 
 Hellenic independence, these groups may be denominated 
 the Greek islands, and the Turkish. 
 
 The Cyclades comprehend about half a hundred isles Cyclades. 
 and islets, besides many smaller rocks, of which few only are 
 worthy of consideration. They are generally hilly and arid, 
 with a bleak aspect ; but though few of them have many 
 trees, and there is a general sterile appearance, most of their 
 levels and valleys are productive, especially of fruits. The 
 first in modern importance is Milo (Melos), having a very Miio. 
 capacious harbour, and a nautical population, from whom the 
 pilots for this sea are generally selected. It is of volcanic 
 origin, rising at Mount St. Elias to the height of 2000 feet, 
 and though without running water, is fertile. But Axia, Axia. 
 called by the Italians Naxia (Naxos), is the largest compo- 
 nent of the group, of which it is styled the Queen ; it is 
 without a port for shipping, but its surface is diversified by 
 hills, valleys, and plains, and it is tolerably well wooded and 
 watered. Paros, two leagues west of Naxia, so celebrated Paros. 
 for its white marble, although possessing the best harbours 
 in this sea, has but a trifling commerce, its exports being 
 
70 
 
 THE ARCHIPELAGO, 
 
 Siphanto. 
 
 Santorini. 
 
 Syra. 
 
 Myconi. 
 
 Delos. 
 
 Andros. 
 
 confined to a small quantity of cotton, and a little wax and 
 honey. Its finest port is Naussa (A'gusa), on the north, 
 but its shores are said to be so very unhealthy, from the 
 malaria of the neighbouring marshes, that it is compara- 
 tively deserted.* Siphanto (Siphnos) is supposed to be 
 full of mineral wealth — Serpho (Seriphus) yields iron — 
 Thermia (Gythnus) is valued for its mineral springs and 
 excellent fruits — Policandro (Pholegandros), though rocky, 
 affords good wine — Santorini or St. Irene (Thera), which, 
 as well as its adjacent subsidiaries, was thrown up by vol- 
 canic agency within the reach of history, some even in the 
 beginning of the eighteenth century, exports wine and 
 clothing — Nio (Ios), though rocky and rugged, has an in- 
 dustrious population — Syra (Syros) is a place of trading 
 enterprise — Tzia or Yea (Geos) has one of the finest ports 
 in the Archipelago — Tino (Tenos) is a rugged but well- 
 inhabited place, in good repute for honesty and industry — 
 Myconi (Myconus), with its commercial population, is 
 divided by a narrow channel from the small but celebrated, 
 and once sacred Delos, now Sdili. There are also Argentiera 
 (Gimolus), Amorgo, known by its former name, Nio (Ios), 
 Stampalia (Astypalcea), Ghioura (Gyarus), Sikino (Sicinos), 
 Polina (Polycegos), Skino (Schinussa), and many smaller 
 islets : whilst the most northerly and one of the largest of 
 the Cyclades is Andros— still retaining its ancient name ; 
 fertile, but not possessing the advantage of a safe harbour, 
 it was rarely visited by strangers. It is separated from 
 
 * Sonnini, who was here in 1780, a very few years after the Russian fleet, 
 under Alexis Orloff, had made the Port their station, says, that ' such is the 
 rapidity with which everything is destroyed in Turkey, that not a vestige 
 remained of the Muscovite works when he was there.' Now, I am assured 
 by my friend, the Rev. Gr. C. Renouard, formerly our chaplain at Smyrna, 
 that when he visited the place in 1815, the Russian establishments were so 
 little dilapidated, that immediate occupation might have been taken : and 
 even since their violent destruction in the late war of extermination, Captain 
 Graves informs me that the ruins are still very extensive, and easily to be 
 traced ! We shall have to return to M. Sonnini in the next chapter for 
 assertions of still greater freedom. 
 
BLACK SEA, AND LEVANT. 71 
 
 Negropont by a strait named the Bocca Silota, or Capo 
 d'Oro passage ; but how ' Bocca Silota' came upon the maps 
 and charts is a mystery, for it is neither Italian nor Greek : 
 the Turkish Boghaz may have brought Boccasi, but the 
 lota is unknown. Between Andros and Scio, lie the two 
 dangerous rocks called Kaloyeri, which appear to have been 
 thrown up by a volcano. 
 
 The Sporades, the other great ^Egean group, are scat- Sporades. 
 tered to the east of the Cyclades, with which in fact several 
 of them are intermixed, where they form, as already men- 
 tioned, a chain along the coast of Anatolia, between Samos 
 and Rhodes inclusive ; a space comprehending the ancient 
 Icarian and Carpathian seas. Of these islands, the most 
 important, next to Rhodes, is Samos, the inhabitants of Samos. 
 which are in higher esteem for industry than for honesty ; 
 they export silk, wool, fruits, wine, and oil ; and the flanks 
 of the snow-clad Mount Keris are clothed with good timber- 
 trees. Patino (Patmos), interesting as the place of the Patmos. 
 Apocalypse, is rugged and unproductive ; Stanco (Cos) is 
 exuberantly fertile, and much frequented by traders ; Ni- Nicaria. 
 caria (Icaria) is not in very great repute for industry; 
 Kalolimno (Calymna) is very mountainous, and celebrated 
 for its excellent honey ; and next to it is Lero (Leros), a Leros. 
 stony spot, producing fine fruit. There are also the Kharki 
 (Choice) islets, Piscopi (Telos), Nisari (Nisyrus), and many 
 scattered smaller ones. Among these, several trachytic rocks 
 have risen from the bottom of the sea, and added to the 
 general number. 
 
 Of the islands on the coast of Anatolia not included in 
 the Sporades, three are entitled to be here especially named ; 
 because, together with Samos, Cos, and Rhodes, political 
 geography assigns them to Asia Minor. These are Mytilini 
 (Lesbos), a fertile, well-wooded, and healthy island, furnished Lesbos, 
 with spacious and safe harbours, whence its produce is 
 largely exported ; Ipsara (Psyra), a barren rock brought ipsara. 
 by the maritime energy of its natives into high importance ; 
 and thirdly, Scio (Chios), covered with beautiful groves and Scio. 
 
72 THE ARCHIPELAGO, 
 
 gardens, and esteemed the most fruitful and fertile spot in 
 the Archipelago. This terrestrial paradise enjoyed great 
 immunities from the Porte ; but the inhabitants having, 
 though reluctantly, joined their brother Greeks in the recent 
 insurrection, were indiscriminately massacred by their re- 
 vengeful masters the Turks, and the whole island was 
 reduced to one scene of hideous desolation. Indeed the 
 blind and bigoted fury of their Musulman adversaries 
 caused the destruction of Scio to be among the most tragic 
 events of the late dreadful struggle. 
 
 Navigation Such is the Archipelago : the navigation of which is 
 Archipe- easy and pleasing enough in general, most of the islands 
 being high, as well as precipitous and bold-to, with a delicious 
 climate. But a good look-out must be kept, for there are 
 very sudden and fresh squalls ; and at times there is much 
 bad and even dangerous weather in the winter. In such 
 cases, the waves, having little room to extend themselves, 
 make a confused sea, rising to a considerable height, and 
 breaking with fury against opposing coasts and rocks. 
 Moreover, there is a very great depth of water between the 
 isles — usually no bottom with 1 50 fathoms of line out, at 
 a short distance from the shore. These interesting islands 
 are thinly peopled, and some of them may indeed be 
 considered as scarcely inhabited. There is, however, an 
 animated traffic, the imports being suited to the wants and 
 wishes of the islanders, to most of whom necessity has given 
 a seafaring disposition ; while their own moderate but 
 
 Produce, diversified exports consist of corn, wine, oil, raisins, olives 
 and other fruits, honey, wax, wool, silk, cotton, sponges, 
 iron, alum, pitch, turpentine, sulphur, salt, timber, mastic, 
 gall-nuts, kermes, and velanidi. These articles enable them 
 to supply much which is wanted by their more wealthy 
 neighbours. 
 
 Geological Besides the volcanic ravages at Santorin (Thera prius 
 Galliste), other great geological actions and reactions have 
 taken place in this sea. The long valley through which 
 
 changes 
 
BLACK SEA, AND LEVANT. 73 
 
 the Meander makes its tortuous course, was clearly once River 
 
 lyr ipflnfl fir. 
 
 a gulf, reaching through the present brackish lake called 
 Thalassa Bastarda (Latmus sinus), which washes the ves- 
 tiges of Heraclea ; besides, the whole of its soil consisting of 
 both sea and river deposits, affords further evidence of the fact. 
 By the action of the waters of this river * it is that the isle 
 of Laide, where the Athenian fleet took up a station Laide. 
 A.C. 412, must have become part of the great alluvial plain 
 before Miletus, at the spot where, between the remains of 
 that city and the present beach, a hill rises upwards of 300 
 feet above the general level : and the inhabitants both of 
 Miletus and Ephesus were repeatedly obliged to change the 
 sites of their towns, and follow the receding sea. Pausanias 
 (Arcadics, ch. xxxiii.) says : ' There was an island, Chrysae, at Chrysae. 
 no great distance by sea from Lemnos ; where they say, 
 that in this island the misfortune from the hydra happened 
 to Philoctetes. The waves have overwhelmed this island 
 so that it has entirely disappeared, being lost in the abyss 
 of the sea. But there is another island, called Hiera, which 
 at that time did not exist. So temporary are human things, 
 and far from being durable/ The isle of Minoa, on the 
 coast of Megara, is lost ; and the harbour of Kos has been Km 
 filled up, as conjectured by Sir F. Beaufort, from the action 
 of the two great currents, the one sweeping westward from 
 the Levant, the other descending from the Dardanelles : 
 these two meeting here, deposit the soil and materials with 
 which they are fraught. Besides the silting up of Kos, they 
 have raised an extensive alluvial point. But in earlier days 
 this region is suspected of having experienced changes of a 
 still vaster character; for many geologists have been of 
 opinion, that the islands of the iEgean Sea are really only 
 the summits of a country submerged by the irruption of the 
 
 * Strabo informs us that the Meander was indictable for mischief done 
 to the neighbouring lands by its floods: if any damages were granted 
 against the river, they were paid by those who rented its ferries. 
 
74 
 
 THE ARCHIPELAGO, 
 
 Darda- 
 nelles 
 
 Deluge. Black Sea ; and this notion is supported by their general 
 aspect, most of them appearing to have been exposed to the 
 ravages of a violent inundation, which, washing away the 
 soil, left only the denuded surfaces of rock. Two of the 
 floods which may have effected this are on record, — namely, 
 the Ogygian deluge by which Bceotia and Attica were over- 
 flowed, and that which ravaged Samothrace and the coast 
 of Asia Minor ; and both are usually ascribed to an irrup- 
 tion of waters from the Black Sea. The Samothracian 
 deluge is described in a fragment of the lost work of Strato 
 of Lampsacus, which is preserved in Strabo, and which led 
 Eratosthenes to investigate, though without a satisfactory 
 result, the problem of the uniformity of level in all external 
 seas flowing round continents. 
 
 Returning to the Dardanelles (Hellespontus), this beau- 
 tiful strait, which forms the avenue, as it were, to the Sea 
 of Marmora (Propontis), separates Europe from Asia at 
 this particular point ; and — unlike Homer's broad water — 
 it resembles an immense river flowing majestically between 
 two chains of elevated and exuberantly fertile mountains. 
 It is strongly fortified, and without rocks or hidden dangers, 
 having in some parts a depth of sixty fathoms, but generally 
 eight or nine fathoms within a mile of the shore ; it is 
 narrowed towards the middle by the opposite points of 
 Sestos and Abydos, where the strait is diminished from six 
 
 Gaiiipoii. or seven miles' breadth to 2700 yards. Passing Gallipoli 
 (Gallipolis), the principal trading-town of the Dardanelles, 
 
 sea of Mar- we enter the Sea of Marmora, so called from the modern 
 name of Proconnesus, an island to the north of the peninsula 
 of Artaki, formerly the well-known Cyzicus. Hence, with 
 a fair wind, no further obstruction is presented to a ship's 
 progress towards the ancient Demonesi, now Prinkipos or 
 Prince's Islands, a group lying just beyond the southern 
 point of the entrance to the Canal of Constantinople, and 
 about ten miles distant from that city. 
 
 C °no ta ie tl " Upon a point of land washed by the Sea of Marmora on 
 
BLACK SEA, AND LEVANT. 75 
 
 one side, and by its port — the far-famed Golden Horn 
 (Chryso-ceras) — on the other, stands the grand city of 
 Constantinople (Byzantium), the Stambul of the Turks, on 
 an undulating series of gentle declivities, and with a popu- 
 lation of about 600,000 souls, including the suburbs of 
 Galata, Pera, and Topkkana. The Golden Horn has an 
 active trade by land and by water, traffic for which it is 
 exceedingly well adapted, from the facilities of its excellent 
 quays, and its easy ingress and egress. Moreover, the port 
 constantly cleanses itself, for the current which issues from 
 the Black Sea, striking against the Seraglio, or west point 
 of entrance, enters the Horn on one side, and, making a 
 circuit round it, sweeps out again along the opposite shore ; 
 this rotatory current, combined with that produced by 
 several streams of fresh water emptying themselves into the 
 head of the harbour, carries off all the silt and impurities 
 which would otherwise damage it and cause obstructions. 
 
 Between Constantinople and Scutari or Uskiudar, its Thracian 
 suburb on the Asiatic shore, is the entrance of the Thracian 
 Bosporus, now called the Canal of Constantinople : it is 
 here rather more than a mile in breadth, with depths vary- 
 ing from sixteen to thirty fathoms, and the western shores 
 mostly bold-to. From this mouth the channel extends, in 
 a serpentine form, to the Black Sea, a distance of sixteen 
 miles, never narrowing to less than half a mile, with a great 
 mid-channel depth of water throughout, and a stream named 
 She'itan Akandi-si, that is, Satan's Current, setting south- 
 wards, at times very strong. It thus winds like a large 
 river between two chains of mountains, the summits of 
 which are clothed with wood, their sides with cultivation, 
 and their bases with towns, villages, and fortified posts. 
 The tower of Leander, Kiz Kareh-si or Lady's Castle of the Tower of 
 
 . . . Leander. 
 
 Turks, is on a rock in the canal, nearly opposite to Seraglio 
 Point, and just off the point of Scutari ; and at the entrance 
 of the Black Sea is a lighthouse on each shore, — one, the 
 Roum-illi fanar, that is, European lantern or lighthouse, 
 
76 
 
 THE ARCHIPELAGO, 
 
 Cyaneae. 
 
 Black Sea. 
 
 Rivers. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 being on the ancient Panium promontorium, — the other, 
 that on the Asiatic side, standing on the ancient Prom. A ncy- 
 reum, so named, it is pretended, from the fragment of rock 
 taken from thence by the Argonauts, to be used as the first 
 anchor. The group of volcanic islets once supposed to float, 
 are here yet, still retaining, among western Europeans, their 
 classic name Cyaneae ; and on one are the remains of an 
 altar, dedicated to Augustus: they were also called the 
 Symplegades, and were the terror of ancient navigators.* 
 
 The Black Sea (Pontus Euxinus) is an inland basin 
 with a margin of coast generally elevated and rocky, having 
 a transverse diameter of about 650 miles from west to east, 
 a conjugate one of more than 300, and an area of 172,000 
 square miles. Its modern name is supposed to originate 
 from the dense fogs which occasionally cover it, or the 
 danger of its navigation arising from these fogs : at all 
 events, it was much dreaded by the ancients, who placed 
 their Cimmerian land of utter darkness on its northern 
 shores. Besides the fresh water from Asia Minor, it re- 
 ceives some of the largest rivers in Europe, including the 
 Danube (Ister), Dnieper (Borysthenes),imd Dniester (Tyras), 
 the Don (Tanais), and the Kouban ; its waters are in con- 
 sequence only brackish ; and it is singular that, with such 
 a large and constant accession of fresh streams continually 
 pouring into it, any saltness should be retained. Its depth 
 in general is great, no bottom being struck with 150 fathoms 
 of line ; but off the mouth of the Danube the water deepens 
 very gradually, and nearly as much so from Serpent's Isle 
 by Odessa to the Crimea. The streams of the great rivers 
 produce strong currents, particularly in the beginning of 
 summer, when they are increased by the melting of the 
 
 * There were several islands called the Asiatic Cyanese, near the Prom. 
 Ancyreum, vaguely mentioned by Strabo, Arrian, and Dionysius Periegetes : 
 according to Petr. Gyllius (De JBosporo Thracico, ii. cap. 24) they were 
 rather more than seventy Roman paces (pasms) from those of Europe. 
 Where are they now ? 
 
BLACK SEA, AND LEVANT. 77 
 
 snows ; and when strong winds act against these Sowings, Weather. 
 a chopping sea is produced, which in foggy weather is 
 dangerous to small craft. Independently, however, of such 
 chances, the Black Sea is free from any dangers ; having, 
 with a trivial exception or two, neither islands, rocks, nor 
 reefs in the general track of navigation : and almost every- 
 where there are excellent anchorages, affording good riding 
 for the largest ships. Its trade consists of grain, wine, Trade, 
 timber, charcoal, pitch, potash, fish, caviar, isinglass, 
 shagreen, salted provisions, cheese, poultry, butter, wool, 
 hides, hemp, tallow, honey, tobacco, salt, iron, copper, and 
 saltpetre ; but especially corn. 
 
 The large body of water on the north-east of the Euxine, sea of 
 called the Sea of Azof (Palus Mceotis), the Azak-deniz-i 
 of the Turks, has a surface of rather more than 13,000 
 square miles : and from the action of its rivers, its 
 waters are rather brackish than salt. The navigation of 
 this subdivision of the Black Sea is impeded by the freshes 
 of the Don, its general shallowness, numerous shoals, and 
 occasional ice ; nor can it be entered by shipping otherwise 
 than by the narrow strait of Taman or Yenikaleh (New 
 Castle), the ancient Cimmerian Bosporus. But notwith- 
 standing these physical impediments, such are the advan- 
 tages of moral exertions, that Taganrog, its chief port, is a Taganrog, 
 place of considerable and increasing consequence, the value 
 of its import trade in 1850 being upwards of i?380,000, and 
 its exports about half a million. 
 
 It seems agreed among cosmogonists, that the Black Geological 
 Sea, at a remote period, extended much further to the east changes - 
 and north than it now does, occupying the whole of the 
 vast plains and steppes that surround the Caspian and the 
 Sea of Aral, neither of which had then a separate existence; 
 the difference of their levels having arisen at later periods. 
 Their depth must probably alter materially, since the beds 
 of the rivers above-mentioned are charged with an extra- 
 ordinary quantity of sand and slime, which from the rapidity 
 
78 THE ARCHIPELAGO, 
 
 of their course they hold in suspension till they approach 
 the sea, where, spreading over a wider area, and flowing in 
 a more gentle current, they deposit the substances brought 
 down, so gradually that the elevation of their beds is almost 
 imperceptible. Polybius, who states this as a cause for 
 predicting the filling up of the Euxine in process of time, 
 describes a shoal one thousand stadia in length before the 
 mouth of the Ister, at one day's sail from the land : this 
 having long since disappeared, has no doubt become a part 
 of the delta of the Danube. The Sea of Azof has manifestly 
 contracted its boundaries ; but this subject will be resumed 
 in the next chapter. 
 
 Karamania. To return to the Levant Basin. Proceeding from the 
 Archipelago eastwards along the shores of Asia Minor, the 
 space between Cape Symi — opposite Rhodes — and the Gulf 
 of Iskanderun is called, by European geographers, the Coast 
 of Karamania — from Karaman-ili, the land of Karaman 
 Agha. It is broken into deep bays and gulfs, backed by 
 high ranges of mountains, the Peak of Takhtahlu (table- 
 topped), on the west side of the Gulf of Adalia, being 7800 
 feet in height ; and beyond it, to the eastward, are the 
 still higher and ever-snowy summits of Taurus. 
 
 Between the gulfs or bays of Symi and Makri (Glaucus 
 sinus), are several small ports ; but the north-west portion 
 is occupied by the extensive and land-locked haven of 
 
 Marmorice. Mermericheh or Little Marmora (Physais), the Marmorice 
 of our charts, which is a beautiful basin capable of affording a 
 safe anchorage to the largest fleets. This was happily proved 
 by the timely refuge it gave to our weather-stricken expe- 
 dition under Lord Keith and General Abercrombie : yet it 
 was actually unknown to the pilots of our armament, the 
 ships of which ran in before a furious gale, solely on the 
 authority of a note from Sir Sidney Smith. The immedi- 
 ately neighbouring harbour of Kara-aghatch, though less 
 
 YediBurun. commodious, is easier of access ; and beyond it the Yedi- 
 Burun (Cragus M.), or rugged peaks of the seven capes, 
 
BLACK SEA, AND LEVANT. 79 
 
 below Makri, bound the bay into which the River Kodja-chai 
 (Xanthus) discharges its waters, after flowing through the 
 pashalik of Meis (Lycia). Between that and Cape Kheli- 
 donia there are also numerous ports and creeks, whither 
 ships of any size may resort and refit with safety and facility, 
 the access being everywhere easy, from the boldness of the 
 shores. The principal of these, Kastelorizo or Castello casteiio 
 Rosso, and Port Tristomo (Three Mouths), according to 
 Admiral Beaufort, ' may be considered the more valuable, 
 as from hence to Syria there is but one land-locked harbour/ 
 Water and refreshments, however, in the present desolate 
 condition of the country, are scarcely obtainable. 
 
 Capes Khelidonia (Sacrum prom.) and Anamur (Ana- 
 murium prom), form the headlands of the large Gulf of Gv ¥°y 
 Adalia, the Pamphylian Sea of the old geographers. Off 
 the pitch of the former headland is a cluster of five islands, 
 two of which are large, and from 400 to 500 feet high, con- 
 taining some creeks, in which small vessels may be sheltered. 
 Passing several coves and islets which fringe the coast under 
 the magnificent mountain of Takhtahlu, we arrive at 
 Adalia (Attalia vel Olbia), the largest city on this coast. 
 From hence a lower shore, with occasional sandy beaches, 
 extends south-eastward to Cape Anamur, where the land 
 becomes bold and bluff. The produce of these parts, prin- Produce, 
 cipally timber, gall-nuts, wax, honey, camel's-hair, and 
 liquid storax, is usually carried to Cyprus, and thence 
 re-exported : corn is embarked, though under prohibition. 
 
 From Cape Anamur, the southernmost point of Asia 
 Minor, a broken shore extends by Cape Cavaliere (Sarpe- 
 don prom.), Provencal or Manavat isle, and the projecting 
 sands of the ancient Zephyrium prom. — the deceitful 
 Lingua di Bagascia of Frank navigators, also stigmatized 
 by the Turks as Lisan-el-Kahpeh (Harlot's mouth) — to the 
 Tersus-chai, river of Tarsis ; the maritime town (scala) of 
 Tersus, the present representative of the once powerful 
 city of Tarsus, about twelve miles inland. This river, the Tarsus. 
 
80 THE ARCHIPELAGO, 
 
 Cydnus. Cydnus of old, which once received the stately galleys of 
 Cleopatra, is now inaccessible to any but the smallest boat. 
 To the east of it is a deserted and marshy tract of country, 
 with a sandy beach, extending to Cape Kara-dutash 
 (Megarsus), or black rock, where the Gulf of Iskanderun 
 or Alexandretta (Issicus sinus) may be said to commence ; 
 most parts of it are unwholesome to a deadly degree. In 
 this bight is the boundary of Asia Minor. 
 
 Geological The south coast of Asia Minor exhibits indications of 
 
 changes. 
 
 gradual changes in its littoral line, especially towards its 
 eastern extremity, where the river Jaihun (Py ramus), by 
 its volume of deposits, has produced an extensive arid 
 plain. c The low sandy point/ says Sir Francis Beaufort, 
 ' pushed out by the Jyhoon, has already (1811) advanced 
 six miles beyond what appears to have been the original 
 line of the shore/ In the Gulf of Makry, on the contrary, 
 is the stately mausoleum of a warrior, which assuredly was 
 erected on the shore ; but it is now upwards of thirty yards 
 from it, and the sea covers at least two feet of its base. The 
 walls of Telmessus also, in the Glaucus sinus, were 
 undoubtedly built originally on dry land, but are now like- 
 wise surrounded by water : and at Kakara, in some places 
 three or four of the lower steps of house-doors, and the 
 foundations of the walls, are now beneath the surface of the 
 water. Caunus, which was a seaport in the time of Strabo, 
 is now two miles inland, and its harbour has become a 
 fresh-water lake, from whence the waters have a fall towards 
 the sea. Also the alluvial plains of Xanthus, Phineka, 
 Myra, and Makry, have increased considerably in thickness 
 of soil, since the time when the cities on those plains were 
 flourishing. The borings of marine animals show marks of 
 upheaving ; and in the Gulf of Iskanderun, are still to be 
 seen the walls of a castle erected by the Saracens, now one 
 mile and a half from the shore, in which there remain the 
 rings to which the ships were formerly made fast. Sir 
 Francis thus describes a geological effect which he examined 
 
 
BLACK SEA, AND LEVANT. 81 
 
 at the efflux of a lake near Cape Phineka : — ' This lake is 
 separated from the sea by a narrow ridge of sand and 
 gravel, the shape and limits of which are evidently pre- 
 scribed by the opposing efforts of the currents within, and 
 of the sea without ; the former sweeps along its interior 
 edge, and, perhaps, supplies it with fresh accession of matter 
 from the mountains ; while the external surf rolls back the 
 loose gravel, and piles it up like a wall. It was pleasing 
 to observe in action, the causes which can thus enable a 
 neck of fragile sand to resist the impetuosity of the ocean, 
 while every day furnished instances of the most compact 
 rocks yielding to its violence/ The same intelligent officer 
 also noticed what he designates a 'petrified beach/ at 
 several places on this coast, where the upper slopes, to 
 some distance into the sea, had become a solid crust of 
 pudding-stone ; for which he assigns a similar cause to that 
 which is already given for the consolidation of the Sicilian 
 beaches : and he adds, that ' the unwary boat that should 
 mistake it for a common beach of yielding materials, and 
 should run on it before a following surf, might be fatally 
 apprized of its error/ 
 
 The sea-board of Syria is an extent of about MO miles, coast of 
 being bounded on the north by the mountains called yna " 
 Al-Lokam {Moris Amanus), which fall precipitously into 
 the sea at Cape Khynzyr (Rhossicus Scopulus), the crown 
 of which (M. Pieria) is 5500 feet above the sea ; and it 
 extends from the river Bay as (Issus), in the Gulf of Iskan- 
 denin, to the torrent Al-'Arish, which last separates it from 
 Egypt. A chain of lofty hills lines its whole length, 
 receding from one to eight leagues from the shore. Among 
 them Mount Lubnam, or Libanus, the far-famed Lebanon, 
 rises conspicuously to the height of 7100 feet. The shores 
 between Tripoli and Tyre are principally hilly ; but present 
 in many places a large extent of low and flat coast, the 
 plains of which suffer severely from remittent fever and 
 dysentery in summer and autumn, from want of drainage. 
 
 G 
 
82 THE ARCHIPELAGO. 
 
 The most frequented ports and trading-places are, the 
 
 iskanderun. unhealthy and dilapidated Iskanderun ; Swaidiyah on the 
 Nahr-el-'A'si (Orontes) ; Latakia (Laodicea ad Mare) ; the 
 fair town of Tarabolus (Tripolis), or Tripoli in the East ; 
 
 stir. Beirut (Berytus) ; Saida (Sidori) ; Sur (Tyre) ; 'Akka or Acra 
 
 (Ptolema'is) ; Kaipha, under Mount Carniel ; Ka'isariyah 
 
 Jaffa. (Ccesared), a tolerable anchorage near a heap of ruins ; Jaffa 
 (Joppa), the port of the western pilgrims of the Holy Land ; 
 Scalona (Ascalon), and Ghazza (Gaza), which is backed by 
 very fertile grounds. These places are resorted to by small 
 craft only, in the fine season, for the whole is a dreaded 
 
 Exports, lee-shore in westerly gales. The principal exports are wine, 
 olives, tobacco, cotton, silk, wool, fruit, sesamum, galls, and 
 medicinal plants ; but, from mismanagement, the trade is not 
 brisk, — or rather, its commerce is far inferior to what, from 
 its resources, might be maintained. 
 
 Geological The sea has considerably receded from some parts of 
 the coasts of Syria ; while, on the other hand, at Beirut, 
 there is a tower standing in the water, and remains of the 
 ancient marine works at Jaffa and Ka'isariyah are sub- 
 merged. The island of Tyre is now united to the continent, 
 and some portions of its peninsula bear evidence of sub- 
 mergence. While this coast, on the whole, affords an 
 instance of elevation, the vast adjacent valley from the 
 Jordan, through El Ghor to the Gulf of Akaba — the Aulona 
 of the Greeks, and Ccelo-Syria of the Romans — offers a 
 most remarkable instance of the depression of land : it 
 being reckoned at the Sea of Galilee to be 628 feet below 
 the waters of the Mediterranean, and at the Dead Sea 
 more than 1200 feet. This must have been the effect of 
 what is termed some violent ' convulsion of nature/ either 
 by means of fire, water, or subsidence of strata. 
 
 Cyprus. In the north-east part of the Levantine Sea, at ten or 
 
 twelve leagues south of the coast of Karamania, and about 
 twenty leagues to the westward of Syria, is the large and 
 once famous island of Cyprus (Kunpos) ; once an important 
 
THE NORTH COAST OF AFRICA. 83 
 
 kingdom, now a mere appanage of the Sultan's Grand 
 Vizier. Its length is 140 miles, by 50 at its greatest 
 breadth, narrowing gradually to the east ; it is traversed 
 from east to west by a range of woody mountains, of which 
 Or os Troados (Olympus), the principal summit, is 6590 feet 
 above the sea. It possesses the ports of Famagusta (At- Ports. 
 sinoe), Limasol, Baffa (Paphos), Larnaka, and Ghyrna 
 (Geryneia), of which Famagusta is the chief. But though 
 the range mentioned extends through Cyprus, the greater 
 part of the island consists of fine plains, of which the soil is 
 excellent; and even under imperfect cultivation yields 
 corn, wine, oil, carubbas, and other fruits ; and among its Produce, 
 exports are also silk, cotton, wool, morocco-leather, soda, 
 salt, coloquintida, gum, laudanum, madder, cochineal, tur- 
 pentine, tar, and pigments. The resources of the island 
 are, however, sadly depressed by misgovernment, the Grand 
 Vizier acting only by proxy. 
 
 Having thus finished this section, which is principally 
 a compilation, but from sources upon which implicit reliance 
 may be placed, I now proceed to resume the result of my 
 own observation and experience. 
 
 § 9. The North Coast of Africa. 
 
 ALTHOUGH it has been usual to commence Egypt at Egypt. 
 Tineh (Pelusium), some geographers have restored 
 it to the ancient point El Arish (RhinocoTUTa), the 
 southern boundary of Syria, as ordered by Joshua nearly 
 3400 years ago (ch. xv. ver. 4 & 47) ; who also well described 
 its position on the 'river of Egypt,' a ravine receiving the 
 pluvial waters of various torrents. Between this and Tineh 
 are the moving sands called by the Hebrews Shur, and by the 
 Arabs Al Jofar, bordered by the Serbonian Pool, — a district 
 never yet occupied by an enemy, and which, says Abulfeda, 
 
 g2 
 
84 
 
 THE NORTH COAST OF AFRICA. 
 
 is commonly known as the ' Sands of Egypt' (remel Misr). 
 From this notable land-mark the shores of Egypt extend — 
 at least did when I was there* — to Tlasal Kanais, about 115 
 leagues to the westward (Hermea extrema) : they are gene- 
 rally low and arid, with occasional vast sandy downs and 
 extensive marshes, thickly sprinkled with the round hillocks 
 called dhahars (rough hard backs). The central portion of 
 this apparent waste is the far-famed Delta, formed by the 
 mouths of the Nile, the fertilizing nurse of the whole 
 country of Mizraim. The annual inundation of this bene- 
 ficent river is occasioned by the periodical rains of Central 
 Africa : it commences about the summer solstice and con- 
 tinues till September, during which period the outpouring 
 is very powerful, insomuch that fresh water may be skimmed 
 off the surface of the sea, at the distance of two or three 
 miles out in the offing. 
 
 The Egyptian ports are — Damyat, or Damietta (Tami- 
 athis), a trading town among the marshes of the eastern 
 or Phatnitic mouth of the Nile; Rosetta, or Rashid, 
 beautifully surrounded by palm-groves and gardens on the 
 western or main mouth, known as the Bolbatic branch ; 
 Al Bekur (Canopus), a castle and loading-place on the old 
 Canopic mouth, in the bay to the west of Rosetta ; and the 
 Alexandria, harbours of Alexandria, with two or three insignificant 
 coves between the last-mentioned place and Ras al Kanais 
 (Cape Churches). At these ports the European commerce 
 of the country is carried on, and great quantities of im- 
 ported goods are conveyed to markets in the interior. 
 The chief exports are grain, rice, dates, fruit, cotton, flax, 
 silk, fine stuffs, wool, hides, ivory, ostrich feathers, gums, 
 spices, and drugs — the corn being in quantity sufficient 
 still to stamp Egypt a granary ; and, unlike the time of 
 
 Damietta. 
 
 Rosetta. 
 
 Trade. 
 
 * This remark is made, because the Basha of Egypt has, since then, laid 
 a kind of claim to the sovereignty of the whole coast of Marmarica, an 
 extent of about 320 miles. 
 
THE NORTH COAST OF AFRICA. 85 
 
 Herodotus, beans are sown abundantly, and exported in 
 large cargoes. The great emporium is Alexandria, a city 
 and port which the late Mehemet Ali rescued from a state 
 of torpid decay, and raised to maritime importance ; and 
 when I visited him he had just completed that gigantic 
 undertaking, the Mahmudiyeh Canal, as described in my The Great 
 
 Canal. 
 
 JEdes HartvielliancE, by which the trading vessels of the 
 Nile avoid the dangers of the Rosetta (Boghaz) Mouth. 
 
 It was anciently supposed that a great gulf once pene- Geology of 
 trated from the Mediterranean into Egypt as far as Thebes ; 
 that the isle of Pharos was at a very considerable distance 
 from the main ; and that, therefore, the whole Delta is the 
 gift of the Nile.* This must have been the work of many 
 ages, for the general coast of Egypt, except in the secondary 
 changes, — as the silting up of Damietta since the thirteenth 
 century, the draining of Lake Mareotis, and the filling of 
 lagoons, — still answers the description which Herodotus 
 gave of it 2300 years ago. But by observing the coast 
 about Gaza and Csesarea, and from thence to the Arab's 
 Tower (Taposiris), a line will show the extent to which 
 the Delta has advanced ; but this we must grant to be 
 of a date very remote, for the currents which sweep along 
 the north coast of Africa have prevented any rapid accession 
 to the alluvial soil of the Egyptian shore. 
 
 From Egypt, proceeding westward along the south Barkah. 
 margin of the Mediterranean Sea, we first reach the sterile 
 and uninviting coast of the desert of Barkah, which extends 
 to Razatin, or Ras-er-Tyn (Cape Fig) ; but its exact boun- 
 daries are very uncertain, neither the Pasha of Egypt nor the 
 ruler of Tripoli having been able to tell me exactly where 
 their respective dominions ended. Although the designation 
 Libya was often applied to all Africa by the ancient Greeks, 
 
 * The vast lakes recently explored by the French frigate commanded by 
 Captain Bouet-Villauniez, within the Grand Bassam river, on the West 
 Coast of Africa, are on the site of the deep inlet which appears on Fra 
 Mauro's celebrated planisphere ; it is there designated the Golden Gulf. 
 
86 THE NORTH COAST OF AFRICA. 
 
 it was sometimes restricted to the sandy, waterless desert — 
 (sitientes arenas) — between the Nile and the Cyrenaica, or 
 country round Cyrene : this space was subdivided into 
 Marmarica and Cyrenaica proper, the chief emporium of 
 
 Parato- the former being Parwtonium, of which the site is trace- 
 able at the present Port Mohaderah (Zygio), point Has al 
 Harzeit being sometimes called Cape Baratun, a corruption 
 of the ancient name. It is a curious coincidence, that 
 Ptolemy's Katabathmos magnus and parva are now called 
 by the Arabs 'Akabah-ei-Kibir and 'Akabah-el-Sougha'ir, 
 the great and the little Descents :* the first being about 
 900 feet high, and the second 500 feet; and which 
 some geographers mark as the separation between Asia 
 and Africa, also as the western boundary of Marmarica. 
 In the sea-board of this arid space there are the spacious 
 
 Tebruk. harbours of Tebruk (Anti Pyrgos or Tabraca), and Bom- 
 bah (Bombcea vel Batrachus), with several smaller havens 
 for coasters : but not a vessel plied on those waters except 
 foreign ones, and even those so seldom, that Tebruk and 
 
 Bombah. Bombah were unknown but by name when I first visited 
 that coast. Indeed, between Alexandria and Benghazi 
 there was not, at that day, a single native boat, or any 
 means of embarkation ; a consequence of which was, that 
 we found fish and seals in abundance.f 
 
 Passing the cove at Kas-er-Tyn (Chersonesus), be- 
 tween it and Benghazi is the border of the mountainous 
 tract called Jebel Akhdar, with the extensive remains of 
 
 Cyrene. Grennah, or Kureineh (Cyrene), the which, with the sea in 
 front and sands in the rear, encourages the idea of its 
 
 * Idrisi terms the first of these inclinations 'Akabah-el-Sollom, or 
 staircase descent ; whence the Port Sollom and Saloume of most of the early 
 Portulani. 
 
 f I was told that the French Admiral, Gantheaume, who possessed 
 great acquaintance with the Levantine shores, saved his squadron from the 
 British pursuers in 1801, by getting into Tebruk, a port of which our 
 officers were utterly ignorant. Had we known it, there had been no escape 
 for Gantheaume ! 
 
THE NORTH COAST OF AFRICA. 87 
 
 having been once an island. It certainly differs in climate, 
 aspect, wood, water, and resources, from all other districts 
 between Syria and Tunis, well meriting its modern name, 
 which expresses ' the green mountain.' On the margin of 
 this space there are several small ports, but the only one 
 resorted to is Dernah (Darnis), which however did not, in Demah. 
 1817, possess an embar cation of any sort ; still vessels from 
 Alexandria and Tripoli called there to embark honey, wool, 
 wax, and butter. In the bight between the points Ras-el- 
 Hilal (Naustathmus) and Cape Kasat, is Marsa Susah 
 (Apollonia), a mere boat cove, though once the port of the Ports of the 
 
 Penta- 
 
 potent city of Cyrene, formerly so celebrated for its know- polls, 
 ledge, riches, and splendour. On the hills above, at the 
 height of 1990 feet, its vestiges are to be seen from sea- 
 ward ; and from thence to Benghazi are extensive ruins of 
 the opulent cities of Dolmeitah (Ptolemais), Taukrah 
 (Teuchira), and other members of the Pentapolis. 
 
 Between Cape Rasat (Phycus prom.) and Mesratah The Great 
 (Trierium and Cephalce), is the Gulf of Sidrah (of the 
 lotus), the once dreaded Syrtis major, the navigation of 
 which even Strabo thought it. audacious to attempt : but 
 native pilots confine the designation to the space within 
 Ras Kharrah (Zuca T) and Ras Teyonas (Borium prom.) 
 Our researches have deprived this extensive bight of its 
 terrors, and shown that while it is comparatively free from 
 danger, it is hardly worth the visits of shipping, there 
 being in the whole space but one place deserving of being 
 called a port, and even that is only fit for small vessels. 
 Such is Benghazi (Hesperis and Berenice), an insignificant Benghazi 
 fortified town, which yet derives a considerable trade by 
 exporting cattle, dhurra Qtolchus sorghum), honey, wax, 
 wool, and manteca, or coarse butter : to these may be 
 added a little sulphur from the mines at the bottom of the 
 gulf, the which has induced the Au:abs to designate this 
 Syrtis Joun al Kabrit. The castle holds the whole district 
 in subjugation, though it is in such a dilapidated state, that 
 
88 THE NORTH COAST OF AFRICA. 
 
 on my arrival there Halil Bey requested me to dispense 
 with the usual salute, lest the concussion of the cannons 
 should injure the walls ; a fact already so well recorded by 
 Captain Beechey, in his excellent account of the Expedition 
 round the Syrtis (page 288). 
 Geological Syrtes was the name given by ancient geographers to 
 
 clitin° r £ , s 
 
 these two great gulfs on the northern coast of Africa — the 
 Sounds of Barbary ; ' cursed and horrible places both/ says 
 Philemon Holland, speaking English for Pliny. The Great 
 Syrtis, that which we have now arrived at (f, pceyaAoj 2^/jt/s), 
 had long been, from various obvious causes, unknown to 
 navigation; insomuch that when I was first proceeding 
 thither in 1816, the only information I could procure, even 
 with the aid of the powerful Yussuf Basha, and his admiral, 
 Murad Beis (a renegade Scotchman originally named Peter 
 Lyell), proved that the gulf then was as great a bugbear as 
 when the classical writers scared seamen about its fell shoals 
 and whirlpools.* There can be no doubt, however, that it 
 has changed its form, for it must once have penetrated 
 further into the interior, and in a measure communicated 
 with that great desert which separates the two potent 
 human races — white and black — and gave birth to the 
 fabled strife of Osiris and Typhon. Benghazi was once 
 
 * Having placed some papers in the hands of that veteran and energetic 
 geographer, Major Rennell, on my return to England, I cannot but record 
 an extract of a letter which he wrote to me, dated Nassau-street, Jan. 19th, 
 1821, saying, — ' My illness not having abated, I have not put pen to paper 
 
 since I had the pleasure of seeing you till now The changes that 
 
 have take a place (in the Syrtis) are nothing more than I supposed would take 
 place at some period. Every flat coast or shoal is increasing ; which can 
 only be by a conversion of sand or gravel, &c. into firm land. This has 
 taken place even on our own coast — 40,000 acres of land have been 
 accumulated in Romney Marsh, almost entirely by sea alluvion, which is 
 marked by its having a slope inward from the coast. The surges, in 
 tempests, have raised the sands of the Syrtis too high to be dissolved by the 
 ordinary rise of the waters ; which is exemplified by what Mr. Smeaton told 
 me concerning his adventures on the Goodwin Sands. Landing, nearly 
 about low water, the surface was so compact that he found a difficulty in 
 inserting an iron crow to fasten the boat to : but on the rise of tide, it would 
 hardly bear a man's weight.' 
 
THE NORTH COAST OF AFRICA. 89 
 
 possessed of a large harbour, which may have communicated 
 with the salt-water lake (Tritonis T) southward of the town. 
 The deep inlet and quicksands where the Philcenorum 
 Araz were erected, have disappeared, as has also the lake of 
 Zuca, which Strabo mentions as disemboguing into the 
 Syrtis : but the detritus of the Solocho Isles, off the western 
 coast, may have formed the extensive bank of Isa, on which 
 I more than once anchored, and found easy riding in rough 
 winds. A little inside the beach here, a succession of large 
 shallow marshes, where much salt is obtained in long blocks 
 for commerce, may have been the inlet and naval station 
 spoken of by Strabo. 
 
 From the Great to the Lesser Syrtis, now the Gulf of 
 Khabs, the coast of Tripoli (Oea) offers little for intercourse Tri P oli - 
 by sea except the harbour of Tripoli itself, which lies nearly 
 in mid-distance, and is the capital of the state of the same 
 name ; and the Kegency having a sea front of upwards of 
 760 miles, from Dernah to Al Biban, is of some considera- 
 tion as a maritime state of Barbary. The harbour is secured 
 by a chain of rocks projecting from the north-east angle of 
 the town, and a sand-bank off Point Tajurah ; and here are 
 imported the woollens, cottons, muslins, hardware, arms, 
 and ammunition of Europe ; while the exports consist of Ex P° rts - 
 cattle, leather, skins, soda, salt, natron, wax, saffron, senna, 
 madder, oil, drugs, ostrich-feathers, gold-dust, ivory, gum, 
 dates, and other articles of home produce, or commodities 
 brought from Central Africa by the caravans. The coast, 
 however, though for the most part low and shelving, is 
 pretty bold-to, many parts affording good anchorage, as the 
 north winds rarely blow home ; and boats may generally 
 find refuge in the little ports (marsa) Zoraik, Ziliten, 
 Ugrah, at the mouth of the Wadi Khahan (Cinyps), Lebidah 
 (Leptis Magna), Ligatah, Tiipoli vecchio (Sabrata), Zoarah, 
 al Biban (the Gate of Pisida), and Zarzis : these creeks are 
 mostly the result of the action of the sea and atmosphere 
 on a friable shore, and the barriers are ridges of rock 
 
90 
 
 THE NOETH COAST OF AFRICA. 
 
 Jerbah. 
 
 Little 
 
 Syrtis. 
 
 Probable 
 changes. 
 
 parallel to the line of the coast, which have withstood the 
 attack. But neither the sea-board nor. its details were 
 known when I first visited it ; insomuch that when I was 
 with Lord Exmouth's squadron in 1816, he suddenly and 
 hastily weighed from before Tripoli, and beat about in a 
 northerly gale, expecting worse weather, without an idea of 
 the excellent anchorage he might have taken up in the 
 vicinity of the Lesser Syrtis.* 
 
 Jerbah (Meninx and Lotophagitis), an excellently culti- 
 vated and rich island, separated from the mainland by a 
 basin with two straits forming entrances, is the commence- 
 ment of the Regency of Tunis, which extends from thence 
 as far west as La Cala, or El Kalian, near Bona, a littoral 
 distance of more than 570 miles. The intervening country 
 is greatly diversified with mountains and valleys, fertile 
 plains and arid wastes ; which are blest with one of the 
 finest climates in the world, and a remarkably productive 
 soil. Between Jerbah and the low group called the Kar- 
 kenah (Cereina) Isles, lies the Gulf of Khabs, or the Little 
 Syrtis (w [Aixpa, ^vpni), which may once have had a com- 
 munication with Es Sibkhah, or the great salt plain of the 
 interior, covered with water to the depth of three or four 
 feet in the winter — a probable site of the Tritonis Palus 
 of Herodotus. If so, a narrow strait among chains of 
 eminences, and liable to very variable tides, may have con- 
 founded early navigation, and rendered it, as Scylax asserts, 
 even more dangerous than the Great Syrtis. But the dread 
 of the ancient mariners can now be but little understood, 
 since from various changes the Syrtis Minor of the ancients 
 is no longer recognisable : nearly the whole remaining space 
 now affords good anchoring ground and smooth water, the 
 
 * On this occasion his lordship had embarked all the Christian captives 
 save one, an Italian boy, then at the salterns of Zoara. Shortly afterwards 
 I had the satisfaction of taking this boy to Malta, thereby carrying off the 
 last Christian slave from Barbary. The principal of my proceedings on this 
 coast, about that time, will be found in the Appendix. 
 
THE NORTH COAST OF AFRICA. 91 
 
 bank of Karkenah preventing the sea from rolling home ; 
 and the shallows are indicated by the fishermen's palisades. 
 In fact, from the unceasing operation of the sea in throwing 
 up and depositing sand on a flat coast, where there is no 
 river, torrent, or other back-water to sweep it away again, 
 the shore must have had a continued augmentation. 
 
 The adjacent lands were abundantly fertile by nature, 
 but, until the rule of the Carthaginians, were left without 
 culture ; for, in the words of Strabo, the ancient people of 
 this country (the Numides or Nomades) abandoned their 
 fields to savage beasts, to exhaust themselves by predatory 
 warfare. The east coast of Tunis (Byzacium), though East coast 
 perhaps less cultivated than when it was regarded as a 
 magazine of provisions, and dignified with the title ' Em- 
 poria/ is nevertheless abundantly fertile, and its tillage is 
 very creditable to the Moors. The sea -board possesses 
 several populous trading towns, and some excellent anchor- 
 ages, to which numerous ships resort to take in the produce. 
 Of these/ the places in chief consideration — from Jerbah 
 northwards — are Ghabs or Khabs (Tacape T) Sfakus (Tar Towns. 
 phurah), Mehadiyah or Afrikah (Turns Hannibalis), 
 Lamta (Leptis parva), Monastir (Iladrumetum), Susah 
 (Kabar Susis), Ehrakliyah or Herkla (Horrea Cceli), 
 Hammamet (Aquce calidce), Nabal (Neapolis), Khurbah, 
 (Curubis), and Calibia or Iklibiyah (Glypea). Some of 
 these are of great consideration as towns in Barbary; but 
 the principal is certainly the beautifully situated and 
 opulent Sfakus, a place where I was most hospitably re- sfakus. 
 ceived before any Christian agent had ever been established 
 there ; and where my operations and journeys were viewed 
 without that alarm, and inconvenient distrust, which were 
 so often encountered on these shores at that time. 
 
 The Gulf of Tunis is a deep and safe bay, lying between Bay of 
 Cape Bon (Hermceum prom.), the Ras-Adar of the natives, 
 and Cape Farina (Apollinis prom), which are thirteen 
 leagues asunder. The site of the famous Carthage (Car- Carthage. 
 
92 
 
 THE NORTH COAST OF AFRICA. 
 
 Tunis. 
 
 Goletta. 
 
 chedon) is within and upon the promontory of that name 
 on the west side of the bay, and the space from thence to 
 Tunis still exhibits vestiges of the Tyrian mistress of three 
 hundred African cities and towns (besides her power in 
 Spain, Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, and Italy itself) as well as 
 of her Koman successor. Of these perhaps the most 
 striking are the cisterns, the mole-basins inside of Cape 
 Kamar, and the great aqueduct which conveyed water from 
 the Jebel-ez-Zaghwan (Zeugitanus mons), a distance of 
 fifty-two miles. But it must be conceded that the appear- 
 ance of the land has greatly changed since the time of old 
 Carthage, when the receding curvature of the beach threw 
 the peninsula of the Byrsa more boldly out, so as to be all 
 but insulated. South of the ruins of Carthage, and at the 
 bottom of the bay, stands the city of Tunis (Tunetum), the 
 metropolis of the Regency, with a population little short of 
 150,000. It maintains a busy trade, both of import and 
 export ; the produce and manufactures of the Beylik con- 
 sisting of corn, oil, wool, hides, honey, wax, soap, silks, fine 
 woollen cloths, shawls, fazes or scarlet skullcaps, burnuses, 
 wrappers, indigo, madder-roots, orchilla, henna, senna, dates, 
 ivory, coral, sponge, pottery, tobacco, morocco leather, 
 ostrich feathers, cattle, sheep, and other live stock. The 
 city is separated from the bay by a shallow lake of intense 
 saltness, occasioned by the powerful evaporation from a 
 burning sun, and the aridity of the surrounding shores. 
 This lake communicates with the sea by a narrow fortified 
 channel, called by seamen the Goletta, but Halk-el-Wad 
 by the Moors. Off the beach divided by the Goletta, the 
 largest fleets may anchor in comfortable depths of water 
 and good holding-ground. Indeed, when I joined Lord 
 Exmouth's squadron before Tunis in 1816, I had been 
 assured that it was considered a perfect anchorage under 
 proper care ; but the loss of the whole Tunisian fleet in 
 March, 1820, and a heavy gale which I afterwards rode 
 
THE NORTH COAST OF AFRICA. 93 
 
 out, induced me to reconsider that opinion ; and on finding 
 that large patches of the bottom consist of a hard clay 
 which breaks short, I certainly cannot recommend it as a 
 winter station where heavy ships are employed. 
 
 On the east entrance of the gulf, rise the Zembra or zembra. 
 Zawamir (jEgimurus) Isles, of which the largest is 517 
 feet in height : and forty-two miles to the north of them 
 are the dangerous rocks which have in recent ages been 
 designated the Skerki, Squills, and Esquerques ; and which Skerki. 
 appear to be the remains of the Arce mentioned by Virgil, 
 upon the saxa latentia of which, three ships of the Trojan 
 fleet were said to be wrecked. They are the JEginori of 
 Pliny, who observes that they lie opposite Carthage, and 
 between Sicily and Sardinia — in his time more like rocks 
 than islands, but recorded to have been inhabited, though 
 afterwards to have sunk down. There was much doubt 
 among our chart-compilers as to the existence of this reef, 
 until public attention was unexpectedly aroused by the 
 total and melancholy loss of the Athehien, of 64 guns, and 
 most of her crew, in 1804. 
 
 Besides the road of Tunis just mentioned, the northern Port 
 coast of this state has the ports of Farina or Ghar-el-Milh 
 (Salt cave), the sea-margin of Ouga (Utica), now fast filling 
 up by the floods and alluvia of the river Majerdah 
 (Bagradas) ; and Bizerta or Beni-zart (Hippo Zarytus) — Bizerta. 
 the Venice of Barbary — with two interior lakes, in the 
 inner one of which (Sisaraz palus) the water is fresh ; the 
 fisheries of these lakes are farmed at a high price, and are 
 extremely profitable. Between this and the Algerine 
 frontier, the only object of maritime interest is Tabarkah 
 (Tabraca), formed by a fortified island and the river 
 Ez-zeine (Rubricatus) on the main. About twenty miles 
 north-north-west of Ras-al-Manshar, or Cape Serrato, lies 
 the uninhabited island of Galita (Calathe), west-south-west Gaiita. 
 of which are two perilous sunken rocks, on which the 
 
94 THE NORTH COAST OP AFRICA. 
 
 Avenger frigate struck in December, 1847, when all hands 
 but seven, and a boy, were drowned : the channels on 
 either side of these rocks are both wide and safe. 
 
 Algeria. From the Mazulah hills, which bound the regency of 
 
 Tunis, to the river Muhiwi on the west, an interval of 670 
 miles, the coast of the fine and fertile state of Algeria 
 (Mauretania Ccesariensis) extends, the full capability of 
 which has never, in modern times, been properly excited ; 
 and of late ages its Mohammedan rulers, termed Deys 
 (Dais), preferred predatory warfare, which is always 
 destructive of industry, agriculture, and commerce. Yet, 
 though they preyed upon and braved the power of most of 
 the Christian princes around the Mediterranean, their fleet — 
 both vessels and crews — was always truly contemptible as 
 an organized force ; insomuch that the long sufferance of 
 these barbarous and professed pirates is an anomalous 
 phenomenon in the history of human polity. The origin 
 of this degrading system of hostility, which, in despising 
 the rules of civilization and the laws of nations, violated 
 the rights of human nature, may be owing to the rancorous 
 fanaticism of the Crusades; but its nearly uninterrupted 
 continuation was a reproach to Christendom. It has, how- 
 ever, now passed away ; and this country of physical beauty 
 — though sapped by moral deformity — is now colonized by 
 France ; it will, therefore, inevitably advance in civilization, 
 and, consequently, in the arts and pursuits of polished life. 
 It is a fine stage for the exercise of philanthropy and com- 
 merce ; for when I frequented the coast, even in the depth 
 of its barbarism, there were, among the exports of its 
 wilfully restricted traffic — corn, pulse, olive-oil, wax, honey, 
 fruits, tobacco, kermes, live stock of all kinds, hides, wool, 
 skins of wild beasts, coral, timber, charcoal, and ostrich 
 feathers black, white, and grey. 
 
 Eastern The principal loading-places on the eastern coast of 
 
 Algeria are — La Kalah (Nalpotes), Bastion of France (ad 
 Dianam), Bona (Hippo Regius), Storah (Rusicada), in the 
 
 ports. 
 
THE NORTH COAST OF AFRICA. 95 
 
 gulf anciently termed the Sinus Numidicus, Kolah (Gulla 
 and Gollops Magnus), the coves under Ras Sebah Rus 
 (Tretum prom.) and at Wad al Kabir, or great river, 
 Zergeli or Jijel (Igilgilis), Bujeiyah Portus Saldce), Mersa 
 Fahm or Zufun (Audus), Tedlez (Rusucurrium), and 
 Marsa Zinet. Passing this, and rounding Cape Matafuz or 
 Temedfus, we enter the great Bay of Algiers, or Al-Jezairat, Algiers. 
 the characteristics of which are, bold shores, deep water, 
 and excellent holding bottom ; but it is not mentioned in 
 early writings, the present name being derived from the 
 islet before the town. On the western side of this bay, 
 stands conspicuously the renowned city of that name, with 
 its mole, forts, lighthouse, and Kasbah ; surrounded by 
 beautifully diversified hills, valleys, gardens, groves, and 
 villas. Weighing from Algiers, and passing Cape Caxines 
 or Ras Al-Kanatir (Iomnium), to stand to the westward, 
 there is a rocky and precipitous coast, mostly bold-to ; and 
 we find in succession the ports and creeks named Sidi Ferej western 
 (Via), Tfesud (Tipasa), Nakous (Coesarea), Shershel or 
 Zerzahal (Icosium), Nakkous (Iol and Julia Cossaria), 
 Dniss or Tennez (Gartenna), Marsa Goleit, Musta-ganem 
 (Murustaga), Arzau (Arsenaria and Deorum portus), 
 Wahran or Oran (Quiza), Marsa Kibir (Portus magnus), 
 within Ras al Harsbah (Metagonium prom.), and Ishgun 
 (Acra). The energy of the French, and the use of steam, 
 will doubtless increase the number of these ports as increase 
 of trade shall require, for the whole coast of Algeria affords 
 abundant materials for commercial enterprise. 
 
 We now approach the outermost of the Barbary States, Morocco, 
 the which has — from its having been formed by the union 
 of various small kingdoms, or, rather, large provinces — been 
 known as the Empire of Morocco, or MogJirib-al-akza, the 
 farthest west; being a remnant of the great ALfrican 
 monarchies formed by the Saracens in Mauritania. Anarchy 
 and intestine discords have reduced its boundaries, but it is 
 still possessed of a surface equal to that of Spain ; while 
 
96 
 
 THE NORTH COAST OF AFRICA. 
 
 Mount 
 Atlas. 
 
 Produce. 
 
 The Mu- 
 luwi. 
 
 its Mediterranean coast — from Ceuta to the river Muluwi — 
 is 220 miles, which is not one-third of its sea-board. It is 
 finely diversified with hills and valleys, a great part of 
 which have never been visited by Europeans ; and there are 
 many rivers flowing from the great Atlas range of moun- 
 tains which traverses the empire in its greatest length, and 
 attains the snow-clad height of nearly 13,000 feet, modify- 
 ing the aspect, soil, and climate of the whole region. Those 
 rivers disembogue into the Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic 
 Ocean, the large ones forming bar-harbours, which, though 
 now so neglected as only to admit of small vessels entering 
 them, may some day be converted into good stations for 
 steamers. A ramification of the great mountain-range 
 turns to the north, and is there known as the Lesser Atlas, 
 of which Ape's Hill (Abyla), opposite Gibraltar, may be 
 deemed the northern scarp. The climate of Morocco is at 
 once mild and salubrious ; and the soil, where cultivated, 
 is in the highest degree fertile ; but there are everywhere 
 large tracts entirely uncultivated. Corn, dhurra, rice, maize, 
 and pulse are extensively reared in most of the plain 
 districts ; there are raised and collected, oil, cotton, tobacco, 
 indigo, sesamum, gum, honey, wax, fruits, horses, cattle, 
 poultry, sheep, salt, saltpetre, hemp, saffron, and madder- 
 roots ; and they have also manufactories of linen, silk, 
 hayiks, skullcaps, morocco - leather, slippers, barracans, 
 burnuses, shawls, carpets, soap, earthenware, and hides. 
 The declivities of the mountains are sprinkled with forests, 
 in which the cedar, cork, ilex, carubba, walnut, acacia, and 
 olive trees are prominent ; and though iron, copper, lead, 
 and antimony, as well as gold and silver, have been pro- 
 duced to a certain extent, the mineral wealth of these 
 mountains may be said to be as yet unknown. It is truly 
 a luxuriant yet indigent country, surpassingly favoured by 
 nature, but blindly neglected by man. 
 
 The river Muluwi, or Muluwyah (Molochatk), which, as 
 anciently, divides Algeria from Morocco (Mauretania from 
 
THE NORTH COAST OF AFRICA. 97 
 
 Tingitana), and is therefore of political importance; it 
 rises at or near the southern extremity of the lower chain 
 of Atlas, and flowing through a diversified country as yet 
 almost untrodden by Europeans, falls into the sea nearly in 
 the middle of the bay at which we have arrived, the Gulf of 
 Melilah of our charts. About ten miles to the north-west 
 of the mouth of the Muluwyah lies the Zaphran, or Ja'ferei Zaphran 
 group, consisting of three rocky uninhabited islets, the 
 highest of which is upwards of 400 feet above the level of 
 the sea; they afford good anchorage to ships taking refuge 
 there in stormy weather, and, from the goodness of the 
 ground, there is no danger of bringing home the anchors. 
 About thirty miles distant from these rocks, on a north- 
 west by west rhumb, is Cape Tres Forcas (Mitagonitis 
 prom.) of the Spanish pilots, called Ras-ud-Dehir (Cape of 
 the Monastery) by the natives; and in the bight formed 
 between it and the Muluwi, stands the Spanish penal 
 fortress Melilah (Rusadir), a Moor-bound space, with Meiiiah. 
 barely a pistol-shot range of territory. Deeper still in the 
 bay is the great salt-lake Resifah, an excellent port till 
 1755, when an earthquake stopped up the entrance. 
 
 In mid-distance between Cape Tres Forcas and the 
 coast of Spain, lies the steep rocky islet Alboran, which has Alboran 
 usually been assigned by geographers to Barbary; while 
 some of the chart-compilers omit it altogether. Indeed, 
 such was our ignorance till lately, that this sterile rock, 
 with hardly anything of animal or vegetable life about it, 
 has been more than once represented as a desirable place 
 for a settlement; and so late as the year 1813, the Naval 
 Chronicle published a view of it, and described the ima- 
 ginary inhabitants as subsisting chiefly by fishing ! 
 
 Westward of Cape Tres Forcas, which is the termination 
 of an offset of the secondary chain of the mighty Atlas 
 mountains, on passing Tiraka (Tcenia Longa), and stand- 
 ing across the bay of Mezemmah, or Al Buzema, we perceive ai Buzem* 
 a rock (Sex insula) on which the Spaniards possess a 
 
 H 
 
THE NORTH COAST OF AFRICA. 
 
 Pefion de 
 Velez. 
 
 Tetuan 
 Bay. 
 
 Mostaza. 
 
 Ceuta. 
 
 petty post, which, is kept under greater restriction by the 
 Moors, if possible, than Melilah. About eight leagues 
 further to the westward is another of the Spanish presidios, 
 the fortress of Pefion de Velez (Parietina), an elevated 
 islet surrounded by strong works; which, being nearly 
 inaccessible, is therefore held to be impregnable. In these 
 presidios the garrison and the forzati, or condemned 
 elons, seem to be almost equal sufferers. 
 
 To the north-west of the Penou, at the distance of about 
 twenty-two leagues, is Ceuta, or Sebtah, the principal of 
 the Spanish presidios, and the eastern extreme of the 
 south shore of the Strait of Gibraltar. Though the whole 
 of the intervening bight is called the Bay of Tetuan, that 
 name is also applied in a restricted sense to the anchorage 
 before the populous city of Titawan — commonly, Tetuan 
 (Jagath) — between the Capes Negro and Mazari, where 
 our ships have often found shelter from south-west gales, 
 and procured provisions and refreshments. In 1799, a 
 fleet of seventeen sail of the line, under Lord Keith, 
 watered there without any loss of time; but an unexpected 
 impediment threatened the further supplies. Although so 
 near Gibraltar, with whose merchants the Barbary Jews 
 carry on a pretty considerable commerce, our admiral could 
 not get fresh provisions and stock in exchange for his 
 Government bills, and must have proceeded to the siege of 
 Cadiz without refreshments, had not an English merchant 
 happened to put into Tetuan for protection, with a few 
 thousand Spanish dollars on board. Between Tetuan and the 
 Pefion, the country is inhabited mostly by Moors; there is 
 no town of any consequence upon the coast, and it is equally 
 destitute of harbours, the only place resorted to by coasters 
 being Mostaza, where grain, cattle, honey, wax, and other 
 produce, are embarked, as well as camlets, barracans, mats, 
 pottery, and the various articles of Tetuan and other native 
 manufacture. 
 
 On the peninsula of Ceuta {Exclissa and Septa) is a 
 
THE NORTH COAST OF AFRICA. 99 
 
 fortress opposite to Gibraltar, which seems, like it, to be 
 impregnable by land. West of this are the fine cliffs of a 
 mountain, 2200 feet high, known by us as Ape's Hill, the 
 Sierra Bullones of the Spaniards, and Jebel Mousa and 
 Thattith of the Moors (Mons Abyla). From Ape's Hill to m. Abyia, 
 Tanjah, or Tangier (Tmgis), a fortified town no longer a 
 place of importance, the coast is broken by alternate cliffs 
 and coves, some of which look tempting enough for landing 
 at, but strangers are immediately fired upon by the Moors 
 in ambush, disembarkation except at the regular towns 
 being strictly prohibited. Leaving the anchorage at Tangier, Tangier, 
 and still standing to the westward, a bold shore presents 
 itself under an uncultivated and arid aspect, as far as the 
 fine headland called by the natives Ras-el-shukkar, or Red- 
 flower point, and by us Cape Spartel (Ampelusia); which 
 forms the north-west point of Morocco, and western entry 
 of the Strait of Gibraltar. 
 
 From Cape Spartel to the south-south-west, as far as west coast 
 Arzila (Zilis), the coast-line is a flat, sandy, and shingly rocco. 
 beach, rising in the interior to a fine grazing country, 
 but bearing a barren and deserted appearance. Off this 
 part, and especially opposite the bight called Jeremiyah, 
 there is good anchorage with easterly winds, to be chosen 
 by the lead, there being no sea-danger ; and the whole is 
 safe and bold to Al Haratch, or Larache (Lixus). But 
 during those winds the water is smooth, and ships may keep 
 under very easy canvas ; as we experienced in the summer 
 of 1811, when cruising off Cape Spartel with a squadron of 
 four sail of the line and some smaller vessels, under the 
 command of that excellent seaman, Rear-Admiral Sir 
 Richard Goodwin Keats. 
 
 Such being the periphery of this not less interesting 
 than extensive inland sheet of water, we must next proceed 
 to consider its surface : though, before we entirely conclude 
 our chorographical sketch, an account of the declared value 
 
 H 2 
 
Mediterra- 
 nean 
 commerce. 
 
 English 
 
 100 THE NORTH COAST OF AFRICA. 
 
 of British produce and manufactures annually exported 
 from the United Kingdom to the Mediterranean, may give 
 a synthetical view of our commercial relations in that sea. 
 Moreover, figures confer accuracy upon expression : ' to 
 count/ observes Dr. Johnson, ' is a modern practice ; the 
 ancient method was to guess, and when numbers are 
 guessed, they are always augmented/ The mean of the 
 various obtainable returns for the years 1820 to 1824 was — 
 
 Spain and the Balearic islands £582,891 
 
 Gibraltar 993,700 
 
 France and Corsica 312,866 
 
 Italy and the Italian islands 2,391,620 
 
 Malta 425,500 
 
 Ionian islands 323,650 
 
 Turkey and Continental Greece 989,260 
 
 Morea and Greek islands 32,000 
 
 Syria and Palestine 191,280 
 
 Egypt 257,760 
 
 Barbary and Morocco 51, 600 
 
 For the English reader, it may be proper to add a few 
 more statistical details respecting our own possessions on 
 the shores of the Mediterranean, in order to prove their 
 claim to the national regard. They are drawn up from 
 various inquiries in proper quarters, and official returns 
 procured for me by my friend the late estimable Mr. G. R 
 Porter, of the Board of Trade, reduced, as nearly as possible, 
 to the close of the year 1824. In the following tables the 
 islands of Malta and Gozo are included together, and the 
 whole of the Septinsular Republic under the head of Corfu ; 
 a form adopted because the public returns are made from 
 the chief city, or head-quarters of each garrison. And it 
 will be borne in mind, that the respective forces (Table II, 
 page 103) at each place are, of course, on the graduated 
 peace establishment. 
 
 Here the mind is led to perceive how civilization en- 
 hances human enjoyment, by increasing the resources of a 
 country. It is rather the industry exercised on the districts 
 occupied, than their extent of area, which develops riches 
 and power. 
 
THE BRITISH DEPENDENCIES. 
 
 101 
 
 TABLE I. — STATISTICS. 
 
 NOTANDA. 
 
 GlBEALTAE. 
 
 Malta. 
 
 Coepu. 
 
 Superficial area j S( * '^' 
 (males 
 
 n 
 
 125 
 
 1,059 
 
 4,790 
 
 46,180 
 
 112,500 
 
 ■r, i ■• 1 females 
 Population . y aUem 
 
 5,560 
 
 49,300 
 
 98,240 
 
 4,780 
 
 6,170 
 
 10,780 
 
 [ total 
 
 15,130 
 
 101,650 
 
 221,520 
 
 Chief Town . . . name 
 
 Gibraltar. 
 
 Valetta. 
 
 Corfu. 
 
 Inhabitants of do. number 
 
 15,130 
 
 46,250 
 
 21,400 
 
 Public educational ex- ) « 
 pense .... 
 
 740 
 
 2,090 
 
 6,880 
 
 Shipping from 
 
 number 
 
 169 
 
 38 
 
 23 
 
 Great Britain 
 
 tons 
 
 23,567 
 
 7,870 
 
 6,750 
 
 Ditto inwards . 
 
 number 
 tons 
 
 37 
 6,500 
 
 26 
 4,805 
 
 53 
 
 7,930 
 
 Value of Commercial } £ 
 
 imports ) 
 
 Ditto exports . . . £ 
 
 1,041,600 
 
 300,700 
 
 43,300 
 
 variable. 
 
 200,000 
 
 510,000 
 
 Colonial Revenue . . £ 
 
 30,000 
 
 109,800 
 
 202,500 
 
 Expense to Great Britain, £ 
 
 146,000 
 
 1.00,000 
 
 82,000 
 
 Ground in crop . . acres 
 
 70 
 
 53,670 
 
 271,890 
 
 Uncultivated land . acres 
 
 750 
 
 47,350 
 
 219,440 
 
 f Horses, mules, 
 ^jl and asses . number 
 
 
 
 
 none 
 
 4,910 
 
 13,810 
 
 on Horned cattle number 
 
 reared 
 
 5,560 
 
 11,200 
 
 go Sheep . . . number 
 
 in the 
 
 8,992 
 
 88,520 
 
 I Goats . . . number 
 
 garrison. 
 
 3,150 
 
 70,500 
 
 Property annually ) „ 
 created . . . . ( 
 
 72,000 
 
 850,000 
 
 2,080,000 
 
 Do. moveable and irre- ) £ 
 moveable . . . ) 
 
 1,500,000 
 
 3,755,000 
 
 10,950,000 
 
 Acquisition of . . date 
 
 a.d. 1704 
 
 A.D. 1800 
 
 A.D. 1815 
 
 Right of possession . . by 
 
 conquest. 
 
 treaty. 
 
 treaty. 
 
 On showing the above tabulated items to Mr. Porter, 
 who was then diligently occupied in compiling those admir- 
 able Statistics of the Empire which have since been 
 published in extenso at the public expense, he kindly 
 examined them, and made comparisons with documents 
 in his office. He also supplied me with the Government 
 returns of the agricultural produce of Malta and the Ionian 
 Islands for the year 1839 ; assuring me, at the same time, 
 that the document had his full confidence : 
 
102 
 
 THE BRITISH DEPENDENCIES. 
 
 MALTA AND GOZO. 
 
 Description. Area. 
 
 Wheat 9,951 acres 
 
 Meslin 9,144 
 
 Barley 4,051 
 
 Pulse 3,206 
 
 Sesamum .... 493 
 
 Garden produce . . 4,345 
 
 Cumin seeds ... 418 
 
 Cotton 10,898 
 
 Forage 7,594 
 
 Pasture 4,670 
 
 In crop 
 Uncultivated 
 
 Total . 
 
 54,716 
 46,810 
 
 Produce. 
 17,453 quarters 
 26,042 
 11,641 
 7,614 
 488 
 125,816 civts. 
 1,461 
 32,602 
 208,778 bushels. 
 
 101,526 acres. 
 
 THE IONIAN ISLANDS. 
 
 Description. Area. Produce. 
 
 Wheat 14,404 acres ... 47,266 bushels 
 
 Barley, maize, and meslin . 24,471 ,j, ... 115,997 „ 
 
 Oats 4,474 „ ... 18,651 , 
 
 Currants 17,332 „ ... 15,255,980 lbs. 
 
 Olive oil 94,038 „ ... 75,005 barrels 
 
 Wine 61,267 „ ... 209,270 „ 
 
 Cotton 1,6404 „ ... 45,620 lbs. 
 
 Flax 1,847. „ ... 69,118 „ 
 
 Pulse 4,676 „ ... 13,125 bushel 
 
 Pasture 35,204 
 
 Salt (extensive) ... 194,000 Tcilom. 
 
 In crop 255,912| 
 
 Uncultivated .... 228,949^ 
 
 Total 484,862 acres. 
 
 In the two following Tables, the figures of Mr. Porter and 
 mine differed a little, being drawn from different sources; 
 but they substantially present the same view, which is the 
 object of their insertion. 
 
THE BRITISH DEPENDENCIES. 
 TABLE II. — GAEEISONS. 
 
 103 
 
 Details. 
 
 GlBEALTAE. 
 
 Malta. 
 
 1 
 
 COEFU. 
 
 Field Officers . . . 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 15 
 
 Captains .... 
 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 16 
 
 32 
 
 Lieutenants . . . 
 
 
 
 
 44 
 
 26 
 
 45 
 
 Ensigns . 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 17 
 
 29 
 
 Paymasters . . 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 Adjutants . . 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 Quartermasters 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 Medical Officers 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 Sergeants . . 
 
 
 
 
 149 
 
 89 
 
 170 
 
 Drummers . . 
 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 37 
 
 69 
 
 Rank and File . 
 
 
 
 
 2987 
 
 2132 
 
 3506 
 
 Total . 
 
 
 
 
 3330 
 
 2342 
 
 3890 
 
 TABLE ILL — MAEKET PEICES. 
 
 Aeticles (1821). 
 
 GlBEALTAE. 
 
 Malta. 
 
 Coefu. 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Beef .... per lb. 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 Mutton . . . per lb. 
 
 41 
 
 4| 
 
 34 
 
 Veal .... per lb. 
 
 8 
 
 5f 
 
 6 
 
 Pork .... per lb. 
 
 3i 
 
 3 
 
 3± 
 
 Ham .... per lb. 
 
 6i 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 Supressada . . per lb. 
 
 10 
 
 8i 
 
 9 
 
 Tunny salted . per lb. 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 51 
 
 Turkeys .... each 
 
 5 6 
 
 6 6 
 
 6 
 
 Geese each 
 
 3 
 
 3 2 
 
 2 10 
 
 Ducks each 
 
 1 4 
 
 1 6 
 
 1 2 
 
 Fowls each 
 
 1 5 
 
 1 4 
 
 1 2 
 
 Eggs . . . per dozen 
 
 9 
 
 51 
 
 7i 
 
 Butter .... per lb. 
 
 101 
 
 8 
 
 1 Of 
 
 Lard .... per lb. 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 Cheese {common) per lb. 
 
 4f 
 
 Z% 
 
 4 
 
 Bread .... per lb. 
 
 o H 
 
 n 
 
 If 
 
 Flour .... per lb. 
 
 3 
 
 2i 
 
 24 
 
 Rice .... per lb. 
 
 2f 
 
 2 
 
 9 2| 
 
 Beans {dry) . per bushel 
 
 2 
 
 1 8 
 
 2 
 
 Wine . . . per pint 
 
 2 
 
 ii 
 
 2 
 
 Oil .... per pint 
 
 5 
 
 6£ 
 
 4| 
 
 Milk . . . per pint 
 
 3 
 
 2£ 
 
 2 
 
 Common labour \ m ^ 8 
 Common red wine bottle 
 
 3 
 
 1 4 
 
 1 5 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 Charcoal . per 100 lbs. 
 
 1 2 
 
 1 2 
 
 11 
 
 Firewood . per 100 lbs. 
 
 6 8 
 
 8 6 
 
 6 6 
 
 Fruit and vegetables . . 
 
 cheap. 
 
 cheap. 
 
 cheap. 
 
 Groceries and spices . . 
 
 reasonable. 
 
 reasonable. 
 
 reasonable. 
 
 Salt and tobacco . . . 
 
 gabelled. 
 
 gabelled. 
 
 gabelled. 
 
PART II. 
 
 OF THE CURRENTS, TIDES, AND WATERS OF 
 THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA. 
 
 § 1. Preliminary Matter. 
 
 Mediterra- TTTE have seen the boundaries of the Mediterranean Sea, 
 
 nean level, yl 
 
 T f the surface of which, generally speaking, must have 
 maintained nearly the same level for at least 2500 years ; 
 and as the low coasts are not liable to be overflowed, a 
 comparative permanence of periphery may be expected. 
 For although there are vestiges of submerged buildings in 
 various places — as at Santo Stefano (Portus Domitianus) 
 in Tuscany, Capo d' Anzio (Antium), Alexandria (or rather 
 Ccmopus), and other places — still the same waters show 
 the piers of Caligula's Bridge (despite the numerous mol- 
 lusk or sea-worm borings, which indicate that it has not 
 been left untouched the while) at almost the same height 
 above the Bay of Puteoli, as they were upwards of 1800 
 years ago ; and there are similar silent but undeniable 
 witnesses in the marine works at Marseilles, Genoa, Civita 
 Vecchia (Centwm-cellce), Navarin, Makri (Telmissus), and 
 many ancient moles and littoral edifices which I have 
 examined. It is therefore probable that occasional eleva- 
 tions and depressions of the bed of the sea have periodically 
 compensated each other, as asserted so long since by Aris- 
 totle ; nor, indeed, is it possible that any great difference 
 can exist, since, under extraordinary evaporation, or sus- 
 pension of supply from rivers, the equilibrium must be 
 
PRELIMINARY MATTER. 105 
 
 restored within a very few feet by the ceaseless flowing 
 inwards of the oceanic waters.* In this action, both the 
 greatness of the aqueous volume, and its peculiar properties 
 as a liquid amenable to the power of gravitation in every 
 particle, give the full power of reciprocation and constancy. 
 
 These remarks relate rather to the progressive changes Ge r e 1 ^ g a 1 rkL 
 which are clearly indicated as being in actual operation, 
 than to the more archaic and violent convulsions which, by 
 internal forces, have elevated vast continents, as appears 
 to be shown by the remains of sea-life at great heights in 
 the fossiliferous beds of the tertiary formation. Indeed, it 
 is sufficiently evident that the energies of the volcano, the 
 earthquake, and the torrent, have been for ages in mighty 
 action on those shores ; large tracts of which exhibit the 
 effects of such subversive agents during a long series of ages. 
 The present outer crust of the earth seems to repose on an 
 unstable basis, and it is obvious that the outlines and con- 
 sequent areas of land and sea are variable and displaceable, 
 and that they actually have been displaced ; but whether 
 any momentous disproportion has occurred through unequal 
 agencies during the process, is at present an undecided 
 question. Much that is still at work depends on the slope 
 with which the land and sea meet, the nature of the mate- 
 rials composing the coast, and the usual set of the local 
 tides and currents ; and the workings of those ought to be 
 constantly attended to. The investigation into the causes 
 of such changes belongs to the geologist ; yet the geologist, 
 in future, must receive his basis from the maritime sur- 
 veyor. The treating of currents and tides may therefore be 
 ushered in by such normal considerations as my inquiries 
 
 * Dolomieu thought the shores a foot lower near Alexandria, than in the 
 time of the Ptolemies ; but he must have overlooked a few circumstances 
 respecting the rocks, the ruins, and the excavated baths, which strongly 
 militate against his supposition. Indeed, relics under water, and adjacent 
 ports full of sand, are not uncommon on these shores ; and we are every- 
 where struck with evidences of places historically very ancient, but geolo- 
 gically recent. 
 
zone. 
 
 106 PRELIMINARY MATTER. 
 
 and labours led me to observe, in order to make an approach 
 to the actual depth, mean temperature, density, saltness, 
 and specific gravity of the Mediterranean Sea. Such topics, 
 by opening the arcana of the penetration of solar light and 
 the propagation of heat, will, in the end, infallibly furnish 
 materials for ascertaining the habitats of many tribes of 
 marine animals, and the distribution of living beings in the 
 sea ; points so important to know, but till recently neglected, 
 or very imperfectly regarded. 
 Vh llnT an ^"' ie g reat alternating body of force, in the agencies 
 alluded to, has been the wonderful Phlegrsean region ob- 
 served to extend from the east about 1000 miles to the 
 west ; that is, from the borders of the Caspian Sea to the 
 Azores, and perhaps from thence to TenerifTe. This zone 
 is arbitrarily considered as about ten degrees in breadth, 
 and certainly is well marked by points of eruption, earth- 
 quake-shaken districts, and other symptoms of igneous 
 action throughout. This may be instanced on the north 
 and centre of the zone by the hot springs and violent com- 
 motions at Tiflis, Ararat, Azof, Constantinople, Palestine, 
 Smyrna, Santorin, Milo, Modon, Mount Majella, Vesuvius, 
 Lipari, Stromboli, Etna, Sardinia, the Colombretes off Va- 
 lencia, Olot in Catalonia, and Lisbon. On the south extreme 
 the marks are fewer, but I found indications of volcanic 
 action in the Ghariyan hills to the south of Tripoli, and on 
 my journey to Ghirzah passed over a black and forbidding 
 tract called Ha'raj. From Algiers through Morocco, severe 
 earthquakes have been of frequent occurrence ; and that 
 which destroyed Oran, in 1790, was simultaneously felt in 
 Tetuan and Tangier. AJong the waters of this devoted 
 space, the communication is also marked by the occasional 
 protrusion of an islet, and frequent shocks of the mare-moto 
 or sea-quake; which last was perhaps the reason why 
 Neptune, a sea-god, should have been designated the 
 Earth-shaker by Homer. Many of the igneous spots have 
 been extinct for ages, and the forces are looked upon as 
 
PRELIMINARY MATTER. 107 
 
 having decreased in energy; but volcanic eruptions from 
 the subterranean and subaqueous bed of heated crystalline 
 rocks, though they may have diminished both in number 
 and force since the earlier ages of the globe, are still in 
 constant action. 
 
 Severe earthquakes are ever accompanied by an agita- Violent 
 
 m m 63X1)11- 
 
 tion of the neighbouring seas, as was specially noted during quakes, 
 the tremendous calamity at Lisbon in 1755 : and the 
 fact was observed and recorded very early, for Herodotus 
 (Uremia, § 64) mentions a convulsion of the earth which 
 was felt out at sea, by the fleet of Eurybiades ; and I myself 
 have felt such shocks on several occasions. Eruptions from 
 the bottom of the sea, so far as I could learn, exhibit their 
 phenomena exactly as from those subaerial vents which 
 open at once into the atmosphere : subject only to the 
 modifications produced by the greater density of the sur- 
 rounding medium, and the greater external pressure caused 
 by the weight of the overlying column of water, which then 
 becomes an element of the repressive force. Professor Pallas 
 mentions that in September, 1799, a submarine eruption 
 took place in the Sea of Azof, 150 fathoms from the shore, 
 opposite Temruck, accompanied with dreadful thundering, 
 emissions of fire and smoke, and the throwing up of ashes 
 and stones ; after which an isle — ' like a great sepulchral 
 hillock' — rose from the bottom ; but which sunk again, before 
 he could visit it. In 1814, another new island was raised 
 on that spot, by volcanic explosions : and both were accom- 
 panied by earthquakes in the vicinity. On the 13th of 
 August, in 1822, when Aleppo was destroyed by a terrific 
 earthquake, which instantly buried thousands of the inhabi- 
 tants under the ruins of their houses, two rocks arose from 
 the sea in the vicinity of Cyprus (Journal of Science, 
 vol. xiv., page 450), an island ever partaking in the disasters 
 of Syria. 
 
 A curious occurrence befel myself. On the 5th of singular 
 
 , pheno- 
 
 February, 1820, being off the Lover's Leap at Leucadia, menon. 
 
108 PRELIMINARY MATTER. 
 
 in the Aid, the weather became overcast, with variable winds 
 and rain at midnight. During the middle watch, a dense 
 cloud-bank was seen in the offing; and towards daylight 
 there was some appearance of an island discernible in it, 
 but being considered a mere Cape Flyaway, I was not 
 called. Just before six o'clock, however, the morning 
 being unusually dark and heavy, Mr. Skyring stated to 
 Lieutenant Hose that he very distinctly perceived an 
 island to the west, whereupon the ship was immediately 
 put about, and after the sails were trimmed on the other 
 tack, the bearings marked on the log-board were — ' Cape 
 Ducato south-east by east, — the Island, west/ At this 
 moment I came upon deck, and was far from being satis- 
 fied that danger was sufficiently threatened for the ship to 
 be put about without my orders ; but the weather was very 
 cloudy, and the wind fresh from south-east. On examining 
 some of the men, and observing it was still very thick to 
 windward, we braced up, and from thence till sunset 
 worked to windward ; but neither then, nor the next day, 
 could we regain sight of the supposed island. The weather 
 continuing very unsettled, 1^ went into Port Bathi in 
 Ithaca, where, on the 15th of the same month, we felt nine 
 distinct shocks of mare-moto, during heavy rain and dark 
 squally weather ; giving the sensation of having grounded, 
 although in fifteen fathoms water. From that day to the 
 6th of March, a succession of earthquakes occurred, and 
 Santa Maura was particularly affected ; nor should it be 
 overlooked that in the same year, Zante was nearly 
 destroyed.* In the following April, being at Corfu, Ad- 
 miral Sir Anthony Maitland, then commanding the Glasgow 
 
 * It is advanced that earthquake shocks are not felt in the various Ionian 
 Islands at the same instant of time. How this is ascertained we are not 
 told ; but when I was there, clocks and watches had a variance with each 
 other of at least twenty minutes. It is clear that on these occasions, all 
 the vicinity, and the ships in their ports, have unmistakeable notice, and 
 apparently at the same moment. 
 
PRELIMINARY MATTER. 109 
 
 frigate, informed nie that a Greek vessel had arrived, with 
 a report that they had passed heavy breakers off Santa 
 Maura ; on this I immediately weighed and ran down, 
 placed sharp eyes at the mast-heads, sounded occasionally 
 with 70 and 150 fathoms of line, but returned re infectd. 
 The myth became the ' rocky island' of report ; and having 
 gained a footing in the papers, was copied by Sir Charles 
 Lyell from the Allgemeine Zeitung for 1820 ; and other 
 authorities have recorded it. This may possibly have been 
 an effect of submarine eruption ; and it is not a little 
 curious, that various old charts — as those of the Quarter 
 Waggoner, Mount's and Page's Mediterranean Pilot of 1703, 
 and others — have represented a small islet to seaward of 
 Cephalonia. When I had written the above, it occurred 
 to me that Lieutenant C. R Maiden, now the sole survivor 
 of the Aid's gun-room officers, might have preserved a note 
 on this subject, and I wrote to him for information on 
 that point : the following is an extract from his answer, 
 dated 4th August, 1852 : — 
 
 Away from home, I have not the means of verifying the date you men- 
 tion, the 5th of February, 1820, of the discovery by the Aid of an island off 
 Santa Maura. The fact is, however, fresh in my recollection : indeed, it is 
 within the present year that I was talking of the cirumstance to some 
 friends. I was not on deck, and did not see it, but I well remember the 
 confidence with which Skyring and those on deck spoke of having seen an 
 island, and the immediate inference that there must have been a shock of an 
 earthquake at Santa Maura, aDd which I always understood we found to be 
 the case on our arrival in port. Our subsequent cruise in search of the 
 island was fruitless, but I well remember it.* 
 
 Experience has proved a constant relation between Volcanoes. 
 the earthquake and the interrupted activity of volcanoes, 
 where the inner forces are not inert ; and from the con- 
 stantly-recurring mutability of the terrestrial crust, there 
 can be little doubt of the existence of subterranean caverns 
 communicating with active craters, however such commu- 
 
 , * The German naturalist, F. W. Sieber, experienced a severe marc-moto 
 near this spot, on the 3rd of January, 1817, while on his passage from the 
 Adriatic to Candia. — (See his Travels in Crete). 
 
110 PRELIMINARY MATTER. 
 
 nications may be impeded, or even become closed, and then 
 generate earthquake. This is not at all a new assumption, 
 or Strabo seems to have considered such vents as safety- 
 valves to their neighbouring districts ; and, to be more 
 exact, I found among the manuscripts of the Royal Society, 
 a letter from their Secretary, the indefatigable Henry Olden- 
 burg, addressed to Mr. George Cotton, at Rome, 30th of June, 
 1669, in which he says, ' And since the present eruptions 
 of Mount iEtna are so considerable as that they fill the 
 eares of all Europe with dreadfull reports, as well as they 
 heape Sicily with great calamityes, my further request is, 
 that you will please to send us the best observations that 
 have been made of that horrible fire, and of all the circum- 
 stances and effects of it, and particularly of what kind of 
 mineralls the fiery streams running through the valleys of 
 Sicily did consist, as also what appearances there are in 
 other neighbouring vulcans, as in the Strombylo and 
 Vesuvius/ 
 stromboii. In my account of ' Sicily and its Islands/ published in 
 
 1824, I mentioned that the crater of Stromboii has burnt 
 without intermission from the earliest periods ; appearing 
 to be not only the vent of its own group, but to have a 
 subterraneous communication also with Sicily and Italy, 
 for, previous to a severe earthquake's taking place in those 
 parts, Stromboii — after much internal rumbling, rimbombi 
 e mugghiti — has been observed to be covered with dense 
 clouds and smoke, and to emit, with increased activity, 
 unusually ardent flames. And I said of the cove in 
 which the cone rises abruptly from the sea, ' it is natural 
 to imagine it would, from the constant action of the 
 volcano, and the incessant discharge of matter for so many 
 ages, be very shoal, or, at least, even allowing the stones 
 to triturate, that a bank of sediment would have been 
 ♦ deposited ; the contrary, however, is the case, for I found 
 gradual soundings of from four to twenty fathoms all round 
 the coasts, even to the two points of Sciarazza Cove ; 
 
PRELIMINARY MATTER. Ill 
 
 but immediately under the cone, as nearly as I could 
 approach, and even within range of the ejected matter, 
 there were forty-seven fathoms, and at the distance of a 
 few yards, from sixty-five to ninety : an inspection of the 
 chart will point this out more clearly. The circumstance is 
 curious, and has not a little puzzled the sages of Stromboli, 
 who at length, after serious deliberation, have decided, that 
 a gulf at the base of the island, continually absorbs the 
 ejections, and replenishes the volcano/ For particulars of 
 the crater s action, as watched by myself from its margin, 
 the reader is referred to the volume above mentioned, 
 from which this passage is quoted. 
 
 In the case of subaqueous eruptions it is, of course, Submarine 
 
 . tip volcanoes. 
 
 difficult to ascertain whether they take place irom a new or 
 an habitual vent, from an insulated or a parasitical cone. 
 Von Buch, the geologist of the age, has given his opinion 
 that, in submarine eruptions, the strata previously forming 
 the bottom of the sea are uniformly elevated, and that 
 positive eruptions do not take place from the vent until 
 these strata have been raised above the level of the sea ; 
 but this postulate is far from being satisfactory. The pro- 
 trusion of conical islets by the elastic force of volcanic 
 action, of course lifts up the overlying horizontally-deposited 
 strata ; yet there is no reason a priori for supposing such 
 an anomalous distinction between the mode of action of 
 subaqueous and subaerial volcanoes. In the recent and 
 well-observed cases of Sabrina Isle being thrown up off the 
 Azores, and Graham Island in the Mediterranean, the sub- 
 stances which showed themselves above water were either 
 ashes and cinders ; or vesicular, lithoidal, and conglomerate 
 lavas, the products of the eruption by which they were 
 raised. Respecting this last-named volcano there are for- 
 tunately very detailed accounts, of which perhaps the most 
 accurate is that by Dr. Davy, brother of the late Sir Hum- 
 phry Davy. It seems that, as early as the 28th of June, 
 1831, Captain Swinburne, in passing nearly over the spot, 
 
112 PRELIMINARY MATTER. 
 
 felt several shocks of a sea-quake, proving that the cause 
 was then in operation ; but on the 19th of the following 
 July the crater had accumulated to a few feet above the level 
 of the sea, and was in great activity, emitting vast volumes 
 of steam, ashes, and scoriae. From that time it gradually 
 increased in all its dimensions, till, towards the end of 
 August, its circumference was about 3240 feet, and its 
 height 107 : then from October various changes took place, 
 and it entirely disappeared in December. As there were 
 certain mistakes propagated by the Journal of the Geogra- 
 phical Society and the Quarterly Review, as to this 
 Spiraglio, and in order that physical inquiry might start 
 fair, I addressed a note to the Royal Society, c On an Error 
 respecting the Site and Origin of Graham Island/ which is 
 printed in the Philosophical Transactions for 1832.* I 
 therefore need here only add what may be deemed the 
 ultimate result, as contained in an extract from a letter 
 written to me by Captain Graves, formerly of the Adventure, 
 dated Malta, 20th June, 1846 :— 
 
 I have just returned in the hired vessel Locust, from a very pleasant 
 cruise to Graham's Shoal, Girgenti, and Palermo ; and I therefore lose no 
 time in reporting to my old commander what I found upon his ground. 
 Graham's Shoal I spent two days in examining, with your chart in hand. 
 Since Elson (late Master of the Adventure) was there in 1841, the shoal 
 itself has altered much both in depth and extent ; it then had a sharp 
 pinnacle, with one-and-a-half fathoms on it, and the water suddenly deepened 
 all round, while the bottom was irregular, and composed of lava, cinders, &c. 
 Now it has sunk down to a depth of thirty-five fathoms — as much under 
 water as it was above it at its greatest recorded elevation — and as it 
 descended it gradually spread out in extent, so that it now forms a flat 
 bank, on which the sand and coral are already making a crust. Indeed, its 
 present actual state is similar to those banks marked in your chart as Nerita, 
 Triglia, Pinna-marina, &c, all which are probably extinct volcanoes. 
 
 Singular The Italians have recorded instances of chasms suddenly 
 
 formed by openings in the water, accompanied by discharges 
 both of smoke and ashes ; in one of which a vessel was lost 
 
 * On showing the proof-sheet of this to an excellent naval friend, he 
 advised me to obtain permission from the Royal Society to reprint my letter 
 in the Appendix to this work. 
 
PRELIMINARY MATTER. 113 
 
 in 1813, in sight of the Neapolitan corvette Stabia, com- 
 manded by Captain Acton. The Journal de Constantinople 
 also states that, on Sunday the 4th of April, 1847, one of 
 these phenomena occurred in the Black Sea. An Austrian 
 steamer of Lloyd's Company, the Stamboul, was proceeding 
 to Constantinople in a calm state of the weather, and was 
 within an hour's distance of Synope, — 
 
 When suddenly the sea opened under her ; assuming the form of a vast 
 funnel ; the waves, in closing, covered her almost entirely, swept the deck, 
 \ and did the most serious damage. The shock was so violent, that several 
 leaks were sprung, and the vessel was some time in recovering herself from 
 this terrible pressure, and getting fairly afloat again. She rose, however, 
 after some pitching, but injured to such an extent, that if another shock had 
 taken place, she would have inevitably been lost. It was with the greatest 
 difficulty that she reached the port of Synope to refit, after which she pro- 
 ceeded to Constantinople, where she arrived safe last Tuesday. Those who 
 were witnesses of this accident, thought at first it might have originated in 
 an earthquake, but nothing of the sort has occurred elsewhere. It must be 
 admitted that some submarine dislodgment opened under the vessel an abyss 
 into which the waves rushed, and in this way they formed a gulf, in which 
 she narrowly escaped being smashed and swallowed up. 
 
 The causes of successive alterations in the sea-board, other causes 
 other than volcanoes, are sufficiently obvious. Large changes, 
 quantities of detrital matter are at first carried with 
 velocity down streams and torrents ; but towards the 
 mouths and deltas of large rivers, the action is so moderated 
 that the waters bear a very diminished transport of terrene 
 substances. Tidal sets and oceanic currents carry only the 
 finer comminuted silts over the areas they traverse, except 
 where narrow straits, projecting headlands, or other 
 peculiar local features, interrupt them ; or, not least of 
 active causes, where breakers under the influence of pre- 
 vailing winds exert both destructive and transporting 
 powers. Gravel or sand contained in water having a 
 specific gravity greater than that vehicle, can only be kept 
 in suspension so long as the water is in a state of agitation ; 
 and as soon as such troubled water becomes quiet, the silt 
 and other impurities gradually subside : nor is absolute 
 repose necessary for this process ; as the meeting of cur- 
 
 i 
 

 
 114 PRELIMINARY MATTER. 
 
 rents and the action of winds both affect the direction and 
 accumulation of the deposit. But the cutting and scooping 
 actions of streams, and their effect at great depths, cannot 
 be so extraordinary as has been assumed by some writers, 
 since the friction of the moving body is influential in an 
 inverse ratio to the velocity of the super-current, so that 
 the lower waters must inevitably be retarded : this seems to 
 have been proved in a great measure by descents in a 
 diving-bell. Hence it follows, that the bottom of very 
 deep waters must remain comparatively undisturbed. 
 Still the collective amount of soluble matter continually 
 brought down by rivers and torrents, as well as what is 
 even derived from rocks by the percolation of water 
 through them — together with the action of frost, earth- 
 quake, and the undermining of the sea — must become 
 sensible in the course of centuries — independently of the 
 vast chemical changes which nature carries out, and upon 
 which we have yet so much to learn. 
 Origin of But though the present intention is rather to point out 
 
 the Medi- i i i • n 
 
 terranean. a few palpable instances of what may be termed the 
 secondary geological efforts, it may be necessary to men- 
 tion that the formation of the expanse of the Mediter- 
 ranean waters, commencing at such a mere frith as that of 
 Gibraltar, and reaching as far as the sea of Azof, has 
 been a subject of speculation from the earliest ages. The 
 main features are sufficiently remarkable to awake inquiry ; 
 and the narrowness of the entrance, together with its local 
 currents and tides, has excited conjectures both para- 
 doxical and philosophical. A hasty glance at some of the 
 most prominent will here suffice ; only premising that we 
 have no intention of entering upon a solution of the 
 impossible problem of how and by what means the 
 Mediterranean was brought into its present state, nor 
 of either adopting or rejecting any of the several theories 
 on the subject — mention is made solely for the purpose 
 of aiding future examination. 
 
PRELIMINARY MATTER. 115 
 
 By the earlier writers, poets, and mythologists, the two 
 barrier mountains called the Columns of Hercules were 
 said to have been united, till that wonder-working hero 
 separated them by digging a communication between the 
 Atlantic and Mediterranean seas. But among those who 
 disregarded fiction, it was a prevailing notion that this 
 opening had been forced by an impetuous onset of the 
 inner or outer waters, as may be gathered from the allu- 
 sions and testimonies of Strato Physicus, Aristotle, Diodorus 
 Siculus, and Seneca : and what with the deluges of Deu- 
 calion and Ogyges, it may be inferred through all the 
 subsequent poetical embellishments, that the shores of the 
 Black Sea and Archipelago were actually twice devastated 
 by sudden inundations of the sea, more than 3000 years 
 ago. A vast debdclage followed the presumed disruption 
 of the Euxine barrier, and the consequent mighty rush of 
 water westwards. 
 
 These opinions prevailed in different degrees, and Arabian 
 swayed the minds of men for ages : but when the Arabs 
 had substituted Mohammedan for Greek traditions, after 
 the Tenth Century of our era, a new system was put forth. 
 Thus, in the middle of the Twelfth Century, we hear Edrisi, 
 or to give him his due, Abu-Abdallah Mohammed ben 
 Mohammed ben Abdullah ben Edris — a noble Arab, born 
 at Ceuta, and therefore probably well versed in the popular 
 traditions of the Strait. He was the writer of a geo- 
 graphical work commonly known, since 1619, as the 
 Geographia NvMensis — from a false reading in the 
 translator's manuscript, which made the author speak as a 
 native of Nubia. It was, however, a description illustrative 
 of a large silver terrestrial globe, constructed for his patron 
 Count Roger, of Sicily, in the year 1153; his book was 
 therefore known as Ketdb Rujdr (Roger's book), though its 
 true title was Nuzhat al-mushtdk fi ikhtirdk al-dfdk 
 (the commencement of the journey of one who is desirous 
 of travelling through the regions of the earth) ; it was also 
 
 t 2 
 
116 PRELIMINARY MATTER. 
 
 often cited as Dhik al Memdlik w-al Mesdlek (an account 
 of kingdoms and countries). The complete work was long 
 to be found only in the Bodleian Library at Oxford ; but 
 other copies having about twenty-five years ago been pro- 
 cured for the King's Library at Paris, M. Jaubert was 
 persuaded to publish the translation of it, which appeared 
 in two quarto volumes, in 1836, under the patronage of the 
 French Geographical Society. Here we find that Edrisi 
 terms the Mediterranean Bahr-al-shdm, or Sea of Syria; 
 and gives 1136 parasangs as its length from the com- 
 mencement to its termination. He then continues, in his 
 account of the Fourth Climate, § 1. — 
 
 The Syrian Sea was, as it is said, originally a lake enclosed on all sides, 
 such as the Sea of T'aberistan is at present ; its waters had no connexion 
 with those of the neighbouring ocean. The inhabitants of Africa and 
 Andalus (Spain), were constantly at war with each other, and mutually 
 doing all the mischief they could, till the time of Alexander (IsJcender). He 
 came to Andalus, and the people of the country informed him of their con- 
 tentions with the men of Sus (Africa). He therefore assembled labourers 
 and engineers, and fixed upon the place of the Strait (el-zoJcak), — it was a 
 hollow depression in the mountains. He then ordered the geometers to 
 measure the ground, and take the level of the waters of these two seas ; and 
 he found that the level of the Great Sea was only a trifle above that of the 
 Syrian Sea ; he then commanded the soil to be dug away between the 
 country of Tanjah (Tangier) and that of Andalus. The digging was continued 
 as far as the lower part of the mountains of those countries. He then built 
 upon them a mole of stones, twelve miles in length. He built, also, another 
 opposite to it in the neighbourhood of Tanjah. Between these two moles 
 there was a width of six miles. When the two bulwarks had been finished, 
 the digging was continued till they reached the waters of the Great Sea, 
 which rushed in with the greatest violence between these two moles, over- 
 whelmed many cities on each side, drowned their inhabitants, and rose above 
 the two moles nearly to eleven statures (eleven times a man's height). The 
 mole which is near the land of Andalus appears very plainly when the water 
 of the sea is smooth, near the place called Es-safihah (the level) ; its length 
 is in a straight line, and is a cubit in breadth, as measured by Al-Rabii. I 
 myself have seen it, and have sailed the whole length of this strait along 
 this side of it. The people of the island (Al-jezlrah) call it the bridge ; and 
 the middle of it corresponds with the place where the stag's rock overhangs 
 the sea. The other mole, which was near Tanjah, was carried away by the 
 violence of the waters. 
 
 Remark on Such is Edrisi's account ; and it is not a little singular 
 
 Edrisi. 
 
 that where he places this mole, as appears from his own 
 observation, I found that there is actually much less water 
 
PRELIMINARY MATTER. 117 
 
 than on either hand in the vicinity, as will presently be 
 shown; and this is a fact which escaped notice from his 
 time until my soundings were taken. It is also clear that 
 his island is not Algeciras but Tarifa, and he must have 
 been conversant with the shoal off it, now called the 
 Cabezos ; for there can be no reasonable doubt but this is 
 the Spanish portion of the mole which, according to Edrisi, 
 1 appears very plainly when the water of the sea is smooth/ 
 and which he himself — believing the legends and imagined 
 aspect of the bottom of the sea there — had seen. It is 
 moreover certain that the water on the African shore is the 
 deepest ; and the difference of level which he assigns 
 between the two seas, is precisely what a ' geometer' would 
 now find it — ' only a trifle/ It is therefore, on the whole, 
 a very curious description. 
 
 Nearly three centuries before Edrisi's time, according to Abfi zeid 
 Renaudot, the two Mohammedan travellers, or at least 
 Abu. Zeid al Hasan, who wrote in A.D. 877, described the 
 communication of the Mediterranean with the eastern 
 ocean as a recent discovery. But as those early Arabian 
 voyagers were better acquainted with India and China, 
 than with the shores in question, they would not have been 
 called in evidence but for a remarkable passage which 
 proves — if Renaudot has rightly translated this sentence — 
 that the Arabians must have adopted their geographical 
 notions from the Greeks ; for Abu Zeid thought that the 
 Indian ocean washed the coast of Tartary, fell into the 
 Caspian Sea, and so by the Propontis into the Mediter- 
 ranean. The story upon which this opinion was founded, 
 runs thus : — 
 
 In our time, a discovery has been made of a circumstance quite new and 
 unknown to tliose who lived before us. Nobody ever imagined that the 
 great sea which extends from India to China had any communication with 
 the sea of Syria ; nor could any one apprehend the possibility of any such 
 thing. Now behold what has come to pass in our days, according to what 
 we have heard. In the Sea of Roum (Mediterranean) they found the wreck 
 of an Arabian ship, which had been shattered by tempests ; for all her crew 
 had perished, and she being torn to pieces by the waves, her remains were 
 
118 
 
 PRELIMINARY MATTER. 
 
 General 
 idea. 
 
 
 Buffon's 
 theory. 
 
 driven by the winds and weather into the sea of the Khozars (Euxme), and 
 from thence through the canal of Constantinople into the Mediterranean Sea, 
 and were at last thrown on the coast of Syria. Hence it is evident that the 
 sea surrounds all the country of China and Sila, the extremity of Turkistan, 
 and the country of the Khozars : and that it passes through the strait till it 
 washes the Syrian shore. This is proved by the structure of the vessel of 
 which we are speaking, for the planks were not nailed, but joined in a 
 peculiar manner, as if they were sewed together : all those built in the 
 Mediterranean, or on the coast of Syria, are nailed together, and are not 
 joined in any other way. None but the ships of Siraf are so fastened. 
 
 Now instead of the massoolah-boat suggested by a 
 grave reasoner on this narrative, a supposition which is 
 utterly inadmissible, it is within compass to suppose, that 
 it was a wretched Sarmatian vessel from the Black Sea. 
 
 Leaving this non sequitur to the Middle- Age geographer 
 with whom it originated, it may be observed that tints of 
 the Ogygian impressions still colour the mists of this ques- 
 tion. Some of the most thinking among modern writers 
 have supposed the Mediterranean to have been once a vast 
 lake, the waters of which, having been suddenly increased 
 by the irruption of those of the Black Sea, in consequence 
 of some violent cataclysm, forced a passage through the Gut, 
 and produced the awful inundation which submerged the 
 island of Atlantis. This bursting of lakes has been a more 
 favourite point with cosmogonists of former ages, than it is 
 with present theorists. And with judgment : for nature 
 adapts all her works most admirably to her designed end. 
 No one ever yet saw a lake the barriers of which were 
 suddenly incapable of resisting the contained water. It 
 therefore follows that the flood, earthquakes, subsidence 
 and upheaving of strata, must be the consequence of extra- 
 ordinary volcanic action — one of the most powerful agents 
 in changing the form of the earth's surface. 
 
 The hypothesis of a rush of waters from the east was long 
 a popular axiom, and held its sway until it was combated 
 in form by the Count de Buffon. This eminent naturalist 
 objected to the premises of his predecessors, on the ground 
 that it is the Ocean which runs into the Mediterranean, and 
 
PRELIMINARY MATTER. 119 
 
 not the latter into the former. ' Cette opinion,' he says, 
 ' ne peut se soutenir, des qu'on est assure* que c'est FOcdan 
 qui coule dans la Mediterranee, et non pas la M^diterrane'e 
 dans TOcean/ He further viewed the inner sea as having 
 been a large lake, and considered that the Strait of Gibraltar 
 was owing to a sudden disruption produced by some acci- 
 dental cause, as an earthquake or a sinking of land, or other- 
 wise by a violent effort of the ocean. This he strengthened 
 and supported on the supposition that similar strata are 
 observable at equal heights on both sides of the strait ; and 
 he concludes that when the ocean broke through this barrier, 
 it rushed with overwhelming velocity into the lake. Here, 
 aided by the former bursting of the Euxine through the 
 Bosporus, the waters inundated the continent, transformed 
 its marginal plains and valleys into sea-gulfs, and left only 
 the eminences uncovered which now form Italy and the 
 various islands. This idea, to which some of the ancient 
 inferences closely approximated, was hardly originated by 
 Buffon, though many of the details might be his own. 
 Long before he took the field, the authors of the Universal 
 History (vol. iii., p. 239, folio edition, 1 744) had published 
 these words ; — ' In the hypothesis of the ancients, the Palus 
 Mceotis, the Pontus Euxinus, the Propontis and Medi- 
 terranean, were originally so many lakes, which, after 
 having broke down, as it were, the dikes that parted them, 
 with the impetuosity of their waters, opened themselves a 
 passage between the mountains of Atlas and Calpe into the 
 ocean. It is, perhaps, more likely that the ocean, having 
 with the impetuosity of its waters dismembered the moun- 
 tain of Calpe from the lands of Africa, poured itself into 
 that vast space now called the Mediterranean, and, pene- 
 trating to the north, produced the Propontis, the Pontus, 
 and the Palus Mceotis.' 
 
 So far one reverie was as good as another ; and even the 
 old Sarnothracian tradition relative to the bursting of the 
 Bosporus — whether in consequence of volcanic action, of 
 
120 PRELIMINARY MATTER. 
 
 which vestiges are still observable, or from the pressure 
 of accumulated waters — must not be lost sight of; especially 
 as the forms of the islands, and their denudation, coun- 
 tenance the idea of their having been effected by a sudden 
 and violent rush of waters. But Buffon, attached to theorems, 
 became ambitious of taking the lead, by establishing his 
 inference as a final authority, and a problem proved by 
 facts : and, indeed, it was more palatable than his patronage 
 of the dreams of spontaneous generation. The quidnuncs 
 who criticised his speculation insisted that, if his opinion 
 was of any value, the eastern waters of the Mediterranean 
 would inevitably prove to be comparatively shallow. Where- 
 Sonnini's upon his bosom friend, M. Sonnini de Manoncourt, asserted 
 ' that he had himself found this confirmation of the theory, 
 having, at BufTon's request, sounded the depth of the sea 
 between Sicily and Malta, where he gained bottom in from 
 twenty-five to thirty fathoms ; and that in the middle of the 
 channel, where the water is deepest, the depth never ex- 
 ceeded 100 fathoms; and further, that between Malta and 
 Cape Bon in Africa there is still less water, the lead indicating 
 no more than from twenty-five to thirty fathoms throughout 
 the whole length of that passage. Now this, to use the 
 softest term such an assertion admits of, is outrageously 
 incorrect, for I can, from repeated trial, declare that thirty 
 fathoms are only obtainable in-shore, till the experimenter 
 arrives at the Adventure Bank ; and there are parts to the 
 north-west of Malta, right in the line for Cape Bon, where 
 I have been unable to strike bottom with 500 fathoms 
 of line. Again, we are assured that the same industrious 
 explorer discovered that the Levant Basin is very shallow 
 indeed, especially between the Archipelago and the shores 
 of Libya : in this case, surely some astonishing change 
 must have occurred, or how could I have found profound 
 depths in the same space in less than half a century after- 
 wards ! I obtained from 70 to 90 fathoms, deepening to 
 150 and 250. at a small distance from the shore all along 
 
PRELIMINARY MATTER. 121 
 
 the Libyan coast ; and tried in vain for soundings with 500 
 fathoms of line further out. At this time I was not aware 
 of the Sonnini discoveries,* and the argument derived from 
 them, or I would have attended more closely to the question. 
 But on becoming acquainted with them afterwards, and to 
 give that gentleman fair play, I wrote to my former assis- 
 tant, Captain Graves, to try the northern side of the Levant 
 Basin, in the neighbourhood of Cyprus. That active officer captain 
 found 100 fathoms depth at about two miles from the Graves * 
 island, and at about double that distance he had no bottom 
 with 200 : between the west end of Cyprus and the coast 
 of Caramania, he struck ground in 650 fathoms ; but about 
 halfway between Cyprus and the coast of Egypt, he payed 
 out 1000 fathoms of line without finding bottom. Hence 
 we see that the expounders of Buffon's theory were all 
 adrift; and also that the oracular prediction of Cyprus 
 joining Asia Minor by the action and deposits of the Pyra- 
 mus, is not likely to be yet fulfilled : but, in sober truth, it 
 must be admitted that we are very little acquainted with 
 the depth of the deeper parts of those waters.f 
 
 Quitting these portentous visions, however, which are Ancient 
 supported by little more than doubtful conjectures, it is quite views? ° a 
 within the grasp of induction to investigate the effects and 
 alterations which have resulted under a system of traceable 
 causes, some extinct, but many still in ceaseless operation. Yet 
 in stating the geological knowledge which we seem so recently 
 to have obtained, it is impossible to forget that theoretically 
 there is hardly anything absolutely new ; for the system of 
 
 * Sonnini was an oracle in some circles. He suggested that Candia 
 was detached from Africa by an inundation of the low lands which formerly 
 united them; an opinion, he says, which acquires an additional decree of 
 probability when we direct our attention to the shallowness of the channel 
 which separates them, 'whose bottom everywhere affords soundings!' For 
 Sonnini's accuracy of observation, even above water, see page 70. 
 
 + For instance, while reading the proof of this sheet, a letter reaches me 
 from Sir Francis Beaufort, informing me of a new search for the supposed 
 rock 90 miles east of Malta, in which no bottom was gained with 2500 
 fathoms of line. We shall return to this. 
 
122 
 
 MEDITERRANEAN DIVISIONS. 
 
 Eratos- 
 
 Pythagoras. Pythagoras, as preserved by Ovid, is exceedingly applicable 
 to our present notion of various phenomena in the inani- 
 mate world. Eratosthenes (apud Strabonem) asked how 
 is it that ' two or three hundred stadia inland there are still 
 found numerous sea-shells, as well oysters as mussels, espe- 
 cially near the Temple of Jupiter Ammon, and all along 
 the route leading to it?' And he cites with praise the 
 names of Strato and Xanthus, as able geologists ; of whom 
 the latter, struck by the petrifactions which he saw far from 
 the sea, boldly pronounced that Armenia, Media, and 
 Phrygia were formerly under the sea. Much of this was 
 adopted by Pliny; and perhaps inspired Lucan with his 
 well-known prediction on the changes which have taken 
 place in the Syrtes since his day ; nor can this paragraph 
 be better closed than by an extract from the Pythagorean 
 philosophy (Ovid's Metamorphoses, book xv.), as rendered 
 by Dryden : — 
 
 The face of places, and their forms, decay ; 
 And that is solid earth that once was sea : 
 Seas in their turn retreating from the shore, 
 Make solid land what ocean was before ; 
 And far from strands are shells of fishes found, 
 And rusty anchors fix'd on mountain ground. 
 And what were fields before, now wash'd and worn 
 By falling floods from high, to valleys turn, 
 And crumbling still descend to level lands ; 
 And lakes, and trembling bogs, are barren sands. 
 
 Strato. 
 Xanthus. 
 
 Pliny. 
 Lucan. 
 
 Mediterra- 
 nean 
 features. 
 
 § 2. The Divisions, Temperature, Colour, Lu- 
 minosity, and the various substances found 
 in the waters of the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 THE northern and southern shores of the Mediterranean 
 are greatly contrasted in feature ; the former expanding 
 into peninsulas, isthmuses, sinuosities, and islands, while 
 the configuration of the latter presents comparatively but 
 little articulated variation of form. Exclusive of the Black 
 S ea — which, however, must be considered as a part of it — 
 
BASINS. 123 
 
 this sheet of waters is naturally divided into two vast 
 basins ; and these again are subdivided into particular por- 
 tions. In the days of Strabo, this expanse was distinguished 
 into three basins ; the first comprehended the space between 
 the columns of Hercules and Sicily — the second, that be- 
 tween Sicily and Rhodes — and the third, the sea between 
 Rhodes and the shores of Syria. 
 
 The first great basin of the modern division extends Basins 
 from Gibraltar to Cape Bon and the Faro of Messina, 
 washing the bases of the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Apennines, 
 and the range of Mount Atlas ; and it is again subdivided 
 into two unequal parts by the islands of Corsica and Sar- 
 dinia. The second, or inner grand basin, is of twice the 
 area of the first ; it extends from the coasts of Tunis and 
 Sicily to those of Egypt and Syria, stretching on the north 
 into two distinct and separate basins, known as the Adriatic 
 and Archipelago ; while on the south, the Gulf of Libya 
 penetrates deeply into the African continent. The eastern 
 portion of this basin is interrupted by Cyprus alone : it 
 was anciently subdivided into the Pamphylian, Syrian, 
 and Phoenician seas ; but is now universally known as the 
 Levant — a term, however, more proper for its coasts than 
 its waters. 
 
 Such are the commonly received designations ; but Subdivi- 
 geographers and pilots are rather vague in their denomi- 
 nations of the several subdivisions ; and many portions 
 being without physical boundaries, are only distinguished 
 by epithets properly applicable rather to particular spots. 
 Thus the space included between the Balearic Islands and 
 the coast of Spain (Mare Balearicum), is called at times 
 the sea of Majorca, and at others the sea of Valencia ; to 
 the west of Italy the waters are called the Tyrrhenian, the 
 Ligustic, the Tuscan, or the Italian indifferently ; and when 
 viewed with regard to the Adriatic, they are often termed 
 the Lower Sea, the two being the Mare superum and 
 Mare inferum of ancient geography. The Sicilian sea 
 
124 TEMPERATURE. 
 
 washes the shores of the numerous isles which stud the 
 centre of the Mediterranean ; to the east of which — be- 
 tween Sicily and Western Greece — it joins the Ionian sea. 
 From the south of Italy to the shores of Albania is 
 the mouth of the Adriatic, or Gulf of Venice ; and the 
 space embraced by Greece and Asia Minor is the iEgean or 
 Archipelago — the White Sea of the Turks. From this 
 last a strait — the well-known Dardanelles (Hellespontus)— 
 conducts us to the Sea of Marmora (Propontis) ; and 
 another, now called the Strait of Constantinople (Bosporus 
 Thracius) leads to the once-dreaded Black Sea (Pontus 
 Euxinus). To the north-east of this breadth of waters is. 
 the Sea of Azof (Palus Mceotis), the utmost maritime 
 limit in that quarter; though some insist that a strait 
 once connected this part with the Caspian Sea, along 
 the very peculiar and depressed plain beyond the Cau- 
 casus. The authorities are strangely discordant. 
 Tempera- From the laws of gravitation it is inferred that the 
 
 surface of the ocean is always at the same distance from 
 the centre of the earth, and before the discovery that far 
 above the freezing point the specific gravity again de- 
 creases, it was supposed that the temperature of its water 
 decreases in proportion to its depth ; whence some con- 
 cluded that the profoundest gulfs must be coated with 
 eternal ice. This theory is raked by fact. The result of 
 my experiments leads to the conclusion that there actually 
 exists a very sensible diminution between the surface tem- 
 perature, and that obtained at great depths ; and the dif- 
 ference may be roundly estimated as about one degree for 
 every twenty fathoms of line near the surface, save where 
 the agency of subterranean currents may be at work, for 
 such streams are undoubtedly connected with oceanic in- 
 fluences : but below about 180 fathoms, to our utmost 
 depths, the temperature varied but little from 42° or 43° of 
 the Fahrenheit scale. We found that at equal depths the 
 warmth is rather higher alongshore than in the offing, 
 still no reliance can be placed here upon thermometrical 
 
 ture. 
 
TEMPERATUEE. 125 
 
 indications of an approach to land, or a great bank, as taught 
 in the Atlantic Ocean : and the supposed heating of the 
 waves is a mistaken sensation produced by the cooling of 
 the atmosphere in the mean time. The mere surface tem- 
 perature is very variable, according to the weather and the 
 altitude of the sun, differing at sunrise and in the after- 
 noon by three or four degrees, and even more. 
 
 For my own experiments, I caused a hollow perforated Experi- 
 
 i ments. 
 
 cylinder to be made as non-conductive of caloric as the 
 metal would permit, in which was placed one of the ex- 
 cellent self-registering thermometers invented by James 
 Six. This was occasionally cast overboard to a depth of 
 eight fathoms, and the ■ mean results during several years 
 give a difference from the temperature of the air of 
 only 1'5 to 3"5; the greater variations being in the sum- 
 mer months. A comparison of my eight-fathom observa- 
 tions, with those of the ocean furnished by Mr. Purdy, led 
 me to conclude that the Mediterranean waters average 
 about 3*5 of Fahrenheit more heat than those of the 
 western part of the Atlantic Ocean. Around Sicily I found 
 the comparative summer temperature still higher, even at 
 a greater depth, it being 10° or 12° warmer than the water 
 is stated to be outside the Strait of Gibraltar ; which 
 accounts for a greater evaporation, and consequent effect 
 on the currents. The surface temperature of the waters 
 near Sicily was often higher than what was shown a few 
 fathoms below it ; but as that condition naturally de- 
 pended in great measure on the state of the superin- 
 cumbent atmosphere, and was a complicated condition, it 
 was not included in the general estimate. 
 
 The usual tint of the Mediterranean Sea, when undis- Colour. 
 turbed by accidental or local causes, is a bright and deep 
 blue ; but in the Adriatic a green tinge is prevalent ; in the 
 Levant Basin, it borders on purple ; while the Euxine often 
 has the dark aspect from which it derives its modern 
 appellation. The clear ultramarine tint is the most general, 
 and has been immemorially noticed, although the dia- 
 
126 COLOUR AND LUMINOSITY. 
 
 phanous translucence of the water almost justifies those 
 Colour. who assert that it has no colour at all. But notwithstanding 
 the fluid, when undeflled by impurities, seems in small 
 quantities to be perfectly colourless, yet in large masses it 
 assuredly exhibits tints of different intensities. That the 
 sea has actually a fine blue colour at a distance from, the 
 land cannot well be contradicted ; nor can such colour — 
 however influential the sky is known to be in shifting tints 
 — be considered as wholly due to reflection from the 
 heavens, since it is often of a deeper hue than that of the 
 sky,* both from the interception of solar light by the 
 clouds, and the hues which they themselves take. This is 
 difficult to account for satisfactorily, as no analysis has yet 
 detected a sufficient quantity of colouring matter to tinge 
 so immense a body of water : wherefore Sir Humphrey 
 Davy's supposition of an admixture of iodine cannot be 
 admitted, for its presence is barely traceable under the most 
 careful analysis. Those who contend for there being no 
 colour at all, may remind us that the blue rays are the 
 most refrangible ; and that being reflected in greatest 
 quantity by the fluid (which, because of its density and 
 depth, causes them to undergo a strong refraction) they 
 cause a tint which is only apparent. Be that as it may, 
 seamen admit of one conclusion — namely, that a green 
 hue is a general indication of soundings, and indigo- 
 blue of profound depth. 
 Luminosity. The peculiar occasional luminosity of this sea was 
 particularly noticed by Pliny and many elders, and, in 
 common with that of other waters, it has long been a sub- 
 ject of scientific inquiry, rational conjecture, and ignorant 
 wonderment ; and it is really as difficult of a full solution 
 as it is superbly beautiful in effect. Every assignable 
 
 * When the surface of the sea reflects heavy clouds, so as to be 
 apparently darker than usual, it is looked upon as the prognostic of bad 
 weather. 
 
COMPONENTS. 127 
 
 cause has been advanced ; putrescent fish, electricity, 
 atomic friction, cosmical vortices, absorption and emission 
 of solar beams, and what not, have all and severally been 
 brought forward, and after various tilts of discussion, laid 
 aside again. But most naturalists now impute this phos- 
 phorescent appearance partly to the decomposition of 
 animal substances, and partly to the countless myriads of 
 mollusca, Crustacea, infusoria, and other animalcules which 
 can voluntarily emit a luminous brilliance, the chemical 
 nature of which is still unknown. 
 
 Regarding the constituents of the Mediterranean water, Compo- 
 
 , . nents. 
 
 the analysts of former days were at considerable variance ; 
 for while some — observing the rapid desiccation of salt 
 from its brine — maintained its muriate of soda to be con- 
 siderably above that of the average of oceanic water, others 
 would not admit that there existed any difference. Recent 
 experiments, however, have shown that the water of the Me- 
 diterranean contains full four per cent, of salt, while that 
 of the Black Sea has only a smaller proportion. M. Bouil- 
 lon la Grange investigated the subject with great persever- 
 ance ; and his conclusion is, that assuming the proportion 
 of saline matter in the water of the Atlantic Ocean to be 
 38, that of the English Channel will be 36, and that of the 
 Mediterranean 41. 
 
 On returning to England in the winter of 1820, I Dr. Marcet. 
 became acquainted with the late Dr. Marcet, who was then 
 studying the chemical composition of sea-water procured 
 from different parts of the globe. Among other matters, 
 he mentioned that Mr. Smithson Tennant and himself had 
 been extremely desirous of getting specimens from great 
 depths at and near the Strait of Gibraltar, in order to 
 ascertain how the inner sea rids its waters of their excess 
 of salt; and that having furnished Dr. Macmichael with an 
 adapted machine, that gentleman procured them some 
 water in the Strait at a depth of 250 fathoms, but found it 
 fruitless to attempt to gain bottom, ' from the impossibility 
 
128 THE WOLLASTON ANALYSIS. 
 
 of reaching it, on account of the great depth at that spot/ 
 Hereupon I assured him that bottom should be struck on 
 my return thither, as I had then no notion of the difficulty 
 to be encountered ; for having found ground between Tarifa 
 and Tangier in 160 fathoms, it was natural to conclude 
 there would be no violent difference through the whole 
 strait of Strait. But we found to the east that no bottom was obtain- 
 
 Gibraltar. 
 
 able with 1000 fathoms of line, and that from the ship's 
 drift, the line quickly formed a diagonal curve. By the 
 employment of two vessels, however, so that the headmost 
 could cast the line, and be met by the drift of the sternmost 
 one while the weight was descending, we obtained sound- 
 ings throughout this celebrated opening in 1824, for the 
 first time since it was navigated. The depths varied from 
 700 and 750 to 950 fathoms, which last was struck as nearly 
 as possible in a vertical line, on a bottom of gravel and 
 sand, mixed with spoils of testaceous creatures and coral- 
 line fragments. Indeed, the whole Mediterranean Sea is 
 so much deeper than would be expected from its proximity 
 to surrounding lands, that it seems to be what, in geological 
 dynamics, is termed a sunken basin. 
 
 But the revealment of this chasm was not more surpris- 
 ing than was the result obtained by the analysis of water 
 procured in the immediate vicinity; for except in that 
 instance, we detected no difference of density with increas- 
 ing depths: and the whole is so remarkable, that I will 
 Dr. woiias- give the account in Dr. William Hyde Wollaston's own 
 
 ton's ana- g 
 
 lysis. words — it being the last document addressed by that philo- 
 sopher to the Royal Society, before whom it was read on 
 the 18th of December, 1828:— 
 
 The object of the present communication is to do justice to the memory 
 of my late friend, Dr. Marcet, by recording the result of one of his latest 
 efforts in the cause of science. 
 
 In his examination of sea-water, of which he gave an account in the 
 Philosophical Transactions for 1819, the specimens with which he had been 
 supplied from different depths in the Mediterranean had not been sufficient 
 to show what becomes of the vast amount of salt brought into that sea by 
 the constant current which sets eastward through the Straits of Gibraltar. 
 
THE WOLLASTON ANALYSIS. 129 
 
 For though the escape of the water of that current may be fully accounted 
 for by its evaporation, which must be very rapid and copious on the sunny 
 shallows of Africa, yet the salt which that water held in solution must 
 remain in the basin of the Mediterranean, or escape by some hitherto un- 
 explained means of exit. 
 
 In the hope of obtaining a more abundant supply of water from the 
 greatest accessible depths, especially near the Straits, he begged assistance 
 from Captain William Henry Smyth, R.N., who was engaged to make a 
 survey of certain parts of that sea ; and supplied that officer with the appa- Apparatus, 
 ratus for raising water from great depths, which was contrived by Mr. Ten- 
 nan t, and is described in the communication already referred to.* 
 
 The zeal with which Dr. Marcet himself prosecuted his inquiries was so 
 well known, that others were always willing to second his efforts, from a 
 confidence that their labour would not be unprofitably wasted ; and Captain 
 Smyth did not fail to take every opportunity of collecting specimens in the 
 course of his survey. But when he heard that Dr. Marcet was no more, not 
 being aware of the interest with which the specimens would be received 
 and examined by many surviving friends, he was unfortunately but too 
 ready to oblige other persons with portions of his collection, which were 
 afterwards applied by them to other objects. 
 
 Nevertheless, at the time I had the good fortune to be introduced to 
 Captain Smyth, in the month of June, 1827, he still retained in his possession 
 three bottles, the remainder of his stock, and at my request most obligingly Specimens 
 sent them to me for examination. analyzed. 
 
 Happily, one of them is such as to accord in the most complete manner 
 with the anticipation, that an accumulation of denser water might be found 
 at great depths in the neighbourhood of the Straits, from which a counter- 
 current beneath, though far less rapid, might carry westward into the 
 Atlantic as much salt as enters with the eastward current near the surface 
 from that ocean into the Mediterranean. 
 
 The evidence of this will be comprised, indeed, in very few words; for 
 though the two first specimens, taken at distances of about 680 and 450 miles 
 from the Straits, and at depths of 450 and 400 fathoms respectively, do not 
 exceed in density that of many ordinary samples of sea- water, yet the last, 
 
 * This is a slight error. Dr. Marcet was kind enough to superintend the 
 making of a water-bottle for me, by Thomas Jones, of Charing Cross. It con- 
 sists of a thick bell-metal cylinder, about ten inches long and six in diameter, 
 with strong caps on the ends, each having conical apertures in the same direc- 
 tion, through which passes a metal rod, having a conical projection at each end, 
 both ends fitting exactly in the conical apertures in the caps of the cylinder. 
 When in use, the piston-rod is lifted up, and held firmly by a spring, whereby 
 the water can enter freely and pass upwards through the descending 
 cylinder, which is closed at any required depth by letting a perforated iron 
 ball slip down by the suspending line. This ball, on arriving, strikes the 
 spring, when the bottle is instantly closed and forcibly locked up by the 
 conical fittings, and water from the precise spot is obtained without a 
 possibility of the intermediate fluid affecting it. The contents were then 
 carefully emptied into bottles, corked, sealed, labelled, with all local par- 
 ticulars, and carefully placed in store. 
 
 K 
 
130 
 
 THE WOLLASTON ANALYSIS. 
 
 Under-cur- 
 rent. 
 
 which was taken up at about 50 miles within the Straits, and from a depth 
 of 670 fathoms, has a density exceeding that of distilled water by more than 
 four times the usual excess, and accordingly leaves, upon evaporation, more 
 than four times the usual quantity of saline residuum. 
 
 Hence it is clear, that an under-current outward of such denser water, 
 if of equal breadth and depth with the current inward near the surface, would 
 carry out as much salt below aS is brought in above, although it moved with 
 less than one-fourth part of the velocity, and would thus prevent a per- 
 petual increase of saltness in the Mediterranean Sea beyond that existing in 
 the Atlantic. 
 
 On comparison of the relative specific gravities and quantities of salt, 
 in the table subjoined to this paper, with those in Dr. Marcet's table, there 
 may be remarked a want of accordance between the two experiments that 
 will require to be explained. 
 
 This difference arises from the different temperatures at which his results 
 and mine were dried. In his experiments the degree of heat chosen 
 was 212° ; in mine, the temperature was raised beyond 300°. In each case, 
 it will be seen that the quantity of saline contents to be obtained may be 
 estimated from the specific gravity, by multiplying the excess of density 
 above that of distilled water by a certain factor, which will vary with the 
 temperature that we may select for drying. 
 
 At 212° this factor is about "144, and the product will then represent 
 the saline contents -\- a quantity of water retained by the deliquescent salts. 
 At 300°, and upwards, the factor is only "134, on account of a nearer 
 approach to perfect desiccation. 
 
 TABLE. 
 
 No. 1 
 2 
 3 
 
 Latitude. I Longitude. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Sp. Gravity. 
 
 Salt pr. Cent. 
 
 38° 30' 
 37° 30' 
 36° 0' 
 
 4°30 / E. 
 1° 0' E. 
 4° 40' W. 
 
 450 fins. 
 
 400 „ 
 670 „ 
 
 1-0294 
 1-0295 
 
 1-1288 
 
 4-05 
 3-99 
 17-3 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 36° r 
 
 5° 22' W. 
 
 
 
 
 Remarks on 
 the ana- 
 lysis. 
 
 The high specific gravity here detected in No. 3, and 
 the large amount of its saline contents, are so absolutely 
 surprising, that I was in hopes that long ere this the matter 
 would have had a fuller investigation ; especially as Admiral 
 Sir Edward Codrington promised both Dr. Wollaston and 
 myself that he would attend to it, and for that purpose 
 took out the machine I had used ; but the Battle of Nava- 
 rino clapped the stopper on. Meanwhile, my friend Sir 
 Charles Lyell objects to the doctor's postulatum of carry- 
 
SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 
 
 131 
 
 ino- the salt out of the Mediterranean, on the inference that 
 the dense water cannot possibly escape, because the bottom 
 of the sea rises between Gapes Spartel and Trafalgar, as 
 appears ' by Captain Smyth's soundings, which Dr. Wollas- 
 ton had not seen;' and he therefore concludes, that great 
 quantities of salt would probably be deposited on the bed 
 of that sea, in consequence of such a submarine barrier. 
 Yet this ingenious theory can hardly be the true one, since 
 the armings of our lead would have brought up salt from 
 the deepest bottoms, instead of the mud, sand, and shells 
 which we found. We still require much further informa- 
 tion upon this subject; but in the meantime, I think cause 
 will be shown why Dr. Wollaston cannot be right : indeed, 
 it is not improbable that we might have struck upon a 
 spring of brine. (See page 160.) 
 
 As the question is of high import, it may be as well to 
 compare the specific gravity of Mediterranean water in 
 various parts of its extent, and at various depths, with that 
 of the Atlantic Ocean, of which the mean is assumed as 
 = 1*0283. The results obtained in the Aid were, by means 
 of Clarke's hydrometer, so delicately adjusted, that when 
 placed in distilled water, the mark of 100 grains exactly 
 coincided with the surface line; and the experiments were 
 made only in the finest weather : — 
 
 SirC.Lyell's 
 objection. 
 
 Specific 
 gravity. 
 
 Place. Experimenter. 
 
 The Strait of Gibraltar . . . Marcet 
 
 Inside the Strait (50 miles) . . Wollaston 
 
 Off Marseilles Tennant 
 
 Between Spain and the Baleares Smyth 
 
 Between Minorca and Barbary . Wollaston 
 
 Between Carthagena and Oran . Wollaston 
 
 Between Sardinia and Naples . Smyth 
 
 In the mouth of the Adriatic . Smyth 
 
 Between Malta and Cyrene . . Smyth 
 
 Entrance of the Hellespont . . Marcet 
 
 Mouth of the Bosphorus . . . Marcet 
 
 The Black Sea Marcet 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Fathoms. 
 
 250 
 
 670 
 
 (surface) 
 
 * 8 
 
 450 
 
 400 
 
 60 
 
 45 
 
 60 
 
 34 
 
 30 
 
 (surface) 
 
 Sp. Gi-avity. 
 1-0301 
 1-1288 
 1-0273 
 1-0270 
 1-0294 
 1-0295 
 1-0285 
 1-0291 
 1-0283 
 1-0282 
 1-0144 
 1-0141 
 
 Some of these and other sea-waters being submitted to 
 analysis by Dr. Marcet, he obtained this final result of the 
 
 K 2 
 
 Compo- 
 nents 
 
132 COMPONENTS OF THE MEDITERRANEAN. 
 
 components precipitated by evaporation from 500 grains of 
 the fluid ; namely — 
 
 Muriate of soda 13-8 
 
 Sulphate of soda 2*33 
 
 Muriate of lime 0'975 
 
 1 Muriate of magnesia 4 -955 
 
 21-460* 
 
 While these crucial experiments were in hand, Dr. Wol- 
 laston put the question, as to whether it was not probable 
 
 rotash. that traces of potash might be found in sea-water ? Dr. 
 Marcet instantly conceived its possibility, and begged 
 Wollaston himself to test his own suggestion, which being 
 complied with, the fact was soon established. {Phil. Trans. 
 1819, pp. 199 — 203). From the discovery of substances 
 not previously known to exist in sea- water, Dr. Marcet 
 much wished to repeat and correct his analyses; but he was 
 not spared for that purpose, or he might have detected the 
 
 iodine and two new elements — iodine and bromine — which have been 
 faintly traced in oceanic fluid since his death. Perhaps the 
 most perfect analysis hitherto made of Mediterranean 
 water, is that of M. Laurens {Journal de Pharmacie, xxi. 
 93):— 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Water 959-06 
 
 Chloride of sodium 27*22 
 
 Chloride of magnesium . . . 6*14 
 Sulphate of magnesia . . . . 7 02 
 
 Sulphate of lime 0*15 
 
 Carbonate of lime 0*09 
 
 Carbonate of magnesia . . . 0"11 
 
 Carbonic acid 0"20 
 
 Potash 001 
 
 Iodine . faint trace. 
 
 Extractive matter .... a trace. 
 
 1000-00 
 
 Mediterra- Several elements of inquiry have, however, remained 
 
 nean . 
 
 physics, almost untouched, the principal of which relate to light, 
 
 * It should be remarked, that those ingredients which sea- water holds 
 in a state of complete solution, are not united with it by any very intimate 
 chemical combination, for they can be separated by distillation : yet the 
 union is far from being simply mechanical. 
 
SEA PRESSURE. 
 
 133 
 
 heat, and the calorific effects actually in operation. It is 
 admitted that the sea is impregnated with a mixture of 
 gases, which especially affect the portion near its surface : 
 yet M. Biot found that water which he drew up from a depth 
 of 550 fathoms, yielded a mixture which contained no less 
 than twenty-eight hundredths of respirable oxygen. ' But 
 here/ he observes, l several important questions in terrestrial 
 physics present themselves, which cannot be solved by the 
 apparatus I then employed. In proportion to the descent 
 into the sea, does the pressure of the superior portion upon Pressure, 
 the inferior become greater ; and as a column of sea-water, 
 eleven yards in height, is nearly of the same weight as a 
 column of air of an equal base, extending from the surface 
 of the earth to the limit of the atmosphere, it follows that, 
 at a depth of 1100 yards, the water sustains a pressure of 
 100 atmospheres. How enormous, then, must this pressure 
 be on beds still lower, if the mean depth of the sea, at a 
 distance from the coasts, extends for several miles, as the 
 laws of gravitation seem to indicate/ A question thence 
 arises, as to the depth of water necessary to produce the 
 liquefaction of those gases. Estimating the height of a 
 column of water equal to the pressure of an atmosphere in 
 the usual way, at thirty-four feet, and neglecting the saline 
 contents of the sea, as well as the probable compression of 
 water itself at vast depths, Dr. Faraday has shown (Philo- Faraday. 
 sophical Transactions for 1823) the pressure and tempera- 
 ture at which the gaseous substances below enumerated 
 become liquid in his experiments; and it results that those 
 gases could not exist as such below the depths marked in 
 feet on the last column. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Sulphurous acid gas liquefies under 
 
 2 atmospheres, 
 
 at 45° .. 
 
 68 
 
 Cyanogen gas ,, 
 
 36 „ 
 
 45° .. 
 
 123 
 
 Chlorine gas ,, 
 
 4 
 
 60° .. 
 
 136 
 
 Ainmoniaeal gas „ 
 
 6-5 
 
 50° .. 
 
 221 
 
 Sulphuretted hydrogen gas ,, 
 
 17 
 
 50° .. 
 
 578 
 
 Carbonic acid gas „ 
 
 36 
 
 32° .. 
 
 1224 
 
 Muriatic acid gas ,, 
 
 40 
 
 50° .. 
 
 1360 
 
 Nitrous oxide gas ,, 
 
 50 
 
 45° .. 
 
 17()<> 
 
134 
 
 BOTTOM OF THE MEDITERRANEAN. 
 
 Fundus 
 maris. 
 
 Don at i 
 
 Bottom 
 of the 
 Adriatic. 
 
 The fundus maris, or bottom of the Mediterranean Sea, 
 must, except inferentially, remain mostly unknown ; but 
 recent surveys — together with the labours of Count Marsigli 
 off the coasts of Provence and Languedoc, and those of 
 Dr. Donati in the Adriatic — go far to prove that this vast 
 basin, at its creation, was composed of the same substances 
 as the rest of the earth is ; and that an artificial bottom of 
 depositions and incrustations has filled all the interstices. 
 In the forty-ninth volume of the Philosophical Trans- 
 actions, Mr. Trembley gives a summary of Donates con- 
 tribution towards a ' Natural History of the Adriatic Sea/ 
 the conclusions from which shall be subjoined : and although 
 the Mediterranean basin is so extensive, and covered in 
 most parts with an unfathomable depth of water, the 
 observations of the Italian Professor on the available portion 
 which he experimented upon, are of great value in an 
 endeavour to form a judgment of the whole : — 
 
 His (Donati's) inquiries have enabled him to determine, upon his own 
 knowledge, that there is very little difference between the bottom of the 
 Adriatic Sea and the surface of the neighbouring countries. There are at 
 the bottom of the water, mountains, plains, valleys, and caverns, just as 
 upon the land. The soil consists of different strata, placed one upon another ; 
 and, for the most part, parallel and correspondent to those of the rocks, 
 islands, and neighbouring continents. They contain stones of different 
 sorts, minerals, metals, various petrified bodies, pummice-stones, and lavas 
 formed by volcanoes. 
 
 Istria, Morlachia, Dalmatia, Albania, and some other adjacent countries, 
 as well as the rocks, the islands, and the correspondent bottom of the 
 Adriatic Sea, consist of a whitish marble, of an uniform grain, and of almost 
 an equal hardness. It is of that kind of marble called by the Italians 
 marmo di Rovigno, and known to the ancients by the name of marmot- 
 Tvaguriense. 
 
 This vast bed of marble, in many places under both the earth and sea, is 
 interrupted by several other kinds of marble, and covered by a great variety 
 of bodies. There are discovered there, for instance, gravel, sand, and earths 
 more or less fat. 
 
 The variety of these soils under the sea is remarkable. It is to this that 
 Dr. Donati ascribes the varieties observed with respect to the nature and 
 quantity of plants and animals found at the bottom of the sea. Some places 
 are inhabited by a great number of different species of plants and animals ; 
 in others, only some particular species are found; and lastly, there are other 
 places, in which neither plants nor animals are to be met with. 
 
 The observations not only point out to us the affinity and resemblance 
 
SILT-BEARING ACTION. 135 
 
 between the surface of the earth and the bottom of the sea, but may like- 
 wise contribute to discover to us one cause of the varieties which are 
 observed in the distribution of the marine fossils found in the earth. 
 
 Having had the advantage of the experience of Donati, Adriatic 
 
 actions. 
 
 Fortis, and De Luccio, I paid much attention to their 
 results, and found the operation of the winds and currents 
 of the Adriatic to be very uniform. The accumulation of 
 matter on the western shore is readily accounted for by the 
 constant set of the waters along the coasts of Albania, 
 Dalmatia, and Istria ; from whence they sweep along by 
 Friuli, Venice, and Romagna, bearing their own silts, and 
 carrying along the alluvial deposits of the rivers at the 
 head of the Gulf: insomuch that the Yenetian ports are 
 encumbered, Ravenna is now high and dry inland ; and from 
 thence to the Isonzo, there is an uninterrupted series of 
 terrene accessions. A singular effect is observed from the Singular 
 
 effect 
 
 occasional strength of the river action over that of the 
 current. Between the Malamocco and Parenzo, about the 
 middle of the passage, there is a muddy bank resting on 
 the solid limestone and concretions ; it is about three miles 
 in breadth, and in length extends to opposite Comacchio. 
 In calms, the surface above it appears smooth and nearly 
 stagnant, while the current which runs on each side, being 
 weakened by diffusion over it, deposits matter in the centre ; 
 and thus, in the lapse of ages, an island may be formed. 
 The coast just to the north of it, having its rivers under 
 tidal action, though small, is broken into estuaries ; but as 
 that action weakens, it enables the Po to form a delta. 
 The bottom, however, of that part of the Adriatic between 
 the Po and Trieste, being everywhere of moderate depths, 
 forms a submarine plateau, which must be considered 
 as only the continuation of the great plains of Lombardy 
 and Friuli. 
 
 A study of the motions in the Adriatic waters affords a 
 tolerable clue to those of the Mediterranean in general. 
 When fresh winds, by their friction, for any considerable 
 
136 HYDROGRAPHIC DIVISIONS. 
 
 time, force the surface waters home in some given direction 
 against the coast, the movement is quite sufficient to carry 
 any mechanically-suspended substances to distances pro- 
 portionate to the strength and duration of the cause : and 
 when a current of water freighted with matter passes a pro- 
 jecting point, or flows through a narrow channel, so that by 
 pressure and resistance its rapidity is increased, and passes 
 from thence into a bay or opening, where its force is 
 weakened by diffusion, it will deposit the chief part of its 
 burden at the bottom of that wider space. It is thus by 
 natural means, in ceaseless action, that constant cargoes of 
 detritus and matter in solution are borne to the sea, and 
 there committed to the currents by rivers and torrents ; 
 and to these are added the heavy occasional falls of the 
 cinders, ashes, and lapilli, thrown out from volcanoes. It 
 is not, therefore, matter of surprise, that the sedimentary 
 accumulations should have formed a thick coating over the 
 whole bottom. 
 Basins. Perhaps the most remarkable submarine feature of the 
 
 Mediterranean is its perfect hydrographic division into two 
 great basins by the form of its bottom ; thus confirming the 
 allotment made by geographers from a study of the form 
 of its shores. The barrier at the entrance of the Straits 
 marks the commencement of the western basin, which de- 
 scends to an abysmal profundity, and extends as far as the 
 central part of this sea, where it flows over another barrier, 
 and again falls into the as yet unfathomed depths of the 
 Levant basin. My means were not equal to my wishes in 
 examining this surprising fact ; but after fixing (or rather 
 discovering) the subaqueous bank to which I gave the 
 Adventure name of Adventure, I got occasional moderate soundings 
 
 Bank. ' 8 .,.,.„ 
 
 nearly across from Sicily to Tunis, in a winding line of 
 connexion crowned by the Skerki rocks — doubtless, as 
 already stated, the now-abraded Arse of Virgil (see page 93). 
 Yet in making an occult line on my chart, to indicate this 
 rise from a depth at present beyond estimate, I by no 
 
THE ADVENTURE BANK. 
 
 137 
 
 i i i 
 
 !! !. 
 
 *v 
 
 opopoooooo 
 
 — ■M rc -r ..-. -C I- X C> C 
 
 means meant it as a mark for shoal 
 water in which navigation is concerned ; 
 for though I found occasional spots of 
 from 30 to 90 fathoms, and still less 
 near the central reefs, there were 140, 
 157, and 260 fathoms on either side, as 
 also places where 190 and 230 fathoms 
 of line were run out without striking 
 bottom. The Adventure Bank is deve- 
 loped from this deep ridge, and is a com- 
 paratively shallow plateau, affording Submarine 
 good anchorage in many parts ; and it 
 is much frequented by fish. A section 
 through these basins carried across Pa- 
 lestine into that chasm, the Valley of 
 the Jordan and the Dead Sea — which Dead Sea. 
 last is 350 fathoms deep, with a surface 
 256 fathoms below the level of the 
 Mediterranean — would unfold a won- 
 derful geological structure in the eastern 
 boundary. Another section through the 
 central part, in a line of 240 miles north- 
 west and south-east, through the Skerki 
 and Adventure banks, under a propor- 
 tion of thirty in length to one in depth, 
 is given in the annexed diagram. 
 
 While Sicily is thus shown to be a Continental 
 
 . & Pelagic 
 
 continental island, there is that prodi- islands, 
 gious depth of water around Corsica and 
 Sardinia which marks them at once as 
 pelagic : and the Mediterranean in 
 general is so much deeper than analogy 
 and the proximity of lands would lead 
 us to expect, as to countenance the 
 idea of its sunken basins being partly 
 formed by volcanic agency. 
 
138 FORM OF THE COASTS. 
 
 Coast con- On glancing over the general chart, we cannot but be 
 
 tour. . . 
 
 struck with the marked difference between the northern and 
 southern distribution of the great terrestrial masses which 
 give form and feature to the coasts : yet, however accidental 
 that contrariety may appear to be, it offers a characteristic 
 development in geological chronology, since there could not 
 have been any depression or elevation of the included 
 waters, without a sensible alteration of littoral contour, such 
 constituting the true line of contact between the land and 
 the sea surface. Such a datum is absolutely necessary to 
 further inquiry, for the whole shores are as remarkable for 
 difference of altitude as for variety of outline. 
 
 In giving an opinion on the general permanence of the 
 sea-level, I am aware that many men, and some of them of 
 respectable authority, have entertained a different view ; 
 but modern accuracy has dissipated most of the classic and 
 mediaeval visions on this point. In the tenth century, Omar 
 
 Omar el- . . . 
 
 Aaiem. el-Aalem (Omar the Wise), attacked the question with 
 laborious industry, and produced his work on the *Ebh (el 
 jezr) of the Sea. On comparing the documents of his own 
 time with some said to have been written 2000 years before, 
 he became convinced that important changes had taken 
 place from the subsidence of the waters ; and he considered 
 his opinion to be confirmed by the numerous salt-ponds in 
 the interior of Asia, a conclusion also recently arrived at by 
 Pallas, the eminent Prussian traveller. Even had Omar 
 been misled, as hath been suggested, by the features and 
 phenomena of the Caspian Sea, he might have recanted 
 his error, without fear of the banishment, or impeachment 
 of his understanding, which he actually incurred. But his 
 intention is not very clear; and possibly his work refers 
 only to the effect of tides observable in the Persian Gulf, 
 Red Sea, and Indian Ocean. 
 
139 
 
 § 3. The Extent, Supply, and Evaporation 
 of the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 rPHE headlands, bays, and sinuosities in the margin of 
 -■- this aqueous expanse — so many centuries acted upon 
 by the united effects of breakers, wind- wave action, tidal 
 streams, and terrene displacement — render it difficult to 
 state dimensions with positive accuracy in a few words ; 
 and even the entering into comparatively exact details 
 would be tedious and indistinct. The substantial elements, 
 however, shall be given, and for minute particulars the chart 
 may be consulted. 
 
 The Mediterranean Sea extends from the longitude of Extent. 
 6° west to 36° east of Greenwich, while the extreme limits 
 of its latitudes are from 30° to 46° north ; and, in round 
 numbers, its length, from Gibraltar to its farthest extremity 
 in Syria, is about 2000 miles, with a breadth varying from 
 80 to 500 miles, and, including the Black Sea, a line of 
 shore of 4500 leagues. The ancients, who considered this 
 sea a very large portion of the terrestrial globe — although 
 it turns out to be but equal to about one-seventieth part of 
 the Pacific Ocean — assigned to it a much greater length, as 
 will be shown in Part IV., § 1 ; but Strabo seems to have strata's m- 
 
 . . . . P mensions. 
 
 nattened-m largely, since his principal distances lor esta- 
 blishing its length were : — 
 
 Stadia. Nautic miles. 
 From the Columns of Hercules to the Straits 
 
 of Sicily 12,000 ... 1028 
 
 ( 'ape Pachynum to west end of Crete . . 4500 ... 380 
 
 East end of Crete to Alexandria .... 3000 ... 257 
 
 Alexandria to Rhodes 3600 ... 308 
 
 From Rhodes to Iseus 5000 ... 429 
 
 Measures so strangely distorted by Ptolemy ! 
 
140 THE AREA OF THE MEDITERRANEAN. 
 
 The superficial extent of the Mediterranean Sea, as 
 intercepted between its various limits, and calculated by 
 the parallels of the latitudes and the longitudes of those 
 limits, from thence deducing the areas in square statute 
 miles (which are used by Halley), may be thus tabulated : — 
 
 The Western Basin 325,272 
 
 The Adriatic 52,819 
 
 The Levant Basin 518,755 
 
 The Archipelago 75,291 
 
 The Sea of Marmora ...... 4,644 
 
 The Black Sea „ 159,431 
 
 The Sea of Azof 13,075 
 
 Total surface .... 1,149,287 
 
 Kivers. Including the Black Sea as a branch of the Mediterra- 
 
 nean, the chief feeders of this vast sheet of waters are the 
 great rivers Nile, Danube, Dnieper, Po, Ebro, and Rhone ; 
 there are also the secondaries, Yar, Magra, Arno, Ombrone, 
 Tiber, Adige, Isonzo, Tagliamento, Lo Drino, Samana, 
 Achelous, Alpheius, Meander, Pyramus, Bagrada, and 
 Mulvia ; besides which, the smaller streams and streamlets, 
 with their tributaries, are almost innumerable. Contrary, 
 therefore, to the long-received opinion respecting the scanty 
 supply of water poured into this sea by rivers, the quantity 
 which it is constantly receiving forms an important integer ; 
 although a number of these streams may not run above 
 a hundred miles, and the drainage of others may be com- 
 paratively small in proportion to the surface through which 
 they pass. 
 
 Freshwater Moreover, fresh-water springs exist in the sea, near the 
 
 springs. # . 
 
 shore, which are more or less copious according to circum- 
 stances ; but those of Stamfane rock and Syracuse are 
 popularly held to proceed from the Alpheius by submarine 
 communication.* In the Gulf of Spezzia there is a spring 
 
 * In my Memoir of Sicily (page 171), it is mentioned that in the harbour 
 of Syracuse, opposite the fountain of Arethusa — and probably from the same 
 source — a copious spring of fresh water rises from the bottom, without 
 intermingling with the brine. It is called Occhio clella Zilica, or Alpheius, 
 which Moschus (Idyllium, viii.) represents as bearing leaves and sacred dust 
 from Elis. 
 
FRESH-WATER SPRINGS. 141 
 
 which constantly discharges a very considerable body ofspezzia. 
 water, rising with such force as to produce a slight con- 
 vexity on the surface ; this stream is probably derived from 
 a system of cavernous passages in the neighbouring lime- 
 stone rocks, but its place, as marked on my plan of the 
 gulf, has been immemorially the same. In the Mare piccolo, 
 or great port of Taranto, and at some distance from the Taranto. 
 mouth of the Galesus, fresh water springs up in such force 
 and abundance that it may be taken up without the least 
 brackish mixture ; and in the briny lagoon of Thau, at Thau. 
 Cette, there is a deep spot called the Avysse, from which 
 rushes up a column of potable water, with such force as even 
 to make waves. Near Ragusa, the Kalamota Channel 
 terminates in the port called Yal d' Ombla, which is watered 
 by the Ariona, a subterranean river bursting up with Arfona. 
 amazing volume and force from the foot of Mount Bergatz ; 
 fresh-water springs are also copious in the gulfs of Cattaro 
 and Aulona. At Agio Janni, below Parga, between the Agio Janni. 
 mouths of the Acheron and Thyamis, is a circular space 
 of fresh water, about forty feet in diameter, rising through 
 the sea with great activity ; this is probably the ascending 
 spring alluded to by Pausanias, (Arcad. vii.) Off the little 
 desert islet, Ruad, near Tortosa on the coast of Syria, a Ruad. 
 spring of fresh water gushes up in the sea in such volume, 
 that it may be skimmed off without the slightest impregna- 
 tion of salt. ' You may draw up potable water/ says 
 Pliny, 'out of the sea about the Chelidoniae islands and 
 at Aradus;' and there must be many unrecorded jets of Aradus. 
 the same nature, mingling with the sea unnoticed. 
 
 These may seem but insignificant addenda to the sup- 
 plies of the Mediterranean, in the opinion of the brine- 
 theorists ; but in the aggregate they form a goodly volume, 
 and have all, perhaps, exerted their influence for many 
 ages. The duration of some is matter of record. In the 
 Argolicus Sinus, between Kiveri and Astros, is the Anavolo Anivoio. 
 (Defoie), a copious spring of fresh water, rising with consi- 
 
142 THE DEINE SPRING. 
 
 derable strength through the sea, at the distance of about a 
 quarter of a mile from the shore. If this can be reconciled 
 to the rather vague early notices with which it substantially 
 corresponds, it must have been thus in action for nearly 
 1700 years at least. From the account of Pausanias, Deine 
 appears to be the emissary of the Zarethra, which drained 
 the plain of Argos (Apyov, inert) ; and it is thus described by 
 
 Coi. Leake, my friend Colonel Leake : — c The body of fresh water appears 
 to be not less than fifty feet in diameter. The weather 
 being very calm this morning, I perceive that it rises with 
 such force as to form a convex surface, and it disturbs the 
 sea for several hundred feet around. In short, it is evidently 
 the exit of a subterranean river of some magnitude/ — 
 (Travels in the Morea, vol. ii. p. 480.) 
 
 Percolation. The general percolation is also very great : Pliny the 
 Younger, giving a description of his villa near Ostia, to 
 Gallus, mentions the wells in his garden, adding, 'And 
 indeed the quality of this coast is rather remarkable ; for 
 in whatever part soever you dig, you meet, upon the first 
 turning up of the ground, with a spring of pure water, not 
 in the least salt, though so near the sea/ I have also 
 
 Reaches, noticed the same on the beaches of Calabria, the Terra di 
 Bari, and the Capitanata ; and in my account of Sicily, I 
 mentioned the well of good fresh water at Milazzo, which, 
 though several feet below the level of the sea, is so near, 
 that it is only sheltered from the surf by a wall. In the 
 same work, I also state, that on both sides of the Faro of 
 Messina, ' pure, though rather hard, fresh water is procured, 
 by digging a hole in the sand, within two or three feet of 
 the margin of the sea ; this is occasioned by the filtering 
 and percolation of the fiumare (torrents), which, though 
 apparently dry, are never actually so ; and this accounts, in 
 some measure, for the malaria arising on their banks/* 
 
 * Though not exactly in the same line of argument, perhaps I ought to 
 mention those ebullitions near the volcanic regions, which arise from an 
 
MEDITERRANEAN RIVERS. 
 
 143 
 
 It may be that, without the constant supplies from the River 
 
 * . drainage. 
 
 Straits of Gibraltar and the Black Sea, the Mediterranean 
 would not receive an equivalent to the loss by evaporation 
 from its rivers and atmospheric precipitation: but from 
 what is here advanced, it is evident that conclusions have 
 been made per saltum, and that the question requires a 
 more assiduous attention than it has yet received. It must 
 be acknowledged, however, that great strides towards a 
 fuller knowledge have been made ; and the intelligent 
 Berghaus presents the following data for the condition and Berghaus. 
 extent of drainage by the larger rivers : — 
 
 MEDITERRANEAN FLUVIAL SYSTEM. 
 
 Rivers. 
 
 Basins in 
 square 
 miles. 
 
 Direct 
 
 length in 
 
 geographical 
 
 miles. 
 
 Develop- 
 ment in 
 geographical 
 miles. 
 
 Extent 
 
 of 
 
 windings. 
 
 Ratio of 
 windings 
 to direct 
 length. 
 
 Nile . . 
 
 . 520,200 
 
 ... 1320 . 
 
 . 2240 .. 
 
 . 920 . 
 
 .. 07 
 
 Danube . 
 
 . 234,080 
 
 ... 880 . 
 
 . 1496 .. 
 
 . 616 . 
 
 . 07 
 
 Dnieper . 
 
 . 169,680 
 
 ... 548 . 
 
 . 1080 .. 
 
 . 532 . 
 
 . 1-0 
 
 Don . . 
 
 . 168,420 
 
 ... 408 . 
 
 . 960 .. 
 
 . 552 . 
 
 . 1-8 
 
 Po . . 
 
 29,950 
 
 ... 232 . 
 
 . 352 .. 
 
 . 120 . 
 
 . 0-5 
 
 Rhone . 
 
 . 28,160 
 
 ... 248 . 
 
 . 560 .. 
 
 . 352 . 
 
 . 1-4 
 
 Ebro . . 
 
 . 25,100 
 
 ... 268 . 
 
 . 420 .. 
 
 . 152 . 
 
 . 0-5 
 
 Dniester 
 
 . 23,040 
 
 ... 360 . 
 
 . 440 .. 
 
 . 80 . 
 
 . 0-2 
 
 abundant disengagement of carbonic acid gas, sulphuretted hydrogen, and 
 other hot vapours from subaqueous vents ; for some of them being solvent, 
 and others capable of decomposing rocks, they cannot be without effects. 
 One of these, near Panaria, in the iEolian islands, is thus described in ray 
 account of Sicily (page 260) : ' In this strait, a strong smell of sulphur is 
 perceptible ; and in two places, near the north extremity, are springs emit- 
 ting sulphureous gas, the bubbles of which rise in quick and constant succes- 
 sion to the surface, where they have been known to flame on bursting in the 
 atmospheric air. Wishing to ascertain something respecting this indication, 
 I submerged a thermometer in a bottle, which I found gave 97° of 
 Fahrenheit, in 21 feet of water ; but not satisfied with the result, I had a 
 tin tube made for me by an ingenious mechanic of Messina, with a valve at 
 each end, which, as it descended, allowed a free passage to the water ; but 
 on being drawn up, closed at both ends by the pressure, and contained a 
 sufficient quantity of water to keep the thermometer to the heat of the 
 depth to which it was lowered. The result obtained was 105° in 22 feet of 
 water, while at the surface it was 84°, and at a mile distant the temperature 
 of the sea was 70,J,°, that of the atmosphere at the same time being 71°.' 
 This was on the 22nd of April, 1815. 
 
144 SUM OF THE RUNNING WATERS. 
 
 Supply and Such is the tabulated view of a general system ; but in 
 
 loss. ... 
 
 the river with which I am personally best acquainted, the 
 Po, the numbers are small, for that rex fluviorum of Italian 
 streams, and its tributaries, assuredly drain a basin, the 
 area of which cannot be much less than 40,000 square miles. 
 In further assumptions on the dimensions and velocities of 
 the principal effluents, M. Berghaus shows, that by taking 
 the running waters of Europe as unity, or 1*00, the quantity 
 discharged into the Black Sea will be as high as 0*27 parts, 
 
 Proportion while the Mediterranean receives only 0*14 ; the former 
 water, ingulfing nearly one-third part of all the running water of 
 Europe. As these supplies must be deemed far too little 
 to compensate the loss in vapour of so great a surface under 
 a powerful and often cloudless sun and hot winds — where 
 the air is proved by hygrometrical registers to have only 
 half the moisture of the English atmosphere — the oceanic 
 influx through the Straits, together with the surplus of the 
 Euxine, constantly flowing through the Dardanelles, may 
 be cited as making up the deficiency. Yet as these grand 
 
 steadiness affluents produce no perceptible increase in the height of 
 the internal waters, that circumstance has attracted the 
 attention of philosophers ; but trustworthy evidence is still 
 a desideratum. Theorists, indeed, threaten us with the 
 filling up of the Black Sea, in a handful of ages, by which 
 the shallower parts of the Levant Basin may become 
 exposed, and a new adjustment of levels take place : yet 
 even under this condition, this sea would conform itself to 
 the requisite balance, by means of its free communication 
 with the ocean, between Spain and Africa, where the stream, 
 as Horace said of his imaginary river, ceaseless flows and 
 must for ever flow — 
 
 At ille 
 
 Labitur, et labetur in omne volubilis aevum. 
 
 Haiiey's This brings us to the celebrated Halleian theory, which 
 
 is still the ne plus ultra of a numerous series of Mediter- 
 ranean inquirers ; and which, having been proved by expe- 
 
HALLEY'S THEORY. 145 
 
 riments at once plausible and ingenious, demands a brief 
 recapitulation in this section. 
 
 Halley — in whatever light we consider his extraordinary Haiiey. 
 powers of mind and wonderful diversity of knowledge — was 
 one of the most remarkable of a galaxy of giants in science 
 and literature, who illustrated the close of the seventeenth 
 century, and therefore must be approached with deference 
 and respect, even where there may exist a difference of 
 opinion from him : at all events, he is entitled to the full 
 merit of originality, nor would it be prudent to differ from 
 him without strong reasons. His essays on the quantity of 
 vapour raised out of the sea by the heat of the sun, are 
 printed in the Philosophical Transactions, and in the 
 first volume of the Miscellanea Curiosa. Upon certain 
 assumptions derived from experiment, Halley holds that 
 ' every ten square inches of the surface of the water, yields 
 in vapour, per diem, a cube-inch of water ; and each square 
 foot half a wine-pint ; every space of four foot, a gallon ; a 
 mile square, 6914 tons ; a square degree, supposed of sixty- 
 nine English miles, will evaporate thirty-three millions of 
 tons : and if the Mediterranean be estimated at forty 
 degrees long, and four broad, allowances being made for 
 the places where it is broader by those where it is narrower 
 (and I am sure I ghess (sic) at the least), there will be 160 
 square degrees (761,760 statute miles) of sea ; and conse- 
 quently the whole Mediterranean must lose in vapour, in a Lossbyeva- 
 summer's day, at least 5280 millions of tons/ This he 
 esteems to be a vast quantity, though as little as can be 
 concluded from the trials he made, adding — ' And yet there 
 remains another cause, which cannot be reduced to rule, I 
 mean the winds, whereby the surface of the water is licked 
 up sometimes faster than it exhales by the heat of the sun ; 
 as is well known to those that have considered those drying 
 winds which blow sometimes/ Our philosopher then pro- 
 ceeds very methodically to show, and gives figures for it, 
 that little more than one-third of this is returned by the 
 
 L 
 
146 HALLEY'S THEORY. 
 
 nine great rivers — ' the Iberus, the Bhone, the Tiber, the 
 Po, the Danube, the Neister, the Borysthenes, the Tanais, 
 and the Nile, all the rest being of no great note, and their 
 quantity of water inconsiderable/ Under this impression, 
 by a laboured estimate founded on a calculation of the 
 waters of the Thames at Kingston Bridge, he concludes 
 that the nine rivers contribute only 1827 millions of tons 
 in a day. 
 Remarks on Now it is inconceivable that one of such accurate powers 
 
 the theory. 
 
 of calculation as Halley unquestionably possessed, should 
 have established so plausible a theory on such very imperfect 
 data ; and it is still more inconceivable that it should have 
 stood so long unshaken, although his own argument proves at 
 once the fallacy of its premises, and consequently the untena- 
 bleness of its result. With all the deference just mentioned, 
 and esteeming Captain Halley as a brother naval officer, as 
 well as a brother-surveyor, I cannot look upon the keeping a 
 small vessel of water, by means of a pan of coals, for several 
 hours at a summer-heat in this country, and measuring the 
 decreasing weight of water in a given time, to arrive at the 
 amount of evaporation, as at all meriting confidence ; espe- 
 cially as he has not given us the degree of ' summer heat/ 
 although so main a point, and one of which he records that 
 Haiiey's the thermometer showed it nicely. However, by the method 
 pursued, he found that a depth of 0*1 inch, from a surface 
 of eight inches in diameter, was vaporized in twelve hours; 
 and lumping together the summer and winter, as well as 
 nights and days, of the thus assumed Mediterranean, he 
 reckoned that the same depth, 0*1 inch, may on the average 
 be evaporated every twenty-four hours. Starting with this 
 very arbitrary and doubtful quantity from his ' little pan/ in 
 which even the salted water was artificial, he obtained the 
 normal numbers just cited, by ' exact calculus/ Aliquando 
 bonus dormitat Homerus : besides the jumble of inferen- 
 tial brought into play, one of the most obvious and tangible 
 conditions of the theory is more than one-third of its 
 
 method. 
 
THE THEORY RE-EXAMINED. 147 
 
 whole amount in error ; for the surface of the Mediter- Substantial 
 
 error. 
 
 ranean, by recent measurements, has been shown to be 
 1,149,287 square statute miles, instead of 761,760 : so that 
 the proportionate quantity of evaporation — or property by 
 which water has the power of emitting vapour of an elastic 
 force proportioned to its temperature — by Halley's own 
 rule would be 7966 millions of tons, instead of 5280 : 
 millions, per diem. And it should have been recollected, 
 as a peculiarity of inland seas, that their shores in summer 
 are of a higher temperature than water, and hence the aerial 
 dryness already alluded to : it therefore follows, that the 
 vaporization over such places will be much greater than ' 
 that of the ocean, in the same parallels, where the air, 
 saturated with aqueous vapour, continues at the same heat 
 for several days successively. 
 
 But as the Halleian Theory had become a received Re-exami- 
 
 . 1 nation of 
 
 postulate in Mediterranean physics, it struck me that it theexpe- 
 would be as well to re-examine the whole argument ; and in 
 order to test its merits, with better materials than Halley's, 
 the latest surveys, adjusted to the points determined by 
 Captain Gauttier and myself, were brought to bear on 
 the question. The superficial dimensions were established 
 by rectangular sections of each of the chart divisions being 
 neatly cut to the limiting parallels of latitude and longi- 
 tude, and then carefully weighed with a delicate balance : 
 but as the evaporation from the sea must be in proportion 
 to the quantity of surface presented by the water to the 
 evaporative influence, it follows that, from the interposition 
 of islands and promontories, the quantity would be very 
 unequal at different places, — a point which was not con- 
 sidered in Halley's computations. Moreover, another 
 quantity in the inquiry, depth, is still beset with uncer- 
 tainty, — for though I sounded beyond 1000 fathoms with- 
 out striking the bottom, further experiments to ascertain 
 the greatest profundity were inconsistent with my means 
 and time, and therefore, in some of the deductions which will 
 
148 METHOD OF TREATMENT. 
 
 Assumed follow, I resorted to a geographical mile as a unit of depth, 
 which inference fully warrants. After this operation, tables 
 were drawn up, of which that on the opposite page is an 
 abstract : in which, as the third column of numbers is, from 
 what I have just stated, but a guess, the cubic contents will 
 necessarily be vague and inconclusive, being only intended 
 
 Sea of Azof, as a mere assumption. From this remark, however, the Sea 
 of Azof may be excepted, since a fair approximation to the 
 amount of its contents can be obtained. This sea, which 
 — if the assertion of Herodotus (Melpomene, lxxxvi.) has 
 any value — must have greatly contracted its boundaries 
 even within the historical period, having been well sounded 
 throughout, allowed our weighing process to be conducted 
 with such nicety as to be within 0.1 grain = about seven 
 square miles. The mean depth was ascertained by crossing 
 the sea in seven different directions, noting the soundings at 
 short intervals along each line, and then taking an average 
 of the whole. This may answer well enough in the present 
 state of the question ; but greater accuracy might have been 
 obtained by priming the chart paper with linseed-oil, and 
 some preparation of lead, to increase its weight. An ex- 
 ample of the treatment may suffice : — 
 
 Measured Surface of Measured Surface 
 
 Basin. we jt f Log. 8ections , Log. »& M Log. of sea 
 
 of the y as compared * of sea u 
 
 sections. above. only. 
 
 deduced. 
 
 tion. 
 
 Grains. Statute miles. Grains. Sq.stat. miles. 
 
 Western 518'57 .. 2-7148074 .. 331,257 .. 5-5201651 .. 509-20 .. 2-7068884 .. 325,272 
 
 Adriatic 91-30 .. ) -9604708 .. 54,147 .. 47335744 .. 89-06 .. 1-9496827 .. 52,819 
 
 other treat- Some of the methods of bringing out the deductions 
 tt^ques- about to be given, are considerably altered from those used 
 by Halley, because — I. A day is too short a period : a 
 whole year should be taken as a cycle, in which all the va- 
 rying temperatures of the different seasons complete their 
 rounds, and become equalized. II. As the initial or start- 
 ing point is 01 inch evaporated in twenty-four hours, there 
 was no occasion for leaving this linear measure, and going 
 to measures of capacity and weight — as wine-pints and tons; 
 
METHOD OF TREATMENT. 
 
 149 
 
 more especially as all the other quantities are in measures Conditions 
 of length : and by keeping to one quantity throughout, the 
 subsequent correction of the result is so much the more 
 easy, should more correct experimental data be afterwards 
 procured. Taking, therefore, 0*1 inch in twenty-four hours 
 to be -000001515150 of an English statute mile in the 
 same length of time, and '0005533973 of a mile in one 
 year, the quantity evaporated is here given in cubic miles. 
 III. The evaporation about Alexandria must be so very 
 much greater than in the Sea of Azof, that in stating the 
 amount for each basin, some modification of the mean 
 quantity adopted for the whole Mediterranean, became 
 necessary. Considering, therefore, that under the equator 
 and a vertical sun the vaporization would be a maximum, 
 and that under the perpetual ice at the pole it would be 
 nothing, the amount may safely be assumed to vary as the 
 cosine of the latitude — the 0*1 inch in twenty-four hours 
 being considered the quantity at 40° of polar altitude. On 
 that principle, therefore, the evaporated quantities of each 
 basin have been modified according to their distance above 
 or below 40 degrees of latitude ; and the following are the 
 results — 
 
 Division. 
 
 The Western Basin 
 The Adriatic Sea . 
 The Levant Basin . 
 The Archipelago 
 
 Mean 
 latitude. 
 
 39° 00' 
 42 30 
 34 30 
 
 37 45 
 
 'he Sea of Marmora 40 40 
 
 The Black Sea . 
 The Sea of Azof 
 
 43 45 
 46 15 
 
 Mediterranean total 
 
 Area in 
 square 
 miles. 
 
 , 325,272 
 
 52,819 
 
 518,755 
 
 75,291 
 
 4,644 
 
 159,431 
 
 13,075 
 
 1,149,287 
 
 Depth in 
 miles ? 
 
 •9 
 1 
 
 •1 
 
 •05 
 
 •107 
 
 •0079 
 
 Cubic Annl. evap. 
 contents in in cubic 
 cubic miles ? 
 
 292,744 
 
 5,282 
 
 311,253 
 
 7,529 
 
 232 
 
 17.059 
 
 102-9 
 
 634,201-9 
 
 inches. 
 
 180-66 
 
 28-13 
 
 308-84 
 
 43-01 
 
 254 
 
 83-20 
 
 653 
 
 652-91 
 
 In conclusion : — Halley also attempted to get at the Evapora- 
 quantity returned in the form of showers. This he hoped 
 to obtain by calculating the tons of water brought down by 
 the various Mediterranean rivers ; of which, taking about 
 half a dozen, and estimating that each brings down ten 
 times as much water as the Thames, he finds the evapora- 
 
150 CONCLUSIONS ON HALLEY'S THEORY. 
 
 tion more than sufficient to meet the supply. Hence, some 
 have imagined danger, from an inevitable and constant 
 concentration of brine. 
 
 River pro- Now these assumptions are desperately inaccurate, since 
 
 his stated capacity of the rivers is involved in error ; the 
 Nile alone being considered to deliver annually into the 
 Mediterranean a body of water about 250 times that which 
 flows out of the Thames ; and the estimated lengths of the 
 two principal streams, compared with the Thames as unity, 
 are Danube 7, and Nile 12f times. Starting with his 
 diminutive quantity of 01 inch in twenty-four hours, we 
 may put that down as equivalent to 36*523 inches in the 
 course of a year, a normal point in Halley's computations, and 
 more than the quantity now assigned for the mean fall of 
 rain for the whole temperate region of the old world, which 
 
 Rain. is 34 inches. Yet, although the fall of rain differs widely 
 in the various Mediterranean countries — especially as re- 
 gards the vicinity of the Atlantic on the west, or the arid 
 shores to the south — the average annual quantity, care- 
 fully estimated from the evidence of many registers, is 
 under twenty inches per annum; so that the evaporated 
 water, after having returned twenty inches by precipitation 
 to whence it was extracted, has 16,523 inches to spare for 
 distribution over a space of land of equal extent with the 
 sea. And when we augment the 16*523 of Mediterranean 
 rain, on account of the powerful energy of atmospheric pre- 
 cipitation, that must be derived from the vast volumes of 
 vapour ever rolling in from the Atlantic Ocean, there is 
 evidently an abundant supply, even on the Halleian data, for 
 the whole of those countries which drain into the Inner Sea. 
 
 Remark in Still, assuming — as we have reason to do — that the 
 ' main exit of the surplus water of this sea is by evaporation, 
 then to get the actual quantity evaporated in one year, we 
 ought to measure all the water that falls into it at the 
 mouths of all the rivers, and at the Straits of Gibraltar and 
 the Dardanelles; and if to this we were to add the real 
 
MEDITERRANEAN CURRENTS. 151 
 
 contemporaneous fall of rain, then, and then only, would 
 the required quantity be obtained. Meantime it may be 
 implicitly relied upon, that all is right, for it is evident that 
 Nature comprehends the exquisite system of compensation, 
 and knows no waste. 
 
 § 4. On the Currents of the Mediterranean. 
 
 T)Y the term ' currents' is understood those progressive Currents. 
 4-J movements of the water by which vessels, or anything 
 floating upon it, are carried in their direction, and precisely 
 with their own velocity, when no wind prevails. Currents 
 differ essentially from tides, in deriving their motion from 
 other causes than solar and lunar attraction ; and in their 
 constant circulation they traverse extensive regions, where 
 they necessarily emit or imbibe heat. But though it is in- 
 ferred that currents may extend to a vast depth, our exact 
 acquaintance with them is nearly confined to the super- 
 natant effects only. They appear to be in continual motion Motion and 
 in a certain direction ; yet their course must be treated 
 with relation to the points of divergence and convergence 
 of their route, for it is well known that irregularities of 
 outline in the shore, without any reference to elevation or 
 depression, have very considerable consequences in modify- 
 ing the action of the sea, by turning the course of both 
 current and tidal streams. It may readily be inferred that 
 currents perform important offices in the grand economy of 
 nature, disturbing the general hydrostatic pressure, render- 
 ing the fluid favourable to submarine vegetation and pisca- 
 tory life, and preventing stagnation by agitating the waters : 
 but we are still in comparative ignorance of them, for their 
 extent, direction, depth, strength, and temperature are very 
 various, and often fluctuating. Currents are always named 
 after the points of the compass towards whicli they run or 
 
152 COMPARATIVE SEA-LEVEL. 
 
 set ; being therein exactly the reverse of wind, which is 
 designated according to the point from which it blows. 
 
 That progressive movement of the waters in the Medi- 
 terranean which is independent of tide, and constitutes a 
 true current, is more remarkable for constancy than strength, 
 except in places where local peculiarities exert a peculiar 
 influence, and prevailing winds occasion a difference of 
 level. We have just seen that evaporation has so powerful 
 an action as probably to cause a general proportional de- 
 pression of surface, and thus give rise to the principal 
 phenomena already mentioned. From obvious causes, this 
 Inner Sea is, for the greater part of its extent, warmer, 
 both in summer and winter, than the Atlantic, which there- 
 fore flows into it ; at the same time, the Black Sea is 
 somewhat colder than the Mediterranean, and consequently 
 flows into it also. 
 Relative In all ages, wherever there are two neighbouring seas, 
 
 seal it has been customary to consider that one was more 
 elevated than the other ; and till very lately, the operations 
 of modern inquirers countenanced the time-honoured 
 opinion. Thus the early philosophers were borne out by 
 Toaldo, in their notion that the Mediterranean was much 
 higher than the Atlantic — thus Count Marsigli, the volu- 
 minous historian of the Danube, showed that the ancients 
 were justified in asserting that the Euxine was thirty or 
 forty feet above the ordinary level of the iEgean — thus 
 M. Fauvel confirmed the opinion given by the engineers of 
 old to Demetrius Poliorcetes, that so great a difference in 
 height existed between the gulfs of Egina and Corinth, 
 that it would be dangerous to cut across the isthmus which 
 divides them — and thus the observations of the French 
 Egyptian Institute were supposed to prove that the surface 
 of the Ked Sea is neither more nor less than twenty-eight 
 feet higher than the Levant Basin ; whence it followed that 
 the ancients were right. 
 
 But what broken reeds are occasionallv trusted to ! 
 
COMPARATIVE SEA-LEVEL. 153 
 
 Maraldi and Cassini pronounced the Mediterranean, as Observers, 
 ascertained by them, to be exactly one toise higher than 
 the Atlantic : the hall of the Paris observatory being forty- 
 six toises above the ocean, and forty-five above the Inner 
 Sea. Shortly afterwards, Count Morozzo showed that the 
 Adriatic must be more elevated than the Mediterranean 
 (Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences at Turin, 1788) ; 
 and recently the still more precise observations of Delambre, 
 Me'chain, Gauttier, myself, and MM. Corabceuf, Peytier, 
 and Bourdaloue, have proved, by successive reductions of 
 height, that in all and each of those places, the waters in 
 repose have surfaces of so nearly the same level, that 
 the differences are but barely ascertainable by our present 
 improved instruments and methods of determination.* 
 We must therefore look to all other probable causes 
 for currents, besides a difference of level ; and however 
 narrow the communication between the two seas may be, 
 the Mediterranean is still part and parcel of the one vast 
 expanse called the ocean :f and whatever may permanently 
 affect the level of the one, must eventually affect the surface 
 of the other also. The hypothesis, therefore, as to a durable 
 depression of an actual branch of that ocean, will not stand 
 the test of sound inquiry : were the Mediterranean always 
 much lower than the Atlantic, it would be impossible for 
 the current ever to set out of it, agreeably to the laws of 
 hydrostatics, unless the body of waters should be influenced 
 by winds or the attractions which cause tides. 
 
 Besides the Halleian doctrine of evaporation, which supposed 
 evidently solves much of the theorem, we must now bring current, 
 forward the argument of other writers, that an under- 
 
 * By General Monteith's experiments with boiling water at the mouth 
 of the Kalla (Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. iii. p. 37), he 
 inferred that the Black Sea was precisely of the same level as the ocean, 
 since the point of ebullition was exactly equal to 212° of Fahrenheit's scale. 
 
 f Eustathius must have had currents in view when he derived the word 
 Ocean from (iueco)£ vnuv, to slide swiftly. 
 
154 THE SUPPOSED UNDER-CURRENT. 
 
 current — or one running counter to that at the surface — 
 exists ; which is presumed to carry a vast volume of fluid 
 back to the great ocean. I shall presently advance a fact or 
 two which may present obstacles to this, but in the mean 
 time a fair hearing shall be given to the hitherto received 
 statements : and it must be recollected, that to establish a 
 counter-current setting outwards below, unless a greater 
 gravity be conceded, it is necessary that the Mediterranean 
 water be of a lower temperature than that of the Atlantic, 
 for otherwise it must run out at the surface, and the supply 
 be received underneath. This is well known not to be the 
 case ; yet, in order to avoid prejudgment, the instances 
 usually brought forward shall be duly cited, for, without 
 denying the subcurrent assumption, I merely insist that 
 its existence is not yet proven. 
 Dr. smith. The first formal paper on the subject, that I am aware 
 
 of, was read before the Oxford Society on the 21st of 
 December, 1683, and is printed in the fourteenth volume 
 of the Philosophical Transactions. Dr. Smith mentions 
 the vast draught of water poured continually in, and says : 
 
 I here omit to speak of the several hypotheses, which have been invented 
 to solve this difficulty : such as subterranean vents, cavities, and indraughts, 
 exhalations by the sunbeams, the running out of the water on the African 
 side, as if there were a kind of circular motion of the water, and it only 
 flowed in upon the Christian shore : which latter I look upon as a mere 
 fancy, and contrary to all observation. My conjecture is, that there is an 
 undercurrent, whereby as great a quantity of water is carried out as comes 
 flowing in. 
 
 This shows, as Dr. Smith speaks of the several hypo- 
 theses, that the phenomenon had been under discussion, 
 and that the supposed existence of super and sub-currents 
 has long been received. But one of the most notable in- 
 stances in support of that opinion was afterwards brought 
 before the Koyal Society, and published in the thirty-third 
 volume of its Transactions. It is there stated that, in 
 Captain the year 17 J 2, M. de TAigle, 'that fortunate and generous 
 e ' commander of the privateer called the Phoenix, of Marseille/ 
 gave chase to a Dutch ship near Ceuta. On coming up 
 
THE SUPPOSED UNDER-CURRENT. 155 
 
 with her, he sunk her with a broadside, in the middle of Dutch ship 
 
 sunk. 
 
 the Gut between Tarifa and Tangier. A few days after, 
 the foundered ship, with her cargo of brandy and oil, floated 
 upon the shore near Tangier, at least four leagues to the 
 west of the spot where she had been sunk, and in direct 
 opposition to the surface-current. The fact is thus vouched 
 by Dr. Hudson, the communicant : — 
 
 I was at Gibraltar when this happened, where I saw above a hundred of 
 the butts of that cargo of brandy, which were sent thither from Tangier ; I 
 likewise spoke with the captain of the Dutch ship, who told the governor, 
 myself, and many others, where his vessel sunk ; and her rising afterwards 
 at Tangier appeared very unaccountable to us, as it does to me to this day : 
 for there is no doubt but the ship sunk where the Dutchman told us, since 
 the Spaniards from the land who saw it confirmed it to us. The water in 
 the Gut must be very deep, several of the commanders of our ships of war 
 having attempted to sound it with the longest lines they could contrive, but 
 never could find any bottom. 
 
 This very circumstantial evidence appeared to establish Remarks on 
 
 ■. i • i i • i i tms story- 
 
 the conclusion that there exists a recurrency in the deep 
 water in the middle of the strait, and certainly, to some of 
 the smaller philosophers, afforded as satisfactory a solution 
 of the problem as that of the unequal effect of evaporation, 
 the which must be an ever-varying operation of nature. 
 There are, however, two or three points of the deposition on 
 which we could have wished the Dutchman to have been 
 cross-examined, for we are left in the dark as to the why and 
 wherefore a merchantman should have incurred so spiteful 
 a broadside, how her people were saved, whether she was 
 water-logged instead of sunk, &c. &c. : and, by the way, we 
 regret that while Sir John Jennings had the combined 
 English and Dutch fleets inside the strait, and Vice- 
 Admiral Baker's squadron was just outside, a French 
 privateer should have been permitted thus to lord it in the 
 Gut. For a ship to founder with her cargo in a medium 
 incapable of supporting the load, and then rise again without 
 being specifically lighter, is contrary to hydrostatic laws. 
 A sinking vessel actually heavier than water, must go to 
 the bottom; but if, from her cargo being washed out, sin 
 
156 THE SUPPOSED UNDER-CURRENT. 
 
 is rendered lighter than the fluid in which she is immersed, 
 then she would float to the surface, and be amenable to the 
 laws of tides, winds, and gravitation, combined with local 
 circumstances. A ship cannot conveniently alter her gravity 
 so as to sink or float merely to confirm a paradox ; and in 
 the case before us, the Dutch vessel must have been water- 
 logged within the influence of the LATERAL set at the surface. 
 
 The Herme- In like manner, the wreck of the Spanish ship Hermene- 
 gildo, of 112 guns, which was blown up in action with 
 the squadron of Sir James Saumarez, in June, 1801, floated 
 into Tangier Bay three days after the explosion, with one 
 man still alive on board. On this occasion there appeared 
 to be some striking anomalies between the ebb and flood, 
 which so awakened the attention of Don Vicente Tofiiio, 
 that in the ensuing October, when peace had been ratified, 
 he sent his nephew, Captain Tofiiio, to gather information 
 at Tangier, where he was assiduously aided by Mr. Salmon ; 
 but I was unable to learn the result. 
 
 The Patton It is recorded, and much stress is laid on the fact, that 
 when the late Admiral Philip Patton, who died in 1815, 
 was Lieutenant of the Emerald, a 32-gun frigate, that ship 
 was overtaken by a gale of wind in approaching Gibraltar; 
 and at night was hove to, nearly in the middle of the 
 strait. Before daybreak she struck at the back of the 
 rock, where it was presumed that a counter current had 
 carried her. Here she had to ride it out within half a 
 cable's length of the breakers, and no room for even fresh- 
 ening the nip in the hawse; whence her destruction was 
 most probable. This narrow escape induced the Lieutenant 
 to study the currents of the strait with serious attention; 
 and while upon this inquiry, he endeavoured to ascertain 
 how far the theory of upper and under streams could be 
 sustained by experiment. On the ground that when two 
 fluids of specific gravities meet in a narrow channel, the 
 heavier will run out below at exactly the same rate as the 
 lighter will flow in from above, a number of bottles were 
 
 experi- 
 ment. 
 
PATTON'S EXPERIMENT. 157 
 
 filled with the water from the Atlantic at a distance from 
 all land, and another set of bottles were filled with water 
 from the inner part of the Mediterranean. Upon as accu- 
 rate a method of weighing as he could command, a flask 
 containing one pound, six ounces, and five drachms of the 
 ocean fluid, was considered to be thirteen grains lighter 
 than the same flask filled with an equal quantity of the 
 inner water. He also filled two decanters, of equal size, 
 with the respective fluids, one being slightly tinged with 
 ink, with their necks placed in a luting of putty ; when the 
 whole was held horizontally, the interchange of the heavy 
 water displacing the lighter, was thought sufficiently sen- 
 sible to justify an inference that the two liquids were of 
 unequal densities. From these experiments, which were 
 rather pains-taking than philosophical, Lieut. Patton came 
 to the conclusion, that the Mediterranean surcharge was 
 prevented by an ever-flowing undercurrent into the ocean.* 
 
 Having here given the plainest of the many proposi- Remark, 
 tions which have been advanced respecting this doubtful 
 subject, and, without presuming in the present state of our 
 knowledge of the question, to attempt casting the die, I 
 shall now continue my essay without any longer running 
 on the Scylla or Charybdis of this controversy. Locke, in 
 addressing the understanding, insists that ' doubtful posi- 
 tions relied upon as unquestionable maxims, keep those in 
 the dark from truth who build on them ; and to be indif- 
 ferent which of two opinions is true, is the right temper of 
 mind that preserves it from being imposed upon, and dis- 
 poses it to examine with that indifferency until it has done 
 its best to find out the truth/ — this sound axiom we com- 
 mend to the future investigator of any two theories. But 
 it will be remembered, that the notion of upper and under 
 
 * I made an unsuccessful endeavour to repeat the decanter experi- 
 ment, but with water taken from the surface, and at fifty fathoms of 
 depth. The fluid was vexatiously sluggish. 
 
158 THE STRAIT OF GIBRALTAR: 
 
 currents, has descended to us for many ages; and if we 
 
 accept the reasonings of Lucretius (JDe Rerum Natura, 
 
 lib. v.) it was not opposed to the cosmogony of Epicurus. 
 
 count It was, perhaps, a knowledge of this which led Count Rum- 
 
 Rumford. * , -, it • n • •% 
 
 ford to demonstrate, by direct experiment, that fluids of all 
 kinds, when heated to different temperatures in different 
 parts of their volume, must necessarily have an opposition 
 of currents : the warmer, from its rarefaction and specific 
 levity, occupying the upper, and the colder portion the 
 lower part. 
 Mediter- The Strait of Gibraltar is so remarkable, both to the 
 
 ranean in- 
 draught, navigator as well as to the geologist, that it becomes neces- 
 sary to treat it with greater detail than will be requisite in 
 other cases : and, although the F return Herculeum was 
 applied to the space between Cape Trafalgar and Spartel 
 on the west, and from Gibraltar to Ceuta on the east, a 
 more enlarged hydrographical view authorizes us to extend 
 the western mouth of that magnificent ocean-channel to 
 Cape St. Vincent on the north, and to Cape Cantin on the 
 south. This assumed breadth of entrance is the more ne- 
 cessary, since the whole of its waters are affected by the 
 draught into the Mediterranean. On this head, my vene- 
 Major Ren- rable friend, the late Major Rennell, entertained an opinion 
 that there is a general tendency of the Atlantic waters be- 
 tween 30° and 45° of north latitude, and from 100 to 130 
 leagues off the land, to move towards the Strait of Gibral- 
 tar at a rate of not less than from fourteen to seventeen 
 miles in twenty-four hours. Now, though extreme cases 
 might occur during a long prevalence of particular winds, 
 wherein such an indraught would be appreciable to nice 
 experiment, and outward-bound vessels from the English 
 channel might find themselves rather to the east of their 
 reckoning, the Major's assumption must be received cum 
 grano sails; especially if depth be admitted as a condition 
 of these 400,000 square miles. Another friend, enlarging 
 upon Rennell, considers the gulf-stream as the primary 
 
ITS DIMENSIONS AND DEPTHS. 159 
 
 mover of the Strait current ; but when he reflects that the 
 Gulf stream is strongest under easterly gales, and is gene- 
 rally much weaker in winter than in summer, he must 
 perceive that his position is unstable, and that the inflow is 
 occasioned by some local cause exclusively connected with 
 the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 Such being the natural entrance of this Strait, the true Gibraltar 
 boundaries of its narrows, designated the Gut, are between 
 the capes of Trafalgar and Spartel, which are twenty-two 
 miles apart — the isle of Tarifa and Alcazar point, nine-and- 
 a-quarter miles — and Gibraltar and Ceuta, which are twelve 
 miles distant from each other ; the whole occupying a 
 length of about thirty-five miles. These three form the 
 principal stations for averaging a breadth; and the local 
 peculiarities are necessary to a full inquiry as to how much 
 the current owes to differences in the specific gravity of the 
 contiguous waters — how much to the depth and form of 
 bottom — what to the density of the several media — and 
 what to the fluctuations of atmospheric pressure. Such 
 inquiries were of course beyond my time and means, for it 
 must be borne in mind that I was only correcting a nauti- 
 cal chart for the use of navigators : but, in the hope that 
 my observations may aid philosophical researches, I may 
 state that, in a line between the two first-named points, the 
 body of the stream is of much less depth than it is to the Depths of 
 
 ' . . the Strait. 
 
 eastward, as it carries but from twenty to seventy fathoms 
 to half the distance across from Spain : and even the 
 deepest part between that seventy fathoms and Cape Spar- 
 tel, is but 220 fathoms. A few miles more within, the 
 channel has not above 160 fathoms at the greatest; but 
 between Tarifa and Alcazar point, it deepens to 500, and im- 
 mediately beyond, gets to 700. This depth rapidly increases 
 towards the Mediterranean Sea, and is 950 fathoms in mid- 
 distance between Gibraltar and Ceuta ; and as there is no 
 bottom with 1000 fathoms of line up-and-down (upwards 
 of 1300 payed out), a little farther to the eastward, it is 
 
160 
 
 SECTION OF THE STRAIT. 
 
 clear that the bottom, from the meridian of Cape la Plata, 
 forms an inclined plane, through which a mid-channel sec- 
 tion of eleven lengths to one depth, appears thus : — 
 
 Cape la Plata. Tarifa. Gibraltar. Fathoms. 
 
 Remark. 
 
 Velocity of 
 the cur- 
 rent. 
 
 A glance at this singular formation at once throws doubt 
 on Dr. Wollaston's position, insomuch, that on hearing of 
 the conclusion he had formed, I wrote a particular state- 
 ment for him ; but when it was received, he was upon his 
 deathbed. His executors, therefore, returned the paper 
 to me, and I forthwith sent it to Sir Charles Lyell, who 
 was then compiling his well-known work — the Principles 
 of Geology. Hence the conclusion on page 131. 
 
 When to this underwater abyss we add the roots of the 
 mighty Atlas chain on one side, and the elevated tabled 
 barrier formed by Spain on the other, the feature of the 
 strait is still more surprising. In its narrowest part, the 
 central stream may be about four miles in width, but, of 
 course, with variable limits; and its average rate of flowing 
 is from two to three miles per hour ; but Gibraltar pilots 
 have assured me, that they have known it to run, under 
 special circumstances, at upwards of five knots; which 
 being without proof, is rather assertion than fact. Its 
 course sets so constantly to the eastward, that a temporary 
 surface-current towards the Atlantic — which sometimes, 
 though very rarely, is known to occur — can hardly be 
 deemed an exception to the general rule : such an action 
 may result from westerly gales causing a partial elevation 
 of the oceanic waters, and consequent resurge on regaining 
 their usual level, or it may be effected by a superficial rise 
 from strong levanters, which, in either case, is entirely local. 
 
COUNTER STREAMS. 161 
 
 The solution of one part of the difficulty seems to be, that 
 by an extraordinary natural effort, there are two returning 
 or counter-lateral streams, one on each shore, so that a 
 very complex motion is constantly observable ; and these 
 remarkable streams being governed by lunar influence, 
 shall presently be treated as tides. Bat the phenomenon 
 of a strong middle-current setting inwards, while only two 
 feeble streams return in the opposite direction at given 
 times — a tidal reflux, far inferior to the quantity flowing in 
 — may be attributed to the pressure of a greater fluid mass 
 on a small body of water ; a pressure which, from the force 
 of its impulsion, must necessarily displace the upper strata 
 of the smaller mass. 
 
 The central current being established, and running from Effects of 
 
 tliG cur- 
 
 west to east, it consequently follows that the action must rent, 
 be felt on and in the neighbouring waters ; which it 
 assuredly is, though only to such a degree, and in the more 
 distant parts, as to be hardly appreciable in practical navi- 
 gation. The influence of the stream is sensibly experienced 
 inside as far as Cape de Gata, a distance of 150 miles, but 
 it gradually diminishes, being more diffused : yet it then 
 takes a direction not only according to the curves of the 
 coast, but also from the winds, especially those from the sea. coast of 
 About the vernal equinox, with winds between west-south- l pa " 
 west and north-west, we found that the current ran, along 
 the coast of Granada, at the rate of one knot an hour east- 
 wards ; after passing Cape Palos, it set to the east-south- 
 east ; and when we neared the Balearic Islands, it flowed 
 very gently to the north-east. In a word, the reaction 
 of the streams against the coast, with the operation of 
 winds, together with the variable currents induced by the 
 smaller straits in this sea, occasion lateral and adverse 
 ' sets' in all directions. But under ordinary circumstances, 
 and in settled weather, when the great Atlantic stream has 
 its usual course into the Mediterranean, the current moves 
 strongly east along the African coast, and across the bay of 
 
 M 
 
rent. 
 
 162 COAST CURRENTS. 
 
 Tunis, to the coast of Sicily: hence we may see why a 
 ship, sailing eastwards along the African shore, should be 
 generally ahead of her reckoning. 
 
 Remarks. These sea-motions, as our early hydrographers named 
 
 them, are everywhere sensibly affected by the prevalent 
 winds; as is strongly instanced in bights, inlets, and 
 channels — of which the Gulf of Lyons, the Riviera of 
 Genoa, the Faro of Messina, the upper portion of the 
 Adriatic, the Gulf of Corinth, the Euripus, the Syrian sea, 
 and the two Syrtes, are examples. Strong ripples resembling 
 breakers are frequently caused in the vicinity of the larger 
 islands, by the waves of one particular division meeting 
 those of another ■: often breaking in so confused a manner 
 as to account for many of the ideal shoals which find places 
 on charts, to the confusion of navigators. 
 
 sets of cur- After flowing along the shores of North Africa east- 
 wards — with occasional interruptions — the general current 
 sweeps by Syria and Karamania, and returning westwards, 
 sets out along the coasts of France and Spain, though in 
 many parts it is so sluggish, as to be almost imperceptible. 
 Strong winds from the north-west reverse this order of 
 things ; for then the stream sets in along the same coasts, 
 at times making strongly round the Gulf of Lyons, and 
 varying its course conformably to the contour of the coasts 
 of Provence, Languedoc, and Catalonia. Off Toulon the 
 easterly set was sometimes so strong after levanters, that the 
 inshore ships of our blockading fleet had considerable diffi- 
 culty in keeping their stations. In the sea of Tuscany, the 
 south-west winds occasion the greatest elevation of the 
 waters ; and a continuance of labeschades (e libeccio), or 
 gusty gales from that quarter, have been known to raise 
 the height of the surface no less than twelve feet above its 
 ordinary level. In the phrase of the pilots, the waters are 
 then up, and consequently occasion a strong surface-drift 
 through the Strait of Bonifaccio. 
 
 A curious feature of these shores, and one not uncon- 
 
SHIFTING BEACHES. 163 
 
 nected with currents, is the changeable nature of the Beaches, 
 beaches, especially at the mouth of the Var, and at Nice, 
 where the sea-margin is seen alternately consisting of large 
 shingle, fine sand, or small gravel, and, a few days after- 
 wards, coarse shingle again. This must be a consequence 
 of the fluent and refluent action of the surf upon the 
 materials composing the beach, according to the force of 
 the surges ; but the cause of that force has not yet been 
 satisfactorily investigated. M. Risso, the Savoyard natu- m. Risso. 
 ralist, had, even in fine weather, very frequently observed 
 the swell of the surf tumbling in something like the rollers 
 of the Atlantic. For this he could assign no cause, but he 
 assured me that the phenomenon was generally higher after 
 heavy rains in the Alps and Apennines — producing the rise 
 in the rivers called ' freshes' — than at any other time ; and 
 therefore an unequal atmospheric pressure might contribute 
 to the effect, by causing a circulation of the waters below ; 
 for as a surf sets, it acts from this cause on the ground 
 at some distance in the offing ; but its returning action 
 having a tendency to restore the level by reverberation, is 
 almost confined to the surface, and has no effect on the 
 bottom. The sea-motions are certainly sensible at a depth 
 of twenty-five fathoms. 
 
 Though inferior in importance, the Strait of Messina Faro of 
 
 i • • Messina. 
 
 has occupied the attention ol philosophers lor as many ages 
 as that of Gibraltar ; and the laws of its current are still 
 among the desiderata of physical inquiry. While most of 
 the ancient reasoners on the subject only gave us terrible 
 pictures of the dangers of navigating the Mamertinum 
 /return, Eratosthenes ascribed the cause of the bewildering 
 currents and counter-currents to a difference of level in the 
 vicinity, especially insisting that the descending waters 
 flowed from the higher Tyrrhenian sea: and Aristotle 
 follows on the same ground. But as the effect has been 
 proved to be influenced by the attractions of both sun and 
 moon, the subject will be resumed in the next section. 
 
 M 2 
 
164 THE MAROBIA. 
 
 Here, however, we will step for a moment to the opposite 
 coast of Sicily, and introduce a strange current, thus recorded 
 in my account of Sicily, page 224 : — 
 
 Marobia. The Marobia is an extraordinary phenomenon, most probably deriving 
 
 its name from Mare ubbriaco, or drunken sea, as its movement is apparently 
 very inconsistent ; it occurs principally on the southern coast of Sicily, and 
 is generally found to happen in calm weather, but is considered as the 
 certain precursor of a gale. The Marobia is felt with the greatest violence 
 at Mazzara, perhaps from the contour of the coast. Its approach is 
 announced by a stillness in the atmosphere, and a lurid sky ; when suddenly 
 the water rises nearly two feet above its usual level, and rushes into the 
 creeks with amazing rapidity, but in a few minutes recedes again with equal 
 velocity, disturbing the mud, tearing up the sea-weed, and occasioning a 
 noisome effluvia ; during its continuance the fish float quite helpless on the 
 turbid surface, and are easily taken. These rapid changes (as capricious in 
 their nature as those of the Euripus), generally continue from thirty minutes 
 to upwards of two hours ; and are succeeded by a breeze from the southward, 
 which quickly increases to heavy gusts. This phenomenon may be occasioned 
 by a westerly wind blowing, at some distance in the ofling, towards the 
 north coast of Sicily, and a south-east wind, at the same time, in the channel 
 of Malta, the meeting of which would take place between Trapani and Cape 
 San Marco. I advance this idea, because the westerly wind most usually 
 precedes, and the south-east succeeds, the Marobia. 
 
 In addition to this I ought to have added, that it was 
 
 during a turbulent marobia that H.M. ship Raven, of 18 
 
 guns, was lost on Cape Granitola, on the 6th of January, 
 
 1804: and this was the * unusual current' of Captain 
 
 Swaine's defence, at the consequent court-martial of inquiry 
 
 into the loss. When very violent, its effects of action and 
 
 reaction are felt even on the opposite coast of Barbary. 
 
 Central cur- This central and important portion of the Mediterranean 
 
 forms the passage or channel of communication between 
 
 the Western and the Eastern Basins ; and with respect to 
 
 the prevalent ' sea-motions' by which it is affected, I have 
 
 only to repeat what was published in my account of Sicily 
 
 (page 184), so long ago as 1824. It is there stated that the 
 
 currents 
 
 arising from the constant evaporation and the action of the winds, observe 
 no regularity, rising a foot or two, according to the weather and the pecu- 
 liarities of locality and depth ; thus the north-west wind, raking the shores, 
 promotes a strong set to the south-east ; while the south-western, which is 
 here very sensibly felt during the vernal equinox, causes strong counter- 
 
CHANNEL OF MALTA. 165 
 
 currents ; and at length, on its changing to the opposite quarter, the whole 
 
 body of water rushes to the westward with considerable velocity 
 
 In long-settled weather, the currents between Sicily and the Barbary shore, 
 and from thence to the westward of Galita, run to the eastward at the rate 
 of from half a mile to a mile an hour. In the channel of Malta, the south- 
 east current has occasionally been so strong, that ships have found it difficult 
 to beat up to Maritimo ; while others, driven to leeward of Malta, have been 
 obliged to carry a press of sail in order to hold their own, until a change of 
 wind enabled them to make the island again. Another proof of the influence 
 of this current is, that ships stretching over from Cape Passaro to Valetta, 
 with a northerly wind, usually keep a point higher, to ensure fetching it. 
 
 Between Malta and Tripoli, the current generally sets 
 to the southwards and eastwards ; but between Malta and 
 Tunis, a prevalence of south-east winds throws the waters 
 upwards to the barrier formed by Adventure Bank and 
 the Skerkis, where, beside that impediment, meeting the 
 general easterly set from Gibraltar, the current sweeps 
 away northwards, at the rate of about a knot and a half 
 per hour, while at other times the set is southerly. 
 
 The operation of the winds and waters in the Adriatic, Adriatic 
 
 currents. 
 
 is more uniform than in the parts just treated o£ The 
 current usually sets in along the Albanian and eastern 
 shores, sweeps round the head of the gulf from Trieste to 
 Venice — often at the rate of a knot an hour — by the 
 Romagna, and thence out again along the Italian shores, 
 with a somewhat diminished force ; but the Bora makes a 
 surcharge of a foot or two on these latter coasts. This 
 general action is accompanied by a sufficient tidal influence 
 to cause a variety of local sets, called ligazzi, some of which 
 prevail right across, a natural consequence of the contour 
 of this sea, and the islands which stud it; but these variable 
 streams are neither rapid nor dangerous. Much has been 
 written on the subject by the Venetian pilot, Vicenzo di 
 Luccio ; and he has not only described currents for the 
 different months in the year, but has gone so far as to give 
 almost an hourly course and velocity for them. When in 
 the ' City of the Sea/ I made inquiry for this Signor di 
 Luccio, but without effect, for as his details — however 
 
166 THE COAST OF GREECE. 
 
 particular — have the air of mere arbitrary assumption, I 
 
 was desirous of a viva voce explanation. 
 
 Ionian cur- Although, the Ionian Sea feels the general set of the 
 rents. . , . . 
 
 main current, there is sometimes a surface-run to the 
 
 southwards, which is retarded or increased according to the 
 nature and degree of the offing gales. A stream is generally 
 running through the fine channel of Corfu, which is remark- 
 ably influenced by the wind ; when it blows pretty strong 
 from the north, the waters set to the southward at the rate 
 of 1^ or 2 knots an hour, and it occasions a fall in the level 
 of from three to four feet : a southerly wind raises it to 
 about the same height, and the current then sets northwards. 
 But this is not confined to the channel, although it is there 
 the most marked, for over the whole Ionian Sea, southerly 
 winds cause an extraordinary rise of about a foot, and 
 northerly ones a fall of about the same amount ; but if they 
 are strong and continuous, the elevation and depression are 
 naturally greater. Still the traces of tidal action are 
 extremely faint ; for even the remarkable ingress and 
 egress from this sea into the Gulf of Arta (the commercial 
 value of which is detailed in a memoir written by General 
 Vaudoncourt; their supposed full-and-change days have 
 been stated by others) can hardly, from present data, be 
 yet considered as a regular tide, since the sets are known 
 to be more influenced by the winds than by our satellite. 
 A stream runs into the Gulf with the sea-breeze by day, and 
 in the night, when the land-winds prevail, the water returns 
 outwards. Tidal action is more decidedly marked just 
 below, in the Gulf of Corinth, although the current move- 
 ments are not dissimilar in cause and effect from those of 
 Arta, for the strength of the set and the height of rise 
 depend on the direction and force of the wind, the current 
 running most strongly when it is blowing down the Gulf, 
 and often taking a direction against the wind. On many 
 occasions, the meeting of the waters of Patras and Corinth, 
 under the influence of the offing and gulf winds, causes a 
 
BLACK SEA CURRENTS. 167 
 
 broken foam across the narrow channel at the entrance of 
 the Gulf of Lepanto, and a considerable swell. In running 
 through this, the agitation reminded me of that well-known 
 and often dangerous spot called the bridge, between Drake's 
 Isle and Mount Edgecumbe, at Plymouth, though the 
 apparent causes differ widely. 
 
 In approaching the Archipelago, and from thence the Ajchipe- 
 coasts of Asia Minor and Syria, many peculiarities are currents, 
 observable in the currents, of which the principal is the 
 action of the waters descending from the Euxine, through 
 the numerous inter-insular channels of the Cyclades, upon 
 the main current which sets along those coasts westwards. 
 On the north coast of Candia, it is observed that, with the 
 wind blowing strong from the west for any continuance, 
 the waters rise two or three feet above their common level ; 
 and with the wind from north or east, they fall two feet 
 below that level, the effect of the westerly set acting on the 
 usual conditions of surcharge and discharge. The whole of 
 the Archipelago, however, is affected from the north-east ; 
 for the Black Sea, receiving a greater accumulation of water 
 from its tributary rivers than is withdrawn from it by 
 evaporation, pours out a constant and copious stream 
 through the Sheitan akindi-si, or Satan's current, into the 
 sea of Marmora, whence — an expansive surface being 
 offered to exhalation — the discharge through the Hellespont, 
 though still considerable, is perceptibly less rapid, but very 
 constant. 
 
 The water of the Black Sea has a lower specific gravity Currents in 
 
 the lilack 
 
 (1 -01418) than that of the other Mediterranean basins, a sea. 
 fact which proves that it is not liable to much evaporation. 
 The overflowing current just alluded to, which, especially 
 from the mouth of the Dnieper and the Danube, runs 
 rapidly through the entrance of the Thracian Bosphorus, 
 the rate being estimated at from three to five knots per 
 hour according to the prevalent direction and force of the 
 winds, makes counter-currents and eddies along the sinu- 
 
168 CURRENTS IN THE LEVANT. 
 
 osities and points by which it is diverted in its course. 
 From the relatively small amount of salt in these waters, 
 the shallower parts of the Euxine are sometimes frozen ; 
 and the Sea of Azof, into which the inundating Don 
 (Tcmais) and the many branches of the Kuban dis- 
 charge themselves, is frozen over during three or four 
 months of the year, so that laden sledges and troops of 
 people pass and repass upon it. 
 
 The Levant. It has been pretty fairly established, that owing to the 
 action of the main or general current, a set constantly runs 
 by Cyprus and along the coast of Karamania to the north 
 and west : whence, a ship leaving Malta, and bound to 
 Smyrna or the Dardanelles, on meeting a strong north- 
 easter off Cerigo, as is so often the case, instead of beating 
 against the drain of current then setting down from the 
 Dardanelles, would, at no loss of time, stretch away to the 
 south-east, as far as Alexandria, nearly with an easterly 
 current, and so along the coast of Syria with the northerly 
 set. At times between Rhodes and the mainland, in conse- 
 quence again of the effect of a prevailing north-east wind 
 sweeping the whole surface of the other parts of the Archi- 
 pelago for nearly two-thirds of the year, the current is liable 
 to run like a sluice ; insomuch that in a calm, a ship may 
 be carried up to the north, by carefully looking out for 
 eddies, and keeping within the islands near and after 
 
 sir f. Beau- passing Rhodes. Sir Francis Beaufort, when Captain of 
 the Frederiksteen frigate, made some very judicious obser- 
 vations on the currents of this part of the sea: he also 
 made an experiment on the under-currents, which I regret 
 not having heard of before I quitted the station, or that 
 simple and ingenious operation should have been repeated 
 in other places. His words are, — 
 
 From Syria to the Archipelago there is a constant current to the west- 
 ward, slightly felt at sea, but very perceptible near the shore, along this 
 part of which it runs with considerable but irregular velocity : between 
 Adratchan Cape and the small adjacent island, we found it set one day 
 almost three miles an hour ; and the next, without any assignable cause for 
 
ADMIRAL BEAUFORT'S EXPERIMENT. 169 
 
 such a change, not half that quantity. The configuration of the coast will 
 perhaps account for the superior strength of the current about here : the 
 great body of water, as it moves to the westward, is intercepted by the 
 western coast of the Gulf of Adalia ; thus pent up and accumulated, it 
 rushes with augmented violence toward Cape Khelidonia, where, diffusing 
 itself in the open sea, it again becomes equalized. 
 
 The cause, the progress, and the termination of this current would form 
 an interesting subject for future investigation. To trace its connexion with 
 the volume of water which enters by the Straits of Gibraltar, with the influx 
 of the currents from the Euxine, and with the effect of the Nile, and of the 
 numerous though small rivers of Asia Minor, will require a series of corre- 
 sponding observations on both sides of the Mediterranean. The counter- 
 currents, or those which return beneath the surface of the water, are also 
 very remarkable ; in some parts of the Archipelago they are at times so 
 strong as to prevent the steering of the ship ; and in one instance, on sink- 
 ing the lead when the sea was calm and clear, with shreds of bunting of 
 various colours attached to every yard of the line, they pointed in different 
 directions all round the compass. 
 
 The main current, as already said, sweeps from Gibraltar Currents 
 
 along 
 
 along the African shores, modified by the several sinuosities ; North 
 but regaining its regular course along the coast of Lybia, it 
 flows by Alexandria, and, trending north-eastwards, makes 
 for the shore of Syria, and in its advance seems to acquire 
 new strength. There is frequently a strong outset from 
 Abukir Bay, and variable flaws off Damietta; but the 
 grand outlet of the Nile has great influence around. The 
 northerly winds which prevail in summer, carry with them 
 the vapours raised from the Mediterranean — though without 
 forming regular clouds — over the valley and low ranges of 
 the Egyptian hills, as far as the Abyssinian Alps and the 
 lofty mountains beyond ; where, being cooled and con- 
 densed, they fall in rain, and are in some measure carried 
 back to their native sea by the periodical inundations of 
 the Nile. The overflowing generally begins at the end of 
 June, sometimes from a fortnight to a month later, and 
 continues for above two months, after which it gradually 
 subsides. The river rises from fourteen to twenty-three feet 
 in vertical height, and the volume of water which it carries 
 into the sea is twenty times greater in its latter than in its 
 former state ; insomuch that during the full surcharge — as 
 before stated — potable water may be baled on the surface 
 
170 MOUTHS OF THE NILE. 
 
 of the Mediterranean, even out of sight of land. Here the 
 current exerts itself on the large quantity of alluvial sub- 
 stances brought down by the Nile, and drifting the sediment 
 eastwards, exerts its silt-depositing property (before alluded 
 to in page 8) with such effect, that rapid accretions along 
 the Syrian shores, thereby leaving Tyre and Sidon inland, 
 are directly traceable to it. Indeed, this is so palpable as 
 scarcely to require the eye of the geologist, for I have seen 
 the waters discoloured with impurities for many leagues; 
 and in 1801, a rather alarming phenomenon was encoun- 
 h. m. ship tered here by H. M. frigate Romulus, commanded by 
 Captain Culverhouse, on her passage from Acre to Abukir 
 Bay. It is thus related by Dr. E. D. Clarke, who was then 
 a passenger on board : — 
 
 July 26th. — This day, being Sunday, we accompanied Captain Culver- 
 house to the gun-room, to dine with his officers, according to his weekly 
 custom. As we were sitting down to dinner the voice of a sailor employed 
 in heaving the lead was suddenly heard calling ' half four /' The captain, 
 starting up, reached the deck in an instant, and almost as quickly putting 
 the ship in stays, she went about. Every seaman on board thought she 
 would be stranded. As she came about, all the surface of the water ex- 
 hibited a thick black mud : this extended so widely, that the appearance 
 resembled an island. At the same time, no land was really visible, not even 
 from the masthead, nor was there any notice of such a shallow in any chart 
 on board. The fact is, as we learned afterwards, that a stratum of mud, 
 extending for many leagues off the mouths of the Nile, exists in a moveable 
 deposit near the coast of Egypt ; and when recently shifted by currents, it 
 sometimes reaches quite to the surface, so as to alarm mariners with sudden 
 shallows where the charts of the Mediterranean promise a considerable depth 
 of water. These, however, are not in the slightest degree dangerous. 
 Vessels no sooner touch them than they become dispersed ; and a frigate 
 may ride secure, where the soundings would induce an inexperienced pilot 
 to believe her nearly aground. — (Clarice's Travels, vol. iii. p. 13.) 
 
 The circular motion of the current round the Mediter- 
 ranean, shown in the preceding remarks, appears to have 
 been first observed, or at least described, by the celebrated 
 Montanari. Geminiano Montanari, in the year 1681, — the same philo- 
 sopher to whom is attributed the discovery of the method 
 of determining the heights of mountains by means of the 
 barometer. It is therefore to be wished he had been the 
 first to detect that the rise and fall of waters — under either 
 
THE NATURE OF TIDES. 171 
 
 tides or surcharges — are also shown by that truly philoso- 
 phical instrument ; it being low water when the barometer 
 is highest, and vice versa. 
 
 § 5. On the Tides of the Mediterranean. 
 
 rpHE word ' tide" signifies properly the body of the oscilla- Tides. 
 -■- tion, and comprehends the difference between high and 
 low water ; tidal motion being rather the elevation of a wave 
 than an absolute transfer of water. The tide-wave differs 
 from the wind-wave, because it is the result of forces acting 
 both parallel to the surface and perpendicularly on the sur- 
 face of the sea ; whereas common waves are all occasioned by 
 lateral disturbances of wind, current, and terrestrial modifica- 
 tion. It therefore follows that, so far as their primary causes 
 are concerned, tides may be considered merely as alternate 
 elevations and depressions of the water, without any neces- 
 sary transfer from place to place ; but the whole being pro- 
 duced by an undulating motion, in which the surface swings 
 upon certain average curves, recalls the trite appearance 
 of the waves over a field of corn in a gale of wind. Never- 
 theless, although astronomical demonstration is strong 
 upon this point, practical observation of the phenomena 
 has shown that there is often a positive transfer of water 
 from one place to another ; and all waves which are pro- 
 duced by causes acting near the surface of the water — as 
 in the case of a shelving or gradually inclined shore — are 
 in so far impelled in a lateral direction, and the waves 
 then are consequently a propagation of motion through 
 that water. The above remarks must also be qualified by 
 recollecting that in the case of comparatively shallow water, 
 such as all seas may be called, the forces parallel to the 
 surface produce the greatest part of the effect: in a word, 
 that the horizontal transfer must considerably exceed tl.< 
 vertical movement 
 
172 MEDITERRANEAN TIDES. 
 
 Tides and currents are so similar in movement and 
 effect, and so constant in their operation, as to be in many- 
 cases difficult to distinguish ; yet they are so distinct in 
 cause, that a discrimination is here attempted, even where 
 those agents are difficult to investigate from want of action. 
 Anomalies. g manv causes contribute to the varied courses of the 
 waters, and so many interfere with the very slight indica- 
 tions of Mediterranean tides, that we are obliged to infer 
 rather than assert results of direct observation ; in this state 
 of knowledge it is therefore impossible to give any general 
 rule for the observable effect. My own time and attention 
 were necessarily more devoted to fixing latitudes and longi- 
 tudes, and delineating coasts and harbours, than to studying 
 the physics of this sea ; but I made a few experiment s T 
 which I hope may render the subject a peculiar object of 
 attention to some who have better means and more leisure. 
 Indeed, I have little doubt that a day will arrive when it 
 shall be proved that these inner-sea motions — except the 
 extreme local ones — are actually connected with those of 
 the great oceanic waters. The closely following up a few 
 apparent anomalies in this beautiful department, added to 
 the crowning tidal knowledge which may yet be expected 
 from our explorers in the Polar Sea — for which theoretical 
 science yearns — must inevitably lead to a clear perception 
 of all the phenomena presented by tides. 
 Me n d ean ra " ^ ne Mediterranean, though poetically termed a ' tideless 
 
 tides. sea ^ j s f ar £ rom b em g so m reality ; for accurate observa- 
 tion detects a sensible elevation and depression of its waters 
 — independent of currents, surface drift, or wind-raised 
 swells. This, if not wholly, is partly ascribable to the lunar 
 sympathy, as manifested by the alternate changing of the 
 stream, and a periodical rise and fall, somewhat coincident 
 with the oscillations of the Torricellian tube ; the lowest 
 Barometer. sur f ace accompanying a high barometer, and vice versa. 
 But as yet these are hardly admissible terms, for though 
 there are places — as Venice and Jerbah — where the fact of 
 a tide is shown in the amount and periodicity of its recur- 
 
APPARENT PARADOX. 173 
 
 rence, and others where it is obvious from not immediately 
 mingling with water differing in temperature, set, and 
 velocity, still the tides over most part of this sea are so 
 feeble and irregular as to be difficult to ascertain. Hence 
 it has been asked, if these motions are attributable solely Paradox, 
 to the attraction of heavenly bodies and centrifugal force, 
 how is it that the moon, which is acknowledged to have an 
 attractive power sufficient to move such vast bodies of 
 water as the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, should exert its 
 influence so slightly over the inner sea, that many will 
 hardly believe there are any tides in it ? To this the New- 
 tonian answers, The strait by which it communicates with Answer, 
 the ocean is so narrow, that it cannot in so limited a time 
 receive or discharge sufficient water to alter the elevation 
 of the whole surface sensibly : and he moreover insists, that 
 instead of the faintness of the Mediterranean tides being an 
 objection to the theory of planetary attractions, it is a fair 
 proof in its favour. For herein, the moon acting at the 
 same moment in all parts, diminishes the gravity of the 
 mass, while the difference of atmospheric pressure upon 
 such a sea may tend to obliterate any slight appearance of 
 tide that would occur if the pressure were uniform over the 
 whole surface. Over a large space the air is increased in 
 bulk, and consequently diminished in weight, by an almost 
 tropical heat, thereby occasioning mobility and alternation. 
 Yet there being little or no neighbouring water to move 
 forward and increase the liquid elevation — which is pro- 
 duced in other cases less by a vertical rise of the waters 
 attracted than by a lateral flowing of adjacent waters by 
 virtue of their greater density — there consequently can be 
 but weak tides in small seas, especially when the entrances 
 are comparatively narrow and shallow, and face the west, a 
 direction opposite to the general movement of the great 
 mundane tidal wave. 
 
 Still, although the Mediterranean tides are irregular, in Opinions of 
 many parts scarcely perceptible, and mostly so in consider- cieate. 
 able in a nautical point of view, that with a few exceptions 
 
174 ANCIENT OPINIONS. 
 
 they are scarcely worth appreciating, they are unquestion- 
 ahly interesting when physically considered, as exponents 
 of a general cause ; nor will it be forgotten that the theory 
 of tides was first studied on those very shores, even from 
 the time of Pytheas. Posidonius, who measured an arc of 
 the meridian, explained the ebbing and flowing of the sea 
 from the motion of the moon ; and he seems to have been 
 the earliest who declared the law of these phenomena, 
 although Caesar nearly at the same time (De Bello Gallico, 
 lib. iv.) alluded to the nature of spring tides, as being con- 
 nected with the moon s age. But assuredly Pliny advanced 
 on this subject almost all that was possible for human saga- 
 city, before Sir Isaac Newton unveiled the great law of the 
 universe, and demonstrated that the same force which guides 
 the planets in. their courses causes the waters to rise and fall. 
 Now Pliny had formally said, that the cause of the pheno- 
 mena is in the sun and moon — verum causa in sole lundque 
 — adding the remarkable assertion, that the moon exerts 
 her power as well under the earth as when she is seen aloft. 
 Tides at Among the most palpable of the Mediterranean tide- 
 
 ways are those in the Strait of Gibraltar, where various 
 anomalous eccentricities are found, in consequence of its 
 being the avenue between that sea and the ocean. While 
 in command of a gun-boat at the siege of Cadiz, I found 
 the tide-hour* in the bay to happen at two o'clock, or no 
 
 * In the present rage for foisting new terms into the vernacular techni- 
 cals of a working profession, both meaning and brevity should be sought : I 
 am therefore glad that Lieutenant Raper, in his ' Practical Navigation,' 
 has adopted this appropriate phrase (Ora del Porto of the Italians) for the 
 High water on Full and Change days of erst, and its recent substitute 
 Establishment of the Port. The word Pharonology has been introduced to 
 teach us where lighthouses stand; and an attempt is in hand to supersede 
 the time-honoured and appropriate term, Variation of the needle, by the 
 equivocal word Declination, which latter has been so long held by seamen 
 as belonging to the sun. Watershed is absurdly forced into geography, to 
 denote the highest ridges bounding the valleys of a country. It is a sort of 
 echo of the German word Wasserscheidung (Water separation) ; but shed, 
 either as a verb or a noun, has no such sense in English, and is almost 
 exclusively appropriated to the falling or dropping of tears or blood. ' Cul- 
 minating divisions' would better express what is meant. 
 
LATERAL TIDES OF GIBRALTAR. 175 
 
 less than two hours and a half sooner than all the tables in 
 1810 gave it to be ; in consequence of which the movements 
 of our flotilla at the siege were at first often embarrassed. By 
 my own observation, the full and change at Gibraltar occurs 
 at 12 h 50 m ; the rise at the former place ranging from eight 
 to twelve feet, and at the latter, as shown in the boat- 
 camber, from three to five feet. But between these two 
 stations, I was assured by Don Felipe Bauza, the hydro- Captain 
 grapher of the Spanish navy, that it is high water at Tarifa 
 at ll h 15 m , and under Cape Trafalgar at 5 h 40 m ; from 
 which it would seem that from Europa Point the flood sets 
 round Cape Carnero, and passing that headland flows to 
 Tarifa, in the vicinity of which it meets the tide coming 
 from the west off Cape Trafalgar, where it is low ebb when 
 it is high water at Tarifa. This is singular, but Bauza was 
 satisfied of the substantial truth of the facts. 
 
 On the southern coast of the strait, another tide runs Ceuta and 
 
 Tangier. 
 
 alongshore from Ceuta — where the tide-hour is at l h 45 m — 
 by Tangier, where it is flood at 12 h , to Cape Spartel and 
 its offing. These lateral streams average a distance from 
 the respective shores of more than a couple of miles, and 
 their rate of velocity varies from two to four knots per 
 hour, their regularity being interrupted by the prevalent 
 direction and force of the winds ; and their action in im- 
 pinging on the central current, occasions eddies and whirls 
 in the most prominent parts of the strait. But these 
 repercussions are so very transitory and changeable, often 
 not occurring at all, that, on being consulted, I could not 
 approve of General Don's allowing Ignazio Reiner, his pilot 
 at the Rock, to insert them in a chart for publication ; 
 and the same of the very useless tabulated floods and ebbs, 
 making time and tide rather more synonymous than, with 
 all their strong points of resemblance, we find them to be. 
 
 From what is thus advanced, it will be evident to the Proof of 
 seaman that, with a moderate wind, there will be no dim- uses, 
 culty, by watching the tides, in beating to the westward 
 
176 LATERAL TIDES OF GIBRALTAR. 
 
 through the strait. And upon such conviction I acted ; for 
 during the investment of Tarifa by the royalist general, 
 O'Donnell, in August, 1824, the besieged constitutionalists 
 were ill-advised enough to fire at an English merchant - 
 ship which was passing, whereby she incurred a detrimental 
 delay, and had she had any munitions of war on board, 
 would have been plundered, though the threat was softened 
 by a promise of bills in payment. On learning this, being 
 the senior naval officer at Gibraltar, I instantly despatched 
 h. m. sloop the Pandora, sloop of war, Captain William Gordon, to 
 
 Pandora. 
 
 expostulate with General Valdez, the commander of the 
 rebel garrison ; and I moreover directed Lieut. M'Causland, 
 in the mortar-boat Hamoaze, to lead the insulted trader 
 through the straits. The wind was then westerly, blowing 
 fresh at intervals ; but I assured both these officers that by 
 making short boards with the flood tide on the Spanish 
 shore, the passage would readily be effected. It being a 
 point of strict service in which promptness was requisite, 
 my wishes were cordially seconded : the Pandora quickly 
 brought an ample apology from the unhappy constitution- 
 alists — numbers of whom were destined to be shot in cold 
 blood a few days afterwards — and the Hamoaze succeeded 
 in beating through with the heavily-laden merchantman in 
 tow. This mortar-boat was but a tub of a vessel at best, 
 yet she thus performed a nautical feat, so far as I know, 
 then unprecedented. 
 Tides along On the Spanish coast inside the Mediterranean, the 
 of Spain, tides are certainly of the most moderate order ; and during 
 some long spells in Port Mahon, when our Toulon block- 
 ading fleet used to winter there, I found, after numerous 
 trials, that that fine harbour was barely affected, the ebbing 
 or flowing a foot or two being irregular, and evidently more 
 ascribable to winds than to lunar attraction. This was also 
 the opinion of Mr. Gaze, the master of the fleet ; who told 
 me, however, that a regular rise and fall had been detected 
 at Malaga, where it was flood at about 12 hours. This, in 
 
SCIPIO AT CARTHAGENA. 177 
 
 consequence of strong sea-winds while there, I was unable 
 to prove ; but the assertion was in a measure corroborated 
 by the captain of the port, although his notions as to the 
 distinction between a current and a tide were no£ of a 
 very definite character. / 
 
 There was another point which gave me more trouble Tide at car- 
 
 -n , / thagena. 
 
 than the allegation respecting Malaga, and it Was this : 
 Polybius, who is usually very exact as to what ho— per- 
 sonally knew, says that, at the siege of Carthagena by the 
 Romans, Scipio observed that a certain part of the walls 
 was left undefended when the tide fell ; as the besieged 
 judged the sea to be a sufficient barrier on that side. Now 
 I diligently attended to the historian's statement, because 
 it involves a greater rise and fall than is known along this 
 coast ; but no present evidence, either ocular or oral, would 
 lead to Scipio's conclusion. My experiments were made in 
 the inner floating-harbour, which appears to occupy the 
 site of the cothon which occasioned Doria's aphorism, 
 that June, July, and Carthagena were the best ports in 
 the Mediterranean. Here a fairly-placed tide-pole only 
 announced an alternation of about sixteen inches ; and the 
 pilots and fishermen of the spot knew of but little variation 
 from this amount, except in offing gales. But another 
 assertion offers a still greater puzzle ; for Polybius (lib. x.) 
 pointedly boasts that he can speak of Carthagena with 
 assurance, inasmuch as he takes his account, not from 
 hearsay, but from what he had himself seen and examined. 
 In this spirit he writes : ' The whole of this gulf takes the 
 character of a perfect harbour. For an island lies in its 
 mouth, and leaves on either side a narrow entrance ; as it 
 receives all the force of the swell from the sea, the whole 
 gulf remains entirely calm/ Now, as the term gulf cannot 
 allude to the cothon, or to the marshes then existing to the 
 north of it, this island can be no other than the bold and 
 rocky Scombrera ; but instead of being in front of the gulf, Scombrera. 
 it lies quite over on the south-east side, with the open bay 
 
 N 
 
178 SHORES OF FRANCE AND ITALY. 
 
 on the west, and a boat-passage between it and the main. 
 Polybius, however, might have viewed it from one of the 
 eastern eminences, whence it was apparently brought to 
 bear more centrally. This was a point which the late Dr. 
 
 Dr. Arnold. Thomas Arnold — although he admitted the general accu- 
 racy of Polybius — told me he would endeavour to ascertain 
 in his next vacation, as it was a part of Spain he should 
 like to visit : that vacation he never saw, for, within a 
 fortnight after he wrote to me, he was suddenly seized with 
 angina pectoris, which carried him off in a few hours, on 
 the 12th of June, 1842. 
 
 Along the Round the Mediterranean shores of France and Italy 
 
 shores of m * 
 
 France the tides are of little moment, the most exact observations 
 
 andltaly. . 
 
 giving only a foot or two ot rise from that cause ; but 
 though this may be accepted roundly, I am not inclined to 
 assign much weight to the tide-hours at Toulon, Spezzia, 
 and Naples, which are respectively given as 3 h 30 m , l h 45 m 
 and ll h 20 ra , because there was considerable inconsistency 
 in the accounts placed before me by General Visconti, who 
 assured me that Sir Charles Blagdon's time for full and 
 change at Naples — between the hours of nine and ten 
 (Philosophical Transactions for 1793) — is erroneous. The 
 tides, however, and the currents caused by them, in the 
 Faro of beautiful Stretto Mamertino. or Faro of Messina, demand 
 
 Messina. 
 
 an express mention ; I shall therefore repeat what was 
 published, for the most part, nearly thirty years ago, in 
 my account of Sicily and its Islands, especially as the 
 appended details are not irrelevant to this inquiry : 
 
 As the breadth across this celebrated strait has been so often disputed, I 
 particularly state that the Faro tower is exactly 6047 English yards from 
 Scylla. that classical bugbear, the Rock of Scylla, which, by poetical fiction, has 
 
 been depicted in such terrific colours, and to describe the horrors of which, 
 Phalerian, a painter, famous for his nervous representation of the awful 
 and the tremendous, exerted his whole talent. But the flights of poetry 
 can seldom bear to be shackled by homely truth ; and if we are to receive 
 the fine imagery that places the summit of this rock in clouds brooding 
 eternal mists and tempests — that represents it as inaccessible, even to a man 
 provided with twenty hands and twenty feet, and immerses its base among 
 ravenous sea-dogs ;— why not also receive the whole circle of mythological 
 
THE FARO OF MESSINA. 179 
 
 dogmas of Homer, who, though so frequently dragged forth as an authority 
 in history, theology, surgery, and geography, ought, in justice, to be read 
 only as a poet. In the writings of so exquisite a bard, we must not expect 
 to find all his representations strictly confined to a mere accurate narration 
 of facts. Moderns of intelligence, on visiting this spot, have gratified their 
 imaginations, already heated by such descriptions as the escape of the 
 Argonauts, and the disasters of Ulysses, with fancying it the scourge of sea- 
 men, and that in a gale its caverns ' roar like dogs ;' but I, as a sador, never 
 perceived any difference between the effect of the surges here, and on any 
 other coast, yet I have frequently watched it closely in bad weather. It is 
 now, as I presume it ever was within the reach of history, a common rock, 
 of bold approach, a little worn at its base, and surmounted by a castle, with 
 a sandy bay on each side. The one on the south side is memorable for the 
 disaster that happened there during the dreadful earthquake of 1783, when 
 an overwhelming wave (supposed to have been occasioned by the fall of a 
 part of the promontory into the sea) rushed up the beach, and, in its retreat, 
 bore away with it upwards of 2000 people, whose cries, if they uttered any 
 in the suddenness of their awful fate, were not heard by the agonized spec- 
 tators around. * * * 
 
 On the whole, from the adhesive quality of the sands, and a strict 
 examination of the various localities, particularly the lighthouse of the Faro Faro Point, 
 point, which was constructed more than 200 years ago on the ruins of an 
 ancient tower (then, as now, on the margin of the sea), I do not believe that 
 the channel has widened ; indeed, it is not clear to me, that this part was 
 not originally wider, and that the two lakes have been gained from it; the 
 story related by Hesiod and Diodorus, of the sea being broad here, until 
 Orion raised the promontory of Pelorus to place a temple on, though not a 
 confirmation, gives some colour to the supposition. 
 
 The four principal stations of the distances across, in my trigonometrical 
 operations, by theodolite angles from a base line on that part of the beach 
 near Messina called Mare Grosso, are — from Faro point to Scylla castle, Breadth of 
 6047 yards, as before stated: from Ganziri village to Point Pezzo, 3971 e ar °' 
 
 yards ; from Messina lighthouse to Point del Orso, 5427 yards ; and from 
 Messina lighthouse to the cathedral of Reggio, 13,187 yards, * * * 
 
 The currents in the Faro are so numerous, and so varied, with respect Currents 
 to their duration and direction, that I found it very difficult to ascertain and ti(ies - 
 anything with precision, as one series of observations seldom agreed with 
 another; but I have generally found the statements of the most experienced 
 pilots, after making due allowance for localities and weather, approximate 
 very near to each other. In settled seasons there is a central stream running 
 north and south, at the rate of from two to five miles an hour, and which 
 though, properly speaking, only a current, when uninfluenced by strong 
 winds, is guided by the moon. On each shore there is the refluo, a counter 
 or returning set, at uncertain distances from the beach, often forming eddies 
 to the central current;* but, in very fresh breezes, the lateral tides are 
 scarcely perceptible, while the main increases so as to send, at intervals, 
 Blight whirlpools to each shore. There is, in general, an uncertain rise and 
 fall of a few inches ; but before the vernal equinox, when the sun is nearest 
 
 * With a descending current, the Iiefoli, or contrary sets, occur on the 
 Sicilian shore; with an ascending one, they are near Calabria. 
 
 N 2 
 
180 THE FARO OF MESSINA. 
 
 the earth, and the moon in her perigee, they rise to 18 or 20 inches. 
 When the Rema montante, or main current, runs to the northward, it is 
 called the ascending or flood, — and the contrary, the Rema scendente, the 
 descending or ebb ; and this has obtained, perhaps, even from the time of 
 Eratosthenes. There is usually an interval of from fifteen to sixty minutes 
 between the changes ; and the tide runs six hours each way, though I have 
 known it, during a south-east gale (which has the greatest influence), flow 
 to the northward upwards of eight hours. By the most precise observations 
 I have been able to make, it is high-water on the days of full and change of 
 the moon, off the Faro point at 6h. 56m. ; and in the harbour of Messina at 
 8h. 10m., or rather later. But these times are in themselves irregular and 
 uncertain, owing to the great waves without, and contingent agencies which 
 are not amenable to such calculations as mine were. A descending current 
 makes the strait the roughest. 
 Navigation The Faro channel is entered from the north on passing the lighthouse on 
 
 of the th e point ; and though, from the nature of its winds and currents, it has long 
 been clothed with imaginary terrors, yet as the Athenians and Syracusans, 
 and the Locrians and Bhegians fought there, it could not have been consi- 
 dered so fearfully horrible by ancient sailors as by ancient poets ; and the 
 language of the former would probably have borne a tenour very different 
 from the romantic embellishments of the latter, notwithstanding the passage 
 through it might have been an affair of some moment with their small 
 vessels and inexperienced seamen. But we have been gravely assured in a 
 recent publication, that this strait is still extremely dangerous, and — for- 
 getful of the memorable names of Loria, and Byng, and Walton* — it is added 
 that Nelson was the first who ventured through with a squadron of men-of- 
 war : while, on the contrary, it has always been used as an expeditious route 
 by those, bound to the south-eastward, who have not been accustomed to a 
 ' coat of terrors and a cap of fear :' and I am convinced that no persons 
 well acquainted with this channel, will think it hazardous, especially if 
 they have been in the habit of keeping well over to the Sicilian shore. 
 
 From the baffling winds to be expected, however, it certainly requires 
 caution, though, except the set of the current towards the rocks under the 
 Torre di Cavallo (a situation extremely disagreeable at night in bad weather), 
 the beaches are so steep, that the stream enables vessels to glide safely along 
 them. In light breezes, the current may be stronger than the ship's effort, 
 and by turning her round, often alarms a person unacquainted with the 
 phenomenon, although there is no actual danger: and the losses there, 
 during my residence in the island, were certainly not more than would 
 have been the case in any other part frequented by an equal number of 
 
 * This was the officer who, after the action between Byng and Castaneta, 
 being detached in pursuit of six sail of the line and as many smaller ships 
 that had escaped, reported his complete success to the Admiral in the follow- 
 ing laconic terms : — 
 
 ' Sie, — We have destroyed all the enemy's ships and vessels on the coast, 
 as per margin. — I am, &c., 
 
 ' Geokge Walton. 
 ' Canterbury, off Syracuse, 
 16th August, 1718.' 
 
THE FARO OF MESSINA. 181 
 
 I would not, indeed, advise a stranger to push through in the night, Caution, 
 unless with a fine free wind, as the light at Messina is so indifferent, that it 
 cannot be distinguished among the numerous torches of the fishermen, who, 
 every tranquil night, cover the strait with their boats. Precautions should 
 also be taken against the heavy gusts which, at times, from the mountainous 
 nature of the coasts, vehemently rush down the fiumare (torrent-beds), and 
 are dangerous to small vessels. I have twice, with grief, seen the neglect 
 of them prove fatal ; one of these circumstances occurred in the Sicilian 
 flotilla, to which I was then attached ; a fine barge, with eighteen of the 
 best sailors we had, in attendance upon Colonel Caffiero, one of our officers, 
 had been on constant duty in this strait for several years ; when, in the 
 early part of 1815, having carried the Princess of Hesse Philipstadt on board 
 a vessel bound to Palermo, the barge was assailed by so sudden a squall on 
 her return, that they could not lower the mainsail, and she instantly over- 
 set ; the bodies of the unfortunate men were picked up the next day, between 
 Scaletta and Taormina, about twenty miles to the southward. It is remark- 
 able that there has been found in Messina a Greek inscription to the 
 memory of thirty-seven youths of Cyzicus, who met a similar fate in the 
 Faro ; and in honour of whom, as many statues — the workmanship of Calion 
 — were erected with a suitable inscription. 
 
 My description of Charybdis must follow that of 
 Scylla :— 
 
 Outside the tongue of land, or Braccio di Santo Rainiere, that forms the Charybdi 
 harbour of Messina, we see the Galofaro, or celebrated vortex of Charybdis, 
 which has, with more reason than Scylla, been clothed with terrors by the 
 writers of antiquity. To the undecked boats of the Rhegians, Locrians, 
 Zancleans, and Greeks, it must have been formidable ; for, even in the pre- 
 sent day, small craft are sometimes endangered by it, and I have seen 
 several men-of-war, and even a seventy-four gun ship (the Queen, bearing the 
 flag of Rear- Admiral Sir Charles Penrose), whirled round on its surface; but 
 by using due caution, there is generally very little danger or inconvenience 
 to be apprehended. The Galofaro appears to be an agitated water, of from 
 70 to 90 fathoms in depth, circling in quick eddies ; but rather an incessant 
 undulation than a whirlpool, and the cases are only extreme when any vor- 
 tiginous ripples threaten danger by absorption to laden boats. It is owing, 
 probably, to the meeting of the harbour and lateral currents with the main 
 one, the latter being forced over in this direction by the opposite point of 
 Pezzo. This agrees in some measure with the relation of Thucydides, who 
 calls it a violent reciprocation of the Tyrrhene and Sicilian seas ; and he is 
 the only writer of remote antiquity I remember to have read, who has 
 assigned this danger its true situation, and not exaggerated its effects. 
 Many wonderful stories are told respecting this vortex, particularly some 
 said to have been related by the celebrated diver,* Colas, who at last lost 
 
 * A diver on my establishment, named Dionisio Ninfo, had been brought 
 up at the Faro, who, though an elderly man, could descend in seven or eight 
 fathoms water, and there remain a minute and a half. My servant having 
 accidentally thrown some spoons overboard at Milazzo, in six fathoms 
 
182 
 
 TIDES IN THE ADRIATIC. 
 
 his life here. I have never found reason, however, during my examination 
 of this spot, to believe one of them. 
 
 The formation of the Tangdora shoals, stretching out on each side of the 
 Galofaro. little kind of bay, off which the Galofaro is situated, is probably owing to 
 the eddies of Charybdis ; and the sand, being united by the bituminous 
 particles before mentioned, is as hard as a rock. I first surveyed these 
 shoals, and supplied the Senate of Messina with a large plan of them. To 
 strangers entering the harbour at night, they are dangerous, as ships are 
 apt to close the light too much ; and if the vessel grounds, the rapidity of 
 the stream, and great depth of the water outside, are obstacles to getting off 
 again. To prevent the repetition of an accident, not unfrequent, I recom- 
 mended a smaller light to be placed between the established one and 
 Fort Salvador, which has since been adopted, and must prove of infinite 
 service. 
 
 Taranto. The Captain of the Port at Taranto, by General Vis- 
 
 conti's desire, promised to send me a set of observations on 
 tidal phenomena in that gulf, which he pronounced to be 
 ' molto singolare ; but I never received his document, and 
 from my own notice detected nothing along those shores, 
 but the usual atmospheric influence in the Mediterranean. 
 
 In the Adriatic Sea, the tides, in most parts, are so 
 weak as not to be easily recognised ; yet that they exist 
 throughout it, has been ably shown by Professor Toaldo, 
 of Padua, in an essay intituled De reciproco JEstu Maris 
 Veneti, of which a copious abstract appears in the Philo- 
 sophical Transactions for 1777. The head or upper part 
 of the Gulf of Yenice (often termed the bottom) has a very 
 notable rise, ranging from one foot to nearly four in springs, 
 and according to the prevalence of winds up or down. The 
 times of high water before the moon's passing the meridian, 
 are considered as fairly noted in the following table for 
 
 Venice. Venice and Chioggia, which was forwarded to me by 
 Colonel Campana — at those two places the rising and 
 setting of the moon is the time of low water for that day, 
 and about l h 30 m before the moon reaches the meridian, 
 is the time of high water. 
 
 Adriatic 
 tides. 
 
 depth, Dionisio was overboard in a trice, and recovered them, to the surprise 
 and amusement of some officers who had breakfasted with me, and who 
 could watch his movements in the clear water. 
 
TIDES AT VENICE. 183 
 
 New Moon. Full Moon. 
 
 Day. Night. Day. Night. 
 
 H. n. E. M. H. M. H. n. 
 
 January 2 40 ... 1 40 ... 2 41 ... 56 
 
 February 2 8 ... 1 57 ... 2 13 ... 57 
 
 March 2 5 ... 2 5 ... 2 27 ... 1 11 
 
 April 2 18 ... 1 19 ... 58 ... 58 
 
 May ... . ... 30 ... 8 ... 40 ... 1 25 
 
 June 1 2 ... 2 47 ... 15 ... 2 45 
 
 July 38 ... 53 ... 23 ... 1 22 
 
 August 3 ... 9 ... 31 ... 2 1 
 
 September 54 ... 1 39 ... 47 ... 47 
 
 October 1 40 ... 35 ... 1 47 ... 47 
 
 November 1 56 ... 41 ... 2 29 ... 1 
 
 December 1 25 ... 1 11 ... 2 45 ... 1 
 
 By this table, it seems that our own conclusion of the Effect of 
 
 winds on 
 
 tide-hour falling at or about ten on full and change days, these 
 is not alarmingly in error. But though the elevation of 
 the tidal waters is stated above, it should be added, that 
 northerly winds lessen this amount, in neaps, most dis- 
 agreeably to the olfactories; while those from the south 
 throw in a surcharge which sometimes raises the surface to 
 five or six feet above the general level, inundating all the 
 lagoon marshes. Towards the end of the month of Decem- 
 ber, 1821, after a continuance of fresh south-east winds for 
 several days, the sea was raised to an extraordinary height ; 
 so much so, that Venice appeared like one extensive lake 
 during the whole of Christmas-day and the 26th. On this 
 occasion the gondolas were plying in the Piazza di San 
 Marco ; and from the evidence of records and votive pic- 
 tures, this is not at all a solitary case. 
 
 According to Professor Toaldo, a few days about every Professor 
 
 Toaldo. 
 
 new and full moon, the tide is higher than ordinary ; and 
 by means of these spring tides only is it that the larger 
 ships are carried in and out of port. He also found that, 
 of two daily tides, the one is higher and of longer duration 
 than the other ; and that the greatest spring tide scarcely 
 ever happens on the very day of the syzigies, but either on, 
 before, or after it, by one, two, three, or sometimes four 
 days. Toaldo likewise saw reason for assuming that the 
 
184 IONIAN TIDES. 
 
 height of the springs at Venice is above what it was for- 
 merly, because he ascertained that the tides now really 
 flow to places considerably above what they reached in 
 ancient times ; and certainly a comparison of his own mean 
 heights — taken less than a century ago — gives on the 
 average, less than those of our own day. But the instances 
 are too unstable for building upon ; exact registers have 
 never been kept there, and we must remember it is on 
 record, that tide-mills were established at Venice so far 
 back as the year A.D. 1078. 
 
 Coast of In H.M.S. Aid we found the tides off Istria set against 
 
 the north-east wind at the rate of nearly a knot an hour, and 
 then return to its south-east course ; and, at times, the effect 
 of the ebb was to cause an apparent stand-still of the offing 
 and central waters. The gale called Bora certainly occa- 
 sions a surcharge along the coast of Italy, but at Barletta, 
 Bari, Monopli, and Brindisi, the sailors insist on experi- 
 encing a tidal action, ranging from a few inches to three 
 feet. Our operations were not sufficiently nice for confirm- 
 ing this assumption, nor does it rest on very strong grounds, 
 being due more to a transient notice than to direct experi- 
 ment. Neither could we detect positive indications of a 
 
 Ionian Sea. regular tide in the Ionian Sea,* except in one instance ; 
 although I have known sets of stream running at more 
 than a knot, with a rise and fall of nearly two feet, gene- 
 rally corresponding with the Adriatic movements. The 
 exception alluded to is Patras, at the entrance of the Gulf 
 of Corinth, where we established the mean tide-hour at 
 6 b 54 m , with a range of about two feet and a half. This 
 was obvious ; whence we must conclude that the lunar 
 influence is manifest on the neighbouring shores — a fact, 
 
 * There was much talk about a current in Port Argostoli, which the 
 Cephaloniots believed to flow uniformly against the wind, ' owing to sub- 
 terraneous caverns.' It is, however, but an effect of the form and contour 
 of the harbour and its vicinity, as acted on by winds in heaping and heading 
 up the waters of one arm, and draining them off by the other. 
 
TIDES IN THE ARCHIPELAGO. 185 
 
 however, which it was out of our power to ascertain : for Gulf of 
 
 m . r ... Corinth. 
 
 the rise and fall observed at Lepanto, Galaxidi, Corinth, 
 and Vostitsa — though covering and leaving dry alternately 
 a considerable extent of shore — were evidently so dependent 
 on winds, that as yet we must set them down as currents. 
 But there is a singular periodic motion prevailing in the 
 waters of this gulf, independent of whatever flux and reflux 
 there may be ; it generally takes place twice in twenty-four 
 hours, when unopposed by fresh gales, the inset being 
 termed embasmos, and the outset eugalmos. A know- 
 ledge of this peculiarity aids the arrivals and departures of 
 shipping, and facilitates local intercourse. 
 
 The Archipelago presents, with certain anomalies arising Archipe- 
 frorn its shape and its islands, the general aqueous motions 
 of other portions of the Mediterranean Sea, and is more 
 amenable to currents than tides. But, ages ago, Herodotus 
 spoke of the ebbing and flowing of the sea in the Gulf of 
 Milis, before Thermopylae, which, he asserts, ( may be seen 
 every day' (Polymnia, § 198); and in the Euripus, or Eunpus. 
 Strait of Negropont — which in the gorge is only forty yards 
 wide — a very remarkable phenomenon of reciprocated 
 motion in the waters is observed. During the first quarter 
 of the moon, as well as from the 14th to the 20th of its 
 age, and also for the last three days of the lunation, the 
 tide ebbs and flows regularly four times in the twenty-four 
 hours ; while during each of the other days, it ebbs and 
 flows, with the great force of five or six knots, from eleven 
 to fourteen times per diem, though the difference of eleva- 
 tion rarely exceeds two feet. This is, to a degree, accounted 
 for by assuming that a change of wind in the Gulf of Volo, 
 or iEgean Sea, produces also a change in the relative levels 
 of waters around, and a stream consequently flows through 
 the bridge at Egripos to restore the equilibrium ; and it is 
 well known to those along the shore, on account of the 
 contrary motions given to mill-wheels, that a southerly 
 wind produces a strong set to the northward, while a 
 
186 AFRICAN TIDES. 
 
 northerly wind is accompanied by a southerly current. 
 
 These tidal irregularities, and their residual phenomena, 
 
 have attracted attention for ages^ and there is an idle story 
 
 Aristotle's that Aristotle drowned himself here, because he was unable 
 
 death. ' 
 
 to explain the cause. Persecution and banishment after 
 he had enjoyed power, more probably shortened the life 
 of the philosopher, than any dissatisfaction from an intel- 
 ligent failure; especially since he had always affected to 
 scorn suicide as dastardly and disgraceful. 
 
 Smyrna. At Smyrna, it is said that the tide flows on full and 
 
 change days, when regular, from three to four o'clock, with 
 a rise of two feet ; but it is added, that the neaps are 
 always irregular. This tide-hour, however, is not recognised 
 by Sir Francis Beaufort. ' Neither on this coast ' (Kara- 
 mania), says he, ' nor in the Gulf of Smyrna, where the 
 Fredericksteen was stationed for some months, could it be 
 perceived that the direction of the current, or the rise and 
 fall of the water, were influenced by the moon. The depth 
 of the water does, indeed, frequently vary, but this effect 
 is produced by the direction of the winds ; those from the 
 south and west universally raising it, in some cases even 
 two feet, and those from the opposite quarters depressing 
 it in an equal degree/ Recent observations attempt to 
 show that in the port of Mermericheh, the tide flows on 
 full and change at 9 h 30 m , and rises eight or ten inches ; 
 but, unless with a tide-gauge under able inspection, I 
 should very much doubt the absolute accuracy of such a 
 determination. 
 
 North Along; the African shore the tides are distinctly trace- 
 
 able in some places, though imperceptible in others. Thus, 
 at the mouth of the Tetuan river, the water rises nearly four 
 feet on full and change, at l h 30 m , and is hardly discernible 
 a little farther to the east. The often-cited flux and reflux 
 at Bizerta — noticed by the younger Pliny,* in his strange 
 
 Africa. 
 
 * This is a point upon which the ipsissima verba of the Younger Pliny 
 
TIDES IN THE GULF OF KHABS. 187 
 
 story of the dolphin — is caused by vaporization, the action 
 of winds and rains, and the consequent effect on the sea ; 
 which rendered it, in Dr. Shaw's opinion, a miniature of 
 the Strait of Gibraltar. At the Goletta of Tunis, there is Goietta. 
 a rise and fall of nearly three feet, which is so variable in 
 its times of recurrence, that it must be ascribed to local 
 rather than lunar causes ; but towards the Lesser Syrtis, Lesser 
 the moon's influence becomes less equivocal. Along the 
 Karkenah and Sfakus channel the tides are fairly developed, 
 running about a couple of knots, a rate often increasing to 
 upwards of three, as they gather round the Gulf of Khabs ; 
 until, on passing Jerbah, they flow away to the eastward, 
 and weaken by diffusion. This is one of the greatest lati- 
 tudinal distances from Venice, and therefore increased tidal 
 vigour might have been expected ; but I was amused 
 rather than vexed, on finding our boats lying high and dry 
 nearly a mile from the Burj-er-Rus, a pyramid of human 
 skulls just outside the castle of Jerbah, under which we had 
 landed two or three hours before. The Mediterranean station 
 had made us overlook the wholesome nautical rule of keep- 
 ing the boats afloat ; but, happily, our being left aground by 
 a receding tide entailed none of the dreadful disasters which 
 befel the Spaniards under Lacerda and Doria, in 1561, when 
 the slaughter took place that supplied the Christian heads 
 with which the Burj-er-Rus ( Tower of Heads) is built. The 
 tide rises till about 3 h 10 m , ranging from four to six feet, and Kise and 
 
 - fall at 
 
 at times even to eight ; the waters around must consequently Jerbah. 
 be affected in some degree by its action. Still, the great 
 bank formed between Jerbah and Lampedusa shelves so 
 gradually, that the great sea-swells roll in and disperse 
 without breaking. I therefore, on several occasions, when 
 the wind was dead towards the shore, and the waves rising, 
 
 should be cited : ■ Adjacet ei (Hippo) navigabile stagnum, ex quo in modum 
 fluminis ajstuarium emergit, quod vice alterna, proutsestus aut repressit aut 
 impulait, nunc iufertur mari, nunc redditur stagno.' — (Lib. ix. Ep. 33.) 
 
188 AFRICAN TIDES. 
 
 ran the Adventure to leeward out of the sea-swell, till we 
 found a convenient depth for anchoring in smooth water. 
 Had I known of this in 1816, it would have saved Lord 
 Exmouth a world of hurry and anxiety, as well as the loss 
 of a few anchors, when his squadron was caught by a 
 northerly gale in Tripoli roads. 
 Lord Ex- It was then that a circumstance which I have elsewhere 
 
 mouth. 
 
 related, took place : the wind came on suddenly while the 
 Admiral and most of his captains were on shore negotiating 
 the treaty for the suppression of slavery. By his lordship's 
 desire I mounted to the terraced roof of the consulate, 
 which overlooked the anchorage ; and perceiving that some 
 of the ships were driving, and others heeling over prodi- 
 giously, my report quickly brought up Lord Exmouth and 
 his flag-captain. Sir James Brisbane, the others all hurry- 
 ing down to their boats. On the Admiral's nearly gaining 
 the terrace, I called down the stairs, ' My lord, the Mon- 
 tagu is under sail/ * Oh ! as for Heywood/ he replied, 
 ' no fear of him ; what are the others doing V By this 
 time he had gained the summit of the house ; he looked at 
 the ships, and was off in an instant. 
 
 Beyond Tripoli, between Mesratah and Grennah, or 
 Kirenneh (Gyrene), is the wide and open gulf which the 
 The Greater ancients called the Greater Syrtis, mentioned in the first 
 chapter. Of this once-dreaded spot, the dangers to navi- 
 gation are said to have been occasioned by the frequent 
 occurrence of banks and shallows formed by the flux and 
 reflux* of the sea, and still more by these movements 
 themselves. Now, as we found only the slightest possible 
 indications of tide here, this flux and reflux can only apply 
 to the indraught which follows the sea-winds, and the 
 reaction of the body of waters when the opposite ones 
 
 * Pliny the Elder speaks of both the Syrtes as being ' vadoso ac reci- 
 proco mari diros/ in a passage which Philemon Holland renders — ' The third 
 gulfe is parted into twaine, cursed horrible places both, for the ebbing and 
 flowing of the sea, and the shelves betweene the two Syrtes.' 
 
THE GREATER SYRTIS. 189 
 
 prevail. Captain Beechey, then a lieutenant of the Adven- Captain 
 ture, in charge of the party which journeyed round its 
 shores by land, while the ship examined the coast by sea, 
 mentions many parts where he perceived the effect of very 
 violent surges ; but, on the whole, he concluded that the 
 land had advanced upon the sea in those regions, ' since we 
 find their ancient ports now filled up with sand, their lakes 
 to have taken the character of marshes, and their quick- 
 sands (if ever they had any) to have become solid and firm/ 
 The result of our operation is, that navigation, if necessary, 
 can look the Syrtis in the face, for the whole is now proved 
 to be approachable in cases of necessity ; but without such 
 necessity, no vessel, especially of the smaller sort, ought to 
 get embayed there ; for northerly winds have a long and 
 uninterrupted fetch. But the difference of impression be- 
 tween the present time and that which prevailed when 
 I first went thither, in 1816, is remarkable, for all the 
 local seamen then spoke of it with dread : yet I could 
 find no one — not even in the Basha of Tripoli's squadron 
 — who had any personal experience in the matter, except 
 one Monsieur Lautier, whose relation I could not rely upon, m. Lautier. 
 as I soon found that he carried too much canvas for his 
 ballast. It may therefore illustrate the matter, if part of 
 a letter which I addressed to Baron de Zach, and which 
 he published in his Correspondance Astronomique for 
 1822, be here subjoined : — 
 
 All the world know that the two Syrtes are the great gulfs on the 
 northern coast of Africa, between Carthage and Cyrene, and that they were 
 the terror of the ancient mariners : so it is reported by Herodotus, Scylax, 
 Diodorus Siculus, Pomponius Mela, Edrisi, and many other historians, geo- 
 graphers, and poets ; among the last, Lucan and Apollonius Rhodius, &c. Apollonius 
 The lines of the latter represent the general notions on the subject a century lihodius. 
 and a half before our era : — 
 
 ' Near the fell Syrtis is the vessel borne. 
 There shifting sands the labouring bark embay ; 
 Thence never crew pursued the homeward way. 
 A hideous tract the slimy marshes spread ; 
 The putrid waves are motionless and dead : 
 
190 
 
 THE GREATER SYRTIS. 
 
 A treacherous depth of seeming land is seen, 
 
 Devouring water, clothed in fraudful green. 
 
 Along the brine a spume corrupted lies, 
 
 And pestilential vapours load the skies. 
 
 Inhospitable rise the sandy heaps ; 
 
 No bird has dwelling there; no thing that creeps.' 
 
 It was with descriptions so terrible and alarming, that I attacked this 
 classical bugbear. I entered by Mesratah, and by the flat shore of Isa : my 
 expectations were realized. I did not find it a coast desolate, monotonous, 
 and melancholy — without form, and so low as to justify the character which 
 has been given by the old navigators, that it is ' neither land nor sea.' We 
 did not see submerged plains, or drowned lands ; but we saw distinctly how 
 the waves, which are perpetually breaking against the shore, wash and leave 
 the rocks uncovered which abound on this coast, and which are also strewed 
 with the remains of many wrecks. Horrible swamps, however, seem to 
 extend over a superfices of nearly 200 miles, and are so perfectly level, that 
 Wrecks. they appear rather like a sea than a shore. The wrecks are, without doubt, 
 those of ships which have deviated, or been driven, from their proper routes, 
 being misled during the night, or during thick fogs, which are common 
 here. On other parts of the coast there are few or no dangers, excepting 
 several little heads of rocks, scattered about different points. The tides are 
 insignificant. With the hand-lead going, a vessel may approach all parts 
 of the coast between Mesratah and Cape Razat, which is thirty-five leagues 
 beyond Benghazi. This is a singular contradiction to the reports of the 
 difficulties that the ancient mariners pretended to have found ; but it must 
 be acknowledged that vessels should not enter into this gulf, unless chased 
 by tempests which it is impossible for them to resist ; for, in rough weather, 
 the sea rises here to a prodigious height. It must also be considered, that 
 the navigators of those times were always at a loss in estimating their 
 reckonings ; they were also troubled by the terrors which their imagination 
 created, knowing that they should experience no mercy from the wandering 
 and barbarous tribes inhabiting this coast. 
 
 But of what utility can it be to enter here ? there being but one place 
 in the whole gulf worthy of being called a port, — and even that a poor one. 
 
 Lucan's Having alluded (ante, p. 122) to Lucan's prediction 
 
 prediction. reg p ectul g ^^ g U if } -ft may be here further noticed. In the 
 ninth book of the Pharsalia, he speaks of nature as having 
 left the Syrtis a mingled and useless mass of drowned land, 
 stagnant pools, waters, and swelling tides ; after which 
 (voce Rowe) he thus perorates : — 
 
 Perhaps, in distant ages, 'twill be found, 
 When future suns have run the burning round, 
 These Syrts shall all be dry and solid ground ; 
 Small are the depths their scanty waves retain, 
 And earth grows daily on the yielding main. 
 
 Lucan, ix. 539. 
 
GENERAL SUMMARY. 191 
 
 Such are the boundaries and such the contents of the stability of 
 Mediterranean ; but, even at the risk of repetition, a remark terranean. 
 or two is called for before noticing the inhabitants of these 
 waters. After what has been advanced, there appears to be 
 no sufficient reason for supposing that there is any positive 
 diminution of waters in this Inner Sea, or any altera- 
 tion of its general level ; by which term is meant the 
 actual line coincident, or nearly so, with the mean point of 
 time between its greatest and least height — a datum, how- 
 ever, which in these regions it is hardly necessary to dis- 
 cuss. On a due consideration of all the circumstances, the 
 problem resolves itself into this : whether the level has 
 actually been raised a few feet in the course of twenty 
 centuries, or whether the ground has subsided to a similar 
 amount in consequence of unknown causes. Although, as 
 I have already stated, many submerged ruins are met with, 
 an examination of various cothons, moles, and other sea- 
 works, proves the permanency of the level of the Mediter- 
 ranean from a remote historical period ; and, on the whole, 
 my impression is, that its coasts have gained at least as 
 much on one hand as they have lost on the other. 
 
 This never-ceasing reciprocity bears out the ' velut 
 paria secum faciente natura (velut sua damna compen- 
 sante Natura) : quaqua hauserit hiatus, alio loco red- 
 dente/ of the Sage. The question forms the point to 
 which modern geological inquiry has now arrived, for it 
 is clearly discernible that the effects of such alternations 
 must be connected with the history of life upon our globe. 
 But precisely the same idea was distinctly started by 
 Strabo, nearly 1900 years ago. ' It is not/ says that phi- strata's 
 losophical geographer, * because the lands covered by the v^w.^ 
 sea were originally at different altitudes, that the waters 
 have risen, subsided, or receded from some parts and inun- 
 dated others ; but the reason is, that the same land is some- 
 times raised up, and sometimes depressed, and the sea also 
 is simultaneously raised and depressed, so that it either 
 
192 PENETRATING POWER OF LIGHT. 
 
 overflows, or returns into its own place again/ Would 
 any of our most practical geologists express any other 
 opinion at the present moment ? 
 
 T 
 
 § 6. Mediterranean Ichthyology. 
 
 •HIS is a most interesting field for inquiry, especially 
 as connected with the general physics of the Inner 
 Sea ; and though the full development of the Mighty 
 Deep may, probably, never be vouchsafed to the means or 
 curiosity of man, much additional information will, no 
 doubt, reward perseverance. And again must I express 
 regret at the imperfect tenour of my researches, for pro- 
 fessional duties left no choice, and the flight of time was 
 ever defeating inclination. 
 Penetration The solar rays, we are told, only penetrate to the depth 
 of twenty-five fathoms, below which the sea receives no 
 light, and consequently little or no direct heat from the 
 sun ; but this hypothesis is assuredly lame, since I have 
 sunk a plate, and then viewed it with the marine-tube 
 hereafter described, at that depth ; which is a very different 
 operation from the penetrating power of the solar beams. 
 Indeed, as water is pervious to light, it must necessarily 
 pierce the limpidity to a vast depth — under the obvious 
 conditions as to intensity of the rays and smoothness of the 
 surface — before these rays are intercepted. It is analogi- 
 cally presumed that air is disseminated through the 
 waters, without which marine creatures could not exist, as 
 they would be incapable of decomposing the fluid for the 
 purpose of procuring the oxygen that may be really neces- 
 sary for them. At present it is impossible to pronounce 
 how far all marine life may require light, for our knowledge 
 of the pelagians inhabiting great depths is necessarily 
 limited, and, as was just said, we know little respecting the 
 
PRESSURE OF THE SEA. 193 
 
 penetration of solar rays into the deeper abysses. In such 
 a medium, we might anticipate some modification in the 
 organs of vision of those mollusks which possess eyes ; and 
 naturalists have found instances of such adaptation, not 
 only in the eyes of the lower marine inhabitants, but also 
 in the very fitting of the air-bladder. A very remarkable 
 instance is said to be afforded in the Pomatomus telesco- Pomatomus 
 
 tdcsco- 
 
 pus* a creature found in the depths of the Mediter- pus. 
 ranean, which is furnished with remarkably large eyes, so 
 formed as to gather every ray of light which can illume the 
 darkness of its abode. 
 
 The real amount of pressure borne by animal life in Pressure, 
 profound depths, is truly an interesting element for consi- 
 deration and experiment. At 16 fathoms, a living creature 
 would have to sustain only about 60 pounds to the square 
 inch, and at 60 fathoms as much as 180 pounds. At 100 
 fathoms depth the pressure would amount to 285 pounds, 
 and at 700 fathoms the creature must bear with impunity 
 a quantity equal to 1830 pounds upon the square inch; 
 while the pressure of 1000 fathoms of superincumbent 
 water on the same area considerably exceeds a ton. Now, 
 I have drawn up star-fish alive through 170 fathoms, but 
 since then Professor E. Forbes has nearly doubled that depth 
 
 * Not having met with this fish either in markets or books, I applied to 
 my friend, Professor Edward Forbes, to hunt it up for me : his answer was 
 — ' I have at length succeeded in tracing him to his lair. The Pomatomus 
 tdescopus is a sea-fish, one of the true Percedce. It is remarkable for its 
 enormous eye, and is very rare indeed.' Risso describes these eyes, the 
 opercula of which are in three pieces. He mentions a pelagian, which he 
 names A lepocejthalus rostral us, with still larger eyes, saying, — ' C'est un 
 ph&nomdne tres digne de toute attention des Ichthyologistes, que les poissons 
 les plus remarquables des bords de l'Europe meridionale, qui habitent a 
 deux milles pieds et plus de profondeur, ont leurs ecailles adherentes tres 
 faiblement a la peau, et les organes de la vue d'une grandeur dispropor- 
 tionnee a l'ensemble de leur corps ; que leur vessie natatoire est si vaste, 
 que leurs caecunes sont si nombreux, et que les teintes qui les colorent 
 reflecbissent si peu de nuances. Quant a leurs habitudes, elles resteront 
 encore pour les naturalistes long temps enseveliesdans les profondes regions 
 des mere." — Hist. Nat. de V Europe merid., t. iii. p. 449. 
 
 O 
 
194 PRESSURE OF THE SEA. 
 
 with success; and I understand that M. Biot has made 
 captures from still deeper water — his own expression being, 
 that they existed ' dans les grandes profondeurs des mers.' 
 Of course these animals are properly fitted for such an 
 extraordinary condition of existence ; but the pressure of 
 the sea on inanimate bodies, and at comparatively no great 
 depth, is sufficiently obvious. I have twice found that the 
 Effect on cylindrical copper air-tube, under the vane attached to 
 
 copper x \ 
 
 cylinders. Massey's ingenious patent sounding-lead, was unable to 
 stand; for it collapsed at little more than 200 fathoms' 
 depth in the first instance, and in the second was crushed 
 flat under a pressure of about 300 fathoms. Moreover, 
 a claret-bottle filled with air and well corked, burst on 
 its descent to 400 fathoms with the brass Marcet cylinder, 
 and others broke at little more than half that depth. 
 
 Bottles. ^ e a | g0 f ounc [ that bottles filled with fresh water — and we 
 even wasted wine on some occasions — and corked, had the 
 cork usually forced in at about from 150 to 180 fathoms 
 below the surface. In these cases the fluid sent down is 
 exuded, and the vessel returned full of sea-water ; the cork 
 which had been forced in, is sometimes inverted within the 
 neck of the bottle. 
 
 Animal life ^o return. It is impossible to overlook the teeming 
 
 in the sea. L ° 
 
 animal life in the ' vasty deep ,* ' which not only affords sub- 
 sistence by one marine race feeding on the other, but gives 
 ducks, divers, gulls, shags, petrels, tern, and all sorts of 
 aquatic birds — as well as turtles, seals, and other amphibia 
 — a constant supply of food, and also adds abundantly to 
 the sustenance and traffic of man. From the wondrous 
 productive power of fishes, their numbers are incalculable ; 
 yet so numerous are their enemies, that it has been ques- 
 tioned whether any of them die a natural death. Still, in 
 the brief span between the ova and the end, all and each 
 of the constituent individuals of those myriads, together 
 with all the subaqueous vegetable tribes, have their 
 allotted portions in the universal economy; they aid in 
 
HABITS OF FISHES. 195 
 
 giving circulation to the waters, and thereby tempering the 
 climates of the globe ; for even those mollusks which of 
 themselves seem hardly capable of locomotion, qualify, 
 though in a degree almost infinitesimal, the equilibrium by 
 their secretions. 
 
 There is no doubt that marine animals strictly seek Habits of 
 
 fisllt'S 
 
 those districts and depths in each of which their respective 
 foods are found ; and herein is an extraordinary adaptation 
 of means to the end, insomuch that fishes swimming near 
 the surface and those a few fathoms below them differ, and 
 these, again, are found to be different from those with 
 habitats at greater depths. Yet, whatever profundity the 
 fishes may inhabit — and pelagians are presumed to frequent 
 the profoundest — as their respiratory organs and specific 
 gravity seem to be admirably adapted to the nature of 
 water, they can live and breathe with ease at every inch 
 throughout. The distribution of mollusca, radiata, and 
 others of the lower organization, is also palpably arranged 
 for the fore-mentioned ends, although greatly dependent 
 on local conditions. Professor Forbes, who was for eighteen professor e. 
 months in the iEgean with Captain Graves, divides that 
 portion of the sea to which his inquiries were directed 
 into eight regions of depth, each characterized by its pecu- 
 liar fauna. l Certain species/ he says, ' in each are found 
 in no other, several are found in one region which do not 
 range into the next above, whilst they extend to that below, 
 or vice versa. Certain species have their maximum of 
 development in each zone, being most prolific in individuals 
 at that zone in which is their maximum, and of which they 
 may be regarded as especially characteristic. Mingled, with 
 the true natives of every zone are stragglers, owing their 
 presence to the secondary influences which modify distribu- 
 tion. Every zone has also a more or less general mineral 
 character, the sea not being equally variable in each, and 
 becoming more and more uniform as we descend/ (See his 
 Report on JEcjean Invertebrata, 1813.) 
 
 o 2 
 
196 
 
 WHALES. 
 
 Whales. 
 
 Sharks. 
 
 Fisheries. 
 
 Instances have occurred through successive ages, of the 
 larger cetaceous animals having made their appearance 
 occasionally in the Mediterranean waters. Various indivi- 
 duals have even been captured ; as a pike-headed whale 
 (Bahama hoops), upwards of 100 feet long, off Corsica, in 
 the year 1620 ; a fin-fish (Balcena phy sails), near Barce- 
 lona, in 1744 ; another fin-fish near Tunis, in 1787 ; a 
 round-nosed whale (Balcena musculus), killed on the coast 
 of Provence in 1790 ; and two or three cases of the common 
 whale (Balcena mysticetus) being beached. But not being 
 natives of this sea, they must only be regarded as stragglers 
 adrift. The Orca that grounded in the port of Ostia, which 
 Pliny saw so gallantly attacked by the Praetorian guards, 
 was no doubt a stranded whale. Much discussion has 
 arisen about Jonah's ' great fish/* which custom has reco- 
 gnised as a whale ; but others consider the large basking 
 shark (Squalus maximus) to have been the creature in 
 question, although it is the tamest and most harmless of 
 the ichthyological races, feeding mostly on medusae, small 
 Crustacea, and sea-plants. The Lamia (Squalus carcharias), 
 or white shark, the most voracious of human food of all 
 fishes, has a better claim to have been the c great fish' that 
 swallowed the prophet, since he can readily ingulf a man 
 whole ; and it has therefore sometimes been designated 
 Jono3 piscis. 
 
 Though many of the most valuable species of fish are 
 abundant in the Mediterranean, the quarantine regulations^ 
 arbitrary exactions, and deficient enterprise of most of the 
 
 * The English authorized version of the Book of Jonah (i. 17 and 
 ii. 1, 10), is literal and exact. No epithet is used except ' great/ and the 
 Hebrew word dag is a common term signifying fish : that which swallowed 
 Jonah is not specifically named in the Hebrew Bible, but in the New Tes- 
 tament (Matthew xii. 40), the word is rendered Krjrog in Greek, which 
 usually signifies a whale, but is ^Iso taken for any very large fish. The 
 noted idol Dag-on (1 Sam. v, 1, 2) was represented as half man, half-fish, 
 and has therefore been taken for the Assyrian monster Derceto (Diodorus 
 Siculus, ii. 4), the original mermaid, but without reason. 
 
MIGRATORY FISHES. 197 
 
 people who inhabit the coasts, have combined to prevent 
 the fisheries from being carried to the desired extent as an 
 object of external commerce, most of the produce being 
 consumed at home. From this, however, we must except 
 the tunny, the sword-fish, the anchovy, and the sprat, the Tunnies, 
 capture and curing of which are carried on with great & c . 
 spirit ; while the coral fisheries form an important branch 
 of industry, though often far from being highly remune- 
 rative. In an economic view of the central parts of this 
 sea, perhaps the tunny is the most important fish ; and I 
 have already described the method of taking it, and other 
 particulars, in my accounts of Sicily and Sardinia. I also 
 alluded to the migratory visits of this fish having become Migratory 
 more capricious of late than formerly, insomuch that some- 
 times the produce of the tonimre barely repays the expenses 
 of their establishment. This may arise from accidental 
 obstructions to their course, a point on which they are 
 said to be very sensitive ; and they are extremely grega- 
 rious. The shoal enters the Mediterranean from the ocean 
 in spring, passes along the European shores into the Black 
 Sea, where they are supposed to spawn, and returns along 
 the African shore to the ocean in the fall of the year. But 
 in the Black Sea it has been noted to enter along the coast 
 of Asia, and return along that of Europe ; a peculiarity 
 which Pliny, following Aristotle, accounts for by supposing 
 the fish to see better with the right eye than with the left. 
 The more natural opinion is, that the prevailing winds are 
 the cause, those of summer being chiefly from the south, 
 and those of the later seasons from the north ; the fish, 
 therefore, may be presumed to prefer the smooth water 
 under the weather shore. This is not said to impugn the 
 merit of those writers, for they — together with Archestratus, An ™^ T 
 iElian, Ovid, Oppian, Isodorus, Athenaeus, and Ausonius — 
 have recorded such numerous interesting and instructive 
 facts relative to the customs and instincts of Mediterranean 
 fishes, that we almost overlook their neglect of specific 
 
 writers 
 
198 
 
 DIFFICULTIES OF NOMENCLATURE. 
 
 Aristotle. 
 
 Kemark. 
 
 differences. Kecent inquiry has, indeed, confirmed the 
 truth of many of their statements which had for ages been 
 stigmatized as fabulous. 
 
 But among all inquirers into marine zoology, none can 
 claim a footing on the same plinth with Aristotle; the 
 generalizations of whose admirable researches (arsp £awv 
 io-Topia.) in these waters, remain to this hour unshaken. 
 
 But a study of the habits of the finny tribes, with their 
 affinities and analogies, though so interesting in itself, is not 
 the legitimate object of these pages, the intention here 
 being merely to give a glimpse of the Mediterranean 
 ichthyology, by appending a list of the inhabitants of its 
 central waters — a region chosen as probably affording 
 specimens of the whole sea. In this enumeration — which 
 is necessarily deficient — I have taken every pains to arrive 
 at a sound general view, having attended the fisheries on 
 the coasts of Tunis, Sardinia, Sicily, and Calabria, as well 
 as the various markets in those places. There has been no 
 small trouble in drawing it up, for the trivial name of many 
 a fish differed in the course of a few miles ; and difficulties 
 occurred in reconciling the scientific synonymes of various 
 species, especially where the differences are barely demon- 
 strable, or where personal names of the naturalist's friends 
 are foisted in. My course was, therefore, to cling towards 
 the Linnsean classification — which I had already followed 
 in the memoirs of Sicily and Sardinia — because it is best 
 suited to the degree of my knowledge in that department, 
 and enables me to keep clear of the more intricate systems 
 recently introduced. Among the Sicilian names a few are 
 added in the Sardinian vernacular, the two being sufficiently 
 in alliance to make but little difference ; and an Italian 
 will find no difficulty in understanding them at sight. I 
 will therefore proceed to the enumeration, merely remark- 
 ing by the way, that though mostly handsomer than 
 British fishes, those of the Mediterranean Sea are, in 
 general, not to be compared with them in flavour. 
 
ICHTHYOLOGY. 199 
 
 I. THE PRINCIPAL MEDITERRANEAN FISHES. 
 
 Latin Names. Sicilian. English. 
 
 Accipenser huso Beluga Great sturgeon. 
 
 ■ sturio StoHunu Sturgeon. 
 
 Ammodytes argenteus . . . Lussi White sand-eel. 
 
 lancea Agugliattu Higgle. 
 
 tobianus . . . Aguglia Sand-lance, or hornel. 
 
 Anarrhichas lupus Pisci lupu Sea- wolf . 
 
 strigonus ... Sarpananza Sea-cat. 
 
 Argentina aphya Nunnatu Argentine. 
 
 sphyrsena Curunedda Spit-fish. 
 
 Atherina hepsetus Pisci virgatu Mediterranean smelt, 
 
 menidia Trotischeddu Grey atherine. 
 
 ■ presbyter Majetica Sand-smelt. 
 
 Balistes lunulatus Fanfra Crescent balistes. 
 
 scolopax Pesce balestra File-fish. 
 
 vetula Pesce sozzu Old-wife. 
 
 Blennius alauda Durgannu Sea-lark. 
 
 cornutus Mustia 'mperiali . . . Horned blenny. 
 
 galerita Bavusa cu tuppe . . . Crested blenny. 
 
 gattorugine ... Patuvanu Tom-pot. 
 
 gibbosus Tombarella Butter-fish. 
 
 gunellus Gurgiumi Gunnel. 
 
 labrus Tordu bavusuni Guffer. 
 
 mustela Bausedda Weasel blenny. 
 
 ocellaris Mesoro Sea butterfly. 
 
 pholis Missuru Shan, or shanny. 
 
 physis Bavusuni Forked hake. 
 
 tentacularis ... Bausa ucchiuta Tentaculated blenny. 
 
 viviparus Gurgiuneddu Eel pout, or green bone. 
 
 Callionymus dracunculus Velleiu Gowdie. 
 
 ■ ■ lyra Dragone marinu Skulpin. 
 
 pusillus Ampisciu Small skulpin. 
 
 Centriscus scolopax Trurnbina Sea snipe, or bellows-fish. 
 
 Cepola marginata Spirdottu Tape-fish. 
 
 rubescens Signu di Salomone... Red snake-fish. 
 
 taenia Pisci barmera Ribbon-fish. 
 
 Chsetodon paru Muolla Square chaetodon. 
 
 vetula Ogiusa Sea-rabbit. 
 
 Clupea alosa Saboga Shad. 
 
 amara Aleccia Gipsy herring. 
 
 encrasicolus A nciova, or alici ... Anchovy. 
 
 pilchardus Saraca Pilchard. 
 
 siculus Cicirelli Sicilian whitebait. 
 
 sprattus Sarddla, or JSardina Sprat. 
 
 Coryphtena liippurua ... Capuni Dolphin of seamen. 
 
 imperialis ... Pettinu 'mperiale ... Dorado. 
 
 novacula ... Pettinu, Razor-li>h. 
 
200 MEDITERRANEAN ICHTHYOLOGY. 
 
 Latin Names. Sicilian. English. 
 
 Coryphaena pompilus . . . Lampuca Striped coryphene. 
 
 Cottus cataphractus Pogge Mailed bullhead. 
 
 dracunculus Mustuzola Tommy Logge. 
 
 gobio Capo grosso Miller's thumb. 
 
 scorpius Pisci capone Sea scorpion. 
 
 Cyprinus alburnus Donzella Bleak. 
 
 auratus Pesci di oru Gold-fish. 
 
 barbus Barbio Barbel. 
 
 brama Mutzula ... Bream. 
 
 carpio Carpiuni Carp. 
 
 ■ erythropthalmus Laccia Rudd, or red-eye. 
 
 gobio Ghiuzzu Gudgeon. 
 
 jeses Capitano Chub, or jantling. 
 
 • leuciscus ATbula Dace, dare, or dai't. 
 
 phoxinus Pisciulinu Minnow, or pink. 
 
 rutilus Pisci duci Roach. 
 
 tinea Ckeppia Tench. 
 
 Delphinus delphis DelfiniC Dolphin. 
 
 ■ orca Cetaceo Grampus. 
 
 phocsena Pisci porcu Porpoise. 
 
 Echineis cidaris Ampvscia Sea turban. 
 
 naucrates Smsapega Long sucking-fish. 
 
 remora Pisci 'ntoppu Sucking-fish. 
 
 Esox acus Cavanucci Lax. 
 
 belone Agugghia Gar-fish. 
 
 lucius Cane di sciumi Pike, Jack, or Luce. 
 
 saurus Sauru Skipper. 
 
 sphyraena A luzzaru Sea pike. 
 
 stomias Stomica Piper-mouthed pike. 
 
 synodus Fra di man West India pike. 
 
 Exocaetus exilien s A ncileddu 'mperiali Swallow flying-fish. 
 
 volitans Saltatore Flying-fish. 
 
 Gadus seglefinus Baccala friscu Haddock. 
 
 asellus mollis . . . Moncaru Groundling. 
 
 asellus varius ... Asnelli Bibb. 
 
 barbatus Tavila Whiting pout. 
 
 blennoides Mirruzzu duci Dorse. 
 
 carbonarius Ciaula Coal-fish. 
 
 lota Concunieddu Burbot. 
 
 luscus Munaceddu Miller's thumb. 
 
 Mediterraneus . . . Sazzaluga di mare . . . Mediterranean cod. 
 
 merlangus Merlangu jancu Whiting. 
 
 merlucius Mirruzzu Hake. 
 
 minutus Pesci ficu Capelin, or Poore. 
 
 molva Muncaru Rock ling. 
 
 . mustela Mustia Five-bearded cod. 
 
 pollachius Vacchetta Whiting pollack. 
 
 punctatus Asnellu Whistle gade. 
 
 Gasterosteus aculeatus . . . Maccionu Banstickle. 
 
 . ductor Capitanu Pilot-fish. 
 
MEDITERRANEAN ICHTHYOLOGY. 201 
 
 Latin Names. Sicilian - . English. 
 
 Gasterosteus pungitius . . . Spinarola . Lesser stickle-back. 
 
 • spinachia . . . Ispriotta Thorny stickle-back. 
 
 Gobius aphya Gurgiuneddu Spotted goby. 
 
 bicolor Teurrazza Black-and-brown goby. 
 
 joso Gobbiu jancu White goby. 
 
 melanurus Gobbiu pureddu Sea gudgeon. 
 
 minutu s Urgiuni di fangu . . . Polewig. 
 
 niger Urgiuni niuni Rock-fish. 
 
 paganellus Gorgionu Brown goby. 
 
 Gymnotus acus A ncidduzza Naked gymnote. 
 
 electricus Diavulicchiu Cramp-fish. 
 
 Labrus Adriaticus Perciudda Basse. 
 
 anthias Munacedda Holy basse, or barber. 
 
 cappa Lappami Gold sinny. 
 
 Cretensis Zigarella Cretan basse. 
 
 cynsedus Pizza di Re Yellow basse. 
 
 donzella Dunzedda Bergil. 
 
 fuscus lodiolu Tawny basse. 
 
 • guttatus Turdu stizziatu Comber. 
 
 hepatus Lappanu saragu Liver basse. 
 
 Julis AritAa, or Marabut.. . Rainbow fish. 
 
 maculatus Menduredda Spotted wrasse. 
 
 merula Turdu d'A rca Black labrus. 
 
 oli vaceus Pettineddu Sea- wife. 
 
 pavo Lappanu beddu Peacock labrus. 
 
 psittachus Rucchia Parrot wrasse. 
 
 reticulatus Turdu arrocali Reticulated wrasse. 
 
 scarus Bricchese The scare labrus. 
 
 tinea Verdaliddu Golden maid. 
 
 turdus Turdu Sea tench. 
 
 venosus Serra Bloated basse. 
 
 vetula Zittu Little sea-wife. 
 
 viridis Virdu Green labrus. 
 
 Lophius Europeus Rannu di mari Toad-fish, or sea-frog. 
 
 piscatorius Piscadrixi Angler, or sea-devil. 
 
 Mugil auratus Daurinu Gold-headed mugil. 
 
 cephalus Malettu o cefalu Common mullet. 
 
 labrosus Labronu Thick-lipped mullet. 
 
 saliens Flavetoni Leaping mugil. 
 
 Mullus apogon Trigghia svarvata . . . Bearded mullet. 
 
 imberbis Re di trigghia Beardless mullet. 
 
 ruber Trigghia mangiadori Red mullet. 
 
 surmuletus Trigghia di solu Sur mullet. 
 
 Muraena anguilla Muragliunu Sharp-nosed eel. 
 
 catenata Murenaficu Chain-striped murena. 
 
 conger Anguidda grongu ... Conger eel. 
 
 Muraena Helena Murena nera Roman eel. 
 
 marina Anguidda di mari.. . Grig. 
 
 myruH Suiiru Sea-snake. 
 
 punctata Gargiuni Muroy. 
 
202 MEDITERRANEAN ICHTHYOLOGY. 
 
 Latin Names. Sicilian. English. 
 
 Ophidiura aculeatum Nasoni Snout-fish. 
 
 barbatum Calagneris o lissa . . . Bearded ophidi on. 
 
 hy drophis Bandiera niuri Water serpent. 
 
 imberbe Culuri di mari Beardless ophidion. 
 
 Osmerus eperlanus Tarantula Smelt. 
 
 saurus Tammurru Lizard smelt. 
 
 stracion gibbosus Pesce luna Oyster-fish. 
 
 hystrix Rizza Porcupine-fish. 
 
 mola Papatundo Large sun-fish. 
 
 nasus Pescesoddu Trunk-fish. 
 
 Percaasper Serraina Yellow perch. 
 
 cabrilla Cabrilliu Smooth serranus. 
 
 cernua Pizzuni Ruffe, or pope. 
 
 fluviatilis Ragnu vwraci Perch. 
 
 giber Boragie Hunchback perch. 
 
 labrax Spigula Wolf perch, or basse. 
 
 lucio Percia stizzata Spotted perch. 
 
 marina Percia grossa Bergylt. 
 
 punctata Spimda Thorny perch. 
 
 pusilla Conaditu Dwarf perch. 
 
 sacer Tumulu Holy perch. 
 
 scriba Mulassu Learned perch. 
 
 telescopus Occhi grosso Large-eyed serranus. 
 
 -umbra Umbrinu Dusky serranus. 
 
 Petromyzon branchialis Lampernu Pride. 
 
 fluviatilis ... Alampria Nine-eyed eel. 
 
 ■ marina Papapixi Lamprey. 
 
 Pleuronectes flesus Piscipassera Flounder, or flook. 
 
 hippoglossus Stocapisci 'mperiali Holibut. 
 
 limanda Palaja di arena Dab, or saltie. 
 
 maximus ... Rumulu 'mperiali ... Turbot. 
 
 passer Passer a picciula Whiff. 
 
 platessa Palaja Plaice. 
 
 rhombus ... Lupiddu Kitt, or pearl-fish. 
 
 solea Linquata Sole. 
 
 Raia altavela Amiema Finless ray. 
 
 aquila Pisci aquila Sea eagle, or whip ray. 
 
 aspera .- Pescilepre Shagreenray. 
 
 batis Cappuccina Skate, or maid. 
 
 bicolor Razza Trygon, or brett. 
 
 clavata Picara pitrusa Thornback. 
 
 lasvis Liscia Slippery ray. 
 
 marginata . . . ,, Miragliettu Small- eyed ray. 
 
 miraletus Quattro occhi Homelyn. 
 
 oculata Occhiateddu Mirror ray. 
 
 oxyrynchus Farassa Sharp-nosed ray. 
 
 pastinaca Cadairu Sting ray, or flaire. 
 
 radiata Pigara scappucina. . . Starry ray. 
 
 rubus Pigara spinusa Rough ray. 
 
 torpedo Pisci diavulu Torpedo, or cramp-fish. 
 
MEDITERRANEAN ICHTHYOLOGY. 203 
 
 Latin Names. Sicilian. English. 
 
 Salmo albula Cefalu Phinock, or whitling. 
 
 eperlanus Sazzaluga "White smelt. 
 
 fario Troucia Trout. 
 
 saurus Tammurru Sea-lizard. 
 
 thymallus Ombrina Grayling. 
 
 trutta Trota russigna Sea- trout. 
 
 Sciaena aquila Feguro Stone basse. 
 
 cappa Tiligugu Maigre. 
 
 cirrosa Umbrina 'mperiali. . . Hairy sea-hog. 
 
 lineata Spatvla Streaked sea-hog. 
 
 nigra Umbrina niura Black umbra. 
 
 umbra Tristareddu Sea-crow. 
 
 Scomber aculeatis Serviola Cross spine. 
 
 alalunga Alalungu Albicore. 
 
 colias Scurmu 'mperiali . . . Spanish mackerel. 
 
 ■ ductor Capitanu Little pilot-fish. 
 
 glaucus Savrella Sea-green mackerel. 
 
 pelamis Palamitu' mperiali... Bonito. 
 
 scomber Scurmu Mackerel. 
 
 thynnus Tunnu Tunny. 
 
 ■ trachurus Swreddu Horse-mackerel, or scad. 
 
 Scorpaena lutea Scrofaneddu Yellow sea-scorpion. 
 
 porcus Scrofanu Porcine scorpama. 
 
 pristis Capuluzzu Sea-scorpion. 
 
 scorpius Mazzicni Father lasher. 
 
 scrofa Cepola capuni Sow-scorpion. 
 
 Silurua electricus Babbauru Sheath-fish. 
 
 glanis Glannu Sly silurus. 
 
 Sparus annularis Lappanu spareddu Grey pickerel. 
 
 aurata Canina 'ndorata ... Gilt head. 
 
 bobps Vuorpa Bull-eyed sparus. 
 
 cantharus Ciuciastra Brown bull-fish. 
 
 chromis Monacedda Maroon spare. 
 
 dentex Dentici Four-toothed spare. 
 
 ery thrinus Pagedda luvaru Spanish bream, or rotchet. 
 
 hurta Prau 'mperiali Fork-tailed spare. 
 
 maena Minnula Cockerel. 
 
 melanurus Macchiettu Black-tailed spare. 
 
 mormyrus Ajula 'mperiali Mormyre. 
 
 pagrus Pagru Red gilt-head. 
 
 salpa Scilpa Braize. 
 
 sargus Saracu, or murruda Egyptian spare. 
 
 saxatilis Sparagghiuni Black rock-fish. 
 
 smaris Minnula 'mperiali . . . Smare. 
 
 sparus Spargu Becker. 
 
 vetula Varatidu Black bream, or old wife. 
 
 vulgaris Gujicidduzzu Braize. 
 
 Bqoalnfl acanthias Pisci scioccu Picked dog-fish. 
 
 canicula Pisci cani Morgay, or cott-fish. 
 
 carcharias Canuzzu White shark, or lamia. 
 
204 MEDITERRANEAN ICHTHYOLOGY. 
 
 Latin Names. Sicilian. English. 
 
 Squalus catulus Rusetta Hound-fish. 
 
 centrina Gattu di mari Brown shark. 
 
 galeus Nocivolo Tope, or miller's dog. 
 
 glaucus Lupu di mari Blue shark. 
 
 maximus Grossu cani di mari Basking shark, or sail-fish. 
 
 mustelus Pisci palummu Smooth hound- fish. 
 
 pristis Sia, or Sega Saw-fish. 
 
 spinax Chelpu Lesser picked dog-fish. 
 
 squatina Squadru Monk, or angel-fish. 
 
 stellaris Pisci tigrinu Spotted shark. 
 
 tiburio Magnusa Rock shark. 
 
 vulpes Gaddolu Thresher, or sea-fox. 
 
 zygama Marteddu Hammer -headed shark. 
 
 Stromateus argenteus ... Lampuga Pampus. 
 
 fiatola Fiatula 'mperiali ... Striped stromat. 
 
 Syngnathus acus Agujeddu Pipe-fish, or sea-adder. 
 
 hippocampus... Cavaddu santu Sea-horse. 
 
 marinus Trwnbettina Little pipe-fish. 
 
 ophidion Qomwmk Sea-snake. 
 
 typhle Pisci tialu Needle-fish. 
 
 Tetrodon hispidus . Luna di mari Sea-globe. 
 
 mola Pisci tammurru Sun-fish. 
 
 truncatus Pisci tundu Oblong sun-fish. 
 
 Trachinus draco Traccina Sea-dragon, or sting-bull . 
 
 j ugulares Majai -u la rocca Weever. 
 
 vipera Aragnu Otter pike. 
 
 Trigla cataphracta Pisci curruda Sea-rocket. 
 
 cuculus Labhru russignu Red cuckoo gurnard. 
 
 gurnardus Gumardu No wd, or grey gurnard. 
 
 hirundo Fagiani 'mperiali . . . Tub-fish. 
 
 lineata Pelunganu Streaked, or rock gurnard. 
 
 lucerna Tigiega Lantern gurnard. 
 
 lyra Gaddinettu Piper. 
 
 milvus Tavia Yillock. 
 
 volitans Pisci volatori Flying gurnard. 
 
 Uranoscopus cocius Cocciu 'mperiali Little star-gazer. 
 
 scaber Papa cucctdo Bearded star-gazer. 
 
 Xiphias gladius Pisci spata Sword-fish. 
 
 platypterus Macairu Broad -backed sword-fish. 
 
 Zeus aper Piscitariolu Boar-fish. 
 
 faber Pisci di Pedru John Dory. 
 
 gallus Gaddu Silver-fish. 
 
 luna Cetola Opah, or king-fish. 
 
MEDITERRANEAN ICHTHYOLOGY. 205 
 
 II. THE PRINCIPAL CRUSTACEA, TESTACEA, 
 AND MOLLUSKS. 
 
 Latin Names. Sicilian. English. 
 
 Acalephae (varieties) Attaccaticciu mamma Sea-jellies. 
 
 Actinia (varieties ) Sciuri di mari Sea-anemonies. 
 
 Alcyonium bursa Borza marina Sea-apple. 
 
 digitatum Cinque dita Dead-man's hand. 
 
 epipatrum Penna marina Sea-pen. 
 
 ficus Fichi di mari Sea-lungs. 
 
 — lyncurium Arancia di mari Sea-orange. 
 
 Anomia caput-serpentis Capo di serpe Terebratula. 
 
 ephippium Matmperna fausa . . . Saddle anomia. 
 
 vitrea Terra bratula Palermo terebratula. 
 
 Aplysia depilans Leporina.. Coarse sponge. 
 
 Area barbata Sponguli pilusi Bearded ark. 
 
 navicularis Luntra Boat ark. 
 
 Noae Spongulu Noah's ark. 
 
 pilosa Nuci pilusa Hairy ark. 
 
 Argonauta argo Todari Paper nautilus. 
 
 calcar Nautiliu shperoni . . . Spur nautilus. 
 
 carinaria Firola Keel-edged nautilus. 
 
 scafa Navicella Boat-shaped nautilus. 
 
 Asteria (varieties) Stiddi di mari Star-fishes. 
 
 Asterias aranciaca Ragnatelu Butt-horn. 
 
 caput-Medusae . . . Stidda de Medusa .. . Shetland argus. 
 
 ophiusa Stidda serpentara . . . Sand-star. 
 
 ruben3 Stidda russigna Cross-fish. 
 
 Buccinum echinophorum Castagna di mari . . . Purple whelk. 
 
 galea Brognu, or Vrognu Helmet-shell. 
 
 gibbosulum ... Gdbbodimari Hunchback. 
 
 haemostoma ... Vocca 'manguinata Red-lipped whelk. 
 
 sabarun Vrognu darina Grey casket. 
 
 Tyrrhenum ... Vrognu 'mperiali ... Purple whelk. Burret. 
 
 Bulla ampulla Gunfiata Obtuse dipper. 
 
 carnea Vessica di mari Ovula, or egg. 
 
 Cyprsea Velidda di mari . . . Common cowry. 
 
 hydatis Orecchiu Pillar-lip. 
 
 lepida Squamosa Orange-coloured dipper. 
 
 Cancer arctus Cicala di mari Broad lobster. 
 
 astacus Gammaru di sciwmi Cray-fish. 
 
 bernardus Diavulicchiu di mari Soldier crab. 
 
 crangon Granciulinu Shrimp. 
 
 depurator Granciu di fangu . . . Cleanser crab. 
 
 gammarus Grancm Lobster. 
 
 locusta Alausta Spiny lobster. 
 
 maenas Granciu di rina Common crab. 
 
 pagurus Granciu fudduni ... Hermit. 
 
 squilla Gammaru Prawn. 
 
206 MEDITERRANEAN ICHTHYOLOGY. 
 
 Latin Names. Sicilian. English. 
 
 Cardium aculeatum Galli spinusi Prickly cockle. 
 
 edule Chiocchiolu a mangi a Common cockle, 
 
 tuberculatum . . . Frutti d 'arena Sand cockle. 
 
 unedo Crocchiula'ncanalata Ribbed cockle. 
 
 Cellepora spongites Spongia vitrosa Fragile hydra. 
 
 Chama antiquata Nuci di mari Sea-nut. 
 
 bicornis Ostrica monaca Sea-cabbage leaf. 
 
 calyculata Chiocciola spinusa . . . Scaly clamp . 
 
 cor Corn di vol Bull's heart. 
 
 gryphoides Ostrica russigna ... Rock clamp.- 
 
 Chiton aculeatis Scaglia spinusa Prickly coat-of-mail. 
 
 fulvus Scaglia gialliccia . . . Tawny coat-of-mail. 
 
 Conus Mediterraneus ... A mmiraglio Lake cone. 
 
 monachus Cappuccinu Crown-shell. 
 
 rusticus A mmiraglio giallo . . . Olive. 
 
 siculus Cappuccinu beddu . . . Volute cone. 
 
 Corallina acetabulum ... Sertolariu Sea-parasol. 
 
 fragilissima ... Muscu marinu Milk-white coralline. 
 
 officinalis A Iga viva Vermifuge grass. 
 
 opuntia Scuteddu di mari . . . Sea-kidney. 
 
 Cyprsea lota Ciprignu White tooth-shell. 
 
 lurida Surriceddu Sea-mouse. 
 
 moneta Ciprignedda janca. . . Black-man's tooth. 
 
 pantherina Ciprigna stizzata ... Spotted cowry. 
 
 spurca Ciprigneddu Sea-louse. 
 
 Dentalium artalis Occhi duru Lake tooth-shell. 
 
 Donax irus Arceddu di scogliu. . . Rock Venus. 
 
 scrip ta A rceddu stizziatu . . . Solen, or razor-fish. 
 
 trunculus Arceddu giarnusu... S< 
 
 Doris argo Carciofu di mari . . . Sea-lemon. 
 
 stellata Carciofulu Speckled sea-lemon. 
 
 Echinus cidaris Rizza a sfera Turbaned sea-urchin. 
 
 esculentus Rizza carisa Sea-egg. 
 
 purpureus Ficu d' 'India di mari Grey urchin. 
 
 spatagus Rizza spatagu Hairy sea- egg. 
 
 Flustra hispida Escara securu Sea-mat. 
 
 pilosa Milleporu White flustra. 
 
 truncata Cervunu Foliaceous polype. 
 
 Gorgonia antipathes Curadduniwi Black coral. 
 
 coralloides Quraddu giallu Yellow gorgon. 
 
 flabellum A Ibero di mari Branched gorgon. 
 
 mollis Gramegna Coriaceous gorgon. 
 
 nobilis Curaddu veru True red coral. 
 
 patula Curaddu schiacciatu Horny gorgon. 
 
 verrucosa Curaddu puorrosa... Sea-fan. 
 
 verticillaris ... C. Spezzatu Sea-feather. 
 
 viminalis C. Salciosu Isis polype. 
 
 Haliotis bistreata Pateddu a doppie righe Ovate ear. 
 
 lamellosa P. Sfogliatu Smooth ear. 
 
 striata P. Strisciatu Wrinkled eai\ 
 
MEDITERRANEAN ICHTHYOLOGY. 207 
 
 Latin Names. Sicilian. English. 
 
 Haliotis tuberculata ...... Pateddu reali Common sea-ear. 
 
 Helix decollata Luraaca scapezzata . . . Sea-slug. 
 
 lacuna Lumaca surcata Whorl. 
 
 Umax Lippariddu Sea-snail. 
 
 Holothuriae (varieties) ... Citriolu marinu Sea-cucumbers. 
 
 Holothuria physalis Aretusa Portuguese man-of-war. 
 
 tremula Tremante Fistularia. 
 
 Lepas anatifera Summuzzaroli Duck barnacle. 
 
 anserifera Conca pedata Goose barnacle. 
 
 balanus Ghiannaru di mari Acorn shell. 
 
 costata Ghiannaru surcatu Ribbed barnacle. 
 
 pollicipes Ghiannaru murtipedi Cornucopiae. 
 
 rugosa Ghiannaru grinzosu Wrinkled barnacle. 
 
 tintinnabulum Ghiannaru sonante Bell acorn-shell. 
 
 Mactra corallina Truogolu curaddusu Smooth mactra. 
 
 solida Truogolu marmoreu Ribbed mactra. 
 
 stultorum Truogolu dipazzi ... Gaping tethys. 
 
 Madrepora ananas Matripora ananosa Starry madrepore. 
 
 anthophyllum Matripora frondosa Simple medusa. 
 
 cerebrum Pledra cervulosa ... Brain-stone. 
 
 cyathus Tazza di nettuno . . . Saucer madrepore. 
 
 verrucaria Matripora caccia porru Little medusa. 
 
 virginea Matripora ianca White finger. 
 
 Medusae (varieties) Ortica marina Sea-nettles. 
 
 Medusa aurita Campanulu Sea-umbrella. 
 
 cruciata Medusa a croce White-cross medusa. 
 
 infundilatum . . . Medusa a imbutu . . . Sea-blubber. 
 
 marsupialis Medusa a bursa ... Sea-purse. 
 
 noctiluca Ogghiu a mari Sea-Ian thorn. 
 
 pilearis Medusa pilusu Hairy blubber. 
 
 pulmo Pwrmonariu Eight-arm medusa. 
 
 vetella Escariunu Naked-eyed medusa. 
 
 Millepora aspera Idra rozza Erect hydra. 
 
 cardunculus ... Cardonu di mari ... Sea-thistle. 
 
 cellulosa Idra a merlettu Lace polype. 
 
 miniacea Millepora vermiglia Red hydra. 
 
 pumila Picciuna di man ... Shell-sucker. 
 
 reticulata Millepora a rete Porous millepore. 
 
 tubulosa Idra maccaronaja . . . Parasite hydra. 
 
 Murex cutaceus Buccinu pellicciatu Coated murex. 
 
 gy rinus Ranocchieddu Rock frog. 
 
 melongena Pirulu Pear-shaped murex. 
 
 olearium Ranellu Oil-jar. 
 
 purpura Buccinu purpureu . . . Purple whelk. 
 
 puso Vessigutu Wreath rock. 
 
 Syracusanus Buccinu Sicilianu . . . Keeled rock. 
 
 trunculus B. Truncatu Knotty rock. 
 
 Myaarenaria Cardiau Sand gaper. 
 
 truncate Ascidiu Toothed gaper. 
 
 Mytilus barbatua Nicchia varvata Bearded mussel. 
 
208 MEDITERRANEAN ICHTHYOLOGY. 
 
 Latin Names. Sicilian. English. 
 
 Mytilis bidens Nicchia a dui rente Double-toothed mussel. 
 
 hirundo Rondinellu Swallow mussel. 
 
 lithophagus Percia-pietra Burrowing mussel. 
 
 rugosus Modiuli Furrowed mussel. 
 
 vilelia Nicchia a vela Sea-nettle. 
 
 unguis Unghianatu Claw mussel. 
 
 Nerita glaucina Naticao Blind nerite. 
 
 officinalis Yalxatu Snail nerite. 
 
 viridis Concha nivea Neritina. 
 
 Ostrea crenulata Ostreca intaccata . . . Little oyster. 
 
 edulis Crocchiuli Common oyster. 
 
 lima Ostreca raschia Imbricate oyster. 
 
 maxima Pettenu Scallop. 
 
 pes felis Pettencuru Striated oyster. 
 
 pusio Picciridda Long oyster. 
 
 plicatula Ostreca torciuta Grey oyster. 
 
 Patella atra Patedda niuri Black limpet. 
 
 caerulea Patedda tur china . . . Blue limpet . 
 
 — crepidula Pianeddu Oval limpet. 
 
 — fla viola Patedda gialliccia . . . Yellow slipper. 
 
 — lacustris Patedda di lacu Ancylus, or bonnet. 
 
 — mammillaris Frutta di mari Striate limpet. 
 
 — nimbosa Fizzureddu Ovate limpet. 
 
 — oculus Patedda ucchiatu . . . Goat's -eye limpet. 
 
 pectinata Patedda erpicata . . . Wrinkled limpet. 
 
 Pennatula antennina ... Pennuzzu Spotted sea-pen. 
 
 grisea Lucioleddu Shining sea-pen. 
 
 mirabilis Pennuzzu filatu Filiform sea-pen. 
 
 rubra Pennuzzu russignu . . . Variegated sea-pen. 
 
 Pholas Candida Dattoli janchi Piercer. 
 
 dactylus Dattoli di mari Piddock. 
 
 striata D. Strisciatu Ovate pholas. 
 
 Pinna marina Lana conca Wing shell. 
 
 muricata Lana spinusa Prickly nacre. 
 
 nobilis Pinnula Pearly nacre. 
 
 squamosa Madre-perna scagliata Scaly nacre. 
 
 sacata Saccone Sea satchel. 
 
 Sepia loli go Calamaru Ink- fish. 
 
 octapus Ottapedia Long-armed cuttle. 
 
 officinalis Siccia Cuttle-fish. 
 
 sepiola Calamareddu Sea-pulp. 
 
 Serpula echinata Verme spinosu Glabrous sea- worm. 
 
 glomerata Agghiuommeratu ... Winding sea- worm. 
 
 Sertularia abietina Pigna di mari Sea-fig. 
 
 halecina Comu di JBove Horny polype. 
 
 misenensis ... Acciu di mari Sea-thread, or bristle. 
 
 myriophyllum Musca maritima . . . Leafy polype. 
 
 pennaria Sciuru marinu Sea- tuft. 
 
 thuja Celhdariu Bottle brush. 
 
 Solen cultellus Cannulicchm Sheath, or razor-shell. 
 
MEDITERRANEAN ICHTHYOLOGY. 209 
 
 Latin Names. Sicilian. English. 
 
 Solen ensis Cannulicchiu stortu Scimitar. 
 
 siliqua Conca niura ... Pod. 
 
 Spondylus gsederopus ... Ostreca spinusa Prickly oyster. 
 
 Spongia fasciculata Fasteddu di mare . . . Sea-bunch. 
 
 ficiformis Ficu spognusu Top-shaped sponge. 
 
 infundiliformis... Imbuto di spogna ... Sea-funnel. 
 
 officinalis Spogna comune Common sponge. 
 
 tomentosa A rtica marina Stinging sponge. 
 
 Strombus clavus Brogniuni Trumpet shell. 
 
 pes pelicani . . . Conca piegaru Cormorant's foot. 
 
 tuberculatus . . . Conca torta Sea-screw. 
 
 Tellina cornea Foglia dura Pandora. 
 
 digitaria Arceddu Lucina. 
 
 donacina Faccia di rosa Rayed tellen . 
 
 gargadia Rematwu ... Toothed tellen. 
 
 leporina Fimbriu Thetis. 
 
 Teredo clava Verme di legnami . . . Clavated borer. 
 
 navalis Vergale marina Ship- worm. 
 
 Trochus conulus Cunieddu Top-shell. 
 
 divaricatus Stregone di mari .. Camisole. 
 
 perversus Cunieddu a manu manca Left-handed top. 
 
 striatus Guscio di mari Channelled camisole. 
 
 Tubipora flabellaris Nodo di mari Depressed nereis. 
 
 pinnata A Icyone di mari Erect nereis. 
 
 ■ serpens Pietra sertolaria ... Tubular coral . 
 
 Tubularia cornucopise ... Penna di mari Tubular coralline. 
 
 fistulosa Salce di mari Bugle coralline. 
 
 ■ indivisa Alga di vermi Grey tubularia. 
 
 Turbo clathrus Curnicchi di mari . . . "Wreathed turban. 
 
 littoreus Lumaceddu Periwinkle. 
 
 rugosus Occhi di S. Lucia . . . Screw-winkle. 
 
 sanguineus Lumacedda russigna Purple wreath. 
 
 terebra Curnicchiuli Auger turban. 
 
 > turritella Turbu stortu Staircase-shell. 
 
 Venus exoleta Bagatteddu Zigzag Venus. 
 
 tigerina Conca bedda Tropical Venus. 
 
 verrucosa Vongulu Rough Venus. 
 
 Voluta mitra Turricula granulata Mitral volute. 
 
 oliva Ruolo oliva Olive-shell. 
 
 rustica La Trenga Cylinder. 
 
 tornatilis Tornuteddu Creeping olive. 
 
 Zoanthus (varieties) Sciuri vivi Animal flowers. 
 
PART III. 
 
 OF THE MEDITERRANEAN WINDS, WEATHER, 
 AND ATMOSPHERICAL PHENOMENA. 
 
 § 1. Climate of the Mediterranean. 
 
 Ancient \X7E are not here going upon the old geographical 
 " parallels and longest -day divisions, by which the 
 inner sea occupied nearly five of the ancient climates, but 
 shall adhere to the general sense of the word climate as at 
 present used, — namely, to denote the state of the country 
 as to changes in heat, moisture, winds, and other agents 
 which sensibly affect our organs, promote the development 
 of plants, and thus render the land fit for animal and 
 vegetable life. Yet the Mediterranean is a large and varied 
 space to be thus included under one head ; since, besides the 
 greatness of its longitudinal extent, it includes a latitudinal 
 space of sixteen degrees — from 30° to 46°. So extensive a 
 region is liable to almost numberless variations ; for while 
 on its northern shores the vicissitudes are sudden and 
 violent, even hyperborean cold existing at certain seasons, 
 the heat is all but inter-tropical in the south ; and though, 
 as will presently be shown, its general salubrity is deterio- 
 rated by malaria, this sea has ever — both from its atmo- 
 spheric and geographical position — borne a high reputation 
 for a temperate and healthful climate. 
 
 Meteor- ^he vital importance of meteorology, as well to the 
 
 landsman as the sailor, has been acknowledged for ages ; 
 yet the laws which govern atmospherical changes have not 
 
METEOROLOGY. 211 
 
 received the full attention of investigation which human 
 interests require : before it has been more completely re- 
 duced to a demonstrable theory, it cannot be ranked among 
 the positive physical sciences ; and for this it yet demands 
 a large accumulation of accurate and well-arranged facts. 
 We are not, however, on this account, to suppose that we 
 know nothing about the rare and elastic medium in which 
 we live and move ; on the contrary, while Philosophy so 
 long neglected her duty, Knowledge had been sufficiently 
 alert to render many persons to whom it was necessary, in 
 a degree, weather-wise. It was therefore — besides our own 
 general use of the observations — with a hope of aiding 
 further inquiry into the properties of our wondrous envelope, 
 that I diligently registered the fluctuating phenomena as 
 they occurred. These were my views upwards of forty 
 years ago, when the inconstant and uncertain nature of 
 wind made it seem impossible to reduce it to any certain 
 law, much less to connect it with the general movement of 
 the atmosphere over the whole earth. In the more fickle 
 latitudes this may be a labour of much time, since the 
 difficulties appear almost insuperable ; but the powerful 
 light thrown on the inquiry by monsoons, trade-winds, and 
 hurricanes, places the further explanation of apparent 
 anomalies within hope. The laws of atmospheric pheno- 
 mena near the equator have recently been sufficiently 
 made out to afford reason to hope that the theory will, ere 
 long, be more nearly approached : the laws already ascer- 
 tained are such an unexpected advance, and display such 
 a regularity and order, as could scarcely have been looked 
 for in our times. 
 
 With an earnest desire to strengthen the grand outline On my 
 
 means of 
 
 then so indistinctly traced, I availed myself of the oppor- observa- 
 tunity before me of substituting for prevalent impressions 
 and erroneous notions suggested by the senses, the more 
 exact and secure method of observation now so happily 
 applied. But though all possible pains were taken, 
 
 p2 
 
212 DEFECTS OF THE REGISTERS. 
 
 our instruments were too few and deficient for the 
 attainment of that accuracy which science now demands : 
 indeed, what chance had I in 1812 of purchasing perfect 
 state of in- barometers, thermometers, and hygrometers, when, in this 
 ' very year of our Lord 1852, Mr. Glaisher, of the Royal 
 Observatory at Greenwich, in a lecture read to the Society 
 of Arts, on the probable effect of the Great Exhibition in 
 the Crystal Palace in improving our mechanics, complained 
 that his exertions in the cause of meteorology had been 
 checked by the glaring deficiencies in the atmospheric and 
 eudiometric instruments, and the present impracticability 
 of procuring better? In the course of his address, this 
 able meteorologist quoted a communication made to him 
 by the able Professor, W. H. Miller, of Cambridge, 
 which is so much in point, that an extract must be here 
 given : — 
 
 Respecting barometers, Schouw discovered a remarkable law between 
 latitude and barometric pressure ; but nearly every one of the English 
 observations were doubtful, on account of the badness of instruments and 
 neglect of data for reducing the observations, many of the observers having 
 used worthless instruments, in ignorance that better were in existence. I 
 tried to verify this law of Schouw's by using various English observations. 
 
 Six years observations in the Mediterranean, by Captain Smyth, I 
 reduced as far as I could ; but the labour was thrown away, because the 
 instruments did not admit of determining the errors, — that is, the error was 
 not constant. 
 
 Professor Chevallier, of Durham, had observed with a high-priced 
 barometer for nine years, and that an observation should not be lost, had 
 instructed the ladies of his family to observe. He tried to obtain the con- 
 stant error by comparison with a barometer of my own, of Bunton's con- 
 struction. The error was extremely variable ; he anatomized his barometer, 
 and found that the error mainly depended on the hygrometric state of the 
 atmosphere. 
 
 Observations made at Madras, for twenty -three years, by Mr. Golding- 
 ham, and printed in the East India Company's costly volume, are, for the 
 same reasons, worth less than nothing. Lieutenant Sullivan, R.N., made 
 numerous observations at the Falkland Islands, which, for the same reasons, 
 are worthless. The same observation applies to Captain Fitzroy's observa- 
 tions at an important meteorological station — the neighbourhood of Cape 
 Horn. 
 
 object of Still, for a right comprehension of the subject before us, 
 
 Sster." it should be borne in mind that the material uses to which 
 
 I applied the barometer and thermometer — namely, for 
 
ENDS OF MY REGISTRY. 213 
 
 correcting the refraction of the heavenly bodies in altitude, 
 and for watching atmospherical changes — were very fairly 
 answered : and though we shall return to the subject, it 
 may at once here be emphatically stated, that the marine 
 barometer — with all its alleged defects— is one of the most 
 valuable of the boons which science has given to naviga- 
 tion. But I certainly had entertained hopes of being more 
 useful to abstract philosophy, being for some time unaware 
 of the imperfect graduation and other defects of the means 
 requisite for pursuing that object. Sicily, Sardinia, Malta, 
 the Ionian Islands, and Tripoli in Africa, were the points 
 of my chief experience ; and I considered that careful 
 meteorological registers made at all the places visited, 
 would have afforded some normal points of utility to 
 inquiry. When my friend, Professor Miller, returned the Professor 
 
 ; ^ J / . ' . ' Miller's 
 
 six years' observations which he had kindly undertaken the discussion, 
 drudgery of sifting, I was less surprised than disappointed 
 at the severe sentence above expressed ; and he added, — 
 ' 1 intended to compare your observations in the Channel 
 with the Royal Society observations contemporaneously 
 made, but was deterred by the account Mr. Hudson (the 
 Assistant-Secretary) gave of the careless manner in which 
 the latter were made at that time/ 
 
 Yet, although defeated, my efforts were not abandoned ; My own 
 and as that whole range of observations had failed, I deter- 
 mined to re-examine those which were made after I 
 returned to England in 1820, and procured a fresh supply 
 of instruments. In the usual way of obtaining the mean 
 height of the barometer, it is indispensable to the accuracy 
 of the calculation, that an equal number of observations be 
 obtained corresponding to winds from opposite directions. 
 Now, this being circumstantially precluded, I proceeded 
 after Professor Miller's own method of treatment, upon my 
 register from leaving Sheerness on the 7th of August, 
 1821, to August the 2nd, 1824 ; by which process a more 
 
214 BAROMETRIC ZERO. 
 
 satisfactory conclusion than his first was obtained. It is 
 as follows : — 
 
 The sum of 1049 readings of the barometer between the above-men- 
 tioned dates, reduced to the freezing point, is 31333*6 inches, and the sum 
 of the latitudes of the places of observation is 38578° ; hence, dividing by 
 1049, we have — 
 
 Mean barometer reading, 29*870 ; and mean latitude, 36° 46' 33". 
 
 The observations were taken at 8h. a.m., to accord with the ship avocations. 
 Now, according to Forbes, the diurnal oscillation is, in inches, = 0*1193 
 (cos. mean lat.) •§ 0*0149 inches ; and the pressure is at a maximum at 
 9h. a.m. ; hence one hour before the maximum being = one hour after it, 
 there remain two hours to noon, or T Vth of the daily oscillation to be 
 applied. 
 
 Cos. lat 36,46,33 log. 9-903629 
 
 T \thof*1193. .= *0099 log. 8*000000 
 
 Nat. Num. . . . *008 == log. 7*903629 
 
 Mean barometer . . 29*870 
 
 Corrected to noon as 29*862 
 
 To correct this reading to the standard of the instruments in the Paris 
 observatory, we take the mean of 28 observations made on board my ship, 
 the Adventure, at Sheerness, and on the way from thence to Falmouth, at 
 0° C, = 29*826 ; and the mean of 28 observations made at Paris at 9h. a.m. 
 on the same days, at 0° C, = 29*788. Now the pressure at the level of the 
 sea in the latitude at Paris, exceeds that at the level of the sea in the mean 
 latitude of the track from Sheerness to Falmouth by 0*015 inches, according 
 to Schouw; which, deducted from 29*788, leaves 29*773 ; and on the other 
 hand, the pressure at the Observatory at Paris being less than at the level 
 of the sea in the same latitude, we must add, — 
 
 By Schouw . 0213"*! 29-986"*i which, deducted f- 16(n hence, the mean C= 30-022 
 
 Byltamond . -270 I 30-043 I from29-826,leaves I -217 I barom. in Mediter-I -079 
 
 By levels . . -222 [29-995 f the various defi-j -169 franean = 29861 cor- 1 '031 
 
 By other levels -282 J 30*055 J ciencies of . . 1*229 J rected by Paris bar. I -091 
 
 Conclusion As this process yields a mean = 30056 nearly, I trust 
 
 thereupon. 
 
 that general comparisons are afforded by my barometric 
 conclusions : and they were constantly compared and 
 marked on diagrams with the oscillations of the sympieso- 
 meter, a very portable instrument, contrived, by means of 
 hydrogen gas and oil, to indicate most sensitively the 
 changes of the pressure of the atmosphere. The scales of 
 the thermometers, though not perfect, were very fairly 
 divided, and we had the best that Dollond and T. Jones 
 could furnish. Our weakest point was in the hygrometer, 
 one of De Luc's, for Mr. Daniell — my regretted friend and 
 
MEDITERRANEAN METEOROLOGY. 215 
 
 successor as Foreign Secretary to the Royal Society, when Mr. Danieii. 
 I was called into Wales in 1839 — had not then promul- 
 gated his beautiful experiments on wet bulbs and dew- 
 points. Aware, therefore, that my means were short of 
 the desired excellence, and relying on the diligence exerted 
 in watching them, I still think my meteorological remarks 
 will prove trustworthy to navigators, and perhaps to others ; 
 more especially as, in drawing up my general deductions, 
 I had the great advantage of access to the registers kept 
 by my excellent friend, the Abbate Piazzi, from 1791 to 
 1815, in the Royal Observatory at Palermo — near the 
 mid-latitude which I have assumed. 
 
 In my account of Sicily, published in 1824, I remarked Sicily, 
 that ' The medium height of the thermometer is 62*5°, 
 of the barometer 29*80 inches, and the annual amount of 
 the pluviometer 26 inches. The thermometer in the hottest 
 days rises as high as 90° or 92° (in the shade), and very 
 seldom falls lower than 36°, even in the depth of winter. 
 The highest barometer index I have observed in very 
 serene * weather, and light westerly airs, was 30*47 inches ; 
 and the lowest, in gloomy weather and south-east gales, 
 29*13 inches. In the year 1814, there were 121 overcast 
 and cloudy days, on 83 of which rain fell ; 36 misty days ; 
 49 of very variable weather, and 159 fine bright days.' 
 Of Sardinia, my sketch of which was published in 1828, it Sardinia, 
 is stated (page 79) that ' the island lies between the 39th 
 and 41st degrees of north latitude, and though the thermo- 
 meter ranges from 34° to 90°, I found its mean temperature, 
 by a register of Six's thermometer, 61*7°; but this being the 
 average only in my cabin in the various ports and bays, 
 I tried that of a very deep and limpid spring (44 feet) near 
 Porto Conte, in a cavern 120 feet below the surface of the 
 
 * This word, in my Sicily (page 4), is unfortunately printed severe, but 
 the context will point out the error. Being absent from England during the 
 time it was printing, I was prevented from seeing the proof-sheets. 
 
216 
 
 MEDITERRANEAN METEOROLOGY. 
 
 earth, and found it to be 602°. The medium height of the 
 barometer appears to be about 29*69, the highest point I have 
 known in it being 3040, and the lowest 29*20/ A further 
 Conclusions, scrutiny of my register leads to the general conclusion that 
 the prevalent winds are from the west to the north, and 
 the next prevalent are from east-south-east to south ; and 
 also that the spring season is usually mild and balmy, with 
 frequent showers — the summers are sultry, with occasional 
 thunder-storms — autumn is warm and genial, with occa- 
 sional rain — and winter, though fine at intervals, is at times 
 rainy, tempestuous, and humid. Such, indeed, may be 
 assumed as the climate for the mid-latitude of the Medi- 
 terranean ; and the view will be more complete by showing 
 the monthly variation of the temperature for the mean 
 parallel — an isotherm for comparison — as nearly as my 
 tables enable me to carry it : — 
 
 January . 
 February 
 March 
 April . . 
 May . . 
 June . . 
 
 In addition to these deductions, it may aid the inquirer 
 to see what may be deemed an approximation to the actual 
 climate condition of several stations of the Mediterranean 
 Sea, at very slight elevations above its level : — 
 
 Max. 
 
 Min. 
 
 . . 50-1 . 
 
 . 44-3 
 
 . . 51-5 . 
 
 . 46-0 
 
 . . 58-8 . 
 
 . 50-7 
 
 . . 63-6 . 
 
 . 61-0 
 
 . . 68-7 . 
 
 . 64-0 
 
 . . 77-9 . 
 
 . 67'6 
 
 
 Max. 
 
 Min. 
 
 July . . 
 
 . 79-9 . 
 
 .. 74-1 
 
 August . 
 
 . 81-7 . 
 
 . 76-0 
 
 September 
 
 . 80-1 . 
 
 . 73*5 
 
 October . 
 
 . 77-4 . 
 
 . 65-4 
 
 November 
 
 . 69-3 . 
 
 . 58-9 
 
 December 
 
 . 60-5 . 
 
 .. 49-7 
 
 
 
 Barometer. 
 
 Thermometer. 
 
 Rain. 
 Inches. 
 
 PLACES. 
 
 Max. Min. 
 
 Max. 
 
 Min. 
 
 Gibraltar . . . 
 Marseilles . . 
 Sardinia . . 
 Rome . . . 
 Sicily . . . 
 Malta . . . 
 Cepbalonia . . 
 Constantinople 
 Alexandria . 
 Tripoli . . . 
 Algiers . . . 
 
 
 30-90 
 30-55 
 30-40 
 30-28 
 30-47 
 30-39 
 30-32 
 30-38 
 30-16 
 30-25 
 30-28 
 
 28-62 
 29-04 
 29-20 
 28-73 
 2913 
 28-80 
 29-07 
 2916 
 29-42 
 2950 
 28-99 
 
 85-0° 
 
 79-2 
 
 90-0 
 
 82-5 
 
 91-0 
 
 90-2 
 
 90-5 
 
 90-0 
 
 91-5 
 
 92-5 
 
 86-8 
 
 46-8° 
 
 40-5 
 
 34-0 
 
 41-0 
 
 36-0 
 
 46-4 
 
 43-5 
 
 53-4 
 
 51-7 
 
 51-2 
 
 41-5 
 
 31-1 
 
 26-8 
 27'5 
 30-4 
 26-0 
 15-0 
 21-9 
 31-6 
 7-6 
 10-0 
 25-6 
 
MEDITERRANEAN METEOROLOGY. 217 
 
 These figures afford a pretty fair estimate of the atmo- Remarks on 
 spheric pressure and temperature of the Inner Sea, under 
 the unequal action of all the disturbing causes ; and in the 
 latter table, where I have availed myself of the contribu- 
 tions of friends, I have carefully eschewed the wondrous 
 but impotent conclusions derived from observations of a 
 thermometer placed, as it is called, in the sun — a practice 
 on which some of our countrymen abroad are apt to rely, 
 not being aware that the heat thus marked by the scale is 
 nothing more than that of the instrument itself, thus 
 exposed to the continued action of the solar rays. Nothing, 
 however, in meteorology, presents a greater uncertainty, 
 with the means as yet contrived, than the attempt at 
 measuring the annual fall of rain in a given spot ; since so Annual 
 much depends upon the nature of the gauge, the ability rain, 
 and industry of the observer, and the height and exposure 
 of the place. Of this, a crucial example is afforded by the 
 registers carefully kept at Gibraltar for nearly half a cen- 
 tury, wherein a range of the mean fall yearly is presented, 
 varying from 1416 to 62'87 inches in the least and greatest 
 quantities ; and we are assured that in the year 1796, when 
 the latter fall took place at Gibraltar, at Madrid — the 
 centre of an elevated plateau in the middle of Spain — the 
 yearly rain measured only ten inches. Such differences 
 in places comparatively contiguous,* are not, as might be 
 expected, at all uncommon. The mural semicircle formed 
 by the Alps on the north of Italy, encloses a basin into 
 which the warm southerly winds blow, and the effect is 
 such, that while on the northern foot of those mountains 
 there are but thirty-five inches of rain, there falls an average 
 of fifty-eight inches upon the southern foot; and at Tolmezzo 
 in Friuli, in the south-east part of that curve, forming an 
 
 * The greatest annual fall on record is that at Sierra Leone, on the west 
 coast of Africa, which amounts to no less than 400 inches! Yet some of 
 the adjacent parts are comparatively dry. 
 
218 THE TEMPERATURE CONSIDERED. 
 
 angle where the vapours accumulate, a mean of twenty- two 
 years' registration gives ninety inches as the annual quan- 
 tity, whilst the fall at Venice — only sixty-five miles to the 
 south-south-west — is but thirty inches. A similar relation 
 exists with respect to the other mountain-chains of the 
 Mediterranean, where like causes produce, at certain places, 
 the fall of twice, or even a greater excess over the mean 
 annual quantity, 
 stability of Imperfect as the above observations must necessarily 
 
 tempera- 
 ture, be, they will be undoubtedly useful in physical geography; 
 
 and had Pliny given us similar numbers in his ' Cyclopaedia/ 
 we should have had a range of 1800 years upon which to 
 discuss the questio vexata, as to an alteration of the mean 
 heat on the shores of the Mediterranean. It is considered 
 as absolutely shown, that little or no change of the ordinary 
 temperature can have taken place in Syria during 3000 
 years ; because the Israelites found the date and the vine 
 flourishing in Canaan, and they exist there still. My good 
 correspondent, M. Arago, insists that a trifling alteration 
 of temperature would have destroyed one or the other of 
 these fruit-bearing trees, since the vine will not ripen where 
 the mean temperature of the year is higher than 84°, or 
 the date flourish where it sinks below that degree. This 
 argument would be beautiful, as appealing to Nature herself 
 where instrumental means are wanting, but his numbers 
 are assuredly too high, since I found the date-tree flourish- 
 ing exuberantly around Tripoli, under a mean thermometer 
 of 75 "35° ; and its luxuriance in the neighbourhood of 
 Cairo is well known. I have no register for Cairo ; but on 
 the hypothesis that the climate of Lower Egypt may be 
 nearly inferred from its parallel of latitude, since there are 
 but few disturbing causes acting on the atmosphere in that 
 valley, it may be considered as low as 70'56°, on Sir David 
 Brewster's Brewster's formula, T= 81*5 (inferred mean at the equator) 
 cos. lat. No one will hesitate to admit that the date-tree 
 and the vine were simultaneously cultivated in the valley 
 
THE TEMPERATURE CONSIDERED. 219 
 
 of the Jordan ; but assuredly no country is more broken 
 by mountain and plain. The date is not recorded as an 
 eatable fruit in Scripture, nor can it be proved that ripe 
 dates were gathered and wine pressed on the same spot. 
 
 It is now impossible to say how far we might have Absence of 
 agreed with the ancients, or differed from them, had they 
 transmitted quantitative determinations to us, derived from 
 a systematic registration and discussion of the meteorolo- 
 gical facts ; and in the absence of these, it would be very 
 unsafe to admit the vegetation of Italy as a natural ther- 
 mometer, into rigorous argument, until we are positively 
 agreed as to the identity and place of the trees adduced. 
 The hypothesis, it is true, has recently been so ably treated 
 by my friend, Dr. Kothman, as to be almost convincing ; Rothman. 
 but the unanimous testimony of a host of classical writers, 
 the aspect of various localities, the greater mildness of 
 recent winters, and the harvests being now somewhat 
 earlier than formerly, certainly lead to the inference that 
 the south of Europe is much warmer than when Csesar 
 so carefully noted the changes of season. Of course the 
 meteorologist is aware, from the recent brilliant researches 
 into the condition of the earth as connected with the length 
 of day, that it is concluded the mean heat of the globe 
 cannot have diminished as much as -j-g-o-th part of a degree 
 of Fahrenheit during a period of 2000 years ; yet it cannot 
 be decided how far local modifications may exercise local 
 influence. Therefore, without entering into an elaborate 
 discussion as to the grounds on which the above opinion 
 was formed, I may at once state, that such is the impression 
 left by my inquiries ; and my views were strongly corrobo- 
 rated by the late Dr. Arnold, as reconciling some ancient Dr. Arnold, 
 and modern statements respecting Greece. The facts ad- 
 vanced by history are substantial, the objections to them 
 all but mere inference : numerous tracts which were 
 abundantly fertile are now almost irremediably dry and 
 barren, and — whether from neglect of drainage and tillage, 
 

 220 ANCIENT TESTIMONIES. 
 
 or other causes — some districts which were tolerably healthy 
 of old, have become so pestiferous as to be uninhabitable. 
 A contrary opinion to this has been received, under the 
 
 Apennines, assumption that by stripping the Apennines of wood, the 
 degree of cold had been sensibly increased ; but a com- 
 parison of recent registers with those of the Accademia del 
 Cimento, proves that the temperature has scarcely varied 
 from the time of Galileo, — that is, prior to the denudation 
 of those mountains.* 
 
 Ancient re- The ancients distinctly speak of effects produced by the 
 
 TTl3.rltS 
 
 cold of winter in Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor, which 
 have been in later ages unknown ; and the almost insup- 
 portable severity of the climate between the Euxine and 
 
 Herodotus. Gaul is historically infamous, from the days of Herodotus 
 
 Ovid. to those of poor Ovid, whose dismal lamentations over his 
 
 sufferings at Tomos are well corroborated by the septem 
 assurgit in ulnas, the travelling on ice recorded by Strabo, 
 and the pointed assertions of other writers. Both Herodo- 
 
 Casar. tus and Julius Caesar, however deficient in minute geogra- 
 phical accuracy, agreed with regard to the very material 
 and striking fact — of which there were then thousands 
 of living witnesses — that the winters in Gaul were most 
 rigorous, and that the rivers were at such seasons nearly all 
 
 Columella, frozen. Columella, the agricultural writer, who nourished 
 under Claudius, and is the first author who speaks of vines 
 in Gaul, has this remarkable passage : ' I find that it is the 
 opinion of many respectable authors, that the quality and 
 state of the atmosphere have been altered in the course of 
 a long series of ages ; for Saserna, in the work which he 
 has left on agriculture, infers that the state of the atmo- 
 sphere is changed, because certain districts, which formerly 
 were incapable of producing vines and olives, on account 
 
 * Means of ascertaining the temperature by instruments are, however, 
 truly modern, for the thermometer was only reduced, by the skill of Fahren- 
 heit, to a correct standard in 1724, although it had been invented 135 years 
 earlier. 
 
ANCIENT TESTIMONIES. 221 
 
 of the continued severity of the winter, now yield abundant 
 vintages and plenty of oil, by the climate having become 
 milder and warmer/ Whether this was the result of em- 
 banking rivers, draining morasses, cultivation of the soil, 
 extirpation of forests, or of accidental causes, we know not ; 
 but it may be considered as a substantial fact. 
 
 Our purpose, however, being to tell what can be gathered Roman 
 as to any alteration in the Mediterranean climate, it may 
 be as well to assume Rome as a starting-point ; and here 
 we have the testimony of both naturalists and poets con- 
 curring upon the sharpness of their winters. Pliny the Pliny i. 
 Elder — De Natura Coeli ad Arbor es (Nat Hist, lib. xvii. 
 cap. 2) — says that he who wishes well to his trees and corn 
 will desire that the snows may remain long on the ground : 
 ' Alioqui vota arborum frugumque communia sunt, nives 
 diutinas sedere/ A passage in Pliny the Younger (lib. v. Pliny it. 
 ep. 6), which aided Arago in estimating a mean tempera- 
 ture for Rome, shows that sometimes the bay-tree (Pro- 
 fessor Martyns rendering of ' laurus *) was killed by the 
 cold of Italy ; writing from his Tusculan villa, he says, 
 1 The winters here are severe and cold, so that myrtles, 
 olives, and those trees which require continued warmth, 
 will not flourish here (aspernatur ac respuit) ; but it pro- 
 duces the bay (laurus) in great perfection : yet sometimes, 
 though not oftener than in Rome, they are killed by the 
 severity of the seasons/ This passage is noted, though 
 somewhat incorrectly, by the Hon. Daines Barrington, in 
 an investigation of this question which appears in the 
 Philosophical Transactions for 1768 ; and he adduces 
 Elian's chapter of instructions (lib. xiv. cap. 29) how to ^Han. 
 catch eels whilst the water is covered with ice, as the 
 strongest proof of the Italian rivers being constantly frozen 
 over : ' Now, if we may believe the concurrent accounts of 
 
 * The Laurel of the ancients was certainly the Laurus nobilis of Linnaeus 
 our bay-tree, or common laurel, being a plum — Prunus Lauro-certums. 
 
222 ANCIENT TESTIMONIES. 
 
 modern travellers, it would be almost as ridiculous to advise 
 a method of catching fish in the rivers of Italy, which 
 depended entirely upon their being frozen over, as it would 
 be to give such directions to an inhabitant of Jamaica/ 
 And certainly, from the result of my local inquiries, in the 
 more temperate winters now experienced, the Tiber is 
 never frozen over, and when snow falls, it lies on the 
 ground but for a few hours ; a duration of two days is held 
 to be a rigorous visitation. 
 
 Poetical In now summoning a poetical witness or two, we cannot 
 
 evi ence. j^ no ^ e ^ a t ^ e opponents of this view object to the 
 evidence of such authorities, and impute their expressions 
 to the exaggerations of a glowing fancy. Alio wing some 
 weight to the observation, it must still be admitted that 
 there must have been ground for assertions as to local facts 
 and customs. Would Milton have made every shepherd 
 1 tell his tale/ had it not been customary to count sheep ? 
 or would Gay have written Trivia without encountering 
 annoyances in walking the streets of London ? There can 
 be no sound reason why ' glacie currus frasnaret aquarum' 
 
 virgii. of Virgil's application to the river Galesus, or the ' fracta 
 glacie' for the matutinal immersions of the Isis-stricken 
 ladies of Rome in the Tiber, should be rejected as merely 
 poetical fictions, since they are collaterally corroborated. 
 Now, Virgil is quoted as an authority in matters of hus- 
 bandry, and he is constantly advising the farmers, through- 
 out the Georgics, to guard their flocks and herds against the 
 ice and snow of the winters ; advice which no native poet 
 
 Horace. of the present time would dream of insisting upon. Horace, 
 who, it must be admitted, hated residing in Rome, has 
 various passages which allude to the streets of that capital 
 as disagreeably impure # from snow and ice, as well as from 
 
 
 * Dr. Hawkins (Medical Statistics), on the authority of ancient docu- 
 ments, tells us that the mean term of life among the Romans was 30 years : 
 among the easy classes in England it is 50 years. 
 
PROBABLE DEGREE OF CHANGE. 223 
 
 noise and smoke. Nor must the testimony of Martial Martial. 
 (lib. viii. ep. 14 & 68) be omitted, since, in advising the 
 protecting of plants against wintry frosts by placing them 
 in conservatories — for such must be his ' specularia/ which 
 1 puros admittunt soles, et sine fsece diem' — stamps a fact 
 as to climate, and also intimates an early invention in 
 the arts. 
 
 On the whole, I cannot but repeat my belief, that the Considera- 
 climate of the zone described may have become somewhat evidence, 
 more temperate than it was of old, from some undiscovered 
 or local cause ; but both it, and the amount of its effect, are, 
 in the utter absence of better data, more difficult to account 
 for, than it would be to explain why the abject subjects of 
 Pio Nono differ so greatly from the energetic Romans 
 of the times of Scipio and Caesar. Such partial changes of 
 climate are not out of record ; for in the Philosophical 
 Transactions for 1766, page 230, Mr. Bowles, Director- 
 general of the Mines in Spain, says, ' Eight leagues square 
 of this Upper Montana (near the source of the Ebro) is the upper 
 
 . . ... Montana. 
 
 highest land in Spain ; the mountains rise in the atmo- 
 sphere to the line of congelation ; I see snow from my 
 window (at Reynosa), the 4th of August, 1766, as I am 
 writing this letter. Some years ago there used to fall so 
 much snow, that the people were forced to dig lines through 
 it, to go to church, in the winter ; but there has fallen little 
 snow since the earthquake at Lisbon, and some years none 
 at all. I am persuaded it changed the climate of many 
 parts of Spain ; for no man living saw, nor heard his father 
 say he saw, snow fall in or about the city of Seville, until 
 the year 1756/ In a word, a few days of frost constitutes 
 the severest winter near the isothermal line which I pro- 
 pose to mark in the mid-latitude of the space here de- 
 scribed ; and snow thaws along the coast in a few hours. 
 It is true that there are records of the Adriatic's having Adriatic 
 been sometimes frozen over at distant intervals, and of 
 prodigious falls of snow north of the assumed line of heat ; 
 
224 
 
 ON THE HEALTH OF ROME. 
 
 Deteriora- 
 tion of 
 climate. 
 
 Cicero. 
 
 Strabo. 
 
 
 but occasional incidents are only exceptions to the general 
 rule, and the climate must be pronounced to be generally- 
 delightful and salubrious. 
 
 The last word introduces another and a serious consi- 
 deration. Whatever doubts may be thrown on a variation 
 of the thermal force in these regions, there appears to be 
 very little, among the native physicians, as to a gradual 
 deterioration of the healthfulness of the climate : even here, 
 however, I shall take the middle course, for the essence of 
 a recent Italian work is to swallow every possible statement 
 which favours the author's hypothesis, and reject whatever 
 disagrees with it ; and even in begging the question, a cir cuius 
 vitiosus damages the author's argument throughout. In his 
 effort to prove the salubrity of ancient Rome, a somewhat 
 triumphant citation is made from the newly-discovered 
 fragments of Cicero De Republicd. Speaking of the happy 
 choice which Romulus made of a site for his new city, the 
 orator says, Locum delegit in regione pestilenti salubrem, 
 from which it is inferred, that whatever ailed Latium, the 
 air at Rome was always good. Now Strabo, a man less 
 likely to be influenced by his imagination than this writer, 
 assures us that the situation of the Eternal City was fixed 
 by necessity, and not by choice ; and however much 
 healthier it may have been than it is known now to 
 be, it is impossible to note the 'regione pestilenti ' above 
 quoted, the complaints of old writers, the recorded plagues, 
 and the numerous temples, altars, statues, and medals to 
 the honour of Apollo, Esculapius, Salus, and Hygeia, without 
 entertaining strong misgivings as to its former wholesome- 
 As to the Campagna around, the pestilent nature of 
 
 ness. 
 
 Malaria. 
 
 the autumnal air in those days is notorious from the writings 
 of Strabo, Martial, Cato, Seneca, Galen ; and, among others, 
 Varro may be particularly instanced, from his having 
 advised the proprietor of an unhealthy farm either to sell 
 it at any price, or else to abandon it. 
 
 In the first chapter of this work, mention was made of 
 
MALARIA. 225 
 
 the pestiferous nature of the air in many places ; and other 
 situations afflicted with a summer fever of such a distinctly 
 remittent type as to give plain evidence of the effects of 
 malaria, are pointed out. Yet the subject is of such 
 frequent occurrence in treating of the Mediterranean 
 climate, that it is necessary, even at the risk of repetition, 
 to return to it. And in order that my opinions may obtain 
 attention, I can here state, that although by a singular 
 blessing — considering my continual exposure — I never was 
 a day in the doctor's list while afloat, yet, from constantly 
 attending to the surgeon's daily reports on the sick, 
 examining into particular cases during my official visits 
 to naval hospitals, and generally keeping my weather-eye 
 open, I was enabled to procure such an insight into these 
 matters as a careful officer ought to possess. By this 
 knowledge, and a proper attention to clothing, habits, food, Duty of 
 and employment, men may often be preserved from illness 
 by their commander; though, when disease has actually 
 made its appearance, the treatment must rest entirely with 
 the doctor. Among the inquiries which ought to engage 
 the attention of those who are officially placed in charge 
 of many people, surely those which tend to the preservation 
 of human life, and the increase of human enjoyment by 
 health, may justly claim pre-eminence ; * it therefore 
 follows, that while the captain's influence should be con- 
 
 * On publishing my descriptions of Sicily and Sardinia, I appended tables 
 relating to the air of all the towns and villages in those islands ; and in 
 quoting the following eulogy on them from Dr. Macculloch's Essay on Malaria, 
 1827, page 368, I am prompted by the hope of inciting attention to so 
 important a point, and not by the personal feeling with which they cannot 
 but impress me: — 'Let me only further add,' he says, 'in gratitude to a 
 person without whose assistance I could not even have written what I have, 
 that I am indebted to Captain Smyth for nearly the whole of that topogra- 
 phical information which relates to the shores of the Mediterranean ; while 
 they who may choose to abstract that portion, will see that it forms the 
 greater part of the subsequent details. He is not a physician, it is true : 
 yet if but one physician out of a thousand had observed as well, the entire 
 geography of Malaria would not be now to write, and physic would be 
 relieved from a heavy disgrace which it deservedly endures for tlii:-' neglect.' 
 
 Q 
 

 
 226 MALARIA. 
 
 stantly employed in the adoption of preventive means, the 
 surgeon should as diligently apply his knowledge of the 
 curative treatment required. And as it has been admitted 
 by medical men, that marsh fevers carry off or disable 
 one-fifth of the dwellers along the Mediterranean shores, 
 our attention to such a scourge cannot be misplaced. 
 Nature of Although the effects of malaria are at last prettv well 
 
 Malaria. 7. . i 
 
 known to our medical corps, its mysterious nature and 
 origin have never been hitherto unravelled ; and whether 
 it be an atmospheric agent, whether sulphuretted or carbu- 
 retted hydrogen gas, or whether it be a material or an 
 aeriform substance, is still unknown. Notwithstanding it 
 is notorious for infesting rice and flax grounds, morasses, 
 and stagnant waters, the febrific tendencies of which are 
 too well known, malaria exists independent of marshes and 
 rank vegetation, in barren and apparently arid places. It 
 may possibly be influenced by the drying power of the 
 atmosphere, or the energy of evaporation under local 
 causes, as expressed by the relation which the dew-point 
 bears to the temperature of the atmosphere. The effluvia 
 from marshes is presumed to indicate its presence ; but 
 even where a warning smell may exist, its cause should be 
 sought for, since it is as yet doubtful whether curing an efflu- 
 vium of its scent also destroys its hurtful quality. Future 
 discoveries may unveil the matter. 
 Singular That the vagaries of malaria, as evinced in effects which 
 
 display but little affinity with each other, are at present 
 almost inscrutable, is no reason for a neglect of observation 
 and inquiry. We are told of towns where one side of a 
 street is infected, and the other not ; of streets in which 
 some houses alone escape ; and even of barracks in which 
 some divisions are healthy and others filled with sick men. 
 But in these cases the anomaly is rather apparent than real ; 
 it may be owing to exposure of site here, or the prevalence of 
 contagious disorders there. Sometimes the miasma has been 
 known to rise from its marshy bed along the nearest side of 
 
 effects. 
 
MALARIA. 227 
 
 the adjacent uplands, infecting all that it passes over, 
 though becoming so rarifled and dispersed as to lose its 
 malignity at the summit. Over valleys the acti@n is some- 
 what different ; during the summer nights, the exhalations 
 of the day are partly precipitated, and meeting those which 
 for some time after sunset try to ascend, the two baneful 
 gases concentrate. This is malaria of a most malignant 
 type, and will be more or less pernicious according to the 
 season of the year, and the predisposition of bodies exposed 
 to its influence. This unseen enemy is also wafted by the 
 winds to a considerable distance, contaminating the air of 
 places not otherwise unhealthy, the virulence depending on 
 local and aerial circumstances. As to season, it may be 
 considered to prevail from the summer solstice to the 
 autumnal equinox, when fevers, visceral complaints, and 
 general bodily derangement, mark its presence ; and it is 
 even advanced by native physicians, that at such times 
 fatal epidemics among men, and epizootics among cattle, 
 display, on dissection, the same appearances of inflamma- 
 tory affection. The operation of malaria is not much Time of 
 
 ,,,,.,. . n i • operation. 
 
 dreaded during day-time, since all the emanations are 
 dissipated by the solar beams ; evening causes more cases of 
 fever even than midnight, when the poisonous exhalation 
 is completely condensed upon the soil ; and hence those 
 who sleep in the upper stories of houses are less liable to 
 disease, and take it in a milder form, than those whose beds 
 are on the ground-floor. The time of sleep seems to be 
 the moment of attack, as the debility of the body, and the 
 peculiar state of the local night-air, combine to aid the 
 effective reception of miasma : foulness of stomach excites 
 redundant bile, and consequently lays the trap for fever, 
 but the remote cause assuredly exists in some of the volatile 
 bodies in the atmosphere. 
 
 Plague, or pestilence, being but a capricious visitor to Plague, 
 the Mediterranean, is only here named because its effects 
 have been confounded in history with the ravages of 
 
 Q2 
 
228 
 
 MALARIA. 
 
 malaria ; yet, should a stray reader desire my opinion on 
 contagion, non-contagion, and quarantine, lie will find it 
 already expressed in the United Service Journal, Nos. 49 
 and 51. The misnamed plague which afflicted the Syracusan 
 and Roman armies (Livy, xxv. 26), when the former, accord- 
 ing to the historian, perished to a man, was the autumnal 
 Malaria malaria which affects the fatal plain of the Anapus ; it was 
 
 mistaken r r ■ > 
 
 for plague. as deadly to the Athenians before Himilco's time, as I have 
 since known it to be to some obstinate sporting English 
 officers. When the French, under the luckless Yiscount 
 de Lautrec, had overrun all the kingdom of Naples, except 
 the capital and Gaeta, by injudiciously encamping near 
 Baiae — a neighbourhood where causes of endemic fevers are 
 never wanting — their army was reduced from 28,500 to 
 4100 men. A melancholy retreat was the consequence ; 
 Marshal de Lautrec, the Prince of Yaudemont, and many 
 other persons of eminence, being among the victims. So after 
 the battle of Tchesme (the Franco-Russ spelling ofChesmeh, 
 i.e. spring), in 1770, when the Russians were masters of the 
 Archipelago, and might therefore have chosen any port 
 therein, Count Orloff, in opposition to all advice, persisted 
 in making Port Naussa, in Paros, the cantonment and 
 depot of his forces. And bitterly he paid for his obstinacy, 
 in the death of the greater part of his soldiers and seamen, 
 and the sickening of nearly all the rest; by which the 
 objects of that campaign were frustrated.* 
 conse- Under the colloquial term plague the cause of illness 
 
 of such was mystified, and men's minds were so misdirected, that 
 error. ^ e rea i enemy was utterly slighted till nearly the present 
 
 * Instead of the Empress adding Tchesme to OrlofTs name, — the which 
 was rather due to Lieutenant Dugdale, — she should have stamped the brute 
 with Tarrakanoff as an agnomen. To show how little Orloff's disaster 
 weighed with Hygeian tacticians, I will just mention that so late as the year 
 1809, I served on the gi-and and powerful expedition to Walcheren, where, 
 from precisely the same causes, we lost 10,000 men, inflicted thousands of 
 others with pertinacious ailments, and utterly Wasted twenty millions of 
 money. 
 
GENERAL HEALTHINESS. 229 
 
 day. In 1812, during our occupation of Sicily, three or 
 four times, and by means of as many successive parties, 
 was it determined to occupy a point between Cape Rasa- 
 culmo and the unhealthy village of Spadafora, in the 
 telegraph line between Messina and Milazzo ; nor was the 
 intention abandoned until thirty men had been destroyed 
 by malaria, against which the natives had warned the 
 officious staff-officer then holding his brief authority. Such 
 instances are truly deplorable, especially as I can distinctly 
 state that most of these places infected with malaria are 
 well known to their respective neighbours, and by them 
 at once pointed out to strangers. Yet I have known of 
 both naval and military officers treating such admo- 
 nitions with incredulity, and even contempt ; and loss 
 of life, or lingering illnesses, have been the consequence. 
 It is to be hoped that the hour of scepticism has passed, 
 and that our authorities have begun to learn that there 
 actually are pestilential spots which should be carefully 
 avoided. At least, if a commander who is made acquainted Captain's 
 
 1 responsi- 
 
 therewith allows his want of vigilance, or contempt of bilit y- 
 means, to cause a loss of life, that commander is not only 
 recklessly neglectful of his duty, but is also morally guilty 
 of culpable homicide. 
 
 Still, with the exception of these scourges, the Medi- General 
 terranean climate must be considered as highly salubrious ; of the 
 
 ° m J } Mediter- 
 
 and although, from possessing a more humid atmosphere ranean. 
 than is generally inferred, it may not be so good for 
 pulmonary disease as medical men have supposed it to be, 
 and its vicissitudes are trying to invalids, it is gratifying to 
 know, by evidence which cannot be disputed, that the 
 highest degree of health is enjoyed by the British fleet 
 on this station. In proof of this I shall here submit a 
 table which was kindly furnished to me by Sir William 
 Burnett, himself formerly Physician of the Mediterranean 
 fleet, and now Director-general of the Medical Department 
 of the Navy. It shows the sanatory condition, from official 
 
230 
 
 OFFICIAL REPORT ON HEALTH. 
 
 Wilson's 
 report. 
 
 returns, the total number of cases of principal diseases and 
 injuries, with the ratio of each per 1000 of mean strength 
 for seven years, from 1830 to 1836 ; and is a tabular view 
 of the clear and elaborate report on the ' Health of the 
 Navy/ compiled by Dr. Wilson. 
 
 PRINCIPAL DISEASES. 
 
 Total 
 number of 
 
 cases in 
 Seven Years. 
 
 Annual 
 
 Total 
 
 ratio attacked 
 
 died in 
 
 per 1000 of 
 
 Seven 
 
 mean strength. 
 
 Years. 
 
 84" 
 
 98 
 
 2- 
 
 42 
 
 31-3 
 
 54 
 
 7-2 
 
 12 
 
 2-5 
 
 13 
 
 5-1 
 
 105 
 
 2-6 
 
 3 
 
 133 
 
 18 
 
 1-7 
 
 22 
 
 1-1 
 
 6 
 
 49-9 
 
 — 
 
 26- 
 
 — 
 
 71-2 
 
 6 
 
 222-9 
 
 101 
 
 Annual 
 
 ratio died 
 
 per 1000 of 
 
 mean strength. 
 
 Fevers 
 
 Organic diseases of the \ 
 
 brain j 
 
 Inflammation of the > 
 
 lungs J 
 
 Inflammation of the ) 
 
 liver J 
 
 Inflammation of the ) 
 
 digestive organs . . J 
 Consumptive diseases ) 
 
 of the lungs . . .J 
 Expectoration of blood 
 
 Dysentery 
 
 Malignant cholera . . 
 Delirium tremens . . 
 
 Syphilis 
 
 Gonorrhoea .... 
 
 Ulcer 
 
 Wounds and accidents 
 
 4,681 
 113 
 
 1,742 
 
 403 
 
 285 
 
 147 
 742 
 96 
 64 
 ,771 
 ,451 
 ,969 
 ,415 
 
 1-8 
 
 •8 
 
 r 
 
 •2 
 
 •2 
 
 19 
 
 •3 
 •4 
 1 
 
 •1 
 
 1-8 
 
 § 2. Winds, Weather, and other Atmo- 
 spherical Phenomena. 
 
 Nat »^ e of TT7TTHOUT attempting a set discussion upon winds- 
 spheres. T » or air in action — it will not be out of place to state, 
 that the recent meteorological investigations of Dove, 
 Daniell, and Howard, have led to the conclusion that the 
 earth is surrounded by two atmospheres, the relations of 
 which to heat are different, and their states of equilibrium, 
 from the unequal temperature of the sphere which they 
 envelope, incompatible with each other. Hence arises 
 a system of antagonist currents, gaseous evolution, and 
 action and reaction from the consequent different densities 
 
PHENOMENA OF THE ATMOSPHERE. 231 
 
 and temperatures ; and while they are perpetually pressing 
 in opposition, the silent processes of evaporation, condensa- 
 tion, and precipitation, tend to equalize the temperature, 
 and govern the weather. In admiration of this develop- 
 ment of design in such an imperfectly known department 
 of natural knowledge, the intelligent Mr. Daniell offers his Daniell. 
 humble tribute of gratitude to a beneficent Providence ; 
 adding, ' By gradual but almost insensible expansions, the 
 equipoised currents of the atmosphere are disturbed, the 
 stormy winds arise, and the waves of the sea are lifted up ; 
 and that stagnation of air and water is prevented, which 
 would be fatal to animal existence. But the force which 
 operates is calculated and proportioned ; the very agent 
 which causes the disturbance bears with it a self-controlling 
 power ; and the storm, as it vents its force, is itself setting 
 the bounds of its own fury/ On this principle, it must be 
 remembered that the winds, which are so sensible to us, 
 are acted upon by agents on or near the earth's surface ; 
 which are usually parts of minor systems of compensation 
 as compared with the grand movement of the atmospheric 
 ocean in which ' we live, and move, and have our being.' 
 
 These are now the accepted premises, and from thence Remark, 
 viewing the diversities and vicissitudes of weather as being 
 in a degree amenable to the conformation and orographical 
 mass of the countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, 
 a few words on the subject may present, as it were, a 
 working diagram of the principal mountain aspects to the 
 mind's eye. 
 
 On the west of the Mediterranean are the lofty nioun- western 
 tains of the Pyrenees and Granada, with the generally 
 elevated land of Spain, having obvious influence on the 
 continuity of the aerial currents which flow over them; 
 especially as the gigantic range of Mount Atlas is so near 
 on the south, that meteorologically it may be deemed a 
 continuation ; while the high summits of Majorca, Corsica, 
 and Sardinia, aid the consequent action. Under so wide 
 
232 INFLUENCES OF MOUNTAINS. 
 
 Central a scope, the centre of this sea presents a singular feature, 
 in that the Alps and Apennines, as well as the branches of 
 Hsemus and Pindus, must all be considered, de facto, to be 
 parts of one and the same mountain range. The chain 
 may be assumed as beginning in Calabria, whence it passes 
 through Italy, crosses the states of Genoa, and sweeping 
 round Piedmont and the basin of the Po, extends down 
 the other side of the Adriatic, and so onwards till one 
 branch terminates in the marble cliff at Cape Sunium, and 
 the other in the Balkan, on the shores of the Black Sea. 
 The aerial connexion is doubtless carried over the high 
 lands of the Morea, which end in the abrupt steeps of 
 
 Eastern Tsenarus. On the east side similar influences are exerted 
 by the Caucasus and Taurus ranges, with Mounts Athos, 
 Ida, Takhtahlu, and Lebanon ; together with the elevated 
 peaks of Candia, Cyprus, and other islands of the Levant. 
 Now the great bases of climature are formed by latitude 
 and local elevation above the sea. The determination, 
 therefore, of these two elements will go far towards answer- 
 ing these questions. It is fully established that the decre- 
 ment of heat increases as we rise in the atmosphere ; and that 
 it augments gradually with an accelerating progression, till 
 the commencement of congelation in each latitude. By a 
 geometrical investigation of the difference of density pro- 
 duced by the changes in the air's temperature, the gradation 
 of effect is clearly traceable ; and it follows that, as the moun- 
 tain-chains on each side of the Mediterranean lie between 
 the latitudes of 30° and 47° north, the snow-line — or lower 
 limit of perpetual congelation — can vary only from about 
 11,000 to 7,000 feet — a conclusion which, though deduced 
 theoretically, is found to coincide with the result of actual 
 observations wherever they can be obtained. 
 
 Result. Such being the broad feature, some of the resulting 
 
 meteorological changes may be accounted for, or even 
 determined, however remote we may yet be from a power 
 of fully investigating these causes and effects. One fact, 
 
WATCHFULNESS IS REQUIRED. 233 
 
 however, has accrued from inquiry — namely, that the 
 temperature is more equable on the shores of the Mediter- 
 ranean than further inland ; and some of the prevalent 
 winds may almost be prognosticated. Still, such is their 
 fickleness as concerns direction, force, change, and tempera- 
 ture, that a complete cognizance of the laws which regulate 
 their course might be despaired of, but for the conviction of 
 there being nothing fortuitous in physics ; this, added to 
 the splendid results reaped by inquiry into the equatorial 
 winds, leads to a hope of our one day knowing something 
 more about the differences of aerial temperature beyond 
 the tropics, and whether the winds in the Mediterranean 
 zone are the results only of currents thrown off from 
 warmer regions, not subject to any especial law. 
 
 Leaving these matters to time, we will proceed to state Remark, 
 a few of the acknowledged facts ; from which it will be seen 
 that the caution and watchfulness of the sailor are as neces- 
 sary in the Mediterranean as in other seas. It is true that 
 fine weather is there predominant ; but, fortunately for 
 the welfare of the surrounding population, that sea is not 
 quite the placid inland lake lauded by the strains of certain 
 poetasters. Those who expect to find it constantly serene 
 will therefore be disappointed, and, as they ought to have 
 known better, will meet with no commiseration. 
 
 The most prevalent winds in the Mediterranean are prevalent 
 those which blow between west round northwards to north- 
 east, as they occur with little intermission for nearly two- 
 thirds of the year ; and pretty constantly so in summer. 
 In February, March, and April, the south-east and south- 
 west winds prevail, but their character varies greatly with 
 the locality, and even their true course and velocity have 
 hitherto been registered with palpable laxity; and in 
 speaking of leading winds it is not unusual, instead of 
 naming a rhumb, to term proceeding from Gibraltar east- 
 wards, (joincj up the Mediterranean, and from the Levant 
 to Gibraltar going down. In this region, although the 
 
234 OUTSIDE THE MEDITERRANEAN. 
 
 general characters are not dissimilar, the winds are certainly 
 more diversified in circumstance, consequence, and local 
 peculiarities than in the more northern parts of Europe ; 
 they may, therefore, have led to the ancient notion that 
 Ancient climates — strictly, with old geographers, a tract of the earth 
 definitely-bounded in latitude — were also amenable to the 
 influence and power of a consequent atmospheric tempera- 
 ture. As they rule so largely the navigation of the inner 
 sea, I endeavoured some years ago to call the attention of 
 seamen to the importance of studying their fluctuations, as 
 indicated by the marine barometer. In the abstract which 
 I then made from my memorandums for insertion in 
 our professional work, the United Service Journal, there 
 might be little perhaps that was positively new; but it 
 was given out as a link in the chain of evidence to show 
 the reliance which may be placed on that unerring monitor. 
 The following account will therefore be, in some degree, a 
 mere expansion of that essay both in style and matter : — 
 
 winds out- Between the Capes of St. Vincent and Spartel, the 
 straits, south-west winds are the most disagreeable ; a violent 
 one is sure to be denoted by a depression of the quicksilver 
 in the barometer. These gales were greatly dreaded in 
 the late Spanish wars by inexperienced navigators, who, 
 from not knowing how they came on, frequently fell into 
 difficulties. They are always precursed by a long hollow 
 swell, generally commence with a breeze between south 
 and south-south-west, from which point it continues to 
 blow for five or six hours, although the sea sets from the 
 westward. It was too common for the cruizers before 
 Cadiz, unaccustomed to that bight, to have their minds 
 impressed with the danger of the shoals of San Lucar, 
 which were then exaggerated as very alarming. Under 
 ' this apprehension they were induced to haul their starboard 
 tacks on board, and push for the Strait of Gibraltar, whereas 
 the real danger lies at the entrance of this Strait, and con- 
 
THE SOLANO. 235 
 
 sists of shelves and reefs with soundings so uncertain as 
 not to be depended upon at all. On the other hand, by- 
 standing to the westward on the port tack at the announce- 
 ment of the gale by the mercury, while the wind is from 
 the southward, a gaining westerly board may be made, 
 lee-way included. 
 
 The outer harbour of Cadiz, where the allied squadrons a soiano at 
 
 Cadiz. 
 
 rode during the siege of that city by Marshal Victor, is 
 greatly exposed to the waves thrown in by the westerly 
 winds. But the hardest gale of the neighbourhood is the 
 Solano, or Levanter of the Gibraltar pilots ; which, although 
 it comes over the land, is so violent as to justify the Portu- 
 guese proverb which makes the gravel fly before it — 
 Quando con Levante chiove, las pedras muove. This wind 
 is preceded by a peculiar haziness and clammy humidity, 
 as if owing to a diminished atmospheric electricity; the 
 air is encumbered with the cirro-strativeness of the wane- 
 cloud ; and the mercury in the tube gradually sinks. Mean- 
 while, parasitic clouds, as they are termed by meteoro- 
 logists, cap the hills of Medina Sidonia, and the atmo- 
 sphere becomes raw and bleak to the feelings. The 
 apparently stationary clouds are, in fact, the result of a 
 descending storm of dispersion, for instead of being sta- 
 tionary on the mountains, they are formed and redissolved 
 every instant ; the vapour being precipitated by the arriv- 
 ing current, and dissipated in the departing one. The 
 soiano now sets in from the east-south-east to the south- 
 south-east, for it is not the true Levanter of Mediterranean 
 seamen ; the one so named, inside the Strait, blows directly 
 from the east, freshens as the sun rises, and lulls as he 
 declines — being generally at the maximum about noon. 
 A very notable soiano occurred on the 27th of March, 1811, 
 when the Milfovd's barge, of which I was accidentally in 
 charge, unable to face it even with her well-appointed 
 crew, was only rescued from being driven off to sea, by 
 passing astern of the Undaunted frigate, the outer ship in 
 
236 THE SOLANO. 
 
 the bay, where her commander, the present Vice- Admiral 
 Richard Thomas, had veered out hawsers — per signal from 
 Sir Richard Keats — for us to get hold of. On the morning 
 
 E the C Soi°ano. of tlie ^ 8t ^ tlie W presented a singular scene of tumult 
 and devastation, with signals of distress flying in all parts ; 
 spars and merchandize floating in every direction. It was 
 found that fifty-three trading vessels were wrecked on 
 the rocks and under the walls of Cadiz during the night, 
 and that upwards of one hundred more were damaged — 
 crews for the most part saved. Had not this gale been 
 prognosticated, and in some measure provided against by 
 striking lower yards and topmasts, bracing to the wind, 
 freshening hawse, and getting everything snug, the conse- 
 quences might have been serious to the men-of-war as well 
 as to the merchantmen ; but except the sinking of four gun- 
 boats inshore, and the driving of two or three vessels to 
 sea, the English squadron sustained no injury. One of the 
 vessels thus forced from her anchors into the offing was the 
 Basilisk, a gun-brig, to which I was taking aid in the 
 barge, though unable to fetch her, from the combined force 
 of the wind and sea, as above described. 
 
 St ™ ol L,. 'That the winds in the Strait of Gibraltar blow either 
 
 Gibraltar. 
 
 from the east or west points of the horizon (technically 
 termed down or up) in general, has been immemorially 
 remarked ; and the conformation of its coasts on both sides 
 renders the reason palpable. Of these winds, the east is 
 the worst and most violent, being often the cause of much 
 inconvenience in the^bay, from its gusty flaws and eddies, 
 besides its always being found raw and disagreeable on 
 shore : hence, Senor Ayala, the Spanish historian of Gibral- 
 tar, terms the east wind the ' Tyrant of the Straits/ and 
 the west their ' Liberator/ A strong Levanter, in December, 
 1796, fell heavily on the British fleet at Gibraltar, not 
 only rendering them powerless spectators of Vrlleneuve's 
 squadron running through the Strait to the westward in 
 
WITHIN THE MEDITERRANEAN. 237 
 
 safety ; but it was also nearly fatal to the Gibraltar, 80, 
 
 and Gulloden, 74, while the Courageux was driven from Loss of the 
 
 . . (, Courageux. 
 
 her anchors, and the wind increasing to a perfect hurricane, 
 with a dense fog, she was forced against Ape's Hill, on the 
 Barbary shore, where she was dashed to pieces, and 465 of her 
 crew perished. Many remarkable gales, productive of great 
 wear and tear of ground tackle, occurred while I was on the 
 station, of which, perhaps, one of the most mischievous was 
 that which happened early in 1822, when upwards of forty 
 vessels were driven on shore, and the new mole at Rosia 
 Bay — constructed at a great cost — was nearly washed away. 
 In this storm many lives were lost at Leghorn, and the 
 harbour and piers of Genoa were seriously damaged. 
 
 Within the Mediterranean, the predominant breezes Weather 
 
 withinthe 
 
 are, as above said, from the north and west quarters, except straits. 
 in the spring, when south-east and south-west ones prevail ; 
 but their duration and strength are extremely uncertain 
 about the period of the equinoxes, at which times the wind 
 seldom changes suddenly without an accompanying fall of 
 rain, or, at all events, the formation of rain-clouds ; for it 
 rarely happens that the new wind is of the same degree of 
 heat as the one it has superseded. Such changes are 
 frequent in the spring; and the local pilots entertain a 
 notion, that vernal storms which commence in the daytime 
 are more violent, and of longer duration, than those which 
 spring up in the night. Be this as it may, I can, from a 
 long and careful practice, assure the circumspect navigator, 
 that no very perilous weather is likely to assail him without 
 his being sufficiently warned ; yet, as the barometer does 
 not usually vary more than a few lines, even to pretty sharp 
 gales, careful attention is required to mark its indications. 
 It may, however, be laid down as a general rule, that when- prognoses, 
 ever the mercury subsides so low as 29*40 inches, severe 
 weather may be looked for ; especially if accompanied by 
 dark globular clouds in masses, or when a gloomy haze 
 
238 USES OF THE BAROMETER. 
 
 encumbers the sky after serenity.* So far, in fact, did 
 this conviction aid me, that during the last three years of 
 my commanding a ship in that sea, by attending to my 
 silent monitor, and arranging accordingly, I never once had 
 occasion to turn up the hands in the night : besides the 
 comfort and regularity thus bestowed on the crew, those 
 who have toiled in contrary and vacillating winds will 
 readily estimate the confidence with which an officer is 
 inspired when watches are relieved at their regular hours, 
 recruited both in strength and animation, and cheerfully 
 ready for whatever may betide. But the ease thus afforded 
 to the people is not the only benefit of importance rendered 
 by the marine barometer, for its saving to government in 
 expenses of wear and tear is great ; insomuch that, in re- 
 porting my arrival at Spithead, in October, 1824, to the 
 h.m. ship Admiralty, I expressly said, — ' It is with great pleasure I 
 
 Adventure. 
 
 am able to add, that though, from the very nature of my 
 mission, I have been obliged to hang on lee-shores, and 
 shoals, and coasts little known, and therefore avoided by 
 other navigators, this service has been effected, not only 
 
 * Among Mediterranean prognostics worthy of being rescued from con- 
 tempt, two or three may be cited : — Small clouds increasing prove that their 
 weight prevents their rising in the air, and therefore denote rain ; while 
 large clouds decreasing, being obviously under dissipation by solar heat, or 
 winds, assure us of fine weather. Therefore, as their ragged aspect shows 
 the process of condensation, the cirro-stratus and nimbus clouds invariably 
 announce rain ; an uncommon twinkling of the stars denotes humidity ; a 
 steadiness of the stars, and patches of haze, dryness. The rising or setting 
 sun tinging the air with yellow, indicates vapour ; and the atmosphere 
 assuming a reddish tint, serenity. A lunar halo, coloured near her, is sig- 
 nificant of great humidity ; and a cloudless night, unaccompanied by heavy 
 dew, betokens fine but sultry weather. Small masses of Cumuli, with 
 detached flaky clouds, mark settled weather and warm winds ; the elegant 
 cirrus shows approaching change; while Cumulo- stratus, with detached 
 blackish and irregular clouds, precurse variable weather and cold winds. 
 Lightning near the horizon without thunder indicates wind from the oppo- 
 site quarter ; and the same from high clouds announces fine weather. The 
 water in port being unusually clear, so that the bottom is seen in several 
 fathoms, prognosticates the approach of a hard gale ; as does also a diapha- 
 nous atmosphere. It is, however, difficult to catch the characteristics with- 
 out experience in observation. 
 
THE COAST OF SPAIN, 239 
 
 without the Adventure's having touched the ground, but 
 without the loss of a spar or sail, or cable or anchor/ 
 
 Proceeding up the Mediterranean by the coast of Spain, Weather on 
 we find a climate which in summer is usually fine and dry, of Spain, 
 with the advantage of freedom from rain and humidity — if 
 that can be deemed advantageous, where a cloudless sky 
 occasions scorching drought, to the injury of men, animals, 
 and vegetation. In the winter, the flaws and gusts of wind 
 from the mountain ranges are often furious : and this impe- 
 tuosity is severely felt in the vicinity of the Pyrenees, at the 
 eastern bases of which I have observed some very remark- 
 able weather-worn rocky steeps. The south wind seldom 
 blows on these shores, except in the winter season ; at 
 which time the south-west gales, called birazones, send in 
 a great sea along the coasts of Andalusia and Granada, 
 where it blows dead on the shore. But a singular change 
 is known to occur here ; for frequently, in arriving at the 
 coast abutment called Cape San Martino, which divides 
 Murcia from Valencia, a ship running free before a westerly 
 wind there encounters another from the north or north-east, 
 often blowing fresh. Along these shores, and especially 
 those of Catalonia, the ' sea-fret/ or dense mist generated on 
 the ocean, precurses the easterly winds which drive it in, 
 and occasions lassitude both to animal and vegetable life. 
 When this first appears, ships at anchor should look to their 
 ground-tackle, and those under sail should gain an offing. 
 
 Gales from the north-east, easterly to south -south- east, Gulf of 
 
 Valencia. 
 
 are teasing along the shores of Valencia and Catalonia; 
 though by attention it may be foretold when they are coming 
 on, sufficiently so for the adoption of precautionary mea- 
 sures. Thus, for example, when, with a sluggish barometer, 
 the horizon is overcast in those quarters with thick, whitish 
 clouds — partaking of both cirrus and cirrostratus, and 
 passing eventually to the nimbus form — it may be consi- 
 dered that the wind is about to blow from those points of 
 the compass : and it may be recollected, as a scale, that 
 
240 MELPOMENE'S GALE. 
 
 towards the mean Mediterranean latitude the heavy summer 
 clouds are from about 500 to 700 feet above the sea. The 
 commencement of such a breeze is usually from the east- 
 ward, and moderate, but it freshens as the wind draws round 
 to the south-east, and then blows very violently, with a 
 heavy sea rolling on-shore, insomuch that an embayed ship 
 would find it difficult to claw off. A specimen of such a 
 gale upon this coast may be given from the journal of the 
 present Bear-Admiral Lovell, who was a lieutenant on 
 h m ship J3 0arc i H # m. S. Melpomene, of 44 guns. This ship was 
 
 Melpomene. 4 •' ° x 
 
 despatched from off Toulon, in company with the Orion 
 74, the Endymion frigate, and the Weazle sloop-of- 
 war, in . quest of a squadron of frigates under the com- 
 mand of Jerome Buonaparte, which was reported to have 
 left Genoa for some Spanish port. Our force parted from 
 the fleet under Lord Collingwood on the 8th of December, 
 1805, and off Barcelona, on 
 
 Sunday, the 15th, at 9 P.M., cauie on a most tremendous squall, with 
 thunder, lightning, rain, and sleet; clewed all up. At about 9 15, the 
 main-mast was struck by lightning ; the fluid exploded by the pumps, and 
 hurt an officer (Mr. Lovell, then Badcock), and a sailor. 
 
 Monday, the 16th, wind more moderate and steady; examined the main- 
 mast, found it severely splintered in many places, particularly about the 
 hoops and in the wake of the trusses, where copper had been nailed on. Stood 
 towards Barcelona, in hopes of rejoining the Orion. 
 
 Tuesday, the 17th, at 9 a.m., wind in heavy gusts from the north, which 
 veered round with much fury to east-north-east, the sea rising all round us, 
 and striking hard under the counter, with water-spouts and flashes of light- 
 ning in every direction ; furled all the sails, and prepared for another gale ; 
 at 11, a very heavy sea pooped us, stove in the dead-lights, and filled the 
 cabin with water ; p.m., the wind increased to a perfect hurricane ; at 1, the 
 ship was struck by lightning, and the main-mast much hurt; at 2, most 
 tremendous squalls, with continued rain, thunder, and lightning ; the storm 
 stay-sails blew to atoms, the ship entirely unmanagable, and whole seas 
 breaking over her. The rudder head gave way, chocked the rudder, and 
 secured it with the pendants. At 3*30, the main-topmast went in three 
 pieces ; and at 4, both the rudder-chains gave way. At 6, a man fell from 
 the fore-yard on the best bower-anchor, but was not killed. All the pumps 
 obliged to be kept constantly going. 
 
 Wednesday, the 18th, wind veering in gusts from north-east to east- 
 south-east ; the quarter-boats were stove ; found the rudder gone from 
 the stern-post. At 10 a.m., the carpenter reported the main -mast 
 ' sprung a few feet above the quarter-deck, p.m., the sea mountains high ; 
 
THE GULF OF LYONS. 241 
 
 got a cable from the stern with hawsers, &c, and struck the mizen-topmast, 
 but found it impossible to wear the ship. 
 
 Thursday, the l§th, more moderate, with a heavy swell ; employed in 
 making a Pakenham's rudder. Saw the Colombretes, two points on the lee 
 bow, distant five leagues. Made all sail on the fore-mast, in hopes of wear- 
 ing, as we were drifting bodily down on those rocky uninhabited islands. 
 Finding she would not wear, anchored with a spring on the cable, in sixty 
 fathoms. At midnight, tremendous squalls, with thunder, lightning, and 
 rain. 
 
 Friday, the 20th, at 1 A.M., found the ship driving, cut the cable and 
 spring, set the storm stay-sails and foresail ; saw the islands west-south- 
 west ; the ship would lie no higher. No chance remained of saving a single 
 life, when the wind shifted in a dreadful squall, and allowed her to lie up 
 south-east for forty minutes, which put us clear of danger, p.m., succeeded 
 in shipping the rudder, and found, to our great joy, the ship once more 
 under command. 
 
 The coast of France forms a deep bight between the Coast of 
 Pyrenees and the Alps, which from its gusty turbulence, 
 even in the summer months, has been immemorially desig- 
 nated the Gulf of Lyons. Here, when a breeze springs up 
 in the afternoon, and freshens as the' sun goes down, it may 
 be expected to blow strong at midnight. Hard gales are 
 sometimes preceded by a heavy swell and surf, in character 
 not unlike the rollers of the South Atlantic Ocean, though 
 of inferior volume. In this notorious gulf, so proverbial for 
 the treachery of sudden anemological changes, I have wea- 
 thered some tough gales; and can therefore render personal 
 testimony to the violence of its squalls, and the furious 
 ebullition of its waters : of which recorded instances are 
 numerous. In March, 1795, a French man-of-war, having French 
 received rough treatment in the conflict, or rather affair, with war. 
 Hotham, off Genoa, parted company from Mons. Marten, 
 and falling into the Gulf of Lyons in a violent gale of wind 
 from the south-east, which chopped round to west-south- 
 west, was quickly dismasted, and nearly torn to pieces ; here 
 she lay so utterly prostrate for six days, that, had one fallen 
 in with her, she must have surrendered to any of our atten- 
 dant frigates or sloops — nay, even the Fox cutter would 
 then have been an annoyance. It was in this gale that we 
 lost the Illustrious, a fine 74, which had received great The nius- 
 
 trious. 
 R 
 
242 THE GULF OF LYONS. 
 
 damage in the recent battle in the Gulf of Genoa; for 
 having struck the shore, and there being no hope of saving 
 her, she was abandoned and burnt. Every seaman, will recol- 
 lect that on the 22nd of May, 1798, Nelson was assailed by 
 a sudden storm in this gulf, which carried away all the 
 
 The van- Vanguard's topmasts, broke the foremast into three pieces ; 
 sprung the bowsprit ; washed a man overboard, killed a 
 midshipman and a seaman, and wounded several more. 
 This ship, which acted her name at the Nile only two 
 months afterwards, rolled and laboured so dreadfully, and 
 was in such distress, that Nelson himself declared, ' the 
 meanest frigate out of France would have been a very 
 unwelcome guest!' And in the winter of 1808, when 
 his true and tried associate, Lord Collingwood, was 
 
 The ocean, blockading Toulon, with his flag flying on board the Ocean, 
 a roomy new 98-gun ship, he was assailed by a succession 
 of hard gales. In one of these gales, that noble three- 
 decker was terribly crippled, and so nearly lost, that I here 
 give the words of a spectator, Captain Fead, who thus wrote 
 to me in August, 1845 : — 
 
 I was standing on the Royal Sovereign's forecastle, and at the same time 
 looking at the Ocean, which was then about half-a-mile on our lee bow. and 
 on the starboard tack. At that moment she was struck by a very heavy sea, 
 which threw her nearly on her beam-ends, so much so, that several of our 
 men called out, ' The Admiral's gone down !' But in a few seconds I had 
 the pleasure to see her right again. We understood afterwards, that the 
 blow completely disabled her ; and that nearly all the bolts of her iron knees 
 were broken. It was the most awfully terrific scene I ever beheld Lord 
 Collingwood told Admiral Thornborough, a short time after, that he thought 
 the top-sides were actually parting from the lower frame of the ship; and 
 that the heavy guns were suspended so nearly vertical, that the effect was 
 alarming. This happened in December, and we must have been about the 
 middle of the Gulf of Lyons, with the wind at north-west. 
 
 wind and One of the peculiarities of this gulf is the sudden rising 
 
 of its waves, and their attaining a size not at all propor- 
 tionate to the strength of the winds. Both their amplitude 
 and elevation are greater than would be considered to 
 result only from the action of the wind on the aqueous 
 particles ; and their increase under a gale cannot be re- 
 
WEATHER OFF TOULON. 243 
 
 garded as uniform. The absolute height of these waves, from Height of 
 the trough to the crest, in severe weather, cannot be much 
 less than thirty feet, even close to Provence, where Count 
 Marsigli pronounced that, ' in a very violent tempest/ they 
 only rose to seven feet above the natural level of the sea. 
 The waves of the Mediterranean, in general gales, may be 
 estimated between fourteen and eighteen feet in height, 
 and are often, from want of range in some parts of the 
 short seas, called c chopping/ 
 
 Towards the close of the war, many ships of our Toulon Fleet off 
 fleet were struck by the electric fluid, while cruising off g^. 
 Cape Sicie ; among which those fine three-deckers, the 
 Hibernia, the Ville-de-Paris, the San Josef, the Union, 
 the Ocean, the Barfleuv, and the Royal George; which, 
 together with several of the two-deckers, besides having 
 men hurt, received very considerable damage in gear and 
 spars, between 1811 and 1814. In the beginning of Sep- 
 tember, 1813, Sir Edward Pellew anchored off the mouth 
 of the Rhone with thirteen sail of the line, and there 
 watered ; but they had to ride out a very heavy gale of 
 wind, with two cables an end and topmasts struck. Of 
 this blockading force, about one-half were damaged by 
 lightning, and at least five ships were obliged to shift their 
 topmasts. This gale commenced from the south, and sent 
 in a heavy sea, but on the 10th it blew violently from the 
 north, and then the water was comparatively smooth ; so 
 far, therefore, it may have been considered a veering storm ; 
 but though some other Mediterranean gales within my Rotatory 
 experience approximate even nearer than this towards the 
 rotatory theory, the subject has not yet been properly dis- 
 cussed. That able and active meteorologist, Colonel Sir 
 William Reid, the present Governor of Malta, is, however, 
 at his post, and an extract from a letter which I received 
 from him, dated Valetta, 8th of January, 1853, is satis- 
 factory : — 
 
 r2 
 

 i; 
 
 244 ROTATORY SYMPTOMS. 
 
 Sir William I nave n0 * been altogether neglecting observations on the winds since I 
 Reid. have been in Malta, but I am obliged to give my mind to my official duties 
 
 almost exclusively. I shall send some of the local newspapers, to show you 
 that they now report the weather daily. 
 
 There is, doubtless, much unknown to us; but I have seen enough to 
 satisfy me, that the storms here are progressive and revolving, as in corre- 
 sponding latitudes elsewhere. On the 1st of February, 1851, there was a 
 whirlwind storm of vast diameter, extending from Sardinia to Syria, which 
 moved towards east-north-east, and, I suppose, came from Africa. 
 
 My second work, entitled The Progress of the Development of the Law of 
 Storms, is being translated into Italian, and is now half printed. When 
 published, I hope we shall have many Mediterranean observers of the winds; 
 but the translation is found to be extremely difficult, on account of the 
 many nautical terms, and I fear it will be a year yet before it can be 
 finished. 
 
 The Rodney. In January, 1812, the Rodney, a superb new 74-gun 
 ship, commanded by the present Admiral Sir E. D. King, 
 on board of which I was then serving, was so torn and 
 disabled by the united violence of wind and wave, that Sir 
 Edward Pellew was obliged to send her to England in the 
 following autumn, although thereby lessening his effective 
 force in time of need. Noble, however, as this ship 
 appeared on the waters, it must be admitted that she was 
 one of that hastily-built batch of men-of-war sarcastically 
 termed the Forty Thieves. 
 
 I afterwards visited the gulf in very passable weather ; 
 but on the 3rd of October, 1820, while standing for Mar- 
 
 The Aid. seilles in H. M. ship Aid, the atmosphere became so very 
 transparent as in itself to be of a suspicious character ; yet 
 the peculiar beauty of the romantic hills before us, the 
 glorious sun above, and the smooth, glistening fluid around, 
 conspired to lull apprehension. But when, about three 
 o'clock in the afternoon, the lieutenant of the watch entered 
 the cabin with — l Sir, a light breeze is springing up ; shall 
 we set top-gallant studding-sails V — I, having that moment 
 looked at the barometer, and found that it had suddenly 
 fallen three-tenths of an inch, with a surface still extremely 
 concave, replied, ' No ; turn the hands up to shorten sail, 
 and we'll get the top-gallant yards on deck V This answer 
 surprised him ; but all the officers being well acquainted 
 
THE MISTRAL. 245 
 
 with the reliance which, both from experience and reason, 
 I placed on my marine monitor, the preparations were 
 briskly executed to the desired extent, although there was 
 no other discernible aspect of mischief. Scarcely, however, 
 was the canvas reduced, and the ship under command with Agnif ga!o. 
 close-reefed topsails, before a gust rushed so furiously upon 
 us, that had we made sail instead of shortening it, the 
 masts must have been carried away, if that were the least 
 accident. As usual with northerly gales in this gulf, great 
 numbers of birds were blown off, which, though of very 
 opposite characters, were all subdued out of their several 
 instincts, and laboured to find a common shelter on the 
 decks. That same night we lay-to, with the sea occasionally 
 making fair breaches over us ; but, from the premonition 
 thus obtained, excepting a boat washed from the quarter- 
 davits, a jib-boom sprung, and the weather-bulwarks stove 
 in, we sustained scarcely any damage. 
 
 Among the severe atmospheric visitations on the other- The Mistral 
 wise charming shores of Languedoc and Provence, must be 
 enumerated the chilly and searching northerly wind called 
 the mistral or mistraou, the bize, la grippe, and one of 
 les fleaux de la Provence* This wind, by which all these 
 parts of France are so much visited, after getting chilled 
 in passing the high Alps and their extensive snows and 
 glaciers, takes its course with increasing violence towards 
 the warm atmosphere of the Mediterranean, and is very 
 impetuous in coming down the valley formed by the Rhone. 
 Diodorus Siculus, Pliny, Strabo, and other ancient writers, 
 appear to have been well aware of the properties of the 
 mistral ; and it has been customary to consider it the same 
 wind with the circius of Lucan, to which Augustus — ' dum 
 
 * This wind is not only disagreeable to the human feelings, but is inju- 
 rious to the young fruits and vegetables, and all trees exposed to it become 
 bent : in allusion to which, the Provenyaux couplet runs — 
 
 La Cour do Parlement, le Mistral, et la Durance, 
 
 Sont les trois fleaux de la Provence. 
 

 246 WEATHER AT NICE. 
 
 Ventde in Gallia moraretur' — erected and dedicated a temple 
 (Seneca, Nat. Qucest, lib. v. cap. 17) ; but there can be no 
 reasonable doubt of the vent de cers — a boisterous wind 
 from the heights of Cevennes, in Languedoc — having the 
 better claim. The piercing cold complained of by the 
 natives of the south of France, during the continuance of 
 the mistral, is owing to the immediate transition from a 
 high temperature to a lower one, as well as to its actual 
 frigidity ; for I have myself experienced very chilling 
 sensations in this part, with the thermometer at 50°. The 
 winter climate of Nice is excellent, with bright skies and 
 
 Weather at pure air ; but the spring is often unpleasant by reason of 
 the great inconstancy of the weather, and the violence with 
 which winds from the mountains sweep its valley or basin, 
 while it is ever liable to be scourged by the mistral. 
 Although to valetudinary persons, with whom a clear, dry 
 atmosphere agrees, the city and its suburbs form a desir- 
 able residence, there are serious drawbacks in the remark- 
 able alternations of temperature, the dirt of the dwellings, 
 and the offensive treatment of grounds, in consequence 
 of there being little or no cattle or other stock. A Pro- 
 vencal proverb is repeated as a warning against night 
 promenades : — 
 
 Que lou sol y la sereine 
 Fan veni la gent mouraine. 
 
 On the coast of Piedmont, and from thence to Tuscany, 
 the summers are fine ; though the labeschades, or south- 
 west gusts, drive home on the shores, load the atmosphere 
 with humidity, and raise the water to a high level. The 
 
 Ouragans. winter is ushered in by ouragans, or violent storms of 
 lightning and rain, with occasional hail ; but the northerly 
 winds always clear the air. 
 
 Prognostic. The Tyrrhenian Sea is greatly agitated by south-west 
 gales of wind ; and those from the westward are sometimes 
 known to be on their way, by a peculiar cloud in that 
 quarter, after the manner of the Harmattan, on the west 
 
 
ITALIAN SQUALLS. 247 
 
 coast of Africa, yet not so regular or so striking. Virgil, 
 though somewhat deficient in accuracy as a navigator (see 
 his description of the departure of his hero from Carthage), 
 has, at the opening of the fifth iEneis, marked the pro- 
 gnostic of the change to a western wind with the discrimi- 
 nation of an observer. Dryden, exercising his usual licence, 
 gives the passage thus : — 
 
 But soon the heavens with shadows were o'erspread ; 
 
 A swelling cloud hung hovering o'er their head : 
 
 Livid it looked, the threatening of a storm ; 
 
 Then night and horror, ocean's face deform. 
 
 The pilot, Palinurus, cried aloud, 
 
 ' What gusts of weather from that gathering cloud 
 
 My thoughts presage!' 
 
 In those bays which bound the ravines and valleys of Land 
 
 J , J squalls. 
 
 the higher grounds, the raggiature, or land squalls, are 
 violent, though not of very extensive action ; for I have 
 felt these descending easterly gusts in shore, though the 
 breeze was fresh from south-west in the offing of the Gulf 
 of Gioja, and, standing with this into the Faro of Messina, 
 have there met with a steady south-east wind. The more 
 notable burrasche, or mountain storms of Calabria, com- 
 mence with massy clouds coursing, displacing, and effacing 
 each other like oceanic waves, in rapid grandeur ; the 
 tempest then rages, but its energy is soon exhausted. 
 
 Along the whole coast, there is a time between sea and calms, 
 land winds which is calm, and called by the Italian seamen 
 bonaccia as being unaccompanied by danger ; but their 
 more sturdy Roman predecessors designated it malaccia, 
 from being a cause of detention. It commences as the 
 land winds die away, and lasts till nine or ten o'clock, by 
 which time the solar rays are sufficiently effective to act ; 
 then the sea-breeze generally increases till about two hours 
 after the sun has culminated, and at or near sunset subsides. 
 During this time, the ascending current of rarified air seems 
 to have a considerable effect on the clouds which it meets 
 with, even on those in the zenith, sometimes changing 
 cumuli into cirri with magical celerity. 
 
248 
 
 CORSICA^ WEATHER. 
 
 Kaffiche. 
 
 The Ber- 
 wick. 
 
 The summer serenity of the Corsican waters is frequently 
 disturbed by boisterous gusts called raffiche, which blow off 
 the hills. Speaking generally, the mountains of the 
 Mediterranean may be said to supply cool air to the valleys; 
 but as these winds occasionally rush out seawards in de- 
 scending blasts, necessity dictated the use of lateen, or 
 triangular, sails attached to yards that can instantly be let 
 go by the run, for the xebecs, polacres, feluccas, and other 
 craft which coast the shores within their influence. In 
 winter there are strong gales from December to March, 
 which often occasion considerable damage : and the north- 
 westers send in a heavy swell upon the exposed shores of 
 Corsica. In January, 1797, the Berwick, of 74 guns, was 
 riding in San Fiorenzo Bay, under refit, with her lower 
 masts stripped of their rigging ; yet such was the force of 
 the swell, that she rolled all three clean over the side. This 
 unlucky vessel was captured by the French a few weeks 
 afterwards, under jury-masts, and was one of the very few 
 of her class won from us by the enemy during that eventful 
 war : she was, however, retaken at Trafalgar, after a very 
 gallant defence. 
 
 In and around Sardinia, the most prevalent winds are 
 
 from west-north-west to north, and from the eastward ; the 
 
 proportion of days being for the first — which is the healthiest 
 
 quarter — 210, and the latter 145: these maybe respectively 
 
 Maestraie. termed the dry and the humid. The prevalent Maestrale, 
 
 or north-west breeze, brings in a long swell from seaward ; 
 
 and it acts with such violence over the Nurra districts, that 
 
 the trees exposed to it are bent nearly horizontal into the 
 
 opposite direction, and so they grow. The west wind seldom 
 
 blows without bringing rain ; still it is always welcomed on 
 
 the coast, on account of its favouring the arrival of the 
 
 tunnies ; when it veers to south-west it is injurious where 
 
 it rakes. The south wind rarely occurs but as a stormy 
 
 winter visitor, and is annoying in the exposed bays; in 
 
 February, 1793, when Sardinia was invaded by a French 
 
SARDINIAN WEATHER. 249 
 
 force under Admiral Truguet, a gale from this quarter oc- 
 casioned the loss of the Leopard, a fine 80-gun ship, with The Leo- 
 several smaller vessels, in the bay of Cagliari, besides pa> 
 greatly damaging the whole fleet. The gregale, or north- 
 east wind, is called double-faced, from being very squally 
 and inconstant, with heavy rains ; and the east wind, or 
 bentw de soli (the coming of which is indicated by parasitic Bent ? de 
 clouds on the mountains), is usually accompanied by very 
 vivid lightning, and, from its being loaded with vapours, 
 becomes extremely disagreeable after a long continuance. 
 The maledetto levante, so complained of by the natives for Levante. 
 its debilitating effect, is actually a south-east wind, the 
 scirocco of Sicily and Italy, and the ' plumbeus auster' of 
 Horace : so great are its effects in driving up the hygro- 
 meter towards the damp point, that it is termed mollezza ; 
 whereas the healthy and agreeable tramontana, or north 
 wind, from its opposite quality is called gli secchi, or dry. 
 But Sardinia has much very fine weather, and the calms of 
 the summer months are harvest- times to the fishers. In 
 settled seasons the imbattu, or sea-breeze, sets in about ten imbattu. 
 o'clock, A.M., keeping on till about two P.M., and is exceed- 
 ingly refreshing during the heat of the day; it then weakens, 
 and falls calm as the sun goes down, and is succeeded in 
 the evening by the rampinu, or land wind, which holds Kampinu. 
 through the greater part of the night. 
 
 The island of Sicily occupies the central station of the Sicilian 
 Mediterranean sea, and may be said to enjoy the average 
 means of its winds and weather. Whilst the sun is in the 
 northern signs, the sky, although it seldom assumes the 
 deep blue tint of the tropics, is, nevertheless, beautifully 
 clear and serene ; then after the autumnal equinox, the 
 winds become boisterous, and the atmosphere comparatively 
 dense; the dews and fogs increase, particularly on the 
 coasts, and the rain falls in frequent and heavy showers. 
 In summer it is generally calm in the morning, but a sea- 
 breeze springs up about nine or ten o'clock, freshens until 
 
250 
 
 SICILIAN WEATHER. 
 
 Mamatili. 
 
 JEolian 
 islands. 
 
 Faro of 
 Messina. 
 
 Malta and 
 Goza. 
 
 two or three, and gradually subsides again into a calm 
 towards evening. The winds are variable both in their force 
 and direction. The most prevalent are the northerly and 
 westerly, which are dry and salubrious, producing, with the 
 clearest sky, the most agreeable sensations ; and a modifi- 
 cation of the maestrale, called mamatili, is enjoyed by the 
 Palermitans as a most refreshing sea-breeze. Those from 
 the east round to southerly are heavy, and loaded with an un- 
 wholesome mist, often accompanied by heavy rain, thunder, 
 and lightning ; storms in which I have seen vessels struck 
 by the electric fluid, and in one of these I was a witness of the 
 all but destruction of Scylla castle, in the spring of 1815. 
 
 On the north of Sicily are the iEolian isles, the fabled 
 residence of the god of winds ; and whether from the heat of 
 the water by volcanic springs, the steam of Vulcanella, the 
 incessant hot ejections from Stromboli, or all of them 
 added to the general temperature — it is certain that there 
 are more frequent atmospherical changes among this group, 
 than in the neighbourhood. These extend their influence 
 to the Faro of Messina, but are there modified under local 
 conditions. Thus when a northerly wind blows through 
 the Strait, and meets a southerly one some twenty miles 
 below it, or a wind from the Adriatic off Cape Spartivento, 
 it is the occasion of much aerial commotion ; especially in 
 the offing between Taormina and Mascali, where the weather 
 is then called Del Golfo di Cantara. Another singu- 
 larity of the Faro is La Lispa, a calm in the Strait, with 
 masses of super-impending clouds, though blowing fresh 
 outside : this continues till the next taglio di rema (See 
 page 180) of the descending current, when, as soon as this 
 gush of water is established, the wind bursts in with squally 
 gusts and accelerating force. 
 
 South of Sicily lie Malta and Goza, its geographical 
 though not political dependants ; and although these islands 
 are blessed with the steadiest climate in Europe, there are 
 occasional and beneficial disturbances to its serenity. Some- 
 
WEATHER AT MALTA. 251 
 
 times winds of a very boisterous character rage, accompanied 
 by rains of tropical profusion ; the winters consequently were 
 much dreaded by the galleys of the Order, and their op- 
 ponents in Barbary were equally influenced. Under such 
 induction, with all their known and acknowledged expertness 
 at sea, the Maltese sailors were absolutely astonished at the 
 blockade of their ports by Sir Alexander Ball, observing 
 that c English ships could winter without harbours/ The 
 most violent gales they experience, are those from the north- 
 east, the dreaded Gregale (from Greco), which rakes the Thegregaie. 
 harbours of Valetta, sends in a prodigious swell, and has 
 often caused serious damage, as well on shore as among the 
 shipping. The south-wester is the hottest of the summer 
 breezes ; it is much disliked by the Maltese, and even in 
 the spring of 1816, I saw the fields on the neighbouring 
 isle of Lampedusa so burnt and parched by it, as to blight 
 all hope of a harvest. From the heat imbibed by the 
 calcareous surface of Malta, the sultry nights which follow 
 the festa di San Lorenzo, in August, and continue till after 
 the autumnal equinox, are sometimes very distressing to 
 strangers, the warmth being of that oppressive degree 
 termed implacable. 
 
 But the most annoying visitor of the regions around is The sci- 
 
 • 'ii rocco. 
 
 the scirocco, or south-easter, a wind detested equally by the 
 ancients and moderns ; being, no doubt, the evil vapour of 
 Homer (Iliad v.) into which Mars retreated when wounded 
 by Minerva. This debilitating breeze — the dreaded samiel 
 of Egypt — sweeping over the parched deserts of Arabia 
 and Africa, where the hottest summer climate in the world 
 is to be found, is moderated by its passage over the sea, to 
 a tolerable degree of temperature ; and on the east coast of 
 Sicily, where it first arrives, its effects are inconsiderable ; 
 but seeming to acquire additional heat in its progress over 
 the land, becomes a serious inconvenience as it advances. 
 At its commencement, the air is dense and hazy, with long 
 white clouds settling a little below the summits of the 
 

 252 THE SCIROCCO. 
 
 indications mountains, and at sea, floating just above the horizon, in a 
 scirocco. direction parallel to it : it often terminates by a rapid lull, 
 which is succeeded by a north-west breeze. The thermo- 
 meter does not, at first, experience any very sensible change, 
 though it slowly rises with the continuance of the scirocco to 
 90° and 95°, which last is the highest I have observed, 
 though the feelings — which are certainly a very inaccurate 
 measure of actual heat — seem to indicate a much higher 
 temperature ; but the hygrometer shows increased atmo- 
 spheric humidity, and the barometer gradually sinks to 
 about 29*60 inches. This wind generally continues three 
 or four days, during which period, such is its influence, that 
 wine cannot be well fined, or meat effectually salted ; oil- 
 paint laid on while it continues will seldom take or harden : 
 and while from seeming dryness it rives unseasoned wood, 
 and snaps harp strings, it makes metals oxydize more 
 readily, mildews clothes, and renders everything clammy. 
 We are told, however, that dough can be raised with half 
 the usual quantity of leaven ; and though blighting in its 
 general effects during summer, it has been known to favour 
 the corn-harvest, and the growth of several useful herbs and 
 plants in winter.* 
 
 Scirocco at This wind is peculiarly disagreeable at Palermo, although 
 situated in the north-west part of Sicily ; but the plain is 
 surrounded on the land-side by mountains, which collect 
 the solar rays as if to a focus. Although somewhat inured 
 to the heat of the East and West Indies, and the sands of 
 Arabia and Africa, I always felt, during a scirocco here, more 
 incommoded by an oppressive dejection and lassitude than 
 in those countries ; and it matters little to the person 
 attacked, whether the sensation is attributable to the im- 
 mediate parching of the skin and the absorption of his 
 
 * Tbe Scirocco appears to be so modified by its transit across the sea, or 
 else is such a contrast to the Bize ; that when it visits the shores of Provence, 
 it is welcomed as a very alize Mediterranee. 
 
THE SCIROCCO. 253 
 
 electricity, or to a positive increase of temperature. At 
 such times the streets of Palermo are silent and deserted, for 
 the natives can scarcely be prevailed upon to move out while 
 it lasts, and they carefully close every window and door of 
 their houses to exclude it. Still the scirocco does not appear 
 to be actively prejudicial to human health, though it is said 
 that, if it be of long continuance, wounds are sometimes 
 attacked with erysipelatous inflammation, and it often is 
 troublesome to people of a plethoric habit. It is more fre- 
 quent in the spring and autumn than in the summer, and 
 in winter possesses no disagreeable qualities, except to 
 invalids ; many persons refuse medicine during its con- 
 tinuance, but whether right or wrong, deponent knoweth 
 not. Queen Caroline of Naples said, in a note to an English Queen of 
 
 Naples. 
 
 lady, that she had risen — en deshabille — from a marble 
 floor to write, and must throw herself down again, in order 
 to alleviate the oppression she felt : such was the incon- 
 venience endured even by royalty — by the daughter of Maria 
 Theresa — in the otherwise enchanting valley of the Conca 
 d'Oro. One of our generals held a levee during a scirocco, 
 and however booted and belted the smaller fry came, he 
 himself exhibited the happy ease of undress : and the late 
 Lord Holland, fainting under the oppressive heat, passion- Lord iioi- 
 ately invoked the colder breezes, breaking forth with — 
 
 Oh ! my soul's panting wish in mid-day dreams ! 
 Oh ! native soil ! Oh ! verdure, woods, and streams, 
 Where are ye? And thou, lovely Redlynch! where 
 Thy grassy prospects, and thy vernal air? 
 Oh ! send thy spacious waters to my aid, 
 Lend me thy lofty elms' protecting shade ; 
 Henceforth within thy limits let me live, 
 Oh England! injured climate ! I forgive 
 Thy spleen-inilicting mists. 
 
 And, indeed, when the sultry and withering blaze of heat, the Remark, 
 earthquakes, hurricanes, diseases, misery, personal insecurity, 
 reptiles, mosquitoes, flies, fleas, and other major and minor 
 evils are recollected, the pleasure of visiting warm climates 
 is considerably alloyed. 
 
254 
 
 ADRIATIC WINDS. 
 
 Siffanto. 
 
 Furiani. 
 
 weather The navigation of the Adriatic is rather dangerous, except 
 
 Adriatic, under the careful attention of a good officer, from the lia- 
 bility of being caught without sea-room in extremity. The 
 winds generally draw or incline up and down its length, 
 seldom blowing right athwart ; during the summer months 
 they are light and variable, with frequent calms* and 
 occasional squalls, with the usual accompaniments from the 
 northward ; these gales are, however, of short continuance. 
 Winds from the south-east bring in a high sea, with fog and 
 rain, but they are usually steady, and not unfrequently 
 succeeded by a fresh north-west breeze. The south-wester, 
 or Siffanto, is vehement, but short-lived, and often draws 
 round to the south or south-east, when it is succeeded, near 
 the vicinity of the Po, by the gale and sea called Furiani. 
 The entrance of this sea is liable to sudden gusts, which do 
 not always give warning of their approach, and when it 
 continues to blow hard there, the waves are tumbling and 
 confused ; subsiding, however, with the weather. Towards 
 the centre of the gulf, the winds are steadier than at the 
 mouth ; though at the upper part they are still more variable. 
 From a comparison made by the late Sir William Hoste — 
 who had much experience of this sea, and being one of those 
 useful officers who both fight and write, drew up some 
 excellent sailing directions for navigators — it was found that 
 the ships off the Po, those before Trieste, and those in the 
 
 Conflicting Quarnero, bad usually different winds at the same times. 
 From the votive offerings of seamen in the churches of the 
 — on this side — c harbourless shore of Italy/ such mutable 
 weather must long have scourged the coasting traders, 
 before the few places of refuge were constructed ; for Dante, 
 when in the ninth bolgia of Hell, in alluding to the atro- 
 cious throwing overboard of the two citizens of Fano, off 
 
 * The air of the Adriatic in easterly breezes, as in most parts of the 
 Mediterranean, has the pernicious quality of mildewing sails: seamen will 
 therefore be careful to air them in north and west winds. 
 
THE BORA. 255 
 
 Cattolica, says it was so managed that against the winds of Dante. 
 Mount Focara, it were needless for them to offer up a vow, 
 or to pray — 
 
 Poi fara si, ch'al vento di Focara, 
 Non fara lor mestier voto, ne preco. 
 
 To prevent the mischiefs of private cupidity, the laws of 
 the mediaeval times forbade merchant-vessels from putting 
 to sea in the bad season ; and so late as 1569, Venice prohi- 
 bited her vessels, under heavy penalties, from attempting to 
 return home between the 15th of November and the 20th 
 
 of January. But this was a great improvement in bold Aphorism 
 J ... on the 
 
 navigation, as compared with dicta of the thirteenth century, weather. 
 
 which assigns the winter to fools only : — 
 
 Tempo di navigare — d'April dei cominciare : 
 
 E poi securo gire — finche vedrai finire 
 
 Di Settembre lo mese — che l'altro a folli imprese. 
 
 Off Croatia, and indeed generally from the Gulf of Trieste 
 to the Mouths of Cattaro, the weather is notoriously un- 
 stable ; calms, thunder, water-spouts, and the hot wind 
 called youg by the Sclavonians, being frequent all the The youg. 
 summer ; and heavy northerly blasts called Boras, the The bora. 
 Sebenzanas of Dalmatia, with fogs and hard squalls during 
 the winter. Nor are these variations confined to seasons. 
 Obviously Bora appears to be a mere corruption of Boreas, 
 though said to be derived from a Sclavonic term for furious 
 tempest It is greatly dreaded in the upper part of the 
 Gulf of Venice, particularly in the Canale di Maltempo, and 
 other channels of the Quarnero and Quarnerolo, where it Effects of 
 rushes down from the whole line of the Julian Alps with 
 such irresistible fury, that not only numbers of vessels are 
 sacrificed, but it ravages the shore also, being feared as 
 much for the suddenness of its attack as for its violence. 
 From this cause, the emporium of Fiume is nearly confined 
 to a summer intercourse in trade, and the otherwise eligible 
 haven of Porto R6 is useless as a government arsenal ; then 
 are also districts whicli are rendered nearly uninhabitable 
 
256 THE BORA. 
 
 by it. As the maritime cliffs and surfaces of those shores 
 which are most exposed to the bora are well marked — for 
 not a bush nor a blade of grass can grow on them — the 
 local craft usually anchor opposite the parts where vege- 
 tation is most abundant. 
 P 7t?ebor°a f The coming on of this wind may fortunately be known 
 some hours beforehand, by a dense dark cloud on the 
 horizon, with light fleecy clouds above it, a rather lurid sky, 
 and it is immediately preceded by a breathless, but speak- 
 ing stillness. Its general source is between north and north- 
 east, and its most usual continuance about fifteen or twenty 
 hours, with heavy squalls, and terrible thunder, lightning, 
 and raiu, at intervals : but the bora most feared, and with 
 justice, is that which blows in sudden gusts for three days, 
 subsides, and then resumes its former force for three days 
 more. Ships caught by it generally let fly everything to 
 receive the first blast; then immediately bear up to the 
 southward to seek safety in any port they can fetch, or 
 remain under bare poles till it is exhausted. We lost many 
 prizes during the late war, by these impetuous winds acting 
 on vessels, the rig of which was new to the young prize- 
 masters, and even some of our cruisers, when caught un- 
 awares, have been nearly thrown on their beam -ends. In 
 The Flora. December, 1811, the French frigate Flora, of 44 guns and 
 340 men, was surprised by a bora, on her passage from 
 Trieste to Venice, which threw her on the coast near 
 Chiozza, where the captain and two-thirds of her people 
 perished ; in 1815, two merchantmen, which had anchored 
 off the mole of Trieste with the intention of entering the 
 following morning, were assailed in the night, and foun- 
 The Monte dered with all hands ; and in 1820, the Monte Cuculi, a fine 
 
 Cuculi. . 
 
 Austrian corvette of 20 guns, was met by a bora while 
 under all sail, and instantly went down, with the whole of 
 her passengers and crew. 
 
 These boras, however, as I have already hinted, give suf- 
 ficient notice of their approach to an attentive observer ; 
 
BORA AT LISSA. 257 
 
 although Borinos, or strong squalls, from the same quarter, 
 of short duration, may sometimes be encountered without 
 much barometrical indication. A very hard summer bora, Summer 
 which I experienced in Lissa harbour, on the 13th of July, 
 181.9, occasioned a fall in the mercury from 30-15 inches to 
 2977 ; it was precursed by the usual denseness near the 
 horizon, with a fresh south-east wind ; and during the two 
 preceding nights — although the weather was fine — there 
 was much lightning in a vast cloud-bank which had formed. 
 On the third evening, this bank spread over the sky to the 
 zenith, and the coruscations became incessant ; whereupon, 
 as we were lying at single anchor, prepared for going to sea, 
 we dropped the best bower, braced the yards to the wind, 
 and took measures for the safety of our observatory, tents, 
 and instruments on Hoste's Isle : these had been left to 
 the eleventh hour, in order to watch a new and brilliant 
 comet which was then following Capella, and standing 
 towards Dubhe. In the midst of this aerial commotion, at 
 about one in the morning, the gale suddenly chopped round 
 from south-south-east to north-north-east, with such fury, as 
 to make the ship heel over in an extraordinary degree ; and 
 the cables were veered out until she was uncomfortably 
 close to the marina. It was fortunate that we were in so 
 excellent a port, for the sudden shift of wind must have 
 done injury to any vessel under sail, however well prepared. 
 In about an hour, the acme of its force somewhat abated, 
 rain fell in large drops, and for two days afterwards we had 
 cool breezes from the north, and clear weather. 
 
 Shortly afterwards, we underwent another of these blasts, Loaaiii 
 
 Piccolo. 
 
 of which I particularly noted the advent, progress, and 
 termination. On the 9 th of August of the same year, while 
 moored with the stream and small bower in the perfectly 
 land-locked harbour of Lossin Piccolo, the morning was sus- 
 piciously cloudy, although the preceding evening had been 
 remarkably clear over-head ; insomuch as to allow of my 
 making some satisfactory observations in the observatory- 
 
258 BORA AT LOSSIN PICCOLO. 
 
 tent, and also showing Saturn's ring to the magnates of the 
 town, it having just then become again visible after its 
 temporary disappearance. On the morning stated, the 
 wind was in the south-west quarter, the clouds lurid, the 
 atmosphere dark, and the whole celestial aspect so singular 
 
 indications, and threatening, that, notwithstanding our apparent se- 
 curity, I ordered the top-gallant yards and royal-masts on 
 deck, top-gallant masts to be struck, the best bower to be 
 ranged, and the sheet cable bent. In the afternoon, the 
 horizon, from north-west to north, was as black as possible, 
 and the gloominess of its appearance was contrasted by a 
 bed of white fleecy clouds which rose immediately above it, 
 and soared rapidly till they joined a series of waved distinct 
 streaks overhead ; forming an immense arch from west- 
 south-west to east-north-east, with a deep blue sky on each 
 side. In a few minutes a strong wind had evidently arisen 
 in the north-west, as it blew the clouds right and left, 
 though we still felt the south-wester even stronger than in 
 the morning. 
 
 The bora The scene was now awfully grand ; masses of cloud 
 
 were in motion from the zenith downwards, excluding by 
 degrees the brassy sky, while a momentary stillness was but 
 a presage of the coming storm. At this time all the 
 fishermen were making for the shore, and the whole marina 
 resounded with the shouts of people endeavouring to rowce 
 up their vessels on the strand. At length huge drops of 
 rain plashed down, and the whole atmosphere seemed to 
 resolve itself into black smoke, while the north wind was 
 seen approaching, by the eddies of sand which it threw up 
 before it. The gust now reached the ship, roaring tremen- 
 dously, with such force that both our cables were snapped 
 like twine, and before we could bring up with the best 
 bower and sheet anchors, veer to forty fathoms, and brace 
 the yards by — which was effected with a celerity that 
 delighted me — the ship was nearly thrown upon the quay. 
 The rain now poured a deluge, and the apparent mill-pond 
 
BORA AT LOSSIN PICCOLO. 259 
 
 of a harbour was soon covered with long rolling waves, the 
 crests of which were cut off in foam. Every boat in the Effects of 
 port was either swamped or capsized ; oars, rudders, and 
 thwarts were floating on every side, and the vessels along 
 the marina were driven one upon the other. Such a gust, 
 if it had continued, must have destroyed the place ; but 
 providentially, its excess of violence lasted only a few 
 minutes, and in less than an hour all was restored to com- 
 parative tranquillity. Among other disasters, we noticed Accident 
 the destruction of a trabaccolo astern of us ; she had escaped 
 the first blast with being merely thrown on the mud, but 
 after she was aground, the rain falling on her cargo of 
 unslacked lime occasioned her conflagration, and loss of 
 sight to some of her crew. The mischief done on shore was 
 much greater than that afloat : numbers of trees were torn 
 up by the roots, the roofs of houses blew away like chaff, 
 windows and doors were forced in, and even floors were 
 displaced by the wind getting into the lower stories. 
 
 The crews of two of our boats — the gig and cutter, 
 under the charge of the able master, Mr. Elson — which Mr. Eison. 
 were capsized outside the harbour at the very commence- 
 ment of the bora, though within a few feet of the land, were 
 obliged to lie along the ground on gaining the shore, and 
 grasp the brushwood while the main force passed over them : 
 the masts, oars, sails, and arms of these boats were lost, 
 together with some of the surveying instruments. In the 
 morning the barometer stood at 30"05, and after the rain at 
 29"91 inches : this bora, though a summer one, was pro- 
 nounced to be the severest which had happened in the 
 memory of the ' oldest inhabitant !'* 
 
 The Bora is much modified in the immediate vicinity of 
 
 * Captain Cosulich, who published a portulano of this sea — a spew me 
 in 1848, in speaking of the dangers of this vicinity, advises vessels not to 
 venture into the Quarnero if Mount Velebich should he capped with white 
 clouds; adding, ' Lo parlo per esperienza, perche nacqui Bull 1 iaola 
 
 Lussini." 
 
 s 2 
 
260 
 
 IONIAN WEATHER. 
 
 Curious 
 incident. 
 
 Ionian 
 winds 
 
 Cattaro and Kagusa, but between those places and Monte 
 Gargano, I have experienced very fresh weather. A curious 
 phenomenon occurs among the cliffs of Montenegro : in the 
 midst of the most steady season of the year, in the finest 
 day, of the purest atmosphere, when not a speck of cloud is 
 perceptible, thunder is heard to roll with loud repercussions 
 among the mountains ; and it is remarked, that at these 
 times the springs of the neighbourhood gush up with 
 increased force. 
 
 In the Ionian Sea, the prevalent winter winds are from 
 south-south-west to east-south-east, and those of summer 
 from north to east-north-east ; but in general, among the 
 islands, rarefaction commences soon after sunrise, and con- 
 tinues to increase with the solar force till noon, during 
 which interval there is not a breath of air in the valleys. 
 About mid-day the rarefied air begins to ascend rapidly, 
 and, agreeably to statics, a cooler and denser air rushes 
 in to supply its place, and restore the equilibrium. Inside 
 the islands the winds are variable to an extreme, insomuch 
 that a ship may be seen coming in at Corfu through the 
 The Corfu north channel, and another through the south, both before 
 the wind ; while in mid-channel it is either calm, or the 
 wind is veering to all points of the compass. That these 
 are mostly mere surface currents of wind, is shown in the 
 fact that the courses may be asleep while the royals are 
 flapping to their masts ; and coasters often heel to the 
 breeze, while the citadel flag, about 130 feet above them, 
 hangs motionless on its staff. On the 2nd of August, 1818, 
 after an agreeable interchange of civilities and survey- 
 communications, the French corvette Chevrette, commanded 
 by Captain Gauttier, and the Aid, got under weigh ; 
 myself being bound into the Adriatic, arid my friend to the 
 Archipelago, when we both had a fair wind ! Eddying 
 breezes often blow violently from the mountains of Epirus, 
 which are at times, from their force and coldness, very 
 unwelcome ; and hard gales in the Corfu channel are 
 
 channel. 
 
IONIAN WEATHER. 261 
 
 occasionally preceded by a fitful roar on the waters — Warning 
 (spaventosa mugghito) — which was described to me as 
 really awful by Capt. Kirkness, whose packet, the Countess 
 of Chichester, only escaped being wrecked in the south 
 entrance by sound seamanship. Besides this mugghito, 
 seamen are warned by another local phenomenon. In the 
 northern part of the Corfu channel rises the steep and 
 rocky Pantokrator, or Table-mountain of Salvatore, marked Saivatore. 
 by a conical summit at each extremity ; these are usually 
 enveloped in dense white clouds previous to the approach 
 of bad weather. 
 
 In the Gulf of Arta, the winds, when regular and not Gulf of 
 stormy, follow the sun's diurnal course, commencing with 
 light morning airs from the eastward, veering round 
 southerly till about an hour before noon, when a fresh 
 westerly wind sets in, which dies away at sunset ; and this 
 is the simple fact of the 'alternating winds' so much mar- 
 velled at by travellers. The Gulf of Corinth, as might be 
 expected, is extremely subject to raffiche, or sudden squalls 
 from the mountains, which whiten its surface with foam ; 
 outside similar gusts blacken the aspect of the waters. The 
 warm and disagreeable easterly wind — called Vento del 
 Golfo by the Ionians — commences a little after midnight, 
 and continues till nearly mid-day ; the westerly breeze sets 
 in soon after noon, and lasts till nearly midnight ; but the 
 Greek pilots say, that from spring to winter, however strong 
 the wind may have blown during the day, it almost con- 
 stantly moderates at sunset. In the winter the north-east 
 winds are prevalent and strong, especially along the Rou- 
 melia shore ; and their meeting with the southwesters in 
 the offing, is often the cause of the commotion which affects 
 the Ionian islands, where the descending winds from the 
 hills are sometimes absolutely furious. The Myrmidon, wind at 
 commanded by the Hon. Robert Spencer, with Sir Charles 
 Penrose on board, when at anchor in Koinos bay, near 
 Port Bathi in Ithaca, heeled so deeply and so repeatedly 
 
262 
 
 IOXIAN WEATHER. 
 
 Morea. 
 
 
 to the blast from the mountains, that the Admiral assured 
 me the wind must have been strong as a West Indian 
 hurricane while it lasted. It is to be regretted that we have 
 not yet arrived at an anemometer for use on sea-board ; 
 for till we have such an instrument, force and direction can 
 want of only be inferred. Nor is it easy to obtain accuracy at such 
 
 exactness. 
 
 times with respect to the course of the gales, for the air is 
 wafted over the high and precipitous lands of Acarnania, 
 Epirus, and the islands, each giving a direction to it ; and 
 this direction naturally varies, according to the angle of 
 incidence corresponding to the surfaces against which they 
 strike in their progress. 
 
 The climate of the Morea differs more with its localities 
 than its area would lead one to suppose ; but the aspect of 
 its mountains and valleys, with the varied exposure to sea- 
 winds, accounts for the difference between the amenity of 
 its maritime situations and that of the rugged mountains of 
 Arcadia, where the atmosphere is more keen and cold, besides 
 being occasionally very foggy. The north-east wind is clear 
 and sharp, and is generally attended with fine weather; 
 but at times blows with great violence, and is severely felt 
 as the Gregale in Malta. 
 
 The whole of the Ionian Sea is subject to intense 
 lightning, especially in the neighbourhood of Corfu, where 
 the Acroceraunian ' infames scopuli ' sufficiently prove the 
 justice of that classic designation. The production of free 
 electricity during the conversion of water into steam is well 
 known to be rapid and abundant : in like manner, while 
 the solar heat is converting into vapour the moisture of the 
 earth, electricity is largely disengaged during the process. 
 Slightly-liberated electricity produces lambent or phosphoric 
 flames, which are unattended with danger ; but when an 
 overloaded atmosphere is animated by opposite powers and 
 driven by antagonistic currents, the ferment and explosion 
 of the elements are exhibited in fury, and the coruscations 
 of fierce fluid matter are energetic. These lightnings are of 
 
 Electric 
 agency. 
 
WHIRLWINDS. 263 
 
 the kinds called sheet and forked, and when vivid are awful Lightning 
 as well as beautiful ; the first, in noiseless, far-spread forms, 
 momentarily illuminating every object, and then leaving 
 an indescribable gloom. At times the flashes follow each 
 other in such rapid succession as to appear almost incessant ; 
 so that a military wag, at a mess-table at which I was 
 sitting, proposed to put out the candles and dine by light- 
 ning. This buffoonery would not have deserved repetition, 
 but that it conveys an idea of the powerful glare which 
 must have prevailed to call forth the jest. 
 
 It is not uncommon, especially in and near the middle- Typhoons, 
 latitude zone of the Mediterranean, to experience typhoons 
 (tuQcqv), or whirlwinds, of which some of the most obvious 
 instances that have passed under my notice are in the 
 vorticular columns of sand in the deserts of north Africa. 
 From such currents of air rushing through the atmosphere, 
 and along the surface of the sea, with an impetuous 
 spiral rotation, there very frequently result, in the warm 
 months, those extraordinary phenomena somewhat inappro- 
 priately named waterspouts, since they are owing to a water- 
 
 spouts. 
 
 commotion of rarefied air only : of these syphons I have 
 
 frequently seen several at once, of various magnitudes, 
 
 round the ship. In round terms, they may be described as 
 
 trumpet-shaped cones descending from a dense cloud, with 
 
 the small end downwards, beneath which the surface of the 
 
 sea becomes agitated and whirled round, and the water, 
 
 converted into vapour, ascends with a spiral impulse, till 
 
 a junction is effected with the cone proceeding from the 
 
 cloud ; frequently, however, they disperse before the union 
 
 takes place, especially when the action of the winds drives 
 
 them out of their perpendicular position. There can be 
 
 little doubt that the Franklinian theory is substantially 
 
 right, and that, from the vapour being evidently drawn or 
 
 forced upwards, waterspouts are the consequence of a 
 
 previous whirlwind ; a point cavilled at by some recent 
 
 Lecturers. Must it not be conceded, that, from the equal 
 
264 WATERSPOUTS. 
 
 Rotation is distribution of the atmosphere, it follows that no extra- 
 necessary. 
 
 ordinary movement can take place in any of its parts, 
 
 except by means of a positive rotation ? Yet a vortex will 
 not be regularly formed nor continue in action, without the 
 aid of an external propelling force, and a constant discharge 
 from that spiral extremity of its axis towards which the 
 motion tends ; both of which conditions appear to be ful- 
 filled in the object before us, although the collision of such 
 masses of air may render the effect both excentric and 
 brief. In addition to the operation of wind, atmospheric 
 electricity and its opposite may be also found to exert 
 influence ; but Dr. Franklin's argument will here suffice, 
 for the upper air is rarer than at the base, and the syphon 
 itself is mechanically elevated by the centrifugal effect of 
 
 Gyrations, its own whirling motion. The gyrations in this sea are 
 thought to be in accordance with the hands of a watch, but 
 their revolving spirally makes this rather difficult to esta- 
 blish ; and there may exist a great disparity in their 
 temperature, humidity, and substance. 
 
 From the earliest times navigators have always, and 
 very naturally, entertained great apprehensions of this 
 
 ThePrester. phenomenon, the noted Prester (npnoTrip) of the Greeks, 
 the destroyer of those at sea ; of which Lucretius (lib. vi. 
 v. 422, &c) gives so terrific a description. But though most 
 sailors still believe it to be dreadfully dangerous, and small 
 craft have been known to founder immediately on being 
 struck, in most cases it would probably be productive of no 
 serious injury to a vessel of any tolerable size; nor do I 
 believe that a well-authenticated disaster occasioned by these 
 waterspouts to a well-found man-of-war is on record. I had 
 indeed been informed of the staving in of the quarter-deck of 
 an 80-gun ship, the Tonnant, and of the expression of Sir 
 
 Sir j. Gore. JohnGore, that 'for the first time in his life he was alarmed :' 
 but on my asking particulars of that officer, he neither re- 
 collected the accident, nor the exclamation — so uncertain is 
 hear-say evidence. Yet careful seamen should avoid this 
 
WATERSPOUTS. 265 
 
 phenomenon, and as it is moved in space by the prevailing 
 wind, which is acting equally on the ship, it may be made to 
 pass, by skilful manoeuvre. I think it improbable, however, Fr ^^^ s 
 that, with sails taken in and hatches battened down, the 
 consequences would be very serious to the hull, although 
 from being more active aloft than below, the upper spars 
 might suffer. Still I must own to having felt more com- 
 fortable on board an English man-of-war than in a Sicilian 
 gun-boat of paranzello rig, when in presence of these most 
 curious visitors, for whose advent, agreeably to my experi- 
 ence, the barometer does not prepare us. 
 
 During the formation of a water-spout, the winds around Formation 
 
 ° . of a spout. 
 
 are generally light and variable, with frequent whirling 
 cat's-paws and calms ; but the weather heavy, with clouds 
 of small dimensions and flaky, in very slow progression 
 over a deep blue sky. At length one of them enlarges, 
 takes a position, becomes elongated, and sends forth a 
 syphon, which finally reaches and agitates the sea ; but the 
 moment of contact is not readily made out, for the effect is 
 manifest in the ebullition on the surface before the extre- 
 mity of the spout has visibly approached it. The base of the 
 column, which may be from 50 to even 100 feet in diameter 
 — enclosing a smaller, more transparent, and apparently 
 hollow cylinder — is first seen darkening the agitated area 
 beneath it, as well as a wider circle of deep-blue water 
 around ; and afterwards it discharges a volume of vapour 
 upwards, with an audibly whizzing noise, into the column of 
 the protuberant cloud above it — a fact of which Pliny seemed 
 to be aware. The dispersion commences with the verti- 
 ginous point, which becomes broken, less defined, and 
 shrinking, as it were, upwards; the syphon often appear- 
 ing to be suspended to the cloud for some time after- 
 wards ; and though other spouts may then be forming, I 
 never noticed the production of a second one from the 
 same cloud. The duration is from two or three to ten 
 minutes, or even Longer ; and their dispersion is fre 
 quently owing to the springing up of a breeze. Such 
 
266 WATERSPOUTS. 
 
 Sometimes is the most frequent line of action ; but I have also known 
 formed, them to form suddenly in squally weather, on the chopping 
 round of the wind, or where two winds meet ; and they are 
 seen both before and after heavy rains, frequently attended 
 with thunder and lightning. When they appear to be 
 approaching a ship, it is not unusual to fire a gun at them, 
 which, by the concussion of the air, may scatter them ; but 
 where the experiment is tried at all, it should be well done, 
 and I have been assured that the vibration caused by firing 
 several guns in a salvo, infallibly makes the column separate 
 and dissipate in heavy rain, accompanied by local lightning 
 and hail. This process I never tried ; but on one occasion, 
 off Maretimo, a fine columnar one of 1300 or 1400 feet in 
 height being within a mile was about to be thus operated 
 upon, when it suddenly passed a-head of us while we were 
 gazing in admiration of the magnificent phenomenon. The 
 
 Fresh water which falls on such an occasion is, of course, perfectly 
 fresh, but so instantaneous a chemical process cannot be 
 sufficiently considered. Dante, Camoens, Thomson, and 
 other poets, have described this phenomenon as poets are 
 wont to do ; and even Falconer, that truly nautical bard, 
 gives rather a more terrific account of the dispersion of a 
 water-spout than would suit the staid sobriety of prose : 
 
 The horrid apparition still draws nigh, 
 And white with foam the whirling billows fly. 
 The guns were primed, the vessel northward veers, 
 Till her black battery on the column bears : 
 The nitre fired, and while the dreadful sound 
 Convulsive shook the slumbering air around, 
 The watery volume, trembling to the sky, 
 Burst down a dreadful deluge from on high ! 
 Th' expanding ocean trembled as it fell, 
 And felt with swift recoil her surges swell ! 
 
 Evolution of In furtherance of the cursory allusion I have made to 
 tiuid. the probability of electric agency as the cause of water- 
 spouts, the reader may be reminded that there is a rapid 
 and profuse evolution of electric fluid in the process of 
 evaporation. The presence of a surcharge of this fluid is 
 established by the great frequency of noiseless sheet-lightning 
 
THE COMPAZANT. 26; 
 
 imo: 
 fire. 
 
 over the surface of the waters, and also by the appearance St. Eh 
 and play of that lambent flame about the mast-heads of 
 ships, known to seamen as the compazant (a corruption of 
 Corpo Santo). It was the Dioscuri of classic times, and 
 its remarkable appearance is noticed by Caesar (De Bello 
 Africano), on which occasion it settled on the points of the 
 spears belonging to the fifth legion. This harmless meteor 
 is also hailed in the Mediterranean with the appellation of 
 the fire of Sant Elmo, or San Pietro and San Niccolo ; m 
 either case under similar notions to those which inspired 
 the ancients on the appearance of their Castor and Pollux, castor and 
 It is a beautiful meteor which usually occurs at the close of 
 squally weather, and in nights of intense darkness ; it reveals 
 itself as a pale blaze of phosphoric light,* hanging on the 
 trucks in the form of a sea-medusa, to a depth of two or 
 three feet down the mast, with gentle scintillating flittings 
 such as might be represented in shaking a large jelly. Its 
 duration varies from five or six minutes to nearly a quarter 
 of an hour in vigour, when it gradually dies off, and is gene- 
 rally succeeded by fine weather ; nor is this so much a 
 matter of marvel as the native pilots wish it to be thought, 
 for if the compazant is the effect of a mild or diluted electric 
 
 * A curious instance of this meteor occurred in my own knowledge, in 
 the Pacific Ocean, when serving on board the Cornwallis frigate, in 1807. 
 We were working out of the Gulf of Panama towards Acapulco, in dark, 
 .squally "weather, and the log entry runs — 'Tuesday, September 29th, at 
 sunset it fell calm, with such heavy rain, thunder, and lightning, as are 
 seldom surpassed. The corpo-santo uncommonly vivid.' This, however, is 
 not all ; for I well remember the first impression the light gave was that a 
 lanthorn had been taken aloft, but increasing brilliance soon revealed its 
 nature. Meantime a spirited young main-top-man shinned the royal -mast, 
 to break off the spindle round which it was resting on the truck, without 
 any pendant parts. On touching it, the fluid ran down his arm, and from 
 him overboard, and all was instantly pitch dark: he arrived on deck rather 
 terrified, as he told me, from the ' cpueer numbness' it gave him. It is not 
 a little singular, that forty-five years after its occurrence, the captain of that 
 ship, the present Vice-Admiral Charles James Johnston, should have told 
 this anecdote to some members of my family, at his hospitable mansion near 
 Dumfries, in August, 1852; adding, that its brilliance at one time was BO 
 great, ' that they could see each others faces on deck.' 
 
268 
 
 ST. ELMO'S FIRE. 
 
 Ill omen. 
 
 Helena. 
 
 Balls of elec 
 trie fire. 
 
 fluid, it is but natural that the storm which is caused by 
 the same should cease when the electricity becomes no 
 longer visible in its dazzling state. These luminous appear- 
 ances are esteemed ominous when a single one is seen 
 fleeting down the masts ; and this must be the inauspicious 
 flame pointed out by Falconer, who, both a seaman and a 
 poet, thus shows it : — 
 
 High on the masts with pale and livid rays, 
 Amid the gloom portentous meteors blaze. 
 
 Ages, however, before Falconer's time, Pliny {Nat. Hist, 
 lib. ii. cap. xxxvii.) had described these lambent stars, and 
 his description is thus rendered by Philemon Holland : — 
 
 I have seene myselfe in the campe, from the soldiers sentinels in the 
 night watch, the resemblance of lightning to sticke fast upon the speares and 
 pikes set before the rampier. They settle also upon the crosse sail yards 
 and other parts of the ship, as men do saile in the sea, making a kind of 
 vocall sound, leaping to and fro, and shifting their places as birds do which 
 fly from bough to bough. Dangerous they be and unlucky when they come 
 one by one without a companion ; and they drown those ships on which 
 they light, and threaten shipwrack, yea, and they set them on fire if haply 
 they fall upon the bottome of the keele (si in carinas ima, should have been 
 rendered 'in her hold'). But if they appear two and two together, they 
 bring comfort with them, and foretell a prosperous course in the voiage, as 
 by whose coming, they say, that dreadfull, cursed, and threatening meteor 
 called Helena (the single one) is chased and driven away. And hereupon it 
 is that men assigne this mighty power to Castor and Pollux, and invocate 
 them at sea no lesse than gods. 
 
 These, as well as the singular balls of electric fire some- 
 times seen gliding on the surface of the sea, are classed as 
 glow discharges, in contradistinction to the violent form of 
 lightning called the disruptive discharge. The fire-balls 
 are mischievous {see the Philosophical Transactions, 1750, 
 for the Montagues case), but the compazant is deemed harm- 
 less. Even now, when there are two or more, for they are 
 not unfrequently at each mast-head, they are hailed with 
 great pleasure both by the local and foreign seamen ; more 
 especially when they remain stationary for some time, and 
 then gradually disappear. So favourable a representation 
 of the elegant Ariel was not lost by the master-mind of 
 Shakspeare {Tempest, Act 1, Scene 2), who, recognising the 
 
CLIMATE OF ATTICA. 269 
 
 then popular notions of the ' Fire Spirits' of the storm, Ariel, 
 makes the active sprite say to Prospero : — 
 
 I boarded the king's ship ; now on the beak, 
 Now in the waist, the deck, in every cabin, 
 I flam'd amazement : sometimes, I'd divide, 
 And burn in many places ; on the topmast, 
 The yards and bowsprit, would I flame distinctly. 
 
 The Archipelago — or sea of seas as smatterers think its Archipe- 
 name imports — is perhaps the most interesting spot in the 
 world, to the eye of the poet, the artist, the scholar, and 
 the accomplished tourist ; and it has really been the scene 
 of such grand and heart-stirring events, that even denying 
 its inherent claims to regard as the cradle of genius, taste, 
 philosophy, and the arts, it is hardly possible to eschew 
 enthusiasm when writing upon it. The duty, however, of 
 a sailor is merely to treat of it as regarding navigation and 
 climate ; and though that restriction will be adhered to, as 
 far as mere classical recollections are concerned, an occa- 
 sional reference to the early mariners and meteorologists 
 must be made. 
 
 The climate of Attica, the diadem of Greece, is in Attica, 
 general dry and serene ; during the summer months the 
 prevalent winds from north-east to east-north-east, rarely 
 blow hard for more than two or three days ; and from thence 
 to the winter, nothing can surpass the delicious temperature 
 of favourable seasons. Here the east wind (amvikiwrw) so 
 detested on other shores, is esteemed brisk, pleasant, and 
 refreshing, both to animal and vegetable life. In the winter 
 the weather may sometimes be sharp, but the severe 
 Boeotian winters of Hesiod, and the ice — ^uaraKkos — of 
 Thucydides (lib. 3 § 4, Platcea) are not common in that 
 latitude of late, since the thermometer rarely descends to 
 the freezing point. The air of Attica was always esteemed 
 the purest in Greece, and is still the best ; and such is its 
 extreme dryness, that Sig. Lusieri, Lord Elgin's artist — 
 whose house was on the site of the Prytaneum — told me 
 that he could leave a sheet of paper on the open ground all 
 
270 
 
 ETESIAN WINDS. 
 
 night, and write or draw upon it on the following morning. 
 This freedom from atmospheric moisture has, no doubt, 
 greatly contributed to the admirable preservation of the 
 Athenian structures. Such is the climate of the country 
 before us ; but the neighbouring iEgean sea is broken by so 
 many headlands and isles, that its air is less genial, being 
 liable to sudden squalls, accompanied by rain, thunder, 
 lightning, and hail. 
 
 Etesife. In settled weather, the customary Etesian gales, or mel- 
 
 tem (calm weather) of the Turks, predominate ; they blow 
 from the north-east nearly through the summer months, 
 though their constancy is considered certain only for forty 
 days. Being equally dry and wholesome, they attemper the 
 general atmosphere, and relieve the crassitude of the air in 
 the valleys. The name of these winds is derived from sros-, 
 year, as they occur annually about the same season, and 
 though from custom it is principally understood to mean the 
 Hellespontic, or north-east wind of the Archipelago, it is 
 not strictly confined to any particular direction, but is fre- 
 quently applied to such as blow at stated seasons from any 
 point of the compass. The true Etesise (sTr,<rioii avpai, i. e. 
 annual breezes), however, commence about the middle of 
 July, rising at 9 a. m., and continuing during the day-time 
 only. The direction of this current of air is from north- 
 east to south-west ; and it is probably caused by the rare- 
 faction of the atmosphere nearly under the tropic of Cancer, 
 
 Supposed in consequence of the solar heat at that season. From 
 the g Etesia?. Aristotle and Theophrastus down to Des Cartes and others 
 still more recent, a theory has obtained which amounts to 
 the same thing, namely, that the Etesise derive their origin 
 from the melting of the snows and ice of the polar regions, 
 and the consequent southerly elemental rush ; assigning as 
 a reason for their blowing strongest in the day, that the 
 snow ceases to melt in the cold of the night. But there is 
 no end of the names by which these winds have been 
 known : from intermitting at night and rising with the 
 
ETESIAN WINDS. 271 
 
 sun, they were called venti delicati, and venti somnicu- 
 lares ; yet none of them blow exactly from the north. 
 Pliny has pretty well described these breezes, and their Pliny's 
 prodromi (forerunners), the light north-east airs by which 
 they are for eight or ten days preceded : but his speculation 
 thereupon is rather amusing. ' The sun's heat/ he ob- 
 serves, ' being redoubled by that of Sirius, is thought to be 
 attenuated by the Etesise, and no winds are more constant, 
 nor keep their times better/ Cicero remarks, that they Cicero, 
 moderate the violent heat of the weather during the dog- 
 days ; and he has been confirmed in the present day by 
 Baron Theotoki, of Corfu. But it should be observed, that Theotoki. 
 in the Gulf of Egina the north-east winds are extremely 
 sultry to the feelings ; although in the month of July, I 
 found the range of the thermometer during the day was 
 but between 75° and 86° of Fahrenheit. Here the land- 
 breeze generally begins in the evening, and continues till 
 near seven o'clock on the following morning, when it fre- 
 quently falls calm till eleven or twelve, and is then suc- 
 ceeded by the sea-breeze. 
 
 The north-east and north-west winds blowing almost Monsoons of 
 
 . . . 1 . the Levant. 
 
 constantly during the summer, may — sic parvis componere 
 magna solebam — be termed the monsoons of the Levant, 
 and to them the Grecian coast owes many of its advantages 
 both of climate and intercourse. With every due respect 
 to the sagacity of the ancients, the cause may be thus ap- 
 proached. When the sun, on advancing towards the north, 
 has begun to rarify the atmosphere of southern Europe, the 
 general Etesise of spring commence in the Mediterranean 
 sea ; these, as was recorded by the elder meteorologists, 
 blow in Italy during the months of March and April, and 
 were called by the Romans favonii. Their influence is at Favonii. 
 first but slightly felt, but so soon as the earth becomes con- 
 siderably warmer than the sea, the current of air advances 
 towards the land, and produces the western breezes. In the 
 autumn, the winds alter to variable, sometimes blowing from 
 
272 WINDS IN THE ARCHIPELAGO. 
 
 Alternating the sea towards the coast, and at other times in a contrary 
 
 winds. . 
 
 direction, from the sudden alteration in the temperature of 
 the two elements ; for as the sun regularly declines towards 
 the equinoctial, the earth, both on the continent of Europe 
 to the northward, and that of Africa to the southward, 
 gradually cools again, subject for some time to slight varia- 
 tions, either on the land or water, which must necessarily 
 produce changeable winds in the Mediterranean, until some 
 weeks after the autumnal equinox. In round terms, we 
 may say for the Archipelago, that north-westerly breezes 
 often usher in fine weather, and are extensively favourable 
 in cooling the air, and dissipating unwholesome moisture ; 
 while the contrary may be expected from opposite quarters. 
 The spring winds of record are those which blow in the 
 first days of March, and which, from periodically bringing 
 
 Ornithii. flights of birds of passage, were termed the Omithii ; 
 whence, when the Boeotian in Aristophanes is enumerating 
 the daws, ducks, and coots he has brought to Athens for 
 sale, Dicaepolis exclaims — ' Why, you come to market driv- 
 ing all before you, like the bird-storm I' 
 
 The regular north-easter, or far-famed Etesian wind, is 
 
 venti stati. one of the Venti Stati of Bacon's Historia Ventorum, by 
 which he means ' stayed winds/ or such as do not blow 
 alike in Egypt, Greece, and Italy. This wind was thought 
 by the Greeks to draw clouds to it — ccecias nubes ad se 
 trahere, whence their proverb compared it to usurers, who 
 by laying out money do swallow it up (idem. Qualitates et 
 Potestates Ventorum, § 32). From the descending, rising, 
 
 Bacon's a nd progressive motions of clouds, Bacon derived his curious 
 
 metaphor. . 
 
 but correct dancing metaphor — cum enim (the winds) 
 choreas ducant, ordinem saltationis nosse jucundum 
 fuerit (idem. Topica particularia, § 18). The Etesian 
 winds bear the vapours of the Mediterranean into the 
 Sahara Desert, and are there dissipated ; but the south- 
 westers are arrested by the Alps and the Apennines, and 
 robbed of their contents. 
 
INDICATIONS OF WIND. 273 
 
 A northerly wind suddenly blowing on a summer's day, 
 is held by the Greek boatmen to presage a fine night; 
 whilst on the other hand, as gales in that season are some- 
 times preceded by a dead and glassy calm, the mariner is 
 warned. Thus in the storm of August, 480 years B. c, 
 which wrecked nearly 500 of the ships of Xerxes, and was Fleet of 
 otherwise so disastrous to him, we learn that the sea and 
 sky were previously serene ; but when the furious levanter 
 (apeliotes) came on, his fleet were on a dead and iron-bound 
 lee shore, which would be as trying to laden trans- 
 ports at present as it was to his crowded vessels, although 
 navigation was then so imperfect, that Euripides gave, as an 
 expressive figure — c The Oar, the sovereign of the Seas !' 
 About the time of the solstices, or longest and shortest 
 days, the south-east and south-west winds blow with great 
 force ; but the brumal northers are still more dreaded, since Northers, 
 they are often accompanied with storms of hail, sleet, and 
 snow, insomuch that the navigation amongst so many islands 
 becomes extremely dangerous to a stranger. During one of 
 these occurrences, in the year 1771, a Russian three-decker, Disasters, 
 of the noted Orloff's fleet, was driven from her anchorage at 
 Tsara, and thrown upon the Kalogero rocks, where every 
 man perished ; a Turkish 64-gun ship shared a similar fate 
 a few years afterwards, and the disasters to smaller vessels 
 in the north wind are both numerous and distressing. This 
 same tramontanes, or north wind, is a deviation of the Tramon- 
 Etesiae, sometimes blowing with great violence even in 
 the summer months ; and though generally held to be an 
 auspicious harbinger of a change for the better, it is mostly 
 cold and injurious to vegetation, obscuring the horizon to a 
 remarkable degree. After its continuance for only a few 
 hours, the mountain summits of Albania and Greece are 
 covered with snow : and the clearing off of the clouds ren- 
 dering this visible, with strong solar beams and large blue 
 patches appearing in the sky, indicate the moderating of the 
 tramontane,, — 
 
 T 
 
274 
 
 WINTER IN THE ARCHIPELAGO. 
 
 Winter in 
 the Archi- 
 pelago. 
 
 Though the bold seaman's firmer soul 
 
 Views uuappall'd the billowy mountains roll, 
 
 Yet still along the murky sky, 
 
 Anxious he throws th' inquiring eye, 
 
 If haply through the gloom that round him low'rs, 
 
 Shoots one refulgent ray, prelude of happy hours. 
 
 Winter in general is a trying time to the navigator ; for 
 the Archipelago is liable to violent gusts of wind, nearly 
 equal to those of a hurricane, though, fortunately for all 
 concerned, more transient. They are perhaps the same 
 formerly dreaded under the name of Schiron : these are not 
 only preceded by an agitated barometer, but often afford a 
 timely warning of their approach by dense lowering clouds, 
 vivid lightning, and crashing peals of thunder. Yet although 
 forewarned, the mariner cannot always reap the full advan- 
 tage of pre-monition in such a hampered sea, for ships are 
 too often caught where the exercise of nautical skill is para- 
 lyzed by their peculiar position. It was thus that the 
 Phoenix, a frigate of 36 guns, ably commanded by the 
 late Admiral C. J. Austin, was totally wrecked on the shores 
 of Tchesme Bay, in February, 1816, the wind for the time 
 blowing a perfect hurricane. The ship's company were all 
 saved : but in another such storm, on the 9th of January, 
 1826, the loss of life was more severe. It appears that the 
 Revenge 74, bearing the flag of Sir H. B. Neale, the (7am- 
 h. m. sioop brian frigate, and the Alqerine sloop of war, weighed 
 
 Algerine. 
 
 from Garden Bay, at Hydra, at 5h. 30m. P. M. on that day, 
 with light southerly winds. About three hours afterwards, 
 a gale suddenly arose, after much painfully bright lightning 
 to windward. The ships were standing towards Cape 
 Colonna ; but at ten the Revenge lowered her topsails to 
 reef them, when, in a furious squall from south-south-west, 
 she carried away her fore and cross-jack yards, split every 
 sail, and was nearly driving on shore. This blast was 
 fatal to the poor Algerine, for at that very moment she 
 must have been overpowered by the elements, and foun- 
 
 h. m. s. 
 
 Phoenix. 
 
WINTER IN THE ARCHIPELAGO. 275 
 
 dered : nor were Commander Wemyss, the officers, the crew, 
 or a vestige of the vessel, ever heard of after. 
 
 The south wind, even in summer, is also disagreeable 
 on account of the sudden changes to which it is notoriously 
 liable ; and still deserves the description of pollens fulmi- 
 nibus given by the ancients, for it is potent in thunder and 
 lightning, though, as recorded by Sophocles, of short dura- 
 tion. I was myself once off Milo, standing for Attica with 
 a leading southerly breeze and fine weather, when unex- 
 pectedly the wind shifted smack to the northward in a heavy a sudden 
 squall, by which the sea was thrown into an up-and-down 
 agitation, the crests of the old waves being cast over us 
 in foaming spray. As this subsided, the wind with us still 
 at north, a vessel was seen in the east, descending the 
 Archipelago before a brisk easterly breeze. Such baffling 
 instability often keeps the mariner's nerves on the full 
 stretch, and besides the losses, close shaves and touch- 
 and-go incidents are every-day matters hereabouts. Cap- Captain 
 tain John Stewart, of the Sea-Horse frigate, another of rule, 
 those useful sailors who could both write and fight, drew 
 up some excellent directions for the navigation of this sea, 
 which have long been in use. This gallant and regretted 
 officer made it a general rule, while cruising in the ' Arches' 
 during the unsettled months, to anchor under the lee of 
 any land when the winds were from the north, since they 
 usually subside so gradually as to afford sufficient time to 
 weigh ; whereas those from the southward, by yawing in all 
 directions, or chopping about at once, are not to be trusted 
 with ground- tackle. 
 
 We have sufficient evidence that the ancients dreaded stormy 
 
 i • ji a i • i i i season. 
 
 the stormy season m the Archipelago, and were the proto- 
 types of the Venetians in legislating thereon. It is from 
 their records that the difference between this sea and all 
 others has been known for so many ages ; and though the an- 
 cients do not seem to have understood how much the changes 
 of weather are affected by the sun's place in the ecliptic, 
 
 T 2 
 
276 
 
 WEATHER INDICATIONS. 
 
 Laws for they took note of the perennial winds. Some of their laws 
 were expressly designed to curtail such litigations as im- 
 peded commerce ; and since merchant ships kept the sea 
 only between the months munychion and boedromion 
 (from the beginning of April to the end of September), all 
 such causes were but to be heard during the time those 
 vessels were in port. Corinth was then the emporium of 
 Greece, and the mart of Asia and Europe ; the merchandise 
 ' of Italy, Sicily, and all that was known of the western 
 world, was brought up the Gulf of Corinth to Lechseum, on 
 the north side of the isthmus ; and that from the iEgean 
 islands, Asia Minor, Phoenicia, Egypt, and Lybia, to the 
 port of Cenchrea? on the south. In the coasting voyages 
 of those times, Corinth necessarily became the centre of 
 trade ; the circumnavigation of the Peloponnesus was con- 
 sidered both tedious and uncertain ; and mariners were so 
 little inclined to brave the stormy sea between Crete and 
 Laconia, that a proverb was current, saying that the man 
 who doubled Cape Malea ' should forget all he held dearest 
 in the world.' A notion was entertained that the rising of the 
 star Capella was inauspicious to seamen ; and its two depen- 
 dants, £ and n, Bootis — the"Etpt<poi,Ha3di — were emphatically 
 styled the horrida et insana sydera. Arcturus — of uqurov 
 and ovpoi (Bears tail) — was also noted by the early seamen 
 for its ungenial influence ; and among other prepossessions 
 against it, we learn from Demosthenes that a sum of money 
 
 Bottomry, was lent at Athens on bottomry, upon a vessel going to the 
 Thracian Chersonese (Krim Tartary) and back, at 22J- per 
 cent, on the voyage out and home ; but unless they returned 
 before the rising of Arcturus, 30 per cent, was to be paid. 
 A meteorologist has recently insisted that this star has still 
 a malign influence on the weather, and he quotes Gadbury 
 in proof of the assertion ; but the authority of John Gad- 
 bury, and the value of the conclusion, deserve exactly the 
 same degree of respect. Nevertheless, the season of its 
 rising may support the old prejudice without a reference to 
 
WEATHER INDICATIONS. 277 
 
 astrology ; for it is pretty certain, that if a long double Prognostics, 
 stratum of clouds appears just above the horizon at that 
 time, a gale may be expected. Modern seamen may rest 
 assured, that a rising sea, attended by a sinking of the 
 mercury in the tube, is an infallible prognostic of a storm. 
 
 Some of the Greeks of the present day affect to be 
 wonderfully weather-wise, and give all sorts of gratuitous 
 advice about arrivals, departures, anchorages, and all that. 
 But although navigation took its rise in the Mediterranean, Greek 
 it is there, even now, in comparative infancy ; and from its prac lces 
 climate, and the ignorance of its seamen, is likely long to 
 remain the theatre of well-inclined but mere fine-weather 
 sailors. On the appearance of foul winds they seek shelter 
 under the lee of some headland or island, or bear up for 
 the nearest port — with too great a deference for the 
 elements to think of contending against them. They study 
 omens of all descriptions, of which I procured a rich assort- 
 ment from Kampse, a Greek pilot who served me for 
 upwards of three years, and was well versed in such matters. 
 Among the best-established tokens is that derived from the 
 first appearance of the egg-plant (solanum rnelongena), Egg-piant. 
 which is believed by the native seamen to be constantly 
 followed by a north-easter of some continuance ; and 
 therefore ships bound for the Black Sea sail before this 
 harbinger of foul wind makes its appearance. This, at 
 least, indicates the time of the apprehended change. 
 
 In summing up this brief sketch of the iEgean winds, The winds, 
 it may assist our inquiry to give the more ancient notions on 
 this subject. Homer only mentions the four cardinal winds 
 expressly— viz., BOPEA2, ETPO^, NOTO^, ZE<I>rP02— 
 though intermediate ones are inferred : but it must be con- 
 fessed that the early notions are not clearly expressed, for 
 even the Iliad and the Odyssey are at variance respecting 
 the properties of the gentle Zephyros, while the troublous 
 Euros is sometimes represented as serene, and Achilles is 
 made to invoke Boreas at the funeral pile of Patroclus. 
 
278 
 
 TOWER OF THE WINDS. 
 
 Cardinal Aristotle, Timosthenes, and others, enlarge ' the rose of 
 winds \ but the exact gradation between the above- 
 named points, and the twenty-four of Vitruvius, cannot 
 easily be attained. Fortunately, however, the tower erected 
 
 Andronicus by the astronomical architect, Andronicus Cyrrhesthes, at 
 yrr es es. ^.^ens, k as survived the storms and revolutions of many 
 ages, and not only gives us the eight points of the compass 
 then recognised, but also the reputed quality of the winds 
 from those quarters in the meridian* of Attica, by express 
 symbols. Now, as the same meteorological causes must 
 have operated through all time, this interesting structure 
 affords an admirable record of ancient observations ; and it 
 proves that more than 2000 years ago the characteristics 
 were the same as at present. Indeed, simple but accurate 
 and close observation carried the ancients much further on 
 the road to truth than some moderns admit. Having 
 studied Vitruvius (lib. i., cap. 6), Stuart and Revett, 
 Choiseul Gouffier, and many other authorities on this head, 
 one of my first visits in Athens, with Signor Lusieri, was 
 to this temple ; with which I was delighted, notwithstand- 
 
 Tekkiyen. ing its having been degraded to a tekkiyeh, or chapel for 
 the dances and frenzies of the howling dervishes. 
 
 The Tower of the Winds is an octangular marble edifice, 
 which, in 1820, was in very tolerable preservation, being 
 entire, with the exception of the moveable brazen triton 
 which surmounted it, and pointed with a wand to the 
 quarter from which the wind was blowing. On the upper 
 story of each side of the tower is excellently sculptured a 
 large winged figure in relief ; those which represent cold 
 weather are mature old men, fall-clothed and bearded, in 
 
 Brazen 
 triton 
 
 * As the east dial is only the west dial reversed, and as the noon-day 
 line in the south dial is perpendicular to the correspondent hour lines, it is 
 evident that Andronicus sought the true meridian. From inference, this 
 was probably 150 years B.C. ; but the silence of Pausanias is unfavourable 
 to the supposition. This author has, however, carefully recorded an altar 
 of the "Winds near Sicyon (Lib. ii., Corinthiacs, cap. xii.), with four caves 
 (toQpovg) or pits, for the purpose of assuaging storms. 
 
TOWER OF THE WINDS. 279 
 
 a style which the Athenians chose to call barbarian ; and Seasons 
 the milder winds are personated by youthful figures, more 
 lightly clad. Above them their names appear in uncial 
 characters ; and they are divided below by a cornice from 
 large dials constructed and accommodated for each face ; 
 those for the verticals of the cardinal points being regular, 
 and their intermediates declining. It appears truly admir- 
 able for its object as an indicator of weather and time to 
 the Athenians, though, from its proximity to the Acropolis, 
 it was badly placed for the vane-triton's showing the true 
 line of all the winds, since it could not be free from eddies. 
 Over the door appears Schiron, the representative of north- Schiron. 
 west winds ; he is robust and bearded, with warm robes 
 and boots, and, though mostly a dry wind, to show that he 
 occasionally brings rain, he is scattering water from a vase. 
 Zephyros, the soft and benign western breeze, is a lightly-clad, zephyros. 
 bare-legged youth, gliding slowly along with a pleasing coun- 
 tenance, and bearing flowers and blossoms somewhat signifi- 
 cant of Zcoriv (pe'pw (I bring life), in allusion to his genial in- 
 fluence in gardens. Boreas, the impersonation of the fierce and Boreas, 
 piercing north wind, is a bearded old man, warmly clothed, 
 but without a water-vase ; and he is so much affected with 
 cold, that he guards his nose and mouth with his mantle — 
 an action which has been mistaken for blowing the flabra, 
 or wreathed conch-shell. Kaikias, or the north-east wind, Kaikias. 
 which in winter is the coldest in Attica, is represented as 
 an elderly man spilling olives off a charger, to denote his 
 being unfavourable to the fruits of the earth, and especially 
 to olives, with which the plain of Athens abounds : Stuart, 
 however, insists that instead of fruit he is holding hailstones 
 in a shield. Apeliotes, who represents the east wind, is a Apciiotes. 
 handsome youth, indicating gentle motion, and bearing 
 various fruits in his mantle, together with a honeycomb 
 and wheat -ears, in token of his being favourable to orchards. 
 Eurus, the south-east wind, so often accompanied by tern- Eurus. 
 pestuous weather, is represented as a morose old fellow, 
 
280 WEATHER IN THE BLACK SEA. 
 
 nearly naked, the agitation of whose drapery implies occa- 
 
 Libs. sional violence. Libs, the south-west wind and the traversia 
 
 of the Peirasus, a robust, stern-looking man, bearing the 
 aplustre of a ship, which he seems to push before him. 
 The Komans, who usually copied the Greeks, gave dusky 
 pinions to Libs, in allusion to its changeful energies, being 
 by turns hot, cold, dry, rainy, serene, and stormy, insomuch 
 that it was reckoned unfavourable for ships to sail from the 
 Athenian ports while the weather hung in the south-west. 
 
 Notos. Notos, the south wind, has a sickly aspect and clouded 
 head, significant of unwholesome heat and dampness ; and 
 he is emptying a water-jar, as the dispenser of heavy 
 showers in sultry weather. On the whole, these weather 
 influences agree remarkably well with those of the same 
 winds for our own climate. 
 
 weather in The winds of the Dardanelles and Bosphorus are, as 
 neis. might be inferred from the land which forms their channels, 
 what are termed up and down, that is north-east and south- 
 west ; but sometimes the northerly squalls are troublesome. 
 The weather, however, is mostly delightful, the heat being 
 softened by that silvery mist which blends the features of 
 landscape without concealing them ; and in sailing up the 
 Propontis towards Constantinople, prospects of singular and 
 varying beauty open upon the eye of the navigator. But 
 in truth there are very thick and damp fogs at times. 
 
 Black Sea From the inexperience of the early navigators, and its 
 
 then alarming distance from their homes, the Black Sea 
 was thus named as expressive of the Cimmerian darkness 
 of its fogs and tempests. But under the Eu^^ig^qs which 
 flatters the evil genii, and still makes the utterance of the 
 word death a rudeness, the Black Sea was soothingly dubbed 
 the Euxine (favourable to strangers), although notoriously 
 treacherous and unsafe — ' Quern tenet Euxini mendax 
 cognomine littus/ Modern commerce has changed all this ; 
 for though there are sometimes mists of a density sufficient 
 to alarm a Greek sailor, hard storms are rare, and, when 
 
 terrors. 
 
WEATHER IN THE SEA OF AZOF. 281 
 
 they do occur, seldom last more than twelve hours without Mists, 
 considerable abatement. During the summer, north winds 
 prevail, and south in the beginning of autumn and spring. 
 Major-General Monteith told me, that at Kalla and Poli, on 
 the east coast of the Black Sea, the hardest gales are almost 
 invariably from the west, throwing up a rise of four feet in 
 the waters along the shores of Mingrelia, and at the same 
 time causing the rivers to overflow their banks on the low 
 grounds of that neighbourhood. Shortly before his arrival 
 there, a Russian transport was driven on shore in a black 
 fog, and sixty lives lost.* 
 
 Dr. E. D. Clarke tells us that during violent east-winds East wind 
 in the Sea of Azof, the water retires in so remarkable a r 6k. 
 manner, that the people of Taganrok were able to en°ect a 
 passage on dry land to the opposite coast ; a distance of 
 nearly fourteen miles. And he adds, l but when the wind 
 changes, which it sometimes does very suddenly, the waters 
 return with such rapidity to their wonted bed, that many 
 lives are lost. In this manner also, small vessels are 
 stranded. We saw the wrecks of two which had cast 
 anchor in good soundings near the coast, but were unex- 
 pectedly swamped on the sands. The east wind often sets 
 in with great vehemence, and continues for several weeks. 
 They have also frequent gales from the west ; but very 
 rarely a wind due north, and hardly ever an instance in 
 which it blows from the south. This last circumstance has 
 been attributed to the mountainous ridge of the Caucasus, Clarke's 
 which intercepts the wind from that quarter.' (Travels, 
 part i. chapter xiv.) That accomplished traveller, in 
 allusion to the 21st verse of the fourteenth chapter of 
 Exodus, pronounces this to be a phenomenon ' which offers 
 a very forcible proof of the veracity of the Sacred Scrip- 
 tures.' But such comparisons may do more harm than 
 
 * For General fcfonteith's experiment at Kalla, to determine the height 
 of the Black Sea, vide p. 153. 
 
282 
 
 LEVANT WEATHER. 
 
 Variable 
 weather 
 in the 
 Levant. 
 
 "Weather at 
 Cyprus. 
 
 good : the dry land here is not occasioned by a miracle, for 
 in this instance the sea was not a wall on the right and on 
 the left, nor was there a pillar of fire by night and cloud 
 by day. The doctor, therefore, must merely have intended it 
 as an illustration, not as a proof of the words of Moses. 
 
 In the Levant, the temperature of the atmosphere is 
 more variable than that of most other parts of the Medi- 
 terranean, as it alters considerably with each fluctuation of 
 the wind : yet along these eastern shores, in common with 
 the neighbouring regions, the imbatto, or regular land and 
 sea breeze, prevails in the absence of stronger winds. But 
 at some distance from land these periodical breezes are felt 
 only within a small compass ; and, as in the cases already 
 mentioned, it is not uncommon for vessels to sail by each 
 other in different atmospheric currents. Thus I once 
 passed within hail of a ship on the opposite course, yet both 
 of us with flowing sheets before the wind ! This sea, as 
 indeed in a degree are all others, is the grand means of 
 softening the temperature of the air ; whence every cold 
 and raw gale becomes much milder by passing over it, and 
 hot breezes are reduced to a refreshing temperature by the 
 same process. 
 
 The island of Cyprus affords an epitome of the usual 
 Levantine weather, as the action of the breezes is confined 
 to a comparatively circumscribed space. In the general 
 progress of its seasons, the heats increase as the summer 
 advances, and would be altogether insupportable were it not 
 for the cooling imbatto, which begins to blow at 8 A.M. the 
 first day of the season, increases as the sun advances till noon, 
 when it gradually declines, and at 3 P.M. entirely ceases. No- 
 thing is more easy to comprehend than the cause and course 
 of this wind : between 8 and 10 A.M. the land is sufficiently 
 heated to rarify the atmosphere over it greatly, — the cool 
 air upon the sea consequently expands and forms a strong 
 current to the land. Towards sunset, the sea being thus 
 heated, something like an equilibrium takes place. About 
 
LEVANT WEATHER. 283 
 
 an hour after sunset, the imbatto generally dies away : an Cyprus im- 
 almost dead calm ensues, and at about 1 or 2 A.M. a light 
 air springs up from the land, which continues for about 
 an hour after sunrise. But before these winds terminate 
 for the season, they become extremely violent. This im- 
 batto is considered as a sea breeze on the north-west of 
 Cyprus, and a land one on the south-east. The falling of 
 the wind is usually succeeded by moisture, which renders 
 the air somewhat heavy ; but it is dissipated in the evening 
 by a breeze springing up daily at that time. In summer 
 this wind blows till four in the morning, in autumn and 
 winter not till day-break, while in spring it does not continue 
 longer than midnight. Those winds which arise in the other 
 beginning of summer, cease about the middle of September : 
 and this is the period of the most intense heats, there being 
 no breeze to attenuate them. Fortunately, however, they 
 are not of long duration ; and about the middle of October 
 they sensibly decrease, as the atmosphere then begins to be 
 freighted with watery clouds. The north winds, though North 
 possessed of some good characteristics, are disagreeable in 
 summer, on account of the injury they inflict on the cotton 
 plants, which are sometimes withered thereby to the very 
 roots ; and coming from the high mountains of Asia Minor, 
 they are often very cold. But the principal cause of 
 failure in the crops of Cyprus is drought, for the earth is 
 often parched up — as it were — from the end of April till 
 the middle of October. 
 
 The coast of Syria has, on the whole, a very fine climate, Climate of 
 albeit there are a few drawbacks, for while the mountainous 
 districts undergo a tempestuous and gloomy winter, the 
 summer of the plain is oppressively hot. Throughout the 
 year, the winds are considerably influenced at different 
 seasons by the lofty summits of the Taurus and Lebanon, 
 by which their intensity, direction, and force are varied. 
 On the upper portion of this coast, along the flanks of 
 Lebanon, and about the roadstead of Alexandretta, the 
 
284 LEVANT WEATHER. 
 
 sudden gusts of wind descending from the mountains, called 
 Eageas. rageas (ghaziyah), must be looked out for when the peaks 
 are capped with clouds : some of these are exceedingly 
 violent, though transient, and are but little felt at a wide 
 offing where the true wind, which blows over those peaks, 
 Effects of is found. The north winds are for the most part dry and 
 salubrious, yet cold and often strong ; while the south ones 
 are mild and moist, accompanied by rain ; those from the 
 east are laden with mist ; and the western, though often 
 stormy, produce clear skies and exhilarating effects. These 
 winds differ essentially according to the position of the 
 ship's station, but they rarely blow very violently without a 
 corresponding effect on the mercury. There is not much 
 thunder, either in summer or winter, and when it does occur 
 it is generally during the rainy season from November till 
 March. The land winds, which in summer are very light, 
 extend but to a short distance, commencing usually towards 
 sunset, and continuing till sunrise ; afterwards the sea-breeze 
 commences, and subsides more or less about an hour before 
 sunset, sometimes dropping altogether. But occasionally 
 the sea-winds blow most furiously, and this harbourless coast 
 Gale of then becomes a dead and perilous lee-shore. This was very 
 seriously experienced by our squadron under Admiral Sir 
 Robert Stopford, in December, 1840, after his attack on 
 Acre, when the Zebra was stranded high and dry, the Pique 
 cut away her masts, and various casualties were suffered. 
 On this occasion the Bellerojphon, a new ship of 80 guns, 
 was obliged to cast some of her guns overboard ; and it was 
 only by the able management of Captain C. J. Austin (see 
 page 274), and the surprising exertions of her officers and 
 crew, that she was providentially preserved from being cast 
 ashore upon an iron-bound coast, where not a soul could 
 have been saved. 
 
 In treating of the meteorology in the Archipelago, 
 certain inferences were confirmed by the statements of the 
 ancient Greeks ; but as regards this coast we can appeal to the 
 
 1840. 
 
WEATHER IN SYRIA. 285 
 
 higher authority of the Sacred Scriptures. Now an opinion Allusions in 
 has prevailed, that the north winds — which, blowing from tures. 
 the mountains in that direction, must be cold — are the 
 bearers of wet : but this neither agrees with recorded 
 observation, nor with what we read in the Bible. In 
 the book of Proverbs (xxv. 23), Solomon says, most Solomon, 
 likely at Jerusalem, that 'the north wind driveth away 
 rain ;' such, at least, is the authorized version ; but it must 
 be admitted that others translated it — 'the wind from the 
 unknown land of the north is pregnant with rain/ Be that 
 as it may, and admitting the difference of latitude, with 
 the influence of Mount Lebanon, &c, the effect of this 
 wind, as experienced by the late well-known Consul- 
 General Barker, at Aleppo, is the same as mentioned 
 by Job, near Damascus (xxxvii. 22), probably upwards of job. 
 1000 years before Solomon was born — ' Fair weather (gold- 
 beaming clouds) cometh out of the north/ Again, when 
 Elijah's servant, on being sent the seventh time (1 Kings, Elijah's 
 xviii. 44) to the top of Mount Carmel to look out, reported 
 that he saw a small cloud, ' like a man's hand/ rising from 
 the sea — which, of course, was to the west of him — the 
 prophet instantly predicted rain. A small dark cloud 
 taking the nimbus form, with its rugged pendants resem- 
 bling fingers, would be in keeping ; for it is a natural and 
 very common prognostic, which may be seen from the same 
 spot to this day. 
 
 The climate of Lower Egypt is very hot in summer, Lower 
 though with cooler nights than could have been expected ; jgyP ' 
 with a mean annual temperature of 69°'3. On the coasts 
 of the Delta, occasional rains commence with the fall of the 
 year, and continue till March ; during which time the west 
 and south-west gales prevail ; and as it then pours down 
 for hours together, the Arabs designate those winds the 
 Fathers of Rain. In March, the hot southerly wind called 
 Khamsin (i. e. Fifty) commences, blowing two, three, or at 
 most four days successively, and then subsiding only to 
 
286 WEATHER IN EGYPT. 
 
 begin again soon. Its presence induces disease, and loads 
 the lurid atmosphere with warm vapours, while clouds of 
 dust and small flies are wafted oat to sea ; but being a land 
 wind, the water is generally smooth, even though it some- 
 times blows with hurricane force. It derives its name 
 from its supposed limit between Easter and the gpstival 
 
 TheSamum. solstice. It is also called the Samum (in Turkish, Sdmm- 
 yeli), that is, the poisonous wind, from its suffocating heat. 
 This in the central African deserts is often fatal ; but in 
 Egypt and Barbary — though oppressive and troublesome, 
 from filling the air with columns of hot sand, they are not 
 dangerous. I have, indeed, been inconvenienced by them, 
 but never experienced any really ill effect. The heavy, 
 hazy weather continues till the sultry east winds about the 
 beginning of June may be said to usher in the summer, 
 when there is sometimes hardly a breath of air stirring in 
 the day-time, and not a cloud to be seen ; but at night the 
 northers set in, the surrounding air cools rapidly, and the 
 
 st. John's dew falls densely. About St. John's day (24th of June), 
 westerly and north-west winds refresh the air, and they 
 continue more or less till September, with an atmosphere 
 generally dry and clear. The north wind brings health and 
 enjoyment ; and by blowing the laden clouds into and 
 beyond Abyssinia, insures a regular supply for the Nile. 
 These, however, are rather bodies of Mediterranean vapour 
 than clouds, collecting into masses as they advance over the 
 valley and lower ranges of hills to the lofty mountains of 
 Africa, where, being refrigerated and condensed, they fall 
 in periodical rains, and are carried back to their native 
 sea : thus confirming the preacher's geological inference 
 — 'unto the place from whence the rains come, thither 
 
 Solomon, do they return again/ (Ecclesiastes, i. 7.) But though 
 the northern winds are welcomed as benefactors, since the 
 Nile is then sluggish from the damming up of its waters, a 
 learned but not scientific writer has presumed that they 
 cause the unhealthy season. 
 
WEATHER IN EGYPT. 287 
 
 Circumspection will generally gain a fore- knowledge of Barometer 
 
 ifi-r-1- ill -n indications. 
 
 the harder gales of the Egyptian coast, though the oscilla- 
 tions of the mercury are confined to a very limited range. 
 In March, 1822, I observed a slight fall in the barometer, 
 at a moment when the atmosphere had a most suspicious 
 aspect ; and from taking advantage of this prognostic, we 
 scarcely strained a rope-yarn, while at the same time the 
 Turkish fleet lost two fine large frigates, three corvettes, and 
 a brig, together with nearly 800 people. As this passed — 
 so to speak — under the eye of the sagacious Mehemet Ali, 
 he made numerous inquiries, in the course of which I was 
 able to impress him with the use and importance of the 
 marine barometer : little could I then anticipate the extra- 
 ordinary fleet he was so soon to build and equip ! 
 
 Between the Delta of Egypt and the Lesser Syrtis, the Coast of 
 sea winds from west, round by the north to east, are y ' 
 frequently violent and sudden, of which I have already 
 recorded an instance respecting Lord Exmouth's squadron 
 being caught, at page 90 : but the weather in general is 
 very fine, the summer heats being moderated by breezes 
 from the offing along the coast, and the winters are remark- 
 ably mild. The nature and direction of the local winds 
 may be tolerably well inferred, by an attentive meteorolo- 
 gist, in watching the form and colour of the clouds ; those 
 hot ones from the south often assuming the tint of the 
 desert below them, as is especially seen at the back of 
 Tripoli, from the offing. Their apparent changeableness 
 has method and regularity, and even with the Mantuan's Regular 
 1 omnia ventorum concurre prselia vidi' in mind, however tions. 
 short their revolutions may be, we cannot but be struck 
 with the constant periodical return of each cardinal wind, 
 and its appropriation to certain seasons of the year, under 
 solar influence. Thus, when the sun approaches the tropic 
 of Cancer, the winds from the east change to the north, and 
 become pretty constant to that direction through the sum- 
 mer : and towards the end of September, when that lunii- 
 
288 
 
 THE MIRAGE. 
 
 Solomon. 
 
 Greater 
 Syrtis. 
 
 Sarab. 
 
 Isaiah. 
 
 nary repasses the line, the winds return to their eastern 
 quarters. When the sun approaches the tropic of Capri- 
 corn, the winds become more variable and tempestuous, and 
 frequently blow very hard from north-west and west : and 
 when he returns towards the equator about the end of 
 February and March, southerly winds may be expected. 
 This periodical constancy and atmospheric circulation must 
 have attracted notice from the earliest times ; and the Son 
 of David is borne out in saying — c The wind goeth toward 
 the south, and turneth about unto the north ; it whirleth 
 about continually, and the wind returneth again according 
 to his circuits/ (Ecclesiastes, i. 6.) 
 
 The once-dreaded Lybian Gulf must not be passed with- 
 out being noticed, as the seat of our earliest tales about 
 whirlwinds, whirlpools, quicksands, vapours, and all possible 
 marine perils : to say nothing of the monsters and spectral 
 apparitions so learnedly discussed by Diodorus Siculus 
 (Lib. iii. cap. 3). All these, however, save fogs and the 
 surges occasioned by northern winds of long range blowing 
 home on the coast, have disappeared : and to such natural 
 phenomena must be added the Sarab, which Europeans 
 now call mirage, a singular effect of unusual refraction so 
 frequently seen in this and other arid shores of the Medi- 
 terranean, as well as elsewhere. This deeeptio visus 
 is the ' parched ground (sultry vapour f) which shall be- 
 come a pool' of Isaiah (xxxv. 7); the Sarab (vapour 
 of the desert) which Mahomet says 'the thirsty traveller 
 thinketh to be water, until, when he cometh thereto, he 
 findeth it to be nothing!" (Koran, chapter xxiv.); and the 
 deceitful sea of the desert of Sogdiana, described by Quintus 
 Curtius (lib. vii. cap. 5) ; of which, probably, our loomers, 
 flying Dutchmen, Capes Flyaway, and other deceptions 
 from vertical or lateral refraction, are mere modifications of 
 the action of the sun and earth on the different densities of 
 the lower atmospheric strata. When the sun has heated the 
 sandy plains, and by reverberation the air above them ? the 
 
THE MIRAGE. 289 
 
 clear cerulean sky is inverted by the mirage into an exten- 
 sive sheet of translucent water, in which the eminences and 
 objects around are reflected, and of course reversed as they 
 would be on the surface of a lake. On one occasion, near instance of 
 
 illusion. 
 
 the west side of the Syrtis, the illusion which I witnessed 
 was so perfect, that it was with difficulty I could persuade 
 Mr. Edward Tyndale — whose extreme thirst made him long 
 to reach the water — that the supposed lake was receding 
 from us as we advanced, until our amused Arab companions 
 pointed to another sarab formed in the space over which 
 we had ridden. Another which I saw in Egypt was so 
 distinct, and the desolate sands rendered so enticing and 
 picturesque, as to make me for a moment doubt whether I 
 was in my right senses. 
 
 Mirage is not confined to the arid wastes of north Africa : other sites 
 
 of mirage 
 
 the temperature of the Mediterranean is of course modified 
 and affected by the wmd, while the refractive power of the 
 atmosphere as naturally varies with its density, and its 
 density with its temperature ; but these again are strongly 
 modified by the sun-burnt wastes adjacent. Hence the 
 effect is carried to a certain height, and is productive of 
 strong looming, so that places are sometimes seen which are 
 otherwise generally concealed from the view of each other 
 by the convexity of the globe. In my account of Sardinia 
 {page 80), I mentioned the appearance of the mirage over 
 the plain of Campidano ; and I also saw it most distinctly in 
 the neighbourhood of Manfredonia, as well as on the plain 
 of the Bojana, in the Adriatic. But the most remarkable 
 effect of irregular refraction recorded, is the celebrated aerial 
 display in the Faro of Messina, which has for ages astonished 
 the million, and perplexed philosophers. It is called Fata Fata Mor- 
 Morgana, from its being supposed to be a spectacle under 
 the influence of a Fairy Queen, the ' Morgian la Fay' of 
 popular legends. It is said to occur in sultry, calm weather, 
 when the tides, or streamed-up waters, are at their highest, 
 and when the sun shines from that point whence its inci- 
 
 U 
 
290 FOGS. 
 
 dent rays form an angle of about 45° on the water, At 
 such times, they tell us, multiplied images of all the 
 objects existing on the two lines of coast — as castles, arches, 
 towers, houses, trees, animals, and mountains— are pre- 
 sented in the air with wonderful precision and magnificence. 
 
 Padre Padre Minasi assures us that, in addition to obvious appear- 
 story. ances, numberless series of pilasters, superb palaces with 
 balconies, armies of men on foot and horseback, and many 
 other strange figures, are seen in their natural colours and 
 proper action, as in a catoptric theatre ; and there exist paint- 
 ings and engravings of the wonderful phenomenon. Still, on 
 the whole, I cannot but repeat the conviction to which 
 inquiry led me, and which I published as far back as 1824 
 (Sicily and its Islands, page 109): — ' I much doubt, how- 
 ever, the accuracy of the descriptions I have heard and read, 
 as I cannot help thinking that the imagination strongly 
 assists these dioptric appearances, having never met with a 
 Sicilian who had actually seen anything more than the 
 loom or mirage, consequent on a peculiar state of the 
 atmosphere ; but which, I must say, I have here observed 
 many times to be unusually strong/ 
 
 Fogs. Yet though the Gulf of Syrtis is now free from spectral 
 
 illusions — fogs, mists, and sea-frets are still to be met with ; 
 and the accumulation of vapours is sometimes so great as 
 to obscure the solar rays, a time when — as the poor Roman 
 Campanians have it — il sole si vede, e non si vede, 
 while the face of the luminary, in revealing itself, has the 
 rusty-iron tint alluded to by Virgil. 
 
 Cum caput obscura nitidum ferrugine texit. 
 
 These fogs, in general, are unlike the damp mists of the 
 north, being the dry, thick haze of which the air is full in 
 the warm season, in most parts of the Mediterranean, occa- 
 sioning little inconvenience or depression of spirits. Indeed, 
 it would be more propitious to vegetation around, if the 
 vapours so frequently seen dissipating in the lower regions 
 of air, were more frequently condensed and precipitated in 
 
FOGS. 291 
 
 showers. There are meteorologists, however, who insist 
 that the production of winds depends chiefly on the conden- 
 sation of vapours ; and that the direction of any wind is 
 according to the situation of the condensing vapour ; while 
 its strength is as the velocity of such condensed vapour, and 
 the quickness of its condensation. The course being thus 
 indicated, M. Mariotte thinks the intensity may be brought Manotte. 
 under mechanical computation ; for wind being only air in 
 motion, and air a fluid subject to the laws of other fluids, 
 an investigation of the ratio of specific gravities, times, and 
 impulsions, will give the force. This is a conclusive Q. E. D. 
 to some inquirers ; but the process speaks more for the 
 soundness of the formula than for the possibility of obtain- 
 ing the data. When the leading phenomena respecting the 
 distribution of heat, and the distribution and effects of so 
 rare and expansible a body as vapour in the atmosphere, 
 shall be better known, the inferences may become infallible. 
 It must not, however, be supposed that this sea is with- 
 out thick humid fogs, as well as the dry ones here men- Humid fogs, 
 tioned : * some of them have singular refractive powers 
 where, from the nature of the country, sudden cold is 
 induced by changes of wind ; the specific gravity of the air 
 being increased, and its ascent thereby retarded, it becomes 
 a dense medium both to sight and sound. I once witnessed 
 a curious effect of fog-looming at Scoglietti, on the south Fog- 
 
 looming. 
 
 coast of Sicily. I was pulling on shore, where some of the 
 inhabitants of that little port and Captain Henryson, R E., 
 were standing on the beach to wait for my landing. As 
 we approached, the group appeared like a barrack, which 
 gradually split into vertical portions as we advanced, and on 
 approaching still nearer, separated more and more, until on 
 our arrival they became palpably men. On another occa- 
 sion, in May, 1812, when off Majorca — an island not at all 
 
 * Every navigator of the shores of Venice, where the chief land-marks 
 are campanili, or steeples, must recollect how they are often vexatiously 
 hidden by fogs. 
 
 u2 
 
292 
 
 DEW. 
 
 Fog off 
 Majorca. 
 
 Dew. 
 
 Daniell. 
 
 subject to fogs — in a line-of-battle ship, and during an 
 impervious haze, with the wind easterly, we all at once 
 plainly heard human voices ; this was partly owing to the 
 power which fog has of transmitting and conducting sound, 
 for the people proved to be further from us than we appre- 
 hended. At length we saw the mast-heads of several vessels, 
 and shortly afterwards discovered their hulls, magnified by 
 the medium into those of two-deckers. Aware that we had 
 no such ships in this direction, we beat to quarters, cleared 
 for action, and stood for the nearest. As the atmosphere 
 suddenly cleared off, we found ourselves in the midst of an 
 Algerine squadron of two frigates, two brigs, and two cor- 
 vettes, under the command of Omar Bey, afterwards Dey 
 of Algiers, when that city was attacked by Lord Exmouth. 
 There is yet a point in Mediterranean meteorology 
 which must be named, because greatly misunderstood : viz., 
 Dew ; another visible evidence of the aqueous vapour per- 
 vading the atmosphere. Those who talk of heavy dews 
 ' falling/ and suppose that they may be deemed a kind of 
 rain, think they might be allowed for as a shower; but would 
 they recollect that an inch of water over an English acre 
 is about 100 tons, and the dew mostly a humefaction, how- 
 ever copious the depositions may occasionally be, they 
 would perceive the extreme difficulty of approaching such 
 a question under such varied hygrometrical conditions 
 and frigorific impressions. But in a more practical view, 
 Dew is a standard weather-predictor. Entirely distinct 
 from the evaporation which we have already treated, the 
 next evaporating power will be as the difference between 
 that force of vapour answering to the temperature at which 
 dew would begin to act, and the temperature to which the 
 evaporating substance is exposed ; and this is called the 
 Dew-Point Now any sudden change in the dew-point is 
 accompanied by a change of wind. Professor Daniell says, 
 ' an increasing difference between the temperature of the 
 air and the temperature of the point of condensation, ac- 
 
DEW. 293 
 
 companied by a fall of the latter, is a sure prognostication The dew- 
 of fine weather ; while diminished heat and a rising dew- 
 point infallibly portend a rainy season/ This is obviously 
 correct, for it is from the latent caloric contained in vapour 
 that the force of wind is derived ; whence it follows, that 
 when the dew-point is high, there is sufficient steam-power 
 in the air to produce a violent gale, since then the quantity 
 of vapour in the air is greatest. The hygrometer which I 
 used was, as already stated, one of De Luc's construction ; 
 Lieut. Beechey employed Leslie's, but its rapid consumption 
 of ether in that climate was a serious objection. Daniell's 
 (see page 215) wet-and-dry bulb hygrometer had not yet 
 made its appearance ; but I cannot resist pointing out the 
 passage in Pliny (Nat Hist, lib. xviii., cap. 85), translated Pliny, 
 by Holland, which led to that ingenious invention : — 
 
 And to conclude and make an end at once of this discourse, whensoever 
 you see at any feast the dishes and platters wherein your meat is served up 
 to the bourd, sweat or stand of a dew, and leaving that sweat which is 
 resolved from them either upon dresser, cupbourd, or table, be assured that 
 it is a token of terrible tempests approching. 
 
 I greatly regret that I was then unaware of another Scirocco- 
 wonderful link in the chain of meteorological knowledge, 
 which I could several times have contributed to unravel, by 
 collecting specimens. In my account of Sicily and its Islands 
 (page 6), I mentioned that on the 14th of March, 1814, 
 on a warm hazy day, thermometer 63|°, and barometer 
 29*43 inches, it rained in large muddy drops, which depo- 
 sited a very minute sand, of a yellow red colour. Since 
 this record was published, similar dust-rain, blood^rain, or 
 scirocco-dust has attracted philosophical inquiry ; and the 
 crowning of the beautiful theory of atmospheric circulation 
 only awaits the obtaining and examination of additional 
 samples. By the zealous exertions of Professor Ehrenberg, Ehrenberg. 
 the revealment of a truly wondrous and invisible working 
 and vitality in myriads of infusoria pervading the atmo- 
 sphere, has followed the microscopic scrutiny of this dust. 
 Among the organisms, the Professor has recognised poly- Organisms. 
 
294 DUST-RAIN. 
 
 gastrica, phytolitharia, and many varieties of siliceous- 
 shelled infusoria, which minimum types of life constitute, 
 perhaps, so large a proportion as one-fifth of the whole 
 quantity examined. What cyclical relation these creatures 
 have in regard to different atmospheric strata, still remains 
 for continued inquiry ; but it is ascertained that they float 
 in the air together with masses of fixed terrestrial matter, 
 Analysis of as flint-earths, chalk, and ferruginous oxides ! It has also 
 been found that the Mediterranean dust, and that of the 
 Atlantic, possess a striking similarity of organic composition ; 
 and by a chemical analysis of the latter, recently made at 
 New York, by Mr. W. Gibbs, it appears, that with 100 as 
 unity, there were — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Water and organic matter 18*53 
 
 Flinty earths 37'13 
 
 Clayey earths 1674 
 
 Iron oxide 7"65 
 
 Oxide of Manganese 3 44 
 
 Carbonic acid chalk earth . . . c . 9*59 
 
 Talc earth 1-80 
 
 Alcali 2-97 
 
 Natron 1-90 
 
 Oxide of Copper 0*25 
 
 Total . . . 100-00 
 
 a word to The main aim of these pages is to awaken the intelli- 
 
 gent mariner's attention ; but lest the general reader should 
 be alarmed about the squalls, and fogs, and compounded 
 atmosphere here necessarily enumerated, we may assure 
 him — without a reminder that sudden transparency is 
 ominous — that he will otherwise meet with brilliant and 
 diaphanous skies. The atmosphere, for the greater part of 
 the year, is so clear, that it gives brilliancy and life to every- 
 thing in view; and the evening tints at such times are 
 equally marvellous and delicious. Most of the Mediter- 
 ranean shores, in the summer months, are subject to a 
 whitish vapour in the sky, softening to a silvery haze, and 
 forming a medium through which all objects present both 
 delicate colours and picturesque appearances -, and some- 
 
BEAUTIFUL SKIES. 295 
 
 times with the singular property of making headlands, Aerial 
 edifices, and mountains seem more elevated than they 
 really are ; and this aerial translucence, when influencing 
 highly rarefied moisture, is the reason why distant objects 
 appear to be much nearer in fine weather just before the 
 approach of rain. It was in weather of this description 
 that, in September, 1822, while at anchor among the 
 Tremiti Isles, in the Adriatic, we were enabled to see that 
 singular effect of solar atmosphere, the zodiacal light, with zodiacal 
 striking distinctness, presenting a sloping, luminous pyramid s 
 upwards of 20° above the horizon, 8° or 10° wide at the base ; 
 and in such a state of the air, I have frequently enjoyed 
 glorious views of finely-coloured double stars — as x Herculis, 
 7 Andromedae, and s Bootis ; and on one occasion the 
 cluster in the sword-handle of Perseus was surpassingly 
 gorgeous. A good index of atmospheric modification is 
 found at Malta, which generally affords only a sea-horizon 
 around ; but in some states of the weather, the summit of 
 Mount Etna becomes distinctly visible, although it is 110 Mount 
 miles distant, and once I must really have seen half of it. 
 The 31st of January, 1822, was a wonderfully clear day, 
 and that grand volcano so obtrusively perceptible to the 
 naked eye, that I took its bearing by an azimuth compass 
 from the tower of the palace, when the rhomb was exactly 
 N. 27° 12' E. ; and it formed, from the same place, an 
 angle of 110° 31' with Civita Vecchia church. 
 
 The climate of Tunis is one of the finest in the world, Tunisian 
 and its air is pure, serene, and wholesome ; the thermo- 
 meter ranging, in general seasons, from about 45° to 87°, with 
 an average mean temperature of 68'5°; and all the revolu- 
 tions of the weather, with rare exceptions, are between 2910 
 and 30*30 inches. During the summer and early autumn, 
 rain is unusual, but it is looked for towards the middle of 
 October ; and should it not fall till later in the year, a scanty 
 following harvest is predicted. After the rains have com- 
 
296 WEATHER AT TUNIS. 
 
 menced, they continue with great violence for eight or ten 
 
 days, when hunters for antiquities repair to the many 
 
 neighbouring ruins in search of coins and other antiques, 
 
 Tunisian laid bare by the showers. From thence to the spring, a 
 
 seasons. 
 
 fine period for Europeans generally ensues, for the winter 
 — perhaps improperly so called — can only include the 
 months of December and January, during which fresh 
 winds and heavy rain render the air chilly and raw. The 
 spring is warm, but hot weather sets in towards the middle 
 of June, and lasts in its fervour till September ; the coasts, 
 however, are attempered by a constant sea-breeze, which 
 blows from about 9 A.M. to near sunset. Notwithstanding 
 this corrective, the laud-winds are almost insupportably 
 sultry, and bring with them clouds of fine sand, which 
 darken the air, and penetrate into every recess. During 
 Sdrocco at a scorching scirocco, in Julv, J 822 — in which the thermo- 
 
 Tunis. & > . J> 
 
 meter rose to 93° in the afternoon, and fell only to 84° in 
 the night — one of my seamen, a fine youth, employed on 
 the Lake of Tunis, was overcome, and fell a corpse in the 
 boat** Navigators making landfalls hereabout in the 
 winter should be sure of their reckonings in foggy weather, 
 
 h.m.s. for there is not much sea-room. In July, 1797, the Aigle, 
 a 36-gun frigate, commanded by the late Sir Charles Tyler, 
 ran upon Zembra Island, and was totally wrecked. In 
 
 Eirondeiie. February, 1808, the Hirondelle, a cutter of 14 guns, was 
 lost on this coast, and only four men saved out of a crew 
 of fifty ; and on the 7th and 8th of March, 1821, a heavy 
 gale, which ravaged most of the Mediterranean shores, was 
 so vehement in Tunis Bay, that three frigates, three cor- 
 
 * Cloudless skies for weeks together, are wearisome enough, and the 
 trite exclamation of the late Captain Fothergill, may be in point. This 
 eccentric officer was returning from India, where he had served for years: 
 coming on deck, when entering the English Channel in a foggy November 
 morning, ' Hah,' said he to the lieutenant of the watch, ' this is what I call 
 something like — none of your cursed eternal blue skies here — a fellow can 
 see his own breath now!' The seasons of Tunis, as above stated, differ from 
 those of Labrador ; for according to a remark of the gallant Benbow, still 
 preserved at the Admiralty, he tersely recorded — ' There is a winter of nine 
 months, and d d bad weather the other three!' 
 
ALGERIAN WEATHER. 297 
 
 vettes, two brigs, and a schooner of war, with about twenty Tunisian 
 sail of merchantmen, were wrecked, and more than 1800 
 men were drowned. (See page 92.) 
 
 Off the hills of the Has Sebah Rus (Seven Capes), the Mountain 
 
 . i gusts. 
 
 headland so greatly dreaded by trading vessels, violent 
 gusts are occasionally felt; but their approach may be 
 inferred by the descent of light airs in fine weather, shown 
 in the little playing eddies termed cat's paws. 
 
 Algeria has a fine climate and salubrious atmosphere, Seasons at 
 
 ... . Algiers. 
 
 the winters being mild, and the summers, excepting for an 
 occasional scorch from the Desert, far from insupportably 
 hot; insomuch that Dr. Shaw, in the account of his 
 residence there, has said that he found the thermometer 
 contracted to the freezing point only twice in twelve 
 years, and then under very unusual circumstances. And 
 he adds, what is partly confirmed by my own experience, 
 and partly by information which I collected, that the winds 
 from the east are common from May to September ; and 
 that then the westerly winds take place, and become the 
 most frequent. Sometimes, also, particularly about the 
 equinoxes, they exert the force and impetuosity which the 
 ancients have ascribed to the Africus or south-west wind, AMcus. 
 here called Labbetch (Libeccio). ' The winds from the 
 west, the north-west, and north/ he continues, ' are attended 
 with fair weather in summer, and with rain in winter. But 
 the easterly winds (Levanters), no less than the southerly, Levanters, 
 are, for the most part, dry, though accompanied in most 
 seasons with a thick and cloudy atmosphere. The baro- 
 meter rises to 30^- or 30-^ inches with a northerly wind, 
 though it be attended with the greatest rains and tempests. 
 But there is nothing constant or regular in easterly or 
 westerly winds ; though, for three or four months together, 
 in the summer, whether the winds are from one or the 
 other quarter, the mercury stands at about 30 inches 
 without the least variation. With the hot southerly winds, 
 it is rarely found higher than 29-^, which is, also, the 
 
298 THE MAJORCA CARPENTER. 
 
 usual indi- ordinary height in stormy, wet weather from the west/ 
 These remarks are substantially correct ; but a little closer 
 attention would perhaps have shown the observant "Doctor 
 that the barometer generally rises with winds from the 
 north to the east, and falls with those from the contrary 
 points; and that though the range is confined within a 
 few lines, the indications are evident. 
 
 winds. Although pregnant with salubrity to the coast inhabi- 
 
 tants, the most troublesome winds to seamen are those from 
 north-north-east, north, and north-north-west, which, how- 
 ever, are preceded by an on-shore swell two or three days 
 beforehand. Yet, on the Christmas -eve of 1797, the 
 
 h.m.s. Ha- Hamadryad frigate was surprised by a norther, and lite- 
 
 madryad. 
 
 rally blown on the beach of Algiers Bay, where she was 
 
 totally wrecked. On the 15th of September, 1823, the 
 
 h.m.s. Ad- Adventure was at anchor off the lighthouse of that place, 
 
 venture. 
 
 rolling prodigiously to the precursing swell, with an over- 
 cast sky, and a tremulous barometer. Knowing it was a 
 time to expect hard weather, I asked for a berth within 
 the mole ; but finding the Dey disinclined to accede, the 
 anchors were weighed, and we clawed off only just before 
 a boisterous storm set in, when, as Mr. M'Donnel, our 
 Consul- General, informed me, eight vessels were lost. 
 
 Frequency Indeed, so frequently are fragments of wreck strewed about 
 ' the several strands, that a gale from the northward is 
 termed 'the Majorca Carpenter/ in allusion to the direction 
 of that island from Algiers. 
 
 Charles v. While on this topic, it is advisable to notice the disaster 
 which befel that proud emperor, Charles V., who here 
 received a humiliation that must have taught him the 
 vanity of human greatness : and as the principles of mete- 
 orology continue the same in all ages, the instance will still 
 be an example in point. The successes of the Algerine 
 corsairs, and their descents even on the coast of Italy, so 
 alarmed and vexed Pope Paul III., that he earnestly 
 solicited that potent monarch to gird up his loins against 
 
DISASTER OF CHARLES V. 299 
 
 those audacious infidels. The appeal was not made in vain ; Spanish ex- 
 for besides being elated on one side by his victories at pe 
 Tunis, Charles was nettled on the other by the loss of his 
 fortress before Algiers, by the indignities heaped upon his 
 governor there, and by the many aggressions committed 
 against his subjects. A tremendous armada was equipped, 
 which he determined to command in person ; and that 
 nothing should be wanting to stimulate zeal, and render the 
 enterprise both powerful and successful, the pope published 
 a bull, promising a plenary absolution to all such persons 
 as should embark, and a crown of martyrdom to all who 
 should fall in the conflict. No fewer than 500 bottoms of its strength, 
 all sorts, including 12Q men-of-war, and 20 of the largest 
 imperial galleys, were quickly fitted out, and, besides the 
 numerous crews, 30,000 choice troops were put on board. 
 In addition to the regular forces, numbers of the nobility, 
 knights of Malta, and gentry flocked to the standard, among 
 whom were some Englishmen, at their own expense ; and 
 so great was the general confidence, that many ladies also 
 embarked. This mighty fleet, conducted by the famous 
 Andrea Doria, cast anchor in the Bay of Algiers on the a. Dona. 
 26th of October, 1541, which was about three months too 
 late in the year ; for the general depth and exposure of the 
 bight between the capes of Temedfus and Al-Kanatir, 
 render it at all times liable to the rolling swells just 
 mentioned, and in the winter season it is ever notoriously 
 unsafe. 
 
 The arrival of such a force threw the corsairs into the conduct of 
 utmost consternation, inasmuch as their best men were at vaded" 
 that moment dispersed in the provinces to collect the annual 
 tribute. In this dilemma, the Dey behaved with singular 
 judgment and resolution; and being duly summoned by the 
 emperor's herald to surrender, with a promise of many 
 favours if he consented, replied with some humour, that 
 * he should take the man for a madman who would follow 
 the advice of an enemy/ Meantime, Don Carlos had 
 
300 DISASTER OF CHARLES V. 
 
 The land- already experienced the inconvenience of the bay, in being 
 
 ins. 
 
 obliged to disembark his troops through a heavy surf, the 
 roughness of which compelled the men to wade ashore, and 
 precluded the landing of tents and necessaries, while 
 frequent falls of rain rendered their situation most comfort- 
 less. However, the general spirit was excellent ; each 
 individual did his best ; the heights were gained, and the 
 imperial pavillion was pitched on the eminence above the 
 city, on the spot still called the Emperor's Castle. Here 
 they maintained an encampment, though furiously assaulted 
 
 The sortie, by a sortie of the besieged, until their matches were 
 extinguished and their powder damped by heavy rains. 
 Now the weather must have presaged a storm from the 
 time of the armada's bringing to; and had that simple 
 monitor, the marine barometer, been then in use, the dread- 
 ful calamity which ensued might have been avoided, on a 
 thirty or forty hours' notice. The observant Doria had, 
 indeed, apprehended the mischief, from various natural 
 indications, and warned his imperial master ; yet, having 
 no positive data to adduce, such as would have been afforded 
 by the mercury, the emperor perhaps hoped — and the wish 
 * was father to the hope' — that the fresh breeze then expe- 
 rienced was already at its maximum. However, on the 
 night of the 28th of October, after the repulse of a 
 
 The storm sanguinary sortie had fatigued the whole camp, the gale 
 increased to a furious hurricane from the north, accom- 
 panied by deluges of rain, which threw the unsheltered 
 Christians into the greatest distress, and destroyed almost 
 all their ammunition and provisions. As daylight advanced, 
 a horrible scene opened upon their eyes. The ships in the 
 bay, on which their safety and subsistence depended, were 
 
 its ravages, most of them driven from their moorings and bilged ; and 
 both sea and coast were covered with broken wrecks, spars, 
 goods, and drowned bodies. Thousands of Moors and 
 Arabs of both sexes, beholding this destruction, rushed to 
 the sea-side, stripped naked those who gained the shore, 
 and then speared them without mercy. The number of 
 
MOROCCO WEATHER. 301 
 
 square-rigged vessels alone which perished during that Loss of 
 dismal night, was not fewer than 140 ; and many of those 
 that rode till the morning, fearful of foundering at their 
 anchors, as the storm still raged and the sea rolled home, 
 slipped and ran aground on the sand between Temedfus and 
 the Wad Harej, thinking at least to save their lives : but, 
 as soon as the wet and weary multitudes landed, they were 
 inhumanly butchered, being unable to make any resistance 
 Scarcely more than one-third of the armament escaped.* 
 
 Morocco is necessarily very warm, but not so much as Climate of 
 
 TVrorocco 
 
 might be expected from its geographical situation; the 
 interior being cooled by the mountain winds. The coast 
 experiences the alternations of land and sea breezes, while 
 the climate is at once mild and healthy. The seasons are 
 divided into the dry and the wet, the latter generally being 
 from November till March. From Algiers along the coast 
 of Morocco, to the Strait of Gibraltar, the winds continue 
 to follow, in great measure, the direction of the coast ; being Leading 
 generally from west-south-west round by north to the east; 
 the former being most prevalent in winter, and the latter 
 in summer. Excepting as a land breeze near the shore, 
 the south wind seldom blows steadily ; though it is occa- 
 sionally both hot and violent, raising the thermometer 
 several degrees, and forming a marvellous contrast in its 
 effect on the spirits between a souther and a north-west 
 wind. Between Melilah and Ceuta, vessels must not be 
 caught in the bad seasons by a north-easter, which is apt to 
 rise suddenly, and with a high sea. Breezes from the east 
 often draw round to the south, and are sometimes — especially 
 in the autumnal months — immediately followed by a west 
 
 wind : the westerly winds, if light, are accompanied by Weather in- 
 dications, 
 fine clear weather, as before described ; but when strong, 
 
 * In this gale, the sanguinary Hernando Cortez lost all the matchless 
 jewels with which he hoped to have bought a return to the Emperor's favour. 
 It is an ill wind that does no good ! 
 

 
 302 DAMAGE BY LIGHTNING. 
 
 they are cloudy, with a high sea ; and if in winter they 
 veer to the north, accompanied by a swell from that quarter, 
 a brisk gale may be looked for. The weather is treacherous 
 in the winter season, and should therefore be watched : in 
 February, 1799, two vessels of war belonging to the Basha 
 of Tripoli were wrecked in Tetuan bay, when such was the 
 driving sea, that only twenty-one men were saved of the 
 h.m.s. two crews ; and in November, 1801, the Utile, sloop-of- 
 
 Utile. 
 
 war of 14 guns, commanded by Captain Canes, foundered 
 in a heavy storm, on her passage from Gibraltar to Malta, 
 when all her crew and passengers were lost. 
 
 § 3. Damage by Lightning. 
 
 THUS far on Mediterranean weather, the various branches 
 of which are all and severally exhibited therein under 
 
 Electric dis- energy and effect. But of all the detriments to Britain's 
 bulwarks and maritime life, none is more^ dreadful, when 
 the sudden juncture breaks upon us, than lightning. By 
 this term seamen do not mean those lambent displays of 
 electricity which appear in sheets or balls, and are unat- 
 tended with danger : they emphatically apply, it to the full 
 development of opposite electricities in commotion, with 
 unbalanced fury flying at beast, man, tree, tower, and ship. 
 Yet by the aid of experimental philosophy, this mighty and 
 subtle agent is now all but reduced to the careful seaman's 
 command ; for though it would be desirable to avoid the 
 contact of electric fluid under any circumstances, its powers 
 can be regulated and restrained in their devious course by 
 metallic conductors. This, indeed, forms one of the proudest 
 mental and practical feats of comparatively our own times : 
 and the Roman emperor who proclaimed a reward to the 
 inventor of a new pleasure, should have been by the side of 
 
 Franklin. Franklin when he first enjoyed the gratification of drawing 
 the lightning from the clouds, in order to witness the dis- 
 parity between material and intellectual enjoyment. But 
 
LIGHTNING COMMITTEE. 303 
 
 how would Franklin's triumph have been enhanced, could 
 he have dreamt of the almost countless wonders to which he Electric 
 opened the way, as now performed by galvanism and all the 
 various branches of amenable electricity — to measuring 
 time, annihilating distance, and making lightning convey 
 our very words through sea and over land from one end of 
 the world to the other. 
 
 Since my return to England, this question has attracted a Com- 
 the strict attention of Government, and a Committee was pointed, 
 appointed by the Admiralty to inquire into it, under par- 
 liamentary authority. On this occasion, I was applied to 
 officially as to certain rumours they had heard. My reply 
 was printed in the House of Commons' Keport ; but as 
 seamen are not often in the habit of consulting those costly 
 blue folios, I shall here insert it : — 
 
 Bedford, 7th June, 1839. 
 
 Sir, — In answer to your letter of the 5th instant, I beg to state, that 
 about the end of September, 1824, writing from memory, His Majesty's ships H.M. ships 
 Phaeton and Adventure were moored inside the mole at Gibraltar, when a Phaeton 
 violent thunder storm took place. I was writing in my cabin in the even- ven t U re 
 ing, but was interrupted by a startling crash, followed by a cry of ' The 
 Phaeton's on fire.' I instantly ran upon deck, turned up the hands, veered 
 away upon the fasts, hove-in the bower-cables, and manned the boats ; but 
 the flames were quickly extinguished, principally, Captain Sturt told me, by 
 the cool exertions of one of his men, who was therefore expressly recom- 
 mended. Her foremast, I understood, was rent from the truck to the 
 deck, some sails and rigging were set on fire, and several seamen struck 
 down. 
 
 On this occasion, the Adventure's conductor was rigged, but the Phaeton 
 was unprotected. The vessels were about a cable's length apart, and they 
 were the only ships there. Many of my people felt a kind of electric 
 shock more than once that night, but we did not sustain the slightest 
 damage. 
 
 My own opinion of the conducting power of metallic wires, and there- Conductors, 
 fore the vast utility of lightning conductors, indifferent as their construction 
 and adaptation seemed to be, was very strong in their favour ; and I have 
 laboured hard to propagate this feeling, in opposition to the notion of their 
 being dangerous, from attracting the lightning; an opinion which cannot 
 but be deemed absurd, since it infers that the masts, and not the ship, form 
 a point in the electrified surface. Indeed, it would be a comfort to the ser- 
 vice, as well as an amazing saving in spars, canvas, and gear, were the laws 
 and indications of meteorology more strictly attended to. 
 
 During many years passed at sea, I had known of several disasters occa- 
 sioned by lightning, and also of various ships being struck, and escaping 
 destruction as if by a miracle. This led me so to consider the subject, that, 
 in my written orders, the officer of the watch wan directed, whenever the 
 
304 CONTRADICTORY OPINIONS. 
 
 Precautions weather appeared threatening, whether at sea or in port, to hoist the con- 
 adopted. d uc t; 0I ^ w hich was kept, not in a store-room, but in a box fixed to the stool 
 of the after main-topmast backstay ; and both officers and men were carefully 
 instructed to place it so that the spindle should be well above the truck, and 
 the chain carried into the water, clear of the cross-trees, top, and channels, 
 by outriggers.* 
 
 Under these precautions I feel a confidence tantamount to conviction, 
 that at least the spars of His Majesty's ship under my command were saved 
 in several severe thunder-storms which she encountered in the Gulf of Lyons, 
 the Adriatic and Ionian Seas, and in the Lesser Syrtis, the electric fluid 
 having been seen to descend the chain, and pass overboard into the sea, 
 without damage to the ship. 
 
 H.M.S. I happened to be on board the Queen, of 74 guns, when an electric dis- 
 
 Queen. charge shivered her main-topmast to chips, and fatally damaged her main- 
 mast, in the harbour of Messina, in 1815. On this occasion I remarked to 
 Sir Charles Penrose, who had his flag flying on board her, that the amount 
 of injury now inflicted would supply all the ships on the station with light- 
 ning conductors. If I remember rightly, this ship carried the useless and 
 dangerous appendage of a spindle upon her truck. — I have, &c, 
 
 W. H. Smyth, Captain R.N. 
 To Waller Clifton, Esq., 
 Secretary to the Lightning Committee. 
 
 Conflicting In this inquiry, as in the case of very many others, it 
 
 evidence 
 
 may be seen how difficult it is to get at the fact when no 
 notes are taken at the time. From the conversation which 
 took place between Sir Charles Penrose and myself, when 
 I made the remark just related, it is obvious that there 
 could have been no conductor up when the Queen was 
 
 Capt. Bird, struck. But on the Committee's application to Captain 
 Bird, who was a midshipman on board that ship, he stated 
 that ' he was pretty sure it was up, and his shipmate, Mr. 
 Bisson, thought the same/ Such contradictory evidence 
 was baffling to inquiry ; and the Committee then applied to 
 
 Admiral the present Admiral Coode, who was captain of the Queen 
 at the time, and he most distinctly replied that they were 
 not up, because ' the Admiral, whose flag he had the honour 
 to be under, had an objection to using the imperfect ones 
 then supplied to the navy/ 
 
 * I ought here to have added, that I further directed, if the top-gallant 
 masts were struck, that the back-stays should not be sheep- shanked, but 
 stoppered down to their respective stools. 
 
CASUALTIES BY LIGHTNING. 
 
 305 
 
 The labours of the Committee terminated in a full con- 
 viction of the utility of conductors, when handled properly, 
 and of the great advantage which would result to the public 
 from adopting those fitted on the plau of Mr. William Snow Sir w - s - 
 
 . . . Harris. 
 
 Harris, with whom I have been long in communication : 
 this able electrician was knighted shortly afterwards, and 
 pensioned for his skill. Many instances of damage by the 
 electric fluid to our Mediterranean fleet are recorded in the 
 preceding pages ; yet the value of the adoption, both as to life 
 and treasure, may be still more enforced by submitting the 
 following list of the casualties which occurred during the 
 time of my service on that most important of our fleet 
 stations. Inference also points out that the electric fluid 
 has destroyed various vessels to which the term ' missing 5 
 has been applied ; and I well remember the Malta go- 
 vernment-packet Blucher sailing for the Ionian Islands at The 
 the beginning of 1816, in a thunderstorm ; — she was never 
 heard of afterwards. 
 
 Name. 
 Ajax . . 
 
 Albion 
 
 Apollo . 
 
 Barfleur 
 
 Hlake . . 
 
 Buzzard 
 
 Chanticleer 
 
 Guns. 
 74 
 
 74 
 
 71 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 Date. Remarks. 
 
 June, 1811 . ... Off Gorgona. Main-topmast shivered by 
 the lightning, and mainmast disabled. 
 This ship was again struck off Toulon, 
 in 1813. 
 
 Dec. 1818 . ... At Malta. Mainmast struck, and one 
 man killed. The mainyard was also 
 wounded. (I was told of an alarming 
 rumbling in the hold, which continued 
 for several seconds.) 
 
 Aug. 1811 . ... Mediterranean station. Spars wounded, 
 but the particulars not correctly ascer- 
 tained. The cabin bellwires were fused. 
 
 Oct. 1813 . ... Off Toulon. Fore-topmast shivered, fore- 
 mast damaged, light-room windows of 
 fore-magazine shattered, and its door 
 forced open. The danger was imminent. 
 
 March, 1812 ... Coast of France. Main-topgallaut-mast 
 shivered, the lower rigging set on fire, 
 and two men hurt. (This made Captain 
 Codrington so warm an advocate for 
 conductors, that he told me he would 
 never go to sea again without one.) 
 
 Sept.\$\2 . ... Off Minorca. Lost main- topmast and top- 
 gallant-mast, mainmast wounded, and 
 starboard pump split. 
 
 Oct. 1822 . ... At anchor before Corfu. The mainmast 
 shivered from the truck to the deck, 
 and the latter covered with chips and 
 splinters. 
 
306 
 
 CASUALTIES BY LIGHTNING. 
 
 Name. 
 Cumberland 
 
 Cumberland 
 
 Eagle . . 
 
 Eagle . . 
 
 Guns. Date. 
 
 74 ... Aug. 1810 
 
 74 ... Sept. 1810 
 
 74 ... Nov. 1811 
 
 74 .. 
 
 Jan. 1812 
 
 Eagle 
 
 Fredericksteen 
 
 HiBERNIA . . 
 
 Kent . . . 
 
 74 ... Jan. 1812 
 
 32 
 
 March, 1812 
 
 120 ... Aug. 1813 
 74 ... July, 1811 
 
 Larne . 
 
 Leviathan 
 
 Ocean 
 
 Orlando 
 
 Phaeton 
 
 74 
 
 46 
 
 Feb. 1820 
 
 Oct. 1812 
 
 Sept. 1813 
 
 Jan. 1813 
 
 Sept. 1824 
 
 PH03NIX 
 
 POMONE 
 
 ... Feb. 1816 
 
 Nov. 1811 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Faro of Messina. Mainmast struck by 
 lightning, the upper spars shivered, and 
 the main-top set on fire. 
 
 Faro of Messina. The ship again struck 
 within a week of the above accident, and 
 the spars disabled. Several of the men 
 experienced a temporary blindness. 
 
 In the Adriatic. The lightning struck the 
 foremast, and wounded one man. Some 
 of the gear was damaged. 
 
 Off Ante-Paxo. Lightning struck the 
 mainmast, burst off one of the hoops, 
 and wounded ten men. 
 
 Off Corfu. Mainmast twice struck, and 
 set on fire. The rigging and spars 
 damaged, and Captain Rowley with 
 many men were knocked down. 
 
 In the Piraeus. Fore and mainmasts 
 struck, other spars damaged, and two 
 seamen stunned. 
 
 Gulf of Foz. Foremast and main-topmast 
 damaged, two men wounded, and many 
 experienced electrical shocks. 
 
 Off Toulon. Mainmast ruined, mizen- 
 mast shattered, and the whole of the 
 spars damaged. One man killed and 
 several scorched. (On going on board 
 this ship soon afterwards, I was told by 
 Lieutenant Lord Napier — a warm advo- 
 cate for conductors — that many men 
 were slightly affected by the electric 
 agency.) 
 
 Off Corfu. Slight damage to the spars 
 and gear. Several men knocked down, 
 one killed on the spot, one died soon 
 after. 
 
 Gulf of Lyons. Main-topmast rent by the 
 lightning, and the mainmast slightly 
 damaged. 
 
 At anchor off the Ehone. Main-topmast 
 split in pieces, and mainmast damaged. 
 Obliged to return to Port Mahon, and 
 thereby weaken the fleet under Sir 
 Edward Pellew. 
 
 At Smyrna. Main-topmast and topgallant- 
 mast destroyed, and mainmast wounded. 
 Several men hurt. Ship obliged to go 
 to Malta to refit. 
 
 Gibraltar. Foremast shivered from the 
 truck to the deck, and set on fire. 
 Several men struck down. Other spars, 
 and several sails, greatly injured. (See 
 my letter to the Lightning Committee, 
 page 303.) 
 
 Archipelago. Mainmast much damaged, 
 and three men hurt. Wrecked shortly 
 afterwards. 
 
 Off Tavolaro. Fore and mainmasts 
 struck; main-royal burned. One man 
 killed and four wounded. 
 
CASUALTIES BY LIGHTNING. 
 
 307 
 
 Name. 
 POMPEE . . . 
 
 Guns. 
 
 80 
 
 74 
 
 Queen . . . 
 
 Redpole 10 
 
 Repulse 74 
 
 Resistance . ... 44 
 
 Royal George ... 100 
 
 San Josef . . 
 
 Scipion . . . 
 
 Sultan . . 
 
 Swiftsube 
 
 112 
 
 74 
 
 74 
 
 Union 
 
 Unite 
 
 9 8 
 
 36 
 
 Warrior 
 
 Ville de Paris 
 
 Date. Remarks. 
 
 Oct. 1812 . ... Gulf of Lyons. Fore and main-topmasts 
 disabled, main-topgallant-mast splint- 
 ered. One man killed, three wounded, 
 and several stunned. 
 
 March, 1815 ... Messina harbour. Main-topmast destroyed, 
 mainmast damaged, and main-deck 
 beam injured. Obliged to return to 
 Malta. (See my letter to the Committee, 
 page 303.) 
 
 Oct. 1822 . ... Corfu. Main-topgallant-mast injured, and 
 one man partially deprived of sight. 
 
 April, 1810 . ... Coast of Catalonia. Ship struck twice. 
 Mainmast splintered from the truck to 
 the deck. Seven seamen and a boy killed, 
 three mortally wounded, and ten more 
 or less hurt. 
 
 June, 1811 . ... OffGorgona. Mainmast damaged and set 
 on fire ; main-topmast and topgallant 
 mast destroyed. Two or three bulk-heads 
 smashed. 
 
 Sept. 1813 . ... Off Toulon. Particulars not ascertained 
 from the log-book ; but many men 
 knocked down, and others stunned. 
 
 Sept. 1813 . ... Mouth of the Rhone. Main-topmast and 
 topgallant-mast shivered, and some gear 
 injured. Deck covered with splinters 
 and chips. 
 
 Aug. 1813 . ... Off Toulon. Main-topmast shivered, and 
 mainmast damaged. Obliged to quit 
 the fleet to refit. 
 
 Sept. 1812 . ... Off Tavolara, Sardinia. Mainmast, top- 
 mast, and topgallant-mast split in pieces, 
 and some gear set on fire. She had 
 been struck off Mahon before this, when 
 seven men were killed and three wounded 
 whilst furling the jib. 
 
 Sept. 1813 . ... At anchor off the Rhone. Main-topmast 
 shivered to pieces, and several men 
 much affected by the electric agency. 
 (An officer assured me that ' a very 
 little more might have created a panic.') 
 
 Sept. 1813 . ... Off Toulon. Main-topmast shivered in 
 pieces, and much gear damaged. A 
 marine had his sight injured, and several 
 men were stunned. 
 
 June, 1811 . ... Off Gorgona, in company with the Ajax 
 and Resistance {which see above). Fore and 
 main-masts ruined, upper spars shivered 
 in splinters. Many men badly hurt, and 
 one lost overboard. 
 
 Aug. 1810 . ... At Messina. Ship sharply struck, but 
 particulars not ascertained. (Captain 
 Spranger told me it was an alarming 
 shock.) 
 
 Oct. 1811 . ... Off Toulon. Mainmast shivered and ruined 
 from the truck to the deck, the rigging 
 damaged, five men hurt, and much other 
 damage. (In the Rodney, we were close 
 to this ship, when the accident oc- 
 curred.) 
 
 x 2 
 
308 
 
 RESULTS BY SIR W. SNOW HARRIS. 
 
 Ratio per 
 mensem. 
 
 Times of 
 liability. 
 
 These are the casualties of a comparatively short space 
 of time, and which happened to ships with which I was 
 acquainted ; but had I had leisure for a further examination 
 of the log-books at the Admiralty, I could probably have given 
 more. Sir W. S. Harris, taking a larger range, has arrived 
 at some very important results ; and he kindly handed me 
 the following details, deduced from sixty-five vessels struck 
 by lightning in the Mediterranean : — 
 
 Months. 
 January 
 February 
 March . 
 April 
 May 
 June 
 
 Ships struck. 
 
 . 7 
 . 6 
 
 Months. 
 July 
 August 
 September 
 October 
 November 
 December . 
 
 Ships struck. 
 
 . 3 
 
 . 4 
 
 . 11 
 
 . 10 
 
 . 6 
 
 . 5 
 
 And the times of being struck, he thus tabulates, the hours 
 in the following enumeration being inclusive : — 
 
 Hours. Vessels struck. 
 
 12 a.m. to 12 p.m 27 
 
 12 p.m. to 12 a.m 45 
 
 6 a.m. to 6 p.m 37 
 
 6 p.m. to 6 a.m 33 
 
 12 a.m. to 6 p.m 14 
 
 12 p.m. to 6 a.m 21 
 
 6 a.m. to 12 a.m 29 
 
 6 p.m. to 12 p.m 15 
 
 From these elaborated results, it appears that liability 
 to lightning is greatest in the autumnal months ; and that 
 about three-tenths of the whole number of cases have occurred 
 between midnight and sunrise. But it is also evident, that 
 the chance of damage is greatest between sunrise and noon, 
 upwards of four-tenths occurring in that quarter of the day ; 
 and least between mid-day and sunset. By a laborious in- 
 vestigation, Sir William also arrived at the following general 
 deductions : — 
 
 The liability of lightning to strike on any given point appears to be as 
 follows : — 
 
 In 2 out of 3 times it strikes upon the topgallant-mast or highest point. 
 1 in 5 „ „ topmast or next highest point. 
 
 1 in 7 ,, ,, lower mast or next highest point. 
 
 1 in 50 „ ,, hull directly. 
 
RESULTS BY SIR W. SNOW HARRIS, 309 
 
 From this it may be inferred, that the electrical discharge is occa- other de- 
 sionally determined towards ships in directions more or less oblique to the ductions. 
 masts and hull. 
 
 The liability of lightning to fall on one or more of the masts simulta- 
 neously, is as follows : — 
 
 In 2 out of 3 instances, a ship is struck by lightning on the mainmast. 
 1 in 5 times ,, ,, foremast. 
 
 1 in 20 „ ,, ,, mizen-mast. 
 
 1 in 200 ,, ,, ,, jib-boom. 
 
 1 in 6 instances the yards and sails are struck together with the masts. 
 
 A ship may be struck by lightning on the fore and mainmasts about 
 the same time, or on the main and mizen-masts at the same time, or even 
 on all three masts simultaneously, but in no case on the fore and mizen- 
 masts simultaneously, independent of the mainmast. 
 
 In such cases lightning has fallen on the fore and mainmasts together, iu 
 about once in 20 times ; on the main and mizen-masts together, once in 40 
 times ; on all the masts, once in about 200 times. 
 
 During the progress of my inquiries and experiences, permanent 
 Harris's permanent lightning-conductors had not been in- con uc ors ' 
 vented, or I should have eagerly embraced his beautiful 
 principle. But I cannot better close this section than by 
 giving the opinion of Captain Robert Fitzroy thereupon. 
 ' During the five years the Beagle was occupied in her 
 voyage, she was frequently exposed to lightning, but never 
 received the slightest damage, although supposed to have 
 been struck by it on at least two occasions, when — at the 
 instant of a vivid flash of lightning, accompanied by a crash- 
 ing peal of thunder — a hissing sound was heard on the 
 masts ; and a strange, though very slightly tremulous motion 
 in the ship indicated that something unusual had happened/ 
 
310 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 OF THE SURVEYS AND GEOGKAPHICAL INVESTI- 
 GATIONS OF THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA. 
 
 § 1. Early Ages. 
 
 Archaic 
 notices. 
 
 Jacob. 
 
 A MONG the indefinite traces of the early origin of navi- 
 ■£*- gation, it is perceptible that maritime commercial inter- 
 course of one nation with another on a considerable scale first 
 took place on the shores of the Mediterranean ; and to the 
 spirit and enterprise of the Phoenicians, or Canaanites, must 
 probably be assigned the merit of being the primaeval traders, 
 a consequence of their progressive steps in civilization. Un- 
 fortunately, this great people have not transmitted any 
 writings to us, but their merchants are mentioned in Scrip- 
 ture as equal to princes, and it is clear that for many ages 
 they had no rivals in navigation; whence they acquired a 
 high degree of opulence while the rights and duties of com- 
 munity were still only dawning in Greece. It is probable 
 tha{ the Phoenicians supplied the Hebrews and Semitic 
 people with foreign commodities, for there must have been 
 a taste for inland traffic in Palestine. This is shown in the 
 only authentic history of that very remote period which 
 has descended to us ; wherein the existence of early caravan- 
 traffic is exemplified in the sale of Joseph by his brethren. 
 But as to trading by sea — though express allusion to such 
 intercourse is made in the death-bed prophecy of Jacob to 
 Zebulon (Genesis, xlix. 13), about 1700 years before our 
 era — it was so long before the Hebrews became sailors, that 
 
PRIMITIVE STEPS. 311 
 
 there is no distinct indication of international sea-commerce 
 before the time of Solomon, and even his fleets were navi- 
 gated by, and perhaps hired from, the men of Tyre. Mean- 
 time, the Egyptians, from a superstitious aversion to venture 
 afloat, took an utter dislike to all maritime expeditions. 
 
 The Phoenicians, though deprived of a part of their Phoenician 
 
 , x . n trade and 
 
 territory by J osnua, are seen in various fragments ot ancient wealth, 
 writers, not only to have traded with Cyprus, Rhodes, 
 Greece, Sardinia, Gaul, and Spain, but also to have ven- 
 tured beyond the Pillars of Hercules 1250 years before 
 Christ ; and the extent of their undertakings is well shown, 
 in the enumeration of the goods and articles which consti- 
 tuted the riches of Tyre in Ezekiel's time (b.c. 500). Ezekiei. 
 Thenceforward the spirit of commerce was lighted up in 
 Carthage, Greece, and Rome : extending to their colonies, 
 and the barbarian nations around the inner sea; where it 
 flourished, though under many vicissitudes, through the 
 classic and middle ages, and from them to the present 
 times. But this torrent of commercial prosperity has sub- 
 sided to a gentle stream: in other words, from having 
 engrossed and monopolized the trade of all the ports of the 
 then known world, it has spread over the whole globe, fostered 
 by the progress of art, science, and civilization. The dis- change of 
 covery and colonization of the magnificent continents of 
 America, and the opening of the ocean- route to India, pro- 
 duced an important change in the commercial intercourse 
 between Europe and the East, as well as a great increase 
 in its magnitude, by avoiding the enormous cost of con- 
 veying by land the commodities of India to the shores 
 of a sea where neither periodical winds, nor available cur- 
 rents, offer facilities for expeditious navigation. The route 
 by sea superseded the traffic by land, and revolutionized the 
 intercommunication of the whole world ; so that the impor- 
 tant trade which had passed for nearly .3000 years through 
 the Mediterranean, collapsed to nearly its present state. 
 
 It will hence be seen, that as the metre internum was Remark. 
 
 commerce 
 
312 
 
 JOSHUA'S SPIES. 
 
 
 Early sur- 
 veys. 
 
 Moses. 
 
 Joshua. 
 
 Homer. 
 
 so long and unceasingly traversed by triremes, galleys, 
 argosies, and every description of shipping which war or 
 commerce demanded, the wish for an accurate know- 
 ledge of its coasts and harbours would gather strength 
 from necessity, so as to be continually more and more 
 desirable ; and accordingly, from the earliest dawn of nau- 
 tical and geographical efforts, directions for the coasting 
 navigation of the Mediterranean have been collected and 
 evulgated. It will, therefore, be of interest to cast a glance 
 over the successive steps by which an advance has been 
 made from primitive efforts to our present approximate 
 perfection ; more especially as no other portion of the globe 
 was examined through so many ages — insomuch that it 
 may fairly be reiterated — 
 
 Nullum est sine nomine saxum. 
 
 Charts, or delineations resembling them, however rude, 
 were probably coeval with the earliest navigation of those 
 shores, and the primitive essays of geographical delineation. 
 Moses, so far back as 1500 years before our era, laid down 
 with considerable precision, the boundaries, mountains, 
 cities, and towns in the Holy Land: and after him, his 
 successor, Joshua, despatched some selected men especially 
 appointed, to gather such information as to form an intel- 
 ligible report of the principal features of the country. 
 ' Go and walk through the land/ said the son of Nun, ' and 
 describe it, and come again to me, that I may here cast 
 lots for you before the Lord in Shiloh/ It may be assumed 
 that the Hebrews had acquired this branch of knowledge 
 during their Egyptian bondage, since it is known to have 
 been cultivated immemorially in the valley of the Nile, 
 but especially in Upper Egypt: and Apollonius Rhodius 
 expressly states, that the Argonauts — upwards of 1200 
 years before our era — derived their hydrography from the 
 same source. The geographical information of the Greeks 
 in the time of Homer (about B.C. 900) may be inferred 
 from his writings, by which we find that he knew something 
 
HOMER AND HESIOD. 313 
 
 of Egypt and Lybia, and the Erembi, or Arabs ; but bis 
 knowledge was only general, except among the Cyclades, 
 and their immediate neighbourhood. In his description of 
 the shield of Achilles, the earth was figured as a disc sur- 
 rounded by a flowing ocean (literally river-ocean), like an 
 egg in a vessel of water; or Job's c thick darkness a swad- 
 dling band for it' (xxxviii. 9). Some imagine that 
 these waters were only intended to represent the Mediter- 
 ranean, because the stars described represent its situation 
 in the northern hemisphere. 
 
 From Hesiod some geographical hints are obtained, Hesiod. 
 by which a further trace of knowledge will be observed. 
 In his time the centre of Greece was considered as the 
 centre of the earth, and Sicily was so distant, as only to be 
 just known as the land of wonders; while to the north all 
 was fable beyond the Euxine ; and such was the state of 
 Mediterranean navigation, that none but pirates ventured, 
 at the risk of their lives, to steer directly across from Crete 
 to Lybia. Thucydides (I. 3 & 4) asserts that it was not till Thucydidea. 
 the use of the sea had opened free communication among 
 them, that the Greeks ever acted in joint confederacy, and 
 that the Trojan war was the first instance of such union: 
 yet he adds that Minos was master of a navy, with which 
 he cleared the Cyclades of pirates, for the more secure con- 
 veyance of his own tributes. Now, though these sea-rovers 
 were wont to land and surprise unfortified places and scat- 
 tered villages, there must also have been laden vessels to 
 rob. However, from the siege of Troy, it seems that the 
 Mediterranean was common and open to all men, till the 
 time of the Emperor Justinian; whence it was, that the 
 Roman laws granted an action against any person who 
 should molest another in the free navigation and fishing 
 therein. 
 
 The Greeks extended their practical geography by the Tho Greeks, 
 system of colonization, and their maritime movements were 
 aided by the sea-cards of the Phoenicians; they appear 
 
314 CLASSIC SURVEYS. 
 
 however, to have soon surpassed their teachers, by intro- 
 ducing regularity into the pursuit, and establishing it upon 
 
 Thaies. stable principles. Thales taught the sphericity of the earth ; 
 
 Anaximan- and his disciple, Anaximander, the Milesian, is considered 
 
 der. 
 
 by Agathemer as having compiled the first scheme of geo- 
 graphical tables, 550 years B.c. According to Greek reports, 
 he also constructed the first map of the world ; but had not 
 the books of the Carthaginians been destroyed, we might 
 have had a different account. Herodotus (Terpsichore, 
 49) particularly mentions a tablet of copper (x^Aksos- vma%), 
 
 Aristagoras. which was shown by Aristagoras, the rebel prince of Miletus, 
 to Cleomenes, king of Sparta (b.c. 495), upon which was 
 engraved (svst£t/x7jto) the circuit of the whole earth, the sea, 
 and all the rivers: and from an anecdote related by iElian 
 (V. H. iii. 28), we may gather that about a century after 
 this time maps were used for public information at Athens ; 
 
 Socrates, for when Socrates wished to humble the vanity of Alci- 
 biades, he pointed to a table of the world, (ttivxkiov e%ov <yns 
 KEpiodov) which hung up, and bid him look for Attica, and 
 then examine his own fields there. Herodotus (Thalia, 
 
 First nauti- S135) a lso details the fitting out of a nautical exploratory 
 
 cal survey. . 
 
 expedition, by order of Darius, son of Hystaspes: it con- 
 sisted of two triremes and a large transport, under the 
 direction of fifteen Persians of approved reputation, or 
 known ability, whose orders were to examine the sea-coasts 
 and emporia of Greece most carefully. When they had 
 reached it, inspected and delineated (asreypatpovro) its most 
 important places, they passed over to Tarentum in Italy, 
 where the surveyors were seized as spies, and the rudders 
 of their vessels unshipped. As Joshua's party executed the 
 first cadastral map, and Hanno's may be deemed the earliest 
 voyage of discovery, so this expedition may be considered 
 as the earliest maritime survey on record. 
 Scyiax. A work which immediately followed the above-men- 
 
 tioned expedition, deserves especial mention, since it is the 
 very prototype of sailing directories for the Mediterranean. 
 
CLASSIC SURVEYS. 315 
 
 It was a periplus for the guidance of navigators, compiled 
 by Scylax, the Carian geographer, somewhat irreverently 
 dubbed Darius's pilot. This work, which has come down 
 to us, though in a corrupted state, is a brief enumeration 
 of the countries along the shores of the Palus Mseotis, the 
 Euxine, the Archipelago, the Adriatic, and all the Medi- 
 terranean ; it commences with the Strait of Gibraltar, and 
 proceeding along the coasts of Iberia and Gaul, round by 
 the Islands and Levant, returns to the same point, and 
 then describes the western coast of Africa, along the 
 Atlantic as far as Cerne — the last portion being evidently 
 borrowed from the Periplus of Hanno.* 
 
 Considering the state of information in his day, Hero- Herodotus, 
 dotus was himself one of the most valuable geographers of 
 remote antiquity ; and he boldly declared that the Medi- 
 terannean, the Atlantic, and the Erythraean Sea, were but 
 parts of one ocean ; but that the Caspian is a distinct sea, 
 communicating with no other. Respecting the dimensions 
 of this inland sheet of water, he says — ' A swift-oared boat 
 would measure its length in fifteen days, and its extreme 
 breadth in eight/ (Clio, § 203.) These measures were 
 rejected by his successors ; and it was not till the eighteenth 
 century that the Caspian re-assumed the form which the 
 Father of History had given it. Both Xenophon and his Xenophon. 
 great contemporary, Hippocrates, made considerable addi- Hippo- 
 tions to the physical and moral knowledge of geography; 
 but Aristotle's was the master-mind which sought inference Aristotle, 
 from all available materials. Thus, reasoning on the hypo- 
 thesis of the earth's being a sphere, he concluded that Spain 
 must be a place of departure for the Indies ; an idea 
 which — with all its imperfections of distance — must be 
 pronounced the first suggestion of a voyage across the 
 
 * Timosthenes, Admin] of the Fleet to Ptolemy Philadelphia in the 
 Red Sea, wrote an express treatise on sea-ports, of which Pliny has pre- 
 served a few fragments. Pausanias, one of the last of the ancient topogra- 
 phers, also throws light on the shores of Greece. 
 
316 
 
 GREEK SURVEYORS. 
 
 Eudoxu3. 
 
 Nearchus. 
 
 Patroclus. 
 
 Ancient 
 charto- 
 graphy 
 
 Dicaearchus, 
 
 Egyptian 
 surveys 
 
 Atlantic, notwithstanding the honour has been claimed for 
 that clever adventurer, Eudoxus of Cyzicus. Thus, although 
 as yet but few traces of mathematical accuracy crop out, we 
 perceive that geography had made a considerable advance ; 
 for coasting charts, as well as itinerary maps, became indis- 
 pensable to the leaders of naval and military expeditions. 
 Insomuch that Alexander the Great, himself no mean geo- 
 grapher, dispatched his admirals, Nearchus and Onesicritus, 
 for maritime and hydrographical purposes, and also employed 
 Diognetus of Baeton to survey the countries through which 
 he passed ; from whose documents the writers of the 
 following ages took many particulars. Seleucus, one of 
 Alexander's successors, sent Patroclus, the admiral of his 
 fleet, on several maritime explorations. 
 
 But though we infer that science was assuming a new 
 face and form, it is difficult to trace the gradual approach to 
 any tolerable success in the art of chartography. We know 
 nothing of the style of the illustrations above mentioned ; 
 and the inscribed columns of Sesostris, as well as the 
 depicted conquests of Ptolemy Evergetes, may have been 
 rather relations and descriptions than maps or charts. We 
 are told, indeed, that Theophrastus died possessed of certain 
 maps of the world; and that Dicaearchus of Messina, in 
 Sicily, his contemporary, executed the drawings of some 
 coast surveys which he had made in Greece, the plotting 
 of which, as Agathemer observes, was bounding the land 
 by a simple straight line (to[aw suQsioc aytparoo), wherefore he 
 must take rank as the first chart-maker that we know of. 
 This surveyor was in great estimation for accuracy, and 
 Cicero (Ep. ad Atticus, I. vi. c. 2) thus commends him: 
 — ' I have supposed that all the cities of the Peloponnesus 
 were maritime, upon the strength of no obscure authority, 
 but such a one as you approve of, I mean the geography 
 of Dicaearchus/ But though we are unable to ascertain the 
 amount of their merit in mapping, the labours undertaken 
 by the early geographers, and their approach to truth, may 
 
EGYPTIAN ART. 317 
 
 be estimated from various fragments of historic record: 
 and it is not a little surprising that the ancient Egyptians 
 — who travelled neither by land nor sea — should have made 
 a trigonometrical survey of their country with such exact- 
 ness, that we are at a loss to surmise the means by 
 which they acquired so much precision. It is true that 
 among their priests was one styled the Sacred Scribe, or Sacred 
 Hiero-grammatist, whose qualifications are supposed to have 
 included astronomy, cosmography, the chorography of 
 Egypt, and everything concerning the Nile ; yet we marvel 
 how a man could become thus qualified unless there 
 were both instruments and maps. The partial distances, 
 by means of which the early writers, and among others, 
 Herodotus, have given the complete length of Egypt, are 
 taken in nearly a straight line ; so that between Pelusium 
 and Syene was a distance of 7° 37' 7" by the ancient obser- 
 vations, which differs only T^ T rd part from that ascertained 
 by the moderns, which amounts to 7° 38' \o". 
 
 Meantime maps and itineraries were objects of the Roman 
 
 survGvs 
 
 greatest solicitude among the Romans, and that politic 
 people exhibited painted representations of the conquered 
 countries at their triumphal pageants. Polybius dwells on 
 the care with which they plotted the countries through 
 which it was likely that Hannibal would pass, at the 
 beginning of the second Punic war ; and no fact is better 
 known, than that Julius Csesar gave the idea which produced Julius 
 the Antonvne Itinerary, in having ordered a survey of the 
 whole Roman empire.* Arrian, named the second Xeno- Arrian. 
 phon, was employed by Hadrian — himself an experienced 
 traveller — to examine the shores and trading places of the 
 Black Sea, then considered by navigators to be a voyage of 
 DO small difficulty; and the rispnrXouq Eu^iwu Ylovrou — or 
 
 * From the familiar mention by Ovid (Fasti vi. 277) of the globe, ' Arte 
 Syracosia suspensus in aere clauso,' it would appear that the Archimedean 
 glass orb was not forgotten in Rome. 
 
318 
 
 ROMAN SURVEYORS. 
 
 Arrian's 
 Euxine. 
 
 Vegetius. 
 
 circumnavigation of the Euxine Sea — shows his fitness for 
 that purpose. We are at a loss to know how he made the 
 measurements by which his coast distances were ascertained ; 
 but in the storm which compelled him, after much dis- 
 tressful suffering, to bear up for Athense, one of his vessels 
 being wrecked, he expressly tells the Emperor {'page 117, 
 Ed. Blancard), that everything on board was saved, not 
 the crew and furniture only, but also 'the nautical instru- 
 ments/ This — should ra (mtv/i roc voivtikcz mean anything 
 beyond tackling — would imply that there were scientific 
 tools in each of his ships, and, of course, trained men to 
 use them. Indeed, there must have been a sort of engineer 
 corps in the Roman forces, for Vegetius (lib. iii. cap. 6), in 
 showing the importance of obtaining the exact topography 
 of every seat of war, adds, ' We are told that the greatest 
 generals have carried their precautions on this head so far, 
 that not satisfied with the simple description of the country 
 wherein they were engaged, they caused plans to be taken 
 of it on the spot, that they might regulate their marches 
 by the eye with greater safety ;' a duty which would hardly 
 be imposed on the uninstructed. The well-known line of 
 Propertius indicates that men studied the material world 
 from painted forms — 
 
 Cogor et e tabula pictos ediscere mundos. 
 
 One of the completesfc surveys of the Roman empire was 
 begun and finished in the reign of Antoninus, and is well 
 Antoninus known as his Itinerary, before alluded to ; the mari- 
 time part of which shows the want of skill in the Mediter- 
 ranean seamen of that epoch. All the ports which it was 
 necessary to touch at in sailing from Achaia to Africa are 
 enumerated, and how the mariners were to drag their course 
 along the land to the west coast of Sicily, before they took 
 their departure to the south. This itinerary was drawn up 
 with all the labour and skill then procurable, and was es- 
 teemed a work of no common excellence ; but it has pro- 
 bably suffered from errors of transcription. 
 
 Pius. 
 
THE SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. 319 
 
 The true science of geography, however, lingered through state of 
 
 it • • science. 
 
 an infancy of unwonted tediousness, since it received but 
 little improvement from the time of Thales to the establish- 
 ment of the famous school of Alexandria. To be sure, 
 Meton narrowly missed obtaining the latitude of Athens, by Meton. 
 a solstitial observation in June, 432 B.C. ; and Pytheas, the Pytheas. 
 intrepid navigator of the North Sea, scientifically surveyed 
 Lipara and Strongyle (Vet. Scholiast, ad Apollon. Rod. 
 I. iv. v. 761), and actually determined the summer solstice 
 at Massilia (Marseilles) by means of a gnomon 120 parts 
 in height, the shadow being 42 parts all but one-fifth; that 
 is, the two lengths were to each other as 600 to 209 — pro- 
 portions which gave 70° 47' for the solar altitude. Although, 
 by its doubt of the spherical form of the earth, the science 
 of Herodotus is entitled to but small respect, still he must Herodotus, 
 be allowed to have promoted it greatly, from the subject 
 and number of his communications : these were drawn from 
 his own observations in his various travels, and the accounts 
 given by other travellers, in all of which — especially where 
 he had the advantage of writing from what he saw himself 
 — there is a strong vein of sound and sensible observation. 
 But Eratosthenes — surnamed ' Surveyor of the Earth' — Eratos- 
 
 i • thenes. 
 
 introduced a regular and solid system into geography, 
 which, though deficient, was yet a great advance : he formed 
 a consistent parallel of latitude, by tracing a line over certain 
 places where the solstitial shadow was observed to be of the 
 same length, as from Gibraltar through the island of Rhodes, 
 through Taurus in Lycia, and over Syria to the Indies. 
 From the central position of this line, with respect to the then 
 known parts of the world, it became a standard of reference for 
 the period ; and the imperfect determination of places by ratio 
 of climate, which had been widely adopted, was superseded 
 by the method of observing the duration of their longest and 
 shortest days. Erastosthenes also traced the first approach 
 to a regular meridian, by means of an imaginary line passing 
 through Rhodes and Alexandria, as far as Syene and Meroe : 
 
320 THE SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 and it is not improbable that his suggestions were useful to 
 
 Agathar- Agatharcides, his contemporary and successor as President 
 of the Alexandrian library, during the survey of the 
 Erythraean Sea. 
 
 Hipparchus. The next grand step was taken by Hipparchus, the 
 ablest of ancient astronomers, who transferred the celestial 
 latitudes and longitudes to the terrestrial globe, and intro- 
 duced the stereographic projection. But the excellent con- 
 ditions thus pointed out by science, were so little attended 
 to until the days of Ptolemy, that Strabo, the prime geogra- 
 pher of the Augustan age, considered them as perplexing 
 and unfit for ordinary use ; while Yitruvius and Pliny — 
 whose geography, nevertheless, is both full and curious 
 — never give the least hint of their existence. 
 
 Thus the true principles lay dormant, till the celebrated 
 
 Ptolemy. Ptolemy revived them 250 years afterwards, and applied 
 both latitude and longitude to such itineraries, nautical 
 surveys, and other materials as he could collect, drawn from 
 observations which were of course less accurate than the 
 principles upon which they were founded : in a word, this 
 
 His merits, energetic geographer taught the projections on the plane of 
 the meridian as the readiest method for arranging a map 
 of the earth, in which the equator and parallels are arcs of 
 circles, and the meridians arcs of ellipses, the eye hanging 
 over the plane of that meridian which passes over the 
 middle of the inhabited world. These were great strides 
 towards the elevation of geography to a place among the 
 exact sciences; and in the then state of practical mathe- 
 matics, geometry, and astronomy, as well as the defective 
 construction of the instruments in use, it was hardly to be 
 expected that precision could possibly be attained. We 
 may, therefore, rather feel regret than surprise that he fell 
 
 His errors, into many and great errors; such as his flattening-in the 
 north coast of Africa to the amount of 4^° to the south in 
 the latitude of Carthage, while Byzantium was placed 2° to 
 the north of its true position, thus increasing the breadth 
 
PTOLEMY'S GRAVE ERROR. 321 
 
 of that very sea where we should expect his greatest accu- 
 racy. Nor was this all: for the extreme length of the 
 Mediterranean was carried to upwards of 20° beyond its 
 real limits. Ptolemy trusted, it seems, chiefly to Marinus Marinus of 
 of Tyre, as able a geographer as ignorance of astronomy yre ' 
 permitted, but still a broken reed to lean upon ; and though 
 he adopted the Tyrian's division of space into degrees and 
 their parts, he had an erroneous system of projection and 
 graduation. After his time there was a long period barren 
 in discovery and commercial enterprise, and his geography 
 was the standard guide until long after the revival of 
 learning. As Ptolemy assigned 700 stadia for a degree of 
 latitude, his errors were not so great in that ordinate as in 
 his attempts at longitude: yet it should not be forgotten 
 that his gravest mistake, in bringing China near to Europe, 
 proved eventually, as was remarked by D'Anville, the D'Anviiie's 
 efficient cause of the greatest discovery of the moderns, by 
 leading Columbus to reckon upon sixty degrees less than 
 the real distance from Spain to India. But was not Aris- 
 totle (see page 315) the true precursor? 
 
 As the ancients possessed no means for critically strabo. 
 measuring horizontal angles, and were unaided by the 
 compass and chronometer, correctness in great distances 
 was unattainable. On this account, while the eastern 
 portion of the Mediterranean approached a tolerable degree 
 of truthfulness, the relative positions and forms of the 
 western shores are surprisingly erroneous. Strabo, a philo- 
 sophical, rather than a scientific geographer, set himself, 
 says the scholiast, to rectify the errors of Eratosthenes — ' but 
 Strabo made more mistakes than he :' and though he drew 
 a much better contour of the Mediterranean, yet he distorted 
 the western parts by placing Massilia 13|° to the south of 
 Byzantium, instead of 2£° to the north of that city. Strabo strabo-s ca- 
 had a good education ; still he seems to have possessed a pac ' y ' 
 very moderate share of astronomical knowledge, and was 
 not so good a mathematician as his long residence at 
 
 Y 
 
322 
 
 STRABO. 
 
 Strabo's 
 travels. 
 
 Ptolemy. 
 
 Value of 
 his geo 
 graphy. 
 
 Alexandria ought to have made him. In describing the 
 countries which he himself had visited, he is generally very 
 accurate, save where he relies upon Homer; and that a 
 large portion of his work resulted from his own observation, 
 is shown by a passage in the second book, where he says — 
 
 I shall accordingly describe partly the lands and seas which I have 
 travelled through myself, partly what I have found credible in those who 
 have given me information orally or by writing. Westwards I have travelled 
 from Armenia to the parts of Tyrrhenia adjacent to Sardinia ; towards the 
 south, from the Euxine {near which he was born) to the borders of Ethiopia. 
 And perhaps there is not one among those who have written geographies, 
 who has visited more places than I have between these limits. 
 
 Although Amurath III., about A.D. 1580, caused 
 observations to be made which reduced the latitude of 
 Byzantium to 41 J°, and the error in the position of Car- 
 thage was noticed in 1625, it may be said that Ptolemy's 
 gross inaccuracies were continued upon maps till the 
 middle of the seventeenth century, even Sanson's being 
 15° in excess in the length of the Mediterranean; though 
 it was soon afterwards curtailed by the observations of M. 
 de Chazelles.* Among the materials used by Ptolemy in 
 composing his geographical system, it must be recollected 
 that the itinerary measures of the surveyed Roman pro- 
 vinces usually exceeded the truth ; since many of the docu- 
 ments were supplied by men of limited acquirements even 
 in that day. In thus extracting matter from shallow com- 
 putations and textual errors, besides giving the incongruous 
 mass of details an approach to the solidity and unity of a 
 mathematical basis, surely the labour of Ptolemy, with ' all 
 its imperfections on its head/ was a welcome and valuable 
 gift to his contemporaries, and also to posterity. The first 
 
 * In the ninth canto of the Paradiso, Dante describes this Valley 
 of Waters as winding between the discordant shores (tra discordanti liti) of 
 Europe and Africa, and assigns its length by astronomical tokens ; it being, 
 he says, noon in Palestine when the sun is rising in the Strait of Gibraltar. 
 He also, in the twenty-sixth canto of the Inferno, mentions the Pillars of 
 Hercules as boundaries not to be passed — 
 
 ' Accioche l'uom piu oltre non si metta.' 
 
PTOLEMY'S MAPS. 323 
 
 authentic maps, deserving the name, with which we are 
 acquainted, are those found in the early MSS. of his Agatno- 
 
 . . djemon. 
 
 geography, originally drawn by Agathodaamon, an Alexan- 
 drian map-maker, who lived in the fifth century; of these 
 there is a splendid copy in the British Museum, of appa- 
 rently about the year 1350, which formerly belonged to M. 
 de Talleyrand. These appear to have been copied in the 
 editions of 1462 and 1482, and thus was preserved the 
 outline of the Mediterranean which had been received as 
 accurate by geographers from A.D. 150 downwards. They 
 were certainly indifferently drawn, but at all events their Theodosian 
 
 map. 
 
 various relations are better expressed than in the Theodosian 
 map, a valuable painted itinerary better known as the 
 Peutingerian Table, now preserved in the imperial library 
 at Vienna: it was intended, it seems, rather to show the high 
 roads in the empire than the sea-shores. In it the Medi- 
 terranean is so reduced in breadth, that it resembles a long 
 canal, and the site, form, and dimensions of its isles are 
 displaced and disfigured ; yet the artist must have flourished 
 seventy or eighty years after Agathodaemon. 
 
 These remarks may be illustrated by giving a direct Ancient 
 
 • • observa- 
 
 view of the reductions of the ancient measurements, from tions. 
 three of the principal stations in ascertaining the length of 
 the Mediterranean Sea ; they being nearly in the same line 
 east and west, and in the third climate. The latitudes 
 were estimated in stadia reckoned from the equator, and 
 are not so violently discordant as might be expected from 
 such a method, Eratosthenes giving 25,450 stadia — Hip- 
 parchus, 25,600— Strabo, 25,400— Marinus of Tyre, 26,075 
 — and Ptolemy, 26,833, as the length between the equi- 
 noctial line and Syracuse, or rather the place which they de- 
 signated the Strait of Sicily. But the longitudes run rather Longitudes 
 wild ; they are reckoned in stadia from the Sacrum Pro- from 
 montorium, or Cape St. Vincent; the numbers given by 
 Eratosthenes being 11,800 — by Hipparchus, 16,300— by 
 Strabo, 14,000— by Marinus of Tyre, 18,583— and by 
 
 y2 
 
324 
 
 ANCIENT MEASURES. 
 
 Ptolemy, 29,000, as the arc from thence to Syracuse. 
 Other authorities for the dimensions of the Mediterranean 
 
 Poiybius. might be cited, as Dicsearchus, Agrippa, Artemidorus, and 
 above all, Poiybius, the friend and adviser of Scipio ^Emi- 
 lianus,and a man equally distinguished as a soldier, historian, 
 and geographer; but as their works are only known by 
 fragments and quotations, besides there being some con- 
 
 Piiny. fusion inter se, I have not brought forward their figures. 
 Pliny {Nat Hist lib. vi. a 38, Brotier) praises their per- 
 sonal zeal in boldly braving fortune on such hazardous 
 service. — 'Hsec est mensura inermium, et pacata audacia 
 fortunam provocantium hominum/ A curious illustration 
 is, however, offered by the above-mentioned authorities : for 
 this reduction of the numbers by assuming 700 stadia 
 to a degree of latitude* for a plane projection in the 36° 
 parallel, and 555 for the corresponding degree of longitude, 
 
 Gosseiin. is mostly from M. Gosselin's Recherches sur la Oeographie 
 Systematique et Positive des Anciens, and also his Obser- 
 vations Preliminaires et Mesures Itineraires appended to 
 the large French edition of Strabo. From the elaborate lists 
 therein drawn up, for the different values of the stadium 
 under different degrees of a great circle of the globe, the 
 following tabular view is adjusted. To this, for the sake of 
 immediate comparison, I have subjoined the determinations 
 resulting from my own observations ; though in order to meet 
 the most probable stations of the elder geographers, I have 
 referred to Europa Point, the centre of Syracuse, and 
 Pompey's Pillar. The last, however, is very uncertain, 
 
 Alexandria, since the differences in the table are large, recollecting that 
 
 * Major Rennel, and other modern geographers, suppose that the Greeks 
 used several kinds of stadia, varying from 696 to 750 in a degree ; but there 
 are some who still hold that the stadium was an invariable standard at all 
 times and in all countries, and that it was 203 English yards in length, 
 which is nearly five feet more than the stade usually chosen. The value of 
 Pliny's geography is vitiated by the fact proved by D Anville — namely, that 
 he indiscriminately reckons eight stadia to a mile, without reference to the 
 difference between the Greek and Roman stadium. 
 
ANCIENT POINTS. 
 
 325 
 
 Alexandria must have been one of the best determined of 
 the ancient latitudes. Ptolemy, who had the advantage of Probable 
 being preceded by Timocharis, Eratosthenes, and Hip- 
 parchus, used 30° 58' in the computations of his syn taxis, 
 but adopted 31° in his geography: his place of observation, 
 therefore, was probably south of the Serapeum. 
 
 
 GlBEALTAB. 
 
 Sybacuse. 
 
 Alexandbia. 
 
 Authorities. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 Eratosthenes . 
 
 36° 21' 25" 
 
 4° 17' 9" 
 
 36° 21' 25" 
 
 16° 51' 26" 
 
 31° 0' 0" 
 
 36° 8' 34" 
 
 Hipparchus . . 
 
 36 20 
 
 4 17 9 
 
 36 34 17 
 
 23 17 9 
 
 31 8 34 
 
 38 48 30 
 
 Strabo . . . 
 
 36 17 8 
 
 2 51 25 
 
 36 17 8 
 
 20 
 
 31 8 34 
 
 32 8 34 
 
 Marinus of Tyre 
 
 36 
 
 3 34 17 
 
 37 15 
 
 26 32 50 
 
 31 
 
 41 25 43 
 
 Ptolemy . . . 
 
 36 
 
 3 34 17 
 
 38 20 
 
 26 32 49 
 
 31 
 
 41 25 42 
 
 Smyth . . . 
 
 36 6 30 
 
 5 20 40 
 
 37 3 30 
 
 15 16 50 
 
 31 10 45 
 
 29 53 59 
 
 § 2. Middle Ages. 
 
 QTJCH was the state of Mediterranean geography before Mediaeval 
 ^ the decline of learning, and such was its condition 
 through the greater part of the middle ages, though their 
 maps were occasionally improved by nautical experience 
 and popular observation. Some of the learned of those 
 days believed that the Mediterranean was so named because 
 it passed through the midst of the earth, dividing it into 
 two equal parts ; but St. Asaph, who ' flourished' in the sixth St. Asaph. 
 century, is said to have written, in one of his mystical doc- 
 trinal illustrations, that it was also called the Meridian Sea> 
 because it was to the south of the earth, — few of his era 
 having heard anything of the actual south sea. Yet Cosmas, 
 surnamed Indico-Pleustes, or Indian navigator, had written 
 his Christian Topography, at Alexandria, in the preceding 
 age, and must have been known to theological writers. 
 Though accurate in his commercial particulars, this old 
 navigator absurdly considered the whole ocean and seas 
 
326 ARABIAN GEOGRAPHERS. 
 
 as forming a flat surface, bounded by walls supporting the 
 firmament ; and of this ocean he supposed the Mediterra- 
 nean to be one of the four great navigable gulfs. 
 
 TheArabian The Arabian geographers, as Ibn Ytinis, Abu-Rihan, 
 phers. Abul Hasan, 'Abd al Atif, and Abu-1 Feda, Sultan of 
 Hamah, and strictly speaking, the only scientific geographer 
 the Arabs ever had — made various maps and plans of places ; 
 but Edrisi, of whom I have already spoken as a cosmo- 
 gonist, on the whole, was perhaps the most eminent person 
 of that school. His great undertaking — Nuzhat, &c, (see 
 page 115) — throws very considerable light upon the geo- 
 graphical system adopted by the Arabian writers. In this 
 work he describes the earth as circular, with a circumfer- 
 ence of 132 millions of cubits, or 33,000 miles, which he 
 
 The Sea of divides into 360 degrees. The Sea of Damascus, or the 
 ' Mediterranean, he estimates as being 1136 parasangs in 
 length, from its eastern extreme to its discharge into the 
 Atlantic Ocean (Mare tenebrosum), which, on the low esti- 
 mate of 30 stadia to each, amounts to 34,080 stadia, or 
 rather more than 3901 miles, estimating each stadium at 
 604*4 English feet ; but this apparently enormous aberra- 
 tion is extremely uncertain.* Edrisi's book was intended 
 as a description of the geographical delineation of the world, 
 which he made on a circular silver table (ddyireh)] for 
 Roger II., King of Sicily ; this was copied in the famous 
 
 Fra Mauro. Mappa Mondo, by Fra Mauro (cosmographus incompara- 
 bilis), and by Martin Behaim of Nuremberg, so that it 
 was, for upwards of three centuries, the pattern for all 
 the maps of the earth. Though this remarkable table 
 has been lost for ages, drawings of it are preserved in 
 Arabian MSS., especially in one of the fifteenth century, in 
 
 * Prom a memorandum given me by the late Major Rennelh the Grecian 
 Trapaaavya, whence the Persians got their fwrsung, was 5468 '7 English 
 yards. This would reduce the above length to 3529 miles and 140 yards. 
 
 f Dr. Pococke {nomen venerandum) renders it 'globe/ which would have 
 required hurrah instead of ddyireh. 
 
ARABIAN GEOGRAPHERS. 327 
 
 the Bodleian Library at Oxford, an engraving of which has 
 been given in Dr. Vincent's Periplus of the Erythrcean Sea, Dr. vm- 
 page 656. In the British Museum (Add. MS. 11,695), there 
 is a coloured map of the world of about 1100, arranged 
 according to the ideas of the Arabian geographers; in 
 which the earth is represented of a quadrangular form, sur- 
 rounded by the ocean — ' like an egg in the water/ Here 
 the iEgean Sea joins the Mediterranean, which is represented 
 straight, at a right angle in the centre of the map. 
 
 The Arabians did not follow the Greeks in their choice Arabian 
 of a meridian, as they preferred the African coast to the 
 Fortunate or far-west islands. But they afterwards substi- 
 tuted the Khubbah Harinah, or Cupola of Arina, the site Khubbah 
 of which is still only presumptive, although Abu-1 Feda's 
 allusion has been ingeniously tested by the difference be- 
 tween the true and the inhabited horizons of the Alphonsine 
 Tables. After all the discussions which have taken place, 
 the Khubbah may have been an imaginary point ; for Hum- 
 boldt, after wading deeply into the inquiry, came to the 
 conclusion, that — c the more passages were compared, the 
 obscurer the subject became/ 
 
 Marino Sanuto, a Venetian noble surnamed Torsello, Marino 
 who published the Liber Secretorum Fidelium Crucis, 
 about the year 1320, was a great voyager and traveller, 
 and constructed a chart of the Mediterranean Sea, which has 
 long been lost; but its outline may be observed in his 
 planisphere, preserved in the Gesta Dei per Francos, pub- 
 lished by the Bongars in 1611. Though this is certainly 
 one of the earliest, the exact epoch of the first proper chart 
 of this sea in the middle ages is not known. According to 
 Serior Capmani, in his Questiones Criticoe, such was used Capmani. 
 by the Spanish navigators as early as 1286 : and he also 
 relates, as a certain fact, that the galleys of Arragon were 
 officially furnished with nautical charts in the year 1359. 
 Yet the very invention of the projection is ascribed, by 
 others, to the celebrated Henry, son of John, King of Por- 
 
328 VENETIAN GEOGRAPHERS. 
 
 tugal. An outline of the Mediterranean by the brothers 
 Pizzigani. Pizzigani, bears date in the early part of the fourteenth 
 century, when the geographical treatises called Imago 
 Mundi had crept into notice. 
 
 Shortly afterwards, various local surveys and descriptions 
 of Mediterranean regions appear, and some not at all defi- 
 cient in point of execution. In the British Museum, there 
 Bondei- is a valuable manuscript volume by Christopher Bondel- 
 
 monte. x «/ x 
 
 monte, in the commencement of the fifteenth century, in 
 which the Cyclades and Ionian Isles are very fairly set 
 forth.* At Oxford, I was shown a very neat illuminated 
 manuscript of 66 pages of vellum, in oak boards, super- 
 g. de Lan- scribed — ' Chest le rapport que fait messire Guillebert de 
 
 noy. 
 
 Lannoy, Chevalier, sur les visitations de plusieurs villes 
 pors et rivieres par lui faittes — tante en Egipte comme en 
 Surie. Lan de gre nre signe r mil • cccc * vingt et deux/ It 
 appears that our Henry V., notwithstanding David Hume's 
 sneer, actually did contemplate making a crusade to the 
 Holy Land ; and as a first step, he dispatched Sir Gilbert 
 de Lannoy, evidently a well qualified officer, to survey the 
 state and condition of the harbours and arsenals of Egypt 
 and Syria. The result is the accurate and intelligent official 
 report before us, in which the various anchorages, soundings, 
 landing-places, fortifications, munitions of war, produce, and 
 supplies of wood and water are diligently noticed, forming 
 an authentic account of the hydro-geography of those 
 countries 430 years ago. In 1478, on Moceniga's being 
 Barto- elected Doge of Venice, a Captain Bartolommeo, who had 
 
 lommeo. ° ' r ' 
 
 made many voyages, and ' trod every rock in the iEgean/ 
 published an account of the Archipelago, with wood-blocks 
 
 * There are various copies of this work abroad, both printed and manu- 
 script; and some fac-similes of Bondelmonte's maps are given in the Liber 
 Insularum Archipelagi, a G. R. L. de Sinner. Lipsice, 1824. The geography 
 of the middle ages has attracted the researches of Cardinal Zurla, M. Jomard, 
 and Joachim Lelewel ; but the best collection of mediaeval maps, perhaps, 
 is that recently published at Paris by Viscount Santai'em. 
 
CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. 329 
 
 of the islands, a sonnet expressive of the features and pecu- Poetical 
 
 directory. 
 
 liarities of each, the ports and produce, with the bearings 
 and distance from one another. It commences with Cerigo 
 and ends with Cyprus : and entering from the westward, 
 shows the various islets, with the rock on which the Nautilus 
 was so dismally lost in 1807, adding the following express 
 advice to beware of them at night : — 
 
 Sta inverso grieco il Poro e la Poresa 
 Fa che de note te guardi da esa. 
 
 At the time that Bartolommeo was making his levan- 
 tine voyages, the Mediterranean was also under the exami- 
 nation of the great Columbus, whose knowledge of geometry, Columbus, 
 astronomy, and cosmography had been fostered by a com- 
 mander of the same name and family under whom he 
 served ; and his brother was, moreover, a professional com- 
 piler of geographical charts. The effects of the exertions 
 of such men are discernible on comparing the earlier maps 
 and charts with those of the fifteenth and sixteenth centu- 
 ries : and among those which have passed under my own 
 examination, I cannot but enumerate the fine set of porto- Portoiani. 
 lanij now preserved in the British Museum, as they will, in 
 all likelihood, remain there for ages most authentic evidences. 
 The kind aid of Sir Henry Ellis and Mr. J. Holmes,* toge- 
 ther with the liberality of the trustees, enable me to give 
 the following list : — 
 
 MS. Arundel, 93, art. 7. — ' Christophori Bondelmontii, Liber insularum Bondel- 
 Cycladura atque aliarum in circuitu Sparsarum, cum earundem schematibus.' inonte. 
 This is the collection which I have mentioned already; and there is also a 
 second on the Archipelago in general. 
 
 Bondelmonte was a Florentine priest, who wrote about 1420 — 1422. 
 His name and the date are found by the initial letters of the chapters of his 
 work, which, taken in order of succession, form this sentence — 'Cristoforus 
 Hondelmonti e Florentia Presbiter nunc misit Cardinali Jordano de Ursinis, 
 M.cccc. Christi.' 
 
 * To Mr. Holmes I am the more particularly indebted, since it was 
 owing to the admirable systematic Older in which he had arranged the 
 geographical department of his charge, that all my incmiries were as easy as 
 satisfactory. 
 
330 
 
 PORTOLANI. 
 
 TheCornaro 
 maps. 
 
 Add. MS. 11,547. — A portolano, or collection of sea-charts, drawn by 
 Grazioso Benincasa, of Ancona, in the year 1467. It contains five charts, 
 drawn on vellum, of which No. 1 is the Black Sea, Asia Minor, and the 
 eastern part of the Mediterranean ; 2, the Adriatic Sea, the Archipelago, 
 and the central portion of the Mediterranean ; and 3, the part from Rome 
 to the Straits of Gibraltar on the west. There is also another by the same 
 hand {Add. MS. 6390), which is described by Tiraboschi; in contour and 
 details it substantially resembles the former one, but the fourth chart is in- 
 scribed — ' Gratiosus de Benincasa, Anchonitanus, magnifico viro Prospero 
 Camulio, Medico Genuensi, fecit, 1468.' 
 
 Plut. clxiii. — In this press, which contains upwards of one hundred 
 manuscripts of the Arundel collection, is another copy of the Insularium of 
 Bondelmonte, written in 1485, with coloured maps, or rather bird's-eye 
 views. The Museum possesses two other copies, but inferior, of the same 
 work. 
 
 Egerton MS. 73. — This is a fine portolano, containing thirty-five charts 
 on vellum, executed by different Venetian artists, about the year 1489. It 
 formerly belonged to the Cornaro family, and was afterwards in the library 
 of St. Mark's, at Venice, where it was examined and described at great 
 length by Cardinal Zurla. In this valuable atlas are contained no fewer 
 than twenty-six charts of the Black Sea, Adriatic, and great divisions of the 
 Mediterranean Sea, by Piero Roseli, Zuan di Napoli, Grocioxa Benincaxa (sic), 
 Francesco Becaro, Nicold Fiorin, Francesco Cexano, Zuan Soligo, Aloixe 
 Cexano, Domenego Dezane, and Nicold de Pasqualin. The book also con- 
 tains tables of solar and lunar motions, moveable feasts, and planetary influ- 
 ences ; and a sailing directory is appended, of which the part containing the 
 ports of the Mediterranean closes with — ' Qua compie tute le staree del mar 
 mediterano,' &c. 
 
 Old Royal Libr., MS. 14, c. v. — -A portolano containing seven charts on 
 a plane scale, executed on vellum, at the commencement, apparently, of the 
 sixteenth century; and which belonged to Lord Lumley, who died in 1609. 
 Five of these charts are devoted to the Mediterranean Sea and its divisions. 
 Contemporary with these, or in the year 1520, was published the earliest 
 printed sea-directory which I have seen ; it is intituled Portulano del Mare, 
 and was printed at Venice without the author's name, but directly attributed 
 to Cademosta, the noble navigator of that city. 
 
 Add. MS. 11,548. — A plane-scale chart, drawn on vellum at Ancona, 
 in the year 1529 ; the name of the artist is obliterated. Under the date are 
 the arms of Cardinal Giulio Feltri della Rovere, son of the Duke of Urbino. 
 It contains the whole of Europe, with the Black Sea, the Mediterranean, 
 and the coast of Morocco. 
 
 Spanish Add. MS. 9947. — A Spanish portolano, containing four charts on a 
 
 portolano. pl ane scale, executed on vellum, three of which represent the Mediterranean 
 Sea and its divisions. 
 
 Add. MS, 10,132. — A portolano containing five charts, executed in 
 1538, by a native of Ancona, whose name has been erased, the inscription 
 running — 'I.H.S. Conte .... Anconitano la facte nel ano M°ccccxxxvm. ' 
 Three of the charts are devoted to the Mediterranean and Black Seas. 
 
 Cademosta. 
 
 Cardinal 
 Rovere. 
 
PORTOLANI. 
 
 331 
 
 Old Royal Libr., MS. 20, E. ix. — A choice manuscript ' booke of Idro- j jj tz. 
 graphy made by me Johne Rotz,' for King Henry VIII., in 1542, contains a 
 general chart of the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 Add. MS. 10,134. — A portolano containing three maps, executed by Canachi. 
 some Italian artist about the year 1550, which formerly belonged to Nicholas 
 Canachi, a pilot, of Patmos, as we are told on the title-page ; where, under 
 a coloured drawing of the Virgin and Child, appear the two following in- 
 scriptions : — 
 
 ' E chesto Uibro sta di Nicolo Canachi dell' isola di 
 Sa. Gioane di Pattino, pillotto di mare.' 
 
 E tovtov to xaprijv tvai tov NtjkoXov Kavaici tov 
 Jlarrjvio tij ottov art kl ctI va Aeyopvo. 
 
 The second and third of these maps relate to the Mediterranean and its 
 large divisions. 
 
 Ugerton MS. 767. — A portolano containing four charts, of which two 
 relate to the Mediterranean Sea ; it is rudely drawn and coloured on vellum, 
 apparently by a Venetian artist, about the middle of the sixteenth 
 century. 
 
 Add. MS. 5415 A. — A portolano consisting of nine large charts on vellum, Homem. 
 drawn on a plane scale by Diego Homem, in 1558. As it is very highly 
 finished, and ornamented in gold and colours, with the arms of the respective 
 sovereigns emblazoned on the various countries, it is considered to have 
 been executed for Philip the Second ; but the arms of Spain, which were 
 impaled with the coat of England, have been defaced. Of these charts, 
 No. 6 represents the coasts of the Mediterranean from the Straits of Gibraltar 
 to the Morea, with the Adriatic. 
 
 Add. MS. 9810. — A large chart of the coasts of Europe, with the Black De Macolo. 
 Sea and the Mediterranean, richly ornamented with drawings of figures, 
 tents, &c, and it is inscribed — ' Jacobus Veschonte de Maiolo composuit 
 hanc cartam in Janua, anno Domini 1562, die x. Octobus.' 
 
 Ilarleian MS. 3450. — A portolano of eighteen charts on a plane scale, of J. Marlines, 
 which three specially relate to the Mediterranean, by Joan Martines, of 
 Messina, in the year 1578 ; they are elegantly drawn on vellum, in colours 
 and gilding. Harleian MS. 3489, is another collection of charts by Mar- 
 tines, very similar to the above, but larger; and there is a third {Add. 
 Sloane MS. 5019), drawn in 1582. 
 
 Add. MS. 9811. — A chart of the Black Sea and Mediterranean, on a J. Oliva. 
 plane scale; it is inscribed — 'Joanne Riczo alias Oliva, figlio de Mastro 
 Dominico, in Napole, a di 7 de Novembre, anno 1587.' 
 
 llibl. Cotton. Julius, E. 11. — A volume containing neat pen-and-ink A. Millo. 
 drawings of sixty-eight Mediterranean islands, intituled ' Isulario de Antonio 
 Millo, nel quale si contiene tutte le isolle dil mar Mediteraneo, &c, A.D. 1587.' 
 Add. MS. 10,365, is another copy of this work, written in 1591, in which 
 Millo is styled Arrairalgio di Candia. 
 
 Add. MS. 10,041.— The Black Sea, the Archipelago, the Adriatic Sea, T. Lupo. 
 and the rest of the Mediterranean, on a plane scale upon vellum, and of 
 about the year 1600; it is inscribed— ' May de by Thomas Lupo, in Shad- 
 well, neere unto the mill.' 
 
332 CONSEQUENCES OF NEGLECT. 
 
 Cautionary I have been more particular in citing these curious 
 
 remark. > ° 
 
 documents, because a lesson is thereby afforded us as to the 
 mischief of an indiscriminate neglect of old surveys, and 
 the danger of a blind reliance upon the newest compilations. 
 For in all those charts of the fifteenth and sixteenth cen- 
 turies, as well as in the rare manuscript portulano (circa 
 1450) presented to the Bodleian Library by the late Mr. 
 Francis Douce, and likewise on the maps of Nicholas Yallard 
 of Dieppe, Peter Plancius, and Paolo Gerardo, many shoals 
 are sufficiently well-placed for a regardful seaman to have 
 avoided them. Yet the most perilous of these afterwards 
 disappeared from the charts, until I restored them, owing 
 to the incredulity of certain navigators, and the carelessness 
 of those smatterers employed by the ship-chandlers, who were 
 long the purveyors of the seaman's scientific wants; among 
 the most serious omissions, the cause of an awful sacrifice of 
 life and treasure, we may instance the following : — 
 
 Cape de The outer shoal off Cape de Gata, which was omitted by Tofiiio, was 
 
 Gata. noticed by the earlier hydrographers, and even appears to have been exa- 
 mined by Bartolommeo Crescentio, who, in 1585, surveyed the vicinity of 
 Algiers, which city he brands even then as ' infamissimo albergo di corsari, 
 et gravissimo danno et onta di Christiani.' In the directory which he after- 
 wards published, the above rocks are accurately described ; yet, from the 
 subsequent omission of the outer one, we might have lost the Belleisle, of 
 
 Captain 80 guns, Captain J. Toup Nicolas, in 1840. On this being announced, I 
 Nicolas, addressed the editor of a professional journal on the subject; and when the 
 Belleisle returned to England, Captain Nicolas wrote me a letter from 
 Plymouth, 20th January, 1841, in these terms: — 'I have to thank you 
 much for your late communication to the editor of the Nautical Magazine, 
 in support of my statement relative to the rock off Cape de Gata that we 
 discovered on our passage home. We passed it within half our ship's length. 
 It was, in my opinion, not much larger than our launch, and possibly has 
 three fathom or more upon it. It looked quite green. Had we not been 
 going so fast — between eight and nine knots — I should certainly have 
 shortened sail and examined it. . . . Our look-out men and every one were 
 looking for the rock within us on our starboard bow, when to my astonish- 
 ment the signal-man on the royal-yard called out, 'A rock. close to us on the 
 port bow!' which was instantly repeated to us by the look-out man at the 
 jib-boom end. We all ran over to the port side of the poop, and I at the 
 same moment ordered the helm to port, when the rock appeared close out- 
 side our lower-studding-sail boom. Every one saw it distinctly, and it 
 appeared a miracle that we escaped it.' 
 
CONSEQUENCES OF NEGLECT. 
 
 333 
 
 Falamos 
 rock. 
 
 Cassidaigne 
 shoal. 
 
 Reef off St. 
 Tropez. 
 
 The Vado 
 shoal. 
 
 The rock in Palamos Bay, on which a Spanish line-of-battle ship was lost 
 in 1796, when nearly every soul perished. 
 
 The Cassidaigne shoal, a dangerous reef on a wash, lying between Mar- 
 seilles and Toulon, is accurately placed in old portulani, but was omitted 
 by Mount and Page, and their followers. In 1807, a vessel running for 
 Ciotal when chased by one of our cruisers, struck on La Cassidaigne, and 
 was knocked to pieces in a few minutes. 
 
 The reef off Cape St. Tropez is well placed in the earlier plans, but was 
 omitted in many of the charts of about sixty years ago ; and many ships 
 have since struck upon it. From the circumstance of the Rhadamanthus 
 steamer having got aground there since my examination of it, the reef now 
 bears the name of that vessel on the Admiralty chart. 
 
 The Vado shoal, called also the Mai di Vitro and Secca de la Barbiera, 
 on the coast of Tuscany, was well marked 350 years ago ; and both it and 
 the Melora off ' Ligorne ' appear distinctly in the Egerton MS. 73, of A.D. 
 1489. Yet in 1793 we lost the Amphitrite frigate upon it; and so lately as 
 June, 1848, the fine English steamer Ariel was wrecked on its northern 
 shelf. It was well surveyed by our boats, in 1818 and 1823. 
 
 The AphHco rock off Monte Christo is well marked by Benincasa and others, Aphrico 
 but omitted by the first compilers of the general Quarter Waggoner. Several rock, 
 ships have struck here, and a Genoese brigantine was totally lost so late as 
 the summer of 1815. 
 
 Rock Porno, off Lissa, is shown on the early manuscript plans, and is Pomo. 
 given by Coronelli in the great Atlante Veneto ; but it was not inserted in 
 the charts issued by the ship-chandlers about 1790. 
 
 Tlie reef off Cape Bianco, Corfu. This appears in several of the portu- 
 lani, and is very fairly figured by Coronelli ; yet so little was it known of 
 late, that two or three of our ships of war got aground on it while I was in 
 the Mediterranean. 
 
 Bianco 
 reef. 
 
 The Gaio rock, between Paxo and the coast of Albania, was also lost from 
 the charts ; yet the Venetians had to record the loss of a valuable treasure- 
 ship on it, and so late as 1817 two of our frigates struck there. 
 
 Gaio. 
 
 The Patella shoal, off Prevesa, was well known to Gorgoglione and Patella. 
 Mesfud, but disappeared since their time ; it was again restored in the late 
 war by one of our cruisers, the Topaze frigate, running upon it, where she 
 lay several hours, but luckily the weather was very fine. 
 
 The shoal off Cape Chiarenza, named Montagu by us, on account of the Montagu 
 line-of-battle ship of that name having run upon it in 1810, while sailing on shoal, 
 an expedition against Santa Maura, is well marked in the old works. 
 
 Capra reef. Crescentio's portulano, page 49, mentions that in 1595 the Capra reef. 
 Ragusan ship Berniccia lost her rudder on the shoal off Cape Capra, Cepha- 
 lonia. The chart supplied by the Admiralty in 1810, had it not. 
 
 The rock off Cerirjotto — on which the Nautilus sloop-of-war was lost in Nautilus 
 January, 1807, and 58 of her crew perished miserably — is marked in the rock - 
 portolani, and omitted in recent charts. 
 
334 
 
 CONSEQUENCES OF NEGLECT. 
 
 Skerki. 
 
 Sorelle. 
 
 Fumosa. 
 
 Further re- 
 sults of 
 such 
 neglect. 
 
 The Skerki rocks, between Sicily and Tunis, on which several ships have 
 been lost in the last half-century; particularly H.M.S. Athenien, of 64 guns, 
 in October, 1804, when 351 officers and men, including the captain, were 
 killed or drowned, besides many passengers. This danger is also well placed 
 in a curious vellum manuscript of 1547, which Sir Thomas Phillipps, Bart., 
 at my request, exhibited to the Royal Geographical Society, in 1851 (see my 
 Address to that Society, Geographical Journal, vol. xxi., page lxxi). 
 
 Tlie Sorelle reef, off Galita, on which, in the year 1820, a Tunisian cruiser 
 was lost; and whereon the Avenger steam-frigate struck in December, 1847, 
 when the captain, officers, and seamen, to the amount of 246, were drowned, 
 only one lieutenant, the surgeon, the gunner, two petty officers, two seamen, 
 and a boy, being saved. I had given the name of Sorelle to the two heads 
 of this dangerous rock — which are nearly on a wash with the water — because 
 they lie opposite to the high rocks on the coast of Barbary called Fratelli 
 (Neptuni aro3); but, singularly enough, I have since found that the latter 
 went by the designation do Soror; see the chart of B. P. Sina, 1488, and 
 other middle- age hydrographers. 
 
 Fumosa reef, in Baia Bay. This range of rocks was well-known to the 
 Neapolitan and Maltese pilots, and was accurately surveyed by myself. Yet 
 when the English and French fleets, under Parker and Baudin, were 
 watching the disturbances of 1848, in working out from under Pozzuoli, 
 Admiral Baudin's ship struck on the Fumosa : the chart in use was a reduction 
 of the large four-sheet Italian survey, whereon — although I had furnished 
 Visconti with my coast contour and soundings — it did not appear ! 
 
 Although in this enumeration I have merely alluded 
 to the early portolani, without forestalling my text, I may 
 here mention that the more recent plans and drawings pre- 
 served in the British Museum also reveal the awful neglect 
 of our modern chart-wrights, and it was high time that 
 Government should take so important an affair out of irre- 
 sponsible hands. Among many other matters, the examiner 
 will find on charts drawn more than a century ago, with bear- 
 ings and leading-marks, many of the rocks supposed to be 
 recent discoveries.* The noted shoal off Al Bekur, on which 
 
 * Though not connected with the Mediterranean, I cannot but recall a 
 remarkable fact in point. Agatharcides, in describing the coasts of the Red 
 Sea, 170 years B.C., says, that at the entrance of the Elanitic Gulf, there are 
 three islands covering several harbours on the Arabian shore. Yet these 
 islands, lying so conspicuously on a dangerous lee-shore, do not appear to 
 have been noticed in any European chart or description, till, after a lapse 
 of twenty centuries, they were restored to hydrography by Mr. Eyles Irwin, 
 of the East India Company's service. 
 
CONSEQUENCES OF NEGLECT. 335 
 
 the Culloden struck, an accident which, might have occasioned h. m. ship 
 the loss of the battle of the Nile, was tolerably well drawn on 
 the homely plans of Lorenzo Mesfud and Antonio Borg ; and 
 it was even published in Bellin's Mediterranean Atlas so 
 far back as 1771. The shoals near the Egyptian coast also, on 
 which, in 1800 and afterwards, so many of our vessels 
 struck, besides our actually losing the Cormorant of 24 other ships, 
 guns — the Fulminante, 10 — and the Parthian sloop-of-war 
 on them, were well known long before. The Lefkimo 
 shoal, Corfu, on which several of our ships have struck, is 
 well placed on the older surveys ; and so is the Gomenizze 
 shoal, in the channel of that island — whereon the Bacchante h. m. ship 
 frigate lay many hours, and was obliged to throw her guns M 
 overboard to lighten her — on which Borg marks one brazzo. 
 The bank which tails off Augusta, in Sicily — where we lost 
 the Electro, } of 18 guns, in March, 1808 — is well drawn by 
 the pilots of the Maltese galleys; and the channels of 
 Trapani, on the west side of the island, appear to have been 
 very fairly examined by them, although they remained 
 nearly unknown to our cruizers. At the close of October, 
 1803, the fleet under Nelson anchored at the Madalena Nelson at 
 islands, which had recently been examined by Captain 
 Byves. When they had watered, placing the fullest reliance 
 on the chart furnished by that officer, the ships beat out with- 
 out any accident. In the following year, however, a line- 
 of-battle ship, the Excellent, struck on a rock just outside the 
 very centre of the channel, and two other dangers were found 
 in the vicinity of the spot where our fleet had been beating. 
 Admiral Sir R G. Keats told me that he congratulated 
 Nelson on having escaped so well, adding — ' It is evident, 
 my lord, that Providence protects you/ These rocks were 
 known to the Maltese pilots, yet might have occasioned a 
 ruinous loss at the opening of an eventful war. Again, the 
 extensive reef off Marsa Scirocco in Malta, on which the 
 Alexander, 74, was greatly damaged in 1799, is shown on n. m ship 
 those old plans; as is also the shoal in Carbonara Bay, 
 
336 CONSEQUENCES OF NEGLECT. 
 
 Sardinia, on which the French lost two valuable store-ships 
 in their ill-fated expedition of 1793. 
 
 Among a few documents of the kind which I presented 
 
 to the British Museum in 1848, is a plan of the north-east 
 
 Shoai at part of Elba, surveyed on the 4th of June, 1772, by Lorenzo 
 
 Elba. 
 
 Mesfud — 'Primo piloto sulla capitana Galera della Sacra Re- 
 ligione Gerusolimitana di Malta;' though rudely drawn, its 
 soundings are correct, and the marks for a dangerous shoal 
 — since omitted — in the inner channel are admirably given ; 
 namely, the inner side of Topi islet in one with point Pera, 
 and Cape Vita on with Torre di Giove. Again, respecting 
 the rock off Cape Matafuz, forming the east point of the 
 Bay of Algiers: on my visit to this part in 1816, in 
 shoai off passing Matafuz at rather more than a mile distant, I 
 * perceived a breaking sea in the offing ; yet the wind being 
 fresh, could take no particular notice of it at the time. But 
 some time afterwards, on looking over some nautical plans 
 by the pains-taking Mesfud, I found one with a shoal 
 marked near the spot on which we observed breakers. I 
 therefore gave directions to Lieutenant Slater, who com- 
 manded my tender, the Nimble, to examine it in 1826; he 
 soon found the rock, and sounded the whole vicinity. He 
 could not, however, discover less water than four-and-a 
 half fathoms ; and this was precisely in the position from 
 the extreme point of Matafuz that Mesfud had placed it 
 nearly sixty years before. 
 
 § 3. Modern Operations. 
 
 17th & i8th TPvURJNG the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries 
 
 centuries. II o 
 
 J-^many hydrographical works on the Mediterranean 
 shores were published; but they were generally by mere 
 compilers, of whom those only who dabbled in nautical 
 science, or were known as surveyors, will be mentioned. 
 Among the earliest of this class was Bartolommeo Cres- 
 
ADVANCE OF CHARTOGRAPHY. 337 
 
 centio, a Papal engineer. I have stated above that he was sur- Bart, cres- 
 
 centio 
 
 veying the coast of Algiers in 1585; and having completed 
 that work, which was personally presented to Pope Sixtus V., 
 he drew up his treatise, Delia Nautica Mediterranean, 
 and published it at Rome in 1607. He treats of the con- 
 struction and fitting of galleys ; the regulation of arsenals, as 
 evidenced in those of ' Genova, Ligorno (sic), and Corfu ; 
 and in the valuable sailing directory which he appends, he 
 describes several of the above-mentioned shoals. In 1612, 
 Francesco Basilicata executed a survey of the coast of Fran. Basi- 
 Candia ; and a series of fifty plans of the different ports 
 thereof, in well-finished pen-and-ink drawings, is pre- 
 served in the Royal Collection (cxiii. 104), now added to 
 the British Museum; and, on close comparison, there are 
 reasons for supposing that both Jean Oliva of Marseilles, 
 and Gio. Ant. Magini, had access to them when in hand. Hagini. 
 To this epoch, and these men, we owe our freedom from 
 many of the errors and objections with which their prede- 
 cessors were oppressed, and especially those which regarded 
 the length of the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 Chartography was now on the advance, both in its charto- 
 general and special departments; but the documents then giap } ' 
 produced, compared with the works of the present day, 
 display many faults of calculation, omissions, and traces of 
 ignorance. Still in their endeavour to remove difficulties, 
 by the correction of some long-established error, or the 
 supply of some new information, our predecessors are 
 entitled to gratitude ; and they left hydrography richer 
 than they found it. The use of plane-charts had continued 
 till their mistakes were exposed, in 1556, by Martin Cortes, Cortes, 
 the celebrated author of the Art of Navigation; and to 
 correct which, Gerard Mercator had also published a chart 
 with his method of keeping the meridians and parallels of 
 latitude in straight lines as before, but increasing each 
 portion of the latitude with its distance from the equator 
 as a compensation. All this, however, was done without 
 
 z 
 
338 
 
 MERCATOR AND WRIGHT. 
 
 Edward 
 Wright 
 
 Pigafitta. 
 
 any fixed rule how to divide the enlarged meridian ; the dis- 
 covery of a method for thus ensuring accuracy was reserved 
 to Mr. Edward Wright, of Caius College, Cambridge, who, 
 in 1599, published the first table of meridional parts for 
 that purpose, in his work, intituled Certain Errors in 
 Navigation detected and corrected ; and as all charts prior 
 to this application were erroneous in the increase of the 
 degrees of latitude, the present excellent line projections 
 should rather be designated Wright's than Mercator's, 
 even although his received some improvements before it 
 acquired geometrical exactness.* The supposed know- 
 ledge, however, of pilots, was an impediment to the advance 
 of accurate hydrography; for most commanders of ships 
 placed implicit reliance on their dicta, as if so uneducated 
 a class of men were gifted with intuitive precision. ' Pilots, 
 now-a-days/ said Pigafitta, the companion of Magellan, 
 1 are satisfied with knowing the latitude, and are so presump- 
 tuous that they refuse to hear mention of longitude : and 
 Martin Cortes, in his epistle to Charles V., asks ' How much 
 more shall the same seem difficult to Solomon, if at these 
 days he should see that few or none of the pilots can 
 scarcely read, and are scarcely of capacity to learne f And 
 it may be remembered to how recent a day the marine 
 adage of the three L's obtained, meaning that the essence 
 of navigation consisted in lead, latitude, and look-out ! 
 About this time, many portions of the Adriatic Sea 
 
 viteiii and were examined by the officers, Giovanni Vitelli and Gero- 
 Benagho. ^ m0 j> ena g]i . anc i their surveys were protracted and 
 drawn by Car. Cappi, in 1630. Between the same year 
 and 1646, a work was in preparation which, from the known 
 energies of the author, was anxiously looked for : at length, 
 in the last-named year appeared, in two large folio 
 volumes, that celebrated book, the Arcano del Mare, by 
 
 Robert Robert Dudley, a natural son of the court favourite, Robert, 
 
 Dudley. 
 
 * It is not improbable that Mercator worked from a globe, with rhomb- 
 lines drawn upon it. 
 
SIR ROBERT DUDLEY. 339 
 
 Earl of Leicester, and who, after having achieved some 
 daring maritime enterprises, settled, as Earl of Warwick, at 
 Florence, when by the emperor's creating him a duke of the 
 Roman empire, he assumed Northumberland as his title. 
 Dudley was one of the most remarkable men of his day, 
 and greatly attached to science in general : he laid the 
 foundation of many nautical and commercial improve- Dudley's 
 
 * x works. 
 
 ments, and suggested the process for draining the maremme 
 between Pisa and Leghorn, which last he was instrumental 
 in making a free port. The Arcano del Mare is replete 
 with skilful projects for the advancement of maritime 
 knowledge, as well in building and fitting ships as in 
 navigating them, and instructing their commanders. It is 
 full of charts and plans, of which that of the Mediterranean 
 Sea, though imperfect, was the precursor and model of the 
 noted French carte reduite : and when we consider the 
 kind of materials then available, and the state of practical 
 mathematics, both reason and justice demand our respect 
 for this able pioneer of hydrography. 
 
 From the works already mentioned were constructed other pub- 
 the collection of charts by the two Cavallinis of Leghorn, 
 in 1644, as well as those of Nicholas Comberford, of ' Red- 
 cliffe/ in ] 657, corrected with a few local re-examinations ; 
 and that of the coast of Catalonia in 1650, of which the 
 original, on five sheets, is in the British Museum {Royal, 
 lxxviii. 31). At length the Directory of Francesco-Maria 
 Levanto appeared, and instantly became a favourite leader 
 among masters and pilots : it was intituled Prima parte 
 dello specchio del mare f nel quale si descrivonotuttili portL 
 spmggie, baje, isole, scogli, e seccagne del Mediterraneo. 
 Dato in luce 1664. This folio volume was the text-book 
 of our Wapping chart-sellers — Thornton, Hack, Gascoyne, 
 Page, Mountain, and others — while the contemporaneous 
 works published in Holland, as L' Europe marine of Ulas 
 Bloem, and the Monde Aquatique of Peter Goos, were 
 professedly copied from the Italian portolani. 
 
 z 2 
 
340 
 
 FRENCH SURVEYORS. 
 
 Maltese 
 pilots. 
 
 Chev. de 
 Tourville. 
 
 In the year 1679, the attention of the French govern- 
 ment was strongly directed towards a more intimate 
 acquaintance with Mediterranean navigation; in conse- 
 Cagoiin and quence of which, Captains Cagolin and Chevalier, of their 
 ' Royal Navy, with some intelligent engineers, were sent to 
 the coasts of Spain and Italy, as well as into the Adriatic 
 and Archipelago. But I am not aware that any beneficial 
 result to hydrography followed these movements, unless it 
 be true that R Bougard, Mattre de Navire, who published 
 his Petit Flambeau de la Mer, ou la veritable Guide des 
 Pilotes Cotiers, in 1684, and the Maltese pilots, Olivier, 
 Michelot, and Therin, who furnished the first engraved 
 chart of the Mediterranean in 1689, gained access to the 
 French documents. The Chevalier de Tourville addressed 
 a letter to the Minister of Marine, dated 22nd December, 
 1685, on the necessity of constructing a better chart than 
 any in use, for the navigation of the Mediterranean Sea ; 
 though his ideas on marine surveying, and the means for 
 carrying out his views, were not very clearly expressed. 
 Olivier's and Berthelot's were plane charts, and full of 
 faults : ' Dans beaucoup d'endroits,' says M. de Chabert, 
 ' ces defauts en latitude alloient a plus d'un demi degre : 
 dans la purpart il n'y avait pas seulement une echelle de 
 latitude, et que sans s'embarrasser de la situation des diffe- 
 rentes terres par rapport au ciel, elles e'toient placees a 
 peu-pres dans leurs distances grossierement estimees, et 
 dans leurs directions, suivant la boussole, dont la declinaison 
 etoit mal connue ou absolument ignoree/ 
 
 In 1686, and the two following years, M. Mathieu de 
 Chazelles, Hydrographe de Galeres at Marseilles, corrected 
 various points of the south coast of France ; which so 
 recommended him to the authorities, that he was commis- 
 sioned to visit Greece, Turkey, and Egypt, on a scientific 
 mission, in 1693. He made numerous surveys, with the 
 intention of constructing a general Mediterranean Atlas 
 upon thirty-two sheets, and on his return, his project was 
 approved of by the Academy of Sciences ; but the whole 
 
 Chabert. 
 
 Chazelles* 
 
ITALIAN HYDROGRAPHICAL WORKS. 341 
 
 was frustrated by a lingering illness, which terminated in 
 his death on the 16th of January, 1710. Meantime, Henry 
 Michelot, Pilote Hauturier sur les Galeres du Roi, Micheiot. 
 after thirty years of experience, had published a compen- 
 dious sailing directory for this sea, which, though owing 
 largely to Crescentio and Gorgoglione, became very popular 
 with the French and English seamen, and is still in request 
 among the coasting craft of the former. It has run through 
 several editions, of which I possessed copies of those of 
 .1709 and 1806. The Pere Baudrand, the rival of the Baudrand. 
 Sansons, had published the Principality of Catalonia, and 
 the County of Koussillon, on two sheets, in 1693. 
 
 Nor had the Italians neglected the study of hydro- 
 graphy, so far as it was then understood and practised, as is 
 shown by numerous documents and volumes found in 
 libraries. From 1685 to 1718 the Atlante Veneto — Morea 
 — Isolario, and other geographical publications of the 
 laborious Venetian cosmographer, Padre Vincenzo Coronelli, Coronem. 
 were in circulation ; and they really are depositaries of a 
 great fund of substantial knowledge. Some of the plates 
 combine both map and picture, so as to convey a clear 
 idea of the objsct represented, though often rudely, or 
 even incorrectly drawn ; and the profusion of accessories, 
 mostly pregnant with meaning and interest, shows that 
 no expense was spared in their production. Indeed, the 
 efforts of this very industrious compiler were so effectually 
 aided by the encouragement of the doges and nobles of 
 Venice, together with the association designated Gli Argo- 
 nauti, that he was enabled to publish more than four 
 hundred maps, with copious explanations of them. One 
 of his contributors, Paolo Gerardo, published a volume Paolo Ge- 
 treating of the passage along the east coast of the Adriatic, 
 and thence across the Archipelago to the Holy Land. The 
 rest of the coasts are more slightly touched, and in the 
 Archipelago there is a mere enumeration of courses and 
 distances from isle to isle. A copy of this is preserved in 
 the Bodleian Library, at Oxford ; it is intituled II Portu- 
 
342 ENGLISH RESEARCHES. 
 
 lano del Mare; net quale si dichiara minutamente del sito 
 di tutti i porti quali sono da Venetia in levante, e in 
 ponente. Venetia, mdcxcix. ; and it was then ' ristampato! 
 
 Le Pere In 1699, le Pere Feuillee, the well-known and useful 
 
 astronomer, was despatched by Louis XIV. on a scientific 
 
 cassini. mission into the Levant, in company with Jacques Cassini, 
 the future opponent of Newton as to the earth's shape, then 
 only twenty-two years of age. They were directed to deter- 
 mine the exact position of various cities and ports, and to 
 pursue every measure for the improvement of navigation ; 
 but though there appears to have been no want of theo- 
 retical talent, the results which oozed out disappointed the 
 expectation of practical men, who suspected that much 
 information was suppressed by authority. In the same 
 
 m. d'Abian- year, M. d'Ablancourt published a chart of the strait, by 
 
 court. 
 
 order of the king of Portugal ; this was said to be drawn 
 up from careful observations made by the most experienced 
 mariners and engineers to show plainly every anchorage. 
 M. d'Ablancourt was of French extraction, claiming descent 
 from the Perrot family ; and he is said to have been an able 
 master in hydrography. 
 
 Meanwhile, the English were not unmindful of Medi- 
 terranean hydrography, albeit their intercourse with that 
 
 Charles sea was then on a very restricted scale. Mr. Charles Wyld, 
 Wyld ' whose large plan of the road and harbour of Cephalonia 
 is preserved in the British Museum (Sloane, 2439, fol. 29,6.), 
 made several minutes on the Ionian Islands and the coast 
 of Albania, in 1673, some of which fell into the possession 
 of the earnest explorer of those parts, the late Mr. John 
 Hawkins, of Bignor Park, whose name was not forgotten 
 
 Captain m Greece when I was occupied there. Captain John 
 tnorne. Kempthorne, who commanded the Dover, of 48 guns, 
 appears to have had an express mission to that sea ; as 
 there are in the Royal collection of the Museum, a series of 
 plans and views of Cadiz, Tarifa, Gibraltar, Genoa, Leghorn, 
 Naples, and parts of Sicily, Malta, and the Greek Islands, exe- 
 
 
EDMUND DUMMER. 343 
 
 cuted by him between the years 1685 and 1 688. A large folio 
 volume written by Sir Nicholas Miller, shortly afterwards, sir n. 
 containing not only sailing directions, but very numerous 
 views of headlands, and outlines of harbours on the coasts 
 "and in the islands of the Mediterranean, is worthy of notice, 
 though rudely executed. But the most industrious, and 
 perhaps the best qualified, of the explorers of that day, 
 was Mr. Edmund Dummer, who made many local surveys Dummer. 
 and views, which were evidently used by the compilers of 
 our Quarter Waggoner ;* and for which he was rewarded 
 with the post of surveyor and commissioner of the navy. 
 This gentleman was sent out in the Woohvich, of 54 guns, 
 commanded by Captain William Houlden (Houlding 
 according to the acrostic in Chaplain Teonge's amusing 
 diary), himself an experienced Mediterranean cruiser. In 
 this ship he visited the coasts of Spain, France, Italy, 
 Greece, and their islands ; and in the British Museum 
 (Royal MS. 40) is a folio volume which bears testimony to 
 his industry and observation : it is intituled A Voyage into 
 the Mediterranean Seas, containing by ivay of journal, the 
 vieivs and descriptions of such remarkable lands, cities, 
 towns, and arsenals, their several planes and fortifications, 
 with divers perspectives of particular buildings, which 
 came within the compass of the said voyage : together with 
 tfw description of twenty-four sorts of vessells of common 
 use in those seas, designed in measurable parts, with an 
 artificial show of their bodies, not before so accurately 
 done : finished in the year 1685, by Edmund Dummer. 
 The eighteenth century opened with a request from the 
 
 * This is the title of a ponderous volume which was long the ne plus 
 ultra of naval hydrography ; insomuch that the official certificates from cap- 
 tains and masters, apologizing for making no improvement in the charts, 
 stated that they had met with nothing hut what was already in the General 
 Quarter Waggoner. In the seventeenth century, hooks of charts were collo- 
 quially termed Waggoners — perhaps a corruption from Lucas Jansz Wagcnacr, 
 author of the Spieghel dec Zccracrt, or Mirror of Navigation, published at 
 Leyden in 1585. 
 
314 HALLEY'S HYDROGRAPHIC MISSION. 
 
 Emperor of Germany not remotely dissimilar from that which 
 I received in 1817 from the same quarter ; namely, for the 
 aid of an English officer to superintend a survey of the ports 
 in Istria and Dalmatia, with a view of selecting a safe and 
 convenient harbour for shipping in the Austrian territories 
 on the Adriatic. On this occasion Queen Anne selected 
 
 Haiiey. Doctor Halley, who had already acquired the brevet rank of 
 a captain in the royal navy, although there were such men 
 in the service as Swanton, Fairfax, Trevanion, Haddock, 
 Saunders, Wager, and Harlow, as well as that other brevet- 
 captain, the meritorious Dampier, then unemployed. By 
 the year 1702 everything was arranged, and Halley departed 
 for the Mediterranean ; where he executed his task so satis- 
 factorily, that the emperor presented him with a valuable 
 diamond ring, taken from his own finger, and he also wrote 
 a letter to the queen, expressive of his gratification. When 
 re-surveying these parts in H.M. ship Aid, I was naturally 
 anxious to learn the opinion of so eminent a predecessor, 
 
 Haiiey's and sought a sight of his manuscripts through my Austrian 
 colleagues ; but could only learn that they might possibly 
 be found, in course of time, in the gurgite vasto of the 
 Vienna archives. 
 
 Jesuits. I n 1708 the Jesuits, under the auspices of their sagacious 
 
 and powerful brother, the Pere de la Chaise, for certain 
 purposes of their own connected with Avignon, intrigued 
 with the minister — Count Pontechartrain — for permission 
 to make an extensive survey of the coast of Provence : 
 their prayer was granted, and they set about the enterprise 
 with great apparent energy, but the results never appeared. 
 
 Diego Simultaneously with this undertaking, Seiior Diego Cuelbis 
 was engaged in drawing up his Thesoro Chorographico of 
 Spain and Portugal, of which a manuscript copy is preserved 
 in the British Museum (Harl. 3822), illustrated by pen- 
 
 Gorgo . and-ink sketches. Shortly afterwards, Sebastian Gorgo- 
 
 ghone. glione, a skilful Genoese pilot, published his well-known 
 
 Portolano del Mare Mediterraneo, a work which quickly 
 
POPULAR PORTOLANI. 345 
 
 became a popular standard among seamen, ran through 
 various large editions, and is still very extensively in use various 
 
 editions. 
 
 with the cabotage vessels, or coasters. The first edition, 
 which I have never been able to meet with, though General 
 Visconti of Naples aided my search, was dubbed la verita- 
 bile e luminosissima face del mare, by no less an authority 
 than Admiral Angelo Emo, the last naval hero of republican 
 Venice. The best known editions are — 
 
 I. Naples . . . 1717. III. Pisa . . . 1771. 
 
 II. Naples . . . 1726. IV. Leghorn 1799. 
 
 V. Leghorn . . . 1815. 
 
 The next publication which had a decided run, was 
 a book written in 1732 by M. Ayrouaud, pilot of the m. A ) rr °u- 
 French king's galleys : this was a volume of Mediterranean 
 harbours, bays, and roadsteads, with views of the most 
 remarkable headlands, and reconnaissances des atterages; 
 which though a rechauffe of all others, with views so 
 coarsely executed as only to merit the title of ' ugly like- 
 nesses/ was considered by the native pilots to be an excellent 
 accompaniment to Gorgoglione. The public approbation 
 of this work induced the Marquis d' Albert — who, although Marquis 
 very young, then presided at the hydrographic depot — to 
 endeavour in 1737 to revive the project of M. de Chazelles; 
 but the result of his exertions was the production of so 
 bad a chart, that the editors themselves felt it requisite to 
 announce, that it was far from the perfection such a work 
 ought to possess. 
 
 The next who bestirred himself with zealous activity in 
 the cause, was the Marquis de Chabert, a very intelligent Marquis de 
 officer in the French navy. This gentleman made a repre- 
 sentation to the Acadcmie Eoyale des Sciences, on the state 
 of Mediterranean hydrography; which able discussion is 
 printed in their Memoires for 1759, page 484. In this, 
 after enumerating the defects, he makes a direct proposition, 
 ' pour former pour la mer Mediterram e, une suite de Cartes 
 
346 
 
 CHABERT'S SCIENTIFIC CRUIZES. 
 
 Chabcrt's 
 first, 
 cruize . 
 
 Second. 
 
 Third. 
 
 Fourth. 
 
 Fifth! 
 
 Bellin. 
 
 exactes, accompagnees d'un Portulan;' asserting that all 
 the existing graphic representations of that sea were 
 wretched productions — qui ne meritoient pas le nom de 
 Cartes. M. Rouille, the then Minister of Marine, struck 
 with so strong an assertion, appointed M. Chabert to sail 
 on a cruize for the improvement of navigation. He ac- 
 cordingly sailed, and visited numerous parts of the Levant ; 
 but I am not aware that any public good resulted. In 
 1764, he again returned to the charge, and under the 
 ministry of the Duke of Choiseul, was entrusted with 
 another voyage of rectification. But although this cruize 
 was an expensive one, the results were not communicated, 
 however they might have been indirectly used in correction : 
 for A. Drury, in his maps of the King of Sardinia's domi- 
 nions, on twelve sheets, in 1765, together with the Republic 
 of Genoa, is reported to have had access to all the docu- 
 ments in the depot at Paris. Be this as it may, the 
 Marquis undertook another campagne in 1771, to fix 
 various positions in the Archipelago; on which occasion he 
 carried with him Ferdinand Berthoud's chronometer, No. 3, 
 which had done good service during M. TAbbe Chappe's 
 voyage to California. In 1775, he made yet another cam- 
 pagne, with two of Berthoud's watches, and is said to have 
 done much good work ; but the navigator was not informed 
 how. ' Ce travail, tres-etendu, n'a pas ete publie/ is the 
 remark in the Histoire de la Mesure du Temps. Many 
 have called this expedition his last scientific Mediterranean 
 voyage; but it happens that there is in the British Museum 
 (Add. MS. 15, 326, 14) a plan of which the title is— Plan 
 du passage de Visle Longue, ou Mavro Nisi, a la cote 
 orientate de la Attique, ou se trouve le mouillage de la 
 Mandri, leve en 1787, par M. le Marquis de Chabert 
 
 Coeval with the early exertions of this nobleman, the 
 Sieur Bellin, Ingenieur de la Marine, et Censeur Royale, 
 and a Fellow of our Royal Society, published his Descrip- 
 tion, du Golfe de Venise, et de la Moree, his Corsica, and 
 
CASSLNI'S TRIANGULATION. 347 
 
 his elaborate general Atlas. The latter was certainly the Benin's 
 best ' got up' compilation which had as yet appeared ; and 
 though the style of the engraving may appear rather coarse, 
 still it is equal to the method of surveying at the time, and 
 there are many reasons why it should always find a station 
 in a hydrographical library. It will be recollected that it 
 was to secure a copy of this atlas, as well as to purchase, at 
 any price, plans of all the French Mediterranean ports, that 
 Lord Camelford resolved upon going himself to Paris in Lord ca- 
 the winter of 1798, while his ship — the Charon, 44 — was 
 fitting at Woolwich : but that strange step led to his being 
 arrested at Dover, and superseded from his ship, on which 
 he indignantly quitted the navy. 
 
 Meantime, Cassini de Thury was throwing his grand Cassini de 
 chain of triangles over France: still, without detracting 
 from the merits and exact particulars of his geometrical 
 description, it must be confessed that his contour of the 
 Mediterranean coast of that kingdom is both incorrect and 
 ill-drawn, conditions quite unexpected at such hands. 
 Between the years 1780 and 1785, several tolerable charts 
 of the south coast of France were issued from the Parisian 
 press ; yet they also proved inferior to what was looked for 
 from their rumoured command of official documents. Baron Baron de 
 de Zach, in his various visits to that part, between the years 
 1787 and 1805, made many astronomical and geodesical 
 observations at Marseilles, Toulon, and Hyeres; though, as 
 he remarks, ' English fleets and French suspicions' prevented 
 his going to work on a large scale. In 1792, the French 
 Depot de la Marine published a very useful chart of the 
 space extending from the mouth of the Rhone to Villa 
 Franca, on a scale about one-third that of Cassini's: this 
 chart soon became well-known, but although it confessedly 
 was a greatly improved specimen of hydrography, it still 
 contained some serious errors. 
 
 During these operations, various surveys had been made 
 in the Archipelago, under the direction and influence of 
 
348 RIZZI ZANNONI. 
 
 Count de the Count de Choiseul Gouffier, so justly celebrated for his 
 antiquarian and artistic researches: and several anchorages 
 in the Levant were amended by our naval officers — as Messrs, 
 Clancy, Kirby, Atkinson, and Captain John Stewart, of the 
 Seahorse frigate — though their improvement in charto- 
 graphy was but humble. Our travellers also rushed to those 
 shores in shoals : yet among the numerous (I had almost 
 
 English said innumerable) volumes printed by these gentlemen, 
 though undoubtedly we gather much general information, 
 enjoy numbers of accurate pictures, and discuss many points 
 of scholarship, still we find but little which bears upon 
 exact science; and among the myriads of adventurers, 
 scarcely anything is added to our hydrographic knowledge. 
 Contemporaneously with the Count de Choiseul Gouf- 
 fler's operations in Greece, was the survey of Southern 
 Italy, by a corps of engineers and draughtsmen, under the 
 
 zannoni. direction of G. A. Bizzi Zannoni, a clever man, though he 
 spread rather more sail than his stability warranted ; and 
 who was greatly patronized by King Ferdinand. The work 
 was conducted on a very extensive scale, and appeared to 
 be worthy of the activity displayed; but the product was 
 not of sufficient accuracy to warrant the great expense 
 incurred. After years of boat and field work, Zannoni 
 published a costly volume, comprising the coasts of Naples 
 and Calabria, on twenty-three large and fairly engraven 
 sheets; under the title, Atlante Marittimo delle due Sicilie; 
 Sicily proper, however, was not treated of beyond the 
 Faro of Messina. The interior space was also mapped by 
 the same surveyors, and engraved by Nicholas de Guerra; 
 and these two atlasses formed the main basis for the large 
 
 Bacier publication which Bacler Dalbe brought out in 1 802, as the 
 Daibe. Q aT f e Generate des Royaumes de Naples, Sicile, et Sar- 
 daigne. In the year 1798, a chart of the Adriatic Sea, on 
 nineteen sheets, was published at Venice as the combined 
 work of Zannoni and Vincenzo di Luccio; the last being 
 the doge's pilot, and one who had spent fourteen years in 
 
SPANISH SURVEYORS. 349 
 
 examining the waters for hydrographical purposes. But r>e Luccio's 
 though he is said to have delineated 413 shoals, and 410 
 islets more than had appeared in any former chart, and to 
 have ascertained the direction and variation of all the 
 currents throughout what he terms that ' dangerous naviga- 
 tion/ I found his work replete with the grossest errors. 
 
 No maritime nation in Europe had, towards the close Spanish 
 
 p i i c surveys. 
 
 oi the last and at the beginning of the present century, 
 published so great a series of excellent charts as the 
 Spaniards, whose Joachims, Luyandos, Malespinas, Ciscars, 
 Bauzas, Ferrars, Espinosas, and others, carried nautical 
 science to all the littoral parts of the globe; and their 
 labours have enjoyed the highest estimation among the 
 officers of our own navy. In 1783, after due preparation, 
 a survey of the entire line of the coast of Spain, both in 
 the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, was ordered by the 
 government of Spain. This was executed by the cadets of 
 the naval academies under the direction of Don Vincente 
 Torino de San Miguel ; and the finely engraved charts of Tofino. 
 the coasts and harbours, being drawn from large scales, form 
 an elegant collection, in two folio volumes called the Atlas 
 Maritimo de Espana, accompanied by a description of the 
 shores and directions for the navigation thereof, in two 
 quarto volumes, intituled Derrotero de Ices Costas de 
 Esparia; Madrid, 1789. 
 
 The views of the Spanish hydrographers were then ex- 
 tended to other coasts, and their corrections were as valuable 
 as various. In 1802 Don Dionysio Alcala Galiano, and Gaiiano 
 Don Josef Maria de Salazar, obtained several chronometric saiazar. 
 differences between important stations; and they fixed 
 numerous geographical positions at the Dardanelles, Con- 
 stantinople, Smyrna, Candia, and the north coast of Africa. 
 From these labours the best chart of the Mediterranean 
 which had yet appeared was constructed and published in 
 1 804, with the following title : — Carta esf erica que comprc- 
 hende las costas de Italic las dd Mar Adridtico, desde 
 
350 SURVEY OF KARAMANIA. 
 
 Gaiiano's Cabo Venere hasta las islas Sapiencia en la Morea, y las 
 correspondientes de Africa, parte de las islas de Corcega, 
 y Cerdena, con las demas que comprehende este mar, ec. 
 
 SP at n TrafaT- But the battle of Trafal g ar crushed the Spanish pursuit of 
 s ar - maritime science ; for it unfortunately happened that the 
 only captains of ships killed in their fleet during the decisive 
 combat on the 21st of October, were the three reputed the 
 most accomplished officers they possessed ; namely, Gali- 
 ano, Alcedo, and Chirucco, who respectively commanded 
 the Bahama, Montenez, and the San-Juan Nepomuceno, 
 of 74 guns each. 
 
 Political events had increased our own acquaintance 
 with the Levant, and the absence of accurate knowledge 
 respecting some parts of it, was brought under the attention 
 of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty; who, as it 
 was of importance to ascertain more completely the nautical 
 resources of Asia Minor, resolved to employ a frigate to 
 make a detailed survey of it. On this occasion it was 
 fortunate for the intellectual and professional character of 
 the navy, that the Fredericksteen, of 32 guns, commanded 
 
 Captain ^y that excellent and well-informed seaman, Captain Francis 
 
 Beaufort. J 1 
 
 Beaufort, happened to be then stationed in the Archipelago, 
 and consequently was selected for that service; since an 
 officer better qualified for settling the hydrography, and 
 describing the venerable relics of antiquity of those inte- 
 resting shores, did not exist. This survey, begun in July, 
 1811, was pursued with diligence, until it was unhappily 
 terminated on the 20th of June, 1812, on Captain Beau- 
 He is fort's being desperately wounded by a party of assassins at 
 ' Ayyas, a bay on the north side of the Gulf of Iskenderun. 
 Despite of the interruption and delay attending this disaster, 
 the fruits of the mission were a systematically digested 
 atlas of charts and plans, a nautical memoir of them, and 
 a descriptive volume upon Karamania, of such merit as 
 truly to meet the words — indocti discant et ament memi- 
 nisse periti. 
 
SUMMATION. 351 
 
 Having thus given a rapid sketch of the labours of Remark, 
 those who preceded me, I am enabled to make a tolerable 
 summary of the state of these matters at the opening of 
 the nineteenth century : and it will be seen that, though 
 hydrography sprung up, as it were, in the Mediterranean, 
 and was strengthened by the local knowledge of intelligent 
 navigators and pilots, yet our present enlarged and accurate 
 familiarity with the waters and coasts of that sea, is the 
 result of the improved state of observation chiefly in our 
 own times. Witness, among other remarkable cases which striking in- 
 might be cited, the astonishment and agreeable surprise of 
 those engaged in our Egyptian expedition, in the winter of 
 1800; when beating about in a furious gale, they unex- 
 pectedly found themselves sheltered in one of the finest 
 harbours in the world, the Bay of Marmericheh, which had 
 never been heard of by a single man in the whole arma- 
 ment. (See page 78). No such port can any longer remain 
 hidden on our charts; and now, what with the great im- 
 provement in their execution under superior methods of 
 observation, a completer course of points chronometrically 
 determined, lighthouses more numerous and effective, with 
 an increased number of better-placed buoys and beacons, 
 daily advances are made in insuring the safety and second- 
 ing the skill of the navigator. 
 
 Nor is it difficult to perceive a cause for the state of rrobabie 
 mediocrity in which the hydrography of the Mediterranean 
 so long remained, especially in those parts remote from the 
 principal trading-places, in the constant and inveterate 
 warfare between the Cross and the Crescent, in which 
 defeat was ever attended with slavery and woe. Added to 
 this, nautical science must have been considerably weakened 
 by the division of the pilotage into two branches, the 
 navigazione di altum, or open-sea work : and the cabot- 
 tagglo, or coasting voyages ; the second being held as 
 secondary in rank compared with the first. By this rupture 
 of what in reality should only constitute a whole, an impe- 
 

 352 CHANGES IN CONSTANT ACTION. 
 
 Causes of diment to progress was surely created. While a select 
 few of the best seamen bestirred themselves in the cause, 
 by giving their attention to the establishment of the true 
 course and distance from one place to another, and thereby 
 fixing their latitudes and longitudes, the majority were 
 content with lead and look-out, and the monitory dicta of 
 the printed directories. To the combined action of these 
 two causes, together with political jealousies, and the ope- 
 ration of quarantine guards, it is to be imputed that a sea 
 somewhat limited in extent, but of vast importance in 
 a geographical and commercial point of view, and of 
 exceeding interest in various respects and places, should 
 have remained for so many ages, comparatively speaking, 
 so imperfectly known. 
 
 Yet merit Still, much had been achieved, and much allowance 
 
 was dis- 
 played, should be made for the greater portion of what remained 
 
 undone : and when we weigh the merits of our predecessors, 
 we must consider them chronologically, for hydrography is 
 peculiarly a progressive science, and as such has always 
 been so incomplete as to demand a continual correction of 
 its errors. And further, the contour of a coast, the depth of 
 the waters which wash it, and the surface of the adjoining 
 land, may undergo strange alterations within the period of 
 even a single century, from volcanic and electric agencies, 
 the combined action of winds, temperature, pressure, and the 
 whole train of atmospheric affections. These, however, are 
 only a part of the causation, for we must add the wearing 
 of tides and currents, local anomalies, the works and efforts 
 of man, extraordinary convulsions by land and sea, encroach- 
 ments of the land on the sea, or the sea on the land, the 
 lowering of mountains, the elevation of plains, and all the 
 injustice of other influences in a constant state of activity. Nothing, 
 
 hyper- 
 
 critidsm. therefore, can be more unjust or unsound, though nothing 
 is more common, than for geographers to condemn most 
 unsparingly the labours of their predecessors, without 
 adverting to the circumstances, pro et con, in the history 
 
HYPERCRITICISM. 353 
 
 of each case. An advance towards excellence will pro- 
 bably be made in every future age, though an absolutely 
 correct and perfect chart can never be formed, as long as 
 the powerful but invisible agents here enumerated continue 
 to act — complete perfection can never be obtained by 
 any work of man. Thus Cellarius, Riccioli, Merula, and 
 Salmasius, forgot to whom geography owed its rise to the 
 dignity of a science, and were very unduly severe in their improper 
 censures on Ptolemy's mistakes, instead of ascribing them 
 to the defective knowledge and imperfect instruments of 
 his age ; while their own labours are now criticised with 
 as little candour by the writers of the present day ; who, if 
 they reflect, may form some notion of the estimation in 
 which themselves will be held by the learned geographers 
 of A.D. 2500 ! 
 
 § 4. The Author's Surveys. 
 
 U UCH then was the actual state of our hydrographical My com- 
 ^ knowledge of the Mediterranean Sea when I first went ment. 
 to Spain, in the Milford, of 74 guns, bearing the flag of 
 Bear-Admiral Sir Richard Goodwin Keats. But of the 
 surveys above-mentioned, a portion only were known to us 
 generally ; and the miserable charts of Heather, Norie, 
 Blachford, and other ship-chandlers, were officially used in 
 our ships of war. There was hardly a plan of any con- 
 siderable harbour of our own execution, which had sufficient 
 merit to illustrate a master's log-book, except some detached 
 draughts by Admiral John Knight, and the Maddalena 
 islands by Captain G. F. Ryves. 
 
 Being appointed to the command of a large Spanish 
 gun-boat, the Mors aut Gloria, on the 4th of September, 
 1810, one of the first acquisitions I made — and it was 
 through the courtesy of the late excellent Admiral Valdes — 
 
 A A 
 
354 
 
 MY EARLY RE -EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 Tofino's was the maritime survey of Don Vicente Torino, already 
 mentioned. Gratified, however, as I was by the execution 
 and elaborate details of that beautiful work, I could not but 
 soon perceive that there were various omissions, and not a 
 few errors of commission ; and between the date just men- 
 tioned, and the close of 1812, I had many opportunities of 
 examining the local minutiae, and making additions. My 
 Too impii- respect for so really valuable a publication — at that day the 
 ue/upon. very first work of its kind — prevented my pursuing this course 
 so earnestly as I should otherwise have done : but as even 
 that work was susceptible of improvement, I made various 
 sketchy re-examinations of such portions as duty carried me 
 to, and especially of Cadiz and its environs. And these cor- 
 rections were continued, as well outside the Strait of Gib- 
 raltar as on the Mediterranean Coasts of France and Spain, 
 and amid the Balearic Islands, in the Milford, the Spanish 
 gun-boat, an armed transport, and the Rodney, 74. 
 
 Having returned to England, I was requested in May, 
 1813, by my friend and recent gun-boat commodore, Sir 
 Robert Hall, to join him in the Anglo-Sicilian flotilla, then 
 employed in defending Sicily against the French under 
 Murat. Previous to going out, I consulted with Captain 
 Hurd, the hydrographer, to whom my late contributions to 
 his department had introduced me, respecting the state of 
 the Mediterranean charts ; and having provided myself 
 with some superior instruments, I offered every exertion 
 in behalf of his office, whenever my other duties would 
 allow an opportunity of so doing. My object, however, m 
 thus proposing to act as a nautical surveyor on the strength 
 alone of my professional stock of practical knowledge of 
 the subject, went merely to compass the construction of a 
 chart which should answer the ends of navigation better 
 than those which were in use ;* for I had no hope of having 
 
 Appoint- 
 ment to 
 the Sici- 
 lian flo- 
 tilla. 
 
 Captain 
 Hurd. 
 
 * Malte Brun said he was always in doubt when consulting a Mediter- 
 ranean chart ; Baron de Zach found the positions in the Indian Ocean were 
 
AID FEOM THE HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE. 355 
 
 time enough to lay down, with rigorous exactitude, the 
 many leagues of coast in question. On this occasion the 
 Admiralty archives were thrown open to my scrutiny, and 
 every aid was given to my inquiries by the worthy captain, 
 as well as by his excellent assistants, the late Mr. Walker, The Messrs 
 and his son, Mr. Michael Walker, who is still (1853) 
 employed in the hydrographical office. 
 
 From the quantity of documents placed before me on this 
 investigation, of the respective merits of which there was no 
 criterion, I became impressed with the opinion which Cap- 
 tain Hurd and the Messrs. Walker had already entertained 
 — namely, that they were provided well enough with de- The hydro- 
 tached surveys, but that geographical points were wanted opinion. 8 
 for adjusting them to. In the hydrographer's own words, 
 he was ' in possession of sufficient documents to construct a 
 chart of the Mediterranean Sea, but was greatly at a loss for 
 latitudes and longitudes to dress it by \ those before him 
 being so vague and conflicting, that he had not the position 
 of a headland or a lighthouse that could be depended upon ; 
 insomuch that even the breadth of the entrance of the 
 Adriatic was unknown ! And previous to my sailing, he 
 sent me the following memorandum, as a guide : — 
 
 Our knowledge of the coasts and neighbourhood of Sicily is extremely 
 deficient ; and although there are the three observatories of Palermo, Naples, 
 and Malta, the exact position of any one of them is undetermined. * We 
 are also unacquainted with the true place of the important land-fall Mari- 
 timo, which, we are assured by experienced officers, is placed in the charts 
 
 better settled than those of North Africa ; and among the hydrographic 
 remarks in Captain Beaver's logs for 1801, are found — 'We are now work- 
 ing up between the Sporades and Asia, but can put no faith in the ' sea- 
 cards,' as none of the islands are accurately placed, and many are entirely 
 omitted.' — 'The passage between Samos and the Formiche is disgracefully 
 laid down.' — 'The land we marked last evening for Cape Gallo must have 
 been Matapan, but the charts are all so infamous that it is impossible to 
 ascertain where one is, without running close in.' — 'We are now off Toro, 
 which is placed at least thirteen miles south of its proper Latitude.' — (See Life 
 of Captain Philip Beaver, page 154.) 
 
 * Meaning, no doubt, that they had not been officially communicated 
 to his office ; and that therefore he was unable to pronounce exactly upon 
 them. 
 
 A A 2 . 
 
356 
 
 THE OFFICIAL OPINION. 
 
 Captain 
 Hurd's 
 minute, 
 
 Sir Robert 
 Hall. 
 
 Faro of 
 Messina. 
 
 twenty miles too far to the westward ; and Cape Bon, on the African shore, 
 six or seven too much to the eastward. This, if true, constitutes a most 
 serious error, as the Esquirques, Keith's Reef, and various other dangers, 
 at present scarcely known, lie in the fair-way, and nearly mid-distance be- 
 tween the Sicilian and African shores. 
 
 All the charts of Sicily that I have examined are at variance with each 
 other ; and, from our having no good authority for either, we are at a loss 
 which to select as the best : but there are many reasons for supposing a por- 
 tion has been placed by a compass north, without allowing for variation, 
 and the adjoining parts by a true one : nor have we any particular plans to 
 be depended upon. 
 
 The JEolian group, Pantellarias, Ustica, and Lampedusa, with several 
 smaller islands, are not properly placed in any of the published charts, and 
 very little is yet known as to their history, exact number, or relative posi- 
 tions with each other ; and there are some shoals supposed to exist on the 
 southern and western coasts of Sicily, which it would be praiseworthy to 
 search for, as many unaccountable losses and disappearance of vessels have 
 taken place, at various times, in those parts. 
 
 We have no official chart descriptive of the coasts of Malta and Goza ; 
 and as these islands now form a part of the British Empire, it will be neces- 
 sary to have them hydrographically examined, and their dangers pointed 
 out. The coasts of Sardinia and Corsica are but imperfectly known, though 
 we have some fair detached plans of their ports ; it would therefore be very 
 desirable to obtain accurate observations on the most material points, and 
 to examine the shores as far as they may be practicable. 
 
 On my arrival in Sicily, Sir Robert Hall — who was not 
 one of the class, so common at that time, that deemed 
 the charts in use ' good enough' — kindly offered every aid 
 by suiting my flotilla employment, as far as he could, to the 
 proposed hydrographical researches. On local examination, 
 it appeared that Rizzi Zannoni's large plan of the Faro of 
 Messina, which Captain Hurd had handed to me as meeting 
 all the wants of the seaman, was replete with errors, and 
 unsatisfactory in its details : I therefore bestirred myself in 
 making a new survey of that interesting Strait, although 
 my first intention was only the chronometric measurement 
 of arcs. My means, on the whole, were rather powerful, 
 for a good vessel and crew were allotted to me, and the 
 stores of the arsenal were at my requisition. Besides being 
 armed with two excellent chronometers — one (Eamshaw, 
 825) belonging to myself, and the other (Arnold, 807) to 
 the Admiralty, I had also been furnished by the hydro- 
 grapher with a 5-inch theodolite, a micrometrical telescope, 
 
INSTKUMENTAL MEANS. 357 
 
 a sextant, and a station-pointer. My own stock of working 
 tools consisted of a portable transit; a 10-inch reflecting instru- 
 circle, reading to 20" of arc ; a 9-inch quintant, divided 
 by a vernier to 10" of arc, with a stand and counterpoises, 
 made expressly for me by Troughton ; a dipping-needle ; 
 a variation dial ; a finely-divided circular protractor, with 
 spring points ; a 3|-foot achromatic telescope, with an 
 object-glass of 2}-inches diameter ; a Gregorian reflector, 
 of 5 inches aperture ; a Rochon prismatic telescope, and 
 some minor instruments, including a well-poised marine 
 barometer, three of Six's thermometers, and De Luc's 
 hygrometer. 
 
 The political crisis and activity of that period occasioned 
 my being ordered about between Sicily, Calabria, and Na- 
 ples rather abruptly ; by which, though my principal survey 
 was interrupted, I was enabled to obtain some very satis- 
 factory chronometric runs. These were carried to the Ob- 
 servatory at Palermo, where the able and amiable Abbate Abbate 
 Piazzi always afforded me every assistance; and where I 
 got drilled into a more regular system of astronomical ob- 
 servation than I had heretofore been able to learn. By 
 these means, many of the adjacent capes and headlands were 
 determined, and the sinuosities between them were recon- 
 noitered as occasion served. 
 
 At length, public affairs took a decisive turn, and, in the political 
 summer of 1814, the evacuation of Sicily by our army was ciange - 
 resolved upon. It was a stirring moment; and Sir Robert 
 Hall having been called to command on the lakes of 
 Canada, I was left, with Colonel Robinson of the Marines, 
 to deliver over the army-flotilla to the Sicilian government, 
 after winding up its affairs, and paying off the greater part 
 of the men. It now struck me that a favourable moment 
 offered for effectually examining the coasts of the island 
 and its dependencies; and not being under orders either to 
 join Sir Edward Pellew's fleet or to return home, I deter- 
 mined upon remaining on the spot. Naselli, the minister 
 
358 
 
 BORROWED ESTABLISHMENT. 
 
 The gun- 
 boat. 
 
 Captain 
 Henryson 
 
 Lieut. 
 Thomp- 
 son. 
 
 The new 
 com- 
 mander- 
 in-chief. 
 
 The letter. 
 
 of Marine, was friendly to my intention, as were also several 
 of the principal functionaries, and I therefore experienced no 
 difficulty in borrowing from the government one of their 
 finest gun-boats, a large paranzello manned with thirty 
 Sicilians; to which was supplied a capital luntra, or boat 
 like a whaler's, but larger, being sharp at both ends, and 
 double-banked for eight oars. Thus equipped, I prevailed 
 on my friends, Captain Henryson of the Royal Engineers, 
 and Lieut. Edward Thompson of the Royal Staff-Corps — 
 who were likewise waiting for final orders — -to accompany 
 me round the island; and these gentlemen, as my guests, 
 gave me the only personal assistance I received, aiding me 
 greatly in sketching the topography and fortifications during 
 the time occupied by my nautical and astronomical opera- 
 tions, and assisting in the reduction of the various obser- 
 vations. 
 
 A general peace now took place; the fleet was ordered 
 to England, and Rear-Admiral Penrose came out, with a 
 reduced squadron, to take charge of the Mediterranean 
 station. This worthy and accomplished officer, after making 
 himself duly acquainted with all the bearings of the case, 
 warmly approved of the step I had taken ; and as he consi- 
 dered the object of too public an interest to be carried out 
 on individual means, he communicated his views to the 
 Admiralty. Shortly afterwards, on my submitting a portion 
 of the survey to his examination and care, he wrote the fol- 
 lowing official letter to the Board : — 
 
 H.M.S. Queen, at Sea, Uh April, 1815. 
 
 Sir, — Lieutenant Smyth having delivered to my charge some finished 
 plans of ports in Sicily, requesting me to forward them for the inspection of 
 the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, I have promised to do so by the 
 first safe opportunity. 
 
 I feel it my duty to add, that the celebrated Piazzi, as well as the officers 
 of engineers, and all other judges, give ample testimony to the extreme 
 accuracy of the observations and calculations of Lieutenant Smyth, and I 
 have had opportunities of comparing some on the spot, which fully corrobo- 
 rate it. His written remarks, both in a nautical and military point of view, 
 are very valuable; and he has the advantage of uniting great celerity of 
 operation with extreme exactitude. 
 
REAK-ADMIRAL PENROSE'S LETTER, 359 
 
 The respectable light in which he is held by all the Sicilian ministers 
 and authorities will enable him to act with much greater effect than any 
 other person. 
 
 I venture to press the merits of Mr. Smyth with more confidence because 
 he was entirely unknown to me, till I saw the utility of his professional 
 labours in Sicily. 
 
 The very great errors detected in former charts, exhibit the value of the 
 present survey in a strong light. 
 
 I have the honour to be, &c, 
 (Signed) C. V. Penkose, Rear-Ad/miral. 
 
 To J. W. CroJcer, Esq., Admiralty. 
 
 I was promoted to the rank of Commander in September, 
 1815; but notwithstanding the admiral's friendly exertions, 
 and they were often renewed, I remained shifting entirely 
 on my own means, and without any official instructions, till 
 the spring of 1817. By this time I had made tolerably- 
 detailed surveys of the coast of Sicily, Malta, and the neigh- 
 bouring islands; besides having ascertained various geogra- 
 phical points on the shores of Italy and North Africa. 
 Moreover, I attended Lord Exmouth in his first expedition Lord Ex- 
 to the Barbary States, with my paranzello ; and when at mouth - 
 Tripoli, prevailed on him to obtain from the Basha of that 
 Regency the permission by which I afterwards made the 
 excavations at Leptis Magna (see the Appendix), and exa- Lept 
 mined the surrounding country. These several services 
 having been performed under the eye of the Rear-Admiral, 
 he again and earnestly urged the Admiralty to supply me 
 with proper assistance ; and in this he was warmly seconded 
 by Lieutenant-General Sir Thomas Maitland, the energetic Sir Thomas 
 
 Maitland. 
 
 governor ol Malta. 
 
 In the meantime, a circumstance happened which con- 
 siderably strengthened the case. Early in June, 1816, the 
 French corvette-gabarreX a Ghevrette, commanded by Captain Capt. Gaut- 
 Gauttier du Pare, arrived at Valetta on a duty similar to 
 that which I proposed to execute — namely, to make chro- 
 nometric runs, for the purpose of adjusting the various 
 detached surveys already made. A most friendly inter- 
 course was maintained between us, and I assisted in placing 
 his circle on the very spot winch had lately been occupied 
 
 Magna. 
 
360 CAPT. GAUTTIER'S PROMPT LETTER. 
 
 by my own. A comparison, of course, took place; and both 
 
 the Admiral and the General expressed themselves highly 
 
 Agreement gratified on finding, that the mean result of the French 
 
 ofobser- . 1 . . 
 
 vations. operations gave precisely the same position for the Palace 
 tower, as that which I had already given in. Such a con- 
 clusion was gratifying, although its full agreement was 
 accidental; still a representation of the fact was officially 
 forwarded by Sir Charles Penrose to the Admiralty, on the 
 
 Officers of 18th of June. From Captain Gauttier, from Lieutenants 
 ZlttT' de Lloffre, Gay, and Matthieu, from MM. Benoist, Allegre, 
 Kichard, Jacquinot, and Berard, and indeed from every 
 officer of that ship, I received the most marked kindness 
 and respect; and our intercourse was under an open and 
 unreserved communication of instruments, methods, and 
 documents. But in spite of all this being well known to 
 the local naval, military, and civil authorities, and it was 
 
 a bad spirit indeed matter of publicity, there was a spirit of detraction 
 abroad which endeavoured, though fruitlessly, to sow discord, 
 between us. Some comments on my work, anything but 
 complimentary, were made in one or two of the Sicilian 
 papers, which drew an indignant reply from the Abbate 
 
 Piazzi and Piazzi ; and Captain Gauttier wrote the following letter to 
 the editor of L'Osservatore Peloritano, & copy of which 
 was forwarded to the Admiralty, and another to me, through 
 the intelligent M. Angrand, the French consul at Malta. 
 The editor says — 
 
 Essendo corso un' involontario equivoco nell' articolo, riguardante le 
 osservazioni idrografiche fatte dal Sig. Gauttier, inscritto nell' ultimo numero 
 del nostro Giornale, ci afrrettiamo a rettificarlo col publicare la seguente 
 lettera, tradotta dal francese, a quest' oggetto dirizzataci dal perlodato 
 Sig. Gauttier. 
 
 A bordo delta Gabarra, la Chevrette, nella rada 
 di Messina, li 19 Settembre, 1817. 
 
 Signoke, — Nel vostro foglio del 17 corrente avete fatto qualche cenno 
 sulla missione idrografica di cui sono incaricato. lo non so d' onde avete 
 potuto procurarvi questi dettagli, ma sono stato assai sorpreso quando ho 
 letto 1' articolo che parla di osservazioni fatte dal Sig. W. Smyth, che io ho 
 rettificato, come voi dite. V"i priego, Signore, di smentire questo articolo 
 per essere del tutto erroneo. 
 
 All' epoca del mio passaggio per Malta, io ed il Sig. Smyth ci abbiamo 
 
H.M. SHIP 'AID' ARRIVES. 361 
 
 reciprocamente communicate le osservazioni da noi fatte sulle coste 
 della Sicilia, ed abbiamo avuto la soddisfazione di trovarle perfettamente 
 d' accordo.* 
 
 Ho 1' onore di salutarvi. 
 (Firmato) II Capitano di Fregata, Cav. di S. Luigi, 
 
 e della Legion d' Onore, 
 
 P. Gauttieb. 
 
 At length the Admiralty gave me an official appoint- 
 ment to proceed with my reconnaissance of the Mediter- 
 ranean shores: and on the 7th of May, 1817, the Aid Arrival of 
 
 the Aid 
 
 sloop-of-war arrived at Malta, to bear my pendant. Mari- 
 time surveying, however, was not then well understood even 
 at head-quarters, or a faster vessel, with at least one tender, 
 would have been equipped. But instead of this, the Aid — on 
 being inspected by the Admiral, the Commissioner, and Her state, 
 myself, was found to be in want of several material requi- 
 sites for the service she was about to proceed upon, and 
 even to require substantial repairs. A partial remedying 
 of these defects detained her till the 27th of June, when I 
 was happy to find myself in a more efficient position than 
 I had hitherto been. During the time the ship was in the 
 dockyard, I concerted measures with the commander-in- 
 chief for carrying my own plan of operations into execution ; pianof pro- 
 this plan was, in the first place, to go to the Channel between cee g * 
 Sicily and Malta, and there complete my examination, while 
 waiting for the expected ship which was to embark the 
 architectural relics I had collected at Leptis Magna for the 
 Prince Regent. After those remains should have been 
 
 * In November, 1829, I had the pleasure of receiving a letter from Sig. 
 N. Cacciatore, the Astronomer Royal of Palermo, stating that in the previous 
 August he had measured a base-line, and laid a series of triangles, from 
 Trapani to Maretimo, and thence to Cape San Vito, the whole of which, 
 down to every rock and shoal, he found to agree so perfectly with my survey, 
 that lie could not but publish the results. His words are — ' Io nel mese 
 passato ho mesurato una base, ed ho fissato una serie di triangoli sulla costa, 
 e nello isole di Trapani, Favignana, Levanzo, Maretimo, e Capo S. Vito. 
 Debbo dirle, che ho trovato tutt' i punti della costa, tutt' i scogli, e tutte le 
 innuinerabili secche di quei paraggi, notati col massimo rigore ed esatezza 
 nella sua carta idrografica. Io sto descrivendo questo lavoro che pub- 
 blicherb ; e con piacere annunzierb che le di lei osservazioni, c descrizioni, 
 le ho trovate tutte rigorosamente esatte.' 
 
meter 
 
 362 ADOPTED LINE OF PROCEDURE. 
 
 stowed in the vessel's hold, under my inspection, I proposed 
 Ionian next to repair to the Ionian Islands : to which, from our then 
 
 Islands. „ .. 
 
 recent occupation, ol them, our ships were often sent ; and on 
 which, from the utter worthlessness of the government charts, 
 they as often ran on shore. It was also evident, that besides 
 furnishing a series of geographical points, as stipulated, the 
 features of the coast would absolutely demand a re-exami- 
 nation ; and that though the Admiralty might possess tole- 
 rable plans of some of the principal ports, still we could fill up 
 many a gap. And lest untoward events should interrupt such 
 a course, or draw me away during its execution, I adopted a 
 
 cnrono- festina-lente method, entirely — so far as I know — my own; 
 namely, to take the ship — as much as possible under easy 
 weather for the chronometer-rates — to the various ports, as 
 normal stations for a principle of mensuration obviously 
 simple and accurate, thence to cast angles wherever they 
 could be thrown or continued, and to fill in the less-broken 
 shores between, by the boats and patent-log runs. By such 
 means I hoped to effect the primary object of fixing lati- 
 tudes and longitudes, to develope many tracts which were 
 all but unknown to our charts, and to rectify others which 
 had been imperfectly surveyed. On discussing these several 
 points with Sir Charles Penrose, I had the satisfaction of 
 receiving his hearty acquiescence. 
 
 Shortly after I had commenced carrying out these 
 views, a correspondence was opened with me through the 
 
 Baron medium of Sir Thomas Maitland, by Baron Potier des 
 Echelles, a major of the Austrian staff, respecting the 
 Adriatic Sea ; the large chart of which then in use, though 
 vaunted as an actual survey of Yincenzio di Luccio, was 
 absolutely deemed a disgrace to hydrography. It seems 
 that, after their military occupation of Italy in 1799, the 
 French had been actively examining the shores and lagoons 
 of the Venetian territory, and completing the observations 
 already made thereon by their countryman, Pierre A. 
 
 Potier. 
 
THE ADRIATIC SURVEY CONVENTION. 363 
 
 Forfait. In 1808 and 1809 they ordered some detached 
 surveys to be made on its eastern shores, under the cele- 
 brated Beautems Beaupre, whose works approach nearer to Beautems 
 perfection than any that hitherto have been made in that 
 quarter. From the examinations then obtained, together 
 with other occasional observations and corrections, a very 
 tolerable Piloto Pratico, or coast directory, from Trieste to 
 the mouth of the Tronto, was compiled by the geographical- 
 engineer, Ignazio Prina, and published in 1816. In the ign. Prina. 
 meantime, the Austrians — who had previously employed a 
 party of staff-officers under Marshal von Zach, a brother of Marshal 
 the well-known astronomer, in making a special survey of 
 the Venetian states — when they re-entered Italy in 1816, 
 recommenced their geographical labours on the shores of 
 the Adriatic Sea. They had made a considerable advance 
 along their own coasts when they heard of my mission; 
 whereupon I was formally applied to for the purpose of 
 giving their operations a maritime completion, as well as to 
 carry on a continuation of the survey along the Turkish 
 shores as far as Parga, where respect could then be com- 
 manded only by the British flag. In consequence of this 
 proposition, and fully empowered by the Admiral, I repaired 
 to Naples early in 1818, and there entered into a convention 
 with Marshal Koller, Count Nugent, Colonel Visconti, and Marshal 
 
 Koller. 
 
 Baron Potier, by which I engaged to blend all the detached count Nu- 
 operations of the several parties into one maritime work, gul 
 and to complete the eastern shores to Parga, Corfu, and 
 Paxo. For this purpose it was agreed that I should embark 
 with me four Austrian staff-officers, namely, Baron Potier, Austrian 
 Baron Granzenstein — Marshal Koller's brother-in-law, Baron poutan* 
 Jetzer, and Lieutenant Lapie ; with two Neapolitan ° cerb ' 
 engineers, Captain Soldan and Lieutenant Giordano. 
 Moreover, an Austrian sloop-of-war, the Velox, of 20 guns, 
 commanded by Captain Poltl, was placed under my orders; 
 and I was to have the occasional assistance of the gun- 
 
364 
 
 CAPTAIN HURD, ON THE ADRIATIC. 
 
 Untoward 
 reserve. 
 
 boats stationed in the principal ports. To this force, 
 Colonel Visconti afterwards added two more officers of the 
 Neapolitan staff, Captain Chiandi and Lieutenant Bardet. 
 
 All this was highly satisfactory. But I ought here to 
 say, that notwithstanding these shores had been thus under 
 examination, the results thereof were not before the public : 
 and though a slight outline lucido, or transparent tracing 
 of a general chart, was furnished by my collaborateurs, I 
 was not made aware of the nature and extent of what had 
 been actually achieved by them, and deposited in the 
 archives at Milan. Nor did I ever see any of Beaupre's work 
 till Captain Gauttier showed me several manuscript surveys 
 of harbours, with which he had been entrusted by the Depot 
 de la Marine at Paris. Indeed, such was the general 
 ignorance of Adriatic hydrography, that Captain Hurd, in 
 a representation which he made to the Admiralty, said — 
 
 Captain 
 Hurd's 
 official 
 note. 
 
 Course 
 adopted. 
 
 AD the charts of the Adriatic that I have seen are erroneous in regard to 
 its eastern shores, except a small Venetian one, which is, however, published 
 on so small a scale as to be of little use to the navigator. There are grounds 
 for supposing that the coasts of Albania and the Morea have had but little 
 scientific attention paid to them. I would therefore recommend a survey 
 to be undertaken of all that part comprehended between Ragusa and the 
 island of Cerigo, including the Seven Islands ; or, if this should* not be 
 judged practicable, that correcting observations at all the principal points 
 of land should be made, to enable us in some measure to correct these errors, 
 as far as the same can be done by such means. A judicious and skilful ob- 
 server employed on this duty, would very soon make us acquainted with 
 everything necessary to enable us to form a chart thereof, sufficiently correct 
 for all general purposes. 
 
 Not being able clearly to ascertain what my co-operators 
 had accomplished, until visiting the Geographical Institute 
 at Milan towards the close of our labours, I adopted 
 Captain Hurd's statement as a guide. Accordingly, with 
 the excellent means then at my disposal, a chronometric 
 chain was run over the whole sea, and extended into 
 detail by copious triangulations ; copies of which, together 
 with particular plans of the harbours we resorted to, were 
 promptly sent both to Milan and Naples. But throughout 
 the whole of these proceedings there was certainly much 
 
COMPLETION OF THE ADRIATIC SURVEY. 365 
 
 less of reserve and mystery at the latter place than had 
 crept into the former ; my direct application for information 
 was overlooked, and it consequently happened that much 
 time was expended in doing work twice over. However, the 
 object which was steadily kept in view being accomplished 
 by the close of the year 1819, I discharged the Austrian The Aus- 
 sloop-of-war and the foreign officers ; an arrangement which Neapo- 
 brought forward mutual expressions of regret, for those gen- cers de _ " 
 tlemen and ourselves had always been on the best of terms, pa 
 and for nearly two years they had ever obeyed my directions 
 with alacrity and good-will. ' Au moment/ wrote Baron Potter's 
 Potier, the senior officer embarked, c que je regrette de me 
 separer de vous, je me rappelle doublement toute Tattention 
 et amitie avec laquelle vous m'avez comble, et que je me 
 ferai toujours un devoir de vous reiterer vivement a chaque 
 occasion/* 
 
 Having thus secured a chart of the Adriatic Sea, similar 
 operations were continued through the southern Ionian 
 Islands, with the opposite shores of Albania and the Morea. 
 This being completed by June, 1820, my reconnaissance of Return to 
 the west coast of Italy was resumed, and we were busily 
 employed on the Riviera of Genoa, when I was suddenly 
 recalled overland to England in the winter of that year : the and Eng- 
 ship followed soon afterwards, and was paid off at Deptford 
 on the 22nd of January, 1821. 
 
 During this time, Captain Gauttier had continued his 
 chronometric runs, and he had annually obtained the per- 
 mission of his government to meet me. In the numerous 
 
 * From what is about to follow, I should mention that the Emperor of 
 Austria afterwards presented me with a valuable gold box set with diamonds ; 
 and two of my best stations — Budua and Pola — were marked each by a 
 small stone pyramid on the spot where the instrument stood, with this 
 inscription — 
 
 OBSERVATIO ASTRONOMIC 
 
 AB W. H. SMYTH 
 
 ANGLORUM NAVIS AID PRiEFECTO, 
 
 REGNANTE IMPERATORE 
 
 l'KANCISOO 1°, MDCCCXVI1I. 
 
366 MY CONFIDENCE IN CAPTAIN GAUTTIER, 
 
 and unreserved communications which occurred with this 
 Gauttier's highly-efficient officer, I found his methods and practice so 
 
 observa- 
 tions, truly good, as to call for the utmost reliance on the results. 
 
 On making a comparison of our respective works, we 
 
 always found a fair agreement wherever we observed on 
 
 shore; but that our secondary points sometimes differed: 
 
 thus, writing to me in March, 1819, he says: ' Vous 
 
 trouverez ci-joint la position geographique de tous les 
 
 principaux points de TAdriatique que j'ai fixe Fannee der- 
 
 niere ; vous y verrez que les points qui se trouvent communs 
 
 dans votre travail et le mien s'accordent en longitudes. 
 
 Nos latitudes different bien d'avantage, mais j'ai peu d'ob- 
 
 servations E et 0/ As this letter followed one in which 
 
 he showed me his intention of triangulating the whole of the 
 
 My views Archipelago, and its boundary coasts, it struck me that by 
 
 an easy arrangement we could mutually benefit each other, 
 
 and the correction of the chart of the whole Mediterranean 
 
 Sea be speedily effected ; therefore, as the document alluded 
 
 to was the basis of my succeeding operations, it should here 
 
 appear in full : — 
 
 Ministere de la Marine et des Colonies, 
 Paris, le 5 Fevrier, 1819. 
 Monsieur et Ami, — Je n'ai pas l'avantage de recevoir de vos nouvelles 
 depuis l'epoque oh nous nous sommes separe* a Corfou; je crois cependant 
 que vous devez etre actuellement en Angleterre: c'est pourquoi je vous 
 adresse ma lettre dans ce pays, le General Brisbane ayant la bonfe* de se 
 charger de vous la faire parvenir. 
 Gauttier's ^ a * *" au ^ ce ^ e amide quatre stations dans l'Archipel, sur les sommets de 
 
 excellent Milo, Ze"a, Paros, et Naxie, la base qui va me servir a determiner tous les 
 process, sommets des lies de l'Archipel a 6t6 me'sure'e au moyen d'un grand nombre 
 de series de hauteurs de la Polaire prises avec le cercle astronomique, qui ont 
 determine la latitude de chacun de ces points a moins de deux secondes, et 
 comme le gisement de cette base, d'apres les azimuts observes a Milo, est le 
 Nord 1° 15' 48" Ouest: je suis sur de sa longueur, que j'ai trouvee exacte- 
 ment de 57 milles, a moins de 2".* 
 
 * In a subsequent letter M. Gauttier entered into minute details respect- 
 ing this base-line, and the several series of Pole-star altitudes taken with his 
 excellent repeating-circle by Le Noir. It seems that the final results of 
 these series differed only four sexagesimal seconds among themselves ; and 
 there is reason to believe that the mean result may be found in the very 
 close limits of which these observations are susceptible. 
 
AND CONSEQUENT MISSION TO PAKIS. 367 
 
 Je vous envois la position ge'ographique des sommets de toutes ies lies 
 des Cyclades determines au moyen de ma base : ce sont des triangles sphe- 
 riques qui ont servi a determiner ces points en supposant la terre ronde. On 
 a calcule pour chacun Tangle au Pole, qui donne leur difference en longi- 
 tude, et puis la distance polaire, ou le complement de leur latitude. 
 
 On compte terminer cette annee, au dep6t, la construction de la carte de Gauttier's 
 la Mediterranee en deux feuilles ; comme la mer Adriatique entre dans la a ours * 
 premiere de ces feuilles, vous m'obligeriez beaucoup de m'envoyer ce que 
 vous m'avez promis sur cette mer, que je vous prie d'adresser au dep6t de la 
 marine, en cas que je ne sois plus a Paris. Vous voyez que la carte que 
 nous allons publier est une carte routiere. Dans quelques annees d'ici, 
 quand j'aurai eu le loisir de construire tous les petits details dont j'ai les 
 materiaux, on publiera alors des cartes particulieres de l'Adriatique, de 
 l'Archipel, et de la partie la plus orientale de la Mediterranee. J'espere 
 finir la campagne procbaine tout l'Arcbipel; il ne me restera plus a faire que 
 la mer None pour les campagnes suivantes. 
 
 Je desirerais bien avoir encore le plaisir de vous rencontrer cette annee, 
 mais je compte me rendre directement a Milo. Si vous etiez cependant a 
 Zante a cette epoque, et que je fus contrarie a 1' entree de l'Archipel, j'y re- 
 lacherais pour avoir le plaisir de vous voir, ainsi que Madame Smyth, a 
 laquelle je vous prie faire agreer mes hommages respectueux. 
 
 J'ai l'honneur d'etre, avec les sentimens d'un parfait attachement, 
 Monsieur, 
 
 Votre tres humble et obeissant servitem', 
 
 P. Gauttier. 
 
 When consulted therefore by Lord Melville, then First My opinion 
 
 thereon 
 
 Lord of the Admiralty, on my arrival in England, upon adopted 
 the state and prospects of Mediterranean hydrography, MeMiie. 
 as time was a far greater element in such considerations 
 then than it is now, it became a duty to represent my 
 conviction of the inutility of Gauttier and myself going 
 over the same ground, with objects so nearly the same. 1 
 then informed his lordship of the French operations, and 
 assured him that, after careful examination no hesitation 
 could remain as to their accuracy. I also showed, that if 
 they saved the necessity of my working in the Archipelago, 
 it would enable both of us to give a better completion to 
 our respective labours ; for there were various points of 
 my own in the Western Basin which required additional 
 attention ; and that most of the space between Algiers 
 and Alexandria, on the north coast of Africa, was hydro- 
 graphically a blank. His lordship was pleased so to ap- 
 prove of my remarks as to authorize me to proceed to 
 
368 A CO-OPERATOR TAKES UMBRAGE AT 
 
 Paris, in December, 1820, empowered to enter into an 
 Admiral de arrangement with Admiral de Rossel, the hydrographic 
 director, for an official interchange of the projected labours. 
 On arriving in that city, the proposition was most favour- 
 ably entertained by Admirals Count Rosily-Mesros and De 
 Rossel, and the members of the Board of Longitude, MM. 
 Delambre, Arago, and Beautems Beaupre ; and I received 
 a copy of all the French results in the Archipelago, Levant, 
 My proposi- and Black Sea, which were then reduced. To my great 
 
 tion ac- . „ . 
 
 cepted. disappointment, Captain Gauttier was in quarantine at 
 Toulon ; but he was made acquainted with every step 
 taken, and wrote to me — ' Soyez bien persuade de ma 
 reconnaissance pour la maniere franche et loyale de vos 
 communications, et j'espere que vous pensez de la meme 
 maniere a mon egard/ 
 
 Coolness This account is the more detailed, because it will prove 
 
 campana. no su ght was thrown on the labours of my contemporaries ; 
 while my conduct in respect to recommending the French 
 operations for adoption will also show the high value which I 
 placed upon time. Now, it appeared that certain remarks on 
 the want of confidence shown me by the Milan authorities had 
 given umbrage, and that a letter of mine to Baron de Zach, 
 which he printed in his Correspondance Astronomique, 
 gave pain to an individual to whom nothing personal was 
 intended. It was the system, and not the person, I meant 
 
 Seasons for to impugn ; for, in consequence either of delay or neglect, 
 ducti 0n or the tiresome and tedious forms of office, the grounds 
 were not communicated upon which the Imperial Geogra- 
 phical Institute at Milan was putting our joint work to- 
 gether for publication ; and my friends in the Topographical 
 Office at Naples were equally in the dark. Colonel Cam- 
 pana, the Director of the Imperial Institute, at length for-^ 
 warded to Baron de Zach a prospectus of an Adriatic Atlas 
 for insertion in his widely-circulated periodical ; on which 
 the Baron directly inquired of me what degree of precision 
 he might safely assign to the geodetical points thus handed 
 
MY LETTER TO BARON DE ZACH. 369 
 
 to him.* Not being in actual possession of the means they 
 had adopted, I returned the following reply, dated loth 
 March, 1826:— 
 
 Vous me demandez, Monsieur le Baron, jusqu'a quel degre de precision 
 on peut compter sur les positions geographiques des lieux dans le golfe de 
 Venise, gravies sur la carte directrice de cette mer, publie'e au depot des 
 cartes a Milan, et que vous avez rapportees dans le viii e volume, cahier v., 
 p. 490, de votre correspondance astronomique. 
 
 Je vous dirai done que tous ces points ont e'te" de'termine's en premier Visconti's 
 lieu, geodesiquement par un canevas de triangles, qui a e'te - conduit le long triangle, 
 des cotes par le Colonel Ferdinand Visconti. Tous ces points ont e'te" rdduits 
 au meridien et a la perpendiculaire du clocher de St. Francois de Ripatran- 
 zone, d'ou enfin on a tire" les longitudes et les latitudes. En second lieu, 
 plusieurs de ces endroits ont ete" de'terniine's par moi astronomiquement, 
 e'est a dire, les longitudes par des chronometres, les latitudes par des 
 hauteurs meridiennes des astres. Pour vous donner une preuve dans quelles 
 limites les longitudes ont e'te" de'terniine'es, afin que vous puissiez en juger 
 par vous meme, je vous rapporterai ici quelques exemples, qui vous feront 
 voir 1' accord qui regne dans ces determinations faites selon les differentes 
 me"thodes, ce qui a servi de controle, et pour ainsi dire, de pierre-de-touche 
 a tout ce travail. Vous savez aussi, Monsieur le Baron, que le Capitaine Captain 
 Gauttier a de meme parcouru la mer Adriatique; cet habile officier de la Gauttier. 
 Marine Royale Francaise y a egalenient fait plusieurs bonnes determinations ; 
 or, voici l'dchantillon d'un tableau qui fera voir cet accord: — 
 
 Long. d'Otranto selon le Capt. Smyth .... 16° 09' 50" de Paris. 
 
 „ „ selon le Capt. Gauttier . . . . 16 09 00 
 
 „ ,, selon les triangles du Col. Visconti 16 09 30 "1 
 
 Long. deBrindisi selon le Capt. Smyth . . . . 15 38 17 
 
 „ „ selon le Capt. Gauttier . . . . 15 36 40 
 
 „ ,, selon les triangles du Col. Visconti 15 37 59*9 
 
 Long, de Bari selon le Capt. Smyth . . . . 14 32 40 
 
 ,, ,, selon les triangles du Col. Visconti 14 32 041 
 
 * This opinion was asked because the Baron was aware of some of the 
 particulars ; and a notice which he published after visiting the A dventure 
 in 1823 (see his Correspondance Astronomique, vol. iv. page 143), will show 
 that reserve formed no part of my character: — ' Le 12 du mois d'AoM, M. 
 le Capitaine Smyth est venu relacher avec son observatoire flottant dans le 
 port de Genes. J'ai eu la seconde fois le plaisir et l'avantage de revoir, et 
 de m'entretenir avec ce marin distingue' sous tant de rapports. Cet habile 
 officier a eu la bonte" de me communiquer, et de me fane voir avec sa fran- 
 chise ordinaire, tous les travaux qu'il a fait depuis que nous nous sommes 
 vus la derniere fois. II m'a montre" tous ses journaux, observations, plans, 
 cartes, soit gravies soit dessindes, il n'avait rien de cache" ni pour moi, ni 
 pour personne. II ne craint pas les communications ; sur de son fait, ses 
 travaux peuvent supporter l'ceil du scrutateur. II ne fait aucun mystere de 
 ses observations, car les Anglais ne pensent pas que des Longitudes, des lati 
 trades, des .•l/.innits, des liases, et des triangles peuvent §tre des secrets dYiat 
 
 B B 
 
370 COLONEL CAMPAKA'S REPLY. 
 
 Long. deCorfou selon le Capt. Smyth 17° 35' 23" de Paris. 
 
 „ „ selon le Capt. Gauttier .... 17 35 50 „ 
 
 „ „ selon les triangles du Col. Visconti 17 35 41*4 ,, 
 
 „ „ par l'eclipse d'Aldebaran* . . . 17 34 41 „ 
 
 Remark. To this letter I added a full list of the reduction of 
 
 Visconti's triangles, in French metres, which is appended in 
 the fourteenth volume of the Correspondance ; but as there 
 was no mention of the points adopted by the Milan Insti- 
 tute, nor any names of the Austrian staff given — which, as 
 already shown, were in these particulars unknown to me — • 
 it gave rise to a little warmth. Colonel Campana wrote a 
 statement for publication, which he forwarded to Baron de 
 Zach, and which that gentleman, after consulting me, 
 printed in his fifteenth volume, page 51. To preserve 
 consistency, I here reprint it : — 
 
 Campana's J e m'etais flatte, Monsieur le Baron, que d'apres les details explicatifs 
 
 letter. d e la maniere dont on a determine les differentes positions geographiques 
 gravees sur la carte directrice de l'Atlas de la mer Adriatique publiee par 
 cet I. R. Institut geographique Militaire, et contenu dans l'annonce de 
 l'Atlas que j'ai eu l'honneur de vous envoyer, et que vous avez eu la bonte 
 d'inserer en partie dans votre Correspondance Astronomique, on n'aurait pas 
 revoque en doute le degre de precision de ces positions. 
 
 Mais comme la lettre de M. le Capitaine Smyth publiee dans le iv e 
 cahier du volume xiv. de la meme correspondance fait presumer qu'on n'est 
 pas tout a fait tranquille la-dessus, vous me permettrez, M. le Baron, 
 d'ajouter ce qui suit, savoir : que tous les triangles qui s'etendent sans inter- 
 ruption le long des cotes depuis Budua (Dalmatie) jusqu'a Sta. Maria di 
 Leuca (Royaume de Naples) ont ete mesures, soit par les ofliciers de l'etat 
 major general Autrichien, soit par ceux de l'etat major Napolitain, avec 
 beaucoup de soin ; c'est pourquoi les latitudes et les longitudes des differents 
 points qui en ont ete deduites doivent meriter la preference, sans vouloir 
 contester pour cela le merite de celles des savans marins, qui dans la suite 
 ont determine quelques unes de ces memes positions. 
 
 Du reste, l'accord assez satisfaisant qui se trouve entre les longitudes 
 determinees geodesiquement, et celles qui l'ont ete par les methodes pratiquees 
 par les marins rapportees par M. le Capitaine Smyth dans la lettre ci-dessus 
 citee, peut servir a faire juger du degre de precision de l'Atlas en question 
 depuis Budua jusqu'a Parga (Albanie Turque), ou les positions n'ont ete 
 fixees que par les methodes des marins. C'est pour completer l'echantillon 
 
 * This occultation obtains a place here, because it seems to have been 
 admirably observed, under the most favouring circumstances, by Inghirami 
 at Florence, Oriani and Carlini at Milan, and Captain Chiandi at Corfu. It 
 occurred on a beautiful evening, . c th March, 1813. 
 
COLONEL VISCONTI'S EARNESTNESS. 
 
 371 
 
 donne" par M. le Capitaine Smyth que je prends la liberte" de vous presenter Comparison 
 ici la comparaison des longitudes de quelques autres points de 1' Atlas : — of P oin ts. 
 
 NOMS DES LlEUX. 
 
 Pkovenance. 
 (Longitudes comptees de Paris.) 
 
 Galiola Ec. dans le Quarnero 
 
 Selve, Eglise 
 
 Sansego, isle, sommet . 
 
 Arbe, Eglise 
 
 Porno, Ecueil 
 
 Cazza, isle, sommet . 
 Lagosta, signal Trigonom. 
 Ecueil S. Niccolb di Budua 
 Sta. Maria di Leuca . . 
 
 Triangles de 
 Dalmatie. 
 
 11° 50' 17" 
 
 12 21 38 
 
 11 57 33 
 
 12 25 29 
 
 13 07 25 
 
 14 10 39 
 14 31 30 
 16 31 08 
 16 02 40 
 
 Cap. Smyth. 
 
 11° 49' 55" 
 
 12 20 28 
 
 11 57 20 
 
 12 25 00 
 
 13 07 10 
 
 14 10 57 
 14 31 08 
 16 30 32 
 16 02 57 
 
 Cap. Gauttier. 
 11° 49' 30" 
 
 14 10 30 
 14 31 10 
 16 30 30 
 
 anger. 
 
 This letter occasioned a reply from me to Lieut.-General Baron Pro 
 
 chaska. 
 
 the Baron Prochaska, Chef d'Etat Major at Vienna, because 
 I thereby accidentally learned, in July, 1826, what ought 
 to have been officially communicated to me in the spring of 
 1818. The want of a more liberal unanimity was, however, 
 injurious to the Austrian publication; for on its appearance 
 I received a complaint from Visconti, respecting the conduct visconti's 
 of our co-operators, in arrogating the whole work to them- 
 selves; and adding that he would forthwith construct and 
 publish a more correct chart of the Adriatic, with a strong 
 reclamation. But this should, as well as the preceding 
 citations, be recorded in his own words: — 
 
 Queste nozioni mi sarebbero utilissime, poiche mi sono proposto, appena 
 sara in Milano publicato il rimanente di dare io una carta pin semplice, piu 
 adattata all' uso de' Marini, piu economica, e soprattutto piu esafcta, mentre ho 
 veduto che nella suddetta l ma parte fatta a Milano vi sono degli errori sulle 
 latitudini e longitudini d'Otranto, Fano, S. M a di Leuca, Sasseno, Linguetta, 
 Corfu, etcetera, e sulla distanza d'Otranto a Capo Linguetta. E siccome la 
 detta carta a Milano e stata publicata come fatta tutta dagli uffiziali dello 
 Stato Maggiore Austriaco, senza far memoria ne di voi, che trovavasi inciso 
 ne' fogli terminati al 1814 ; cosl mi propongo ancora di rivendicare la pro- 
 priety di ognuno, facendo conoscere al pubblico a chi si deve il rilievo d'una 
 costa, o d' un porto, a chi lo scandaglio, a chi la latitudine o la longitudine 
 osservata ecc a e 1' epoca del lavoro d' ognuno, e si vedra che agli uffiziali 
 dello Stato Maggiore Austriaco non si devono che poche redute, e qualche 
 altra piccola COSa. 
 
 R B 2 
 
372 RETURN TO THE MEDITERRANEAN. 
 
 To resume the narrative. Early in July, 1821, I again 
 h.m. ship left England, in the Adventure sloop-of-war, with instruc- 
 
 Adventure. . 
 
 tions conformable to the agreement already made in Pans. 
 These orders principally directed me to re-examine the 
 doubtful parts of my selected portion of the Mediterranean 
 Sea, and to make a running coast-survey of the deficient parts 
 of the detail ; all to be completed, if possible, within three 
 years. Thus instructed, and furnished with more efficient 
 means than before — though still in want of a tender — I 
 laboured to act up to the spirit of the Admiralty instruc- 
 tions, in the manner which will be presently noticed. 
 Having accomplished the points and coast-line required, the 
 same was duly announced to the Board, and we prepared to 
 return home in the autumn of 1824. But their lordships 
 having strengthened my force in the spring of that year, by 
 
 The Kimble the addition of a fine 10-gun cutter, the Nimble, I took 
 upon myself to leave her under the command of Lieutenant 
 Slater, who had won his commission by zeal and attention 
 to the work in hand, to execute several secondary though 
 important details during the time that my charts and plans 
 would be under completion. For this purpose I furnished 
 
 Orders to the necessary instructions to that officer, directing him to 
 examine the mouth of the Magra river, between Genoa and 
 Tuscany; to add more soundings to specified portions of 
 those coasts ; to sound round the shoal of Capo Vita, on the 
 north-east of Elba; to re-examine our coast line of Algiers; 
 and especially to search round the rock off Cape Matafuz, 
 and between it and the Cape, for a second danger reported 
 to me by a Sardinian. 
 
 Keturn to These arrangements having been made, I returned to 
 
 England, and paid off the Adventure in November, 1824- 
 The Board of Admiralty was now furnished with a series of 
 latitudes and longitudes fixed by Captains Gauttier, Beau- 
 fort, and myself, from the Straits of Gibraltar to the Sea of 
 Azof; and by the accomplishment of this mission, hydro- 
 
HYDROGRAPHICAL OPINIONS. 373 
 
 graphy was presented, for the first time, with the tine 
 figure of the Mediterranean Sea. My documents being 
 both numerous and various, necessarily demanded much 
 time to prepare them for publication : to meet, therefore, work by 
 the immediate wants of navigation, a large general chart 
 of the whole was drawn up under my inspection by Captain 
 Graves — then a midshipman — and issued for public use in 
 1825. It was with this purpose in view that I tolerated a 
 plate forty-seven inches by twenty-eight inches, to fit the 
 large sheets of paper called antiquarian ; but for the others 
 adopted half the double-elephant sheet, as economical, 
 easy to work, handy to use singly, and measurable without 
 crease if bound in an atlas. Practical utility being My views of 
 my object, and as but one chart or plan is used at a 
 time, I studied the nature and importance of a coast or 
 port for cruising upon, and afterwards arranged the scale of 
 each according to the portion contained on the half-sheet. 
 In order to methodize in other respects, the north was 
 always placed vertically upwards, as a meridian line, and 
 especial care was taken not to crowd the details, leaving all 
 the dangers, and objects to be avoided, as obvious as possible 
 to those who have to consult charts in fresh weather, and 
 with indifferent light.* Under such treatment the subject 
 of scales — so interesting to chamber theory — became a very 
 secondary concern; for no navigator pricking off his slip's And con- 
 place, with a chart before him and compasses in hand, ever method. 
 cared a straw about what scale the next sheet might be pro- 
 
 * On this account, I cannot but look upon the method introduced by 
 Beautenis Beaupre*, of contour-lines round a port, with dots for depths, as 
 more adapted for the engineer than the seaman. To preserve perspicuity, 
 I inserted no more soundings on the charts than were deemed necessary to 
 a proper comprehension of the included space, and unnecessary rhumb-lines 
 were omitted; the coasts being understood to be entirely clear of danger, 
 unless otherv. Under this system, the lead is trustworthy; 
 
 and on most coasts it will be found that inshore the bottom is generally 
 sand, and in the offing, blue clay. 
 
374 LINE OF ACTION. 
 
 tracted upon. Each was therefore severally treated as an 
 individual case, rendered amenable by its size to its contents. 
 Those who desire to form a correct idea of the relative 
 proportions of different countries, can always refer to the 
 general chart. In library atlases, the number of arbitrary 
 scales might be reduced with advantage ; but the study and 
 the ship require very different treatment. 
 Nature of The materials for filling these sheets must now be men- 
 
 the mate- , . . . , 
 
 rials. tioned, since, in pronouncing an opinion upon any work, 
 the intention of its projector ought not to be overlooked. 
 I therefore repeat, that my whole wish was to secure as 
 much information as possible in a given time ; owing to the 
 constant apprehension of being broken off. Consequently, 
 
 My views, in executing this arduous duty, my aim was rather to obtain 
 substantial good, than minute or absolute accuracy; for 
 which latter another kind of establishment would have 
 been demanded. The chief quality, therefore, to which I 
 lay claim, in the conduct of the survey, is unwearied dili- 
 gence ; and by resorting to the practical rather than to the 
 theoretical application of mathematics, and exerting my 
 stock of professional knowledge in a given and decided 
 direction, I was able to enter into competition with some 
 
 Assistance of my superiors in acquirements. When the Aid first came 
 out to the Mediterranean, there was not an officer or other 
 person on board who had any practical acquaintance with 
 maritime surveying : but there was no lack of zeal and in- 
 clination, and when I first instructed and afterwards per- 
 sonally directed them, they all became useful, and some of 
 them extremely so. Even the mere youngsters were handy 
 in the boats; and they who are vulgarly termed idlers em- 
 ployed themselves in making statistical and other inquiries 
 for me. It is, therefore, with great pleasure that the names 
 of those who served with me in the Aid and Adventure are 
 here given; merely remarking that my chief obligations were 
 to Messrs. Slater, Graves, and Elson. The following lists 
 
 received. 
 
OFFICERS OF THE 'AID' AND ' ADVENTURE/ 375 
 
 contain the officers' names, &c., nearly in the order in which 
 they joined : — 
 
 Gun-Room Officeks. 
 
 In 1853. 
 
 Lieut. John Hose Dead. 
 
 „ C. R. Maiden ....... Reserved H. P. 
 
 ,, Josiah Oake Captain. 
 
 ,, F. W~. Beechey Captain. 
 
 „ Hen. E. Coffin, volunteer . . Captain. 
 
 Master, Thomas Atwell Dead. 
 
 ,, Thomas Elson Dead* 
 
 Surgeon, James M. Madden .... Retired. 
 
 ,, Abraham Courtney . . . Retired. 
 
 ,, John Stephenson .... Drowned. 
 
 Purser, Robert Young ...... Dead. 
 
 Assist. -Surgeon, "William Clarke . . Died a Surgeon. 
 
 ,, „ John Campbell ■ . Surgeon. 
 
 „ ,, William Beg . . . Dead. 
 
 Thaddeus Porter . . Dead. 
 
 Names and 
 particulars. 
 
 Mates and Midshipmen. 
 
 J. F. Dessiou. . 
 M. A. Slater . . 
 Ed. Holland . . 
 Wm. Skyring . 
 Ed. Tyndale . . 
 James Cooling . 
 Thomas Graves. 
 Nelson Elliot . . 
 James Wolfe . . 
 
 In 1853. 
 Drowned. 
 Died Commander. 
 Commander. 
 Killed, Commander. 
 Died a Lieut. 
 Died a Lieut. 
 Captain. 
 Died a Master. 
 Died a Commander. 
 
 In 1853. 
 Henry Bush . . Dead. 
 Thomas Dutton . Dead. 
 Wm. Robinson . Dead. 
 W. Sidney Smith Captain. 
 Robert Sholl . . Dead. 
 Henry Raper . . Lieut. 
 Mayne Lyons. . Killed, Lieut. 
 Alfred Miles . . Commander, dead 
 James B. West. Commander.^ 
 
 These gentlemen, as already said, were all and severally Remarks 
 desirous of rendering their exertions effective; and I en- 
 deavoured to appoint each to the kind and degree of work 
 for which he appeared best qualified. Upon those who 
 
 * I took Mr. Elson out of the Weymouth store-ship, on observing his 
 activity in embarking the marbles at Leptis Magna; and he afterwards 
 served with me seven years as Master. He died in 1848, Master-Attendant 
 of Woolwich yard, having written me a cheerful letter in the morning of the 
 day on which he expired. 
 
 t Officers were occasionally sent from the flag-ship, as the present Lord 
 Adolphus Fitzclarence, Captain Charles Howe Fremantle, his brother Henry 
 — who died on board — Mr. J. J. Smith (retired), and two or three others ; but 
 as they merely joined for their own instruction, they are not entered upon 
 the above list. 
 
376 COMMUNICATIONS WITH LORD MELVILLE. 
 
 more immediately bore a share in the survey, I inculcated 
 the necessity of appropriating their labour to its intended 
 purpose ; and in order to conduce to the consistent economy 
 of time and means which the tenour of my mission demanded, 
 distinctly described the proper degree of accuracy expected 
 at their hands. I also pointed out the readiest method of 
 attaining the desired end in the respective data with which 
 they were to furnish me; while an uniformity in the 
 method and manner of drawing and reducing was estab- 
 lished. And here a few more words may be necessary to 
 elucidate our proceedings, even at the risk of repetition in 
 some details. 
 
 On returning to the Mediterranean in 1821, I had 
 viscount arranged with Lord Melville to carry out a present from 
 
 Melville. . ... 
 
 our government to the Basha of Tripoli, in acknowledg- 
 ment of the assistance he had formerly afforded me; and 
 to obtain permission from him for the completion of our 
 survey of the Greater Syrtis. To effect this fully, I showed 
 his lordship the benefit there would be, if, while the ship 
 should be employed on the hydrographic details, a land 
 party were simultaneously to proceed along the shores, the 
 whole site being replete with objects of antiquarian and 
 geographical interest. For this purpose there was a volunteer 
 well versed in the Arabic language and customs in my 
 
 Capt. Lyon, former messmate, the late Captain G. F. Lyon, who had 
 recently returned from Murzuk {see my letter to Lord 
 Melville, in the Appendix) ; and so fair did the opportu- 
 nity of exploring the Cyrenaica seem, that the celebrated 
 Sig. Belzoni, then lately returned from Egypt, offered to 
 accompany me. From a change of circumstances, however, 
 Lyon went with Captain Parry on the Arctic expedition, 
 
 Messrs. and Lieutenant Beechey, who had been on Parry's memo- 
 
 "Rppfilipy 
 
 rable first Polar voyage, was appointed to the Adventure, 
 to supply Lyon's place; and instead of Belzoni, we em- 
 barked Mr. Henry Beechey, the Lieutenant's brother, an 
 old acquaintance of my own, well known as an Egyptian 
 
THE SYRTIS MISSION. 377 
 
 traveller. To these gentlemen I added Mr. Edward Tyndale, Lieutenant 
 
 BggcIicy's 
 
 a midshipman, who had travelled with me in Africa ; Mr. force. 
 Campbell, assistant-surgeon; and a volunteer, Lieutenant 
 Henry Edward Coffin, whose uncle, Admiral Sir Isaac 
 Coffin, was going out in the ship as my guest. I had my- 
 self already examined and fixed the coast of this unfre- 
 quented gulf as far as below Isa on the west side, and from 
 Kharkarah to the northwards on the east side. The land- 
 party had therefore to proceed round the bottom of the 
 Syrtis, and from thence to the examination of the ruins in 
 the Pentapolis, and the whole country round Cyrene. 
 
 This section of the survey, comprehending the exposed His work, 
 space between Isa and Kharkarah, is the only portion which 
 I did not personally see : and am therefore bound to state 
 that, on a complete knowledge of the means and method 
 employed to carry out my instructions, I was fully satis- 
 fied with the Lieutenant's results. Considering it unsafe 
 to carry the ship farther into a gulf of which we knew 
 nothing, Mr. Elson was despatched in the ship's launch, 
 expressly fitted for the occasion, to make a surveying 
 cruize of the intervening shores. Lieutenant Beechey's 
 charge, indeed, comprehended the topography of the space 
 between Tripoli and Dema, the mensuration of which was 
 to be adjusted to some of my determinations, as detailed in 
 his interesting volume. But I sorely regretted that un- My regret 
 toward circumstances utterly prevented the party which being in- 
 he led, from proceeding through Dema to Alexandria ; as 
 that region, then all but unknown, would have been 
 accurately examined before political changes had increased 
 the obstacles to a full investigation. 
 
 After quitting the coast of Africa, I returned to com- Return to 
 plete my charts of the Italian islands in the western basin 
 of the Mediterranean, including Corsica, Sardinia, and the 
 channels near Elba ; the whole being connected by triangles 
 with the Tuscan and Roman shores. On the 12th of Novem- 
 ber, 1823, while thus employed, the Lloiret, a French brig 
 
378 INTERVIEW WITH CAPTAIN ALLEGRE. 
 
 m. Aiiegre. of war, commanded by Mons. Allegre, sought refuge from an 
 easterly gale in Port San Pietro, Sardinia, where the Adven- 
 ture was then riding. As this gentleman was formerly one 
 of Gauttier s officers, and therefore acquainted with me, he 
 related that he had since served three years with Captain 
 
 French Hell on a detailed survey of the Island of Corsica. Having 
 corsica° kindly brought his documents on board, and made a com- 
 parison with our operations and results, we found a general 
 agreement in the points and such portions of the coast 
 as were completed by both : but, moreover, the details of 
 Corsica were so elaborately laid down by the French officers, 
 and bore such internal evidence of extreme accuracy, that, 
 as I told Captain Allegre, there was not the slightest occa- 
 sion for my returning thither, to survey between the 
 points which I had already established there. 
 
 Such being the outline of my re-examination, it may still 
 be necessary to dwell a moment upon the system we pursued, 
 before giving a table of the geographical positions which 
 form the framework of the general chart. 
 
 The course I n the course of our operations, we determined the lati- 
 
 foiiowed. j. U( j eg an( j longitudes of a certain number of principal places 
 in our best manner, and then used them as consecutive 
 points on a series of bases ; using triangulation by the 
 theodolite between them where obtainable, and filling up 
 others by the most eligible means afforded by the ship and 
 boats. Every port was thus considered a station ; and 
 where the hostility of the natives, or the quarantine regula- 
 tions, were inimical to landing, islets or rocks off such coasts 
 were always resorted to. With the exception of those just 
 mentioned at the bottom of the greater Syrtis, the whole of 
 the latitudes and longitudes were entirely under my own 
 
 Chronome- computation ; the keeping of the chronometer-rates, only, 
 ter rates. navni g "b een latterly consigned to the care of Messrs. Slater 
 
 Surveys. and Graves. The principal harbours were surveyed by 
 myself, with occasional assistance, and the more open bays 
 by the other officers ; while some of the minor places were 
 
RECLAMATION OF THE ' WATER TELESCOPE.' 379 
 
 sketched in from measures obtained by means of painted 
 lengths on poles, and the application of Rochons micro- Eochon's 
 meter thereto. We examined the most remarkable banks, meter, 
 with unsparing diligence. 
 
 In early days I had seen a cylindrical cartridge-box, with a water- 
 its bottom cut out and the orifice glazed, used for examining tube 02 
 the state of a ship's bottom by immersion, as a cure for the 
 reflection and refraction of the rays of light at the surface 
 of the water which impede distinct vision : and in order to 
 facilitate subaqueous inspections, I had a tube constructed 
 in the shape of an overgrown speaking-trumpet, well glazed, 
 and steadied in the water by a large grommet of lead. 
 Upwards of twenty years after this had been publicly used, 
 a similar instrument was advertised as a new American 
 invention, under the style and title of the ' "Water Telescope/ 
 
 The lines of coast between the ports were mostly sketched 
 on a patent-log basis by Mr. Elson, the master, whose use of the 
 
 i i . • n iii patent-log. 
 
 activity and seamanship were in constant demand ; and the 
 skill with which he managed our schooner-rigged launch, 
 and accommodated her to circumstances, partly compensated 
 our being without a tender. These running surveys, con- 
 stituting properly a maritime reconnoissance, were laid 
 down on a very large scale, and afterwards reduced and 
 subjected to the points previously established.* 
 
 As the chronometric bases on which these longitudes chronome- 
 depend, and by which they are connected with the Palermo 
 Observatory, are of first-rate import, a brief sketch of our 
 working routine may be acceptable in a general sense, how- 
 
 * In my instructions to the officers, the amount of labour was appor- 
 tioned according to the local circumstances; for before geology had attained 
 its present rank, I had observed that the depths of the sea follow the nature 
 of the shores — the slopes of the one varying with the nature of the other. 
 Thus, high and rocky cliffs have deep water, and are pierced with harbours; 
 while low coasts are generally shallow, and destitute of ports. It may 
 therefore, from this and other peculiarities, be held, that a low shore is a 
 growing one, and a high shore is a wasting one. Wherever the Zostcra 
 manna, or riband-like grass-wrack, is found, shoals may be expected, for 
 it detains silt, mud, and sand, till a bank is gradually formed. 
 
380 BREGUET'S ' COMPTEUR/ 
 
 ever trite such details may be to the practised nautical as- 
 tronomer. On this second trip we followed precisely the 
 same plan and method as was before stated, but with the 
 increased power and confidence which experience gives. 
 
 Additional To the instruments already mentioned, the Admiralty had 
 ments. added four more chronometers — namely, No. 12 of Pen- 
 nington, and Nos. 320, 547, and 553, of Arnold ; another 
 7-inch theodolite ; and a very beautiful 15-inch altitude- 
 and-azimuth circle, with good levels, and a capital telescope. 
 And I should mention that, when in Paris, Mons. Arago 
 took me to the house of M. Breguet the elder, to show me 
 
 Transit- a newly -• contrived transit -telescope, fitted with a chrono- 
 
 telescope. 
 
 meter No. 2741 to the eye end, which he qualified as a 
 ' Compteur des secondes, des dixiemes de seconde, et des 
 centiemes par approximation:' this instrument, on exa- 
 mination, appeared to possess such advantages as a portable 
 transit, that I purchased it for myself, and the Lords of our 
 Treasury granted it a free passage through the Custom- 
 house. Breguet on this occasion presented me with one of 
 his exquisitely-sensible metallic thermometers. 
 
 In pursuing our progress, I made as short passages as 
 
 were consistent between the principal ports, in order the 
 
 ciironome- better to obtain their chronometric differences of meridian ; 
 
 trie r&t^s 
 
 the ' sights' for watching the truth and permanence of the 
 rates being taken regularly on arrival, by the method of 
 equal altitudes, and corrected for the true refraction in the 
 existing state of the atmosphere. The harbour-rates as- 
 sumed — determined by the observed daily rates in the port 
 before sailing — were always estimated for the time elapsed 
 between the run from one place to another; and though 
 the march was watched by daily observation whenever the 
 weather permitted, the results of the extreme series, only, 
 were employed in determining the longitude of departure 
 Harbour and arrival. The harbour sights were always taken on 
 Slg s * shore, in a quicksilver artificial horizon, with reflecting 
 instruments well adjusted, and the index-error ascertained 
 
COURSE PURSUED. 381 
 
 at the time of taking them ; and they were invariably the Mode of 
 
 ol3scrvin° r . 
 
 mean of three altitudes of the upper, and three of the 
 lower limb of the sun ; while the corresponding times were 
 carefully registered from my job-watch (Earnshaw's pocket- 
 chronometer, No. 825), which was forthwith carried off and 
 compared with the stationary time-keepers on board. The 
 9 -inch quintant was the favourite instrument for this pur- 
 pose; but, when the celestial altitude was very great, 
 Troughton's reflecting circle was substituted. And occa- 
 sionally when, owing to clouds or other causes, altitudes 
 could only be procured on one side of the meridian, more 
 than usual care was bestowed on determining the exact 
 corrections necessary for instrumental and object errors, 
 refraction, &c. 
 
 The standard chronometers were placed on hair cushions standard 
 
 11-1111 r chrono- 
 
 wedged with cork, where the temperature, as far as we meters. 
 could contrive, was so uniform and constant as to be no task 
 on the compensation; for the cabin never had a fire in it 
 while I commanded, and was little liable to sudden tran- 
 sitions, causes which might otherwise disturb chronometric 
 action. Their several rates were therefore easily scrutinized ; 
 and the discrepancy of each individual time-piece was 
 valued by its allotted weight, in the summation of the 
 products. 
 
 Many of the principal latitudes were taken on shore observed 
 with the 9-inch quintant and artificial horizon, and with latltudes ' 
 the reflecting circle and sextants ; but some of the first 
 class were obtained with the fine 15 -inch altitude -and - 
 azimuth circle, by a mean of sets with the face of the 
 instrument alternately turned to the east and the west. 
 Thus we hoped to clear our results from probable errors of 
 division and ex-centricity ; and it was always steadily 
 mounted on a cask filled with sand, and most carefully 
 adjusted, so as to serve as well for time as for altitudes. 
 Here both sun and stars were employed for latitude, and were 
 always observed at the instant of meridian passage, except 
 
382 
 
 COURSE PURSUED. 
 
 The dip- 
 sector. 
 
 in a few cases when that could not be exactly attained, 
 and then the horary angle, either east or west, was duly 
 observed, and the reduction to the meridian computed. 
 The moon. The moon was not used for this object, on account of the 
 liabilities of irradiation, diameter, and tabular errors. The 
 sea-horizon was never resorted to in these processes, except 
 in a few rare instances where, from moral or physical impe- 
 diment, landing to secure a latitude was impracticable; and 
 then the object was carefully brought on the true east or 
 west line from us, in order to do away with the arbitrary 
 reduction which is consequent upon a general compass 
 bearing. Captain Gauttier had lent me a dip-sector — then 
 a new introduction — made by Lenoir, after one of Wollas- 
 ton's, to obviate some of the objections to the natural 
 horizon; but I found it so troublesome to use, and showing 
 such discordance between the results and theory, that I soon 
 abandoned it. This would not have been satisfactory to 
 the inventor: if the principle be true, it ought to be a 
 requisite instrument, no matter how difficult to use, because 
 the horizon may be out by almost any quantity, so that 
 results may be egregiously bad in spite of the goodness of 
 sextant, and skill of observer. But the dip-sector appears 
 to be dependent on the principle of opposite points of the 
 horizon being equally affected by any abnormal state of the 
 refraction; whereas, though this may be the case in ordi- 
 nary states of the atmosphere, it is not likely to be so in the 
 extraordinary cases, where its correction would be most in 
 demand, and where the effect would probably be confined to 
 a very limited azimuthal range. 
 
 Lunar distances, eclipses, and sidereal occultations were 
 at first diligently observed, and recorded among the deter- 
 minations: but finding some of these in fair accordance 
 with the chronometric measurements, and others, equally 
 well taken, widely differing; and also seeing that besides the 
 known deficiencies of the tables, they were influenced by 
 the existing state of the atmosphere, the tone of the eye, 
 
 Nature of 
 observa- 
 tion. 
 
COURSE PURSUED. 383 
 
 and the power of the instrument, and consequently must be 
 inadequate for precision,* I discontinued these nice and 
 most delicate observations, save for practice ; thus abandon- 
 ing the method of getting absolute longitudes by astronomy, Relative 
 for that of differences by time. The great accuracy and 
 extreme simplicity of mensuration by chronometers, left 
 nothing to be desired on this head, especially where the 
 lengths of the runs were so arranged, that a comparatively 
 speedy return to the starting point, allowed an estimate of 
 the probable error of a determination. 
 
 The geodetical angles were generally taken and reduced Geodesy. 
 by myself, except in the northern portion of the Adriatic 
 Sea, where I was largely assisted in this arduous duty by 
 Captain Soldan, of the Neapolitan staff, and Lieutenant Capt. Soi- 
 C. K Maiden. In particular places a base was generally Lt. Maiden. 
 measured on a selected spot of ground, with a tested 
 Gunter's chain ; and the line was lengthened at pleasure, by 
 means of boarding-pikes stuck in the ground at a chain's 
 distance from each other. The angles at each end were 
 then taken with a truly -adjusted theodolite, an instrument value of 
 which — as it gives the horizontal arc intercepted between doiite. 
 the verticals of the two stations without reduction — unites 
 celerity with precision. But where the sides were long, and 
 the large circle was used, the difference that exists between 
 the three angles of a theoretical plane triangle, and the 
 three observed by reason of the sensibly spherical form of 
 the earth, became appreciable, even when such sides were 
 not more than a dozen miles in length. The excess thus 
 occasioned may be corrected by treating the angles of the 
 chords, and the chords themselves, as the angles and sides 
 
 * I should, however, remind the reader that the above is stated without 
 any intention of undervaluing that beautiful method. The quantity of 
 motion to be measured in lunars is only ^th of that which is employed in 
 getting the time by chronometers (it being the diminutive amount of the 
 proper motion of the moon as opposed to the great amount of its diurnal 
 progress) ; this is the circumstance that makes any error in the observation 
 tell so largely on its result, and renders the conclusions so rough. 
 
384 MAGNETIC DEVIATIONS. 
 
 of a plane triangle ; but the theorem of Legendre more 
 Spherical simply shows, that if one third of the spherical excess be 
 ' deducted from each angle, the opposite sides become pro- 
 portioned to the sines of the corrected angles, and their 
 magnitude may, therefore, be calculated by the rules of 
 plane trigonometry. 
 
 In re magnetism. When I commenced surveying, the 
 
 variation instruments for getting the variation of the compass were 
 
 compass, very inferior to those now in use ; and the method of 
 
 swinging a ship to ascertain the effects of its mass on 
 
 the needle in different azimuths had not yet obtained — a 
 
 method which has rendered the determinations in a ship 
 
 so trustworthy for absolute magnetic quantities, in the 
 
 Captain variation at sea. The essay of Captain Flinders, however, 
 
 Flinders. _.„ . . . . 
 
 concerning the differences m the magnetic needle arising 
 from an alteration in the direction of the ship's head, 
 printed in the Philosophical Transactions for 1805, and 
 his experiments a few years afterwards, had revealed to me 
 the tendencies and power of local attraction ; which had 
 
 Cook, &c. only been puzzles to Dampier, Cook, and Lowenhoru, and 
 remained uninvestigated by Downie. Therefore, in deter- 
 mining the corrections, and watching the affections of the 
 compass, but little was ultimately used which was performed 
 on board ; although, in pursuing the usual methods for sea- 
 practice, every precaution was taken to guard against acci- 
 dental derangements and alterations. The variation of the 
 needle was very readily established wherever we formed a 
 meridian line for observatory purposes on shore ; and in the 
 
 Methods secondary requirements we resorted to a large and well- 
 graduated universal solar-dial, furnished with spirit-levels, 
 and carefully adjusted to the sun's altitude at culmination. 
 But whenever necessity compelled us to resort to amplitudes, 
 they were taken at the instant when the altitude of the 
 inferior limb of the sun above the visible horizon was equal 
 to the difference of the semi-diameter and of the horizontal 
 refraction increased by the dip — in other words, when the 
 
 adopted. 
 
THE MARINER'S COMPASS. 385 
 
 centre of the sun was in the true horizon — a process less 
 troubled with unequal refractions in the Mediterranean 
 than in our latitudes, and therefore susceptible of consider- 
 able accuracy. Azimuths at sea, when the sun was not Azimuths, 
 obtainable at rising or setting, were determined from the 
 observed difference and compass bearing of altitude in a 
 measured interval of time; though sometimes they were 
 taken by the sun's angular distance from a terrestrial object. 
 These, however, were for practice rather than use, since, as 
 has been already said, we depended chiefly on shore work, 
 whereby the non-verticality of the sight-vanes, and the 
 effect of local attractions on the oscillations and vibratory 
 movements of the needle, were more easily remedied. The 
 inclinatiou, and estimated magnetic intensity, were carefully Magnetic 
 observed with a well-made dipping-needle at our principal 
 stations; on which occasions we usually shifted the poles of 
 the magnet, and took readings with the face of the instru- 
 ment alternately to the east and to the west, in the plane 
 of the magnetic meridian. 
 
 The mariner's compass is too important an instrument 
 in all the purposes of navigation, not to merit distinct 
 mention ; and what has been here advanced as to the great 
 improvements since my survey, will receive illustration 
 from a passage which I wrote in 1848, on receiving a 
 book from the late Captain E. J. Johnson, Superintendent Captain 
 
 L x Johnson 
 
 of the Navy Compasses : — 
 
 In order to carry out his (Johnsons) representations, a memorandum for Admiralty 
 
 the proper treatment of compasses on ship-board has been issued by the Ad- mem. 
 
 miralty. In this document it is directed to remove all iron to the distance 
 
 of seven feet from the binnacle, as of old ; that mixed metal or copper be 
 
 used in place thereof, for bolts, keys, and dowels ; and that iron tillers are 
 
 not to range within seven feet of the compasses. The binnacles are to be at 
 
 least four feet and a half apart, and they are no longer to be fitted with doors, 
 
 so as to render them dirt-lockers, or depositories of improper materials. But 
 
 a most important improvement is this : that in every ship a closet is to be 
 
 constructed for the reception and keeping of the compasses, under the express 
 
 charge of the Master, who is to see that the cards are never packed with 
 
 poles of the same name nearest to each other — that is, that the north end of 
 
 one needle shall be placed next the south end of its neighbour. 
 
 This is assuredly a real reform in the steering deparfcmei which - om P ass 
 
 J ' reform. 
 
 C C 
 
386 
 
 THE MARINER'S COMPASS. 
 
 must awaken recollections of a grave tenor in those who are able to look 
 back to the day when the compasses were turned-in higgledy-piggledy with 
 the hooks, thimbles, marline-spikes, and iron implements of all sorts in the 
 boatswain's store-room. The case is wonderfully altered ; instead of the ship- 
 chandlers' contract concerns- — with inefficient suspension, indifferent needles, 
 bad pivots and caps, and contemptible gimbals — the Service is now provided 
 
 The new with machines of a first-rate description and trusty character. The needles 
 compasses. are mac l e of the best clock-spring steel, and perform their oscillations in 
 truly-balanced copper bowls ; the pivots supporting the card are pointed 
 with a material harder than steel to work into the ruby cap : and, instead 
 of leaving it to its fate, as of old, it is directed that the card should be raised 
 whenever the compass is to be moved, or the guns fired. Some of the straw- 
 pickers have branded the present standard compasses as costly, seeing their 
 price consists of as many sovereigns as those they displaced did of shillings : 
 
 Absurd ob- but what is this difference when we weigh a trustworthy instrument against 
 one which is all but worthless ! What is the sum of twenty -five or thirty 
 sovereigns for the most important machine in a ship, and one to which the 
 beautiful chronometer is only secondary ! The same critics, to be sure, are 
 ready to remind us that the ocean has been passed in safety before Captain 
 Johnson was born; even so — but how far the expenses of bad reckoning 
 have been earned, or the absolute ruin of numerous fine ships may have 
 been owing to a similar cause, is buried in a dense fog of oblivion. In a 
 similar train of thought our author observes, ' While the tides and currents 
 of the ocean — imperfect logs — inaccurate charts — unsteady steerage — in- 
 attention to the lead — stress of weather — defective ships — defective equip- 
 ment, or defective management, may be the cause of loss, it would be 
 fallacious to assume that the greater number of wrecks are caused by errors 
 of the compass ; but that many have occurred in consequence of these, there 
 can be no doubt whatever. ' Be it also remembered that the annual average 
 number of British shipwrecks is stated to be about 547, or, as we formerly 
 observed, a ship and a half a day. 
 
 jection. 
 
 Reply. 
 
 Coast sur- 
 veys. 
 
 Surveys of extreme accuracy are, of course, invaluable, 
 and can only be obtained by much time, uninterrupted 
 labour, and heavy expense ; but for a reconnaissance of 
 some thousands of miles, with every probability of inter- 
 ruption, immediate utility alone could be aimed at. After 
 fixing the co-ordinates of latitude, longitude, and height, 
 my whole effort was speedily to compile and correct a chart 
 which should meet every want of the navigator. The boat- 
 runs between the ports to which I have alluded, consisted, 
 Patent log. therefore, merely in sailing along on a patent-log base, or 
 any other feasible scale; and the delineations thus made 
 were afterwards reduced to my points and positions for 
 adjustment. The whole being laid down for a certain end, 
 the rough drawing was then reduced to the dimensions 
 
s 
 compass. 
 
 CAUTION AS TO DANGERS. 387 
 
 which I considered adapted to the nature and extent of the 
 examination, and the maritime importance of the place. 
 The boat- bearings were generally taken with Kater's hand Kater- 
 azimuth - compass ; but in cases of moment, magnetic 
 rhumbs were seldom resorted to when astronomical ones 
 could be obtained ; and all the shelves, shoals, and leading Shoals 
 soundings, were fixed by sextant angles to assumed stations 
 on shore. 
 
 Among other desiderata, I determined to sound all Soundings 
 that part of the sea, which was thus under my charge, 
 to very unusual depths, to confirm the existence or non- 
 existence of reported banks and dangers. This is a point 
 upon which very particular attention was bestowed, since, 
 although convinced that many shoals are reported which On rocks 
 do not exist, yet I am also satisfied, that because an shoals. 
 alleged rock or shelf is no longer to be found, it cannot be 
 thence positively concluded that it never existed. Some 
 such might have been thrown up by submarine volcanoes, 
 and afterwards submerged, as, among recent and well- 
 known instances, the Sabrina and Graham Islands; and 
 many a vigia may have originated where mistakes of vision 
 or mere imagination misled the judgment: drifting trees 
 were taken for wrecks, while fish-scules, spawn-patches, 
 meeting of currents, and local discolorations, passed for 
 imminent perils. Thus, although some dangers have been 
 noted without sufficient grounds, there can be no reasonable 
 doubt that others are in like manner questioned without 
 sufficient reason. Still, nothing in hydrography demands 
 more circumspection than the act of erasing doubtful dan- 
 gers from a chart ; and as precaution is an acknowledged 
 source of security, mariners should ' open their eyes' when 
 they approach the sites of those previously reported. The 
 class of would-be savans who absurdly hold that rocks grow Paradox 
 under water, are easily furnished with a cause when an un- 
 expected danger is announced; but their opinion is not the 
 
 CC 2 
 
388 CAUTION AS TO DANGERS. 
 
 less absurd because it was once pretty widely entertained,* 
 Kock geo- and still lingers. Nor can I quite quadrate with the more 
 modern doctrine of the disintegration and dispersion of such 
 rocks ; for when beneath the surface of the sea, rocks can- 
 not be subject to such decomposing conditions as are pro- 
 duced by the active influence of the atmosphere. Oxygen, 
 in the necessary quantity for the production of sufficient 
 oxidation to weaken rocks at great depths, would hardly be 
 afforded by the air contained in waters ; and I have already 
 shown the length of time during which many of the Medi- 
 terranean shoals have been recorded by navigators. 
 Remark. Holding it, therefore, on these grounds, to be highly 
 
 improper to expunge dangers from the charts, however 
 sceptical we may be as to the original authority that placed 
 them there, it has always been my opinion that, though 
 troublesome, every reported rock ought to be strictly 
 searched for; and the pains I took in quest of supposed 
 dangers — such as the Thisbe shoal, the Fox rock, TEntre- 
 prenante reef, shoals north of Minorca, &c. — can only be 
 known to those who sailed with me. Besides this, my 
 general practice was to catch a very deep cast of the lead 
 on every favourable occasion, for the chance of picking up a 
 bank : so that, what with soundings, experiments for tem- 
 perature, and drawing up water from great depths, calm 
 weather was not an idle time upon our decks. On the 
 assumption that no danger could be without a bank, my 
 trials in the vicinity of vigice were made with from 150 to 
 600, and even 800 fathoms of line ; and though doubts may 
 remain relative to several reported dangers, still as it cannot 
 be presumed that they do not exist, I have marked their 
 reputed places with a note of interrogation. Indeed, when 
 so many visible effects of the expansive and explosive gases 
 
 * Here, of course, I do not include the case of corallines ; nor the gradual 
 accretion of sedimentary strata assisted by pressure from the superincumbent 
 water, and natural calcareous and ferruginous cements. 
 
CAUTION AS TO DANGERS. 389 
 
 of submarine volcanoes are noted, it is quite clear that shoals 
 may be up-heaved and again submerged, as in the instances 
 already described. 
 
 Until my mission, all the charts in use exhibited a long 
 bank between Cape Creux and Toulon, with from 40 to 70 
 fathoms of water upon it. It was called the Koches Molles ; 
 and it was very material that no ship should get far into the 
 Gulf of Lyons in the night, or in thick weather, lest then 
 gaining soundings she might imagine herself on the Roches 
 Molles with plenty of sea-room. I therefore determined 
 to examine this bank very particularly, but could not find 
 it, although the whole vicinity was searched under casts of 
 from 500 to 800 fathoms without striking bottom. This, 
 coupled with a want of corroboration of its existence among 
 the seafarers of Provence and Languedoc, induced me to 
 drop it from my survey. There was another bank equally 
 notorious, and with shallower water marked, shown for a 
 century on paper, between Minorca and Asinara, under the 
 name of Caccia. In the Admiralty chart supplied to our 
 fleet, it bore 13 fathoms water; but in Mount and Page's 
 edition of the General Quarter Waggoner, 1717, it shows 
 the alarming notice — " sometimes 2 fathoms/' Now had 
 this shoal existed, we might have had a disagreeable ac- 
 quaintance with it in the Rodney, 74, during a gale of wind 
 to which she was exposed in January, 1812; but neither 
 then, nor afterwards, could we substantiate the fact. In 
 addition to my own exertions, finding that the Sardinian 
 coral-fishers were unacquainted with such a spot, I made no 
 scruple of omitting it also, thereby clearing a bugbear from 
 an important navigation. 
 
 Although I thus expunged some supposed banks from 
 the charts, in two cases only was my usual caution departed 
 from, where actual dangers were marked on presumed 
 authority. The first was between Capri and Cape Cam- supposed 
 panella, on the south entrance of the Bay of Naples: here Sjjjjged. 
 a shoal was marked nearly in mid-channel, on Zannoni's 
 
390 CAUTION AS TO DANGERS. 
 
 and other charts, and it had caused many ships to be carried 
 round the western side of Capri, in preference to the 
 shorter route. This shoal we could not find, nor even hear 
 of among the fishermen : and having mentioned the matter 
 to my friend Yisconti, he employed some gun-boats, and 
 swept the whole ground so completely, that we were quite 
 satisfied there could be no danger there. The second 
 Thisbe instance was in rejecting the rock at the entrance of the 
 Strait of Gibraltar, on which it had been asserted that 
 H.M.S. Thisbe struck, at about 3k 30m. A.M. on the 12th 
 
 I of August, 1804. For this I searched in vain; and on 
 
 afterwards becoming acquainted with Mr. Corner, who was 
 first lieutenant of that ship at the time, he assured me he 
 did not know how any bearings could have been taken, as 
 it was quite dark even after she had forged off. Therefore 
 no doubt could be entertained of her having run upon the 
 sir George Cabezos. But in 1825, Sir George Cockburn put a memo- 
 ' randum in my hand, reporting that a merchantman was 
 nearly lost upon the Thisbe ; on which I remarked that 
 some men thought it safer to state that to their owners, 
 than to acknowledge the vessel had got upon well-placed 
 and well-known rocks; and gave both him and Sir Edward 
 Parry, the then hydrographer, my reasons for disbelieving 
 the story. As the declaration, however, came with Lloyd's 
 official strength, H.M.S. Mastiff, Commander Copeland, was 
 ordered to the spot, and several weeks of expensive labour 
 were wasted in confirming my impression.* 
 
 * In a similar manner, in the summer of 1849, a vessel reported that she 
 had struck upon the Entreprenante rock, ninety miles east of Malta ; where- 
 upon H.M. steamers Rosamond, Oberon, and Spitfire, were sent to the ground 
 which I had so often passed over. The mate of the vessel owned afterwards 
 that the whole was a falsehood, advanced to cover their having struck upon 
 a point of Malta. Since then another search has been instituted. Between 
 the 17th and 23rd of April of this year (1853), H.M. ships Retribution, 
 Modeste, Niger, and Spitfire, soimded for twenty miles around the site, with 
 from 500 to 2570 fathoms of line out, and no bottom. A costly matter this, 
 merely to remove a mare's-nest! 
 
MODE OF SOUNDING. 391 
 
 From the efforts we made, together with my constantly Opinion, 
 gaining all the local knowledge of the pilots and fishermen 
 of the various ports I anchored in, it is very improbable 
 that there is an unknown hidden danger within the limits 
 of my chart Still, to render navigation secure, to the chart 
 thus furnished, should be added the prudence and skill of 
 the intelligent seaman. 
 
 In conducting these examinations, the soundings between Sounding 
 
 machine. 
 
 twenty and sixty fathoms were usually taken with Massey's 
 sounding-machine; but in greater depths we used solid 
 leads, there being an apprehension of a collapse of the 
 hollow cylinder forming the air-tube of the wings or vanes, 
 at depths exceeding 100 or 150 fathoms.* Even with this 
 defect there were great advantages in the use of this 
 admirable instrument, for in moderate soundings the true 
 vertical depth was easily ascertained, without the trouble of 
 heaving-to; and we repeatedly reached the ground in 
 upwards of forty fathoms while going six or seven knots, 
 only rounding-to for catching the angles of objects in view. 
 But our men became practically expert ; while the machines 
 were always kept in complete order, and duly tested as to 
 accuracy. We were also furnished with Birt's buoy-and- Birt*s buoy, 
 nipper, but found it more ingenious in theory than satis- 
 factory in practice. In very great depths we therefore 
 resorted to the older method, of which experience somewhat 
 lightened the labour, and helped to overcome the resistance 
 and friction which the line had to encounter. 
 
 The temperature of the sea at various depths Was sea tem- 
 frequently taken, and registered with that of the atmosphere 
 at the time of observation. The instruments used were 
 Six's thermometers, which were compared before placing Method 
 
 practised. 
 
 * On informing Dean Buckland that one of these air-tubes was crushed 
 quite flat under a pressure of about 300 fathoms, he suggested that the 
 cylinder should be fortified by the introduction of transverse plates, acting 
 on the principle of the chambered portion of the shells of Nautili and Am- 
 monites. (See his Bridgewater Treatise, vol. u, j>j>. 845 and 349.) 
 
392 HEIGHTS OF MOUNTAINS. 
 
 them in the cylindrical copper cases attached to a white 
 line by which they were immersed, and the index-floats 
 duly noted. By these experiments we established various 
 local peculiarities, which have been mentioned in the pre- 
 ceding pages; but could advance nothing in favour of 
 Colonel Williams' theory of ' Thermometrical Navigation/ 
 Both in our shore-surveys and in sailing along the 
 
 Heights. coasts, we always noticed the heights of the mountains ; 
 but though our observations were corrected for refraction of 
 light and the curvature of the earth, they lay no claim to 
 great precision, being taken merely for the direction of the 
 navigator, by thus affording him pretty fair means of know- 
 ing his distance from the shore. Some were settled from 
 the offing by their angular heights, with a reflecting instru- 
 ment and a patent-log base ; others on land by the barometer, 
 the boiling-water point, their zenith distances, and some by 
 observing their depressions to the horizon : still the results 
 were all entered only as available approximations. And it 
 should be mentioned that they are estimated above what is 
 termed the ' level of the sea/ which, however, is not so 
 uncertain in the Mediterranean as in those waters which 
 experience the elevations and depressions of greater tidal 
 power. 
 
 Meteoro- The meteorological phenomena were constantly noted 
 
 and duly recorded with those instruments which we had at 
 command — namely, the barometers, sympiesometer, thermo- 
 meters, and hygrometer, which were subjected to as few 
 disturbing influences as possible : in order to avoid inter- 
 ference with our other various duties, the regular time of 
 observing those instruments was fixed for 8 A.M., when the 
 chronometers were wound up and compared ; and the 
 observations required for correcting the refraction, we took 
 when the astronomical operations which called for the cor- 
 rection were in hand. These registers aided very materially 
 the conclusions recorded in Part III. of this work, and I am 
 satisfied that the study of these matters is equally important 
 
 logy. 
 
BROAD CORRECTIONS. 393 
 
 to seamanship, agriculture, personal comfort, and medical 
 science. 
 
 Such was the adopted routine, and though greater ex- Remark, 
 pertness might be found, it is hoped that it would have 
 proved difficult to exhibit more zeal and perseverance. In 
 so extensive a range of operations, and such a mass of trou- 
 blesome arithmetical calculations, errors are unavoidable, 
 though none, it is trusted, have crept in which can materially 
 affect the accepted results ; for these a liberal allowance 
 will be made by those who have learned from experience 
 the complex difficulties of such an undertaking. Other sur- 
 veyors, with more time, better means, and a longer practice 
 of the art, will improve the details from time to time ; but 
 I believe the coasts are now so approximately thrown into 
 their proper form, that courses may be confidently shaped by 
 them, which, it will be recollected, was very far from being 
 the case when this survey was commenced. For instance, 
 in the most important channel which divides the Mediter- Former 
 ranean Basins, the island of Pantellaria bore S.E. of Mare- 
 timo on the charts supplied by the Admiralty until 1820, 
 whereas it is actually S. by W. : and again, on entering the 
 Adriatic, and shaping a course by the isle of Fano, its very 
 portal, to Cape Linguetta, in Albania, that course would be 
 K 17° E. by the Admiralty chart, but it is really N. 5° W. ; 
 so that a ship trusting to the official documents at night, 
 and not exerting the restless vigilance which characterizes 
 true seamanship, would run on shore under the Acro- 
 ceraunian cliffs. 
 
 An attempt was also made to delineate the general topo- Drawing of 
 graphical features of the coasts and harbours, and it is 
 hoped that the endeavour was not unattended with success : 
 still it is not possible, under what may be termed rather a 
 revision than a survey, to meet the local knowledge of every 
 critical observer on the spot. Public works demand, it is 
 true, strict examination, but hyper-criticism only warps the 
 judgment, and gives attention a wrong direction ; indeed, in 
 
394 
 
 CONCLUDING EEMARKS. 
 
 Harsh 
 critics. 
 
 Liebig. 
 
 most cases it is just as unfair to catch up an accidental and 
 unimportant omission, as was the supercilious conduct of 
 that Greek who found fault with a map of Greece as in- 
 correct and useless, because his father's house in Athens was 
 not noted on it ! Such carpers must be reminded, in the 
 words of Liebig, that our duty really is, not to point at the 
 supposed blemishes of others, but to labour onwards in the 
 cause of accuracy ourselves : ' It is startling/ says he, ' when 
 we observe that all the time and energy of genius, talent, 
 and knowledge are expended in endeavours to demonstrate 
 each other's errors.' 
 
 Remark. 
 
 
 My charts have long been in the hands of the service, 
 and have been used by the fleets of all nations ; they there- 
 fore are open to the most stringent criticism of professional 
 men. The foregoing strictures should, however, be kept in 
 view the while, in order that the nature of my intentions 
 may be understood ; and to this may be added, that, as far 
 as concerns myself, I only regretted, on quitting the Medi- 
 terranean at the close of 1824, with the enlarged means and 
 experience we then possessed, that I could not begin the 
 whole of my work again. Regrets, however, at not having 
 attained a higher degree of perfection, are now unavailing ; 
 this part must, therefore, be closed with a catalogue of the 
 sheets of surveys which I handed in to the Admiralty, and 
 which have, with a few exceptions, been long engraved and 
 published in a form not very different from the following 
 enumeration of the manuscripts : — 
 
 General 
 Chart. 
 
 A chart of the western division of the Mediterranean Sea, on a scale of 
 31-I geographical miles to an inch, or about 230 q 600 to nature {see page 
 373). Under the title the following note, somewhat bearing upon the whole 
 survey, is appended : — 'The basis of this chart is grounded on an entire new 
 series of determinations by Captain Smyth, from astronomical, chronome- 
 trical, and geodetical operations. The details of the coasts of France and 
 Spain, with their dependant islands, are in great part from the charts of 
 Tofino, Cassini, and Hell ; and other most authentic documents, examined 
 and corrected on the spot. The west coast of Italy and its islands are new 
 
CATALOGUE OF THE SURVEY. 
 
 395 
 
 surveys, in the execution of which much assistance was rendered/ in the 
 vicinity of Naples, by Colonel Visconti. The Adriatic Sea is constructed 
 from the united operations of the Austrian, Neapolitan, and English officers, 
 employed under Colonels Campana and Visconti, and Captain Smyth. The 
 coast of Africa is laid down under such examinations as circumstances per- 
 mitted, by Captain Smyth and his officers ; and the whole intervening sea 
 has been examined and sounded with so much attention, as to leave little 
 probability of any unmarked danger existing. The reported shoals marked 
 with a note of interrogation have not yet been found, though frequently 
 sought for ; but are still under search by the tender which Captain Smyth 
 left in the Mediterranean for that purpose.' 
 
 Plan of the bay, harbour, and environs of Cadiz, with a view of the 
 Alameda, on a scale of 56 q 00 , or fths of a mile to an inch. 
 
 Spain. 
 
 The Strait of Gibraltar, on a scale of n^o <>o j or 1|" miles to the inch ; 
 with views of the land from the Cabezos shoal, to the west of Tarifa. 
 
 IV. 
 
 The Rock of Gibraltar ( 12 fl 00 , or ^-th of a mile to an inch) ; with a view 
 of the new mole-head, Ape's Hill and Ceuta in the distance. 
 
 General chart of the coast of Spain, from Gibraltar to Alicant, and the 
 opposite shores of Barbary ( 010 1 000 , or 12^ miles to one inch) ; with plans 
 of Malaga, Almeria, Port Genovds, San Pedro, Carbonera Bay, Port Aguilas, 
 Melillah, and Alboran; the general scale of the first six being 40 ^ 00 , or 
 §rds of a mile to one inch. 
 
 VI. 
 
 The harbour of Cartagena (^wfj or f * n8 °f a mue *° an inch), with two 
 views; and the Columbretes Rocks (aao ' oo * or about |-rd of a mile to one 
 inch), with two views of them. 
 
 VII. 
 
 A sheet of Spanish ports — namely, Turilla Bay, Peniscola, Calpe, Altea 
 Bay, Isle Grosa, and Alicant ; the last on a scale of 40000 ? or § r( l s °f a mue 
 to an inch. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 General chart of the coast of Spain, from Alicant to Palamos and the 
 Baleares ( aar/ooo ? or about 12 miles to an inch) ; with plans of Barcelona, 
 Tarragona, Grao of Valencia, Port Iviza ( y!< ooo )> Palma Bay ( ,^ ), and 
 Port Cabrera ( 12 \ . , - , ). 
 
 IX. 
 
 Plan of the harbour and environs of Port Mahon, in Minorca, on a scale 
 of T 1 5 00 , or about ^th of a geographical mile to one inch ; with a view of 
 Lazzaretto isle. 
 
 General chart of the south coast of France, and part of Catalonia, on a y I{ VN(1 . 
 
 scale of in 
 
 or about 9$ miles to an inch; with plans of Calliourc, 
 
 Vendres, Cadaques, Tusa, Blanes, and Palamos. 
 
396 
 
 CATALOGUE OF THE SURVEY. 
 
 Fjrance . 
 
 XI. 
 
 The coast of France, from the mouth of the Ehone to Eiou isle, containing 
 the gulfs of Foz and Marseilles dnmnr* or ]i mile to the inch) ; with a view 
 of Planier lighthouse. 
 
 XII. 
 
 The port and roads of Marseilles ( 15 ^ 00 , or ^th of a mile to an inch) ; and 
 the Cassidaigne Eock ( oo ^ 60 , or about fths of a mile to the inch), with views 
 of Cassis and the Bee de 1 Aigle. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 The harbour and road of Toulon, with the adjacent coast, on a scale of 
 s-oooo ; or nearly one mile to an inch. 
 
 XIV. 
 
 Chart of the coast of France, from the Peninsula of Giens to Cape Eoux, 
 or from Hieres Bay to the Gulf of Frejus ( lao 1 000 , or If miles to an inch) ; 
 with a view of the fort on Port Cross island. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 Chart of the coast of France and Italy, from Cape Eoux to Monaco (j-wwu^t 
 or one mile to an inch) ; with a view of the Lerins isles from Cannes, and a 
 plan of Monaco (-^hnr)- 
 
 XVI. 
 
 The harbour of Villa Franca and its vicinity, on a scale of l3 ^ 50 , or ith 
 of a mile to one inch ; with views of the town and castle of Villa Franca and 
 the city of Nice. 
 
 Chart of the coast of Italy, from Ventimiglia to Piombino, or the Gulf of 
 
 Gallinara ( a8 £ 6o ), Gorgona ( n 5oo) > and Finale (yu-brr). 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 A sheet of plans, containing the road and vicinity of Vado, the Bay of 
 Noli, and Porto Maurizio, each on a scale of $4500 , or about £rd of a mile 
 to one inch. 
 
 XIX. 
 
 A sheet of plans, containing Genoa harbour (toutf); w ^h a view of the 
 lighthouse ; with Porto Fino and Sestri a Levante, on a scale of ^ 4 5 06 , or ^rd 
 of a mile to the inch. 
 
 xx. 
 
 The Gulf of Spezia ( 28 ^ 06 ), and a plan of the road, town, and environs of 
 Via Eeggio ( 84: % 00 -, or 1|- mile to one inch). 
 
 A sheet of plans, containing Capraja island ( 60 ^ 60 ) , the Mouth of the 
 Arno (37000) * an( ^ the town and road of Leghorn on a scale of a6 Q 00 , or 
 about \ a mile to one inch. 
 
 XXII. 
 
 General chart of the west coast of Italy, from Piombino to Civita Vecchia, 
 and the Tuscan Islands (rs7nnnr> or about 3f miles to the inch) ; with plans 
 of Pianosa isle ( S5 ooe )> Fort Campo ( 48 !oo) j Piombino ( 50 ooo )j Formicheof 
 - 1 —j), and Gianuti isle ( 50 ooo)- 
 
CATALOGUE OF THE SURVEY. 
 
 397 
 
 A sheet of plans, containing Giglio island, on a scale of 
 
 or about Italy. 
 
 fths of a mile to the inch ; Palmajola Channel (^ 
 ( -2 ±1 oo ), Porto Ferrajo ( lg l 60 ), and Orbitello. 
 
 rv), Porto Longone 
 
 General chart of the west coast of Italy, from Civita Vecchia to the Gulf 
 of Naples ( 3(i5 1 000 , or about 5-| miles to an inch) ; with plans of Terracina 
 
 Uiloo) , Porto d'Anzo ( ia £ 60 ) , and Civita Vecchia ( l3 ooo )- 
 
 XXV. 
 
 The Ponza Islands, on a scale of 85 ^ 0o , or 1^- geographical miles to the 
 inch; with views of Zannone and Capo di Guardia, and a plan of Port 
 Madonna ( 10 % so ). 
 
 XXVI. 
 
 The Crater or Gulf of Naples, and its islands ( d d 1 -, or 1|- geographical 
 miles to one inch) ; with views of Ischia and Capri. 
 
 General chart of the west coast of Italy from Naples to Cape Vaticano 
 (scale -<nnnrtnr> or about 8f- miles to an inch) ; with plans of i Galli Rocks 
 ( 23300 ); Psestum in Agropoli Bay ( 60 ooo ); and D" 10 Isl e a nd Bay ( att | 00 ). 
 
 xxvin. 
 The island of Corsica, with the Tuscan islands (gmnnnr? or °r m iles to Corsica. 
 the inch) ; with plans of San Fiorenzo, Isola Rossa, Calvi, Porto Vecchio, 
 and Bastia (each on the scale 42500 )- 
 
 XXIX. 
 
 A sheet with a plan of the Gulf of Ajaccio, on a scale of ± a * yp ; and the 
 Road of Capo Corso ( i6 g 00 ) , with two views of the land. 
 
 The Strait of Bonifaccio, between Corsica and Sardinia ( Sd l 6 - 6 -, or nearly 
 a mile to an inch) ; with plans of Lavezzi and its rock, the harbour of Boni- 
 faccio, and the isle of Cavallo. 
 
 XXXI. 
 
 A general chart of the island of Sardinia, on a scale of 610 1 d00 , or 7 miles Sardinia. 
 to an inch ; with small plans of Port Longo Sardo and the Bay of Tortoli. 
 
 XXXII. 
 
 The Gulf of Asmara, on the north-west coast of Sardinia (j 
 
 or !• 
 
 miles to the inch) ; with a plan of the Road of Porto Torres, and a view of 
 Castel Sardo. 
 
 XXXIII. 
 The north-east coast of Sardinia and its adjacent islands ^hyu> or about 
 1^ miles to one inch) ; with plans of Maddalena and Porto Cervo, and a view 
 of Capo dell' Urso. 
 
398 
 
 CATALOGUE OF THE SURVEY. 
 
 XXXIV. 
 
 Sardinia. A sheet of Sardinian ports — namely, Ports Conte and Alghero ( 82 ooo )> 
 
 with a view of Capo della Caccia; the Channel of San Pietro ( a2 ^ 06 ), with 
 a view of Point Colonne ; and Cagliari Bay ( 2 ^ 00 ), with a view of the city 
 from the anchorage. 
 
 xxxv. 
 The south coast of Sardinia, on a scale of 2 ^ g 1 ^ 6 , or about 3§- miles to 
 the inch ; with views of San Pietro, and the G-allo Rock, off the west point 
 of San Pietro. 
 
 xxxvi. 
 Sicily. A general chart of Sicily, Malta, the adjacent islands, and parts of Italy, 
 
 Sardinia, and Africa. Scale sWuinj"* or aDOU t Hi miles to one inch. 
 
 XXXVII. 
 
 A map of Sicily, on a scale of 5l5 1 000 , or 7 miles to the inch ; reduced 
 and corrected from Baron Schmettau's large manuscript map on thirty sheets, 
 lent me by the Sicilian government. 
 
 XXXVIII. 
 
 Chart of the west coast of Sicily, and the iEgadean islands ( ia8 1 000 , or 
 2f geographical miles to the inch) ; with part of the gulf of Castell'a mare. 
 
 xxxix. 
 
 A sheet of coast views : — 1. From the shoal off Cape San Vito. 
 the shoal off Emilia point. 3. Trapani from the Asinello rock. 4, 
 from the outer shoal. 5. The town of Mazzara from the roads. 
 
 2. From 
 Marsala 
 
 The anchorages and vicinity of Trapani, on a scale of aeloo , or about 1^ 
 miles to an inch ; with views of Maretimo Castle and the Saracenic tower on 
 Mount St. Julian, and an ancient coin of Eryx for identity of site. 
 
 Chart of the north coast of Sicily and the adjacent islands (^xnnnr? or 
 6^ miles to the inch) ; with views of the rock of Scylla and the Faro point. 
 
 Plan of the island of Ustica ( 28 86o ) ; with a view of the bay and town of 
 Santa Maria, in the same island, and an ancient coin ascribed to it. 
 
 XLIII. 
 
 Plan of the environs and gulf of Palermo (rxinnrj or about one mile to 
 an inch) ; with views of Cape Di Gallo and Cape Zaffarano, and an ancient 
 coin of Soluntum. 
 
 XLIV. 
 
 Plan of the bay and city of Palermo, on a scale of 15 q ( )0 , or about 3-th 
 of a mile to an inch ; with a view of the Ponte dell'Ammiraglio over the 
 Oretus, and an ancient coin of Panormus for identity of site. 
 
CATALOGUE OF THE SURVEY. 399 
 
 XLV. 
 
 A sheet of coast views : — 1. Bay of Palermo. 2. Cefalu bearing east by Sicily 
 south five miles distant. 3. The channel between Sicily and the iEolian 
 Islands. 4. Distant views of the entrance into the Faro Channel. 
 
 XL VI. 
 
 Plan of the Lipari group, or iEolian Islands, on the north coast of Sicily ; 
 to a scale of l45 1 000 , or about two miles to the inch. 
 
 XLVII. 
 
 Plan of the bay of Lipari ( a0 ^ 60 ), with an ancient coin of the island, and 
 a view of the city of Lipari. Plan of Olivieri Bay ( 17 ^ 00 ), with an ancient 
 coin of Tyndaris, and a view of Cape Tindaro. 
 
 XL VIII. 
 
 A sheet of coast views: — 1. The channel between the islands of Lipari 
 and Vulcano. 2. Panaria, Basiluzzo, &c, and Stromboli, from Exmouth 
 Bank. 3. The iEolian Islands as seen from the Penrose Pocks. 4. The Strait 
 of Messina, from the anchorage on the shoal off the Faro point. 
 
 XLLX. 
 
 The city, bay, and promontory of Milazza, on a natural scale of 11 ^ ))(> , 
 or about £th of a mile to one inch ; with a view of the town and castle, from 
 near the Tonnara. 
 
 L. 
 
 A general chart of the east coast of Sicily and the south part of Calabria. 
 Scale aoVooo * or ^ our miles to the inch. 
 
 LI. 
 
 Plan of the Faro or Strait of Messina ( ^ 00 , or f-ths of a geographical 
 mile to an inch) ; with a view of Scilla Castle. 
 
 LIT. 
 
 Plan of the city and harbour of Messina, on a scale of ^/ 00 , or about 
 ^th of a mile to the inch. An ancient coin of Messina for identity of site 
 and symbol 
 
 LIII. 
 
 A sheet of coast views : — 1. The city and harbour of Messina. 2. Mount 
 iEtna, as seen from off Schisb point. 3. View of the Cyclop islets. 4. The 
 city and port of Catania. 
 
 LIV. 
 
 Plan of the bay and environs of Taormina Goooo ) ; with views of the city 
 of Taormina and Schisb point, and ancient coins of Tauromenium and Naxos. 
 
 LV. 
 
 inch) ; with a view of the town and Torre d'Avola lighthouse, and a coil] of 
 the ancient Megara. 
 
400 CATALOGUE OF THE SURVEY. 
 
 LVI. 
 
 Sicily. The city, harbour, and environs of Syracuse, on a natural scale of l3 ^ 06 , 
 
 or about ^-th of a mile to the inch ; with a view of the port from the temple 
 of Jupiter Olympius, and two ancient coins for identity of site. 
 
 LVII. 
 
 A sheet of coast views: — 1. The port and castle of La Bruca. 2. The 
 city and port of Syracuse. 3. Cape Passaro bearing south-south-east about 
 six miles. 4. The town and road of Alicata. 
 
 LVIII. 
 
 General chart of the south coast of Sicily ( gs^ooo ? or 5^-th miles to one 
 inch.) ; with a plan of Alicata, and views of Cape Passaro from off the ton- 
 nara, and from the south. 
 
 LIX. 
 
 Plan of the city, environs, and anchorage of Girgenti ( 5 ^ 00 , or about 
 |- a mile to an inch) ; with a view of the city from the temple of iEsculapius, 
 a coin of Agrigentum for identity, and another of the tyrant Phintias. 
 
 LX. 
 A sheet of coast views: — 1. The mole of Girgenti, as seen from the 
 temple of the Virgins. 2. Appearance of the south-west point of Sicily. 
 3. The island of Pantellaria. 4. Cape Dimitri, off Goza. 5. Appearance 
 of Malta and Goza when passing Comino. 
 
 LXI. 
 
 The town and port of Pantellaria (55*00 ), with a view of the town, and an 
 ancient coin of Cossyra ; also a plan of the harbour of Lampedusa on a 
 natural scale of y^j-g-. 
 
 LXII. 
 
 Plan of the island of Linosa ( aa ^ 00 , or \ a mile to an inch), with a view 
 of its south coast; and a plan of Lampedusa and Lampion on a scale of 
 
 Maltese 
 
 lxiii. 
 Hydro-geographic map of the Maltese islands and rocks, on a natural 
 
 islands, scale of a4 % 00 , or one ^ mile to one inch. 
 
 LXIV. 
 
 Plan of St. Paul's Bay ( d ^e>6 ) or "11 mile to an inch) ; with a view of 
 the tower and battery on Koura point, and a view of the Salmona palace. 
 
 LXV. 
 The city, towns, fortifications, and harbours of Valetta, on a natural scale 
 of s^g, or "12 mile to an inch ; with a view of the castle and lighthouse of 
 Sant' Elmo, one of the castle of Sant' Angelo, and a third of Valetta from a 
 distance. 
 
 LXVI. 
 
 Plan o Marsa Scirocco bay (g-^nr, or 013 mile to the inch) ; with a view 
 of its commanding fortress, St. Lucian's tower-redoubt. 
 
CATALOGUE OF THE SURVEY. 401 
 
 General chart of the south-east coast of Italy, from Cape Spartivento Calabria. 
 round Cape Santa Maria di Leuca, and into the Adriatic to Polignano 
 ( ovo^oo ? or nearly 8 miles to an inch); with plans of Cotrone (- 8 -/ 61T ), Taranto 
 ( aaooo) , and GaUipoli ( 5a | 00 )- 
 
 LXVIII. 
 
 A sheet containing plans of the harbour of Brindisi ( 31 ^ 50 , or "44 mile Naples 
 to the inch), the port of Otranto ( 35 ooo )> an d the Tremiti or Diomedeae isles east. 
 ^ 30 5 00 , or '41 mile to an inch). 
 
 LXIX. 
 
 General chart of the east coast of Italy, from Monopoli and Polignano to 
 Fossaceca (xuinnnr)> or §\ miles to one inch ; with plans of Barletta. ( 32 ooo) > 
 Viesti ( 24; Y6o ), Manfredonia ( 2e ^ 00 ), and Pianosa Rock ( a0 £ 00 ). 
 
 LXX. 
 
 General chart of the east coast of Italy, from Fossaceca to Rimino, on a p APAIj 
 natural scale of ■ 4 oo 1 ooo > or nearly 5\ miles to the inch ; with plans of Ortona States. 
 (i706o )> Fano ( 2 ^ 00 ), Rimino ( 2 . 22 - o), Fesaro ( 30 ooo) > Sinigaglia ( 22 £ o )> 
 and Porto Nuovo ( 4 6ooo )- 
 
 LXXI. 
 
 Plan of the city, fortifications, and port of Ancona, on a natural scale of 
 12 ±oo > or '17 mile to the inch ; with a general view of the citadel and mole 
 as seen from off Mount Conero. 
 
 LXXII. 
 
 General chart of the coasts of Italy and Istria, from Kimino to Cape Pro- y EN1CE . 
 montore (a-roinro or ^'8 miles to one inch). This comprehends the north 
 part of the Adriatic Sea, and is locally termed the Gulf of Venice. 
 
 A sheet containing a particular plan of Venice and its anchorages 
 (•sttsutt) j Porto di Chioggia on the same scale ; and the free-port of Trieste 
 d 2 ooo )- With a view of the city and the Porporello, from the anchorage 
 off Malamocco. 
 
 LXXIV. 
 
 A sheet of Istrian ports — namely, Pirano ( 4 ^? 06 ), Omago ( T - s -g ir!T ) , ports Istria. 
 Quieto and Cittanova ( 2 ^ 00 ), Parenzo ( 11250 ), Orsera and the Lemo Canale 
 to Rovigno (irrhni)* antl Port Veruda ( 20 ooo )- 
 
 The harbours of Fasana and Pola, with the Brioni islands, on a scale of 
 2 ofloo to nature, or *27 mile to an inch ; and a view of the amphitheatre 
 and watering-place. 
 
 LXXVI. 
 
 A general chart of the coasts of Croatia and Dalmatia, from Cape Pro- Croatia. 
 montore to Slozella, comprehending the Quarnero, Quarnerolo, Morlacca, 
 Maltempo, and Zara channels, on a scale of g^po , or 4*8 miles to the inch ; 
 with plans of Kerso (vr$w)> Porio Re (To~hn>)> San Pietro di Nembo (^ \ ,-, „), 
 and Unie Bay ( 34000 )- 
 
 D D 
 
402 
 
 CATALOGUE OF THE SURVEY. 
 
 LXXVII. 
 Dalmatia. A sheet containing ports of Croatia and Dalmatia — namely, Port Au- 
 gusto, in Lossin Piccolo ( 29 50o ) Port Beguglia ( 5 ^oo) > with a view of 
 Bianche lighthouse, Zara and its harbour (ows)* the strait of Pasman 
 ( 39 io o)> Morter Canale Gnmnr), and Port Tajer ( 46 £ 60 ) . 
 
 Plan of Port Sebenico, with the outer channels and Vodizze road ( 64 ooo )? 
 the port of Ragosnitza ( 6y o o) ; and the bay of Spalatro (hqoo )- 
 
 LXXIX. 
 
 General chart of the coast of Dalmatia, from Zara Vecchia to Ragusa 
 Vecchia (^^soo ? or ^f- miles to the inch) ; with plans of Pelagosa rocks 
 (uwutt)* an( l P or ts Lago and Rosso on Lagosto island ( 66 5 00 ). 
 
 A sheet of Dalmatian ports, containing Lessina and its Canale (rrtnnr) > 
 Port S. Giorgio in Lissa ( 20 g 66 ) ; Valle grande of Curzola ( e22o0 ) ; the 
 Canale di Curzola (rrrsTnr) > T or t Milna of Brazza, in the canale di Spalatro 
 
 (3 9 o rg) '■> an( l Rorto Palazzo in Meleda (? 
 
 LXXXI. 
 
 Ragusa and the Kalamota channels, with the rocks and bay of Ragusa 
 Vecchia. On a natural scale of ^floo , or about one mile to a linear inch. 
 
 LXXXII. 
 
 Albania. General chart of the coast of Albania, from Ragusa Vecchia to Port 
 
 Palermo, with a part of the opposite coast of Italy (tstottoj 
 the inch), and an enlarged sketch of the coves under Kimara. 
 
 or 61- miles to 
 
 Plan of the gulf of Cattaro (Bocche di Cattaro), on a natural scale of 
 7(i 5 00 , or about one geographical mile to an inch, with a plan of Porto di 
 Budua ( ailoo) ? an( i ^ ne ^ e 0I> S. Niccolb. 
 
 LXXXIV. 
 
 A sheet of Albanian ports — namely, Antivari bay ( 59 q 06 ), Dulcigno 
 road (42500) * Durazzo bay ( 82 £ 00 ) , Aulona or Valona bay (x^nnr)? Port 
 Palermo (^J^), and Parga { TW ^). 
 
 Ionian General chart of the channels of Corfu, with the adjacent coast of Albania 
 
 Islands, ( ag^ooo? or about 3^ miles to an inch) ; with plans of Alipa and San Mccolo 
 in Yhapades bay ( 2Q ^ 00 ), Port Gayo in Paxo (r^nnr)? and Port Laka in the 
 same island ( 21 | 60 ). 
 
 LXXXVI. 
 
 The town and road of Corfu, with the environs from Ulysses rock to 
 Porto Govino, on a scale of 2e ^ 00 , or ^ of a mile to a linear inch ; with views 
 of the town and citadel. 
 
CATALOGUE OF THE SURVEY. 403 
 
 LXXXVH. 
 
 General chart of the central Ionian Islands, with the opposite coast of Ionian 
 Greece from Parga to the mouth of the Alpheius, with the gulfs of Arta and Islands. 
 Patras (rsTnnnr)* or ^r mues to an inch) ; with four views from particular 
 points. 
 
 A sheet of Ionian ports, containing Santa Maura and its vicinity ( 70 ^ 00 ), 
 Port Vliko in Leucadia ( 52 ^ 60 ), Dragamesti and the Echinades ( 7( ^ 60 ), 
 Port Vathi in Ithaca ( 15 ooo )> E Qr t Argostoh in Cephalonia, with two views 
 ( 111 1 o00 ), and Zante Bay ( aiS g 60 ) , with a view of the bay from the lazzaretto. 
 
 A general chart of the west coast of the Morea, from Gastouni river to Morea. 
 the Gulf of Koron ( 25 / 0Q0 ), or 3 §- miles to the inch) ; with a plan and view 
 of the Stamfane or Strivali rocks ( 65 q 00 ), and Mothoni or Modon, Port 
 Longona of Sapienza, and the road of Koron, each on a scale of a2 ^ 00 . 
 
 Plan of the town and harbour of Navarin, or Neo Kastro, with the 
 Paled Kastro or ancient Pylus, on a natural scale of 37 ^ 00 , or half a geo- 
 graphical mile to the inch. 
 
 xci. 
 
 General chart of the coast of the Morea, from Venetico Island to Kyparisi, 
 with the Cervi and Cerigo channels into the Archipelago ( 250 1 000 , or 3§ 
 miles to the inch). Also plans of Port Nikolo in Cerigo ( a6 ^ 00 ) , Kapsali 
 bay in Cerigo (-0-5^- 
 mile to an inch. 
 
 Chart of the coast of Egypt, from Al Awa'id to the Rosetta mouth of the Egvpt. 
 Nile dzmnnnr* or about 3 miles to the inch) ; with views of Abukeer Castle, 
 and the Arab's Tower. 
 
 Plan of the city, environs, and harbours of Alexandria, on a scale of 
 scooo j or £ of a mile to the inch; with the Pharos enlarged {-^- TS ), and a 
 view of it. Also a view of Alexandria from the anchorage. 
 
 General chart of the north coast of Africa, from Alexandria to Ras al 
 Kalal (t 2 7 6oo o> or 17£ miles to an inch); with plans of Ras al Halal 
 Gimnnr)* R as et T y n (rshnr)> Marsa Tel)ruk (st^ott), Dernah (yshnr) ', a,1(1 
 Ishailah rocks, Marsa Labeit, and Marsa Mahadda, each Tnnroiro> or %t 
 inches to a mile. 
 
 xcv. 
 
 Plan of the Gulf of Bombah and tbe adjacent isles, on a natural BCale of 
 salvo , or 7 'tlis of a mile to a linear inch ; with a view of Bhurd&h Isle from 
 the north-east. 
 
 I) 1) 2 
 
404 
 
 CATALOGUE OF THE SURVEY. 
 
 XCVI. 
 
 Tripoli. General chart of the coast of Barbary from Marsa Susah to Misratah, 
 
 forming the Gulf of Sidra or Greater Syrtis (x asoooo ? or about 18^- miles to 
 an inch). On this sheet are also plans of Marsa Bureigah (^j), Gharah 
 Rocks (iinmnr)* Benghazi (n^), Marsa Susah {^m), Tolmeitah ( 29 | 00 ), 
 and Marsa Zafran ( i4 | 00 ) . 
 
 A general chart of the coast of Barbary, from Melhafah in the Syrtis to 
 Karkarish on the west of Tripoli (^cnnju-j or &h miles to the inch) ; with a 
 plan and view of the ruins of Leptis Magna ( 84 ooo )? and Marsa Ugrah 
 
 (soooo)' 
 
 XCVIII. 
 
 The harbour and environs of Tripoli, on a scale of 15 e ()0 , or \ 
 an inch ; with a view of the fortifications from the outer roads, 
 from the middle of the harbour. 
 
 of a mile to 
 and another 
 
 XCIX. 
 
 Tunis. A general chart of the coast of Barbary, from Ras al Amrah in Tripoli to 
 
 Tabulbah in Tunis, including the Gulf of Khabs or Lesser Syrtis ( r 6 o a ooo ? 
 or about 10^ miles to the inch) ; with plans of the Bukal channel of Jerbah 
 Wo o o) > and Tripoli Vecchio (mmm)- 
 
 General chart of the coast of Barbary, from Cape Africa in Tunis to the 
 
 Fratelli rocks (g 
 
 or 6% miles to the inch) ; with 
 
 or Africa city ( 95 | 00 ) , and another of the Fratelli rocks ( : 
 
 plan of Mehediah 
 ihnj), or about 
 
 f ths of a mile to an inch. 
 
 A sheet of Tunisian ports, containing the Bay of Bizertah, the details of 
 Cape Bon, Monastir Bay and the Kuriah Isles, and the lake and environs of 
 Tunis, with the vestiges of Carthage ; the last on a natural scale of 94 oo o> 
 or 1^ of a geographical mile to one inch. 
 
 CII. 
 
 Algeria. A sheet of Barbary plans, namely, the port and isle of Tabarkah, ^ of a 
 
 mile to one inch ; the bay and beaches of Ustorah, and the Galita Islands, 
 the last on a scale of 2^250 ? or ^ of a mile to an inch ; with a view of Galita 
 and Galitona. 
 
 General chart of the coast of Barbary, from the Fratelli rocks of Tunis to 
 the Pisan rocks of Algeria ( fe50 x 5() - , or nearly 9 miles to an inch) ; with plans 
 of Bujeyah ( l5 /oo6 )> tne Fisan rocks ( 32 ooo )> Port Jigeli (grijw); Kolah 
 ( 72 % 00 ) , Al Kal'ah cove d^oo) and Bonah bay (rWinnr)- Also views of 
 Cape Carbon and the Pisan rocks, and the town and castle of Bonah. 
 
 civ. 
 A general chart of the coast of Barbary, from Bujeyah in Algeria to the 
 Zaphran Isles on the coast of Morocco ( nolooo ) '■> with plans of the cove at 
 
REMARK OX THE SURVEY. 405 
 
 Sidi Ferej, and the port of Waharan (r^y^nr)- Th* 3 remainder of the coast of Morocco. 
 Barbary, from the Zaphran Isles to the Atlantic Ocean, is on plate No. V. 
 
 A sheet with the city, bay, and environs of Algiers ( 58 y oo )> an( ^ ^ ne 
 Zaphran Isles, the scale of the latter being ^soo ; or about '15 mile to one 
 inch; with two views, one of the city of Algiers, the other of the Ja'ferei, 
 or greater Zaphran. 
 
 Such being the results of my surveys and re-examina- On the 
 tions, I am prepared to show — more in confidence than 
 presumption — that, however much these charts may fall 
 short of that fulness in detail and delicacy of finish which 
 more time and strength would have enabled us to give 
 them, they are quite equal to every reasonable requirement 
 of the navigator ; and generally also to the engineer and 
 the inquiring traveller. But that is not all : the school thus 
 formed has flourished, and my survey may be said to have My survey 
 
 extended. 
 
 been continued into the East. When Captain Copeland 
 was despatched to the Levant, two of my officers — Cooling 
 and Wolfe — were placed with him ; while Messrs. Elson and 
 West were making use of such opportunities as offered, on 
 the same station. At length my zealous e leve, Captain 
 Graves, after returning from an arduous voyage to Magellan's Captain 
 Strait under Captain P. P. King, in our old ship the Ad- 
 venture, assumed the surveying tiller in the Levant, and 
 most successfully guided an enlarged and efficient establish- 
 ment for many years. The effect of unanimity and talent 
 has been truly gratifying ; insomuch that there results a 
 mass of Archipelagan charts and plans of so high a quality 
 in detail, accuracy, and finish, that any naval officer may be 
 proud on scrutinizing them. Altogether, whatever improve- 
 ment in the art of marine surveying may yet arise, it can 
 safely be asserted that Mediterranean chartography can Prediction. 
 never again incur such reproaches as those recorded on 
 pages 354 to 356. Forty years have, indeed, worked 
 wonders in meeting the scientific wants of the seaman. 
 
406 
 
 PART V. 
 
 ON THE ORTHOGRAPHY AND NOMENCLATURE ADOPTED; 
 THE GEOGRAPHICAL POINTS — OR CO-ORDINATES OF 
 LATITUDE, LONGITUDE, AND HEIGHT — OF THE MEDITER- 
 RANEAN SHORES ; WITH THE VARIATION OF THE 
 MAGNETIC NEEDLE, AND OTHER NOTANDA. 
 
 § 1. On the Orthography and Nomenclature 
 adopted. 
 
 matter, 
 
 Geographi- TTTE have now arrived at the fundamental end and aim 
 * " of all the before-mentioned operations — namely, the 
 register of the Geographical Points by which all the former 
 Mediterranean charts are reformed ; and as this tabular 
 exhibition contains certain symbols for reference, they neces- 
 sarily require some explanation in order to obviate needless 
 subsequent repetition. 
 
 Prefatory In the first place, the attempt at reconciling the dis- 
 
 cordant orthography and even the nomenclature of islands, 
 towns, ports, and headlands, ought to be expressly stated, in 
 order to prevent misunderstanding where an apparent discre- 
 pancy occurs ; and in the identifying of ancient and modern 
 sites now offered, the reader must accept of my responsibility, 
 instead of being troubled, through a long series, with fathoms 
 of discussion and contending authorities. Thinking, with 
 Cervantes, that annotations such as those he alludes to — 
 * Goliah, Golias, or Goliat the Philistine' — rather retard 
 than illustrate, I have endeavoured to enrol only what is 
 demanded by the object in view ; and throughout the 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY AND NOMENCLATURE. 407 
 
 survey I have sought to preserve the local name in actual 
 use, the spelling of which has been as much as possible 
 fashioned by that of the inhabitants. Thus, in the coasts 
 of Spain, France, and Italy, the orthography of the natives 
 is carefully followed — except where the spelling has been so 
 Anglicized by custom, and apocope, as to have become verna- usage, 
 cularly adopted into our language ; and a departure from such 
 adaptations might be stigmatized as an affectation by correct 
 writers, however they may have become familiarized by our 
 continual intercourse with the Continent, and by the ex- 
 ample of some whose education teaches them French rather 
 than English grammar. In Greece and Barbary, on the 
 other hand, where the alphabets totally differ from our own, Differing 
 
 ti i t i • • i i i • • alphabets. 
 
 1 have declined receiving the names through any rntervening 
 channel, and have transferred, as well as obvious imperfec- 
 tions will admit, from the common pronunciation directly 
 into English. Our borrowing Eastern names through the 
 filter of other tongues of western Europe, has been both 
 absurd and mischievous ; and it is curious what singular 
 errors and misconceptions have originated from a cause 
 apparently so insignificant. 
 
 Yet although along the coasts of France and Italy I Remark 
 have almost invariably followed the French and Italian 
 nomenclature, on that of Spain a slight discretion has 
 been used where the name is not truly Spanish. That 
 language is one of the most pure in Europe, but its guttural 
 enunciation has hampered their writing of foreign terms — 
 as Guadalquiver (Wad el Kebir), Alfaques (El Fakkah), 
 Oran (Wahrdn), Mazalquiver (Marsa 'I Kebir), Algeciras 
 (Al Jezeirat*). These are certainly merely naturalized 
 words, for, as Don Quixote told Sancho, ' the name of 
 Albogues is Moorish, as are all those in our language be- 
 
 * This common word for island is usually spelt with t ; but the final h is 
 only sounded as t before a following vowel— Jeze'irat-ud-khadhr;i, the Green 
 Island, is the complete name. Jezeirat should be pronounced so as to rhyme 
 with ' fire at.' 
 

 408 ORTHOGRAPHY AND NOMENCLATURE. 
 
 Spanish ginning with al ; * but even in the old Spanish the ortho- 
 graphy is by no means uniform, and certain letters, which 
 in that language have the same sound to a Spaniard's ear, 
 are often used for each other, as b and v — c, z, s, and g — 
 and g, j, x. Some confusion has arisen, also, from our ren- 
 dering their word Monte by mountain, whereas it often 
 merely marks a copse or thicket ; and others of their geo- 
 graphical terms are incurably difficult for the mouth of a 
 foreigner, as Jaraicijo, the name of a Spanish town whence 
 the Duke of Wellington wrote his pithy letter to General 
 Eguia, in 1809, and which no one but a native ever pro- 
 nounced properly. If spelt 'Haraiceho, it might be better 
 aspirated by an Englishman at sight. 
 
 Variations in orthography are not confined to Spain ; 
 and though I have almost followed the French and Italians 
 on their own coasts, it has been with that degree of caution 
 that custom has not been violated without substantial 
 
 Names with reason. On this account no alteration in the spelling has 
 
 meaning. . . 
 
 taken place which would injure the sense, since so many 
 names have meanings — as the puntals, Olla, Cabezos, 
 Palos,and Palomas, of the Spaniards; the Seche, Fourmigues, 
 Gabiniere, of the French ; the Bonaria, Capraja, Maremme, 
 of the Italians; and the Cranae, Styli, Zancle, Ga'idero- 
 nesos, Drepanum, Myconus, Hydrussa, and Strongyle, of the 
 Greeks : not a few being derived from parts of the human 
 frame, as brow and foot of a mountain ; an arm of the sea, 
 
 * ' Yeste nombre Albogues es Morisco, comolo son todos aquellos, que en 
 nuestra lingua Castellana comiencan en AL.' While on this topic, a glance 
 may be allowed at the recent rendering of Cape Trafalgar into Head of 
 Laurels, and the consequent unnecessary compliments to Nelson. Taraf- 
 al-ghur literally means Cape Cave, or Cavern Point : taraf when rapidly 
 uttered is either tarf or traf, meaning extremity, angle, side, direction, &c. 
 Al ghdr may signify bay-tree, the ancient laurus; but it is very unlikely 
 that an Arab would call a point of land covered with laurels, taraf al 
 ghdr; and certainly, from well knowing the spot and its elemental visitations, 
 I should have strong doubts of a bay-tree's ever having grown there. That 
 both wind and sea have unceasingly attacked it for many ages, is attested by 
 its aspect and the adjacent shoals. 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY AND NOMENCLATURE. 409 
 
 and its sleeve ; a tongue of land ; a ness, or nose of land ; Italian 
 a vein of ore ; a head-l&nd, &c. The old geographers of 
 Italy, before the complete change had taken place which 
 resolved the Latin into an Italian language, were nearer to 
 our mode of writing than they are now. In the fine Por- 
 tolano of Canachi already mentioned, Legorno, Florentia, 
 and Neapolis, appear for Livorno, Firenze, and Napoli of 
 the present day ; and assuredly the classic enunciation of 
 the two last cities assimilates more with the English names 
 — also our adjective, Neapolitan — than with the modern 
 Italian. Leghorn he has even written in Greek characters, Leghorn. 
 Aeyopvo (see page 331) ; and others of the same epoch 
 (circa 1550) term it Legorne, Ligorna, and Ligorno, which 
 last was adopted by Crescentio, in 1607.* 
 
 The general rule for spelling Greek names, in the Latin Greek 
 
 & . . names. 
 
 mode, is hardly applicable to modern Greek, wherein accent 
 and emphasis are now one and the same thing, whereas an- 
 ciently accent was — as its name signifies — intonation : and 
 where the consonants and vowels have very different sounds 
 from those given to them by the ancient Greeks and Romans. 
 Well-educated Hellenians have latterly been anxious, almost 
 to affectation and pedantry, in their attempts to restore or 
 to appropriate the ancient geographical names to places 
 
 * I have been the more particular in this statement, because some of our 
 superficial linguists — following each other — have stigmatized these names as 
 being exclusively British violations of lingual purity. A floundering wit 
 asserts that though the English profess to abhor assassination, they have 
 made no scruple of murdering the names of both the Tuscan capital and its 
 seaport: ' And who,' he asks, 'would ever have thought that such a word 
 as Naples could have possibly been Anglicized from the sweet-sounding 
 Napoli?' Purdy (Mediterranean Directory, 1820, page91) has it ' Livokno, 
 the chief port of Tuscany, commonly, by the French, called Livourne; by 
 the English, Leghorn: a barbarism sanctioned by custom.' ' We will now 
 transport the reader,' says Conder {Italy, xol. iii. page 51) 'to the bustling 
 commercial city of Livorno, which John Bull only knows by the uncouth 
 Dame of Leghorn.' Even the Penny Cyclopaedia, less courteous than Mr. 
 Purdy to established right, refuses to describe the port under ' Leghorn,' 
 saying, 'see Livorno.' On referring to the modem Italian word, the 
 parentage of the former is thus made over to us: ' Livorno, called, by cor- 
 ruption, Leghorn bj the English.' 
 
410 ORTHOGRAPHY AND NOMENCLATURE. 
 
 celebrated in the annals of their classical ages. But even 
 the renowned cities of Athens, and Thebes, and Eleusis, 
 with the islands of Delos, and Lenmos, and Cos, and many 
 other time-sanctified places, of which the names have never 
 been changed nor altered since the early days of Greece, 
 have assumed such trivial appellations in maps and charts 
 as to leave few traces of their original to the eye, or at least 
 
 causes of to the ear of the experienced inquirer. These changes are 
 owing to several causes, exclusive of the operation of time 
 and the influence of a general decay in the Greek language ; 
 we may enumerate four of the most obvious : 
 
 From I. By the zeal and piety of the Christian emperors, 
 
 religious 
 
 motives, who were ever making dedications to the Virgin Mary, or 
 to angels, saints, and martyrs of the Greek Church. An 
 instance of this may be seen at Ephesus. When the 
 worship of Diana was abolished in that renowned city, its 
 temple, and the place itself, were dedicated to and named 
 after St. John the Evangelist, its first bishop. Leucadia 
 has in a similar way become "Ayia Mavpa, or Santa Maura. 
 Many other places have been christened Panagla, San 
 Giorgio, San Michele, San Demetrio : and in like manner 
 the peninsula of Athos assumed the name of "Ayiov "Opog, 
 or Monte Santo. Stavros, the Cross, has become a common 
 and respected designation. 
 
 II. By Latin or Frank Conquerors of the Eastern 
 Empire. — An example of an ancient Hellenic name 
 changed by the modern Greeks, and abruptly corrupted 
 by the Frank conquerors, occurs with respect to the island 
 of Eubcea. The modern Greeks seem to have discontinued 
 Emipus. the use of that name, and to have called the place Evpnrog, 
 Evripo, from the celebrated channel which divides it from 
 Bceotia. But when the Franks took possession of it, they 
 seem to have mistaken ug tov "Eypnrov for v "Eypnrov, call- 
 ing it first, Egripo, and then Negropon. The bridge which 
 crosses this channel, uniting Eubcea to the main land, may 
 have suggested the addition of a final syllable : and thus 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY AND NOMENCLATURE. 411 
 
 becoming Negroponte, the Black bridge, has usurped the 
 honour of Euripus. 
 
 A similar wish to assign a significant name to the 
 principal port or harbour of Athens, induced the Venetians 
 to change the name of Piraeus to Porto Dracone, and after- Porto 
 wards to Porto Leone, in allusion to the sculptured lions at 
 the extremities of the piers of the artificial harbour. So, 
 also, they degraded Mount Hymettus into Monte Matto, 
 whence the Trelo vouni, or mad mountain of the Turks. 
 The promontory of Sunium, in Attica, was called Capo 
 Colonne by the Venetians, as Phigalia is called Styli (the styii. 
 columns) by the modern Greeks, on account of the marble 
 colonnades of the temples still remaining there. So Port 
 Prasise, in Attica, gained the designation of Porto Raphti, Kaphti. 
 from a statue on an islet there which resembled a raphtis, 
 or sempstress in attitude. 
 
 The Cyclades were called by the modern Greeks Dode- 
 ka-nesi (twelve islands) ; but on the successes of the flag of 
 St. Mark they became Duca-nesi, in honour of the Dukes Duca-nesi. 
 or Doges of Venice ; and as the Isthmus of Corinth is about 
 six miles across, its name was changed to Hexamili, an Hexamiii. 
 appellation which has almost become generic for an 
 isthmus, such as that of the Thracian Chersonesus, and 
 others. 
 
 III. By the domination of the Turks. — The changes Turkish 
 superinduced by the Turkish conquerors on these corrup- 
 tions by modern Greeks and Franks, have still more dis- 
 figured the names of celebrated places. Thus Ephesus, Ephesus. 
 after having been changed into "Ayiog QeoXoyog by the 
 Greek Christians, has been corrupted by the Turks into 
 Ayasolook, to avoid sounding the y an ^ the 0. For the 
 latter reason Thessalonica was made into Saloniki. Among 
 other contractions and deprivations, they are accused of 
 having carried the abuse of the preposition ug, and the 
 accusative, in the formation of names, to its present puzzling 
 condition, by which a whole sentence i> mistaken for a 
 
412 ORTHOGRAPHY AND NOMENCLATURE. 
 
 Constan- proper name. Thus the lengthy word Constantinople was 
 reduced to r\ iroXig, the city, by way of special eminence 
 over all other cities. Besides which, the l going to town/ 
 expressed in Greek by '(tt^vttoXiv, or elg tyjv ttoXlv, pro- 
 nounced 'Stambolin, has given rise, first to the names of 
 Istambol and 'Stambol, and then to that of Islambol, which 
 in Turkish means the City of Islamism, or of the true 
 Mahometan faith.* 
 
 But perhaps the most violent change of this nature was 
 
 Lepanto. the complete substitution of the Gulf of Lepanto for the 
 Sinus Corinthiacus, which has properly been lately restored 
 
 Naupaetus. to Gulf of Corinth on our charts: Naupactus, says d' Anvil] e, 
 became Lepanto ' by a strange depravation of the name 
 Enebect, formed by the Greeks from that of Naupact' — a 
 place for building ships : so the Genoese called the Palus 
 Masotis by the name Mare delle Zabacche. A friend 
 suggests that Lepanto may only be a vulgarized corruption 
 of Levante, from its being the eastern opening, which 
 would in some degree continue the ancient name if we 
 derive that from vavg, a ship, and 7ra»cra, doors, a ship 
 channel. 
 
 Errors by IV- By the more recent corruptions of travellers, &c. — 
 
 travellers, rpj iege cons i s t f the mistakes made by such Frank sojourners 
 in the Levant as are ignorant of the orthography, pronun- 
 ciation, etymology, or grammar, of the Greek language, and 
 yet are in sufficient numbers and station to secure the 
 assumption of error. Thus also the modern Greek pilots 
 and mariners have adopted the names of places in their 
 own seas, that are most familiar to the various foreigners 
 who frequent the shores of Greece and Asia Minor; though 
 these names are a strange mixture and corruption of Hel- 
 lenic, Eomaic, Latin, Frank, and Turkish. From such 
 
 and by- 
 Greek 
 pilots. 
 
 * See the excellent Sir George Wheler's Journey to Greece (fol., Lond. 
 1681, p. 178) ; a valuable authority for its date, however faulty in illus- 
 trations. 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY AND NOMENCLATURE. 413 
 
 acquiescence many of the misnomers retain their places in 
 our charts and maps. 
 
 It is thus, even to the time of Dr. Chandler's visit, that Athens. 
 Athens seems to have been called and spelt Setines, or 
 Setenes, by the Franks, whereas it is merely a bad pronun- 
 ciation of the ancient tc 'AOrivag, or 'c 'AQr'ivag, 'to Athens/ 
 by foreigners who were not aware that it is the accusative 
 case, and who, being unable to pronounce th, substituted 
 the t for that sound. By a similar process 6rjj3cu, or other 
 'c Qvfiag, has become Stevas, or Steves. So Eleusis, or 
 \ "EXzwiva, has become Slefsina and Lefsina; Leuce is 
 Lef ke ; Lemnos, or ^grbv Ariiuvov (sub. vr\<rov), is now (sailed 
 Stalimene; Cos, or VrovKwv, is Stanchio; Delos is Standili 
 and Solili; Ithaca becomes Teaki and even Val di Com- 
 pare, and its port, Vathi. In this last it should be remem- 
 bered that B is always pronounced V by the modern Greeks, 
 the sound of B being represented by Mil in the Romaic, Greek 
 
 spelling. 
 
 so that they spell Bonaparte, MiruivaTrapTt. Thus, their 
 employing NT for our D, their A as well as G being dh or 
 th, the x a strongly aspirated H, besides the Latins having 
 substituted the C, which may be either hard or hissing, as 
 k or s, for their unmistakeable K, and other differences of 
 pronunciation and spelling, show the difficulty of represent- 
 ing the names of one language by the alphabet of another. 
 Now without violent reform, it seems that our charts would 
 be more intelligible to Levantine pilots, were Kephallonf a — 
 Vostitsa — Avlona — Tserigo — Kenkhries — and the like, to 
 be thus written, instead of Cefalonia — Vostizza — Valona — 
 Cerigo — and Cenchri. 
 
 Such are some of the causes of confusion in geographical Remark, 
 orthography and parlance, and since they followed com- 
 merce and intercourse, some of them were inevitable. But 
 the anomaly here complained of — namely, that of writing 
 the proper names of a foreign language which has a different 
 alphabet — was wilful. My own difficulties in that line in- 
 
414 
 
 ADOPTED ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 Arabic 
 names. 
 
 creased greatly along the shores of North Africa ; for though 
 I comprehended Greek sufficiently to wade through some 
 of the grosser corruptions, my knowledge of Arabic, and its 
 Moorish dialect, was small indeed. The principle to be 
 followed, therefore, was, as far as sound could guide me, to 
 write the word on the spot, using the vowels as in Italian, 
 because of the simplicity and invariability of their pronun- 
 ciation and orthography — which usage also prevails through- 
 out the south-east and centre of Europe ; and the consonants 
 as in English, each with one unchangeable sound. Having 
 My mode, thus written them to the best of my ability, I generally, 
 where a native capable of so doing was to be found, got 
 them also written in Arabic, with their significations, as a 
 means of future correction; and these, fortunately, have 
 been most carefully scrutinized by my friend, the Rev. 
 George Cecil Renouard, whose recognised knowledge of the 
 oriental languages is a guarantee for the system adopted. 
 Hence many bizarre words were erased from the charts, 
 and in those substituted, the English reading will sound so 
 as to be intelligible to the native. Indeed, in this respect 
 our enunciation favours the change, as may be instanced in 
 the Gallicized word marabou, for marabut, a saint or devotee, 
 and thence a small chapel built over his grave — the whited 
 sepulchre of St. Matthew? — to be seen on most of their 
 points and headlands, and which, instead of the full word 
 it makes in the mouth of a native, became the marraboo of 
 our sailing directions. There are many of these blunders, 
 but one may be cited ere it is quite cleared off the charts. 
 At Smyrna, in a former day, no foreign ship was allowed 
 to anchor before her boat had reported her name and nation 
 to the officer of a post on a projecting headland, where the 
 Turkish sanjak, or banner, was hoisted. This cape, there- 
 fore called Sanjak Burnu, became of consequence in the 
 charts and directories; and the French hydrographes, 
 adapting it to their own euphony, dubbed it Pointe St. 
 Jacques, the which our savans duly translated Point St. 
 
 Marabut. 
 
 Risible 
 blunder 
 
GEOLOGICAL CHANGES. 415 
 
 James, the name under which it appeared, till very lately, 
 in our Admiralty charts.* 
 
 Another cause of trouble has been the difficulty, in Changes 
 
 „ j. . ™ places. 
 
 many mstances, of assigning the exact sites of various 
 ancient places of considerable historic importance; a neces- 
 sity involved by the classical and memorable facts and 
 events of those interesting: shores. The delta of the Eh one Delta of the 
 
 ... . Rhone. 
 
 has altered surprisingly since Strabo wrote, as is readily 
 traceable. Notre Dame des Ports, a harbour in A.D. 898, 
 is now a league from the shore ; and Aigues Mortes — as 
 already stated — the sea-port whence St. Louis embarked 
 for Palestine only in 1248, has retired inland to the distance 
 of five miles (page 13). Ravenna is at present in the Ravenna, 
 midst of gardens and meadows; and Ostia is surrounded 
 by fields. The isle of Lada, where the Athenian fleet took Lada. 
 up a station in the days of Thucydides, is lost in the alluvion 
 formed by the Ma^ander ; and that of Minoa, the out-post 
 of Megara, is not now traceable, through its having become 
 part of the coast of that vicinity, — and the actual spot, as 
 reconcilable to its relations with Nicsea, is involved in the isic^a. 
 greatest uncertainty. The strong town (EniadaB, stated to 
 have been at the mouth of the Achelous in the days of 
 Thucydides, is nowhere to be found in that vicinity; and 
 there is much confusion in reconciling history and geo- 
 graphy in respect to the depositions of that river, as 
 affecting the islets of Oxise and Echinades. The identity ox\x. 
 of Sphacteria and Pylus with the vicinity of Navarino in r-yius. 
 our charts, would seem to be sufficiently obvious; but 
 scrutiny has shown the existence of various puzzling incon- 
 sistencies, for which the reader is referred to the able dis- 
 sertation of my late friend Dr. Arnold, appended to the 
 second volume of his edition of Thucydides, pp. 399 — 407, 
 
 * This will remind the reader how the authorities were puzzled to ascer- 
 tain the identity of Peter Gower, who was such an authority among Free- 
 masons in Locke's time. The name proved to be a corruption of the French 
 Pytagorc, or Pythagoras ( II vSayopag) ! 
 
416 MAKITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 which was written with my survey, on a very large scale, 
 under his eye. 
 Remark. Such conditions involved much difficulty ; but by local 
 
 examination I was able to confirm or reject the views of 
 Cluverius, Cellarius, d'Anville, and other geographers, who 
 laboured with fewer advantages than myself. 
 
 § 2. Respecting the Tabulated Points. 
 
 Table of ^PHESE being the remarks with which it was considered 
 
 positions. . . . 
 
 -*- necessary to precurse the lable of Positions, we can 
 now proceed to the principal register of my undertaking; 
 trusting that, although — as in everything human — there 
 will be yet a more delicate precision obtained, my deter- 
 minations may — combined with those of Captain Gauttier 
 — substantially constitute the Mediterranean landmarks 
 of the nineteenth century. And indeed, it is not a little 
 satisfactory to find that they have now been in constant 
 use among navigators of all nations, for upwards of a 
 quarter of a century, without any material alteration or 
 correction having been made or even suggested. A proof is 
 therefore afforded, that however short they may be of abso- 
 lute perfection, they are relatively correct; a condition 
 which meets the true demand of navigation. 
 Arrange- The Register, or table of these maritime points, has 
 
 been diligently arranged, and the information which it 
 contains is pretty fully expressed, although in as condensed 
 a form as was deemed desirable. It may be observed in 
 explanation, that where the positions are assumed from 
 numerous observations, those results were rejected whose 
 mean was very discordant with the extreme terms ; earnestly 
 hoping, that whatever acme of perfection practical astro- 
 nomy may yet introduce into geographical details, the points 
 tabulated in the following pages will be found tolerably 
 chained together, within reasonable limits. 
 
 ment. 
 
THE NORMAL POSITION. 417 
 
 But I must here advert to an apparent discrepancy On the 
 which has occasioned me a little disquietude on this head, point, 
 since it would involve the exactness of my assumed zero, 
 the very starting-point of the chronometric comparisons: 
 and this arose from a doubt as to the longitude of the Royal 
 Observatory on the palace of Palermo, with which all the 
 positions are mediately or remotely connected. On com- 
 mencing operations in Sicily, the Abbate Piazzi gave me a Piazzi's 
 note stating the longitude of the pillar on which his great 
 circle stood, as 13° 20' 15" east of Greenwich; and I had 
 some conversation with him upon the observations from which 
 that result was deduced. It was mainly founded on the 
 mean given by an occultation of X Virginis on the 12th of 
 June, 1791, and by the solar eclipse of the 5th of Septem- 
 ber, 1793; for which he obtained trustworthy correspond- 
 ing observations from Dr. Maskelyne himself. By these he 
 placed Palermo to the east of Greenwich, as follows : — 
 
 Phenomena. Time. Arc. Observa- 
 
 tions. 
 
 H. m. s. , „ 
 
 By the immersion of \ Virginis . . 53 23 ... 13 20 45 
 Beginning of the solar eclipse . . . 53 177 ... 13 19 25 '5 
 Termination of ditto 53 22 ... 13 20 30 
 
 Mean ... 53 20'9 ... 13 20 13'5 
 
 As we had pitched a marquee on the mole-head for Palermo 
 
 , -, ... , . light. 
 
 erecting a portable transit-instrument during my stay, 
 Piazzi also furnished me with the distance from the meri- 
 dian and perpendicular, in Sicilian palmi, from the palace 
 to the lighthouse adjoining the spot on which my transit 
 was mounted ; and which, when protracted, agreed nearly 
 with an azimuth bearing then taken from the lighthouse to 
 the palace observatory=S. 28° 10' W. true. So eligible a 
 nautical station was, of course, assumed as a standard; it 
 gave a longitude of 13° 2V 56" east for the normal point of 
 my departures, and from it my several arcs were measured 
 with all the precision I could attain. 
 
 Some years afterwards, Baron de Zach was desirous of Baron de 
 
 Zach. 
 E E 
 
418 VISCONTI'S ANXIETY. 
 
 inserting a specimen of my method of treating chronometric 
 runs, in his Correspondance Astronomique; and as his 
 object was to call the attention of geographers to the subject, 
 I supplied him with a detailed sample, showing the manner 
 of connecting some places on the coast of Barbary with the 
 palace at Malta, which he printed in 1822. Among the 
 remarks which were then drawn up in illustration, I men- 
 tioned the position of the Palermo observatory which Piazzi 
 had given me ; and this so strongly excited the notice of my 
 General colleague, General Visconti, that he appealed to me under 
 visconti. ^ e ^ ea g^her that there was a misprint in the Baron's 
 pages, or that there must have been some misunderstanding 
 between Piazzi and myself. He had, he said, toiled through 
 all the Sicilian observations, and was inclined to believe 
 that the observatory was at least 1' more to the east than I 
 had represented it to be : ' but/ added he, ' in that case 
 what will become of the longitudes of Tripoli, Malta, Alex- 
 andria, &c, all of which you have connected with that of 
 Palermo? and how happens it that your longitude of 
 Corfu, which of course is connected with Malta, and there- 
 fore with Palermo, should accord so well with that derived 
 from the occultation of Aldebaran, and with that by me 
 My reply, adopted at Naples?' To this the only reply was, that I had 
 reason to think, even from his own queries, that the position 
 of the lighthouse — which gave 8 m 51 s between Palermo and 
 Messina, and 4 m 15 s *4 between Messina and Malta — would 
 eventually be found very near the truth. He then begged 
 of me to remeasure the arcs between Malta, Palermo, and 
 Naples — " cosl i vostri cronometri vi darebbero xm esatta 
 differenza di longitudine tra Napoli e Palermo, e meglio 
 che qualunque osservazione d'eclisse, o d'occultazione. La 
 nostra longitudine e ancora incerta per vergogna nostra., e 
 sarebbe pur bella cosa che quest a determinazione importante 
 la dovessimo a voi per il primo." This, for the attainment 
 of precision as nearly absolute as possible with the means 
 at our disposal, assuredly would have been done, but that 
 
DAUSSY'S CALCULATIONS. 419 
 
 Visconti's request did not reach me till after my arrival in 
 England in 1324. I therefore sent him a few documents 
 on the subject in question, begged him to refer the whole to 
 Piazzi for his re-consideration: and further mentioned that 
 I was satisfied that we could not be much in error in the 
 position adopted. But, recollecting the liability of chrono- Remark, 
 meters to sudden and often inexplicable changes of rates, 
 under causes acting so differently that the irregularities are 
 sometimes opposed, my dependance on the results would 
 not have made me confident to a mile. 
 
 Here the matter rested for some years, for neither of 
 my zealous correspondents would have been satisfied with- 
 out a definitive measurement under full means and practised 
 hands. But it was taken up at Paris by M. Daussy, Inge- m. Daussy. 
 nieur Hydrographe, whose elaborate calculations of no 
 fewer than ten occultations, extracted from Piazzi's obser- 
 vations, are published in the Connaissance des Terns for 
 1835. By this severe labour he has arrived at the result, 
 that the Palermo Observatory is 44 m 4 s , that is, 11° I' east of 
 Paris, or 13° 21' 15" east of Greenwich. Still although this 
 conclusion may yet influence the position of the observatory, 
 I must, for cogent reasons, retain the situation in which I 
 place the lighthouse, since from thence I settled Malta ; a 
 station whence all my runs since the year 1816 were carried 
 and valued, as the chronometers were always rated at the 
 Anchor Wharf, in the dock-yard, and transported from thence 
 by triangulation to the Palace in Valetta. This, therefore, 
 is a matter upon which we must dwell a moment longer ; 
 and first, for the remarkable agreement between Gauttier 
 and myself, I am enabled by the kindness of the present 
 Admiralty authorities to cite a letter from the Commander- sir c. Pen- 
 in-chief to their Lordships. This is dated from Malta, 
 18th June, 1816 :— 
 
 I found, in conversation with Captain Gauthier of the Chevrette, French 
 king's ship, that he had several scientific associates ; but that their plan was 
 not to go in search of and ascertain the various dangers in these seas (a 
 
 K E 2 
 
420 
 
 THE AEC RE-MEASURED. 
 
 
 Remark. 
 
 Lunar 
 eclipse. 
 
 point, however, of the utmost importance), but to fix, by means of five 
 excellent watches, 110 different points, and borrow materials for the details. 
 It is highly to the honour of Captain Smyth that the mean of the observa- 
 tions of those eight French astronomers (for Valetta) came within a second, 
 and in other instances a small fraction, of those made by him unassisted. 
 
 It should be remarked, that however gratifying this 
 incident was, so close an accordance in the result can only 
 be viewed as accidental. But we had another opportunity 
 for finding that our modus operandi did not differ mate- 
 rially ; since a total eclipse of the moon occurring on the 
 9th of June, while the Chevrette was in the harbour, the 
 following were the comparisons thereby afforded : — 
 
 Smyth. 
 (not noticed.) 
 1 51 397 
 
 (not observed.) 
 
 Disappearance of the white light . . 
 Commencement of the true shadow, or ) 
 
 disappearance of sun's fight . . . ) 
 First appearance of the penumbra, or 
 
 partial reflected light 
 
 End of the penumbra 2 
 
 End of the eclipse 3 
 
 Gauttier. 
 m. s 
 37 
 
 51 
 
 57-3 
 40-5 
 
 2 35 40-5 
 
 49 
 
 58 
 
 42-1 
 50-4 
 
 41-5 
 48-6 
 
 Liitke. 
 
 Having reason to be satisfied with the position of 
 Valetta, it became, as I have said, my standard Mediter- 
 ranean point : but attention had been so strongly called to 
 Piazzi's probable oversight, that it was desirable to re- 
 measure the arc between Palermo and Malta. This was 
 Graves and accomplished, in 1846, both by Captain Graves, and the 
 well-known Russian Admiral Lutke, with very powerful 
 means ; and an arc nearly 3 s shorter than mine was carried 
 to the Observatory. But my published stations were — 
 Palermo lighthouse, 13° 21' e56 7/ , and Valetta palace, 
 14° 30' 50" ; a matter to which Captain Graves paid great 
 attention, and produced an arc = 4 m 34 s, 365 from the 
 light to Spencer's monument in the harbour of Valetta. 
 This spot is 1750 yards distant from the palace flag-staff, 
 on a bearing N. 27° 35' east, by compass ; which, corrected 
 for variation (13° 53' west, in 1846), places his station 
 427 yards (in time, l s, 056) to the west of mine. The com- 
 parison, therefore, stands thus : — 
 
 The new 
 arc. 
 
 1816. 
 1846. 
 
 Smyth 
 Graves 
 
 3 chronometers 
 10 chronometers 
 
 4 35-6 
 4 35-421 
 
DAUSSY'S INVESTIGATION. 421 
 
 Now the arcs for these important maritime positions Remark, 
 being, as it were, identical, the question follows, shall the 
 longitude of the two places be shifted a mile or more to 
 the east, in order to meet a quantity not given to me 
 by the excellent astronomer of Palermo ? Besides the 
 remarkable accordance of almost all my standard posi- 
 tions, the longitude of Alexandria, by various persons 
 and methods, may afford a further reason for not dis- 
 turbing them. Having briefly alluded (page 416) to 
 the sample of my operations with which Baron de Zach 
 was furnished, it will be eligible to show the use made of 
 that communication by Mons. M. P. Daussy, at present m. Daussys 
 
 7- ^ examina- 
 
 ckej oi a useful class as yet unknown to our navy — Inge- tion. 
 nieurs Hydrographes. The extract* which follows is from 
 the additions to the Connaissance des Terns for 1832, 
 pages 60-3 ; the essay being under the title of Determina- 
 tions des positions geographiques du Gaire, d" Alexan- 
 dre, et de quelques autres points de la Mediterranee. 
 
 Les observations du Capitaine Smyth donnent encore un moyen de Extract 
 determiner la longitude d'Alexandrie. Comme les differences qu'il a ob- from his 
 tenues par ses chronometres sont rapporte'es dans la Correspondance Astro- essa y* 
 nornique de M. de Zach, nous pourrons les comparer a ce qu'a trouve" M. 
 Gauttier. En general, on ne saurait trop donner de details lorsque on 
 opere au moyen des chronometres ; car quoique ces instrumens pre'cieux 
 donnent entre les mains de personnes habiles et soigneuses des resultats 
 tres exacts, comme ils ne donnent que des differences, que les erreurs par 
 consequent peuvent s'accumuler, et qu'une nouvelle determination change 
 ndcessairement tous les points environnans, il est essentiel de connaltre les 
 points que Ton peut regarder comme servant de depart, et la maniere dont 
 ils sont rattache"s les uns aux autres. 
 
 II serait done important de rapporter toujours dans ces sortes d'opera- 
 tions, non seulement la longitude moyenne et la marche des montres, mais 
 encore l'etat de chacune d'elles sur les terns moyen du lieu, ce qui mettrait 
 a merae de verifier les longitudes calcuiees et d' adopter le resultat qui parai- 
 trait le plus probable. C'est ce qu'a fait en partie M. Smyth dans la Corre- 
 spondance Astronomiqv£, et ce qui nous permet de combiner les differences 
 qu'il a obtenues avec notre determination de la longitude de Malte. 
 
 En 1816, M. Smyth determina la difference de longitude entre Malte 
 
 * The passage in Baron de Zach's Correspondance Astronomique, thus 
 cited by Mons. Daussy, is but an abridgment of the paper which I forwarded ; 
 and the Baron says {vol. vii., payc 548), 'Le Capit. Smyth donnc encore ici 
 tout le type de calcul.' 
 
422 DAUSSY'S INVESTIGATION. 
 
 M. Daussy's (^ l'obs^rvatoire du grand-maltre) et Tripoli (maison du consul Anglaia) ; 
 il obtint par une moyenne 5' 20 "'33, ce qui, rapporte au chateau du Pacha 
 par une petite operation trigonometrique, lui a donne pour ce point 
 5' 19"-50. 
 
 En Septembre, 1821, il alia encore de Malte a Tripoli. II observa cette 
 fois sur un rocber de la rade, 45" de degre" a 1 est du chateau ; ses chrono- 
 metres lui donnerent pour difference de longitude entre Malte et le rocher: — 
 
 5' 16"'27 \ 
 
 5 15 -87 
 
 5 12 -47 I moyenne, 5' 16 "'05. 
 
 5 13 -87 
 
 5 18 -27 
 
 Enfin, la meme ann^e il de'termina encore la difference entre Malte (le 
 lazaret) et le meme rocber de Tripoli ; il obtint par ses chronometres, 
 
 5' 8"-9 
 
 5 13 -5 
 
 5 19 '7 V moyenne, 5' 14"*30. 
 
 5 17 '4 I 
 
 5 12 -0 J 
 
 Mais le lazaret de Malte est de l ,f, 73 de terns a, l'ouest de l'observatoire 
 du grand-maitre ; les observations rapportees a ce point donneraient done 
 pour difference avec le rocber de Tripoli 5' 16" # 03. Les observations de 
 1816, rapportees au meme point, donneraient pour sa difference avec Malte 
 5' 16" '50 : la moyenne entre ces trois resultats, qui different tres peu les 
 uns des autres, est 5' 16"*19. 
 
 En 1816, M. Gauttier avait aussi obtenu de son c6te la difference entre 
 Malte et Tripoli (maison du consul de France) ; ses chronometres lui avaient 
 donnee au bout de 27 jours, 
 
 Lean 08 23 ... 4' 59"'37 ) 
 
 80 ... 5 11 '24 K , 1/|ri . QA 
 
 94 ... 5 20 -3i r m °y enne > 5 14 30 - 
 
 2741 ... 5 26 -28 ) 
 
 ou, en rapportant au meme rocher, 5' 10 "'5; ce qui differe de 5 "'69 d'avec 
 ce que M. Smyth a trouve ; mais il suffirait de negliger le resultat donne par 
 le numero 23, qui etait une montre de poche, pour s'en rapprocher beaucoup. 
 En effet, le milieu des trois autres serait 5' 19" # 28, ce qui, rapporte au 
 rocher, donnerait 5' 15 "'48 presque la mdme chose que ce que trouve 
 M. Smyth. Comme il s'agit seulement ici des determinations de ce capi- 
 taine, nous adopterons sa difference de longitude. 
 
 Etant ensuite alie de Tripoli a Bomba, M. Smyth trouva entre ces deux 
 points les differences suivantes: — 
 
 moyenne, 39' 49 "-32. 
 
 Le lieu des observations, a Bomba, etait au fond du port. 
 
 Enfin, en 1822, il trouva entre Bomba et Alexandrie (pointe Eunoste). 
 
 26' 42"-27 ) 
 
 42 -43 I „, ia „ Kn 
 
 42 -56 [ m °y enne ^ 26 42 ' 50 - 
 
 * 42 76 J 
 
DAUSSY'S INVESTIGATION. 423 
 
 Des operations trigonome'triques lui firent connaltre que la pointe Eunoste M. Daussy's 
 etait 1' 30" "0 de degre ou 6" # 00 de terns a l'ouest du phare; la difference essay, 
 entre ce dernier point et Bomba serait done 26' 48" '50. 
 Si nous reunissons ces differences, nous aurons — 
 
 De Malte a Tripoli — 5' 16" -19 
 
 De Tripoli a Bomba + 39 49 '32 
 
 De Bomba a Alexandrie + 26 48 *50 
 
 l h 
 
 so* 
 
 16 8 -4 
 
 1 
 
 50 
 
 5 -2 
 
 1 
 
 50 
 
 22 -35 
 
 1 
 
 49 
 
 59 -68 
 
 1 
 
 50 
 
 6 -03 
 
 1 
 
 50 
 
 12 -24 
 
 1 
 
 50 
 
 10 -33 
 
 Done de Malte a Alexandrie l h 'l 21 '63 
 
 Longitude de Malte 48 44 '40 
 
 Done longitude d Alexandrie 1 '50 6 "03 
 
 En 1822, M. Smyth avait encore determine* la longitude de la pointe 
 Eunoste de l h 59' 27"*84 a l'est de Greenwich, ou l h 50' 6" '24 de Paris, 
 ce qui donne pour le phare l h 50' 12 "'24. II ne dit pas quel est son point 
 de depart ; mais nous croyons que e'etait Malte, dont la longitude differe peu 
 de celle que nous avons adoptee ; nous emploierons done aussi cette deter- 
 mination. 
 
 Reunissant ces differens resultats, nous aurons pour la longitude du phare 
 d 'Alexandrie : — 
 
 Par l'occultation d'Antares 
 
 Par celle de y ^ observee a Larnaca et rap- 
 
 portee a Alexandrie 
 
 Par les chronometres de M. Gauttier, en allant 
 
 Par les memes, au retour 
 
 Par ceux de M. Smyth, par Tripoli .... 
 Par les memes, en 1822, par Malte .... 
 
 Moyenne . . 
 
 Ou .... 27° 32' 35" -0 
 
 La Connaissance des Terns donne 27° 35' 0", etNouetdans son Memoire, 
 27° 35' 30" ; e'est done a peu pres 3' que nous trouvons a retrancher: nous 
 avons eu 4' 31" a retrancher de celle du Caire; on voit que la position 
 relative de ces deux points eprouve par Ik peu de changement ; en effet, la 
 difference que nous trouvons entre eux est de 5' 25 "*6. Nouet avait eu par 
 ses chronometres 5' 31 "*7 ; mais on peut douter si ses observations n'etaient 
 point susceptibles d'une erreur de six secondes. 
 
 It is now time lo turn to the register of geographical on the table 
 points, as contained in the following table; which has been 
 drawn up with careful attention, in order at once to econo- 
 mize space, and secure perspicuity. They are, of course, 
 classed according to their general boundaries; but the head- Divisions, 
 ings of each series are placed rather with a view to broad 
 geographical feature, than political distinction — a method 
 adopted as offering a readier reference, than defining the 
 smaller states would have allowed. For example, all the 
 divisions and subdivisions between Nice and Spezzia (plim 
 
424 
 
 CHOROGRAPHICAL ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 Divisions. 
 
 Order 
 
 Liguria), are quartered under the authorized designation 
 Piedmont — the domains of the sovranacci of Massa, Lucca 
 the recent Etruria, and Piombino, are embodied under the 
 name Tuscany — the Papal States under that of Rome — 
 and an abundance of principalities are merged together 
 under Albania, Greece, Tripoli, and Algeria. The 
 places thus ranged follow each other in chorographical 
 order along the coasts, passing where convenient or necessary 
 to islands and rocks, after which the coast is again continued. 
 In the course round the Mediterranean, the same order is 
 observed as that of the preceding chapters of this work — 
 entering at Gibraltar, proceeding by the shores of Spain, 
 France, and Italy to Greece; returning westward from 
 Alexandria aloug the coast of North Africa, to the Strait of 
 Gibraltar. But the Archipelago, Black Sea, and Levant, 
 being Captain Gauttier's contribution, are appended as a 
 separate series. All the latitudes, it will be observed, are 
 
 Longitudes, north ; and the longitudes, except where marked with a W 
 on a portion of Spain, and the opposite coast of Morocco, 
 are always east of Greenwich. The heights of mountains 
 and buildings are in English feet, and from the sea-level 
 (page 391). The magnetic variation is constantly west, and 
 the dip of the needle to south; or nadir. In the first column 
 will be found the names of the places — and the particular 
 spots of those places — where the observations were taken, 
 or carried to by means of angles or bearings; and these are 
 
 Type of the printed in small capitals, Roman type, "or italics. The first 
 show the stations where our opportunities were of the best 
 description, and the results entitled to the highest value on 
 the list: the second indicate that though mostly taken on 
 shore, or connected geodetically, the operations were more 
 hasty or less advantageous than the first ; while the third 
 resulted from bearings, secondary angles, patent log-runs, 
 and intersections, of a more hurried and less exact tenour. 
 In other words, the three styles of printing the names, 
 exhibit the classification according to my conviction of the 
 
 Latitudes. 
 
 Heights. 
 
 Variation 
 and dip. 
 
 
ISOGOXIC CURVES. 425 
 
 relative degree of weight to be assigned to the points. With Remark, 
 a labour more onerous than pleasing, these positions have 
 been entirely re-examined since the publication of the charts, 
 some of which — to meet the demand — were hurried out, 
 during which process various small corrections occurred, and 
 several local errors were detected — principally as to identity 
 from sea-ward, where landing was then impracticable. On 
 the whole, though we would advise chronometer-ratings to 
 be made only at the first class of these points, as standards, 
 it is hoped they will all be found in such accordance, 
 relatively, as to enable ships to shape a proper course, — 
 thereby meeting all the ends and purposes of practical 
 navigation. 
 
 As the magnetic variation has been already spoken of Magnetic 
 {pages 384 & 5), it only remains to add, that these obser- 
 vations are rather of relative than absolute value; and 
 though they cannot be forced into any very strict accord- 
 ance with a set of isogonic curves which I drew up, they 
 are the results of a long series of experiments with the 
 means at my command, to show the needle deviations at 
 given epochs. Whenever, therefore, we shall be able to 
 ascertain, by direct measurement, the total magnetical force 
 of the earth, then even these unpretending operations — 
 however influenced by instrumental error and local affections 
 — may become a chronological reference for its effects in 
 the Mediterranean Sea.* I have also alluded (page 391) to 
 the heights of mountains which we took as being merely Heights, 
 approximative, although it is trusted that the majority of in- 
 stances will be found very near the mark : but I had great 
 distrust of those taken by angle of depression to the horizon, 
 although perhaps they were near enough for the purpose of my 
 register. Still, as the horizon is a very difficult line in other The sea- 
 cases where ultimate accuracy is demanded (see page 382), honzon - 
 
 * It must not be forgotten, that terrestrial magnetism is subject to secular 
 \ aiiations. 
 
426 
 
 DIP OF THE HORIZON. 
 
 I got Captain Graves to call at the island Al-Boran, which 
 for such a purpose is an oceanic pivot, and there successively 
 ^Boran 1 " ta, k e ^ e dip at morning, noon, and evening, on the cardinal 
 points of the compass. This was accordingly done from its 
 highest point, an elevation of about 68 feet, with a carefully 
 adjusted 5-inch theodolite; and the experiment being new, 
 the results are here given at full: — 
 
 Telescope. 
 
 Experi- 
 ment. 
 
 On the 
 Notanda. 
 
 Bearing. Direct. 
 
 N. 
 N.E. 
 
 E. 
 S.E. 
 
 S. 
 
 s.w. 
 w. 
 
 N.W. 
 
 N. 
 N.E. 
 
 E. 
 S.E. 
 
 S. 
 S.W. 
 
 w. 
 
 N.W. 
 
 N. 
 N.E. 
 
 E. 
 S.E. 
 
 S. 
 S.W. 
 
 w. 
 
 N.W. 
 
 * Hazy. 
 
 Besides these geographical and physical conditions, 
 hydrography requires information as to the nature of the 
 various coasts, while navigation also demands a notice of 
 the approach to those coasts, and the degree of capacity 
 of the several ports and anchorages. Having partially at- 
 tempted to supply these desiderata for general purposes, in 
 the following register, without impinging on the advice and 
 duties of a detailed directory, a word is necessary as to the 
 form I have adopted. This cannot be better expressed, 
 than by giving a passage from my address to the Royal 
 
 .. 6' 
 
 00" .. 
 
 ... 5 
 
 30 .. 
 
 ... 4 
 
 30 .. 
 
 ... 4 
 
 00 .. 
 
 ... 4 
 
 30 .. 
 
 ... 5 
 
 00 .. 
 
 ... 5 
 
 30 .. 
 
 ... 6 
 
 00 .. 
 
 ... 4 
 
 30 . 
 
 ... 5 
 
 00 . 
 
 ... 4 
 
 30 .. 
 
 ... 4 
 
 00 . 
 
 ... 4 
 
 00 .. 
 
 ... 5 
 
 00 .. 
 
 ... 5 
 
 00 .. 
 
 ... 4 
 
 30 .. 
 
 ... 5 
 
 00 . 
 
 ... 5 
 
 00 .. 
 
 ... 5 
 
 30 . 
 
 ... 6 
 
 00 . 
 
 ... *5 
 
 00 .. 
 
 ... *3 
 
 00 .. 
 
 ... 4 
 
 00 .. 
 
 .. 4 
 
 00 .. 
 
 leversed. 
 
 Mean. 
 
 
 IV 00" . 
 
 . 8' 30" 1 
 
 
 11 00 . 
 
 . 8 15 
 
 
 11 00 . 
 
 . 7 45 
 
 Observations taken 
 
 11 00 . 
 
 . 7 30 
 
 at 7 A.M. 
 
 11 00 . 
 
 . 7 45 
 
 " Thermometer, 78° 0. 
 
 11 30 . 
 
 . 8 15 
 
 Barometer, 30 "12 in. 
 
 11 30 . 
 
 . 8 30 
 
 
 11 30 . 
 
 . 8 45 J 
 
 
 10 30 . 
 
 . 7 30 1 
 
 
 11 00 . 
 
 . 8 00 
 
 
 11 30 . 
 
 12 00 . 
 12 30 . 
 12 45 . 
 
 . 8 00 
 . 8 00 
 . 8 45 
 . 8 52-5 
 
 Noon. 
 - Thermometer, 82°. 
 
 Batometer, 30'13in. 
 
 13 00 . 
 
 .. 9 00 
 
 
 12 30 . 
 
 .. 8 30 
 
 
 13 30 . 
 
 .. 9 15 
 
 
 14 00 . 
 
 .. 9 30 
 
 
 12 30 . 
 
 13 00 . 
 10 00 . 
 10 00 . 
 
 .. 9 00 
 .. 9 30 
 . 7 30 
 . 6 30 
 
 Sunset. 
 - Thermometer, 78". 
 
 Barometer, 30 '\%'\n. 
 
 17 00 . 
 
 . 10 30 
 
 
 13 00 . 
 
 . 8 30 
 
 
USE OF SYMBOLS. 427 
 
 Geographical Society (Journal, Vol. xx), on the 27th of 
 May, 1850:— 
 
 But among the many publications of the year I must select one which, Use of 
 though only a new edition, is entitled to a high place in your regard, because, symbols, 
 on its being first launched, you discerned its merit, and awarded the Gold 
 Medal as a mark of your approbation. I allude, Gentlemen, to the third 
 edition of that truly useful work, Lieut. Raper's Practice of Navigation R ape r's 
 and Nautical Astronomy ; a work in which the capacity, systematic method, Navi- 
 and intelligence of the author are so strikingly evident. The book is greatly gation. 
 augmented in matter since its original appearance, but, from the excellence 
 of its printing, it has not grown much in bulk ; and the additions are such as 
 to increase its utility. The most operose and remarkable feature of this 
 edition, however, is the 'Table of Geographical Positions,' discussed and 
 methodized upon a chronometric system, now consisting of no fewer than 
 8800 points, instead of the 2300 it first placed before us. From its bearing 
 not only, as usual, the latitudes and longitudes of places, but also the dimen- 
 sions of islands, state of anchorages, peculiarities of lights and lighthouses, 
 depths of shoals, and other necessary details, I may fearlessly pronounce it 
 to be the most accurate and comprehensive representation of the present 
 state of maritime geography extant. To accomplish this, the author has 
 devised a series of very significant symbols, and applied them to the expres- 
 sion of many important matters ; indicating by their means watering-places, 
 dangers, the character of the natives as friendly or hostile ; the presence or 
 absence of trees or bushes — whether as a means of identification, or as mark- 
 ing places where firewood is to be found — and distinguishing more especially 
 the cocos nucifera, which, on account of its conspicuous form, and its afford- 
 ing both food and beverage, is an object of peculiar interest to the tropical 
 navigator. By such symbols this table is made to contain, with scarcely any 
 increase of size, a vast quantity of varied information : while the signs them- 
 selves, being founded on obvious or natural considerations, are easily acquired 
 and retained. The author, in justifying the introduction of a scheme which 
 a few years ago might have been considered a rash, if not a dangerous inno- 
 vation, concludes his remarks by saying : — ' The employment of symbols, 
 therefore, on a more extensive scale than we have yet been used to, and that 
 at no distant period, may be considered inevitable ; and the present system, 
 which has occupied my attention for several years, is proposed as so far 
 deserving consideration, that it is constructed with rigid adherence to 
 principles.' 
 
 This is important to the ends of tangible geography, as well in the con- 
 struction and arrangement of tables, as in every description of cartographic 
 composition. In a work of my own, which may one day be brought to light, „,. nresent 
 I shall assuredly adopt Lieut. Raper's symbols in tabulating the results of book, 
 observations ; and I notice that Lieut. Maury, of the United States Navy, 
 has greatly extended the use of such signs in his important Wind-and-Current 
 Chart of the Atlantic Ocean. The imperative task in the question is, so to 
 conventionalize the matter, that, as with music, the forcns may be read and 
 understood by people of all nations. 
 
 In the present instance symbols only are spoken of, for ou abbrevi- 
 I am not yet prepared to advocate the abbreviations of 
 
428 USE OF SYMBOLS. 
 
 words beyond the usual practice,* as each language will 
 necessarily use its own method ; to the injury of the general 
 application so greatly desired. Herein, perhaps, antiqua- 
 rian tendencies may influence me, having had occasion to 
 on abbre- recollect how the army of sufferers in the cause of truth 
 
 viations. 
 
 was recruited by the uncial BM. of ancient tombs being 
 rendered Beatus Martyr, instead of Bonce Memoriae. 
 Hadrian struck a large brass medal on the 874th birthday 
 (natali urbis) of Rome, in the legend of which a P has 
 been disputed as meaning populus, plebii, publici, primus, 
 or parilia; and even the well-known counter- mark on the 
 early Emperors' medals — N.C.A.P.R., has been rendered by 
 
 ^Eneas Vico Nobis concessa a Populo Romano. 
 
 Jobert Nota cusa a Populo Romano. 
 
 Others Nummus concessus a Populo Romano. 
 
 While a satirist insists that it should be read — Non concessa 
 sir Edward a Populo Romano. In the same spirit Coke, the noted 
 
 Coke 
 
 manager of the Raleigh tragedy, in contempt of the conti- 
 nental travellers of his day, said " S.P.Q.R. was sometimes 
 taken for these words, Senatus Populus Que Romanus — 
 the senate and people of Rome ; but now they may be 
 truly expressed thus, Stultus Populus Qucerit Romam, a 
 foolish people that runneth to Rome/' 
 
 To some readers it may seem travelling out of the 
 record to cite numismatics in a work like the present ; but 
 they may be assured that on the shores we have been treat- 
 Medals and ing of, an acquaintance with coins, medals, and marbles, is 
 marbles. ^^ i m p 0r ^ an ^ By the unequivocal aid of these handy 
 monitors, often more trustworthy than written records, I 
 have obtained a satisfactory clue both to dates and places ; 
 insomuch that I even proved, respecting the age of Rome 
 {Descriptive Catalogue of Roman Large-brass Medals, 
 page 267), the preference of the vulgar computation over 
 
 * Thus, in the confined space allowed in tabulating matter, I place Var. 
 the usual abridgement of magnetic variation, though I would rather use a 
 symbol : so, also, Int. is placed for magnetic intensity. 
 
USE OF SYMBOLS. 429 
 
 the chronology of Sir Isaac Newton. The ancients were Ancient 
 
 use of 
 
 well aware of the advantage of a systematic terminology in symbols, 
 conveying accuracy of conception, and influencing the forma- 
 tion of ideas ; although their knowledge was not sufficiently 
 advanced, to particularize minutely and distinctly between 
 positive and relative positions. Their adoption of symbols 
 was on a far more extensive scale of operation than that 
 which is here advocated ; for they not only used them to cover 
 moral mysteries, but also as types, emblems, enigmas, and 
 hieroglyphics. These, it must be confessed, are sometimes 
 not a little paradoxical and perplexing, since those elders 
 not only represented moral things by natural things, but 
 even natural by natural. Winged horses, sphynxes, human- 
 headed oxen, and 'chimeras dire' were certainly fanciful 
 enough ; but the thunder-bolt for power — eagle and globe 
 for sovereignty — laurel for victory — palm-tree for Judaea — 
 wheat-ear for Metapontum — crab for Agrigentum — hare 
 for Messana — cray-fish for Catana — bull for Tauromenium 
 — horse for Carthage — goat for Thrace — silphium for 
 Cyrene — labyrinth for Cnossus — tortoise for Egina, &c. &c, 
 are sufficiently simple and obvious.* In treating upon this 
 subject elsewhere, I stated that the epithets of symbol and 
 device are often used indifferently, although the former 
 strictly signifies a practical or figured metaphor, and the 
 latter an allegory: the one simple, the other complex. 
 Hence it is obvious, that figures on coins and medals are 
 arbitrary devices, and hieroglyphics are absolute symbols, 
 or significative. 
 
 Symbols, however, which are unsusceptible of equivo- simple 
 cation, and capable of being universally understood, should sym ° 
 be encouraged by those who desire accurate perception with 
 
 * The reader may here be reminded, that A dmiral Neptune, as Newton 
 styled him, presided over the Mediterranean, as Oceanus did over the cir- 
 cumambient sea, or waters supposed to surround the whole earth : he was 
 symbolized with the trident as a sceptre, a dolphin or aplustre on his hand, 
 and his foot on the prow of a ship. (See the vignette on the title-page. ) 
 
430 USE OF SYMBOLS, 
 
 and but economy of time: and in hydrography it were a truly 
 
 on.6 k6V 
 
 desirable consummation, that they should require but one 
 key for the common use of seamen of all nations. True to 
 this spirit in arranging the following table, though wishing 
 also to have introduced a mark for the compass-variation, 
 another for the dip of the needle, and others to denote 
 places which fish frequent, and where fresh water, provisions, 
 and refreshments are obtainable, I would not introduce one 
 Lieutenant except through the hands of Lieutenant Raper ; so that this 
 department must await some future edition of his standard 
 work. The following are those selected for my register, 
 from the Practice of Navigation, and it is hoped they 
 will be found plain, easy, and efficient : — 
 
 Symbols $ {Anchor) Anchorage for large vessels ; $' good ditto ; $, bad ditto ; 
 
 adopted. 
 
 $ no ditto. 
 
 X Anchorage for smaller vessels ; 1' good ditto ; £, bad ditto. 
 
 ES Harbour for large vessels, or having always three fathoms water. 
 
 H Harbour for smaller vessels, or having at times less than three fathoms. 
 
 /v- (Birds) As birds frequent some places in preference to others, they 
 
 may afford a means of indication. 
 I (Boat-hook) Landing ; l no landing. 
 (3 Break or breakers ; /3/3 breakers at times. 
 
 ! (Note of admiration, surprise) Denotes caution, or calls attention. 
 || Channel, or passage. Mouth of a river. 
 d Danger, dangerous ; d Q no danger, safe, 
 'f (Palm-tree) Here the date-palm. 
 _^ Bising gradually. 
 s^ Bising in the middle. 
 
 i, ^ Saddle-shaped. A valley. 
 
 ^_ Sloping downwards. 
 
 7- Sloping bottom, or change of soundings gradual, may be approached 
 
 with safety by attention to the lead. 
 1 Steep or precipitous. Note. — This is quite independent of high. A 
 
 headland may be low, yet precipitous. 
 j Steep to, or bold to. 
 ¥ (Tree) Trees ; ¥ well wooded. 
 *• (A tree without a trunk) Brushwood. 
 
 
THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 431 
 
 Place. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 Notanda. 
 
 Spain. 
 
 Q 1 II 
 
 O 1 II 
 
 
 San Lucar, tower 
 
 36 43 10 
 
 6 24 2w 
 
 || River Guadalquiver. E. j. 
 
 Rota, mole-head 
 
 36 36 40 
 
 6 20 lOw 
 
 Var. 22° 30' in 1810. Approach 6, /3/3 . 
 Height 151. Rise of tide 9£ feet. H. 
 
 Cadiz, S. Sebastian's light 
 
 36 31 51 
 
 6 18 lOw 
 
 Chiclana, S. Ana church... 
 
 36 25 10 
 
 6 9 50w 
 
 510 feet. Hill _^_. % 
 
 Sancti Petri castle 
 
 36 22 45 
 
 6 13 Ow 
 
 || . High water l h 35 m . 8. (3. ^. 
 
 Cape Trafalgar, turret . . . 
 
 36 10 10 
 
 6 56w 
 
 d at approach, but the cape 1. 
 
 Tarifa, lighthouse 
 
 36 15 
 
 5 36 39w 
 
 j. South point of Europe. 
 
 Palomas rock, centre 
 
 36 3 35 
 
 5 25 24w 
 
 ! for Pearl reef. d. [. 
 
 A Igeciras, the pier 
 
 36 8 5 
 
 5 26 16w 
 
 || . S. $ in road. Mostly d. !. 
 
 Gibraltar, signal-station . . . 
 
 36 7 46 
 
 5 20 19w 
 
 Height 1255. O'Hara's tower, 1408. 
 
 Gibraltar, arsenal mole. . . 
 
 36 7 17 
 
 5 20 49w 
 
 High water h 40 m . Rise & fall 4£ ft. m. 
 
 Gibraltar, Europa point . . . 
 
 36 6 16 
 
 5 20 9w 
 
 Var.21°37';Dip61°8';Int.232(1824). 
 
 Al Kore'in rock 
 
 36 19 12 
 
 5 13 16w 
 
 Close to the shore, and small. /•*-. 
 
 Estepona, Marmoles point 
 
 36 25 17 
 
 5 7 25w 
 
 _^ to Sierra de Bermeja. If. t. 
 
 Frangerola, castle 
 
 36 32 51 
 
 4 37 lw 
 
 On a small hill. E). $. *. 
 
 Malaga, lighthouse 
 
 36 42 48 
 
 4 26 12w 
 
 Height 125. Var. 21° 5' (1811). GS. fc 
 
 Yelez Malaga, Torre del Mar 
 
 36 46 44 
 
 4 7 25w 
 
 11. $, except in sea- winds. *. 
 
 Castel de Ferro, sanidad... 
 
 36 42 19 
 
 3 21 31w 
 
 $, but !. _^. to Ugija range, 2700. 
 
 Torre Belerma 
 
 36 42 40 
 
 2 54 Ow 
 
 $, but j, and !. 
 
 In the cove X ; in the bay t. 
 
 Almeria, torre del Tiro . . . 
 
 36 50 50 
 
 2 31 7w 
 
 Capo de Gata, fort 
 
 36 42 59 
 
 2 11 56w 
 
 1. Var. 20° 42' in 1813. rr. 
 
 Port Geneve's, fort 
 
 36 44 15 
 
 2 7 18w 
 
 $, but ! currents and flaws. 
 
 Cresta de Gallo 
 
 36 47 
 
 5 3 Ow 
 
 S.E. of Ronda, 5950. Summit ^ ^. 
 
 San Pedro, castle. 
 
 36 53 21 
 
 1 59 58w 
 
 [X], the best of these coves. 
 
 Sierra de Gador 
 
 36 56 
 
 2 56 Ow 
 
 7100; S.E. end of Apuljarras range. 
 $. Var. 20° 43' in 1813. •*. ^-. 
 
 Carbonera islet 
 
 36 58 22 
 
 1 55 24w 
 
 Cerro de Mula-hacen 
 
 37 8 
 
 3 28 Ow 
 
 11,370. Peak of Sierra Nevada. 
 
 Mount Filabres 
 
 37 12 
 
 2 23 Ow 
 
 1 ROO TPP't', A ttijiqq 0"P xn/hi+p ms»"rKlp 
 
 Aguilas, Fort S. Juan 
 
 37 23 33 
 
 1 36 49w 
 
 l.\J\J\j JCvt. -Ti. Illcloo \JL WllltC lllti'llJlC, 
 
 1' and t. Var. 20° 43' in 1813. 
 
 Cartagena, fort Gateras . . . 
 
 37 35 28 
 
 58 17w 
 
 Height 655. j. S . *. 
 
 Cartagena, mole-light ... 
 
 37 35 58 
 
 57 42w 
 
 fg. Mag. var. 20° 44' in 1812. 
 
 Mount Roldan 
 
 37 6 
 
 1 2 Ow 
 
 1851 feet. This is of Murcia. 
 
 (3p off Hormigas. Var. 20° 34' (1813). 
 
 Cape Palos, turret 
 
 37 37 18 
 
 37 40w 
 
 Cape Cervera, turret 
 
 38 1 
 
 37 58w 
 
 t, open to sea-winds. 
 
 Lugar nueva, fort 
 
 38 12 7 
 
 31 54w 
 
 II Elche, f. t in Tamarit road. 
 
 Plana I. Tabarca bastion .. . 
 
 38 10 15 
 
 27 31w 
 
 Low and flat, but 1. /*-. 
 
 Alicant, mole-light 
 
 38 20 30 
 
 27 18w 
 
 95 ft. V. M. Tosal 230. Castle-hill 550. 
 
 Benidorme isle 
 
 38 30 5 
 
 5 llw 
 
 Var. 20° 30' (1813). V, but exposed. ^. 
 
 
 M. Roldan, the gap 
 
 38 36 
 
 11 Ow 
 
 The ' cuchillada,' or gash. 
 
 Point Ifac, or Calpe 
 
 38 37 18 
 
 4 10 
 
 f over Altea bay, but ! . _^. 
 
 Cape S. A ntonio, hermitage 
 
 38 48 31 
 
 10 58 
 
 High, level, and 1. Off Xavia, t. 
 
 Denia, castle 
 
 38 50 50 
 
 7 34 
 
 C2 between the banks. Outside t. 
 
 Cullera, sanidad 
 
 39 10 48 
 
 14 38 w 
 
 II lucar. Admits barks over tbc bar. 
 
432 
 
 THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 Place. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 Notauda. 
 
 Spain. 
 
 o / ri 
 
 o / n 
 
 
 Cape Cullera, tower 
 
 39 12 5 
 
 13 Ow 
 
 174 feet. _^. T . nr. 
 
 Valencia, cathedral 
 
 39 28 35 
 
 22 lOw 
 
 Var.20°35'; Dip 63°36'; Int. 236(1813). 
 
 Valencia, Grrao light 
 
 39 28 47 
 
 18 58w 
 
 45 feet. || Turia. 1. Outside t t but !. 
 
 Mount Espadan 
 
 39 54 
 
 24 Ow 
 
 Marli for the coast. 
 
 Cape Oropesa, outer tower 
 
 40 6 12 
 
 9 55 
 
 _•:. 7", shoal under it. 
 
 Peniscola, fort 
 
 40 22 53 
 
 25 
 
 1. 1. except with sea-winds, $'. 
 
 Mount Pefia de Bel 
 
 40 36 
 
 2 
 
 4000. Mark for approach from S.E. 
 
 Vinaroz steeple 
 
 40 29 10 
 
 27 57 
 
 $ in off-shore winds. 
 
 Monsia, east summit 
 
 40 37 
 
 31 
 
 880, ^ inland to 2500. 
 
 Alfaques, San Carlos mole 
 
 40 37 46 
 
 35 30 
 
 S. Var. 21° 0' in 1813. <*. ^. 
 
 Buda 1, or Cape Tortosa... 
 
 40 43 10 
 
 54 7 
 
 II Ebro. !. Station, Gola del N. [. 
 
 Port Fangal, point Fango 
 
 40 47 40 
 
 47 47 
 
 ED. In the bay $. ■*•. *-. 
 
 Tortosa, castle 
 
 40 49 
 
 32 50 
 
 Ebro ED for vessels of 50 tons. 
 
 Salou, mole-head 
 
 41 5 28 
 
 1 7 12 
 
 $'. Var. 20° 37' in 1813. 
 410 feet. a. In the roads, $'. 
 
 Tarragona, cathedral 
 
 41 6 57 
 
 1 16 10 
 
 Montazut summit 
 
 41 24 
 
 1 25 
 
 3200. Mark for the coast. 
 
 Castel Fells, sanidad 
 
 41 16 30 
 
 1 57 58 
 
 _=; 230. $' with !. 
 
 107 feet. || river Llobregat. !. *-. 
 
 680. Var. 20° 45' in 1813. 
 
 Torre del Bio 
 
 41 19 12 
 
 2 9 45 
 
 Barcelona, Monjui fortress 
 
 41 21 35 
 
 2 10 13 
 
 Bakcelona, mole-light ... 
 
 41 22 30 
 
 2 11 20 
 
 80 feet. H. Outside P. 
 
 Mon-serrat, centre 
 
 41 36 
 
 1 48 
 
 4200. Excellent sea-mark. 
 
 Mataro, eastern fort 
 
 41 32 47 
 
 2 27 33 
 
 210 feet. Inside reef 1', outside $. 
 
 Point Toldera, or Tordara 
 
 41 37 45 
 
 2 48 
 
 || the Toldera. Var. 20° 40' (1812). 
 
 Blanes, fort Santa Ana . . . 
 
 41 40 
 
 2 49 47 
 
 $ in land winds, here and Lloret. j. 
 
 Tosa, church at cove 
 
 41 42 36 
 
 2 57 35 
 
 $', with ! 8 . /-. Inland f. 
 $!, except in S.E. winds. ■*. 
 E. *, with !. Var. 20° 37' (1813). 
 1, but ! the Hormigas. [. 
 
 S. Feliu de Guixols 
 
 41 46 13 
 
 3 10 
 
 P alamos, mole-head 
 
 41 50 57 
 
 3 6 25 
 
 Cape S. Sebastian 
 
 41 53 10 
 
 3 12 14 
 
 Medas isles, fort 
 
 42 3 40 
 
 3 13 15 
 
 || river Ter. Var. 20° -40' (1813). d Q . 
 
 Ampurias (Emporias) 
 
 42 9 
 
 3 3 20 
 
 Old castle of the Ampurdan. 
 
 Bosas, fort Trinidad 
 
 42 16 12 
 
 3 10 25 
 
 315 feet. T & 1. *'. fl with !. 
 
 Cadaque"s, church 
 
 42 17 10 
 
 3 16 48 
 
 EE. _^: to M. (Fingers) of Cadaque"s. 
 
 Cape Creux, Masa de Oro I. 
 
 42 19 12 
 
 3 20 45 
 
 1. £ with !. [. ^r. 
 
 Santa Cruz delta Selva 
 
 42 18 
 
 3 12 25 
 
 T & 1. m. $. Var. 20° 35' (1813). 
 
 Cape Cervera, Carox tower 
 
 42 26 16 
 
 3 10 45 
 
 j & 1. Boundary of Spain & France. 
 
 Spanish Islands. 
 
 
 
 
 Columbretes I. M. Colibre 
 
 39 53 58 
 
 44 27 
 
 m. <b. Var. 17° 41' in 1823. <b. ^. 
 
 Columbretes I. Ship rock... 
 
 39 51 20 
 
 43 32 
 
 J & 1. $ Q With !. rr. 
 
 Formentera, I. P. Codolar 
 
 38 38 30 
 
 1 36 10 
 
 1. £ but I % ^. 
 
 Formentera, I. P. Aguila 
 
 38 38 15 
 
 1 23 
 
 The pitch. T & 1. % 
 
 Espardel isle, cove 
 
 38 48 5 
 
 1 29 25 
 
 *. With !, d a . 
 
 Iviza, Cape Falcone 
 
 38 50 20 
 
 1 24 
 
 j. j". ^. *>. [. 
 
THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 433 
 
 Place. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 Notanda. 
 
 Spanish Islands. 
 
 O / II 
 
 O I \\ 
 
 
 Iviza, the citadel 
 
 38 54 
 38 59 10 
 
 1 27 8 
 1 36 
 
 m. Var. 20° 15' in 1813. 
 1, but ! the reef. [. 
 
 Iriza, S. Eulalia rock 
 
 Iviza, Togomago I. 
 
 39 2 56 
 
 1 38 40 
 
 j & 1. d with !. [,. 
 
 Iviza, Point Denserra 
 
 39 8 5 
 
 1 31 55 
 
 1, moderate height. $ . It. 
 
 Iviza, Port S. Antonio ... 
 
 38 59 
 
 1 20 10 
 
 Watering place, ffl. ¥. 
 
 Iviza, Bedra islet 
 
 38 52 24 
 
 39 5 
 
 1 12 18 
 
 2 53 15 
 
 100 feet. Var. 20° 30' in 1813. 
 Pitch. T & 1. to- *• <*-• 
 
 Cabrera, P. Anciola 
 
 Cabrera, castle 
 
 39 6 57 
 
 2 54 36 
 
 m. %. Var. 19° 58' in 1813. 
 
 Foradada islet 
 
 39 10 
 39 13 30 
 
 2 57- 28 
 
 3 3 25 
 
 The pierced rock. d with !. [. 
 The pitch. _^ to Torre Gorta. % 
 
 Majorca, Cape Salinas . . . 
 
 Majorca, Port Colon 
 
 39 22 
 
 3 15 58 
 
 X'. _^ to M. Salvador. 
 
 Majorca, Cape Pera 
 
 39 40 36 
 
 3 30 
 
 The tower, j & 1. d Q . 
 
 Majorca, A leudia church . . . 
 
 39 49 40 
 
 3 8 57 
 
 In the bay $'. j-. 
 
 Majorca, Cape Pinar 
 
 39-;51 30 
 
 3 15 
 
 The pitch. 1. f. [ . 
 
 Majorca, Pollenza castle ... 
 
 39 53 10 
 
 3 8 28 
 
 m but ! winds. Var. 19° 50' (1813). 
 
 Majorca, C. Formenton ... 
 
 39 56 48 
 
 3 15 10 
 
 Long hummocky tongue. 1. S . 
 
 Majorca, M. Torellas 
 
 39 48 
 
 2 48 50 
 
 The Silla or Saddle s! ». 5200 feet. 
 
 Majorca, Port Poller 
 
 39 47 58 
 
 2 43 
 
 The landing place. X y . 
 
 Majorca, Dragonera isle ... 
 
 39 36 10 
 
 2 17 35 
 
 Upper tower light, 1180. j & 1. 
 
 Majorca, cape Llamp 
 
 39 32 
 
 2 23 20 
 
 j & 1. ^toM. Galatzo. *. ^. 
 
 Majorca, Palma mole . . . 
 
 39 34 5 
 
 2 38 45 
 
 Light 37 ft. Var. 19° 54' (1812). H. V. 
 
 Majorca, cape Blanco 
 
 39 20 32 
 
 2 47 
 
 7, 1, and _^ inland. t . 
 
 Minorca, cape Dartuch ... 
 
 39 54 50 
 
 3 51 22 
 
 Low and flat, but 1. [. 
 
 Minorca, Ciudadela 
 
 39 59 15 
 
 3 52 30 
 
 Octangular spire. [3J and t. 
 
 Minorca, cape Bajoli 
 
 40 25 
 
 3 48 12 
 
 j & -L. _*; to Torre del Raam. 
 
 Minorca, Cala Caldera ... 
 
 40 3 5 
 
 4 2 
 
 *,. _^to S. Agata. Var. 19° 38' (1811). 
 
 Minorca, C. Cabaleria ... 
 
 40 5 
 
 4 6 58 
 
 1. _^: inland. $ . 
 
 Minorca, Port Fornelles . . . 
 
 40 3 25 
 
 4 8 51 
 
 The fort. m. S a with !'. * c . 
 
 Minorca, Mount Toro 
 
 39 58 36 
 
 4 8 30 
 
 (El Tor) convent 1220. ^ . Sea-mark. 
 
 Minorca, Colon isle 
 
 39 58 7 
 
 4 18 20 
 
 1 from seaward. Var. 19° 35' (1812). ^. 
 
 Minorca, cape Mola 
 
 39 52 45 
 
 4 21 36 
 
 Atalaia. j, 1. S . [ . ¥ . 
 
 Minorca, Port Mahon... 
 
 39 52 57 
 
 4 19 53 
 
 Quarantine isle. Var. 19°30' (1811). ffl. 
 
 Minorca, Port Mahon 
 
 39 53 30 
 
 4 18 32 
 
 Arsenal sheers. Var. 19° 36' (1813). ffl. 
 
 Minorca, Ayre isle 
 
 39 48 30 
 
 4 18 25 
 
 1 outside. d with ! in ||. *-. 
 
 M in area, A laior tower 
 
 39 52 10 
 
 4 9 42 
 
 j & 1. $' in north winds. ¥. 
 
 France. 
 
 
 
 
 Cape Beam, light 
 
 42 30 48 
 
 3 8 48 
 
 752 feet. _^ to the Pyrenees. 1. 
 
 Port Vendres, light 
 
 42 31 2 
 
 3 7 32 
 
 98 ft. S. ^to fort 8. Elmo, on ^ . 
 
 Callioure, isht St. Vincent 
 
 42 31 20 
 
 3 5 40 
 
 X but ! east winds. _^ to fort S. Elmo. 
 
 M mi a' Canigou 
 
 42 30 
 
 2 30 
 
 9300 feet. ^ . A sea-mark. 
 
 Canet, 8. Marie tower 
 
 42 42 4 
 
 3 50 
 
 || ofTet. t in land winds, j with !. /3/3 . 
 
 Perpignan, steeple 
 
 42 41 45 
 
 2 54 
 
 Rise to town 67 ft., to M. Forceral 1650. 
 
 
 F F 
 
434 
 
 THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 Place. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 France. 
 Leucate, fort les Mattes . . . 
 
 Grau de Sigean, light 
 
 Serignan, douane 
 
 Fort Brescou, light 
 
 Mount A gde, light 
 
 Cette, Mount S. Clair 
 
 Cette, niole-light 
 
 Frontignan, steeple 
 
 Montpellier, steeple 
 
 Aigues-mortes, light 
 
 Grau d' Organ, fort 
 
 Rhone Delta, la Camargue 
 Rhone Delta, S. Louis tower 
 Rhone Delta, Tanpan douane 
 
 Port de Bouc, light 
 
 Cape Couronne, pitch 
 
 Carre, VEstes rock 
 
 P. Mourrepiane, fort 
 
 Marseilles, fanal S. Jean 
 Marseilles, upper castle ... 
 Daume I., fort Tourville... 
 
 Chateau d'lf, tower 
 
 Ratoneau I., castle 
 
 Pomegue I., tour S. Jean... 
 
 Planier isle, light 
 
 Tiboulen isle, centre 
 
 M. S. Michel, semaphore... 
 
 Riou isle, tower 
 
 La Cassidaigne rock 
 
 Cassis, lighthouse 
 
 Bee de VAigle, cape 
 
 Ciotat, Bureau de Pratique 
 P. Grenier, or Carboniere 
 
 M. Pilon de Beaivme 
 
 Bandol isle, centre 
 
 I. des Embiez, fort 
 
 Cape Sicie, semaphore 
 
 Cape Sepet, pyramid 
 
 Toulon, la Grosse-tour . . . 
 
 Chateau de Giens 
 
 Hy&res bay, fort Gapeau . . . 
 Hyeres bay, fort Bregancon 
 Porquerolles I., light 
 
 42 53 58 
 
 43 55 
 43 15 30 
 43 15 44 
 43 17 56 
 43 24 
 43 23 55 
 43 27 
 43 37 10 
 43 32 27 
 43 26 30 
 43 20 35 
 43 22 55 
 43 21 37 
 43 24 
 43 19 20 
 43 19 30 
 43 21 10 
 43 17 42 
 43 16 58 
 43 16 10 
 43 16 45 
 43 17 
 43 16 25 
 43 11 55 
 43 12 53 
 43 13 28 
 43 10 34 
 43 8 37 
 43 12 49 
 43 9 55 
 43 10 20 
 43 9 40 
 43 20 
 
 7 36 
 4 34 
 
 3 12 
 
 4 32 
 6 6 
 2 18 
 6 28 
 
 5 25 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 43 
 43 
 43 
 43 
 43 
 43 
 43 
 43 
 42 59 15 
 
 3 2 46 
 3 3 55 
 3 17 18 
 3 29 
 3 28 10 
 3 40 
 3 41 35 
 3 44 30 
 
 3 52 
 
 4 8 10 
 4 24 22 
 4 41 
 4 47 48 
 4 50 27 
 
 4 58 56 
 
 5 3 30 
 5 9 33 
 5 19 54 
 5 21 40 
 5 22 7 
 5 20 45 
 5 19 50 
 
 18 57 
 
 18 40 
 14 17 
 
 19 50 
 22 25 
 22 55 
 32 26 
 31 55 
 
 5 36 36 
 
 5 36 40 
 41 10 
 46 30 
 
 45 10 
 
 46 45 
 50 55 
 56 57 
 56 8 
 
 6 7 30 
 6 11 39 
 6 19 13 
 6 11 55 
 
 Notanda. 
 
 1. j. In Franqui £'. _^ 125 feet. 
 
 33 feet. || port Nouvelle of Narbonne. 
 
 || of Orbe, GS. _^ to Beziers, 380 ft. ^. 
 
 30ft. T with !. j3j3 . Var.20°10' (1813). 
 
 415 feet. Useful sea-mark. 
 
 620 ft. Mark for the Etang de Thau. 
 
 88 feet. || of the Etang. IB. $ by j. 
 
 Seen over etangs and drowned lands. 
 
 120 ft. Mark for Grau de Maguelonne. 
 
 70 feet. || Grau du Roi. ffl. * r- 
 
 || Petit Rhone, j. % 
 
 130f. || Vieux Rhone, in drowned Ids. ^. 
 
 || Rhone. Var. 19° 51' in 1812. ^-. 
 
 S'inGulfofFoz. M. Opica 1630, seen to N. 
 
 98 feet. || Etang de Berre. E. $'. 
 
 j & 1, but ! for Regas and Muet. ¥. 
 
 S with ! 1. % _^to M. Tabouret, 490. 
 
 _^ Moulin du Diable 680, Pilon du Koi 2360. 
 
 32f. H. Eoad* ; . Var.l^O'jDipesnO' (1820). 
 
 Notre Dame de la Garde, 526 feet. 
 
 ! shoals in d'lf ||. $ Daume road. 
 
 150 feet, j & 1. ! the above shoals. 
 
 293 feet. 1. £ with !. 
 
 282 feet. 1. d a . 
 
 131 ft. ! /3j3 . Var. 19° 46' (1820). ^. 
 
 j & -L. £ in Cape Croisette ||. 
 
 (Collet du Rose) 1340f.Grardalaban 2270. 
 
 j & 1 to seaward. 510 feet. 
 
 A wash at times, but 1 around. 
 
 E. Var. 19° 20' in 1815. 
 
 ! for 8 in isle Verte ||. _^ 410. ¥ . 
 
 ES. *. Mole light 40 ft. The new 394. 
 
 1, but ! the tunny nets. 
 
 3200 feet. A sea-mark. 
 
 1 outside, in || d. Inside $. 
 
 In the || sd. t . rr. 
 
 1200 feet. T & 1, with S. [. 
 
 j & 1, ! for Rascas rock. ^ . 
 
 ffl.Var.20° (1815) .M.Faronl700,Coudon2150. 
 
 || of La Petite Passe 1, d . 
 
 || the Gapeau. $' by j. 
 
 T &1. || for boats. Var. 19° 45' (1812). 
 
 262 feet. T & 1. 8 . [ . 
 
THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 435 
 
 Place. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 Notanda. 
 
 France. 
 
 O / II 
 
 o / » 
 
 
 Port-Cros I., fort Man ... 
 
 43 32 
 
 6 24 58 
 
 ES. j & ■*» but ! in Titan II- -^ 650. 
 
 Pt.-Cros I., La Gabiniere rk. 
 
 42 59 
 
 6 23 42 
 
 1. || for boats. *-. 
 
 Levant I., Phare du Titan 
 
 43 2 46 
 
 6 30 35 
 
 246 feet. 1, d with !. <b. 
 
 Esquillade rock, turret 
 
 43 2 18 
 
 6 32 5 
 
 1. S . Var. 19° 50' in 1812. ^. 
 
 Cape Cavalaire, redoubt ... 
 
 43 9 42 
 
 6 32 12 
 
 j & 1. In road $'. _^ 1100. 
 
 Cape Ta Mat, islet 
 
 43 9 53 
 
 6 39 50 
 
 1 except close in. 
 
 CapeLardier, Camarat light 
 
 43 12 14 
 
 6 41 30 
 
 427 feet. At base /3/3 . [. 
 
 Cape S. Tropez, islet 
 
 43 16 32 
 
 6 43 16 
 
 S. ! among the shoals. 
 
 S. Tropez, maison de Pratique 
 
 43 16 38 
 
 6 39 
 
 EL In Grimaud bay, $'. 
 
 Frejus, ancient amphitheatre 
 
 43 26 5 
 
 6 44 15 
 
 98 feet above the sea. 
 
 Frejus, S. Rapheau 
 
 43 25 15 
 
 6 46 22 
 
 EL V. Var. 19° 43' in 1815. 
 
 Agay, the castle 
 
 43 25 45 
 43 27 30 
 
 6 52 25 
 6 54 30 
 
 $, but ! shoals of Isle O, & la Boute. 
 1500. f (Foret d'Esterelles). 
 
 Cape Roux, summit 
 
 Napoule, maison de Pratique 
 
 43 31 20 
 
 6 56 30 
 
 t, but with !. 
 
 Cannes, fort S. Pierre 
 
 43 32 48 
 
 7 32 
 
 EL * with !. Var. 19° 20' (1823). 
 
 Lerins Is., Ste. Marguerite 
 
 43 31 20 
 
 7 2 35 
 
 Fort Monterey. || for small vessels. 
 
 Lerins Is., St. Honorat . . . 
 
 43 30 19 
 
 7 2 40 
 
 The abbaie. 8 to south. !. ¥. <-*-. 
 
 Gourjeau, or Iouan 
 
 43 33 56 
 
 7 4 30 
 
 Maison de Pratique. $', but enter !. 
 
 Garouppe lighthouse 
 
 43 33 50 
 
 7 7 54 
 
 340 feet. 1 under, but !. 
 
 Antibes, mole light 
 
 43 35 5 
 
 7 7 38 
 
 50 feet. EL Var. 19° 30' (1823). 
 
 Ville-neuve, castle 
 
 43 39 35 
 
 7 8 
 
 A mark on the hills. 
 
 S. Laurent du Var 
 
 43 40 40 
 
 7 11 15 
 
 Boundary of France and Piedmont. 
 
 Piedmont. 
 
 Grenaglia point 
 
 43 39 30 
 
 7 12 12 
 
 || river Var. j. ¥. r-r. 
 
 Nice, port Limpia sanita\.. 
 
 43 41 16 
 
 7 17 12 
 
 EL _^ to M. Mignons, mark from S. W. 
 
 Villa Franca, arsenal flag 
 
 43 41 25 
 
 7 18 35 
 
 Arsenal El. Harbour EE. 
 
 Villa Franca, fort Montalban 
 
 43 41 38 
 
 7 18 13 
 
 Var. 19°; Dip 64° 10'; Int. 245 (1823). 
 
 Villa Franca, lighthouse . . . 
 
 43 40 2 
 
 7 19 27 
 
 On point Mala, 225 feet. 
 
 Belluogo (Beaulieu), mole... 
 
 43 41 44 
 
 7 20 5 
 
 $ in shore winds. _^ M. Leuza, 1690. 
 
 Point St. Laurent 
 
 43 42 24 
 
 7 23 25 
 
 T , but ! a shoal. ^ to Eza, 1840. f e . 
 
 Turbia, ancient trophy 
 
 43 43 49 
 
 7 25 41 
 
 Sea-mark, 1650. * . 
 
 Monaco, castle flag 
 
 43 42 50 
 
 7 26 55 
 
 T & 1. *. ^ to M. Nagel (table-hill). 
 
 Cape S. Martin, battery . . . 
 
 43 43 20 
 
 7 32 10 
 
 1. _^ to Col de Braus, 3800. 
 
 Ventimiglia, dogana 
 
 43 45 42 
 
 7 38 
 
 || the Roya. t r ^ Col de Tende 5900. 
 
 San Remo, mole 
 
 43 49 10 
 
 7 50 28 
 
 $ in Id. winds, f .Var.l9°19',Dip 64°14'(1824). 
 
 Monte Grande, summit ... 
 
 43 51 
 
 7 37 
 
 3100 feet. With M. Cougarde, a mark. 
 
 Cape dell' A rmi 
 
 43 49 52 
 
 7 53 
 
 || of Taglia. j. 8 . ^ to the Cornice. 
 
 Port Maurizio, convent . . . 
 
 43 53 22 
 
 7 58 46 
 
 l r Road t. Var. 19° 40' in 1820. 
 
 Cape delle Mele 
 
 43 57 58 
 
 8 11 
 
 1. S . _^: to Maritime Alps. 
 
 ( Jallinara islet, tower 
 
 44 2 6 
 
 8 13 5 
 
 T . & 1. S . in ||. Var. 19° 30' (1820). 
 
 Monte Cairo, summit 
 
 44 10 i) 
 
 8 9 30 
 
 2900. m. tfelogno 3460. Marks (or coast. 
 
 Finale, battery 
 
 44 9 r><\ 
 
 8 19 3 
 
 t with land winds. Var. 19° 20' (1820). 
 
 F F 2 
 
436 
 
 THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 Place. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 Notanda. 
 
 Piedmont. 
 
 O / II 
 
 O / II 
 
 
 Noli, convent S. Francis... 
 
 44 11 54 
 
 8 22 42 
 
 $ with land winds. Var. 18° 40' (1824) . 
 
 Bersezzi islet, ruins 
 
 44 14 
 
 8 24 50 
 
 || for boats. Cape _^ toMt.Invincibile. 
 
 Vado, fort S. Lorenzo 
 
 44 15 27 
 
 8 24 32 
 
 $'. Mag. Var. 18° 32' in 1824. 
 
 Savona, citadel 
 
 44 18 25 
 
 8 27 52 
 
 El. Var. 19° 15' (1820). _^ Col d'Altare 1600. 
 
 Cape A renzano, pitch 
 
 44 24 12 
 
 8 39 15 
 
 y. & -L. d . Inside || of the Pizzo. 
 
 Rock Polla, centre 
 
 44 25 
 
 8 46 14 
 
 8 in || to Castellazza. 
 
 Genoa, lighthouse 
 
 44 24 36 
 
 8 53 5 
 
 370. m. Var.l9°15',Dip63°40'(1818). 
 
 Genoa, fort Diamante 
 
 44 28 48 
 
 8 55 12 
 
 _^: to Bocchetto pass, 2700. 
 
 Nervi, the palace 
 
 44 23 39 
 
 9 2 18 
 
 S in approach. $ . 
 
 H. Var. 18° 54', Dip 64° 7' (1820). 
 
 Porto Fino, the fort 
 
 44 18 15 
 
 9 14 4 
 
 Sestri a Levante, fort 
 
 44 16 23 
 
 9 25 26 
 
 $' in land winds. Manara pnt. j & 1. S . 
 
 Levanto, landing pi ace ... 
 
 44 10 55 
 
 9 38 17 
 
 Mag. Var. 15° 45' (?) in 1820. 
 
 Mount Castellana 
 
 44 4 
 
 9 50 30 
 
 The summit, 1610 feet. 
 
 Porto Venere, S. Pietro . . . 
 
 44 3 10 
 
 9 51 50 
 
 Eastern side EE. ■$•. <b. 
 
 Tino islet, lighthouse 
 
 44 1 58 
 
 9 52 31 
 
 384 feet. T & 1. S . 
 
 La Scola, fort 
 
 44 3 20 
 
 9 52 56 
 
 1. d in || to Palmaria. 
 
 Spezia, fort Pezzino 
 
 44 4 37 
 
 9 52 12 
 
 High water l h 38 m . Rise & fall l|ft. H). 
 
 Spezia, city castle 
 
 44 6 25 
 
 9 51 23 
 
 Var. 18° 10'. Dip 63° 35'. Int. 237 (1820). 33. 
 
 Spezia, Lerici castle 
 
 44 4 32 
 44 2 54 
 
 9 54 42 
 9 58 10 
 
 V. Var. 17° 59' in 1823. *. 
 
 || the Magra. Porto di Luni [I]. 
 
 Santa Croce, sanitd 
 
 Tuscany. 
 
 
 
 
 LaMarinella, ruins ofLuni 
 
 44 3 16 
 
 9 59 18 
 
 Confines of Piedmont and Tuscany. r<- 
 
 L'Avenza, landing place .. . 
 
 44 2 15 
 
 10 3 30 
 
 $' with !. || Carrara river. _^ M. Sagro. 
 
 San Giuseppe, tower 
 
 44 38 
 
 10 7 8 
 
 j. || river to Massa. . % 
 
 Port Cinquale 
 
 43 58 35 
 
 10 9 4 
 
 y. _^ to Monte Altissimo, 5200. 
 
 Motrona, church 
 
 43 55 30 
 
 10 13 27 
 
 $' in easterly winds. ¥. List. M.Cimone 6400. 
 
 Viareggio, sanita* 
 
 43 51 51 
 
 10 15 19 
 
 $'. Var. 18° 30'; Dip 63° 5', in 1823. % 
 
 Serchio toiver 
 
 43 46 48 
 
 10 16 30 
 
 
 Pisa, campanile 
 
 43 43 30 
 
 10 24 
 
 ' Leaning Tower/with grd. 255f. Acoast mark. 
 
 Arno fort, flagstaff 
 
 43 40 50 
 
 10 16 40 
 
 || river Arno. E. /3 on bar. 
 Mag. Var. 18° 37' in 1823. 
 
 Leghorn, Marzocco toioer... 
 
 43 34 15 
 
 10 18 7 
 
 Leghokn, lighthouse 
 
 43 32 50 
 
 10 17 45 
 
 154 feet. Var. 17° 58' in 1820. 
 
 Leghorn, Melora beacon ... 
 
 43 32 56 
 
 10 13 32 
 
 On the head of Melora bank. 
 
 Calafuria tower 
 
 43 28 50 
 
 10 20 
 
 1. _^: to Monte Negro. ¥. 
 
 Castiglioncello toiver 
 
 43 24 30 
 
 10 24 5 
 
 £ in 7". Cove for boats. *■. 
 
 
 43 21 7 
 
 10 27 20 
 
 $ in || to the reef. % 
 
 7-. j8/3 . !. Submerged ruins (?). 
 
 Mai di Vetro reef. 
 
 43 20 
 
 10 20 48 
 
 Cecina, palace 
 
 43 18 6 
 
 10 29 30 
 
 || river Cecina. ¥. 
 
 Castagneto fort 
 
 43 10 15 
 
 10 32 30 
 
 $ in land winds. _^;. ¥. 
 
 Torre S. Vincenzo 
 
 43 6 
 
 10 32 18 
 
 _^ hills of Calvi and CampigHa. 
 
 Port Baratto, Populonia... 
 
 42 59 30 
 
 10 30 10 
 
 £', except in N.W. winds. 
 
 Piombino, palace 
 
 42 55 32 
 
 10 31 40 
 
 390 feet. Var. 18° 0' in 1823. 
 
THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 437 
 
 Place. 
 
 Tuscany. 
 
 Fullonica, dog ana 
 
 Troja islet, tower 
 
 Castiglione della Pescaja... 
 
 La Tro.ppola fort 
 
 Cala di Forno 
 
 Port Talainone, sanita 
 
 Talamonaccio tower 
 
 Orhitello, landing-place ... 
 
 Santa Liberata tower 
 
 Port Santo Stefano, mole 
 Mount Argentaro, telegraph 
 Port Ercole, fort Stella ... 
 
 Tagliata tower 
 
 Formica di Burano 
 
 Lake Bur ano, E. Graticciaja 
 
 Tuscan Islands. 
 
 Gorgona isle, Torre Vecchia 
 
 Capraja isle, castle 
 
 Elba I. Port Ferrajo 
 
 Elba I. Cape Vita 
 
 Elba, Longona citadel flag 
 Elba,M. Calamita{Loadstn.) 
 
 Elba, Campo tower 
 
 Elba, M. Capxinne 
 
 Palmajola I. fort light 
 
 Cerboli I., ruin 
 
 Pianosa I., Turco rock . . . 
 
 Africa rock, centre 
 
 Monte Christo, summit ruins 
 Formiclte di Grosseto,N.rck. 
 
 Giglio, town spire 
 
 Giannuti, Spalmatoja bay 
 
 Corsica. 
 
 Giraglia I., redoubt 
 
 Cape Minervio, pitch 
 
 San Fiorenzo, citadel 
 
 Punta Per alto, pitch 
 
 Isola Iiossa, islet battery . . . 
 
 Calvi, the citadel 
 
 Calvi, Rivellata light 
 
 Gargana (Gargalo) I. turret 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 o , n 
 
 O / II 
 
 42 55 20 
 
 10 44 50 
 
 42 48 3 
 
 10 43 10 
 
 42 45 57 
 
 10 52 52 
 
 42 41 
 
 11 2 20 
 
 42 36 57 
 
 11 5 24 
 
 42 33 20 
 
 11 8 19 
 
 42 33 14 
 
 11 9 56 
 
 42 26 38 
 
 11 12 38 
 
 42 26 30 
 
 11 8 59 
 
 42 25 56 
 
 11 7 57 
 
 42 23 45 
 
 11 10 28 
 
 42 23 34 
 
 11 12 
 
 42 24 50 
 
 11 17 36 
 
 42 23 
 
 11 19 10 
 
 42 22 57 
 
 11 27 30 
 
 43 25 45 
 
 9 53 
 
 43 2 36 
 
 9 50 49 
 
 42 49 5 
 
 10 20 30 
 
 42 52 40 
 
 10 24 58 
 
 42 46 12 
 
 10 24 22 
 
 42 44 
 
 10 24 30 
 
 42 44 55 
 
 10 14 35 
 
 42 .46 30 
 
 10 10 
 
 42 52 2 
 
 10 28 40 
 
 42 51 44 
 
 10 33 
 
 42 32 40 
 
 10 9 14 
 
 42 21 40 
 
 10 8 5 
 
 42 19 14 
 
 10 20 
 
 42 34 45 
 
 10 53 5 
 
 42 22 3 
 
 10 55 10 
 
 42 14 5Q 
 
 11 7 
 
 43 1 45 
 
 9 24 10 
 
 42 54 5 
 
 9 19 
 
 42 41 10 
 
 9 17 56 
 
 42 44 15 
 
 9 13 12 
 
 42 38 43 
 
 8 55 55 
 
 42 34 
 
 8 45 
 
 42 35 
 
 8 43 12 
 
 42 22 6 
 
 8 32 
 
 Notanda. 
 
 $' off Portiglione. f. _k to 550. 
 
 T&l. || requires !. _^:toM. Maus, 980, 
 
 || toLake, & river Bruna. Var.l8°18' (1823) . f. 
 
 || river Ombrone. ¥. 
 
 1 in the cove. *■. 
 
 H. t. Var. 16° 57' in 1823. 
 
 || river Osa. y. ■#-. 
 
 In middle of a lake. ^-. 
 
 Above ruins of Doniitian's port. 
 
 E. *'. Var. 17° 28' in 1823. 
 
 1750 feet. 8 on coast below. 
 
 ffl. * but !. Var. 16° 55' in 1823. 
 
 Ruins of Ansedonia. j. *-. 
 
 1 around. d Q in ||. *~. 
 
 || Chiarone. Boundary of Tuscany. 
 
 j &-1. X in cove. Summit 1200 ft. 
 
 T &1. Var. 18° 53' in 1818. 
 
 Port Stella light 192 feet. m. 
 
 Var. 19°, Dip 62° 40', in 1823. 
 
 Focardo light 105. ffi. Var.l9°5' (1823). 
 
 1195 ft. Var. 19° 30', Dip 64° 10' (1823). 
 
 SI. Further out $. *. 
 
 2700 feet. Mark for the ||s. i 
 
 344 feet. Var. 19° 10' in 1823. 
 
 1 on all sides. d a . 
 
 1. $ off the boat coves. •*-. 
 
 6 ft. Var. 19° 20' (1823). ! shoal 24' N. 
 
 1900 feet. T & 1. d Q . *. 
 
 N. rock 32 feet, S. one 13. £ with !. 
 
 _-*; M. Pagana, 1317. Port SI. Campese bay $. 
 
 T &1. *. Var. 18° 5' in 1823. *. 
 
 250 ft. M. Campana (opposite) 576. t. 
 T&l. $<>• •' k inc * squalls. ¥. 
 || of Lomio. *. Var. 18° 21' (1815). 
 1. _^r to peak of Sierra Lortella. 
 $ with !. Var. 18° 30' (1815). 
 S3, t. _^ to Paglia-orba, 8700 feet. 
 290 feet. _^: inland to Capo Tondo. 
 ±. Boat || to Gardiolo. ^r. 
 
438 
 
 THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 Place. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 Notanda. 
 
 COKSICA. 
 
 o 
 
 / ri 
 
 O / II 
 
 
 Cape Rosso, pitch 
 
 42 
 
 14 12 
 
 8 32 30 
 
 J- to Sbiro rock. *•. 
 
 M. Rotondo, Admiral' 's nose 
 
 42 
 
 12 
 
 9 4 
 
 8900 feet. Excellent sea-mark. 
 
 Sagona, white tower 
 
 42 
 
 6 50 
 
 8 41 
 
 E2&$. _^: inland to Monte Bicco. % 
 
 Sanguinario I. light tower 
 
 41 
 
 52 45 
 
 8 35 35 
 
 320. Mostly I, but ! Tabernacolo rock. 
 
 Ajaccio, citadel flag 
 
 41 Kfi in 
 
 8 44 30 
 
 ffi. Var. 18° 25', Dip 62° 5' in 1815. 
 Pitch of the Sierra Kutefa. *. 
 
 Cape Mtdo (Muro) 
 
 41 
 
 45 
 
 8 39 20 
 
 Campo Moro, redoubt 
 
 41 
 
 38 12 
 
 8 48 15 
 
 ffi. $' by j- in gulf of Valinco. 
 
 Point Senetoza, tower 
 
 41 
 
 33 50 
 
 8 47 23 
 
 j & 1. _^ inland. 
 
 Monachi rocks, highest 
 
 41 27 10 
 
 8 54 30 
 
 40 feet. 8 in the ||s. /3. !. *. 
 
 Porto Figari, landing place 
 
 41 
 
 28 30 
 
 9 4 
 
 || river Canale. ^l inland. ¥. 
 
 Cape Fieno, or Feno 
 
 41 
 
 23 40 
 
 9 6 20 
 
 The pitch of Monte Trinity, j. 
 
 Bonifacio, middle tower 
 
 41 
 
 23 14 
 
 9 10 
 
 m. Var. 18° 5', Dip 61° 39' in 1815. 
 
 Cape Pertusato, light 
 
 41 
 
 22 10 
 
 9 11 30 
 
 325 feet. T & 1. 
 
 Lavezzi I. A rrini cove 
 
 41 20 30 
 
 9 15 44 
 
 JL. 1, but ! for reef 1^' south. 
 
 Cavallo I. Levant cove . . . 
 
 41 
 
 22 5 
 
 9 16 32 
 
 || to Piana I. and main, d. (3. !. *-. 
 
 Perduto islet, centre . 
 
 41 
 
 22 18 
 
 9 19 
 
 1, except reef to S.E., with /3. 
 
 Porraja rock, summit 
 
 41 
 
 23 40 
 
 9 16 22 
 
 8 in ||, but practicable. j3j3 . 
 
 Santa Manza, Capicciolo T. ■ 
 
 41 
 
 25 5 
 
 9 15 50 
 
 IS, but ! for north-easters. 
 
 Toro rocks, the highest 
 
 41 
 
 30 20 
 
 9 23 
 
 1, except on the east. d in ||. 
 
 Porto Vecchio, church 
 
 41 
 
 35 30 
 
 9 18 
 
 m. Unwholesome air. Var. 17°58'(1815). 
 
 Porto Vecchio, Chiappa light 
 
 41 
 
 35 55 
 
 9 22 10 
 
 220 ft. j & 1, but ! a rock near base. 
 
 Pinarellobay , torre de' Corsi 
 
 41 
 
 40 
 
 9 23 20 
 
 $withshore winds. _^M. Cava, 5000. f 
 
 Fium-Orbo, Casa Fiesci ... 
 
 41 
 
 59 40 
 
 9 26 30 
 
 ||. _^ to M. Cappella, 6750. # . ^. 
 
 Alleria fort 
 
 42 
 
 7 
 
 9 31 15 
 
 || of the Tavignano. j. ¥. <~r. 
 
 Fiorentina tower 
 
 42 
 
 17 10 
 33 30 
 
 9 34 
 
 || Alezani. ¥. E. extreme of Corsica. 
 II Buguglialake & Golo R. $' in road. *-. 
 
 Punta d'A rco, tower 
 
 42 
 
 9 31 50 
 
 Bastia, mole-light 
 
 42 
 
 42 
 
 9 27 
 
 52 feet. E. $. Var. 18° 30' in 1815. 
 
 Monte Stella, summit 
 
 42 
 
 48 
 
 9 25 
 
 4500 feet. Mark in Elba & Capraja || . 
 
 Finocchiarolo I. tower 
 
 42 
 
 59 15 
 
 9 28 
 
 $ both in S. Maria & Figarona bays. 
 
 Sakdinia. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Point delta Marmorata . . . 
 
 41 
 
 15 50 
 
 9 13 45 
 
 With Falcone, N. point of Sardinia. 
 
 Longo Sardo, redoubt 
 
 41 
 
 14 59 
 
 9 11 20 
 
 [33. N. winds rake the port. *-. 
 
 Capo della Testa, light 
 
 41 
 
 14 28 
 
 9 8 15 
 
 On torre Santa Reparata, 220ft. $. ¥ . 
 
 Vignola tower 
 
 41 
 
 8 5 
 
 9 3 10 
 
 $. _^ to M. Griuncara, 1700 feet. 
 
 Monfronara tower 
 
 41 
 
 1 10 
 
 8 52 35 
 
 Isola Eossa & Cala falsa -L. —^ to M. Cucuru. 
 || river Coguinas. _^to Castel Doria. ¥. 
 
 S. Pietro di Mare, chapel 
 
 40 
 
 55 45 
 
 8 48 46 
 
 Castel Sardo, high steeple 
 
 40 
 
 55 7 
 
 8 42 36 
 
 j & 1. $ with !. X in the coves. 
 
 Sardo rock, four fathoms 
 
 41 
 
 50 
 
 8 43 36 
 
 1. M. Spina (2650) in G-allura, S. 22°, E. 13f 
 
 Porto Torres, tower light. . . 
 
 40 
 
 50 31 
 
 8 22 51 
 
 49 feet. ffl. V. Var. 18° 50' in 1824. 
 
 Sassari, cathedral 
 
 40 
 
 43 40 
 
 8 33 20 
 
 Above Porto Torres 710. Osilopk. 2200. 
 (Lo Scorno). j & 1. $ . *. /v. 
 
 Asinara I. punta Caprara 
 
 41 
 
 8 
 
 8 18 25 
 
 Asinara I. Trabucato tower 
 
 41 
 
 4 4 
 
 8 18 53 
 
 ffl. _^: Scomunica peak 1458. *. 
 
THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 439 
 
 Place. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 Kotanda. 
 
 Sakdinia. 
 
 o 
 
 , 
 
 „ 
 
 O / II 
 
 
 Capo del Falcone, tower . . . 
 
 40 
 
 53 
 
 5 
 
 8 10 17 
 
 ^ 610 feet. t a under. |. c . 
 
 Cape A r gentier a, 'pitch ... 
 
 40 
 
 44 
 
 10 
 
 8 5 26 
 
 j&l. [ . _^toRotondopeak, 1390. *. 
 
 Torre della Pegna 
 
 40 
 
 35 
 
 43 
 
 8 7 40 
 
 913 feet. T & 1. * . to- ~~- 
 
 Porto Conte, Capo Caccia 
 
 40 
 
 33 
 
 24 
 
 8 8 29 
 
 Summit 575 feet. 1. 
 
 Porto Conte, torre Nuova 
 
 40 
 
 35 40 
 
 8 10 38 
 
 m. Var. 19° in 1824. *. 
 
 Monte cV Oglia 
 
 40 37 
 
 
 
 8 14 
 
 Summit 1398. A mark for Alghero. 
 
 A Igh ero, torre Sperone 
 
 40 
 
 32 
 
 47 
 
 8 16 49 
 
 V. Var. 18° 55' in 1824. 
 
 Cape Marargiu, pitch 
 
 40 
 
 19 
 
 52 
 
 8 20 46 
 
 1 to the rock. _^ to 2550 feet. 
 
 Isola Rossa, Bosa tower . . . 
 
 40 
 
 16 
 
 40 
 
 8 25 31 
 
 || river Temo. E. ¥. 
 
 Cuglieri, castle on peak- ... 
 
 40 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 8 32 
 
 1300 feet. _** M. Ferru 2796. % 
 
 Cape Mannu, torre Mora. . . 
 
 40 
 
 1 
 
 44 
 
 8 20 35 
 
 1. In land winds 1 in cove. 
 
 Mai di Ventre Rock 
 
 39 
 39 
 
 5S 
 52 
 
 58 
 40 
 
 8 16 
 8 14 10 
 
 # in || to the main. *-. 
 
 1 except on the N.N.E. d with !. 
 
 Coscia di donna (Catalano) 
 
 Oristano, torre Grande ... 
 
 39 
 
 53 
 
 55 
 
 8 28 40 
 
 m. *• Var. 18° 36' in 1824. nr. 
 
 Oristano, the belfry 
 
 39 
 
 53 
 
 47 
 
 8 33 20 
 
 Deadly air in summer. r<~. 
 
 M. Aci, Trebina peak 
 
 39 
 
 46 
 
 
 
 8 43 30 
 
 Triple-peak hill of pilots. 
 
 M. Arc aentu, the mark ... 
 
 39 
 
 35 35 
 
 8 32 
 
 The finger of Oristano, 2315. 
 
 Cape Pecora, pitch 
 
 39 2' 
 
 
 
 8 21 22 
 
 $ || Flumini-maggiore. -^ to M. Linas, 4000. 
 1. $ Q . 8 . A conical rock. 
 1 on all sides. d in ||. re. 
 
 Pan di Zncchero 
 
 39 
 39 
 
 19 
 9 
 
 44 
 
 
 8 23 
 8 11 12 
 
 S. Pietro I. Gallo rock 
 
 S. Pietro I. north summit. . . 
 
 39 
 
 9 
 
 40 
 
 8 16 28 
 
 Guardia dei Mori, 680 feet. *. 
 
 S. Pietro I. Torre Vittoria 
 
 39 
 
 8 28 
 
 8 17 28 
 
 Below Carloforte. ffi. Var. 19° (1823). 
 
 S. Antioco, Casteddu Crastu 
 
 39 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 8 26 
 
 E. In Palmas bay, $ '. *•. rf. 
 
 S. Antioco, cape Sperone... 
 
 38 
 
 57 
 
 20 
 
 8 23 10 
 
 1 & T- -^ to M. Arbus, 780 feet. 
 
 La Vacca rock, summit ... 
 
 38 
 
 56 
 
 10 
 
 8 25 20 
 
 550. || for a boat between it & il Vitello. 
 
 Toro rock, summit 
 
 38 
 
 51 
 
 58 
 
 8 22 44 
 
 j ft X 693 feet. 1 but * . *; *-. 
 
 Cape Teulada, pitch 
 
 38 51 
 
 48 
 
 8 37 12 
 
 1. Summit 780. S. point of Sardinia. 
 
 Cape Malfatano, toicer ... 
 
 38 
 
 53 
 
 15 
 
 8 47 18 
 
 440 feet. H. Var. 18° 28' in 1824. 
 
 Cape Spartixento, extreme 
 
 38 
 
 52 
 
 28 
 
 8 50 47 
 
 1. 8 Q with !. $ in land winds to the E. 
 
 Pula. S. Macario I 
 
 39 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 9 1 50 
 
 The tower, 310 feet. ffi. &. 
 
 Cagliari, Arsenal mole . . . 
 
 39 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 9 6 44 
 
 E. Inbay$'. V. 18°23 / ,D.59°13 / (1823). «-. 
 
 Cagliari, S. Elias' light ... 
 
 39 
 
 10 
 
 48 
 
 9 7 58 
 
 Over Laida rock, 248, _^: to 340 feet. 
 
 Cape Carbonara, Cavoli I. 
 
 39 
 
 4 
 
 50 
 
 9 31 41 
 
 Ficaria turret, 80 or 90 feet. 1. 
 
 Serpentara I. torre Luigi .. . 
 
 39 
 
 8 
 
 30 
 
 9 37 
 
 1. £ with !. Var. 18° in 1824. 
 
 Capo Ferrato, pitch 
 
 39 
 
 17 
 
 58 
 
 9 39 16 
 
 80 ft. 1. *. _^l to torre di Monte Ferru. 
 
 M . Budui, Sette Fratelli . . . 
 
 39 
 
 18 
 
 30 
 
 9 26 45 
 
 The Seven Peaks. Summit 3800, Station 2300. 
 
 Cliirra islet, centre 
 
 39 
 
 31 
 
 48 
 
 9 41 30 
 
 1. d Q . Mag. Var. 18° 20' in 1824. 
 
 Cape Sferra Cavallo 
 
 39 
 
 43 
 
 10 
 
 9 42 5 
 
 Pitch of M. Cuadazzoni, 3342 ft. T . 1. 
 
 Cape Bella vista, S.Gemiliano 
 
 39 
 
 56 
 
 20 
 
 9 44 15 
 
 300 ft. -^ to Gen-Argentu peak, 5276. £. 
 
 Ogliastra isle, summit 
 
 39 
 
 5!) 
 
 30 
 
 9 43 55 
 
 j-. $ all over Tortoli bay. ^r. 
 
 M. Gennargentu 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 19 
 
 Sciuscia peak 6200 feet. f. 
 
 Cape Monte Santo 
 
 40 
 
 5 
 
 58 
 
 9 44 40 
 
 Summit 2425 feet, j & 1. * . 
 
 Orosei, S. Maria di mare 
 
 40 
 
 22 
 
 59 
 
 9 44 5 
 
 E. S a in bay. Var. 18° in 1824. 
 
440 
 
 THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 Place. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 Notanda. 
 
 Sardinia. 
 
 o / 
 
 „ 
 
 o i u 
 
 
 Cape Comino, rock Fossa... 
 
 40 31 
 
 35 
 
 9 49 58 
 
 ■1. _-£ inland. E. point of Sardinia. 
 
 Monte Albo, Cupetti peak 
 
 40 35 
 
 
 
 9 40 
 
 2317. Mark for Posada &Siniscola. *-. 
 
 Petrosa point, Santa Anna 
 
 40 44 
 
 
 
 9 42 57 
 
 ! in approach. _^:toM. Mazzori3200. ¥. 
 
 Mount Limbara, Tempio 
 
 40 51 
 
 
 
 9 11 
 
 Balestreri peak, 4500 feet. f. 
 
 Molar otto, or Tauladetto... 
 
 40 52 
 
 12 
 
 9 47 
 
 70 or 80 ft. and conical. 3 in ||s. 1. 
 
 Molara isle, middle 
 
 40 51 
 
 20 
 
 9 43 18 
 
 The ||s safe with !. *. *-. 
 
 Tavolara I. Cala di fuori 
 
 40 54 54 
 
 9 43 36 
 
 X. j & 1. d Q . 1500 feet nearly. 
 
 Tavolaral. Spalma.di terra 
 
 40 53 
 
 10 
 
 9 40 40 
 
 t. ||s d, but practicable with !. 
 
 Terra nova, ruins of Olbia 
 
 40 55 
 
 25 
 
 9 29 15 
 
 m but ! the bar. Var. 18° 5' in 1824. 
 
 Cape Figari, extreme cliff 
 
 40 59 20 
 
 9 39 30 
 
 j, 1, & [ . Fine $ inside TAranci. 
 
 Mortoi-io isle, east cove ... 
 
 41 4 
 
 10 
 
 9 36 
 
 !. M. Gogaora (2150) marks Port Congianus. 
 
 Porto Cervo, landing place 
 
 41 7 56 
 
 9 31 27 
 
 H. Pedestal on M. Mola, S.W. 
 
 Cape deir Urso, the bear . . . 
 
 41 10 
 
 17 
 
 9 24 26 
 
 Mark for $ in Arsachena sound. 
 
 Mezzo Schiffo, il Parav/ . . . 
 
 41 11 
 
 7 
 
 9 22 30 
 
 HI. The Agincourt sound of Nelson. 
 
 Peninsula delle Yacche . . . 
 
 41 13 
 
 20 
 
 9 17 27 
 
 North point. 10 on both sides. 
 
 Caprera I. Tejalonepeah... 
 
 41 12 
 
 40 
 
 9 28 18 
 
 750 feet. 1 to east. || with !. 
 
 Madalena I. Old Guardia 
 
 41 13 
 
 27 
 
 9 23 42 
 
 Var. 17° 36', Dip 61° 28' (1824). ffi. 
 
 Spargi I. summit 
 
 41 14 32 
 41 18 16 
 
 9 20 46 
 9 20 31 
 
 j & 1. d with !. *. 
 
 270 feet. 1. X in Cala Longa. 
 
 Razzoli I. lighthouse 
 
 Rome. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Clementino palace 
 
 42 14 
 
 22 
 
 11 42 30 
 
 || of Marta. _^ to Corneto & hills, 1250. 
 
 Civita Vecchia, pier light 
 
 42 5 
 
 40 
 
 11 43 55 
 
 82 f. m. Var. 17° 30', Dip 61° 15' (1823). 
 
 CapeLinaro, Cliiaruccia T. 
 
 42 1 
 
 55 
 
 11 48 58 
 
 ! reef off point. _^ to Tolfa peak, 1500. 
 
 Torre San Severo 
 
 41 58 30 
 41 54 27 
 
 11 59 
 
 12 5 28 
 
 $ here to S. Marinella with land winds. 
 $. _^: to Cervitari. -*•. 
 
 Palo, beach magazine 
 
 Rome, St. Peter's cross 
 
 41 54 
 
 
 
 12 27 
 
 A sea-mark. Ground & edifice 650 ft. 
 
 Tiber, Fiumicino light 
 
 41 45 
 
 49 
 
 12 11 39 
 
 [XI in || . $' in the offing. ¥. or. 
 
 Tiber, Bocca di Fuimara 
 
 41 43 
 
 58 
 
 12 12 56 
 
 Ostia ||. Torre Santo Vito. % ^. 
 
 Ardea, steeple 
 
 41 37 
 
 
 
 12 33 
 
 d on coast, f. _^i Albano 998, M.CaTO,3150. 
 ED. $ with. !. (Ceno Tortus and Antium.) 
 
 Porto d'Anzo, mole-light... 
 
 41 26 
 
 54 
 
 12 42 9 
 
 Astura, rock tower 
 
 41 24 
 
 10 
 
 12 48 15 
 
 Ruins of Cicero's villa. % 
 
 Fogliano, beach tower 
 
 41 21 
 
 20 
 
 12 56 54 
 
 || into the lakes. % j. *~. 
 
 M. Circello, S. Felice church 
 
 41 12 
 
 40 
 
 13 5 18 
 
 $> by 7-. Summit ruins, 1730 feet. 
 
 Terracina, ancient mole . . . 
 
 41 15 
 
 51 
 
 13 15 9 
 
 $' in land winds. ¥ around. 
 
 Naples. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Torre Vetere of Fondi ...... 
 
 41 16 
 
 
 
 13 20 
 
 || lake Fondi. Frontier of Naples. % 
 
 Gaeta, Orlando's tower ... 
 
 41 12 
 
 20 
 
 13 34 16 
 
 IS. $' in bay. Var. 17° 39' in 1823. 
 
 Mola, la Sanitd 
 
 41 15 
 
 10 
 
 13 35 29 
 
 $' with off- shore winds. _^: M. Castellone. 
 
 Monte Massico, or Falerno 
 
 41 9 
 
 30 
 
 13 54 
 
 Mark for coast. cf with j. 
 
 Castel- Volturno, beach tower 
 
 41 1 
 
 40 
 
 13 56 25 
 
 $ in east winds. Bad air. % 
 
 Torre di P atria 
 
 40 55 
 
 55 
 
 14 40 
 
 $ with land winds. % *-. 
 
 
THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 441 
 
 Place. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 N/otanda. 
 
 Naples. 
 
 O I n 
 
 O 1 \l 
 
 
 Cape Miseno, pitch 
 
 40 46 30 
 
 14 5 10 
 
 280 feet, -r & 1. In the port E3. 
 
 Baia castle, flagstaff 
 
 40 48 35 
 
 14 4 44 
 
 m. Mag. Var. 17° 21' in 1820. 
 480. Over Lucrine & Averno lakes. 
 
 Monte Nuovo, crater 
 
 40 50 
 
 14 5 10 
 
 Pozzuoli, Caligula's bridge 
 
 40 49 15 
 
 14 7 10 
 
 The inner end. -L in approach. 
 
 M. Camaldoli, convent 
 
 40 51 26 
 
 14 11 30 
 
 1490. Excellent mark from the bay. 
 
 Naples, Castel S. Elmo 
 
 40 50 39 
 
 14 14 28 
 
 Var. 17° 32'; Dip. 60° 37'; Int. 241, in 1817. 
 
 Naples, mole-light 
 
 40 50 18 
 
 14 15 36 
 
 161. E). In bay $'with ! for foul ground. 
 
 Mount Vesuvius 
 
 40 49 15 
 
 14 25 30 
 
 Crater of 1820, 3880 feet. 
 
 Pompeii, temple of Isis . . . 
 
 40 45 
 
 14 29 
 
 Overwhelmed A.D. 79. 
 
 Castellammare (di Stabia) 
 
 40 41 34 
 
 14 28 12 
 
 Mole-head. $'. _^ M. S. Angelo, 4700. 
 
 Sorrento, the dogana 
 
 40 37 39 
 
 14 22 30 
 
 1 & S , but $ ; from depth. 
 
 Point Campanella, light ... 
 
 40 34 10 
 
 14 19 32 
 
 j & 1. d . _^ to M. Costanzo, 1600. 
 
 Ainalfi, madre-chiesa 
 
 40 38 
 
 14 37 
 
 1, but * . Open to S. and S.E. 
 
 Salerno, the mole 
 
 40 39 35 
 
 14 45 
 
 $', but exposed from S.S.E. to S.W. 
 Malaria around Pp.sf.nTn. '$'. /-*-. 
 
 Torre di Pesto 
 
 40 23 
 
 14 59 35 
 
 Cape Licosa, tower 
 
 40 13 45 
 
 14 53 
 
 (Leucosia) _^ inland, j. /3/3 . 
 
 PortPalinuro, torre Prodese 
 
 39 59 40 
 
 15 14 45 
 
 Round point Spartimento, $. 
 
 Point degV Infreschi 
 
 39 57 
 
 15 26 
 
 T & 1. ^M. Bolgaria, 3950 feet. 
 
 Policastro, dogana 
 
 40 1 38 
 
 15 32 35 
 
 (Buxentum). $, but exposed. V. 17° 10' (1815). 
 
 Castro-Cucco, torre Caja... 
 
 39 53 
 
 15 45 30 
 
 1, and $ in land winds. On a hill. 
 
 Neapolitan Islands. 
 
 
 
 
 Palmarola I., cola Forcina 
 
 40 56 18 
 
 12 52 58 
 
 7-. £ with !. _^ 427 feet. ^. 
 
 Ponza I., signal-station ... 
 
 40 53 5 
 
 12 57 38 
 
 757 f. Except the Formiche, d below. 
 
 Poxza, lighthouse 
 
 40 53 35 
 
 12 58 26 
 
 m. Mag. Var. 17° 23' in 1815. 
 d in Scoglietelle ||, with !. 
 
 ' 6 —•■»» 
 
 Gava islet, or la Gabbia ... 
 
 40 55 42 
 
 13 40 
 
 Zannone I., pt. Galatella... 
 
 40 57 42 
 
 13 3 15 
 
 1, d but the Varo in la Gabbia |). <t>. 
 
 Botte rock, summit 
 
 40 50 10 
 
 13 6 
 
 68 feet. 1 around. [,, 
 
 VandotenaL, port S. Nicolo 
 
 40 47 38 
 
 13 25 42 
 
 (Pandataria). 1. 1. <S with !. _^ 803 f. 
 
 Santo Stefano I., redoubt... 
 
 40 47 15 
 
 13 26 53 
 
 183 feet, j & -L around. *. ^-. 
 
 Ischia I., Forio sanita ... 
 
 40 44 10 
 
 13 51 10 
 
 $ in east winds. .^M.Epomeo 2570. f m . 
 
 Ischia I., Ischia castle ... 
 
 40 43 54 
 
 13 57 42 
 
 $', || clear to Vivara shoal. 
 
 Procida I., Chiupetto light 
 
 40 46 12 
 
 14 57 
 
 74 feet. || practicable, but !. 
 
 Nisvba I., tower redoubt ... 
 
 40 47 45 
 
 14 9 37 
 
 H. f 1 . t in Bagnoli bay. 
 
 Capri I., Palace of Tiberius 
 
 40 32 46 
 
 14 15 19 
 
 860. l-r.* . U- ^o in H- S.ofCapodiMontc. 
 
 Capri I., Carena point ... 
 
 40 31 58 
 
 14 11 53 
 
 1 to nearly close under. -^ M. Solaro, 1900. 
 
 Galli rocks, Lungo tower... 
 
 40 34 40 
 
 14 25 50 
 
 j & 1. <5 in || to Vivara rock. 
 
 Calabria. 
 
 
 
 
 Dino islet, turret 
 
 39 48 5 
 
 15 48 40 
 
 $ on north or south with !. 
 
 Cirella L, tower 
 
 39 37 
 
 15 50 
 
 JL on the N.E. *. m. 
 
 Fuscaldo, torre San Giorgio 
 
 39 24 53 
 
 15 59 20 
 
 $' with off-shore winds. _^. 
 
 Monte Cocozzo, summit 
 
 39. 16 
 
 16 6 30 
 
 A mark for Amantca, Belmonte, &c. 
 
442 
 
 THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 Place. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Calabkia. 
 
 Cape Suvero, tower 
 
 Mezza Praja tower 
 
 Pizzo, Murat's prison 
 
 Monte Leone, castle 
 
 Tropea, madre chiesa 
 
 Cape Vaticano, tower 
 
 Gioja, middle of the town... 
 
 Bagnara, the church 
 
 Scilla (Scylla), castle 
 
 Reggio, marina fountain. . . 
 Cape delVArmi, torre Molar o 
 M. Pentedattilo, gli unci... 
 Cape Spartivento, tower . . . 
 
 Point Bruzzano, tower 
 
 Ruins of Locris 
 
 Point Stilo, torre Verdera 
 
 Squillace, campanile 
 
 Cape Bizzuto, torre Vecchia 
 
 Cape Nao, or Colonne 
 
 Cotrone, castle light 
 
 Point A lice, tower 
 
 P. Trionto, Bufalaria tower 
 Capo Spulico, tower 
 
 Sicily. 
 
 Cape San Vito, church 
 
 CasteW a Mare, fortress . . . 
 Cape Uomo-morto, tower ... 
 
 Femina isle, tower 
 
 Cape di Gallo, pitch 
 
 Palekmo, mole-light 
 
 Palermo Observatory 
 
 Mount Catalfano 
 
 Termini, castle 
 
 Cefalu, cathedral 
 
 Sant' Agata, tower 
 
 Cape Orlando, castle gate 
 
 Cape Calava, pitch 
 
 Port Madonna, convent . . . 
 Milazzo, promontory light 
 
 Milazzo, castle 
 
 Spadafora, palace 
 
 Cape Rasaculmo, telegraph 
 
 39 2 53 
 38 53 50 
 38 47 
 38 42 
 38 39 45 
 38 36 58 
 38 24 49 
 38 16 57 
 38 15 4 
 38 5 42 
 37 57 25 
 37 57 30 
 
 37 55 50 
 
 38 2 23 
 38 15 
 38 29 
 38 48 48 
 
 38 57 50 
 
 39 5 22 
 39 7 35 
 39 24 
 39 35 
 39 57 10 
 
 38 12 26 
 38 1 51 
 38 12 40 
 38 14 10 
 38 14 53 
 38 8 15 
 38 6 44 
 38 5 40 
 
 37 57 28 
 
 38 
 38 1 30 
 38 7 46 
 38 10 
 38 6 45 
 38 15 58 
 38 14 6 
 38 14 
 38 17 56 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 16 8 47 
 16 17 
 16 12 45 
 16 10 
 15 55 12 
 15 51 48 
 15 56 
 15 49 40 
 15 44 36 
 15 39 47 
 15 42 
 
 15 46 30 
 
 16 3 
 16 9 15 
 16 14 40 
 16 35 20 
 
 16 28 
 
 17 46 
 17 13 28 
 17 9 30 
 17 9. 
 16 47 18 
 16 35 30 
 
 12 45 50 
 
 12 52 43 
 
 13 6 10 
 13 12 50 
 13 18 20 
 13 21 56 
 13 20 15 
 13 32 
 
 13 42 
 
 14 3 57 
 14 36 32 
 14 44 30 
 
 14 54 15 
 
 15 2 20 
 15 14 10 
 15 14 17 
 15 22 10 
 15 31 57 
 
 Notanda. 
 
 -L. $', but exposed, before* S. Eufemia. 
 
 ! bad air as far as Maida. ¥. m. 
 
 {Napigia) . $', but ! the north-westers. 
 
 (Vibo Valentia). On a hill. f. 
 
 j. 1. Var. 16° 50' in 1815. 
 
 Good sea-mark. 1 to pretty close in. 
 
 Deep water close in. ¥. 
 
 Var. 17° 10' in 1815. JL. % 
 
 $ in the bay, but ! currents. 
 
 1. Var. 16° 25' in 1815. $' off Arco. 
 
 1 and S Q . _u£ inland. ¥. 
 
 Sea-mark. _^M. Aspromonte 4400. ¥. 
 
 S.E. point of Calabria. 
 
 1. <b. _^i to Bruzzano town. 
 
 1, approach to the beach very deep. 
 
 1 to beach. Var. 16° 20' in 1816. 
 
 d Q in gulf, yet Virgil's 'Navi fragum.' 
 
 1. * with !. % 
 
 ! ruins forming a shoal off. 
 
 98 feet. S. Var. 16° 40' in 1816. 
 
 1. d in Gulf of Taranto with !. 
 
 || river Trionta. ¥. s*~. 
 
 1. || of the Femo. $ off Roseto. ¥. 
 
 j but ! the reef of the point. j3(3 . 
 1 in the coves beneath. 
 d Q in approach, with !. 
 Outwards 1. Inside || for boats. 
 1692 f. M. PeUegrino, 1955. M. Cuccio, 3300. 
 m. Var. 18° 45', Dip 59° 12' (1814). 
 As given me by Abbate Piazzi. 
 1095. Pts. Gerbino & Zaffarana, j & 1. 
 j & 1. $' with off-shore winds. *. 
 1. *in summer. Var. 18° 40' (1814). 
 -L $ with, shore winds. — ^ to Caronia. "?■, 2000. 
 j, but ! shoals to the west, 
 j & 1. $' in the bay to the east. 
 651 feet. IB. Var. 18° 10' in 1814. 
 262 feet. T & 1. Var. 18° 38' (1814). 
 320 feet. In the bay, $'. 
 1. ■$. Fine beach for watering. •*. 
 j, but (5 close under. *. 
 
THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 443 
 
 Place. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 Notanda. 
 
 Sicily. 
 
 O 1 II 
 
 o / II 
 
 
 Faro point, the light 
 
 38 15 50 
 
 15 40 40 
 
 70 feet. $ on the spit, but ! currents. 
 
 Grotta point, rotonda 
 
 38 14 20 
 
 15 35 30 
 
 Betw. it & P. Pezzo, no bottom with 200 fins. 
 
 Messina, lighthouse 
 
 38 11 30 
 
 15 34 40 
 
 74f. HI. Var.l8°33';Dip58°56';In.270(1815). 
 
 Mount Dinnamare 
 
 38 8 30 
 38 1 45 
 
 15 27 30 
 15 27 45 
 
 3112 feet. A good mark in the Faro. 
 j. Temporary $ south of the point. 
 
 Scaletta, castle 
 
 Point S. Alessio, harhican 
 
 37 52 30 
 
 15 21 10 
 
 Betw. it & C. dell'Armi, no bot. with 750 fins. 
 
 Taormina, telegraph 
 
 37 48 15 
 
 15 17 40 
 
 890. _^i Moorish castle 1305, & Mola 1519. 
 
 Mount JEtna, summit 
 
 37 43 31 
 
 15 
 
 ^ 10,874f. Radius of vision, 150 mil. 
 
 Riposto, prison tower 
 
 37 40 10 
 
 15 12 50 
 
 JL. $' in off-shore winds. 
 
 Trizza, high Cyclop rock ... 
 
 37 32 
 
 15 10 5 
 
 E. 1 outside, but ! inner ||s. 
 
 Catania, mole-head 
 
 37 28 20 
 
 15 5 15 
 
 ES. 1 in approach. Var. 18° 5' (1814). 
 
 T&l. E. *. <*-- 
 
 m. Var. 17° 40' in 1814. 
 
 La Bruca, the castle 
 
 37 16 20 
 37 12 50 
 
 15 11 35 
 15 13 15 
 
 Agosta or Augusta, light 
 
 Magnisi tower 
 
 37 9 25 
 
 15 13 45 
 
 $ in Panagia bay. 
 
 Syracuse, lighthouse 
 
 37 2 58 
 
 15 16 50 
 
 m. Var. 17° 45', Dip 58° 3' in 1814. 
 
 Cape Morro di Porco 
 
 37 
 
 15 18 58 
 
 j and 1. 8 . 
 
 Lognina tower 
 
 36 5S 15 
 
 15 15 
 
 JL. X in the cove. •*-. 
 
 Avola, the tonnara 
 
 36 55 10 
 36 49 12 
 
 15 8 5 
 15 5 20 
 
 $■' in summer, and land winds. ¥. 
 m. Mag. var. 16° 40' in 1814. 
 
 Vindicari tower 
 
 Marzamemi tower 
 
 36 45 30 
 36 41 30 
 
 15 6 45 
 15 8 56 
 
 X'. _^ to Pachino. ■*. *-. 
 
 T &I. X. || for boats. Var. 16° 24' (1814). 
 
 Passaro isle, redoubt 
 
 Current isle, summit 
 
 36 38 10 
 
 15 3 5 
 
 T with !. To the west 8. ■*. ^r. 
 
 Pozzallo, fort 
 
 36 44 40 
 
 14 50 48 
 
 $' in off-shore winds. 
 
 Cape Scalambra, tower ... 
 
 36 46 13 
 
 14 30 15 
 
 X. Approach with !. ■*■. rr. 
 
 Scogliettl, chapel 
 
 36 52 34 
 
 14 27 25 
 
 
 Terra-nova, Doric column 
 
 37 2 54 
 
 14 15 
 
 1 beach. $' in land winds. 
 
 Alicata, the castle 
 
 37 4 3 
 
 13 55 54 
 
 X. Mag. var. 16° 58' in 1815. 
 
 Palma, marina 
 
 37 8 47 
 
 13 43 11 
 
 Girgenti, mole-light 
 
 37 15 39 
 
 13 31 40 
 
 ES & # outside. Var. 17° 0' in 1817. 
 
 Girgenti, temple of Juno . . . 
 
 37 16 38 
 
 13 35 40 
 
 In Agrigentum. Dip 58° 5' in 1814. 
 
 Girgenti, cathedral 
 
 37 17 44 
 
 13 34 6 
 
 A mark in taking anchorage. 
 
 Seculiana, the church 
 
 37 19 50 
 
 13 25 28 
 
 X. In off-shore winds $'. •*•. 
 
 Cape Bianco, turret 
 
 37 22 25 
 
 13 16 27 
 
 !. Distant Calata-bellota peak, 3800. 
 
 Sciacca, castel Peralta 
 
 37 29 50 
 
 13 4 46 
 
 M. Calogero 1035. Var. 17° 30' (1814). 
 
 Cape San Marco, tower . . . 
 
 37 29 15 
 
 13 20 
 
 7-. $ with !. 
 
 Selinuntum, ruins of 
 
 37 36 14 
 
 12 46 32 
 
 Temple of Neptune. Beach below X. <t>. 
 
 Cape Granitola, point 
 
 37 33 67 
 
 12 36 39 
 
 Approach with !. At night 8. 
 
 Mazzara, the citadel 
 
 37 39 56 
 
 12 33 59 
 
 EQ. || the Salemi. Var. 17° 37' (1814). 
 
 Marsala, cape Boeo chapel 
 
 37 48 10 
 
 12 25 10 
 
 E. Mole-light 55 feet. In road V. 
 
 
 37 52 54 
 
 12 28 14 
 
 Gate of ancient Motya. *-. 
 
 || to Borrone & Favilla salterns. *-. 
 
 m. Var. 17M0', Dip 58° 55' (1815). 
 
 
 37 55 45 
 
 12 27 50 
 
 Trapani, Colombara light 
 
 38 1 53 
 
 12 30 18 
 
444 
 
 THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 Place. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 Notanda. 
 
 Sicily. 
 
 o / n 
 
 O 1 II 
 
 
 M. S. Julian, Saracenic T. 
 
 38 2 58 
 
 12 37 5 
 
 2184 feet. Mark in the ||s. 
 
 Cape Cofano, summit 
 
 38 7 21 
 
 12 42 48 
 
 j & 1. $ off Messa tonnara. 
 
 Sicilian Islands. 
 
 
 
 
 Stromboluzzo, summit 
 
 38 49 16 
 
 15 14 
 
 Also Strombolino. T & 1. [ 240 ft. nr. 
 
 Stromboli, S. Bartolo church 
 
 38 48 12 
 
 15 13 10 
 
 Schiceiola crater station 2171. Sum. 2800. $ . 
 
 Basiluzza, the ruin 
 
 38 39 50 
 
 15 7 54 
 
 j & 1. d in || to Panaria. 
 
 Ann's reef, three fathoms .. . 
 
 38 35 
 
 15 8 
 
 d Q in || between it and Bottaro. (3(3 Q . 
 
 Panaria, port Castello 
 
 38 37 40 
 
 15 2 55 
 
 E. The isle 1 around. 
 
 Penrose rocks, four fathoms 
 
 38 38 20 
 
 14 54 40 
 
 d, being in mid || Panaria and Salina. 
 
 Salina, Amalfi church 
 
 38 35 40 
 
 14 47 35 
 
 1. d . _^ Mts. Salvatore & Vergine. 
 
 Bentinck shoal, 2^ fathoms 
 
 38 28 52 
 
 14 49 20 
 
 d. -L. Safe || to Scoglio del Bagno. (3(3 Q . 
 
 Lipaki, the castle 
 
 38 27 56 
 
 14 57 50 
 
 S.Varl8°50' (1815). M.S. Angelo990. 
 j. l . Like a ship, -<-. \\ to Yulcano S Q . 
 
 Pietra lunga, summit 
 
 38 25 40 
 
 14 54 40 
 
 Vulcano, sulphur ivories ... 
 
 38 23 19 
 
 14 55 56 
 
 £ in cove formed by Vulcanello. M. Aria 2400. 
 
 Felicudi, the church 
 
 38 34 5 
 
 14 29 37 
 
 1. Station on M. Permera 1950. 
 
 Canna rock, summit 
 
 38 35 2 
 
 14 25 42 
 
 j, 1, [ . Like a ship, 286 feet. or. 
 
 A licudi, the church 
 
 38 32 41 
 
 14 16 30 
 
 j & 1 all round. $ . *. 
 
 Ustica, fort Falconara 
 
 38 43 17 
 
 13 11 10 
 
 j & 1. 1 in Santa Maria cove. 
 
 TJstica, Walker's rocks 
 
 38 44 40 
 
 13 10 30 
 
 !. 1 all round, but two fathoms on. 
 
 Maretimo, the castle 
 
 38 1 10 
 
 12 3 55 
 
 T & 1. X' ^ to 2300 feet. 
 
 Zevanzo, guard-house 
 
 38 1 38 
 
 12 20 29 
 
 j & 1 around. d a . &. *-. 
 
 Porcelli rocks, a-wash 
 
 38 4 30 
 
 12 26 45 
 
 1 and d. 1. P(3 . 
 
 Formiche, tonnarapier ... 
 
 38 37 
 
 12 25 53 
 
 \M. Mag. var. 17° 15' in 1815. 
 
 Favignana, fort Leonardo 
 
 37 57 40 
 
 12 18 30 
 
 E, and $■' for a fleet in the road. 
 
 Favignana, S. Catarina ... 
 
 37 56 36 
 
 12 17 45 
 
 1249 feet. Excellent sea-mark. *-. 
 
 Favignana, S. Catarina sh. 
 
 37 53 40 
 
 12 17 10 
 
 S Q in || to Point Sottile. (3(3 U . 
 
 Skerki shoals 
 
 37 44 53 
 
 10 45 15 
 
 For this, & others around, see coast of Tunis. • 
 
 Pantellaria, prison fort . . . 
 
 36 51 15 
 
 11 54 29 
 
 \M. Mag. var. 16° 15' in 1817. % «■* 
 
 Pantellaria, Sataria point 
 
 36 45 40 
 
 12 4 20 
 
 ~^. to 2213 ft. || for boats betw. point & rock. 
 
 Linosa, landing cove 
 
 35 51 50 
 
 12 52 9 
 
 1. $ o . Highest crater, 522 ft. *. *-. 
 
 Lampedusa, Capo Ponente 
 
 35 31 
 
 12 29 57 
 
 T & 1. 378 feet. ¥ *. ^. 
 
 Lampedusa, castle 
 
 35 29 19 
 
 12 35 10 
 
 m. Mag. var. 16° 23' in 1822. 
 
 Lampion rock, ruin 
 
 35 32 47 
 
 12 19 50 
 
 140 ft. T & 1. Var. 16° 30' in 1822. 
 
 Maltese Islands. 
 
 
 
 
 Gozo I., Cape S. Demitri... 
 
 36 3 20 
 
 14 9 
 
 j & 1. c? in rounding the cliffs. 
 
 Gozo I., the castle 
 
 36 1 30 
 
 14 14 35 
 
 Summit 570 ft. Yar. 16° 36' (1816). 
 El. ^ in || to Comino. 
 
 Gozo I., fort Chambray ... 
 
 35 59 37 
 
 14 16 55 
 
 Comino I., tower redoubt 
 
 35 59 6 
 
 14 19 48 
 
 X' in the coves. ||s quite clear. 
 
 Malta I., Torre Fossa 
 
 35 57 31 
 
 14 20 54 
 
 Commands Melhehabay& Comino || . *. 
 
 Malta I., St. Paul's tower 
 
 35 56 26 
 
 14 25 25 
 
 E. $'• Traditional site of S. Paul's wreck. 
 
 Malta I., Civita Vecchia... 
 
 35 51 57 
 
 14 25 
 
 Cathedral, in the Rabatto, or suburb. 
 
THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 445 
 
 Place. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 Notanda. 
 
 Maltese Islands. 
 
 O / It 
 
 o / n 
 
 
 Malta I., Valetta palace 
 
 35 53 55 
 
 14 30 50 
 
 240 feet. Var. 17° 21' in 1816. 11. 
 
 Malta I., St. Elmo light ... 
 
 35 54 12 
 
 14 31 20 
 
 167 feet. Between the two ports. 
 
 Malta I., Dockyard sheers 
 
 35 53 
 
 14 31 10 
 
 m. Var. 17°;Dip 57° 42'; Int. 443 (1822). 
 
 Malta I., S. Thomas castle 
 
 35 52 15 
 
 14 33 45 
 
 JL in Marsa Scala. ! Mansciar reef. 
 
 Malta I., P. del' Mare ... 
 
 35 49 47 
 
 14 33 10 
 
 1. S in rounding, with !. 
 
 Malta I., Marsa Scirocco 
 
 35 50 15 
 
 14 32 30 
 
 St. Lucian's castle. Var. 17°20' (1816). 
 
 Malta I., Benhisa tower . . . 
 
 38 48 56 
 
 14 32 20 
 
 || between the point and reef, but !. 
 
 Malta I., Bocca di Vento 
 
 35 52 40 
 
 14 21 40 
 
 &,. -^. to Benjemma heights, 500. *. 
 
 Filfoia rock, summit 
 
 35 47 12 
 
 14 27 
 
 T & 1. d in ||. Var. 16° 25' (1823). 
 
 Naples, continued. 
 
 
 
 
 Torre Mattoni 
 
 40 22 36 
 40 27 19 
 
 16 50 30 
 
 17 14 5 
 
 || of the Bradano. S . j. % nr. 
 Var. 16° 0', Dip 59° 55' (1816). ffl. 
 
 Taranto, citadel 
 
 Cape Santo Vito 
 
 40 23 40 
 
 17 12 30 
 
 Light 23 feet, j with !. *. 
 Approach with !. &.<#•. ,-<-. 
 
 Port Cesar eo, tower 
 
 40 13 
 
 17 55 50 
 
 Gallipoli, castle 
 
 40 1 51 
 
 17 58 
 
 IB. Before the city $, with !. 
 
 Ugento shoal 
 
 39 50 
 
 18 10 20 
 
 Giurlitto reef d, /3. Town 498, 
 
 Cape S. Maria di Leuca . . . 
 
 39 47 53 
 
 18 23 12 
 
 476. Convent column, j & 1. [ but $ . 
 
 Gagliano, cove 
 
 39 50 43 
 
 18 23 40 
 
 _^ to town 495. 1. *. ^-. 
 
 Cape Otranto, telegraph ... 
 
 40 7 20 
 
 18 30 16 
 
 East extreme of Italy. *~. 
 
 Otranto, castle 
 
 40 9 5 
 
 18 28 45 
 
 Mag. var. 15° 15' in 1816. JL. 
 
 Lecce, cathedral 
 
 40 21 
 
 18 10 28 
 
 Capital of Terra di Otranto. 
 
 Torre di Cavallo 
 
 40 38 
 
 18 4 58 
 
 On the north d. !. 
 
 Brindist, castello di mare 
 
 40 39 21 
 
 18 27 
 
 Var. 15° 6', Dip 59° 42' (1816). ffl. 
 
 Torre di Penna 
 
 40 41 
 40 42 45 
 40 57 10 
 
 17 59 25 
 17 50 30 
 17 20 55 
 
 Cape Gallo 1. 7-. *-. 
 
 1 in the cove. Outside $. 
 
 7-. With off-shore winds, V. 
 
 Chuiceto islet 
 
 Monopoli, point Paradi . . . 
 
 Polignano, Paolo rock 
 
 40 59 47 
 
 17 16 20 
 
 j. _^ to Mount Bagiolara. £,. 
 
 Mola, castle 
 
 41 3 50 
 
 17 7 38 
 
 l r •*•. In land winds, $ y . 
 
 Bari, the pier-head 
 
 41 7 56 
 
 16 54 29 
 
 £,. Var. 16° 15' in 1816. 
 
 Giovinazzo, turret 
 
 41 12 
 
 16 42 40 
 
 In Spiriticchio cove, X ; . 
 
 Molfetta, mole 
 
 41 12 44 
 
 16 37 13 
 
 Between the light and rock, 1. 
 
 Bisceglia, pier-head 
 
 41 14 25 
 
 16 31 14 
 
 Inside JL'. Outside d Q . 7-. 
 
 Trani, dogana 
 
 41 17 52 
 
 16 26 45 
 
 X' in the port. In the road $. 
 
 Barletta, light 
 
 41 20 25 
 
 16 19 27 
 
 E. In the road $'. j. 
 
 Torre di Rivoli 
 
 41 29 5 
 
 15 57 
 
 || river Carapella, and Lake Salpi. 
 Var. 14° 55' in 1819. H. V by T . 
 
 Manfredonia, mole 
 
 41 37 40 
 
 15 55 58 
 
 Mt. S. Angelo, hermitage... 
 
 41 42 30 
 
 15 57 
 
 S. Angelo summit, 2400, ^ . 
 
 Monte Cairo, the station . . . 
 
 41 43 50 
 
 15 47 
 
 Highest peak of the Gargano, 3500. 
 
 Viesti, S. Croce rock 
 
 41 52 35 
 
 16 11 23 
 
 _^. and ¥. X. Outside t, y. *-. 
 
 Peschici, landing-place 
 
 41 56 48 
 
 16 1 20 
 
 $ with land winds. ^. 
 
 Varano, west tower 
 
 41 55 20 
 
 15 48 30 
 
 || into the fishery. ¥. 
 
 S. Nicola castle, 260. j & 1. $. «r. 
 
 Tremiti isles, telegraph . . . 
 
 42 7 15 
 
 15 29 50 
 
446 
 
 THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 Place. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 Notanda. 
 
 Naples — continued. 
 
 O / II 
 
 O 1 II 
 
 
 Pianosa islet 
 
 42 12 38 
 
 15 45 30 
 
 48 ft. Var. 15° 26' (1819). 1. d . ¥ . ^. 
 On Cala-roscia tower. ¥. 
 
 Mileto point, telegraph 
 
 41 55 44 
 
 15 38 10 
 
 Termoli, telegraph 
 
 42 26 
 
 15 11 
 
 150. 1 with 7-. ft t. 
 
 Monte Majella 
 
 42 5 
 
 14 6 
 
 8500 feet. On the flanks % 
 
 Vasto, campanile 
 
 42 6 36 
 
 14 43 20 
 
 600. On the hill Aimone. 
 
 Punta di Penne, turret . . . 
 
 42 10 5 
 
 14 43 57 
 
 1 in approach, but 7-. 
 
 Ortonammare, mole 
 
 42 20 29 
 
 14 26 27 
 
 Var. 16° 0' in 1819. X,. $ in offing. 
 
 CJiieti, steeple 
 
 42 21 15 
 
 14 11 
 
 1250. Mark for Ortona. 
 
 Pescara, madre chiesa ...... 
 
 42 27 
 
 14 14 5 
 
 || river Pescara, from M. Majella. 
 
 Monte Corno, summit 
 
 42 28 
 
 13 35 
 
 Gran Sasso d' Italia, 9570. 
 
 Atri, cathedral 
 
 42 35 
 
 13 59 
 
 1590. Over Galbano, or Calvano, its port. 
 
 Vomano tower 
 
 42 39 
 
 14 3 15 
 
 || riv. Vomano. .^to M. Pagano, 1020. 
 
 
 42 52 32 
 
 13 52 30 
 
 Frontier post of Naples, 1080. 
 
 Papal States. 
 
 
 
 42 54 30 
 
 13 56 16 
 13 52 38 
 
 || river Tronto. X. 7-. 
 _^ to the town, 450. 
 
 Grottamare, Lama fort ... 
 
 42 59 50 
 
 Ripatransone, steeple 
 
 43 
 
 13 46 41 
 
 Standard point, 1 750 feet. 
 
 Fermo, marina 
 
 43 10 10 
 
 13 48 30 
 
 || river Lete. __^ to the city, 1200. 
 
 Eecanati, port 
 
 43 25 48 
 
 13 39 50 
 
 _^ to the city, 1400. 
 
 Loreto, cathedral 
 
 43 26 42 
 
 13 36 50 
 
 On a height, 565 feet. 
 
 Monte Conero, chapel 
 
 43 33 14 
 
 13 36 5 
 
 Summit 1900 feet. 
 
 Porto Nuovo, Trave 
 
 43 34 48 
 
 13 35 
 
 El. -^. 7-. * but ¥ . nr. 
 
 Ancona, mole-light 
 
 43 37 40 
 
 13 30 3 
 
 130 feet. Var. 16° 26' in 1819. 
 
 Sinigaglia, mole-head 
 
 43 43 20 
 
 13 13 9 
 
 X' for boats. Outside $' with !. 
 
 Fano, lighthouse 
 
 43 50 57 
 43 55 31 
 
 13 1 
 
 7-. With off-shore winds $'. 
 Open, but 7-. •*. 
 Sea-mark for the coast, 980. 
 
 Pesaro, mole-light 
 
 12 53 58 
 
 Monte Luro, spire 
 
 43 54 47 
 
 12 46 10 
 
 San Marino, steeple 
 
 43 56 30 
 
 12 27 
 
 A republic. Sea-mark 2470. 
 
 Rimino, mole-head 
 
 44 4 18 
 
 12 34 20 
 
 || Marecchia. Var. 16° 50' in 1819. 
 
 Cesenatico, pier 
 
 44 12 46 
 
 12 24 20 
 
 In land winds $'. ¥. 
 
 
 44 15 50 
 
 12 21 10 
 
 107. On with mole-light $'. f. 
 Now far inland. ¥. 
 
 Ravenna, rotonda 
 
 44 24* 55 
 
 12 12 40 
 
 Porto Primaro, battery ... 
 
 44 35 18 
 
 12 17 45 
 
 || for boats. 7-. $. 
 
 Comae chio, steeple 
 
 44 41 2 
 
 12 10 49 
 
 135. || from Port Magnavacca. 
 
 Volano, telegraph 
 
 44 48 15 
 
 12 15 25 
 
 || of the Po di Volano. f. *-. 
 
 Goro, Gorino battery 
 
 44 48 55 
 
 12 22 21 
 
 [2. In Sacca dell' Abbate $'. 
 
 Venice. 
 
 
 
 
 Porto della Maestra 
 
 44 59 11 
 
 12 27 40 
 
 Main || of the Po. [33. AK 
 
 Adria, belfry 
 
 45 3 25 
 
 12 4 
 
 Between it and the sea ¥. 
 
 Port Brondolo 
 
 45 10 10 
 
 12 19 46 
 
 || of Brenta Nuova. X'. 7-. 
 150. E. Var. 17° 28' in 1819. 
 
 Chioggia, Castel Felice . . . 
 
 45 13 48 
 
 12 18 50 
 
THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITIOXS. 
 
 447 
 
 Place. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 Notanda. 
 
 Venice. 
 
 O / It 
 
 o / " 
 
 Fort S. Pietro 
 
 45 20 10 
 
 12 20 43 
 
 || of Malamocco. ffl. In roads $'. 
 
 Venice, S. Mark's belfry... 
 
 45 25 48 
 
 12 21 40 
 
 315. Var. 17° 1W; Dip 65° 8'; Int. 248 (1819). 
 
 Fort S. Andrea 
 
 45 26 28 
 
 12 24 31 
 
 || of Lido S. In the roads $. 
 
 Cortellazzo, battery 
 
 45 32 7 
 
 12 45 20 
 
 || of river Piave. $,. r<~. 
 
 Caorle, steeple 
 
 45 35 39 
 
 12 54 37 
 
 155. || of Livenza. Var. 17° 40' (1819). 
 
 Port Tagliamento 
 
 45 38 30 
 
 13 6 5 
 
 || of the river. X. ■*•. nr. 
 
 Port Lignano 
 
 45 41 20 
 
 13 9 57 
 
 E. Outside $. ¥. ^r. 
 
 Grado, campanile 
 
 45 40 44 
 
 13 22 57 
 
 160. A mark for the coast, y. 
 
 Aquilea, campanile 
 
 45 46 
 
 13 22 30 
 
 250. Seen over drowned lands. ¥. 
 
 Point Sdobba, telegraph ... 
 
 45 43 40 
 
 13 33 
 
 || of the Isonzo. E. 
 
 Isteia. 
 
 
 
 
 Monfalcone, centre 
 
 45 48 20 
 
 13 32 14 
 
 La Rocca, 300 feet. ■*. 
 
 Duino castle, flagstaff 
 
 45 46 14 
 
 13 35 58 
 
 In Sacco di Panzano. E. $'. 
 
 Trieste, Sta. Teresa mole 
 
 45 38 49 
 
 13 46 15 
 
 Light 106 f. m. *. ^totheKarst, 1590. 
 
 Trieste, castle flagstaff 
 
 45 38 25 
 
 13 46 47 
 
 310. Var. 16° 54', Dip 65° 13' (1819). 
 
 Capo d'Istria, Sanita 
 
 45 32 32 
 
 13 44 12 
 
 46 feet. On an insulated rock. *•. 
 
 Isola, campanile 
 
 45 31 58 
 
 13 40 
 
 185. X. In the road $. 
 
 Pirano, San Giorgio belfry 
 
 45 31 18 
 
 13 33 54 
 
 240 feet. Var. 16° 5' (1819). IS. ffi'. 
 
 Cape Salvore, lighthouse . . . 
 
 45 28 57 
 
 13 29 47 
 
 117. Cala Mosca of Bassania. 
 
 Omago, steeple 
 
 45 23 50 
 
 13 31 30 
 
 110 ft. H. Outside $. _^ to Buje, 890. 
 
 Cittanova, battery 
 
 45 18 36 
 
 13 32 55 
 
 Here and Port Quieto El, and t. 
 
 Parenzo, islet convent 
 
 45 13 34 
 
 13 35 10 
 
 S. *\ Var. 16° 21' in 1819. 
 
 Orsera, church 
 
 45 8 30 
 
 13 36 12 
 
 IS, but ! in approach. ¥. 
 
 Rovigno, S. Eufemia spire 
 
 45 4 36 
 
 13 37 39 
 
 330 feet. 1. m. ^. 
 
 Dignano, church 
 
 44 57 25 
 
 13 51 14 
 
 Mark for Canale di Fasana. 
 
 Fasana, the mole 
 
 44 55 16 
 
 13 48 10 
 
 Between it and Brionis EB. *. *-. 
 m. *. Var. 15°, Dip 64° 38' (1819). 
 Summit, 149 feet. ¥. 1. 
 
 Pola, Olive islet 
 
 44 52 18 
 
 13 50 10 
 
 Pola, Cape Brancorso 
 
 44 51 42 
 
 13 48 37 
 
 Port Veruda, isle convent. . . 
 
 44 49 28 
 
 13 50 24 
 
 118 feet. 1. E. ¥. ^. 
 
 CapePromontore, Porerrock 
 
 44 45 27 
 
 13 53 54 
 
 Lighthouse 111 feet. 8. 1 
 
 Port Bado, landing-place. . . 
 
 44 53 46 
 
 13 59 57 
 
 1. X. * but ¥ D . ! for boras. 
 
 Punta Nera, tower 
 
 44 57 55 
 
 14 8 30 
 
 T- 1. -^ to M. Ostrina, 1760. 
 
 Albona, church 
 
 45 4 46 
 
 14 7 40 
 
 1160 feet. Shores beneath 1. 
 
 Fianona, steeple 
 
 45 7 51 
 
 14 11 
 
 640 feet. X but !. ¥. 
 
 Mount Colder o, or Maggiore 
 
 45 16 32 
 
 14 11 57 
 
 4530 feet. Sea-mark around. ¥■. 
 
 Croatia. 
 
 
 
 
 Kastua, black castle 
 
 45 23 12 
 
 14 20 10 
 
 On a hill inland. ¥. 
 
 || river Reka. £ but wind. $' 
 
 Fiume, landing-place 
 
 45 19 5 
 
 14 25 43 
 
 Porto Re, arsenal 
 
 45 16 
 
 14 33 36 
 
 $', but torn by boras. 
 
 S. Marco islet 
 
 45 14 55 
 
 14 33 
 
 || Maltempo. 1 but !. 
 A clean cove, but !. 
 
 Kernovitza, chapel 
 
 45 6 30 
 
 14 50 
 
448 
 
 THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITION'S. 
 
 Place, 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 Notanda. 
 
 Croatia. 
 
 O / (1 
 
 o t a 
 
 
 Segna, mole-head 
 
 44 59 40 
 
 14 54 10 
 
 J, 1. Ravaged by boras. 
 ^ to M. Velebich. % 
 
 Jablanaz, chapel 
 
 44 42 30 
 
 14 53 30 
 
 Karlopago, mole 
 
 44 31 40 
 
 15 3 56 
 
 1, but ! boras. Var. 17° 10' (1819). 
 J and 1, but !. 
 
 Lukovo, landing-place 
 
 44 26 8 
 
 15 11 
 
 Castel Venier 
 
 44 15 
 
 15 27 40 
 
 || of Novigradi lake. !. 
 When inside ||, S3, rr. 
 
 Novigradi, fortress 
 
 44 10 10 
 
 15 32 9 
 
 Karin, convent 
 
 44 7 
 
 15 36 10 
 
 || of Karisniza [X]. ¥. 
 
 Croatian Islands. 
 
 
 
 
 Puntadura, station 
 
 44 18 10 
 
 15 3 50 
 
 355. Dinarapeak in Julian Alps, 8500. 
 
 Pago, fort Glubatz 
 
 44 19 22 
 
 15 15 10 
 
 Commands || into Morlacca ||. 
 
 Pago I., landing-place ... 
 
 44 27 2 
 
 15 2 50 
 
 Land-locked, but ravaged by boras. 
 
 Pago, point Loni 
 
 44 42 10 
 
 14 43 30 
 
 J & 1 With !. •*•• rr. 
 
 Pago, M. San Vito 
 
 44 28 30 
 44 26 20 
 
 14 59 40 
 14 54 
 
 1150 feet. Theodolite station, 
 j & 1 in Pago ||, but !. 
 
 Maon Isle, chapel 
 
 Arbe I., steeple 
 
 44 45 7 
 44 56 42 
 
 14 44 45 
 14 40 30 
 
 X but !. Var. 17° 0' in 1819. 
 || to Besca-vecchia j. rr. 
 
 Gaglian rock 
 
 Veglia I., madre chiesa ... 
 
 45 1 40 
 
 14 33 58 
 
 $ but !. t. 
 
 Veglia, vol Dobrigno 
 
 45 8 20 
 
 14 35 40 
 
 C2 but ! for boras. 
 
 Kerso, Farasina convent . . . 
 
 45 7 49 
 
 14 16 56 
 
 T- 1. -^ to Mount Sys, 1680. 
 
 Kerso I., Sanita, 
 
 44 57 36 
 
 14 23 50 
 
 H. In bay d , but for winds !. ¥ 
 
 Kerso, Osero church 
 
 44 41 5 
 44 43 12 
 
 14 22 51 
 14 10 10 
 
 ||s 1, but !. 
 
 In the Quarnero ||. [. rr. 
 
 Galiola rock, centre 
 
 TJnie I. , Porto-lungo 
 
 44 38 35 
 
 14 15 38 
 
 1 but !. *. rr. 
 
 Sansego I., mount Garbi ... 
 
 44 31 4 
 
 14 17 45 
 
 350 feet. p[3 to the N.W. f . 
 
 Lossini, mount Osero 
 
 44 40 16 
 
 14 21 38 
 
 1900. Isle also named Lossin Piccolo. 
 
 Lossini I. , port Augusto 
 
 44 32 6 
 
 14 27 21 
 
 Arsenal. Var. 16° 58' in 1819. *. 
 
 S. Pietro di Nembo I. 
 
 44 28 
 
 14 32 10 
 
 Ilovatz chapel. E3 in ||. r<-. 
 
 Grivitsa rock 
 
 44 24 30 
 
 14 33 30 
 
 || of the Quarnerolo. [,. 
 
 Selve I., town church 
 
 44 22 39 
 
 14 40 43 
 
 || to S. Pietro d, !. ^. 
 
 Vlbo I., town 
 
 44 22 15 
 
 14 46 15 
 
 Mag. var. 17° 6' in 1819. 
 
 Dalmatia. 
 
 
 
 
 Nona, steeple 
 
 44 14 30 
 
 15 10 15 
 
 In the basin, [2. 
 
 Zara, bastion S. Francesco 
 
 44 6 39 
 
 15 12 49 
 
 Var. 14° 13', Dip 64° 20' (1819). H. 
 
 Mount Vratsavo 
 
 44 2 
 43 56 27 
 
 15 24 
 15 26 40 
 
 710 feet. Inland ^ to 4900. 
 In ||, $' with !. rr. 
 
 Zara Vecchia, steeple 
 
 Monte Nero, station 
 
 43 54 
 
 15 39 
 
 970. Mark for Lake Vrana. 
 
 Slozella, landing-place 
 
 43 49 
 
 15 40 
 
 With ! V. * but f^ rr. 
 
 Sebenico, Castel-vecchio . . . 
 
 43 44 15 
 
 15 52 45 
 
 J. 1. Var. 15° 8' in 1819. ffl. 
 
 Capo Oesto, tower 
 
 43 34 52 
 
 15 54 45 
 
 1 but !. T . m. ^. 
 
 Ragosnitsa, mole 
 
 43 31 17 
 
 15 57 48 
 
 T & 1. ffl. Var. 14° 30' in 1819. 
 
 Port Manera, landing-place 
 
 43 29 36 
 
 16 28 
 
 X. ^. _^ to M. Movar, 400. 
 
THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 449 
 
 Place. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude, 
 
 Notanda. 
 
 Dalmatia. 
 
 O 1 II 
 
 O , II 
 
 
 Trau, S. Mark's tower 
 
 43 30 46 
 
 16 14 58 
 
 In || Trau, Bua, and Salona ffl. 
 
 Spalateo, cathedral 
 
 43 30 11 
 
 16 26 10 
 
 Diocletian's palace. Var. 15° 0' (1819). 
 
 Spalatro, fort Botticella . . . 
 
 43 29 19 
 
 16 25 45 
 
 HI. In bay $ r M. Maglian, 550. 
 
 Almissa, convent 
 
 43 26 20 
 
 16 42 10 
 
 In the ||, J and 1. $. 
 
 Monte Borah 
 
 43 26 
 43 16 59 
 
 16 44 
 
 17 1 16 
 
 2800 feet. * and *. 
 
 Yar. 14° 45' (1819) . M. Sustvid, 3800, -^ 5900. 
 
 Macarska, chapel 
 
 Fort Opus, flagstaff 
 
 43 1 45 
 
 17 35 
 
 ||s of river Narenta. ,-*-. 
 
 Fort Smer dan 
 
 42 56 50 
 
 17 33 20 
 
 _^toM. Ulico, 1800. Turkish confine. 
 
 Sabbioncello, point Ossit . . . 
 
 42 59 50 
 
 16 59 30 
 
 II Curzola, $'. _^ to M. Vipere, 3160. 
 
 Sabbioncello, Val di Briesta 
 
 42 54 
 
 17 31 10 
 
 Access !, *■. M. Sukino, 2050. 
 
 Monto-rogo, summit 
 
 42 46 
 
 17 56 
 
 2810. Slanobetweenit&M.Tmor,2965. 
 
 Isola Rudda, station 
 
 42 42 37 
 
 17 55 10 
 
 II of Kalamota, all $' and ES. r-r. 
 
 Ragusa, mole battery 
 
 42 38 16 
 
 18 6 39 
 
 -^ to fort Imperial, 1350. E£L $. Inland, 4500. 
 
 Ragusa, fort S. Marco ... 
 
 42 37 40 
 
 18 6 54 
 
 310. OnLakromaisle. Var. 16° 0' (1819). ¥ . 
 
 Ragusa Vecchia, chapel ... 
 
 42 35 
 
 18 12 
 
 j 1. j. In Prahlivaz, ffl. 
 
 Molonto, port Piccolo 
 
 42 27 5 
 
 18 25 
 
 1. IB,:Mark,;S.Elia,1850. Onthe coast $ , to- 
 
 Dalmatian Islands. 
 
 
 
 
 Premuda, summit 
 
 44 20 20 
 44 16 15 
 
 14 36 30 
 14 44 50 
 
 1, except on the N.W. *~. 
 _u£ to Monte Guardia, 560. 
 
 Isto, magazine 
 
 Melada, Banastra point . . . 
 
 44 12 18 
 
 14 48 58 
 
 In port Beguglia, HI. 
 
 Klib rock, or Diboskik 
 
 44 13 35 
 
 14 54 
 
 T . 1. 1, but difficult. ^. 
 
 Grossa, point Bianche light 
 
 44 9 10 
 
 14 48 40 
 
 || of the Sette Bocche. 1. !. f . 
 
 Grossa, M. Vela Stratza . . . 
 
 43 59 
 
 15 2 30 
 
 1100. Landfall for Grossa or Lunga. 
 
 Grossa, mount Krepassia.. 
 
 43 54 24 
 
 15 6 50 
 
 Port Tajer, j. 1. |JB. 
 
 I iicoronata, M. Opat 
 
 43 43 38 
 
 15 26 25 
 
 Summit of the isle, 760. 
 
 Curbabdla, east peak 
 
 43 41 15 
 
 15 30 55 
 
 380 feet. * but f . 
 
 Sestrugn, summit 
 
 44 9 55 
 
 14 59 20 
 
 1 but !. rr, 
 
 Eso, the port 
 
 44 1 52 
 
 15 5 40 
 
 1. T . Var. 15° 50' in 1819. 
 
 Ugliano, castle 
 
 44 4 39 
 
 15 8 42 
 
 879. || of Zara, S . 
 
 Pasman, church 
 
 43 57 20 
 
 15 22 58 
 
 S in || with !. Summit 893. 
 
 Vergada, summit 
 
 43 51 10 
 
 15 30 15 
 
 370 feet. ! in the ||s. 
 
 Zut, summit 
 
 43 51 50 
 
 15 18 46 
 
 Station on Velikivak. *-. 
 
 Morter, Gessera chapel . . . 
 
 43 47 58 
 
 15 38 14 
 
 6' in ||. _^ to Broskitza, 359. 
 
 Zlarina, port 
 
 43 41 40 
 
 15 49 58 
 
 ^ to M. Batokio, 540 feet. 
 
 Siaajan, summit 
 
 43 42 5 
 
 15 44 12 
 
 457 feet. 1 in ||s, but !. 
 
 Zuri, mount Bohl 
 
 43 39 
 43 32 30 
 
 15 37 50 
 15 51 
 
 380. d in ||s with !. ,*-. 
 6 fathoms, ||s around deep. 
 
 Suilan, Aid rock 
 
 Zirona, port Grande 
 
 43 26 48 
 
 16 8 30 
 
 ||s £ with ! m. rr. 
 
 Solta, port Sordo 
 
 43 23 
 
 16 18 25 
 
 1. 23. *• -^ to M. Stratsa, 695. 
 
 Bratsa, Milna church 
 
 43 19 23 
 
 16 27 16 
 
 d in ii. m. *. *% 
 
 Bratsa, Stjepanska church 
 
 43 20 36 
 
 16 39 10 
 
 || to main land j, 1, & d . *-. 
 
 Bratsa, Bol cove 
 
 43 15 10 
 
 16 39 42 
 
 T & 1. _^ to M. San Vito, 2560. 
 
 G G 
 
450 
 
 THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 Place. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 Notanda. 
 
 Dalmatian Islands. 
 
 O / II 
 
 O / 1, 
 
 
 Lesina, S. Giorgio tower . . . 
 
 43 7 20 
 
 17 11 10 
 
 8 in ||s. ^ M. Glavalikova, 1390. 
 
 Lesina, cathedral 
 
 43 9 10 
 
 16 26 29 
 
 m. Var. 14° 5', Dip 62° 42' (1819). 
 
 Lesina, M. S. Nicolo 
 
 43 8 30 
 
 16 30 
 
 2100. Mark in outer ||. 
 
 Tor cola, pt. Masliniza 
 
 43 5 28 
 
 16 42 35 
 
 1 on all sides. *. *-. 
 
 Bacili rocks, largest 
 
 43 4 57 
 
 16 34 30 
 
 d , j & 1 around, ^r. 
 
 Lissa, S. Francis steeple... 
 
 43 3 22 
 
 16 10 12 
 
 Var. 14° 0', Dip 62° 51', Int. 240 (1819). H. 
 
 Lissa, Stupisca point 
 
 43 26 
 
 16 4 
 
 ||s 8 . _^ to M. Huhm, 1940. 
 
 JBusi isle, station 
 
 42 58 10 
 
 16 1 27 
 
 790 feet, j & 1. JL,. *. 
 
 S. A ndrea in Pelago 
 
 43 1 25 
 
 15 45 20 
 
 Ruins _^ to summit, 1020. ¥. rr. 
 
 Porno rock, summit 
 
 43 5 35 
 
 15 27 25 
 
 14/toW.byN.£,otherws.l. 100. [ . ^. 
 
 Pelagosa, M. Crocella 
 
 42 23 49 
 
 16 16 20 
 
 150 feet. $ with !. ^. 
 
 Katsa, summit 
 
 42 45 56 
 
 16 31 12 
 
 830. T &1. «b. ^. 
 
 Katsiola, summit 
 
 42 44 50 
 
 16 42 30 
 
 *. /3/3 on shoal W. by S. *-. 
 
 Lagosta, S. Rafael 
 
 42 45 39 
 
 16 49 
 
 j & 1. H. _^ to M. S. Giorgio, 1390. 
 
 Lagostini rocks, Glovat . . . 
 
 42 45 10 
 
 17 8 27 
 
 1 in approach, but [ . -r. 
 
 Curzola, Blatta mole 
 
 42 57 32 
 
 16 43 11 
 
 m. t. Var. 15° 10' in 1819. 
 
 Curzola, port Raciskie 
 
 42 58 
 
 17 56 
 
 E. ^ to M. Dobravasca, 1880. ¥. 
 
 Curzola, fort S. Biagio ... 
 
 42 57 30 
 
 17 7 18 
 
 H.Var.l4°55'(1819).M.Vipere,3100. 
 
 Meleda, port Palazzo . . . 
 
 42 46 50 
 
 17 21 52 
 
 Ruined palace. Var. 15°0' (1819). H.^. 
 
 Meleda, port Surra 
 
 42 44 50 
 
 17 35 
 
 1.$. ^M.Grado,1670(MezzaMeleda). 
 
 Melada, M. Plagnak 
 
 42 42 10 
 
 17 42 58 
 
 1190. Mark for Val Sablonava. 
 
 S. Andrea, di Ragusa 
 
 42 38 10 
 
 17 57 20 
 
 Donzella chapel, 185. j & 1. 
 
 Marcano isle, station 
 
 42 34 37 
 
 18 10 51 
 
 j & -L. d with !. *-. 
 
 Albania. 
 
 
 
 
 Cottar o, point d' Ostro 
 
 42 23 22 
 
 18 31 12 
 
 || of two ' Bocche/ _^ 220, 8 . ¥ . 
 
 Cattaro, point Morale 
 
 42 28 28 
 
 18 40 
 
 j. 1. _^ M. Desviglie, 2541. *-. 
 
 Cattaro, city mole 
 
 42 25 25 
 
 18 45. 47 
 
 EB. ^ M. Sella, 3240. Var. 14° 25' (1818). 
 
 Cattaro, porto Rosa 
 
 42 25 22 
 
 18 31 40 
 
 m. ^ M. Lustitsa, 1900 feet. *. 
 
 Monte Vetergnak 
 
 42 19 
 
 18 53 
 
 3960. Above Stagnevich convent. 
 
 Buclua, M. S. Salvatore . . . 
 
 42 17 45 
 
 18 49 25 
 
 Above the town, 1250. H. f . 
 
 Budua, S. Nicolo isle 
 
 42 15 45 
 
 18 50 47 
 
 Observation stone, 365 feet. 
 
 Antivari, old dogana 
 
 42 2 11 
 
 19 7 21 
 
 t. Var. 14° 57' (1818), _^ to 4500. 
 
 Dulcigno, la Cala 
 
 41 53 58 
 
 19 11 49 
 
 H. In the road t. ¥. 
 
 1. Near || river Bojana. [. *-. 
 
 Peregrino rock 
 
 41 51 47 
 
 19 15 40 
 
 San Giovanni di Medua . . . 
 
 41 48 20 
 
 19 29 
 
 m. II Drino. % Var. 14° 0' (1818). 
 
 Cape Rodoni, station 
 
 41 36 35 
 
 19 28 10 
 
 1 with !. _^ 400 feet. f. 
 
 Cape Pali, summit 
 
 41 23 5 
 
 19 24 14 
 
 In the bay $'. ¥. rr. 
 
 $' with !. Var. 13° 50' (1818). 
 
 340. From base to Kavaja, /3/3 . 
 
 Durazzo, the mole 
 
 41 18 15 
 
 19 26 54 
 
 Cape Laglii, tower 
 
 41 10 10 
 
 19 25 40 
 
 Point Samana, centre 
 
 40 48 55 
 
 19 17 37 
 
 || river Tuberathi. d at night. &. *~. 
 
 Mount Pegola 
 
 40 54 30 
 
 20 7 
 
 7760 feet. Peak over Berat. 
 
 Talao rocks, centre 
 
 40 38 
 
 19 18 30 
 
 || river Vojutza, or Poro. !. rr. 
 
 .1 
 
THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 451 
 
 Place. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 Notanda. 
 
 Albania. 
 
 o r 'I 
 
 o , / ,. n 1 
 
 Avlona, dogana 
 
 40 27 15 
 
 19 26 20 
 
 EE. Var. 14° 0', Dip 60° 38', Int. 231 (1818). 
 
 A lion a, fort Kanina 
 
 40 26 41 
 
 19 27 30 
 
 1360 feet. ¥. 
 
 Sasseno isle, station 
 
 40 29 10 
 
 19 14 12 
 
 Summit 988. j & 1. d . ^. 
 
 Cape Linguetta, extreme ... 
 
 40 25 37 
 
 19 15 
 
 1. ^ to 2990 feet. % 
 
 Voile delV Orso 
 
 40 19 12 
 
 19 20 35 
 
 JL. ^ 1546 feet, and 4300. 
 
 Monte Cica 
 
 40 14 36 
 
 40 8 45 
 
 19 35 
 19 37 30 
 
 6300, mark for Gremata cove. 
 
 j, but 1. _^ M. Cicara, 5470, _^^.. 
 
 Strada Bianca, extreme . . . 
 
 Port Palermo, fort 
 
 40 2 55 
 
 19 48 10 
 
 m. Var. 14° 30' in 1818. 
 
 Santi Quaranta, dogana... 
 
 39 53 46 
 
 20 14 
 
 8 by j. $'. _^ to the town. <*>. 
 
 Butrinto, guard-house 
 
 39 44 34 
 
 19 59 42 
 
 II of the Fishery and Lake. $'. ^r. 
 
 Gomenitsa, Prasudi rock... 
 
 39 30 13 
 
 20 9 7 
 
 $' but ! the bank off || Kalama. -<-. 
 
 Gomenitsa, dogana 
 
 39.28 46 
 
 20 18 10 
 
 m. Magnetic Var. 14° 30' in 1818. 
 
 Mourtso, Sybota rock 
 
 39 23 40 
 
 20 13 30 
 
 j & -L. In the bay $. *■. *-. 
 
 Parga, the citadel 
 
 39 16 29 
 
 20 23 29 
 
 m and t. Var. 13° 30' in 1819. 
 
 Port Fanari, S. Giovanni 
 
 39 14 4 
 
 20 30 
 
 || of ancient Acheron and Cocytus. 
 
 Kastro-sikia, dogana 
 
 39 5 53 
 
 20 38 48 
 
 £„ ! the Ittisa reefs, (5. 
 
 Previsa, fort Pantakratera 
 
 38 56 17 
 
 20 45 14 
 
 || gulf of Arta. T . Inside ffl. * . 
 
 Vouvalos rock 
 
 38 58 25 
 
 20 55 
 
 Near centre of gulf. Var. 13° 10 (1820). <*. 
 
 LlVADIA. 
 
 
 
 Vonitsa, the pier 
 
 38 54 26 
 
 20 53 14 
 
 V m. t. ^^. inland hill, 1480. 
 
 Fort Glorgi 
 
 38 47 57 
 
 20 43 40 
 
 194. (H. || of Santa Maura. ^. 
 
 Vwrko bay, Mytika point... 
 
 38 40 10 
 
 20 56 44 
 
 S.^^M.Kandili5000,&M.Bumisti4950.^ ^. 
 
 Dragomestre, the skala . . . 
 
 38 32 45 
 
 21 5 48 
 
 m. d . M. Veloutzi, 2977. t. 
 
 Port Plattea, inner point.. . 
 
 38 28 10 
 
 21 5 49 
 
 lis i. u. *. ^. 
 
 Port Skropha, the rock . . . 
 
 38 18 55 
 
 21 9 
 
 EH. II Aspro-potamo, or Achelous. 
 
 Missolunghi, battery 
 
 38 21 50 
 
 21 26 30 
 
 Extensive lakes and marshes. ^-. 
 
 Varasova point 
 
 38 20 15 
 
 21 39 
 
 1. _^: to summit, 2830 feet. 
 
 M. Kako-skala, summit ... 
 
 38 21 20 
 
 21 42 40 
 
 3380. M. Koraka beyond, 6700. 
 
 Kastro RUm-ili 
 
 38 19 28 
 
 21 47 
 
 || of Lepanto. 1. 8 . ¥ . 
 
 Peaks of M. Rigani, ^ x, 4660 & 3950. 
 
 Lepanto, landing-place ... 
 
 38 23 15 
 
 21 50 10 
 
 Galaxidi, building-yard ... 
 
 38 22 27 
 
 22 23 20 
 
 H. _^to2500ft. *. M.Parnassus, 3970. 
 
 Dobrena, port Vathi 
 
 38 11 30 
 
 22 55 30 
 
 *. PeaksofHeUcon,^_^,5200&5750. 
 
 Ionian Islands. 
 
 
 
 
 Fano, west summit 
 
 39 50 20 
 
 19 19 50 
 
 1214 feet, _^ ^_ 1, except on the N.E. 
 7-. X. ■*. but ¥ . ■>*-. 
 
 Merlera, summit 
 
 39 53 28 
 
 19 31 57 
 
 Samotraki, central hillock 
 
 39 45 44 
 
 19 28 5 
 
 ! & 7- in approaching. 8. *-. 
 
 Diaplo isle, centre 
 
 39 45 37 
 
 19 32 40 
 
 T~ and ! in the ||s. 8. *-. 
 Middle of north Corfu ||. (,. 
 
 Tignosa rock, light 
 
 39 47 56 
 
 19 57 28 
 
 Corfu, Santa Katerina . . . 
 
 39 50 4 
 
 19 49 58 
 
 || of S. Spiridione. *. 
 
 Corfu, M. Safoatore 
 
 36 13 30 
 
 19 49 20 
 
 S.W. peak 2590. Mark in the ||. 
 
 ViDO I., fort Alexander ... 
 
 39 38 5 
 
 19 55 38 
 
 Var. 1 1 83'j Dm- 58° KKj Int. 338, in | 
 
 GG 2 
 
452 
 
 THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 Place. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 Notanda. 
 
 Ionian Islands. 
 
 O 1 IP 
 
 o i n 
 
 
 Corfu, Benitse villa 
 
 39 32 14 
 
 19 54 29 
 
 $, but open. _^ Santa Dekka, 2000. 
 
 Corfu, citadel-flagstaff 
 
 39 37 2 
 
 19 55 44 
 
 257 feet. E. In the roads ffl. 
 
 Corfu, Lefkimo point 
 
 39 27 20 
 
 20 4 27 
 
 t~. Low, and d at night. 
 
 Corfu, cape Bianco 
 
 39 20 50 
 
 20 6 50 
 
 Foot of the cliff. !. d. 
 
 Corfu, Laguclia rock 
 
 39 24 19 
 
 19 54 50 
 
 7- with!. /3/3 . 1 ^. 
 
 Corfu, port Ermones 
 
 39 35 30 
 
 19 45 32 
 
 X. *. ^ M. S. Giorgio, 1326. 
 
 Corfu, Yliapades bay 
 
 39 40 
 
 19 41 10 
 
 Alipa point. 1. ffl. <t>. *-. 
 
 Corfu,, port Timona 
 
 39 42 20 
 
 19 36 30 
 
 X'. _^ to Aphiona and M. Teodoro. 
 369. Off the point, S. ¥. 
 Madonna light, 107. ffi. 
 1, but !. Var. 13° 17' (1820). *-. 
 
 Paxo, Ldka light 
 
 39 13 27 
 
 20 9 15 
 
 Paxo, port Gayo 
 
 39 11 40 
 
 20 12 19 
 
 Anti-Paxo, point Novoro.. . 
 
 39 8 37 
 
 20 15 46 
 
 Leucadia, Santa Maura... 
 
 38 50 19 
 
 20 42 58 
 
 X. In port Drepano, E@. 
 
 Leucadia, Scsola rock 
 
 38 41 50 
 
 20 32 30 
 
 <S in ||. Opposite M. Nomali, 3700. 
 
 Leucadia, cape Dukato 
 
 38 33 30 
 
 20 32 41 
 
 j, -L. _^l to Sappho's Leap, 785. 
 
 Leucadia, Poropeak 
 
 38 38 14 
 
 20 43 
 
 1490 feet, ^ . S in ||. 
 
 Leucadia, port Vliko 
 
 38 40 55 
 
 20 42 
 
 m. Var. 13° 40' in 1820. ¥. 
 
 Meganisi, Vathi mill 
 
 38 39 30 
 
 20 47 10 
 
 280. EE, but ! in approaching. 
 
 A rkudi, red cliff 
 
 38 33 16 
 
 20 42 30 
 
 j & 1. 8 Q around, but $ . *-. 
 
 Atoko, summit 
 
 38 29 
 
 20 48 28 
 
 998 feet. 1. d , but * . ^. 
 
 Kalarao, the port 
 
 38 35 38 
 
 20 52 45 
 
 1. H. -^: to central summit, 2377. 
 
 Kastns, central height 
 
 38 33 
 
 20 54 30 
 
 498. 1 all round, f . 
 
 Dragonara, summit 
 
 38 29 
 
 23 1 40 
 
 1 in all the ||s. r-r. 
 
 Petala, summit 
 
 38 25 5 
 
 21 6 30 
 
 T . 1. m. t. Var. 13° 20' (1820), 
 676 feet. 1 around, but $ . 8 . nr. 
 
 Vromona isle, summit 
 
 38 22 23 
 
 21 12 
 
 Oxia isle, summit 
 
 38 18 54 
 
 21 7 10 
 
 1247. Off||Achelous.Var.l3°32'(1820). 
 
 
 Ithaca, point Marmaka ... 
 
 38 30 
 
 20 39 5 
 
 50. *. S . M. Neritos,orAnoi, 2350. 
 
 Ithaca, port Vathi 
 
 38 22 5 
 
 20 42 47 
 
 Lazzaretto. Var. 13° 44' (1820). ffl. 
 
 Ithaca, point Joanni 
 
 38 19 28 
 
 20 46 20 
 
 T & 1, ^ M. Stefano, or Aito, 2170. 
 
 Cephalonia, port Viscardo 
 
 38 27 15 
 
 20 34 20 
 
 730. 1 in Daskalio ||. 
 
 Cephalonia, Samos 
 
 38 14 30 
 
 20 38 
 
 $'. Ruins to the east. ¥. 
 
 Cephalonia, point Atros ... 
 
 38 10 20 
 
 20 45 30 
 
 -L, d . _^. to Napier's turret, 2656. 
 
 Cephalonia, cape Skala . . . 
 
 38 2 55 
 
 20 46 38 
 
 S. .^ to M. Elato, or Nera, 5260. % 
 
 Cephalonia, port Argostoli 
 
 38 11 13 
 
 20 28 33 
 
 The station Hook-light, 35 feet. ffl. 
 
 Cephalonia, castle S.Giorgio 
 
 38 8 20 
 
 20 33 52 
 
 998 feet. Var. 13° 24', in 1820. 
 
 Cephalonia, Guardiana isle 
 
 38 8 13 
 
 20 25 30 
 
 Lighthouse 122 feet. j. !. 
 
 Cephalonia, cape At err a ... 
 
 38 21 30 
 
 20 24 33 
 
 T & 1. X. d . _^ to 1655 feet. 
 
 Cephalonia, fort Asso 
 
 38 23 5 
 
 20 32 26 
 
 Height 410. T & 1. 
 
 Zante, cape Skinari 
 
 37 56 28 
 
 20 41 24 
 
 260. 1, d . *. Var. 13° 21' (1823). 
 
 Zante, mount Teri 
 
 37 50 
 
 20 44 
 
 2274 feet. Mark in the ||. 
 
 IS. *'. Var. 13° 12'; Dip58°50'(1820). 
 
 Zante, city mole-head . . . 
 
 37 47 27 
 
 20 54 58 
 
 Zante, mount Skopo 
 
 37 44 41 
 
 20 57 5 
 
 Convent 1489. Mark in the ||. 
 
 Zante, Kieri bay 
 
 37 41 15 
 
 20 51 19 
 
 $. Station at the Pitch-wells. 
 
 Zante, port Vromi 
 
 37 49 
 
 20 39 8 
 
 X, but$ . *. _^:toM.Vrakiona,2390. 
 
 
THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 453 
 
 Place. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 1 Longitude. 
 
 Is otanda. 
 
 Ionian Islands. 
 
 O / '1 
 
 o i ri 
 
 
 Stamfani isle, convent 
 
 37 15 12 
 
 21 1 27 
 
 Light 127. 1, o with !. ^. 
 
 Prodano isle, summit 
 
 37 1 58 
 
 21 34 
 
 570. iin||, S . Var.l3°44'(1820). ^. 
 
 Sphagia, summit 
 
 36 55 35 
 
 21 39 37 
 
 (Sphacteria) . 480. j. f . 
 
 Sapienza, port Longona . . . 
 
 36 43 42 
 
 21 41 30 
 
 1 & JL _^ to summit, 730 feet. *~. 
 
 Cabrera, Skh itsa cove 
 
 36 43 28 
 
 21 47 38 
 
 j. 1. d Q in the ||s, but t . *-. 
 
 VenetUco, chapel 
 
 36 40 47 
 
 21 55 30 
 
 In || to Cape GaUo. !. * . ^. 
 
 Murmiki, or Ants 
 
 36 38 30 
 
 21 56 10 
 
 1. t- Var - 12° 58' (1820). rr. 
 
 Servi, point Franco 
 
 36 27 15 
 
 22 59 30 
 
 1. Summit, 950 feet. *-. 
 
 Cerigo, cape Spati 
 
 36 22 40 
 
 22 57 10 
 
 j & 1. d in Cervi ||. ¥ . 
 
 Cerigo, port S. Nikolo 
 
 36 13 14 
 
 23 5 9 
 
 TheCastle. ffl. *'. M. S. Giorgio, 1000. 
 
 Cerigo, Kapsali dogana . . . 
 
 36 8 35 
 
 23 18 
 
 S. $. Port of Tserfgo, or Kythera. 
 
 Cerigo, cape Lindo 
 
 36 12 5 
 
 22 55 
 
 d with !. _^ to 1540. 
 
 Ovo isle, summit 
 
 36 5 5 
 
 23 10 
 
 T & 1. 1. Height 550. t . *~. 
 
 Koupho-nisi, north islet ... 
 
 36 7 17 
 
 23 6 12 
 
 T & 1. d . t . * c . ^. 
 
 Porri islet, centre 
 
 35 58 10 
 
 23 15 
 
 1 & l,but $ . c^with! Ht. 410. % *. 
 
 Nautilus rock 
 
 35 55 54 
 35 51 56 
 
 23 13 20 
 23 18 20 
 
 c. Var. 12° 10' in 1823. [. 
 
 E. Var. 12° 20' ; Dip 55° 24' (1823). 
 
 Cerigotto, Potamo fort . . . 
 
 Cerigotto, M. Turko-vouno 
 
 35 51 
 
 23 18 
 
 1100. Mrk.for||. M.Dometha,980. * . 
 
 Grabusa, Kastro 
 
 35 35 37 
 
 23 33 18 
 
 In Candia, but to complete the ||s. *-. 
 
 Morea. 
 
 
 
 
 Athens, the Parthenon . . . 
 
 37 58 10 
 
 23 43 50 
 
 In Greece, but to connect. 
 
 Corinth, dogana 
 
 37 55 46 
 
 22 53 52 
 
 1. 7-. $'. Site of Lechseum. 
 
 Corinth, citadel 
 
 37 53 20 
 
 22 52 58 
 
 Acro-Corinthus. 1850 feet. 
 
 Kamari, landing-place ... 
 
 38 5 45 
 
 22 34 54 
 
 1. j- -^ M - Koryphi, 2 ^50. t. 
 
 Vostitsa, beach fountain . . . 
 
 38 15 10 
 
 22 6 12 
 
 1. V. _^ M. Pteri, 5900. » •. 
 
 Kastro Morea, flagstaff . . . 
 
 38 18 24 
 
 21 49 5 
 
 || of Lepanto. 1. S Q . 
 
 Patras, mole-head 
 
 38 14 27 
 38 14 34 
 
 21 45 30 
 21 45 35 
 
 V. d by T . Var. 13° 10' in 1820. 
 _^M.Yoideah,6500. M.S.IS T icolo(OZowo*)7100. 
 
 Patras, castle flag 
 
 Cape Papa, ruined fort ... 
 
 38 12 40 
 
 21 25 5 
 
 || Lake Kalogria. Hill to S. 2980. 
 
 Cape Papa, sandy spit . . . 
 
 38 13 3 
 
 21 24 10 
 
 7-. !. _^ Mavro-vouna, 800. ¥. -r. 
 
 Konoupoli, rock 
 
 38 5 29 
 
 21 22 
 
 1. %. % M. Santa Meriotoko, 3420. 
 
 Klarentsa, old castle 
 
 37 5Q 24 
 
 21 9 35 
 
 ^-. *. Var. 13° 15' (1820). .^. 
 
 Kastro Tornese 
 
 37 53 44 
 37 55 
 
 21 9 33 
 21 1 
 
 795. Commands plain of Elis. 
 Ibut 6. ||s safe, but !. 
 
 Montague shoal 
 
 Cape Katakolo 
 
 37 38 48 
 
 21 20 5 
 
 T- t. *. Var. 12° 35' (1820). 
 
 Roufea river, skala 
 
 37 36 20 
 
 21 29 
 
 || Alpheius. Var. 12° 50' (1820.) t. 
 
 Arcadia, citadel 
 
 37 14 30 
 
 21 41 49 
 
 540. _^ to 4000 feet. % 
 
 Navarin, ruin* of Pylos ... 
 
 36 56 40 
 
 21 39 42 
 
 520. Boat || to Sphaghia. 
 
 Navarin, Kulonisi rock ... 
 
 36 54 50 
 
 21 40 53 
 
 20ft, Var. 13°58' ; Dip 57°54'(1820). 
 
 Navarin, castle flag 
 
 36 53 35 
 
 21 41 20 
 
 m. M. S. Nikolo, 1600, mark for ||. 
 
 Modon, mole-tower 
 
 36 48 30 
 36 41 50 
 
 21 41 36 
 21 54 5 
 
 72. IE. t. Var. 13° 27' (1820). 
 ^ 1390, Var. 12° 15' (1823). ^. 
 
 Cape Gallo, the pitch 
 
454 
 
 THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 Place. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 MOREA. 
 
 Koron, castle flagstaff 
 
 Mount Lykothimo, summit 
 
 Kalamata, dogana 
 
 Mount Makryno, S. Elias 
 
 Cape Kephali, pitch 
 
 Port Limeni, Vitylo skala 
 Port Djimova, Dyko point 
 Cape Grosso, Kastro Orias 
 Cape Matapan, the pitch... 
 
 Cape Stavri, extreme 
 
 Marathonisi, Crane islet . . . 
 Potamo Vasili, teach station 
 
 Kokino, beach tower 
 
 Xyli bay, Rupinapeak ... 
 Cape Malea, S. Angelo point 
 Monembasia, citadel 
 
 Archipelago, Black Sea, 
 and Levant, to Alex- 
 andria, follow this Table. 
 (See p. 460.) 
 
 Egypt. 
 
 Rosetta, fort Raschid 
 
 Nelson's isle, Burial bay . . . 
 Al Bekur, castle tower . . . 
 Alexandria, Pharos castle 
 Alexandria, point Eunostos 
 Alexandria, Pompey's pillar 
 A lexandria, Cleopatra's bath 
 Alexandria, Marabut isle 
 
 A busir, Arab's tower 
 
 Al Ama'id, ruins 
 
 lumeimah point 
 
 Tanhoob, marabut 
 
 Ras al Kanais 
 
 Marmarica. 
 
 Marsa Moh^derah 
 
 Ras al Harzeit, or Baratun 
 Marsa Labeit,Mhaddra rk. 
 
 Ishailah rocks, east one 
 
 Tifah rocks, centre 
 
 Ras Haleimah, pitch 
 
 36 46 35 
 
 36 54 
 
 37 25 
 36 58 
 36 53 43 
 36 41 
 36 38 57 
 36 29 57 
 36 23 55 
 36 37 
 36 44 24 
 36 47 45 
 36 45 30 
 36 40 35 
 36 26 14 
 36 41 10 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 31 26 55 
 31 21 54 
 31 20 17 
 31 12 40 
 31 11 31 
 31 10 45 
 31 9 55 
 31 8 50 
 30 57 40 
 
 30 56 5 
 
 31 2 7 
 31 8 16 
 31 16 52 
 
 31 12 7 
 31 22 54 
 31 23 47 
 31 31 18 
 31 35 15 
 31 36 18 
 
 21 59 12 
 
 21 53 
 
 22 8 36 
 22 22 
 22 8 57 
 22 23 15 
 22 22 53 
 22 22 44 
 22 29 56 
 22 32 20 
 22 34 50 
 22 41 40 
 22 48 
 
 22 49 27 
 
 23 12 10 
 23 2 50 
 
 Notanda. 
 
 30 27 
 30 8 10 
 30 5 57 
 29 53 28 
 29 51 58 
 29 53 47 
 29 52 5 
 29 47 37 
 29 33 20 
 29 11 
 28 47 
 28 23 19 
 27 52 15 
 
 27 39 30 
 
 27 23 40 
 27 16 33 
 26 39 44 
 26 16 10 
 26 
 
 220. V. Var. 11° 56' (1820). 
 
 2995 feet. Good sea-mark. ¥. 
 
 || of the Nedon. j. $'. 
 
 Ancient Taygetus, nearly 8000 feet. 
 
 1. 8 , but $ . _^ 1158, and 4250. ^. 
 
 t. ¥. Var. 11° 50' (1823). 
 
 T & 1. _^ 3450. M. Sanghia, 3990. 
 
 950 feet. T & 1. * . rr. 
 
 1020. 1. _^ to Kaka-vouni, 4000. rr. 
 
 1. $' in Skutari bay. ¥. rr. 
 
 $'. Ancient port of Sparta. _^510. rr. 
 
 || Eurotas. Var. 12° 15' in 1820. rr. 
 
 *\ ^ to M. Kurkola, 3000. 
 
 T & 1. $. M. Kimatitsa, 1500. 
 
 j& 1. f . $ . _^toM.Krithyna,2600. rr, 
 
 1. Magnetic var. 13° 10' in 1820. 
 
 || of the Nile. T h !. f. 
 Low and 8. y. rr. ¥ . 
 || to Nelson's isle, 8. Inside, $. 
 8. /3. In new port, $,. 
 
 New light, 180. T . !. ffl. 
 C 99 - 5ft. Lat. by A . By an observation on the 
 \ summit 31° 9' 49", but mercury tremulous. 
 
 NecropoKs. Var. 11° 0' ; Dip 57° 45' (1822). 
 
 !, but inside*'. Var. 11°15'(1822). t . rr 
 
 Approach 8. (3(5 Q . f. 
 
 r. Broken grnd. Var. 10° 55' (1822). 
 
 *,but!. Var. 11° 20' (1822). 
 
 -^ to sandy spit. Var. 10° 52' (1822). 
 
 _^ Akabah-el-Sougha'ir, 490. rr. 
 
 m. *. Var 11° 0' in 1822. rr. 
 Baratun from Parsetonium. ¥• 
 H. Var. 11° 40' (1822). *. rr. 
 58 feet. J. [. (Scopuli Tyndarei). 
 ||s 1, but !. Var. 12° 0' (1822). rr 
 T & 1. East point Gulfal Milhr. 
 
THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 455 
 
 Place. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 Xotanda. 
 
 Mabmabica. 
 
 O f II 
 
 O t II 
 
 
 Port Solium, cove 
 
 31 30 
 
 25 10 
 
 m. V. 5 . 'Akabah-el-Kibir, 840. 
 
 Ras al Milk r, or C. Lukkah 
 
 31 53 5 
 
 25 3 30 
 
 c with !. (Ardanaxes Prom.) ¥ . 
 
 Tebruk, Saracenic gate . . . 
 
 32 2 51 
 
 24 3 31 
 
 H. Var. 12° 40' ; Dip 56° 58' ; Int. 240 (1822) . 
 
 Bombah, Seal isle 
 
 32 14 27 
 32 22 36 
 
 23 18 50 
 23 16 23 
 
 || Marsa Enharit Khuzitah. ¥ c . <-<-. 
 m. Var. 14° 55'; Dip 56° 24' (1822). ^. 
 
 Bombah, Bhurdah isle 
 
 Bombah, Own al Gharami 
 
 32 27 35 
 
 23 12 58 
 
 Ship rock. !. ^. Var. 14° 45' (1822). 
 
 Barcah. 
 
 
 
 
 Eos et Tyn, beach 
 
 32 33 56 
 
 23 11 53 
 
 m, but !. *. -+-. ¥ . 
 
 Dernah, marabut 
 
 32 46 10 
 
 22 40 44 
 
 $'. Var. 13° 39' in 1821. 570 feet. 
 
 Ras Haldl, beach 
 
 32 55 29 
 
 22 10 2 
 
 1. $. *, but near ¥. *~. 
 
 Marsa Sousah, Cothon ... 
 
 32 54 51 
 
 21 56 27 
 
 JL. Var. 14° 27' (1821). Inland, % 
 
 Mas al Razat, or Ras Sem 
 
 32 56 56 
 
 21 38 
 
 j. 1. _^ to Gure'inah, 1575. ¥. $ . 
 
 Cyrene, near small theatre 
 
 32 49. 38 
 
 21 49 5 
 
 2012 feet. Beechey's tent station. 
 
 Point Dohneitah 
 
 32 50 
 32 43 7 
 
 21 8 8 
 20 54 52 
 
 1. ^ to lower Gureinah range,1050. *. 
 1. In the offing $. *. w. 
 
 Dolme'itah, the cothon 
 
 Taukrah, ruins 
 
 32 31 50 
 
 20 32 10 
 
 1. _^ 950 feet. * and f. 
 
 Ben-Ghazi, castle 
 
 32 6 51 
 
 20 2 40 
 
 ®. Outside, t. Var. 14° 50' (1821). f. 
 
 Ras Teyonas, sandy point 
 
 31 58 
 
 19 55 57 
 
 1. j. Low, but d . 
 
 Marsa Kharkarah 
 
 38 28 30 
 31 2 50 
 30 47 32 
 
 19 58 25 
 
 20 13 
 19 56 48 
 
 1. $. _^ extensive sand-hills. r<-. 
 
 $, in off-shore winds. !. 
 
 j. lwith!. [. Var. 15° 1' (1822). ^. 
 
 Sh ahican marabut 
 
 Gharah isle 
 
 Isha if ah rod: 
 
 30 36 30 
 
 19 52 45 
 
 j. 50 feet. [ G . ^. 
 
 Marsa Bura'iyah, old fort 
 
 30 27 47 
 
 19 38 10 
 
 % with !. _^:high and white sand-hills. 
 
 Busheifah islet 
 
 30 17 52 
 
 19 11 58 
 
 In summer, $, with !. ¥ . 
 
 Tripoli. 
 
 
 
 
 MuktaJir, boundary pile . . . 
 
 30 17 40 
 
 18 59 50 
 
 The frontier of Tripoli. 
 
 Ras al Ornjah, or Licontah 
 
 30 55 58 
 
 17 58 
 
 Bluff rock to Ben- Jawad, J*"". [,. 
 
 A b u-Saida, landiny-pla ce 
 
 31 15 
 
 17 39 
 
 $ with off-shore winds. ■*•. 
 
 Marsa Zaphran, point ... 
 
 31 12 50 
 
 16 40 52 
 
 S. Approach !. Var. 16° 42' (1821). 
 
 Jerid rocks 
 
 31 26 
 31 33 20 
 
 15 54 
 15 35 
 
 "y. Outside $ with land winds. 
 On a moderate ^ . r<-. 
 
 'Isd, Jebbah ruin 
 
 'Isa, beach station 
 
 31 35 25 
 
 32 1 30 
 
 15 37 56 
 15 13 50 
 
 Sand hummocks. Vr. 16° 50" (1821). t'. 
 Over the drowned lands. 
 
 Tawarkah village 
 
 Kharrah, or Aardr 
 
 32 9 58 
 32 21 26 
 
 15 25 5 
 15 16 45 
 
 f. This single tree was here in 1770. 
 1. T . Var. 16° 40' in 1816. 
 
 Sidi Buscha'ifa, marabut... 
 
 Misratah, mosque 
 
 32 22 30 
 
 15 9 
 
 Town is inside the point. =f . 
 
 Cape Mtsra tah 
 
 32 25 15 
 
 15 10 24 
 
 T & 1. d . Var. 16° 48' (1816). 
 
 Marsa Zoraik, Youdi, rock 
 
 26 50 
 
 14 48 25 
 
 [I], y. Village nearly 4' east. -<-. 
 
 Marsa ZUiten, marabut ... 
 
 I 5 
 
 14 32 58 
 
 1, l,W.ofOrir cliff. Vr. 16° 30', (1817) 
 
 Marsa Ougrah, Tabia point 
 
 2 50 
 
 14 22 
 
 X. || of thcKhahan, or Kanafa. _^ 350. 
 
 IiEFHSMaGNAj citadel ... 
 
 38 40 
 
 14 15 40 
 
 t in offing. Var. 10° 20'; Dii)55°o' (1817). 
 
456 
 
 THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 Place. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 Notanda. 
 
 Tkipoli. 
 
 O / II 
 
 O / II 
 
 
 
 Lebidah, mosque 
 
 32 39 30 
 
 14 11 40 
 
 Village, with olive groves. =f 
 X. In summer, $'. r<. 
 
 
 Marsa Ligatah 
 
 32 40 40 
 
 14 13 
 
 
 Merkib tower 
 
 32 39 10 
 
 14 9 21 
 
 Commanding station. 
 Fortified eminence. 
 
 
 Selineh, Roman ruin 
 
 32 37 5Q 
 
 14 10 
 
 
 Emsalatah, mosque 
 
 32 35 30 
 
 13 58 
 
 1250 feet. 
 
 
 Medina Dugha, the gussar 
 
 32 32 
 
 13 40 
 
 Extensive ruins. 
 
 
 Garatila Mils, S.W.ex. ... 
 
 30 37 30 
 
 14 8 45 
 
 Peak in distant range. 
 
 .2 
 
 Ghirrza, high tomb 
 
 31 7 17 
 
 14 40 50 
 
 Var. 16° 10' (1817). 
 85 feet deep. 
 
 S 
 
 Wadi Zemzem, Roman well 
 
 31 35 
 
 14 38 
 
 
 Benhoulat tower 
 
 31 28 10 
 
 14 18 15 
 
 Of the lower ages. 
 
 Var. 16° 0' (1817). f. 870 f. 
 
 3 
 
 Beniolid (Beni Walid) castle 
 
 31 45 38 
 
 14 12 10 
 
 O 
 -(J 
 
 & 
 
 Wadi Denahr, Orfilli tents 
 
 31 52 10 
 
 14 3 50 
 
 Fertile spot. 
 
 
 Mhaddra, spring 
 
 32 8 49 
 
 13 47 40 
 
 Var. 17° 5' (1817). 990 f. 
 
 | 
 
 Wadi Tinsiwah 
 
 32 15 
 
 13 43 
 
 Cultivated in patches. 
 
 O 
 
 Weled-bu-Merian pass 
 
 32 21 40 
 
 13 34 22 
 
 (Atilad' ebn Maryun). 
 
 o 
 
 Tarhouna, Melghra rocks 
 
 32 23 15 
 
 13 32 20 
 
 Summit, 920 to 1150 f. 
 
 Rom. well, 2' from Melghra 
 
 32 24 52 
 
 13 31 40 
 
 170 feet deep. 
 
 & 
 
 Saiah grounds 
 
 32 28 37 
 
 13 16 40 
 
 Var. 16° 40' (1817), f. 
 
 
 Intzarrah (Nasdrd ?) .. 
 
 32 49 25 
 
 13 16 35 
 
 First wells. 
 
 
 Wahryan Hills, castle 
 
 32 7 50 
 
 13 2 10 
 
 Fine country. ^ 3300. J 
 
 
 Ras Buswarah, pitch 
 
 32 44 40 
 
 14 1 30 
 
 || of stream Sidi Abdellata. 
 
 
 Ras al Hamra, cove ruins 
 
 32 46 29 
 
 13 53 50 
 
 X. Var. 16° 18' (1817). *-. 
 
 
 Wad al Ramil, marabut. . . 
 
 32 47 30 
 
 13 35 
 
 || of the Ramil, or Sand river. 
 
 
 Ras Tajourah, pitch 
 
 32 54 28 
 
 13 21 10. 
 
 1. Town is within the cape, f . 
 
 Tripoli, Consul's villa 
 
 32 54 15 
 
 13 12 28 
 
 Var. 16° 35'; Dip 55° 14' ; Int. 230 (1821). ¥ . 
 
 
 32 54 47 
 
 13 11 23 
 
 (Setif). Chronometer-sight station. 
 
 Tripoli, Basha's castle ... 
 
 32 53 56 
 
 13 10 58 
 
 HI, but enter !. In the road $'. 
 
 
 Tripoli vecchio, fort 
 
 32 49 50 
 
 12 26 26 
 
 E. 1. In off-shore winds $. 
 
 
 Zoarah, marabut 
 
 32 54 46 
 
 12 3 59 
 
 X. Towards the S.E. f. *-. 
 
 
 Ras al MaJchabez 
 
 33 7 20 
 
 11 42 35 
 
 || of [X]. Outsider. Var. 16° 20' (1822). 
 
 
 33 15 57 
 
 11 22 20 
 
 || large lake H. Outside $'. *-. 
 S. P(3 . Inside $'. nh. 
 
 
 Z era spit-rock 
 
 33 24 
 
 11 21 
 
 
 
 33 29 50 
 
 11 10 10 
 
 Boundary of Tripoli in 1816. 
 
 
 Tunis. 
 
 
 
 
 Ougla, Ras Mamorah 
 
 33 31 40 
 
 11 9 45 
 
 T . 1. Off it, t. *. 
 
 
 Jerbah, Boukal castle 
 
 33 41 8 
 
 11 21 
 
 II of Al Kantarah ; to fine EE but for bars. rr. 
 
 Jekbah, Castle Zoug 
 
 33 52 54 
 
 10 52 58 
 
 Var. 15° 58'; Dip 55° 0' (1822). tf. 
 
 Jerbah, fort Jelis , 
 
 33 51 57 
 
 10 44 30 
 
 Outside the fishery flats, $'. f . 
 
 r-, $. Hi.wat.3 h 10 m . Rise & fall 5±ft. 
 
 Kashr Natah, ruin 
 
 33 35 40 
 
 10 27 
 
 Khabs, or Kabes, fort 
 
 33 52 58 
 
 10 4 16 
 
 || Wad al Rif, or Khabs river. 
 
 1. 
 
THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 457 
 
 Place. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 Notanda. 
 
 Tunis. 
 
 Taflamdh anchorage 
 
 Sidi Midhil, landing-place 
 
 i Sfakus, mole-head 
 
 Sidi Masour tower 
 
 Ras Kadija, or Cape Vada 
 Karkenah Is. Dazak tower 
 Karkenah Is-. Gherba tower 
 C. Africa, Mehdiyah castle 
 
 Leptis Parva, ruins of 
 
 Monastir, fort Akdir 
 
 Kuryah isles, outermost . . . 
 
 Susah, the castle flag 
 
 Herklah, minaret 
 
 Jebel Zawan, or Zaghwan 
 
 Hammamat, mosque 
 
 Cape Mahmur, pitch 
 
 Ras Mustafa, Kalybia fort 
 Cape Bon, summit tower... 
 
 Sidi Daoud, marabut 
 
 Zembra, or Zowamir 
 
 Tail of Keith's reef 
 
 Skerki shoals 
 
 A dventure Bank 
 
 A dventure Bank 
 
 Tunis bay, Cape Zafran ... 
 Mount Ilammam Lynf ... 
 Goletta, Halk-al-wad fort 
 Tunis, kobbeh, Kabeira ... 
 
 Tunis, Cape Carthage 
 
 Port Farina, arsenal 
 
 Cape Farina, marabut 
 
 Kamla, Piana, or Watiahl. 
 
 Cape Zebib, the pitch 
 
 Kelb, Cane, or Dog rocks... 
 Bizertah, or Benzert castle 
 
 Bizertah, Jcbd Ixhk'tl 
 
 Ras Abiad, or Cape Bianco 
 
 A hwat-kebir ( Fratclli j 
 
 Galita, the Gallo rock 
 
 Galita, Sugar-loaf peak ... 
 
 Galitona, centre 
 
 Sorelle rocks, nearly aivash 
 
 34 4 45 
 34 17 
 34 43 56 
 
 34 48 21 
 
 35 9 58 
 
 34 
 
 4S 
 
 10 
 
 34 38 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 26 
 
 35 39 
 
 43 
 
 35 
 
 45 
 
 23 
 
 35 
 
 47 
 
 20 
 
 35 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 59 
 
 10 
 
 36 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 36 23 27 
 
 36 
 
 20 
 
 58 
 
 36 
 
 49 
 
 57 
 
 37 
 
 4 50 
 
 37 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 37 
 
 6 
 
 37 
 
 37 50 
 
 
 
 37 
 
 44 53 
 
 37 32 
 
 
 
 37 
 
 n 
 
 30 
 
 36 52 
 
 
 
 36 
 
 39 
 
 10 
 
 36 
 
 48 25 
 
 36 
 
 45 50 
 
 36 
 
 52 
 
 3 
 
 37 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 37 
 
 10 
 
 43 
 
 37 
 
 K) 
 
 48 
 
 37 16 20 
 
 37 21 
 
 12 
 
 37 16 36 
 
 37 
 
 7 
 
 12 
 
 37 
 
 10 
 
 32 
 
 37 18 
 
 14 
 
 37 
 
 33 
 
 7 
 
 37 
 
 30 66 
 
 37 29 
 
 45 
 
 37 2 1 
 
 
 
 9 57 
 10 1 58 
 10 39 50 
 
 10 47 
 
 11 10 
 11 15 30 
 
 10 54 16 
 
 11 6 51 
 10 51 40 
 
 10 48 53 
 
 11 . 3 30 
 10 35 56 
 10 30 
 10 5 
 10 38 15 
 
 10 58 58 
 
 11 8 30 
 11 3 36 
 10 55 10 
 
 10 48 29 
 
 11 8 
 
 10 45 15 
 
 11 44 40 
 
 12 7 
 10 36 10 
 10 20 
 10 16 40 
 10 39 
 10 19 29 
 10 8 10 
 10 14 25 
 10 17 56 
 10 45 
 10 4 15 
 
 9 49 20 
 9 36 
 9 47 2 
 9 22 24 
 8 57 38 
 8 54 17 
 8 52 54 
 8 36 30 
 
 $ of vessels for Khabs. Var. 16° 40' (1822) 
 
 W\ inside Zurkenis. _£: to Jebel Thelj. 
 
 m. Var. 17° 10' in 1822. *. 1 
 
 60 ft. S. point of Karkenah ||. !. 
 
 Tower 54 ft. N. pnt. of Karkenah ||. !. 
 
 40 feet. Low and d. 7-. *£ . r-r. 
 
 40 feet. T . f. ^. Var. 17° 0' (1822). 
 
 1. *. Var. 16° 55' in 1822. 
 
 _^: to town of Lamta. f . 
 
 m. Var. 16° 38' in 1822. 
 
 Coniglieri. T . rr. Var. 17° 10' (1822). 
 
 $ off the moles, with !. f. 
 
 1. On an eminence. Var. 17° 0' (1822). 
 
 _-£ s*_ 3900 feet. A good sea-mark. 
 
 V by T . Var 17° 10' (1822). 
 
 -U _^ to Nabal and Mahmur. 
 
 1. At point, (3. Var. 16° 44' (1822). 
 
 1176 feet. T & 1, but t Q . ^. 
 
 12 in Hamar cove. Var. 16° 50' (1816) , 
 
 Landing place. _^ to 1560 ft. 1. S . 
 
 ("Adventure $, 20 fins. Blown off at night 
 ■< (1822). Lat. by run from Maretimo; Lon. 
 (.assumed from Captain Durban. 
 
 My $age 1816, 3' W.S.W. of S. Bank. 
 
 My $age in 13 fins., 1816. Brokn.bttm. 
 
 My $age in 8 fins., 1816. 
 
 1. By natives, Eas al Durdas. 1075. 
 
 1217.^toJebelIrsas(Piombo),1720ft. 
 
 ||. HI. $'. Var. 17° 40', Dip 56° 48', 1822. 
 
 Marabut on _^ ^_ nr. lndng. place. *~. 
 
 Light 406. _^toSidiBuse'id(ityrsa). *•. 
 
 || of the Majerdah, & Bushatta. *. 
 
 S in || to isle, with ! ¥ . 
 
 1. Var. 17° 20' in 1822. *. 
 
 || to Kelb, d . ^ M. Shapta, 2000. 
 
 Brkn.grnd.buttf . * . Var. 18° 10' (1822). ^. 
 
 || two lakes, t. Var. 18° 0' (1822). 
 
 1750 feet. Mark for inner lake. 
 
 Tower. _^ to 950 feet. ¥ . 
 
 279. T & 1, except N.E. U- 
 
 T & 1. Lo- *„ with !. ^. 
 
 _^^1038.$'.M.Guar(lia,117:U r rJL8 B^ISSS). 
 
 484.Aguglia,37!>. T &1,$ . $ in||8. ^. 
 
 1, therefore very 8. !. 
 
458 
 
 THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 Place. 
 
 Tunis. 
 
 Ras al Munshihar 
 
 Cape Negro, summit 
 
 Tabarkah, castle 
 
 A Ikaldh, or La Gala 
 
 Algeria. 
 
 Ras al Bufahal, or Rosa... 
 
 Bonah, citadel 
 
 Ras al Hamrah (Mavera) 
 
 Tuhush islet, centre 
 
 Ras Hadid (Cape Ferro) . . . 
 Cape Filfillah (Pepper) ... ■ 
 
 Storah, old pier 
 
 Ramacli isle, summit 
 
 Kolah, Hussein chapel 
 
 Ras al Ferjan (Bujaroni) 
 
 Al Imam rock 
 
 Jijeli, minaret 
 
 Ras Jemel (Cape Cavallo) 
 Mount Babora, summit . . . 
 
 Bujeyah, castle 
 
 Cape Carbon 
 
 Pisan isle, the well 
 
 Cape Sigli, the pitch 
 
 Mount Jujerah 
 
 Mars-el-Fahm, cove 
 
 Cape Tedles, the pitch 
 
 Dellys, landing-place 
 
 Cape Bengut, summit 
 
 Ras Temedfus (Matifuz) . . . 
 
 Algiers, mole-light 
 
 Algiers, Emperor's castle... 
 Ras Akkonada, C. Caxme 
 Ras al Hamous, tarfBatal 
 
 Zerzahal, or Chershel 
 
 Ras Nakkus (Cape Tenez) 
 Dnis, or Tenez, mmaret ... 
 Jeze'ir alHamman (Palomas) 
 Ras Jebel Iddis (Cape Ivi) 
 
 Mosta-ghanem, centre 
 
 Marsa Arzaw, fort 
 
 Ras Mishat (Cape Ferrat) 
 Aguglia rock 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 37 13 54 
 
 37 5 
 
 36 56 25 
 
 36 51 57 
 
 36 55 15 
 
 36 54 2 
 
 36 57 58 
 
 37 5 56 
 37 5 10 
 36 54 
 36 54 53 
 
 36 58 45 
 
 37 59 
 37 6 58 
 37 38 
 36 50 
 36 47 
 36 34 
 36 45 45 
 36 46 43 
 36 49 31 
 36 53 
 36 25 
 36 53 15 
 36 54 12 
 36 55 10 
 36 56 
 36 48 58 
 36 47 31 
 36 46 50 
 36 49 36 
 36 37 50 
 36 36 31 
 36 32 40 
 36 30 
 36 25 58 
 36 5 45 
 35 57 
 35 51 36 
 35 54 50 
 35 54 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 10 
 55 20 
 42 19 
 24 43 
 
 8 13 
 
 7 47 53 
 
 7 49 30 
 
 7 22 30 
 
 7 10 57 
 
 7-6 
 
 6 53 5 
 
 6 43 15 
 
 6 34 55 
 
 6 28 6 
 
 6 15 42 
 
 46 50 
 
 36 30 
 
 30 
 
 8 22 
 
 8 30 
 
 2 15 
 
 48 
 
 11 
 
 25 10 
 
 11 15 
 
 56 25 
 
 54 
 
 13 
 
 4 18 
 
 2 57 
 
 17 
 
 23 54 
 
 10 53 
 
 21 48 
 
 1 19 15 
 
 55 36 
 
 12 40 
 
 6 20 
 
 16 lOw 
 
 21 40w 
 
 26 25w 
 
 Notanda. 
 
 (CapeSerrat). T &1. Var. 17° 58' (1822). 
 Coast 1. *•. $ . 
 
 IS. $'. Var. 17° 40' (1822). 375 feet. 
 S. Boundary of Tunis & Algeria. f . 
 
 j & 1, except at base. *-. *-. 
 
 398, _^to 2600. *'. Var. 18° 0' (1813). 
 
 j & 1. Guardia new lighths. 466. -r. 
 
 d , with !. $ . nr. 
 
 The islet. T & 1. Inside t, with !. 
 
 Summit, 2500 feet. *. Base 1. 
 
 $'. Var. 17° 50' in 1813. 
 
 j & 1. Height 200 feet. ^. 
 
 500 feet. Var. 18° 0' in 1813. t. 
 
 Nrthmst.oftlie7 Capes. L t . ^ to 2800. f. 
 
 Inbay $ off|| wadal Kabir. _^to 3600.^. 
 
 \M. Var. 18° 37' in 1813. «-. 
 
 j & 1. Summit 1500 feet, ^ . 
 
 6300. Mark for Mansuryah cove. f. 
 
 480 feet. Var. 18° 20' (1813). 
 
 630 ^ . _^ to 4000. T & 1. * . 
 
 1. d in ||. rr> Var. 18° 20' (1823). 
 
 T & 1. S . Var. 18° 17' in 1823. 
 
 7000, summit of inland range. 
 
 $' in the road. j. ¥. 
 
 1. _^ to 3500 feet. *~. 
 
 1300. Summer,*'. Var. 18° 25' (1823). 
 
 1. M. Bubarak 980 feet, _^ to 2000. 
 
 Octagon fort. /3/3 at pitch. 
 
 S. $,. Var. 19° 10' in 1813. 
 
 390 feet. Mark in taking $age. 
 
 -L. $ . _^. to Mount Abu-Zariah. 
 
 Islet at base. 1. _^ to about 3000. 
 
 00 . In land winds $'. 
 
 1. _^ to 3500 ft. Var. 18° 37' (1813). 
 A mark for the watering-place. 
 
 80 feet. In ||, 8 . *-. 
 
 1. _^ to 1000 feet. 
 
 Coast-line j & 1. d . 
 
 $■'. New lighthouse, 62 feet. 
 
 1. $ . Summit, upwards of 2000. 
 
 180. I. Pharaoh's finger, by Moors. 
 
THE AUTHOR'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 459 
 
 Place. 
 
 Algeria. 
 
 Waharan, or Oran 
 
 Marsa Kebir, light 
 
 Ras Harshfah (C. Falcon) 
 
 Habiba isles, largest 
 
 Ras Ishgun (Cape Fegalo) 
 
 Karakal islet 
 
 Mount Noe 
 
 Cape Malonia, pitch 
 
 River Mahala, or Mulwia 
 
 Moeocco. 
 
 Cape Agua, pitch 
 
 Zafrin isles, centre one ... 
 
 Mount Partz, summit 
 
 Melila, the baradero 
 
 Ras-ud-Devr (Tres Forcas) 
 
 Al Boran isle, summit 
 
 Khozamah, or Al Buzema 
 Penon de Velez, flagstaff . . . 
 
 Point Pescador, tower 
 
 Tetuan, dogana tower 
 
 Ceuta, Acho flagstaff 
 
 Peregil isle, summit 
 
 Ape's Hill, western summit 
 
 Cape al Kazar, pitch 
 
 Tangier, citadel minaret 
 
 Cape Spartel, the gap 
 
 Djeremias bay, landing-pl. 
 
 Arzila, minaret 
 
 Jebel Habib 
 
 El Ara'ish, citadel 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 35 40 49 
 35 44 17 
 35 46 10 
 35 43 15 
 35 34 22 
 35 18 30 
 35 8 
 35 7 50 
 35 6 55 
 
 35 9 10 
 35 10 50 
 35 2 30 
 35 20 55 
 35 28 10 
 35 57 48 
 35 16 45 
 35 12 20 
 35 16 41 
 35 37 7 
 35 53 58 
 35 54 48 
 35 53 30 
 35 52 50 
 35 47 25 
 35 47 39 
 35 43 
 35 28 57 
 35 28 
 35 12 45 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 39 18w 
 41 58w 
 
 48 5w 
 
 1 7 56w 
 1 11 Ow 
 1 29 52w 
 
 1 42 Ow 
 
 2 8 40w 
 2 14 30w 
 
 2 24 25w 
 2 26 Ow 
 2 36 Ow 
 2 54 58w 
 
 2 57 16w 
 
 3 58w 
 3 47 36w 
 
 15 39w 
 42 Ow 
 18 38w 
 17 35w 
 25 23w 
 24 50w 
 34 Ow 
 48 26w 
 5 55 30w 
 
 5 56 18w 
 
 6 45w 
 
 5 43 Ow 
 
 6 8 32w 
 
 Notanda. 
 
 Hill fort. _^ to 1500. 
 
 118, ^ to 1500. m. 
 
 1 but !. _^ to 1800. Station, E. pitch. 
 
 280 feet. Var. 20° 30' in 1813. ^. 
 
 T & I, but islet rocks at base. 
 
 190 feet. || for small craft. ^. 
 
 Nrly. 3000. Mark for capes Noe" &Hone. 
 
 1. ^ to a flank of Atlas. ^ ^ . 3500. 
 
 || . Boundary Algiers & Morocco. ¥. 
 
 1. $. _^ towards the Atlas range. 
 
 130 feet. West isle, 440. $. ¥ . ^. 
 
 2600. Mark for Restinga, and Zafrin. 
 
 EH. t. Var. 20° 49' (1813). ¥ . 
 
 j & 1, but $ . _^r. ^r. 
 
 68 feet. Var 20° 30' in 1813. ^. 
 
 Fortified rock. || of wad Nekkor. 
 
 Fortified rock, j & 1. ¥ . ^. 
 
 1, 7-. Town beyond. &. 
 
 || river Tetuan. In W. winds, $'. 
 
 1, except N.W. point. $. 
 
 Under Ape's hill. 1 but l r l . ^-. 
 
 JebelMoussa, or Sierra Bullones, 2200. 
 
 1, except close under. _^:. 
 
 m. Var. 21° 50' in 1810. 
 
 (Ras Shakkah). j & 1. 150 ft. _^. % 
 
 8 . $' in East winds. ¥. 
 
 Near || of Ayasha. Var. 22° 5' (1810). 
 
 2700. Mark for the coast, f. 
 
 II wad al Khos (Lucos). ¥. 
 
460 
 
 CAPT. GAUTTIER'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 Names of Places. 
 
 Northern Coast of Candia : 
 
 Spada, Cape, the summit 
 
 St. Theodore, island, North point 
 
 Canea, town, the Castle 
 
 Meleca, cape, North point 
 
 Drapano, cape, S.E. of Suda Bay 
 
 Retimo, town, centre 
 
 Retimo, cape 
 
 Santa Croce, cape, North point 
 
 Candia, principal minaret 
 
 Standia islet, North summit 
 
 Paximada, islet, the summit 
 
 Ovo rock, summit 
 
 Maglia point 
 
 San Giovanni cape, summit 
 
 Spinalonga port, fort 
 
 Sitia, cape 
 
 Yanis islands, summit of Cosua, northern islet 
 
 East End op Candia : 
 
 Sidera cape, summit 
 
 Lassa islet, S.E. point 
 
 Paleo-Castro, ruins 
 
 Salomone cape, East point 
 
 Yala cape 
 
 South Coast of Candia : 
 
 Christiana islets (Koupho-nisi), the southernmost ... 
 
 Calderoni islets (Goeduro-nisi), N.E. pt. of westernmst. 
 
 Matala, cape 
 
 Paximadi islets, summit of the largest 
 
 St. John, cape (Krio) 
 
 Western mountain of Candia 
 
 Mount Ida 
 
 Eastern mountain of Candia 
 
 Gozzo, great, of Candia, West point 
 
 Gozzo, small, of Candia, middle 
 
 St. John, cape, Candia 
 
 Sordi, middle of isle, Candia 
 
 Buso cape, Candia 
 
 Garabusa islet, Candia 
 
 Islands : 
 
 Caravi rock, summit 
 
 Falconera, summit of the island 
 
 Ananas rocks, the highest 
 
 Latitudes 
 North. 
 
 o / // 
 
 35 40 30 
 
 35 31 20 
 
 35 28 40 
 
 35 35 5 
 
 35 27 10 
 
 35 22 17 
 
 35 25 52 
 
 35 25 54 
 
 35 21 00 
 
 35 27 20 
 
 35 26 40 
 
 35 37 50 
 
 35 19 15 
 
 35 19 10 
 
 35 17 00 
 
 35 14 20 
 
 35 22 00 
 
 35 17 40 
 
 35 15 25 
 
 35 10 10 
 
 35 09 13 
 
 35 03 00 
 
 34 53 05 
 
 34 52 35 
 
 34 55 05 
 
 34 59 40 
 
 35 15 35 
 
 35 22 48 
 
 35 13 19 
 
 35 06 46 
 
 34 52 00 
 
 34 56 15 
 
 35 27 45 
 
 35 34 20 
 
 35 36 38 
 
 35 35 00 
 
 36 46 25 
 
 36 50 40 
 
 36 32 45 
 
CAPT. GAUTTIER'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 461 
 
 Names of Places. 
 
 Islands : 
 
 Milo, summit of Mount St. Ella 
 
 Paximado islet, S.W. ofMilo 
 
 Anti-Milo, summit 
 
 Pettini rocks, few feet above water, S.E. of Milo 
 
 Argentiera 
 
 St. Istada, island, anchorage of Argentiera 
 
 Polino, highest point of the island 
 
 Siphanto, highest point of the island 
 
 Policandro, highest point of the island 
 
 Miconi, summit of the highest western mountain 
 
 Anti-Paro, highest point of the islet 
 
 Strongilo, highest point of the islet 
 
 Paros, summit of Mount St. Ella 
 
 Naxia, summit of Mount Jupiter 
 
 Raclia, summit of islet 
 
 Karo, summit of islet 
 
 Amorgo-Poulo islet, summit . 
 
 Nios, highest summit 
 
 Sikyno, highest summit 
 
 Santorin, highest summit 
 
 Christiani, summit of the highest islet 
 
 Anaphi, summit of the island 
 
 Anaphi-Poulo, summit of the largest islet 
 
 Ponticusa, summit 
 
 Fidulce island, South point 
 
 Sramphalia, summit of Monte Veglia 
 
 Miconi, summit of Mount St. Elias 
 
 Tino, summit 
 
 Andros, summit 
 
 Syra, summit 
 
 Jura, summit — (better Ghiour) 
 
 Zea, summit of Mount St. Elias 
 
 Piperi, summit of the rock 
 
 Hydra, summit 
 
 Serpho-Poulo, summit 
 
 S. Giorgio d Arbora, summit 
 
 Egina, summit 
 
 Greece : 
 
 Athens, monument of Philopappus 
 
 Pieraeus, tomb of Themistocles 
 
 Corinth, castle 
 
 Colonna, cape — temple of Sunium 
 
 Latitudes 
 North. 
 
 Longitudes 
 East. 
 
 o / n 
 
 O 1 II 
 
 36 40 27 
 
 24 23 19 
 
 36 37 40 
 
 24 19 10 
 
 36 47 42 
 
 24'14 38 
 
 36 38 00 
 
 24 35 35 
 
 36 49 20 
 
 24 33 28 
 
 36 46 16 
 
 24 36 00 
 
 36 46 10 
 
 24 39 02 
 
 36 58 04 
 
 24 42 40 
 
 36 37 03 
 
 24 55 10 
 
 37 29 15 
 
 25 21 27 
 
 36 59 39 
 
 25 03 32 
 
 36 56 40 
 
 24 58 20 
 
 37 02 46 
 
 25 11 23 
 
 37 01 50 
 
 25 31 09 
 
 36 49 28 
 
 25 28 03 
 
 36 53 29 
 
 25 39 56 
 
 36 36 54 
 
 25 42 39 
 
 36 42 44 
 
 25 20 54 
 
 36 39 51 
 
 25 06 53 
 
 36 20 52 
 
 25 28 26 
 
 36 14 40 
 
 25 12 50 
 
 36 22 21 
 
 25 47 14 
 
 36 16 00 
 
 25 51 00 
 
 36 31 48 
 
 26 17 08 
 
 36 31 25 
 
 26 09 45 
 
 36 32 12 
 
 26 19 40 
 
 37 29 06 
 
 25 21 18 
 
 37 35 01 
 
 25 14 21 
 
 37 50 08 
 
 24 50 27 
 
 37 28 56 
 
 24 55 33 
 
 37 36 36 
 
 24 43 18 
 
 37 37 18 
 
 24 21 45 
 
 37 18 15 
 
 24 31 53 
 
 37 19 58 
 
 23 28 44 
 
 37 15 17 
 
 24 36 00 
 
 37 28 14 
 
 23 55 47 
 
 37 42 05 
 
 23 29 53 
 
 37 57 57 
 
 23 43 24 
 
 37 55 51 
 
 23 37 44 
 
 37 53 37 
 
 22 52 10 
 
 37 39 12 
 
 24 01 39 
 
462 
 
 CAPT. GAUTTIER'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 Names of Places. 
 
 Latitudes 
 North. 
 
 37 39 
 
 06 
 
 37 52 51 
 
 38 10 
 
 47 
 
 37 44 
 
 23 
 
 37 45 
 
 
 
 38 03 36 
 
 38 09 59 
 
 38 49 
 
 46 
 
 38 37 43 
 
 39 24 
 
 
 
 39 08 
 
 25 
 
 39 06 
 
 58 
 
 39 01 
 
 59 
 
 39 09 
 
 42 
 
 39 10 
 
 11 
 
 39 26 17 
 
 39 47 53 
 
 40 04 32 
 
 39 56 53 
 
 40 19 59 
 
 40 37 
 
 03 
 
 39 31 
 
 00 
 
 39 53 
 
 42 
 
 40 10 
 
 36 
 
 40 26 57 
 
 41 08 
 
 31 
 
 41 01 
 
 44 
 
 41 00 
 
 12 
 
 41 14 
 
 10 
 
 41 15 
 
 30 
 
 41 19 
 
 20 
 
 41 25 
 
 40 
 
 41 29 55 
 
 41 33 05 
 
 41 36 45 
 
 41 39 
 
 00 
 
 41 45 
 
 30 
 
 41 48 
 
 45 
 
 41 52 35 
 
 Greece : 
 
 Provengale, summit of islet 
 
 Raphti, port, summit of islet 
 
 Marathon, cape 
 
 Mandri, port, sugar-loaf 
 
 Makronisi, or Long island, northern summit 
 
 Negropont, St. Ella d'Oro, highest summit 
 
 •Kaloyeri, centre of the rock 
 
 Skyro, San Giorgio, summit of Mount Cochilo 
 
 Negropont, Mount Delphi 
 
 Jura-nisi, or Devil's island 
 
 Skopelo, Mount Delphos 
 
 Trikeri, mount, gulf of Volo .... .. 
 
 Fetio, port, tower entering gulf of Volo 
 
 Trikeri, old, East side of gulf of Yolo 
 
 Halata islet, East side of gulf of Volo 
 
 Pelion, mount 
 
 Ossa, mount 
 
 Olympus, mount 
 
 Turkey in Europe : 
 
 Drepano, cape, or Trapano, summit 
 
 Mulliani, summit of the islet in the gulf of Mte. Santo 
 
 Limpiada, summit, in Contessa gulf 
 
 Strati or Strachi, St., summit of islet 
 
 Lemnos, summit of Mount Therma 
 
 Imbros, summit of the island 
 
 Samothrace, summit 
 
 Tarapia, French palace, N.E. terrace 
 
 Constantinople, palace of France at Pera 
 
 Constantinople, dome of St. Sophia 
 
 Western Shores of the Black Sea: 
 
 Pharos of Europe 
 
 Kilios, castle 
 
 Kara-Bourou, cape , 
 
 Kaliondjik 
 
 Malhatrah, cape 
 
 Taliangieri 
 
 Mediah, town 
 
 Turkey in Europe, continued: 
 
 Serves, cape 
 
 Sandal Limani, point 
 
 Ayo-Paoli, river 
 
 Tersanah, village 
 
CAPT. GAUTTLER'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 463 
 
 Xames of Places. 
 
 Turkey in Europe, continued: 
 
 Kouri, cape, East of Inada anchorage 
 
 Resveh, cape 
 
 Babiah, mount , 
 
 Ahteboli, town , 
 
 Vassicos, village 
 
 Zaitan, cape , 
 
 Bagral-Altoun, cape 
 
 St. John's isle, entrance of Bourghaz gulf 
 
 Bourghaz town, minaret , 
 
 Ahiouli island 
 
 Mesembria, town 
 
 EmeneTi, cape .'.. 
 
 Djoski, village 
 
 KLara-Bouroun, cape 
 
 Ak-Bouroun, cape 
 
 Ilidjah-Varni, cape 
 
 Galata, cape 
 
 Varna, great Eastern tower 
 
 Soughanlik, cape, islet 
 
 Batouvah, cape 
 
 Baldjik, town and port 
 
 Kavarna, town and port 
 
 Calagriah cape, ruins 
 
 Chabler-Saghi, cape and old pharos 
 
 Khas-Ehas, mouth of Danube 
 
 SoulineTi, mouth of Danube, light 
 
 Russia : 
 
 Isle of Serpents, summit 
 
 Dniester, N.W. mouth 
 
 Fontan, cape and light 
 
 Fountain point 
 
 Odessa, lazaret 
 
 Odessa, highest dome 
 
 Odessa, theatre 
 
 Odessa, Custom-house 
 
 Odessa, N.E. point of the roadstead 
 
 Be're'zan islet, South bastion 
 
 Adji Hassan, cape 
 
 Be're'zan, mouth of the river 
 
 Kinbourn, N.W. sandy point 
 
 Kinbourn, barracks 
 
 Balise, North point of Tendra island 
 
 Latitudes 
 Xorth. 
 
 Longitude 
 East. 
 
 52 43 
 56 40 
 04 40 
 
 04 30 
 07 40 
 17 55 
 
 24 45 
 
 25 54 
 29 20 
 32 10 
 39 15 
 41 40 
 49 55 
 55 00 
 58 20 
 
 05 20 
 10 10 
 
 12 15 
 
 13 25 
 19 15 
 
 23 15 
 
 24 00 
 
 21 25 
 
 32 10 
 52 45 
 10 15 
 
 15 00 
 10 00 
 
 22 20 
 
 26 50 
 
 28 54 
 
 29 10 
 29 15 
 29 50 
 
 33 25 
 35 34 
 35 55 
 37 40 
 35 00 
 33 20 
 21 40 
 
 28 03 02 
 28 02 55 
 27 50 50 
 27 59 20 
 27 51 50 
 27 47 40 
 27 44 50 
 27 41 27 
 27 28 05 
 27 38 45 
 27 44 25 
 27 53 35 
 27 53 20 
 27 54 40 
 27 54 25 
 27 55 50 
 27 58 20 
 
 27 56 15 
 
 28 02 05 
 28 05 05 
 28 10 10 
 28 22 05 
 28 27 10 
 
 28 35 20 
 
 29 36 30 
 
 29 40 55 
 
 30 11 00 
 30 33 35 
 30 43 40 
 30 44 30 
 30 43 27 
 30 41 45 
 30 42 20 
 30 41 25 
 
 30 47 40 
 
 31 22 47 
 31 19 20 
 31 23 30 
 :;i 26 55 
 31 29 55 
 31 29 25 
 
464 
 
 CAPT. GAUTTLER'S MAEITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 Names of Places. 
 
 Latitudes 
 North. 
 
 Longitudes 
 East. 
 
 Russia : 
 
 Fort on low point South of Otchakof 
 
 Otchakof, the dome 
 
 Ceimea : 
 
 Karamnoune, cape 
 
 Tarkhan, cape and light 
 
 Kazelof, low S.W. point, four miles distant , 
 
 Kazelof, principal dome , 
 
 Krasnoiars, village 
 
 Zamrouk, village 
 
 Alma, river 
 
 Loukoul, cape 
 
 Katcha, cape 
 
 Belbek, river 
 
 Outchquikal, point 
 
 Sevastopol, highest house of the Lazaret 
 
 Sevastopol, dome of hospital 
 
 Sevastopol, steeple of St. Nicholas 
 
 Chersonese lighthouse 
 
 Fiolente, cape 
 
 St. George, village 
 
 Balaklava, entrance of the port 
 
 A'ia, summit of the cape 
 
 Saritche, cape 
 
 Kerkines, cape 
 
 A'itodor, cape 
 
 Nikita, point 
 
 Tckandirdag, mount, S.W. point of the table. 
 
 Lioudag, cape, South point 
 
 Lioudag, summit 
 
 Alouchti, town 
 
 Limani, cape 
 
 Soudak, village 
 
 Alcessan, cape 
 
 Meganome, cape 
 
 Karadof, cape 
 
 Kiatlama cape, the rock 
 
 Caffa, East point of Lazaret 
 
 Caffa, town-house 
 
 Theodosia, cape 
 
 Tchaouda, cape 
 
 Jeltchankaleli, rock 
 
 Karak, cape 
 
 46 35 50 
 46 36 25 
 
 45 25 35 
 45 21 35 
 45 06 55 
 45 09 05 
 45 00 45 
 44 54 45 
 44 50 50 
 44 50 45 
 44 46 15 
 44 39 50 
 44 37 55 
 44 35 58 
 44 34 55 
 44 35 25 
 44 34 25 
 44 29 15 
 44 29 30 
 44 28 55 
 44 24 40 
 44 22 00 
 44 22 05 
 44 23 30 
 44 29 25 
 44 44 40 
 44 32 10 
 44 33 05 
 44 41 00 
 44 48 05 
 44 50 10 
 44 49 45 
 44 46 40 
 44 53 10 
 
 44 54 35 
 
 45 01 24 
 45 01 37 
 45 00 43 
 
 44 59 54 
 
 45 01 31 
 45 02 25 
 
 31 31 00 
 
 31 30 55 
 
 32 31 05 
 
 32 31 20 
 
 33 14 10 
 33 19 45 
 33 37 25 
 33 36 40 
 33 32 30 
 33 32 15 
 33 29 40 
 33 32 05 
 33 29 25 
 33 29 11 
 33 31 20 
 33 31 35 
 33 20 50 
 33 27 35 
 33 29 05 
 33 34 40 
 33 39 10 
 S3 44 20 
 
 33 56 35 
 
 34 05 10 
 34 13 45 
 34 18 20 
 34 19 50 
 34 11 20 
 34 26 00 
 34 56 25 
 
 34 59 35 
 
 35 00 10 
 35 06 40 
 35 15 10 
 35 23 05 
 35 24 47 
 35 23 33 
 35 26 15 
 
 35 52 30 
 
 36 16 24 
 36 18 04 
 
CAPT. GAUTTEER'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 465 
 
 Names of Places. 
 
 Crimea : 
 
 Takli, cape 
 
 Ak-Bouroun, tumulus on the point 
 
 Kertch, town 
 
 JenikaleTi, town 
 
 Kouban : 
 
 Taman, town 
 
 Taman, cape, islet off. 
 
 Kiheli, cape 
 
 Kouban, river, low point 
 
 Coast of the Abases : 
 
 Anapa, West part of the town 
 
 Isussup, cape, peninsula 10 miles S.S.E. of Anapa 
 
 Sougoujak, S.W. entrance of the bay 
 
 Guelinjik, mid-entrance to the port 
 
 Pchiat, East point of entrance 
 
 Voulan, mid-entrance 
 
 Kodos, West point 
 
 Soubachi, river 
 
 Vardan, N. W. point of entrance 
 
 Peak of the Caucasus 
 
 Mama'i, river , . 
 
 Soutchali, N.W. point 
 
 Zengui, cape 
 
 Ardler, cape 
 
 Kentchili, river 
 
 Pitsiounta, low point, 2 miles S.W. of 
 
 Pitsiounta, end of the gulf 
 
 Soukoum-Kaleh, N.E. bastion 
 
 Soukoum village, or ruins of Dandar 
 
 Mingrelia : 
 
 Kodor, mouth of the river 
 
 Iskouria, cape 
 
 Jeniche'ri, village 
 
 Isiret, cape and river 
 
 Ilori, fort 
 
 Koule, redoubt 
 
 Coast of the Lazes: 
 
 Phase, new fort on the island 
 
 Tckehelil, village and redoubt 
 
 Tchourouk, town 
 
 Sikindsi, cape 
 
 Me'andjour, tower 
 
 Latitudes 
 North. 
 
 Longitudes 
 East. 
 
 O / M 
 
 o 
 
 / H 
 
 45 04 30 
 
 36 27 36 
 
 45 19 05 
 
 36 
 
 29 45 
 
 45 21 29 
 
 36 
 
 28 54 
 
 45 21 12 
 
 36 
 
 36 16 
 
 45 13 40 
 
 36 
 
 43 50 
 
 45 09 10 
 
 36 37 35 
 
 45 06 52 
 
 36 
 
 43 55 
 
 45 05 30 
 
 36 
 
 54 40 
 
 44 54 21 
 
 37 
 
 16 04 
 
 44 45 15 
 
 37 22 40 
 
 44 39 00 
 
 37 46 40 
 
 44 31 00 
 
 38 07 20 
 
 44 22 20 
 
 38 
 
 19 35 
 
 44 20 25 
 
 38 31 00 
 
 44 16 55 
 
 38 
 
 42 20 
 
 44 09 25 
 
 38 
 
 59 45 
 
 44 06 15 
 
 39 
 
 02 05 
 
 43 56 30 
 
 39 
 
 51 35 
 
 43 53 25 
 
 39 
 
 18 45 
 
 43 42 35 
 
 39 
 
 33 00 
 
 43 30 40 
 
 39 
 
 44 40 
 
 43 22 55 
 
 39 
 
 56 20 
 
 43 20 35 
 
 40 
 
 10 20 
 
 43 08 20 
 
 40 
 
 19 40 
 
 43 09 45 
 
 40 21 50 
 
 42 59 20 
 
 41 
 
 00 13 
 
 42 58 10 
 
 41 
 
 02 35 
 
 42 50 34 
 
 41 
 
 04 20 
 
 42 47 00 
 
 41 
 
 10 00 
 
 42 43 50 
 
 41 
 
 29 30 
 
 42 27 00 
 
 41 
 
 30 24 
 
 42 24 20 
 
 41 
 
 32 20 
 
 42 14 12 
 
 41 
 
 38 35 
 
 42 07 30 
 
 41 
 
 40 00 
 
 41 54 40 
 
 41 
 
 45 40 
 
 41 49 15 
 
 41 
 
 46 20 
 
 41 46 10 
 
 41 
 
 43 40 
 
 41 43 40 
 
 41 
 
 42 35 
 
 II II 
 
466 
 
 CAPT. GAUTTIER'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 Names of Places. 
 
 Anatolia : 
 
 Batoum, town 
 
 Batoum, tower on the cape 
 
 G-ounieli, town 
 
 GounieTi, cape 
 
 Makria, town 
 
 Khoppa, village 
 
 Arkava, town 
 
 Yitze*, village 
 
 Boulep, village 
 
 Laros, fort 
 
 Kemer, cape 
 
 Mapavreh, village 
 
 BizeTi, town 
 
 Foudji, cape 
 
 Mahane", village 
 
 Komourkiando, village 
 
 HeVaclia, cape 
 
 Falcos, village .. 
 
 Trebizonde, French Consulate, East of the town 
 
 Platana, village 
 
 Akche'-Kale'h, village 
 
 Ioroz, cape 
 
 Skie'fie', town 
 
 Koureleli, cape .. 
 
 HeleTiou, village 
 
 Kara-Bouroun, cape 
 
 Tirboli, town 
 
 Espey, village 
 
 Zephira, cape 
 
 Kessap, village 
 
 Arhentias, island 
 
 Kdr^soun, town 
 
 Aio- Vassil, village and cape 
 
 Aio- Vassili, cape 
 
 Postipey, cape 
 
 Yona, cape 
 
 Yason, cape 
 
 Fatsah, town 
 
 Ouni^h, town 
 
 St. Nichola, point 
 
 Therme", mouth of river 
 
 Therme", cape 
 
 Latitudes 
 North. 
 
 o 
 
 t a 
 
 41 
 
 38 40 
 
 41 
 
 40 00 
 
 41 
 
 36 00 
 
 41 
 
 35 15 
 
 41 
 
 30 15 
 
 41 24 50 
 
 41 
 
 23 00 
 
 41 
 
 17 25 
 
 41 
 
 12 25 
 
 41 
 
 10 30 
 
 41 
 
 09 20 
 
 41 
 
 06 20 
 
 41 
 
 02 25 
 
 41 
 
 02 30 
 
 40 56 10 
 
 40 
 
 55 45 
 
 40 58 05 
 
 40 57 00 
 
 41 
 
 01 00 
 
 41 
 
 02 05 
 
 41 
 
 05 30 
 
 41 
 
 06 55 
 
 41 
 
 04 30 
 
 41 
 
 05 45 
 
 41 
 
 03 30 
 
 41 
 
 03 40 
 
 41 
 
 01 00 
 
 40 57 50 
 
 40 59 30 
 
 40 56 30 
 
 40 57 35 
 
 40 57 10 
 
 40 58 35 
 
 41 
 
 00 40 
 
 41 
 
 01 40 
 
 41 
 
 07 05 
 
 41 
 
 08 15 
 
 41 
 
 02 45 
 
 41 
 
 09 50 
 
 41 
 
 10 30 
 
 41 
 
 13 15 
 
 41 
 
 18 30 
 
CAPT. GAUTTIER'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 467 
 
 Barnes of Places. 
 
 Latitudes 
 North. 
 
 Longitudes 
 East. 
 
 Anatolia : 
 
 Kiatli-Bassi, cape 
 
 Tcherchembeli, cape 
 
 Samsoun, town 
 
 Samsoun, cape 
 
 Kizil-Irmack, point 
 
 Aladjani, village 
 
 Guerzeli, town 
 
 Sinope town, the castle 
 
 Boz-depeli, cape 
 
 Pachi, cape 
 
 IndgeTi, cape 
 
 KerempeTi, cape 
 
 Kidros, village 
 
 Sagra, mountain 
 
 Delikli-Chili, viUage 
 
 Amasserah, cape, 0>\ miles N.E 
 
 Amasserah, summit of peninsula 
 
 Bartin, village 
 
 Filiouz, village on peninsula 
 
 Guelimili, cape 
 
 Baba, cape 
 
 Heraclea, light 
 
 Kara river, the mouth 
 
 Sakaria river, mouth 
 
 Melin town 
 
 Kefken, centre of island 
 
 Kerpen, cape 
 
 Chili, tower 
 
 Cianee of Asia, northern 
 
 Pharos of Asia 
 
 Eastern Archipelago : 
 
 Tenedos, summit of Mount St. Elias 
 
 Metelin, summit of Mount Ordymnus 
 
 Metelin, summit of Mount Olympus 
 
 Ipsera, summit of Mount St. Elias 
 
 Scio, summit of St. Elias, at North end 
 
 Hourlac islet, summit, gulf of Smyrna 
 
 Carabourno, mount, entrance of Smyrna gulf 
 
 Samos, summit of Mount Querki 
 
 Nicaria, highest summit 
 
 Nicaria, West summit 
 
 H H 2 
 
 41 21 20 
 41 22 35 
 41 20 31 
 41 12 30 
 41 45 20 
 41 38 40 
 
 41 48 45 
 
 42 02 30 
 42 03 00 
 42 06 40 
 42 07 57 
 42 02 01 
 41 56 09 
 41 48 01 
 41 49 19 
 41 48 50 
 41 45 27 
 41 33 52 
 41 34 10 
 41 32 27 
 41 20 54 
 41 17 08 
 41 06 55 
 41 09 24 
 41 06 54 
 41 14 15 
 41 13 36 
 41 10 48 
 41 14 20 
 41 13 00 
 
 50 14 
 15 00 
 04 17 
 35 38 
 33 42 
 26 32 
 31 33 
 43 46 
 31 15 
 31 09 
 
 36 51 45 
 36 39 20 
 36 21 52 
 36 22 05 
 35 57 48 
 
 35 39 20 
 
 36 13 10 
 35 09 50 
 35 13 10 
 35 01 00 
 34 56 30 
 33 19 10 
 32 59 24 
 32 50 20 
 32 38 26 
 32 27 00 
 32 21 20 
 32 14 04 
 32 02 15 
 31 53 36 
 31 26 28 
 31 24 52 
 30 56 20 
 
 30 39 10 
 
 31 07 00 
 30 17 02 
 30 16 10 
 29 36 52 
 29 15 00 
 29 09 20 
 
 26 03 50 
 
 25 57 42 
 
 26 22 13 
 
 25 36 04 
 
 26 01 00 
 26 47 01 
 26 31 38 
 26 38 26 
 26 02 55 
 26 02 43 
 
468 
 
 CAPT. GAUTTIER'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 Names of Places. 
 
 Latitudes 
 North. 
 
 Eastern Archipelago: 
 
 Nicaria, East summit 
 
 Miletus point, or Cape Tree 
 
 Patmos, summit of the island 
 
 Bove rock, middle 
 
 Lero islet, summit of Mount Clido 
 
 Zinaro, summit 
 
 Cos, or Stancho, summit of Monte Cristo 
 
 Crio, summit of the cape 
 
 Nicero, summit of the island 
 
 Madonna, summit of the island 
 
 Piscopi, summit of the island 
 
 Safrania, summit of the largest 
 
 Placa, summit of the island 
 
 San Giovanni, summit of the island 
 
 Plana island, summit 
 
 Adelphi or Fratelli islets, largest southernmost 
 
 Stazida island, middle 
 
 Caxo islet, South point 
 
 Scarpanto, North point 
 
 Scarpanto, South point 
 
 Scarpanto-poulo, North point 
 
 Yah, S.E. of Piscopi, summit 
 
 Crio, cape on the main, S.W. point 
 
 Carki, summit of island 
 
 Clalavalda, West point of Rhodes 
 
 Limonia island, summit , 
 
 Simia island, West point 
 
 Diamond, summit of Simia 
 
 St. Catherine's island, South of Rhodes 
 
 St. George's Cape, N.W. point of Rhodes 
 
 Volno, cape 
 
 A.delphi, or Three Brothers, 4ft.abv.water, S.ofRhodes 
 
 Chevalier, cape 
 
 Citadel of Rhodes town, Cape St. John 
 
 Barbanicolo, summit of island 
 
 Rhodes town, Mill point 
 
 Rhodes town, end of mole, North of light 
 
 Marmara cape, South point of entrance to the port 
 Ginacri cape, West point of entrance to Gulf of Macri 
 
 Macri gulf, S.E. point 
 
 Baba island, summit 
 
 Caraguachi island, entrance of Porto Fisquo 
 
 
 o / „ 
 
 O / ff 
 
 
 37 36 26 
 
 26 17 07 
 
 
 37 21 11 
 
 27 13 13 
 
 
 37 17 02 
 
 26 35 19 
 
 
 37 14 24 
 
 25 56 25 
 
 
 37 10 44 
 
 26 51 22 
 
 
 36 58 42 
 
 26 17 38 
 
 
 36 49 56 
 
 27 14 09 
 
 
 36 44 05 
 
 27 34 50 
 
 
 36 35 16 
 
 27 11 02 
 
 
 36 30 31 
 
 26 57 28 
 
 
 36 26 22 
 
 27 20 53 
 
 
 36 25 11 
 
 26 38 24 
 
 
 36 04 11 
 
 26 25 14 
 
 
 36 20 51 
 
 26 41 43 
 
 
 35 51 25 
 
 26 15 30 
 
 
 35 49 40 
 
 26 29 00 
 
 
 35 53 20 
 
 26 51 00 
 
 
 35 18 20 
 
 26 52 40 
 
 
 35 50 30 
 
 27 11 30 
 
 
 35 23 30 
 
 27 13 00 
 
 
 35 54 20 
 
 27 12 30 
 
 
 36 22 15 
 
 27 28 55 
 
 
 36 39 20 
 
 27 25 00 
 
 
 36 13 20 
 
 27 35 05 
 
 
 36 07 35 
 
 27 41 20 
 
 
 36 17 25 
 
 27 43 05 
 
 
 36 34 40 
 
 27 47 15 
 
 
 36 34 40 
 
 27 52 05 
 
 
 35 52 00 
 
 27 45 35 
 
 
 36 22 50 
 
 27 56 40 
 
 
 36 34 15 
 
 27 57 55 
 
 3 
 
 35 50 20 
 
 27 55 15 
 
 
 36 34 10 
 
 28 02 20 
 
 
 36 30 50 
 
 28 04 05 
 
 
 36 36 15 
 
 28 07 20 
 
 
 36 27 35 
 
 28 12 05 
 
 
 36 26 53 
 
 28 13 33 
 
 
 36 42 40 
 
 28 16 55 
 
 
 36 34 25 
 
 28 48 55 
 
 
 36 32 10 
 
 28 58 25 
 
 
 36 38 40 
 
 28 38 35 
 
 
 36 41 50 
 
 28 26 45 
 
CAPT. GAUTTIER'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 469 
 
 Karnes of Places. 
 
 Latitudes 
 North. 
 
 Longitudes 
 East. 
 
 O 1 11 
 
 O / II 
 
 36 20 00 
 
 29 11 30 
 
 36 06 35 
 
 29 35 00 
 
 36 10 25 
 
 29 54 30 
 
 36 10 30 
 
 30 26 15 
 
 36 12 45 
 
 30 25 55 
 
 36 40 00 
 
 31 37 50 
 
 36 31 20 
 
 32 00 40 
 
 36 10 55 
 
 32 21 35 
 
 36 00 50 
 
 32 50 15 
 
 35 06 20 
 
 32 16 35 
 
 35 23 50 
 
 32 57 10 
 
 35 19 30 
 
 33 09 05 
 
 35 19 30 
 
 33 23 20 
 
 35 41 40 
 
 34 37 30 
 
 35 07 40 
 
 33 59 10 
 
 34 57 05 
 
 34 06 30 
 
 34 55 13 
 
 33 39 37 
 
 34 54 31 
 
 33 40 20 
 
 34 49 55 
 
 33 38 20 
 
 34 41 15 
 
 33 03 50 
 
 34 32 50 
 
 33 01 40 
 
 34 39 20 
 
 32 40 20 
 
 34 47 20 
 
 32 26 25 
 
 36 07 30 
 
 33 43 45 
 
 36 10 30 
 
 33 47 20 
 
 36 12 45 
 
 33 57 40 
 
 36 31 35 
 
 34 18 50 
 
 36 46 30 
 
 34 46 50 
 
 36 29 45 
 
 35 23 15 
 
 36 16 00 
 
 35 49 35 
 
 35 52 10 
 
 35 51 00 
 
 35 30 30 
 
 35 48 00 
 
 35 19 45 
 
 35 55 55 
 
 35 09 00 
 
 35 56 30 
 
 34 50 25 
 
 35 51 55 
 
 34 26 22 
 
 35 51 33 
 
 34 19 30 
 
 35 42 30 
 
 33 49 45 
 
 35 28 05 
 
 33 34 05 
 
 35 23 45 
 
 Caramania : 
 
 Seven Capes, South point, Caramania 
 
 Red Castle island, South point 
 
 Cacamo isle, East point 
 
 Khelidonia, islet off the cape, South point 
 
 Khelidonia, cape 
 
 Karabournou, point 
 
 Alaya nova 
 
 Ce'htibournou, cape 
 
 Anamouzi-vecchio, South point of Caramania 
 
 Cyprus : 
 
 Salizano, cape 
 
 Cormachiti, cape 
 
 Cerina, peak 
 
 Cerina, town 
 
 St. Andrew, cape 
 
 Famagosta, town 
 
 Grego, cape 
 
 Larnaca town, French Consul' s garden 
 
 Larnaca, N. E. point of the town, Mr. Rey's house 
 
 Chiti cape, tower 
 
 Limasol, town 
 
 Gatto cape, S.E. point 
 
 Bianco, cape 
 
 Paphos, town 
 
 Caramania, completed : 
 
 Cavalier cape, South point of the peninsula 
 
 Provencale island, South point 
 
 Bagascia tongue, South point 
 
 Lamas, town at the mouth of the 
 
 Tarsus town, beach 
 
 Malo, cape, S.W. point 
 
 Syria : 
 
 Canzir cape, Syria 
 
 Possidi, cape 
 
 Lataquie', town 
 
 Caria, or Gibili, town 
 
 La Marca, town 
 
 Tortosa, island and town 
 
 Tripoli town, French Consulate, North of castle ... 
 
 Madone, cape 
 
 Barut, cape 
 
 Se'ide, town 
 
470 
 
 CAPT. GAUTTIER'S MARITIME POSITIONS. 
 
 Names of Places. 
 
 Steia : 
 
 Sour, or ancient Tyre . . . 
 
 Bianco, cape 
 
 St. Jean dAcre, town... 
 
 Carmel, cape 
 
 Cesare'a, ruins 
 
 Jaffa, town 
 
 Ascalon, ruins 
 
 El-Arish, fort 
 
 Egypt : 
 
 Kacazo'im, cape, Egypt 
 
 Aboukir, tower 
 
 Alexandria, light-house 
 
 Latitudes 
 North. 
 
 33 17 00 
 33 05 10 
 32 54 35 
 32 51 10 
 32 32 25 
 32 03 25 
 31 39 00 
 31 05 30 
 
 31 10 40 
 31 20 35 
 31 12 53 
 
 Longitudes 
 East. 
 
 35 14 40 
 35 07 35 
 35 06 25 
 34 59 40 
 34 54 50 
 34 46 15 
 34 33 00 
 33 48 30 
 
 33 03 30 
 30 06 20 
 29 54 50 
 
APPENDIX. 
 

473 
 
 THE OPENING OF A ROAD INTO CENTRAL AFRICA. 
 
 FROM the great political changes, and increased intercourse among 
 nations in late years, it is difficult to recollect how much the coast of 
 Barbaiy was dreaded by seamen and sojourners some forty years ago; 
 insomuch that travellers on its shores were all but unknown. When 
 the general peace of 1815 took place, my attention was strongly drawn 
 to that quarter ; and I had frequent conferences with Sir C. V. Penrose — 
 my commander-in-chief — on the subject. One of my first consultations 
 with that excellent admiral, was upon the feasibility of examining the 
 ports, and numerous ancient relics of Tunis; for it was impossible to be 
 at work in this sea without imbibing an antiquarian taste, and my recent 
 operations in Sicily had almost brought me to the shores of Carthage. 
 But being still in the borrowed Sicilian gun-boat, my movements could 
 naturally be only on a very confined scale. 
 
 While in a state of suspense on these matters, Lord Exmouth made 
 his memorable visit to the Barbary States, in the spring of 1816, for the 
 abolition of Christian slavery ; on hearing which, I immediately went to 
 Valetta, and conferred with Sir Charles on the subject, hinting that such 
 a vessel as mine — for with a light draught of water she mounted a 68- 
 pounder carronade, and two Congreve rocket ladders — might be welcome 
 to his lordship. My wishes were at once strengthened by the warm 
 recommendations of the Admiral, insomuch that I started off that same 
 evening, and quickly joined the squadron in Tunis Bay, being there most 
 kindly received by Lord Exmouth. Here matters being amicably ad- 
 j ustcd with the Bey, as they had just been with the Dey of Algiers, we 
 sailed for Tripoli, where affairs were also satisfactorily settled; and this 
 beautifully moral cruise for ever quashed the odious white slavery which 
 had been so long and so shamefully submitted to. 
 
 On the terms being ratified, I accompanied Lord Exmouth when he 
 made his take-leave visit to the Bashaw of Tripoli, and prevailed on him 
 to make a formal request — which in this instance almost amounted to a 
 condition — for me to be permitted to visit Lebida after the departure of 
 the squadron, there to examine some ancient architectural relics, which 
 the Bashaw, at the instance of our Consul-general, Colonel Warrington, 
 had recently offered for the acceptance of our Prince Regent. This 
 
474 APPENDIX. 
 
 enabled me to enter upon a long-meditated field of inquiry ; and the con- 
 sequences were so successful as to enlarge our geographical knowledge, 
 and to lead to the journeys of Eitchie and Lyon — Oudney, Denham, and 
 Clapperton — and, lastly, of Richardson, Overweg, Barth, and Yogel. 
 
 It was therefore thought, that the circumstances which opened so 
 important a highway might be added as an Appendix to this work ; and 
 last August (1853), having requested permission to consult the original 
 letters in the archives of the Admiralty, my wishes were so considerately 
 met, that the reader is presented with nearly all the correspondence 
 relating to the steps which led to the above-mentioned expeditions. 
 To these papers is added the copy of a letter to Lord Melville, which was 
 written two or three years afterwards • which, though it did not relate 
 to the question then most prominent, was meant to procure the exami- 
 nation of the Syrtis Major and the Cyrenaica. {See page 376.) 
 
 In these documents the orthography of the names might now be 
 improved, for it was very difficult, with my imperfect knowledge of 
 Arabic, to spell from the enunciation of the natives ; but it is deemed 
 best to give the copies as they were written on the spot. They thus show 
 the impression at the time; and though they exhibit conclusions which 
 mere hearsay led us to adopt, even when the responses to set questions 
 were obtained with considerable difficulty, still they comprise the only 
 information then obtainable in that quarter. Here follow the letters in 
 
 chronological order : — 
 
 Satellite, at Malta, May 21, 1816. 
 Sir, — I request you to inform their Lordships that I had recommended to Captain 
 Smyth (on the surveying duty) to proceed to Tunis and Tripoli, to take advantage of 
 Lord Exmouth's countenance and presence ; and, at the same time, having heard that 
 the Bey of Tripoli had offered the antiquities of Lebida to H.R.H. the Prince 
 Regent, and the communication had been made to H.M. Government on the subject, I 
 directed his inquiries to them, and feel it my duty to forward a copy of the statement 
 made to me by Captain Smyth, to their Lordships, in justice to the merit of that officer ; 
 and to state to their Lordships, in case application is made to remove any part of the 
 said antiquities, that it must be done in summer, as there is anchorage only on the open 
 coast, except for vessels of small burden. — I have the honour, &c., 
 
 C. V. Penrose, Rear-Admiral. 
 John Wilson CroJcer, Esq. 
 &c. &c. &c. 
 
 The Enclosure. 
 
 Marsamuscetto, May 14, 1816. 
 Sir, — I have to report my arrival in this harbour from Tripoli, which place I left 
 on the morning of the 10th inst., having taken on board two Christian slaves — Bruno 
 Spagnolo and Marco Polto, who were brought from Zoaro, and a deserter from H.M. 
 ship Myrmidon — Robert Lee, who had been picked up in the country, since the de- 
 parture of the squadron under Lord Exmouth.* By several observations which I 
 
 * The Bashaw declining to let him embrace Mahomedanism, on the ground that a 
 bad Christian would never make a good Turk. 
 
OPENING OF A ROAD INTO CENTRAL AFRICA. 475 
 
 made, the whole coast of this Regency is laid down in the charts several miles too far 
 to the eastward ; for the martello tower in Tripoli is in latitude 32° 53' 45" north, and 
 longitude 13° & 25", by a good chronometric run from Tunis, compared with some 
 angular lunar distances. 
 
 I took the opportunity of my introduction to the Bashaw, by Lord Exmouth, to 
 request permission to visit the ruins of Lebida, agreeably to your instructions, and 
 found him extremely ready to grant every assistance I might require, as in addition to 
 the camels, mules, and dragomen, he sent two of his own chiaus or couriers, without 
 whom it would be very difficult to procure an article of subsistence from the Arabs. 
 
 After a journey of about seventy miles, partly over a desert and partly over a fine 
 country, the approach to Lebida is indicated for several miles to the W.N.W. of it, by 
 the many remains of ancient edifices. 
 
 The city formerly called Ptolemaea,* Leptis, and Lepida, with its immediate suburb, 
 occupies a space of about 8000 yards, the principal part of which is covered with a 
 fine light sand, which drifting with the wind along the beach, has been arrested in its 
 progress by the ruins, and has doubtlessly been the means of preserving many fine 
 specimens of art, if a judgment can be formed by the beautiful scattered capitals, 
 cornices, and fragments of arabesque sculpture, which are lying in every direction. The 
 materials are also the richest I have seen in such extensive quantity, for it appears to 
 have been a profuse mass of porphyry, granitic porphyry, oriental granite, and gial- 
 antique, and marbles of every description. Most of the walls, gates, and public build- 
 ings were composed of massy blocks of freestone and breccia, in layers without cement ; 
 and the temples have been executed in a style of the utmost grandeur, adorned with 
 immense columns, all of a single piece in the shaft, and were generally of the Ionic or 
 Corinthian orders ; but I saw also several blocks of architrave ornamented with tri- 
 glyphs, and two or three cyathiform capitals, which led me to suppose that a Doric 
 temple of earlier date than the others had been erected here ; and, on a triple plinth 
 near them, I observed what I deemed to have been a species of socle used in those 
 structures, as the base of a Doric column, part of the walls of a cella to the same may 
 also be distinguished, of which the columns forming the peristyle stood outside. 
 
 The city was encompassed by strong walls of solid masonry, ornamented with mag- 
 nificent gates and spacious porticoes. It abounded with splendid public edifices, the 
 remains of which are so numerous, that without excavation there may be immediately 
 removed upwards of thirty complete shafts of columns, in single blocks of variegated 
 marble, from 18 to 20 inches diameter, four of 26 inches, and three of the immense 
 circumference of 11| feet. Of oriental granite may be obtained upwards of twenty 
 shafts, from 14 to 18 inches diameter, and there are about eighteen of porphyry, from 
 22 to 30 inches, exclusive of large blocks of entablature, cornice, and architrave. It 
 was divided from its principal suburb to the east, by a river, the mouth of which formed 
 a spacious basin, and was the harbour. This was defended at the narrow entrance by 
 two stout fortifications, which are in considerable preservation, and a small rivulet oc- 
 cupies the bed of the river, and falls into the sea between them. 
 
 At a little more than a mile and a half to the westward of these ruins, and about 
 half a mile from the beach, are situated the two small villages now called Lebida, in- 
 habited by a race of inoffensive and civil Moors, who attend to the cultivation of the 
 adjacent country, and the rearing of cattle, sheep, and goats.f On the beach is a small 
 
 * I was here misled by a local antiquary. 
 + A great part of this plain is laid out in fields of corn, durrah, pulse, &c, inter- 
 spersed with groves of olive, pomegranate, and date trees, among which are a few 
 vineyards ; but a great portion of the produce is annually destroyed by the gundy nit, 
 and a species of jerboa (probably the fivg S'iitovq of Cyrenian coins), which greatly infest 
 all the grounds, yet no means are used to destroy them. 
 
476 APPENDIX. 
 
 port, open to the S.E. winds, formed by several projecting rocks, where a couple oi 
 transports, and the lighters requisite to be employed in embarking the columns, might 
 be secure. From this bay to the entrance of the river, the beach is shallow ; but at 
 the ruins of the westernmost fortress, I imagine those weighty masses might be removed, 
 provided the necessary machinery and tackles were at hand. The whole coast would 
 offer a summer anchorage. 
 
 But it is not so much the columns that I imagine the value of this present to con- 
 sist in, as in the fine field offered for a gratifying and productive system of excavation ; 
 for temples constructed with such costly materials must also have been enriched with 
 statues and bas-reliefs. I therefore, on my return to Tripoli, mentioned to the Bashaw 
 the necessity there would be for a party remaining some time in the neighbourhood ; 
 when he not only gave his full permission to that effect, but promised also to send some 
 of his own chiaus and janizaries to attend on, and be useful to such a party. 
 
 It would be an eligible thing to appoint a person from the consul's office to remain 
 on the spot, as he would not only give information relative to the supplies of the 
 country, but would prevent the natives from mutilating the columns, particularly those 
 of granitic porphyry, which they frequently do to make millstones, &c, of ; and not long 
 ago a fine statue was discovered, which being too ponderous to remove, the head was 
 struck off and taken away. 
 
 Colonel Warrington, the Consul-G-eneral, accompanied me, and manifests great zeal 
 to exert himself in procuring men as labourers, or in any way you may think proper to 
 direct, on this service. — I remain, &c, 
 
 W. H. Smith, Commander, R.N. 
 Rear- Admiral Sir C. V. Penrose, K.C.B. 
 &c. &c. &c. 
 
 An echo of this letter was written to Sir Thomas Maitland, the 
 Governor of Malta, of which a copy was also forwarded to the Admi- 
 ralty; but as the General had directed my attention to another object of 
 inquiry, the communication contains the following addition : — 
 
 On the subject of the mountain of salt near Tripoli, mentioned by your Excellency 
 to my attention, from a number of considerations and inquiries, I imagine it to be the 
 only one of the several that have been long supposed to exist in these parts ; and it 
 would appear that even the ancients were fully acquainted with the saline properties of 
 the soil, than which no country on the face of the earth was stated to produce so much 
 nitric salt. Herodotus, Pliny, and Strabo, give minute details of several of these 
 hills ; which descriptions seem to have been confirmed beyond doubt in 1726, by Dr. 
 Shaw, in his account of the Lesser Syrtis. But as I had not sufficient leisure to ex- 
 amine the place myself, I only call your Excellency's attention to this supposition (of 
 that being the site), in order that, if an opportunity should offer, samples from each 
 hill might be collected and compared, for the purpose of ascertaining by analysis, 
 whether each of the masses is impregnated with a similar proportion of nitre. 
 
 On leaving Tripoli, my operations at Malta and its neighbourhood 
 were resumed; and, as Colonel De Bosset, of De Eolle's regiment, was 
 appointed by the home-government to embark the antiquities of Lebida 
 for England, I gave him all the information in my power ; together with 
 copies of my notes and sketches. In the autumn, however, for some rea- 
 son or other, the colonel declined the mission ; and on Sir Charles Penrose 
 sounding me, my services were at once volunteered, because it was so 
 
OPENING OF A KOAD INTO CENTRAL AFRICA. 477 
 
 favourable an opportunity for gaining acquaintance with, a part of the 
 Mediterranean which had hitherto been, as it were, hermetically sealed 
 against us. On the 29th of October a messenger brought me an official 
 instruction from that officer, enclosing an extract of a despatch from Sir 
 Thomas Maitland, of the 28th, expressing his surprise that Lieutenant- 
 Colonel De Bosset 
 
 Did not fulfil that mission to which he was originally recommended to me by Sir 
 
 Henry Bunbury It is impossible that we can now look to that officer any 
 
 further upon this subject. . . . Looking, however, merely at the public interest, I am 
 of opinion that the proposal you made to me is at once the most economical and the most 
 fitting that could be adopted upon this interesting subject — viz., that Captain Smyth, of 
 whose abilities on such a matter I have no doubt, should again proceed there to make a 
 more detailed report than he has hitherto done, and make an economical, but at the same 
 time, a fair experiment, of what may be the possible value of proceeding further in 
 this business. I have given upon this head, my sanction to Major-General Layard, to 
 advance him the money that may be requisite for this undertaking, and to supply him 
 with tents and such articles as may be indispensably necessary ; but I must suggest, 
 that I think from 400 to 600 dollars is as much as is worth risking upon the occasion, 
 and my subsequent proceeding must be regulated by his report, and the future instruc- 
 tions of Government. 
 
 On the 29th, Sir Charles also wrote to the Admiralty, mentioning 
 that " Captain Smyth sails to-morrow for Lebida, with full powers, 
 agreeably to their Lordships' Secretary's letter of the 27th of June last, 
 being at my request furnished with such money and other means, by Sir 
 Thomas Maitland, as were to have been given to Colonel De Bosset, had 
 he not declined the mission."* 
 
 As the mission was of a novel nature, I was desirous of securing a 
 coadjutor in case of accident, and in Captain (now Colonel) M. C. Dixon, 
 of the Royal Engineers, an efficient companion was secured : but to my 
 surprise and regret, after the eleventh hour obstacles were thrown in the 
 way, and the Captain's leave of absence was recalled. Having hastily 
 embarked a few tents, mattocks, and spades, I left Malta on the 30th ; 
 but on arrival at Tripoli found that the plague had preceded me, inso- 
 much that Colonel "Warrington considered we ought not to land. On 
 this I returned to Malta, of which Sir Charles informed the Admiralty, 
 by a letter of the 9th of November. In December, however, in con- 
 sequence of favourable accounts arriving from the Consul, I again repaired 
 to Tripoli, reinforced with the fine little schooner, the Wellington (gun- 
 boat No. 28) ; but we encountered a severe winter gale, which compelled 
 me to bear up, though the schooner, having no ordnance to labour under, 
 got into port. Of this Sir Charles informed the Admiralty : — 
 
 * This is giving the affair its warmest tint, — for the 600 dollars barely paid the work- 
 ing Arabs. My own expenses — as keep of servants and an assistant officer, instru- 
 ments, horses, and camels — never were a shilling's cost to the country. 
 
478 APPENDIX. 
 
 Albion, at Malta, Jan. 23, 1817. 
 
 Sir, — I have had the honour before to state, for then- Lordships' information, that 
 Captain Smyth, in one of the Sicilian flotilla and the gun-boat No. 28, sailed for Tripoli 
 on the 15th of last month ; and since that, Captain Smyth having put back for damage 
 received in a severe gale, I had since sent that officer to Tripoli, in the Express, tender. 
 That vessel returned yesterday, with information that after the gale before-mentioned, 
 the gun-boat succeeded in getting into Tripoli, but very leaky, and obliged to be 
 calked and otherwise repaired, before she could return here ;* and that Captain Smyth 
 had a very flattering reception from the Bashaw, and was about to proceed in the exe- 
 cution of his instructions.— I have the honour, &c, 
 
 C. Y. Penrose, Rear -Admiral. 
 
 J. W. Crofter, Esq. 
 
 Albion, at Malta, Feb. 10, 1817. 
 
 Sir, — Although nothing requiring their Lordships' attention has occurred respecting 
 the squadron under my orders since my last letters by packet, yet I think it right not 
 to miss a favourable opportunity which presents itself, of stating to their Lordships, 
 Captain Smyth's progress on the coast of Africa, and to enclose a letter which I had 
 already prepared for their Lordships on that subject. 
 
 My last information is dated Lebida, Feb. 1st, by which I found, that since it was 
 suspected by the Arabs that the porphyry columns, &c, were likely to be removed, 
 considerable mutilations had taken place for the purposes of millstones, &c, but that 
 the captain had begun excavation, and found an entire statue (but his letter being 
 written in a hurry, he omits to say of whom), and that a guard of 50 horse and a 
 mameluke were to come to him about this time, to proceed to the other ruins stated to 
 be of such value. 
 
 Captain Smyth does not apprehend that a traveller would find any difficulty but 
 hard living, in proceeding with a caravan to Tombuctoo ; but except that the brother 
 of the Vice- Consul of Bengazy, mentioned in my former letter, is qualified for an 
 interpreter of Italian and Arabic, there is no person on the spot fit for the business of 
 interior research. 
 
 There are some travellers in the east parts of the Tripoline states, but not likely to 
 interfere with the present or future plans of inquiry. I mentioned that Captain Smyth 
 had been provided with 600 dollars by Sir Thomas Maitland, but the future means of 
 supply are not ascertained. 
 
 I hope soon to forward an official detail from that officer. 
 
 In a o-ale which forced Captain Smyth to return, the gun-boat which sailed with 
 him succeeded in getting to Tripoli, but with such damage as to require some repairs 
 there. — I have the honour to be, &c, 
 
 C. V. Penrose, Rear-Admiral. 
 J. W. Crofter, Esq., 
 &c. &c. &c. 
 
 Lebida, Feb. 24, 1817. 
 
 Sir, — On my arrival in Tripoli on the 17th ultimo, I found the Wellington schooner 
 lying there, but the gale she had encountered on her passage rendered an immediate 
 repair necessary, and the foremast of the Express being badly sprung, to prevent loss 
 of time I deemed it eligible to proceed to Lebida by land, to make a more detailed 
 report on its antiquities and their rarity or value. 
 
 To this effect I waited on the Bashaw, in company with Colonel Warrington, and 
 
 * It proved that the Wellington was too seriously injured for repair ; she was there- 
 fore sold to a Tripoline broker ; her crew being sent back in the Express. 
 
OPENING OF A ROAD INTO CENTRAL AFRICA. 479 
 
 found him in the same disposition I had left him last May, which encouraged me to 
 make an immediate request for permission to explore that part of his Regency near the 
 Greater Syrtis ; in which from its having once been populously inhabited by the Maca?, 
 Hamanites, and Hasbitse, and afterwards colonised by the Romans, I might, from its 
 being less frequented, expect to find remains in better preservation than those of Leptis. 
 His Highness instantly acceded to this request, and made a grant of all the works of 
 taste, of whatever materials or value in his dominions, including the ruins of Zort, and 
 the whole of that part of the Cyrenaica, forming the Pentapolis, to his Royal Highness 
 the Prince Regent. 
 
 During the conference, the Mameluke Reis, of whom you have already heard, was 
 introduced, and examined with respect to the journey he had recently made into the 
 interior. It appears that this officer (Mukni), who is Bey of Fezzan, had departed 
 from Mourzouk at the head of an army, with the professed intention of extending the 
 Bashaw's dominions, and procuring slaves. He proceeded South Eastward, and, passing 
 Bornou, a government in commercial relation with Tripoli, entered a country inhabited 
 by a race of fine negroes, on whom he made war, defeated them in every encounter, and 
 finally drove them into a large river, on the banks of which they had fought, where 
 the greater part of them perished. This river he styles the Nile, and describes as 
 running to the eastward, and forming at this part a wide expanse of waters, with nu- 
 merous shallows, on some of which the negroes got. The central part he imagines to 
 be deep, as many boats were passing and repassing, similar in size and construction to 
 the Jerba boats, that is, long and narrow, and from five to fifteen or twenty tons. On 
 his return from this expedition, he had passed through some ruins abounding in large 
 edifices, and furnished with such a number of statues as to have all the appearance of 
 an inhabited place. This account would at once stamp it for the celebrated Raz Sem, 
 that has so long engaged the attention of the learned • but from its direction, it would 
 rather appear to be in the country of the Trogloditae, at Thama or Adaugmagdum. The 
 relation thus officially delivered, besides the lively interest it inspired, prompted me to 
 repair thither, and ascertain whether the specimens of art were really worthy of the 
 attention of his Royal Highness the Prince Regent, or, should it be the scene of the petri- 
 factions, to confirm or contradict the bold paradox ; aware at the same time that such 
 a journey would be in the spirit of my instructions, and would not only forward the 
 views of modern geography, but also illustrate a portion of the Melpomene of He- 
 rodotus, and the works of Abulfeda, Ptolemy, Leo, and Edrisi. 
 
 To accomplish this I determined to repair to Lebida and employ a party of Arabs 
 in excavating certain spots I conceived would be productive, and leaving charge with 
 one of the officers of the Wellington, and the Bashaw's chiaus, to proceed in the mean 
 time to the Interior ; but the Bashaw intimated through Colonel Warrington, that he 
 was just on the point of declaring war against his eldest son, the Bey of Bengazi, and 
 that though his dominions were in general pacific, still some partisans might be lurking 
 about who, by securing the Consul-General and myself, would demand terms with 
 which he should feel bound to comply. He therefore wished me to remain two or three 
 weeks longer, when he was going to send away an expedition to Bengazi, on the move- 
 ment of which all the factious people would retire to the eastward, and he would then 
 despatch a party of Janissaries to be entirely at my disposal, and conduct me to any 
 part of his dominions. 
 
 Upon this I departed for Lebida, where I arrived on the 23rd ; and, on riding over 
 the ruins, was surprised to find that most of the valuable columns I had left last April, 
 had either been removed or were lying broken on the spot. I discovered, on inquiry, that 
 a report had been circulated by the chiaus on my former visit, of an intention to embark 
 them during the summer, and, as it had been a quarry from whence tiny supplied 
 themselves, they had, in the interval, been busily employed in breaking them into mill- 
 
480 APPENDIX. 
 
 stones, not only for the present but for a future supply. They had, of course, selected 
 the most durable substances, the oriental granite and the red Egyptian granite, which, 
 from its compact base, fine felspars, and small admixture of mica scales, I was induced 
 to style granitic porphyry. This destruction was assisted by the peculiar construction 
 of the Moorish oil-mills ; they being built with a circular surface, having a gentle in- 
 clination towards the centre, round which a long stone, at least one-third of a shaft, 
 traverses. However, there yet remain several very fine ones, principally of variegated 
 Egyptian marble, which, being of greater frangibility than the others, have been 
 spared. There are also several of grey granite, and of coarse red Egyptian granite, 
 which may be removed immediately, should it be deemed desirable ; but some of the 
 granite ones have undergone the first process for the millstones, which is chipping off 
 the astragal and torus, and many of the marbles show the corrosive effects of sea-spray. 
 
 To secure these from further damage, Colonel Warrington, who accompanied me 
 hither, set off on his return to Tripoli the following morning, where he made the 
 Bashaw acquainted with the loss ; and I sent for the Sheiks of the Moorish towns 
 and Arab villages in the neighbourhood, to admonish them, and on every side received 
 assurances that the remains should be respected in future. Should it therefore be the 
 intention of Government to remove them, I beg leave to suggest that an immediate 
 order be sent to the Consul-General to prepare them for embarkation, which he, from 
 having studied mechanics and engineer tactics, and possessing many local advantages 
 with the natives, is so much better capable of effecting than a stranger. For the time 
 of sending a vessel or vessels, I am of opinion, that after the equinoctial gales of Sep- 
 tember is much the most eligible time of the year, as the coast being unsheltered from 
 the heavy gales of winter, which may be expected even in April, would render it unsafe 
 in the spring. In the summer the heat is oppressive, and, I apprehend from an ex- 
 amination of the situation, and the result of inquiry, that the dangerous marsh fever, 
 prevalent in the Mediterranean under the name of malaria, would be experienced 
 here during the months of June, July, and August. 
 
 On the 25th I commenced an excavation with upwards of eighty Arabs, whom I 
 increased the following day to a hundred ; and as they quickly gained the use of the 
 English spade and mattock, the work proceeded with spirit. But I had soon the 
 mortification of perceiving, from every local evidence, that Leptis had been completely 
 ravaged, and its public edifices demolished with diligent labour, owing, perhaps, to the 
 violent contentions of the Carthaginian bishops, and the introduction of the Vandal 
 Christians of Genseric, who zealously destroyed the Pagan monuments of places under 
 their control. This opinion, many of the coins I have found bearing the Labarum, 
 would countenance ; or perhaps it was from the vengeance of the barbarians, for the 
 memorable treachery of the Leptitani. From whatever cause it proceeded, the de- 
 struction is complete ; the statues either broken to pieces or chipped to a shapeless 
 mass, the arabesque works defaced, the acanthus leaves and volutes knocked off the 
 fallen capitals, and even parts of the pavement and floorings torn up, the massy shafts 
 alone remaining entire. Willing, however, to give it as fair a trial as was consistent 
 with the economy recommended, I continued excavating till the 12th of February, 
 when, having explored the principal basilica, a triumphal arch, a peristyleum, an 
 arcade, and several minor places, with only a strengthened conviction of the distant 
 existing chance of recovering any specimen of art worth the expense of enlarged 
 operations, I determined to desist and prosecute, during the interval of the army's 
 arriving, a geographical research of the parts formerly comprehended under the title of 
 Cyniphi Eegio. 
 
 In the course of the excavation I had an opportunity of observing, that the period 
 of the principal grandeur of the city must have been posterior to the Augustan age, 
 and when taste was on the decline ; for, notwithstanding the valuable materials with 
 
OPENING OF A ROAD INTO CENTRAL AFRICA. 481 
 
 which it was built, it appears to have been overloaded with bad ornaments, and three 
 colossal statues I found (but without heads, arms, or feet) are in the very worst style 
 of the Lower Empire. I send by this opportunity for your further information, several 
 of the best pieces of sculpture I discovered, which will also show you the manner in which 
 they have been mutilated, as these are selected from nearly two hundred fragments. I 
 must also remark that there are evident appearances, in several places, of a former 
 excavation, which most probably was carried on by the agents of Louis XIV. 
 
 There are many evidences of the city having been occupied after its first and violent 
 destruction, from several of the walls and towers being built of various pieces of 
 architecture, cornice, inscription, and other portions heaped together ; but I have found 
 nothing to indicate great antiquity, except an almost obliterated inscription on the wall 
 of a mosque, at Ziphaar, in which the mixture of Roman and Greek characters would 
 indicate an early age of the Republic. The pieces of Doric entablature I had before 
 noticed, and the cyathiform capitals prove but poor and ill-proportioned imitations. I 
 also opened three distinct burial-grounds, with a view of gaining further information, 
 but with little success, as I found neither urns, vases, nor lachrymatories ; only a coarse 
 species of jar and a few coins. Even these were neither valuable nor rare, being 
 wholly copper, greatly corroded, and principally those of Nerva, Commodus, Con- 
 stantine, Alexander Severus, Balbinus, and Faustina. 
 
 On a fragment I observed near the ruins, I found the common Moslem prayer in- 
 scribed, which, as I understand, is to be found in the remotest places resorted to by cara- 
 vans, and is also copied for amulets ; I thought this would be curious, and its removal, 
 far from being a matter of contention with the natives, appeared to give satisfaction, 
 particularly to the Bashaw's son, Sidi Achmet Bey. This prince visited my tent and 
 examined my instruments, the trenches I had made, and the marbles I had collected, 
 with great attention. In fact, although for fear of interrupting the present friendly 
 disposition of the Government, I have not pointedly introduced religious subjects, I 
 find that Mahometan intolerance has greatly subsided in this Regency, for I was 
 allowed freely to enter the mosques, with only the condition of pulling off my shoes ; 
 and the Moors have both ate and drank with me, even in country places, where they 
 are more observant of their tenets, and less familiar with Christians than in the capital. 
 I have shown the Arabic translation of the Bible to several ; but though the characters 
 are well understood, none even of their marabuts can read it, as the vernacular tongue 
 of all these parts is the jargon called lingua-franca ; and this, I am informed, is under- 
 stood by some one in most of the interior caravans. 
 
 While on this subject, I must inform you of my having had several remarkable 
 conversations relative to the existence of certain Christian tribes in the interior of 
 Africa ; and, it would appear, in the neighbourhood of Wangara and Gooba. They are 
 described as a very muscular race of negroes, but I cannot discover that any sign of 
 the Cross or other characteristic symbol has been observed, and their tenets are so 
 slightly impressed, that on their arrival in the market they readily embrace Mahometan- 
 ism. A French captain (Lautier) in the service of the Bashaw, who has resided in 
 Tripoli twenty-five years, circumstantially related to me that several years ago some of 
 them were brought from the interior, and that twenty-eight of the finest being selected 
 to be sent to Algiers, he was appointed to transport them thither. As he was bringing 
 his vessel to an anchor, an evening hell was heard on board one of the Christian ships, 
 when, to his infinite surprise, those on deck manifested the utmost delight, and calling 
 up their companions fervently embraced them, pointing at the same time towards the 
 vessel the .sound issued from, and repeating the word cam/pami. As this appeared a, 
 corruption of the Italian, or more properly of the Latin itself, he made his interpreter 
 inquire concerning their congratulations, and found that in their native town a Larj 
 building occupied a central space, having a bell on it, which every morning ami evening 
 
 I I 
 
482 APPENDIX. 
 
 summoned them to prayers ; and that in this building there were neither idol, mat, 
 nor divan ; but that their priest exhorted them. Another curious fact is, that the late 
 Bey of Bengazi, who in his boyhood was brought a slave to Tripoli, recollected some 
 ceremony similar to the celebration of mass, and the use of consecrated wine. I could 
 not, in the course of my inquiry, find whether a manuscript, or portion of one, had 
 ever been observed in any caravan ; but the absence of circumcision, combined with 
 the circumstance of the bell and the wine, sufficiently indicate that Mahometan doc- 
 trines are not the only ones prevalent. I therefore conceive that by procuring a man, 
 and educating him for the purpose, important results may be anticipated, and a road 
 opened to the full discovery of those regions in the vicinity of the Lunar Mountains. 
 
 Yesterday the Bashaw's army passed and encamped about a quarter of a mile from 
 my tents ; and as it is my intention to set off to-morrow into the interior, I deemed it 
 requisite to make the arrangements for sending you the pieces of sculpture, and my 
 opinion of the actual state of Leptis. These I shall leave in charge of a dragoman, to 
 be embarked on board the Wellington the moment of her arrival. Should the place 
 the Bey of Fezzan passed through be B-az Sem, or Ghirrza, in the neighbourhood of the 
 Syrtis, I compute it will occupy about three weeks ; should it be towards the S.W. 
 longer, but as I feel in a great measure ignorant of the precise spot to which I am 
 going, I am unable to state the probable time I shall be absent. — I am, &c, 
 
 (Signed) W. H. Smyth, Commander, R.N. 
 
 Rear-Admiral Sir C. V. Penrose, 
 &c. &c. &c. 
 
 Tripoli, March 27, 1817. 
 
 Sir, — After having written my letter of the 24th ultimo, I was prevented from 
 following the army as I then proposed, by the report a courier brought me from the 
 Consul- General, relative to the state of the Wellington schooner; in consequence of 
 which, I deemed it absolutely necessary to repair to Tripoli, and inspect into the nature 
 of her defects. 
 
 I availed myself of that opportunity of waiting on the Bashaw, to thank him for 
 the attentions I had received at Lebida ; and he then intimated that he wished me to 
 proceed to a town on the mountains called Benuleat (or Beniolid, from Beni Walid), 
 where a company of Janissaries had received orders to reinforce our party, as he would 
 wish our safeconduct to be indubitable : however, from the situation of his affairs, and 
 from what I have seen since of the country, I am persuaded his appointing so large an 
 escort had political influence in view. His Highness also signified his desire that Sidi 
 Amouri, his son-in-law, and Sidi Mahomet, his nephew, should accompany us, and 
 furnished them with his teskerah, authorizing the whole of us to subsist gratuitously on 
 the Arabs ; but as I deemed such a paper detrimental to future undertakings, it was 
 never used without a present, proportionate to the comparative value of the article, 
 being made. 
 
 On the morning of the 28th I left Tripoli, accompanied by the Consul- General, the 
 two Sidis, three dragomen, twenty-six Moorish horsemen, and several camels.* Pro- 
 ceeding by the fertile grounds of Sahaal, and afterwards over a hilly and almost uncul- 
 tivated country, we arrived on the noon of the 3rd of March, at Benuleat, a place com-. 
 
 * I ought here to have mentioned, that on the 2nd of March we passed Gusser- 
 kzab, an old tower in the plain of Frussa, where, about three years before, a number of 
 gold and silver coins had been discovered. Of these I was unable to procure a single 
 specimen, they having been all taken to Tripoli, where they were most probably melted, 
 and their date and story lost for ever. 
 
OPEXIXG OF A ROAD IXTO CENTRAL AFRICA. 483 
 
 posed of several straggling villages, in a fertile ravine five or six miles in length, 
 bounded by barren rocks of difficult access. The population, exclusive of the govern- 
 ment guards, consists of about 2000 inhabitants, who subsist principally by agriculture, 
 and a trifling manufacture of nitre ; they are accounted industrious, hardy, and brave, 
 and amongst them the present Bashaw, when in rebellion against his father, resided 
 eight years. 
 
 A large and ill-proportioned building, called the Castle, near one of the pleasantest 
 spots in the ravine, was prepared for our reception, and a plentiful supply of provisions 
 and forage provided. Though I visited another species of blockhouse, this may be 
 deemed the principal fortress ; it is situated in a valley, and commanded at almost 
 every point ; it contains several rooms, good stabling, and a large courtyard, but the 
 water is a musket-shot distant. The walls are badly perforated for musketry, and 
 furnished with round bastions, too weak however to bear artillery. Its position by two 
 meridian altitudes of the sun, in a quicksilver horizon, and bearings carefully corrected, 
 is in latitude 31° 45' 38" North, and longitude 1° 01' East of Tripoli. 
 
 Here having found several people who had recently arrived from the place I was 
 bound to, and which I found was called Ghirrza, I repeated my inquiries respecting 
 its remains, and again received assurances that I should find perfect figures of men, 
 women, children, camels, horses, tigers, ostriches, and dogs ; and the belief of their 
 being petrefactions was so prevalent, that a doubt was expressed whether I should be 
 able to remove one of those whom it had pleased Providence thus to punish for their 
 sins. This revelation, while it wound my expectation to a high pitch, afforded me 
 considerable gratification, in finding the report did not vary on approaching the scene, 
 as I had apprehended. 
 
 On the 6th, having been joined by three mountain chiefs, Mahomed, Abdallah, and 
 Hadji Alii, with twenty-five janissaries, and fifteen camels laden with water, barley, 
 tents, &c, we proceeded to the south-eastward over a dreary mountainous country, 
 nearly uninhabited ;* and on the 8th arrived at a part of the Valley of Zemzem, which 
 was within three or four miles of Ghirrza. It was then night, and such was my im- 
 patience to ascertain the cause of the extraordinary story so universally promulgated, 
 that I anxiously watched for the approach of day. Early on the following morning, 
 having left a party to guard the tents and baggage, I proceeded over the hills in com- 
 pany with Colonel Warrington, the Sidis, twenty janissaries, and a camel bearing my 
 instruments. 
 
 I quickly perceived the mention of cold springs and shifting sands by some authors 
 to be erroneous, as the situation is mountainous and barren, presenting only fatiguing 
 masses of sandstone, quartz, and limestone ; with occasionally a remarkable vitrified 
 pyrite resembling porous lava. The scene is sometimes varied by ravines, which, 
 though neglected, are evidently capable of great fertility, from the luxuriant tallir trees, 
 lotus, and other shrubs, which spontaneously cover them. But, as might be expected 
 of a government where despotism and bigotry have united to depress the exertions of 
 private interest, destroy public spirit, and retard the progress of improvement, so as to 
 keep its subjects at a vast distance from civilization, large tracts of country are almost 
 left waste ; and the little cultivation occasionally exhibited, is carried on in the most 
 primitive mode, without deriving the slightest benefit from the many agricultural 
 improvements which successive ages have effected. 
 
 * I might have mentioned, that on the 7th we encamped in an open space at a well 
 of bad water, called Kanaphis, where we found a small kaffle from Fezzan. The 
 district was remarkable, since we were exceedingly tormented by swarms of ticks, tli.it 
 teased alike both our horses and ourselves. 
 
 II 2 
 
484 APPENDIX. 
 
 After a short ride, we came suddenly upon the ruins of Ghirrza, when, although I 
 had not suffered my imagination to rise at all in proportion to the accounts I had. 
 received, I could not conceal the mortification I experienced in observing a few ill- 
 constructed houses of comparatively modern date, on the break of a rocky hill ; and 
 across a ravine at a small distance several tombs. On approaching the latter I found 
 them, in very bad taste, ornamented with ill-proportioned columns and clumsy capitals ; 
 and neglecting the divisions of architrave, frieze, and cornice, nearly the whole depth 
 of the entablature was loaded with absurd representations of warriors, huntsmen, 
 camels, horses, and other animals, in low relief — or rather scratched on the freestone of 
 which they are constructed, and certainly forming the very worst attempt at sculpture 
 I ever beheld. The pedestals are generally without a dye, and the space between the 
 base and cornice bears a wretched attempt at arabesque ornament ; while, after the 
 manner of the Eomans, a violation of decency is observable in several places. 
 
 Across a fine but neglected valley to the south-eastward, in which were great 
 numbers of wild antelopes and ostriches, is a monumental obelisk of heavy proportion ; 
 and near it are five tombs, similar in style and ornament to the first. There are but 
 three inscriptions, nor can other reference be had, as the whole have been opened, 
 in search, I suppose, of treasure ; but as no person resides near the spot, I was deprived 
 of the benefit of local information. The reliefs are nearly perfect ; and, as this ridicu- 
 lous collection lies near the Fezzan road, people from the interior occasionally tamed to 
 examine it, being the only specimen of sculpture they ever saw, and representing 
 objects familiar to them, made them describe on their arrival in Tripoli, in glowing 
 colours, what they had seen. This account, warmed perhaps by the story of Nardoun, 
 increased to a Petrified City ; and at length gained such celebrity, as not only to attract 
 the attention of Europe, but in Africa to obtain universal belief; for it has been deemed 
 a species of pilgrimage to resort thither as the caravan passes, and inscribe a blessing 
 for the unfortunate petrified Moslems ; and with these the pedestals are actually covered.* 
 Ghirrza is situated near some barren hills called Garatilia, and from its want of 
 water, and sterile, comfortless appearance, could only have been a military station in 
 communication with Thabunte. Its situation by two good altitudes of the sun, in an 
 artificial horizon, is in latitude 31° T 17" North, and longitude, deduced from bearings 
 carefully carried from Benuleat and tried back, 1° 29' 52" East of Tripoli. The ruins 
 of the houses are neither indicative of greatness nor opulence ; on the tombs the largest 
 figures are about three feet and a half high, and the specimen I brought down with me 
 is of the smallest ; yet, notwithstanding the diminutive size and despicable execution, 
 the Turks who accompanied me eyed them with admiration and respect. Never, in 
 fact, has a palpable instance been brought before me so strongly proving the degraded 
 state a Mahometan education, destitute at once of liberality and emulation, reduces 
 its disciples to : nor could I but regret to see men, in many other respects estimable, so 
 glaringly deficient in the necessary discernment acquired easily by the pursuit of general 
 knowledge. 
 
 On the 11th, I wished to proceed by the road to Succa and Mesurata to Lebida ; 
 but as I had so many men and camels belonging to Benuleat, it became necessary to 
 return thither. From thence I went to the north-eastward, in hopes of finding some 
 
 * A wandering Bedoween, who had been sometime in the Wadie, brought me a good 
 large brass medal of the elder Faustina, which he had found in the immediate vicinity 
 of Ghirrza. This is no criterion for date, and from the mixture of Egyptian and 
 Boman taste in the architecture of the principal building, the uncertainty is still greater. 
 We copied the rudely-cut inscriptions, but no name of a known family rewarded the 
 ti-ouble. 
 
OPENING OF A ROAD INTO CENTRAL AFRICA. 485 
 
 remains of Taliti, Tenadassa, Mespe, and Syddeniis, which were in the chain of com- 
 munication with Cydamus, and the stations of the Tritonis ; but I met with nothing 
 but a few dilapidated towers, and some indifferent ruins which, from their situation, 
 were probably those of Mespe. On the 19th I passed along the banks of the Cyniphus, 
 and from thence returned to Lebida. Having there made arrangements for preparing 
 some of the variegated marble columns (the cipollino) and some of granite, for embark- 
 ation, I departed for Tripoli, and arrived on the 26th instant. 
 
 Although this journey has not wholly answered the sanguine expectations I had 
 formed, it has been the means of showing the disposition of the Bashaw and his subjects 
 with respect to Christians travelling in the Regency ; and from the various information 
 I have collected, it appears that so favourable an opportunity of prosecuting the inves- 
 tigation of those unknown regions — which yet remain the disgrace of geography and 
 knowledge — has never before occurred. The Bey of Fezzan is preparing for another 
 journey to the south-eastward, where he procured his slaves before, and would no doubt 
 receive any person in charge from the Bashaw ; by which an opening would be made 
 for a direct route to the probable source of the Nile, as the Bashaw's influence extends 
 to a great distance from his frontier. The Bey asserts, that an Englishman went on an 
 expedition with him about seventeen years ago, from Fezzan ; and that he died in con- 
 sequence of a fever, and was buried near Aucalas. 
 
 The shores of the Syrtis, the Cyrenaica, and coast as far as Egypt, which may be 
 almost styled unknown (and actually are in a late French chart), his Highness has already 
 granted me permission to examine, and I hope to add them to the portion I have 
 already explored. But I think attention ought to be directed to the important object 
 of the Tombuctoo caravans from Mourzouk ; by one of which the Prince of Tombuctoo, 
 a few years ago, came to Tripoli, and settled a commercial treaty, which, from the 
 exorbitant duties imposed, has almost expired. Still, however, caravans occasionally 
 go from Fezzan, sometimes direct, and at others to Twat, and from thence to Tom- 
 buctoo. From every inquiry I really conceive it to be a practicable route ; and with 
 the protection, not only of the sovereign of Tripoli, but those of Turns, Morocco, and 
 Algiers, I believe a person would be perfectly secure, as none of the powers intervening 
 between the Niger and their dominions would like to infringe on so formidable a 
 guarantee. 
 
 I regret to be under the necessity of recommending that a person be sent to accom- 
 pany the Bey of Fezzan, on so depraved a mission as that of dragging away the natives 
 of a country for sale, which of course must be repugnant to every humane heart ; but 
 as it is the only method of acquiring a knowledge of their actual condition and distresses, 
 with the mode of alleviating them, it becomes a necessary measure to be an eye-witness. 
 This traffic has rapidly increased since the destruction of the slave-trade on the Western 
 Coasts, and has also augmented since the suppression of the Barbary pirates. The 
 slaves formerly embarked at the factories, are now driven over the country to these 
 ports, and are from thence exported to different parts of Turkey and Syria ; and I 
 learn with surprise, that since I have been in the Regency, two vessels have sailed from 
 the port of Tripoli, laden with a number unknown, even to the most hardened Liverpool 
 traders of similar burthens. 
 
 Leaving these considerations to your better judgment, I remain, 
 Your obedient humble servant, 
 
 (Signed) W. H. Smyth, Commander, R.N. 
 
 To Sir C. V. Penrose, K.C.B. 
 Commander-in-Chief. 
 
486 APPENDIX. 
 
 Tripoli, April 5, 1817. 
 
 Sir, — Immediately after despatching my letter on the morning of the 27th ult., 
 and having had another interview with the Bashaw, I hurried away again for the pur- 
 pose of visiting a set of greatly- vaunted ruins, about fifty or sixty miles off, in a south- 
 east direction ; as I much wished to see them before sailing for Malta, having had 
 much discourse about them with the Arab sheiks of the hills round Lebida. By the 
 zealous care of Colonel Warrington, everything was soon ready ; and, accompanied by 
 a special red-burnoose chiaus, and the brother of Sidi Amouri, we started on the 
 evening of the 29th, taking a route towards the Tarhounah mountains, which we had 
 so recently passed on then north side. On the road we were well treated by the Duffa- 
 surat Arabs, and crossed the first range of hills by the pass named from them ; where 
 we observed that the scarps on either side exhibited coarse sandstone above a bed of 
 finer grain reposing on limestone. But some curious and remarkable specimens of 
 fulgurites, or tubes vitrified by lightning in the sands, were shown us, as having been 
 produced in the severe storm which had set us all afloat in the tents at Lebida, about 
 three weeks before. 
 
 From this neighbourhood we passed, on the morning of the 31st, towards the well 
 of Badwa-Weled-Busaid, and from thence travelled in a direction a little south of east ; 
 somewhat parallel to our accustomed Lebida route. Every here and there were scattered 
 vestiges of former days, giving an indication of a greater and more important population 
 than at present; and I was much struck with the remains of one tower, evidently 
 Roman, which had been rendered defensible by some Arab insurgents, if such a desig- 
 nation can be applied to men endeavouring to escape a grinding and oppressive tyranny, 
 the right of which they had never owned. At length, on crossing the upper part of 
 the well-known Wady Ramel, we arrived at Milah, or Medina Dugha, the remains of 
 which, I had been assured, would interest me more than those of Lebida had done, 
 But — not to my surprise — they fell very short of report, and even the chiaus himself 
 seemed to be disappointed. However, from the massy foundations, ashler blocks, and 
 numerous architectural fragments among the brushwood and talhr trees, it is clear that 
 an ancient city of considerable importance stood here ; and that, however busy it might 
 have been, and however its citizens might have plumed themselves, it is probable no 
 record of it remains. It seems to have occupied more than three miles in length by 
 about two in breadth ; and there are indications of its having been strongly fortified, 
 much in the style of Lebida, and of about the same date — i. e., if Spartian be right, 
 about the time of the Emperor Severus, a native of that city, who ordered the fortifica- 
 tions to be built. While examining the ruins, the Arabs told us marvellous stories about 
 the wonderful extent of the subterranean chambers and passages ; but I had neither time 
 nor inclination to explore them, and young Amouri was too much alarmed at the pro- 
 spect of dubbahs and dib-a-dibs (hysenas and jackals) being there, to descend. The 
 badinage upon this point occasioned the utmost good-humour; and I am more than 
 ever convinced that men of the right cast can easily secure good fellowship in Africa. 
 
 Having satisfied myself that no result of sufficient value would follow my remaining 
 here, we returned to the Consul's hospitable mansion, where I had the pleasure of 
 receiving your packet. On this journey, as before, I rode on an English saddle, in an 
 undress uniform ; and found, despite of certain objections made by some consuls against 
 showing the Christian dress, that our appearance excited as little surprise as it had done 
 around Lebida. But it is a questio vexata here,* whether travellers should assume the 
 
 * This question has been pretty well settled in the last few years. When I was in 
 the Levant, turbans, mantles, satins, silks, embroidery, fire-arms, yatagans, caftans, 
 flowing l-obes, and loose Turkish petticoat-trousers were the universal wear ; but now, 
 on a change tout cela, for even the Sultan in Constantinople, and all the officials, appear 
 
OPENING OF A ROAD INTO CENTRAL AFRICA. 487 
 
 Turkish attire or aot ; the opponents declaring that Moslems were never yet deceived 
 by it, and that even Aly Bey was detected the moment he entered a bath, by the corns 
 on his feet : yet when such men as Hornemann and Burckhardt found it necessary to 
 adopt that costume, the topic merits serious consideration. Still, I think a mezzo ter- 
 ming is offered in some of the Frank dresses of Barbary. 
 
 Yesterday and this morning have been devoted to a continuation of my former 
 inquiries on this head ; and from all that can safely be trusted, without fully relying 
 upon any one, I am becoming still more convinced that here — through this place, and 
 by means of these people — is an open gate into the interior of Africa. By striking due 
 south of Tripoli, a traveller will reach Bornu before he is out of Yusuf s influence ; and 
 wherever his power reaches, the protecting virtues of the British flag are well known. 
 In fact, looking to the unavoidable causes of death along the malarious banks of the 
 rivers on the western coast, I think this ought to be the chosen route, because prac- 
 ticable into the very heart of the most benighted quarter of the globe. Indeed, I feel 
 more than half inclined to offer myself as a. volunteer, but for the welcome news in your 
 last, of a ship's being on her way from England for me. "Were it not for this, I would 
 assuredly beg you to allow of my exploring the flanks of the Atlas range at least, for 
 the chance of there finding a tribe still speaking the language in which Hannibal wrote 
 his despatches. Should you be successful in procuring an efficient and duly qualified 
 person, he will be received here with open arms, both by Colonel Warrington and M, 
 Carstensen, the Danish consul, a gentleman well-versed in the English language, and 
 also acquainted with Arabic. With the friendship of these two, and the aid of the 
 Bashaw, an explorer has all chance of success ; but I would advise him, as his Highness, 
 as well as all his chiefs, has much of that Numidian fourberie which Bacon termed 
 ' sinister wisdom,' to permit a little forereaching upon him in small things — even with 
 open eyes — to gain a desirable end. 
 
 Bashaw Yusuf is certainly a strange compound of virtue and vice ; and he waded 
 through a brother's blood to the throne, so far back as the year 1795. He is of social 
 habits and intelligent, an affectionate father, and a warm friend. Nature seems to have 
 intended him for a good man, and the awful instances to the contrary must be attributed 
 to unbridled despotism and uncultivated mind. Owing to these, and other misfortunes 
 of station, he has exhibited profusion and avarice, courage and timidity, temperance 
 and excess, mercy and vengeance, credulity and scepticism, in singular antitheses. 
 Still, a traveller need not trouble his head about this ; for Colonel Warrington — by a 
 manly firmness and judicious bearing — has acquired a complete influence over him. 
 To myself his Highness has always been remarkably attentive, and has shown great 
 patience in getting my repeated, and perhaps tiresome, inquiries answered : on these 
 occasions I usually carried my principal queries written, and procured the replies deli- 
 berately, one at a time ; and though we were often in confusion, a little information 
 was gleaned. It may illustrate his character to mention, that when we were surveying 
 the harbour, and measuring the outside of his own castle, a busy-body ' wondered' to 
 him that he allowed such operations : ' Oh,' said his Highness, ' if the English wish 
 to attack it, they need not come first and measure the wall.'* 
 
 In regard to Sir Thomas Maitland's desire, Colonel Warrington kindly got old 
 
 in frock-coats and close pants, with a Fez cap on their heads. They moreover find 
 that they can walk about without lumbering themselves with a brace of pistols od each 
 side of their belt. Tt rrvpora m utwntw ! 
 
 * On my finally taking leave of him, his Highness exhibited considerable feeling, and 
 presented me with his own sword, a wavy-bladed seiniotar, which had been blessed at 
 Mecca. It is now in the Museum of the United Service Institution. 
 
488 APPENDIX. 
 
 D'Ghies and Sidi Amouri to make inquiries for me ; and others have assisted. From 
 all that can be collected, both ancients and moderns have been greatly misled respecting 
 mountains of salt, though there are most extensive saline tracts in this Eegency. I 
 myself have seen numerous camels loaded with solid indurated salt, in long blocks, 
 from the shores of the Syrtis, and it is also found elsewhere. There is no doubt but 
 that saltpetre — good and bad — is manufactured to a great extent ; but the principal 
 place I can hear of, as meeting the description which Sir Thomas had received, is an 
 elevated plain about 400 miles south of Tripoli, the elevation being described merely 
 'as if a town had been smothered with salt, and the salt covered with sand to the 
 depth of about a foot.' A poor mountain this ! In like cases, from the defective 
 information of the natives, and our own tendency to put leading traits which beg the 
 question, we become mutually wrong, whence no strong reliance is to be placed on any 
 of the information thus obtained ; but at present we can gather no other. In my con- 
 stant inquiries after the great river to the south, which I mentioned to you at Malta, the 
 contradictory assertions are sorely perplexing. Without exact ideas of time or distance, 
 they state the bearings of a place from the direction of a first day's journey ; and any 
 running stream is sometimes called a lake and at others a river. Now the river which 
 should be the western Nile of Herodotus, gets farther and farther to the south after 
 every consultation, and has even been carried several months' journey off. This would 
 not be objected to, provided there was any dependance to be placed on the replies ; for 
 assuredly we have no warrant for keeping the historian's river on this side of the line. 
 It is to be hoped that few years will pass ere a clear light will be thrown on this 
 interesting problem. — I have the honour to remain, &c. 
 
 (Signed) W. H. Smyth, Commander, R.N. 
 To Sir 0. H. Penrose, K.G.B. 
 &c. &c. &c. 
 
 His Majesty's Ship Aid, off Lebida, Nov. 9, 1817. 
 
 Sik, — I anchored off Tripoli on the 14th ultimo, with the Weymouth store-ship in 
 company ; and, in order to prevent loss of time, pressed an immediate audience with 
 the Bashaw, who received me with a very marked attention, and readily entered into 
 all the views I proposed. His Highness also directed that Sidi Amouri, his son-in-law, 
 should be embarked on board the Aid, in order to render me every facility for expe- 
 diting the departure of the Weymouth. 
 
 Having effected all the requisite arrangements, we made sail, and arrived at this 
 anchorage on the 18th; and the same day commenced towing the spars on shore, 
 and preparing the store ship's derrick and holds for the reception of the architectural 
 remains which Colonel Warrington had during the summer brought down to the beach, 
 under the ruins of the western fortress. As we had a continuance of fine weather, 
 and the seamen were unanimous and cheerful in their exertions, I had the satisfaction 
 to perceive these weighty masses embarked and stowed, at the rate of at least sixty 
 tons a day; which, when you consider the open roadstead, the distance the ships 
 necessarily were from the beach, and our limited crews, I trust will meet your appro- 
 bation. It is but justice to add that Mr. Turner, the commander of the Weymouth, 
 has been indefatigable in his exertions to complete ; and by his judicious arrangements 
 on board, no accident has occurred. 
 
 On the 22nd his Highness Sidi Achmet Bey, the presumptive successor to the 
 Musnud, arrived with his army from Bengazi, whither he had been with intent to have 
 brought his elder brother, an abandoned cruel character, prisoner to Tripoli ; but he, 
 finding very few partisans, had fled into Egypt, and quiet was restored with little blood- 
 shed. His Highness, accompanied by his principal officers, rode down to the beach, 
 when he was received with repeated cheers by the boats' crews ; and I deemed it 
 
OPENING OF A ROAD INTO CENTRAL AFRICA. 489 
 
 expedient to salute him from the ships. With this attention he was much gratified ; 
 and we experienced the good effects in the orders he gave, and the additional good- 
 humour it inspired the Moors with. It is on many accounts satisfactory to state, that 
 the service has been performed without the occurrence of a single quarrel, or dispute, 
 between the seamen and the natives. 
 
 I was sorry to find that neither the raft-ports, nor hatchways, of the Weymouth, 
 would admit the three large cipollino columns ; and in embarking the others, I have 
 been under the necessity of selecting those of various dimensions, in consequence of 
 the destructive mutilation that has taken place since my first visit. I have, besides, 
 sent pieces from which drums might be cut, to fit the damaged columns. With the 
 same view I have put several fragments of marble slab and cornice on board, that fractures 
 in the capitals, &c, might be repaired with stone of the same quality. But the 
 specimens of sculpture are only embarked in order to show the style of execution, and 
 the manner in which they have been defaced. The small stone with the horseman on 
 it, is from one of the tombs of Ghirrza ; and the inscriptions are on specimens of the 
 marmoric conglomerate with which the public edifices of Leptis Magna were con- 
 structed. Of those five columns which I styled granitic porphyry — and of which I sent 
 you a fragment — not one remains above ground ; and on examining the ruins, I found 
 that notwithstanding the threats of the Bashaw, the promises of the Sheiks, and the 
 whole business that took place last winter, a number of the finest columns I then left 
 have been broken ; and there is actually a Tunisian vessel now loading with the pieces. 
 
 I observed also that several of those, the astragal of which just appeared above the 
 sand, had been cleared down a few feet, and struck off; consequently none worth 
 removal (except the three large cipollino ones on the beach) remain visible ; and though 
 a quantity might, perhaps, be procured by excavation, yet as it would be in those spots 
 where the sand is deepest, their removal would be very expensive. I therefore judged 
 it expedient to discharge all the working party, until a determination on the subject 
 would be made on the arrival of the store-ship in England, or a communication to the 
 contrary should be sent by you; in either of which cases, the Consul-General can 
 immediately procure the necessary assistance again. 
 
 The anchorage we are lying at has much better holding-ground than that of Tripoli 
 Roads, being sand and rocky patches inshore, and mud in the offing. It is entirely 
 clear of shelves and shoals ; and I should think the winds, even in heavy gales, seldom 
 blow home, from the existence of numerous phosphorescent medusa and other mollusca, 
 generally natives of smooth water. In standing inshore, a berth may be taken at 
 pleasure in from twenty to ten fathoms, which last will be about a mile from the shore. 
 
 The bearings from the Aid, in latitude 32° 38 v 50" North, and longitude 14° 15 v 15 u 
 East, were Raz-al-Scian N.W.|N.— Tabia Point S.S.E.— Ziliten Point S.E.— and the 
 ruins of the ancient fortress of the harbour, S. W., about a mile and a quarter distant. 
 Provisions might be procured in the greatest abundance, if the Bashaw's teskera is 
 obtained for a supply, and the shores afford good fish ; but water is scarce, and what 
 there is is brackish. 
 
 | Here follows a set of sailing directions for the coast.) 
 I have the honour to remain, &c, 
 
 W. H. Smyth, Commander. 
 Rear- Admiral Sir C. V. Penrose, K.C.B. 
 &c. &c. &c. 
 
 //. M. Ship Aid, Nov. 26, 1817. 
 
 Sir, — After the departure of the Weymouth for Malta, I obtained an audience with 
 the Bashaw, in order to make arrangements for my further proceedings; and also to 
 take into consideration the practicability of researches being made in the interior of 
 Africa, through bis influence. 
 
490 APPENDIX. 
 
 I found that, although his Highness was ready to grant my request for exploring 
 the greater Syrtis, yet his sea-officers were utterly against the measure, at this advanced 
 season of the year; deducing arguments by which I perceived that this celebrated 
 gulf still retains its imaginary terrors. I say imaginary, because on close questioning 
 them all, I could find no one who had been further in it than Bengazi, and consequently 
 could form no opinion, but from traditional report. I therefore, on deliberate consi- 
 deration, determined to persevere in my original resolution. 
 
 But his Highness entered on the subject of the interior of Africa with the most 
 encouraging frankness ; and, as an object so highly important ought to be circumstan- 
 tially related, I subjoin the principal questions as proposed by me, and answered by the 
 Bashaw, or officers present. 
 
 Q. His Boyal Highness, the Prince Eegent, by a magnanimous perseverance in the 
 cause of humanity and justice, having bestowed peace to Europe, is now solicitous to 
 extend his benevolent views to the natives of those regions lying to the southward of 
 the dominions of your Highness, and the several kings, your allies. Will your High- 
 ness, therefore, assist so laudable an object, by affording your powerful protection ? 
 
 A . I shall be happy to render every assistance to such an undertaking. I have 
 already shown that to two Englishmen, who came here some years ago. 
 
 Q. Is your Highness certain they were Englishmen ? 
 
 A. They said they were, and that they came from Egypt by way of Fezzan. 
 
 Q. Does your Highness, or any person in the Divan, recollect either of their names ? 
 
 No answer was given to this question for some time ; on which I asked if the name 
 of one might not be Homeman, when Mourad Eeis (Peter Lyell) said he now recol- 
 lected it was.* 
 
 Q. How long is it since they were in Tripoli ? 
 
 A. About fifteen or sixteen years. 
 
 Q. What became of them after they left Tripoli, and where were they bound to ? 
 
 A. They returned to Fezzan with intent to penetrate southward to the Nile (Niger), 
 and thence by the river to Tombuctoo ; but one of them, who had been ill of a fever 
 occasioned by drinking too much bad water, after fatigue, died at Aucalas. 
 
 Q. Was that the same person mentioned to me last winter by the Bey of Fezzan ? 
 
 A . The same — the Bey had charge to conduct them to Bournou. 
 
 Q. Does your Highness know what became of the other? 
 
 A. He continued the journey, but fell ill at Houssa, in the dwelling of a Tripoline 
 merchant established there, and resuming his travels before he was properly recovered, 
 relapsed, and died at Tombuctoo. 
 
 Q. Does your Highness know whether either of them left any papers, books, or 
 effects? 
 
 A . No ; but I will direct an inquiry — Moors never destroy papers. 
 
 Q. Does your Highness imagine it difficult for a party to reach the Nile (Niger), 
 through the dominions of your friend, the King of Burnu ? 
 
 A. Not in the least, — the road to Burnu is as beaten as that to Bengazi. 
 
 Q. Will your Highness grant protection to a party wishing to proceed that way ? 
 
 A. Any person wishing to go in that direction, I will send an embassy to Burnu to 
 escort him thither ; and from thence the king will protect him to the Nile. But I must 
 first clothe him as a Turk. 
 
 Q. Will he be subject to much troublesome inquiry on that head? 
 
 A . No ; but he must not say he is a Christian. People in the interior are very 
 ignorant. I will clothe him myself in a particular way. 
 
 * This statement appeared in print, and enabled Horneman's heirs, through Baron 
 de Zach's appealing to me for its authenticity, to succeed to considerable property. 
 
OPENING OF A ROAD INTO CENTRAL AFRICA. 491 
 
 Q. But will your Highness guarantee the perfect safety of such a person against all 
 accidents, except sickness or unavoidable casualties ? 
 
 A. I do guarantee. 
 
 Q. Will your Highness undertake to produce, in the event of disaster, the papers 
 and effects of the deceased, with a particular note, written by himself, commencing on 
 the day he might be taken ill, stating his opinion, &c. of the cause, and continued 
 daily until he shall be rendered incapable of writing ? This question is not to be con- 
 sidered by your Highness as a doubt of safeconduct, but it is absolutely necessary for 
 the consolation of the friends of the defunct. 
 
 A . I do undertake to produce all such papers ; but there ought not to be less than 
 four persons in case of misfortunes by sickness. 
 
 Q. Will your Highness give directions that a party shall not be obliged to proceed 
 at the will of the escort, nor to travel in the heat of the sun, nor in the summer, unless 
 they like ? 
 
 A . The strangers shall be masters. From September to May is the time I recom- 
 mend for an Enghshman ; but travellers have a fault of generally hurrying a caravan. 
 
 Q. Will you answer for the assistance and guarantee of the King of Burnu ? 
 
 A. Most certainly. 
 
 Q. Would not a small present be acceptable to that sovereign ? 
 
 A. Yes, he would take it as a great compliment. 
 
 Q. What does your Highness think would be most gratifying to him ? 
 
 A. Broad-cloth (but need not be the finest), showy muskets, pistols, daggers, swords, 
 and cutlery. 
 
 Q. To what amount should your Highness think it necessary to send of such articles ? 
 
 A . Twelve or fourteen hunched dollars. 
 
 Q. Can your Highness afford protection to a party going to the south-westward ? 
 
 A . Nearly the same as through Burnu. 
 
 Q. Are there many boats passing and repassing that part of the Nile (Niger), 
 south of Burnu, and what is their object? 
 
 A. They are numerous, and carry effects and passengers to the several towns on 
 the banks of the river. 
 
 Q. What are the names of the towns in that direction your Highness has the greatest 
 commerce with ? 
 
 A. In Wangurra, Cuthorra, Cashna, Zangarra, Gooba, Bombarra, Houssa, and 
 Tombuctoo, there are always some resident Tripoline merchants. 
 
 Q. Next to Burnu, what place has your Highness most direct communication with ? 
 
 A. Souat, which is the principal station for caravans that proceed to Tombuctoo, 
 by way of Gadam. 
 
 Q. What is the form of government at Souat? 
 
 A. Republican, with a sort of head chief, or prince, the same as Houssa and Tom- 
 buctoo. 
 
 Q. In what manner do the subjects of your Highness obtain leave to pass those 
 countries, at a great distance from your frontier. 
 
 A. The travelling merchants insure themselves, by giving presents — trifling ones — 
 to the head of the country they arrive at, who affords them safeconduct to the next. 
 
 Q. How is the usual trade between Tripoli and Tombuctoo conducted ? 
 
 A . It is mostly carried on by Fezzan and Gadam merchants. 
 
 Q. What number of camels does the Tombuctoo caravan usually consist of ? 
 
 A. Not so many as formerly — not above a hundred and fifty: — the caravan to 
 Morocco is the largest, as they have not so far to go; it is generally composed of tin. i 
 or fuur thousand camels. 
 
 1 1. When does the Fezzan caravan proceed for Tombuctooi 
 
492 APPENDIX. 
 
 A. The direct road is rather by Gadam, as the nearer one. They set out commonly 
 in March, travel greatly by night, and return towards November, when there is a very 
 extensive fair held at Gadam, resorted to by immense numbers. 
 
 Q. What are the principal articles of traffic ? 
 
 A. Slaves, gold, gum, hides, dates, barracans, nitre, natron, salt, cotton, cloth, and 
 great quantities of a fruit resembling coffee. 
 
 Q. What is the greatest length of time the caravan is without the means of reple- 
 nishing their water ? 
 
 A. Eight days. 
 
 Such is the substance of the principal questions I asked of the Bashaw ; whose 
 patience and good nature during the long conference, were eminently conspicuous, 
 particularly as the discussion of several of them required both time and reference. I 
 trust such conduct will be duly appreciated, when it is considered that this prince, by 
 the communication thus made, and the free access to his several towns already given to 
 me, has fully proved himself above the mean intolerance that actuates the generality of 
 Turks ; and more especially as he is acting thus in defiance of the memorable prophecy 
 which states that all these countries are to be restored to the Christians. This prediction 
 is so universally believed, that the gates of the several towns and fortresses are closed 
 every Friday from 11 A.M. till 1 P.M., the day and hour predicted for the event: to this, 
 in a great measure, may be ascribed the jealous anxiety with which the Turks watch 
 our desire of exploring those countries. 
 
 I remain, your obedient humble servant, 
 
 W. H. Smyth, Commander, R.N. 
 To Rear- Admiral Sir C. V. Penrose, K.C.B. 
 &c. &c. &c. 
 
 I open this letter again to add, that the Bashaw, pursuant to his promise, directed 
 an inquiry to be made relative to the effects of the late Mr. Homeman : and it appears 
 that his books, papers, instruments, sealed letters, and clothes, were brought to Tripoli 
 by the Bey of Fezzan's orders, and were to be all delivered to a Mr. McDonnagh, 
 formerly surgeon to the Consulate, by an intriguing man at the Bashaw's court, a 
 Signior Naudi, but his notoriously infamous character leads me to suspect fraud, and 
 the Consul-General is now actively and zealously employed in investigating the whole 
 transaction. 
 
 Albion, at Malta, Nov. 21, 1817. 
 Sie, — I have the honour to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 9th inst. 
 communicating the result of your labours at Lebida, as well as other highly interesting- 
 particulars, which I shall not fail to transmit to the Lords Commissioners of the Ad- 
 miralty by the first opportunity, with the high sense I entertain of your ability and 
 indefatigable exertions. 
 
 I remain, Sir, your most obedient humble servant, 
 C. V. Peneose, 
 W. H. Smyth, Esq. Rear- Admiral and Commander-in-Chief. 
 
 Co'tnmander of H.M. Ship Aid. 
 
 P.S. — I enclose an acting order for the second master of the Weymouth to act as 
 master of the Aid. 
 
 This order was considerately sent in consequence of my warm appro- 
 bation of the spirit and skill of Mr. Thomas Elson, of whom mention is 
 so often made in this work. Soon afterwards I received another letter 
 
OPENING OF A ROAD IXTO CENTRAL AFRICA. 493 
 
 from Sir Charles, dated the 23rd of December, 1817, of which the 
 following extract may be said to conclude the Lebida correspondence : — 
 
 I have to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 26th ultimo, and to assure 
 you that it gave me sincere satisfaction to observe the manner in which you have con- 
 tinued your valuable researches, and also to express my entire approbation of your 
 proceedings with the Bashaw of Tripoli. 
 
 I have felt equal pleasure in forwarding a copy of your letter to the Admiralty, as 
 I am assured that it will be a further proof to their Lordships of the zeal as well as 
 ability, with which you execute the service entrusted to you. 
 
 I forwarded that copy by packet on the 14th instant, and, as the packet now in 
 port sails on the 29th, I request you would, previous to that day, furnish me with any 
 further information which you may have obtained, and which you deem useful to the 
 furtherance of the great object of understanding and exploring the interior of Africa. 
 
 Shortly after my return to England, the First Lord of the Admiralty 
 consulted me upon several of the above points, when I dwelt upon the 
 advantage of a land journey round the Syrtis {See jxige 376), contempo- 
 raneously with my examination by sea. Having been desired to reduce 
 my views to writing, the following letter is the residt : — 
 
 35, Soho-square, Dec. 31, 1820. 
 
 My Lord, — In obedience to your Lordship's desire I venture to place before you 
 my idea on that part of North Africa lying between Tripoli and Egypt ; and which, 
 notwithstanding it constituted one of the most interesting sites of antiquity, is unac- 
 countably a perfect blot in the geography of the present day. 
 
 In consequence of a strict attention to the subject, I had reason to think that on 
 my visit to Tripoli in 1816, no other knowledge existed of those countries extending 
 along the coast from the city of Tripoli to the Arab's tower in Egypt, than what was 
 gleaned from the Melpomene of Herodotus — excepting indeed the part now called the 
 Gulf of Sidra, which is evidently deduced from the old map in Ptolemy. 
 
 From my numerous inquiries in various quarters, touching the present state and 
 resources of those parts, and from the aggregate of a variety of conflicting statements, 
 I have reason to imagine that material benefit is likely to accrue from a proper investi- 
 gation thereof ; for it appears that there are certainly several harbours almost unknown 
 to us, of which the principal are those of Bomba, Toubrouk, and Tabraka ; and my 
 representation of them appeared in so favourable a light to that excellent officer, Sir 
 Thomas Fremantle, that he directed my utmost attention to them, and to the facilities 
 of procuring timber from certain forests reported to exist in that neighbourhood. 
 
 But as the protection of his Highness the Bashaw of Tripoli does not extend beyond 
 Derna, and indeed is only precarious at any distance from Mesurata, a thorough in- 
 vestigation of the shores of the Syrtis, and the whole of the Cyrenaica, becomes an 
 object of serious difficulty, and is, perhaps, impracticable to a Christian, though the 
 attainment of it certainly promises the gratification of much geographic and historic 
 inquiry. 
 
 I could myself soon fix all the important points on scientific data for the commence- 
 ment of a coast survey ; and a person properly qualified, would not only forward the 
 hydrography, but, from thence, could continue those journeys and researches that 
 would be most conducive to add to our general knowledge ; and from my long ac- 
 quaintance with him, I make no hesitation in recommending Lieutenant Lyon as 
 singularly eligible for such a mission, from his natural ardour, his attainments, his 
 professional habits, and, above all, his very complete assumption of the Moorish eha- 
 
494 APPENDIX. 
 
 racter. After the naval and military objects are considered, a research could be made 
 for the two great Roman roads that led to Cydamis, the present Gadam ; a town, I am 
 led to believe, of the utmost importance to travellers in the interior, as being the resort 
 of numerous trading caravans. 
 
 The site of the celebrated altars of the Phikeni would form a satisfactory point ; 
 for though they appear no longer to have existed in the time of Strabo, their situation 
 might, perhaps, be placed by approximation. 
 
 Inquiries might be made respecting the Silphium, a famous shrub which must have 
 existed in abundance, as sugar was made from it ; though others report that it bore 
 benzoin and asafoetida ; — that marked on the ancient coins bears a strong resemblance 
 to the large apocynum which grows on most parts of this coast. 
 
 We have no proof respecting the fossil called sal ammoniac, said by Pliny to have 
 been found in great quantity below the sand, in a district of Cyrenaica. 
 
 Rare coins and medallions of the Pentapolis may, perhaps, be procured, of which 
 the most valuable are these erroneously named Ophelias, especially when large ; the 
 usual types are the head of Ammon, with the Silphium as a reverse, and the legend 
 KYPA or BAPK ; but those of the state, and not belonging to any individual city, had 
 
 the word KOINON ; there is also a silver coin with the Punic characters )C V J h 
 of tolerable execution. 
 
 Inquiries could also be directed towards the celebrated scarlet dye possessed by those 
 countries so many ages, and of which the Cynomosium coccineum is supposed to form 
 the principal ingredient. 
 
 Attention could be paid to the petrified palms and fossils in the vicinity of Augila, 
 and in fact to the whole detail of the deserts of Lybia. Of these the vicinity of Cyrene 
 was reported as fertile, well watered, and possessed of forests and pasturages. It is 
 plain to me that the remains of the city of Cyrene (now called Grenna) are extensive, 
 and that its famous fountain still affords a constant supply of the purest water ; views, 
 plans, and copies of inscriptions therefore, in this important place, appear to promise 
 a gratifying illustration of the invaluable writings of Herodotus. 
 
 The situation of the Garden of the Hesperides, reported to have been near Berenice, 
 would also be a desirable object ; as would the complete exploration of Taukra, the 
 ancient Teuchira, and of Tolometa that formed the Port Barca, which I believe pos- 
 sesses fine remains of the magnificence of the Ptolemies. 
 
 After the examination of Cyrenaica and the Deserts of Barca and Augila, the grand 
 question of the junction of the Nile and the Niger could be considered ; and, if confi- 
 dence, ability, and perseverance are applied, I see no chance of a failure. In fact, I 
 must here state my regret that the late expedition for the interior was so hastily formed. 
 
 With a view of further illustrating this matter, I beg leave to subjoin the substance 
 of some inquiries I made from the officers of the Bashaw's army, who went on an ex- 
 pedition to chastise the Bey of Bengazi, a rebellious son of his Highness, and with 
 whom I was on the point of proceeding, but that the operations at Leptis required my 
 personal attendance, I have many reasons for placing considerable confidence in their 
 replies. 
 
 Q. What towns are there between Ziliten and Mesurata, and what are their names ? 
 
 A . Between Ziliten and Mesurata there are no towns, but frequent remains of large 
 buildings. 
 
 Q. What description of buildings ? 
 
 A . The original forms cannot be observed, the Moors have preserved only some wells 
 of good water. 
 
 Q. Have you observed any ruins near Ziliten ? 
 
 A . Part of an aqueduct near Wadie Khahan, and a sort of arch a little inland. 
 
OPENING OF A ROAD INTO CENTRAL AFRICA. 495 
 
 Q. What is the probable population of Mesurata ? 
 
 A. About 900 or 1000; though the Aga who governs can put 1000 cavalry and 
 2000 infantry of the province into a state of service. 
 
 Q. Where are the salterns of Mesurata ? 
 
 A. The principal are between Zafran and Nahini, though there are others along the 
 Gulf. 
 
 Q. Is the salt mineral or marine ? 
 
 A . The salt is not mineral, but produced by evaporation in summer ; in winter it 
 melts again by more water flowing in. 
 
 Q. But that which I have seen was in long bars. 
 
 A . Yes, they cut it in bars for trading, for it is very hard and solid. 
 
 Q. What great towns are there between Mesurata and Bengazi ? 
 
 A . There is no town or place worthy the name between Mesurata and Bengazi, nor 
 from thence to Derna. 
 
 Q. How are the shores of the Gulf of Sidra ? 
 
 A . Generally hard, sandy beach, with a low country adjacent, in some parts very 
 rocky. 
 
 Q. Does the gulf marked on this chart, and called Suca, exist ? 
 
 A. There is no gulf of that name ; the army passed close to the sea, where it is 
 marked, and the beach is continuous. 
 
 Q. Are there any ruins on the shores of the Syrtis ? 
 
 A . Near the above-mentioned salterns there are frequent ruins ; the most remark- 
 able are to the S.E. of Zafran called Elbenia, and those of Medina Sultan. 
 
 Q. What is then appearance ? 
 
 A. The former consists of two pilasters, with bases of gritstone, and Greek inscrip- 
 tions much injured. The latter offers vestiges of a large city. There are other ruins at 
 Jhimines and Quabia, two days' journey from Bengazi. 
 
 Q. Does the gulf at the bottom of the Syrtis, called Tinch, exist % 
 
 A . It does not ; we still continued along the beach ; there is, however, a large 
 maremma or marsh inside where our route led, but it is very hilly beyond it. 
 
 Q. Do you know of any quicksands in that neighbourhood ? 
 
 A . There is a considerable tract of fine impalpable sand that moves with tempests. 
 
 Q. What is the situation of the moving sands, and are there marshes there ? 
 
 A . The moving sands extend from Ain-Agan to Areys, occupying a greater or less 
 width along the coast from the sea towards the interior ; but at Albasce there is a long 
 streak, stretching many miles inland, very fine, and of the colour of brick, whereas the 
 other is white as snow ; there are some very extensive salt-marshes at Ain-Agan and 
 Bagomara, two hours S.E. of Manhool. 
 
 Q. What is the nature of the coast in the direction of the moving sands ? 
 
 A . Only the surface of the coast is covered with sand ; below, it consists of a hard 
 grit-stone. 
 
 Q. Which is the site of the Garden of the Hesperides ? 
 
 A . They lie about two hours from Bengazi, and have no trees, only a few shrubs 
 grow there. 
 
 Q. But what is there remarkable to point the place out ? 
 
 A . Many deep grottoes, some wells of excellent water, and vestiges of canals to 
 carry water all over the gardens. 
 
 Q. Is there not wood in the vicinity ? 
 
 A. No timber fit for building, nothing but a grove of stunted cypress. 
 
 Q. But I have heard from the Bey of Derna, Murad Beis, and others, that a large 
 forest existed somewhere in that part. 
 
 A. I believe there is further towards Bomba, but we did not go so far. 
 
496 APPENDIX. 
 
 Q. Have you heard of this forest ? 
 
 A. Very frequently ; and that the wood is fit for large ships. 
 
 Q. What kind of a town is Bengazi ? 
 
 A . Not so nourishing as formerly ; it has a tolerable castle and small port, mud 
 houses, and about 1000 inhabitants. 
 
 Q. Are there any vestiges of the ancient Berenice ? 
 
 A . A few slight ones ; — cameos and intaglios are frequently found, and a hill near 
 the sea is supposed to contain riches, as gold is often picked up after heavy storms. 
 
 Q. Can refreshments be procured there ? 
 
 A . Sheep, cattle, and corn, but no fruit. 
 
 Q. Why have they not oranges, as they grow so well at Tripoli ? 
 
 A . They never had any, so do not feel the want of them. 
 
 Q. What kind of places are Tolometa and Taukra ? 
 
 A . Taukra is a walled town, with many inscriptions ; but has few things of archi- 
 tectural beauty, except some vine branches entwined in low relief on the pieces of a 
 pediment of grit, or stone of the country. It is built on the sea-shore, on a plain, 
 bounded on the south by stony mountains bearing the low cypress-tree. Tolometa is at 
 the foot of the chain of mountains that extends from Bengazi to Bomba ; it offers few 
 vestiges, except some columns of gritstone belonging to a Corinthian portico, and the 
 tombs of the Kings in the Elysian Fields. 
 
 Q. What is there at Barca, and are there any inhabitants ? 
 
 A . Barca is now only a mountain of stones and ruins, at the head of a fine valley, 
 with a great many wells of good water, for which reason it is much frequented by the 
 Arabs. 
 
 Q. Are the Arabs as trusty as those of Mesurata ? 
 
 A . No ; they are exceedingly treacherous, and capable of committing murder for a 
 mere gilt button. 
 
 Q. Would they respect the usual laws of hospitality 1 
 
 A . Most probably they would, even against their desire. 
 
 Q. Have you seen the harbour called Marza Suza ? 
 
 A . I have seen Suza ; the sea has intersected almost all the town ; there are many 
 ruins, but of moveable things there are now only to be seen a few columns of marble, 
 granite, and gritstone belonging to its temples. 
 
 Q. Is it easy to reach Cyrene on the side of Bengazi ? 
 
 A. From Bengazi to Cyrene is six summer days' journey, and the road leads through 
 cypress woods and fine mountain- valleys ; it is not difficult. 
 
 Q. Is Cyrene far from Derna ? 
 
 A . Cyrene is a long day and a half from Derna, over some stony mountains of ex- 
 tremely difficult ascent, through woods of cypresses, and places inhabited by wandering 
 Arabs. 
 
 Q. What aspect has the land about here from the sea ? 
 
 A. The sea is almost everywhere bounded by steep mountains of rock, in the fissures 
 of which grow cypresses and some other trees. 
 
 Q. What state is Cyrene in. I have heard the town is entire ? 
 
 A. The town is nearly destroyed, but the ruins and isolated tombs, or mausoleae, 
 are extensive ; the finest part is the Camp of Mars, on account of the numerous streets 
 of tombs cut in the rocky mountains. The various ruins make it extremely easy to 
 determine the limits of the city. 
 
 Q. Do you recollect any temples there ? 
 
 A . The ruins of a temple near the fountain are partly buried, and all there is re- 
 maining in sight are some columns and several statues, the latter so mutilated, that 
 they look like amorphous blocks of marble. Excavation in this part would, probably, 
 be very productive. 
 
OPENING OF A ROAD INTO CENTRAL AFRICA. 497 
 
 Q. Does the fountain still afford good water, and are there any inhabitants in 
 Cyrene ? 
 
 A . The fountain always gives abundance of the purest water, for which reason there 
 are always upwards of four or five hundred Arab tents in the town. 
 
 Q. What is the population of Derna ? 
 
 A. Emigration and the plague have reduced it to about 360 souls. 
 
 Q. Are there still any troglodytes, or inhabitants of caves, and are they numerous ? 
 
 A . The district between Marza Suza and Cyrene is full of caverns in the very heart 
 of the mountains, into which whole families get by means of ropes ; and many are 
 born, five, and die, in these dens, without ever going out of them ; their Bedouin re- 
 lations in the neighbourhood provide them with food, and there preserve their property 
 from the rapine of inimical tribes ; the friendly Arabs collect in these holes a sufficiency 
 of water for all their wants. 
 
 Q. What is the disposition of these people ? 
 
 A . They are savage, untractable, and dangerous, the government of the country 
 itself never having been able to reduce them. 
 
 Q. Do you consider a landing at Bomba as safe ? 
 
 A . Being situated on the limits of Tripoli and Cairo, it is inhabited by tribes that 
 have been driven away by their respective governments, so that they continually 
 molest pacific tribes, and the caravans destined for Mecca. 
 
 Such, my Lord, is the sum of the most direct and credible information I have been 
 able to collect ; besides which, I have made many other inquiries, and have also con- 
 structed a map of the march of the said army, by inference ; but I hope I have shown 
 your Lordship that this interesting portion of geography (seated so near to civilized 
 Europe), need no longer remain a blank ; and also that its examination may lead to satis- 
 factory ulterior results as to the confluence of the Nile and the Niger, and the actual 
 state of the level of the countries south of Bournou, compared with Abys- 
 sinia and the west coast of Africa. And this, if I may be allowed to express my 
 opinion, is the only practicable road to Europeans — for I have ever considered the 
 difficulties and diseases incident to the swampy banks of rivers in a tropical climate 
 (at all times replete with decomposing vegetable substances), so insurmountable, that I 
 have never been surprised at their failure. 
 
 I have the honour to subscribe myself, my Lord, your Lordship's most obedient 
 humble servant, 
 
 W. H. Smyth, Commander, E.N. 
 Right Hon. Lord Viscoimt Melville, 
 &c. &c. &c. 
 
 K K 
 
498 APPENDIX. 
 
 II; 
 
 ON GRAHAM ISLAND. 
 
 THIS is fclie Paper mentioned on page 112; and is extracted from the 
 CXXIInd volume of the Philosophical Transactions. H.RH. the 
 Duke of Sussex, in submitting it to the Meeting of the Royal Society, 
 stated that it was written as part of a report to the Council upon Dr. 
 Davy's paper on the same subject, which had been read a few weeks 
 before ; but that the Council viewed it as containing so much original 
 and important matter, that they had determined upon its being treated 
 as a separate communication. — (See the Literary Gazette, No. 786, 
 page 90.) 
 
 Some Remarks on an Error respecting the Site and Origin of Graham Island. By 
 Captain W. H. Smyth, K.N., F.R.S., F.S.A. Read February 9, 1832. 
 
 In consequence of accounts recently published concerning the rise and progress of 
 this island, which I conceive to have been stated materially in error, and in order that 
 physical inquiry may receive as exact data as can be afforded, I beg leave to offer the 
 following remarks to the Royal Society. 
 
 It was stated, in the first letters which arrived from Malta, that an officer on the 
 Mediterranean station was in possession of an old chart, whereon was ■ a shoal with 
 only four fathoms on it, and called Larmour's Breakers' — and this being asserted to be 
 ' within a mile of the latitude and longitude' of the new island, was consequently an- 
 nounced as its nucleus. On reading some of these letters I saw at once that the chart 
 was mistaken for a valuable document ; but being aware that its particulars were well 
 known to navigators, I should not have deemed it to require notice, had not the 
 erroneous inference been repeated both in the Journal of the Geographical Society and 
 in the Quarterly Review. 
 
 The danger alluded to as existing upon the ' old chart,' was never ascertained or 
 verified ; it was only thought to have been seen by Captain Larmour, when in command 
 of the Wassanaer, a troop-ship, on the Egyptian expedition. But the same impression 
 did not strike all the officers and passengers ; and, on the commander-in-chief despatch- 
 ing two or three vessels to examine it for a more detailed report, no shoal-water 
 could be found. The present Captain Richard Spencer, C.B., then a lieutenant on 
 board the Wassanaer, was one of the officers sent to assist in the search ; and from 
 him I had these particulars. Yet the minute which had been forwarded to me from 
 the Admiralty, being written in these decided terms — 
 
 < H.M. Ship Wassanaer, 11th of December, 1800, p.m. The island of Pantellaria 
 S.W. by W. nine or ten leagues, saw a reef of rocks S.S.E. distant three or four 
 miles, extending N.N.W. and S.S.E. , about one mile in length. Hauled up S. by W., 
 to clear them. Saw something on the reef like a ship's mast. Bearings by compass.' 
 
 I examined the spot with a rigorous strictness ; and from the various traverses 
 
ON GRAHAM ISLAM). 499 
 
 which I made in every direction, with the lead going by night and by day, I 
 feel prepared to assert, that no reef of the nature described by Captain Larmour in 
 1800, and no shoal of four fathoms water, could have existed in 1814. How the said 
 1 four fathoms' crept into our charts is best known to the ship-chandlers, who too long 
 purveyed to the scientific wants of seamen ; but from the absence of positive testimony, 
 from the careful search made by order of Lord Keith, from my own several cruizes, 
 and from the material fact of its being in the high road which is annually beaten by 
 hundreds of ships, it is not presuming greatly to say, that neither the one nor the other 
 had any existence. 
 
 Nor is the assigned place ' within a mile' of the position of the volcanic islet, 
 though it may accidentally have been so marked upon the ' sea-cards ;' for it should 
 be remembered, that the true site even of the principal headlands around, was not then 
 decided. According to the minute just quoted, corrected for magnetic variation, 
 Larmour's supposed reef is no less than sixteen miles W. by N. from it, on a part of 
 the subaqueous plateau (which I named Adventure Bank), uniting Sicily to Africa by 
 a succession of ridges, — about a spot where I found from forty to fifty fathoms of 
 water. Graham's Isle, however, is not upon this bank ; it arose between it and a knoll 
 some miles to the eastward, which, from a shell brought up by the arming, I called 
 Nerita ; and, if the observations which determine the latitude and longitude of the 
 stranger as in 37° 8' 25" N. and 12° 43' 50" E. be correct, it must have been elevated 
 through more than a hundred fathoms of water. 
 
 In thus doubting the actual existence of the Larmour Shoal, it is not my intention 
 to dispute the appearance and disappearance of natural phenomena, nor that stupendous 
 alterations may occur by the subsidence and uplifting of strata, — because an obstinate 
 scepticism would be absurd, especially in a part of the globe where, to use a well-ex- 
 pressed Italian metaphor, the whole ground is ' tremblingly alive.' But it is reason- 
 able and proper to question such rumours as have been made without due examination. 
 In the instance before us no endeavour was made to establish the truth by either 
 shortening sail, lowering a boat, or even getting a cast of the lead ; moreover, they 
 were three or four miles from the supposed object, and opinions on board the Wassanaer 
 were not at all unanimous. By similar indecision a teasing knot of perils has gained 
 random insertion upon our charts, to the disquietude of sea commanders ; but it is a 
 fault which is fast disappearing, and it may be trusted that there are few officers who 
 would not think themselves liable to the imputation of culpable carelessness, did they 
 not seek to verify such ' dangers' as they might accidentally encounter. 
 
 I do not think subaqueous volcanic explosions are of such rare occurrence as is 
 generally supposed ; and extremely sudden intumescence may arise from the expansion 
 of an inferior lava bed. It is not at all improbable that gaseous fluids and ejectamenta 
 may have been seen, before the accumulation of solid matter, protruded from the vent, 
 was sufficient to form a crater of eruption. A volcanic apex may become visible, and 
 again be quickly destroyed by trituration, the solution of mineral substances, and the 
 repressive force of the column of water over the vent. Now, as there was a chance 
 that something of the kind had occurred in the neighbourhood assigned to Larmour's 
 reef, — breakers having been reported near the same spot by the Greyhound frigate, 
 and shoals having been immemorial ly marked there under the names of La Ajuga and 
 B. Scoglio, — I laboriously explored the whole vicinity. In examining the chart which 
 resulted from this undertaking, it will be found that a knoll, with only seven fathoms 
 upon it, was discovered not far from the site of all these reports, and that the Ad- 
 venture Bank extends from Sicily nearly to Pantellaria, where the water deepens at 
 once from 76 fathoms to no bottom with 375 fathoms of line. A further inspection 
 will show that the Phlegrsean islands of Pantellaria and Linosa, have been protruded 
 from the greatest depths, where, perhaps, the fires found the least resistance. O 
 
 K K 2 
 
500 APPENDIX. 
 
 All these considerations led me to suppose that, though the reports were exceed- 
 ingly vague, volcanic agency might still have given grounds for them. I therefore 
 made particular inquiries, both in Sicily and Pantellaria, as to local earthquakes, and 
 whether any volumes of smoke, ferilli, or jets of flame, comminuted ashes, or other 
 fragmentary ejectments, had been noticed in that direction ; but I could hear of 
 none. Yet we are told, as a 'fact' of weight, that a tradition is current, which 
 says : — ' A volcano existed in the same spot about the commencement of the last 
 century.' It would be difficult to say how this tradition was preserved amongst a 
 people little given to letters ; and I never, in my long residence and systematic re- 
 searches at the above place, and in Malta, heard the slightest hint of it. 
 
 I am, therefore, led to the conclusion, — firstly, that no shoal or danger has lately 
 existed in that channel, excepting only an occasional overfall in very heavy weather on 
 the seven fathom knoll where I anchored H.M. ship Adventure, and which is sufficiently 
 near for bearings taken at random, and without suspicion of the existence of a local 
 attraction, to be placed in identity with the reports above-mentioned. Secondly, that 
 even if what Captain Larmour became persuaded he saw was actually a temporary 
 volcanic effect, it had no possible relation to breakers with 'four fathoms' upon them. 
 And it follows, that the assertion of Graham Island having been formed by the mere 
 ' lifting up' of such shoal, must be utterly destitute of foundation. 
 
501 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Abbreviations, 427 
 
 Ablancourt, good hydrographer, 342 
 
 Abruzzi, provinces of the, 38 
 
 Absyrtides, Adriatic isles, 44 
 
 Abulfeda quoted, 83 
 
 Abu Ze'id, an early traveller, 117 
 
 Abyla, opposite Calpe, 5, 98 
 
 Acade"mie Royale, on Mediterranean, 345 
 
 Acarnania, Adriatic, 50, 53 
 
 Accumulated salt in the sea, 129 
 
 Achelous, river, 50 
 
 Achilles, his shield, 313 
 
 Acro-Ceraunian Promontory, 45 
 
 Acrotiri in Candia, 68 
 
 Acton, Capt., on an eruption, 113 
 
 Adalia Cape, 78 
 
 gulf of and city, 79 
 
 ■ its effect on currents, 169 
 
 Adam, Sir Frederic, 44 
 
 Address to Geographical Society, 427 
 
 Admiral Neptune, 429 
 
 Timosthenes, 315 
 
 Admiralty committee, 303 
 Adria, or Hadria, 34 
 Adrianople, 65 
 Adriatic sea, 34 
 
 actions, 135 
 
 currents, 165 
 
 tides, 182 
 
 frozen recorded, 223 
 
 weather, 253 
 
 Advance of chartography, 337 
 Adventure Bank, 120, 136, 499 
 
 ■ (the ship), 239 
 
 JEdes Hartwellianae referred to, 85 
 ^Egean Sea, 62, 73, 270 
 ^gina, gulf of, 61 
 ^Elian, 221 
 ^Eolian winds, 250 
 Aerial effects, 295 
 iEtna, its eruptions, 110 
 Africa, north shore of, 186 
 
 laid open, 473 to 497 
 
 African coast feels the current, 161 
 
 tides, 186 
 
 Africus, or S.W. wind, 297 
 Agatharcides president of a library, 320 
 on the Red Sea, 334 
 
 Agathodasmon, a map-maker, 323 
 Agio-Janni, fresh spring, 141 
 
 Saranta, 49 
 
 ■ Strati, ancient Nea, 66 
 
 Agricultural produce, 101 
 Aid, islet seen from on board, 109 
 Aigle, de 1', of the Phcenix, 154 
 Aigle wrecked on Zembra, 296 
 Aigues mortes, 13 
 
 now inland, 413 
 
 Air disseminated deep at sea, 192 
 Akk£, or Akra, 82 
 'Akabah-el-Kibir, 86 
 Al-Arish torrent, 81 
 Albania, province of, 45, 49 
 
 survey of, 401 
 
 Al Bekur, ancient Canopus, 84 
 
 shoal, 334 
 
 Albert, Marquis d', 345 
 
 Alboran rock, 97, 426 
 
 Al Buzema, 97 
 
 Aldebaran, occultation of, 370 
 
 Aleppo earthquake, 107 
 
 Alessio, 45 
 
 Alexandria, longitude, 84, 423 
 
 Alfaquez, peninsula, 9 
 
 Algeria, its extent, 94, 404 
 
 Algerine sloop-of-war lost, 274 
 
 Alghero, 29 
 
 Algiers described, 95 
 
 Al Haratch, 99 
 
 Alicant, vicinity of, 5, 7 
 
 Alicudi, 31 
 
 AH Pasha, 49 
 
 Al-jezirah or the island, 116 
 
 All^gre, captain of the Lloiret, 378 
 
 Alleria, now inland, 30 
 
 Almeria, Spain, 6 
 
 Almissa near Spalatro, 42 
 
 Almunecar, Spain, 6 
 
 Alluvial changes, 73, 80 
 
 Alpheius, ancient R.ufe'ia, 58 
 
 Alpheus at Syracuse, 140 
 
 Alps, they affect meteorology, 217 
 
 Altar to the winds near Sicyon, 278 
 
 Alternating winds, 272 
 
 Alternations of wind, 287 
 
 Altitude and azimuth circle, 381 
 
502 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Amaxiki in St. Maura, 54 
 
 Amorgo or Nio isle, 70 
 
 Amplitudes when resorted to, 384 
 
 Amurath III. patron of astronomy, 322 
 
 Analyses of sea water, 129, 294 
 
 Anamtir headland, 79 
 
 Anavolo, a copious spring, 141 
 
 Anatolia, 66 
 
 Anaximander's tables, 314 
 
 Anchovy fishery, 21 
 
 Ancient chartography, 316 
 
 climates, 210 
 
 fears of the Syrtis, 190 
 
 laws for ships, 276 
 
 measures, 323 
 
 observations, 323 
 
 — points compared, 325 
 
 symbols, 429 
 
 writers on fishes, 197 
 
 Ancona, 37, 330 
 
 Ancyreum promontory or anchor, 76 
 
 Andalusia, or Seville, 8 
 
 Andronicus Cyrrhestes, 278 
 
 Andros isle, 70 
 
 Anemometer wanted on board, 262 
 
 Animal life in the sea, 194 
 
 Angrand, M. , consul at Malta, 360 
 
 Animalcules luminous at will, 127 
 
 Annual fall of rain, 217 
 
 Anomalies in tides, 172 
 
 Anti Paxo, 53 
 
 Antibes, 17 
 
 Antivari port, 45 
 
 Antonine Itinerary, 317 
 
 Anzo, porto d', 24 
 
 Apeliotes, or East wind, 279 
 
 Apelles of Sicyon, 51 
 
 Apennines near Ancona, 38, 220 
 
 Ape's hill opposite Gibraltar, 96, 237 
 
 Aphrico rock off Monte Christo, 333 
 
 Apollonius Khodius, on the Syrtes, 189 
 
 Apparatus for trying sea- water, 129 
 
 Appendix, from p. 473 to 500 
 
 Aquileia, 46 
 
 Arabian opinions on the sea, 115 
 
 ■ voyagers, 117 
 
 geographers, 326 
 
 Arab's tower, 85 
 Arse of Virgil, 136 
 Arago on temperature for trees, 218 
 Aral sea, its level, 77 
 Arcadia cold and foggy, 262 
 Arcano del Mare by Dudley, 338 
 Archipelagan currents, 167 
 Archipelago, whence derived, 62 
 
 its navigation, 72 
 
 its motions, 185 
 
 its etymology, 269 
 
 its prevalent winds, 272 
 
 — its winter, 274 
 
 — various surveys, 347 
 
 Arcturus deemed ungenial, 276 
 
 Area of Italy, 18 
 
 Area of our Dependencies, 102 
 
 of the Mediterranean, 149 
 
 Argentero, mount, 22 
 Argentiera isle, 70 
 Argostoli in Cephalonia, 54 
 Ariel typified by a fire-ball, 268 
 Ariona, a subterranean river, 141 
 Aristagoras, his copper tablet, 314 
 Aristotle on fish, 48 
 
 on level of the sea, 104 
 
 death, 186 
 
 • — on the Etesian winds, 270 
 
 a geographer, 315 
 
 Arkadhia, mountains in, 57 
 
 gulf of, 58 
 
 Aries, city of, 14 
 
 Arno, mouth of the, 21 
 
 Arnold, Dr., on Carthagena, 178 
 
 on climate, 219 
 
 Arrian geographer to Hadrian, 317 
 Arta, gulf of, 49, 166 
 
 Artesian well at Venice, 47 
 
 Arts in Egypt, 317 
 
 Arzila in Morocco, 99 
 
 Asinara and N.W. of Sardinia, 396 
 
 Aspra-Spitia, 51 
 
 Aspri Thalassa or Mediterranean, I 
 
 Aspropotamo, 50 
 
 Athens, successive changes, 411 
 
 Athos, mount, or Agionoros, 65 
 
 Atlantic communicates, 2 
 
 current towards Gibraltar, 158 
 
 ■ winds and currents, 427 
 
 Atlas, mount, snow-clad, 96 
 Atmosphere, nature of, 230 
 Atoko, 55 
 
 Attention devoted to latitudes and longi- 
 tudes, 172 
 Attica overflowed by a deluge, 74 
 
 climate of, 269 
 
 Augusta town and harbour, 398 
 Austin, the late Admiral, 274, 284 
 Austrian staff, treaty with, 362 
 Author's surveys detailed, 353 
 
 maritime positions, 431 to 470 
 
 Avenger lost near Galita, 93 
 
 Avlona, Adriatic, 45 
 
 in Syria, 82 
 
 Awful neglect of chartwrights, 334 
 Axia, or Naxia, 69 
 Ayala, historian of Gibraltar, 236 
 Ayrouard's Atterages, 345 
 Azimuths, how determined, 385 
 Azof, sea of, 77 
 
 sea of, has contracted, 78 
 
 sea of, volcanic, 107 
 
 sea of, Palus Meeotis, 124 
 
 sea of, well sounded, 148 
 
INDEX. 
 
 503 
 
 Back-strap Bay, 4 
 
 Bacler Dalbe in 1802, 348 
 
 Bacon's Historia Yentorum, 272 
 
 Bahr-rum, Mediterranean, 1 
 
 Baise, 26 
 
 Balearic islands, 10, 123, 161 
 
 Baratto, 21 
 
 Barbary, its extent, 89 
 
 volcanic, 106 
 
 partly a blank, 367 
 
 information on, 494 to 497 
 
 Barcelona, 9 
 
 Barcelonette, 17 
 
 Barge at Rome, 23 
 
 Barkah, desert of, 85 
 
 Barletta, 37 
 
 Barometer accompanies tide, 172 
 
 by Professor Miller, 212 
 
 zero, 214 
 
 depressed by S.W. winds, 234 
 
 its value, gulf of Lyons, 244 
 
 felt tbe Bora, 259 
 
 Barrington, Hon. D., on climate, 221 
 Bartolommeo on Arcbipelago, 328 
 Bassam river contains lakes, 85 
 Basilicata surveyed Candia, 337 
 Basilisk forced from ber ancbors, 236 
 Basin of tbe Adriatic, 46 
 
 of tbe Mediterranean, 123, 136 
 
 Bastia in Corsica, 29 
 Bathi port, in Ithaca, 108 
 Baudrand, bydrograpber, 341 
 Bauza, Spanish bydrograpber, 175, 349 
 Bayas river, Iskanderoon, 81 
 Beacbes, bard, 31 
 
 bard, 36 
 
 yielding fresb water, 142 
 
 changeable, 163 
 
 Beaufort, Sir F., introductory letter 
 
 quoted, 80 
 
 on currents, 168, 186 
 
 wounded at Ayyis, 350 
 
 Beaufort's Karamania, 350 
 Beaupr^'s work not sbown, 364 
 Beaver on Mediterranean, 355 
 Beechy, Lieut., at Tripoli, 189 
 
 quoted, 88 
 
 on Hygrom, 293 
 
 Beechey, Messrs., appointed, 376 
 Beechey's, Lieut., force and work, 377 
 
 progress interrupted, 377 
 
 Beirut, 82 
 
 Belleisle, off Cape de Gata, 332 
 Bellin, Ingenieur de la Marine, 346 
 Belzoni offered bis services, 376 
 Benghazi, its produce, 87 
 Benincasa of Ancona, 330 
 Beniolid, in the interior, 482 
 Benjemma, range of, 33 
 Bentinck, Lord W., 20 
 Bentu de sob with lightning, 249 
 
 Berenice, vestiges of, 496 
 Berghaus on drainage, 143 
 Berwick lost her masts, 248 
 Bianco reef, Corfu, 333 
 Bias river, 59 
 
 Biot on deep sea-water, 133 
 Birazones, or S.W. gales, 239 
 Birt's buoy and nipper, 390 
 Bizerta, the Venice of Barbary, 93 
 Black Sea and Dardanelles, 2, 76 
 
 steady level, 144 
 
 sometimes frozen, 188 
 
 terrors, 280 
 
 Blockading fleet, 16 
 
 Blucher packet, foundered, 305 
 Blue rays most refrangible, 126 
 Bocca Silota, near Negropont, 71 
 Boccbe di Cattaro, 42 
 Bceotia overflowed by a deluge, 74 
 Boeotian winters severe, 269 
 Bolbatic mouth of Nile, 84 
 Bombab brought into notice, 86 
 Bon, cape, or Ras-Adar, 91 
 Bonaccia a frequent term, 247 
 Bondelmonte in the 15th century, 328 
 
 on the Cyclades, 329 
 
 Bonifaccio in Corsica, 29 
 
 Bora experienced in Lissa harbour, 257 
 
 described, 40 
 
 its effect on currents, 165 
 
 its surcharge of water, 184 
 
 its progress, 256 
 
 Boreas, or north wind, 279 
 Borings of marine animals, 81 
 Bosphorus weather, 280 
 
 , Thracian, 75 
 
 Bottom of the Mediterranean, 134 
 
 Boudrum, or Kos, 67 
 
 Bouillon la Grange on sea- water, 127 
 
 Boundary of Asia Minor, 80 
 
 Boundaries of Egypt, 85 
 
 Bournabad, suburb of Smyrna, 67 
 
 Bowles, director-general of mines, 223 
 
 Brazza isle, Adriatic, 44 
 
 Breislak on geology, 27 
 
 Breguet's Compteur, 380 
 
 Brewster's formula on temperature, 218 
 
 Brilliancy of the Mediterranean, 294 
 
 Brindisi, 37 
 
 British dependencies, 101 
 
 British Museum rich in charts, 329 
 
 Bromine traced in sea- water, 132 
 
 Brondolo, 48 
 
 Bua isle, near Trau, 42 
 
 Budua, in Dalmatia, 41 
 
 Buffon's theory on the Mediterranean, 
 
 118 
 Buonaparte, Jerome, his fleet pursued, 
 
 240 
 Bura and Helice swallowed up, 52 
 Burj-er-Rus, pyramid of skulls, 187 
 
504 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Butrinto, 49 
 
 Burrasche or mountain storms, 247 
 
 Byzantium, 75, 321 
 
 Cabezos dangerous, 389 
 
 Cabrera, isle of, 10 
 
 Cadamosta's maps, 16th century, 330 
 
 Cadiz, or Gadir, 4 
 
 Csesar on spring tides, 174 
 
 a meteorologist, 219 
 
 ■ on Castor and Pollux, 267 
 
 ordered a survey, 317 
 
 Cagliari, 29 
 Calabria, 35, 400 
 
 ■ mountain storms, 247 
 
 Calamis, 49 
 
 Calamota canal, 42 
 
 Caligula's bridge, 104 
 
 Calms, or bonaccia, 247 
 
 Calpe, or Gibraltar, 4, 119 
 
 Calvi in Corsica, 29 
 
 Camelford, Lord, of the Charon, 347 
 
 Campagna, pestilent air of, 224 
 
 Campana on the tides, 182 
 
 Campanella cape, 25 
 
 Campidano shows the mirage, 289 
 
 Canachi, pilot of Patmos, 331 
 
 Canal of Mahmudiyeh, 85 
 
 Candia, 67 
 
 Canea, port of Candia, 68 
 
 Cannes, or Napoule, 17 
 
 Cape Bon, line of deep water, 120 
 
 Capo d'Istria, 39 
 
 Capmani's ' Questiones,' 327 
 
 Capra reef, Cephalonia, 333 
 
 Capraja isle, 22 
 
 Capri isle, 25 
 
 Cardinal points, ancient, 278 
 
 Carmel, mount, a look out, 285 
 
 Carniola, 46 
 
 Carthagena, Spain, 6, 394 
 
 Carthage, its ruins, 92 
 
 Caspian, its level, 77 
 
 compared with Mediterranean, 
 
 138 
 
 sea described, 117 
 described by Herodotus, 315 
 
 Cassidaigne shoal, 333 
 
 Cassini on the Mediterranean, 153 
 
 sent to the Levant, 342 
 
 Cassini's Triangulation, 347 
 Cassis, town of, 15 
 Castel Sardo, 29 
 
 ■ Tornese fortress, 57 
 
 Castor and Pollux, a meteor, 267 
 Casualties by lightning, 305 to 307 
 Cataclysm, near Salonica, 65 
 Catalogue of surveys, 393 
 Catalonian mountains, 5 
 
 population, 8 
 
 Cattaro, Bocche di, 41, 401 
 
 Caucasus, and other E. mountains, 232 
 
 influences the wind, 281 
 
 Caunus, ancient seaport, 80 
 Causes of geological changes, 105 
 Caution respecting the Faro, 181 
 Caution as to dangers, 387 
 Cavaliere, cape, 79 
 Cavallinis, chartists of Leghorn, 339 
 Cellarius, his unjust censure, 353 
 Censure on Ptolemy, undue, 353 
 Central currents, 164 
 
 portion of Mediterranean, 232 
 
 Centum-cellse, 23 
 
 Cephalonia, 52 
 
 Cephyssus, 63 
 
 Cerigo isle, 41, 52 
 
 Cerigotto, 56 
 
 Cervi, isle of, 60 
 
 Cette, 14 
 
 Cettina river, 42 
 
 Ceuta, or Sebtah, 5, 96, 98 
 
 tide hour, 175 
 
 Chabert on wrong latitudes, 340 
 
 Marquis de, 345 
 
 Chain pervading Italy and Greece, 232 
 Changes of coast, 9, 36 
 
 of Roman coast, 26 
 
 of climate, 223 
 
 of commerce, 311 
 
 in constant action, 352 
 
 in names discussed, 408 to 414 
 
 of site, 415 
 
 Charles V. humiliated, 298 
 Chasms suddenly formed, 112 
 Chartography advanced, 337 
 
 adopted, 392 
 
 Charts, list of, 395 to 405 
 
 methodized, 373 
 
 Charybdis, or Galofaro, 181 
 
 Chazelles, ' Hydrographe,' 340 
 
 Chemical changes, vast, 114 
 
 Cherso, fossil bones, 41 
 
 Chevalier, Captain, 340 
 
 Chevallier, Professor, on Barometers, 212 
 
 Chevrette, Captain Gauttier, 260 
 
 officers, 360 
 
 rendezvous at Malta, 420 
 
 Chiavari, 20 
 
 Chimara, mount, 46 
 
 Chioggia, 37, 48 
 
 Chios, our commerce with, 3 
 
 Choiseul, favoured surveys, 346 
 
 Chorographic arrangement, 424 
 
 Christian slaves, anecdote, 90 
 
 • — tribes in Africa, 481 
 
 topography, 325 
 
 Chronometric runs to Ionian Islands, 362 
 
 ■ bases, 379 
 
 ■ rates, how used, 380 
 
 Chrysse, in Pausanias, 73 
 Cicero de Republic;!, 224 
 
INDEX. 
 
 505 
 
 Cicero on the Etesise, 271 
 
 commends Dicsearchus, 316 
 
 Ciotat, town of, 15 
 
 Circello, monte, 24 
 
 Circius of Lucan, or Mistral, 245 
 
 Civilization due to Italy, 17 
 
 of Algeria, 94 
 
 Civita Vecchia, 23 
 Clark's hydrometer, 131 
 Clarke on the Black Sea, 281 
 Classic surveys, 314 
 Claudos, now Gozze, isles, 67 
 Climates, the Earth divided into, 116 
 Climate of the Mediterranean, 210 
 
 steadiness of, 219 
 
 Cloud bank, off Santa Maura, 108 
 Clouds, prognostics of wind, 238 
 
 their height in summer, 240 
 
 their colour, 287 
 
 Cluverius quoted, 29 
 Coast of the Var, 17 
 
 changes, various changes, 113 
 
 contour, widely different, 138 
 
 Cocozzo, monte, 26 
 
 Ccelo- Syria of the Eomans, 82 
 
 Colas, a celebrated diver, 181 
 
 Cold winters recorded by ancients, 220 
 
 Collingwood, Ld., in the gulf of Lyons, 2 42 
 
 Colmars, 17 
 
 Colonna, cape, 62 
 
 Colossus of Rhodes, 68 
 
 Colour of sea-water, 125 
 
 Columbretes, isles of, 12, 241 
 
 Columbus aided by previous errors, 329 
 
 Columella on climate, 220 
 
 Columns of Hercules, 115 
 
 Comacchio, 37 
 
 Comet observed in 1819, 257 
 
 Comino, 33 
 
 Commerce, Genoese, 20 
 
 of the Mediterranean, 100, 352 
 
 Comparison of rivers, 146 
 
 barometric levels, 214 
 
 Compass reform, 385 
 Compazant, or Corpo Santo, 267 
 Conditions of evaporation in Mediter- 
 ranean, 149 
 Conejara, isle of, 12 
 Conero, mount, 37 
 Conductors invaluable, 303 
 Congelation, line of, in Spain, 223, 232 
 Constantinople, 74, 410 
 Contessa, guff of, 65 
 Continental islands, 137 
 Coode, Admiral, on lightning, 304 
 Cook and others puzzled by the needle, 384 
 Copeland, commander of Mastiff, 389 
 
 sent to the Levant, 405 
 
 Cordova, city of, 8 
 
 Corfu, 52, 166, 260 
 Corinth, 50, 166, 185 
 
 Cormorant lost on an old shoal, 335 
 
 Cornaro maps, 330 
 
 Corno, monte, 38 
 
 Coronelli, Venetian cosmographer, 341 
 
 Corrections by Strabo, 321 
 
 Corruption of Greek names, 411 
 
 Corsica, the sixth island, 28, 29 
 
 a pelagic island, 137 
 
 surveyed by the French, 378 
 
 and Tuscan islands, 396 
 
 Corsican weather, 248 
 
 Cortez lost his jewels, 301 
 
 Cosmus, Indicus Pleustes, 325 
 
 Costume changed in Turkey, 487 
 
 Cosulich, his Portulano of Adriatic, 259 
 
 Countess of Chichester nearly wrecked, 261 
 
 Cowageux lost in a Levanter, 237 
 
 Crau, stony desert, 14 
 
 Crescentio, a papal engineer, 337 
 
 Creta, the third island, 29 
 
 Creux, cape, 13 
 
 Croatia, east of the Adriatic, 40 
 
 Crusades, their effects, 3, 94, 299 
 
 Crustacea, list of, 295 
 
 Cubic contents of Mediterranean, 149 
 
 Cuelbis, chorographer, 344 
 
 Culloden on Al Bekur shoal, 335 
 
 Currents at Gibraltar, 130, 136 
 
 of the Mediterranean, 151 
 
 off Karamania, 168 
 
 ■ in the Faro, 179 
 
 Curzola, Adriatic, 44 
 Cyaneae, volcanic islets, 76 
 Cyclades of the Archipelago, 69 
 
 or Dodekanesi, 411 
 
 Cydnus of Cleopatra, 80 
 
 Cyprus, the fourth island, 29, 82, 107, 
 
 168, 282 
 Cyrenaica, ruins there, 485, 494 
 Cyrene or Grennah, 86 
 
 Dalmatia, 41, 402 
 Damage by lightning, 302 
 Damietta, 84 
 Daniell on meteorology, 214 
 
 on the atmosphere, 231 
 
 Dante, his tenth guff, 22 
 
 on the Mediterranean, 322 
 
 D'Anville on Ptolemy's error, 321 
 Dardanelles, 2, 65, 74, 280 
 
 of Lepanto, 51 
 
 Dates and grapes thrive in Syria, 218 
 Datum on level of inner sea, 191 
 Daussy on Palermo longitude, 419 to 423 
 Davy, Dr., on Graham isle, 111, 498 
 Davy's theory on colour, 126 
 Dead Sea, its low level, 137 
 Decanter experiment on sea water, 157 
 Decomposition of rocks, 388 
 Deep waters remain quiet, 114 
 Deepest water sounded, 128, 147, 390 
 
506 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Deine or Anavolo, a spring, 142 
 Delos isle, now Sdili, 69, 70 
 Delphi, 51 
 
 , mount, 63 
 
 Delta formed by the Nile, 84, 287 
 De Luc's hygrom, 293 
 Deluge formed the Archipelago, 74 
 Demosthenes on lending, 276 
 Density of sea- water tried, 157 
 Depth of Adriatic, 35 
 
 of the Black Sea, 76 
 
 close under Stromboli, 111 
 
 ■ of the Mediterranean, 120 
 
 in the Strait, 159 
 
 Des Cartes on the Etesia, 270 
 
 Deterioration of climate, 224 
 
 Detritus carried in quantity, 136 
 
 Dew in the Mediterranean, 292 
 
 Dey of Algiers, 299 
 
 Djimova, or Tzimova, 59 
 
 Dicsearchus of Messina, 316 
 
 Difference between current and tide, 152 
 
 Diminution of heat in deep water, 124 
 
 Dinocrates on Mount Athos, 65 
 
 Diocletian, his palace, 42 
 
 Diodorus Sic. on the Syrtis, 288 
 
 Dionysius Pariegetes, 69 
 
 Dip sector lent by Gauttier, 382 
 
 Dip of horizon, 426 
 
 Discussion of Barometers, 213 
 
 Divisions of the Mediterranean, 123 
 
 Dobrena, 51 
 
 Dolmeitah, ancient Ptolemais, 87 
 
 Dolomieu on level of the sea, 105 
 
 Donati on the Adriatic, 134 
 
 Doria's aphorism on Mediterranean, 177 
 
 Dragomestre, 50 
 
 Drainage by rivers, 143 
 
 Drepano, gulf of Lepanto, 52 
 
 Drino, 45 
 
 Dudley's Arcano del Mare, 338 
 
 Duino, castle, 39 
 
 Dulcigno, 45 
 
 Dummer's Quarter Waggoner, 343 
 
 Durazzo, Adriatic, 45 
 
 Dust far at Sea, 294 
 
 Early surveys, 310 
 Earthquakes, 107 
 
 synchronous, 108 
 
 of 1783, 179 
 
 East coast of the Morea, 61 
 
 wind agreeable in Attica, 269 
 
 Eastern division of the Mediterranean, 232 
 Ebro, river of the, 8 
 
 Ebullitions of gas, 143 
 Ecclesiastes meteorological, 286, 288 
 Echinades, Adriatic, 50 
 Edrisi's account of the straits, 116 
 Egg plant, a prognostic, 277 
 Egripo channel, or Euripus, 63 
 
 Egripus, bridge of Negropont, 185 
 Egypt, 83, 218, 403 
 Egyptian surveys, 316 
 Ehrenberg on Infusoria, 293 
 Elanitic gulf, three islets, 334 
 Elba, 22, 336 
 
 Electricity strong in Ionia, 263 
 Electric agency in water-spouts, 266 
 
 fire in balls, 268 
 
 discharges, 302 
 
 • telegraph, 303 
 
 Eleia, plains of, 58 
 Elias, mount, height of, 63 
 Elijah's remark on the cloud, 285 
 Elymbo, the ancient Olympus, 64 
 Embasmos described, 185 
 Emerald frigate at Gibraltar, 156 
 Emo, Admiral, Face de Mare, 345 
 Emperor's castle, 300 
 
 Enghia, gulf of, 62 
 English possessions, 100 
 
 researches, 342 
 
 tourists in Greece, 348 
 
 Englishmen with Doria, 299 
 Entreprenante reef sought, 388 
 Eolian islands, 31 
 
 Ephesus, now Ayasolook, 73, 411 
 
 Epidamnus, its site, 35 
 
 Epirus, 45, 262 
 
 Equatorial winds, 233 
 
 Equinoxes, winds very changeable, 23 
 
 Eratosthenes on the Archipelago, 74 
 
 • apud Strabo, 122 
 
 systematic, 319 
 
 Ercole, port, 23 
 Eruptions, submarine, 107 
 Etcheuchoi river, 79 
 Etna, its height, 30 
 
 visible at Malta, 295 
 
 Etesiae, meltem of the Turks, 270 
 Eubcea, the fifth island, 29 
 Eudoxus of Cyzicus, 316 
 Eufemia, St., 25 
 
 Eugalmos described, 185 
 Euripides' naval figure, 273 
 Euripus at Negropont, 185, 410 
 Europa point, 175 
 Eurus, south-east wind, 279 
 Euxine said to have burst out, 119 
 
 favourable to strangers, 280 
 
 circumnavigated by Arrian, 318 
 
 Evaporation, amount of, 145 
 
 re-examined, 147, 150 
 
 Exmouth, Lord, his squadron, 90, 188, 
 
 287, 292, 359 
 Experiments on temperature, 125 
 Exports of the Sporades, 71 
 
 of Adalia, 79 
 
 of Ghuzza, 82 
 
 of Cyprus, 83 
 
 of Tripoli, 89 
 
INDEX. 
 
 507 
 
 Exports from Mostaza, 98 
 
 — table of, 100 
 
 Ezekiel's time alluded to, 311 
 
 Fahrenheit's improved thermometers, 220 
 
 scale generally used, 124 
 
 Fair wind, North and South, 260 
 Falconer quoted on water-spouts, 266 
 Falsehood on Entreprenante rock,* 389 
 Fano island, 53, 392 
 Famagusta port, in Cyprus, 82 
 Faraday on sea- water, 133 
 Farina, cape, 91, 93 
 Faro, of Messina, 178, 356 
 
 current, 163 
 
 winds, 250 
 
 Fata Morgana described, 289 
 Fauvel on sea levels, 152 
 Favignana isle, 32 
 Favonii of the Romans, 271 
 
 Fead, Captain, his letter quoted, 242 
 
 Felicudi isle, 31 
 
 Ferrara, 38, 48 
 
 Feuille'e, astronomer to Louis XIV., 342 
 
 Fezzan, Bey of, 482 and 485 
 
 Filfla rock, 33 
 
 Fire-balls, 268 
 
 Firenzo, San, 29 
 
 Fisheries in the Mediterranean, 196 
 
 Fitz Roy, Capt., observed barometers, 212 
 
 on lightning, 309 
 
 Fleet off Cape Sicie, 243 
 
 Flinders on the magnetic needle, 384 
 
 Flora frigate wrecked in a bora, 256 
 
 Fluvial system, table, 143 
 
 Fogs in the Syrtis, 290 
 
 Forbes, Prof. E., on fish, 193, 195 
 
 Formentera, isle of, 12 
 
 Fortis, the Abbate, 48, 135 
 
 Forty Thieves, ships so called, 244 
 
 Fossil bones in the Adriatic, 41 
 
 Fothergill, Captain, liked fog, 296 
 
 Fox rock strictly sought, 388 
 
 Foz, gulf of, 15 
 
 Fra Mauro, the cosmographer, 85, 326 
 
 France, its coast, 13, 394 
 
 Franklinian theory, 263 
 
 Fredericsteen, H.M.S., 186, 350 
 
 Frejus now inland, 13 
 
 French Geographical Society, 116 
 
 ■ surveyors, 340 
 
 results in the Archipelago, 368 
 
 Fresh springs in the Mediterranean, 140 
 
 Freshes in rivers, how produced, 163 
 
 Fretum Herculeum, 6, 158 
 
 Fullonica, 21 
 
 Fulminante struck on an old shoal, 335 
 
 Fumosa reef, Baia bay, 334 
 
 Fundus maris, 134 
 
 Furiani, or S.S.E., near the Po, 2^4 
 
 Fursung or parasanga, 326 
 
 Gadbuey on weather, 276 
 
 Gaeta, 25 
 
 Gaio, port, 53 
 
 Gaio rock, near Paxo, 333 
 
 Galaxidi, 51 
 
 Gale endured by H.M.S. Melpomene, 240 
 
 of 1840 in the Levant, 284 
 
 Galiano's chronometric runs, 349 
 Galilee, its sea, 82 
 Galita island, 93 
 
 has an easterly current, 165 
 
 Galleys of Arragon, 327 
 
 GalH rocks, 26 
 
 Gallipoli, port of, 74 
 
 Gallo, cape, 58 
 
 Galofaro, or Charybdis, 182 
 
 Gargano, Testa dl, 37 
 
 Gargarah, Mount Ida, Q6 
 
 Garrisons of our dependencies, 103 
 
 Gases found in sea-water, 133 
 
 Gaseous ebullitions, 143 
 
 Gastuni, 57 
 
 Gata, Cape de, 6 
 
 Gaul, its severe winters, 220 
 
 Gauttier's points and Smyth's, 147 
 
 Gauttier, Capt, 359, 361, 366, 369, 420 
 
 points, 460 to 470 
 
 Gen-Argentu, mount, 29 
 General chart of the Mediterranean, 393 
 Generation of earthquakes, 110 
 Genesis, book of, quoted, 310 
 Genoa, 19, 395 
 
 Geodetic angles from a base, 383 
 Geographia Nubiensis, 115 
 Geographical Journal on Graham Is- 
 land, 112 
 Geographical Soc. Journal quoted, 12, 153 
 Geographical points, 431 to 470 
 Geological changes, 19, 46, 80, 105, 121 
 
 Roman, 26 
 
 — in Syria, 82 
 
 in Barbary, 88 
 
 Geology of the Liparis, 32 
 
 Morea, 60 
 
 Black Sea, 77 
 
 Archipelago, 72 
 
 Geometers under Alexander, 116 
 Gerardo's route to the Holy Land, 341 
 Ghaziyah, or gust of wind, 284 
 Ghermano, 51 
 
 Ghirrza, researches at, 483, 489 
 Ghozzo, its exports, 82 
 Giagiapha, fishery, 58 
 Gianuti, isles, 25 
 Gibbs's analysis of dust, 294 
 Gibraltar, its height, 4 
 
 strait, 119, 159, 161 
 
 meteorology, 217, 310 
 
 Giglio isle, 22, 396 
 
 Gioja, 25 
 
 Girgenti, and views of, 399 
 
508 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Glasgoio frigate at Corfu, 108 
 
 Glyki, 49 
 
 Golden-horn, 75 
 
 Golfe de Venise, by Bellin, 346 
 
 Goletta of Tunis, 92, 187 
 
 Gominitse, 49 
 
 Gondola of Venice, 39 
 
 Gore, Sir John, 264 
 
 Gorgoglione's Portolano, 344 
 
 Gorgonaisle, 22 
 
 Gosselin on Geography, 324 
 
 Gouffier, Count, in Archipelago, 348 
 
 Gourjean, 17 
 
 Go vino, port, 53 
 
 Gozo, 33 
 
 Gozze isles, Archipelago, 67 
 
 Grabusa, port of Candia, 68 
 
 Graham isle, off Sicily, 111 and 498 
 
 Granitola, cape, 31 
 
 Grasswrack indicates shoals, 379 
 
 Graves, Captain, in the JEgean, 195, 405 
 
 on Malta longitude, 420 
 
 Gravity of sea- water, table, 131 
 Great Sea of the Scriptures, 1 
 Greater Syrtis, perils there, 288 
 Greece, western, 48 
 Greek names, how transfused, 409 
 
 pilots, corrupt names, 412 
 
 Green Sea, Arabian name, 1 
 
 Gregale, or N.E. wind, 249, 251 
 
 Grossa isle, Adriatic, 44 
 
 Guadalaviar, river of, 7 
 
 Gulfs of Egina and Corinth compared, 152 
 
 Gulf stream in the Atlantic, 159 
 
 Guns fired at water-spouts, 266 
 
 Gut, or strait, 5 
 
 Gulf of Valencia, 239 
 
 gale described, 245 
 
 Gyrations cause a siphon, 264 
 
 Habits of fishes, 195 
 
 Hakluyt on commerce, 3 
 
 Hall's ' Patchwork,' 30 
 
 Halley, theory of evaporation, 144 
 
 hydrographical mission, 344 
 
 Hamadryad stranded, 298 
 Harmattan announced by a cloud, 246 
 Harris, Sir S., on lightning, 305 
 Health of Eome, 224 
 Hebrew word dag, or fish, 196 
 Hebrews learnt surveying, 312 
 Hedissarum coronaria, 33 
 Height of waves estimated, 242 
 
 ■ mountains, 391, 425 
 
 Helena, or St. Elmo's fire, 268 
 Hellespontic or N.E. winds, 270 
 Hellespontus, Dardanelles, 124 
 Herculaneum, 26 
 Hermenegildo wrecked, 156 
 Herodotus on the Adriatic, 34 
 on the aspropotamo, 50 
 
 Herodotus on the sea of Azof, 148 
 
 quoted on Euripus, 185 
 
 records cold winters, 220 
 
 a valuable geographer, 315 
 
 Hesiod, Boeotian winters of, 269 
 
 a geographer, 313 
 
 Hesperides, where situated, 495 
 Hexamili, isthmus of, 410 
 Hipparchus, an able astronomer, 320 
 Hippocrates a geographer, 315 
 Hirondelle cutter wrecked, 296 
 Homem, hydrographer 16th century, 331 
 Homer's evil vapour, Iliad v., 251 
 
 a good geographer, 312 
 
 Horace on the streets of Eome, 222 
 
 on the Adriatic, 34 
 
 Hornemann's effects, 490, 492 
 
 Horizon at sea, 425 
 
 Hot springs, 106 
 
 Hurd, Capt., consulted with, 354 
 
 official note on the Adriatic, 364 
 
 Hydro-geology of the Liparis, 32 
 Hydrostatic pressure, 151 
 Hydrographic Office in 1813 
 
 opinions, 373 
 
 415 
 
 355 
 
 Hyeres, bay of, 16 
 Hygrometer by De Luc, 214 
 
 wet and dry bulb, 293 
 
 Hymettus corrupted into Matto, 411 
 
 Ice in the Euxine, 168 
 
 Ichthyology of the Mediterranean, 192 
 
 Ichthyological table, 199 
 
 Ida, now Psitoriti, 67 
 
 Idrisi quoted, 86 
 
 Igneous regions, 106 
 
 Iliaco, river, 57 
 
 Iliad quoted on winds, 277 
 
 IUyricum, 45 
 
 Ilyssus, 63 
 
 Imbattu, or sea breeze, 249, 282 
 
 Incoronata, Adriatic, 44 
 
 Increase of land, 47 
 
 Indications of the scirocco, 252 
 
 of winds by barometer, 298 
 
 Indraught at Gibraltar, 158 
 Instruments in 1812, 212 
 Interior of Barbary, 482 
 Inundations of the Nile, 169 
 Invertebrata of the JEgean, 195 
 Iodine supposed to colour sea- water, 126 
 
 traced in sea- water, 132 
 
 Ionian sea, 49, 124 
 
 islands, 52, 102 
 
 currents, 166 
 
 sea, its tides, 184 
 
 winds, 260 
 
 Islands of first importance, 362 
 
 Islands, 402 
 
 Ioura island, ancient Jos, 64 
 
INDEX. 
 
 509 
 
 Isaiah on the Sarab, 288 
 Ischia, isle, 25 
 Iskanderdn, gulf of, 78 
 
 unhealthy, 82 
 
 Islands now inland, 13 
 Islet off Cephalonia, 109 
 Isogenic curves, 425 
 Istria, .39, 400 
 Italian islands, 28 
 Italy, western, 17, 395 
 Ithaca, 52 
 Ithacan squalls, 261 
 Itinerary of A ntonine, 318 
 Iviza, isle of, 11 
 
 Jacob's prophecy, 310 
 
 Jaffa, Joppa, 82 
 
 Janizary, cape, Sigeu/m, 66 
 
 Jason's fleet, 48 
 
 Jebel Akhdar, mountains, 86 
 
 Jerbah, island, 90, 187 
 
 Jeremiyah, bight of, 99 
 
 Jesuits' survey of Provence, 344 
 
 Johnson, superintendent of compasses, 385 
 
 Jomard, geographical researches, 328 
 
 Jonah's great fish, 196 
 
 Jordan river, 82, 137 
 
 Joshua quoted, 83, 312 
 
 Julian Alps send the Boras down, 255 
 
 Jupiter Serapis, 27 
 
 Justinian interfered with navigation, 313 
 
 Jyhoon river, 80 
 
 Kaiapha fishery, 58 
 Kaisarijah, 82 
 Kakara, under water, 80 
 Kakosouli, 49 
 Kalam^ki, 62 
 Kalamata, 59 
 Kalavria, 62 
 Kalavryta unhealthy, 52 
 Kaloyeri rocks, 71 
 Kandela port, 50 
 Kassandra promontory, 64 
 
 gulf of, 65 
 
 Kastelorizo port, 79 
 
 Katakolo cape, 57 
 
 Kater's compass, boat-bearings, 386 
 
 Kara-agatch port, 78 
 
 Kara-dutash, black rock, 80 
 
 Karamania, 78, 162 
 
 by Beaufort, 350 
 
 Karlopago, 40 
 
 Karnia, 50 
 
 Karystus, 63 
 
 Keats, Sir R. G., 99, 335, 353 
 
 Keith, Lord, 78, 98 
 
 Kempthorne on the Mediterranean, 342 
 
 Kenkries, 62 
 
 Kerka river, 41 
 
 Kervasara port, 49 
 
 Khabs Gulf, Lesser Syrtis, 89 
 
 its tides, 187 
 
 Khamsin, or south wind, 285 
 Khelidonia cape, 79 
 Khillidromi islands, 64 
 Khimara, mount, 45 
 Khosar, or Euxine sea, 118 
 
 King's survey of Magellan's strait, 405 
 
 Kissano, Mount Ossa, 64 
 
 Kitries, 59 
 
 Klarenza, ruins of, 57 
 
 Knights of St. John, 32, 299 
 
 Kolokythia, gulf of, 60 
 
 Koluri, or Salamis, 62 
 
 Konello, cape, 58 
 
 Kordn, gulf of, 59 
 
 Kor6n quoted on mirage, 288 
 
 Kos, gulf of, 67, 73 
 
 Krio, cape, Cnidus, 66 
 
 Kriti, or Candia, 67 
 
 Kurzolari, group of islands, 50, 55 
 
 Kyamil Bey, ruler of Corinth, 51 
 
 Labeschade winds, 162 
 Lagosta, Adriatic, 44 
 Laide no longer an island, 73 
 Lakes dried by nature, 65 
 
 explored by the French, 85 
 
 — ■ do not burst suddenly, 118 
 
 Land emerged from the sea, 122 
 
 squalls, or raggiature, 247 
 
 and sea breeze at Corfu, 260 
 
 carriage from India, 311 
 
 Lannoy on Egypt and Syria, 328 
 Larmour shoal, 499 
 
 Lastua in Dalmatia, 41 
 Latakia, 82 
 
 Lateral set of the current, 156 
 Latitudes reckoned in Stadia, 323 
 
 and elevation form climate, 232 
 
 observed on shore, 381 
 
 Laurens on sea water, 132 
 
 Laurus nobilis, Linn., 221 
 
 Lautrec, General, encamped at Baise, 228 
 
 Lavagna, 20 
 
 Law of storms, its development, 244 
 
 Laws, maritime, from Rhodes, 68 
 
 of atmospheric phenomena, 211 
 
 for shipping, 276 
 
 Lead and look-out not enough, 352 
 
 Leading winds at Gibraltar, 301 
 
 Leake, on the Zarethra, 1 42 
 
 Leander's Tower, 75 
 
 Lebanon influences the wind, 283 
 
 Lefkimo shoal in old surveys, 335 
 
 Leghorn, 21, 409 
 
 Lelewel, geographical researches, 328 
 
 Lemnos, Stalimini, 65 
 
 Length and breadth of Mediterranean, 139 
 
 Le Noir's repeating circle, 366 
 
510 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Le Noir's dip-sector, after Wollaston's,'382 
 
 Leopard lost in Cagliari Bay, 249 
 
 Lepanto, gulf of, 45, 50, 166, 412 
 
 Leptis magna, 359, 489 
 
 Leros isle, 71 
 
 Lesbos the seventh island, 29, 71 
 
 Lesina, Adriatic, 37, 44 
 
 Lethada, cape, 63 
 
 Levanso, 32 
 
 Levant winds, their effects, 4 
 
 trade, 62 
 
 basin, 78, 120, 136, 232 
 
 Levanter, or Solano, dangerous, 235 
 Levanto, directory by, 339 
 Level of Mediterranean, 104, 116 
 Leuca, Sta. Maria di, 36 
 Leucadia, 52 
 
 Libeccio, S.W., or Labbetch, 297 
 Libs, S.W. wind, 280 
 Liburnides, Adriatic isles, 44 
 Libyan coast bold-to, 121 
 Liebig on hyper-critics, 393 
 Ligazzi, or local currents, 165 
 Lighthouses numerous, 351 
 Lightning intense in Ionia, 263 
 
 — sheet, and water-spouts, 266 
 
 accidents by, 302 
 
 Ligurian Apennines, 19 
 
 Lingua di Bagascia, 79 
 
 Linguetta, true bearings, 392 
 
 Linnasan nomenclature adopted, 198 
 
 Linosa, island of, 399 
 
 Lipari islands, 31, 398 
 
 Liquefaction of gases by pressure, 133 
 
 Liquids, their laws, 105 
 
 Lisan el Kahpeh, 79 
 
 Lisbon earthquake, 107 
 
 Lissa, Adriatic, 44 
 
 Lithada isles, 64 
 
 Lithodomus, where found, 27 
 
 Livadostro, 51 
 
 Livy on plague, so called, 228 
 
 Llobregat, river of the, 9 
 
 Lloiret, French surveying brig, 377 
 
 Logarithmic comparison of evaporation, 148 
 
 Lombardy, 47 
 
 Longitudes by the ancients, 323, 369 
 
 of Palermo Observatory, 417 
 
 Longo Sardo, 29 
 
 Looming by fog, 291 
 
 Loretto, 37 
 
 Losses by lightning, 305 to 307 
 
 Lossin, fossil bones, 41 
 
 Lover's leap at Leucadia, 107 
 
 Lower Egypt, its climate, 285 
 
 Lubnam or Lebanon, 81 
 
 Lucan's prediction on the Syrtis, 122, 190 
 
 Luccio, De, quoted on the Adriatic, 135, 
 
 165, 349, 362 
 Lucretius describes the Prester, 264 
 Luminosity of sea-water, 126 
 
 Lunars, why not to be depended on, i 
 
 Luni, Marinella di, 21 
 
 Lupo, hydrographer in 1600, 331 
 
 Lusieri, Lord Elgin's artist, 269, 278 
 
 Lutke on Malta longitude, 420 
 
 Lybia, coast of, 287 
 
 Lyell, Peter, Murad Re'is, 88 
 
 Sir Charles, on sea- water, 130 
 
 his Principles of Geology, 160 
 
 Lykddamo, mount, 58 
 Lyon, Captain, an Arabic scholar, 376, 493 
 Lyons, gulf of, feels a current, 162, 241 
 Lysippus of Sicyon, 51 
 
 Macaeska, small port, 42 
 
 Maccalubi springs, 32 
 
 Macculloch, Dr., on malaria, 225 
 
 Macmichael on sea- water, 127 
 
 Macronisi, 63 
 
 Maddalena, La, 29 
 
 Maestrale, or N. W. wind, 248 
 
 Maggiore, monte, 40 
 
 Magnetic deviations, 384, 425 
 
 Mahmoud Pasha, 43 
 
 Mahon in Minorca, 394 
 
 Mama, resort of pirates, 59 
 
 Ma'inotes, people of Ma'ina, 59 
 
 Maiolo, De, hydrographer, 16th cent., 331 
 
 Maitland, Sir Anthony, 108 
 
 ■ SirThomas,43,49,359,362,487 
 
 Majella, monte, 38 
 
 Majerdah filling up, 93 
 
 Majorca, 10, 292, 298 
 
 Makri, gulf of, 78 
 
 Malaccia, old term for calm, 247 
 
 Malaga, 6 
 
 Malamocco breaks the current, 135 
 
 Malaria, 225 to 229 
 
 Maiden, Lieutenant, 109, 383 
 
 Malea, cape, 48 
 
 Maleca, cape, Candia, 68 
 
 Maledetto levante rather S.E., 249 
 
 Malta island, 32 
 
 and Gozo, tables, 102 
 
 climate, 250 
 
 longitude, 418 
 
 Malte Brun on the Mediterranean, 354 
 
 Mamatili, or maestrale, 250 
 
 Mamertinum fretum, 163 
 
 Mandeliyah, gulf of, 67 
 
 Mandili, cape, 63 
 
 Mandri, port, 63 
 
 Map of Ptolemy, 320 
 
 Mappa mondo of Mauro, 326 
 
 Maraldi on the Mediterranean, 153 
 
 Marathonisi, 55 
 
 Marathon, plain, 63 
 
 Marcet on sea- water, 127, 132 
 
 Mare grosso at Messina, 179 
 
 Maremme, 22 
 
 Mare-moto, or sea-quake, 106 
 
INDEX. 
 
 511 
 
 Mareotig lake, 85 
 
 Maretimo, land-fall, 32, 355 
 
 Marine zoology by Aristotle, 198 
 
 Marino Sanuto, 327 
 
 Marinus of Tyre, 321 
 
 Mariotte on the intensity of wind, 291 
 
 Mark, St., 52 
 
 Market prices, 103 
 
 Marmarica claimed by Egypt, 84 
 
 Marmericheh, excellent, 351 
 
 Marmora, sea of, 74, 167 
 
 Marmorice, Mermericheh, 78 
 
 Marobia, confused sea, 164 
 
 Marsa Scirocco reef, 335 
 
 Marseilles, 15, 395 
 
 Marshes, Pontine, 24 
 
 Marsigli on the Danube, 152 
 
 on the height of waves, 242 
 
 Martial on frost, 223 
 
 Martiguez, lagoon, 15 
 
 Martines, hydrographer, 16th century, 331 
 
 Martyn, Prof., on the Lauras, 221 
 
 Massacre of the Scians, 72 
 
 Massey's sounding machine, 390 
 
 Massiha, solstice at, 319 
 
 Matafuz, cape in Algeria, 95, 336 
 
 Matapan, cape, 59 
 
 Mataro, populous town, 10 
 
 Mathematics of the ancients, 320 
 
 Maura, Sta., 44 
 
 Maury's Winds and Currents, 427 
 
 Mazzara, site of the Marobia, 164 
 
 Mavro Nisi, by Chabert, 346 
 
 Meander indicted, 73 
 
 Meat will not salt in a scirocco. 252 
 
 Mediaeval commerce, 3 
 
 opinions, 325 
 
 Medina Sidonia, mounts, 235 
 Mediterranean, its character, Intr. 
 
 its importance, 2 
 
 how formed, 114 
 
 ■ tides, 172 
 
 fogs, 290 
 
 rescued from gross errors, 
 
 405 ^ 
 Meganisi, Ionian islands, 54 
 Meis, Pashalik of, 79 
 Meliala, mount, 52 
 Melilah fortress, 97 
 Melina, or Medinah-Dugha, 486 
 Melita Africana, 33 
 Melpomene of Herodotus, 148 
 Mercator's increase of latitude, 337 
 Meridian traced by Eratosthenes, 319 ■ 
 
 of the Arabians, 327 
 
 Mermericheh, Marmorice, 78 
 Mesratah, 87 
 
 entrance to the Syrtes, 190 
 
 Messina, 30 
 
 beaches, 142 
 
 currents, 163 
 
 Messina, Faro of, 398 
 
 Meswres Itin. in Strabo, 324 
 
 Metals and Marbles, 428 
 
 Meteorology, 210, 215, 391 
 
 Meton's latitude of Athens, 319 
 
 Miasma, 226 
 
 Michael Angelo, 23 
 
 Michelot, Pilote Hauturier, 341 
 
 Middle Ages, § 2, 325 
 
 Migratory fishes, 197 
 
 Miletus, the sea receding, 73 
 
 Miller, Professor, on barometers, 212 
 
 Millo, 68 islands, 16th century, 331 
 
 Milo, one of the Cyclades, 69 
 
 Minasi on mirage, 290 
 
 Minoa isle is lost, 73 
 
 Minorca, 10, 12 
 
 Minos active against pirates, 313 
 
 Miquelon now inland, 13 
 
 Mirage described, 288 
 
 Mirror of Navigation, 343 
 
 Miscellanea Curiosa, 145 
 
 Miseno, cape, 25 
 
 Missolunghi, 50 
 
 Mistra, 60 
 
 Mistral, or Bize, 245 
 
 Modern operations, 336 
 
 Modi, 55 
 
 Modon, 58 
 
 Mohaderah port, 86 
 
 Mokrl, 55 
 
 Mola di Gaeta, 25 
 
 MoUusks, list of, 205 
 
 Monaco, 19 
 
 Monde Aquatique, by Peter Goos, 339 
 
 Moneglia, 20 
 
 Monembasia, 61 
 
 Monsoons of the Levant, 271 
 
 Montagu shoal, C. Chiarenza, 333 
 
 Montanari on currents, 170 
 
 Monte Christo, 22 
 
 Cuculi sunk by a bora, 256 
 
 Santo, Archipelago, 65 
 
 Scopo, 55 
 
 Monteith on boiling water, 153, 281 
 Montenegro limestone, 43 
 
 cloudless thunder, 260 
 
 Montenero, its height, 54 
 Monthly temperature, 216 
 Montpellier, 14 
 
 Moon, why powerless in the Mediter- 
 ranean, 173 
 Moon's irradiation deceptive, 382 
 Moorish names in Spain, 406 
 Moors, their conduct, 99 
 Morea, 52 
 
 its products, 57 
 
 climate of the, 262 
 
 survey of, 402 
 
 Morena Sierra, de, 8 
 ' Morgian la Fay,' 289 
 
512 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Morlachian shores, 40 
 Morocco, empire of, 95, 99, 301, 405 
 Morozzo on the Adriatic, 153 
 Moses quoted by Dr. Clarke, 282 
 
 ■ laid down boundaries, 312 
 
 Mostaza port, 98 
 Mountains in Spain, 4 
 Mountain gusts, 297 
 
 of salt, reported, 488 
 
 Mourmaki rocks, 59 
 
 Mourtzo, 49 
 
 Mousa, Jebel, 99 
 
 Moxacar, Spain, 6 
 
 Mugghito in the Corfu channel, 261 
 
 Muluwi river bounds Algeria, 96 
 
 Murad Reis, a Scotchman, 88 
 
 Murat, defence of Sicily against, 354 
 
 Murcia, population, 8 
 
 Murviedro, beauty of, 8 
 
 Myconi isle, 70 
 
 Mytiline isle, 71 
 
 Nahr-el-'A'si river, 82 
 Naples, coast of, 24 
 
 Calabria, by Zannoni, 348 
 
 gulf of, 396 
 
 east coast, 400 
 
 Napoli di Romania, 61 
 Narbonne, 14 
 Natolica, 50 
 Nauplia, gulf of, 61 
 Naupactus, etymology of, 411 
 Naussa, port of Paros, 70 
 Nautical survey, the first, 314 
 Nautilus rock, Cerigotto, 333 
 Naval health in Mediterranean, 230 
 Navarino, harbour of, 58 
 Navigation, its origin, 2 
 
 '< of the Archipelago, 72 
 
 of the Faro, 180 
 
 Navy of Algiers, 94 
 
 Naxia, or Axia, 69 
 N.C.A.P.R, 428 
 Neapolitan staff-officers, 363 
 Nearchus, Admiral, 316 
 Negro, cape, 98 
 Negropont island, 63 
 
 how derived, 410 
 
 Nelson in the Faro, 180 
 
 in the Gulf of Lyons, 242 
 
 at Madalena, 335 
 
 Neptune presided over Mediterranean, 429 
 Nerita shoal alluded to, 112 
 Nettuno, port, 24 
 Newton unveiled tides, 174 
 Newtonian answer to paradox, 173 
 Nicaria isle, 71 
 Nice, port of, 19 
 
 the climate, 246 
 
 and Spezzia, divisions, 423 
 
 Nicolas, Captain, on a rock, 332 
 Nicopolis, 49 
 
 Nile, its alluvion, 85 
 
 ■ it rises to 23 feet, 169 
 
 of Herodotus, 488 
 
 Nio isle, 70 
 
 Nomenclature adopted, 406 
 Northers disastrous, 273 
 Notus, or south wind, 280 
 Novigradi, 41 
 
 Oars, 273 
 
 Ocean described by Abu Zeid, 118 
 
 Ocrida Lake, 45 
 
 Odyssey quoted on winds, 277 
 
 OEniadse not traceable, 415 
 
 GCta, mount, 64 
 
 Officers of the Aid and Adventure, 375 
 
 Ogliastro, 29 
 
 Ogygian deluge in Archipelago, 74, 118 
 
 Omar-el- Aalem on tides, 138 
 
 Ombrone, 22 
 
 Opening a road into Africa, 481 
 
 Opus, fort, 42 
 
 Orca seen by Pliny, 196 
 
 Origin of the Mediterranean, 114 
 
 Oristano, 29 
 
 Orloff, Count, 228 
 
 Ornithii, winds brought birds, 272 
 
 Oros Troados in Cyprus, 83 
 
 Orthography adopted, 406 
 
 Osero, fossil bones, 41 
 
 Osiris and Typhon, their strife, 88 
 
 Ostia, port of, 23 
 
 Otranto, 35 
 
 Ouragans, or violent storms, 246 
 
 Overfalls thought shoals, 500 
 
 Ovid on Bura, 52 
 
 on the Syrtis, 122 
 
 alludes to the glass orb, 317 
 
 Oxoi, 55 
 
 Padua, 47 
 
 Psestum temples, 26 
 
 Pago isle, 41 
 
 Palseopoli, vestiges of, 57 
 
 Palamides, mount, 61 
 
 Palamos, good roadstead, 10 
 
 a rock in, 333 
 
 Palaesti, 46 
 
 Paleassa or Palseste, 46 
 Paleo Avarino, peninsula, 58 
 Palermo in Sicily, 30, 46 
 
 and its environs, 397 
 
 position by Piazzi, 417 
 
 Palestine, its inland traffic, 310 
 Pallas, Professor, quoted, 107* 138 
 Palmarola isle, 25 
 Palus Maeotis, 2 
 Panaria, 31, 143 
 Pantano, near Alicant, 7 
 Pantellaria isle, 32, 392, 399 
 Papal States, 400 
 
INDEX. 
 
 513 
 
 Papas, Cape, 57 
 
 Paradox of rocks growing, 387 
 
 Paraetonium, ancient port, 86 
 
 Parallel of latitude by Eratosthenes, 319 
 
 Parasanga, or Fursung, 326 
 
 Parenzo, 39 
 
 Parga, cession of, 49 
 
 Parnassus, 51 
 
 Paris level for barometer, 214 
 
 Paros isle, 69 
 
 Parthian struck on an old shoal, 335 
 
 Patella shoal off Prevesa, 333 
 
 Patent log runs by boats, 362 
 
 Patino, or Patmos, 71 
 
 Patras, 57, 184 
 
 Patroclus, Admiral, 316 
 
 Patton, experiment in the strait, 156 
 
 Pausanias on Bura, 52 
 
 on Chrysae, 73 
 
 quoted on springs, 142 
 
 a topographer, 315 
 
 Paxo, 52 
 
 Pegola Mount, 45 
 
 Pelagossa, Adriatic, 44 
 
 Pelago, 64 
 
 Pelagie islands, 137 
 
 Pellew, Sir E., watered at Ehone, 243 
 
 Pelion, Mount, 64 
 
 Penetration of light, 192 
 
 Penon de Velez islet, 98 
 
 Penrose, Admiral, in the Faro, 181 
 
 Sir C. V., on Capt. Gauttier, 419 
 
 Pentapolis, its ports, 87 
 
 Percolation very great, 142 
 
 Periodical breezes in the Levant, 282 
 
 Periplus by Scylax, 315 
 
 Periphery of the Mediterranean, 99 
 
 Permanent conductors, 309 
 
 Perpetual congelation, 232 
 
 Pesaro, 37 
 
 Pestilential air, Oristano, 29 
 
 Petalio isles, 64 
 
 Peter's, St., lofty cross, 23 
 
 Peter Gower, or Pythagoras, 443 
 
 Petrified beach noticed by Beaufort, 81 
 
 city of Nardoun, 484 
 
 Petrovitz, clan of, 43 
 Peutingerian Table, 323 
 Phaeton fired by lightning, 303 
 Phanari, 49 
 
 Pharos island now on the main, 85 
 Philaeni, their altar, 89, 494 
 Philemon, Holland, 88 
 Phineka, Cape, 81 
 Phlegrsean zone, 106 
 Phoenicians early merchants, 310 
 Pharnix, privateer at Gibraltar, 154 
 
 frigate wrecked, 274 
 
 Pholoe, Mount, 58 
 Phosphorescence of sea water, Vll 
 Physics of the Mediterranean, 132 
 
 Pianosa Isle, 22 
 
 Piazza San Marco afloat, 183 
 
 Piazzi, his register of weather, 215 
 
 on position of Palermo, 415 
 
 on longitude of Palermo, 417 
 
 Pidavro, 62 
 
 Pieria, Mount, its height, 81 
 
 Pietro, San, isle, 29 
 
 Pigafitta, comp. of Magellan, 338 
 
 Pillars of Hercules, 311 
 
 Pineto, forest of pines, 47 
 
 Pinna Marina shoal alluded to, 112 
 
 Piombino, 21 
 
 Piperi, 64 
 
 Pique cut away her masts, 284 
 
 Piraeus, changes of name, 411 
 
 Pirano, 39 
 
 Pirates haunted the Archipelago, 313 
 
 Pisa, proverb, 21 
 
 Pizzigani, the brothers, 328 
 
 Pityusae, 11, 12 
 
 Placca, La, at St. Maura, 53 
 
 Plague or pestilence, 227 
 
 Planca, point, 44 
 
 Plata, Cape La, near Gibraltar, 160 
 
 Plessidi, Mount, 64 
 
 Pliny translated by P. Holland, 88 
 
 quoted on percolation, 142 
 
 on tides, 174 
 
 on the Syrtes, 188 
 
 1. De Nat. Caeli and Arbores, 221 
 
 2. On temperature, 221 
 
 ■ On water spouts, 265 
 
 quoted on electric omens, 268 
 
 theory on the sun's heat, 271 
 
 on the dew-point, 293 
 
 ' Plumbeus auster' of Horace, 249 
 Po, its mouths, 37, 135 
 
 the rex fluviorum, 144 
 
 Pola, 39 
 
 Polesino lies low, 38 
 
 Policastro, 25 
 
 Poliorcetes on sea levels, 152 
 
 Polybius on the Euxine, 78 
 
 on Carthagena, 177 
 
 soldier, historian, and geogra- 
 pher, 324 
 
 Porno islet, Adriatic, 44, 335 
 Pompeia, 26 
 Pondico, 55 
 Pontine marshes, 24 
 Ponza islands, 25, 396 
 Population of Spain, 8 
 
 of Baleares, 1 1 
 
 of Italy, 18 
 
 of Hydra, 62 
 
 Porquerolles rocks, 16 
 Poro, rock of, 61 
 
 Porto Franco, Leghorn, 21 
 
 Vecchio in Corsica, 29 
 
 Vitylo, 59 
 
 L L 
 
514 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Porto Kalo or Quaglio, 60 
 
 Leone, 62, 409 
 
 Portolani in the British Museum, 329 
 Ports of Spain, 6 
 
 of Istria, 39 
 
 small, near Tripoli, 89 
 
 of Algeria, 95 
 
 Posidonius measured an arc, 174 
 Potash detected in sea water, 132 
 Potier, Baron, on Adriatic, 362, 365 
 Pozzuoli, changes at, 27 
 Precautions against malaria, 225 
 
 against the bora, 256 
 
 against water-spouts, 265 
 
 against lightning, 304 
 
 Pressure of sea water, 133, 193 
 Prester of the Greeks, 264 
 
 Pre visa, 49 
 
 Prices of food, 103 
 
 Prina, geographical engineer, 363 
 
 Prinkipos or Princes Island, 74 
 
 Procida, isle of, 25 
 
 Prodano, coast isle, 58 
 
 Produce of Spain, 5 and 6 
 
 of Barcelona, 9 
 
 around Toulon, 16 
 
 of Sicily, 30 
 
 of Apulia, 37 
 
 - of Istria, 39 
 
 of Dalmatia, 42 
 
 of the Archipelago, 72 
 
 of Tunis, 92 
 
 of Algeria, 94 
 
 of Morocco, 96 
 
 Productiveness offish, 194 
 Prognoses of weather, 126, 237, 277 
 Projection by Ptolemy, 320 
 Promontore, cape, 40 
 Proofs of the tide's uses, 175 
 Propertius alludes to globes, 318 
 Protrusion of volcanic islets, 111 
 Provati, 55 
 
 Provencal couplet on the Bize, 245 
 Proverb at Nice, 246 
 Psitoriti, Mount Ida, 67 
 Ptolemy on Adriatic, 35 
 
 Katabathmos, 86 
 
 ■ distorted Mediterranean, 139 
 
 on latitudes and longitudes, 320 
 
 Pulo, its meaning in Greek, 69 
 Pyramids marking the Points, 365 
 Pyrenees, length of chain, 10 
 Pythagoras' notions still tenable, 122 
 Pytheas studied tides, 174 
 
 surveyed Lipara, 319 
 
 Pyrgo, 58 
 Pyrnatya, 59 
 
 Quakneeo, channels of the, 40 
 
 subject to squalls, 254 
 
 Quarter Waggoner, 343 
 
 Queen turned round in the Faro, 181 
 
 ■ of Naples in a scirocco, 253 
 
 struck by lightning, 304 
 
 Quintant, 9 -inch, and horizon, 381 
 Quixote, Don, on Spanish, 407 
 
 Raffiche, mountain gusts, 248, 261 
 
 Rageas, gusts of wind, 284 
 
 Raggiature, or land squalls, 247 
 
 Pagosniza, good port, 42 
 
 Pagusa, 41 
 
 Pain, its amount in the Mediterranean, 149 
 
 annual fall of, 217 
 
 essential to harvests, 295 
 
 Rampinu, or land wind, 249 
 
 Rapallo, 20 
 
 Raper on tides, 174 
 
 symbols, 427 
 
 Raphti, port, 63, 41 1 
 
 Ras-al-Kana'is, in Egypt, 84 
 
 Ras-el-Hilat, near Cyrene, 87 
 
 Ras-er-Tyn, Cape Fig, 85 
 
 Raven lost on Cape Granitola, 164 
 
 Ravenna now inland, 47 
 
 Receding sea in Archipelago, 73 
 
 Re-examinations by the author, 354 
 
 Refluo, or refolo, in the Faro, 179 
 
 Reggio, 26 
 
 Rhone, mouth of the, 394 
 
 Reid, Sir W., governor of Malta, 243 
 
 Reiner, the pilot, 175 
 
 Relative heights of seas, 152 
 
 longitudes, 383 
 
 Rendina, or Contessa, 65 
 
 Rennell, Major, quoted, 88, 158, 324 
 
 Renouard, Rev. G. C, on Arab names, 412 
 
 Re, Porto, 40 
 
 Respiratory organs of fishes, 195 
 
 Responsibility of officers, 229 
 
 Rhodes in 1530, 32 
 
 Rhone, the, 14 
 
 Rimbombi of volcanoes, 110 
 
 Rimini, 37 
 
 Risso on the surf, 163 
 
 on the Pomatomus telescopus, 193 
 
 Rivers flowing into Mediterranean, 140, 150 
 Road into Africa, 473 to 497 
 Rock reported off Santa Maura, 109 
 
 90 miles east of Malta, 121 
 
 off Cape de Gata, 332 
 
 Rochon's micrometer applied, 379 
 Rodney, the, suffered off Toulon, 244 
 Roger II., circular silver table, 326 
 Roman coast, 23 
 
 climate, 221 
 
 surveys, 317 
 
 Romans, modern inferior to ancient, 223 
 
 Romney Marsh, alluvion, 88 
 
 Rosetta, 84 
 
 Rossel, Admiral de, 368 
 
 Rotation requisite in a storm, 264 
 
 
INDEX. 
 
 515 
 
 Rotatory symptoms, 243 
 
 Roumili Castle, 51, 75 
 
 Roum, name of Mediterranean, 117 
 
 Rovigno, 39 
 
 Howe's Lucan quoted, 190 
 
 Ruad islet, a fresh spring, 111 
 
 Rufela, river of the Morea, 58 
 
 Ruins of Carthage, 92 
 
 Rumford on heated fluids, 158 
 
 Rupina, port, 60 
 
 Ryves, Captain, G. F., 335 
 
 Sabioxcello, near the Narenta, 42 
 Sabrina isle thrown up, 111 
 Sacred Scriptures referred to, 281 
 Sacrum Prom., St. Vincent, 323 
 Sagra, Isola, 23 
 Saint Angelo, or Kavo Malea, 60 
 
 Elias Mount, or Makryno, 59 
 
 Elmo's fire, or campazant, 267 
 
 Irene, or Santorini, 70 
 
 John's day usually fresh, 286 
 
 Sala brenna, Spain, 6 
 Salambria, the Peneus, 64 
 Salanta, channel, 64 
 
 Salazar's chronometric runs, 349 
 Salerno, bay of, 26 
 Salina, isle, 31 
 Salona, Greece, 51 
 
 town, 42 
 
 Salonica, gulf of, 64 
 
 Salt very good in Istria, 40 
 
 how made in Barbary, 495 
 
 Saltness of sea- water, 127 
 Samana Point, 45 
 
 Samiel, or Scirocco, 251 
 Samos isle, 71 
 
 Samothracian deluge, 74, 119 
 Samun wind, 286 
 San Dimitri, Cape, 64 
 
 Giovanni, Port, 49 
 
 Lucar shoals, 234 
 
 Martino, Cape, change of wind, 239 
 
 Pietro, and St. Nicola, 267 
 
 Sands, moving, of Shur, 83 
 Sanj^k Burnu, 414 
 
 Sansego, fossil bones, 41 
 Santorini isle, St. Irene, 70 
 Sapienza, island, 58 
 Sarah, or Mirage, 288 
 Saracenic ruins, Asia Minor, 80 
 Sarakino, or Peristeri, 64 
 Sarundi, Port, 51 
 Sardinia, 28 
 
 a pelagic island, 137 
 
 — its meteorology, 215, 249 
 general chart, 396 
 
 Sardinian dominions, 12 sheets, 346 
 Sarmatian vessel, 118 
 Saros, or Samothrace, 65 
 29 
 
 Sasseno isle, 46 
 
 Satan's current, 75 and 167 
 
 Savona, 19 
 
 Scala, or loading place, 6Q 
 
 ■ Nova, 67 
 
 Scalona, Ascalon, 82 
 
 Scaletta in Sicily, 31 
 
 Scardo isle, Adriatic, 44 
 
 Scardona, 41 
 
 Scarpanto island, 68 
 
 Schiron, or north-west wind, 279 
 
 hurricane, 274 
 
 Sciacca, its beach, 31 
 Sciarazza cove, 110 
 Science of geography, 319 
 Scio isle, 71 
 
 Scipio at Carthagena, 177 
 Scirocco, samiel of Egypt, 251 
 
 dust, 293 
 
 at Tunis, 296 
 
 Scombrera, rocky island, 177 
 Scropho, port, 50 
 Scriptural allusions, 285 
 Scutari, 45 
 
 or Uskrudar, 75 
 
 Scylax quoted, 29 
 
 on Malta, 33 
 
 on the Adriatic, 48 
 
 his Periplus, 315 
 
 Scyila, 178 
 
 Scymnus Chius, 48 
 
 Sea level steady, 144, 391 
 
 water weighed, 157 
 
 motions or currents, 162 
 
 breezes, 282 
 
 of Marmora, 2 and 74 
 
 funnel in the Black Sea, 113 
 
 pressure, 133 
 
 of Damascus, 326 
 
 Seanghero, 64 
 Seasons at Algiers, 297 
 
 influence the wind, 283 
 
 personified at Athens, 279 
 
 Sebenico, town of, 42 
 Sebenzanas, or Boras, 255 
 Secondary geological effects, 114 
 Segna, once a harbour, 40 
 Seneca, Nat. quaxst., 246 
 Septinsular domain, 48 
 Serpent's isle, Black Sea, 76 
 Sestri di Levante, 20 
 
 Sets of currents, 162 
 
 Seville, city of, 8 
 
 Sfakus, opulent and beautiful, !»1 
 
 Shallow water feels wind most, 171 
 
 Shallows in the Syrtes, 91 
 
 Shipping laws, 276 
 
 Ships struck by lightning, 305 — 7 
 
 Shoals of San Lucar, 234 
 
 disappear from charts, 332 
 
 Shores of France, 1 3 
 
516 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Spur, or Al JofiCr, 83 
 
 Sicie, Cape, well known, 15 
 
 Sicilian coast, 30 
 
 Sicilian weather, 249 
 
 Sicilie, le due, by Zannoni, 348 
 
 Sicily, meteorology of, 215 
 
 mirage, 290 
 
 Sierra Morena, 8 
 
 Sierra Leone, rain there, 217 
 
 Sidereal occupations abandoned, 382 
 
 Sidi Achmet Bey, 481 
 
 Sidi Mahomet at Tripoli, 482 
 
 Sieberfelt a mare moto, 109 
 
 Siffanto, or south-west, violent, 254 
 
 Sigeum Prom., 65 
 
 Silphium, the valuable shrub, 494 
 
 Silt, deposits of, 9, 113 
 
 Sinope, a volcano near it, 113 
 
 Siphanto isle, 70 
 
 Skala Rufeia, 58 
 
 Skerki reef doubted, 93 
 
 rocks, 136 
 
 Skhiza, or Cabrera, island, 58 
 
 Skiatho, 64 
 
 Skopelo, 64 
 
 Skyllo, cape, 62 
 
 Skyro island, 64 
 
 Slave trade with the interior, 485 
 
 Sleep renders liable to malaria, 227 
 
 Smith, Sir Sidney, 78 
 
 Smith, Dr., on the Mediterranean, 154 
 
 Smyrna, third city in Turkey, 66 
 
 tides, 186 
 
 Socrates humbled Alcibiades, 314 
 Snow and ice in ancient Rome, 222 
 Soil of Hydra, thin, 62 
 Solano, its effects, 28th March, 236 
 Soldan, Captain, assisted in GTeodesy, 383 
 Solomon on the north wind, 285 
 
 meteorology, 286, 288 
 
 Sonnini on deep soundings, 120 
 Sorelle rocks off Galita, 334 
 Sotta isle, Adriatic, 44 
 Soundings to unusual depths, 387 
 South wind strong only in winter, 248 
 Spain, 3 
 
 surveys of its coasts, 394 
 
 Spalatro, city of, 42 
 Spanish produce, 6 
 
 Portolani, 330 
 
 surveyors, 349 
 
 loss at Trafalgar, 350 
 
 Spartel, Cape, 5, 99 
 
 Spartivento, Cape, 25, 35 
 
 Specific gravity of sea water, 124, 131 
 
 Specchio del Mare, 339 
 
 Species of fishes, how distributed, 195 
 
 Spelzia, island, 61 
 
 Spezzia, springs in the sea, 141 
 
 gulf of, 20, 395 
 
 Sphagia, isle, 58 
 
 Spina, 47 
 
 Sporades of the Archipelago, 69 
 
 S. P. Q.R., 428 
 
 Springs rising in the Mediterranean, 140 
 
 Squalls, sudden, 275 
 
 Stability of weather explained, 218 
 
 of the Mediterranean, 191 
 
 Stadia, various, 323 
 Stagnevitch, Convent, 43 
 Stambul of the Turks, 75 
 Stampalia isle, 70 
 Stamphane', or Strivali, 56, 140 
 Statistics of Spain, 8 
 
 of Italy, 18 
 
 Statistical Table, 101 
 Stewart's, Captain, rule, 275 
 Stormy season, 275 
 Storm presaged, 300 
 Strabo on the Pityusse, 11 
 
 on Adriatic, 34 
 
 on the Meander, 73 
 
 preserves Strato, 74 
 
 on earthquakes, 110 
 
 a philosophical geographer, 321 
 
 on geology, 191 
 
 on the site of Rome, 224 
 
 Strait of Gibraltar, 2, 119, 236 
 
 intercepts lunar effect, 173 
 
 — of Bonifacio, 396 
 
 Strato of Lampsacus, 74, 122 
 Streams, their scooping action, 114 
 Stromboli, 31, 110 
 Styli, Romaic, for columns, 409 
 Subaerial volcanoes, 111 
 Subaqueous volcanoes, 111 
 Subdivisions of the Mediterranean, 123 
 Submarine volcanoes, 111 
 
 plateau, Skerki, 137 
 
 Submerged buildings, 104 
 Submersion of the iEgean, 73 
 Suli, 49 
 
 Sulla, Maltese fodder, 33 
 Superficies of Mediterranean, 140 
 Surface temperature, 125 
 
 drift at Bonifacio, 162 
 
 Survey of Spain good, 349 
 
 how planned, 361 
 
 Surveys catalogued, 393 
 
 — — — too extensive for delicacy, 405 
 
 Sussex, Duke of, 35, 498 
 
 Swa'idiyah, 82 
 
 Swaine, Captain, wrecked, 164 
 
 Sybota isle, 49 
 
 Symbols of the ancients, 429 
 
 Symi, gulf of, 78 
 
 Sympiesometer oscillations, 214 
 
 Syra isle, 70 
 
 Syracuse and its environs, 399 
 
 Syria, extent of its coast, 81 
 
 has a fine climate, 283 
 
 Syrian sea, Eastern Mediterranean, 116 
 
INDEX. 
 
 517 
 
 Syrian shore has encroached, 170 
 Syrates, two great gulfs, 88 
 Syrtis, the greater, 87 
 
 little, 90 
 
 lesser, its tides, 187 
 
 the greater, much feared, 188 
 
 Tabakkah sheltered by an islet, 93 
 Table of tides at Venice, 183 
 of comparative latitude and longi- 
 tude, 325 
 Tabulated points, 416 
 Taganrog, 77, 281 
 Takhtalu peak, 78 
 Tangier anchorage, 99 
 Tarabolus, Tripoli, 82 
 Taranto, Gulf of, 36 
 
 springs in the sea, 141 
 
 Tarifa, island of, 4 
 
 depth of water, 128 
 
 Tarsus or Tersus, 79 
 
 Tasso isle, or Thasos, 65 
 
 Taurus influences the wind, 283 
 
 Tchesme" endured a violent plague, 228 
 
 Tebruk harbour, important, 86 
 
 Tekkiyeh of the Dervishes, 278 
 
 Telamone, port, 21 
 
 Telethrius, mount, 64 
 
 Temperature of the Mediterranean, 124 
 
 for grapes and dates, 218 
 
 ■ of Egina, 271 
 
 most equable near the sea, 233 
 
 at great depths, 388 
 
 Temple of Sunium, 63 
 Tenedos, 66 
 
 Tennant on sea water, 127 
 Teonge's amusing diary, 343 
 Terracina, 24 
 Terranova in Sardinia, 29 
 Tersus-chai river, 79 
 Testacea, list of the principal, 205 
 Tetuan bay, 98 
 
 Thales on earth's sphericity, 314 
 Thames compared with other rivers, 146 
 Thau, bring lagoon, 141 
 Theodolite, its value, 383 
 Theodosian map, 323 
 Theotoki on Etesian winds, 271 
 Thermometers, 214 
 Thermometer in the sun wrong, 217 
 Thermopylae, pass of, 64 
 Thisbe shoal well searched for, 388 
 Thracian Bosphorus, 75, 167 
 Thucydides on Adriatic, 34 
 on the Faro, 181 
 
 - on Krystallos, 269 
 on geography, 313 
 
 Thunder, strange, in Montenegro, 260 
 Tiber, 23, 26 
 
 never frozen now, 222 
 
 Tidal reflux at Gibraltar, 161 
 
 Tide treated by Omar, 138 
 
 of the Mediterranean, 171 
 
 at Gibraltar, 174 
 
 hour at Cadiz, 174 
 
 on the Spanish coast, 1 76 
 
 ■ ■ at Carthagena, 177 
 
 on French and Italian shores, 178 
 
 in the Faro, 179 
 
 table at Venice, 183 
 
 two daily, not equal, 183 
 
 Tide- wave differs from wind- wave, 171 
 
 Timarchus of Sicyon, 51 
 
 Timosthenes an admiral, 315 
 
 Tineh, El Arish, 83 
 
 Tipton, John, Consul, 3 
 
 Toaldo on iEstu Maris Veneti, 182 
 
 Toberathi, the, 45 
 
 Tofirio examined the currents, 156 
 
 Atlas Maritimo, 349 
 
 Tolmezzo, mean rain, 217 
 Tolometa, rich in ruins, 494 
 Tombuctoo, best route to, 485 
 Tonnara at Pola, 40 
 Topi islet has a danger, 336 
 Tornese, Cape, 57 
 Torricellian tube, 172 
 Toulon, 15 
 
 and adjacent coast, 395 
 
 Tourville, Chevalier de, 340 
 Tower of the winds in Athens, 278 
 Towns in Regency of Tunis, 91 
 Trachytic rocks, 71 
 Trade in the Black Sea, 77 
 
 of Egypt, 84 
 
 Trading ports of Apulia, 37 
 Trafalgar, Cape, 4, 407 
 Traffic in Barbary, 492 
 Trajan's marine works, 23 
 Tramontanas, 273 
 Transit Telescope, by Breguet, 380 
 Trau, near Bua isle, 42 
 Travellers' corrupt names, 412 
 Travelling in Barbary, 491 
 Travels of Strabo, 322 
 Treatment of Compasses, 385 
 Tremiti, Isles of, 37 
 
 Zodiacal light, 295 
 
 Tres-forcas Cape, 97 
 
 Triangulation of the Archipelago, 366 
 
 Trichias mentioned by Aristotle, 48 
 
 Trieste, 38 
 
 Triglia shoal alluded to, 112 
 
 Trikhiri, channel, 63 
 
 Trinacria, name of Sicily, 30 
 
 Trinisi islets, 60 
 
 Trinita, Prom. La Sta., 25 
 
 Tripoli in Barbary, 89, 404 
 
 gale there, 188 
 
 Tripoline ships wrecked, 302 
 Trireme galleys, 312 
 Tristomo port, 79 
 
518 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Troglodytes in Barbary, 497 
 Tropic of Capricorn, 288 
 Troughton's Circle, when used, 381 
 Troy, plain of, 65 
 Turkish 64 wrecked, 273 
 
 fleet wrecked, 287 
 
 Tunis, coast of, 91 
 
 survey of, 404 
 
 Tunisian climate, 295 
 
 fleet wrecked, 297 
 
 Tuscany, 21 
 
 Typhoons or whirlwinds, 263 
 
 Tyrant of the Straits, or Levanter, 236 
 
 Tyre, its great riches, 92, 311 
 
 Tyrrhenian sea when agitated, 246 
 
 Undaunted frigate saved the barge, 236 
 Under-current at Gibraltar, 130, 153 
 United Service Journal on Plague, (see 
 
 Nos. 49 and 51,) 228 
 Universal History on Lakes, 119 
 Universal solar dial, 384 
 Up-heaved shoals, 388 
 Ustica island, 32 
 Utile foundered in 1801, 302 
 
 Vada, 21 
 
 Vado shoal, Tuscan coast, 333 
 
 Val di Boppa, ancient port, 53 
 
 Valencia, 7 
 
 Valetta and its fortifications, 399 
 
 Valona, 45, 46 
 
 Vanguard, gale in the Gulf of Lyons, 
 
 242 
 Vapour collected, then dissipated, 235 
 Var, river, 13 
 Varano, Lake of, 37 
 Variable weather in the Levant, 282 
 Variation of the Compass, 384 
 Varro on malaria, 224 
 Vasili-potam<5, or Eurotas, 60 
 Vathi, deep port, 55 
 Vatica, Bay of, 60 
 Vegetius a sort of engineer, 318 
 Veglia, 41 
 
 Velanidi, export from Agio Strati, 66 
 Velocity of current at Gibraltar, 130, 160 
 Velox, Austrian brig, 363 
 Vendre, Port, 14 
 
 Venetian seasons for navigating, 255 
 Venetico, Isle of, 59 
 Venice, Gulf of, 35, 38, 400 
 
 city of the sea, 165 
 
 slight tide, 182 
 
 fall of rain, 218 
 
 Venice hidden by fog, 291 
 Vent de cers in Languedoc, 246 
 Venti somniculares, 271 
 
 stati, see Bacon, 272 
 
 Vesuvius, height of, 25 
 
 Via Beggio, 21 
 
 Villafranca, 19, 395 
 Virgil quoted, 93 
 
 on' the Galesus, 222 
 
 Virgil's rusty sun, 290 
 
 Visconti, General, 18 
 
 Visconti's longitudes compared, 369 
 
 intended chart, 371 
 
 on Palermo longitude, 418 
 
 Vitelli and Benaglio, on Adriatic, 338 
 Vitruvius gave twenty-four winds, 278 
 Vladika, Prince Bishop, 43 
 Voiding Mount, 57 
 
 Volcanic mass at Modon, 60 
 Volcanic zone, 106 
 
 spring at Panarla, 143 
 
 Volcanoes, interrupted action, 109 
 
 ■ under water, 499 
 
 Volo, gulf of, 63, 185 
 Volsci, their territory, 24 
 Von Buch on volcanoes, 111 
 Vonitsa, 49 
 Vostitsa, 52 
 Vulcanian group, 31 
 
 Walcheken, its malaria, 228 
 Walker, Messrs., Hydrographic Office, 355 
 Walton, his laconic despatch, 180 
 Water-bottle made by Jones, 129 
 
 boiling, temperature of, 153 
 
 gazing tube, 379 
 
 spouts in Ionian sea, 263 
 
 how formed, 265 
 
 Watershed, a poor term, 174 
 Weather indications, 277, 301 
 
 in Black Sea, 77 
 
 wise, essential to be, 211 
 
 in various parts, 215 
 
 tables, 216 
 
 within the Straits, 237 
 
 Weighing sections of a chart, 148 
 Wellington schooner, 482 
 Wemyss, Captain, lost, 275 
 Western Italy, 17 
 
 Greece, 48, 51 
 
 division of Mediterranean, 231 
 
 Whales occasional in Mediterranean, 196 
 Wind-wave differs from tide-wave, 171 
 Winds, their effect on water, 145 
 
 tides, 183 
 
 outside the Strait, 234 
 
 in the Egean, 277 
 
 Winter in the Archipelago, 274 
 Wollaston on sea-water, 128, 160 
 
 dip-sector imitated, 382 
 
 Wreck of Arabian ship, 117 
 Wrecks and shoals in the Syrtis, 190 
 Wright's meridian parts, 338 
 Wyld on Albania, 1673, 342 
 
 Xanthus, an able geologist, 122 
 Xenophon a geographer, 315 
 
 J 
 
INDEX. 
 
 519 
 
 Xerxes on Mount Athos, 65 
 his fleet, 273 
 
 Ydhra, or Hydra, 61 
 Yedf-Burun, or Seven Capes, 78 
 Yussuf Basha powerful, 88, 487 
 
 Zach, Baron de, 347 
 
 on the Mediterranean, 355 
 
 • on chronoraetric runs, 418 
 
 Correspondance Astronomique, 418 
 
 Marshal, at Trieste, 363 
 
 Zagora, Mount, 51 
 
 Zannoni Rizzi, 348 
 
 Zannoni's Faro of Messina, 356 
 
 Zante, 52, 55 
 
 Zaphran isles, 97 
 
 Zara, 41 
 
 Zarethra described by Leake, 142 
 
 Zawafnir isles, 93 
 
 Zebra stranded at Acre, 284 
 
 Zembra isles, 93 
 
 L'Aigle lost on, 296 
 
 Zephyrus variously described, 277 
 
 Zeuxis of Sicyon, 51 
 
 Zituni, bay of, 63 
 
 Zoara, salterns of, 90 
 
 Zodiacal light, 295 
 
 Zones of fishes in the sea, 195 
 
 Zuca, lake, has disappeared, 89 
 
 Zuri isle, Adriatic, 44 
 
 THE END. 
 
LONDON : 
 
 SAVILL AND EDWARDS, PRINTERS, CHANDOS STREET, 
 
 COVENT GARDEN. 
 
 m 
 
i