Class _4_ Book GoipglitN . COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT T fifl £&■*.* * ;' f: , 'M ■- tiW 1 V '' ' ' ■K v 1 1 >y " l^HaWSat-CV ■—.,. . If j m X^\f IJsSfe* *jjmm w— -<* T^¥ Copyright. 1900, by George W. Bertron. BRITISH CELEBRITIES OF THE CENTURY THE MARVELOUS STORY OF ONE HUNDRED YEARS History, Achievements and Progress containing GREAT BATTLES AND CONQUESTS; THE RISE AND FALL OF NATIONS; WONDERFUL GROWTH AND PROGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES; FAMOUS EXPLORATIONS AND DISCOVERIES; AMAZING DEVELOPMENTS IN EVERY DEPARTMENT OF HUMAN EFFORT. ETC., ETC. SUBLIME TRIUMPHS OF ELECTRICITY REMARKABLE INVENTIONS; ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, LITERATURE, ART AND AGRICULTURE; CELEBRATED MEN AND WOMEN OF THE CENTURY, ETC., ETC. By Henry Davenport Northrop Author of "Gem Cyclopedia of Universal Knowledge," "Queen of Republics," Etc., Etc. Profusely Embellished with a large number of Phototype and Wood Engravings NATIONAL PUBLISHING CO, 239 TO 243 AMERICAN STREET Mill ADEI PHIA ENTERED ACCORDING TO ACT OF CONGRESS, IN THE YEAR 1901, BY D. Z. HOWELL N THE OFFICE OF THE LIBRARIAN OF CONGRESS, AT WASHINGTON, D. C, U. S. A. YlS7 PKEFACE. r HIS volume contains a full and glowing account of the world's -wonder- ful progress in the Nineteenth Century. It vividly depicts the grand climax of all the centuries, and describes the great events that have made the history of mankind sublime and glorious. It is a marvellous record of Brilliant Achievements, such as the Triumphs of Electricity; Great Explor- ations and Discoveries ; the Application of Steam to Navigation ; the growth of the World's Navies, and the amazing advances in Education, Religion, Liter- ature, Art and Science. Such a Century Plant, unfolding its wonderful blossoms, has not been seen before in the history of man. The last Hundred Years have witnessed the Growth of the United States from five and a half million people to more than seventy million ; amazing strides in Agriculture; the development of Immense Natural Resources, and the victories of Invention, Heroism and Statesmanship. The swift inarch of events in other parts of the globe includes the down- fall of Napoleon I. and Napoleon III.; the rapid changing of the map of Europe, the conflict between Russia and the Allied Powers of England and France ; the expulsion of Spain from the Western Continent ; and the bloody war in South Africa. The last third of the Century witnessed a spirited struggle among the European Powers for supremacy in Africa, which a few years before was an unknown Continent. This masterly work contains a vivid account of the desperate conflict between the British and the Boers, states the Causes of the War, and furnishes graphic descriptions of Battles, Sieges, and Heroic Achieve- ments, which tested the courage, endurance and patriotism of the sturdy com- batants. It is a peerless volume, unrolling a grand panorama of historic events and the world's progress in every field of human activity. Part I. — Great Events of American History in the Nineteenth Century. From the purchase of Louisiana in 1803 down to the War with Spain and the Filipino Insurgents, all the events are depicted that make the history of that iii Country in the last hundred years read like a miracle. No nation has made greater progress in all that pertains to the highest civilization than our own, and the record of it is in this attractive volume. Part II.— European and other Countries in the Nineteenth Century. The downfall of the French Empire, the growth of Great Britain, the seething forces breaking 'out into tragedies of war and the overthrow of Thrones and Empires, are described by a masterly hand. This part of the work affords & comprehensive survey of the nations of the earth. Part III. — Famous Explorations and Discoveries of the Nineteenth Century. The mysteries of the Dark Continent have been brought to light and the frigid Polar World has been made to reveal its icy secrets. The reader tra- verses the jungles and plains of Africa and the frozen realms of the North with daring explorers, whose adventures, exploits and achievements have given them a world-wide fame. Part IV. — Great Wars and battles of the Nineteenth Century. From the plains of Austerlitz and Waterloo down to the famous victories of Manila, San- tiago and the hard-fought Battles in South Africa, the reader views the bloody drama of war and hears the booming of gnns that pronounce the fall of Emperors and Nations. The century closes amid the smoke and din of conflict ; we may well indulge the hope that all this is the terrible birth- pang of better things. Part V. — Marvellous Inventions and Scientific Discoveries of the Nineteenth Century. This is a whole world by itself, opening to the reader's wondering view the marvels of Mechanical Invention, man's triumphs over the forces of nature, making them his willing servants, and the myriad discoveries that are almost too wonderful to be believed. Part VI. — Religion, Literature and Art in the Nineteenth Century. These subjects are fully treated and are of great interest throughout. Part VII. — Famous Men and Women of the Nineteenth Century. This Part comprises all the great celebrities whose achievements give lustre to re- cent decades, and whose names stand high on the scroll of immortal fame. CONTENTS. »AOfl PART I. GREAT EVENTS OF AMERICAN HISTORY IN TH£ NINETEENTH CENTURY. CHAPTER I. THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE. Purchase op Louisiana-Napoleon Threatening Great Britain-Piratical States of Barbary-Jefferson Re-elected-Treason of Aaron Burr-Blow to Amerl can Commerce-Trouble with Great Britain-Arbitrary De^ee of Napoleon -Importation of Slaves Forbidden -Robert Fulton's First Steamboat-Thf Clermont" Makes a Voyage from New York to Albanv-Sailing Vessels Superceded by Steam-Fulton the First Great Inventor of the Century . 17 CHAPTER II. OUR SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN NM DETR A oTr°^r T WHITE House - Engla ^'s Big Fleet -Gen. Hull Fortifies Detroip-Base Surrender of the Detroit Garrison-Sharp Battle at Queens- TOWN ON THE CANADA BORDER-BRILLIANT EXPLOITS OF OUR NAVY-lNVASION OF Canada-Important Events Connected with the War-Some of the Indian L R rv E o J?Z T ARMS ~ THE Peace Commission of i8i 3 -Great American Vic fORY on Lake Champlain-The British Repulsed in Many Engagements-Orig- inal Text of the "Star Spangled Banner "-Hartford Convention-War Ended-Indiana Brought into the Union .. . . . CHAPTER III. ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF THE MORMONS Joseph Smith, Founder of the Sect-The Book of Mormon-Prominent Mormons Swear Falsely-The Book a Historical Romance-Smith Tarred and Feath- ered-Removal to Nauvoo-Smith Shot Dead by a Mob-Mormon Temple De- bvTT R \ f FlRE - MoR - ONS Move Again and Found Salt Lake City-Outrages Vt^ZI ^MORMONS-MOUNTAIN MEADOWS MASSACRE -FEDERAL TROOPS SENT TO ™™/ n I CoNVICTED AND Executed for the Mountain Valley Mas- sacre-Death of Brigham Young-Polygamy Suppressed by the Government CHAPTER IV. WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO •We from Connecticut Settle in Texas-Moses Austin Obtains a Grant fro,, the Spanish Government-Large Immigration Pours into Texas-Austin Ap RESTED AND IMPRISONED -SANTA ANNA IN PoWER-HlS TROOPS DRIVEN Out OF Texas-Davy Crockett-Mexican Army Routed-Texas a Republic in iSr/- BY M^xTcO 'I'^f F ° R T AN r XATION ° F ^-PROPOSITION RESISTED by Mexico-Bloody Battles Between the Mexican and American Armies - ACHIEVEMENTS OF GENERAL TAYLOR-GENERAL ScOTT>S ExPEDITION-Our Arms Everywhere Victorious-Return of Peace on the 4 th of July, 1848 $ 51 v , . CONTENTS, CHAPTER V. THE QREAT CIVIL WAR. A. AGITATION UPON THB QUB8TION OF Sl.AVKRY Tiuc MISSOURI COMPROMISE -STRUGGLE IN Kansas in [854 DEMOCRATIC PARTY DIVIDED ELECTION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN ro nit- Presidency— The South Asserts State Sovereignty Appalling State of Affairs Many Southern States Secede prom tmk Union Outhrkak ov the War Major Anderson Attacked — Battles <>i Austerlitz and Jena— The "Ikon Done "—Alliance Against Napo- leon Ireland Independent— George IV. Comes -jo the Throne— O'Connell in Parliament— William IV. on the Throne Victoria Inaugi haiku Queen m 1838 —Ami C< RN Law LEAGUE— WAR BETWEEN RUSSIA AND ALLIED ARMIES OB ENGLAND and Prance Desperate Struggle in the Crimea Franchise Extended in England Public School System— Mutiny in India Pi i ob Traitors- Struggle op the [rish i ok Home Rule Thb Q\ ben's Jubilee in 1897 127 CHAPTER X. FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. Splendid Triumphs of Napoleon— His Arbitrary Power— Empire Practically IN- CLUDING Mali- ok EUROPE DbFEAI OB FRENCH NAVY BY LORD NELSON EMPEROR Retires to Elba— Reappbarani b in Fran b and Depeat at Waterloo— Charles X. on the Throne— Trouble in Algiers Troops Driven from Paris Ei land's Bold Move Death of Heir Appareni in 1842— The King Abdicates— France a Republic Presideni Napoleon ill. Afterward Becomes Emperor- Political Agitation and Troubles French and English Alliance Against Ri isiA— Fall of Sebastopol— France Sends an Expedition to Mexico— Maxi- milian Captured and Shot— Scheme to Annex Belgium Outbreak of Wak with I'i-i i ■.. French Armies Defeated and Downfall op Napoleon [II. Escaps of 1 . 1. ge riB prom Paris— End of the War Famous Dreyfus Trial . ... 143 CHAPTER XI. THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. [any Agitated by Napoleon's Schemes at the Beginning of the Century- Germ ••■ Confederation— New Government Organized— Insurrei tion Suppressed —Austria and Prussia— War with Austria and Great German Victory— Thb Tki w\ ob Pragi k New Territory Incorporated— Union of German States— i 1 u 1. Pro< 1. aims War Against Prussia— Battles ob Gravelotte and Sedan- Empire 01 Prussia Under William I. Laws fob the Working Classed— Prussia ani> the Papacy— National Army— Death of Emperor William L— Death op Emperor Frederick— William ii. Combs to the Throne— Prince Bismarck . . 16* CHAPTER XII. GREAT EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF RUSSIA. PA1 l M' RDERED IN l8oi— RUSSIAN Loss IN THB BATTLE OP AUSTERLITZ— Coa- lition with France— War with Persia- Powerful Alliance— Cabinet Offices Charged with Treason— Russia Victorious over Persia— Russia Signs the Treaty of London in 18*7 — Polish Insurrection in 1831— War against Eng- 1 and and France in 18,5.3— Bloody Battles in the Crimea— Emancipation of rt& CONTENTS. •Mfl THE Serfs in 1861 — Russia Assists Slavonic Christians against the Turks — Dismemberment of Bulgaria— Attempts on the Life of the Emperor— Czar Alexander Crowned ;\ 1883 Emperor of German* Visits the C/.ar in 1SS8— Peace Conference at The Hague in 1899 Called hy the Czar of Russia. . . 173 CHAPTER XIII. at— Famous Tipo-tipo— The Terrible Dwarfs- Passing the Rapids— Mutiny in Camp— Deserted by the Guides— Stanley's Ex- pedition in Terrible Straits - His Successful Journey Across Africa— Return to England and the United States— Public Honors for the Great Explorer —Feted in England and America — Remarkable Success of One of the Greatest Expeditions on Record 276 CHAPTER XX. TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES OF VAMBERY IN CENTRAL ASIA. The Modern Capital of Persia— Shrines of Moslem Saints— Groves of Orange and Lemon Trees— Verdant Plains on Every Side— Caravan in Great Peril — The Route Lost— Warm Reception for Yam her y— Travelling in a Fertile Country— Scarcity of Water— City of Bokhara— A Strange Traveller— Car- avan Shut Out of the City— Dazzling Eastern Splendor— The Emirs Parade —"Mother of Cities"— The Traveller's Means Exhausted— Welcome from a Prince 298 PART IV. GREAT WARS AND BATTLES OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. CHAPTER XXI. DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO. Extraordinary Military Genius— Immense Array of Forces for a Great Battl* -Chain of Fortresses on the Belgian Frontier— Wellington in Command of 1 CONTENT& FAOfc thr Allied Army — Blucher with 80,000 Men — Rlucher Attacked and Defeated by Napoleon— The Emperor Decides to Give Battle— Choosing Position for the Great Struggle— Disposition of Troops on Each Side— Armies Face to Face— Terrific Cannonade -Disgraceful Panic — Heroic Defense— Charge on British Centre -The "Iron Duke" at the Front— Ney's Superb Bravery- Veterans Huri bd Back— Magnificent Charge of the Old Guard— "Nine Deadly Hours"— Waterloo Compared with Gettysburg 310 CHAPTER XXII. DECISIVE BATTLES OF AUSTERLITZ AND JENA. Striking Figure of Napoleon— French Host Crosses the Rhine — Guard Driven Back— Daring Strategy— An Impregnable Fortress— Setting a Trap— Match- less Marshal MURAT — NAPOLEON'S STRATEGY— Dashing Cavalry Charge— Rus- sians Hurled Back— A Bloody Struggle— Valor was in Vain— Fierce Battle of Jena— Napoleon in the Ranks Terrific Combat— Two Gallant Charges - Scene of Carnage— Thousands of Bloody Swords— Napoleon at Jena — The Emperor Caring for the Wounded on the Field 328 CHAPTER XXIII. BRILLIANT VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON Famous Battle of Lake Erie— Strong Array of English Ships— Brisk Firing — Hand ro Hand Combat— Rousing Cheers— Perry I. having His Ship and Cross* ing to Another in an Open Boat — British Vessels Trying to Escape— Heavy Casualties— Glory for the American Navy — Battle of New Orleans— Formid- able British Fleet American Forces Commanded by "Old Hickory "—Bril- liant Fighting on Horn Sides— British Valor and Fortitude — British Advance Siow and Wearisome— Ami kuans Behind Cotton Bales— British Infantry Hurled Back— Fatal Errors— A Withering Fire — Desperate Assault by the British— Death of the British Commander and Victory for the Ami kuans — Batti i Fought Before News of Peace Reached the Combatants— Jackson the Hero of the Hour ;v>2 CHAPTER XXIV. GREAT BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG. Three Days Fight thai- Turned the Tide of War— General Lee's Successes in mi South— Bold Attempt to Invade the North — Two Gallant Commanders- General Meade's Plan of Battle— How the Fight Began — Death of the Gal- lant Reynolds Thunder of Artillery— Mad Rush of Federals— Heavy Cav- ai ry lv\i n b Lee's Hopes Fatai i v Shattered -Brilliant Repulse of Pickett's Brigade— Crisis I'm n e of the Great Civil War— Lee and the Confederates in Retreat— Union Successes all Along the Line 378 CHAPTER XXV. BATTLE OF INKERMAN AND CAPTURE OF THE MALAKOFF. British Pluck and Courage — A Slow Siege -Great Russian Host — Daring Bravery of the French Army— Russian Prince on the Field of Conflict Russian Col- umn Shattered Reserves Brought into Action — Fierce Fighting on Both Sides— Critical Moment of the Battle— Invincible Strength of the Allied Forces Heavy Russian Losses Awaiting the Final Attack - Outpost Taken fVNn Retaken Fai 1 of the Citadel— One of the Longest Sieges in History Ended— Results of the Long-Continued Struggle 390 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXVI. OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE AT SEDAN. PA«t Puree Armies on the Field German Host of More Than a Million Men — Emperor William and Napoleon III.— Von Moltke's Thai- for the Mouse- Women IN THE Ik. in In NCH SCATTERED— FIERCE ASSAULTS BY THE GERMANS — A Field 01 Slaughter— Grand Cavalry Charge— French Hurled Back— Brave Marshal McMahon Wounded— White Flag Goes Up— Furious Artillery Fire— Mi i nNGOi mi. Two Emperors— A Sealed Letter— William to Napoleon— The Frenchman's Reply Loud Huzzas Greet the King— Terms of Surrender — Downfall of the French Empire 405 CHAPTER XXVII. AMERICAN VICTORIES IN THE WAR WITH SPAIN. Colonel Roosevelt, Assistant Secretary of the Navy— Admiral Dewey Sent to Asiatic Waters— American Fleet Sails from Hong Kong— Harbor of Manila mi. Scene 01 the Great Naval Battle— Relative Strength ok the Combat- ants—The Battle Opensat Daybreak— Te°rible Imkhofthe American Guns— Deadly Aim of Skilled Artillerymen— Destruction of Admiral Montojo's Flagship— Great American Naval Victory— War in Cuba— Militarv Operations Around Santiago— Rough Riders in Battle— Exploits of the Regulars— Brav- ery 01 the Volunteers— Spaniards Driven Back upon Santiago -Admiral Cer- vi. ka Attempts to Escape from the Harbor of Santiago— His Vessels De- stroyed — Another Great American Victory 42G CHAPTER XXVIII. WAR BETWEEN THE- BRITISH AND THE BOERS. Dh i ii i i.iii.s of Long Standing Between England and the South African Repub» lic— War Threatened— Ultimatum of the Boers to Great Britain— Outbreak of Hostilities— Capture of 800 British and ii Guns— Repulse of General buller at colenso— operations of lord methuen on the western border — Battle of Modder River— Lord Roberts in Command— General Cronje's Flight into the Orange Free State — Battles in Northern Natal- Long Siege of Ladysmith— British Suffer Losses at Many Points — Death of a British Gen- eral—General White, Defender of Ladysmith— General French, Commander cm British Cavalry — Capture of General Cronje and His Force— British Army at Bloemfontein — A Costly Struggle • 435 PART V. MARVELLOUS INVENTIONS AND SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. CHAPTER XXIX. TRIUMPHS OF ELECTRICITY. Professor Morse and the Electric Telegraph — Discouragements of the Inventor — Morse's MACHINE AND ALPHABET — FlRST MESSAGE OVER THE WlRES — SUBMARINE Cables— Laying the First Atlantic Cable — No Such Word as "Fail" — The Bell Telephone The Phonograph — Wonderful Achievements of Edison — Ei? T - ■ .'s Kinetoscopb -Electric Light— Distribution of Current — Rifles Fired by Electricity Wireless Telegraphy -Invention of Marconi — Hovv the Mes- sages are Si \ 1 Hard Problems Solved — Automobiles and Automatic Vehicles Motor on Wheels Keeping Up Heat — Wonders of the Flectrical World — Telegraphing ioo.ooo Words an Hour — Plants Grown by Electricity 449 xii CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXX. STEAM NAVIGATION AND GROWTH OF THE AMERICAN NAVY. PACK Early Attempts to Invent i Steamboat Adventof Roberi Fui roN Difficulties Mi Encountered Ridiculed by rHE [ncredulous Failure of His First Ai iimim People Assembled on rHE Hanks of rHE Hudson ro see rHE Boat Start Surprise a r Fui roN's Success- Loud Cheers by toe Crowd From New York ro Albany \m> Back People Along rHE River Terrified at the Strange Vessei Floating Batteries Ocean Steamers and Battleships — Largest Steamship Our Early Navy— Grand "Old Ironsides 1 '—Admiral Dewey's Fi vgship — Famous Oregon -The Swift Columbia 473 CHAPTER XXXI. ELIAS HOWES SEWING MACHINE. A Poor Inventor How He Came ro Invent the Sewing Machine — Hopeless Pov- er iv for M \\Y Years Curious Needi b andShuttj e i low ( )bs rACLEs were Over- come Public has no Faith in His Invention Repulsed by Many ro Whom He Applied for Assistance Finds a Friend at Last- Tries His Fortune in Eng- land Affliction in His Family Death of His Courageous Wife— Manufac- ruREs Machines ro Order Success of ras Invention Which Brings a Fortune — Coin Medal from rHE Paris Exposition in [867 and rHE Cross ok thk Lkoion of Honor— Colonei in mi Union Army During mi Civil War- Lavish with Moni \ FOR rHE BENEFIT OF HlS SOLDIERS— HOWE'S Rank AMONG rHE most DIS- TINGUISHED Inventors 486 CHAPTER XXXII. HOE'S LIGHTNING PRINTING PRESS. Invention that Revolutionized thk World of Letters History ov thk Hoe Family— Arrivai of one in \i« York from England Energetic Young Man — First Printing Thai- was Done by Steam- Urgent Demand for Rapid News- paper Presses Problem Lono IUkki.kd Solution Solved at Length in a Single Night Immense Fortune for rHE Inventor — London Times and Other Presses— Successful Rotary Printing 491 CHAPTER XXXIII. MISCELLANEOUS DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. Discovery of mi- Famous X Rays— Wonderful Experiments and Results— Dis- covery ok Liquid Air— Coldest Substance Known -Its Practicai Uses -Good- year's Proukss KOR HllLIZING INDIA RUBBER DISCOVERIES IN THE ART OF HEAL- ING— GERMS of Disease Finsen Light Cure— Pasteur's Discovery— A Remedy for Hydrophobia Anti-Toxine— Skin and Bone Grafting -Discovery of Anes- rHETics Explorations at im Bottom of the Sea — Submarine Boats— Death- Dealing Machines of War Powerfui Explosives and Projectiles Smokeless Powder- Nitro-Glycerine Dumdum Bullet -Marvellous Searchlights— Tor- pedoes and Submarine Mines— Machine (.'.ins Invention of rHE Bicycle— Old Styles Compared with mi- New — Travki lino in the Air— Inventions for Aerial Navigation 49fl CHAPTER XXXIV. inventions applied to railways and canals. SlowTProgress in Railroad Building Vast Growth in thk Last Half ok the Century— Immense Engines— Fastest Trains in the World— Electricity as a CONTENTS. iili PACl Motive Power — Trans-Siberian and Chinese Eastern Railway— Longest Road in the World- Marvellous Bridges— Projected Road prom Cape Town to Cairo— Cecil Rhodes and His Great Scheme— Ninety Miles an Hour— Great Canals op the World The Panama Route— Nicaragua Canal — Chicago Drain *gk— Outlet to the Mississippi — The Keil Ship Canal — Dimensions and Cost. CHAPTER XXXV. PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE DURING THE CENTURY. Great Improvement in this Deparment of Labor— Chemistry Applied to Agricul- ture— Sir Humphry Davy and His Discoveries— Liebig and His Experiments — Chemical Elements of the Soil— Nourishment op the Plants— Farm Liter- mure— New Methods of Teaching Farming — Success of Experiment Stations - Growth of Agricultural Societies— Governments Become Interested— Thorough Education for the Farm— Great Number of Farmers Compared with Remainder op Population— Old Farm Implements Compared with the New— Great Improvement in Utensils— Agriculture in Europe — Machinery for Everything — Variety of Grasses — Famous Cattle and Sheep — Farmers a Ruling Power • 624 CHAPTER XXXVI. REVIEW OF THE WORLD'S SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS IN THE NINETEENTH* CENTURY. Few Great Inventions Prior to the Nineteenth Century — Catalogue of Inven- tions During the Last Hurdred Years — Spectrum Analysis — Use of Antisep- tics in Surgical Operations — Only Remarkable Invention of the Seventeenth Century that op the Telescope — Barometer and Thermometer — No Invention of the First Rank in the Sixteenth Century— Mariner's Compass — Measuring the Velocity of Light — Nature of Meteors and Comets — Antiquity of Man — Theory of Organic Evolution — Embryology — Astronomy in the Nineteenth Century — Photography as an Aid to the Telescope -Phenomena of our Solar System — The Earth's Satellite— Eclipses oi- the Sun Remarkable Corona — Discovery of a Vast Number of Asteroids— Amazing Growth of Human Knowledge in Every Direction 53* PART VI. RELIGION, LITERATURE AND ART IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. CHAPTER XXXVII. CHRISTIANITY IN THE LAST HUNDRED YEARS. Wonderful Progress in Industrial Science— French Infidels in the Beginning of the Century— Revival op Spiritual Religion— Great Missionary Zeal —Moravians and Their Remarkable Work— Scotch and English Churches and Missionary Societies — American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions— Vast Sims op Money Contributed to the Cause— What is Shown by the Figures ?— Necessity for Medical Missions — Missionary Zeal of the Papal Church— Wonderful Advance of Christianity During the Century— C Statistics — Church Property — Humanity a Brotherhood — T.ik Russian Em peror's Peace Conference at the Hague — Formation of Permanent Board at Arbitration — Settlement of International Disputes without the Sword . • 5SH tit CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXXVIII. THE CENTURY'S PROGRESS IN EDUCATION AND LITERATURE. Education as Affectino Women-Old-Fashioned Ideas of Woman and IIek Sphere —Monev Value of Women's Labor Many Avenues of Activity Open to the Female Sex The Woman of we Twentieth Century— A Flood of Books- Enormous Masses of I iterators Short-Lived Works-Admirable Histories- Man* Writers of Great Repute Sir Wai rsR Scott and the Waverlv Novels- Wholesomb Humor of Thackerav Wonderful Creations of Charles Dickens —George Eliot and Her Famous Works-Novelists and Essay Writers- Important Educational Events in the Nineteenth Century— Chautauqua Sys- tem of Education— Agricultural Education— Instruction on the Farm . . CHAPTER XXXIX. A HUNDRED YEARS OF ART. Centres of Art in Europe Great Facility for Art Study in Paris-Vast Im- provement and Growth in American Art -Pictorial Art and its Rapid De- velopment Immense Number of Illustrated Books and Magazines-Old Hme p IC ruRES Rival Schools of Art in France England's Renowned Paintings • Native Art Productions «n the United States South Kensington School -Royal Academy [N London Rising Talent in Scotland Encouraged- Schools at Munich and Antwerp— Great American Promise ok Art .... PART VII. FAMOUS MEN AND WOMEN OF THE CENTURY CHAPTER XL. CELEBRATED AUTHORS. Han, Christian Andersen-Matthew Arnold George Bancroft-George H. Bo- KER HORATIUS BONAR EMILYBrONTE ELIZABETH BARRETT BROWNING-ROBERT Browning-William Cullen Bryant Lord Byron-Will Carleton Phomas Carlislb Aucb vn-> Phcebe Cary-James Fenimore Cooper- Charles Dickens- Ralph Waldo Emerson Eugene Field Horace Grebley-Nathaniel Haw- thorne I G Holland Oliver Wendell Holmes— Tom Hood-Victor Hugo— rudyard Kipling H. W. Longfellow-J. R. Lowell -Lord Macaulay-Edgar AlMN pob foHN G. Saxe-Sir Walter Scott-Harriet Beecher Stowe- Alfred Tbnnyson-W. M. Thackeray-Mark Twain-J. G. Whittier CHAPTER XLI. distinguished orators and statesmen. Bebcher-Blaine-Bright-Choate Ci w -Depew -Douglass .Everett-Garfield !?G?bbons-Gladstone Gough Brady Harrison-Lincoln -McKinlry-Moody -.Rebd-Sherman-Spurgeon-Talmage-Victoria— Webster-Willard CHAPTER XLII. various celebrities and their achievements. Armour-Bartholdj- Bell Booth Carnegie-Cleveland Dewey-Edison-Grant Jackson Lee Marconi- Melba Patti Wanamaker Appendix A-Latest Events in the History of the Nineteenth Century. . . Appendix B— Canada in the Nineteenth Century • • ■ HAW* 544 554 558 582 596 609 623 Lotujhutlv 67 Easl iroin 77 Washington 87 2«. ,«• . Kilalchi Isl * y; ■*»«* «6 O C^g. -4JV/ B-ioQl uBtfldlT mJ ,\ftloJ **• <3*s,, ^ C Raj o M Mad£> tellus ^ ,i : ,KC»0 da f('"f/ WaUul ^ \ * -**'/ w r°r«3 o t ^X English a/iS&*»s * 0>e Slulisk Rtttiri '<•*£&:* r ; '^«*,% ' fttt V^M s^ 1 VV — ?*« ?V«\ ArSf Isl.O' St } -4y -I* Rochi- sur "rt O/.- wk ^JsV ■/y/'v ife^ ^lllHUU^-; ^^: \Bamopol y l!oc „^\ *,> "^v\ „\ r^?vi v "" j ,, t... u j> »sa! >'"i 4 /V*% ^ *S8 2j /Gaue^w s-^«' ,a *»|«« I ' Sfe^^tt*^i ^'>^; '"/(A ^ "J^ :^ 6 , / ZP*^ "*(, "^ e*-'"* «Wh2""»», KlKI),s, MED i £ fhh a c W; ar , :.•*> C.T CorfJi8&w« ■© v 3 Xcphaionia CJs* % A -Syracuse -Sf # .^1 a Trip-i 1 Napolio-WJpt* 1 C-Matajian A.c C.ilaUa o Cl ¥j Rhodes. hudta EUROPE 5 3o"wu Iw mo wo DISTINGUISHED AMERICANS OF THE CENTURY Cop] right. 1900. by George W. Bertro... PART 1. Great Events of American History IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. CHAPTER I. The Louisiana Purchase. i> HE Revolution, which resulted in the independence of the United States was ended by the sur- render of Lord Corn wall is and his army of 7,000 men at Yorklowu, Va, on Oc- tober 19th, 1 78 1. The patriots who had won the great struggle then united their efforts in the formation of a new gov- ernment and a Constitution in line with the principles so boldly asserted in the Declaration of Independence. In 1787 the new Constitution was signed by a convention of the States and was ratified during the following year. The new government was organized by the election of George Washington as President. As we glance back at that stormy period in our history his majestic figure stands out as the chief of the illustrious founders of our Re- public. After twice administering the affairs of the government he died De- cember 14th, 1799. His honored name, embalmed in the hearts of his country- men, is destined to be venerated so long as our nation endures. One of his distin- guished compatriots, Benjamin Frank- lin, whose important services form some of the brightest pages of our early his- tory, ended his illustrious career on April 17th, 1790. 2 The administration of John Adams, second President, closed on Marcr- 4th, 1801, and on the same date he was suc- ceeded by Thomas Jefferson, author of the "Immortal Declaration." Aaron Burr, regarded by many a. f > only a clever adventurer, was inducted into the office of Vice-President. The new administration made Washington the seat of government, the capitol having been removed to that city during the preceding year. The Purchase of Louisiana. The new chief magistrate was soon involved in a transaction of very great importance. Intelligence was received that Napoleon had extorted from Spain the cession of Louisiana, granting in compensation the succession of the Duke of Parma, a Spanish prince, to the grand-duchy of Tuscany. That court had, however, yielded with much reluctance, and only from being over- awed by the superior power of France. This intelligence excited great alarm in the American cabinet. The possession of this territory by Spain, a weak and sluggish power, had been sufficiently harassing; what then might be expected on its transference 17 18 ADMINISTRATION' OF PRESIDENT JEFFERSON. to the most stirring and active nation in Europe? Jefferson, knowing the French government to be embarrassed as to funds, conceived the hope, that, for a Large sum, they might be induced to part with the territory ; and, viewing the object as of the deepest importance, he was disposed not to Ik- sparing in the amount. A Great Possession. Livingston, Pinckney, and Monroe were appointed a commission for carry- ing on this delicate negotiation. On arriving at Paris, they found their re- publican profession in had odor with Napoleon, who, having determined to establish absolute power, regarded them with dislike as demagogues ami au.u chists. They did not sci uple to obviate this In- declaring that they considered the present system the most desirable for Prance after her severe recent agi- tations. They found the acquisition oi Louisiana disapproved in the political circles, yet a favorite object with Na- poleon himself. He looked to it as a great colonial possession, which might rival those oi England ; as a new Egypt — a place oi reward for meritorious officers, and oi exile for those he sus- pected. Mr. King, the ambassador to Eng- land, endeavored to stir that conn against it ; but though dissatisfaction was expressed, no right was there felt to interfere. An expedition oi five to seven thousand men was prepared, and Bernadotte appointed to command it. \s, however, Napoleon began to con template hostile relations with Britain, as mind opened to the American pro- posals, lie could not hope to maintain this transatlantic possession against her superior navy ; while a large sum of money would be extremely convenient. King, indeed, was warned by Mr. Ald- ington, that the British goverment would, in that event, take possession of the country. This was a new ground oi alarm ; but he gave assurance, that they sought only to keep it from France, ami would be quite satisfied with its acquisition by the United States. As hostilities be- came certain, Napoleon began seriously to negotiate on the subject. The treaty had been opened only with respect to New Orleans, and the territory west ol' the Mississippi ; but he intended that the eastern must also be included, which, indeed, by itself could be of lit- tle value to him. This proposal being unexpected, the envoys were unpro- vided with any instructions ; yet, rightly appreciating the great advantage of possessing both banks, they readily con- sented — a conduct highly approved by the President Worth Much More than the Cost. After a good deal oi discussion, the price was fixed at sixty millions of francs, (2,500,000 dollars, ami the States were besides to pay twenty millions oi bancs, 4,000,000 dollars, oi indemnity for injurious captures ; making in al 10,500,000 dollars. The sum, though considerable, bore little proportion to the vast advantages which have since been reaped from the acquisition, Jefferson, although gratified by this arrangement, felt a good deal embar- rassed in laying it before Congress. No power to conclude such a treaty was con- veyed by the Constitution, ami he was one who specially deprecated the gen- eral government going a step beyond its ADMINISTRATION' OK I'RI-Sl i)i:ST JEFFERSON. 19 assigned functions. Congr< s,however, with the exception oi a small minority, showed too niucli satisfaction at the event to be at all disposed to ci iticise its l< gality. Spain only, \\ ho till held possession of the country, and had 1 1 i tainlj been treated with very little cer- emony, made a strong remonstrance, that sin- had ceded it under the engage menl of its never being alienated, and that the terms even had not been strictly fulfilled. She gave in afterward i a s >1- t enin protest to the same eff< < I . ,The American government turned a deaf car to such representations, and even prepared to assert the claim by arms. Napoleon, on hearing of this dispute, intimated, that unless the Spanish government yielded, he would join America in compulsory measures. This was enoitgh for that court, who, on the 10th of February, 1804, intima- ted, through her minister, Don Pedro Cevallos, that hei opposition was with- drawn. American Prisoners at Tripoli. 1'uhlic attention was now called to another subject, which had long caused uneasiness and irritation. The piratical states of Barbary, whose career had hitherto encountered no serious check, had been committing extensive depre- dations on American commerce. They had even intimated an intention not to discontinue them without a tribute, to which the nation was little inclined. As Tripoli had been particularly active, Commodore Preble, in [803, was sent dust it with a fleet of seven sail. On his arrival, Captain Bainbridge, with the frigate Philadelphia, was I m ployed to reconnoitre the harbor; but proceeding too far, his vessel grounded, and fell into the hands of the enemy. He and his crew were mad' prisoners, and treated with the usual barbarity. The expedition was thus at a full stand, when Captain Eaton, consul at Tunis, intimated that the throne of Tripoli was disputed by Hamet Cara- malli, a brother of the bashaw who had found refuge and been well received in Egypt. He proposed and was permit- ted to join this prince, commanding the co-operation of the fleet. Eaton soon obtained Hamet's concurrence, and, early in 1805, was invested with the command of a body of troops which the latter had succeeded in raising. "My Head or Yours." He inarched across the desert of Mar- morica, summoned the frontier fortress of Derne, and, hough the commander made the defying reply, " My head or yours," overpowered him after a few hours of desperate fighting. ()n May 8th, the reigning bashaw came up with a strong force, and attempted to recover the place, but was repulsed ; and on June 10th lie sustained another defeat. Immediately after, the American fleet was reinforced by the frigate Constitu- tion. While affairs thus wore a trium- phant aspect, and the capital was in alarm of immediate attack, Colonel Lear, the consul, thought it most pru- dent to listen to overtures from the enemy and conclude a peace. It com- prehended the delivery of the prisoners on both sides; there being a balance of two hundred in favor of the bashaw, for which sixty thousand dollars were to be paid. All co-operation was to be with- drawn from Hamet, in whose favor it was only stipulated, that his wife and children should be released. 20 ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT JEFFERSOK That prince made loud complaints, mulcr which Jefferson evidently felt considerable uneasiness. Heurged, in- deed, tint no pledge had been given for his restoration to powei ; and that his force, though so far successful, was not adequate to that achievement. Con- certed movements may take place against a common enemy without any mutual guarantee oi each other's ob jects ; Net, where both have effectively co-operated, each seemingly may claim a share oi the advantage ; and that ol Hamet, on the present occasion, ap- peared exceedingly slender. Jefferson Re-elected. In the end oi 1 804, Jefferson's fust term o( office expired. His conduct having been altogether approved, and the democratic spirit being still pre- dominant, he was re-elected by one hundred and sixty-two votes out of one hundred and seventy-six. Burr, who had disgusted the ruling party by his conduct at the last election, was thrown OUt, and Clinton oi' New Voik, a Dem- ocrat so decided that he had even op- posed the formation of the Union, was elected in his place. Burr, disappointed in this quarter, sought compensation by standing as can- didate for governor o\ New York. He was supported by a large body oi the Federals ; but Hamilton, a man of high and honorable mind, despising him as a reckless adventurer, opposed and de- feated his election. The disappointed candidate, taking advantage oi some violent language said to have been used by his opponent, sent him a challenge. The parties met, and at the first lire Hamilton fell. No event ever excited a more general feeling of regret through- out the States, wlure, in the party most ■ adverse to him, his high bearing, splen- did talents, and political consistency, commanded general respect. Burr, however, restlessly sought some means oi attaining distinction and power. In September and October, [806, Jefferson learned that mysterious operations were proceeding along the Ohio; boats preparing, stores of provis- ions collecting, and a number oi suspi- cious characters in movement, A con- fidential agent sent to the spot warned the President that Burr was the prime mover; and General Wilkinson, who commanded near New Orleans, intima- ted that propositions oi a daring and dangerous import had been transmitted to him by that personage. Burr's Treasonable Plot. The ostensible pretext was, the set- tlement of a tract oi' country said to have been purchased on the Washita, a tributary oi the Mississippi; but the various preparations, the engagement for six months only, the provision of muskets and bayonets, pointed to some- thing altogether distinct. It was cither the formation oi' the western territory into a separate government, or an ex- pedition against Mexico, sought to be justified by a boundary difference that had arisen with Spain, whose troops had actually crossed the Sabine. The former project, if entertained, was given up, no encouragement being found in the disposition oi the peo pie ; and bun's views were then con- fined to the seizure of New Orleans, and collecting there as large a force as pos- sible for his ulterior design. His par- tisans abstained from all violence, ami made their designs known only by ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT JEFFERSON. 21 mysterious conversations ; so that, on being apprehended and brought to trial in Kentucky, he obtained a verdict of acquittal. The governor of Ohio, how- ever, seized a quantity of boats and stores ; and strict watch was kept along the whole line. Burr was only able, on the 25th of December, to assemble at the mouth of the Cumberland river, from sixty to a hundred men, with whom he sailed down the Mississippi. General Wilkin- son had been instructed to settle the Spanish di (Terence as soon as possible, and direct all his attention to securing New Orleans, and suppressing this en terprise. Burr, therefore, finding no support in the country, was unable to resist the .force prepared against him ; his followers dispersed, and he him- self, endeavoring to escape, was arrest- ed on his way to Mobile. He was tried on a charge of treason ; but the chief justice was of opinion that, though Blanerhasset, his coadjutor, had openly announced the project of at- tempting the separation of the States, there was not sufficient proof that Burr himself contemplated more than the Mexican expedition, which amount- ed only to the levying of war against a power with whom the country was at peace. Believed to be Guilty. He was thus acquitted of the main charge ; yet Jefferson expressed himself as much dissatisfied with the sentence, declaring his conviction of Burr's guilt in every particular. The acquittal ap- peared to him to have been prompted by that ultra-federal spirit with which he always charged the Supreme Court. Burr went to Europe, and never again appeared on the political theatre of the States. About this time arose discussions that led to a long series of troubles. The contest which had arisen between France and England spread over the Continent, and was attended, on the part of Napoleon, with such signal tri- umphs, as rendered him virtually its master. But, while all Europe bent beneath his sway, he was goaded to madness by seeing Britain stand erect and defiant, while not a vessel could leave one of his own ports withou* almost a certainty of capture. A struggle now ensued, very different from that hitherto waged between Euro- pean kingdoms, when some exterio' provinces or appendages only w?re dis puted. It was a question of empire 01. one side and existence on the other ; and each party thought itself entitled to employ extreme means, and to pass the limits hitherto sanctioned by the practice and public law of Europe. Struggle Between Giants. Napoleon, viewing his mighty rival as resting solely upon commerce, imag- ined, that if he could exclude her mer- chandise entirely from the Continent, the root of her power would wither, and she would fall an easy victim. His adversary, on the other hand, conceived the hope, that by depriving the coun- tries under his sway of all the benefits of trade, a spirit of discontent would be roused that might prove fatal to his dominion. Both parties inflicted on themselves and on each other severe sufferings ; and the hopes of both proved finally abortive. Britain remained mis- tress of the seas, and Europe still lay at the feet of Napoleon. Vet each perse- 00 ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT JEFFERSON. vered, in the hope that the desired Milt was in silent operation, and that >\ a continuance of effective means it 'night at last arrive. America had at first derived extraor- linary advantages from this warlike attitude o\~ Europe. The most active, and finally almost the only maritime neutral power, she had reaped a rich harvest by engaging in the eommerce between the ports of the belligerent States, and kept an extensive shipping employed in this carrying trade. Blow at American Commerce. Rut a severe reverse was felt under these new measures, when her vessels could not appear in any of the seas of Europe without being liable to capture by one nation or the other. The proc- lamations of both wereequally rigorous ; but Britain possessed so much more means of carrying hers into execution, that they were the most severely felt. Another grievance was endured from the same quarter. The great extension of the American shipping interest of- fered ample employment to British sea- men, who, by entering this service, obtained higher wages and escaped the hardship of serving by impressment in ships of war. Britain therefore claimed and exercised the right of searching American vessels for these deserteis, and, whenever grounds of suspicion ap- peared, of calling upon them for proofs of American origin. She contended that the desertion, if unchecked, would proceed on so vast a scale, that the navy, her grand means of defence, would be f ntirely crippled. The other party complained, that not only was the national flag thus violated, but American citizens w r ere, under this pretext, seized and carried to distant ports, where they could not procure proofs of their origin, and those ac tually produced were not duly regarded. In a report to Congress, it is stated, that the number impressed since the beginning oi the war had been four thousand two hundred and twenty- eight, of whom nine hundred and thirty-six had been discharged. It was alleged, that by far the greater propor- tion of these were native Americans, and that in six hundred and ninety- seven recent cases, only twenty-three were British and one hundred and five doubtful ; but to these statements it seems impossible not to demur. The first encroachment on the liberty of commerce was directed against the transportation of the produce of the French West Indies to the mother country. Trouble with Great Britain. It was maintained by Britain, that the Americans, having been formerly excluded from this employment, and admitted to it only in consequence of the war, could not complain of losing a branch which they had never enjoyed ; while they urged, that the war had conferred on Britain no new right to interpose. They entertained hopes of gaining their object in consequence of Mr. Fox's accession to power, in 1S06. That statesman even told Monroe, then ambassador, that he had ordered the practice of impressment to be sus- pended, but was not prepared to yield up the right. Jefferson, encouraged by this intelli- gence, added Pinckney to the embassy, with the view of concluding a final arrangement. On his arrival, however, ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT JEFFERSON. 23 i a • had been siezed with that ill i which terminated in hi i death. The commission were received by Lord Grenville, to whom the subject was new, and who was pressed by the duties ithei departments. Soon however, Lords Holland and Auckland, being named commissioners to carry on the negotiations, expressed the most conciliatory disposition, but stated, that a . all the law officers were in lavor of the right of impressment, it could not be formally conceded, but would be exercised with greatest caution. Agreed to Sign the Treaty. The Americans rinding more was unattainable, while terms that appeared satisfactory could be secured on other subjects, at length agreed to sign the treaty. On its being transmitted to Jef- ferson, however, he at once determined on refusing to ratify it, without even tin- usual course of submitting it to the Senate. This, he conceived, when his own mind was completely made up, would have been an empty form. He, therefore, sent it back, with instructions that an attempt should be made to ob- tain at least a partial abolition, and also stating modifications which he consid- ered necessary in several of the other ar- ticles. He continued the same negoti- ators, and did everything in his power to soothe Monroe, hitherto his favorite diplomatist, who could but feel deeply wounded on this occasion. Tin estrangement caused by this step was aggravated by a tragical incident. Admiral Berkeley, then commanding British vessels on our coast, having learned that several men belonging to his squadron were on board the United States frigate Chesapeake, gave direc- tions for their seizure by Captain Humphreys, of the Leopard. That officer came up to the American vessel -oon after it had sailed from Hampton Roads, Virginia, and sent a boat's crew on board, asking permission to search for the British deserters; Barron, the commander, replied, that he could not. allow his men to be mustered by any other than himself. The boat returned, when a fire was opened from the Leop- ard, which the American, being totally unprepared for, was unable to return. In the course of twenty or thirty min- utes, he endeavored to fit his vessel for action, but not having succeeded, and three of his men being killed and eighteen wounded, he struck his flag. Offered to Give up his Ship. To a British officer, who came on board, he offered his vessel as a prize ; but the other disclaimed any such view, and delived a letter from Humphreys, deploring a loss which might have been avoided by amicable adjustment. He then took out four men, three of whom were alleged to be Americans, and de- parted. Berkeley had committed a gross error in authorizing such a proceeding against a government armed vessel, re- ting which the right of search had never been claimed. A loud and general clamor, in which all parties joined, was raised throughout the country; and Jefferson issued a proclamation, exclud- ing British ships of war from all the waters of the United States. Tin- English foreign secretary disa- vowed the action of Captain I [umphn offered reparation, and recalled Admiral Berkeley. England, however, would not give up the right of search, but instructed her officers to use no unnec- 24 ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT JEFFERSON. essary violence in enforcing it. The reparation promised was never made. Affairs in Europe, meantime, were assuming a still more serious aspect. Napoleon, after his victory at Jena, and entry into Berlin, which placed him in a most triumphant position on the con- tinent, became still more eager to crush the only power that still defied him. In November, 1806, he issued a decree, declaring the British isles in a state of blockade; this was retaliated by an order in council on January 2, 1807, prohibiting the trade by neutrals from any port under his sway to another. Napoleon Enraged. On the nth of November, a fresh order declared, that all these countries were to be considered in a state of block ade; but some mitigations were a'ter- wards admitted in regard to vessels willing to trade through the British ports, after paying a certain duty. These terms, however, were repelled by America, as a levying of tribute, and as altogether inconsistent with the inde- pendence of her flag. Enraged at this farther measure, Napoleon, on Decem- ber 17, 1807, issued at Milan, another decree, subjecting to confiscation every vessel which should have submitted to the conditions imposed by England. America was thus placed certainly in a hard situation, being unable to scud out a vessel to sea, which was not liable to capture by either belligerent. She might have been fully justified in im- posing severe restrictions on the ship- ping and commerce of the offending parties ; but instead of this, Jefferson proposed and was supported by his partv in carrying the measure of an em- bargo, to be laid for an indefinite period on all our vessels within the ports of America, by which they were prohib- ited from departing for any foreign port. This step was marked by the singulai tact that it was carried by the interior and agricultural States, against the most violent opposition from the northern and commercial ones, though the latter were almost the exclusive sufferers. They were told, indeed, that the object was to procure for them redress, and that their vessels, thus detained in port, would be saved from capture and con- fiscation. They thought, however, that they might have been consulted as to their own interests, and not have had a remedy imposed which was deemed by them ten times worse than the evil. The embargo was repealed in 1809, but commercial intercourse was forbidden with England and France. Slave Trade Abolished. Besides the acquisition of the great Louisiana territory, Mr. Jefferson's ad- ministration is memorable for the ex- tinction oi' the African slave trade, the importation ol slaves having been for- bidden by law in [808. The policy was then fust introduced of purchasing from the diminishing Indian tribes the lands which they claimed, and removing the Indians to special districts, or " reserva- tions," set apart for them. In this wax- large tracts of territoi y were gained from the scattered tribes both north and south of the Ohio. Thus it will be seen that within a period of twenty-five years from the close of the Revolutionary War our country was again agitated and dis- turbed, and there were ominous mutter- ings of war both England and with ADMINISTRATION OF PRESIDENT JEFFERSON. 25 Im.uicc Mr. Jefferson, who was not without suspicion of somel imes favoring measures for political effect, resisted with all the powerful resources of his mind and with his i ommanding influ nice- th .-.ions ol ( in at Britain Prom the succeeding pages the read< t will learn that the statements already made are but preliminary to the second present. Never did a flag have more enthusiastic or anient defenders than the Stars and Stripes. In the yeai 1 807 a greal change was made in the system of navigation by Robert Pulton, a native of Pennsylva- nia, who built and successfully naviga- ted the first steamboat. He named it the "Cleimont," and made the voyage ROBERT PULTON'S conflict between the United States and Great Britain. A people who at such sac- rifice and cost of blood had gained their independence were not in a mood totol- ci.it'- air, violal ion of their lawful rights. It should be noted that in the early period of our history the true American spirit was born— born in conflict and the shoe! of battle — and lias character- ized our nation from that time to the PIRST STEAMBOAT. from New York to Albany, a distance of about one hundred and fifty miles, in thirty-six hours. From this time steam navigation rapidly superseded the old system of sailing vessels in the wat< rs of the United States and exercised a powerful influence in the development of the wealth and prosperity of the country. Fulton's was the first great invention of the century. CHAPTER II. Our Second War with Great Britain. HE most important events in om country's history during the early part of the century were connected with what is commonly called the war of [8l2. James Madison, hav- ing served one term as President, was inaugurated for a second term on the 4th of March, 1813. War against Great Britain had been declared on the 18th of June before, and was then going on. At the time the war was declared, the prevailing idea was that England was to In- brought to terms by the seizure of her neighboring provinces on the northern boundary of the United States. This was the only vital point at which it was expected that the United States could deal telling blows. Little or nothing was expected from any contest on the ocean. The United States navy, of less than thirty frigates and sloops-of-war in commission, even with the new ad- ditions ordered, could not, it was sup- posed, cope with England's fleets o( a thousand sail. All that was expected o( these was to aid the gun-boats in coast defence, and in preventing a land invasion; while they might, also, in conjunction with privateers put in coin- mission, ciipple the enemy to some ex- tent by the destruction o( their com- merce on the high seas. Hut the capture oi~ the Canad.is was looked upon as an casv prize. It was with this view that the army was organ- ized, and active preparations made. The chief command oi all the forces was assigned to General Henry Dear- born, o( Massachusetts. Ilis position was to be on the eastern end of the line ; 26 the forces on the west end were assigned to General William Hull, then Gover- nor of Michigan ; those in the centre, or middle, of the line, were assigned to ( General Stephen Van Renssalaer. They were all to co-operate in their mo T e- nients, with a view to Montreal a.-, an ultimate objective point. Detroit Fortified. On this line of policy, General Hu. had, early in July, 181 2, concentrated an army of about 2,500 at Detroit. On the 1 Jth of that month he crossed over and took possession of the village of Sandwich, Here he issued a very famous proclamation, and remained un- til the 8th of August, when upon hear- ing that Fort Mackinaw, on the river above Detroit, had been taken by the British and Indians, he recrossed the river and again took position at Detroit. A few days after this, General Brock, Governor of Upper Canada, who had called out a force, took his position at Maiden. On the 15th of August he erected batteries on the opposite side of the river, but in such position as to bring the town of Detroit within the range of his guns, and demanded of Hull a surrender of the place. Colonel McArthur and Colonel Lewfa Cass had been sent off on detached ser- vice, with a small force, on the rivet Raisin, a few days before, by General Hull. Captain Bush, of the Ohio vol unteers, had also, with a small force, been sent off on similar detached ser- vice. These detachments were recalled by peneral Hull on the 15th. On the OUR SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 27 r6tli General Brock commenced cross- ing the river with his forces, three miles below the position occupied by (iencral Hull. When the British had advanced with- in about five hundred yards of Hull's li te, to their surprise they saw the dis- play of a white flag. An officer rode up to inquire the cause. It was a sig- nal for a parley. A correspondence was opened between the commanding gen- erals, which speedily terminated in a capitulation on the part of Hull. The fortress of Detroit, with the garrisons an 1 munitions of war, were surren- dered. The forces under Cass and Mc- Arthur, and other troops at the river Raisin, were included in the surrender. Captain Bush, however, not consider- ing himself bound by Hull's engage- ment, broke up his camp and retreated towards Ohio. A Base Surrender. The army surrendered by General Hull amounted to 2,500 men. General Brock's entire command consisted of about 700 British and Canadians, with 600 Indians. This unaccountable con- duct of Hull filled the whole country with indignation. As soon as he was exchanged, he was brought to trial by court-martial. He was charged with treason, cowardice, and neglect of duty, but found guilty only of the two latter charges. He was sentenced to be shot, but his life was spared in consideration of gallant services in his younger days. By the surrender of Hull, the whole Northwestern frontier was exposed, not only to British invasion, but Indian depredations of the most savage char- acter. Great alarm spread throughout °-U the neighboring States. Not less than ten thousand volunteers tendered their services to the government for defence. These were accepted and placed under command of General Wil- liam Henry Harrison, who had suc- ceeded Hull. Battle of Queenstown. After Hull's disaster, General Van Rensselaer, who had command, accord ing to the original plan, of the centre of the invading line, made a movement over the Canada border. His forces consisted of regulars and militia, and were assembled at Lewistown, on the Niagara river. On the opposite side was Queenstown, a fortified British post. This was the first object of his attack. On the 13th of October, he sent a de- tachment of a thousand men over the river, who succeeded in landing under a heavy fire from the British. The troops were led to the assault of thf fortress by Colonels Christie and Scott They succeeded in capturing it. Gen- eral Brock came up with a reinforcement of six hundred men, and made a desper- ate effort to regain the fort, but was de- feated, and lost his life in the engage- ment. General Van Rensselaer was now at Queenstown, and returned to carry over reinforcements, but his troops re- fused to obey the order. Soon after, another British reinforcement was ral- lied, which recaptured the fort after a bloody engagement, in which the greater part of the thousand men who had first taken it were killed. General Van Rensselaer immediately resigned. The command of the army of the centre was then assigned to General Alexander Smyth. He was soon at the head of an army of four thousand five hundred men. On the 28th of No- 28 OUR vSECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. vember he was ready to move. That was the day fixed for crossing the river. The troops were embarked, but the enemy appearing on the opposite side in considerable force and battle array, a council of war was held, which resulted in a recall of the troops in motion, and a postponement of the enterprise till the ist of December. On that clay another council of war was held, at which the invasion from that quarter was indefi- nitely postponed. General Smyth in turn immediately resigned. So ended the third and last attempt at an inva- sion of Canada, during the fall and winter of 1812. Exploits of the Navy. While the military operations on land, from which so much had been expected, bore so gloomy an aspect, quite as much to the surprise as to the joy of the coun- try, the exploits of the gallant little navy, in its operations on sea, from which very little had been looked for or hoped for, were sending in the most cheering tidings. These may be thus stated : First. — On the 19th of August, 181 2, three days after the disastrous surrender of Detroit by General William Hull, of the army, a most brilliant victory was achieved off the Gulf of St. Lawrence, by Captain Isaac Hull, of the United States frigate Constitution, and coming up with the British man-of-war Guerriere, under the command of Captain Dacres, at the time ♦and place stated, an engagement imme- diately ensued. The fight was a des- perate one, and lasted for some time. But the result was the triumph of Hull and his gallant men. Dacres surren- dered ; but the Guerriere was too much disabled to be brought into port, and was blown up at sea. The loss of the Constitution in men was seven killed and seven wounded ; the loss of the Guerriere was fifty killed and sixty four wounded ; among the latter was Cap- tain Dacres himself. About the same time, Captain Porter, in command of the United States fri- gate Essex, met and captured the Brit- ish sloop-of-war Alert, after an action of only eight minutes. Second. On the 18th of October, Captain Jones, in command of the Uni- ted States sloop-of-war Wasp, of eigh- teen guns, met and captured the British sloop-of-war Frolic, of twenty-two guns, after a hard-fought battle of forty-five minutes, losing but eight men, while the loss of his enemy, in a vessel one- third his superior, was eighty men. Capture of a British Frigate. Third. On the 25 th of October, Cap- tain Decatur, in command of the frigate United States, of forty-four guns, met and captured the British frigate Mace- donian, mounting forty-nine guns and manned by three hundred men. The action continued an hour and a half. The loss of the Macedonian was thirty- six killed and sixty-eight wounded; while the loss 011 the United States was only seven killed and five wounded. The Macedonian was brought into New York, and the gallant Decatur, who, when lieutenant, had so signally dis- tinguished himself at Tripoli, was wel- comed with the applause and honors which he had so nobly won. Fourth. On the 29th of December the Constitution, familiarly called by the sailors Old Ironsides, then in com- mand of Commodore Bainbridge, had another encounter at sea. This was Il lull ii !■ 29 30 OUR SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. with the British frigate Java, of thirty eight guns. The action was fought off S.ui Salvador, and lasted three hours. The Java was dismasted and reduced to a wreck, losing one hundred and sixty- One killed and WOUnded, while the loss oi the Constitution in killed and wounded was hut thirty loin. Fifth, In addition to these victories oi the public vessels, United States privateers, titled out under letters of to the time of Mr. Madison's inaugu- ration for a second Presidential term. Soon after this, Oil the 8tll of Maul., [813, the Russian Ministei at Washing- ton, Mr. Daschcoff, communicated to the President of the United States an oiler from the Emperor Alexandei his mediation between the United States and Great Britain, with 1 view to bring about peace between them. Mr. Madison promptly and formally THE WAS1? BOARDING marque, succeeded in severely distress- ing the enemy's commerce, capturing about five hundred oi their merchant- men and taking three thousand prison- ers during the first seven mouths of the war. England, as Napoleon had pre- dicted, had found an enemy which was ably contesting her supremacy as mis treSS of the sea. Such was the aspect oi affairs on land ami sea in the progress o( war up accepted the Russian mediation, and appointed Mr. Gallatin, John Quincy Adams and James A. Bayard, commis- sioners to negotiate a treaty oi peace with Great Rritain, under the auspices oi' the tendered mediation. Messis. Gallatin and Bayard soon set out on the mission to join Mr. Auams at St. Petersburg, wlr re he was then resident Minister oi' the United States. The British Government declined the niedi- "i r SECOND WAR with GREAT BRITAIN. :',] ation, and nothing came of this com- mission. The fust session of the Thirteenth Congress m< i on the -'41 li of May, [813. The principal business of this Congress was in provide means to carry on the war and sustain the public credit. Direct taxes and excises were again re- sorted to. The expenditures of the war had greatly exceeded the estimates. Mew loans had to be made and pro- vided for. The public finances were in a state of much embarrassment; treasury notes issued according to act of Congress were at a great discount; tin- loans authorized by the Govern- ment were paid in depreciated currency; all the banks in the Union had sus pended specie payments, except some in the Xew England States. Proper arms and clothing for the militia when called into the field were both wanting. Already the war spirit was beginning to abate in several quarters, especially in New England. Canada Invaded. vStill the invasion of Canada was the leading object of the administration. The campaign planned for this purpose in [813 was similar to that of l8l2. Tin- operations extended along the whole northern frontier of the United Slates. The army of the West, under General Harrison, was stationed at the head of Lake Erie; that at the east end of the line, under the command of General Hampton, on the shore of Lake Champlain; while that of the centre, under Dearborn, the commauder-in- chief, was placed between the Lakes Ontario and El i«'- The result of this campaign, in view of its main object, the conquest of Canada, was very little more successful than that of the year before. Ther< were many movements and counti 1 movements of forces, advances, retr< and sieges, with some pitched battles, in which great valor was displayed, but no one- of them was attended with any decisive results. Noted Events. 'flic most noted events of this cam- paign may be thus briefly stated : /-// . . The slaughter of the United Slat's prisoners at Frenchtown, in Canada, on the 22nd of January, 1813. Colonel Proctor, the British officer to whom General Winchester had surrendered a force of several hundred men, in viola- tion of his pledge, turned the prisoners over to the vengeance of the Indians; or at least did not restrain his alii. -s, the savages, in their most atrocious acts of barbarity upon their unarmed victims. Second. The battle of York, or To- ronto, in Upper Canada, on the 27th of April, in which the young and gallant United States officer, General Zebulon M. Pike, was killed. lie expired in the hour of victory. Third. The siege ol P'oit Meigs by Proctor, and its suc- cessful defence by Harrison in the month of May. Fourth. The subse- quent siege of Port Sandusky by Proctor in the same month, and its like gallant defence by Major Croghan. Fifth. The battle of Sackett's Harbor on the 29th of May, in which the British General Prevost was signally repulsed. Sixth. The capture on the same day of the British Port George by the United States troops. Seventh. The battle of Lake Erie, fought on the [oth of Sep- tember. This was a naval engage- 32 Ol'K Sl-X'ONl) WAR WITH C.RKAT UKITAlN. ment, planned and executed by Com- modore Perry. Its results stand briefly chronicled in his report of it to General Harrison in these words: "We have met the enemy, and they are ours ! — two ships, two brigs, one schooner and one sloop." Eighth. The battle of the Thames, as it is ea'ded, fought by Harrison on the 5th oi October, and in which he gained a complete victory. It was in this battle that the famous Indian war- rior Tecumseh was killed by the hands of Colonel R. M. Johnson, of Ken- tucky. Soon after this General Harri- son resigned his commission and re- tired from the service. General Dear- born had previously resigned, when the chief command had been conferred upon General James Wilkinson. Indians in Arms. Meanwhile the Creek Indians in Geor- gia and Alabama had taken up arms. On the 30th of August they had sur- prised Fort Minis on the Chattahoochee river, and massacred nearly three hun- dred persons, men, women and children. The militia oi Georgia and Tennessee were called out. Those of Georgia were under the command of General John Floyd ; the whole were under the direc- tion of Andrew Jaekson, of Tennessee, with the commission of Major- General. Floyd had two engagements with the enemy; one at Callabee, the other at Autossee. Both were successful. The Indian town o( Autossee was burned by him on the 29th of November. A de- tach ment of the Tennessee forces, under General Coffee, had an engagement at Tallusahatchee on the 3d of November, in which two hundred Indians were killed. His success was complete. On the 8th of November the battle of Tal- ladega was fought under the immediate direction of Jackson himself. This was another complete victory. Completely Defeated. Soon after, another fight was had at Emuckfau, with a like result. The Indians rallied again, and made their last stand at a place known as "The* Horseshoe Bend," or, as they called it, "Tohopeka," on the Tallapoosa river. Here they were completely crushed by Jaekson in his great victory of the 27th of March following. A treaty of peace with them was soon after made. The speech of their chief warrior and prophet Witherford, on the occasion of his sur- render to General Jackson, and as re- ported by him at the time, deserves perpetuation. "I am,'' sain he, "in your power. Do with me as you please. I am a sol- dier. I have done the white people all the harm I could. I have fought them, and fought them bravely. If I had an army, I would yet fight, and contend to the last. But I have none. My people are all gone. I can now do no more than weep over the misfortunes of my nation. Once I could animate my warriors to battle ; but I cannot animate the dead. My warriors can no longer hear my voice. Their bones are at Talladega, Tallusahatchee, Kmuckfau, and Toho- peka. I have not surrendered myself thoughtlessly. Whilst there were any chances for success, I never left my post, nor supplicated peace. But my people aie gpne; and I now ask it for my na- tion and for myself." The operations on the sea in 1813 continued, upon the whole, to add lustre to the infant navy of the United States. 34 OUR SKCONI) WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. The most noted of these, the successful as well as the adverse, wen- as follows : First. Captain Lawrence, o[ the United States sloop-of-war Hornet, on the 24th of February, met and cap tured the British brig Peacock, in a conflict that lasted only fifteen minutes. The Peacock, in striking her colors, displayed, at the same time, a signal of distiess. Captain Lawrence made the greatest exertions to save her crew, hut she went down before all of them could he gotten oh", carrying with her three brave and generous United States sea- men, who were extending their aid. A Famous Victory. S cond. On the 1st of June, the British frigate Shannon captured the United States frigate Chesapeake. The Chesapeake at this time was in the command of Lawrence. Every officer on hoard oi her was either killed or wounded, Lawrence, as he was carried below, weltering in blood, and just before expiring, issued his last heroic order—' 1 Dorit give up the ship/" But the fortunes of battle decided otherwise. ,/. The British met anothei like SUCCesS on the 14th oi A.UgUSt, in the capture oi' the United States brig Argus, by the Pelican. The Argns had carried Mr. Crawford, United States Minister, to France, in the month oi' May ; after which she made a Drill iant cruise, capturing more than twenty of the enemy's ships, when she was in tnm captured, as stated. Her colors, however, were not struck in her last engagement, until Captain Allen, in command, had fallen mortally wounded. Fourth. In September the United States brig Enterprise met the British brig Boxer, on the coast of Maine, and after an engagement of forty minutes the Boxer surrendered. The commanders of both vessels fell in tin action, and were buried beside each other in Portland, with military honors. Fifth. During the summer Commo- dore Porter, of the frigate Essex after making many captures of British merchantmen in the Atlantic, visited the Pacific ocean, where lie was no less signally Successful. Sixth. During the same summer, British fleets entered the waters of the Delaware and Chesapeake bays, under the command oi' Admiral George Cock- bum, All small merchant ships within their reach were destroyed, and much damage done to many of the towns on the eoast. Frenchtown, Georgetown, Havre tie Grace and Krederiektown were burned. An attack was made upon Norfolk, which was repulsed with heavy loss. After committing many barbarities at Hampton, Cockburn, with his command, sailed south. All the ports north, to the limits oi' the New England eoast, were kept in close blockade. Peace Commission. 1 hiring the session oi the Congress, which convened in December, [813, a communication was received from the British government, of the purport that, although they had declined to treat under the mediation of Russia, yet they were willing to enter into direct nego- tiations either in London or Gotten- burg. The offer was immediately ac- ceded to, and the latter place appointed for the meeting. Henry Clay and Jona- than Russell were added to the Com- missioners who had already been sent OUR SECOND WAR WITH CRKAT BRITAIN. 35 to Europe. The place of meeting was afterwards changed from Gottenburg to Ghent The country at this time was feeling sorely the ills of war everywhere. New loans had to be made; increased taxes had to be levied ; more troops had to be raised. The conquest of Canada was still the chief object of the admin- istration. Events of the Campaign. The plan of the campaign of 1814 was projected by General Armstrong, the Secretary of War. The Depart- ment of War was temporarily removed to the frontier, and established at the headquarters of the army on the Canada line. The operations in this quaiter during this year, as those of 18 13, were attended with many marches and coun- ter-marches, and much gallant fighting on both sides, but without any decisive results on either. The most noted events connected with them may be thus summed up ' First. The advance of Wilkinson into Canada commenced in March, and ended with the affair at La Cole Mill, on the 31st of that month, in which he was defeated with heavy loss. Soon after this he was superseded, and the chief command given to General Izard. Second. The battle of Chippewa, which was fought on the 5th of July by General Brown, and in which the United States forces won the day. Third. The battle of Bridgewater, or Lundy's Lane, which was fought on the 25th of July. It was here that Colonel Winfield Scott, in command of a brigade, so signally distinguished himself. Two horses were shot under him and he himself was severely wounded, but was more than compen- sated by the victory achieved. Con- gress voted him a gold medal, and he was soon promoted to a major- general- ship. Fourth. The battle of Fort Erie, fought on the 15th of August, in which the British General Drummond was repulsed with great loss. Fifth. The battle of Plattsburg, which was fought on the 11th of Sep- tember. This was a joint land and naval action. General Macomb com- manded the United States land forces at this place ; General Prevost com- manded those of the British. The United States naval forces were com- manded by Commodore MacDonough ; the British fleet was commanded by Commodore Downie. The assault was commenced by Prevost with his land forces. As Commodore Downie moved up to assist with his fleet, he was met and engaged by MacDonough with his small flotilla. Capture of the British Fleet. The chief interest of both armies was now diverted from the action on land to that on water, while the conflict be- tween the fleet and flotilla lasted. It continued for upwards of two hours, and was fierce as well as bloody. It ended in the surrender of the British fleet to Commodore MacDonough. Commodore Downie was killed in the fight, and when his flagship struck her colors, the results of the day were decided on land as well as on the water. Prevost immediately retreated. This victory ended all active operations in that quar- ter. Meantime, during the summer of 1 8 14 a fleet of fifty or sixty vessels ar- 3fi our SECOND WAK WITH GREAT BRITAIN. rived in the Chesapeake bay under Ad- mirals Cockburn and Cochrane, bring- ing a large land force under Genera] Ross. The design was the capture of the city of Washington. Ross landed five thousand men on the 19th oi Au- gust, at the head of the Patuxent, and commenced his inarch overland. There were al the time no forces foi defence in-. 11 the capital. The raw militia were hastily collected and put underGeneraJ Winder, who met theenemyal Bladens- burg. The Presidenl and cabinet lefl the city. Windei with his militia was iuid\ able to retard the advance of Ross. 1 [e entered Washington the 24th of August, and burned most of the pub lie buildings, including the President's house and the capitol. Repulse of the Enemy. The troops then returned to then shipping, and proceeded up the Chesa- peake. Landing at North Point, they advancedon Baltimore. This place was del ended by ( '.cueral Stl ikcr.wilh a force consisting mostly of raw militia and volunteers. In an action which took place on the 1 2th of September, Ross was killed, and his forces retired. Allei an unsuccessful attack of the British He f uudei Cockbui n, upon Port Mc Henry, which commanded the entrance to the city, the whole army re embarked and left the bay. 1 luring this bombardment oi Port Me- llon \ 1>\ Cockburn, which lasted anight and a whole day, l'laucis Scott Key, of Ball imore, I hen detained on board one of the British vessels, whither he had gone On sonic public mission, as he gazed most anxiously upon the flag of his country, still floating triumphantly on the ramparts In the midst of the heavy cannonading, composed his soul- stirring song, the " Star Spangled Ban- ner." The reader will be interested in the accompanying lac-simile ol the original song, one of the most famous eyei composed, the popularity of which oidy increases with *he lapse of time. The New England States suffered much in the same way during the sum- mer. Stonington was bombarded, and attempts were made- to laud an invading force at several places, which were re pulsed by the militia. Gains and Losses. The operations of the respective navies on the ocean during the year i.Xi.| resulted about as theydidin 1813. The United States lost two war-ships and captured five of like character, be- sides many British merchantmen. Mr. Gerry, the Vice-President, died suddenly in Washington on the 23d of Noveinbei of this year. John ( iaillaid, of South Carolina, succeeded him as President of the Senate pro tempore. While these events were occurring <>u land and water, during tin- summer oi [814, the hostility in the New England States to the Federal administration had ripened into a determination to take de- cisive steps for the maintenance oi their own rights in their own way. A ma- jority of the people of these States were strongly opposed to the conquest of Canada. Massachusetts and Connecti- cut, throwing themselves upon their re- served rights under the Constitution, refused to .How their militia to be sent out of '.heir States, in what they deemed a war of aggression against others, especially when they were needed ,or their own defence in repelling an inva- sion. JJ -' — CC uJ & OUR SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. 37 . v~ , •**-"'A^3 At^e^ CJ2*- f&fc tf*-**, $ &X»~ly Jt*s^ %&~U.*L tPL LU^Ty^ *^< &s fx^ny+u, *<^e-. <2<*-<***«£« f&ruZd -&-*i»Jt, tv^ ivc^rx^? ^J^ImCuPjl. t>o-uZ) C+*v^a> -fat, Xn-*^oO «K ££**«_«___ FAC-SIMH/B OF THE ORIGINAL COPY OF THE STAR-SPANGLED BANNER 38 OUR SECONo WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. For this course they were very severely censured by most of their sister States, and the more so from the fact that the war had been entered upon for the joint maintenance of the rights of their seamen and commerce. Moreover, it was insisted upon by the friends of the administration, that the mode of warfare adopted was the surest for the attainment of the objects aimed at. But what increased the opposition of the New England States at this time was the refusal of the administration to pay the expenses of their militia, called out by the governors of their respective States for their own local defence. The Hartford Convention. This refusal was based upon the ground that these States had refused to send their militia out of their limits upon a Federal call. To this may be added the new scheme of the adminis- tration for forcing the militia of the respective States outside of their limits, not by a call on the governors of the States for them, but by a general act of Federal conscription, which was con- sidered by many able statesmen and jurists as clearly unconstitutional. It was in this condition of things that the Legislature of Massachusetts in- vited the neighboring States to meet in convention for mutual consultation. Accordingly, a convention of delegates from Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, Vermont and Connecticut, met at Hartford, in the latter State, on the 15 th day of December, 18 14. The deliberations of this famous body were held within closed doors. What the real ultimate designs of the leading members of it were, have never been fully dis- closed. Some mystery has ever hung over it. But the resolutions adopted by it, and the public address put forth by it at the time, very clearly indicate that the purpose was, either to effect a change of policy on the part of the Federal ad- ministration in the conduct of the war, or for these States, in the exercise of their sovereign rights, to provide for their own well-being, as they thought best, by withdrawing from the Union. The only positive results of the con- vention were, the appointment of a dep- utation of the body to wait upon the Federal authorities at Washington, co whom in person their views were to be presented, and the call of another con- vention, to which this deputation was to report, before any further decisive action should be taken. British Force Landed. In the meantime, it became known that a large British force — of at least twelve thousand men — had been landed at or near the mouth of the Mississippi river, under Sir Edward Pakenham. The country everywhere was in the greatest alarm for the safety of New Orleans. The command of this depart- ment was now in charge of General Jackson, with such forces as he could collect, consisting mostly of volunteers and militia, amounting in all to not more than one half the numbers of the approaching foe. He went vigorously to work to repel this most formidable invasion. With such means of resist- ance as the genius of a "born general" only can improvise, he was soon in an attitude of defence. The result was the ever-memorable charge of the British, and their bloody repulse by Jackson, on the 8th of January, 18 15. This was the most brilliant victory CO w o a H O M w ►3 40 OUR SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. achieved by the arms of the United States during the war. Two thousand British soldiers, led in a charge on Jackson's breastworks, were left dead or wounded upon the field. Pakenham himself was killed. Major-Generals Gibbs and Keane, the two officers next in command, were both wounded, the former mortally ; while Jackson's loss was only seven killed and six wounded. The War Ended. Upon the heels of the news of this splendid achievement, which electrified the country with joy, came the still more gratifying intelligence of a treaty of peace, which the commissioners had effected at Ghent on the 24th of Decem- ber, 1 8 14, fifteen days before this great battle was fought. All discontents ceased, and in the general joy at this close of the bloody scenes of two years and over, it seemed to be entirely for- gotten or overlooked that not one word was said in the treaty about the right of search or impressment by Great Britain, which was the main point in issue at the commencement of the war. The treaty of peace with England was promptly ratified, and all necessary steps for a disbandment of the army were immediately taken by Congress. But further work was in store for the navy. The Dey of Algiers — in viola- tion of the treaty of 1795 — had recently been committing outrages upon Amer- ican commerce within his waters. Another war against him was soon afterwards declared. The gallant De- catur was sent with a fleet to the Medi- terranean for the chastisement of this piratical power. He in a short time captured two Algerine ships and brought the Dey to terms. A treaty of peace was made on the 30th of June, by which the United States obtained, not only se- curity for the future, but indemnity for the past. William H. Crawford, on his return from Paris, where he had been resident United States Minister for some time, was appointed Secretary of War, 1st of August, 1 81 5. The charter of the first bank of the United States having expired in 181 1, and an act for its renewal having failed to pass, several attempts afterwards were made to obtain a charter for a similar institution, which likewise failed. A bill for this purpose, which had passed both houses of Congress, was vetoed by Mr. Madison, in January, 18 14. But on the 10th of April, 1816, another bill, of like character, received his approval, by which a new bank of the United States was incorporated for twenty years, with a capital of thirty-five mil- lion dollars. Indiana in the Union. On the 19th day of April, 1816, an act was passed for the admission of Indiana into the Union as a State. During the fall of 18 16 another Pres- idential election took place. There was at this time considerable division among the Republicans as to who the succes- sor should be. Mr. Madison had posi- tively declined standing for re-election. The choice of candidates finally made by the Democratic members of Congress in caucus was : Mr. Monroe for Presi- dent; and Governor Daniel D. Tomp- kins, of New York, for Vice-President. The Federal party, still so-called, nomi- nated Rufus King of New York, for President ; and John Eager Howard, of Maryland, for Vice-President OUR SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. 41 The result of the vote of the Elec- toral Colleges was 183 for Mr. Monroe, and 34 for Mr. King ; 183 for Governor Tompkins, and 22 for Mr. Howard. The vote by States between the Demo- cratic and Federal tickets at this elec tion stood: 16 for the Democratic and three for the Federal. The sixteen States that voted for Mr. Monroe and Mr. Tompkins were : New Hamp- shire, Rhode Island, Vermont, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Mary- land, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Kentucky, Tennes- see, Ohio, Louisiana, and Indiana. The three that voted for Mr. King were : Massachusetts, Connecticut and Delaware. After the 4th of March, 1817, Mr. Madison retired from office, leaving the country at peace with the world, and rapidly recovering from the injurious effects of the late war. He returned to his home at Montpelier, Virginia, where he enjoyed the society of his friends and the general esteem of his country- men. The most distinguishing feature of his administration was the war with Great Britain. Whatever may be thought of the wisdom or policy of that war, or of its general conduct, the re- sult unquestionably added greatly to the public character of the United States in the estimation of foreign powers. The price at which this had been purchased was, in round numbers, about one hundred million dollars in public expenditures, and the loss of about thirty thousand men, including those who fell in battle as well as those who died of disease contracted in the service. Of the amount of private or individ- ual losses no approximate estimate can be made ; and though in the treaty of peace nothing was said about the main cause for which the war was prosecuted, yet Great Britain afterwards refrained from giving any offence in the practical assertion of her theoretic right of search and impressment. Whether the same ends could have been attained by any other course which would not have involved a like sacrifice of treasure and blood, is a problem that can never be satisfactorily solved by human specu- lation. CHAPTER III. Origin and Growth of the Mormons. MONG the important events in the United States occurring during the century must be mentioned the rise and growth of the new and strange sect known as the Mormons, or the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints. It was founded by Joseph Smith, at Man- chester, New York, in 1830, and after many vicissitudes finally settled in Salt Lake City in Utah. Smith was born December 23rd, 1805, at Sharon, Wind- sor County, Vermont, from which place ten years later his parents, a poor, ignor- ant, thriftless and not too honest couple, removed to New York, where they set- tled on a small farm near Palmyra, Wayne County (then Ontario). Four years later, in 1809, they re- moved to Manchester, some six miles distant, and it was at the latter place when fifteen years old that Smith began to have his alleged visions, in one of which on the night of 21st of Septem- ber, 1823, the angel Moroni appeared to him three times and told him that the Bible of the Western Continent, the supplement to the New Testament, was buried in a certain spot near Man- chester. Thither, four years later and after due disciplinary probation, Smith went and had delivered into his charge by an angel of the Lord a stone box, in which was a volume six inches thick, made of thin gold plates eight inches by seven, and fastened together by three gold rings. The plates were covered with small writing in the "Reformed Egyptian" tongue, and were accompanied by a 42 pair of supernatural spectacles, consist- ing of two crystals set in a silver bow, and called " Urim and Thummim;" by aid of these the mystic characters could be read. Being himself unable to read or write fluently, Smith employed as amanuensis, one Oliver Cowdery, to whom, from behind a curtain, he dictated a transla- tion, which, with the aid of a farmer, Martin Harris, who had more money than wit, was printed and published in 1830 under the title of The Book of Mormon, and accompanied by the sworn statement of Oliver Cowdery, David Whitmer, and Martin Harris that an angel of God had shown them the plates of which the book was a translation. They Swore Falsely. This testimony all three, on renounc- ing Mormonism some years later, de- nounced as false ; but meanwhile it helped Smith to impose on the credu- lous, particularly in the absence of the gold {dates themselves, which suddenly and mysteriously disappeared. The Book oj Mormon, in which Jos- eph Smith was declared to be God's "prophet," with all power and entitled to all obedience, professes to give the history of America from its first settle- ment by a colony of refugees from among the crowd dispersed by the con- fusion of tongues at the Tower of Babel down to the year 5 a. d. These settlers having in course of time destroyed one another, nothing of importance occurred until 600 b. c, when Lehi, his wife and four sous, with ten friends, all from ORIGIN AND GROWTH UF THE MORMONS. 43 Jerusalem, Chili, and landed on the coast of effected a settlement. W & < 2 K f s fc ^ 2 On ^ v All went well until the death ot Lehi, when the divine appointment to the leadership of Nephi, the youngest son, roused the resentment of his elder brothers, who were in consequence con- demned to have dark skins and to be an idle mischievous race — hence the North American Indians. Between the Ne- phites and the bad Hebrews a fierce war was maintained for centuries, until finally, in spite of divine intervention in the person of the crucified Christ, the Nephites fell away from the true faith, and in 384 a. d. were nearly annihilated by their dark-skinned foes in a battle at the hill of Cumorah in Ontario county, New York. Among the handful that escaped were Mormon and his son Moroni, the for- mer of whom collected the sixteen books of records, kept by successive kings and priests, into one volume, which on his death was supplemented by his son with some personal remi- niscences and by him buried in the hill of Cumorah — he being divinely assured that the book would one day be discov- ered by God's chosen prophet. A Historical Romance. This is Smith's account of the book, but in reality it was written in 18 12 as an historical romance by one Solomon Spalding, a crack-brained preacher ; and the MS. falling into the hands of an unscrupulous compositor, Sidney Rig- don, was copied by him, and subse- quently given to Joseph Smith. Armed with this book and with self-assumed divine authority, the latter soon began to attract followers. On 6th of April, 1830, the first con- ference of the new sect, called by their neighbors Mormons, but by themselves subsequently Latter-Day Saints of Jesus Christ, was held at Fayette, Seneca 44 ORIGIN AND GROWTH OP THE MORMONS. county, New York, and in the same year another revelation was received by Smith, proclaiming him "seer, trans- lator, prophet, apostle of Jesus Christ, and elder of the church." Smith now be^aii to baptize; but, his character, which was none of the best, being too well known in Payette, he found it convenient to remove with his follow- ers, now thirty in number, to Kirtland, Ohio, which was to be the seat c < the New Jerusalem. Tarred and Feathered Here he had another revelation, di- recting the saints to consecrate all their property to Cod and to start a bank. This being done, and Smith appointed president o( the bank, the country was soon flooded with worthless notes, which fact, added to other grievances, so en- raged the neighboring Christian settlers, that on the night oi' 22nd o( May, 1832, a number of them dragged Smith and Rigdoil from their beds and tarred and feathered them. One year later, the church was fairly organized, with three presidents, Smith, Rigdon, and Freder- ick G. Williams, who were styled the first presidency, and entrusted with the keys of the last kingdom. About this time the licentiousness of Smith might have led to the dissolution of the church but for the accession of Brigham Young, a Vermont painter and glazier, thirty years old, who turned up in Kirtland in 1832, and was immedi- ately ordained elder. Young's indomi- table will, persuasive eloquence, execu- tive ability, shrewdness, and zeal, soon made their influence felt, and, when a further step was taken in 1835 towards the organization of a hierarchy by the institution of the quorum of the "twelve apostles," who were sent out as prosely- tizing missionaries among the "gen- tiles," Young was ordained one of the " twelve," and despatched to preach throughout the eastern States. In 1836 a large temple was consecra- ted in Kirtland, and in the following vear Orson Hyde and HeberC. Kimball were sent off as missionaries to England, where, among the laboring masses in Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, and the mining dis- tricts of South Wales they achieved a remarkable success. Early in 1838 the Kirtland bank failed, and Smith and Rigdon iled to Caldwell county, Mis- souri, where a large body of the saints, after having been driven successively from Jackson and Clay counties, had taken refuge and flourished. A Profligate Impostor. Smith's troubles, however, continued to increase. His gross profligaev had re- pelled many of his leading supporters and bred internal dissensions, while from the outside the brethren were harassed and threatened by the steadily growing hostility of the native Missonrians. To counteract the efforts of his enemies, a secret society was organized in Smith's favor in October, 1838, called the Dan- ites, with the avowed purpose of sup- porting Smith at all hazards, of up- holding the authority of his revelation and decrees as superior to the laws of the land, and of helping him to get possession, fust of the State, then of the United States, and ultimately of the world. To such a height did the inner dis- sensions ami the conflicts with the "gen- tiles'' grow that they assumed the pro- portions of a civil war, and necessitated .^:^'>. v 1.OPIHIGHT, 188*, B1 KUB: 6 ALLISON ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF THE MORMONS- 45 the calling out of the State militia. Defying the legal officers, Smith forti- fied the town and armed the saints, but finally had to succumb to superior num- bers. Smith and Rigdon were arrested shortly afterwards rejoined by Smith, who succeeded in escaping from prison, and, having obtained a charter, they founded the city of Nauvoo. Such were the powers granted them NEW MORMON TEMPLE IN SALT LAKE CITY. and imprisoned on a charge of treason, murder and felony, and their followers to the number of 15,000 crossed over into Illinois and settled near Commerce, Hancock county. Here they were by this charter as to render the city practically independent of the State Government, and to give Smith all but unlimited evil power. He organized a military body called the Nauvoo legion, 46 ORIOIN AND CROWT1I OF THE MORMONS. of which he constituted himself com- mander with the title of lieutenant-gen- eral, while he was also president of the church and mayor of the city, On .April 6th, 1841, the foundations of the new temple were laid, and the city continued to grow rapidly in prosperity and size. But Smith's vices were beginning to bear fruit. Some years previously he had prevailed on several women to co- habit with him, and in order to pacify his lawful wife and silence the objec- tions of the saints lie had a revelation on July uth, [843, expressly establishing and approving polygamy. The procla- mation of the new doctrine excited widespread indignation, which found special expression in the pages of the Expositor, a newspaper published by an old friend of Smith, one Dr. Foster. Shot Dead by a Mob. Smith at once caused the Expositor printing office to be razed and Foster expelled, on which the latter procured a warrant for the arrest of Smith, his brother llyrum, and sixteen others. Smith resisted ; the militia was called out ; the Mormons armed themselves ; and a civil war seemed imminent, when the governor of the State persuaded Smith to surrender and stand his trial. Accordingly, on June 27, [844, he and Hyrum were imprisoned in Carthage jail ; but that same night a mob broke into the prison, dragged out Smith and his brother and shot them dead, j This shooting was the most fortunate thing that had ever happened to the Mormon cause, investing the murdered president with the halo oi' martyrdom, and effacing public recollection of his vices in the lustre of a glorious death. Of the confusion that followed Smith's " taking off," Brigham Young profited by procuring his own election to the presidency by the council of the "twelve apostles," — a position for which his splendid executive abilities well fitted him, as subsequent events abundantly proved. The following \ear witnessed what appeared to be the culmination of their misfortunes. The legislature of Illinois repealed the charter of Nauvoo, and so critical did the situation become that the leaders resolved to emigrate imme- diately, and preparations were begun for a general exodus westward. Early in 184(1 a large number of the body met at Council Bluffs, Iowa, and those who had Stayed behind soon found cause to re- gret that they too had not left Nauvoo, as in the September Oi the same year that city was cannonaded, and the Mor- mons were driven out. Shrewd Speculation. The subsequent history of Nauvoo is interesting. The new citizens sent abroad highly colored circulars about the great water-power and natural site, and a great speculation followed, which ended in a collapse, and the city shrank to a little hamlet of perhaps 700 people. Then came the Icarians, French Com- munists, under the lead of M. Cabet. These proposed to tit up the temple for a social hall and school-room. But at 2 a. m. of November 10, 1848, it was found to be on fire, and before daylight every particle of woodwork was destroyed. It was set on fire in the third story oi' the steeple, one hundred and forty feet from the ground. The dry pine burned like tinder. There was no mode of reaching the fire, and in twenty minutes the whole wooden in- ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF THE MORMONS. 47 tenor was a mass of flames. In two a barren wilderness into a fertile and hours nothing remained but hot walls blooming garden, enclosing a bed of embers. Afterwards An emigration fund was organized^ a man residing fourteen miles distant I missionaries were sent out, and soon confessed that he set it on fire. He had suffered at the hands of the Mor- mons and swore- no trace of them should cumber the soil of Illinois. Meanwhile pio- neers had been de- spatched to the Great Salt Lake valley, Utah, and, their report prov- ing favorable, a large body of emi- grants was marched with military disci- pline across the wil- derness to the val- ley, where they im- mediately proceed- ed to found vSalt Lake City, and where on July 24, 1847, they were joined by their chief, Brigham Young. In the May following the main body of the saints set out to rejoin their breth- ren, and in the au- tumn of that year reached Salt Lake City. Large tracts of land were at once put under cultiva- tion, a great city sprang up as by magic, and the untiring industry, en- ergy, and zsal of the emigrants turned JOE SMITH KILLED BY A MOU OF INDIGNANT CITIZENS. settlers began to pour in from all quar- ters of the globe, particularly from Great Britain, Sweden and Norway, and in less numbers from Germany, Swit- zerland and France. Strangely enough, 48 ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF THE MORMONS. and the fact deserves emphasis, Ireland has furnished few if any recruits to the cause of Mornionisni. In March, 1849, a convention was held at Salt Lake City, and a State was organized under the name of Deseret, meaning "the land of the honey-bee." A legislature was also elected, and a ^constitution framed, which was sent on to Washington. This Congress refused to recognize, and by way of compromise for declining to admit the proposed new State into the Union, President Fill- more in 1850 organized the country oc- cupied by the Mormons into the Terri- tory of Utah, with Brigham Young as governor. District judges were also ap- pointed by the Federal Government; but in 185 1, a few months after their appointment, they were forced to leave by the aggressive tactics of Young. Such bold defiance of the Federal Gov- ernment could not be ignored; Brigham was suspended from the governorship, and Colonel Steptoe of the United States army appointed in his stead. Daring Outrages. The new governor, backed by a bat- talion of soldiers, arrived in Utah in August, 1854; but so strong was the op- position which he met with that he dared not assume office, and was forced to content himself with merely winter- ing in Salt Lake City, after which he withdrew his troops to California. Nor did the other civil officers appointed by the United States Government at the same time show any bolder front. In February, 1856, a band of armed Mor- mons broke into the court-room of the United States district judge, and forced Judge Drummond to adjourn his court sine die. His surrender precipitated the flight of the other civil officers, and with the sole exception of the United States Indian agent they withdrew from Salt Lake City. These facts led President Buchanan to appoint a new governor in the person of Alfred Cumming, the superintendent of Indian affairs on the upper Missouri, who, in 1857, went to Utah, accom- panied by Judge Eckels of Indiana as chief justice, and by a force of 2500 soldiers. Enraged by the aggressive ac- tion, Brigham Young boldly called the saints to arms. In September the Uni- ted States army reached Utah, but on the 5 th and 6th of October, a band of mounted Mormons destroyed a number of its supply trains, and a few days later cut off 800 oxen from its rear and drove them into Salt Lake City. Mountain Meadows Massacre. The result was that the United States army, now commanded by Colonel A. S. Johnson, was compelled — it being now mid-November — to go into winter quarters at Black's Forks, near Fort Bridger. In the same year a party of Mormons and Indians, instigated and led by a Mormon bishop named John D. Lee, attacked a train of 1 50 non-Mor- mon emigrants at Mountain Meadows, near Utah, and massacred every soul. Governor Cumming at once declared the Territory in a state of rebellion ; but in the spring of 1858, through the intervention of Thomas L. Kane, of Pennsylvania, armed with letters of au- thority from President Buchanan, the Mormons were induced to submit to the Federal authority, and accepted a free offer of pardon made to them by the United States Government as the con- dition of their submission. ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF THE MORMONS 49 Matters being thus settled, the Federal troops encamped on the western shore of Lake Utah, some forty miles from Salt Lake City, where they remained Until withdrawn from the Territory in [860. On the close of our Civil War a Federal Governor was again appointed, and, ill [871, polygamy was declared to be a criminal offence, and Brigliam Young was arrested. This action, however, on the part of The year 1877 was otherwise signal- ized in Mormon history by the trial, conviction, and execution of John D. I/c, for the Mountain Valley massacre of 1857. Of late years the question of Mormonism has occupied public atten- tion. In [873 Mr. Frelinghuysen intro- duced a bill severely censuring polyg- amy, and declaring that the wives of polygamists could claim relief by action for divorce. In 1874 the committee of MASSACRE OF 1 the United States Government was merely spasmodic, and the Mormons continued to practice polygamy, and to increase in wealth and numbers until August 29, 1877, when Rrigham Young lied, leaving a fortune of #2,000,000 to seventeen wives and fifty-six childrun. He was succeeded in office by John Taylor, an Englishman, although the actual leadership fell to George O. Can- non, "first counsellor" to the president, and one of the ablest men in the sect. HE MORRISITES. the House of Representatives reported a bill which reduced Utah to the posi- tion of a province, placing the control of affairs in the hands of Federal officials, and practically abolishing polygamy. In the same year George Q. Cannon was elected a delegate from Utah, and though his election was contested it was confirmed by the House of Representa- tives. This decision, however, was ac- companied by the passing of a resolu- tion by a vote of 127 to 51, appointing 50 ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF THE MORMONS. a committee of investigation into Dele- gate Cannon's alleged polygamy — he having, it was asserted, four wives. Later in the same year the Utah Judici- ary Bill, attacking the very foundation of Mormonism, passed the House in 'spite of the opposition of Cannon. Other steps in the same direction have since been taken, and bills passed, having for their object the extirpation ol polygamy. The secession, chiefly because of his opposition to the prac- tice, of Brigham Young's son, a Chris- tian preacher, and of a large body of other anti-polygamists who claim to be the true I, attcr- Pay Saints, represents not an individual opinion, but the deep-rooted conviction of a great party. .Already there are not wanting signs of approaching dissolution, of which per- haps the most significant is the confer- ence of the " Re-organized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints," held on April 6, 1883, at Kirtland, Lake County, Ohio. Origin of the New Sect. This sect originated in 185 1, seven years after the death of Joseph Smith, when several officers of the church met and claimed to have received a revela- tion from God, directing them to repu- diate Brigham Young, as not being the divinely-appointed and legitimate suc- cessor of Joseph Smith, and as being the promulgator o( such false doctrines as polygamy, Adam-God worship, and the right to shed the blood of apostates. Nothing oi' special importance oc- curred, however, till 1 860, when Joseph Smith, Jr., the eldest son of the founder of the faith, became identified with the Re-organized Church as its president. Since then theseceders have prosecuted missionary work throughout the United States, Great Britain, Canada, Scandi- navia, Switzerland, Australia, and the Society Islands, until their communi- cants are said to number over 27,000. Bill to Suppress Polygamy. On January 12, 1887, the House of Representatives passed without division a bill for the suppression of polygamy in the territory of Utah. Its chief pro- visions are: (1) Polygamy is declared to be a felony ; (2) the chief financial corporations of the Mormons are dis- solved, and the attorney-general is di- rected to wind them up by process of the courts ; (3) polygamists are made ineligible to vote; (4) all voters in Utah are to bo required to take an oath to obey the laws of the United States, and especially the laws against polygamy ; (5) woman suffrage in Utah is abolished, and (6) lawful wives and husbands are made competent witnesses against per- sons accused of polygamy. It was reported in September, 1890, that polygamy had been declared to be no longer a feature of Mormon teach- ing, and that it was the intention of the sect to submit to the ordinary laws binding on Americans. In the first part of April, 1893, oc- curred the dedication of the great tem- ple at Salt Lake City, built in forty years, at a cost stated to be $5,000,000. In September, 1804, our government by proclamation granted pardon to polygamists, and it was reported that among the Mormons there was a gen- eral disposition to observe the laws of the United States enacted against their favorite institution. In January, 1897, ten colonies in New Mexico were re- ported to be prosperous. CHAPTER IV. War Between the United States and Mexico. ARLY in the century, pioneers from the United States began to find their way to Texas, which was then a wild country, inhabited only by roving Indians and the garrisons of the few Spanish forts within its limits. One of these emigrants, Moses Austin, of Durham, Connecticut, conceived the plan of colonizing settlers from the United States. For this purpose he obtained from the Spanish Government, in 1820, the grant of an extensive tract of land; but before he could put his plans in execution he died. His son, Stephen F. Austin, in- herited the rights of his father under this grant, and went to Texas with a number of emigrants from this country, and explored that region for the pur- pose of locating his grant. He selected as the most desirable site for his colony the country between the Brazos and Colorado rivers, and founded a city, which he named Austin, in honor of the originator of the colony, to whom Texas owes its existence as an Ameri- can commonwealth. Having seen the settlers established in their new homes, Mr. Austin returned to the United States to collect other emigrants for his colony. During his absence Mexico and the 'other Spanish provinces rose in revolt against Spain, and succeeded in estab- lishing their independence. Texas, being regarded as a part of the Mexican territory, shared the fortunes of that country. Upon his return to Texas, Austin, in consideration of the altered state of affairs, went to the city of Mex- ico, and obtained from the Mexican government a confirmation of the grant made to his father. Such a confirma- tion was necessary in order to enable him to give the settlers valid titles to the lands of his colony. Mexico at first exercised but a nomi- nal authority over the new settlements, and the colonists were allowed to live under their own laws, subject to the rules drawn up by Austin. In order to encourage settlements in Texas, the Mexican Congress, on the second of May, 1824, enacted the following law, declaring, "That Texas is to be an- nexed to the Mexican province of Coha- huila, until it is of sufficient importance to form a separate State, when it is to become an independent State of the Mexican republic, equal to the other States of which the same is composed, free, sovereign, and independent in whatever exclusively relates to its internal government and administra- tion." Flood of Immigration. Encouraged by this decree, large numbers of Americans emigrated to Texas, and to these were added emi- grants from all the countries of Europe. The population grew rapidly, new towns sprang up, and Austin's colony prospered in a marked degree, until 1830, when Bustamente having made himself, by violence and intrigue, pres- ident of the so-called Mexican republic, prohibited the emigration of foreigners to the Mexican territory, and issued a number of decrees very oppressive to 51 52 WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. the people, and in violation of the con- stitution of 1824. In order to enforce these measures in Texas, he occupied that province with his troops, and placed Texas under mil- itary rule. The Texans resented this interference with their rights, and finally compelled the Mexican troops to with- draw from the province. In 1832, an- other revolution in Mexico drove Bus- taniente from power, and placed Santa Anna at the head of affairs as presi- dent or dictator Arrested and Imprisoned. Texas took no part in the disturb- ances of Mexico, but after the accession of Santa Anna to power, formed a con- stitution, and applied for admission into the Mexican republic as a State, in ac- cordance with the constitution of 1824, and the act of the Mexican Congress which we have quoted. Stephen F. Austin was sent to the city of Mexico to present the petition of Texas for this purpose. He was refused an answer to this petition for over a year, and at last wrote to the authorities of Texas, advis- ing them to organize a State govern- ment without waiting for the action of the Mexican Congress. For this recommendation, which the Mexican government regarded as trea- sonable, Santa Anna caused the arrest of Austin, and kept him in prison for over a year. Texas now began to manifest the most determined opposi- tion to the usurpation of Santa Anna, and measures were taken to maintain the rights of the province under the con- stitution of 1824. Troops were organ- ized, and preparations made to resist the force which it was certain Mexico would send against them. Santa Anna did not allow them to re- main long in suspense, but at once dis- patched a force under General Cos, to disarm the Texans. On the second of October, 1835, Cos attacked the town of Gonzalez, which was held by a Texan , force, but was repulsed with heavy loss. A week later, on the ninth of October, the Texans captured the town of Goliad, and a little later gained possession of the mission house of the Alamo. Both places were garrisoned, and the Texan army, which was under the command of Austin, in the course of a few months succeeded in driving the Mexi- cans out of Texas. State Government. On the twelfth of November, 1835, a convention of the people of Texas met at the city of Austin, and organized a regular State government. Prominent among the members was General Sam Houston, a settler from the United States. Soon after the meeting of the convention General Austin resigned the command of the army, and was sent to the United States as the commissioner of that State to this government, and was succeeded as commander-in-chief by General Sam Houston. Henry Smith was elected governor of Texas by the people. As soon as Santa Anna learned that his troops had been driven out of Texas, and that the Texans had set up a State government, he set out for that country with an army of seventy-five hundred men. He issued orders to his troops to shoot every prisoner taken, and intended to make the struggle a war of extermina- tion. He arrived before the Alamo late in February, 1836. This fort was very strong, and was held by a force of one i.AKC''"or~ TEZCUCOV SCENES IN MEXICO. 53 war BETWEEN THE uniticd STATES AND MEXICO. hundred and forty Texans under Colonel Travis. It was besieged by the whole Mexican army, and was subjected to a bombardmenl of eleven days. Davy Crockett. At last, on the sixth of March, the garrison being worn out with fatigue, the fort was carried by assault, and the •vhole garrison was put to the sword, uiong the heroes who fell at the Texan rhermopylse was the eccentric hut chiv- ilrous Colonel Davy Crockett, of Ten- nessee, who had generously conic to aid khe Texans in their struggle for liberty, rhe capt lire of the Alamo cost the Mexi- miis a loss oi' sixteen hundred men, or ovei eleven men foi every one of its defenders. On the 171I1 of March, [836, the con- vention adopted a constitution foi an independent republic, and formally pro- claimed the independence of Texas. David (■. Burnett was elected president oi the republic. The fort at Goliad was held by a force oi three hundred and thirty Texans, undei Colonel Panning, a native of Georgia. On the twenty-seventh of March it was attacked by the Mexican army. The garrison maintained a gal- lant defence, but their resources being exhausted, and the Mexicans being re inforced during the night, Panning de- cided to surrendei his force, if he could obtain honorable terms, He proposed o Santa Anna to lav down his anus and surrender the post on condition that he and his men should be allowed and as- sisted to return to the United States. The proposition was accepted by Santa Anna, and the terms oi' the surrender were formally drawn up and were signed by each commander. As soon as the surrender was made, however, and the anus of the Texans were delivered, Santa Anna, in base violation oi' his pledge, caused Fanning and the survi- vors of the garrison, to the number of three hundred men, to be put to death. The massacres of the Alamo and Go-' t Had, and the steady advance of the Mex ican army under Santa Anna caused a feeling oi \)\oi'ouuo\ alarm throughout the new republic. The government was removed temporarily to Galveston, and General Houston retreated behind the San Jacinto. Santa Anna pursued the Texan forces, and at length came up with them on the banks of that stream. Houston had but seven hundred and fifty men with him, and these were im- perfectly armed and without discipline. Mexican Army Routed. With this force he surprised the Mexi- can camp, on the 2ISt oi .April, and routed the Mexican army, inflicting upon it a loss of over six hundred killed, and taking more than eight hundred priso- ners. Santa Anna himself was among the prisoners. Houston at once entered into negotiations with him for the with- drawal of the Mexican loiccs from Texas. This was done at once, and the independence of Texas was achieved. Santa Anna also recognized the inde- pendence oi' the new republic, but the Mexican Congress refused to confirm this act. Houston was now the idol oi the Texan people as the deliverer oi' their count rv from the hated Mexicans. At the next general election he was chosen President as the republic, ami was inau- gurated on the twenty-second oi' Octo- ber, [836. General Mirabeau B, Lamar was the third President of the republic WAR BETWEEN THE UNITKI) STATES AND MEXICO. 56 of Texas, and entered upon his office in 1838. He was succeeded in i8.|.j by Anson Jones, the fourth President. The territory of the republic was suffi- ciently large to make five States the size of New York, and its climate and soil were among the mosl delightful and fertile in the world. It contained a popu- lation of about two hundred thousand, and was increasing rapidly in inhabi- tants and in prosperity. Texas a Republic. On the third of March, 1837, the in- dependence of the republic of Texas was acknowledged by the United States, and in [839 by France and England. Being young and feeble, and being set- tled almost entirely by Americans, the people of Texas at an early day came to the conclusion that their best interests required them to seek a union with the United States, and as early as August, [837, a proposition was submitted to Mr. Van Buren looking tosuch a union. It was declined by him, but the question was taken up by the press and people of the Union, and was discussed with the greatest interest and activity. The South was unanimously in favor of the annexation of Texas, as it was a region in which slave labor would be particularly profitable; and a strong parts' in the North opposed the annexa- tion for the reason that it would inevi- tably extend the area of slavery. An additional argument against annexation was that it would involve a war with Mexico, which had never acknOwledg< d the independence of Texas. In April, 1 8 14, Texas formally ap- plied for admission into the United States, and a treaty foi that purpose was negotiated with her by the government of this country. It was rejected by the Senate. In the fall of i8.|.| the Presidential election took place. The leading po- litical question of the day was the an- nexation of Texas. It was advocated by the administration of I'lesidcnl Tyler and by the Democratic paity. This pai ty also made the claim of the 1 Jnited States to Oregon one of the leading issues of the campaign. Its candidates were James K. Polk, of Tennessee, and George M. Dallas, of Pennsylvania. The Whijj;' party supported I [enry Clay, of Kentucky, and Theodore Preling- huysen, of New Jersey, and opposed the annexation of Texas. I hiring this campaign, which was one of unusual excitement, the Anti-slaveiy party made- its appearance for the fust time as a distinct political organization, and nominated James (i. IJirney as its candidate for the Presidency. Democrats in Power. The result of the campaign was a de- cisive victor\' for the Democrats. This success was generally regarded as an em- phatic expression of the popular will representing the Texas and Oregon questions. Mr. Birney did not receive a single electoral vote, and of the- popu- lar vote only sixty-four thousand six hundred and fifty-three ballots were cast for him. When Congress met in December, 1844, the efforts for the annexation of Texas were renewed. A proposition was made to receive Texas into the Union by a joint resolution of Congress. A bill fortius purpose passed the House of Representatives, but tin- Senate ad- ded an amendment appointing commis- sioners to negotiate with Mexico for 56 WAR BETWEEN THE UNincn STATICS and mkxico. the annexation of Texas, which she still claimed as a pan of her territory. The President was authorized by a clause in these resolutions to adopt either the House or the Senate plan oi annexa- tion, and on the second oi March, 1845, the resolutions were adopted. Senator Benton, oi Missouri, the au- thor oi the Senate plan, was oi the opin- ion that the matter would be left to Mr. Polk, the President-elect, to be con- ducted by him; and that gentleman had expressed his intention to carry out the Senate plan, as he hoped an amicable arrangement could be made with Mex- ico. Mi. Tyler, however, determined not to leave the annexation of Texas to his successor, and at once adopted the plan proposed in the House resolutions, and on the night oi Sunday, March 3d, a messenger was despatched with all speed to Texas to lay the proposition before the authorities oi that Slate. It was accepted by them, and on the fourth of July, [84S, Texas became one of the United Slates. Large Territory Added. The area thus added tothe territoix oi the Union comprised two hundred and thirty-seven thousand live hundred ami four square miles. It was provided by the. ict of admission that four additional States might be formed out of the terri- tory oi Texas, when the population should increase to an extent which should make such a step desirable. Those States lying north oi' the Mis- souri Compromise line — 36 30 north latitude — were to be free States, those south oi that Hue were to be tree or slave-holding "as the people oi each State asking admission may desire." To Texas was reserved the right to re- fuse to allow the division oi her terri- tory. Mexico had never acknowledged the independence oi' Texas, and since the defeat at San Jacinto had repeatedly threatened to restore her authority over the Texans by force oi arms. She warmly resented the annexation ot Texas by the United States, and a few days after that event was completed, General Almonte, the Mexican minis- ter at Washington, entered a formal piotest against the course oi the United States, demanded his passports, and left the country. Redress for Outrages. Some years before this, a number oi American ships trading with Mexican ports had been seized and plundered by the Mexican authorities, who also con- fiscated the property of a number of American residents in that country. The sufferers by these outrages appealed for redress to the government oi' the United States, which had repeatedly tried to negotiate with Mexico for the collection 01 these claims, which amounted to six millions of dollars. Mexico made several promises of settle- ment, but failed to comply with them. In 1S.p1, however, a new treaty was made between that country and the United States, and Mexico pledged her- self to pay the American claims in twenty annual instalments of three hundred thousand dollars each. Three oi these instalments had been paid at the time oi the annexation of Texas; but Mexico now refused to make any further payment. Mexico claimed that the limits of Texas properly ended at the Neuees river, while the Texans insisted that WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. 57 their boundary was the Kio Grande. Thus the region between these two rivers became a debatable land, claimed by both parties, and a source of greal and immediate danger. It was evident that Mexico was about to occupy this region with her troops, and the legisla- ture of Texas, alarmed bv the threaten- ing attitude of that country, called upon the United .States government to pro- tect its territory. The President at once sent General Zachary Taylor with a force of fifteen bundled regular troops, called the "army of occupation," to "take position in the country between the Neuces and the Rio Grande, and to repel any inyasion of the Texan territory." Iti Battle Array. General Taylor accordingly took po- sition at Corpus Christi, at the mouth of the Neuces, in September, 1845, and remained there until the spring of 1846. At the same time a squadon of war ves- sels under Commodore Connor was des- patched to tin Gulf to co-operate with < .eneral Taylor. Both of these officers "were ordered to commit no act of ho^- tilityagainst Mexico unless she declared war, or was herself the aggressor by striking the first blow." At the commencement of the dispute between the t wo countries, Herrerawas President of Mexico. Although diplo- matic communications had ceased be- tween the United .States and Mexico, he was anxious to settle the quarrel by negotiation, but at the Presidential elec- tion held about this time Herrerawas defeated, and Paredes, who was bitterly hostile to the United States, was cho- sen President of the Mexican republic. Paredes openly avowed his determina- tion to drive the Americans beyond the Neuces. In February, 1846, General Taylor was ordered by President Polk to ad- vance from the Neuces to a point on the Rio Grande, opposite the Mexican town of Matamoras, and establish there a for- tified post, iii order to check the Mexi- can forces which were assembling there in large numbers for the purpose of invading Taxas. Taylor at once set out, and leaving the greater part of his stores at Point Isabel, on the Gulf, ad- vanced to the Rio Grande, and built a fort and established a camp opposite and within cannon shot of Matamoras. General Ampudia, commanding the Mexican forces at Matamoras, imme- diately notified General Taylor that this was an act of war upon Mexican soil, and demanded that he should "break up his camp and retire beyond the Neuces" within twenty-four hours. First Blood Shed. Taylor replied that he was acting in accordance with the orders of his gov- ernment, which was alone responsible 3r his conduct, and that he should maintain the position he had chosen. He pushed forward the work on his fortifications with energy, and kept a close watch upon the Mexicans. Neither commander was willing to take the re- sponsibility of beginning the war, and Ampudia, notwithstanding his threat, remained inactive. His course did not satify his government, and he was re- moved and General Arista appointed in his place. Arista at once began hostili- ties by interposing detachments of his army between Taylor's force and his depot of supplies at Point Isabel. On the twenty-sixth of April Taylor sent 58 WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. a party of sixty dragoons under Captain Thornton to reconnoitre the Mexican linos. The dragoons were surprised with a loss of sixteen killed. The re- mainder were made prisoners, and Thornton alone escaped. This was the first blood shed in the war with Mexico, the beginning of the struggle. A day or two later, being informed by Captain Walker, who, with his Texan Rangers, was guarding the line of com- munication with Point Isabel, that the Mexicans were threatening the latter place in heavy force, General Taylor left Major Brown with three hundred men to hold the fort, and marched to Point Isabel to relieve that place. He agreed with Major Brown that if the fort should be attacked or hard pressed, the latter should notify him of his dan- ger by firing heaving signal guns at certain intervals. He reached Point Isabel, twenty miles distant, on the second of May without meeting any opposition on the march. Signal Guns Fired. General Arista, attributing Taylor's withdrawal to fear, determined to cap- ture the fortification on the opposite side of the river. On the third of May he opened fire upon it from a heavy battery at Matamoras, and sent a large force across the Rio Grande, which took position in the rear of the fort and in- trenched themselves there. In the face of this double attack the little garrions defended themselves bravely, but at length Major Brown fell mortally wounded. The command devolved upon Captain Hawkins, who now felt himself justified in warning Taylor of his danger, and began to fire the signal guns agreed upon. Taylor was joined at Point Isabel by a small detachment, and his force was increased to twenty-three hundred men. lie listened anxiously for the booming of the signal gnus from the fort Oil the Rio Grande, and at length they were heard. He knew that the need of assistance must be great, as the little band in the fort had held out so long without calling for help, and he at once set out to join them. He left Point Isabel on the seventh o( May, tak- ing with him a heavy supply train. The steady tiring of the signal guns from Fort Brown (for so the work was after- wards named in honor of its gallant commander) urged the army to its greatest exertions. Battle of Palo Alto. On the 8th of May the Mexican army, six thousand strong, was discovered holding a strong position in front of a chaparral, near the small stream called the Palo Alto, intending to dispute the advance of the Americans. Taylor promptly made his dispositions to attack them. His troops were ordered to drink from the little stream and to fill their canteens. The train was closed up, and the line was formed with Major Ring- gold's light battery on the right, Dun- can's battery on the left, and a battery of eighteen-pounders in the center. The artillery was thrown well in front of the infantry, and the order was given to advance. The Mexicans at once opened fire with their batteries, but the distance was too great to ac- complish anything. The American bat- teries did not reply until they had gotten within easy range, when they opened a fire the accuracy and rapidity of which astonished the Mexicans. WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. 69 Their lines were broken and they fell back, and the Americans advanced steadily through the chaparral, which had been set on fire by the discharge of cannon, until a new position within close range was reached. Paying no attention to the Mexican artillery, the American guns directed their (ire upon the enemy's infantry and cavalry, and broke them again and again. The battle- lasted five hours and ceased at nightfall. It was fought entirely by the artillery of the two armies, and was won by the superior handling and precis'' i of the American guns. Flying Artillery. The loss of the Mexicans was four hundred killed and wounded ; that of the Americans nine killed and forty-four wounded. Early in the battle Major Ringgold was mortally wounded and died a little later. He was regarded as one of the most gifted officers of the army, and to him was chiefly due the precision and rapidity of movement ac- quired by the "flying artillery" of the American arm)', which were so success- fully tested during this war. The American army encamped on the battle-field, and the next morning, May 9th, as the Mexicans had retreated, leav- ing their dead unburied, resumed its advance. In the afternoon the Mexi- cans were discovered occupying a much stronger position than they had held at Palo Alto. Their line was formed be- hind a ravine, called Resaca de la Palma, or the Dry River of Palms. Their flanks were protected by the thick cha- parral, and their artillery was thrown torward beyond the ravine and protected by an intrenchment, and swept the road by which the Americans must advance. During the night fresh troops had joined the Mexican army, and had in- creased their fence to seven thousand nun. Taylor formed his line with the artil- lery in the center. The artillery was ordered to advance along the road com- manded by the Mexican battery, and the infantry were directed to move as rapidly as possible through the chapar- ral, and drive out the Mexican sharp- shooters. The infantry executed this order in handsome style, but the chapar- ral was so dense that each man was obliged to act for himself as he forced his way through it. The Mexican bat- tery was handled with great skill and coolness, and held the center in check until some time after the infantry had forced their way close to the edge of the ravine. Charge of the Gallant May. At this juncture Captain May was ordered to charge the Mexican guns, and started down the road at a trot. As he reached the position of the American artillery, Lieutenant Ridgely suggested that May should halt and allow him to draw the Mexican fire. Ridgely opened a rapid fire on the Mexican guns, which was answered immediately. At the same moment May dashed at the Mexican battery with his dragoons, and reached it before the cannoneers could reload their pieces. They were sabred at their guns, and the battery was carried. Cap- tain May himself made a prisoner of General LaVega, as the latter was in the act of discharging one of the guns. Leaving the battery to the American infantry which now hurried forward to secure it, the dragoons charged the Mexican centre and broke it. The whole 60 WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. American line then advanced rapidly ; the Mexicans gave way, and were soon flying in utter confusion towards the Rio Grande, which they crossed in such haste that many of them were drowned in the attempt to reach the Mexican shore. General Arista, the Mexican com- mauder, fled alone from the field, leav- ing all his private and official papers behind him. The Americans lost one hundred and twenty-two men killed and wounded; the Mexicans twelve hun- dred. All the Mexican artillery, two thousand stand of arms, and six hun- dred mules were captured by the Amer- icans. Americans Advance. General Taylor advanced from the battlefield to Fort Brown, the garrison of which had heard the distant roar of the battle, and had seen the flight of the Mexican across the Rio Grande. General Taylor was delayed at Mata- moras for three months by the weak- ness of his force; but, as soon as rein- forcements reached him, he prepared to advance into the interior. His first movement was directed against the city of Monterey, the capital of the State of New Leon, where the Mexicans had collected an army. His army numbered about nine thousand men of all arms, and of these a little over twenty-three hun- dred men were detached for garrisons, leaving an active force of six thousand six hundred and seventy men. On the twentieth of August General Worth's division inarched from Matamoras, and a fortnight later General Taylor set out from the Rio Grande with the main army. On the ninth of September the American forces encamped within three miles of Monterey. Every means of defence had been ex- hausted by the Mexicans. Forty-two heavy cannon were mounted on the city walls, the streets were barricaded, and the flat roofs and stone walls of the houses were arranged tor infantry. Each house was a separate fortress. A strongly fortified building of heavy stone, called the Bishop's palace, stood on the side of a hill without the city walls, and on the opposite side of the city were re- doubts held by infantry and artillery. On the morning of the twenty-first of September the American artillery opened fire on Monterey, and the in- fantry advanced to carry the Mexican works. The brigade of General Quit- man carried a strong work in the lower part of the town, and at the same time General Butler, with a part of his division, forced his way into the town on the right. At the Citadel. During the night of the twenty-first the Mexicans evacuated the lower part of the city, but kept their hold upon the citadel and the upper town, from which they maintained a vigorous fire upon the American positions. At day- break, on the twenty-second, Worth's division, advancing in the midst of a fog and rain, carried the crest com- manding the Bishop's palace, and by noon had captured the palace itself. The guns of the captured works were now directed upon the enemy in the city below. The enemy had fortified the city so thoroughly that the Americans were not only forced to carry the various barricades in succession, but were com- pelled to break through the walls of the fortified houses, and advance from house WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. 61 to house in this way. One or two field pieces were drawn up to the flat roofs, and the Mexicans were driven from point to point during the twenty-second and twenty-third, until they were con- fined to the citadel and plaza. On the night of the twenty-third General Am- pudia opened negotiations, and on the morning of the twenty- fourth surren- dered the town and garrison to General fierce charge than in volunteering to make a dangerous ride under fire, in search of ammunition. The next important engagement oc- curred at Buena Vista, a village of Mexico, seven miles south of Saltillo, where on February 226. and 23d, 1847, five thousand United States troops un- der General Taylor defeated twenty thousand Mexicans under Santa Anna. LIEUT. ULYSSES S. GRANT GOING FOR AMMUNITION AT MONTEREY. Taylor. The Americans lost four hun- dred and eighty-eight men, killed and wounded, in the storming of Monterey. The Mexican loss was much greater. General Grant, then an unknown young lieutenant, was in the battle of Monterey, and distinguished himself on account of "gallant and meritorious services." Several times during the battle he demonstrated his superior judgment and courage, not more in the The American loss in this battle was two hundred and sixty-seven killed and four hundred and fifty-six wounded. That of the Mexicans was over two thousand killed and wounded, includ- ing many officers of high rank. Taylor followed the Mexican army on the twenty-fourth, as far as Agua Nueva, and collecting their wounded, removed them to Saltillo, where they were at- tended by the American surgeons. 62 WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. The victory of Buena Vista was de- cisive of the war. It saved the valley of the Rio Grande from invasion by a victorious Mexican army, and enabled the expedition of General Scott against Vera Cruz to proceed without delay to the accomplishment of its objects. It also greatly disheartened the Mexican people, and during the remainder of the year Taylor's army had nothing to do but to hold the country it occupied. Scott's Expedition. The expedition under General Scott sailed from New Orleans late in No- vember, 1846, and rendezvoused at the island of L,obos, about one hundred and twenty-five miles north of Vera Cruz. The plan of operations for this army was very simple — to capture Vera Cruz and march to the city of Mexico by the most direct route. At length everything being in readiness, the ex- pedition sailed from Lobos Island, and on the morning of the ninth of March, 1 847, the army, thirteen thousand strong, landed without opposition at a point selected by General Scott and Commo- dore Connor a few days before. The city and vicinity had been thoroughly reconnoitered, and the troops were at once marched to the positions assigned them by the commander-in-chief. Vera Cruz is the principal seaport of Mexico, and contained at the time of the siege about fifteen thousand inhabi- tants. It was strongly fortified on the land side, and towards the Gulf was de- fended by the Castle of San Juan de Ulloa, the strongest fortress in America, with the exception of Quebec. On the tenth of March the invest- ment of the city was begun by General Worth, and the American lines were definitely established around the city for a distance of six miles. During the day, and for several days thereafter, bodies of Mexicans attempted to harass the besiegers, and a steady fire was maintained upon them by the guns of the castle and the city as they worked at their batteries. The American works being completed, and their guns in position, General Scctt summoned the city of Vera Cruz to surrender, stipula- ting that no batteries should be placed in the city to attack the castle unless the city should be fired upon by that work. The demand was refused by General Morales, who commanded both the city and the castle, and at 4 o'clock on the afternoon of the twenty-second of March, the American batteries opened fire upon the town. The bombardment was continued for five days, and the fleet joined in the attack upon the cas- tle. The city suffered terribly ; a num- ber of the inhabitants were killed, and many buildings were set on fire by the shells. A Decisive Victory. On the twenty-seventh the city and castle surrendered, and were promptly occupied by the Americans. Over five thousand prisoners and five hundred pieces of artillery fell into the hands of the victors. The garrison were required to march out, lay down their arms, and were then dismissed upon their parole. The inhabitants were protected in their civil and religious rights. The sur- render was completed on the morning of the twenty-ninth. Having secured the city and the cas- tle, General Scott placed a strong gar- rison in each, and appointed General WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. 63 Worth governor of Vera Cruz. He then prepared to march upon the city of Mexico, and on the eighth of April the advance division, under General Twiggs, set out from Vera Cruz towards Jalapa. Deducting the force left to garrison Vera Cruz, Scott's whole army amounted to but eighty-five hundred men. Makes a Stand at Cerro Gordo. Santa Anna had not found the conse- quences to himself of the battle of Buena Vista as bad as he had expected. He had succeeded in pursuading his coun- trymen that he had not been defeated in that battle, but had simply retreated for want of provisions, and they had agreed to give him another trial. He had pledged himself to prevent the advance of the Americans to the capital, in the event of the fall of Vera Cruz, and with the aid of those of his countrymen who were willing to support him had quelled an insurrection at the capital, and had strengthened his power to a greater de- gree than ever. With a force of twelve thousand men he had taken position at Cerro Gordo, a mountain pass at the eastern edge of the Cordilleras, to hold the American army in check, and had fortified his position with great skill and care. General Twiggs halted before the Mexican position to await the arrival of General Scott, who soon joined him iwith the main army. The Mexican /lines were carefully reconnoitered, and on the eighteenth of April General Scott, avoiding a direct attack, turned the enemy's left, seized the heights com- manding their position, and drove them from their works with a loss of three thousand prisoners and forty-three pieces of artillery. Santa Anna mounted a mule, taken from his carriage, and fled leaving the carriage and his private pa- pers in the hands of the Americans. Besides their prisoners, the Mexicans lost over one thousand men in killed and wounded. Scott's loss was four hundred and thirty-one killed and wounded. The passes on the direct road to the city had been well fortified and garri- soned by the Mexicans, but the country upon the flanks had been left unpro- tected, because Santa Anna deemed it utterly impossible for any troops to pass over it, and turn his position. El Penon the most formidable of these defences, was reconnoitered by the engineers, who reported that it would cost at least three thousand lives to carry it. Scott thereupon determined to turn El Penon, instead of attacking it. The city and its defences were carefully rec- onnoitered, and it was discovered that the works on the south and west were weaker than those at any other points. Americans Push Forward. General Scott now moved to the left, passed El Penon on the south, and by the aid of a corps of skillful engineers moved his army across ravines and chasms which the Mexican commander had pronounced impassable, and had left unguarded. General Twiggs led the advance, and halted and encamped at Chalco, on the lake of the same name. Worth followed, and passing Twiggs, encamped at the town of San Augustin, eight miles from the capital. As soon as Santa Anna found that the Americans had turned El Pefion, and had advanced to the south side of the city, he left that fortress and took 64 WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. position in the strong fort of San An- tonio, which lay directly in front of Worth's new position. Northwest of San Antonio, and four miles from the city, lay the little village of Churubusco, which had been strongly fortified by the Mexicans. A little to the west of San Augustin was the fortified camp of Contreras, with a garrison of about six thousand men. In the rear, between the camp and the city, was a reserve force of twelve thousand men. The whole number of Mexicans manning these defences was about thirty-five thousand, with at least one hundred pieces of artillery of va- rious sizes. Desperate Struggle. General Scott lost no time in moving against the enemy's works. General Persifer F. Smith was ordered to attack the entrenched camp at Contreras, while Shields and Pierce should move between the Camp and Santa Anna at San An- tonio, and prevent him from going to the assistance of the force at Contreras. At three o'clock on the morning of August 20th, in the midst of a cold rain, Smith began his march, his men hold- ing on to each other, to avoid being separated in the darkness. He made his attack at sunrise, and in fifteen min- utes had possession of the camp. He took three thousand prisoners and thir- ty-three pieces of cannon. The camp at Contreras having fallen, General Scott attacked the fortified vil- lage of Churubusco an hour or two ]ater, and carried it after a desperate struggle of several hours. General Worth's division stormed and carried the strong fort of San Antonio, and General Twiggs captured another im- portant work. The Mexicans outnum- bered their assailants three to one, and fought bravely. Their efforts were in vain, however, and late in the after- noon they were driven from their de- fences, and pursued by the American cavalry to the gates of the city. How the Victories Were Won. These two victories had been won over a force of thirty thousand Mex- icans by less than ten thousand Amer- icans, and a loss of four thousand killed and wounded and three thousand prison- ers had been inflicted upon the Mexican army. The American loss was eleven hundred men. Santa Anna retreated within the city, and on the twenty-first of August the American army advanced to within three miles of the city of Mexico. On the same day Santa Anna sent a flag of truce to General Scott, asking for a sus- pension of hostilities, in order to ar- range the terms of peace. The request was granted, and Mr. Trist was de- spatched to the city, and began nego- tiations with the Mexican commission- ers. After protracted delays, designed to gain time, the Mexican commissioners declined the American conditions, and proposed others which they knew would not be accepted. Thoroughly disgusted, Mr. Trist returned to the American camp, and brought with him the intelli- gence that Santa Anna had violated the armistice by using the time accorded him by it in strengthening his defences. Indignant at such treachery, General Scott at once resumed his advance upon the city. The Mexican capital was still de- feuded by two powerful works. One of Copyright, 1900, l>j Cei rge W. Bertron. FAMOUS INVENTORS OF THE CENTURY WAR BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MEXICO. 65 these was Molinodel Rev, " The King's Mill," a foundry, where it was said the church bells were being cast into cannon; the other was the strong castle of Chapultepec. General Scott esolved to make his first attack upon Molino del Rey, which was held by fourteen thousand Mexi- cans. It was stormed and car- ried on the 8th of September, after a severe con- test by Worth's division, f o u r thousand strong. This was regard- ed as the hardest- won victory of the war. The Mexicans were nearly four times as numerous as the Americans, and their position was one of very great strength. The Americans fought principal- ly with their ri- fles and muskets, their artillery be- ing of but little use to them, ow- ing to the nature of their position. Hundred and eighty seven killed and 5 wounded — nearly one fourth the whole American force engaged. GENERAL SCOTT ENTERING THE CITY OF MEXICO. Plieir loss was seven I The castle of Chapultepec stood on a tcep and lofty hill, and could not be <;<; WAk BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND MKXlCO. turned. It won at all, it must be by a direct assault. On the twelfth of Sep tetnber the American artillery opened fire upon it, and reduced it almost to ruins. On the morning of the thirteenth a determined assault was made by the Americans, and the castle was carried after a sharp struggle. Santa Anna's Retreat. During the night of the thirteenth Santa .Anna, with the remains of his army, retreated from the city, leaving the authorities to make the best terms they could with the conquerors. The city officials presented themselves be- fore Genera] Scott before daybreak, and proposed terms of capitulation. The general replied that the city was already in his power, and that he would enter ii on his own terms. The next day, September i.|, 1847, the American army entered the city ol Mexico, oeeupied the gran:! square, and hoisted the stars and stripes over the government build- ings. Santa Anna retreated with four or five thousand men from the capital to the vicinity o( Puebla, which was besieged by a Mexican force. The city contained eighteen hundred sick Amer- icans, and was held by a garrison of five hundred men under Colonel Childs. This little force held out bravely until the .wi ival o\ a brigade from Vera Cruz, under General Kane, on its way to re- inforce General Seott. Lane drove off Santa Anna's army, and relieved Puebla On the eighth of October. Ten days latei Santa \nna was reported to be collecting another force at Alixo. Lane set out immediately for that place, reached it by a forced march, and dis- persed the Mexicans beyond all hope of reunion. Immediately after the capture of the city of Mexico Santa Anna resigned the presidency of the republic in favor i)i~ Senor Pena v Pena, president of the Supreme Court of Justice, but retained his position as commander-in-chief of the army. The fall of the city was fol- lowed by the inauguration of a new government, one of the first acts of which was to dismiss Santa Anna from the command of the army. He at once left the country, and lied to the West Indies. Return of Peace. hi the Fourth of July, [848, Presi- Polk issued a proclamation announcing the return oi' peace. By the terms of the treaty the Rio Crande was accepted by Mexico as the western boundary of the United States and of Texas, and that republic ceded to the United States the provinces of New Mexico and Upper California. For this immense territory the government of the United States agreed to pay to Mexico the sum o( fif- teen millions oi dollars, and to assume the debts due by Mexico to citizens iA~ the United States, amounting to the sum of three and a half millions of dollars. The treaty having been rati- fied, the American forces were promptly withdrawn from Mexico, and the two corfhtries resumed friendly relations. CHAPTER V. The Great Civil War. HE agitation upon the question of slavery began about the year [830, when William Lloyd Gar- rison, ol Boston, commenced the publi- cation "i .1 paper entitled "The Liber- ator." The great object of this publica- tion was to secure the immediate aboli- tion of slavery throughout the United .States. It should be said that there were advocates of this measure at the beginning of the century, including especially the Quakers. As the anti-slavery sentiment grew in the North the people of the South more and more became alarmed, and pre- pared to defend the institution which they considered essential to their own well-being. The result was that the two great sections of our country be- came in a large measure estranged, and the statesmen of both North and South, fearing that the disruption of the Union would finally follow, exerted them- selves to the utmost to prevent such a calamity. In [821 Missouri was admitted into the Union, but the present limits of the .State were not established till 1.S36. Its admission was preceded by a long and bitter political controversy between the representatives of tlie North and South, tlu former resisting its en trance as a slave State. The discussion resulted in the famous " Missouri Compromise," a mea- sure strongly advocated by Henry Clay, under which compact it was agreed that slavery should be forever excluded from all that part of Louisiana north of 36 30' latitude, except Missouri. It was not foreseen at the time that this measure would have an important bear- ing upon the territory of Nebraska, in- cluding what is now. the State of Kan- sas, but such was the case. In [850 California, to which the dis- covery of gold had attracted a rush of immigrants, was admitted as a non-slave State. To pacify the South, the Fugi- tive Slave Law was passed, which di- rected the Federal authorities to return slaves who had escaped to the North, and also required citizens wherever the slaves were found to aid in their cap- ture. The North took great umbrage at the enactment of this law, and the anti-slavery sentiment grew rapidly. Struggle in Kansas. In 1854, in defiance of the Missouri Compromise, the principle of " squatter sovereignty" was applied to the two great territories lying north of 36 de- grees and as far as 30 degrees — Kansas and Nebraska. The spirit of the North was fully aroused, and anti-slavery men poured into Kansas with the intention of making it a free State, as Congress had already decided that the question of slavery should be left to the inhabitants to settle by themselves. The State gov- ernment was organized on a non-slave basis, though it was not admitted as a State until 1861. This struggle led to the formation of a new ] tarty in the North opposed to slavery, although such opposition had already shaped the policy to a large ex- tent of the Whig party. The new partv adopted as its name that of Jefferson V old party — Republican — and grew with 67 (IS THE GREAT CIVIL WAR marvellous rapidity. In [856 a Presi- dential election was held; the Demo- cratic candidate, Buchanan, was elected by a majority of the electoral vote, l>ut Fremont, the Republican candidate, had 1 larg< populai vote. About this time an incident occurred that greatly inflamed the anti-slavery sentiment of the North, in his opinion on what was known as the Dred-Scott Cast-, Chief Justice Taney stated, among other things, that a slave, or the de- scendant of a slave, could not be a citizen of the United States, and the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional. Party Divided. In [860, the Democratic party was split in two sections, the southern or ultra-slavery Democrats and the north- ern or conservative Democrats. The southerners demanded recognition by the party oi the duty oi' Congress to protect slavery; the northern Demo- crats could not possibly agree to this. In the lace of a divided party, the Re- publicans elected their candidate, Abu ham Lincoln, President. The North was now much stronger in population and wealth and growing stronger every d.iv. [f the South remained in the Union it would soon be at the mercy of the North. The extreme southern Statt-s detei mined to secede, hoping no doubt that the northwest and California Would either join them or remain neu- tral, but the newer States had been largely settled by foreigners, to whom the United States had been a stai oi hope foi many years, until frugality en- abled them to emigrate thither. They had no state pride, but were intensely loyal to the country which was their adopted home. The northwest, California, and after a struggle, Missouri, Kentucky and Maryland, cast in theii lot with the North and East. About eight or nine millions in the South stood against twenty or twenty-two millions in the North, with the resources of wealth and increased production on the side ot the latter. Mr. Lincoln was inaugurated March .|, [86l. In his address he declared that he had neither the right nor tin- desire to interfere with slave] v when' it already existed; that no State could Lawfully go Out of the Union; ami that he should maintain the laws and constitution of the United States to the best of his ability. The new administration was beset with difficulties on every side, and the condition of affairs seemed almost desperate. Many oi' those who for years had guided the "ship oi' state," and who understood its workings, were now foremost in advocating secession. Appalling State of Affairs. Mr. Lincoln's officers were new to the business oi' the Federal government. Thetreasury, by defalcation, wasnearly bankrupt. Few troops were within call ; and the army had been almost broken up by the surrender oi detached forces in the Confederate States, and the cap- ture of munitions oi' war. The vessels oi the navy were sailing 01 at anchor in distant waters, and numerous officers oi both the army and the navy were re- signing their commissions on the ground that they owed allegiance first to the States from which they came. Seven States had already revolted, and others were ready to swell the num- ber upon the first attempt to enforce the Federal authority. The public offi- THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 69 ces were largely occupied by persons in sympathy with the secession move- ment, and every step taken by the new government was known at once to the leaders of the Confederacy, and to crown all, Mr. Lincoln was beset by a vast horde of office seekers eager to take ad- vantage of the change of administration. The President waited a month and then notified Governor Pickens, of South Carolina, that lie should send supplies to Port Sumter at all hazards. This announcement precipitated an attack upon the fort Major Anderson was first summoned to surrender, but he re- fused. At daybreak on the morning of April 12, 1 86 1, the Confederacy began its open conflict with the United States. All the batteries around the fort opened fire upon it;. the fort replied, and the bombardment continued for thirty-six hours without loss of life on either side. The ammunition of the fort was then exhausted, and the works inside were on fire. The Old Flag Lowered. Thereupon the United States flag, for the first time in its history, was lowered to insurgent citizens, and the- garrison capitulated. This event aroused the North as if from a trance. Until now, the mass of the people had refused to believe in real danger ; but the first shock of arms thoroughly convinced them that the South was ready to fight, and could not be embed without war. It did more than this. In the Northern States party distinctions were lor a [time swept aside ; there was but one party worth the name — the party for the Union. The Southern States were no longer "erring sisters" to be. coaxed by concessions. The whole North called loudly for the full exercise of the Fed- eral power to compel the Smith to obe- dience at the point of the bayonet. The day after the evacuation of Fort Sn inter, President Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers for three months, April 1 5. The response was so promptly made that the first Massachusetts troops began their march on the same day, and in a surprisingly short time the quota was full ; nay, ic could have been filled three or four times over, and the many who were refused felt a keen dis- appointment at not being allowed to bear arms in defense of the Union. State Sovereignty. . the South, also, the effect of the first conflict was correspondingly great To the ignorant masses it did not seem possible that any other power could be superior to that of their own State ; while the more intelligent classes had, from their childhood, imbibed the doc- trine that vState sovereignty was the foundation of civil liberty. Hence all felt bound to follow the lead of their State; and when the President of the new Confederacy issued his call for men it was answered, as in the North, by OVd (lowing numbers. Those southern States which had wavered were now compelled to make their choice. When Mr. Lincoln called for troops the Governors of Arkansas, Virginia, North Carolina and Tennes- see refused to obey. North Carolina and Arkansas then seceded, and joined the Confederacy. In Tennessee and Virginia "military leagues" were formed with the Confederate States, by which Confederate troops were allowed to take possession of their territory, and by their aid the question of secession 70 THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. was submitted to popular vote. Thus the secession of these I wo States was ac- complished in p. nt, but not wholly. The people of the Alleghany moun- tains were loyal to the Union; in cast- cm Tennessee they aided the Federals as much as possible; the opposition to secession was so strong in the western counties of Virginia thai the Inhabitants refused to obey the convention which passed the ordinance; they chose a leg- islature which claimed to be the true government, and at last formed a new State which was admitted to the Union iu [863, undei the name oi West Vii ginia. Even thus curtailed, Virginia was a most important accession to the Confederacy; it increased its military strength greatly, and at once became the chid' battle-ground oi' the war. The Theatre of Conflict. The Confederate government was moved from Montgomery to Richmond; and since Washington was separated only by the Potomac from the Confed eracy, it was clear that the great con test would be fought in the country which lay between the two capitals. Moreover, Virginia was the richest and greatest of the slave States, and fur- nished the Southern aimv with its ablest leaders, main oi' whom such as l.cc, fackson, Johnson, and Kwell — were opposed to secession, but tho'ught it right to shape their own comsc by hat o( their State. There was .1 strong anti-union element in Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware, and the most momentous re- sults —involving, doubtless, the success oi' the Union cause were involved in the action they would now take. Aside from Virginia, Missouri was the most powerful slave State, and her geograph- ical position, with that of Kentucky and Maryland, was of incalcuable mili- tary importance. Had these three States united with the Confederacy it might have won the prize for which it was contending —independence. Missouri, however, did not break away, though the issue was for some time doubtful with her. Delaware cast her lot with the Union. In Maryland and Kentucky efforts were made to maintain neutrality, but they weresoon induced to declare in favor of the Fed- eral government. Kentucky, however, had some oi her sous iu the Southern ranks, among whom was John C Breck- inridge, a former Vice-President of the United States, who became an officer in the Confederate army. The Federal government was in no w int f men necessary to maintain the Union. Propositions to consider negotiations for peace were constantly offered by extreme Democrats, and as Constantly rejected by large majorities, on the ground that negotiation with armed rebellion was unconstitutional.* General Scott, having resigned the command of the Northern armies on account of his age and infirmity, was succeeded by General George B. Mc- Clellan, whose successful campaign in western Virginia had given him a high reputation throughout the army. He had a genius for organization, and pos- sessed the unbounded confidence of the people. He immediately set about forming the first great army of the war — the Army of the Potomac — at Alex- andria, in preparation for a second ad- vance. Impatience of the North. But the advance was delayed much too long to suit the impatience of the people and the administration ; and as the winter 1861-62 passed away with- out any forward movement, the expres- sions of dissatisfaction became louder and more general. The Confederacy also spent the summer and autumn of 1 86 1 -in organizing its northern Army of Virginia, under General Beauregard. In the autumn of 1861 a portion of General Stone's command on the Upper Potomac was sent on a reconnoissance into Virginia, under Colonel Baker, and, being attacked by the Confederate general, Evans, at Ball's Bluff, was dis- astrously defeated. Colonel Baker was among the killed. Although Missouri had not seceded, a strong party, with which the governor was acting, wished to carry it over to the Confederacy. A Confederate camp near St. Louis was broken up by Captain Lyon, of the regulars, and the St. Louis arsenal was saved to the government. The State was afterward invaded by Confederates 74 THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. from Arkansas, who were defeated by Lyon (now a general) at Booneville, June 17th, and by Sigel at Carthage, July 5th. A large force of Confederates under McCnllongh and Price attacked Lyon at Wilson's Creek, August 10th. Lyon was killed, and his command fell back toward the center of the State. Price with 20,000 men then attacked Lex- ington, which was garrisoned by 2,000 Federal troops under Colonel Mulligan. After an heroic defense of three days the little garrison was compelled to surren- der, September 20th, after their water supply had been cut off for forty-eight hours. General Fremont was now ap- pointed to the command of the western department He drove Price into the southwest corner of the State, and was about to give battle when he was super- seded by General Hunter, November 2d. Hunter retreated to St. Louis, with Price in pursuit; but in a fort- night Hunter was replaced by Halleck, and Price was driven into Arkansas. Families Divided. Kentucky, like Missouri, was dis- tracted by dissensions among its own people, and by armies 011 both sides. General Polk of the Confederate army occupied Hickman and Columbus, towns on the Mississippi. There was also a Confederate force at Belmont, Missouri, opposite Columbus. Ulysses S. Grant, recently appointed a brigadier- general of volunteers, now first came into notice. He drove the Confederates out of Belmont November 7th, but was unable to hold the town because it was commanded by the fortifications of Columbus. From the beginning of the war, the Federal government was embarrassed by the question of fugitive slaves. Con- gress had passed the act confiscating slaves employed in service hostile to the United States. While General Fre- mont was in command of the forces of the West, he had issued a proclamation declaring the slaves of Missouri Con-' federates free men, but this was counter- manded by President Lincoln, who did not wish to estrange those slave-holders, especially in Kentucky, who were still loyal to the Union. How Slaves Were Treated. In Virginia, General Benjamin F. Butler had declared that slaves were "contraband of war," and, therefore, liable to confiscation by military law. But as yet the disposition of the North was to subdue the South without inter- fering with slavery; and some Union commanders restored to their masters the slaves who had escaped into the Federal lines. Formidable expeditions were fitted out to recapture Southern harbors. A combined land and naval force, under General Butler and Commodore String- ham reduced and occupied two forts at Hatteras Inlet, North Carolina, at the entrance to Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds, August 29th, and Port Royal harbor, near Beaufort, South Carolina, was secured through the reduction of Forts Walker and Beauregard by the fleet under Commodore Dupont, No- vember 7, and a land force under Gen-, eral Thomas W. Sherman. These suc- cesses were of great value to the Federal government. They not only closed im- portant Southern ports, but they furn- ished convenient stations for the block- ading fleet. THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 75 The "paper blockade," as it had been called, was soon made a very effective one along the whole length of the Southern coadt from the Potomac to the Rio Grande, an achievement which by main- had been deemed im- possible. Still, in spite of the watch- fulness of the Federal navy, several Confederate men-of-war and privateers sailed out of port, and did much dam- age to merchant ships. The practice of " running the blockade " became a very profitable business; and notwithstand- ing the danger of capture, which was the case in many instances, the profits on a single successful voyage were so great that adventurers found they could afford to take the risk. Seeking Recognition Abroad. As has been stated, the South de- pended largely upon assistance from abroad, and the southern leaders still clung to the hope that they could pre- vail upon Great Britain and France to recognize the independence of the Con- federacy. Two commissioners, there- fore, Messrs. Mason and Slidell, were sent by the Confederate government to London and Paris. They ran the block- ade, made their way to Havana, and then embarked for England in the British mail-steamer Trent. Some distance out, the Trent was overhauled by an American man-of-war under Captain Wilkes, the two commis- sioners were taken off, November, 1861, and carried to Boston harbor, where they were imprisoned in Fort Warren. This action, which was illegal and un- authorized, caused gieat excitement in England, and came very near causing a collision between the two countries. Lord Palmerston made a peremptory demand for the surrender of the prison- ers. The American government had already disavowed the act of Captain Wilkes, which, though it was justified by the British claim of the "right of search," was contrary to American principles. The Confederate envoys were therefore promptly released and sent to England. Jm;t before this occurrence President Lincoln requested two confidential agents to visit France and England in order to help the Federal cause and avert the danger of foreign war by their influence with the governments and with persons of distinction. The per- sons selected for this delicate and im- portant trust were Archbishop Hughes, of New York, and Mr. Thurlow Weed. They sailed in November, and rendered very valuable service, Mr. Weed in Eng- land, and the Archbishop in France. War of Vast Magnitude. At the beginning of 1862 the war had assumed vast proportions. The num- ber of men under arms on both sides was nearly a million. The Confederates held possession of the Mississippi river from the Gulf of Mexico to the southern boundary of Kentucky, and occupied a chain of strong positions extending thence through Tennessee and Ken- tucky to the southwestern corner of Virginia. Between the Alleghanies and the Blue Ridge was the fertile Shenan- doah Valley, often disputed by both armies. At the east the Confederates were posted in great force between the Poto- mac and the Rappahannock. Now that Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky and Missouri had been saved to the Union, it was certain that the battle would be ARRKST OF MASON AND «UDEU, ON THE BRITISH STEAMER "TRENT" 7tJ THE ORE AT CIVIL WAR. 77 fought out in the territory to the south of them. The plan of the Federal au- thorities was to open the Mississippi and penetrate the Confederate line at the west, while at the same time McClellan attacked Richmond, and a land and naval force continued the pro- cess of capturing the southern ports on the Atlantic coast. Simon Cameron, who had been Secre- tary of War, resigned January 20, 1862, and was succeeded by Edwin M. Stan- ton. All the Federal armies were to move simultaneously on the 22d of Feb- ruary, Washington's birthday, but this order could not be strictly carried out. Grant in the West. The first advance was made in the West. General Grant had entered Ken- tucky from Illinois, and succeeded in securing the mouths of the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers, two streams which were to serve as military high- ways by which the Federal armies were to penetrate into the heart of the Con- federacy. The chief Confederate posi- tions between the Mississippi river and the Alleghany mountains were Fort Henry on the Tennessee, Fort Donel- son on the Cumberland (both in Ten- nessee), and Bowling Green and Mill Spring in Southern Kentucky. This line of defence was in command of General Sydney Johnston, with head- quarters at Bowling Green. Here he was confronted by General Buell's atmy, the middle one of the three great Federal armies, which came to be known is the Army of the Cumberland. Ports Henry and Donelson formed the centre of the Confederate line, and was Confronted by Grant, whose troops after- wards formed the army of the Tennes- see. In January, 1862, General Thomas with the left of Buell's force thoroughly defeated the Confederate right at Mill Spring. General Grant, aided by the river fleet under Commodore Foote, now assailed the centre. Fort Henry was first attacked and reduced by the gunboats before Grant had time to in- vest it. The combined forces then as- saulted Fort Donelson, which, after a brave resistance, was captured Febru- ary 1 6th with 15,000 prisoners. The centre of the Confederate line was now pierced, and Johnston and Polk were compelled to retreat for fear of being cut off. Columbus, Bowling Green and Nashville were evacuated, and the whole of Kentucky and most of Tennessee were in the hands of the Federals. General Buell occupied Nash- ville ; a strong Union party showed it- self in Tennessee, and Senator Andrew Johnson was appointed Military Gov- ernor of the Slate. A Terrible Battle. The Confederates formed their second line of defense along the railroad from Memphis to Chattanooga, and began massing their forces at Corinth. The armies of Grant and Buell were to unite and attack the enemy in his new posi- tion. Grant moved up the Tennessee river and halted at Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh, about twenty miles from Corinth, there to await the arrival of Buell. Here Johnston made a brilliant attack upon him with the intention of crushing him before Buell could come up. A terrible battle was fought April 6th and 7th, in which the Confederate leader, who was one of the slain, came very near effecting his purpose. But 78 THE GREAT CIVIL WAR the Federal forces, though driven back at nearly every point, stubbornly re- sisted, and at the close of the first day Btiell's advance guard came upon the scene. The next morning Grant, now reinforced, assumed the offensive ; and after a fight of several hours, the Con- federates were driven back to Corinth. While these operations were taking captured for several weeks aftex wards on account of i lie slow advances of General Halleck, who had assu.ned command of the Federal forces at that point. Meanwhile a fleet under Farragut and Porter, with a land force under Butler, had been sent to attack New Orleans. Farragut ran past the batteries and forts at the entrance of the river, attacked IRON-CLAD place in Tennessee, Commodore Foote with his gunboats entered the Missis- sippi with a small army under Pope, and captured Island Number Ten on the day of Grant's victory at Shiloh. Two months later Fort Pillow was abandoned by the Confederates, and Memphis at once fell into the hands of the Union army. The victory at Shiloh decided the fate of Corinth, an import- ant railroad center, though it was not GUNBOAT. and destroyed the ironclads which met him, and captured New Orleans, which was occupied by the army under But- ler. Farragut with a part of his fleet then pushed up the river, clearing away all obstacles, passed the batteries at Vicksburg, and met the Federal gun- boats under Captain Davis above. Thus the war in the West had been, so far, marked by an almost unbroken series of victories for the Federal armies. THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 79 At the northern boundary of the State of Mississippi the Union advance stopped foratime; but all was held that had been won. To gain control of the great river, it was necessary to take Vicksburg, with its outpost, Port Hud- son, which, between them, commanded the entrance to the Red river, and thus kept open the communications of the eastern part of the Confederacy with its Statesof Texas, Louisiana and Arkansas. Moving on Vicksburg. To capture Vicksburg would cut off these States, and greatly cripple the fighting power of the Confederate gov- ernment. The occupation of Chatta- nooga was also necessary to the success of the Union arms. It would open the way into Georgia, and prevent the Con- federates from recovering any of the lost ground in Tennessee. While the South had met with de- feat in the West, it was encouraged by a success in Hampton Roads. The Confederates had taken the " Merri- mac," a former frigate of the United States navy, and transformed her into an iron-clad ram, with sloping sides and huge iron beak. On March 8, 1862, this strange-looking craft entered Hampton Roads and attacked the Feb- eral fleet lying there, which consisted of five wooden ships of war. The Mer- rimac destroyed the Cumberland, and also compelled the frigate Congress to surrender. At night she went back to Norfolk. The next morning she was seen com- ing out again to complete the work of destruction. Suddenly the Monitor, a turreted iron-clad vessel, advanced to meet her, and after an obstinate engage- ment of several hours the Merrimac was compelled to retire. These encoun- ters were remarkable as the first engage- ments between iron-clads and wooden vessels, and between two iron-clads. The result caused a revolution in the navies of the world ; the day of wooden war-vessels was seen to be over, and all the great powers began at once the con- struction of iron and steel vessels. The military operations in Virginia during the year 1862 offered a strong contrast to the course of events in the West. This was owing partly, 110 doubt, to the superior ability of the Confeder- ate commanders, as compared with their antagonists, partly, because on the Union side military affairs were too much intermingled with politics. Jackson Repulsed. While General McClellan was organ- izing a splendid army of 200,000 men near Washington, General Banks was ordered to occupy the Shenandoah val- ley. He began his advance in Febru- ary, and having, as he supposed, cleared the valley of the enemy, set out with his own corps proper to join McClellan. As soon as he was gone, General Jack- son, popularly known as "Stonewall Jackson," hastened to attack the divi- sion of Shields which remained in the valley. After a desperate battle at Kearnstown, March 23d, Jackson was compelled to retire. Banks returned to the valley, and Shields was sent to join McDowell at Fredericksburg. General Fremont now approached from the West, in order to unite with Banks near Stanton. To prevent this Jackson formed the plan of attacking the Federal forces in detail. He nearly succeeded in getting into the rear of the main body with a much largei army 80 THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. than Banks could muster. By a hur- ried retreat Banks reached and crossed the Potomac, with the Confederate cav- alry in close pursuit. Shields hastened back to the valley, but his advance guard was defeated at Port Republic, June 8th, by Jackson, who, the same day, had checked Fremont at Cross Keys, Having thus saved the valley to the Confederates, and obliged the govern- ment at Washington to detain for the defense of the capital a large body of troops which McClellan greatly needed for other duty, Jackson joined the Con- federate army in front of Richmond. McOlellan's Advance. General McClellan concentrated the Army of the Potomac between Wash- ington and Manassas, as if intending to advance against Richmond by that route. He then withdrew his forces and went by water to Fortress Monroe in order to advance up the peninsula between the James and York rivers. Here he was held in check for a mouth by Johnston at Yorktown, and when McClellan was ready to take the place, the Confederates retreated toward Rich- mond. The Union forces followed, ancf both armies concentrated around Rich- mond. McClellan gained the battles of Wil- liamsburg. May 5th, and West Point, May 9th, and advanced within seven miles of the city. A panic broke out in the Southern capital, and the Con- federate Congress adjourned in haste. It was just at this time that Stonewall Jackson, by his brilliant and daring exploits in the Shenandoah Valley, obliged the Federal government to keep in front of Washington a corps under McDowell which was about to co-operate with McClellan by way of Fredericksburg. The movements of McClellan in- volved the separation of the two wings of his army by the little river Chicka- hominy, which by a sudden rise was changed into a wide stream. The Con- federates under Johnston at once at- tacked the Union left wing at Fair Oaks and Seven Pines. A fierce battle ensued, lasting two days; the result, however, was a Union victory. John- ston was wounded, and was succeeded by Robert E. Lee, who retained com- mand of the army of Virginia during the rest of the war. Plan Had to be Changed. The absence of McDowell, who was expected to support VIcClellan's right, compelled a change i»> \he whole plan of operations. Although Lee had been repulsed in an attack on the Federal lines at Mechauicsville, June 26th, he fell upon them again at Gainer Mill the day following, in overwhelming force, and drove them across the Chicka- hominy with severe loss. Jackson had now reinforced Lee, and McClellan was cut off from his base of supplies on York river. Unable to re-unite his wings and regain his base, the Union general decided upon the difficult ma- noeuvre of establishing another base on the James river. While effecting this change, the Union troops were hard pressed by Lee and Jackson, who, during the period from June 26th to July 1st, attacked them at Golding's Farm, Savage's Sta- tion, White Oak Swamp, Glendale, etc., and finally at Malvern Hill, where the Confederates were signally repulsed, THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 81 This was the last of a series of engage- ments known as the "Seven Days' Bat- tles," in the course of which McClellan lost over 15,000 men. Lee suffered al- most as much. The Union army had now reached the James river, and estab- lished itself in a position from which it could not be driven. Designs on Washington. Lee and Jackson then turned their attention toward Washington, which was defended by an army under General Pope. Pope's forces stretched along the Rappahannock and Rapidan to the Shenandoah Valley. General Banks held a position at the western end of the line, and was attacked by Jackson at Cedar Mountain. Lee followed close behind, and -the two generals forced Banks back and then attacked Pope. McClellan received orders from Wash- ington to join Pope, and a portion of his forces came up in time to take part in the second battle of Bull Run, Au- gust 29th. Pope's army was put to rout, Washington was threatened and the whole country was wild with ex- citement. Lee now led his victorious army across the upper Potomac and entered Mary- land. McClellan, gathering up the remnants of the two defeated armies, followed and confronted the Confeder- ates at Antietam creek. A desperate struggle took place, September 17th. It left each army exhausted, but the victory remained with the Union forces. The Confederates recrossed the Poto- mac and retired up the Shenandoah Valley. The administration was dissatisfied with McClellan's course, and his com- mand was given to General Burnside. The new commander at once moved toward Richmond, proposing to cross the Rappahannock at Fredericksburg. Here he found Lee posted upon the hills behind the town. Burnside crossed the river, and, forming his army in three divisions, attempted to storm the heights, December 13th. It was a day of terrible slaughter for the Federal troops. They were repulsed with the loss of twelve thousand men, the army was demoralized, and retreated to the north side of the river. Burnside was then superseded by General Hooker. The North Discouraged. The close of 1862 thus found the op- 1 posing armies in nearly the same posi- tions as at the beginning of the war. At the North gloom and discourage- ment prevailed. At the State elections held in the autumn there was a majority against the administration in several of the Northern States, and the result of the campaigns on the Potomac gave great strength to the peace party, which believed that the attempt to subjugate the South ousrht to be abandonod. CHAPTER VI. End of the Great Civil War. IN June, [862, the great Union force a{ Corinth was divided, Buell's marching eastward to seize Chat- tanooga, while ( v .i ant's remained at Cor- inth till it should he ready to start for Vicksburg. The campaign was so badly managed by Halleck that the Confederates, under Bragg, seized Chat- tanooga before Buell's arrival. They were thus enabled to press him so vigor- ously that he had to he largely rein- forced from ( Grant's army. Thus weakened. Grant was nnable to advance lor several months. During the summer oi~ 1862 the Confederates made a great effort to repair the disas- ters they had suffered on the Tennessee and Mississippi rivers by an invasion of Kentucky. An army under Kirby Smith moved from Knoxville, East Tennessee, while another, under Bragg, marched from Chattanooga. The Con- federate general, Smith, defeated Gen- eral Nelson near Richmond, Kentucky, August 30th, and advanced toward the Ohio, threatening Cincinnati. General Lew Wallace, however, compelled him to fall back to Frankfort. Bragg in the meantime hastened toward the city i^~ Louisville. Buell, leaving Nashville, by forced marches reached the place one day ahead of Bragg. Beiug reinforced, he slowly pushed the Confederates back. Bragg foi med a junction with Smith at Frank- fort, and four days Liter a severe but indecisive battle was fought at Perry- ville, October 8th. The Confederates then retreated through Cumberland Gap. During Braggfs campaign, the Con- 82 federate army in Mississippi unde* Gem eral Van Pom made an attempt to turn Grant's left wing at Corinth, and thus force him back down the Tennessee River. This wing was commanded by General Rosecrans, who defeated Price at I nka, a few miles from Corinth, Sep- tember ic)ih. On October 4th Van Dorn and Price together attacked Cor- inth, hut were repulsed by Roseerans with a loss of live thousand men, and pursued forty miles. Hard Fighting in Tennessee. .Soon after this Roseerans superseded Buell in command of the army oi~ the Cumberland. Bragg had advanced to Murfreesborough, in Central Tennessee. There Roseerans attacked him, Decem- ber 3 1st, and a bloody battle was fought, in which 40,000 men were engaged on each side, ami each lost more than 10,000. This engagement is generally known as the battle of Stone River. It was indecisive. On January 2, 1863, Bragg renewed the attack with great vigor, but this time he was signally de- feated, and compelled to retire to Chat- tanooga. While these battles were being fought Grant had begun his first movement against the strong and important post of Vicksburg, on the Mississippi. His plan was to march from Jackson, Missis- sippi, while Sherman, with his 40,000 men, and Porter, with a fleet of gnu- boats, descended the liver from Mem- phis. The movements were made ac- cording to this arrangement, but Van Doru's cavalry succeeded in getting in KNI> OF Tlllv GREAT CIVIL WAR. 83 Grant's rear and cutting off liis sup- plies. This compelled ( iranl to abandon his march to Jackson. Sherman and Porter attacked the Muffs north of Vicksburg, but were repulsed with heavy loss on December 29th. ! [earing of ('.rant's misfortune, they returned to Memphis. After I [atteras Inlet to Pamlico Sound had been captured, it was next resolved lo attack the Confederate position on Roanoke Island, which commands the passage between Pamlico and Albe- marle Sounds. A land and naval expe- dition under General Burnsideand Com- modore Goldsborough took 'he forts and batteries of the island February 8, r862, captured a Confederate flotilla, occupied Newberne, North Carolina, March 14th, and reduced Fort Macon, at Beaufort, April 25th. Capture of Fort Pulaski. Expeditions from Port Royal under Commodore Dupont took possession of Darien and Brunswick, Georgia, and of Jacksonville, Fernandina, and St. Au- gustine, Florida. April 11, 1X62, Gen- eral Gilmore captured Fort Pulaski, on the Savannah River. 'Inns the port of Savannah was completely closed, al- though no effort was made for some time to occupy the city. During the movement of the armies in [862, Congress had not been idle. It was chiefly occupied in measures con- nected with the prosecution of the war. Its most far-reaching action was in the provision for a uniform national cur- rency. At the beginning of the war the government had borrowed large sums of money to defray expenses, and it continued to borrow as new demands arose. The result was similar to that which occurred in the Revolutionary War. The promises to pay became less valuable as compared with gold, which was the- standard of value throughout the civilized world. The banks in the several States could no longer obtain gold without paying a high price for it: and at the end of 1861 they suspended specie payments. In order to provide a currency for the peo- ple, a bill was passed by Congress early in [863 authorizing the issue of notes by the United States Treasury. These notes received the popular name of "greenbacks," from the color of the paper on which they were printed ; and to insure their success they were de- clared by Congress to be " legal tender," February 25, 1862. Early in 1863 Con- gress passed an act establishing national banks. Heretofore the States had in- corporated all banks, and the bills of each bank were seldom current except in its own neighborhood. By the na- tional banking system, the banks were to be organized, and the United States bonds deposited in Washington. Special Legislation. The banks were then permitted to issue notes up to ninety per cent, of the value of the bonds deposited, and the notes, being thus secured, became cur- rent in every part of the country. A homestead bill was passed, which as- signed public lands to actual settlers at reduced rates. Congress also prohibited slavery in the District of Columbia; slaves of insurgents were ordered to be confiscated ; and the army was forbid- den to surrender fugitive slaves to their masters. It provided for the construc- tion of a Pacific railroad and telegraph, and began a further development of the 84 END OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. system of granting public lands to rail- way corporations. The abolition sentiment had spread very rapidly in the North, and it had now become supported by the military needs of the hour. At the beginning of the conflict the Union leaders and people generally had not favored any interference with slavery, but circum- stances had proved their position to be untenable. President Lincoln, who watched anxiously every movement, was convinced that the time had come when the Federal government could no longer attempt to carry on the war successfully and spare the system of slavery. Vexed Question of Slavery. He therefore announced, September, 1862, that unless the revolting States should return to their allegiance by Jan- uary 1 , 1 863, he should declare the slaves in these States to be free. It was a formal notice given out of respect to law ; no one seriously expected that it would be regarded by the Confederate States. And it was not. They only grew more firm in consequence of the action taken. On the 1st day of January, 1863, in ac- cordance with his notice, the President issued his celebrated Proclamation of Emancipation. This act caused much discussion. Mr. Lincoln could not, legally, issue such a declaration, for the Constitution gave him no authority to abolish slavery. But he acted on the principle of military necessity, advocated by John Ouincy Adams in his speech of April 14, 1842, in which he said: "Whether the war be civil, servile, or foreign, I lay this down as the law of nations : I say that the military authority takes for the time tlie place of all municipal institutions, slavery among the rest. Under that state of things, so far from its being true that the States where slavery exists have the exclusive management of the sub- ject, not only the President of the United States, but the commander of the army has power to order the universal eman- cipation of slaves." The events of the preceding summer had shown that the war was far from being at an end. The cutting off of the cotton supply had been a general calam- ity, and the distress produced in conse- quence created a fear lest England and France should unite in an attempt to put an end to the contest. But the proclamation changed all this. By it the struggle was converted into a cru- sade against slavery, and in this light foreign intervention was now simply impossible, owing to Great Britain's attitude towards slavery. Negro Regiments. Moreover, should the Federal govern- ment be successful, the question of slavery would practically be settled for- ever, for its abolition would be certain when the Union was re-established. One of the first results of the act was the formation of regiments of negro sol- diers. An attack made by one of these regiments, under Colonel Shaw, upon Fort Wagner, in Charleston harbor, though unsuccessful, showed so much bravery that the prejudice against negro soldiers disappeared, and great numbers were enrolled. General Hooker spent three months in reorganizing and strengthening the Army of the Potomac. At the end of April, 1863, he began his march toward Richmond with 120,000 men. Sending NAPOLEON AND THE QUEEN OF PRUSSIA AT TILSIT AT THI C "LACE, IN EASTERN PRUSSIA, THE TREATY OF PEACE BETWEEN FRANCE AND RUSSIA, AN' ALSO BETWEEN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA WAS SIG £D, JULY 7th 1807 BATTLE OF CHANCEU,ORSVILLE-TACKSON'S ATTACK ON THE RIGHT WING. 85 86 END OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. the sixth corps, under Sedgwick, to cross the Rappahannock below Fredericks- burg, he threw his main body across the river a few miles higher up, and before Lee understood his purpose he had ad- vanced to Chancel lorsville. Here Lee won one of the most marked of his vic- tories, May i to 4, with only one-half as many men as Hooker commanded. Battle and Heavy Losses. Jackson made a magnificent attack upon the Union right, taking it by sur- prise, and drove it back in confusion. Sedgwick, on the left, had carried the heights of Fredericksburg, and was pushing on toward Chancellorsville, when the disaster on the right enabled Lee to face him with the main Confed- erate force. Sedgwick was compelled to retire during the night which fol- lowed the 4th of May, and Hooker re- crossed the Rappahannock the next night. Hooker's loss was 16,000 ; Lee's was 12,000 ; but the Confederates fur- ther sustained a severe disaster in the death of Stonewall Jackson. Lee now repeated the manoeuvre he had practiced after defeating General Pope. Turning Hooker's right flank, he pushed on through the western part of Maryland into Pennsylvania, so as to threaten Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington. There was intense alarm at the North, and reinforcements were hurried into Pennsylvania from all quarters. In consequence of a disagree- ment with General Halleck, Hooker resigned the command of the Army of the Potomac, and it was given to Gen- eral George G. Meade. The hostile armies, each in full force were now moving in parallel lines, with the Blue Ridge and South Mountain range between them. On the ist of July they came into collision at Gettysburg. A tremendous battle was fought, lasting until the close of July 3d. It resulted in the defeat of Lee, with a loss of about 23,000 men; Meade's loss was about the same. This battle was one of the greatest of modern times, the loss on both sides being very heavy in proportion to the whole num- ber engaged. It was also the turning point of the Civil War. The South was never able to collect so fine an army again, and never re- covered from the exhaustion of the Get- tysburg campaign. Lee moved slowly back to his old position on the Rapidan, where he and Meade held each other in check until the following spring. Many in the North were inclined to believe that Lee's former successes had been due to Stonewall Jackson's ability, and that he had lost his prestige upon the death of that brave commander. But the campaign of 1864 was to prove the contrary. Grant's Victory at Vicksburg. On the next day after the battle of Gettysburg, General Grant gained a de- cisive victory on the Mississippi. Hav- ing failed in several attempts to take Vicksburg from the North, he now de- termined to transfer his army to the south side of this strongly fortified place. To do this it was necessary to cross the river, march down its west bank, cross/ again below Vicksburg, and march up the east bank, while the fleet, which had run past the batteries of Vicksburg after the capture of New Orleans, would have to pass them again in order to transport the army over the river and protect the crossing. c p pq ■j. v* H {h W G H <| W O P*i «*, W o P o H 88 lvNI) OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. This plan was carried out in April. Commodore Porter performed his task successfully under a heavy fire, and on the 29th o\ April opened a cannonade upon Grand Gulf, at the mouth ol the Big Black River, where it had been de termined to attempt a crossing. The Confederate batteries here proving too Strong, the licit ran past them also, and the crossing was made at Bruinsburg, a lew miles below, ('.rant now pushed rapidly forward. The Confederates were beaten at Port Gibson, and compelled to evacuate (band Gulf. McPherson and Shci man captured Jackson, the cap- ital o( Mississippi, and a place of great military importance, on account of its railway connections Surrenders After Long Siege. The Union army then turned, fell upon the Confederate general, Pember- ton, who had marched out oi~ Vicks- burg to unite with Johnston, defeated him at Champion Hills May 1 6th, and it the crossingof the black River May 17th, and at last shut him up in Yicks- burg. After a siege of forty-five days Pemberton surrendered, and the great Confederate Stronghold o\ the West, with 27,000 prisoners, fell into the hands o( the victorious Federals. Port Hudson, under siege at the same time, could no longer hold out, and the Mississippi, as President Lincoln said, " ran nnvcxed to the sea.'" 'Phis was the heaviest blow that the Confederacy had as Net received ; its whole western zone was now virtually conquered, and it became possible to concentrate greater Union Forces against its middle and eastern /ones. The news of Gettysburg and Vicksburg made the Fourth of July, 1863, a day of rejoicing in the North, and of mourning in thousands of be- reaved homes. The Vicksburg campaign marked the decline of the Confederate fortunes in the West, as the Gettysburg campaign did in the East. In the meantime the people had learned to give a more care- ful attention to the welfare of the sol- dins who weie bearing the brunt of the conflict. 'Phe Sanitary Commission, the Christian Commission, and other volun- tary associations, had been organized, and were doing a grand work for the moral and physical needs of the men in the field ; and this care was not confined solely to Northern troops, but was often extended to the Confederates as well. 'Phe expenses ot the national govern- ment for prosecuting the war now amounted to $2,000,000 per day on an average, and notwithstanding the heavy taxation imposed upon the country, the debt had increased to $C- 0,000,000 by June, 1862; during [863 i> was double that amount; by June, [864, it had grown to $1,700,000,000, and at the end ol August, [865, it attained its max- imum, #2,845,907.626. Money Carefully Spent. But the best of care and judgment was exercised in the use of these vast expenditures. 'Phe army was constantly supplied with improved weapons and munitions of war ; the blockading ileets were kept in perfect order, and every- thing was done to insure the success ot the Union arms. As early as April, 1S62, the Confed- erate Congress had passed a conscrip- tion act, enrolling in the army all adult white males below a certain age, but as the war went on the demand for men became continually greater, and the END OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 89 conscription was made more sweeping. Toward the end of the war every white man between the ages of seventeen and fifty-live was held liable to military ser- vice, and in practice the only limit was physical incapacity. The Federal government also was compelled to take almost a similar course. In March, 1 863, Congress passed an act for the enrollment of all able- bodied male citizens between the ages of eighteen and forty-five, and the Pres- ident was authorized to make drafts for military service, those between twenty and thirty-five to be first called upon. Under this law a call for 300,000 troops was made in May. As the full number was not made up by volunteering a draft was ordered to supply the deficiency. The first attempts to carry it out re- sulted in -forcible resistance in many places, the most notable being the " draft riots" in New York city in July, just after the battle of Gettysburg. Riots in New York. These riots lasted fonr days in that city. During this time New York was in the hands of a lawless mob, many shocking murders were committed and $2,000,000 worth of property was de- stroyed. All opposition was at length put down, but exemptions and substitute purchases were freely permitted, and the States endeavored to fill their re- spective quotas as far as possible by offering bounties as a stimulus to volun- teering. After his renowned victory near Mnr- freesboro, Rosecrans remained qniet for a period, preparing for a new campaign. Late in June he began a series of skill- ful movements against Bragg which compelled the Confederate general to fall back upon Chattanooga. Early in .September Rosecrans forced him to evacuate the place by threatening his communications. The Union general followed him across the Tennessee river and was tints beyond the strong posi- tion of Chattanooga. General Bragg, having been heavily reinforced from Virginia, turned at Chickamanga creek to give battle. The Heroic Thomas. A severe engagement was fought, September 17-20, 1863, in which Long- street, who had come to the aid of Bragg, routed the right of the Union forces; but the wonderful skill and bravery of General Thomas, who commanded the left wing, saved the Federal army and secured its retreat to Chattanooga. Bragg, having gained possession of the mountains around the place, cut off al- most all avenues of further retreat and laid siege to Chattanooga. The govern- ment at Washington had committed the mistake of dividing the Union forces, for while Rosecrans was left <.o face an army greatly superior in num- bers, under General Bragg, General Bnrnside was sent into east Tennessee with an independent command. Bragg was now so snre of Rosecrans' defeat that he dispatched Lon^street with apart of his army to attack Bnrn- side at Knoxville. In October Rose- crans was superseded by Thomas, and Grant was put in command of all the western armies. He was joined at Chat- tanooga by two corps under Hooker from the Potomac. General Sherman came up from Vicksbnrg with a greater part of the army of the Tennessee. Bragg's positions on Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge were now assaulted. 90 END OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. The fonnei was successfully stormed ston. Longstreet raised (Ik- siege of li\ Hooker, Novembei 14th, part of the ECnoxville and retreated across the fighting taking place amidst .1 thick mountains into Virginia to join Lee. mist which covered the summit, hence Many attempts had been made to re- this has been called the "battle above duce Charleston, South Carolina, the LONGSTREET'S ARRIVAL W BRAGG'S HEADQUARTERS, the clouds." On the next da\ Mission- strongest, as well as the most important .u\ Ridge was carried by the main of the Southern seaports, but without .turn. Hooker on the right, Thomas in sueeess. At length Fort Wagner was the centre and Sherman on the left, taken, Septembei ~th. after a tremend- Bragg was driven from all his positions ous bombardment by the Federal fleet back to Dalton, and was soon after- and Gillmore's batteries; Fort Sumter, waul superseded by General J E John- also, was reduced to ruins The block- 'END OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR 91 adin ■ ' ! ■ were thus enabled to entei the harbor, and the poti of Chai leston -■lit irely clo >ed Taking advantage ol every loophole in the British foreign enlistmenl the Confederate authorities had suc- led in fitting out several formidable < l in'-- 1 3, which, in the < ourse of the li 1K63, did immense damage to American commerce. Whenever they were closely pursued by United States vessels they tool in neutral ports, and then put out to - a again upon the first favorable opportunity. The most .i< tive ones w< re the Florida, the Alabama and the Georgia. The Flor ida, built at Liverpool, after hav- ing captured twenty- one vessels, was seized iii the harbor of Bahia, Brazil, October, [864. The Georgia was built at Glasgow, put to sea in April, but was captured after a short cruise by the United States frigate Niagara. The more important of the Confederate cruisers was the Alabama. She was built at Liverpool Tor the Confederate captain, S< mines. Allowed to Escape. The British government was urged by the American minister, Mr. Adams, to ' nforce its own laws, and prevent her going to sea; yet she was allowed to set sail in July. After destroying more than sixty vessels, she was met by the United States steamer Kearsage, commanded by Captain Winslow, off Cherbourg, June 19, [864, and after an hour's action the Alabama was sunk. At the beginning of [864, several detached operations were carried on which, though attracting much atten tion at the time, had but little direct bearing upon the closing campaigns of the war. General Sherman made his raid nearly across the State of Missis- sippi, destroying railroads, bridges and supplies. General Seymour, leading £. Union expedition into Florida, was de- feated. General Banks was sent up the Red river to attack Shreveport, and} bring away cotton. The expedition* ended in failure and disaster. General Rosecrans was appointed to command in Missouri. He succeeded in repelling an invasion by Price, who was finally driven from the State. General Forrest, with a Confederate force, made a raid into Tennessee and Kentucky, and captured Fort Pillow, April 12th, where a number of negro troops were massacred. New Commander-in-Chief. The success of Grant in the west had made him the chief figure in the war. In March, 1864, he superseded Halleck as commander-in-chief, with the rank of lieutenant-general. He at once took personal direction of the campaign against Richmond, while retaining Meade in immediate command. The army of the Potomac was re-organi/.f d in three corps, under Hancock, Warren and Sedgwick, to which wassoon added another under Burnside, while General Philip Sheridan was called from the west, and appointed to the command of all the cavalry in the eastern army. I/'\ forces, which comprised the flower of the .Southern troops, had other- wise been divided into three corps, un der Generals A. P. Hill, Ewell and Longstreet. Sherman had been left in command of the three western armies of the Ohio, the Cumberland, and the Tennessee, and he was to oppose John- ston at Dalton. According to arrange- 92 END OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. ment,a simultaneous advance was made in Georgia and Virginia, early in May. The army of the Potomac, numbering about 125,000 men (nearly twice as many as Lee's), .. ... crossed the Rapidan and entered the u Wilderness" on the other side. It was Grant's object to push through this difficult country as rapidly as possible and get between Lee's army and Richmond. In pursuing the direct route through Kred- eiicks WOUNDING OF GENERAL LONGSTREET BY HIS OWN MEN. the Union army encoun- tered a series of strong defensive po- sitions, of which Lee availed himself with con- summate skill. The bat- tles began on the 5th, and continued until the I2th without interruption, both sides fighting with the utmost bravery, P; G ^ u fWD 5r 00DARD END OF T/IIv GREAT CIVIL WAR 93 It was during these engagements that General Longstreet was disabled by an unfortunate blunder of his own troops. They mistook him and his men for Union cavalry and fired a volley at them. Longstreet waved his hand and shouted to them to stop firing. They did so, but not until a bullet passed through his throat, coming out at the shoulder. He fell from his horse, and Anna and Cold Haibor in whic.i the Union losses were terrible. Having now reached the Chickahominy, and finding it impossible to break through Lee's lines of defense, Grant crossed the river and moving far to the right of his ad- versary, transferred his army beyond the James to assail Richmond from the south. This involved the reduction of the BATTLE OF COLD HARBOR. was believed to be dead. Such a calamity spread dismay for a time in the Confederate ranks. Longstreet was only badly wounded and was disabled for the remainder of the campaign. Lee was steadily forced back, and on the 9th Grant was clear of the Wilder- ness with his forces concentrated near Spottsylvania court-house. Here there was furious and obstinate fighting for ten days, with scarcely any intermission. Then followed the battles of North strongly-fortified town of Petersburg, on the Appomattox, practically a part of the defenses of Richmond, from which it was twenty miles distant. It also brought the Federal lines into dangerous proximity to Lee's railroad communi- cations with the south. At this point, therefore, the Confederate commander stationed the best part of his troops, and stubbornly resisted all Grant's efforts to extend his lines further to the south- west or to reach the railroads. !M r\n OF nil- GRE \ f CIVit war. A longsiegeof Richmond and Peters burg was now begun early in June, but neithei army remained inactive. In [illy, Lee sent Early into the Shenan- doah valley, with a corps strong enough to menace Washington, hoping that Grant might be induced to call off troops from Petersburg, The chief re- sult of Early's movement was the burn- ing oi' Chambersburg, and the capture of .1 quantity oi supplies Grant put Sheridan in command oi the valley, wln> defeated General Early at Win- chester, Septembei [9th, and at Fisher's ilill two days later, alter which he de- stroyed all the rich crops in the valley and carried off the cattle, SO that the Confederates might not be tempted to repeat the raid. Battle of Cedar Creek. Bi ' Early, having obtained fiesh troop, suddenly fell upon the Federals at Cedar deck, October 10th, driving them back in great confusion. Sheridan was absent when the battle was fought, but, getting intelligence oi it, he rode rapidly up the valley, rallied his men, who w«?re, however, being enheartened by their respective commanders, and scattered Early's forces, which never met Sheridan again as a compact army during the remainder of the war. Meanwhile, Grant had succeeded in getting possession of a few miles oi the Weldon railroad, upon which l«ee de- pended for transportation, but the Con- federate general brought his supplies in wagons round that portion held by the Federals. The two armies now re- mained in comparatively the same posi- tion until the following spring. The western campaign in 1864 began it the same time as Grant's movement in Virginia. Sherman advanced from Chattanooga with 100,000 men under Thomas, McPherson, and Schofield, against Johnston's forceof 75) 000 ' The objective point oi the campaign was the capture of Atlanta, Georgia, a very Strongly fortified place about one bun- dled miles south oi' Chattanooga, and the chief manufactory of the Confederate military supplies. Johnston, with his weaker force, dared not risk a regular battle, but lie made the best use oi vari- ous defensive positions which therough and mountainous country afforded. Sherman's Brilliant Tactics. By a series o( masterly flank move- ments Sherman compelled him to evac- uate one position after another. On May i.ph the warrior-bishop, Leonidas Polk, was killed by an exploding shell while standing with Johnston and Hardee on the crest oi Tine Mountain. Severe battles were foughtat Resaca, May 15th; Dallas, May 25th; Lost Mountain, June 14th, and ECenesaw Mountain, June 27th. By the ioth of July Johnston was in- trenched behind the defences oi Atlanta, and the two arm its were facing each other with the Chattahoochee river be- tween them. Johnston's retreat had been conducted with great skill, but he was now superseded In- Hood,July 17th, who was known as a " fighting general." Hood at once proceeded to carry out the active policy oi' the Confederate govern- ment, and assumed the offensive. Before the end oi the month he had made three furious assaults on the Union lines ami was repulsed in every one oi them. The Federals, however, sustained a heavy loss in the death oi General Mc- Pherson. At length, In- tine mamvuver- ing, Sherman succeeded in gaining the END OF THE GREAT CIVIL war. 96 fear of Atlanta, and cutting the supply railroads. Thi obliged the Confed- erates to retreat in .-ill haste, and "" the 2d of September, Sherman was able to telegraph to Wa ihington thai Atlanta was won. fe y tii is device than Grant had been by Early's raid into the Shenandoah. He divided his army, sending back part of it under Thomas to take care of Hood, while he himself prepared to continue his advance through Georgia. Hood, moving north, ward toward Nashville, was met and defeated at Franklin, No- vember 30th, with heavy loss, by Scho- field. The Confederate general arrived at Nashville with about 44,000 men. 00 END OK THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. The Union forces awaited him there behind the fortifications. Thomas, hav- ing completed his preparations, suddenly moved out of his works and fell upon the Confederate lines, December 15th. The battle lasted two days and ended in the utter ront and demoralization of Hood's forces. Thus one of the two great armies of the Confederacy was scattered, never again to be united. Of all the battles fought in the course of the war, this was the most complete victory. Presidential Election. While these things were going on, the presidential election of 1864 took place. Some of the more radical men, dissatisfied with what they called Mr. Lincoln's timid and irresolute policy, met in convention, May 31st, at Cleve- land, Ohio, and nominated John C. Fre- mont for the Presidency. Mr. Lincoln and Andrew Johnson were nominated, June 7 f h, for President and Vice-Presi- dent by the Republican National Con- vention at Baltimore. The Democratic National Convention declared in its platform that the inabil- ity of the Federal government to restore the Union by war was demonstrated by four years of failure ; that the constitu- tion had been violated in all its parts under the plea of military necessity ; and that a cessation of hostilities ought to be obtained. It nominated George B. McClellan and George H. Pendleton as President and Y ice-President. This declaration of the peace Denioc- racy that the war was a failure, when all things were now pointing toward the final success of the North, caused many doubtful votes to be cast for the Repub- lican candidates, and assured their elec- tion. When the electoral votes were counted, Lincoln and Johnson had re- ceived 212; McClellan and Pendleton received 21. Sherman had burned Atlanta, de- stroyed the railroads and telegraphs in hi* rear, sent back the sick and wounded, and much of the baggage, and set out, November 14th, on his "famous march through Georgia." His army, 65,000 strong, was spread out over a breadth of forty miles, subsisting mainly on the produce of the country. For a month scarcely anything was heard of him at the North, when he suddenly turned up at Savannah, Ga. He had met with but little opposition on his route. The Con- federates had numerous bodies of troops which might have been concentrated to oppose his march, but he had threatened so many points, and kept the enemy in so much doubt as to his objects, that they could not tell for which point he was making. A Christmas Gift. On December 13th Fort McAllister was taken by assault, and on the 20th Savannah was evacuated by the Confed- erates, Sherman sending the news of the capture to President Lincoln as a "Christ- mas gift." He also sent word that the Confederacy was nothing but a shell, and that he was ready with his victorious army to march northward. The only important ports, except Gal- veston, which remained open to the Con- federacy in the summer of 1864, were Mobile, in Alabama, and Wilmington, in North Carolina. The forts command- ing the entrance to Mobile bay were captured, August 5th, and the port was closed. On January 16, 1865, Wilming- ton, North Carolina, was taken by a END OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. 97 combined land and naval force, under ( reueral Terry and Commodore Porter. On the day before this event, Sherman had begun his northward inarch, pass- ing through Columbia to Fayette ville, North Carolina. This movement had forced the evacu- ation of Charleston and other coast cities, and their garrisons had been concen- trated under Johnston as a last hope. The military support of the Confederacy now rested on the army which Lee com- manded within the iutrenchments of Richmond and Petersburg, and on the remnant of the western forces with which Johnston was trying to check Sherman's advance. Some sharp fighting took place north of Fayetteville, but Golds- borough was reached March 21st, and Johnston retreated to Raleigh. Sher- man pushed on after him, but events in Virginia were fast rendering a con- test in North Carolina unnecessary. Lee's Situation Desperate. While the Union army occupied Golds- borough, Sherman took a steamer on the coast and hurriedly visited the James river, where he met the President, Gen- eral Grant and General Meade, and ar- ranged with them the plan of operations for tne future. During Sherman's march through North Carolina, Sheridan had led a column of cavalry up the Shenan- doah valley to destroy Lee's communi- cations in the rear cf Richmond. He passed along the James river, doing ^reat damage to the canal and railroads deepest sorrow, not only in the Nort lv but in the South as well, and through- out all the civilized world. He ha'* won the abiding love and trust of th people, and his name will forever be linked with that of Washington ; fc^ he was in many ways the second found* of his country. Jefferson Davie, while trying to es- cape, was captured by a detachment of General J. H. Wilson's cavalry at Ir- winsville, Georgia, and sent to For-tress Monroe. Here he was confined a close prisoner for a long time on the charge of treason. He was at last liberated on bail furnished by Horace Greeley and others, and all proceedings against him were finally abandoned. In fact, the glorious triumph of the government of the United States was in no wise sul- 100 END .OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR. lied by any dismal executions for trea- son. The assassination of Lincoln checked for a time the movement which had already begun for the restoration of the seceding States. People who had been ready in their joy to make peace with those who had been leaders in the Con- federacy now were ready to believe that the spirit which had brought on the war was unchanged. There was a de- mand that the laws against treason, passed by Congress during the heat of the war, in 1862, should be rigidly en- forced. These laws prescribed that the punishment of treason and rebellion should be death, or fine and imprison- ment. Amnesty for Traitors- But a wiser judgment prevailed. There was no hanging for treason. The leaders of the Confederacy were never jrought to trial. The president of the Confederate States was suffered to go free ; and the vice-president, before his death, became an efficient and respected member in the Congress of the United States. For a long time, however, all persons who had previously taken oath o\ allegiance to the Federal government, and then had broken it by joining the Confederacy, were debarred from hold- ing any office under the government of the United States. The expenses of the Federal govern- ment amounted at one time to three and a half million dollars a day. By August 31, 1865, the whole debt had reached its maximum, amounting to about #2,845,907,626. Some $800,000,- 000 of revenue had also been spent mainly on the war. Reside the regular outlay b • the government enormous sums were spent by States, cities, coun- ties and towns in bounties to volunteers, and by the sanitary commissions and other societies for the comfort of sick and wounded soldiers, and for the whole army in general. The expenses of the Confederate government can never be known. Its debt was estimated at about $2,000,000,000, but this was wiped out by the failure of the Confederacy, all its bonds and notes becoming worth- less. Vast Destruction of Property. The amount of property destroyed by the Union and Confederate armies 1 can scarcely be estimated, and the money value ($2,000,000,000) of the slaves in the South fell a sacrifice to the war. In the United States funds were raised by the sale of bonds, the issue of paper money, of " greenbacks" and the imposition of heavy taxes, in- cluding, for some years, a tax on in- comes. The notes became greatly de- preciated, so that in July, 1864, the price of gold in paper currency was nearly three dollars. Gold and silver almost disappeared from circulation. The finances of the Confederacy were in a ruinous condition long before the end of the war. It could make no drafts on the future by bond issues, and it was a very difficult matter to find pur- chasers for southern bonds. As ex- penses increased they had to be met by paper issues, and each issue was accom- panied by a corresponding decline in value, until a dollar in coin was worth fifty dollars in paper. CHAPTER VII. Prom the Restoration of the Union to Our War with Spain. HE most important event follow- ing close upon the restoration of peace was the opening of the Pacific railway from the Missouri river to the Pacific Ocean in 1869. The eastern division of this road is known as the Union Pacific railway, and was begun at Omaha, Nebraska, in Decern ber, 1863, and carried westward. But little progress was made ill the work until 1865, when it was pushed rapidly forward. The western division, known as the Central Pacific railway, was begun at vSau Francisco, about tin- same time, and carried, eastward across the Sierra Nevada. The two roads united at Og- den, near .Salt Uake City, in Utah, and the union was accomplished on the tenth of May, 1869, on which day the last rail was laid. The Union Pacific railway, from Omaha to Ogden, is one thousand and thirty-two miles in length; the Central Pacific, from Ogden to San Francisco, eight hundred and eighty- two miles; making a total line of nine- teen hundred and fourteen miles. Immediately upon the opening of President Lincoln's second term of office, Mr. Charles Francis Adams, the American minister at the court of St. James, was instructed to call the atten- tion of the British Government to the depredations committed upon American commerce by Confederate cruisers, built, equipped and manned in England, and to insist upon the responsibility of Great Britain for the losses thus in- curred by American ship-owners. Mr. Adams discharged this duty in a com- munication addressed to the British Government on April 7th, 1865. This led to a correspondence which continued through the summer of that year. Great Britain refused to admit the validity w f 1 he American claim, or to submit the question to the arbitration of any foreign government. The " Alabama question " remained unsettled for several years, and occasioned a considerable amount of ill-feeling between the two countries. Both governments regarded it as full of danger, but to Great Britain it was especially so, as in the event of a war between that country and any foreign power, the United States, following the example of England, might and doubt- less would allow cruisers to be sent out from their ports which would seriously cripple, if they did not destroy, the British commerce. Court of Arbitration. After Mr. Adams' return from Eng- land, his successor, Reverdy Johnson, was directed by the President to reopen the matter. He negotiated a treaty with the Earl of Clarendon on behalt of the British Government in 1069, but this arrangement was unsatisfactory to the Senate, which body refused to rat ify it. Two years later the matter was re- vived, and mi 1S71 a joint high com- mission, composed of a number of dis- tinguished public men, appointed 1>\ the American and British Governments, met at Washington, and arranged a set tleincnt known as the treaty of Wash* ington, which was ratified by bocl), I0: 102 FROM THE CIVIL WAR TO OUR WAR WITH SPAIN. Governments. This treaty was ratified by the Senate on the twenty-fourth of May, and provided for the settlement not only of the Alabama claims, but of ill other questions at issue between the LJnited States and Great Britain. The Alabama claims were referred by the treaty of Washington to a board of arbitration composed of five commis- sioners selected from the neutral na- On the night of Sunday, October 8, 1 87 1, a fire broke out in the city of Chicago, and raged with tremendous violence for two days, laying the greater part of the city in ashes. It was the most destructive conflagration of modern times. The total area of the city burned over was two thousand one hundred and twenty-four acres, or very nearly three and one-third CHICAGO AFTER THE EIRE. rions. This board met at Geneva, in Switzerland, on the fifteenth day of April, 1872, and the American and English representatives presented to it their respective cases, which had been prepared by the most learned counsel in both countries. On the twenty- seventh of June the board announced its decision. The claims of the United States were admitted, and the damages awarded our Government were $16,- 250,000. These were paid in due time- square miles. The number of build- ings destroyed was seventeen thousand four hundred and fifty. About two hundred and fifty persons died from various causes during the conflagration, and ninety-eight thousand persons were rendered homeless by it. The entire business quarter was destroyed. The actual loss will never be known. As far as it can be ascertained, it was about one hundred and ninety-six millions of dollar*. FROM THE CIVIL WAR TO OUR WAR WITH SPAIN. 103 On the 29th of May, 1872, Congress passed an act removing the disabilities imposed upon the Southern people by the third section of the fourteenth amendment to the Constitution. From this general exemption were excepted all person, who had been members of Congress, officers of the army or navy, heads of departments under the gen- eral government, or ministers to for- eign countries, who nacl resigned their positions and joined the secession move- ment. By this act at least one hun- dred and fifty thousand men of capacity and experience, whose services were greatly needed by the South, were re- stored to political life. Discontent in Cuba. For many years Cuba had been grow- ing dissatisfied with the rule of Spain. In 1868 a revolution broke out in that island, having for its object the expul- sion of the Spaniards and the establish- ment of the independence of Cuba. The patriot army was able to win numerous successes over the Spanish troops, and for several years maintained its position against every effort to dislodge it. Very great sympathy was manifested for the Cuban patriots by the people of the United States, and repeated efforts were made to induce the government of this country to recognize the independ- ence of Cuba and assist the patriots, or at least to acknowledge their rights as belligerents. The government, how- ever, faithfully observed its obligations as a neutral power, and forbade the or- ganization or departure of all expedi- tions from this country for theassistance of the Cubans. The Cuban agents were prevented from shipping arms or mili- tary supplies to their forces, and several vessels intended to serve as cruisers against the Spanish commerce were seized and detained by the Federal au- thorities. In spite of the precautions of the government, however, several expedi- tions aid succeed in getting to sea and reaching Cuba. One of these embarked on the steamer Virginius, in the fall of 1873. When off the coast of Jamaica the Spanish war steamer Tornado was sighted. She at once gave chase, and though the Virginius was on the high seas and was flying the American flag, overhauled her and took possession of her on the chirty-first of October. The Tornado then carried her prize into the port of Santiago de Cuba, which was reached the next day. Captain Fry, the commander of the Virginius, and the crew and passengers of the vessel were thrown into prison. Wholesale Murder. After a mock trial, in which the simplest forms of decency were disre- garded, Captain Fry and a number of the crew and passengers of the Vir- ginius, about thirty-five or forty in all, were shot by order of the military au- thorities. The other prisoners were held in a most cruel captivity to await the pleasure of the Spanish officials at Havana. The consul of the United States at Santiago de Cuba made great exertions to save Fry and those con- demned to die with him. He was treated with great indignity by the Spanish officials, and was not allowed to com- municate with Havana, from which point he could consult his government by telegraph. When the news of the seizure of the Virginius at sea under the Ameiican 104 FROM THE CIVIL WAR TO OUR WAR WITH SPAIN. flag reached the United States it aroused a storm of indignation. Meetings were held in all the principal cities, and the press unanimously sustained the popu- lar demand that the government should require satisfaction for the outrage upon its flag. The general sentiment o( the people was in favor o( instant war, and it was openly declared that a better op- portunity would never arise to drive the Spaniards out of Cuba and obtain pos- session of the island. The government acted with firmness and prudence. Several vessels of war were sent to Santiago de Cuba to pre- vent the execution oi~ the surviving prisoners taken with the Virginius; the licet in the West Indies was reinforced as rapidly as possible, and the navy was at once put on a war footing in order to be ready for any emergency. The Pres- ident was urged to convene Congress in extra session, but he declined to do so, knowing that that body would be most likely to yield to the popular demand for war, and he was anxious to settle the difficulty by peaceful means if possible. Demands upon Spain. General Sickels, the American min- ister at Madrid, was ordered to demand of the Spanish government the arrest and punishment ol the officials impli- cated in the massacre of Captain Pry and his associates, a suitable indemnity in money for the families of the mur- dered men, an apology to the United States for the outrage upon their flag, and the surrender of the Virginius to the naval authorities of the United States. These demands were at once submit- ted to Senor Castellar, the President o\ the Spanish republic. In the critical sit- uation in which Spain was then placed by her internal dissensions, Castellar hae no choice but to submit to the Ameri- can demands. Orders were at once trans- mitted to Cuba to surrender the Virgin- ius and all the prisoners to the American naval forces. The orders of the Spanish govern- ment were at first disregarded by the of- ficials at Havana, who blustered a great ileal, ami declared their willingness to go to war with the United States. They were brought to their senses, however, by the warning of Captain General Jo- vellar, who told them that their refusal to obey the orders of the Madrid gov- ernment would certainly involve them in a war with the United States, in which Spain would leave them to fight that power without aid from her. The Havana officials, therefore, yielded an ungracious obedience to the orders ot the home government. Fate of the Virginius. The survivors of the Virginius expe- dition, who were in a most pitiable con- dition, in consequence of the cruelty with which they had been treated dur- ing their imprisonment, were released, and delivered on board o( an American man of-war in the harbor o( Havana. (hi the twelfth o( December the Yir- ginius which had been taken to Havana by her captors some time before, was towed from that harbor and delivered to an American vessel sent to receive her. She was carried to Key West, from which port she w r as ordered to New York. On the voyage she foundered at sea in a gale off Cape Fear, on the twenty-sixth of December. At a later period the Spanish government paid the indemnity demanded by the United States. FROM THE CIVIL WAR TO OUR WAR WITH SPAIN. 105 Early in 1873, a troublesome war be- ^an with the Modoc Indian tribe on the Pacific coast. These Indians had been removed by the government from their old homes in California to reservation: in the northern part of Oregon. They at length became dissatisfied with their new location, which they declared was nnable to afford them a support, and Federal government. Troops were sent against them, but they retreated to their fastnesses in the lava beds, where oegan a series of depredations upon the settlements of the whites, which soon drew upon them the vengeance of the ATTACK BY MODOCS ON THE PEACE COMMISSIONERS. they maintained a successful resistance for several months. The government at length reinforced the troops operating against then, and General Canby, com- manding the department of the Pacific, assumed the immediate command of the troops in the field. lot; FROM THE ClYll. WAR TO OUR WAR WITH STAIN. At the same time, .1 commission was appointed by the government to en deavor to settle the quarrel with the Indians peaceably. This commission held several conferences with Captain Jack, the head chief of the Modocs, and the other Indian leaders, but accom plished nothing. At length the com- missioners and General Canby agreed to meet the Indians in the lava beds, a short distance in advance oi the lines ol the troops. They went unarmed and without an escort While the confer- ence was in progress, the Indians sud- denly rose upon the commissioners and killed all but one, who managed to escape with severe wounds. General Canby was shot down at the same time, and died instantly. Hanged Till They Were Dead. The Indians at once fled to theii strong- holds amid the rocks. The troops, in- furiated by the murder of their com- mander, closed in upon them from all sides, and shut them in the lava beds. Then position was one which a handful oi men might defend against an army, and they held it with a desperate deter- mination. They were dislodged finally by the shells oi the American guns, and such as were not killed were cap tared. Captain Jack and his associates in the murder oi General Canby and the commissioners were tried by a court martial and sentenced to death. They were hanged in the presence oi their countrymen and oi the troops on the third of October, [873. The Near 1 S - 3 completed the period oi one hundred years horn the opening of the Revolution, and the events of 1 were celebrated with appropriate com- mcin native ceremonies in the places where they occurred. The centennial anniversary of the battles at Lexington and Concord was celebrated at those places on the nineteenth of April with great rejoicings. On the seventeenth oi June the centennial of Bunker Hill was celebrated at Charlestown. Vast crowds' were present from all parts i>i the country. One oi the most gratifying features oi the celebration was the presence and hearty participation in the ceremonies oi a large number oi troops from the Southern States. Nearly all oi these had served in the Confederate army, and their presence in the metropolis of New England was an emphatic proof that the Union had indeed been restored. Th memory oi the common glory won by the fathers of the republic did much to heal the wounds and obliterate the scars oi the Civil War. Centennial Exhibition. As early as [872 measures were set on foot for the proper observance of the one hundredth anniversary oi the independ- ence oi the United States. It was re- solved to commemorate the close of the first century oi the republic by an Inter- national Exhibition, to be held at Phil- adelphia in 1876, in which all the na- tions oi the world were invited to par- ticipate. Preparations were at once set on foot for the great celebration. The European governments with meat cordiality responded to the invi- tations extended to them by the gov- ernment oi the United States, and on the lOthoiMay, [876, the International Centennial Exhibition was opened with the most imposing ceremonies, in the presence oi an immense concourse of citizens from all parts oi the Union, and 1-ko.M THE CIVIL WAR TO OUR WAR Willi SPAIN. 107 of the President of the United States .Hid the Einperorof Brazil. The exhi- bition remained open frcm Ma) loth to November loth, 1S76, and was visited by more than ten million people from the v.n iou • State of the Union, from Can- ada, South America and Europe. It one of the grandest and most nota- ble events of the century, and illustra- ted oiii country's progress. The year [876 was not destined to he entirely a period of peace. The Sioux [ndiaus ha 1 ceded to the United States with about 250 soldiers, was surprised by an overwhelming force of Indians and he and his entire command were massacred. Custer's men fought with wonderful bravery and exacted a fear- ful price for their lives at the hands of the savages. The war lasted into the winter of ^77, when the Sioux with their chiefs, Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, went across the border into British territory. Hon. James' A. Garfield was inau- gurated President March 4, 1881. He CEREMONIES AT THE OPENING OF THE CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION. a large tract of country in what was then Dakota Territory, reserving to themselves the district known as the Black Hills. When it was rumored that gold had been found on their reser- vation, the whites began to rush into this region, regardless of the rights of the Indians. The Sioux were a warlike tribe, and they retaliates by attacking the frontier settlements in Montana and W'. oming. United States troopswere sent against them, but met at first with a terrible- disaster. In June, [ 876, General Custer, had made plans for making a visit to New England, to be present at the com- mencement exercises of his Alma Mater, Williams College, in Massachusetts, and was to be accompanied by a distin- guished party, including several mem- bers of the Cabinet. On the morning of the 2d of July the party proceeded to the Baltimore and Potomac depot, where they were to take the cars, in advance of the President, who arrive 1 soon after in company with Secretan Blaine, who came simply to see him off and say good-bye. They left the 108 FROM THE CIVIL WAR TO OUR WAR WITH SPAIN. President's carriage together, and saun- tered arm-in-arm through the depot towards the cars. In passing through the ladies' waiting- room, the President was fired at twice by a man named Charles J. Guiteau. The first shot inflicted a slight wound in the President's right arm, and the second a terrible wound in the right side of his back, between the hip and hope and despair, and was kept all the while in a most painful suspense. He was then removed to Long Branch, New Jersey, in the hope that sea- air would benefit him, and for a time there were renewed hopes of his recovery, but on September 19th a change for the worst appeared, and the brave struggle was brought to an end. The funeral took place amidst universal demonstra- ASSASSINATION OF PRESIDENT GARFIELD. the kidney. The President fell heavily to the floor, and the assassin was secured as he was seeking to make his escape from the building, and was conveyed to a police-station, from which he was sub- sequently taken to prison. The two months following the wound- ing of President Garfield dragged wea- rily away, the patient at times showing symptoms of marked improvement, and at others experiencing dangerous re- lapses. The nation alternated between tions of sorrow throughout the country. On the 30th of June, 1882, the assassin was executed at Washington. Early in 1 891 active preparations were commenced for the appropriate celebra- tion of the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America by Colum- bus. As the centennial anniversary of American independence in 1876 had been commemorated by an international exposition at Philadelphia, in which nearly all the civilized nations of the ioy 110 FROM THE CIVIl, WAR TO OPR WAR WITH STAIN. earth participated, it was resolved to celebrate the discovery oi the New World !>\ .in exhibition of grauder pro- portions, as tin- Only suitable method of giving dignity to the great occasion. The whole country became interested in tin- project, and it was advocated with unanimity 1>\ the newspapei press. Theact of Congress, which definitely selected Chicago as the city in which tin- Exposition should be held, and which fixed the dates of the celebration to he 1 u-ltl in [892, and the formal opeil- ing and closing of the Exposition in iSo>, was approved by the President >»i" the United States, April 25, [89O. The Exposition buildings were located in facksou Park. Dedication Ceremonies. The grounds and buildings were so nearly ready that the dedication cere- monies were held in October, 1892. The celebration in New York extended over several days, ending on the [2th of Oc- tober, and consisted oi' a magnificeni military and naval parade. Vast num- bers of people flocked to the metropolis from surrounding towns, and even dis- tant localities, and participated in the festivities. The greatest celebration, however, was in Chicago, occupying several days, and attended In- multitudes oi' people. Vice-President Morton was present, also the governors oi a number oi States, together with distinguished persons from all parts oi the country, including President Harrison's Cabinet, army ami navy officers, and members of Congress. On Monday, the 1st day of May, [893, in the presence oi 300,000 people, Gro- vei Cleveland, President of the United States, surrounded by the members oi his Cabinet, hv a distinguished repre-> sentation from lands across the seas, and a mighty throng oi' American citi- zens, pressed the electric button which sit in motion the miles of shafting, the innumerable engines and machines, and the labyrinth of belting and gearing which made up the machinery oi the World's Columbian Exposition. At the same moment a National salute pealed forth from the gUtl, the " Andrew Johnson," lying oil' the Expo sition grounds, in Lake Michigan; 700 flags released from their "tops" at a concerted signal swung loose, and streamed out under the sky in scarlet, yellow and blue. In Machinery Hall a great roar arose, and the turrets of the building shook as the wheels began to mm, and a greater volume of sound arose from the throats oi a eoneonrse iA' people who thus acclaimed the opening of the grand- est achievement oi' American pluck, enterprise and generosity. President Starts Machinery. From the centre oi' the platform pro per there radiated a special stand, and upon this wen- chairs for President Cleveland, Vice President Stevenson, the Duke of Veragua and his party, and the higher national and local officers oi the Fair. Immediately in the rear were the sections assigned to the mem- bers oi' the Diplomatic Corps, while to their right and left the guests oi' the occasion were arranged ; behind these were placed the orchestra. Prayer was offered In- Rev. \Y. II. Milburn, D.D., Chaplain oi' the United States Senate, after which a poem, writ- ten by Mr. \Y. A. CrofFutt, was read. Then followed addresses by the Hon. PROM THE CIVIL WAR TO OUR war WITH Sl'MN. 1 11 George I\. Davis, Director-General of the Exposition, and President Cleve- land. A s the President was concluding the final sentence of his address his eyes wandered to the table that was close at his left hand. Upon this was the button, the pressure upon which was to start the machinery and make the opening of the Exposition an accomplished fact. It rested upon a pedestal upholstered in navy blue and golden yellow plush, and on the sides of the lower tier, in silver letters, were the significant dates, 1492 and [893. As the last words fell from the President's lips he pressed his finger upon the button. Hallelujah Chorus. This was the signal for a demonstra- tion difficult of imagination, and in- finitely more so of description. At one and the same instant the audience burst into a thundering shout, the orchestra pealeth forth the strains of the Hallelu- jah Chorus, the wheels of the great Ellis engine in Machinery Mall commenced to revolve, the electric fountains in the la- goon threw their torrents towards the skv, a flood of water gushed from the McMonnies Fountain and rolled back again into the basin, the thunder of artillery came from the vessels in the lake, the chimes in Manufacturers' Hall and on the German Building rang out a merry peal, and overhead the flags at the tops of the poles in front of the platform fell apart and revealed two gilded models of the ships in which Columbus first sailed to American shores. A I the same moment also hundreds of fla;^> of all nations and all colors were unfurled within sight of the plat- form. The largest was a great "Old Glory," which fell into graceful folds from the top of the centre staff in front of the stand. The roof of the Manu- facturers' Building was gorgeous in red gonfalons, while the Agricultural Build- ing was dressed in ensigns of orange and white. It was a wonderful scene of transfor- mation, and amid it all cannon con- tinued to thunder and the crowd to cheer. It was full)- ten minutes before the demonstration subsided. Then the band played " America" and the exer- cises were at an end. The Columbian Exposition was open to the nations of the world. It was precisely the hour of noon when President Cleveland touched the button and thus declared the opening an accomplished fact. Statistics of the Fair. The official time for closing the Fair was October 30th. The following' are the official figures for the paid admis- sions to the Fair: May, 1,050,037; June 2,675,113; July, 2,760,263; August, 3,5 '5,493; September, 4,659,871; Oc- tober, 6,,Si6,435 ; making 21,477,212. The total admissions on passes were 2,052, 1. SS, making a grand total of 23,529,400. After every debt of the World's Fair was paid there remained $1,000,000 to be distributed among the stockholders. The treasurer made- this pleasant an- nouncement on the closing day. The Exposition Company paid out $30,558,- 849.01, or three times the amount the managers expected to spend when they commenced building the Fair. The gate receipts during the Exposition period proper were a little over #10,- 000,000. 112 FROM THE CIVIL WAR TO OUR WAR WITH SPAIN. Up to the last day $3,300,000 had been collected from concessionaries. The returns from those who held con- ion privileges was one of the big surprises of the Fair. Nobody was reckless enough to predict that that sum would be realized. The Paris Ex- position received but #80,000 from that source, while in 1876 the Centennial Exposition managers received $1,200,- 000. Gold in Alaska. Much excitement was caused in 1897 by the discovery of gold in Alaska. It was found in large quantities in the Yukon district. On the Klondike it was found in August of the year pre- ceding. The Canadian Government is sued new mining regulations, as it was anticipated that many persons in pur- suit of the yellow metal would rush to this region. Both from the United States and Canada thousands of men started for the Klondike. Many of them were ignorant of the country they were seeking, its severe climate in winter, the absence of the necessaries of life, and the consequence was that a vast amount of suffering re- sulted at Dawson City and other places. In December, 1897, a steamer left the gold region and arrived at Victoria, B. C, August 29th, 1898, with thirty-five miners and two hundred thousand dol- lars in gold. Nearly one million dol- lars in value arrived there on the 15th of July, 1899. General Prosperity. The extreme business depressio. . that had lasted for several years gave way in 1898 and 1899 to great activity in all kinds of trade. Manufacturing interests revived, and some of the industries, especially iron ami steel, received or- ders larger than ever before, and had great difficulty in meeting the demands made upon them. At the same time our exports were largely increased and the balance of trade with other coun- tries was in our favor. The Spanish-American War did not seriously affect the prosperity of the country, which was greater than that of any previous period of our history. This had a quieting effect upon the laboring classes, and there were few sharp conflicts between capital and labor, as in nearly all the industries wages were advanced. CHAPTER VIII The Spanish-American War. NDER the lead- ership of a band of brave pa- triots an insur- rection broke out in Cuba early in 1895. It was simply a continuation of the struggle for independence which had been going on at intervals for many years. Cuban revolutionists were bat- tling to throw off the yoke of Spain. When our Congress was in session in the winter of 1897-9S Cuba's struggle for freedom occupied its attention more than any other topic. The Spanish General Weyler ordered all the inhabi- tants of Cuba who were suspected of sympathizing with the insurgents into the towns, where they were left to ob- tain the necessaries of life as best they could. This act, which was pronounced inhuman by the American people, re- sulted in the death of tens of thousands of men, women and children by starva- tion. Meanwhile, accurate reports of the appalling situation in Cuba were brought by several members of Con- gress who visited the island with a view to ascertaining the exact facts. Th^se reports so inflamed the Sen- ate and House of Representatives that a number of resolutions were intro- duced demanding that belligerent rights should be granted to the Cubans, and further, that the United States should intervene with force of arms to end the war in Cuba, and secure the indepen- dence of the island. These resolutions, 8 which were referred to the committee on foreign relations, were indicative of the temper of Congress. A profound sensation was creaced by the destruction of the United States battleship Maine in the harbor of Ha- vana. The Maine was lying in harbor, having been sent to Cuba on a friendly visit. On the evening of February 15, 1898, a terrific explosion took place on board the ship, by which 266 sailors and officers lost their lives and the ves- sel was wrecked. The cause of the ex- plosion was not apparent. Destruction of the Maine. The Government at Washington and the whole country were horrified at the destruction of one of our largest cruisers and the loss of so many of our brare sailors. The excitement throughout the country was intense. The chief interest in the Maine disaster now cen- tered upon the cause of the explosion that so quickly sent her to the bottom of Havana harbor. A Naval Board of Inquiry went to Havana, and proceeded promptly to in- vestigate the cause of the explosion that destroyed the battleship. The finding of the Court of Inquiry was reached after twenty-three days of con- tinuous labor, and was submitted to Congress by President McKinley with a message in which he said : "The conclusions of the Court are: That the loss of the Maine was not in any respect due to fault or negligence on the part of any of the officers or inemb Ar s of her crew. 113 Ill THE Spanish AMERICAN \\ \u. " That the ship was destroyed by the explosion of a submarine mine, which caused the partial explosion of two or moreofhei forward magazines ; and "That no evidence has been obtain- able fixing the responsibility for the de- struction oi the Maine upon any person or persons. " 1 have directed that the finding oi the Court oi [nquiry and the views of this Government thereon be communi- cated to the Government of her Majesty, the Queen Regent, and 1 do not permit myself to doubt that the sense of jus- tice of the Spanish nation will dictate a course oi action suggested by honor and the friendly relations oi the two governments. " It will be the duty oi' the Executive to advise the Congress oi the result, and in the meantime deliberate considera- t on is invoked." Message from the President. Following the destruction oi the bat tleship Maine, which profoundly stirred the whole country with indignation, President McKinley sent a message to Congress containing the following re- quest : " 1 ask the Congress to author i/.e and empower the President to take measures to secure a full and final ter- mination of hostilities between theGov- ernment oi Spain and the people of Cuba, and to secure in the island the establishment o\' a stable government capable o( maintaining order and ob serving its international obligations, ensuring peace and tranquillity and the security oi its citizens as well as our own, and to use the military and naval forces of the United States as may be necessary for these purposes.'" Congress debated a week over the recommendations contained in the Pre- sident's message, and on April [8th both Houses united in passing a series oi resolutions calling tor the interven- tion of the United States to compe 1 Spain to withdraw her forces from Cuba, anil thus permit the authorities at Wash- ington to provide the Island with a free and independent government. The de- mand contained in the resolutions was sent to the Spanish Minister at Wash- ington on April 20th, who at once called for his passports and left lor Canada. On the same date the ultimatum of our Government was sent to United States Minister Woodford, at Madrid, who was curtly handed his passports before he had an opportunity of formally presenting the document. These trans- actions involved a virtual declaration of war, although Congress did not for- mally declare that war actually existed until April 25th, dating the time back to the 2 1st. The War Begins. The North Atlantic Squadron was immediately ordered to blockade the Cuban ports, and on April 22d pro- ceeded to carry out the order. The next day President McKinley promul- gated a resolution calling for 1^5,000 volunteers. On the same date Morro Castle, commanding the harbor of Ha- vana, tiled on the United States flag- ship New York, but without doing damage. Subsequent events comprised the capture oi a number of Spanish vessels by Admiral Sampson's squadron. Stirring news from our Asiatic fleet was soon received. On May 1st Admiral Dewey destroyed the Spanish squadron in the haiboi oi Manila, Philippine Is- lands, capturing the vessels and inflict- Till-. SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR. 115 - MW lr% ^lyx^w^Qm^jf ! '^r ■<■'■ - ■:■■; 3 m ing a heavy loss on the enemy in killed fleet, steaming slowly up from Cavite, anT< of people, and had been won and was maintained by a mere handful o{' British tioops. The great mass of the troops employed by the English were natives, and were known as Sepovs. They were generally contented, and obeyed their English officers with readiness and con- fidence. In 1856 a supply oi' Enfield rifles was ■1.111 nv Till': ENGLISH, spected In- the government, which sup- pressed the cartridges. The discontent did not subside, however, but continued to spread, and early in 1857 a formida- ble mutiny broke out among the native troops in Bengal, Oude and the prov- ince o( Delhi. Wherever they had the power, the insurgents massacred all the English — 1 — , *^B*?r- m 1 viv "" Jk ■ B "• ' T SISSsSiiraraft *. . < _ Q Z uj a o . O a ^ O £E z § UJ ui P ?5 CO UJ 2 O (0 • -I 2 u. O z < o Z z — < X u < - — UJ r- a CO x cr m 1 <3 O I 05 a. < _ O - < "> z 2: CO UJ c O o u. Z a: * h cc ^ GREAT EVENTS IN ENGIJSH HISTORY. 141 they could lay hands on, sparing neither a^e nor sex. The middle and lower ( lasses of the population joined the in- surgents, but the chiefs and large land- holders as a rule remained faithful to the government. The insurgents estab- lished theii capital at Delhi, and pro- claimed its nominal king Emperor of Hindustan. Cawnpore was besieged by the Sepoys, and surrendered after a siege of two hundred days. The promise of ty made to the garrison was violated and they were treacherously massacred. Traitors Punished. Delhi was taken by the English in September, 1857, and the insurgents severely punished. Its emperor was transported to Burmah, and his two sons were put to death. The English made heroic efforts to re-establish theirauthor- ity, and defeated the greatly superior forces of the Sepoys over and over again. Cawnpore was taken by General Have- lock, who then united his small army with that of Sir James Outram, and to- gether they succeeded in relieving the besieged garrison of Lucknow, the capi- tal of Oude, which had held out hero- ically against an overwhelming force of Sepoys. In this siege v Sir Henry Law- rence was killed. The insurgents did not abandon their attempt upon Lucknow after the arrival of Havelock and Outram, but held on until March, 1858, nearly five months after the first investment, when the arri- val of an English army under Sir Colin Campbell forced them to retreat after a severe defeat. The relief of Lucknow virtually ended the war. The fighting continued through the summer of 1858, but the insurrection was crushed, and its leaders were put to death, or pun- ished with great severity. The British power was firmly re-established through- out India, and no further outbreak has occurred since this triumph. in addition to her possessions in India, Great Britain during the nineteenth century has built up a flourishing empire in the southern Pacific. It is larger in extent, and may yet be of greater im- portance than India. The vast island of Australia, which really merits the title of a continent, is only a part of these vast possessions. In 1873 a quarrel broke out between the English and the King of Ashantee, in western Africa, with respect to a sti- pend formerly allowed by the Dutch to the king. England had been formally in possession of the Gold Coast and the old Dutch colonies since 1872, when she acquired them by treaty with the Dutch. The colonial authorities now demanded that the King of Ashantee should with- draw his warriors from their territory, but so far from complying with this demand, the sable potentate proceeded to levy war upon the English posses- sions. The Ashantee Expedition. Late in 1873 the British government despatched a force under Sir Garnett Wolseley to the Gold Coast. He arrived on the coast about the close of the year, and at once advanced into the Ashantee territory. He met with considerable resistance, and lost many of his men in consequence of the unhealthiness of the country, but steadily drove the natives before him. About the first of Febru- ary he defeated the Ashantee forces in a pitched battle in the neighborhood of Coomassie, their capital, and on the fifth entered Coomassie and received the sub- 142 GREAT EVENTS IN ENGLISH HISTORY. mission of the king, who agreed to outer into a treaty binding himself to respect the English possessions. This success broke the Ashantee power foi the time, and gave peace and protection to the English settlements in western Africa, and prepared the way for civilization! On the 2d o( I\lav, 1876, Queen Vic- toria was formally proclaimed, in addi- tion to her other titles, "Empress oi' India." The struggle oi the Irish people tor " Home Rule" enters largely in the later history of (heat Britain. Measures en- forced in the interest oi the landlords have been bravely resisted by the Irish peasantry. Organized effort was adopted and a land league was formed, which became dominant in 1880, In 1881 Gladstone's Land Act was passed, yet legislation was powerless to appease the [rish sense oi injustice and allay the excitement. Foul Murders. In [882 Lord Cavendish and Mr. Burke were appointed secretary and under-secretary respectively for Ireland. Upon their arrival in Dublin they were murdered under circumstances of pecu- liar atrocity. The act created a pro- found sensation and served to render the strife more bitter. Disraeli (I»ord Beaconsfield) having become prime minister, war broke out in Egypt and the Soudan. Dissatisfac- tion at home occasioned the downfall oi' Beaconsfield' S ministry, and he was succeeded by Gladstone, who, not being able to carry his "Home Rule" meas- ure, in turn yielded the government to Lord Salisbury. During 1887, aiu ^ at the beginning oi [888, England, al- though at peace abroad, was agitated with domestic strife. On the 21st of June, 1 s s 7 , the queen attended the jubilee services at West* minster Abbey in honor oi the fiftieth anniversary oi her accession to the throne. The agitation by the Home Rllle party of Ireland continued through- out [890 and [891, Mr. Gladstone advo- cating eloquently the cause oi the op- pressed Irish people, Mr. Parnell, who by his conspicuous services hail greatly aided the Irish cause, died at Brighton Octobei 6, 1S01. The Queen's Jubilee. In June, 1S07. Queen Victoria com- pleted the sixtieth year oi her reign, the longest reign of any English sover- eign. This event was celebrated by a jubilee in which not only the people oi England participated, but other nations through their representatives. The oc- casion was one oi universal rejoicing. In October, 1800, war broke out be- tween the English and the Boers, a name given to the Dutch settlers in South Africa, since the sixteenth century, who still retain their national character. Dis- contented with the British rule in the Cape since 1S1.J, large bands oi them in 1835—37 emigrated northward, and founded the Orange Free State, [836, and the Transvaal Republic, 1848, after much fighting with the natives. In 1 Soothe English, being greatly dissatis- fied with the Boers for denying to the Outlanders, or foreigners, rights that belonged to them, interfered in behalf oi the EtTglish-speaking part oi the pop- ulation, ami the result was a sharp con- test. The spirit oi the Boers was shown by resisting so formidable a power. CHAPTER A. France in the Nineteenth Century. RMIES in grand array, victories jA hut just won and destined ever- -J (., V more to he famous, a brilliant conqueror whose word was magic and whose tread jarred nations, empires ol the old world startled from the sleep of ages, mighty forces in con- flict and new ideas and principles seeth- ing and mystifying all political phil- osophers as to what the future would bring forth — this was the condition of France when the bell tolled for the de- parture of the old century and the new one was ushered in. The triumphs of Napoleon had already astonished the world, and tremendous combinations were forming for his over- throw. The unsettled state of affairs in France gave him an opportunity that he eagerly grasped. His ambition was boundless and for a time his power seemed to be. The French Revolution was just \>i> ;t, and out of the chaos and confusiotj a new national life was to come. A Directory was formed to adminis- ter the government, which was now conducted in a spirit of order and con- ciliation. In 1797 Bonaparte and his brother-commanders were omnipotent in Italy ; Austria was compelled to give ii]) Belgium and recognize the Cisalpine Republic. The glory of the French arms was re-established abroad, but at home the nation was still suffer- ing from the shock of the Revolution. The Directory repudiated two-thirds of tin- national debt, and thus almost ruined the commerce and credit of Prance. Under the pretext of attacking Eng- land, a fleet of 400 ships and an army of 36,000 picked men were equipped ; their destination proved, however, to be Egypt, whither the Directory sent Bonaparte; but the young general, re- signing the command to Kleber, landed in France in 1799. The Directory fell on the famous "iHth Bruinaire" (9th of November, 1799); under the constitu- tion of Sieves the vState was put under three consuls who, unlike those of Rome, weie three in number, with dif- ferent degrees of authority. Bonaparte's Supreme Power. Napoleon secured supreme power as First Consul. In 1800 a new constitu- tion was promulgated, vesting the sole executive power in Bonaparte, who showed consummate skill in reorgani- zing the government, to which he im- parted a systematic efficiency and a spirit of centralization that secured a thoroughly practical administration. Having resumed his command, he inarched an army over the Alps, at- tacked the Austrians unawares, and decided the fate of Italy by his victory at Marengo. In 1801 the peace of Lune- ville was concluded, and the boundaries of France were once more extended to the Rhine. England was the only country whicn refused to recognize the various Italian and German conquests of France ; and, with the exception of a brief period of peace, England remained the implaca- ble foe of Bonaparte from the days of the consulate to his defeat at Waterloo. 143 144 FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. Every period of respite from war was employed by the First Consul in foster- ing trade and industry, and in oblitera- ting both in private and public life the stains left by the Reign of Terror. In 1804, on an appeal by universal suffrage to the nation, Bonaparte was proclaimed Emperor. The Pope came hands. For a time Napoleon's influ- ence with the weakened powers of the Continent succeeded in maintaining an injurious system of blockade against England; and, except in the Peninsula, his arms were everywhere victorious. His marriage, too, with the Archduchess Maria Louisa, a direct descendant of HONArARTE DISSOLVING THE to Paris to crown him and his wife Jo- sephine. Napoleon took the crown from the hands of the Pope, placed it on his own head, and then crowned the Empress Josephine, who knelt before him, A new nobility was rapidly created, and the relatives and favorites of the emperor received vanquished kingdoms and principalities at his COUNCIL OF FIVE HUNDRED. the ancient House of Hapsburg, 18 10, seemed to give to his throne the pres- tige of birth, which alone it had lacked. He kept up the Democratic impulse of the Revolution as much as was wanted to drive his engine of war. His tactics would have availed him little against the successive European coalitions had he not adopted the principle of national Copyright, 1900, by George W. Bertron. RENOWNED RULERS OF THE CENTURY 10 CORONATION OF NAPOLEON AND THE EMPRESS JOSEPHINE. 145 146 FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. armies, general conscription, and forced reqnision introduced by Carnot, the "organizer" of revolutionary France's victorious resistance against foreign ag- gression. This principle has since be- come the outstanding feature of conti- nental warfare. It gave Napoleon an empire including practically the whole of Europe, except Russia, Turkey and Great Britain ; when it was quietly introduced by Prussia, it assisted effectually in bringing to a close the emperor's career, but not until he had made himself king of Italy, 1805, made of Holland and Naples vassal kingdoms, 1806, set up in Germany the Confederation of the Rhine, conquered Prussia, 1806-7, occupied Portugal, de- posed the Bourbons in Spain, 1808, reduced the Hapsburgs after four cam- paigns from their medieval title of Ro- man emperors to the status of emperors of Austria, made of Rome a French town, and carried off Pope Pius VII. to Fontainebleau. The Emperor's Downfall. In the long run, the evils attending his high-handed policy both in France and out of it undermined his position. The French navy was destroyed by Nelson at Trafalgar, 1805, and the sea- trade of France much injured. His despotism, the unceasing strain of war, the burden of conscription, the estrange- ment between emperor and pope threw the seed of disaffection among the French people. From 181 1 to his final defeat in 181 5 the emperor rapidly lost ground. The disastrous Russian campaign, in which his enormous army of 400,000 men was lost amid the rigors of a northern winter, was soon followed by the fallow away of his allies and feudatories. Napoleon himself was still victorious wherever he appeared in person, but his generals were beaten in numerous engagements; and the great defeat of Leipzig, 181 3. compelled the French to retreat beyond the Rhine. The Swedes brought rein- forcements to swell the ranks of his enemies on the east frontier, while the English pressed on from the south ; the senate and his ministry betrayed his cause, and the allies inarched on Paris, which, in the absence of the emperor, capitulated after a short resistance, March 30, 18 14. Begins a New Struggle. Napoleon now abdicated in favor of his young son, and retired to the island of Elba, the sovereignty of which had been granted to him. His wife and sou removed to Vienna ; his family were declared to have forfeited the throne ; France was reduced to her former limits, and the provinces she had acquired were restored to their national rulers. On the 3d of May Louis XVIII. (the brother of Louis XVI.) made his entry into Paris. The conduct of the Bour- bons did not conciliate the nation; they returned loaded with debts, and sur- rounded by the old nobility and clergy, who had not renounced their former privileges, and who looked upon the generation of Frenchmen that had arisen since the Revolution as their natural enemies. A narrow spirit influenced the weak policy of the king, which led to the establishment of a strict censorship, the extension of the powers of the police, and the persecution of the adherents of the Empire ; while the lower classes and the army, wdio alike resented the FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 147 humiliating reaction that had followed the former excitement of war and con- qu< st, were treated with an indifference, and even contempt, by the returned officials, to which they were wholly un- accustomed. On the ist of March, 1815, Napoleon left Elba and landed in France. The soldiers flocked around his standard : the Bourbons fled, and he took posses- sion of their palaces. The news of his landing spread terror through Europe ; and on the 25th of March a treaty of alliance was signed at Vienna between Austria, Russia, Prussia and England, and preparations were at once made to put down the movement in his favor and restore the Bourbon dynasty. At first the old prestige of success seemed to attend Napoleon ; but on the 18th of June he was defeated at Waterloo ; and, having placed himself under the safe- guard of the English he was sent to the Island of St. Helena, in conformity with the generally acknowledged senti- ment that it was necessary to the peace of Europe to remove him finally and definitely from the scene of his former power. "A Martyr to France." On the 5th of May, 182 1, the de- throned Emperor died at St. Helena, after a captivity of nearly six years, in the fifty-second year of his age. His death was sincerely mourned by the mass of the French people, who re- garded him as a martyr to the cause of France. On the 1 6th of September, 1824, Louis XVIII. died. He was succeeded by his brother, the Count of Artois, who ascended the throne as Charles X. He was a true Bourbon ; ignorant, narrow- minded, a firm believer in absolute rule and thoroughly under the influence of the Jesuits. In his disposition he was frank and cordial, and his friends were warmly attached to him. He was crowned in the Cathedral of Rheims, on the 29th of May, 1825, and the ancient ceremonial of the Middle Ages was re- vived in all its details for this occasion. Charles had been the first to emigrate from France in 1790, at the outbreak of the Revolution. He returned to it in 1814 with the same ideas and prejudices he had taken away with him. The world had moved far beyond him in the thirty-five years which had rolled by since he fled from his country. The Nation Enraged. The reactionary tendencies of the new government alarmed and angered the nation. The first evidence of this feel- ing was given at a review of the national guard in the spring of 1827, when the troops, upon passing the king, shouted, " Down with the ministers! Down with the Jesuits ! " The king at once dis- banded the national guard of Paris, but unfortunately for himself left them in pessession of their arms. In the elec- tions of 1827 an overwhelming majority against the government was returned to the chamber. The king was obliged to dismiss his ministers and to summon a more liberal cabinet. One of the first acts of the new min- istry was to remove the system of pub- lic education from the control of the Jesuits. This was a very popular meas- ure with the nation, but it gave great offence to the king, who, on the 8th of August, 1829, dismissed the ministers and appointed a new cabinet, with Prince Polignac at its head. The appointment 148 FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. of this ministry — every member of which was noted for his devotion to absolutism — was regarded by the people as a declaration of war on the part of the king- against the charter and all the liberties of Frenchmen. The chamber of deputies plainly told the king that the new ministers did not enjoy the con- fidence of the country, and was dissolved by the angry sovereign. The deputies were re-elected by the people, and the new chamber was more than ever in the hands of the opposition. Trouble in Algiers. While this struggle had been going on in France, a foreign dispute had been engaging the attention of the govern- ment. The Dey of Algiers had robbed the French merchants residing in his dominions of large sums, and had in- sulted the French consul upon his de- manding redress. In the summer of 1829 an expedition under the command of General Bourmont, the minister of war, was despatched to Algiers to obtain redress by force of arms. It landed be- fore that city, carried its defences by assault and compelled the dey to sur- render. Algiers was at once occupied by the French troops, who were en- riched with the spoils of the city. As soon as he learned of the success of the liberals in the election of 1830, Charles X. determined to compel the triumph of his absolute power by em- ploying a strained interpretation of an article of the constitution which author- ized the sovereign ' ' to make regulations and decrees necessary for the execution of the laws and the safety of the state." By virtue of this clause he assumed the right to alter and abrogate some of the most essential provisions of the charter. On the 25th of July he issued five or- dinances, which appeared in the " Moni- teur " of the 26th. The first of these suspended the liberty of the press ; the second dissolved the newly elected cham- ber of deputies ; the third radically^ changed the system of election ; the fourth convoked the chambers for the 28th of September following, and the fifth appointed some ultra royalists to the council of state. The appearance of these ordinances threw Paris into a tumult. The national guard took up arms, with the veteran Lafayette at their head ; the streets were barricaded ; the tricolor was displayed in the place of the flag of the Bourbons, and the royal troops were attacked by the citizens. The garrison of Paris was commanded by Marshal Marmont, but was insufficient to put down the popu- lace, though it obtained some import- ant successes. Troops Driven from Paris. At length the troops began to frater- nize with the people. The Louvre and Tuileries were carried by the populace and the troops were compelled to retreat from Paris. Charles X. fled from St. Cloud to Rambouillet, where, hopeless of regaining his throne, he abdicated it in favor of his grandson, the Duke of Bordeaux. He then quitted the king- dom and took refuge in England. In the meantime a number of leading citizens of Paris, anxious to keep the revolution within bounds, had prevailed on the Duke of Orleans, the cousin of Charles X., who was known to possess liberal opinions, to assume the control of the government as lieutenant general of the kingdom. He convoked the two chambers for the 3d of August, and FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 149 those bodies upon assembling declared the throne vacant by the abdication of the elder branch of the house of Bour- bon, and elected Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, " King of the French." Louis Philippe accepted the crown, and declared his intention to reign as a constitutional sovereign. On the 9th of Augnst he took an oath to maintain the charter as amended by the cham- bers in the interests of popular liberty, and ascended the throne in the presence of the great officers of the state. Ab- solutism was dead in France ; the will of the people was supreme. An Eye to the Main Chance. The new king was the son of the notorious " Philippe EgaliteV' Duke of Orleans, who was beheaded during the French Revolution, and was in his for- ty-seventh year. He was sincere in his professions of liberality so long as his principles did not conflict with his in- terests ; but he thoroughly understood the art of accommodating himself to circumstances. He did not find his new position a pleasant one, for the legitim- ists, as the partisans of the elder branch of the Bourbon family, who supported the Duke of Bordeaux, were called, de- nounced him as a usurper and a traitor to his race ; while the Bonapartists de- clared that he had been made king by a clique in opposition to the will of the people. The leading principles of Louis Phil- ippe's reign were constitutional govern- ment at home and peace with foreign powers. In the internal administration of the kingdom the king sought hon- estly to adhere to the charter. Two legislative chambers secured the rights of the people, and the elections were comparatively free. The press was nominally unshackled, but the govern- ment continued to exercise a mild cen- sorship over it. The friendship of foreign powers, especially of England, was cultivated, and France scrupulously refrained from engaging in the affairs of any European country, except where her own interests were directly con- cerned. The internal order of the king- dom was seriously disturbed by several popular outbreaks during the first years of the new reign. Popular Discontent. The revolution of 1830 affected the rest of Europe profoundly. In Italy, Germany, and Poland, there were out- breaks of greater or less magnitude. Belgium had never been satisfied with its compulsory union with Holland in 18 1 5, and now rose in general insurrec- tion against the Dutch government. The Dutch troops were driven out of Brussels on the 23d of September, after a stubborn fight, and took refuge in the fortress of Antwerp. The Belgian prov inces organized a revolutionary con- gress, which now appealed to the five great powers of Europe to protect Bel- gium against Holland, and King Wil- liam at the same time made an appeal to the same powers to compel the Bel- gians to submit to his authority. On the 20th of September, 1830, the five powers signed a protocol recogniz- ing and guaranteeing the independence of Belgium as a separate kingdom, the crown of which was bestowed upon Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, the widowed husband of the Princess Char- lotte, of England. In June, 1831, Leo- pold was proclaimed king by the Bel- gian government, and in the course of 150 FRANCE IN TIIK NINETEENTH CENTURY. the following- year married the Princess Louisa, the eldest daughter o( King Louis Philippe. The King oi' Holland refused to sub- mit to the decision of the groat powers, and declined to evacuate Antwerp, which was held by a garison of 4,000 Dutch troops, under General Chassc. He also retained the forts on the Scheldt. A treaty was signed between France and England for the assistance of the Belgians. A French army of 50,000 men entered Belgium in November and laid siege to Antwerp, which, after a memorable defence, was forced to sur- render on the 23d of December. The Dutch king- now withdrew his troops from Belgium, and the French army at once returned to its own country. Prominent Statesmen. The ministers of Louis Philippe were naturally chosen from the Orleanist party, which had made him king. Pro- minent among these were M. Thiers and M. Guizot, men of great abilities ami widelv different opinions. The former was regarded as the leader of the more liberal wing of the Orleans party ; the latter was the avowed cham- pion o( the extreme monarchical wing. M. Thiers came into office in the min- istry o( Marshal Soult in the spring of 1832, as minister of the interior. He betrayed a singular inconsistency throughout his whole political career. When out of office he was the cham- pion of the most liberal opinions ; when in office he was as conservative as his great rival, M. Guizot, himself. On the 22d of February, 1836, he became prime minister. Spain was at this time torn by civil war, and M. Thiers was very anxious to intervene in her affairs. The king, however, refused to be guided by his advice, and the ministry resigned, after an existence of six months. On the 13th of November, [836, Prince Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, the son of Louis and Hortense, and tlit nephew of the Emperor Napoleon, made an attempt to excite a revolt of the gal rison of Strasburg, for the avowed pur- pose of overthrowing the Orleans mon- archy and re-establishing the empire. The troops refused to join him, and he was arrested and sent by way of South America to New York. England's Bold Move. In [839, Mehemet AH, the Viceroy of Egypt, threw off his allegiance to the sultan and conquered Syria. France, under the guidance of M. Thiers, who was once more prime minister, de- manded that Mehemet All should be allowed to retain Syria and Egypt. England, on the other hand, insisted on the unconditional surrender of Syria to the sultan, and induced the other powers to sustain her. The result was that the other four great powers, with- out communicating their intentions to France, signed a treaty with Turkey, in virtue o( which an English, Aus- trian and Turkish fleet reduced the Syrian ports and compelled Mehemet All to withdraw his forces from Syria into Egypt. The matter was settled by assigning Kgypt, in independent hered- itary possession, to Mehemet Ali, and restoring Syria to the porte. The "Quadruple Treaty" was re- garded by the French as an act of treachery on the part oi England, and a general desire was expressed for war with that country. The principal re- sults of the excitement were the fortifi- FRANCK IN TIIIC NINKTEHNTII CENTURY. 151 cation of Paris with an enciente and a Bystem of detached forts; and the fall of M. Thiers' ministry, which was re- garded as responsible for the advantage that had been gained by England. A new ministry, under Marshal Soult, was installed in October, [840. The guid ing spirit of this ministry was AT. Guizot. The quarrel with England was settled, and as a peace-offering (ire.it Britain agreed that the remains of the Emperor Napoleon should be removed from St. II- Una to France. They were disin- terred and conveyed to France by a French squadron, commanded by Prince dejoinville, the son of the king. The squadron reached Cherbourg on the 8th of December, 1840, and the remains were transferred to a smaller vessel and conveyed up the Seine to Paris, where they were interred in the chapel of the Hotel des Invalides with the most im- posing ceremonies. Death of the Heir Apparent. On the 13th of July, 1842, the Duke of Orleans, the eldest son of Louis Philippe and the heir to the throne, died from the effects of an accident. He left two sons — the Count de Paris and the Duke de Chartres. The former, who thus became the heir to the throne, was born in 1^38. The harvests of 1846 and 1847 were bad, and these failures were followed by an era of high prices and great dis- tress throughout the kingdom. Wages declined and work was scarce. The king had never been entirely popular with the people, who wished to be rid of the whole Bourbon family. The general discontent at home was in- creased by the frequent failures in the foreign policy of France. The Spanish marriages, the quadruple treaty, the loss of the English alliance, and other matters, greatly tended to increase the dislike which the masses felt for the ( Orleans monarchy. The republicans eagerly fomented this discontent, and the policy of the gov- ernment, which was growing more con- servative every year, greatly simplified their task. In the session of the cham- bers in 1847 the liberals demanded cer- tain reforms which would enforce more literally the terms of the charter, but the government, under the guidance of M. Guizot, firmly refused to grant their demands. Political Banquets. The liberal members of the chamber now proposed to give a series of " re- form banquets" in Paris and the pro- vinces as a means of manifesting the strength of their party. A banquet was arranged to be given in Paris, but was prohibited by the government, and it was determined that it should take place in spite of this prohibition. The government again forbade the banquet. The king and his ministers fancied themselves secure, when in reality the popular discontent had reached such a pitch that it was ready to break out in revolution at any moment. The banquet was abandoned by its projectors, who had accomplished their plan of placing the government in an attitude of hostility to the liberties of the people ; but on the 22d of February, 1848, dense ciowds filled the streets of Paris, shouting, " Vive la Reforme ! " An army of nearly 60,000 men had been collected by the government in the vicinity of Paris, under the vetern Mar- shal Bugeaud, but no troops were used that day. 152 FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. On the 23d the national guard was placed under arms, but showed unmis- takable sympathy with the people, and prevented the regular troops from dis- persing the crowds in the street. The events of this day opened the king's eyes to the true state of affairs. M. Guizot at once resigned his office, and was succeeded by Count Mole, who pro- ceeded to form a new ministry. It was too late, however, to put down the out- break by a change of ministry. That night a detachment of troops fired upon a body of rioters which had attacked them, killing a number of citizens. The bodies of the slain were paraded by torchlight through the streets of Paris, and the republicans and socialists at once rose in arms. The King Abdicates. Barricades were erected, and shouts of " Vive la Republique ! " rose from the throng — cries that had not been heard in France for forty years. Count Mole now declined the task of forming a new ministry, and M. Thiers was in- trusted with it. The first act of the new minister was to induce the king to order the troops to withdraw from Paris. Marshal Bugeaud, upon receiving this order, resigned his command in disgust. This was on the 24th of February. On the same day the troops of the line and the national guard joined the people and marched upon the Tuileries. Louis Philippe, feeling that all was lost, signed his abdication in favor of his grandson, the Count de Paris, and with- drew to St. Cloud. The insurgents, however, paid no at- tention to this abdication. The Duchess of Orleans, with her little son, appeared in the chamber of deputies and besought them to sustain the claim of her child to his grandfather's throne. The mob broke into the hall at this juncture, and she was compelled to seek safety in flight. The royal family fled to Eng- land, where they obtained an asylum. There Louis Philippe died on the 26th of August, 1850, at the age of seventy- seven years. France a Republic. On the 24th of February the republic was proclaimed, and a provisional gov- ernment, consisting of Lamartine, Du- pont de l'Eure, Arago, Ledru-Rollin, Marie, Garnier-Pages, and Cremieux, was installed. There was great danger that the revolution of 1848 would de- generate into a socialist insurrection, which would have plunged France into deeper misery and have drawn upon her the enmity of all Europe. The eloquence of Lamartine secured the adhesion of the populace to the re- public. The mob had already sacked the Tuileries, burned the throne, and raised the red flag. Moved by the ap- peals of Lamartine 100,000 national guards declared for the provisional gov- ernment. The socialists were com- pelled to submit, and the better class of citizens, who dreaded a triumph of that party, gave their hearty support to the republic. A new element now entered into the politics of the republic. Prince Louis Napoleon Bonaparte made a second at- tempt at revolution at Boulogne, in 1840. He was captured, and sentenced by the court of peers to imprisonment for life in the Castle of Ham. In May, 1846, he made his escape in the disguise of a workman, and sought refuge in Eng- land. He was now elected to the as- FRANCE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 153 sembly from the department of the Seine. The government declared its intention to prevent his return to France, ai*l he resigned his seat. A new election was ordered, and he tvas returned by five different depart- ments. This decided manifestation of /the popular will induced the govern- ment to withdraw its opposition. Louis Napoleon then crossed the channel, and on the 26th of September took his seat as a member for the department of the Seine. His name aroused the greatest enthusiasm among the French people, and without having done anything to deserve it, he found himself the most ^ popular man in France. The cause of his popularity lay in the fact that he Was the heir of the great emperor. President Napoleon m. Profiting by this popularity he an- nounced himself a candidate for the pre- sidency of the republic, and at the elec- tion on the 10th of December, 1848, was chosen president by a vote of 5,500,- 000 out of a total vote of 7,326,000, re- ceiving a large majority over General Cavaignac and all his other competitors combined. On the 20th of December he entered upon the duties of his office, and took up his official residence at the palace of the Elysee . The national assembly was divided into a number of parlies. One of these supported the president ; another was devoted to the interests of the legiti- mists ; a third to those of the Orleans family ; and a fourth consisted of the socialist deputies. With the exception of the first all of these were hostile to the president. The legitimist and Or- leanist parties were plotting for the overthrow of the republic and the res- toration of the monarchy ; the socialists were busy working for the downfall of the republic and the inauguration of the reign of communism. These parties hated each other in- tensely, and were united only in their enmity to the president. They wished to overthrow him first, and then settle their quarrels among themselves. In this unhappy state of affairs the hopes of the nation rested upon the president. Seeing that the fall of the republic was inevitable, and knowing that neither of the contending parties possessed the confidence or represented the wishes of the French people, Louis Napoleon re- solved to overthrow them all, seize the entire government, and appeal to the people to sustain him. His plans were laid with skill and carried out with boldness and decision. Assembly Dissolved. On the night of December 1, 1851, the leading members of the assembly were arrested, and the government printing-office was occupied by troops. Decrees and proclamations were struck off during the night for use on the morrow. The army was devoted to the president and readily aided him in carrying out this Coup their own efforts for the suppression o. every progressive movement. New Government Organized. The festival of the Wartburg, and the assassination of Kotzebue, were seized as additional excuses for reaction; and though the French Revolution of 1830 so influenced some few of the Ger- man States as to compel their rulers to grant written constitutions to their sub- jects, the effect was transient, and it was not till 1848 that the German nation gave expression, by open insurrectionary movements, to the discontent and the sense of oppression which had long pos- sessed the minds of the people. The princes endeavored by hasty concessions to arrest the progress of republican prin- ciples, and, fully recognizing the in- efficiency of the diet, they gave their sanction to the convocation, by a pro- visional self- constituted assembly, of a national congress of representatives o r the people. Archduke John of Austria was elected Vicar of the newly-organized national government; but he soon disappointed the hopes of the assembly by his evident attempts to frustrate a'n energetic action on the side of the parliament, while the speedy success of the anti-republican partv in Austria and Prussia damped 163 164 THE NEW GERMAN EMPIRE. the hopes of the progressionists. The refusal of the king of Prussia to accept the imperial crown which the parlia- ment offered him in 1849, was followed by the election of a provisional regency of the empire ; but as nearly half the members had declined taking part in ;hese proceedings, or in a previous meas- ure, by which Austria had been ex- cluded, by a single vote, from the Ger- man Confederation, the assembly soon iapsed into a state of anarchy and im- potence, which terminated in its dis- solution. Insurrections Suppressed. The sanguinary manner in which in- surrectionary movements had in the ueanwhile been suppressed by Prussian troops both in Prussia and Saxony put an effectual end to republican demon- strations; and in 1850 Austria and Prus- sia, after exhibiting mutual jealousy and ill-will which more than once seemed likely to end in war, combined to restore the diet, whose first acts were the inter- vention in Sleswick-Holstein in favor of Denmark, and the abolition of the free constitutions of several of the lesser states. From that period the diet became the arena in which Austria and Prussia strove to secure the supremacy and championship of Germany ; every meas- ure of public interest was made subser- vient to the views of one or other of these rival powers ; and the Sleswick- Holstein difficulties were the principal questions under discussion in the federal parliament, down to the rupture between Prussia and Austria, and the dissolution of the Bund in 1866. The immediate occasion of the war of 1866 was the difference that arose between Prussia and Austria, after the convention of Gastein, 1865, as to the occupation and disposal of the territory taken from Denmark in the short war of 1864. But the real grounds lay in that rivalry between the two states fo. the leadership of Germany which hat shown itself at many epochs of theii history. There can be little doubt that the feeling of the German people, as distinguished from the princes and bu- reaucracy, had, in recent times at least been in favor of the purely German Prussia as their leader, rather than Austria. And when the parliament of Frank- fort, in 1349, offered the imperial crown to the king of Prussia, the unity of Ger- many might have been secured without bloodshed, had the monarch been less scrupulous, or had he had a Bismarc 1 " for his adviser. But that opportunity being let slip, and the incubus of tht "Bund" being restored, it became ap- parent that the knot must be cut by the sword. Austria and Prussia. By the treaty of Gastein Austria and Prussia agreed to a joint occupation of the Elbe duchies; but to prevent colli- sion it was judged prudent that Austria should occupy Holstein, and Prussia Sleswick. Already a difference of pol- icy had begun to show itself: Prussia was believed to have the intention of annexing the duchies ; while Austria began to favor the claims of Prince Frederick of Augustenburg. In the. meantime, both nations were making ready for the struggle ; and Italy, look- ing upon the quarrel as a precious op~ portunity to strike a blow for the liber- ation of Venetia, had secretly entered into an alliance with Prussia, THE NEW GERMAN EMI'IRE. 166 111 the sitting of the German diet, June i, i and the two following days. In 1814 the Russians invaded Prance with the allies, and lost many men in the as- sault upon Paris. After the battle of Waterloo, and the conveyance of Napo- leon to the island of St. Helena, it fell to I lie Russian forces to occupy Cham- pagne and Lorraine. In the saine year Poland was re- established in a mutilated form, with a constitution which Alexander, who was crowned king, swore to observe. In [825 the emperor died suddenly at Taganrog at the mouth of the Don, while visiting the southern provinces of his empire. He had added to the Russian dominions Finland, Poland, B( sarabia, and that part of the Cau- ca tus which include-, Daghestan, vShir- van, Mingrelia, and Imeretia. Much was done in this reign to improve the condition of the serfs. The Raskolniks were better treated; many efforts were made to improve public education, and the universities of Kazan, Kharkolf, and St. Petersburg were founded. Charged with Treason. One of the chief agents of these re- forms was the minister Speranski, who for some time < njoyed the favor of the emperor, but he attacked so many in- I' rests by his measures that a coalition was formed against him. He was de- nounced as a traitor, and his enemies succeeded in getting him removed and sent as governor to Nijni-Novgorod. In [819, when the storm raised against him had somewhat abated, he was ap- pointed to the important post of gov- ernor of Siberia. In 1821 he returned to vSt. Petersburg, but he never regained his former power. To the mild influence of Speranski succeeded that of Shishkoff, Novosilt- zeff, and Arakcheeflf! The last ofth men made himself universally detested in Russia. He rose to great influence in the time of Paul, and managed to continue in favor under his son. Be- 176 GREAT EVENTS IN RUSSIA. siiks many other pernicious measures, it was to him that Russia owed the military colonies which were so un- popular and led to serious viols. The censorship of the press became much stricter, and many professors of liberal tendencies were dismissed from their chairs in the universities. The country was now filled with secret societies, and the emperer be- came gloomy and suspicious. In this condition oi~ mind he died, a man thoroughly disenchanted and weary oi life. He has been judged harshly by some authors ; readers will remember that Napoleon said o[' him that he was false as a Byzantine Greek. To us he appears as a well-intentioned man, ut- terly unable to cope with the discord- ant elements around him. Me had discovered that his life was a failure. A New Conspiracy. The heir to the throne according to the principles of succession recognized in Russia was Constant ine, the second son of the emperor Paul, since Alexan- der left no children. But he had of his own free will secretly renounced his claim in 1822, having espoused a Roman Catholic, the Polish princess Julia Grudzinska, In consequence of this change in the sovereign's authority, the conspiracy o( the Dekabists broke out at the end oi' the year, their object being to take advantage of the con- fusion caused by the alteration of the succession to get constitutional govern- ment in Russia. Their efforts failed, but the rebellion was not put down without great bloodshed. Five o( the conspirators were exe- cuted, and a great many sent to Siberia. Some of the men implicated were among the most remarkable of their time in Russia, but the whole country had been long honeycombed with secret societies, and many of the Russian officers had learned liberal ideas while engaged in the campaign against Napo- leon. So ignorant, however, were the common people of the most ordinary political terms that when told to shout for Constantine and the constitution they naively asked if the latter was Constantine's wife. Victorious Over Persia. The new emperor, Nicholas, the next brother in succession, showed through- out his reign reactionary tendencies; all liberalism was sternly repressed. In [830 appeared the "Complete Collec- tion of the Raws of the Russian Em- pi. e," which Nicholas had caused to be codified. Hg partly restored the right of primogeniture which had been taken away by the empress Anna as contrary to Russian usages, allowing a father to make his eldest son his sole heir. In spile of the increased severity of the censorship of the press, literature made great progress in his reign. From 1S26 to [828 Nicholas was engaged in a war with Persia, in which the Russians were completely victorious, having beaten the enemy at Elizabetpol, and again under Paskewitch at Javan Bulak. The war was terminated by the peace of Turkmantchai, February 22, [828, by which Persia ceded to Russia the provinces of Krivan and Nakhitchevan • and paid twenty millions oi roubles as an indemnity. The next foreign enemy was Turkey. Nicholas had sympathized with the Greeks in their struggle for independ- ence, in opposition to the policy cl GRKA'J EVENTS IN RUSSIA. 17-? Alexander; he had also a part to play a protectoi ol the I Orthodox Christians, wlio formed a Large number oi the sultan's subjects. In consequence of the sanguinary war which the Turks were carrying on against the Greeks mikI the Utter collapse of the latter, England, Prance, and Russia signed the treaty of London in [827, by which diey forced the 111: selves upon the bel- ligerents as mediators. Turkish Fleet Destroyed. Prom this union resulted the battle of Navarino, ( October 20, 1 «s 27, in which the; Turkish fleet was annihilated by that of the allies. Nicholas now pur- sued the war with Turkey on his own accounl ; in Asia Paskewitch defeated two Turkish armies, and conquered Erzeroum, and in Europe Diebitsch de- feated the- grand vizier. The Russians crossed the Balkans and advanced to Adrianoplc, where a treaty was signed in 1829 very disadvantageous to Tur- key. in 1 S3 1 broke out the Polish insur- rection. Paskewitch took Warsaw in I83I. The cholera which was then raging had already cai 1 ied off I )iebitsch and the Craud Duke Constantine. Po- land was now entirely at the mercy of Nicholas. The constitution which had been granted by Alexander was au- iiillcd; there were to be no more diets; and for tin: ancient palatinates, familiar to the historical student, were substi- tuted the governments of Warsaw, Radom, Lublin, Plock, and Modlin. The university of Vilna, rendered cele brated by Mickiewicz and Lelewel, was suppressed. By .1110! her tieaty with Turkey, that oi Unkiar-Skclessi, 1 833, Russia ac- VI quired additional rights to meddle with the internal politics of that country. Soon after the revolution oi [848, the Emperor Nicholas, who became even more read ionary in « onsequence of the disturbed state of Europe, answered the appeal of the Emperor Francis Joseph, and sent an army under Paskewit< li to suppress the Hungarian revolt. Aftei the capitulation of Gorgei in [849, the war was at an end, and the Magyars cruelly expiated their attempts to pro- cure constitutional government. In [853 broke out the Crimean War. The emperor was anxious to distribute the possessions of the " sick man," but found enemies instead of allies in Eng- land and France. The chief events of this memorable struggle were the bat- tles of the Alma, Balaklava, Enker- iii.uiii, and Tchernaya, and the siege of Sebastopol; this had been skillfully \t>\ f ified by Todleben,who appears to have been the only man of genius win; came to the front on either side during the war. In 1855 the Russians destroyed the southern side of the city, and re- treated to the northern. The War Ended. In the same year, on March 14th, died the emperor Nicholas, after a short ill- ness. Finding all his plans frustrated he had grown weary of life, and rashly exposed himself to the severe tempera- ture of the northern spring. He was succeeded by his sou Alexander II., [855-1881, at the age of thirty-seven. I >ne of the first objects of the new czat was to put an end to the war, and the treaty of Paris was signed in [856, by which Russia consented to keep no vessels of war in the Black Sea, and to give up her protectorate of the Eastern J 78 GREAT EVENTS IN RUSSIA. Christians; the former, it must be added, she has afterward recovered. A portion of Russian Bessarabia was also cut off and added to the Danubian principalities, which were shortly to be united under the name of Rouinmia. This was afterwards given back to Russia by the treaty of Berlin. Sebas- out by his son. The landlords, on re- ceiving an indemnity, now released the serfs from their seigniorial rights, and the village commune became the actual property of the serf. This great revo- lution was not, however, carried out without great difficulty. The Polish insurrection of 1863 was SEBASTOPOL DURING topol also has been rebuilt, so that it is difficult to see what the practical re- sults of the Crimean War were, in spite of the vast bloodshed and expenditure of treasure which attended it. The next important measure was the emancipation of the serfs in 1S61. This great reform had long been meditated by Nicholas, but he was unable to ac- * complish it, and left it to be carried I the bombardment; a great misfortune to that part of Poland which had been incorporated with Rus- sia. On the other hand Finland had seen her privileges confirmed. Among important foreign events of this reign must be mentioned the cap- ture of Schamyl in 1859 by Prince Bariatinski, and the pacification of the Caucasus ; many of the Circassians, un- able to endure the peaceful life of cul- GREAT EVENTS IN RUSSIA. 179 tivators ui the soil under the new regime, migrated to Turkey, where they have formed one of the most turbulent elements of the population. Turkestan also has been gradually sub- jugated. Id 1865 the city of Tashkend was taken, and in 1867 Alexander II. created the government of Turkestan. In 1858 General Muravieff signed a treaty with the Chinese, by which Russia acquired all the left bank of the river Amur. A new port has been created in Eastern Asia (Vladivostok), which promises to be a great centre of trade. A Terrible Siege. In 1877 Russia came to the assistance of the Slavonic Christians against the Turks. After the terrible siege of Plevna, nothing stood between them and the gates of Constantinople. In 1878 the treaty of San Stefano was signed, by which Roumania became independent, Servia was enlarged, and a free Bulgaria, but under Turkish suzerainty, was created. But these arrangements were subsequently modi- fied by the treaty of Berlin. Russia got back the portion of Bessarabia which she had lost, and advanced her Caucasian frontier. The new province of Bulgaria was cut into two, the southern portion being entitled Eastern Roumelia, with a Christian governor, to be appointed by the Porte, and self-government. Austria acquired a protectorate over Bosnia and Herzegovina. The latter part of the reign of Alexander II. was a period of great internal commotion, on account of the spread of Nihilism, and the at- tempts upon the emperor's life, which unfortunately were at last successful. In the cities in which his despotic father had walked about fearless, with- out a single attendant, the mild and amiable Alexander was in daily peril of his life. On April 16, 1866, KarakozofT shot at the emperor in St. Petersburg ; in the following year another attempt was made by a Pole, Berezowski, while Alexander was at Paris on a visit to Napoleon III. ; on April 14, 1879, Solo- viofF shot at him. The same year saw the attempt to blow up the Winter Palace and to wreck the train by whi^b the czar was traveling from Moscow tc St. Petersburg. A similar conspiracy in 1881, March 13, was successful. Five of the conspirators, including a womai., Sophia Perovskaia, were publicly exe- cuted. Plots and Murders Thus terminated the reign of Alex- der II., which had lasted nearly twenty- six years. He died leaving Russia exhausted by foreign wars and honey- combed by plots. His wife and eldest son Nicholas had died before him, th latter at Nice. He was succeeded b his second son Alexander, born in 1845, whose reign has been characterized by conspiracies and constant deportations of suspected persons. It was long be fore he ventured to be crowned in hi. 1 - ancient capital of Moscow, in 1883. and the chief event since then has been the disturbed relations with England, which for a time threatened war. An incident of peaceful significance was the visit of the emperor of Gei- many to the czar at Peterhof, July 19- 23, 1888. On the 27th of the same month the ninth centenary of the in- troduction of Christianity was cele ISO OR hat EVEN rs l\ RUSSIA. buiicd at Kieff. The government being embarrassed on account of the low state of its treasury, signed an agreement Foi .1 loan oi $100,000,000 in November oi this year ; the loan was immediately taken, chiefly by Freuch capitalists. Shortly afterward a loan oi ,~oo,i.\\\ooo francs was concluded with the Roths- childs and other bankers. The autumn of 1891 was a period oi it distress throughout a considerable pan of Russia on account of the failure oi the harvests. In some localities the entire population weie reduced to the verge of starvation, and many persons lally perished from hunger. Meas ares oi relief were organized by the government, and large importations of -;iaiu from the United States mitigated in some degree the severity oi the calamity. Very unfavorable comment by other nations was made upon the action of the Russian government, resulting in oppressive measures against the Jews. The effect of this proscription was severely felt, and was the cause of great hardship and suffering. Those oi the Jewish population who were able to emigrate sought refuge elsewhere. The yeai [899 was characterized by an important conference in Holland oi commissioners appointed by the great powers oi Europe and by the United States, for the purpose oi acting upon a proposition by the Car o( Russia foi disarming the nations and ending war. Great interest attended the Emperor's efforts to secure perpetual peace, and it was generally conceded that an import- ant step had been taken in that direction. The deliberations oi the conference were long and earnest, and one of the results was the formulation oi articles oi arbitration which pointed out the methods a',' procedure between the na- tions in the settlement oi disputes. It was considered a sarcastic commentary upon this well-meant attempt to abolish war that the struggle between the Eng- lish and the South African Republics should have followed so quickly. It was evident that the time was not yet rip for fully inaugurating the principle Oi arbitration. A moral result, however, was gained by the great nations assembling in con- vention to discuss the question oi dis- armament and to promote a general peace. This is the highest point gained in the efforts of the world's philanthro- pists, statesmen and rulers, to disband their armies and silence the thunder-roar of war. vSo much at least was gained, and perhaps more, that will be manifest in the near future. UUFFN VICTORIA LISTENING TO A DISPATCH FROM THE SEAT OF WAR IN SOUTH AFRICA x «$» CHAPTER XIII. Nations of Northern Europe— Denmark, Sweden and Norway. N account of the mental de- rangement of his father, Prince Frederick VI. was declared re- gent of Denmark in 1784, and at the beginning of the century was the acting ruler, the sovereign in every thing except the name. He soon proved his capacity to govern by pass- ing several judicious enactments. The peasants living on the crown lands were gradually emancipated — an example followed by a number of the nobility on their respective estates. In the abolition of the African slave trade Denmark had the honor of taking the lead among the governments of Europe. The crown prince, guided by the counsels of Count Bernstorff, long re- mained neutral in the political convul- sion engendered by the French Revolu- tion. He continued to adhere stead- fastly to this plan until in 1801 the Emperor Paul of Russia having, as in the case of the Armed Neutrality, formed a compact of the northern powers hostile to England, a British fleet was sent into the Baltic under the orders of Sir Hyde Parker, with Lord Nelson as his second in command. It was this fleet which taught the Danes that their capital was not im- pregnable, and that the long line of men-of-war moored in front of the har- bor was an insufficient defence against such enterprising opponents. The at- tack took place on the 2d of April, 1801 ; and the resistance of the Danes was spirited, but fruitless. The loss of the English in killed and wounded exceeded 1000 men, but that of their opponents was much greater, and most of their shipping was destroyed. Happily little injury was done to the capital. A cessa- tion of hostilities took place forthwith, and was followed by a treaty of peace. The death of Paul, which occurred soon afterwards, dissolved the compact between the northern courts. But no treaty of peace could be re- garded as permanent during the ascend- ancy of Napoleon. After defeating first Austria and then Prussia, that extra- ordinary man found means to obtain the confidence of the Emperor Alexan der of Russia, and in the autumn of 1807 threatened to make Denmark take part in the war against England. Al- though the Danish Government dis- covered no intention to violate its neutrality, the English Ministers, eager to please the public by acting on a sys- tem of vigor, despatched to the Baltic both a fleet and an army, in order to compel the surrender of the Danish navy, upon condition of its being re- stored in the event of peace. The Fleet Surrenders. To such a demand the crown prince gave an immediate negative, declaring that he was both able and willing to maintain his neutrality, and that his fleet could not be given up on any such condition. On this the English army landed near Copenhagen, laid siege to that city, and soon obliged the govern- ment to purchase its safet / by surren- dering the whole of i Is nival force. This act, the most questionable in poi' 1 unit ■ by 181 182 DENMARK, SWEDEN AND NORWAY. the British Government during the war, can hardly be defended on the score of policy. The resentment felt on the occasion by the Emperor of Russia was so great as to deprive Eng- land during four arduous years of the benefit of his alliance ; and the seizure of the Danish fleet so exasperated the crown prince and the nation at large, that they forthwith declared war against England, throwiug themselves com- pletely into the arms of France. The hostilities between England and Denmark were carried on by sea, partly at the entrance of the Baltic, and partly on the coast of Norway. These con- sisted of a series of actions between single vessels or small detachments, in which the Danes fought always with spirit, and not infrequently with suc- cess. In regard to trade, both nations suffered severely — the British merchant- men in the Baltic being much annoyed by Danish cruisers, whilst the foreign trade of Denmark was in a manner mspended, through the naval superior- ity of England. Norway Ceded to Sweden. The situation of the two countries continued on the same footing during °\ve years, when at last the overthrow of Bonaparte in Russia opened a hope of deliverance to those who were in- voluntarily his allies. The Danish Government would now gladly have made peace with England ; but the lat- ter, in order to secure the cordial co- operation of Russia and Sweden, had gone so far as to guarantee to these powers the cession of Norway on the "•art of Denmark. The Danes, ill prepared for so great a sacrifice, continued their connection with France during the eventful year 1813 ; but at the close of that campaign a superior force was directed by the allied sovereigns against Holstein, and the result was. first an armistice, and eventually a treaty of peace in January^ 1 8 14. The terms of the peace were, that Denmark should cede Norway to Sweden, and that Sweden, in return should give up Pomerania to Denmark. But Pomerania, being too distant to form a suitable appendage to the Danish territory, was exchanged for a sum of money and a small district in Lauen- burg adjoining Holstein. On the part of England, the conquests made from Denmark in the East and West Indies were restored — all, in short, that had been occupied by British troops, ex- cepting Heligoland. The Monarchy in Danger. After the Congress of Vienna, by vvhich the extent of the Danish mon- archy was considerably reduced, the court of Copenhagen was from time to time disquieted by a spirit of discontent manifesting itself in the duchies, and especially in that of Holstein, the out- break of which in 1848 threatened the monarchy with complete dissolution. A short recapitulation of the relation of the different parts of the kingdom to- each other will furnish a key to the better comprehension of t^ese internal troubles. When Christian I. of the house of Oldenburg ascended the throne of Den- mark in 1448, he was at the same time elected Duke of Schleswig and Hoh stein, while his younger brother re- ceived Oldenburg and Delmenhorst. In 1544 the older branch was again divided into two lines, that of the royal ijTTiWN 183 184 DENMARK, SWKDKN AND NORWAY. house of Denmark, and that of the dukes of Holstein-Gottorp. Several collateral branches arose afterwards, oi which those that survived were— the Augustenburg and Glucksburg branches belong to the royal line, and the o\uca\ Holstein-Gottorp branch, the head of which was Petet [II. oi' Russia. The Danish Possessions. In 1762 Peter threatened neuni.uk with a war, the avowed object oi which was the recovery of Schleswig, which had been expressly guaranteed to the Danish Crown by England and France at the Peace oi Stockholm, 172a His sudden dethronement, however, pre- vented him from putting this design into execution. The Empress Cath- arine agreed to an accommodation, which was signed at Copenhagen in 1 ; t v j , and subsequently confirmed by the Emperor Paul, [773, by which the ducal part oi Schleswig was ceded to the Crown of Denmark, The czai abandoned also his part oi' Holstein in exchange For Oldenburg and Delmon- horst, which he transferred to the younger branch of the Gottorp family. According to the scheme o\ Germanic organization adopted by the Congress oi' Vienna, the king oi Denmark was declared member of the Germanic body OH account oi Holstein and lauienburg, invested with three votes in the Gen- eral Assembly, ami hail a place, the tenth in rank, in the ordinary diet. After the restoration oi' peace in 1815, the States of the Duchy of Hol- stein, never so cordially blended with Denmark as those oi' Schleswig, began to show their discontent at the con- tinued non-convocation of their own . lnbnes despite the assurances of Frederick VI. The preparation of a new constitution for the whole king iloin was th.e main pretext by which the COUrt evaded the claims of the petition ers, who met, howcxci, with no better success from the German diet before which they brought their complaints in l822. After the stirring year of [830, the movement in the duchies, soon to de- generate into a mutual animosity be- tween the Danish and German popula- tion, became more general. The scheme of tin.' court to meet then demands b\ the establishment oi' sepaiate delibera- tive assemblies for each of the provinces failed to satisfy the Holsteiners, who continually urged the revival of their long-neglected local laws and privileges. Nor were matters changed at the acces- sion in [838 of Christian VIII., a prince noted for his popular sympathies and liberal principles, Wide-Spread Rebellion. The feeling of national animosity was greatly increased by the issue of certain orders for Schleswig, which tended to encourage the culture oi the Danish language to the prejudice of the Ger- man. The elements oi a revolution being thus in readiness waited only for some impulse to btcak forth into ac- tion. Christian died in the very begin- ning oi' [848, before the outbreak of the French Revolution in February, and left his throne to his son Frederick VII., who had scarcely received the royal unction when half oi his subjects rose in rebellion against him. In March, 1848, Prince Frederick of AugUStenburg, having gained over the gat risen of Rendsburg, DU* himself at the head of a provincial government DENMARK, SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 18.1 proclaimed at Kiel. A Danish army, marching into Schleswig, easily rc- duced the dueliy as far as the banks of th<- Bider; but, in the meantime, the new national assembly of Germany olved upon the incorporation of Schleswig; and the king of Prussia followed ii]) their resolution by sending an army into the duchies under the command of General Wrangel. The Prussian general, after driving the Danes from Schleswig, marched into Jutland; hut on the 26th of Au- gust an armistice was signed at Mal- moe, and an agreement come to by which the government of the duchies was entrusted to a coin mission of five members — two nominated by Prussia, two by Denmark, and the fifth by the common consent of the four, Denmark being also promised an indemnification for the requisitions made inJrHancL War Goes On. After the expiration of the armistice, ;he war was renewed with the aid of Prussian troops and other troops of the confederacy, from March to July, 1849, when Prussia signed a second armistice for six months. Theducllies now con- tinued to increase their own troops, be ing determined to carry on the war at their own charge without the aid of Prussia, whose policy they stigmatized as inconsistent and treacherous. The chief command of the Schleswig-Hol- stein army was intrusted to General Willisen, a scientific and able soldier; but henceforth the Danes bad little to fear, 1 pecially as the cry of German unity brought but an insignificant num- 4 bet of volunteers to the camp of the Holsteiners. The last victory of the Danes, under Generals Krogh and vSehlcpegrell, was at the battle of Idsted, July 23rd. Near this small village, protected by lakes and bogs, Willisen lay encamped with his centre, his right wing at Wed- elspung, extending along the Lake Dangso, his left spreading along the Arnholtz lake. The Dane:- approach ing on the- high road from Flensburg to Schleswig, attacked the enemv on all sides; and, after having been repeatedly repulsed, they succeeded in driving the Sehleswig-IIolsteiners from all their positions. The forces engaged on each side were about 30,000; the number of killed and wounded on both sides was upwards of 7,000. Peace with Prussia. After the victory of Idsted, the Danes could hardly expect to meet with any serious resistance, and the confidence o f the court of Copenhagen was further increased by the peace which was con- cluded with Prussia, July, 1850, by which the latter abandoned the duchies to their own fate, and soon afterwards aided in their subjection. The sole question of importance which now awaited its solution was the order of succession, which the European powers thought to be of such importance as to delay its final settlement till 1852. The extinction of the male line in King Frederick was an event foreseen by the king, the people and the foreign powers. After protracted negotiations between the different courts, the repre- sentative, of England, Prance, Austria, Russia, Prussia and Sweden, a treaty relative to the succession was signed in London, May 8, 1852. According to this protocol, in case of default of male issue in the direct line of Frederick VI,, 186 DENMARK, SWEDEN AND NORWAY. the crown was to pass to Prince Chris- tian of Glucksburg, and his wife, the Princess Louisa, of Hesse, who, through her mother, Princess Charlotte of Den- mark, was the niece of King Christian VIII. The treaty of London did not fulfill the expectations of the siguitaries as to a settlement of the agitation in the duchies. The duke of Augustenburg had accepted the pardon held out to him on condition that his family resigned all claim to the sovereignty. of the duchies, but he continued to stir up foreign na- tions about his rights, and when he died his son Frederick maintained the family pretensions. At last, in the autumn of 1863, Frederick VII. died very suddenly at the castle of Glncksbiirg, in Schles- wig, the seat of his appointed successor. As soon as the ministry in Copenhagen received news of his death, Prince Christian of Glncksbiirg was proclaimed king as Christian IX., and the young duke of Augustenburg appeared in Schleswig, assuming the title of Fred- erick VIII Demands Upon Denmark. The claims of the pretender were supported by Prussia, Austria and other German states, and before the year was out Generals Gableuz and Wrangel oc- cupied the duchies in command of Aus- trian and Prussian troops. The attitude of Germany was in the highest degree peremptory, and Denmark was called upon to give up Schleswig- Holstein to military occupation by Prussia and Aus- tria until the claims of the duke of Augustenburg were settled. In its dilemma the Danish Govern- ment applied to England and to France, and receiving from these powers what it rightly or wrongly considered as en couragement, it declared war with Ger- many in the early part of 1864. The Danes sent their general, De Meza, with 40,000 meu to defend the Dannewerk, the ancient line of defences stretc'iinyf right across the peninsula froir the* North Sea to the Baltic. The move- ments of General De Meza were not however, successful ; the Dannewerk, popularly supposed to be impregnable was first outflanked and then stormed, and the Danish army fell back on the heights of Dybbol, near Flensborg, which w T as strongly fortified, and took up a position behind it, across the Little Belt, in the island of Alsen. Heroic Courage. This defeat caused almost a panic in the country, and, finding that England and France had no intention of aiding them, the Danes felt the danger of anni- hilation close upon them. The courage of the little nation, however, was heroic, and they made a splendid stand against their countless opponents. General Ger- lach was sent to replace the unlucky De Meza ; the heights of Dybbol were harder to take than the Germans had supposed, but they fell at last, and with them the strong position of Sonderburg, in the island of Alsen. The Germans pushed northwards un- til they overran every part of the main- land, as far as the extreme north of Jut- land. It seemed as though Denmark must cease to exist among the nations of Europe; but the Danes at last gave way, and were content to accept the terms of the Peace of Vienna, in Octo- ber, 1864, by which Christian IX. re- nounced all claim to Lauenburg, Hol- stein and Schleswig, and agreed to have DENMARK, SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 187 no voice in the final disposal of those provinces. For the next two years Europe waited to see Prussi? restore North Schleswig and Alsen, in which Danish is the popu- lar language, and which Austria had demanded should be restored to Den- mark in case the inhabitants should ex- press that as their wish by a plebiscite. When the war broke out between Aus- tria and Prussia in 1866, and resulted in the humiliation of Austria, the chances of restoration passed away, and the duchies have remained an integral part of Prussia. Notwithstanding her dismemberment, Denmark has pros- pered to an astonishing degree, and her material fortunes have been constantly in the ascendant. Denmark has been very fortunate in forming marriage alliances with the most powerful royal houses of Europe. On the 10th of March, 1863, Princess Alexandra, of Denmark, was married to the Prince of Wales at Windsor. Her sister, the Princess Dagmar, was mar- ried to Prince Alexander, of Russia, on November 9, 1866. In the great Franco-Prussian W ar of 1870 Denmark remained neutral, and it may be said that of late yea.2 she has sought to maintain a peace policy with other nations. She has, however bee'., distracted by internal dissensions, hut not to such an extent as to threaten her constitution or her unity. King Christian's seventieth birthday occurred on April 8, 1888, and the 15th of November of the same year was f he twenty- fifth anniversary of his access:on to the throne. Both events were cele- brated with great enthusiasm through- out the country, and with renewed pledges of loyalty to the throne. SWEDEN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. J USTAVUS IV. was not quite fourteen years old when his father was murdered, and dur- ing his minority the government was carried on by his uncle, the duke of Sodermanland. Gustavus began to ex- ercise royal authority in 1796. His reign was remarkable chiefly for the obstinacy with which he clung to his own ideas, no matter how far they might conflict with the obvious interests of his coun- try. He had a bitter detestation of Bonaparte, and in 1803 went to Carls- ruhe in the hope that he might induce the emperor and some of the German princes to act with him in support of the Bourbons. His enmity led to an open rupture with France, and even after the peace of Tilsit, when Russia and Prussia of- fered to mediate between him and the French emperor, he refused to come to terms. The consequence was that he lost Stralsund and the island of Riigen. He displayed so much friendship for England that Russia and Denmark, act- ing under the influence of France, de- clared war against him ; and the whole of Finland was soon held by Russian troops. Gustavus attacked Norway, but his army was driven back by the Danes and Norwegians. He still declined to make peace, and he even alienated England when she attempted to influence him by moderate counsels. The Swedish peo- ple were so enraged by the consequences of his policy that in 1809 he was de- 188 DENMARK, SWEDEN AND NORWAY. throned, and the claims of his descend- ants to the crown were also repudiated. He was succeeded by the dnke of Soder- maiiland, who reigned as Charles XIII. Charles XIII., 1809-1 8 is, concluded peace w ith Russia, Denmark and France, ceding to Russia by the treaty of Fred- erikshamm, 1809, the whole of Finland. The loss oi this territory, which had been so long associated with the Swed- ish monarchy, was bitterly deplored by the Swedes, but it was universally ad- mitted that under the circumstances the sacrifice was unavoidable. Charles as- sented lo important changes in the con- stitution, which were intended to bring- to an end the struggle between the crown and the aristocracy and to pro- vide some security for the maintenance of popular rights. The king was still to be at the head of the executive, but it was arranged that legislative functions and control over taxation should belong to the diet, which was to consist o\~ four orders— nobles, clergymen, burghers, and peasants. Sweden Surprises Europe. As Charles XIII. was childless, the diet elected as his successor Prince Christian Augustus of Holstein-Sonderburg-Au- gustenburg. In [810, soon after his ar- rival in Stockholm, this prince suddenly died; and Sweden astonished Europe by asking Marshal Bernadotte to become heir to the throne. Bernadotte, who took the name of Charles John, was a man of great vigor and resource, and soon made himself the real rulei of Sweden, Napoleon treated Sweden as almost a conquered country, and com- pelled her to declare war with England. Bernadotte, associating himself heartily with his adopted land, resolved lo scenic its independence, and entered into an alliance with Russia. In [813 he started witli an army of 20,000 Swedes to co-operate with the powers which were striving finally to crush the French emperor. The pro- ceedings of the Swedish crown prince were watched with some suspicion In the allies, as he was evidently unwilling to strike a decisive blow at France; but alter the battle of Leipsic he displayed much activity. lie blockaded Hamburg, and by the peace of Kiel, concluded in January, 1814.be forced Denmark to givf up Norway. He then entered France, but soon returned and devoted his ener- gies to the conquest of Norway, which was very unwilling to be united with Sweden. Between the months of July and November, 18 14, the country was completely subdued, and Charles XIII. was proclaimed king. The Countries United. The union of Sweden and Norway, which has ever since been maintained, was recognized by the Congress of Vi- enna ; and it was placed on a sound basis In- the frank adoption of the princi- ple that, while the two countries should be subject to the same crown ami act together in matters of common interest each should have complete control ovei its internal affairs. The new relation of their country to Norway gave much satisfaction to the Swedes, whom it con- soled in some measure for the loss of Finland. It also made it easy foi them to transfer to Prussia in [815 what re- mained of their Pomeranian territories. In 18 1 8 Bernadotte ascended the throne as Charles XIY., and he reigned until he died in 1844. Great material improvements were effected during his THE BALLOON USED IN MODERN WARFARE t < _j z u CC II DENMARK, SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 189 reign. He caused new roads and canals to be constructed; lie encouraged the cultivation of districts which had for- merly been barren; and he founded good industrial and naval schools. He was not, however, much liked by his sub- jects. He never mastered the Swedish language, and he was so jealous of any interference with his authority that he ternly punished the expression of opin- ions which he disliked. To the majority of educated Swedes the constitution seemed to be ill-adapted to the wants of the nation, and there was a general demand for a political system which should make the Government more directly responsible to the people. In 1 840 a scheme of reform was submit- ted to the diet by a committee which had been appointed for the purpose, but the negotiations and discussions to which it gave rise led to no definite result. King Oscar. Charles XIV. was succeeded by his son Oscar I., 1844- 18 59. Oscar had al- ways expressed sympathy with liberal opinions, and it was anticipated that the constitutional question would be settled during his reign without much diffi- ilty. These expectations were disap- pointed. The diet met soon after his accession, and was asked to accept the scheme which had been drawn up in 1840. The measure received the cordial approval of the burghers and peasants, but was rejected by the nobles and the clergy. In 1846 a committee was ap- pointed to prepare a new set of proposals, and late in the following year the dis- cussion of its plans began. While the debates on the subject were proceeding some excitement was pro- duced by the revolutionary movement of 1 848, and a new ministry, pledged to the cause of reform, came into office. The scheme devised by this ministry was accepted by the committee to which it was referred, but the provisions of the existing constitution tendered it neces- sary that the final settlement should depend upon the vote of the next diet. When the diet met in 1850 it was found that the difficulties in the way were for the time insuperable. The proposals of the Government were approved by a majority of the burghers, but they were opposed by the nobles, the clergy and the peasantry. The solution of the prob- lem had, therefore, to be indefinitely postponed. Valuable Reforms. Although the constitution was not reformed, much was done in other ways during the reign of Oscar I. to promote the national welfare. The criminal law was brought into accordance with mod- ern ideas, and the law of inheritance was made the same for both sexes and for all classes of the community. In- creased freedom was secured for indus- try and trade ; the methods of adminis- tration were improved ; and the state took great pains to provide the country with an efficient railway system. The result of the wise legislation of this period was that a new spirit of enter- prise was displayed by the commercial classes, and that in material prosperity the people made sure and rapid progress. In 1848, when the difficulty abou' Schleswig-Holstein led to war betweei Denmark and Germany, the Swedes sympathized cordially with the Danes, of whom they had for a long time ceased to be in the slightest degree jealous. 190 DENMARK, SWEDEN AND NORWAY. Swedish tn. aps were landed in Fiinen, and through the influence of the Swed- ish government an armistice was con- cluded at Malmo. The excitement in favor of Denmark soon died out, and when the war was resumed in 1 849 Sweden resolutely declined to take part in it. The outbreak of the Crimean War greatly alarmed the Swede.-, who feared that they might in some was be dragged into the conflict. In 1855, having some reason to com- plain of Russian acts of aggression 011 his northern frontiers, tin- king oi Sweden and Norway concluded a treaty with England and France, pledging himself not to cede territory to Russia, and re- ceiving from the Western powers .1 promise oi' help in the event oi' his be- ing attacked. The demands based on this treaty were readily granted by Russia in the peace of Paris in 1856. A Popular Sovereign. Charles \\\, 1859 lS r- > . came to the throne after his father's death. Nearly two years before his accession he had been made regent in consequence oi ( )scar I.'s ill-health. Charles was a man of considerable intellectual ability and oi decidedly popular sympathies and during his reign the Swedish people became enthusiastically loyal to his dy- nasty. In [860 two estates of the realm • — the peasants and the burghers — pie sented petitions, begging him to submit to the diet a scheme foi the reform 01 the constitution. The main provisions of the plan of- fered in his name were that the diet should consist oi two chambers, — the first chamber to be elected for a term of nine years by the provincial assemblies and by the municipal corporations oi' towns not represented in these assem- blies, the second chamber to be elected for a teim of three years by all natives of Sweden possessing a specified prop- erty qualification. The executive power was to belong to the king, who was to act under the advice of a council of state responsible to the national repre- sentatives. This plan, which was re- ceived with general satisfaction, was finally adopted by the diet in 1866, and is still in lorce. Norway Free aiear. In [862 Garibaldi raised a body of volunteers to liberate Rome, and, having crossed to the mainland, was de- feated at Aspromonte ; the blame, how- ever, fell chiefly on Rattazzi, who was then minister, and who had sought to follow Cavour's policy, and to reap the advantage of Garibaldi's expedition, but had neglected to fust come to an under- standing with France. Garibaldi at the Front. The expressed sympathy of Europe brought about the September conven- tion oi [864, by which Louis Napoleon agreed gradually to withdraw the French troops on Italy's stipulation not 10 allow an attack on the Pope's territory. By the last article of the convention, the capital was removed a Step nearer Koine — from Turin to Florence. Iu [866 the Anstro- Prussian war, in which Italy took but an inglorious part as the ally of Prussia, added to the king- dom the coveted territory of Venice. In the same year the French garrison was withdrawn from Rome, and Mazzini demanded that the city should be cap- tured. In 1867 Garibaldi and his vol- unteers gaine a victory near Rome, and the French returned ; the volunteers surrendered in November, ami the gen- eral was arrested. But after the fall of the empire, in 1S70, the new foreign minister of France, Jules Favre, de- clared the September Convention at an end, and the king, who had only pre- vented the democrats from moving by arresting Mazzini, was at length free to act as he desired. Free Italy. On September 20th he entered Rome, and the emancipation of Italy was com- pleted. The Pope retained the Vatican, the church of Sta Maria Maggiore, the Lateran palace, the villa of Castel Gan- dolfo, with their precincts, and was voted an income of .{'150,000 out of the revenuesof the state; yet the spiritual sovereign bore but impatiently the loss of his temporal power, and frequent complaints and denunciations were di- rected from the Vatican against the palace on t he ( hiirinal. Meanwhile Italy, at last free and united, has become one of the great continental powers, as has been shown in the preceding sections of this article. It will be the hope of all who have fol- lowed the storv oi her long degradation and gallant recovery of freedom that this rapid growth may not, like her earlier precocious development in arts and commerce, be bought at the after COSt oi' premature decay. The later history o( Italy has been uneventful. Brigandage, rife under the tyrannical rule of the Bourbons, and afterwards eneon raged by their emis- saries, has been gradually suppressed, education and public works have stead- ily advanced, and in the south the people have become more reconciled at least, less inveterately hostile — to the laws. In January, 1S7S, Victor Kmmanne 1 died, and was succeeded by his eldest sou, Humbert I. (born 1844); and one liAl.Y, r.kKJCCK. TUkkhY AND Sl'MN. 103 month laicr Pius IX. died also, and Leo XIII. became pope. The most important internal measure since then has been the lions so far is not ^reat; but tin- jm>v em- inent has been from time to time em- barrassed by the agitation conducted by WORLD RENOWNED CATHEDRAL OF MILAN. the Irredentists, whose aim is to add tc the kingdom all those districts of Eu- rope where the Italian speech prevails. wide extension of the franchise, and in [883 the resumption of specie payment. The popular interest in political ques- 1M ITALY, r.RKi;cK. TURKEY AND SPAIN. In 1883 the ministry denounced the scheme of the association, as aiming in- directly at the downfall of the monarch) and at the same time extolled the triple alliance {oi Italy, Germany and Aus- tria), into which Italy, exasperated at the extension of French influence in Tunis, had entered. To this samejeal susy of French encroachments on the southern Mediterranean shore may be attributed the erection into an Italian colony, in 1882, of a coaling station founded the year before at Assah, on the Red Sea. In 1 S S 5 Massowah was occu- pied, and in 1889 the Italian colonial territory was amalgamated under the name oi Eritrea. In January, 1SS7, a disaster to the Italian troops brought on a desultory war with Abyssinia, which ended in an arrangement, in 1SS0, that placed the latter country under Italian protection. In [888 Signor Depretis, who had headed eight ministries, was succeeded as premier by Signor Crispi. Since then the main interest of Italian affairs has centered in the finances, and in the struggle to meet, out of the resources of the country, the expenses of the heavy armament. On the 11th of October, 1S97, much excitement was caused in Rome by a popular demonstration against the scheme oi taxation on incomes and personal property. The populacecame into conflict with the troops, who at length suppressed the uprising. The fiftieth anniversary oi' the Italian consti- tution of 1848 was celebrated at Rome in March, 1 898, but during May follow- ing there were bread riots in various parts of the kingdom on account of the high prices oi' food, and quiet was re- stored only by the strong arm oi the military power, by which the turbulent uprisings were suppressed. GREECE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 11KN the century began Greece was under the sway oi Tur- key, but the French Revolu- tion had roused the minds of the Greek people into activity, and they weie ashamed that a nation which had played such a grand part in the early civilization oi' mankind should be the slaves oi' an illiterate and bar- barons horde of aliens. The country was ripe for revolt, and a secret societv was formed to make ready for a rising oi the people. Accordingly in 1 82 1 the war for in- dependence broke out. The insurrec- tion was begun by Prince Alexander Hy psilantes, an official in the service of Russia, who had been elected head of the chief secret society. He crossed the Prnth, March 6, 1821, with a few followers, and was soon joined by sev- eral men oi' great bravery at the head ol considerable troops. But the expe- dition was badly managed, and in June, Ilypsilantes tied to Austria, having en- tirely failed in his object. And in all the efforts to overthrow the power of the Turks in the northern provinces the Greeks failed, though some men fought very bravely. In the Peloponnesus the insurrection broke out also in March in several places, and most prominent among the first movers was Gerinanos, archbishop ITALY, GREECE, TURKKY AND SPAIN. 197 of Patrar,. Everywhere the Greeks drove the Turks before them ; they were so successful that in January, 1822, the independence of ( >reece was proclaimed. But they soon began to quarrel among themselves. The aspirants for honors and rewards were numberless, and they could not agree. Accordingly a civil war raged in 1823 and 1824, inspired by Colocotronis, a chief who attained great influence, and in 1824 another civil war of short dura- tion, called the War of the Primates. During this period the Greek fleet was very active, and did good service. It was ably led by Miaonlis, a man of firm character and great skill. And he was well seconded by the intrepid Canaris, whose fire ships did immense damage to the Turkish fleet, and filled the Turkish sailors with indescribable terror. For the ravages of the Greek fleet the Turks wreaked fearful vengeance on the innocent inhabitants of the lovely island of Chios, April, 1822, butchering in cold blood multitudes of its peaceful inhabitants, and carrying off others to the slave market. The savage atroci- ties then perpetrated caused a thrill of horror throughout the civilized world. Successive Defeats. Two years after they perpetrated simi- lar outrages on the islands of Kasos and Psara. The sultan now invoked the aid of Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt, ,and his stepson, Ibrahim, landed on the Peloponnesus with a band of well-dis- ciplined Arabs in 1824. Ibrahim carried everything before him, and the Greeks lost nearly every place that they had acquired. Some towns offered a strong resistance, and especially famous is the siege of Mesolon^hi, which lasted from 27th of April, 1825 to April 22d, 1826. Nothing could exceed the firmness and bravery displayed by Greek men and women during that siege; and their glorious deeds and sad fate attracted the attention of all Europe. The interest in the Greeks, which had been to some extent aroused by Lord Byron and other English sympa- thizers in 1823, now became intense, and volunteers appeared from F ranee and Germany as well as from England and America. Lord Cochrane was ap- pointed admiral of the Greek fleet, and Sir Richard Church, generalissimo of the land forces, but they did not pre- vent the capture of Athens by the Turks, June 2d, 1827. Most of the European Governments had remained indifferent, or had actually discouraged the outbreak of the Greeks. Russia had disowned Hypsilantes. Good Fortune for Greece. The monarchs of Europe were afraid that the rising of the Greeks was only another eruption of democratic feeling fostered by the French Revolution, and thought that it ought to be suppressed. But the vast masses of the people were now interested, and demanded from their governments a more liberal treat- ment of Greece. Canning inaugurated in 1823, and now carried out this new policy in England. An accident came to the aid of the Greeks. The fleets of England, France, and Russia were crui- sing about the coasts of the Pelopon- nesus, to prevent the Turkish fleet ravaging the Greek islands or main land. Winter coming on, the admirals thought it more prudent to anchor in the Bay of Navarino, where the, Turk 198 ITALY, GREECE, TURKEY AND SPAIN. ish fleet lay. The Turks regarded their approach as prompted by hostile feel- ings and commenced firing on them, whereupon a general engagement en- sued, in which the Turkish fleet was annihilated, October 20th, 1827. Short- ly afterward, January 18th, 1828, Capo- distrias, who had been in the service of Russia, was appointed president of Greece for seven years, the French cleared the Morea of hostile Turks, and Greece was practically independent. President Assassinated. But several years had to elapse ere affairs reached a settled condition. Ca- podistrias was Russian in his ideas of jovernment, and, ruling with a high hand, gave great offence to the masses of the people; and his rule came to an untimely end by his assassination on Oc- tober 9th, 1 83 1. Anarchy followed, but at length Otho of Bavaria was made king, and the protecting powers signed a convention by which the present limits were definitely assigned to the new kingdom. Henceforth Greece has existed as a recognized independent kingdom. Throughout the whole of the war of independence in Greece, the people be- haved with great bravery and self-sacri- fice. They showed a steady adherence to the idea of liberty. They were some- times savage in their conduct to the Turks, and barbarities occurred which stain their history- Yet on the whole the historian has much to praise and little to blame in the great mass, espe- cially of the agricultural population. But no single man arose during the period capable of being in all respects a worthy leader. Not can, this be wondered at. 411 the men who took a prominent part in the movements had received theii train- ing in schools where constitutionalism was the last doctrine that was likely to be impressed on them. Several of them had been in the service of Russia, and had full faith only iu arbitrary power. Many of them were accustomed to double dealing, ambitious and avari- cious. Some of them had been brought up at the court of Ali Pasha of Janniua, and had become familiar with savage acts of reckless despotism. Others had been and indeed remained during the continuance of the war, chiefs, having but little respect for human life, and habituated to scenes of cruelty and plunder. Some of them also came from the Mainotes, who owed their independ- ence to the habitual use of arms, and who were not troubled by many scru- ples. Free Only in Name. It could not be expected that such men would act with great- mercy or prudence in dealing with Turks who had butch- ered or enslaved their kinsmen and kinswomen for generations. Even amongst the foreigners who volunteered to aid the Greeks, few if any were found of supreme ability, and after the king- dom was established the Greeks were unfortunate in the strangers who came to direct them. Otho had been brought up in a despotic court, and knew no other method of ruling. He brought along with him Bavarians, to whom he entrusted the entire power, and the Greeks had the mortification of know- ing that, though their kingdom was independent, no Greek had a chance of being elevated to any ministerial office of importance. Accordingly a revolution broke, out ITALY, GREECE, TURKEY AND SPAIN. 199 in 1S43 ; the Bavarians were dismissed, and Otho agreed to rule through re- sponsible ministers and a representa- tive assembly. But he failed to fulfill his promise. Discoutent reached its height in [862, when another revolu- tion broke out and Otho had to leave Greece. The great mass of the people longed for a constitutional monarchy, and gave a striking proof of this by electing Prince Alfred king of Greece. This choice was determined by univer- sal suffrage, and out of 241,202 Greek citizens who voted 230,016 recorded their votes in favor of the English prince. The vote meant simply that the Greek people were tired of uncon- stitutional princes, and hoped that they would end their troubles if they had a prince accustomed to see parliamentary government respected and enforced. Threefold Alliance. The three protecting powers, — Eng- land, France, and Russia, — had how- ever bound themselves to allow no one related to their own ruling families to become king of Greece. When the Greek people received this news, they begged England to name a king, and after several refusals England found one in Prince William of »Schleswig-Hol- stein, son of the king of Denmark. The Greek people accepted him, and in 1863 he became king with the name of George I. Britain added the Ionian islands to his kingdom. In 1S75 the ministry gave great of- fence to the Greek people by its uncon- stitutional procedure, but the king per- sisted in standing by it. The people, however, persevered in the use of legi- timate means to oust the ministry; the king at last prudently yielded; and thus a revolution was prevented. The effort of the Greeks to extend their boundaries is the last phase of their history, and is still in progress. In 1853 when the Crimean war broke out, the Greeks sided with the Russians, and in 1854 they made inroads into Thessaly and Epirus, but Knglish and French troops landed at the Piraeus, and forcibly put an end to the Russian alliance and to Greek ideas of acquiring additional ter- ritory. In 1866 to 1869 tne Cretans struggled bravely but unsuccessfully to throw off the Turkish yoke and become a part of the Greek kingdom. Desperate Battles. The most important events of recent date in Greek history aie connected with the war between Greece and Tur- key of 1897, which was declared by- Turkey on April 17th. It was claimed by Turkey that the Greeks were violat- ing agreements respecting the bounda- ries of territory, and also concerning liberties guaranteed to the inhabitants of Crete. Desperate battles occurred during April of 1897, in most of which the Turkish arms were victorious. In May the mediation of the European Powers was accepted and an armistice was pro- posed. Cretan autonomy was agreed to by Greece, but the Turkish conditions for ending the war were $50,000,000 in- demnity, the annexation of Thessaly, and several other oppressive demands.) Meanwhile a desperate battle at Domoko resulted in the slaughter of nearly 3,oou Turks, but the Greek army was finally forced to retreat, the result being an- other attempt to eud the war. A collective note of the Powers was sent to Turkey proposing conditions of 200 ITALY, GREECE. TURKEY AND SPAIN. peace. Negotiations were carried on at Constantinople, and the Powers resisted the demands of the Porte as to the an- nexation of Thessaly and the war in- demnity. After much sparring on both sides, Turkey was compelled to submit to the principal demands of the Powers and the war was terminated. The treaty of peace was signed at Constantinople in December, 1897. The final payment of the war indemnity was made July 10, 1898, by the Powers interested. TURKEY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. rE Turkish power was at a very low ebb at the opening of the nineteenth century, and many of the subject nations, both Christian and Mohammedan, sought to throw off the yoke of the sultan and establish their independence. In 1806 Scrvia revolted under the leadership of Czerni George. It was conquered in 1813, but again revolted in 1815, under Milosh Obrenowitz. Montenegro also rebelled, and until the Crimean war these pro- vinces enjoyed a state of quasi inde- pendence. Egypt was also strongly dis- affected. In 1809 a war broke out with Russia, which resulted in a further loss of Turkish territory. It was closed by the treaty of Bucharest, by which the sultan ceded to Russia Bessarabia, Ismail and Kilia, one-third of Moldavia, and fortresses of Chotzim and Bender. In 1807 Selim III. died, and was suc- ceeded by Mahmoud II., under whom the Turkish power continued to decline. The population of the Turkish empire in Europe was about 14,000,000, of whom scarcely 2,000,000 were Turks. The remainder were Christians, consist- ing principally of the four distinct races inhabiting European Turkey, viz.: the Sclavonians, occupying Bulgaria, Servia, Bosnia, Herzegovina and Montenegro; the Roumanians, occupying Moldavia and Wallachiaj the Albanians, dwelling iu ancient Epirus, and the Greeks. The Greeks had never willingly ac- cepted the rule of Turkey, and some portions of them had never submitted to the porte, but had maintained a wild. brigandish existence in their moun- tains. Though the Greeks were at- tached to Russia by the strong ties of a common religion, that power refused to do anything for their freedom, and Alexander I. met their appeal for aid against their Turkish oppressors with the cold command : " Let the Greek rebels obey their lawful sovereign." In spite of this discouragement the Greeks determined to throw off the Turkish yoke, and in March, 1821, the first blow was struck. The people of the peninsula and the islands rose in a general revolt. When the news of the revolution was received at Constantino- ple a general massacre of the Greek in- habitants of the capital ensued. The war went on through the year 1821, the patriot forces winning several important successes, among which was the capture of the Turkish capital of the Morea. In January, 1822, a national congress met at Epidaurus, proclaimed the independ- ence of Greece, and adopted a provis- ional constitution. In the spring of the same year the Turks made a descent upon Seio, mas- sacred 40,000 of the inhabitants, and carried away thousands to the slave markets of Smyrna and Constantinople. ITALY, GREECE, TURKEY AND SPAIN. 201 In 1823 the admiration and sympathy of all Europe was aroused by the heroic death of Marco Bozzaris, who, with a .small band ofSuliote patriots, attacked the Turkish camp and fell in the arms of victory. The Euiopean governments looked fore he could accomplish much for the cause he had adopted. Unable to conquer Greece, the sultan summoned Mehemet Ali, the Viceroy of Egypt, who enjoyed a state of actual independence, to complete the task. This vigorous leader spread terror and GREAT NAVAL BAT coldly upon the gallant struggle, but the people- remembered the glories of ancient Greece, and supplies of money, arms, and men were sent to the patriots. Foremost among those who devoted their fortunes and talents to the free- 11 of Greece was Lord Byron. He died at Missolonghi in April, 1824, be- TLE OF NAVARINO. desolation throughout Hellas. Misso- longhi was taken after a heioic defence, and Athens was captured in 1825. The Egyptian forces had orders to make a desolation of Greece, and to carry off the people into slavery. Alexander I. of Russia fortunately died at this juncture, and the CwJ 202 ITALY, OREECB, TURKS? and SPAIN. Nicholas, his successor, adopted a dil ferent policy. Moved eithei by his sympathy with his co-religionists or 1>\ his anxiety to weaken Turkey, he re solved to intervene in behali <>l the Greeks, and was joined by Prauce and England, who were anxious to impose .1 check upon the Egyptian viceroy. These powers sent a strong combined fleel tothe Mediterranean. On the 20th of October, 1827, this fleet, under the command of the English Admiral Cod rington, accidentally encountered the Turkish and Egyptian fleet in the Bay of Navarino. A battle ensued, which resulted in the destruction of the Mo- hammedan fleet. Croto and Syria. This success revived the hopes of the Greeks, and the next year Russia de- clared war against Turkey ; and the sultan, in ordei to save his Danubian provinces, was obliged to sign the treaty iA Adiiuuople, by which he aehnowl- e Iged tin' independence oi' Greece. Mehemet Ali was given the sover- eignty o( Crete by the sultan for his services in theGreek revolution. Not satisfied with this acquisition, he sent his sou [brallim Pasha, an able eoni mander, in 1831, to conquer Syria. That country was overrun l>v the Egyptian forces, who also advanced to wauls A.sia Minor. Their progress was at length stayed by tlu- intervention o( Russia, England, and Prance, whose Forces defeated [brahim at Nisibis on the Euphrates. A few days after this battle Sultan Mahmoud died. Prance was anxious that Mehemet Ali should succeed him, hut England and Rus- sia drove him out of Aete and Syria, and scented tlu Tutkish Uu'oue for Ahdul Medjid, the young son of Mah- moud. In [840 the treaty of London was signed. Crete and Syria were restored to the Poite, and Mchcinct Ali was limited to Egypt. Por many years aftei this vSir Stratford Canning, afterwards I,oid Stratford de Redelille, the Eng- lish Ambassador at Constantinople, Controlled the counsels of the Porte. By the treaty of London, Egypt be- came to a certain extent an indepen- dent Stale, though owning a nominal allegiance to the sultan The Crimean War. in 1851 began tlu- troubles which re- sulted in the Crimean War, which we have related elsewhere. 'The treaty i Paris, which closed the Cri- mean War, placed a restrict ion upon the aggressive power ol Russia by neu- tralizing the Black Sea. The revei 1 of Prance in her contest with Germany so weakened her that she was Unable to sustain England in upholding the treaty of Paris. Russia promptly took advan- tage of this to demand of the powers a modification of those articles of the treaty which prevented her from forti- fying her ports or maintaining an armed fleel in the Black .Sea. A New Treaty. England warmly opposed the demand, hiii Prance was in no condition to do so, and Germany and the Austro-Hun- garian monarchy j^ave their moral sup- port to the Russian demand^ and avowed their intention not. to CO-operate with England in any armed resistance to it. The result was that a conference of the representatives ol the powers was held in London, and on the 1 3th of bYbru.ii v, [871, a treaty was signed by them abro- gating the ai t icle 1 of the I real y of Paris as to tin navigation of the Black Sea and the right of Russia to fortify hei poi ts. The protect ion afforded to Tur by the great powers was thus taken from her. (u 1873 the sultan's authoiity ovsr Egypt was further weakened by the concessions which made the khedive almost an independent sovereign, and which we have related in the history oi Egypt. In the slimmer of 1 <> HAIA. (iRlvl-Clv, TUKki;\ AND SPAIN. the consent and approval of the c/.ar. They enabled the Servians to hold out against the Turks until the 31st of Oc- tober, when the fortified city of Alex- inalx was captured by the latter. This success placed Servia practically at the mercy of Turkey. In the meantime orders had been sent to the Russian am- bassador at London to inform the British government that it was the opinion of the czar that force should be used to stop the war and put an end to Turkish misrule. Plan of Reform. Lord Derby stated that England was prepared to unite with Russia in bring- ing about an armistice ^( not less than a month, but would not support an armed intervention in Turkish affairs. At this juncture Turkey, to the surprise of all the powers, suddenly offered an armis- tice for six months, and announced a scheme of reform for the whole empire. England, Austria and Prance favored the armistice, but Russia declared that she could not ask vServia to accept SO long-a trace since the principality could not keep its armv on a war footing for so long a time; and this view of the case was supported by Italy. Russia demanded a truce o( four or si\ weeks. The Turkish forces were pressing the siege ol~ Alexinatz with en- ergy,and it wasapparenl that thai place could not hold out much longer. Gen- «"\\ I^natieff, the Russian ambassador at Constantinople, was therefore ordered to demand oi the porte an acceptance within forty-eight hours of the armistice proposed by Russia. The demand was made on the 31st of October, and on the same day Alexinatz was captured by the Turks. The Russian demand was granted by the porte, and the armistice was proclaimed. Although determined to support Ser- via against Turkey, Russia was anxious to maintain friendly relations with the other European powers. On the 2d of November Lord Adolphus Loftus, the English ambassador, had an interview with the czar at Livadia. The czar "pledged his sacred word and honor 1 '' that he had no intention of acquiring Constantinople, and that if necessity compelled him to occupy a portion of Bulgaria it would only be provisionally, and until the safety of the Christian population was assured. A British Threat. These assurances gave great satisfac- tion to the English government, which now assumed the initiative in proposing a general conference of the representa- tives of the great powers of Europe to meet at Constantinople. On the 4th of November the Marquis of Salisbury was appointed the English representative. The proposal was accepted, but all the powers did not send special representa- tives. Germany, Russia and Italy con- sidered their ambassadors at Constanti- nople sufficient ; but Austria and France followed the example of England, ami sent special representatives to assist their resident ambassadors. Before the conference assembled the Earl of Beaconsfield (Disraeli), the English premier, delivered a speech sharply criticising the Russian attitude, and closed it with significant words : "While the policy of England is peace, no country is so well prepared for war." The next day, November 9th, the czar, in an address to the nobles and com- munal council of Moscow, said : " 1 ITALY, c.RivKrK, 'iuuki-.v And SPAIN. 20V hope this conference will bring peace; should this, however, not be achieved, and should I sec thai We Caiinol attain such guarantees as arc necessary for carrying oul what we have a right to demand of the Porte, I am firmly deter mined t<> act independently." These .words were generally regarded as a re ply to Lord Beacousfield's threat, and caused considerable excitemenl in Eu- rope, as they implied a possibility of w.u between Russia ami England. Lord Salisbury reached Constantino- ple on the s 1 1 1 of December. On his journey from London he had visited Paris, Berlin, Vicuna, and Rome, and had ascertained the views of those gov- ernments with respect to the Eastern question. Immediately upon reaching Constantinople heentered into commu nication with the porte and with the foreign ambassadors and representa- tives. He was encouraged by this in- tercourse to believe that the conference would result in a satisfactory settle- ment of the troubles. Turkey seemed willing to accept a fair proposition of settlement, and the Russian ambassador was especially cordial in co operating with Lord Salisbury. Government Revolutionized. * Before the conference assembled, a very decided change took place in the policy of Turkey. ( >n tin- 22d of Decembei Midhal Pasha was made grand vizier. The true meaning of this appointment was that Turkey had resolved to take her affairs into her own hands and to refuse to submit to the dictation of the Kuropcan powers. On the 23d the Porte proclaimed the new constitution of tin- Turkish em- pire which had been prepared by Mid* hi 1 Pasha. This constitution entirely revolutionized the Turkish government. It provided for a parliament elected by the people-, and made the sultan a eon stitutional instead of an arbitrary sov- ereign. The government was to be administered by Ministers responsible to Parliament, which body was to enact the laws necessary for the pacification and government <>f the empire. Failuro of Conference. The conference nut on the 23d of December, the very day of the promul- gation of the constitution. On the 28th of December it was resolved to extend the armistice to March 1, 1X77. The proclamation of the const it ut ion seemed to CUt the en I ire g round from under the feet of the conference. The representa- tive of the porte maintained that further deliberation was unnecessary, since the constitution was a sufficient answer to the powers. Nevertheless the ses- sions were continued, but without ac- complishing anything. The confer- enre demanded thai the reforms in the Turkish empire should be executed by an international commission, having at it.; command a special military force, composed partly of Europeans and partly of Turks, but Turkey refused toaccept the demand, and it was abandoned. Though Turkey was willing to pledge herself for the execution of the reforms, she steadily refused every material guar antee for the execution of this pledge suggested to her. The conference then reduced its demands to insisting thai the Governors of Bosnia and Bulgaria should be appointed with the consent of the powers, and that the powers should be allowed to form ail international Commission, which should, however, 208 ITALY, GREECE, TURKEY AND SPAIN. have no military means of executing its decrees. On the 18th of January, 1877, the porte firmly rejected these demands, and the conference came to an inglori- ous end. During the sessions of the conference Roumania became alarmed at the terms of the constitution, the first article of which declared that the Ottoman em- pire, including the privileged provinces, forms an indivisible unity from which no portion can ever, on any ground, be detached, while the seventh article gives to the sultan the right of investiture of the rulers of the privileged provinces. On the 5th of January, 1877, the Rou- manian senate passed a resolution de- claring that the rights of the princi- pality should remain intact, and calling upon the government to maintain them in a manner worthy of the state. The excitement in Roumania was so great that in a few days the porte officially declared that the constitution was purely internal, and did not affect the rights of a principality which were guaranteed by international treaties. A Nation Without Friends. The obstinacy of Turkey in refusing the demands of the powers lost her the few friends she had left in Europe. The cause of this obstinacy was the Vizier Midhat Pasha, who, losing sight of the fact that the Turkish empire owed its existence in Europe entirely to the mutual jealousy of the great powers, haughtily refused to allow any interference with its affairs. His impe- rious will soon rendered him obnox- ious to the sultan, who grew restless under the control of the man who had already deposed two sultans within a year, and who would not hesitate to depose another should it suit his put- pose. Accordingly on the 5th of February. 1877, Midhat Pasha was removed from his office of vizier and ordered to quit Constantinople. He was succeeded by Edhem Pasha, who had served as one of the members of the conference, and who had distinguished himself by his bitter opposition to all the proposals of the foreign representatives. Efforts for Peace. Edhem Pasha at once devoted himself to the task of making peace with the rebellious principalities. He opened negotiations with Servia, and by the last of February concluded a treaty of peace with that principality. By the terms of the treaty the Servians were to retain their fortresses, were to salute the Turkish flag, and were to prevent armed bands from crossing the frontier. The Turkish troops, on their part, were to evacuate the positions held on Ser- vian territory. The treaty was ratified on the 3d of March, and a week later the Turkish forces withdrew from Ser- via, relinquishing Alexinatz and Saits- char to the Servians. Negotiations had been opened with Montenegro at the same time that those with Servia were begun, but they proved more protracted and troublesome. Prince Nicholas at first demanded that the negotiations should be conducted at Vienna ; but the Porte refused this, and the prince sent a delegation to Constan- tinople. The armistice was extended to the 13th of April. The Montenegrin demands were, briefly, the cession of Nicsics, which had been besieged by their forces for several months, the ces- sion of a seaport, and such a rectifica- ITALY, GREECE, TURKEY AND SPAIN. 20& tion of their frontier as would increase their territory about one-half its present extent. As the Montenegrins held actual possession of most of the territory demanded by them, they had the ad- vantage of the Porte. The latter refused to grant any extension of territory, and towards the close of March Prince Nicholas instructed his representatives to abate their demands somewhat, but to insist upon the cession of Nicsics. On the ioth of April the Turkish par- liament, to which the matter was re- ferred, rejected the demands of Monte- negro, and the next day the representa- tives of that principality were informed of this decision, and were told that the armistice would not be renewed. Two days later the Montenegrin delegates set out for home, going by way of Odessa, in order to have an interview with the czar and the Russian com- mander. Trying to Gain Time. Russia had by this time fully deter- mined to take part in the war, but being as yet unprepared, endeavored by skillful diplomacy to gain time. On the 31st of January Prince GortschakofF addressed to the Russian representatives at the courts of the powers concerned in the treaty of Paris a circular, in which he related the diplomatic efforts that had been made to secure the pacification of Turkey, and stated that the czar, before determining upon a course for the future, wished to know what course would be determined upon by the other powers. On the 9th of March Turkey met this circular by one of her own addressed to the guaranteeing powers, stating that u the reforms proposed by the conference 14 and accepted by the imperial govern- ment are already being applied." On the 19th of March the Turkish parliament was formally opened with imposing ceremonies and renewed prom- ises of reform. The great powers, however, were suspicious of Turkey's promises, and were determined to de- mand further guarantees. Accordingly the Russian, French, German, Austrian and Italian ambassadors at London held several conferences with Lord Derby, the British foreign minister, the result of which was the signing, on the 31st of March, of a protocol by them in behalf of their respective governments. Turkish Government Watched. This document declared that "the powers proposed to watch carefully, by means of their representatives at Con- stantinople and their local agents, the manner in which the promises of the Ottoman government are carried into effect; ' ' and in case these promises were not faithfully carried out, the powers reserved the right of common action "to secure the well-being of the Chris- tian population and the interests of the general peace." Before signing this document Count Schouvaloff, the Rus- sian ambassador, made a declaration to the effect that if the porte showed itself ready to disarm, it should send a special envoy to St. Petersburg to treat for a mutual disarmament. Lord Derby, on behalf of Great Britain, declared that if a reciprocal disarmament and peace did not result, the protocol was to be re- garded as null and void. The answer of the porte to the pro- tocol was a defiant circular addressed to its representatives abroad, in which, while it did not entirely reject the pro- 210 Italy, Greece, turkey and spAiN. tocol, it warmly resented the threat of foreign intervention in the internal af- fairs of Turkey, repelled Count Schou- valoff's suggestion of intervention, and declined to send a special envoy to St. Petersburg. The circular was dated the ioth of April. When the Turkish ambassador in London delivered this circular to Lord Derby on the 12th of April, the British foreign minister expressed to him his deep regret at the course Turkey had seen fit to pur- sue, and said he could not see what further steps England could take to avert the war, which now seemed in- evitable. Every effort for peace having failed through the obstinacy of the porte, Russia declared war against Turkey on the 24th of April, 1877, an account of which is given elsewhere. In 1897 the whole civilized world was shocked by Turkish atrocities in Arme- nia. The slaughter of 40,000 Armenian Christians, if not by direct orders from the Turkish government, yet certainly with permission from those who could have put a stop to these inhuman out- rages, forms one of the most revolting pages of history. England and America were aroused by these bloody atrocities, which were considered to be quite in keeping with the Turkish character and methods, and vigorous protests were made, both in public meetings and through the newspaper press. Turkey disavowed responsibility as far as possible for these wholesale mur- ders, which was only to be expected. It was an outbreak of Mohammedan fanati- cism, and it was felt that our government would be justified in taking the strongest measures for the protection of American missionaries and their families. Large sums of money were raised in England and this country for the relief of the sufferers. A great public meeting was held in Liverpool, which was presided over by Mr. Gladstone, who denounced with all his burning eloquence the mur- ders committed by barbarous Turkey, After the crime was ended public indig- nation became quiet, and Turkey had accomplished her object without being called to a solemn account by other nations. SPAIN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. PON the return of peace, in I 8 15, after the Napoleonic wars, Fer- dinand VII. was restored to the throne of his fathers. He at once re-established the Inquisi- tion and the convents which had been suppressed by the French. Tyranny was restored in its most odious form, and the Spanish people found that all their struggles against Napoleon had ended in the loss of their freedom. The Spanish colonies in America, sncomaged by the example of the United States, had renounced their allegiance to Spain in 18 10, upon the fall of Fer- dinand, and had proclaimed their inde- pendence. Upon his return to his throne Ferdinand set to work to recover these colonies. He made great exertions and spent large sums to reconquer them, but in the end failed, and the dominion of Spain on the American continent came to an end. The struggle with the colo- nies exhausted the Spanish treasury and left the army unpaid and half mutinous and the nation discontented. ITALY, GREECE, TURKEY AND SPAIN. 211 The result was a revolution in 1820, which compelled Ferdinand to abolish the Inquisition and the convents, and restore the liberal constitution of 181 2. The Holy Alliance now intervened, and demanded the abolition of this constitu- tion and the restoration of absolutism. The cortes refused to comply with this incline him to a more liberal course, but he turned a deaf ear to them and pun- ished the liberal leaders that fell into his power with savage cruelty. So great was the discontent of the Spanish people that Ferdinand was only upheld on his throne by the French troops, who remained in Spain for seven years. THE ESCURIAL-THE PALACE OF THE KINGS OF SPAIN demand, and Spain was invaded in 1823 by a French army under the Duke of Angouleme. The liberals were defeated in every quarter, and Cadiz, their last stronghold, was taken in 1823. Ferdi- nand VII. was restored to his absolute rule, and proceeded to take vengeance upon his enemies. In 1833 Ferdinand died, leaving twr daughters, the elder of whom was but three years old. In September, 1830, he had issued a pragmatic sanction, which annulled the law excluding women from the Spanish throne. Upon his death his brother, Don Carlos, pro- duced a paper which he claimed was ,p. --"--.v. ^ i-'cipv.! wmui iic ciaimeu was Hie French generals endeavored to I signed by Ferdinand, which revoked '212 ITALY, GREECE, TURKKY AND SPAIN. the pragmatic sanction, and which Don Carlos offered in support of his own claim to the crown. Spain was at once divided between two parties — the liberals, who supported the regency of the queen-mother, Chris- tina of Naples, and the Carlists, or par- tisans oi' Don Carlos. England and France favored the former, but the pope and the northern powers sustained Hon Carlos. A civil war ensued, and the liberals finally triumphed, and procured the acknowledgment o\ the young queen Isabella 11. Don Cailos, however, con- tinued the war until [84O, when he was finally defeated and forced to abandon the struggle. Royal Marriages. A considerable party desired that the young queen should many her cousin, the Count oi' Montemoliu, the sou and heir of Don Carlos, a union which would have united all tin- claims to the crown, and haven-stored peace to Spain. France and England, however, opposed this union, and Louis Philippe resolved to make Oueeu Isabella's marriage the means of strengthening his dynasty. He succeeded In inducing her to marrj her cousin, \)o\\ Francisco of Assis, who was little better than an idiot, and at the same time mai 1 icd his youngest son, the Duke oi Montpensier, to the Princess Maria Louisa, the sister of Queen Isa- bella, and who, from her more vigorous health, seemed likely to outlive her sis- ter. This cunning scheme, SO character- istic of the selfish king of the French, resulted in more injury than benefit to the Orleans monarchy. In [843 Queetl Isabella was declared oi age, and from this time Spain was governed as a constitutional state. The queen, who was a woman of notoriously evil life, took but little part in the gov- ernment, which was administered prin- cipally by her favorites and a succession of popular generals. The result was that the kingdom was almost constantly in a state of civil war. In 1 868 ( rOnzales Bravo became prime minister. He caused the arrest and banishment oi seven of the leading generals oi the army, and also oi the Duke and Duch- ess of Montpensier, the latter oi whom the leader will remember was the sister of the queen. The banished generals each hail adherents in the army, and a revolution at once broke out. The queen's troops were defeated, and she herself was driven out oi Spain. She took refuge in France. The Bourbon dynasty was declared at an end in Spain, and a provisional government was set up in Madrid, with Marshal Serrano, one oi the banished generals, at its head. Continued Dissensions. The unhappy kingdom was once more divided as to the form of government it should adopt. A small, cultivated class wished to set up a. republic, but the groat body oi the nation desired a constitu- tional monarchy. Don Carlos, a grand- son oi the queen's uncle oi' the same name, proclaimed himself king as Charles VII., and was supported by a considerable party. In June, 1870, Oueeu Isabella abdicated her crown in favor oi her sou, the Prince of Asturias, then eleven years old, and his claims were supported by the French govern- ment, which hoped through him to establish its influence in Spain. The Spanish nation, however, refused to accept him. The crown was then offered to the King oi Portugal, who ITALY, GREECE, TURKEY AND SPAIN. 213 declined it for both himself and his brother. General Prim, who had become the ruling spirit of the Spanish Govern- ment, then selected Prince Frederick, of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, a distant relative of the King of Prussia. The invitation was declined by Prince Fred- erick in the summer of 1870, and was transferred to his younger brother, Prince Leopold. The French Govern- ment, as we have seen, made this choice the pretext for war with Prussia. Prince Leopold, in consequence of this, declined the vSpanish invitation. Deeds of Violence. After this the Spanish crown was offered to Amadeo, Duke of Aosta, the second son of Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy, and was accepted by him. He was formally chosen by the cortes on on the 1 6th of December, 1870. A few days later he set out for Spain, landing at Carthagena. The festivities attend- ing his arrival were brought to an end by the assassination of General Prim, the wisest and best of Spanish statesmen of the time, on the 29th of December. On the 30th King Amadeo was crowned, and gave his consent to a liberal consti- tution, which guaranteed civil and reli- gious liberty to the nation. Amadeo found his throne anything but a bed of roses. The liberal party desired still great changes, and the ad- herents of Don Carlos, supported by the constant intrigues of the priests, were plotting the overthrow of the liberal monarchy. In April, 1872, the Carlists rose in open rebellion in the northern provinces; and on the 19th of July in the same year a dastardly attempt was made to assassinate the king and queen. Thoroughly disgusted with his subjects, Amadeo resigned his crown on the 1 ith of February, 1875. I lis abdication was followed by the proclamation of a re- public, which, in 1875, gave- place to a monarchy under Alfonso. Castelar was made president oi the new republic, which, a year later, was overthrown. Alfonso XII. was pro- claimed king December 30, 1874. Ten days later the king landed at Barcelona, and prepared to enter upon his reign. The year 1876 was signalized by the end of the Carlist war and the restoration of peace. Alfonso died November 25th, 1885, and was succeeded by the regent, Queen Christina. On the opening of the cortes, December 1st, 1887, the infant King was enthroned, and in a speech lead 011 that occasion the queen -recent announced that the country was quiet and prosperous. During October, £888, there was a republican outbreak atSara- gossa against conservatives; soon after- ward outbreaks occurred at Seville and Madrid. The ministry resigned Decem- ber 9th, and was reconstituted bv vScnor Sagasta. Spanish Republic In the early part of [889 amnesty was offered to political offenders, and efforts were made to suppress discon- tent. In April, 1898, war broke out between Spain and the United States, in which the former was disastrously defeated. Her navy was swept from the sea, and she was compelled to relinquish Cuba, Porto Rico and the Philippine Islands. The details of the struggle have been narrated in the history of the United States in the nineteenth century, and need not be repeated here. CHAPTER XV. Canada, Mexico and South America. fN 1 79 1 the British parliament divided Canada into two provinces, called Upper and Lower Canada, and gave to each a legislative council ap- pointed by the crown, and a popular assembly chosen by the people. Over each province was placed a governor ap- pointed by the crown. In the hope of in- troducing the Church of England as the jeligious establishment of the provinces, an area of 3,400,000 acres of the public land was set apart for the endowment of the clergy. The effort proved a failure, and in 1854 the lands were devoted to secular purposes, and the idea of estab- lishing a state church was abandoned. The provinces grew steadily in popu- lation and prosperity, and if their ad- vance was not as rapid as that of their southern neighbor, the United States, yet it was as substantial. As the bitter feelings engendered by the war died away, cordial relations sprang up be- tween Canada and the United States, and a profitable commerce was inaugu- rated between them, and grew steadily year by year until it attained its present vast proportions. The introduction of steamboats upon the St. Lawrence and the lakes did much to promote the growth of Canada, and increased its internal and foreign commerce in a marked degree. In 1824 the Welland canal was begun, and was completed in 1829, giving a continuous water passage from Lake Ontario to Lake Erie. It was followed by the Lachine and other canals, all of which have been important agents vn the growth of Canadian commerce. 214 In the early part of the nineteenth century a bitter dispute arose in Canada concerning the proper interpretation of the act of parliament for the govern- ment of the two provinces. One party insisted that Canada was in possession of a transcript of the British constitu- tion, and that the council, which con- stituted the advisers of the governors in matters of state, should be responsi- ble to the popular assembly. The other party maintained that the. council was responsible to the governor only, and that the assembly had no claim upon it. The disputes ran very high, and the trouble was increased by the general course of the governors of the prov- inces, who administered their govern- ments in an arbitrary manner, paying little attention to the popular assem- bly, and utterly disregarding the de- mands of the people. Canadian Rebellion. In Lower Canada the popular dis- content was very great, and in 1837 a portion of the inhabitants of that prov- ince, under the leadership of Louis Joseph Papineau, took up arms with the avowed purpose of throwing off the rule of Great Britain. They were de- feated by the government troops in a series of engagements, and were at length compelled to submit. Papineau and the other leaders fled the coun- try. In December, 1837, the popular party of Upper Canada, indignant at the arb'trary measures of Sir Francis Head, the governor, rose in rebellion under the leadership of William Lyon CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA. 215 Mackenzie. The revolt was suppressed by the government forces after some serious conflicts with the insurgents. For some weeks the insurgents had possession of Navy Island, situated in the Niagara river, just above the falls. Considerable sympathy was manifested for them by the people of the State of New York, and substantial aid was rendered them in spite of the efforts of the President of the United States and the governor of New York to prevent moored at her dock. The boat was cap- tured after a short struggle, in which one American was killed, and was car- ried out into the stream and set on fire She drifted down to the falls, and plunged over them in a blaze. The British Minister at Washington at once declared the responsibility of his gov- ernment for the capture of the boat, and justified it on the ground of self-defence. In the meantime the President had sent General Wool with a strong force to PARLIAMENT HOUSE, OTTAWA. it. Navy Island forms a part of Canada, and lies near the shore of that country. The insurgents in possession of the island employed the steamboat Caro- line to convey men and provisions from the town of Schlosser, on the American shore, to the island. The British authorities in Canada determined to destroy the boat. One dark night in December, 1837, a de- tachment from Canada was sent to Navy Island for this purpose. Not finding the Caroline there, they went over to Schlosser, where she was the Canadian border with orders to pre- vent any expedition from leaving this country to aid the Canadians. He com- pelled the force on Navy Island to sur- render, but the borderwar continued un- til the close of 1838, when it was ended. These outbreaks drew the attention of the British government more closely to the defective system of government in operation in Canada. The people of Canada addressed petitions to the crown, praying for a union of the provinces. This prayer was granted, and in 1841 the two provinces were united under 216 CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA. one government, which was modeled upon the British system, and was in every respect a vast improvement upon the former establishments. The coun- try was now styled the Province of Canada. In 1849 a general amnesty to all who had taken part in the rebellion ?f 1837 was passed. In 1849 a bill was introduced into the Canadian parliament to indemnify certain persons for the losses sustained by them during the rebellion. This measure was bitterly opposed by the vaded by the Fenians, an organization of Irishmen dwelling in the United States. This insane movement was met promptly by the Canadian authori- ties, and the President of the United States sent General Meade, with a suf- ficient force of troops, to the Canadian border to arrest the Fenian leaders and to seize their supplies. On the 4th of December, 1866, dele- gates appointed by the legislative as- semblies of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick met at London to UNIVERSITY people of Montreal, and gave rise to a formidable and disgraceful riot, in which the parliament was dispersed and the parliament house burned down by the mob. This riot induced the parliament to remove the seat of gov- ernment to Toronto for the next two years, and to Quebec for the four suc- ceeding years. In 1857 Ottawa was selected as the permanent seat of gov- ernment, and costly public buildings were erected there for the use of the various departments of the state. In the spring of 1866 Canada was in- OF TORONTO. arrange the terms of a confederation. This task was successfully performed, and on the 7U1 of February, 1867, a bill was introduced into the British parliament creating the union. It passed both houses, and on the 29th of March received the royal assent. On the 22nd of May the queen issued her proclama- tion appointing the 1st of July, 1867, as the day from which the new confed- eration should date its existence. The new State was styled the Do- minion of Canada, and was given the right of self-government. The Gov- CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA. 2tt ernor-General of Canada is appointed by the crown, but all the other offices are filled by the people or by their chosen delegates. Canada is thus prac- tically independent of Great Britain, though constituting an important part of the British empire, and owing alle- giance to the British sovereign. Purchase of Territory. In 1870 Manitoba and the northwest territories were purchased from the Hudson Bay Company and added to the dominion. In 1871 British Colum- bia joined the confederation, and in 1873 Prince Edward's Island did like- wise. Since the confederation of the prov- inces the chief events have been as follows : the Red River rebellion, which collapsed in August, 1870 ; treaty of Washington, 1871, dealing with fish- eries and the mutual use of certain canals ; outbreak of half-breeds under Louis Reil, in March, 1885, resulting in the speedy suppression of the rebel- lion and Riel's execution ; and the treaty for the settlement of the fisheries dispute, signed by the British and United States representatives February 15, 1888. In October, 1891, the Do- minion government refused to acqui- esce in the copyright treaty between England and the United States, claim- ing that the treaty was not international. On the 29th of July a motion for un- restricted reciprocity with the United States was rejected after a long debate in the house of Commons. The Great Canadian Pacific Railroad was completed in 1891. Entrance to New York was given over the New York Central lines. It was universally believed that the completion of this important railway would have much to do with the development of the re- sources of Canada, especially the mining industries of British Columbia, and this has proved true. In 1 892 an attempt was made to bring about 1 more complete reciprocity be- tween Canada and the United States. Representatives of both countries were appointed to take the subject into con- sideration and recommend practical methods by which closer commercial relations could be established. Unfor- tunately the negotiations amounted to nothing, and were discontinued in June of that year. The subject, however, was not allowed to drop, but was favorably discussed in a convention at Ottawa called in 1893 for the purpose of promoting tariff reform. Vast Wealth of Mines. In January, 1897, a Toronto syndicate purchased the War Eagle mine in Brit- ish Columbia for the sum of $850,000. This purchase had much to do with stimulating the mining interests of that province. Attention was called to the great mineral wealth of that section, which resulted in large investments on the part of Canadian capitalists and others in the United States. The discovery of gold in the Klon- dike region caused a great rush to the gold fields, and necessitated special leg- islation by the Canadian Parliament : c or the right adjustment of claims and the preservation of law and order. During the year large sums of gold arrived at Victoria, British Columbia, and along with them tales of suffering and priva- tion endured by many of the miners. 218 CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA. MEXICO IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. k EXICO has been the scene of many revolutions, and for centuries was in a state of almost constant turmoil. This can be accounted for by Spanish greed and oppression, which the people from time to time resisted, being as often overcome by superior force after suffer- ing many indignities and after convul- sions which frequently resulted in great loss of life. Insurgents Executed. The overthrow of the reigning house of Spain, and the elevation of Joseph Bonaparte to the Spanish throne, caused profound discontent in Mexico. All classes resented it. It became necessary to make certain modifications in the government to suit the altered state of affairs. On the 16th of September, 1808, the viceroy, Don Jose de Iturri- garay, was arrested and imprisoned on suspicion of a design to seize the crown of Mexico. This act greatly increased the popular discontent, and the aspira- tions for independence took, as it were, new life from this moment. On the 15th of September, 18 10, a formidable revolt broke out in the province of Guanajuato, under the leadership of Don Miguel Hidalgo, a priest. It was suppressed the next year, and Hidalgo and the other leaders were shot. This revolt was followed by a guerilla warfare of several years, under the lead- ership of Morelos, Victoria, Guerrero, Bravo, Rayon, and Teran. The patriot forces were compelled to cliug to the mountains, but their unceasing resist- ance kept alive the long-cherished hope for independence. It seemed, however, that the authority of Spain was fully restored, and that the patriot cause was hopeless. The revolution of 1820 in Spain re- vived the enthusiasm of the national party in Mexico, and a new leader ap- peared. This was Don Augustin Itur- bide, a native Mexican, who had dis- tinguished himself in the civil war as an officer in the royalist service. On the 24th- of February, 1821, he issued a proclamation declaring Mexico inde- pendent of Spain, and calling upon the Mexicans to sustain him. The revolt was successful. The whole country ac- knowledged his authority, the royal government was overthrown, and on the 27th of September the city of Mexicc was surrendered to him by the viceroy. A New Emperor. A regency was established, and or. 19th of May, 1822, Iturbide was pro claimed Emperor of Mexico by the army. This act gave great offence to the other patriot leaders, and on the 2d of December, Santa Anna, with the sup- port of Bravo, Guerrero, and others, pro- claimed the republic at Vera Cruz. A civil war was averted by the abdication of Iturbide on the 19th of March, 1823. A national congress was at once con- vened. Iturbide was condemned to exile, and sailed for England in May, 1823. A provisional government was set up, and on the 4th of October, 1824, the Congress adopted a constitution mod- eled upon that of the United States. By virtue of this instrument Mexico be- came a republic consisting of nineteen States and five territories. General Vic- SLAUGHTER OF THE MEXICANS BY THE SPANIARDS. 219 220 CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA. toria, one of the popular leaders, was chosen president. Iturbide now re- turned to attempt the recovery of his throne, but was made prisoner, and was shot on the 19th of July, 1824. President Overthrown. In 1828 the election of General Pe- draza to the presidency over General Guerrero led to a revolt on the part of the followers of the latter. The out- break was successful. Pedraza was overthrown and driven from the coun- try, and Guerrero assumed the presi- dency on the 1st of April, 1829. In the same year the United States recognized Mexico as an independent republic. In July, 1829, a Spanish force landed near Tainpico to attempt the restoration of the rule of Spain. It was compelled to surrender on the nth of September. The troops were disarmed and sent to Havana. Mexico, though independent, was not destined to enjoy the blessing of a stable government. Soon after the surrender of the Spaniards, the vice-president, General Bustamaute, pronounced against Guerrero, deposed him, and was himself elected president January 11, 1830. He was succeeded by Pedraza, who three months later, was deposed by Santa Anna, who became president April 1, 1833. Bustamante and several leading men were exiled by the new president. Congress now enacted a law abolishing the compulsory payment of tithes, and it was proposed to confiscate the prop- erty of the church and apply it to the payment of the national debt. These measures led to several out- breaks, the result of which was the re- peal, in 1835, of the constitution of 1824, and the change from a confedera- tion of states into a consolidated repub- lic, with Santa Anna at its head as dic- tator, though retaining the title of presi- dent. Texas, then a state of the republic, refused to accept this change, and pro- claimed its independence. Santa Anna marched against the Texans in 1836, but after gaining some success, was de- feated and made prisoner in the battle of San Jacinto, April 21, 1836. The captivity of Santa Anna brought back the reign of anarchy in Mexico. Bustamante returned from exile, and on the 19th of April, 1837, became presi- dent. Later in the year Santa Anna returned to Mexico, and the leal power passed into his hands. In March, 1839, a new revolution broke out, and Santa Anna once more became president. In July he was overthrown by General Nicolas Bravo, who held the office for one week. Disorder and Violence. A period of confusion followed ; the constitution was suspended ; and a dic- tatorship, consisting of Santa Anna, Bravo and Canalizo, was set up. In June, 1843, a new constitution was pro- claimed, and Santa Anna became con- stitutional president in 1844. A few months later he was driven from power by a revolution, and on the 20th of Sep- tember, 1844, Canalizo became presi- dent, only to be himself deposed in the following December by General Her- rera, who was deposed by a new revolu- tion on the 30th of December, 1845, which made General Paredes president. During Herrera's administration Mex- ico became involved in a quarrel with the United States, growing out of the annexation of Texas by the latter power. CANAbA, MEXICO A.ND S6UfH AMERICA. 221 The details of this war have been rela- ted in " Great Events of American His- tory," in another part of this volume, to which the reader is referred. During the struggle Santa Anna returned from exile, overthrew Paredes, made himself president, and took personal command of the army. The war resulted in the triumph of the American forces, and by the treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo,signed in February, 1848, California and New Mexico were ceded to the United States. Repeated Revolutions. The result of the war was fatal to Santa Anna. He was overthrown, driven from the country, and was suc- ceeded by Herrera. A series of revolu tions followed the war, elevating first one leader and then another to the presi- dency. On the nth of May, 1861, Be- nito Juarez captured the city of Mexico, and his authority was generally recog- nized throughout the republic. He was one of the best of the Mexican presidents, and inaugurated a series of useful reforms which rendered his administration very popular with the mass of the nation. Marriage was made a civil contract, perpetual monastic vows and ecclesias- tical courts were abolished, and the church property, which was estimated at nearly one-half the real estate of the country, was appropriated to the service of the state. A little later the union between church and state, which had existed from the time of the conquest, was completely severed. These measures, though popular with the people, gave great offence to the church party, which determined to de- stroy the Juarez government at any cost. At this juncture Spain, France and England, presented to the Mexican gov- ernment a series of claims for losses sus- tained by their citizens in that country, and failing to obtain any satisfaction from the Juarez government, despatched a joint expedition to Mexico to enforce their demands. Early in December, 1 86 1, a Spanish force under General Prim occupied Vera Cruz, and in Janu- ary, 1862, the English and French forces arrived. The Juarez government now pro- ceeded to settle the difficulty by nego- tiation, and agreed that the English and Spanish claims should be paid by turning over to them a certain propor- tion of the customs receipts. This ar- rangement being satisfactory to Eng- land and Spain, their forces evacuated Mexico in May, 1862. Plotting with the French. The church party had seen in the presence of the foreign troops in Mexico an opportunity for the destruction of the Juarez government, and now re- solved to put their plan in execution, although they knew it involved the loss of their country's liberties. They began to plot with the French, whose claim was the smallest, and induced the French emperor to attempt the erection of a monarchy in Mexico, which should make that country in actual fact a de- pendency of France, promising their active aid in overcoming the resistance of their countrymen. Accordingly the French commander refused to accept the arrangement which had proved satisfactory to England and Spain, and on the 16th of April, 1862, France declared war against Mexico. The French army was reinforced, and the advance into the interior was begun. Puebla was attacked, but the French m CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA. were defeated and forced back to the coast. In 1863 the French army was strongly reinforced, and siege was laid to Pnebla, which surrendered to General Forey on the 17th of May, after a gal- lant defence of three months. A number of other successes were won by the French, and on the 10th of June, 1863, they entered the city of that Mexico should be a hereditary mon- archy under an emperor of the Roman Catholic faith. % The crown was offered to the Austrian Archduke Maximilian, and was accepted by him. He waived all claim to the throne of Austria in the event of the death of his brother, the Emperor Fran- cis Joseph, and made farewell visits to ENTRY OF THE FRENCH INTO THE CITY OF MEXICO. Mexico in triumph. Juarez and his government withdrew to San Luis Po- tosi. The French and the church party at once proceeded to cany out their scheme. A regency was established on the 24th of June, and on the 8th of July an as- sembly of notables was held to decide upon the future form of government for Mexico. On the 10th this bodv declared the sovereigns of France, England and Belgium, and to the Pope, who gave him his special blessing. He sailed for Mexico in April, 1864, and on the 28th of May landed at Vera Cruz, which was held by the French. After a short delay there he proceeded to the capital, welcomed all along the route with great enthusiasm by the ch urch party. He made his formal entry Canada, Mexico and south America. 2^.J into the city of Mexico on the 12th of June, 1864. One of the first acts of Maximilian, who was childless, was to adopt as his heir the son of the Emperor Iturbide. He addressed himself with energy to the task of giving to Mexico a good government, and it is exceed- ingly probable that had he been able to establish his throne he would have done more for the country than any of its former rulers had accomplished ; but from the first he had to encounter the hostility of the republican or national party, and his failure to restore the se- questered estates of the clergy and to revive the old connection between church and state, soon lost him the sup- port of his only partisans ; and he was kept on his throne only by the presence of the French army. The imperial troops drove Juarez and his adherents back by degrees, and in September, 1865, he reached El Paso, on the Texan frontier. His forces maintained a determined resistance, and early in 1866 the tide began to turn in their favor. On the 25 th of March they captured Chihuahua. Protest by Our Government. In the meantime the United States, appreciating the designs of France, had strongly protested against the establish- ment of the Mexican empire. At length, the Civil War being ended, the American government determined to give Juarez material aid unless France should with- draw her troops and leave the Mexicans to settle their own affairs. The French government was informed of this deter- mination, and at last agreed to withdraw its army. Upon reaching this decision, the Emperor Napoleon sent General Castelnau to the city of Mexico to urge Maximilian to abdicate, as he could not possibly succeed in holding his throne without the aid of France. Maximilian refused to entertain the idea of abdication, and declined to see the French envoy. His ministers sup- ported him in his determination. The withdrawal of the French army was immediately begun, and the emperor soon found himself dependent entirely upon the support of a few partisans whose desperate fortunes were so bound up with his own that they could not afford to desert him. The last French detachment was withdrawn from Mexico on the 1 6th of March, 1867. Shouts for the Republic. The departure of the French was fol- lowed by a strong reaction in favor of the republic. The forces of Juarez were largely augmented, and the emperor, thrown upon his own resources, deemed it best to leave the city of Mexico, inarch northward, and offer battle to the repub- lican army. He reached Queratero at the head of 5,000 men, and was at once besieged in th?t place by a force of 20,000 men under General Escobedo. The place was betrayed by the imperial- ist governor of the city, Maximilian was made prisoner, and shot on the 19th of June, 1867. On the 1 6th of July Juarez returned to the city of Mexico, and began the work of reconstructing the government. The constitution was re-established, and in 1 87 1 Juarez was again elected presi- dent. He died on the 18th of July, 1872, and was succeeded by the Chief Justice, Lerdo de Tejada, who was form- ally elected president on the 21st of No- vember, 1872. He was re-elected in 1876, but was soon after overthrown by 224 CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA. General Porfirio Diaz and compelled to fly to the United States. Diaz showed himself to be one of the ablest Mexican rulers, and was re-elected relations with foreign powers being peaceful. So strong was the popular feeling in favor of Diaz, and so great was the confidence of the nation in ais *~. w . .. EMPEROR MAXIMILIAN SHOT BY MEXICAN TROOPS. in 1884, and again in 18SS; and under ' wisdom and patriotism, that he was re- him the position of the republic, with elected in 1892, and again in 1S90. regard both to security and development An insurrection that threatened to of its resources, steadily improved, and plunge the country into anarchy and comparative tranquillity prevailed, the rebellion broke out in 1892. General CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA. 22.0 Lorenzo Garcia was killed by his troops who joined the rebels under Garza in Texas. The band was, however,, dis- persed and order restored. SOUTH AMERICA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. IN i8o7Napoleo Portugal, and country. Tl: )leon declared war against sent an army into that ry. The regent (afterwards Joam VI.) and the royal family and court at once embarked upon the fleet and sailed for Rio de Janeiro. This was a great gain for Brazil, and was followed by im- portant changes in the government; the ports were thrown open to all the world, and trade was invited from all nations. In 18 1 5, upon the overthrow of Napo- leon, Brazil was erected into a kingdom, and when Joam VI. came to the throne in 1816 he took the title of King of Portugal, Algarve and Brazil. He continued to reside in Brazil, and so offended his Portuguese subjects. In September, 1820, as we have related elsewhere, a revolution broke out in Portugal, and the Spanish constitution was proclaimed. Revolutionary distur- bances occurred in Para and Pernam- buco, and the king, fearing that the movement would involve the whole of Brazil, placed himself at the head of it, and 011 the 26th of February, 1821, pro- claimed the constitution of Brazil. Soon after this he returned to Portugal, leav- ing his son, Prince Pedro, as Regent of Brazil. He had scarcely sailed when a revolutionary movement broke out, in April, 1 82 1. Brazil was declared an in- dependent empire on the 12th of Octo- ber, 1822, and on the 1st of December, 1822, the regent was crowned Emperor as Dom Pedro I. A constitution was adopted in 1824, and on the 7th of Sep- tember, 1825, Portugal acknowledged the independence of Brazil. 15 In 1 826 Joam VI. died, and Dom Pedro became King of Portugal . He preferred to retain his western empire, and re- signed the Portuguese crown to his in- fant daughter Dona Maria da Gloria. In the same year a war broke out between Brazil and the Argentine republic, which was seeking to absorb Uruguay. Peace was made through the mediation of Eng- land, and Montevideo or Uruguay was constituted an independent republic. On the 7th of April, 183 1, Pedro I., who had been engaged in a long dispute with the chamber of deputies, ended the quarrel by abdicating his crown in favor of his son, Pedro II., the present emperor. As the new sovereign was but six years old, a council of regency administered the government until 1841, when Pedro was declared of age, and was crowned 011 the 18th of July, The reign of Pedro II. was prosper- ous and highly beneficial to his country. He proved a liberal and able ruler, and spared no pains to advance the civiliza- tion and prosperity of Brazil. In 183 1 a law placing severe restrictions upon the slave trade was enacted, and in 1850 the traffic was finally abolished. In 1852 Brazil, in alliance with Uruguay and the forces of Entre Rios, waged a successfiu war against the Argentine Dictator Rosas, who was defeated and forced to fly to England. In 1895 Brazil, Uruguay and the Argentine republic declared war against Paraguay, the cause being the unprovoked aggressions of Lopez, the Dictator of Paraguay, upon the allied states. 226 CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA. The war was long and costly, and ended only with die death of Lopez, on the ist of March, 1871. Brazil entered into a separate treaty with Paraguay concern- ing boundaries and a war indemnity, without consulting her allies. This gave great offence to the Argentine re- public, and came near leading to a war with that country. The difficulty was settled in October, 1872, by an agreement that the Argentine republic should negotiate separately with Para- guay, as Brazil had done. In 1871 a law was enacted by the Brazilian chambers providing for the gradual extinction of slavery throughout the empire. Dom Pedro was deposed in November, 1889, and took refuge in Europe. Fon- seca was made president of the national congress. Soon there were serious dis- agreements between him and the con- gress, and lit attempted in 1S91 to as- sume the dictatorship. The revolution- ary spirit again showed itself and in No vember Fonseca resigned. Then followed a period of constant intrigues, ambitions schemes to rule the country, and a succession of revolts and insurrections that prevented anything like a stable government. On the 15th of November, 1894, Dr. Prudente Jose de Moraes assumed the office of presi- dent, and as one of his first political acts granted amnesty to those who had been leaders in seditious plots. The clemency of the government, how- ever, did not entirely suppress the spirit, of revolt, and the republic continued in a state of turmoil and insecurity. Attempts were made in November, 1897, to assassinate the president, and martial law was proclaimed. In Marc'i, 1898, Dr. Campos Salles was elected president, but so many factions and conflicting interests divided the popu- lace that hearty and united support of the ofovernuient was not assured. HISTORY OF PERU. IN 1820 the South American States rose in rebellion against Spain, and proclaimed themselves inde- pendent. Peru was the last to take this step. General San Martin, who had freed Chili of the Spaniards, entered Peru at the head of an army of Chilians and Buenos Ayreans, seized the city of Lima, and drove the Span- iards into the interior. On the 28th of July, 1 82 1, Peru declared herself inde- pendent of Spain, and General San Martin was proclaimed protector of the republic. Becoming unpopular, he re- signed on the 19th of August, 1822, and in February, 1824, General Bolivar was made dictator. On the 9th of Decembei, 1S24, the Peruvians inflicted a decisive defeat upon the Spaniards in the battle of Ayacucho, and in January, 1826, ex- pelled them from Callao, their last foot- hold in Peru. In 1825 Bolivar resigned the dictatorship, but before doing so, organized the southern and southeast- ern provinces into a separate republic, which took the name of Bolivia. Although independent, Peru was not tranquil. In 1826 a revolution occurred, and the constitution proclaimed by Bolivar was destroyed, and a new one adopted. In 1836 President Santa Cruz, of Bolivia, entered Peru with an army, and proclaimed himself Supreme Pro- CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA. 227 tector of the Bolivio- Peruvian confeder- ation. The union between the two States lasted until 1839. A series of deposi- tions and civil wars now ensued, but were brought to an end in 1844 by General Castillo, who made Menendez president. Castillo was elected as the successor of Menendez, and entered upon his office on the 1st of April, 1845. He re- mained in power until 1851, and gave to Peru the best government it had ever known. He was succeeded by General Echenique, who was accused of gross frauds in his administration. Castillo headed an insurrection, drove Eche- nique from power and once more be- came master of Peru. Several deter- mined efforts to overthrow Castillo's government were made, but all failed, and he succeeded in holding office until the expiration of his term. In 1855 he declared slavery abolished in Peru. In October, 1862, General San Ramon suc- ceeded Castillo as president, but died in the following April. General Pezet succeeded him. During Pezet's admin- istration the Spaniards seized the Chin- cha islands, and Peru declared war against Spain. Peace was made in 1865, Spain re- storing the islands, and Peru agreeing to pay a war indemnity of $3,000,000. This treaty was denounced by the peo- ple, and brought on a revolution which overthrew Pezet, and made General Prado dictator. He concluded an alli- ance with Chili in December, 1865, and in January, 1866, the two States de- clared war against Spain. On the 2d of May the Spanish fleet sustained a defeat at the hands of the allies, and a few days later withdrew from the Peruvian waters. On the 10th of January, 1868, a successful revolution compelled Prado to resign his office and retire to Chili. On the 28th of July Colonel Balto was proclaimed president, but was as- sassinated in July, 1872. Peace was restored in a few weeks, and on the 2d of August Don Manuel Pardo was al- most unanimously chosen president. He held office until the 2d of August, 1876, and his administration was highly popular and successful. At length in- ternal dissensions arose, a sanguinary revolution broke out at Lima, December 23d, 1 88 1, and Pierolas was proclaimed dictator. Soon after this the Chilians occupied the town, vacating it October 23d, 1883. Insurrections and civil dis- orders prevailed until 1885, resulting in the retirement of Iglesias and Caceres, rival presidents, through foreign inter- vention. Caceres was elected president April 23d, 1886. Bermudez was elected president in 1 890, and a revolutionary attempt near Lima to overthrow him was defeated. Bermudez died in March, 1894, and in August of the same year Caceres was again inaugurated president. The coun- try remained in an unsettled state and was disturbed by repeated revolts and uprisings, and chronic turmoil. HISTORY OF CHILI. HE Spaniards organized Chili as a vice-royalty, and divided it into thirteen districts. Like all the Spanish provinces, it was always mis- governed and the people were grossly oppressed. In July, 18 10, the popular discontent broke out into revolution ; the Spanish Governor Carrasco was 228 CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA. deposed, and the government placed in the hands of a "junta." An outward loyalty to Spain was maintained, but it was the real design of the leaders of the movement to break off all connection with the mother country. In April, i S 1 1 , the royal troops were attacked by the patriots and driven from Santiago. General Carrera was appointed by the "junta" supreme president of the na- tional congress and commander-in-chief of the army. In 1 8 1 3 he won two vic- tories over the Spanish troops, but the latter were largely reinforced, and before the close of the year Chili was com- pelled to submit once more to the au- thority of Spain. Spanish Tyranny. During the next three years the ty- ranny of the Spanish officials was more odious than it had been before the out- break. The patriots now raised an army in the neighboring province of La Plata, and made General San Martin its com- mander. He marched into Chili, and won an important victory over the roy- alist forces at Chacabuco on the 12th of February, 18 17. A provisional govern- ment was set up by the patriots, and Don Bernardo O'Higgins was placed at its head as supreme dictator. The Span- iards now rallied and defeated the Chilians with heavy loss at Chaucha- rayada, but were themselves utterly routed by the patriots at Chilenos on the 5th of April, 18 18. Not more than 500 Spaniards escaped from the field. This victory entirely destroyed the Spanish power in Chili, Peru and Bue- nos Ayres, and secured the independ- ence of those states. The Spaniards retreated to the port of Valdivia, which they held until 1820, when they surren- dered to the Chilian forces. The dictatorship of General O'Hig- gins lasted until 1823, when, having become unpopular, he was forced to re- sign his power. A provisional govern- ment of three succeeded him, but gave way in the course of a few weeks to General Freire as dictator. In 1828 the first Chilian constitution was adopted. It was revised in 1831-33. A Revolt Suppressed. Chili has been the most orderly of the South American republics, but has not entirely escaped revolution. The most serious of these outbreaks occurred in 185 1 ; one in April and the other in September. The latter was the more formidable of the two, but both were at length suppressed. The September re- volt was caused by the effort of General De la Cruz to overthrow the president of the republic, Don Manuel Montt. It cost the government a sacrifice of 4,000 soldiers for its suppression, and greatly injured the prosperity of the country. At its close a general amnesty was pro- claimed to the insurgents, and President Montt applied himself with energy to the restoration of the prosperity of the country. He was re-elected in 1856. His ad- ministration was the ablest in the his- tory of the republic. It gave to the country a well-arranged code of laws, established a tribunal of commerce and a bank of discount and deposit at Val- paraiso, arranged the finances on a se- curer basis, and negotiated treaties of commerce and friendship with France, Sardinia, the United States and Great Britain. In 1862 the Araucanians gave great trouble to the government. Under CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA. 229 the leadership of a Frenchman named De Tonniens, they endeavored to throw off the authority of Chili and make them- selves independent. They were com- pelled to submit. Coast Blockaded. When the war broke out between Peru and Spain, in 1864, Chili warmly sympathized with her sister republic. This sympathy drew upon her the hos- tility of Spain, and the next year the coast of Chili was blockaded by the Spanish fleet. Chili, late in 1865, de- clared war against Spain. On the 26th of November the Chilian steamer Es- meralda captured the Spanish steamer Covadonga, with all the correspond- ence of the Spanish admiral on board. This event so mortified Admiral Pareja that he committed suicide. He was suc- ceeded by Admiral Nunez. On the 14th of January, 1866, Chili entered into an alliance with Peru, and on the 7th of February the allied fleets defeated a Spanish squadron. On the 31st of March Admiral Nunez, regardless of the protests of all the for- eign representatives at that port, bom- barded the city of Valparaiso, destroy- ing property to the amount of more than ten millions of dollars, and demol- ishing nearly all the public buildings and many private edifices. Not a shot was returned from the town. The greater part of the loss fell upon the foreign residents. In the following month the Spanish fleet took its depart- ure from the Chilian waters. The United States now offered their medi- ation between Spain and the allies, and on the nth of April, 1871, a treaty arranging an armistice and an indefinite truce was signed at Washington. In 1869 the Araucanians again en- deavored to throw off the Chilian rule, but in the following year were put down, and their country was permanently occu- pied by the Chilian forces. From this time the history of Chili was compara- tively uneventful until 1891 , when a revolution occurred, resulting in a vic- tory for the insurgent forces. In the decisive battle 300 of President Balma- ceda's forces were defeated with heavy loss. An attempt was made at Valpa- raiso on May 7th to assassinate the lead- ing members of the cabinet. Chilian Steamer Seized. On the 5th of May the insurgent Chilian steamer Itata was seized by United States officers at San Diego, California ; she escaped, and arriving at Iquique, June 4th, was delivered to the American warships. The suicide of Balmaceda followed his downfall, and a provisional Junta was formed. The crew of the United States steamer Bal- timore having met with outrageous treatment by the police of Valparaiso, our government promptly demanded an apology from Chili. The trouble was at length amicably settled. On January 3, 1892, the Chilian riot- ers were sentenced (some to imprison- ment and some to penal servitude), for assaulting the sailors of the Baltimore, and the President of Chili apologized to the United States government. In August, 1894, an arbitration commis- sion at Washington awarded our gov- ernment $240,564 for claims against Chili. Erraguriz was elected president in July, 1896. In July, ,'897, boun- dary disputes wilh Argentina were referred to the arbitration of Queen Victoria. 230 CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA. UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA. 'PANISH rule here, as else- where, bore very hard upon the people, and finally re- sulted in revolution. The first outbreak was made in 1781, and was suppressed. It was followed by another unsuccessful attempt in 1795. The authority of Spain was not con- tested again until 181 1, when the people rose in rebellion and drove out the Spanish forces. The victories of Boli- var established the independence of New Granada, and in 18 19 the state be- came a member of the republic of Co- lombia. This confederation was broken up by the withdrawal of Venezuela in 1829 and Ecuador in 1830. In 1831 New Granada declared itself an inde- pendent republic, and in 1832 adopted a constitution. The chief executive power was confided to a president, who was to be elected for a term of four years. From this time until i860 the liistory of the republic was mainly peaceful and uneventful. Early in i860 a revolution broke out, headed by General Mosquera, the chief of the liberal party. President Ospina was overthrown, and Mosquera seized the government. A convention was held at Bogota in 1861, and a new re- public was organized under the name of the United States of Colombia ; a constitution was adopted, and Mosquera was made dictator. The civil war was brought to an end in December, 1862, by the submission of the conservative party to the new republic. A national congress then met at Rio Negro on the 4th of February, 1863, and Mosquera resigned his dictatorial powers to this body. A new constitution was promulgate? on the 8th of May, 1863, and subse- quently Mosquera was appointed pro- visional president, to hold office till April 1, 1864, when he was to be suc- ceeded by a president elected by the people. The new constitution contained provisions confiscating the property of the church, and establishing religious liberty. These provisions aroused the hostility of the priests and their follow- ers, who, headed by the Archbishop of Bogota, threw every obstacle in the waj of the government. These disputes led to an attempt on the part of Mosquera, who had again been chosen president in 1866, to seize the whole power of the government. He was defeated and condemned to two years of exile. The principles of reli- gious liberty and immunity from im- prisonment for debt remained undis- turbed. In 1875 an outbreak in some of the Atlantic states occurred, but was put down. In 1876 an unsuccessful revolution was begun by the clerical party, but was suppressed in the follow- ing year. In 1886 a fresh constitution wa> adopted, based on that of the United States, placing the central authority in the strengthened hands of the federal government. An insurrection broke out in 1885, the government troops were defeated, and peace was restored Since then the history of the country !>•«.« been uneventful. Venezuela remained under Spanish rule until the early part of the present century. \t warmly opposed the acces- sion of Joseph Bonaparte to the Span- ish throne; and on the 5 th of July, 181 1, NATIVE PILE" VH.LAP-E ■ SCENES IN BRITISH GUIANA AND VENEZUELA 232 CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA. threw off its allegiance to Spain, and declared itself independent. In 1812 the treaty of Victoria restored it to Spain. The Spanish rule was hateful to the people, and in 1813 Venezuela again revolted under the leadership of General Simon Bolivar. A long struggle ensued, and in 18 19 the independence of the country was practically secured, and the republic of Colombia, consist- ing of New Granada, Venezuela, and Ecuador, was established. The war with Spain did not close until 1823, but the result was assured from the time of the formation of the republic. In 1 82 1 a constitution was adopted. In 1829 Venezuela withdrew from the Colombian republic, and became an in- dependent state. In 1830 Ecuador be- came a separate republic. The dissolu- tion of the old confederation was peace- ful and amicable. For the next fifteen years the history of Venezuela is peace- ful and uneventful. In 1846 General Monagas became president. A period of constant civil war now set in, and lasted until June, 1863, when the acces- sion of General Falcon to the presi- dency restored tranquillity to the coun- try. Several years of peace followed, and then a new revolution broke out and resulted in the establishment of a provisional government under Guzman Blanco, in April, 1869. The next year he convened a congress at Valencia, and compelled that body to appoint him provisional president of the repub lie, with extraordinary powers. In February, 1873, he was elected by the people for a term of four years. There has never been any agreement between Great Britain and Venezuela as to the boundary line between the lat- ter country and British Guiana. The Venezuelan Government represented to ours at Washington that Gres Britain was disposed to make encroachments and claim territory Liat did not by right belong to her. In December, 1895, President Cleve- land sent a strong message to Congress on this subject, in which he took occa- sion to assert in very plain terms the Monroe Doctrine. The message was received with great favor, and a com- mission of investigation was appointed by Congress. For a time there was loud talk of war between Great Britain and the United States, but wiser coun- sels prevailed, and Great Britain fur- nished the commission with all the in- formation in its possession, which could be of service in reaching a just and equitable conclusion. In 1899 a commission to determine the boundary line between Venezuela and British Guiana assembled in Paris. Ex-President Harrison was counsel for the Republic of Venezuela, and the com- mission reached an agreement which was recommended to the two govern- ments. BRITISH GUIANA. XCEPT for two short periods the settlements composing British Guiana were held by the Dutch down to 1803, when they were taken possession of by the English. One of them, Berbice, was at first ad- ministered as a distinct colony, but in 1 83 1 it was incorporated with the rest o( British Guiana. During slave-holding time sugar- CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA. 233 planting brought some degree of pros- perity to these colonies; but their pro- ductiveness in this respect was very sensibly crippled by the abolition of slavery, which deprived them of their supplies of the requisite kind of labor for the plantations. Since that event coffee and cotton have almost entirely ceased to be grown; and the cultiva- tion of beet-root for sugar caused a very serious crisis in Guiana cane- planting. British and Dutch Guiana, however, still shows signs of vitality. The cane- sugar industry, if not reviving, is at least not retrograding, whilst gold-mining is a decidedly progressive industry. Ex- cept for gold-mining, which, however, remains stationary, French Guiana is in a hopelessly deplorable condition. HISTORY OF BOLIVIA. FTER the revolution of 1820 it became independent of Spain. In 1825 it was erected into an independent republic by General Simon Bolivar, and was named Bolivia in honor of him. A national conven- tion was assembled, and General Boli- var was requested to prepare a constitu- tion. General Sucre was chosen pres- ident, and continued in office until 1828, when he was overthrown and ex- pelled from Bolivia by General Gamarra. Shortly after this he was assassinated. Sucre was succeeded by General Blanco, who, a few months later, was over- thrown and slain in a revolution hea led by General Balibian. In 1829 Mariscal Santa Cruz was elected president. He held office until February, 1839. In 1836 he became the head of the state in Peru, styling himself the Supreme Protector of the Bolivio-Pertivian confederation. This union between the two states was broken in 1839 by the overthrow of Santa Cruz by a new revolution. A period of con- fusion and civil war followed in Bolivia. In 1858 Dr. Linares became president, and ruled with dictatorial power. He was overthrown in 1861, and Acha was named provisional president. In De- cember, 1864, General Melgarejo headed a new revolution, and in February, 1865, defeated the government forces and became president. General Belzu at- tempted to overturn him, but was de- feated and killed. Another revolt was put down in January, 1866. In that year Bolivia joined the alli- ance of Peru, Ecuador and Chili against Spain. In March, 1867, a large district in the northern part of the republic was added to Brazil. In December a formi- dable revolution, having for its object the restoration of Acha to the presi- dency, broke out. It was out down early in 1868. In February, 1869, Mel- garejo, with the unanimous consent of the national congress, declared himself dictator. In May he restored the con- stitution, but continued to exercise his dictatorial powers. In October a new revolution broke out under the leader- ship of A. Morales. The outbreak was put down, but was renewed in July, 1870, only to be stamped out again. In 1 87 1 a successful revolution drove Mel- garejo out of the country, and Morales became president, for one year. In No- vember Melgarejo was assassinated in Lima, by his son-in-law. Morales survived him a little more 23 \ CANADA, MKXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA. than a year, and was murdered by his son-in-law on the 27tli of November, 1S72. In May, [873, Don Adoll'o Bal- livian became president of the republic. Ill health soon compelled him to with- draw from public life, and Dr. Tonus Krias was appointed to succeed him, in February, 1874. On the 14th of the same month General Ballivian died. His death was followed by a series of revolutionary disturbances, which were not finally crushed until April, 1875. Bolivia is naturally one of the richest countries of South America, but its great mountain chains cut it off from all communication with the sea or the rest of the continent on the western side, except by the tedious and expen- sive process of mule transport across the mountains. On the eastern side this obstacle to the progress of the re- public does not exist. The Madeira river drains a large portion of the re- public, receives the waters o[~ the greater number of its streams, and finally empties into the Amazon. For about 1 50 miles it is obstructed by rapids. Below the rapids it is navigable to the Amazon, whicl river gives read)' access to the sea. In 1872 it was resolved to build a railway around these rapids, and to bring Bolivia into direct communica- tion with the rest of the world. In 1876 Bolivia joined Peru in a war against Chili. In 1879 Bolivia was swept by a revolution ; Diaz, at that time president, was deposed and com- pelled to flee, and Campero was elected to be his successor. Peace was estab- lished with Chili, and the conditions were finally settled in December, 1883. In August, iSSS, Aniceto Arce, presi- dent, suppressed a revolution and re- stored peace. In 1892 an insurrection by General Cainacho was suppressed and Baptista was declared president. An ultimatum was addressed to Peru demanding satis- faction within twenty-four hours for in- vasion of territory. The Bolivian Min- ister was recalled, and finally the dis- pute was referred to arbitration. On the 20th of August, 1896, Alonso as- sumed the presidency. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. IN 1776 the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres was created. It embraced the countries now known as the Argentine republic, Bolivia, Uru- guay, and Paraguay. In 1806, Spain being at war with Great Britain, a small British force captured Buenos Ayres and Montevideo, but was soon driven out by the inhabitants. Another effort was made by a stronger British force to capture Buenos Ayres in 1807, but was repulsed. In 1 8 10 Buenos Ayres threw off the Spanish yoke, and proclaimed its inde- pendence. The war was decided m 181 2 by the surrender of the Spanish forces at Montevideo. In January, 181 3, a "sovereign assembly" was convened at Tucuman, then the capital of Buenos Ayres, and the administration of the government was confided to it. The independence of the republic being established, an army was sent into Chili, under General San Martin, and aided the Chilians in driving the Span- iards from that province. Peru next assisted, and the independence of that country was secured in 1821. CANADA, MEXICO AND SOUTH AMERICA. 235 In 1816 the new republic took the name of "The United Provinces of La Plata," and in 18 17 General Puyerredon was made supreme dictator. Somewhat later the city of Buenos Ayres was made the capital of the republic. In 1820 the dictatorship was abolished, and a democratic form of government was instituted, with General Rodigruez at its head. Peace was made with Brazil in 1828, through the mediation of England, and the independence of the republic of Uruguay was recognized by La Plata. In 1 83 1 the Argentine republic was formed by the confederation of the prov- inces of Buenos Ayres, Corrientes, En- tre-Rios, and Santa Fe. A little later some of the other provinces joined the union. .This was followed by efforts of some of the leading officers of the army to overthrow the republic and seize the supreme power. Made Dictator. This unsettled state of affairs con- tinued until 1835, when Rosas, who had been chosen president in 1833, was made dictator. He held office until 1852, and during this period governed the republic with firmness and sternness. He made repeated efforts to force Paraguay and Uruguay to join the Argentine con- federation. These efforts involved him in a quarrel with Brazil, which was also seeking to get possession of Uruguay. In September, 1852, a revolution broke out in the province of Buenos Ayres, which withdrew from the con- federation and established a government of its own. This act led to repeated quarrels and conflicts between the Ar- gentine confederation and Buenos Ayres. On the 17th of December, 1871, the Argentine troops were defeated by the forces of Buenos Ayres under General Mitre. The Argentine confederation was now remodeled, with Buenos Ayres as the leading state. The city of Buenos Ayres was made the capital of the re- public, a constitution was adopted, and General Mitre was chosen president. In 1865 the Argentine republic de- clared war against Paraguay, and en- tered into an offensive and defensive alli- ance with Brazil and Uruguay. The struggle resulted in the utter over- throw of Paraguay, the aggressions of which state provoked the war in the year 1870. Numerous Outbreaks. The alliance of the Argentine con- federation with Brazil and Uruguay gave great offence to certain parties in the republic, and led to several out- breaks. These were suppressed. The peace of 1870 was followed by a formi- dable rebellion in Entre-Rios, which lasted a year, and was put down only at the cost of an immense number of lives. The revolt was renewed in 1873, but was suppressed in the course of a few months. In 1874 the contest over the presi- dential election plunged the country into a new civil war, which lasted several months and caused much suffer- ing. It was settled by the acknow- ledgment of the president elected by the people. On June 13th, 1886, Juarez Celman was elected president. Since then the great material progress of the country has been accompanied by an equally remarkable movement in favor of stability of government. The policy of the government toward agricultural immigrants is highly liberal. CHAPTER XVI. Asia and Africa in the Nineteenth Century. T^iHINA and Japan have occupied I \y a large share of public attention yjg ^ during the century, and both have undergone important chancres. This is all the more remark- able from the fact that they have re- mained in a stereotyped state for ages, and gave no signs of progress until within a comparatively recent period. Towards the end of the seventeenth century the Chinese government, while refusing to Great Britain, as a Euro- pean power, permission to trade with the empire, granted that privilege to the British East India Company. This company conducted the trade with China until 1834, when its charter ex- pired. The British government then sent Lord Napier to superintend the trade with China, but he was refused permission to communicate with the imperial viceroy at Canton on terms of equality. He endeavored to force his way to Canton with two frigates, but after a spirited engagement with the forts at the Bogue, September nth, 1834, withdrew to Macao, where he died about a month later. After this the trade between the British merchants and the Chinese was carried on for several years without the superintend- ence of the British officials. One of the principal articles of this traffic was opium, of which large quantities were sold yearly in China by British mer- chants. The imperial government at first tol- erated this trade, but, at length, becom- ing alarmed by the fearful evils which the use of opium was fastening upon the 236 people of China, endeavored to put a stop to it. In the autumn of 1837 Cap- tain Elliot, the English representative at Canton, was ordered by an imperial decree to send away the opium ships and discontinue the trade in that article. This command was disregarded and the trade went on. In the early part of 1839 the imperial Viceroy Lin, acting under the orders of his government, seized and destroyed all the opium on hand at Canton, to the value of $10,- 000,000. An illicit trade in opium at once sprang up, and was resented by the Chinese Government, which de- clared all commercial relations with Great Britain at an end. Famous Opium War. This led to the opium war, which is the most prominent event of the century in the history of China. The result was that China was forced to surrender her exclusiveness, and enter into more inti- mate commercial relations with Europe. The war was brought to an end by the treaty of Nankin, in August, 1842. The island of Hong Kong was ceded to the British, and the ports of Canton, Amoy, Foochoo, Ningpo and Shanghai were thrown open to the trade of the world, and made the official residences of Eu- ropean consuls. China was also com- pelled to pay to Great Britain an indem- nity of #21,000,000. In 1842 Caleb Cushing, who had been sent out by the United States to China, arrived in that country and readily negotiated a com- mercial treaty between the two coun- tries, July 3, 1844. This was followed ASIA AND AFRICA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 237 by a treaty with France, signed October 23, 1844 The Chinese government never meant to observe these treaties in good faith, and its treatment of the foreigners with- in its dominions was at all times marked by deceit and an ill-concealed hostility. This feeling led to constant disputes be- France had experienced similar wrongs at the hands of the Chinese, and made common cause with England. The two powers now resolved to force China to a settlement, and in 1857 sent a joint expedition to that country. Canton was bombarded by the Anglo- French fleet on the 28th of December, and the next VIEW OF VICTORIA— HONG KONG. tween the imperial authorities and the foreign consuls and merchants. In Oc- tober, 1856, matters were brought to a crisis by the seizure of the Arrow, a British vessel built in China, by the Chinese officials. This act led to a de- sultory war between China and Great Britain, which lasted several years, and in which the Chinese were, as a rule, the winners. day was occupied by the English and French land forces, which numbered less than 6,000 men. The viceroy Yeh was captured, but the Chinese Govern- ment endeavored to offset this reverse by degrading Yeh and appointing his suc- cessor. Russia and the United States now joined England and France in endea- voring to force China to negotiate more liberal treaties with the western powers. 238 ASIA AND AFRICA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. The action of the Chinese Govern- ment was unsatisfactory, and the allied forces attacked and captured the forts at the mouth of the Pei-ho, and pushed on to Tien-tsin, fifty miles above the mouth of the river. The Chinese Gov- ernment now yielded, and entered into treaties with Great Britain, France, Russia and the United States, which stipulated for the residence of foreign ministers at Pekin, for the opening of several ports in addition to those named in the treaty of Nankin, for travel and trade under certain conditions in the whole empire, for the free navigation of the Yangste-kiang river, and the settle- ment of the transit-dues question. Great Britain was paid an indemnity of five and-a-half million dollars, and France a smaller sum. British Navy Defeated. China endeavored as usual to evade this treatv, and the imperial authori- ties exerted themselves by prescribing a most unusual route for them, and im- posing various and vexatious delays upon them, to prevent the foreign min- isters from reaching Pekin. The Bri- tish minister thereupon ordered Ad- miral Hope to force the passage of the Pei-ho. That officer attempted to ex- ecute his orders, but was driven back with great loss by the forts at the mouth of the river. The British and French ministers then withdrew to Shanghai to await the instructions of their re- spective governments. The American minister, Mr. Ward, concluded to ac- cept the Chinese programme, and sub- mitting to many inconveniences and indignities, at length reached Pekin. He was denied an interview with the emperor, except upon conditions de- grading to himself and his country, and returned in disgust to Shanghai, where he joined his European col- leagues. England and France resented the bad faith of China by renewing the war with that country. A joint expedition was sent against the Chinese capital. The Pei-torts were taken August 21st, i860, and Tien-tsin was occupied Au- gust 24th. The Chinese officials endea- vored to stay the progress of the allies by negotiation, but their design being un- derstood, the Anglo-French forces pushed on, and on the 6th of October arrived before Pekin. The operations against the city were conducted with vigor; the emperor's " summer palace," a magnificent structure, was plundered and burned, and on the 13th of October one of the gates of the city was surren- dered to the allies. The imperial government was now forced to yield, and the treaties with France and England were renewed and ratified. The allies then withdrew to the coast. Since that time the policy of China has been to keep faith with the western powers. Great Rebellion. During all this time China had been torn by a rebellion of unusual magni- ture. This was the Taiping rebellion, which broke out in the southern pro- vinces of the empire in 1850. At first the rebels were successful, and overran a large part of southern China. The war lasted until 1864, when the last body of rebels was dispersed and the impe- rial authority restored. In 1857 the Mohammedans of Yunnan rose in rebel- lion, and were for a time victorious. This revolt extended over a period of fifteen ASIA AND AFRICA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 239 years, but was suppressed in 1872. A second Mohammedan rebellion broke out in the north-western part of the em- pire in 1862. It was suppressed in 1873. In 1 87 1 China became involved in a quarrel with Russia, and was obliged to cede to that power the district of Kulja and the whole of the basin of the Hi, a the various European powers and to the United States. At its head was Anson Burlingame, formerly minister from the United States to China. "It had its origin in the desire of the government to demonstrate to western powers its friendliness, and to forestall demands of an extreme character which it antici- INTERIOR OF A CHINESE TEMPLE, SHOWING THEIR IDOLS. region embracing an area of about 600,- 000 square miles, and containing a pop- ulation of 2,000,000 people.* In 1861 the Emperor Hieng-fun, who had suc- ceeded the Emperor Tau-Kwang, in 1856, died, and his son T'oung-che came to the throne. He was but five years old at the time. In 1873 he was declared of age and assumed the government. In the autumn of 1867 an embassy was sent by the Chinese government to pated would be made during the revision of the treaties of 1858 then about to take place. Its chief seized the oppor- tunity to place before the world the in- dications of a marked change of policy on the part of the government, and to demonstrate that the old system of re- course to local authorities for the redress of grievances should be abandoned in favor of representation to the imperial authorities at Pekin. The facts of his 240 ASIA AND AFRICA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. (Burlingame's) appointment to repre- sent China, and of his being accredited to western states on terms of equality, afforded an indication of the marvelous change which had ensued since the war, and a more complete justification of the wisdom of the allies in insisting upon residence at the capital." Cold-Blooded Massacre. In 1870 the Chinese attacked the French consulate at Tien-tsin and mas- sacred the consul, vice-consul, the inter- preter of the French legation at Pekin and his wife, a Catholic priest, nine sis- ters of charity, and some others. The Frence consulate, the cathedral and the missionary hospital were destroyed. The outbreak was severely punished by the Chinese government, and an apology was made to France. In 1875 the Emperor Kwang-liu, the leigning sovereign (1878), succeeded to the throne. On the 30th of June, 1876, the first line of railway in China, from Shanghai to Woosung, a distance of eleven miles, was opened. It was built by an English company. Several outbreaks occurred during 1 89 1, and riotous demonstrations against missionaries and mission stations aroused the indignation of Christian nations. A combined protest against these perse- cutions were made to the Chinese gov- ernment by the ministers of foreign countries resident in China. Thereupon the government greatly increased the severitiy of its measures against crimi- nals who had been abusing foreigners, and determined to use all its power for the protection of the foreign residents of the empire. This had the intended effect. In 1 894 war broke out between China and Japan. Japan claimed the right to protect her subjects in Corea. Corea, although an independent kingdom hav- ing its own emperor, was to all intents and purposes a part of China, and all attempts on the part of Japan to extend her influence in Corea were strenuously resisted. On the 30th of June, 1894, the King of Corea renounced all subjection to China, and called on the Japanese for help. The demands of Japan, for ex- tensive reforms, and for the observance of a treaty made in 1885, were opposed by China, and hostilities immediately began. A British despatch boat, con- veying Chinese troops, was attacked by Japanese warships, sunk off Asan, and many were killed. In July, the Japan- ese, under Gen. Oshima, gained impor- tant victories. In August, the Chinese made a formal declaration of war. Great Battle of Yalu. In September, the Chinese Emperor transmitted a circular to the great powers justifying the position of China in the pending struggle. A great naval battle at the mouth of Yalu river on September 17th resulted in terrible slaughter, and the destruction of eight Chinese vessels. This was the turning point of the conflict, and Japanese suc- cesses followed in quick succession both on land aiid sea. In short, the wonderful vigor and military prowess of Japan sur- prised the world, and, in the contest with China, she was completely successful. On the 17th of April, 1895, a peace treaty was signed, which assured the in- dependence of Corea, the retention by Japan of conquered places, and a heavy indemnity for the expenses of the war. But later, the ministers of Russia, Ger- ASIA AND AFRICA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 241 many and France protested against tne annexation of Chinese territory to the Japanese Empire, and Japan was cheated out of a large part of what her victories had gained. Since this war with Japan the pro- gress of events in China has been com- paratively uneventful, the latest inter- national transactions being concessions made to Russia and Great Britain, both of which powers are anxious to extend their dominions in the Bast. JAPAN IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. ^OR ages Japan maintained a policy of utter seclusion from the rest of the world, and the vessels of for- eign nations were not allowed to enter ner ports. It is marvelous that an em- pire, so long isolated and dead to both hemispheres, should have been so com- pletely transformed, showing as great eagerness to gain the front ranks of civ- ilized and enlightened nations, as before she exhibited in secluding herself from their touch and influence. Towards the middle of the nineteenth century European and American ves- sels began to frequent the Japanese waters, and after the settlement of Cali- fornia American whalers pursued their trade regularly in the home waters of the empire. Many of these were wrecked on the coast of Japan, and their crews were treated with great harshness by the native authorities. In order to put a stop to this, and to establish friendly relations with the empire, the United States government, in 1852, despatched an expedition under the command of Commodore Matthew C. Perry. The American commander was in structed to demand protection for Amer- ican seamen wrecked on the Japanese coast, and to effect a treaty of commerce and good will with the imperial gov- ernment In July, 1853, he entered the bay of \ edo with four ships of war, and delivered to the Japanese authorities a 16 letter from the President of the United States, setting forth the demands and wishes of his government. He then sailed for China. In February, 1854, he returned with seven ships of war, and anchored within a few miles of Yedo. He managed by his skillful and judicious efforts to induce the shogun, in other words the military governor of the Eastern provinces, sometimes styled tycoon, to enter into the desired treaty, which was signed at Kanagawa on the 31st of March, 1854, and which opened the ports of Shiinoda and Hakodate or Hokodadi to foreign commerce, and made them places of consular residence. In September a British squadron, un- der Sir James Stirling, entered the har- bor of Nagasaki and concluded a treaty with the shogun, by which Hakodate and Nagasaki were thrown open to for- eign commerce. The Russians and Dutch then made similar treaties with theshogun. On the 17th of June, 1857, Mr. Harris, the United States consul to Japan, made a still more advantageous treaty with the shogun, by which the harbor of Nagasaki was also opened to American commerce. In 1858, in spite of the opposition of the Japanese, Mr. Harris proceeded to Yedo, and concluded a third treaty still more advantageous to the United States. During the same year Lord Elgin, es- corted by a British squadron, reached 242 ASIA AND AFRICA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. Ycdo and negotiated a treaty between Great Britain and Japan, by which it was agreed that the pcrts of Hakodate, Kanagawa and Nagasaki, should be opened to British subjects after Jnlv I, 1859. The arrival of Commodore Perry the mikado as the spiritual ruler of th( empire who did not concern himsell with its temporal affairs. The shogun on his part encouraged this belief, and signed the treaties without referring them to the mikado or asking his con- was the beginning of the intercourse of Japan with the nations of America and Europe, an intercourse which has en- tirely changed the destiny of the em- pire. All the foreigners made the mistake of regarding the shogun as the rightful Emperor of Japan. They looked upon INTERIOR OF A JAPANESE THEATRE. sent to their signature. This act wa? looked upon by the Japanese as a fresh usurpation of power on the part of the shogun, and aroused a strong reaction in favor of the mikado. The nation was opposed to the violation by the sho gun of the traditional policy of non intercourse with foreigners, and thft ASIA AND AFRICA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 243 country resounded with the cry, " Honor the mikado and expel the barbarian." The shogun was regarded as a traitor, and the cause of the mikado was greatly strengthened. In 1858 the shogun died, and the prime minister Ii, a man of great ability and unscrupulous character, became re- gent. He set aside the true successor, and bestowed the shogunate upon the infant Prince of Kii, but kept the power in his own hands. This arbitrary act aroused a strong opposition to him, which he suppressed by imprisoning and executing the leaders of the movement. In 1859 he despatched an embassy to the United States without consulting the mikado, and so increased the hatred of the people for him. On the 23d of March, i860, he was assassinated in open daylight in the streets of Yedo. Firing on Ships. The party of the mikado now grew with wonderful rapidity, and the shogun' s followers, seeing the steady drift of popular sentiment, sought to regain their lost ground by tryine" to oersuade the foreigners to close the ports and leave Japan, but without success. About this time the forces of the Prince of Choshin (Nogato), acting under orders of the mikado, fired upon the ships of the United States, France, Great Britain and the Netherlands. This act was pun- ished by the treaty powers shortly after, by sending a combined squadron to Shi- monosek, and capturing that port after a severe bombardment. Japan was com- pelled to pay an indemnity of $3,000,- 000. This victory opened the eyes of the Japanese to the power of the for- eigners, and made them more cautious in their conduct towards them. Though the Prince of Choshin had obeyed the mikado in firing upon the foreign vessels, he had disobeyed the shogun, and the latter, in 1866, marched to punish him for his disobedience. The forces of the shogun were armed and disciplined in the old Japanese style ; those of the Prince of Choshin were armed with European rifles and artillery, and had been disciplined by Dutch officers. A campaign of three months ensued, and resulted in the overwhelming defeat of the shogun, who, worn out with mortification at his failure, and with disease, died on the 19th of September, 1866. He was suc- ceeded by Keiki, the last of the shoguns. The mikado's party now proceeded to bolder acts, and in October, 1867, urged the mikado to abolish the sho- gunate and resume the government of the empire. This proposal received so much support among the most power- ful princes and nobles of Japan, that on the 9th of November, 1867, Keiki re- signed the shogunate. Radical Changes. This was a great gain, but it was not all the mikado's party desired. They determined to go further and restore the government to the basis on which it had existed prior to A. d. 1200. On the 3d of January, 1868, they seized the palace, drove out the nobles, and created a government under which the highest offices were filled by the kuge, or court nobles of the imperial family, those of the next order by the daimios or cour. tiers, and those of the third order by men selected from the samurai. This arrangement threw the whole power of the state into the hands of the Satsurn? Choshin, Tosa, and Hizen clans. 244 ASIA AND AFRICA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. The ex-shogun was greatly displeased with this arrangement, and took up arms to regain his lost power. He was defeated in a three days' battle, and fled to Yedo in an American steamer. See- ing that further resistance was hopeless, he surrendered to the imperial forces, declared his resolution never again to oppose the will of the mikado, and re- tired to private life. This submission completely re-established the authority of the mikado throughout the empire, and gave peace to the country. Adopting New Ideas. Up to this time the party of the mi- kado had been the bitterest opponents of the treaties negotiated by the shognn with the foreign powers. There were a few among them who had profoundly studied the question, and had seen the folly of their country in holding itself aloof from the rest of the world. These now set to work to promote the inter- course of Japan with the treaty powers, and found this no difficult task, as the leaders of the imperial party had by this time become convinced of the im- mense superiority of the foreign over the native system of war. They also feared that the foreign powers would compel the empire by force to observe the treaties made with the shogun, and knew that Japan was in no condition to offer a successful resistance. They accordingly invited the repre- sentatives of the foreign powers to a conference at Kioto. Many of the court nobles had never seen a foreigner, and upon beholding them at the conference at once abandoned the prejudices they had cherished against them. Thetreaties were cordially renewed, the foreign powers recognized the mikado as the only rightful sovereign of Japan, and the foundations were laid upon which have been built up the intimate and cordial relations which now exist be- tween Japan and the states of Europe and America. Foreign ideas and cus- toms from this time made their way steadily into the empire, and were rap- idly adopted by the Japanese. Since 1 868 the character of Japanese civiliza- tion has undergone a profound change. The government, the army and navy, and the finances are administered upon a European basis; the European dress is driving out the old native costume ; and large numbers of young men des- tined for the public service are sent to the schools of Europe and the United States to be trained in the learning and civilization of the western world. In all these measures the young Emperor Mutsnhito (the reigning mikado), who came to the throne in 1867, has taken an active part, and has constantly en- deavored to promote the civilization of his country and to render more inti- mate its intercourse with the v^stern nations. Feudal System Destroyed. The changes which took place in the internal government of the empire after the revolution of 1868 were very rapid. In 1 87 1 the emporer abolished the titles of &ugea.ud daimio (court and territorial noble), and replaced them by that of kuazoku (noble families). This decree deprived the great nobles of their terri- torial fiefs, which were reclaimed by the crown, and at one blow destroyed the feudal system of Japan. In the same year, in order to place himself more di- rectly at the head of the new state of affairs, the emperor removed his capital BARTHOLDI STATUE OF LIBERTY ERECTED ON BEDLOE'S ISLAND, NEW YORK HARBOR. HEIGHT FROM GROUND, 220 FEET; STONE PEDESTAL 82 FEET HIGH ; FOREFINGER 8 FEET LONG ; HEAD 14 FEET HIGH AND 40 PERSONS CAN STAND IN IT ASIA AND AFRICA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 245 from the old sacred city of Kioto to the great city of Yedo, the name of which was changed to Tokio (western capital). The government granted to the deposed daimios one-tenth of their former in- comes on condition of residing perma- nently at Tokio. In December, 1871, an embassy was sent to the nations of Europe and America. Each was visited in succession, and new treaties of com- merce and friendship were negotiated. In 1 876 the empire took part in the International Centennial Exhibition, held at Philadelphia, in the United States, and gave unmistakable evidence in its superb display of its success in the new career upon which it has en- tered. The completion of the translation of the Bible into Japanese was celebrated February 3, 1888. On February 11, 1889, a new constitution for the empire was promulgated by the Mikado at Tokio. Houses of lords and commons were established, and religious liberty and general freedom were granted to all persons, one of the many evidences of the enlightened policy which of late has distinguished the government of the country. New commercial treaties were desired with the European powers, who hesitated to grant the request ; one with the United States was promptly signed. No Oriental realm has made more rapid strides in the last quarter of a century than Japan. The most important events in Japan during the century were connected with her war against China in 1894, a full account of which appears in the history of that empire and need not be repeated here. REPUBLICS IN SOUTH AFRICA. NE of the earliest settlements in South Africa was that of the Dutch at the Cape of Good Hope. In 1806 Great Britain acquired their domain, following which the Dutch emigrated in large numbers, moving north and east. They acquired by force of arms from the Zulus the country known as Natal, where they settled. The number of the Boers, as they were called, who left the British colonies was about 10,000. They or- ganized a government, and "11 1854 the British guaranteed them cjmplete in- dependence. The Boers also established a republic known as the Transvaal, the independ- ence of which was acknowledged in 1852. Here they have remained until the present time. They have had the name of being very exclusive and re- fusing rights to foreigners who wished to enter their country. In 1887 the British attempted to take the country, and for a while occupied it. In 1880 the Transvaal Boers threw off the Bri- tish yoke and re-established the repub- lic, after a conflict with the British, in which the latter were defeated with great loss. Early in 1 896, a British company, with possessions bordering on the Transvaal, attempted to conquer the Boers. In this attempt they were led by Dr. Jameson, but his forces were signally defeated. This disaster caused excitement through- out England, especially as Germany ex- pressed its sympathy with the Boers. The state has immense latent wealth in its minerals, for, in addition to the 246 ASIA AND AFRICA IN THE' NINETEENTH CENTURY. numerous gold-fields, the deposits of sil- ver, copper, and lead, iron, coal, cobalt, and other metals and minerals, are suf- ficent to show that nature has favored the Transvaal beyond all African states. The country is rich in corn and pasture land. The climate is, as a rule, healthy, and in some parts exceptionally bracing. The number of English-speaking resi- dents is fast increasing oil account of immigration. In October, 1899, war broke out be- tween the Transvaal and Great Britain, the latter nation claiming that rights guaranteed by treaty to the subjects of other nations had been denied, and foreigners were the victims of high- handed oppression. Several bloody bat- tles were fought between the Boers and the English troops. Republic of Liberia. Liberia is a small republican state of West Africa, and occupies a part of the coast of North Guinea. Length, 600 miles ; breadth interiorward, 50 miles. Monrovia is its capital, at the mouth of St. Paul's River. The prin- cipal exports are coffee, sugar, palm-oil. camphor, indigo, ivory, and gold-dust. The first settlement was formed by free lieqro colonists from the United States, at Cape Mesurado, in 1820. The colony became an independent republic in 1 847. The constitution and government are based upon the model of those of the United States. The Congo Free State has sprung out of the discoveries of Stanley and the explorations of the International Asso- ciation, founded at Brussels for the opening up to civilization of the Congo and its tributaries. Its autonomy was recognized during 1884 and 1S85 by the leading powers of Europe, and by the United States, conditioned upon its maintaining the principles of free trade. There are twelve territorial divisions, the capital being Boma. The central government is at Brussels, and consists of the king of the Bel- gians as sovereign, and three depart- mental chiefs. On the Congo there is an Administrator-General and several European administrators of stations and districts. The rest of West Africa is variously "protected" by England, France, Germany, and Portugal. PART III. Famous Explorations and Discoveries OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. CHAPTER XVII. Voyages in the Polar World. 3 /- TN the year 1829 Captain John Ross, with his nephew James, having l_ been furnished with sufficient funds by a wealthy distiller named Felix Booth, of London, undertook a private expedition of discovery in a small vessel called the Victory. Ross proceeded down Prince Regent's Inlet to the Gulf of Boothia, and wintered on the eastern side of a land named by him Boothia Felix. In the course of exploring excursions during the sum- mer months James Ross crossed the land and discovered the position of the north magnetic pole on the western side of it, on June 1, 1831. He also discov- ered a land to the westward of Boothia which he named King William Land, and the northern shore of which he examined. The most northern point, opposite the magnetic pole, was called Cape Felix, and thence the coast trended south-west to Victory Point. James Ross was at Cape Felix on May 29, 1830. The Rosses never could get their little vessel out of its winter quarters. They passed three winters there, and then fell back on the stores at Fury Beach, where they passed their fourth winter of 1832- 53. Eventually they were picked up by a whaler in Barrow Strait, and brought home. Great anxiety was naturally felt at their prolonged absence, and in 1833, Sir George Back, with Dr. Richard King as a companion, set out by land in search of the missing explorers. Win- tering at the Great Slave Lake, he left Fort Reliance on June 7, 1834, and de- scended the Great Fish River, which is obstructed by many falls in the course of a rapid and tortuous course of 530 miles. The mouth was reached, when the want of supplies obliged them to return. In 1836 Sir George Back was sent, at the suggestion of the Royal Geographical Society, to proceed to Re- pulse Bay in his ship, the Terror, and then to cross an assumed isthmus and examine the coast-line thence to the mouth of the Great Fish River; but the ship was obliged to winter in the drift- ing pack, and was brought back across the Atlantic in a sinking condition on account of damage caused by the ice. The tracing of the polar shores of America was completed by the Hud- son's Bay Company's servants. In June 1837 Messrs. Simpson and Dease left Chippewyan, reached the mouth of the Mackenzie, and connected that position 247 248 VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. with point Barrow, which had been discovered by the Blossom in 1826. In 1839 Simpson passed Cape Turn- again of Franklin, tracing the coast eastward so as to connect with Back's work at the month of the Great Fish River. He landed at Montreal Island in the month of that river, and then advanced eastward as far as Castor and Pollux river, his farthest eastern point. On his return he travelled along the north side of the channel, which is in fact the south shore of the King Wil- liam Island discovered by James Ross. The south-western point of this Island was named Cape Herschel, and there Jimpson built a cairn on August 26, 1839 Dr. Rae's Discoveries. Very little more remained to be done in order to complete the delineation of the northern shores of the American continent. This was entrusted to Dr. John Rae, a Hudson's Bay factor, in 1846. He went in boats to Repulse Bay, where he wintered in a stone hut nearly on the Arctic Circle ; and he and six Orkney men maintained themselves on the deer they shot. During the spring of 1 847 Dr. Rae explored on foot the shores of a great gulf having 700 miles of coast-line. He thus connected the work of Parry, at the mouth of Fury and Hecla Strait, with the work of Ross on the coast of Boothia, proving that Boothia was part of the American con- tinent. While the English were thus working hard to solve some of the geographical problems relating to Arctic America, the Russians were similarly engaged in Siberia. In 1821 Lieutenant Anjou made a complete survey of the New Siberia Islands, and came to the con- clusion that it was not possible to ad* vance far from them in a northerly direction, owing to the thinness of the ice and to open water within 20 or 30 miles. Baron Wrangell prosecuted similar investigations from the mouth of the Kolyma between 1820 and 1823. He made four journeys with dog sledges, exploring the coast between Cape Tchel- agskoi and the Kolyma, and making attempts to extend his journeys to some distance from the land. He was always stopped by thin ice, and he received tidings from a native chief of the exis- tence of land at a distance of several leagues to the northward. In 1843 Middendorf was sent to ex- plore the region which terminates in Cape Tchelyuskin. He reached the cape in the height of the short summer, whence he saw open water and no ice blink in any direction. The whole arctic shore of Siberia had now been explored and delineated, but no vessel had yet rounded the extreme northern point, by sailing from the mouth of the Yenisei to that of the Lena. When that feat was achieved the problem of the north-east passage would be solved. Story of Franklin. The success of Sir James Ross's Ant- arctic expedition and the completion of the northern coast-line of America bv the Hudson's Bay Company's servants gave rise in 1845 to a fresh attempt to make the passage from Lancaster Sound to Behring Strait. The story of this unhappy expedition of Sir John Frank- lin, in the Erebus and Terror, is one of the most thrilling in Arctic exploration. To understand clearly the nature of the obstacle which finally stopped Sir VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. 249 John Franklin, and which also stopped Sir Edward Parry in his first voyage, it is necessary to note that westward of Melville and Baring Islands, northward of the western part of the American coast, and northward of the channel leading from Smith Sound, there is a vast unknown space, the ice which en- cumbers it never having been traversed by any ship. All navigators who have skirted along its edge describe the stu- oendous thickness and massive propor- ions of the vast flows with which it is packed. This accumulation of ice of enormous thickness, to which Sir George Nares has given the name of a" Palseocrystic Sea," arises from the absence of direct communication between this portion of the north polar region and the warm waters of the Atlantic and Pacific. Behring Strait is the only vent in a south-westerly direction, and that chan- nel is so shallow that the heavy ice grounds outside it. In other direc- tions the channels leading to Baffin's Bay are narrow and tortuous. In one place only is there a wide and straight lead. The heavy polar ice flows south- east between Melville and Baring Is- lands, down what is now called M'Clin- tock Channel, and impinges on the north-west coast of the King William Land discovered by James Ross. The Expedition Halted. It was this branch from the palaeo- crystic sea which finally stopped the progress of Franklin's expedition. On leaving the winter-quarters at Beechey Island in 1846, Franklin found a chan- nel leading south, along the western shore of the land of North Somerset discovered by Parry in 18 19. If he could reach the channel on the Ameri- can coast, he knew that he would be able to make his way along to Behring Strait. This channel leading south, now called Peel Sound, pointed directly to the south. He sailed down it towards King William Island, with land on both sides. But directly they passed the southern point of the western land, and were no longer shielded by it, the great palaeo- crystic stream from Melville Island was fallen in with, pressing on King William Island. It was impassable. The only possibility of progress would have been by rounding the eastern side of King William Island, but its insularity was then unknown. Anxiety for Franklin. It was not until 1848 that anxiety began to be felt about the Franklin ex- pedition. In the spring of that year Sir James Ross was sent with two ships, the Enterprise and Investigator, by way of Lancaster Sound. He wintered at Leo- pold Harbor, near the north-east point of North Devon. In the spring he made a long sledge journey with Lieutenant M'Clintock along the northern and west- ern coasts of North Somerset. On the return of the Ross expedition without any tidings, the country became thoroughly alarmed. An extensive plan of search was organized — the Enterprise and Investigator under Collison and M'Clure proceeding by Behring Strait while the Assistance and Resolute with two steam tenders, the Pioneer and In- trepid, sailed May 3, 1850, to renew the search by Barrow Strait, under Captain Austin. Two brigs, the Lady Franklin and Sophia, under Captain Penny, a very energetic and able whaling captain, 2/iO VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. were sent by the same route. He had witli him Dr. Sutherland, a naturalist, who did much valuable scientific work. Found His Winter Quarters. Austin and Penny entered Harrow Strait, and Franklin's winter quarters of [845-46 was discovered at Beechey Island ; but there was no record of any kind indicating the direction taken by the ships. Stopped by the ice, Austin's expedition wintered (1850-51) in the pack orTGriffith [sland, and Penny found refuge in a harbor on the south coast <■>( Cornwallis Island. Austin, who had been with Parry during his third voyage, was an admirable organizer. His ar- rangements for passing the winter were carefully thought out and answered per- fectly. In concert with Penny he planned a thorough and extensivesystem of search by means of sledge travelling in the spring; and Lieutenant M'Clin- tock superintended every minute de- tail ^\ tiiis part of the work with un- failing forethought and consummate skill. Penny undertook the search bv Wel- lington Channel, M'Clintock advanced to Melville Island, marching over 770 miles in eighty-one days; Captain Oin- manney and Sherard Osborn passed southward and discovered Prince o( Wales Island. Lieutenant Brown exam- ined the western shore oC Peel Sound. The search was exhaustive ; but, except the winter quarters at Beechey Island, no record, no sign was discovered. The absence of any record made Cap- tain Austin doubt whether Franklin had ever gone beyond Beechey Island. So he also examined the entrance of Jones Sound, the next inlet from Baffin's Bay north of Lancaster Sound, on his way home, and returned to England in the autumn of 1851. This was a thoroughly well conducted expedition — especially as regards the sledge travelling, which M'Clintock brought to great perfection. So far as the search for Franklin was concerned, nothing remained to be done west or north of Barrow Strait. In 1S51 the Prince Albert schooner was sent out by Lady Franklin, unde Captain Kennedy, with Lieutenant Bel- lot of the French navy as second. They wintered on the east coast of North Somerset, and in the spring of 1852 the gallant Frenchman, in the course of a long sledging journey, discovered Bellot Strait separating North Somerset from P.oot liia — this proving that the Boothia coast facing the strait was the northern extremity of the continent of America. Three Traveling Parties. The Kntei prise and Investigator sailed from England in January, 1850, but ac- cidentally parted company before they reached Behring Strait. On May 6, 185 1, the Enterprise passed the strait, and rounded Point Harrow on the 25th. Collinson then made his way up the narrow Prince of Wales Strait, between Baring and Prince Albert Island, ami reached Princess Royal Islands, where M'Clure had been the previous year. Returning southwards, the Enterprise wintered in a sound in Prince Albert Island. Three travelling parties were dispatched in the spring of 1852 — one to trace Prince Albert Island in a south erly direction, while the others explored Prince of Wales Strait, one of them reaching Melville Island. In September, 1852, the ship was free, and Collinson pressed eastward along the coast of North America, reaching Cam- VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. 251 bridge Bay September 26th, where the second winter was passed. In the spring he examined the shores of Vic- toria Land. He was within a few miles of Point Victory, where the fate of Kranklin would have been ascertained. The Enterprise again put to sea on August 5, 1853, an( l returned westward along the American coast, until she was stopped by ice and obliged to pass a third winter at Camden Bay. In 1854 this most remarkable voyage was com- pleted, and Captain Collinson brought the Enterprise back to England. Discovered North- West Passage. Meanwhile M'Clure, in the Investi- gator, had passed the winter of 1850-51 at the Princess Royal Islands, only thirty miles from Barrow Strait. In October M'Clure ascended a hill whence he could see the frozen surface of Barrow Strait, which was navigated by Parry in 1819-20. Thus, like the survivors of Franklin's crews when they reached Cape Herschel, M'Clure discovered a north-west passage. It was impossible to reach it, for the branch of the palaeo- crystic ice which stopped Franklin off King William Land was athwart their northward course. So as soon as he was free in 185 1, M'Clure turned southwards, round the southern extreme of Baring Island, and commenced to force a passage to the northward between the western shore of that land and the enormous fields of ice which pressed upon it. The cliffs rose up like walls on one side, while on the other the stupendous ice of the palaeo- crystic sea rose from the water to a level with the Investigator's lower yards. After many hair-breath escapes Mc- Clure took refuge in a bay on the northern shore of Bank's Land, which he named "The Bay of God's Mercy." Here the Investigator remained, never to move again. After the winter of 1851-52 M'Clure made a journey across the ice to Melville Island, and left a record at Parry's winter harbor. Abund- ant supplies of musk ox were fortun- ately obtained, but a third winter had to be faced. In the spring of 1853 M'Clure was preparing to abandon the ship with all hands, and attempt, like Franklin's crews, to reach the American coast. But succor providentially ar- rived in time. The Hudson's Bay Company assisted in the search for Franklin. In 1848 Sir John Richardson and Dr. Rae examined the American coast from the mouth of the Mackenzie to that of the Copper- mine. In 1849 and 1850 Rae continued the search ; and by a long sledge journey in the spring of 185 1, and a boat voyage in the summer, he examined the shores of Wollaston and Victoria Lands, which were afterwards explored by Captain Collinson in the Enterprise. New Expedition. In 1852 the British Government re- solved to dispatch another expedition by Lancaster Sound. Austin's four vessels were recommissioned, and the North Star was sent out as a depot ship to Beechey Island. Sir Edward Belcher commanded the Assistance, with the Pioneer under Sherard Osborn as steam tender. He went up Wellington Chan- nel to Northumberland Bay, where he wintered, passing a second winter lower down in Wellington Channel, and then abandoning his ships and coming home in 1854. But Sherard Osborn and Com- mander Richards did good work. They 252 VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. made sledge journeys to Melville Island and thus discovered the northern side of the Parry group. Captain Kellett received command of the Resolute, with M'Clintock in the steam tender In- trepid. Among Kellett's officers were the best of Austin's sledge travellers, M'Clin- tock, Mechain, and Vesey Hamilton, so that good work was sure to be done. George Nares, the future leader of the expedition of 1874-75, was also on board the Resolute. Kellett passed onwards to the westward and passed the winter of 1852-53 at Melville Island. Dur- ing the autumn Mechain discovered M'Clure's record, and the safety of her crew was consequently assured, for it was only necessary to send a message across the strait between two fixed posi- tions. This service was performed by Lieutenant Pirn early in the following spring. The officers and crew of the Investi- gator, led by M'Clure, arrived safely on board the Resolute on June 17, 1853, and they reached England in the fol- lowing year. They not only discovered but traversed a north-west passage, though not in the same ship, and partly by travelling over ice. For this great feat M'Clure received the honor of knighthood — a reward of fifty thousand ' dollars being voted to himself, the other officers, and the crew, by a vote of the House of Commons. Long Sledge Journey. The travelling parties of Kellett's ex- pedition, led by M'Clintock, Mecham and Vesey Hamilton, completed the discovery of the northern and western sides of Melville Island, and the whole outline of the large Island of Prince Patrick, still further to the westward. M'Clintock was away from the ship with his sledge party for one hundred and five days and travelled over 1,328 miles. Mechain was away ninety-four days and travelled over 1,163 miles. Sherard Osborn, in 1853, was away ninety-seven days and travelled over 935 miles. The Resolute was obliged to winter in the pack in 1853-54, and in the spring of 1854 Mechain made a most remarkable journey in the hope of obtaining news of Captain Col- linson at the Princess Royal Islands. Leaving the ship on April 3d, he was absent seventy days, out of which there were sixty-one and a half days travel- ling. The distance gone over was 1,336 statute miles. The average rate of the homeward journey was twenty-three and a half miles a day, the average time of travelling each day nine hours twen' ty-five minutes. This journey is with- out parallel in arctic records. Ships Abandoned. Fearing detention for another winter, Sir Edward Belcher ordered all the ships to be abandoned in the ice, the officers and crews being taken home in the North Star, and in the Phoenix and Talbot which had come out from Eng- land to communicate. They reached home in October, 1854. In 1852 Captain Inglefield, R.N., had made a voyage up Baffin's Bay in the Isabel as far as the entrance of Smith Sound. In 1853 and 1854 he came out in the Phoenix to communicate with the North Star at Beechey Island. The drift of the Resolute was a re- markable proof of the direction of the current out of Barrow Strait. She was abandoned on May 14, 1854. On Sep- Siege «»oSTORMiAfG or Delhi mi S/ege °r Carthagjena- /8H4* BOMBARD»fEArr<>>>4l,EXAN£>X"*tG82 BATT£E or/fiHAQTO UM>f<88S, VOYAf.IvS in THE I'OLAR WORLD. 253 tember 10, 1855, an American whaler sighted the Resolute in 6j° North latitude, about twenty miles from Cape Mercy, in Davis Strait. She was brought into an American port, and eventually presented to the British Gov- ernment. She had drifted nearly a thousand miles. In [853 Dr. Rae was employed to con- in April and May. He succeeded in connecting the discoveries of Simpson with those of James Ross, and thus established the fact that Kino- William Land was an island. Rae also brought home tidings and relics of Franklin's expedition gathered from the Eskimo; and this led to the expedition of M'Clintock in the Fox in REUCS OP FRANKIJN'fl POLAR EXPEDITION. nect a few points which would quite complete the examination of the coast of America, and establish the insularity of King William Land. lie went up Chesterfield Inlet and the River Ouoich for a considerable distance, wintering with eight men at Repulse Bay in a snow house. Venison and fish were abundant. In 1854 he set out on a journey which occupied fifty-six days search of Franklin. While M'Clintock was prosecuting his exhausting search over part of the west coast of Boothia, the whole of the shores of King Wil- liam Island, the mouth of the Great Fish River, and Montreal Island, Allen Young completed the discovery of the southern side of Prince of Wales Island. The Fox returned to England in the autumn of 1859. 254 VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. The catastrophe of Sir John Frank- lin's expedition led to 7,000 miles of coast line being discovered, and to a vast extent of unknown country being explored, securing very considerable additions to geographical knowledge. Much attention was also given to the collection of information, and the scien- tific results of the various search expe- ditions were considerable. The catastrophe also afforded a warn- ing which would render any similar dis- aster quite inexcusable. If arrange- ments are always carefully made for a retreat beforehand, if a depot ship is always left within reach of the advanc- ing expedition as well as of the outer world, and if there is annual communi- cation, with positive rules for depositing records, no such catastrophe can ever happen again. The Search for Franklin. The American nation was first led to take an interest in polar research through a very noble and generous feel- ing of sympathy for Franklin and his brave companions. Mr. Griunell, of New York, gave practical expression to this feeling. In 1850 he equipped two vessels, the Advance and Rescue, to aid in the search, commanded by Lieuten- ants De Haven and Griffith, and accom- panied by Dr. Kane. They reached Beechey Island 011 August 27, 1850, and assisted in the examination of Frank- lin's winter quarters, but returned with- out wintering. In 1853 Dr. Kane, in the little brig Advance of 120 tons, undertook to lead an American expedition up Smith Sound, the most northern outlet from Baffin's Bay. The Advance reached Smith Sound on August 7, 1853, but was stopped by ice only seventeen miles from the entrance. He described the coast as consisting of precipitous cliffs, 800 to 1200 feet high, and at their base there was a belt of ice about eighteen feet thick, resting on the beach. Dr. Kane adopted the Danish name of " ice- foot" {is foe?) for this permanent frozen ridge. He named the place of his winter-quarters Van Rensselaer Harbor. Immense Glacier. In the spring some interesting work was done. A great glacier was dis- covered and named the Humboldt glacier, with a sea face forty-five miles long. Dr. Kane's steward, Morton, crossed the foot of this glacier with a team of dogs, and reached a point of land beyond named Cape Constitution. But sickness and want of means pre- vented much from being done by travel- ling parties. Scurvy attacked the whole party during the second winter, al- though the Eskimo supplied them with fresh meat and were true friends in need. On May 17, 1855, Dr. Kane abandoned the brig, and reached the Danish settlement of Upernivik on Au- gust 6th. Lieutenant Hartstene, who was sent out to search for Kane, reached Van Rensselaer Harbor after he had gone, but took the retreating crew on board on his return voyage. On July 10, i860, Dr. Hayes, who had served with Kane, sailed from Bos- ton for Smith Sound, in the schooner United States, of 130 tons and a crew of fifteen men. His object was to follow up the line of research opened by Dr. Kane. He wintered at Point Foulke, about ten miles from Cape Alexander, which forms the eastern portal of Smith Sound. Dr. Hayes crossed Smith Sound VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. 255 in the spring with dog-sledges, but his observations are not to be depended on, and it is very uncertain how far he ad- vanced northward on the other side. He returned to Boston on October 23, 1861. Charles Hall, of Cincinnati, was led to become an arctic explorer through his deep interest in the search for ill King William Island. He heard the story of the retreat and of the wreck of one of the ships from the Eskimo ; he was told that seven bodies were buried at Todd Island ; and he brought home some bones which are believed to be those of Lieutenant Le Vescomte of the Erebus. KANE AND HIS COMPANIONS BRAVING THE) COU>. Franklin. In his first journey, 1860-62, he discovered the interesting remains of a stone house which Sir Martin Fro- bisher built on the Countess of Warwick Island in 1578. In his second expedi- tion, 1864-69, Hall, by dint of the most unwearied perseverance at length reached the line of the retreat of the Franklin survivors, at Todd's Island and Peffer river, on the south coast of Finally, in 187 1, he took the Polaris for 250 miles up the channel which leads northwards from Smith Sound. The various parts of this long channel are called Smith Sound, Kane Basin, Kennedy Channel, and Robeson Chan- nel. The Polaris was beset on 30th August ; and her winter quarters were in 8i° 38' N., called Thank God Bay. The death of Hall followed and the 256 VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. subsequent fortunes of the expedition were of the most perilous description. Between 1858 and 1872 the Swedes sent seven expeditions to Spitzbergen and two to Greenland. All returned with valuable scientific results. That of 1864 under Nordenskiold and Duner made observations at eighty different places on the Spitzbergen shores, and fixed the heights of numerous moun- tains. In 1868, in an iron steamer, the Sophia, the Swedes attained a latitude of 81 ° 42' N. on the meridain of 18 E., during the month of September. In 1872 an expedition consisting of the Polhem steamer and brigGladen, com- manded by Professor Nordenskiold and Lieutenant Palander, wintered in Mus- sel Bay, on the northern shore of Spitz- bergen. In the spring an important sledging journey of sixty days' dura- tion was made over North-East Land. The expedition was in some distress as regards provisions owing to two vessels, which were to have returned, having been forced to winter. But in the sum- mer of 1873 they were visited by Mr. Leigh Smith, in his yacht Diana, who supplied them with fresh provisions. Pressing Northward. Dr. Petermann of Gotha urged his countrymen to take their share in the noble work of polar discovery, and at his own risk he fitted out a small vessel called the Gennania, which sailed from Bergen in May, 1868, under the com- mand of Captain Koldewey. His cruise extended to Hinlopeu Strait in Spitz- bergen, but was merely tentative ; and in 1870 Baron von Heuglin with Count Zeil explored the Stor Fjord in a Nor- wegian schooner, and also examined Walter Thy men's Strait. After the re- turn of the Germama in 1868 a regular expedition was organized under the command of Captain Koldewey, provi- sioned for two years. It consisted of the German ia, a screw steamer of 140 tons, and the brig Hansa commanded by Captain Hegemann. Crushed in the Ice. Lieutenant Payer, the future discov- erer of Franz Josef Land, gained his first arctic experience on board the Gennania. The expedition sailed from Bremen on the 15th June, 1869, its des- tination being the east coast of Green- land. But the Hansa got separated from her consort and crushed in the ice. The crew built a house of patent fuel on the floe, and in this strange abode they passed their Christmas. In two months the current had carried them south for 400 miles. By May they had drifted 1100 miles on their ice-raft, and finally, on June 14, 1870, they arrived at the Moravian mission station of Fried- riksthal, to the west of Cape Farewell. Fairer fortune attended the Gennania. She sailed up the east coast of Green- land, and eventually wintered at the Pendulum Islands of Claveriug. In March, 1870, a travelling party set out, under Koldewey and Payer, and reached a distance of 100 miles from the ship to the northward, when want of provisions compelled them to return. A grim cape, named after Prince Bismarck, marked the northern limit of their dis- coveries. As soon as the vessel was free, a deep branching inlet was discovered stretching for a long distance into the interior of Greenland. Along its shore are peaks 7,000 and 14,000 feet high. The expedition returned to Bremen on September 11, 1870. VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. 257 Lieutenant Payer was resolved to con- tinue in the path of polar discovery. He and a naval officer named Weyprecht freighted a Norwegian schooner called the Isbjorn, and examined the edge of the ice between Spitzbergen and Nova Zembla, in the summer of 187 1. Their observations led them to select the route by the north end of Nova Zembla with a view to making the north-east passage. It was to be an Austria-Hun- garian expedition, and the idea was seized with enthusiasm by the whole empire. Weyprecht was to command the ship, while Julius Payer conducted the sledge parties. A Winter of Adventures. The steamer TegethofF, of 300 tons, was fitted out in the Elbe, and left Tromso on July 14, 1872. The season was exceptionally severe, and the vessel was closely beset near Cape Nassau, at the northern end of Nova Zembla, in the end of August. The summer of 1873 found her still a close prisoner drifting, not with a current, but in the direction of the prevailing wind. At length, on the 3 1st August, a mountainous country was sighted about 14 miles to the north. In October the vessel was drifted within three miles of an island lying off the main mass of land. Payer landed on it. It was named after Count Wilczek, one of the warmest friends of the expedi- tion. Here the second winter was passed. Bears were very numerous and as many as sixty-seven were killed, their meat proving to be a most efficient remedy against scurvy. In March, 1874, Payer made a preliminary sledge journey in intense cold. On 24th March he started for a more prolonged journey of thirty 17 days. Payer found that the newly dis- covered country equalled Spitzbergen in extent, and consisted of two or more large masses — Wilzcek Land to the east, Zichy Land to the west, intersected by numerous fords and skirted by a large number of islands. A wide channel, named Austria Sound, separates the two main masses of land, where Rawlinson Sound forks off to the north-east. Perilous Voyage. The mountains attain a height of 2000 to 3000 feet, the depressions be- tween them being covered with gla- ciers ; and all the islands even are cov- ered with a glacial cap. The whole country was named Franz-Josef Land. Payer returned to the TegethofF on 24th April ; and a third journey was under- taken to explore a large island named after McClintock. It then became ne- cessary to abandon the ship and attempt a retreat in boats. This perilous voy- age was commenced on 20th May. Three boats stored with provisions were placed on sledges. It was not until 14th August that they reached the edge of the pack and launched the boats. Eventually they were picked up by a Russian schooner and arrived at Vardo on September 3, 1874. This great achievement is one of the most impor- tant connected with the north polar re- gion that has been made in the nine- teenth century, and will probably lead in due time to still further discoveries in the same direction. One of the most interesting problems connected with the physical geography of the polar regions is the history and actual condition of the vast interior of Greenland, which is generally believed to be one enormous glacier. In 1867 ^58 VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. Mr. Edward Whymper carefully plan- ned an expedition to solve the question, and went to Greenland, accompanied by Dr. Robert Brown ; but the season was too late and progress was stopped, after going a short distance, by the breaking down of the dog-sledges. But Dr. Brown made most valuable geological and natural history collections, chiefly in the neighborhood of Disco, and still more valuable observations, the publi- cation of which has added considerably to our knowledge. Dr. Rink, for many years royal inspector of South Green- land and the most distinguished author- ity on all Greenlandic questions, has also visited the inland ice, and has given his stores of information to the world. Captain Nare's Expedition. The gallant enterprises of other coun- tries rekindled the zeal of England for arctic discovery ; and in October, 1874, the prime minister announced that an expedition would be despatched in the following year. The route by Smith Sound was selected because it gave the certainty of exploring a previously un- known area of considerable extent, be- cause it yielded the best prospect of valuable scientific results, aud because it offered, with proper precautions, rea- sonable security for a safe retreat in case of disaster. Two powerful screw steamers, the Alert and Discovery, were selected for 1 the service, and Captain Nares was se- lected as leader. Commander Mark- ham^ who had made a cruise up Baffin's Bay and Barrow Strait in a whaler dur- ing the previous year, Lieutenant Aldrich, an accomplished surveyor, and Captain Feilden, as naturalist, were also in the Alert. The Discovery was commanded by Captain Stephenson, with Lieutenant Beaumont as first lieutenant. The expedition left Ports- mouth on the 29th May, 1875, aud en- tered Smith Sound in the last days of July. After much difficulty with the drift- ing ice Lady Franklin Bay was reached, where the Discovery was established in winter-quarters. The Alert passed on- wards, and reached the edge of the pakeocrystic sea, the ice-floes being from 80 to 100 feet in thickness. Leaving Robeson Channel, the vessel made pro- gress between the land and the ground- ed floe pieces, and passed the winter off the open coast and facing the great polar pack. Autumn travelling parties were despatched in September and Octo- ber to lay out depots ; and during the winter a complete scheme was matured for the examination of as much of the unknown area as possible, by the com- bined efforts of sledging parties from the two ships, in the ensuing spring. The parties started on April 3, 1876 Valuable Discoveries. Captain Markham with Lieutenant Parr advanced, in the face of almost in- surmountable difficulties, over the polar pack to the high latitude of 83 20' 26" N. Lieutenant Aldrich explored the coast-line to the westward, facing the frozen polar ocean, for a distance of 220 miles. Lieutenant Beaumont made discoveries of great interest along the northern coast of Greenland. The par- ties were attacked by scurvy, which, while increasing the difficulty and hardships of the work a hundredfold, also enhanced the devoted heroism of these gallant explorers. Captain Feilden was indefatigable in making collections, VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. 259 and was zealously assisted by all the officers. The expedition returned to England in October, 1876. The Alert reached the highest northern latitude ever at- , tained by any ship, and wintered ' further north than any ship had ever wintered before. The results of the expedition were the discovery of 300 miles of new coast-line , the examina- tion of this part of the frozen polar ocean, a series of meteorological, mag- netic, and tidal observations at two points farther north than any such ob- servations had ever been taken before, and large geological and natural history collections. Compelled to Return. In the same year, 1875, Sir Allen Young undertook a voyage in his steam yacht, the Pandora, to attempt to force his way down Peel Sound to the mag- netic pole, and if possible to make the north-west passage by rounding the eastern shore of King William Island. The Pandora entered Peel Sound on August 29, 1875, an d proceeded down it much farther than any vessel had gone before since it was passed by Franklin's two ships in 1846. Sir Allen sighted Cape Bird, at the northern side of the western entrance of Bellot Strait. But here an ice-barrier right across the channel barred his progress, and he was obliged to retrace his steps, returning to England on October 16, 1875. In the following year Sir Allen Young made another voyage in the Pandora to the entrance of Smith Sound. In 1879 an enterprise was undertaken in the United States, with the object of throwing further light on the sad his- tory of the retreat of the officers and men of Sir John Franklin's expedition, by examining the west coast of King William Island in the summer, when the snow is off the ground. The party consisted of Lieutenant Schwatka of the United States army and three others. Wintering near the entrance of Chesterfield Inlet in Hudson's Bay, they set out overland for the estuary of the Great Fish River, assisted by Eski- mo and dogs, on April 1, 1879. Great Herd of Reindeer. They only took one month's provi- sions, their main reliance being upon the game afforded by the region to be traversed. The party obtained, during the journeys out and home, no less than five hundred and twenty-two reindeer. After collecting various stories from the Eskimo at Montreal Island and at an inlet west of Cape Richardson, Schwatka crossed over to Cape Her- schel on King William Island in June. He examined the western shore of the island with the greatest care for relics of Sir John Franklin's parties, as far as Cape Felix, the northern extremity. The return journey was commenced in November by ascending the Great Fish River for some distance and then marching over the intervening region to Hudson's Bay. The cold of the winter months in this country is oftentimes intense, the thermometer falling as low as 70 below zero — so that the return journey was most re- markable, and reflects the highest credit on Lieutenant Schwatka and his com- panions. As regards the search little was left to be done after M'Clintock, but some graves were found, as well as a medal belonging to Lieutenant Irving of H. M. S. Terror, and some bones 260 VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. believed to have been his, which were brought home and interred at Edin- burgh. Mr. Cordon Bennett, the proprietor of the New York Herald^ having re- solved to despatch an expedition oi discovery at his own expense by way of Behring Strait, the Pandora was purchased from Sir Allen Young, and rechristened the Jeannette. Lieutenant IV Long of the United States navy was appointed to command, and it was made a national undertaking by special Act of Congress, the vessel being placed under martial law and officered from the navy. The Jeannette sailed from San Fran- cisco on July 8, 1879, and was last seen steaming towards Wrangell Land on the 3d of September. This laud had been seen by Captain Kellett, in H. M. S. Herald on August 17, iS;o, but no one had landed on it, and it was shown 011 the charts by a long dotted line. Searching Party. The Jeannette was provisioned for three years, but as no tidings had been received of her up to 1881, two steam- ers were sent up Behring Strait in search. One of these, the Rodgers, under Lieutenant Berry, anchored in a good harbor on the south coast of Wran- gell Laud on the 26th August 1881, The land was explored by the officers of the Rodgers and found to be an island about 70 miles long by 28, with a ridge of hills traversing it east and west, the 71st parallel running along its southern shore. Lieutenant Berry then proceeded to examine the ice to the northward, and attained a higher latitude by 21 miles than had ever been 1 cached before on the Behring Strait meridian. No news was obtained of the Jeannette, but soon afterwards melancholy tidings arrived from Siberia. After having been beset in heavy pack ice for twenty-two months, the Jeannette was crushed and sunk on the 1 2th June 1881. Separated in a Gale. The officers and men dragged their boats over the ice to nn island which was named Bennett Island, where they landed on the 29th July. They reached one of the New Siberia Islands on the 10th September, and on the 12th they set out for the mouth of the Lena. But in the same evening the three boats were separated in a gale oi wind. A boat's crew with Mr. Melville, the en- gineer, reached Irkutsk, and Mr. Mel- ville set out in search of Lieutenant De Long and his party, who had also landed. The other boat was lost. Event- ually Melville discovered the dead bodies of De Long and two of his crew on March 23, 1SS3. They had perished from exhaustion and want of food. The Rodgers was burnt in its winter quarters, and one of the officers, Mr. Gilder, made a hazardous journey home- wards through north-east Siberia. On September 18, 18";, Lieutenant Weyprecht, one oi the discoverers of Franz-Joseph Land, read a thoughtful and carefully prepared paper before a large meeting of German naturalists at Gratz on the scientific results to be obtained from polar research and the best means of securing them. He urged the importance of establishing a num- ber of stations within or near the Arctic Circle, in order to record complete series of synchronous meteorological and magnetic observations. VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. 201 Lieutenant Weyprecht did not live to see his suggestions carried into exe- at another at St. Petersburg in 1882, and it was decided that each nation should eution, but they bore fruit in due time. | establish one or more stations where BRILLIANT AURORA IN THE POLAR SEA. The various nations of Europe were represented at an international polar conference at Hamburg in 1879, and project was matured and executed. synchronous observations should be taken from August 1882. This useful 262 VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. The American stations commenced work in 1882. Lieutenant Greely'' s party consisted of two other lieutenants, of twenty sergeants and privates of the United States army, and Dr. Pavy, an enthusiastic explorer who had been educated in France, and had jxissed the previous winter among the Eskimo of Greenland. On August II, 1881, the steamer Proteus conveyed Lieutenant Greely and his party to Lady Franklin Bay during an exceptionally favorable season ; a house was built at the Dis- cover' s winter-quarters, and they were left with two years' provisions. The regular series of observations was at once commenced, and two winters were passed without accident. Travelling parties were also sent out in the sum- mer, dogs having been obtained at Disco. Lieutenant Lockwood made a jour- ney along the north coast of Greenland, and reached a small island. Dr. Pavy and another went a short distance be- yond the winter-quarters of the Alert, and a trip was made into the interior of Grinnell Land. But all this region had already been explored and exhaus- tively examined by the English expe- dition in 1875-76. Greely Makes a Start. As no successor arrived in the sum- mer of 1883 — though relieving vessels were despatched both in 1882 and 1883 — Lieutenant Greely started from Lady Franklin Pay with his men on the 9th of August, expecting to find a vessel in Smith Sound. On the 2 1st of October they were obliged to encamp at Cape Sabine, on the western shore of Smith Sound, and build a hut for wintering. A few depots were found, which had been left by Sir George Nares and Lieutenant Beebe, but all was exhausted before the spring. Then came a time of inde- scribable misery and acute suffering. The poor fellows began to die of actual starvation ; and when the relieving steamers Thetis and Bear reached Cape Sabine, Lieutenant Greely and six suffering companions were found just alive. If the simple and necessary precau- tion had been taken of stationing a depot ship in a good harbor at the entrance oi~ Smith Sound, in annual communication with Greely on one side and with America on the other, there would have been no disaster. Dr. Nansen in Greenland. The attention of explorers and scien- tific men was turned towards Green- land, as the knowledge of the interior of that country was very meagre. In 1886 Lieutenant Robert E. Peary vis- ited that island in quest of scientific information. The southern part of the island was crossed on snow shoes from east to west by Dr. Nansen, the famous Norwegian explorer. Peary returned to Greenland in 1S91, with a few at- tendants, and making McCormick Bay a base of operations, set out the follow- ing spring, accompanied by only a single companion, on a journey with sledges through the northern part of the island. His journey of 650 miles was a re- markable feat considering the great difficulties he encountered. He reached the north-east coast of Greenland, but further progress was cut off by an area of broken stones impassable to his sledges. Peary made another journey VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. 203 in the same direction in 1895, but failed to advance beyond the point gained by his previous expedition. Dr. Nansen, already mentioned, con- ceived the idea of reaching the pole by the strong ocean current that is sup- posed to cross the polar sea. For his expedition he had a ship constructed, so strong as to be able to offer formid- able resistance to the ice, and so built that great pressure would lift it to the lop of the ice-floe. Tl : intrepid ex- plorer set out in this vessel, the Fram, in June, 1893, and proceeded to New Siberia Islands. Here he anchored his ship to an ice-floe, and waited to see if the current would drift the vessel across the polar sea. It is needless to state that his expectations were not realized. Great Explorer's Return. For three years no tidings came from Nansen and his intrepid crew. They appeared to have gone out in the mys- terious darkness that veils the polar world, with little prospect of ever re- turning or leaving any tidings of their fate. But suddenly the world was stirred by the information that the great explorer had returned from his perilous voyage. Although Dr. Nansen did not accom- plish his object, his vessel floated into a higher latitude than had ever been reached before by 200 miles ; he was then 300 miles from the point farthest north. Here his vessel turned southward and drifted in the opposite direction. In March, 1895, he left the Fram because of the slow progress made, and began a journey north with one companion. After struggling for a long time against many obstacles he was compelled to relinquish his effort and return. With his companion, Johansen, he finally arrived at Franz Joseph Land, where they spent the winter of [895-96, living on the flesh of walruses and bears which they succeeded in captur- ing. Meanwhile, in 1894, an English' explorer, Frederick G. Jackson, visited Franz Joseph Land, where he remained three years, carefully exploring it dur- ing this time. In the spring Dr. Jack- son met Nansen and his friend, and it was through him that the great Nor- wegian explorer was rescued and suc- ceeded in returning to his native land. His exploit was considered one of the most remarkable in the history of polar explorations. He visited England, Scotland and the United States, and was everywhere received with the honor due to his achievements, and wherever he lectured great interest was awakened by his story of the Polar world. No one desti- tute of great courage, intrepidity and perseverance could have braved the rigors of the Arctic clime and accom- plished what Nansen did. A Balloon Voyage. In the summer of 1897 an explorer of vSwedish birth, S. A. Andree, conceived the idea of reaching the pole by mean? of a balloon voyage. Although the attempt was considered by most persons as visionary he succeeded in making a start with two companions, holding out expectations of his return in a few months after having accomplished his object. The party was never heard of afterward, and undoubtedly met the fate that was anticipated by all scientific men, who looked upon the undertaking as a piece of the utmost folly. Mention has been made of Lieutenant 264 VOYAGES IN THE POLAR WORLD. Peary, of the United States Navy, who has distinguished himself in Arctic ex- plorations, especially in Greenland. In 1898 he returned to Greenland to pursue his discoveries. Thus the century has witnessed a great advance in our knowl- edge of the Polar region, which, by these various voyages and the heroic achievements of those who have under- taken them, has been brought near to the rest of the world and is no longer such an unknown realm as it was a hundred years before and has been for thousands of years. Life in the Arctics. Human life in these far regions is even more wonderful than that of the lower animals. It is hardly credible that in these bleak territories of endless snow and winter people should be found who prefer their snowy surroundings to all the glories of more tropical climes, and would not exchange their snow- villages for the splendor of any metro- polis in either hemisphere. There is not a more singular people on the earth than those living within the Arctic belt ; nomadic, and yet all their resources are taxed to procure a living; always pressed for food, and yet wonderfully hospitable ; true barba- rians, but none the less peaceable and clever. Away in the chilly North nature withholds her gifts of food and warmth, and then with hard and piti- less niggardness, she drives such chilly blasts as if life within her sphere had angered her. Under a glinting sky of frost, within an unbroken landscape of inexpressibly lonesome desolation, the Esquimau makes his home and lives, despite the rigor and barren waste of his nameless country. These wonderful children of eccentric creation are controlled by no law, either written or traditional, and acknow- ledge accountability only to their own conscience, and yet they are orderly and given little to crime. They have patriarchs in their tribes who give ad- vice, but never assert authority. Es- quimau children render singular obe- dience to their parents, even after reaching maturity, which proceeds from a remarkable fraternal devotion, for there is no such thing as punishment of a male child by its parents. The value of the scientific discoveries made during the century by explorers in the Polar world cannot be overesti- mated. The frigid blanks of the North have been brought near ; a new world has been revealed, although buried in snow and ice; adventure has dazzled the nations with its feats, and much has been added to the sum of human knowledge. CHAPTER XVIII. Livingstone and Stanley in Central Africa. fHE greatest names in the history of Central African exploration in the Nineteenth Century are those of Livingstone and Stanley. The brave old missionary whose name stands first had passed more than twenty years of his life in Africa when he set out upon his last and most important journey in 1866. Sailing from Zanzibar with a party of thirty men — Arabs, Hindoos, and negroes — he landed at the mouth of the Rovuma, and proceeded in a south- westerly direction, along a most difficult route. It was a mere footpath, which had been made by the natives through the dense jungle by the easiest way, without any regard to its course being in the right direction. In pursuing this devious track, Livingstone and his party had to cut their way through with axes to enable the camels to pass under the branches of trees, and avoid the im- pediments presented by the rope-like climbing and trailing plants that fes- tooned them. In September he was within view of Lake Nyassa. Crossing the mountains, he descended into the valley of the Chambezi, which at that time, misled by Portuguese writers and the similarity of name, he believed to be the head water of the Zambesi. Continuing his journey westward, he entered the king- dom of Lunda, the ruler of which, the famous Cazembe, was a man of consid- erable intelligence. This potentate, a tall, stalwart negro, clad in crimson cotton, received the traveller very hospi- tably, and gave orders that he should be allowed to go where he would in his country unmolested. During their interview, the Queen ol Cazembe was brought up to the house on a litter, surrounded by her body- guard. Being a fine, tall young woman, of attractive exterior, she had calcu- lated, it would seem, upon making a powerful impression upon the white man, and had dressed herself for the in- terview in the choicest articles of attire her wardrobe afforded. But something in her appearance caused the doctor to laugh ; her majesty laughed also, per- haps at the appearance of the doctor, who was the first tvhite man she had ever seen. The laugh was echoed by the whole band of bearers, which so disconcerted her that, instead of staying to make a conquest of the doctor, she beat an undignified retreat, followed by her body-guard. On leaving Cazembe's capital, Liv- ingstone proceeded in a north-easterly direction until he reached a lake, which the natives called Liemba, but which he found, by tracing it northward, to be Tanganika. In November, 1867, he reached the shores of Lake Moero, which is about sixty miles in length, and, rounding its southern extremity, discovered a river, called the Luapula, flowing into it. Following it south- ward, he found that it proceeded from the great lake of Bangweolo, which is as large as Tanganika ; and in explor- ing- the shores of the lake he found the Chambezi flowing into it, and thus dis- 265 266 LIVINGSTONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA. covered that it was not the Zambesi, as he had at first supposed. He then returned to Lunda, and rested some time with the hospitable monarch of that country. Again re- suming his wanderings, he was deserted by all his followers, except two. They repented, however, and returned to his L/iialaba. Its course was winding, but with great perseverance he traced it into the long narrow lake of Kamo- londo. Then he turned southward, and traced the river up to the foot of Lake Moero. Turning northward again, he followed the river through all its numerous DR. LIVINGSTONE THE CKI.Kl service ; and in March, 1869, he reached Ujiji. After testing there three months, he crossed over to Uguhra, on the wes- tern shore of Tanganika, and thence accompanied a trading party to Bam- barre, where he was detained six months with ulcerated feet. As soon as he was able to travel again, he set off in a northerly direction, and after several days reached a broad river called the RATE I > AFRICAN EXPEORER. bends to within four degrees of the equator. He heard of another lake farther north, in which it was said to run ; and was led by this northward course to the conclusion that he had discovered the headwaters of the Nile in the ChainLezi and the Lualaba. He was destitute of means for further ex- plorations, however, and retraced his steps to Ujiji. So long a time had now elapsed since LIVINGSTONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA. 267 any news of the gallant old man had been received in England that much anxiety was felt as to his fate, not only in that country, but throughout the civilized world. Mr. Bennett, proprie- tor of the "New York Herald,'' seized the opportunity that thus presented itself, and commissioned one of its most trusty correspondents, the now famous Stanley, to lead an expedition into the wilds of Central Africa in search of Livingstone. Preparing for the Journey. Stanley reached Zanzibar in the first week of 1871, and a month later left that place, accompanied by Farquhar and Shaw, who had held the rank of mates in the mercantile marine, an Arab named Selim, who was to serve **s interpreter, six natives who had travelled with Captain Speke, and eighteen other negroes. Landing at Bagamoyo, twenty-five miles south of Zanzibar, he was there detained several weeks by the usual difficulty of procuring porters ; but at length a start was made for the interior, all engaged in the expedition in the highest spirits. The route pursued had never been trodden by white men before, and for several days presented alternate tracts of jungle and swamp. Then the party entered upon a ver- dant plain, backed by distant moun- tains. But the prospect soon changed; the grassy plain was succeeded by ex- tensive reedy swamps, intersected by numerous shallow streams. His follow- ers, too, European as well as native, gave Stanley considerable trouble, of which an instance may be quoted. Stanley was waiting for Shaw, who was leading a caravan with supplies. Food being scarce in the camp, and Shaw not arriving, he sent a message to him, requiring him to come on with all the .speed he could ; but time passed, and the caravan arrived not. Stanley then set out to meet it, and thus describes Shaw's order of march : "Stout burly Chowereh carried the cart on his head, having found that carrying it was easier than drawing it. The sight was such a damper to my regard for it as an experiment, that the cart was wheeled into the reeds and there left. The central figure was Shaw himself, riding at a gait which rendered it doubtful whether he or his animal felt most sleepy. Upon expos- tulating with him for keeping the cara- van so long waiting when there was a march on hand, he said he had done the best he could ; but as I had seen the solemn pace at which he rode, I felt dubious about his best endeavors, and requested him, if he could not mend his pace, to dismount and permit the donkey to proceed to camp, that it might be loaded for the march." African Scenery. Wooded valleys succeeded, and in the first week of June the expedition en- tered the region of Uyanzi, where, says Stanley, "the scenery was much more picturesque than any we had yet seen since leaving Bagamoyo. The ground rose into grander waves, hills cropped out here and there, great castles of syenite appeared, giving a strange and weird appearance to the forest." Unyanyembe was reached a few days afterwards, but then came many trou- bles ; many of the men were prostrated by sickness, many more deserted, and the invasion of the country by the re- 268 LIVINGSTONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA. doubtable Mirambo added to the diffi- culties by which Stanley was beset. Farquhar first, and then Shaw were left behind, in the care of friendly chiefs, weary and sick, and it was not until September that Stanley was able to leave Unyanyembe for Ujiji. An Unbounded Forest. "We ascended," says Stanley, "a ridge bristling- with syenite boulders of massive size, appearing above the forest — an illimitable forest, stretching in grand waves for beyond the ken of vision; ridges, forest-clad, rising gently one above another until they receded in the dim purple distance, with a warm haze floating above them, which, though clear enough in our neighborhood, be- came impenetrably blue in the far dis- tance. "Woods, woods, woods, one above another, rising, falling and receding — a very leafy ocean. The horizon at all points presents the same view. There may be an indistinct outline of a hill far away, or a taller tree than the rest conspicuous in its outlines against the translucent sky ; with this exception, it is the same — the same clear sky drop- ping into the depths of the forest, the same outlines, the same forest, the same horizon, day after day, week after week. Early in October the expedition." entered upon what Stanley calls "a grand, noble expanse of park-land, whose glorious magnificence and vastness of prospect, with a far-stretching carpet of verdure, darkly flecked here and there by miniature clumps of jungle, was one of the finest scenes in Africa." Large game was plentiful, herds of zebras, buffaloes, giraffes and antelopes roam- ing in every direction over the grassy plain, so that the travelers were now abundantly supplied with food. Farther on, where the undulations swelled into hills and valleys, and the rivers rendered the latter swampy, ele- phants and rhinoceri were seen for the first time. Leopards were occasionally seen, and lions roared at night around the camp. Ravines and. Naked Rocks. Winding along the base of the Kascra mountains, they crossed the lofty ridge which bounds the depression of Imrera on the west and north, and on the 29th "were in view of the sublimest but ruggedest scene we had yet beheld in Africa. The country was cut up in all directions by deep, narrow ravines, trending generally toward the north- west, while on either side rose enormous square masses of naked rock (sandstone), with but little vegetation anywhere visible, except it obtained a precarious tenure in the fissured crown of some hill top, or at the base of the scarps which everywhere lifted their fronts to our view." The Malagarazi was crossed on the 2nd of November, and on the following day news that Livingston was at Ujiji was received from a negro caravan com- ing from that direction, and Stanley immediately pushed on with renewed vigor. On the 10th, a silvery gleam seen be- tween the trees afforded the first glimpse of Lake Tangauika ; but several hours elapsed before they looked down upon Ujiji, embowered among graceful palms. Then the American flag was unfurled, guns were fired, and as the expedition marched into the village the inhabi- LIVINGSTONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA. 269 tants, Arabs and negroes of many tribes, swarmed out to meet them. "Good morning, sir," said a voice from the black crowd, and Stanley, look- ing round in surprise, saw a joyous- " Is Dr. Livingstone here?" asked Mr. Stanley. "Yes, sir." " Are you sure?" " Sure, sir ; I leave him just now." HENRY M. STANLEY, FAMOUS FOR HIS EXPLORATIONS IN AFRICA. looking negro, wearing a white turban and a long white shirt. "Who the mischief are you?" the astonished traveller asked. " I am Susi, the servant of Dr. Liv- ingstone," was the reply. "Good morning, sir," said another voice. "Hallo!" said Stanley. "Is this another one?" " Yes, sir," said another ebony figure. "Well, what is your name?" 270 LIVINGSTONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA. "My name is Chuniah, sir." " Ami is the doctor well?" 11 Not very well, sir." " Now, you Susi, run and toll the doc- tor 1 am coming." " Yes, sir." And off tushed Susi. Proceeding through a momently in- creasing crowd, Stanley met Susi again, breathless with running. He had told the doctor that a white man was coming, but when Livingstone, too much surprised to conceive such a visit possible, asked the traveller's name, Susi had no answer to give him. The news had Spread, how- ever, ami the Arab magnates oi' the place gathered under the verandah. Stanley Meets Dr. Livingstone. "I pushed back the crowd," says Stanley, "ami walked down a living avenue of people, until I came in trout oi' the semi-circle of Arabs, in front o( which stood the white man. As I ad- vanced 1 noticed he was pale, looked wearied, had a gray beard, wore a blue cap with a faded gold band round it, had on a red-sleeved waistcoat, and a pair of grey tweed trousers. " 1 would have run to him, only 1 was a coward in the presence oi such a mob — would have embraced him, only he being an Englishman I did not know how he would receive me; so 1 walked deliberately to him, took oil' my hat and said, 'Dr. Livingstone, I presume?' 4 Yes,' said he, with a smile, lifting his cap slightly. I replaced mv hat on my head, and he puts on his cap, and we grasp hands, and 1 say, '1 thank Cod, doctor, 1 have been permitted to see von.' He answered, 'I feel thankful that I am here to welcome you." I turned to the Arabs, took off my hat to them in respou ,e to the saluting choru.s o( yambos I received, and the doctor in- troduced them to me by name." The Arabs, with the delicacy of true politeness, soon left the two Europeans together, and then Stanley handed to Livingstone a bag of letters which had been lying for months at Unyanyembe, and the doctor had many questions to ask, which passed the afternoon and evening, One morning they embarked in a large canoe, lent by one of the Arab gentlemen oi the place, and steered jorthward, keeping close to the shore, "with a range oi' hills, beautifully wooded ami clothed with green grass, sloping abruptly, almost precipitously, into the depths of the fresh-water sea, towering immediately above us, and as we rounded the several capes or points, roused expectations oi some new won- der, or some exquisite picture. Nor were we disappointed. Gardens and Palmy Forests. "From Bagamoyoto Ujiji 1 had seen nothing to compare to them — these fishing settlements under the shade o( palms and plantains, banians, and mi- mosa, with cassava gardens to the right and left o( palmy forests, and patches oi' luxuriant grain looking down upon the quiet bay." The northern shores of the lake were tlat, with many reed-beds, and croco- diles were numerous, though on the southern portion they were seldom seen. Skirting these marshy shores. the explorers reached the western side of the lake, which rose much more loftily ami precipitously than the east- ern. On the i :?th of December they regained Ujiji, from which they had been absent twenty-eight days. Liv- LIVINGSTONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA 271 Lngstone then commenced writing let- ters, and copying memoranda of his explorations and discoveries into his journal, which, with the letters, Stanley was to take to England on his return. "I d him," says the latter, ' "while sitting in his shirt-si' the verandah, with his diary on his knee, as he pondered on what he had witnessed during his long marehes." Eiv: d Stanley left Ujiji in company on the 27th of November with the British and American flags waving at the prows of the two i canoes lent them by the friendly Arabs. Skirting the eastern shore in a south- ward direction, the travellers land' Urimba, and, after waiting to be joined by those of their followers who had gone by land, started up the valley of the Eoajeri for Unyanyembe. It was soon found that the guide knew nothing about the road, notwithstanding his voluble assurances that he was well acquainted with the- topography of all of the surrounding country. Stanley therefore put himself at the head of the caravan, and led a due easterly course, as indicated by the compass. Stanley and the Elephant. One day, about a fortnight after their departure from LTjiji, and when food was becoming scarce, Stanley took his rifle and strolled up a picturesque ra- vine in quest of game. Advancing through thick forests, he suddenly found ' himself confronted with a huge ele- phant. "Methought," says the travel- ler, "when I saw his trunk stretched forward, like a warning finger, that I heard a voice say, ' Siste, vena tor /' But whether it did not proceed from my imagination — no, I believe it pro- ved from one of my party, who must have shouted l Eo, an elephant ! an elephant, my master !' for the young rascal had fled as soon as he witne the awful colossus in such ein- Recovering from my astonish- ment, I thought it prudent to retire- also. As I looked behind, J saw him waving his trunk, which I understood to mean, 'Good bye, young fellow ! It is lucky for 1 went in time, for I was going to pound you to a jelly.' " Had to Live on Mushrooms. Tracks of animals were frequently ob erved, but, it being the rainy season, the game was scattered, and none could be procured. Persistently holding an easterly course, .Stanley led the way ovi : ridge after ridge, seeing rivers foaming and brawling through narrow . that in summer were dry, and on the ninth day of the march saw Mag- dala Mount, bearing north-east, and knew that they were approaching Im- rera. Rain had fallen every day, and a veil of grey haze hung over the forest. Mushrooms were abundant, and for the ],-i ;t day or two constituted the travel- lers' only food. Arrived at Imrera, the natives crowded around them with sup- plies and congratulations; but they halted only a day there, and on the 19th two zebras fell to Stanley's rifle, and the caravan was again joyous. On the 31st they met a caravan on its way from Unyanyembe to Ujiji, and learned the death of Shaw at the former place, the result of fever, rendered fatal by intemperance. The Gombe was reached on the 7th of February, and they camped near one of its largest lakes, which is several miles in length, LIVINGSTONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA. and swarms with hippopotami and croc- odiles. Here numerous imprints of lions' feet were observed, besides those of elephants, rhinoceri, hogs, and ante- lopes ; and on the following' day, while looking tor game, Stanley was startled by the roaring of three lions, apparently close at hand. Bounded into the Forest. Instinctively cocking his title, he glanced keenly aronnd, and detected. not the lions, but a large antelope, which stood trembling, as if it dreaded the fetal spring of the forest lords- Stanley tired, and the antelope gave a tremendous bound, and rushed into the forest, where, though wounded, as shown by its bloody trail, it disappeared. The report seemed to have scared the lions, for they were not seen or heard again. Unyanyembe was reached on the [8th of February, and the valley of Khiwhara entered with tlags living and guns firing. Stanley's first act was to raise a monu- ment over the grave oi Shaw. Fifty men were engaged for two days in bringing rocks to the spot, with which a cairn eight feet long and five broad was constructed, which Livingstone said would ever afterwards be known as the grave of the first white man who had died in Unyamwezi. Stanley remained in his old quarters, with Livingstone as his guest, until the 14th of March, when they separated] the latter resolved not to leave Africa until the mystery of the Nile sources was finally cleared up, and the former resumed his return journey to Zanzibar. On the 27th. when the expedition was encamped in the shade of a group of colossal baobabs, they were startled by the bellowing o( war-horns, ami at first thought that an attack was about to be made on the camp. It soon be- came known, however, that the alarm was on account of the 1 umored incursion of an unfriendly tribe. Stanley thus describes the scene which this alarm preluded: — " The men rushed to their villages, and in a short time we saw them arrayed in full fighting costume. Feathers o( the ostrich and the eagle waved over their fronts, or the mane of the zebra surrounded their heads ; their knees and ankles were hung with little bells; joho robes floated behind, from their necks: spears, asse- gais, knob-sticks, ami bows were flour- ished over their heads, or held in their right hands, as if ready for hurling. A Mimic War. "On each flank of a large body which issued from the principal village, and which came at a uniform swinging- double-quick, the ankle and knee bells all chiming in admirable unison, were a cloud of skirmishers, consisting of the most enthusiastic, who exercised them- selves in mimic war as they sped along. Column after column, companies from every village, hurried past our camp, until, probably, there were nearly a thousand soldiers gone to the war.'" At nightfall these warriors returned from the forest. There had been no fighting, the alarm having been without founda- tion. On the 30th the expedition arrived at Khonze, and halted near the village, while some friendly Wagogo travellers who had joined them, settled the cus- toms duties, or tribute, with the chief. The WagOgOS ran back to the halting- place, breathless, shouting, "Why do LIVINGSTONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA. 273 you halt here? Do you wish to die? These pagans will not take the tribute, but they boast they will eat up all your cloth." Close upon their heels came the chief and his fighting men, all armed. .Stanley ordered his men to load, and then strode up to the chief, and asked whether he had come to take the cloth by force, or would accept quietly what was given him. A Wanyamwezi, who had instigated the chief to make an ex- orbitant demand, was aboutto speak, but Stanley pushed him aside, and threat- ened to shoot him first if he was forced to fight. The chief laughed at the man's discomfiture, and in a short time he and vStanley settled the matter to their mutual satisfaction. Danger of a Massacre. Two days afterwards, whilst halting near the village of Mapanga, they were surprised by a rush of forty or fifty armed men from the jungle, all whoop- ing and yelling, and brandishing their .spears, in a manner unmistakably hos- tile. The moment was critical. One spear thrown, one musket fired, would have been the signal for an onslaught, the prelude, perhaps, of a massacre. The opposing forces were numeric- ally equal ; but Stanley knew that the whole of his men could not be relied upon for a fight, and prudence united with humanity in suggesting an effort to settle the cause of quarrel peacefully. Without arising from the bale on which he was seated, he desired his flag-bearer to inquire whether the chief of the Khonze came to rob them. "No," replied the chief. " We don't want to rob you, or to stop the road ; but we want the tribute." 18 " Don't you see us halted, and a bale opened to send it?" said Stanley, direct- ing his attention to a bale of goods which had just been opened. "We have halted so far from your village that, when the tribute is settled, we may proceed on our way, as the day is yet young." The chief laughed, and explained in his turn that, as he and his men were cutting wood for a new fence for the vil- lage, a lad brought the news that a cara- van was about passing through the coun- try without stopping. The tribute was then settled amicably, and the chief begged vStanley to make rain for him, as none had fallen for months, and his crops were suffering. Our traveller told him that, though white men were very clever, much superior to the Arabs, they could not make rain ; and, though disappointed, the chief was satisfied, and accompanied the expedition some distance to show them the road. Memorial to Farquhar. On the 7th of April the village was reached at which Farquhar had been left, and had died a few days afterwards. The chief showed vStanley the spot on which the corpse had been deposited, but not a vestige of the remains could be discovered. A mound of stones was raised upon the spot, however, as a memorial. Continuing their journey, they found the river Mukondokwa so swelled by the rains that it swept through the val- ley like a torrent, while the fields were flooded, and every nullah was a stream. Three times the foaming flood was crossed at the fords by the help of ropes fastened to the trees on either bank. Rain descended heavily every day, and 2T4 LIVINGSTONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA. the drenched travellers had to wade through the floods or tramp through dripping jungles. On the 13 th they reached a river which, though narrow, was too deep to be ibrdable. They had to halt, there- fore, and fell a tree, which they con- trived should fall across the stream, and along this Stanley led the way, the rest following by bestriding the tree and pushing their bales and boxes before them. One young fellow, who was carrying on his head the box containing Livingstone's letters and journals, im- pelled by excess of zeal or reckless bravado, plunged into the stream. Stanley watched him in an agony of fear. Suddenly the man, stepping into a hole, was immersed up to his chin. A Frightened Negro. :< Look out!" exclaimed Stanley, pointing a revolver at him; "Drop that box and I'll shoot you !" All the men stood still, or motionless bestrode their primitive bridge, to gaze at their imperiled companion. The frightened negro was grey with fear, but making a desperate effort, he got the precious box across in safety. An hour afterwards they came to the river of which this stream was a branch, and found it a broad flood of brown and foaming water. They constructed a raft, by cutting down four trees and lashing them together, but it sank as soon as it was launched. All their ropes were then tied together, making a line 180 feet long, one end of which was tied round a strong swimmer, who undertook to lash it to a tree on the other side. The negro, strong swimmer as he was, was carried far down the stream, but he succeeded in gaining the opposite bank, and securing the rope to a tree. By means of the rope both men and baggage were dragged through the water, the more valuable boxes being conveyed upon a sort of light hand-barrow resting upon men's shoulders. The River Rising. A superficial knowledge of the phy- sical geography of Africa scarcely pre- pares us for such scenes as meet the eye of the traveller in the rainy season. " Within twenty feet of our camp," says Stanley, " was a rising river, with flat, low banks ; above us was a gloomy, weeping sky ; surrounding us on three sides was an immense forest, on whose branches we heard the constant patter- ing rain ; beneath our feet was a great depth of mud, black and loathsome. Add to these the thought that the river might overflow and sweep ns to utter destruction." The strong current of the Makata, fifty yards wide, was crossed by swimming, and on the 29th the ex- pedition was at Simbimwenni, where the flooded Ungerengeri had swept away the whole of the river wall and about fifty houses. Many of the inhabitants had been drowned, and the rest had abandoned the place, of which a hurri- cane had made a wreck. The rain had now ceased, but the jungle was a pestiferous swamp, where huge snakes hung upon the branches of trees, and land-crabs, scorpions, and innumerable creeping things, swarmed upon the black mud beneath. On the 4th of May the expedition was within four miles of Bagamoyo, but that space was covered with flood- water, and they had to camp on its western margin LIVINGSTONE AND STANLEY IN AFRICA. 275 until canoes could be brought to ferry them over. Bagamoyo was entered at sunset on the 6th, the arrival being signalized by the firing of guns and much shouting and gesticulating, after the manner of the country. Arabs and Hindoos, Be- loochees and negroes, thronged about the men who had performed such a wonderful inarch, and when they had reached the centre of the town, Stanley was greeted and congratulated by Lieu- tenant Henn, of the Livingstone Relief Expedition, which was to have done what had already been accomplished by Stanley ; by Mr. Oswald Livingstone, the doctor's son; and the Rev. Charles New, the missionary. The long march was ended, and on the day after his arrival at Bagamoyo the Arab dhow which conveyed the ex- pedition back to Zanzibar, anchored in the harbor. Soon afterward Stanley returned to relate his wonderful ad- ventures and discoveries in Central Africa. GHAPTER XIX. Stanley's Great Journeys Across Africa. K have now to describe one of the most extraordinary, if not actually the greatest feat ever performed in the annals of modern exploration. This expedition under- taken by Henry M. Stanley from Zan- zibar right across the African continent to the Congo, was so full of perilous adventure, so remarkable for pluck and resolution, that it stands out boldly upon the canvas of history as the greatest achievement of our times. Stanley's own account of what pre- ceded his great undertaking is full of interest : " While returning to England in April, 1874, from the Ashantee War the news reached me that Livingstone was dead —that his body was on its way to England ! Livingstone had then fallen ! He was dead ! He had died by the shores of Lake Bemba, on the threshold of the dark region he wished to explore ! The work he had promised to perforin was only begun when death overtook him ! " The effect which this news had upon me, after the first shock passed away, was to fire me with a resolution to complete his work, to be, if God willed it, the next martyr to geograph- ical scieuce, or, if my life was to be spared, to clear up not only the secrets of the Great River throughout its course, but also all that remained still problematic and incomplete of the dis- coveries of Burton and Speke, and Speke and Grant. " The solemn day of the burial of 276 the body of my great friend arrived I was one of the pall-bearers in West- minster Abbey, and when I had seen the coffin lowered into the grave, and had heard the first handful of earth thrown over it, I walked away sorrow- ing over the fate of David Living- stone." Soon the resolve was formed to com- plete, if possible, the work Livingstone had been compelled to leave undone. In this memorable expedition the "Daily Telegraph," of London, and the "New York Herald" newspapers were associated. Mr. Stanley was com- missioned to complete the discoveries of Speke, Burton, and Livingstone. His party from England consisted of Francis and Edward Pocock and Frederick Barker. A barge, named the Lady Alice, was taken in sections, besides two other boats, with a perfect equip- ment. When all preparations had been completed, and the farewell dinners eaten, Stanley left England, to begin his perilous journey, on the 15 th of August, 1874. He reached Zanzibar September 21st, 1874, and there found many former associates of his search for Doctor Liv- ingstone. He engaged quite a little army of followers to go with him and carry the outfit. This outfit, which consisted of a most miscellaneous col- lection of articles, weighed 18,000 pounds, and was, with the party, car- ried across to the continent from Zanzi- bar island in six Arab vessels. On the STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. 277 morning of the 17th of November the start was made into the interior. The first stage of this journey was to the Victoria Nyanza, which Stanley desired to explore. The imperfect de- scription and explanations of previous travellers had left much to be decided concerning this great inland sea. "Was it the source of the Nile or of the Congo ?" " Was it part of a lake system, or a lake by itself?" These questions Stanley had determined to answer once for all. Many Adventures. The advance to the grot Lake Vic- toria was full of adventurous interest. Travelling in the "Dark Continent" means being at times in the wilderness without a guide, or with traitors acting as guides, which is a worse alternative. This was Stanley's fate, and he was deserted in the waste with a small stock of food. Through the terrible "jungle" the men had to crawl, cutting their way, guided solely by the compass, overcome by hunger and thirst, deser- tions frequent, sickness stalking along- side. This was indeed ' ' famine-stricken Ugogo." While on this disastrous march he lost five of his people, who " wandered on helplessly, fell down, and died." 1 The country produced no food, or even game, unless lions could be so called. Two young lions were found in a den, and were quickly killed and eaten. This was the only food for the whole expedition ! Stanley tells us how he returned to camp, and was so struck by the pinched jaws of his followers that he nearly wept. He decided to utilize his precious medical stores, and wisely, for the people were famishing ; medicinal comforts for the dead had no meaning. So he made a quantity of gruel, which kept the expedition alive for eight and forty hours, and then the men he had despatched to Suma for provisions re- turned with food. Refreshed they all marched on, so that they might reach Suma not morning. Hostile Natives. After proceeding twenty miles, they came to the cultivated districts and en- camped. But the natives of Suma were hostile, and the increasing sick list made a four days' halt necessary. There were thirty men ailing from vari- ous diseases. Edward Pocock was taken ill here, and on the fourth day he be- came delirious ; but the increasing sus picions of the natives — who are repre- sented as a very fine race — made depart- ure necessary, and so a start was made on the 17th of January, in very hostile company. The famine in Ugogo had severely tried every man's constitution, and all felt weak in spirit if not ill in body. " Weary, harassed, feeble creatures, KS they reached Chiwyu, four hundred miles from the sea, and camped nea_ the crest of a hill 5,400 feet high. Here Rdward Pocock breathed his last. He was laid under an acacia, and upon the trunk of this fine old tree a cross was cut deeply, in memory of a faith- ful follower. Hence two rivulets run, gradually converging, and finally uniting into a stream which trends toward Lake Vic- toria. So here the extreme southern sources of the Nile were discovered ; but up to this point the explorer had, as he said, "child's play," to what he after- wards encountered. We have already 278 STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. seen what this child's play was like. Stanley proceeded gently to Vinyata, where the expedition arrived on the 21st of January, 1875. Here a magic doctor paid Stanley a visit, and cast longing eyes at the stores. Next clay, after the departure of the magic doctor, who came for another present, the natives showed hostile cowardice the wish for peace. There were so many tempting articles too — stores dear to the native mind, which the inhabitants coveted. No peace would be made at any price, and the savages attacked the camp in force. Stanley disposed his men behind hastily-erected earthworks and other shelter, and used the sections of the FIERCE ATTACK BV NATIVES UPON THE EXPLORERS. symptoms. One hundred ^.savages, armed and in warlike costume, came around, shouting and brandishing their weapons. At this juncture Stanley, fol- lowing Livingstone's practice, decided to make no counter demonstration ; but to remain quiet in camp, and provoke no hostility. This plan did not answer, however. The natives mistook for Lady Alice barge as a citadel for final occupation. There were only sev- enty effective men to defend the camp but these were divided into detachments and subdivided. One sub-detachment was quickly destroyed, and in the day's fight twenty-one soldiers and one mes- senger were killed — three wounded. Stanley's men, however, pursued the STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. 279 retreating enemy, and burned many vil- lages, the men bringing in cattle and grain as spoils. Next day the natives came on again, but they were quickly routed, and the expedition continued its way through the now desolate valley unmolested. So the Iturnians Were punished, after three days of battle. Losses of the Expedition. The victory, however, had not been much to boast of. After only three months' march, the expedition had lost 1 20 Africans and one European, from the effects of sickness and battle. There were now only 194 men left of 356 who had set out with the expedition. They passed on, however, toward the Victoria Nyanza, and after escaping the warlike Mirambo, who fought everybody on principle, Stanley reached Kagehyi on the 27th of February. He was now close to the Lake, having marched 720 miles; average daily march, ten miles. On the 8th of March Stanley, leaving F. Pocock to command the camp, set forth with eleven men in the Lady Alice, to explore the Lake and ascer- tain whether it is one of a series, as Dr. Livingstone said it was. The explorer began by coasting Speke Gulf. Many interesting observations were made. He penetrated into each little bay and creek, finding indications that convinced him that the slave trade is carried on there. But the explorer had to battle for his information. Near Chaga the natives came down, and, after inducing him to land, attacked him ; but Stanley "dropped" one man, and the natives subsided. On another occasion the natives tried to entrap him, but he es- caped by firing on the savages, killing three men, and sinking their canoes with bullets from an elephant rifle. Continuing his course now unop- posed, Stanley coasted along the Uganda shore. Just as he was about to depart, on the following morning, he perceived six beautiful canoes, crowded with men, all dressed in white, approaching ; they were the king's people conveying a messenger from the King of Uganda to S tan ley, begging a visit from him. This messenger was gorgeously arrayed for the important occasion; he wore a bead-worked head-dress, above which long white cock's feathers waved, and a snowy white and long-haired goat- skin, intertwined with a crimson robe, depending from his shoulders, com- pleted his costume. Approaching Stan- ley, he delivered his message thus : Invitation from a King. " The Kabaka (King) sends me with many salaams to you. He is in great hopes that you will visit him, and has en- camped at Usavara, that he may be near the lake when you come. He does not know from what land you have come, but I have a swift messenger with a canoe who will not stop until he gives all the news to the Kabaka. His mother dreamed a dream a few nights ago, and in her dream she saw a white man on this lake in a boat coming this way, and the next morning she told the Kabaka, and lo ! you have come. Give me your answer, that I may send the messenger. Twiyanzi-yanzi-yanzi !" (Thanks, thanks, thanks.) Thus delivering himself, the messen- ger, whose name was Magassa, implored Stanley to remain one day longer, that he might show him the hospitalities of his country, and prepare him for a grand 280 STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. reception by the king, to which Stanley consented. Magassa was in his glory now. His voice became imperious to his escort of 182 men; even the feathers of his cur- ious head-dress waved prouder, and his rcbe had a sweeping dignity worthy of a Roman emperor's. Upon landing, Ma- gassa's stick was employed frequently. The sub-chief of Kadzi was compelled to yield implicit obedience to his vice- regal behests. " Bring out bullocks, sheep, and goats, milk, and the mellowest of your choice bananas, and great jars of maramba, and let the white man and his boatmen eat, and taste the hospitalities of Uganda. Shall a white man enter the Kabaka's presence with an empty belly? See how sallow and pinched his cheeks are. We want to see whether we can show him a kindness superior to what the pagans have shown him." The Explorer Feted. Five canoes escorted the travellers to Usavara, the capital of King Mtesa. The explorer was most kindly received, and closely questioned upon subjects of so diverse a character as to remind Stanley of a college examination for a degree. King Mtesa appeared quite a civil- ized monarch, quite a different being from what he had been when Speke and Grant had visited him as a young man. He had become an adherent of Mahomet, wore Arab dress, and con- ducted himself well. He entertained Stanley with reviews of canoes, a naval "demonstration" of 84 "ships" and 2, 500 men! Shooting matches, parades, and many other civilized modes of enter- tainment were practiced for the amuse- ment of the white man. In Uganda the traveller is welcomed, and perfectly safe. King Mtesa's country is situated on the equator, and is a much more pleas- ant land than might be supposed from its geographical position, being fertile, and covered with vegetation. It is a peculiarly pleasant land for a traveller, as it is covered with roads, which are not only broad and firm, but are cut almost in a straight line from one point to another. Good Roads. Uganda seems to be unique in the matter of roads, the like of which are not to be found in any part of Africa, except those districts which are held by Europeans. The roads are wide enough for carriages, but far too steep in places for any wheeled conveyance ; but as the Waganda (the name given to the inhabitants of Uganda) do not use car- riages of any kind, the roads are amply sufficient for their purposes. The Wa- ganda have even built bridges across swamps and rivers, but their knowl- edge of engineering has not enabled them to build a bridge that would not decay in a few years. Like many other tribes which bear, but do not deserve, the name of sav- ages, the Waganda possess a curiously strict code of etiquette, which is so stringent on some points that an offen- der against it is likely to lose his life, and is sure to incur a severe penalty. If, for example, a man appears before the king with his dress tied carelessly, or if he makes a mistake in the mode of saluting, or if, in squatting before his sovereign, he allows the least por- tion of his limbs to be visible, he is led off to instant execution. STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. 281 As the fatal sign is given, the victim is seized by the royal pages, who wear a rope turban around their heads, aud at the same moment all the drums and other instruments strike up, to drown his cries for mercy. He is rapidly bound with the ropes snatched hastily from the heads of the pages, dragged off, and put to death, no one daring to take the least notice while the tragedy is being enacted. Token of Royal Birth. They have also a code of sumptuary laws which is enforced with the greatest severity. The skin of the serval, a kind of leopard cat, for example, may only be worn by those of royal descent. Once Captain Speke was visited by a very agreeable young man, who evi- dently intended to strike awe into the white man, and wore round his neck the serval-skin emblem of royal birth. The attempted deception, however, re- coiled upon its author, who suffered the fate of the daw with the borrowed plumes. An officer of rank detected the imposture, had the young man seized, and challenged him to show proofs of his right to wear the emblem of royalty. As he failed to do so, he was threatened with being brought before the king, and so compounded with the chief for a fine of a hundred cows. Mtesa was a complete African Blue- beard, continnally marrying and kill- ing, the brides, however, exceeding the victims in number. Royal marriage is a very simple business in Uganda. Parents who have offended their king and want to pacify him, or who desire to be looked on favorably by him, bring their daughters and offer them as he sits I at the door of his house. As is the case with all his female attendants, they are totally unclothed, and stand before the king in ignorance of their future. If he accepts them, he makes them sit down, seats himself on their knees, and embraces them. This is the whole of the ceremony, and as each girl is thus accepted, the happy parents per- form the curious salutation called "n'yanzigging," that is, prostrating themselves on the ground, floundering about, clapping their hands, and ejacu- lating the word "n'yans," r thanks, as fast as they can say it. Brides by the Wholesale. Twenty or thirty brides will some- times be presented to him in a single morning, and he will accept more than half of them, some of them being after- ward raised to the rank of wives, while the others are relegated to the position of attendants. Now and then the king held a review, in which the valiant and the cowards obtained their fitting rewards. These reviews offered most picturesque scenes. " Before us was a large open sward, with the huts of the queen's Kamra- viono or commander-in-chief beyond. The battalion, consisting of what might be termed three companies, each con- taining two hundred men, being drawn up on the left extremity of the parade ground, received orders to march past in single file from the right of com- panies at a long trot, and re-form again at the end of the square. " Nothing conceivable could be more wild or fantastic than the sight which ensued; the men were all nearly naked, with goat or cat skins depending from their girdles, and smeared with war 282 STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. colors, according to the taste of the individual ; one-half of the body red or black, the other blue, not in regular order; as, for instance, one stocking would be red, and the other black, whilst the breeches above would be the opposite colors, and so with the sleeves and waistcoat. "Every man carried the same arms, two spears and one shield, held as if approaching an enemy, and they thus moved in three lines of single rank and file, at fifteen or twenty paces asunder, with the same high action and elongated step, the ground leg only being bent, to give their strides the greater force. Fantastic Parade. "After the men had all started, the captains of companies followed; even more fantastically dressed ; and last of all came the great Colonel Congow, a perfect Robinson Crusoe, with his long white-haired goat-skins, a fiddle-shaped leather shield, tufted with hair at all six extremities, bands of long hair tied below the knees, and a magnificent helmet covered with rich beads of every color in excellent taste, surmounted with a plume of crimson feathers, in the centre of which rose a bent stem tufted with goat's hair. Next, they charged in companies to and fro, and finally the senior officers came charg- ing at their king, making violent pro- fessions of faith and honesty, for which they were applauded. The parade then broke up, and all went home." Stanley, after remaining some time with Mtesa, departed in October to ex- plore the country lying between Albert Nyanza and the Victoria Nyauza. This time he had with him an escort of Mtesa's men, under a "general " named Sambusi. The expedition, after a pleas* ant march, came within a few miles of the Albert Nyanza, but then the native warriors wished to return, and Stanley yielded perforce. He returned, but the faint-hearted "general" was put in irons by Mtesa, whom he had shamed. Imposing Ceremonies. The expedition reached Mtesa's on the 23d of August, and the king re- ceived Stanley in his council chamber with great ceremony and many evi- dences of friendship. Stanley took this occasion to inform him of the object of his visit, which was to procure guides and an escort to conduct him to Albert Lake. Mtesa replied that he was now en- gaged in a war with the rebellious people of Uvuma, who refused to pay their tribute, harassed the coast of Chagwe and abducted his people, "sell- ing them afterward for a few bunches of bananas," and it was not customary in Uganda to permit strangers to pro- ceed on their journeys while the king was engaged in war; but as soon as peace should be obtained he would send a chief with an army to give him safe conduct by the shortest route to the lake. Being assured that the war would not last long, Stanley resolved to stay and witness it as a novelty, and take advantage of the time to acquire information about the country and its people. On the 27th of August Mtesa struck his camp, and began the march to Na- } karanga, a point of land lying within • seven hundred yards of the island of Ingira, which had been chosen by the Wavuma as their depot and stronghold, He had collected an army numbering, STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. 183 t 50,000 warriors, as it was expected tiiat he would have to fight the rebel- lious Wasoga as well as the Wavuma. Besides this great army must be reck- oned nearly 50,000 women, and about as many children and slaves of both sexes, so that at a rough guess, after looking at all the camps and vari- ous tributary nations which, at Mte- sa's command, had contributed their quotas, the number of souls in Mte- sa's camp must have been about 250,- 000! Stanley had the pleasure of review- ing this immense army as it was put in motion towards the battle-ground. He describes the officers and troops in the following graphic style : "The advance-guard had departed too early for me to see them, but, cur- ious to see the main body of this great army pass, I stationed myself at an early hour at the extreme limit of the camp. "Brave as a Lion." " First with his legion, came Mkwe- nda, who guards the frontier between the Katonga valley and Willi miesi against the Wanyoro. He is a stout, burly young man, brave as a lion, hav- ing much experience of wars, and cun- ning and adroit in his conduct, accom- plished with the spear, and possessing, besides, other excellent fighting qual- ities. I noticed that the Waganda chiefs, though Muslimized, clung to their war-paint and national charms, for each warrior, as he passed by on the trot, was most villainously bedaubed with ochre and pipe-clay. The force under the command of Mkwenda might be roughly numbered at 30,000 warriors and camp-followers, and though the path was a mere goat-track, the rush of this legion on the half-trot soon crushed out a broad avenue. "The old general Kangau, who de- fends the country between Willimiesi and the Victoria Nile, came next with his following, their banners flying, drums beating, and pipes playing, he and his warriors stripped for action, their bodies and faces daubed with white, black, and ochreous war-paint. Splendid Warriors. "Next came a rush of about 2,000 chosen warriors, all tall men, expert with spear and shield, lithe of body and nimble of foot, shouting as they trotted past their war-cry of ' Kavya, kavya ' (the two last syllables of Mtesa's title when young — Mukavya, 'king'), and rattling their spears. Behind them, at a quick march, came the musket-armed body-guard of the emperor, about two hundred in front, a hundred on either side of the road, enclosing Mtesa and his Katekiro, and two hundred bring- ing up the rear, with their drums beat- ing, pipes playing, and standards flying, and forming quite an imposing and war- like procession. " Mtesa marched on foot, bare-headed, and clad in a dress of blue check cloth, with a black belt of Hnglish make round his waist, and — like the Roman emperors, who, when returning in tri- umph, painted their faces a deep ver- million — his face dyed a bright red. The Katekiro preceded him, and wore a dark-grey cashmere coat. I think this arrangement was made to deceive any assassin who might be lurking in the bushes. If this was the case the precaution seemed wholly unnecessary, as the march was so quick that nothing but a gun would have been effectives 284 STANLEYS JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. and the Wavuma and Wasoga have no such weapons. " After Mtesa's body-guard had passed by, chief after chief, legion after legion, followed, each distinguished to the na- tive ear by its different and peculiar slrum-beat. They came on at an ex- traordinary pace, more like warriors hurrying up into action than on the inarch, and it is their custom, I am told, to move always at a trot when on an enterprise of a warlike nature." A Big War-Boat. In the ensuing conflict King Mtesa's army was repulsed. Stanley finally asked of him 2,000 men, telling him that with this number he would con- struct a monster war-boat that would drive the enemy from their stronghold. This proposition gave Mtesa intense delight, for he had begun to entertain grave doubts of being able to subjugate the brave rebels. The 2,000 men being furnished, Stanley set them to cutting trees and poles, which were peeled and the bark used for ropes. He lashed three canoes, of seventy feet length and six-and-a-half feet breadth, four feet from each other. Around the edge of these he caused a stockade to be made of strong poles, set in upright and then intertwined with smaller poles and rope bark. This made the floating stockade sev- enty feet long and twenty-seven feet wide, and so strong that spears could not penetrate it. This novel craft floated with much grace, and ns the men paddled in the spaces between the boats they could not be perceived by the enemy, who thought it must be pro- pelled by some supernatural agency. It was manned by two hundred and fourteen persons, and moved across the channel like a thing of life. As this terrible monster of the deep approached the enemy, Stanley caused a proclamation to be made to them, in deep and awful tones, that if they did not surrender at once their whole island would be blown to pieces. This strata- gem had the desired effect ; the Wavu- ma were terror-stricken and surrendered unconditionally. Two hours later they sent a canoe and fifty men with the tribute demanded. Thus ended the war and preparations wCre at once made to advance. Stanley turned toward Lake Tangan- yika, and camped at Ujiji, where he had met David Livingstone. Thence he journeyed to Nyangwe, the farthest northern place attained by Cameron. Cameron had gone south to Benguela. Famous Tipo-tipo. While in the vicinity of Nyangwe, Stanley chanced to meet the famous trader, Tipo-tipo, who had befriended Cameron while on his journey, having conducted him as far as Kasongo's country. From him he learned that Cameron had been unable to explore the Luaiaba, and thus the work which Livingstone had not been able to com- plete was as yet unfinished. Not believing, as Livingstone did, that the Luaiaba was the remote south- ern branch of the Nile, but having the same conviction as Cameron, that it was connected with the Congo, and was the eastern part of that river, and hav- ing, what Livingstone and Cameron had not, an ample force and sufficient sup- plies, he determined to follow the Lu- aiaba, and ascertain whither it led. He met with the same difficulty that < - > - — -5 03 £ U. I C f- Ol I- a n November 5th Tipo-tipo, with seven hundred men joined Stanley, and they set out On their journey. Stanley now carried the Lady Alice across the 350 miles which intervened between Ujiji and Nyangwe, which is situated on the Lualaba(of Livingstone), which Stanley as wed as Cameron believed was a branch o( the Congo. We shall now follow Stanley briefly in his dis- covery along that river, which he had detei mined to explore. Oil the 5th o( November he set out. He reinforced his following, and took supplies for six months. He had with him [40 rifles and seventy spearmen and could defy the warlike tubes of which he had heard SO mueh, and he made Up his mind to "stick to the laialaha fair or foul!" For three weeks he pushed his way along the hanks, meeting with tremendous difli- CUlties, till all became disheartened. Stanley said he would try the river. The Lady Alice was put together and launched, and then the leader declared he would never (put it until he reached the sea. " All I ask," said he to his men, "is that you follow me in the name oi' God." "In the name oi' God, master, we will follow vou," they replied. They did, bravely. Passing the Rapids. A skirmish occurred at the outset, by the Ruiki river, and then the I'kassa rapids were reached. These weie passed in Safety, One portion oi the expedition on the bank, the remainder in canoes. v ^o the journey continued, but under very depressing circumstances, for the natives, when not hostile, openly left their villages, and would hold no com- munication with the strangers. Sick- ness was universal. Small-pox, dvseu- tery, ami othei diseases raged, and every day a body or two was tossed into the river. A eanoe was found, repaired, and constituted the hospital, and so was towed down stream. On the 8th oi December a skirm- ish occurred, but speedily ended in the defeat oi the savages, wdio had used poisoned arrows. At Yinya-Ni.ua again, another serious fight ensued, the savages rushing against the stock- ades which surrounded the camp, and displaying great determination. The attack was resumed at night At daybreak, a part o( the native town STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. 289 w.t, oi cupied, and i here again the fighi ,ii", w.-is continued. The village held, but the natives were still detei mined and again al La< ked ; the ai rows fell in clusters, and il was a very criti< al time for the "oyagers. Mutiny in Camp. !•.,! iiiii.it- sly I he land divi ion ai i ived and setl led the matter ; the savages disappeared, and f he man hing detach- ment united with Stanley's crews. Thai hi PoCO< 1- Was sent out to < ut. away the enemy's canoes and t hal dang( r was over. Bui now the A rab escorl which had joined Stanley at Nyangwe be< ame rebellious, and infected the rest. Stan feared that all his people would mutiny, but he managed them with a firm and friendly hand. Sothatdangi i pa sed. All this time the people had b< en dying ol fevei , small pox, and poisoned arrows, and the constanl at- ta< ks of t he enemy prevented burial ol the dead or attendance on the si< k and wounded. ( )n the 26th of De< ember, aftei a merry Christmas, considei ing the cii cum .tances, the expedition embarked, i (.9 in all, and nol one deserted. To- morrow would echo the cry "Victory 01 I )<• .ith." The explorers pas ed into the portals Ol the Unknown, and on .pli January they reached a series of cataracts, now named Stanley Palls. This was a cannibal country, and the man-eaters hunted the voyagers " like game." For four and twenty days the conflict continued, fighl ing, fool by foot, the forty miles or so which wen- cov- ered by the cataracts, and which the e pedition had to follow by land, forag- ing, fighting, encamping, dragging the fleet of canoes, all the time with their 19 lives in their hands, cutting their way through the forest and their deadly enemies. V< t as soon as lie had avoided the < annibals on land, they came after him on the water. A flotilla of fifty-four ' inoes, some enormous vessels, with a total of nearly two thousand warriors, were formidable obstacles in the way. But gun-powder won the day, and the natives were dispersed with great loss, 1 he village plundered of its ivory, which was very plentiful, and the expedition in all this lost only one man, making the sixteenth since the expedition had left Nyangwe. Grand Cataracts. Some of the cataracts Stanley de- .( ribe as magnificent, the current boil- ing and leaping in brown waves six feel high. The width in places is 2,000 and 1,300 feel narrowing at the falls. After the great naval battle, Stanley found friendly tribes who informed him the river, the Jmalaba, which he had named the Livingstone, was surely the Congo, or the River of Congo. Here was a great geographical secret now disclosed, and success seemed certain. II. was attained, but at a great price, as we shall see. More battles followed the peaceful days; then the friendly tribes were again met with, and so on, until the warfare with man ceased, and the struggle with the Congo began in eai nest. There are fifty-seven cataracts and oipids in the course of the river from Nyangwe to the ocean, a distance of eighteen hundred miles. One portion of one hundred and eighty miles took the explorers five months. The high cliffs and the dangerous banks required 290 STANLKY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. the greatest caution to pass, and had Stanley not determined to cling to the river ; had he led his men by land past the cataract region, he would have done better, as the events prove. During that terrible passage he lost precious lives, including the brave Pocock and Kalulu — the black boy, Stanley's favorite who proved to be of great service. Livingstone Falls. March [2th found them in a wide reach of the river, named Stanley Pool, and below that they " for the first time heard the low and sullen thunder of Livingstone Palls." From this date the river was the chief enemy, and at the cataracts the stream Hows "at the rate of thirty miles an hour!" The canoes su tiered or were lost in the "cauldron," and portages became nec- essary. The men were hurt also; even Stanley had a fall, and was half stunned. There were sundry workers, and seven- teen canoes remaining on the 27th of March. The descent was made along the shore below Rocky Island Falls, and in gaining the camping-place Kalulu, in the "Crocodile" canoe, was lost. This boat got into mid-stream, and went glid- ing over the smooth, swift river to de- struction. Nothing could save it or its occupants. It whirled round three or four times, plunged into the depths, and Kalulu and his canoe-mates were no more. Nine men, including others in other eanoes, were lost that day, Says Stanley: 1 led the way down the river, and in five minutes was in a new camp in a charming cove, with the cataract roaring loudly about 500 yards below ns. A canoe came in soon after with a gleeful crew, and a second one also arrived safe, and I was about con- gratulating myself for having done a good day's work, when the long canoe which Kalulu had ventured in was seen in mid-river, rushing with the speed of a flying spear towards destruction. A groan of horror burst from us as we rushed to the rocky point which shut the cove from view of the river. "When we had reached the point, the canoe was half-way over the first break of the cataract, and was then just beginning that fatal circling in the whirlpool below. We saw them signal- ing to us for help; but alas! what could we do there, with a cataract between us? We never saw them more. A pad- dle was picked up about forty miles below, which we identified as belong- ing to the unfortunate coxswain, and that was all." An Untimely Death. Stanley felt this loss keenly, tor he loved Kalulu almost like a younger brother. The boy had been presented to him by the Arabs of Unyanyembc on the occasion of his first visit there in search of Livingstone. He was then a mere child, but very bright and quick for one of his race and age. Stanley took him to the United States, where he attended school eighteen months, and rapidly developed into an intelli- gent and quick-witted youth. When Stanley was preparing for iiis second expedition Kalulu begged to be allowed to accompanv him, and he cheerfully granted the request. 1 1 is untimely death made so deep an impression upon Stanley that he named the fatal cataract Kalulu Falls in honor of his memory. Three out of the four men contained in the boat were special favorites of STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. 291 Stanley. They had been deceived by the smooth, glassy appearance of the river, and had pulled out boldly into the middle of it, only to meet a dreadful fate. Even while they gazed upon the spot where the frail craft was last seen upon the edge of the brink, another canoe came into sight, and was hurried on by the swift current towards the yawning abyss. As good fortune would have it, they struck the falls at a point less dangerous than that struck by the unfortunate Kalulu, and passed them in safety. Then they worked the canoe closer to the shore, and springing over- board, swam to the land. If those yet to come were to be deceived by the ap- pearance of the river, Stanley saw that he was destined to lose the greater part of his men. "I Am Lost, Master." In order to prevent so sad a calamity, he sent messengers up the river to tell those yet to come down to keep close to the shore. Before they had time to reach those above, another canoe shot into sight and was hurried on to the edge of the precipice. It contained but one person— the lad Soudi, who, as he shot by them, cried out : " There is but one God— I am lost, master." The next instant he passed over the falls. The canoe, after having passed the falls, did not sink, but was whirled round and round by the swift current, and was at last swept out of sight behind a neigh- boring island. The remainder of the canoes succeeded in reaching the camp in safety. The natives at this point proved very friendly, and exchanged provisions for beads and wire. Having obtained all the provisions that they could conveniently carry, they prepared to start, and on the first of April succeeded in passing round the dangerous falls, when they again went into camp. A great sur- prise awaited them here. They had scarcely pitched their tents, when to their great surprise Soudi suddenly walked into the camp. It was as though one had indeed risen from the dead, and for a few minutes they could scarcely realize that it was the real Soudi that they beheld, and not his ghost. Great was their joy when the lad assured them that it was himself and not his spirit that they saw. Swam Ashore. Seated around their camp they list- ened to the strange tale that the boy had to tell him. He had been carried over the falls, and when he reached the bottom he was somewhat stunned by the shock, and did not fully recover his senses until the boat struck against a large rock ; he then jumped out and swam ashore. He had hardly placed his foot upon the land before he was seized by two men, who bound him hand and foot, and carried him to the top of a large mountain near by. They then stripped him, and examined him with great curiosity. On the day fol- lowing, a large number of the tribe who dwelt upon the mountain came to see him, and among them was one who had previously visited Stanley's camp, and knew that Soudi was attached to his force. He told them great stories about Stanley, how terrible he was, and what strange arms he carried, which were so arranged that they could be fired all day without stopping, and ended by telling them that if they wished to es- >2\)-2 STANtEVS uh'rnkys across africA. cape his fury, they had better return the boy to the place from which they had taker, him, Terrified by such tales, those men at once carried Soudi to the place where they had found him, and after having told him to speak a good wonl for them to his master, departed, lie at once swam across the stream, stopping occasionally upon the rocks to rest, and succeeded at last in reach- ing the camp soon after it had been established. His captors, however, did not return to their people as he had supposed, but crossing the river at a point lower down, they soon after ar- rived at the camp and attached them- selves to Stanley's force. Singular Mishap. The dangers attending Stanley con- stantly in this great journey from sea to sea are strikingly illustrated by a mishap which befell one oi his men in that part oi the tour we are now de- scribing. At one point there were many islands in the river, which often afforded Stan- ley refuge when attacked by the mur- derous natives. They appeared very beautiful, but the travellers could not enjoy their beauty, so frequent were the attacks made upon them. Stanley visited several villages, in which he says he found human bones scattered about, just as we would throw away oyster shells after we had removed the bivalves. Such sights as this did not tend to place the men in the most agree- able state of mind, for it seemed to them just as if they were doomed to a similar fate. On the following day they began to make preparations for passing the rapids which lay below them. In order to do this, he must first drive back the ! savages which lined the shore, land- ing with thirty-six men, he succeeded in doing SO, after which he was able to cut a passage three miles long around the falls. Stations were established at different points along the route, and before daylight the canoes were safely carried to the first of these. Hard Travelling. The savages then made an attack upon them, but were beaten off. At night the boats were carried to the next station, and the one following to the next, and so on, until at the end of seventy-eight hours of constant labor, and almost unceasing fighting, they reached the river. But they had gone but a short distance, when they found that just before them were a series of rapids extending two miles. These being much smaller than those they had passed before, an attempt was made to tloat the boats down them. Six canoes passed the falls in safety, but the seventh was upset. One of the persons in it was a negro named Zaidi, who, instead oi swimming to the shore as the others did, elnng to the boat and was hurried on to the cataract below him. The canoe did not, however, pass immediately over, but striking a rock which stood upon the verv edge oi the falls, it was split, one part passing over, while the other was jammed against the took. To this Zaidi clung in terror, while the waves dashed angrily around him. Instead of attempting to render assist- ance to the endangered man, the natives stood upon the shore ami howled most unmercifully, and at last sent for Stan- lev. The latter at once set them at STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. 29S work making a rattan rope, by which he proposed to let a boat down to the man, into which he could get and be pulled ashore. But the rope proved too weak, and was soon snapped in twain and the boat carried over the falls. Other and stouter ropes were then laid up, three pieces of which were fastened to a canoe. But it was useless to send the boat out with- out some one to guide it to the place where Zaidi was, and Stanley looked about for volunteers. No one seemed inclined to undertake the dangerous job, until the brave Uledi quietly said, "I will go." And he did. Two of the cables attached to the boat were held by men on the shore, while the third was to be used to enable the poor wretch upon the rock to reach the boat. Sev- eral efforts were made to place it within his reach, but each in turn failed. Over the Falls. At last, however, he grasped it, and orders were given for the boat to be pulled ashore. No sooner were the cables tightened than they snapped like small cords, and Zaidi was carried over the falls ; but holding onto the rope, he pulled the boat against the rock, in which position it became wedged. Uledi pulled him up and assisted him into the boat, when they both scrambled upon the rock. A rope was thrown to them, but failed to reached the spot where they were. This was repeated several times, until it last they succeeded in catching it. A heavy rope was then tied to it, which the men drew towards them and fas- tened to the rock, and thus communi- cation was established between those upon the rock and those upon the shore. By this time darkness shut in upon them, and they were forced to leave the men upon their wild perch, and wait for another day before attempting to get them off. The next day they succeeded in drawing them both to the shore. Lost in the Whirlpool. On June 3d another accident occurred at Masassa whirlpool, which was more deplorable than all the others. Frank Pocock, who had been Stanley's main- stay and next in command to himself, attempted to shoot the rapids against the advice of his experienced boatman, Uledi, who was the bravest native con- nected with the expedition, though a Zanzibar freed man. Pocock was warned of the danger of such an undertaking, but with a rash- ness quite unlike himself he ordered the canoe pushed out into the stream. As they approached nearer and nearei the mad breakers Frank realized his peril, but it was too late. They were soon caught in the dreadful whirl of waters and sucked under with a mighty force sufficient to swallow up a ship. Pocock was an expert swimmer, but his art did not now avail him, for he was swept away to his death, though his eight companions saved themselves. The dreadful news was borne to vStanley by the brave Uledi. This last and greatest calamity, coming in the midst of his already heavy weight of woe, so overcame the great explorer that he wept bitter tears of anguish. " My brave, honest, kindly-natured Frank," he exclaimed, "have you left me so ? Oh, my long-tried friend, what fatal rashness ! Ah, Uledi, had you but saved him, I should have made you a rich man." 294 STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. Of the three brave boys who sailed away from England with Stanley to win the laurels of discovery in the un- known wilds of Africa, not one was left, but all were now slumbering for eternity, in that strange land, where the tears of sorrowing friends and relatives could never moisten their rude beds of earth. The descent by river had cost Stan- ley Pocock, many of the natives, 18,- ooo dollars worth of ivory, twelve canoes, and a mutiny, not to mention grave anxiety and incessant cares and conflicts. After a weary time, nearly starved, the remainder of the expedi- tion, reduced to 1 1 5 persons, sent on to Embomma a message for help and food. The letter was as follows : "Village Nsanda, August 4th, 1877. " To any gentleman who speaks English at Embomma, " Dear Sir : — I have arrived at this place from Zanzibar with one hundred and fifteen souls, men, women and chil- dren. We are now in a state of immi- nent starvation. We can buy nothing from the natives, for they laugh at our kinds of cloth, beads and wire. There are no provisions in the country that may be purchased except on market- days, and starving people cannot afford to wait for these markets. I have therefore made bold to despatch three of my young men, natives of Zanzibar, with a boy named Robert Fergui, of the English mission at Zanzibar, with this letter, craving relief from you. "I do not know you, but I am told there is an Englishman at Embomma, nnd as you are a Christian and a gen- tleman, I beg of you not to disregard my request. The boy Robert will be better able to describe jur condition than I can tell you in a letter. We are in a state of great distress, but, if your supplies arrive in time, I may be able to reach Embomma in four days. I want three hundred cloths, each four yards long, of such quality as you trade with, which is very different from that we have ; but better than all would be ten or fifteen man-loads of rice or grain to fill their pinched bellies immediately, as even with the cloths it would require time to purchase food, and starving men cannot wait. Must Have Supplies. " The supplies must arrive within two days, or I may have a fearful time of it among the dying. Of course I hold myself responsible for any expense you may incur in this business. What is wanted is immediate relief, and I pray you to use your utmost energies to forward it at once. For myself, if you have such little luxuries as tea, coffee, sugar and biscuit by you, such as one man can easily carry, I beg you, on my own behalf, that you will send a small supply, and add to the great debt of gratitude due to you upon the the timely arrival of supplies for my people. Until that time, I beg you to believe me " Yours sincerely, "H.M. Stanley, " Commanding Anglo-American Expe* " dition for Exploration of Africa. " P. S. — You may not know my name ; I therefore add, I am the person that discovered Livingstone. "H. M.S.," STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. 295 When the letter was finished, Stanley gathered his men around him, and told them that he intended to send to Em- boinma for food, and desired to know who among them would go with the guides and carry the letter. No sooner had he asked the question, than Uledi sprang forward, exclaiming, " O, mas- ter, I am ready!" Other men also volunteered, and on the next day they set out with the guides. Deserted by the Guides. Before they had got half way, the guides left them, and they had to find their way as best they could. Passing along the banks of the Congo, they reached the village soon after sunset, and delivered the letter into the hands of a kindly disposed person. For thirty hours the messengers had not tasted food, but they were now abundantly supplied. On the following morning —it was the 6th of August— they started to return, accompanied by car- riers who bore provisions for the half- starving men, women, and children, with Stanley. Meanwhile, he and his weary party were pushing on as fast as their tired and wasted forms would let them. At nine o'clock in the morning they stopped to rest. While in this situation, an Arab boy suddenly sprang from his seat upon the grass, and shouted : " I see Uledi coming down the hill!" Such was indeed the fact, and as the jaded men wearily turned their eyes to the hill, half expecting to be deceived, they beheld Uledi and Kacheche run- ning down the hill, followed by carriers loaded with provisions. It was a glad sight to them, and with one accord they shouted; u La il Allah, il Allah!" ("We are saved, thank God ! " ) Uledi was the first to reach the camp, and at once delivered a letter to his master. Thanks for Supplies. By the time Stanley had finished reading it, the carriers arrived with the provisions, and need we say that those half-starved people did them justice? Deeply grateful for the substantial ans- wer to his letter, he immediately penned another, acknowledging their safe ar- rival. The letter ran as follows : "Dear Sirs: — Though strangers I feel we shall be great friends, and it will be the study of my lifetime to re- member my feelings of gratefulness when I first caught sight of your sup- plies, and my poor faithful and brave people cried out, ' Master, we are saved —food is coming!' The old and the young men, the women and the child- ren lifted their wearied and worn-out frames and began lustily to chant an extemporaneous song in honor of the white people by the great salt sea (the Atlantic), who had listened to their prayers. I had to rush to my tent to hide the tears that would come, despite all my attempts at composure. " Gentlemen, that the blessing of God may attend your footsteps, whitherso- ever you go, is the very earnest prayer of " Yours faithfully, " Henry M. Stanley." It was a daring undertaking— that of marching from one ocean to the other through the wilds of Africa— but it was done. The great feat was accomplished The magnificent miracle was performed. Heroism and self-sacrifice had their sub- lime triumph. Perils and hardships be- \ set the expedition from first to last. 296 STANLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. Mr. Stanley's own words can best de- scribe them. " On all sides," he says, "death stared lis in the face; cruel eves watched us by day and by night, and a thousand bloody hands weie ready to take ad vantage of the least opportunity. We defended ourselves like men who knew that pusillanimity would be our ruin among savages to whom mercy is a thing unknown. 1 wished, naturally, that it might have been otherwise, and looked anxiously and keenly for any sign of forbearance or peace. My anx iety throughout was so constant, and the effects of it, physically and other- wise, have been such, that I now find myself an old man at thirty- five." Had Seen Hard Service. As if to give force to this last state- ment, the President of the American Geographical Society said : " It will be remembered that when we saw Mr. Stanley here in the Society, his hair was black ; it is now said to be nearly white. Of the 550 men with whom he left Zanzibar in 1874, but 115 readied the Atlantic coast, and 60 of those, when at the journey's end, were suffer- ing from dysentery, scurvy and dropsy. He was on the Congo from November 1, 1S76, to August 1 1, 1877 — a period of over nine months ; so that his promise to the native followers was fulfilled that he would reach the sea before the close of the year." The historic Nile gave up the mys- tery of its source, and the Congo was no longer a puzzle, baffling the exploits of modern exploration. Stanley showed that the Lualaba is the Congo, and opened up a splendid water-way into the interior of the Dark Continent, which the International Association had already fixed upon, and which rival explorers discussed with more or less acrimony. Stanley put together the puzzle of which Burton, Spekc, Livingstone, Baker, 1m Chaillu, and Cameron provided pieces, and made the greatest geographical discovery of the century — and of main centuries. We cannot limit the results which will accrue from this feat oi Henry M.Stan- ley in crossing the Dark Continent, over which he shed the light of civilization. Public Honors. Stanley was received with great cere- mony in England, and almost every nation hastened to bestow its honors upon him. But among them all he singled oirt one, concerning which he said: " For another honor 1 have to ex- press my thanks — one which 1 may be pardoned for regarding as more precious than all the rest. The Government oi the United States has crowned my sue cess with its official approval, and the unanimous vote of thanks passed in both houses of Congress, has made me proud for the life of the expedition and its success." Towards the end of [886 Stanley was summoned from America to take com- mand of the expedition for the relief of Emin Pasha, the great German ex- plorer, who was lost in the wilds oi Africa. On February 22, [887, he ar- rived at Zanzibar ; on the 25th he, his officers and the Zanzibar porters, Sonia- lis and Soudanese soldiers sailed for the mouth of the Congo, where they landed on the 1 8th of March. On June 15th the expedition had reached the village of Yambuya, 1300 miles from the sea, STAiNLEY'S JOURNEYS ACROSS AFRICA. 297 on the left bank of the Aruwimi, 96 miles above its confluence with the Congo. Here Stanley divided his forces. He left at Yambuya camp a large number of loads, which were to be brought on as soon as porters were provided by the Arab traveller and merchantman, Tipo- tipo. The entire force which left Zan- zibar numbered, all told, 706 men. Between Zanzibar,and Yambuya it was reduced to 649. Of this number 389, including Stanley and five Europeans, made up the advance force, the garri- son at Yambuya numbered 129, and a contingent 131 strong was shortly to join the Yanibuyau camp from Bo- lobo. Major Barttelot was left in command of the rear column, and on June 28th Stanley set out on his forced march through the forest. It is impossible to follow here in detail the story of Stan- ley's indomitable struggle with almost insurmountable obstacles. Disaster overtook the rear column ; its leader, Major Barttelot, was assassinated ; Jame- son, the next in command, died of fever, and Bonny alone remained at the camp. For many months no news of Stanley reached Europe ; then came rumors of disaster; and finally the news that Emin and Stanley had joined hands on the shores of the Albert Nyanza. The return journey was made by an overland route to the east coast, and Bagamoyo was reached on December 4, 1889. Apart from the main object of Stanley's journey this expedition established the existence of avast tropi- cal forest to the west of the lake coun- try, and occupying the northern portion of the Congo basin. In 1890 Stanley, after recruiting his health in Egypt and the South of France, returned to London and met with a reception almost royal in its splendor. He was everywhere feasted and feted. The Royal Geographical Society bestowed on him a special gold medal, and replicas were also presented to his officers on the Emin Relief Ex- pedition ; and Oxford, Cambridge, Ed- inburg and Durham conferred on him honorary degrees. This is one of the most celebrated expeditions on record. We now have on the map of Africa what is known as the Congo Free State, a name that did not exist before the discoveries of Stan- ley. His achievements in the dark continent form one of the most intei- esting, romantic and heroic chapters in the annals of exploration. CHAPTER XX. Travels and Adventures of Vambery in Central Asia. flllS distinguished traveller is a native of Hungary. Impelled by the desire of ascertaining the relation oi his native language to the Turco- Tartarian tongues, he went first to Constantinople, whence, after sev- eral years' residence, he set out for Samarcand, the capital of the famous conqueror, Timoui . Teheran, the modern capital of Per- sia, was reached in the middle of July, [862, but, owing to the war having commenced between Dost Mohammed and Ahmed Khan, the rule] of Herat, he did not leave that city until the end o( the following March. As a means oi more readily accomplishing the ob- jects o( his journey, he assumed the character oi a dervish, or mendicant pilgrim, on his way to the shrines of Moslem saints. 'Phis character his ac- quaintance with Oriental languages, and with Mahomedan manners and customs, qualified him to assume with- out much fear of detection ; and thus it was that he left Teheran in company with more than a score o( Tartar pil- grims, a motly group o( merchants, artisans soldiers, and beggars, some mounted on asses, others trudging on toot, and mostly attiied in the ragged garb o\ mendicancy. Taking a north-easterly course, up the slopes ot" the Elburz mountains, the travellers entered the great defile oi Mazendran, from which they looked down upon the primaeval foiests of the brightest verdure 298 From this defile they entered upon the causeway made by Shah Abbas, but now fast decaying, resting at night in the midst oi a beautiful forest of box. Next day they reached Sari, the chief town of Mazendran, and surrounded by groves of orange and lemon trees, the brightly-tinted fruit of which pre- sented a charming contrast to their dark green foliage. Here they had to hire horses for a day's journey through the marshes between the woods ami the shores oi the Caspian Sea, on which they were to voyage in a small coasting vessel to Gomushtepe, a Turcoman vil- lage at the western extremity of Alex- ander's wall, which, according to the dwellers in that region, was built by genii at the Macedonian conqueror's command. The pilgrims lingered three weeks in this place, much against the inclina- tion o( Vambery, and then continued their journey in a north-easterly direc- tion, all now riding camels or mules. Their way lav at fust over grassy plains and through marshes, covered with tall reeds, which swanued with wild hogs. The Persian mountains hail now dis- appeared, and all around them, as far as they could see, stretched verdant plains, dotted here and there with a few tents, near which camels were grazing. The verdure ceased, and they found themselves entering upon the salt- marsh through which the Etrck pursues its sluggish course to the Caspian. To avoid other marshes, formed by TRAVELS AND ADVKNTURES IN ASIA. 203 the overflowing of the river, they had to follow a zigzag course, for the most part over a sandy traet, on whieh very few tents were visible. Crossing the Etrek with some difficulty, owing to the softness of the bottom and its flooded banks, they held a northward them in ruins. Some other ruins were seen on the northern summit of Korcn- taghi, but were passed in the night. On the night of the 19th the caravan was for a time in a position of great peril. They were approaching the Lit- tle Balkan ridge, at the foot of which VIKW OF TEHERAN — course over a trackless waste, guided during the day by the sun and at night by the pole-star. On the 1 6th of May the mountainous ridge called the Korentaghi was dis- cernible in a north-easterly direction, and they passed the ruins known as the Mesheni Misryan, which Vambery vis- ited on the following day, and found to be an ancient fortress, consisting of a square keep, and four towers, two of CAPITAL OF PFKSIA. are many dangerous salt-marshes, which are not distinguishable from the firm ground in their vicinity, owing to a layer of salt which everywhere covers the surface. Warned by the stopping of the camels, all sprang down, and found the ground quaking and yielding beneath them. Fear rendered every one motionless until daybreak, wheic they slowly and carefully effected a retrograde movement, reaching the foot 300 TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES IN ASIA. of the hills about ten o'clock next morning. Along the foot of these hills they journeyed until the evening of the 21st, when they reached the Great Balkan. 11 The spot where we encamped," says j Vambery, "was not without its charms ; for, as the setting sun projected its rays upon the lovely valleys of the Little Balkan, one could almost fancy oneself actually in a mountainous district. The view might even be characterized as beautiful ; but there is the idea of a fearful desolation, the immense aban- donment which covers the whole, as it were, with a veil of mourning." The Route Lost. On the following night about twelve o'clock, just as they came upon a steep declivity, the guide gave the word for all to dismount, as they were entering the ancient bed of Oxus, and the storms and rains of the preceding winter had washed away all traces of the route, which had been tolerably well denned during the summer. Crossing the old course of the river in a crooked line, in order to find a way out on the oppo- site side, they succeeded by daybreak in clambering out upon the plateau beyond. The pilgrims were at this time suf- fering much from thirst, the springs which they found having dwindled to little pools of turbid and brackish water. On the morning of the 24th they had reached the extremity of the sandy "waste over which they had been toiling, and had their hopes of soon meeting with drinkable water encouraged by coming upon numerous footprints of gazelles and wild asses. Some little pools of rain-water were presently reached, and from this spot all the way to Khiva the water-skins of the pil- grims were always full. They were now at the foot of the plateau of Kaflankir, which rises like an island out of a sea of sand, the deep trench at its base, which the Tur- comans told Vambery was the ancient channel of the Oxus, forming the bound- ary on that side of the Khanate of Khiva. On this plateau the travellers observed gazelles and wild asses grazing in large herds. About noon on the second day they were on it, a great cloud of dust was seen towards the north, and the Turcoman escort stood to their arms, apprehensive of an attack. Nearer and nearer came the dust- cloud, as if raised by a charging squad- ron of cavalry. Hundreds of hoofs were clattering over the plateau. Presently the sound ceased suddenly, as if the troop had halted ; the cloud rolled away, and an immense herd of wild asses was seen drawn up in line. For a few moments they gazed intently at the cavalcade, and then galloped away. Warm Reception. Ozbeg villages now succeeded to the brown tents of the wandering tribe of the desert, and on the 2d of June the domes and minarets of Khiva were before them, rising above gardens, and cultivated fields, and groves of poplars. Vambery entered this town with his nerves strung to their extremest ten- sion, for he had heard that the Khan condemned to slavery all suspected strangers. He relied much, however, on his knowledge of all the Khivites of distinction who had been in Con- stantinople, and especially of one, Shu- krullah Bey, whom he had seen several TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES IN ASIA. 301 times at the house of AH Pacha, some- time Minister of Foreign Affairs. To Shukrullah Bey he accordingly at once proceeded, introducing himself as an Effendi who had made the Bey's acquaintance in Constantinople, and desired to offer respects in passing. The Bey, though surprised, made eager inquiries concerning his numerous friends in the Ottoman capital, and the events which had occurred since he had left that city. Vambery answered all his questions with the utmost readi- ness, and, as he had anticipated, re- ceived next day a present and invita- tion from the Khan. He found that potenate sitting on a dais in the hall of audience, with his right hand holding a golden sceptre and his left resting on a velvet cushion. The interview was satisfactory to both, and at its termination the Khan wished Vambery to accept a purse of twenty ducats and an ass for his further jour- ney; and on the money being declined, on the ground that dervishes are vowed to poverty, his highness insisted upon his visitor becoming his guest during his brief stay in his capital. A Fertile Country. Our traveller did not linger long in Khiva, for the heat was growing op- pressive, and he wished to push on to Bokhara before it became intolerable. He now rode the ass presented to him by the Khan, and employed the camel to carry provisions, with which he was now well supplied. The route pursued by the caravan until the Oxus was reached was through a fertile and well-cultivated country, with mulberry trees bordering the road, and their berries within reach of the traveller who rode in their shade. Flood-water rendered the Oxus so wide that the farther bank was almost indistinguishable. Owing to this ex- tent of water, the passage occupied from ten in the morning until sunset, though the river proper was crossed in half an hour. After passing over a few miles of tolerably well cultivated land^ they entered upon a sandy tract, througk which they pursued a south-easterly course along the right bank of the river. Here and there they came upon a few Khirgis tents, at which they were always sure of a draught of water or milk, which the dust and the intense heat must have rendered very acceptable. Pleasant News. On the fifth day of their journey along the banks of the Oxus, which are almost everywhere overgrown with wil- lows, rushes, and tall sedges, they met five horsemen, merchants returning from Bokhara to Khiva, and learned from them the pleasing intelligence that the route was quite safe. This communication set their minds at ease, for they had heard on leaving Khiva that the Tekke Turcomans, taking ad- vantage of the absence of the Emir and his army from Bokhara, were infesting the approaches to that city. Their agreeable reflections on this score were disturbed soon after daybreak next day, however, by meeting two men, who informed them that they had been robbed of their boots, their provisions, and most of their clothing, by a band of Tekke Turcomans, numbering about a hundred and fifty. Their Afghan guide, who had been twice robbed, and narrowly escaped with his life, im- mediately gave the word to retreat, which was done with as much speed 302 TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES IN ASIA. as was possible with heavily-laden camels. Having reached their last resti no- place — the ruins oi an ancient fortress on a green hill overlooking the Oxus — thev allowed the camels three hours' rest and pasture, while filling their water-skins, and then struck into the desert, which seemed their only chance of evading the plundering Tekke. It was sunset when they left the ruins, and a few stars were visible when they reached the desert; but the moon had not yet risen to betray them to the keen sight of the robber horde, and they pursued their way in silence, the feet of the camels treading almost noiselessly upon the fine sand A Suggestive Narne. The night passed without an alarm. 11 Our morning station," says Vambery, "bore the charming appellation of Adamkyrvlgan (which means ' the place where men perish ' ), and one needed only to east a look at the horizon to convince himself how appropriate is that name. Let the reader picture to himself a sea of sand, extending as far as eye can reach, on one side formed into hills, like waves, lashed into that position by the furious storm, on the other side, again, like the smooth waters of a still lake, merely rippled by the west wind. Not a bird visible in the air, not a worm or beetle upon the earth ; traces of nothing but departed life, in the bleaching bones of man or beast that has perished, collected by every passer-by in a heap, to guide the march of future travellers." They were now obliged, notwith- standing the heat and dust, to use their water sparingly, and they began to suf- fer the tortures of thirst. Two of the camels died, two of the pilgrims be- came exhausted, and had to be bound at length upon their camels, and on th^ fourth day one of the sufferers died. So slow was their progress that they were not beyond the desert. And now, with the mountains in sight, the hot wind and the sand-cloud came, and they had to dismount in haste, and lie prostrate behind the camels, which fell on their knees, and strove to bury their heads in the sand. The dust-storm passed over them, and left them covered with a thick crust of hot sand. Scarcity of Water. Towards evening they reached a spring, but its water was undrinkable, and at midnight they started again, fevered and feeble, and scarcely able to move. Vambery slept from exhaustion, and found himself in the morning in a hut, surrounded by men, whom he found to be Persian slaves, sent from Bokhara by their masters to tend sheep. By them, poor as they were, he and his companions were hospitably and kindly treated. " I was much touched,'' he relates, "to see amongst them a child five years old, also a slave, of great intelligence. He had been, two years before, cap- tured and sold with his father. When I questioned him about the latter, he answered me confidingly, ' Yes ; my father has bought himself (meaning paid his own ransom) ; at longest I shall only be a slave two years, for by that time my father will have spared the necessary money.' The poor child had on him hardly anything but a few rags, to cover his weak little body ; his skin was of the hardness and color of -TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES IN ASIA. 308 leatner. I gave him one of my own fear of robbers, hot winds, and empty articles of attire, and lie promised to water-skins." have a dress made out of it for himself." Their next station was a village called Leaving these unhappy slaves with Khakemir, in the midst of a tolerably mingled feelings of compassion for ! well-cultivated country, the whole dis'- DERVISHES their condition and thankfulness for their kindness, our travellers started with the intention of making their next station at Khodja Oban, a place to which pilgrims resort to visit the grave of a Moslem saint; but they lost their way at night among the sand hills, and found themselves at daybreak on the margin of a lake. They were now on the borders of Bokhara, and free from AT PRAYER. trict being watered by canals connected with the river Zereshan. This was crossed next day at a ford, though the remains of a stone bridge were visible on the farther side, near the ruins of a palace said to have been built by the renowned Abdullah Khan Sheibani. The city of Bokhara was now before them, its walls broken in many places, and its baildings presenting no traces 304 TRAYKl.S AND AHYKNTURKS IN ASIA. of its former grandeur, though it is still vaunted by Bokhariots as the capital o( Central Asia. Vambery says the wretchedness ot the stieets and houses tar exceed that of the meanest in Persian eities, am 5 , the dust, « toot deep, give a poor idea o( "noble Bokhara," as the inhabitants call it ; the only thing which impressed him being the strange and diversified mix tine of races ami costumes, which pre- sent a striking spectacle to the eves o( a stranger. Vambery was well lodged here, and had access to the best society ; but the task of maintaining his assumed char- actei was a difficult one, and it is probable that only the sanctity supposed to attach to that character guarded his secret. He believed that he was suspected, and that many devices were resorted to with the view of causing him to betray himself. Strange Traveller. "One day," he says, "a servant of the Vizier brought to me a little shriv- elled individual, that I might examine Vim, to see whether he was. as he pre- tended, really air Arab from Damascus. When he first entered, his features struck me much — they appeared to me European. When he opened his mouth, my astonishment and perplexity in- creased, for I found his pronunciation anything rather than that of an Arab. He told me that he had undertaken a pilgrimage to the tomb of Djafen Ben Sadik, at Khoteu, in China, and wanted to proceed on his journey that very day. His features during our conversation betrayed visible embarrassment, and it was a subject of great regret to me that I had uot an occasion to see him a second time, for I am strongly disposed to think that he was playing a part similar to my own." Some o\ the pilgrims being left in Bokhara, the caravan was reduced on leaving that city to the occupants of a couple o( carts o( very primitive con- struction, in which they were jolted in a most unpleasant manner, as the wheels — far from perfect circles — rolled through the deep sand or mud. Shut Out of the City. Night was chosen for starting, and as the driver was not familiar with the mail he mistook the way, and it was morning when the little town o( Me/.ar was reached. The journey was resumed, therefore, after a brief halt, through a fertile and well-cultivated country, move refreshing to the eve than anything the travellers had seen since they had left the PontOS mountains behind them. Next morning they reached Kette Kurgan, where there is a fortress de- fended by a strong wall and a deep trench, and, the sun having set, the gates were closed, and they had to lodge at a caravanserai outside the walls. Samarcand was reached on the sixth day, and the first impression made by its domes and minarets, brightened by the sunbeams, and brought into relief by a background oi groves and gardens, was very pleasing. Of this ancient cita- to which so much historical interest at- taches, Vambery says that " although it equals Teheran in circumference, its houses do not lie so close together ; still, the prominent buildings and ruins offer a far more magnificent prospect. The eye is most struck by four lofty edifices, in the form of half-domes, the fronts of the Medresses (colleges). TRAVELS A , 'Ki-.S IN ASIA. 80* u As we advance, we perceive first a small neat dome, and further to the outh a larger and more imposing one ; the former is the tomb, the latter the mosque, of Timour. Quite facing us, OH the south-westerly limit of the city, on a hill, rises the citadel, round which other mosques and tombs are grouped. Jf we suppose the whole intermixed with closely-planted gardens, we have a faint idea of Samarcand." Dazzling Splendor. Like all eastern eities, this " focus of the whole globe," as a Persian poet calls it, shows best at a distance ; but many of its antiquities are interesting even to Europeans. The summer pal- ace of Timour retains much of its ancient splendor, being approached by an ascent of forty broad marble steps, and containing- apartments with mosaic doors, the colors of which are as bril- liant as if they had been executed by the present generation of workmen. Three flags, a breastplate, and an old sword, doubtful relics of the great Emir, were shown to our traveller by the custodian. The mosque of Timour has a melon- shaped dome, and is rich in decorations of colored bricks and inscriptions from the Koran in gold letters. Themosque of Shah Zindel exhibits similar mural decorations, but they are defaced in many places, and the arched gateway shows the ravages of time in its broken brickwork. The citadel contains the reception-hall of Timour, with the cel- ebrated green stone upon which the conquering Emir had his throne placed. The tomb of Timour consists of a neat chapel, surmounted by a splendid central dome and two smaller ones, and 20 surrounded by a wall, in which is a high arched gate. The tomb is under the central dome, and is covered with a flat dark-green stone. The walls of the chapel are covered internally with alabaster, decorated with arabesque de- signs in blue and gold. The Emir's Parade. Vambery was preparing for his de- parture from Samarcand, where he stayed only eight days, when the Emir, returning from his victorious campaign in Khokand, made his triumphal entry into the city. There was a great crowd, but no particular pomp was displayed. Two hundred horsemen rode first, and were followed by infantry, with flags and drums. "The Emir and all his escort," says our traveller, "looked, with their snow- white turbans and wide silk garments of all the colors of the rainbow, more like the chorus of women in the opera of ' Nebuchadnezzar ' than a troop of Tartar warriors. So also it may be said with respect to other officers of the Court, of whom some bore white staves and others halbreds, that there was in the whole procession nothing to remind one of Turkestan, except in the fol- lowers, of whom many were Kiptchaks, and attracted attention by their Mongol features and the arms which they bore consisting of bows, arrows, and shields." The Emir held a public audience on the following day, and Vambery pre- sented himself, sustaining his well- assumed character of a Mohamedan pilgrim with his usual address, and again with success. He was advised by his friends; however, to quit Samai- cand with all speed, and gain as quickly 806 TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES in ASIA. as possible the farthei hank of the Oxus. He left the city by night, but travelled slowly, on account of the heat, passing through a well cultivated country, in a south-westerly direc- tion; Herat, of which so much has been heard of late in connection with events in Afghanistan, being the next goal. karshi, a town o( considerable size an J commercial importance, was reach- ed on the third day, and our traveller was surprised to find there a public garden, with flower-beds and tea-stalls, on a scale which he had not found in Bokhara or Samarcand, or even in Persia. He remained there three days, and at sunrise on the second day of the resumed journey reached, the Oxns, on the nearer bank o( which stands a small fort, and on the opposite side, on a steep hill, the citadel, around which is spread the frontier town o{ Kerki. "Mother of Cities." Having to wait here the arrival! of the caravan for Herat, he availed him- self of the delay to visit the ruins oi ancient Balkh, styled by Oriental writ- ers "the mother oi' cities." Only a few heaps of earth are pointed out as remains oi the ancient Bactra, and oi the more modern ruins there is no- thing more remarkable than a half- demolished mosque, built by the Seld- joukian Sultan Sandjar in the days when Balkh was the centre oi' Moslem civilization. The caravan in which our traveller turned his back upon the Khanate oi Bokhara consisted oi four hundred camels, nearly as many asses, and a f< w horses. Some oi the men were pilgrims, others emancipated slaves re- tuning to their native countries. The country traversed was for some distance a barren plain, then, as the north-west ern frontier oi Afghanistan was ap- proached, it became hilly. A broad valley was threaded, and then a steep mountain pass was trav- ersed, so narrow that the caravan had to wind through it in single file. Thence they descended into a long valley, through which the river Murgab ran swiftly, in crossing which Vambery's ass fell, and precipitated him into the water, amidst the laughter oi his com- panions. The river was not deep, however, and he escaped with no greatei mishap than a wetting. Slow Travelling. Prom this ford to Herat is reckoned four days' journey for horses, but camels require double that time, the country being mountainous. It became wilder and more picturesque as the travellers advanced, the ruins of old castles crowning the precipices between which the Murgab pours its foaming stream. Beyond the second pass they left the river, and proceeded in a westerly di- rection, reaching next day the ruins oi the town and fortress oi' Kale No, the site of which was occupied by a few tents o( the He. -arc, a tribe of mixed Tartar and Persian descent. Thence to Herat is twenty miles, but the way lies over lofty mountains, and requires four days for its accomplish- ment. The highest summit was passed on the second day, and was covered with snow, so that the travellers suf- ficed severely from cold, in spite of the great fires which they made when they halted. Thence they descended a path only a foot wide, along a ledge from TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES IN ASIA. 307 which a precipice rose above a deep ravine. Rounding the shoulder of a mountain, they looked down upon the broad and fertile plains m which Herat stands, dotted with villages, and intersected by numerous canals. Trees only are wanted to complete the charm of the V.'.ndseape. The city, having been re- cently besieged by Dost Mahomed, presented a ruinous appearance. ' The houses which we passed, the advanced works, the very gate," says Varabery, " looked like a heap of rub- bish. Near the latter is the citadel, which, from its elevation, served as a mark for the Afghan artillery ; it lies there blasted and half- demolished. The doors and windows have been stripped of their woodwork, for during the siege the inhabitants suffered most from the scarcity of fuel. Each step we advance we see greater indications of devasta- tion. Entire quarters of the town re- main solitary and abandoned." Means Exhausted. Our traveller's resources were by this time exhausted, and he was compelled to sell his ass. He waited upon an en- voy sent by the Governor of Khorassan to the young Sirdar of Herat, Yakoub Khan, in the hope of obtaining employ- ment, but without success. His fellow- travellers had dispersed, only one re- maining with him — a young man who had become attached to him, and event- ually accompanied him to Pesth. To leave no stone unturned, he waited upon Yakoub Khan— then a lad of fif- teen — who seemed to penetrate his secret immediately; for, regarding him for a moment with a look of surprise and perplexity, he raised a finger, and smil- ing]; exclaimed, "I swear you are an Englishman! " Before Vambery could reply, he sprang from his chair, and, clapping his hands, exclaimed, "Pardon me ; but you are an Englishman, are you not?" The traveller assumed a grave look, and reminded the young prince of the proverb attributed by tra- dition to the prophet of Mecca, "He who takes the believer for an unbeliever is himself an unbeliever." Welcome from the Prince. This rejoinder disconcerted Yakoub, who resumed his seat, observing in an apologetic tone that he had never before- seen a hadji from Bokhara with such a physiognomy. Vambery replied that he was not a Bokhariot, but a Stram- bouli; and, producing his Turkish pass- port, mentioned Yakoub's cousin, the son of Akbar Khan, who was in Con- stantinople in i860. The prince then spoke very graciously to him, and in- vited him to repeat his visit as often as he could. Two days before he left Herat our traveller made an excursion to the vil- lage of Gazerghiah, situated on an emi- nence a league from the city, and con- taining many memorials of antiquity, dating from the time of Shah Rookh Mirza, a son of Timour. Near the vil- lage are the ruins of Mosalla, which were also visited. The remains of the mosque and sepulchre of Sultan Hoosein Mirza, erected 891, displayed a large amount of elaborate carving, many of the stones being covered with inscrip- tions from the Koran. On the 1 5th of November, 1863, Vam- bery quitted Herat with the great car- avan bound for Meshed, and consisting of 2,000 persons, about half of whom 808 ru.VYKi.s \\p A.DVENTURBS IN ASIA. were Hesare pilgrims from Cabul, and a Large proportion of the remainder Afghan merchants from that city and A PERSIAN OFFICIAL,. from Candahar. He obtained permis- sion to ride upon a lightly-loaded camel by representing that he should be able to pay when the caravan reached Me- shed ; but by this statement he raised doubts of the genuineness of the char- acter which he had assumed, so far with success. " The dubious light in which 1 stood, afforded/' he says, "a fund oi interest- ing surmises to those by whom 1 was Surrounded; tor whilst some of them took me for a genuine Turk, others were disposed to think me an English-: man; the different parties even quar- relled on the subject, ami it wis very droll to observe how the latter began to triumph over the former when it was observed that, in proportion as we drew near to Meshed, the bent posture o( humility o( the dervish began more ami more to give way to the upright and in- dependent deportment o\ the Euro- pean." Meshed was reached on the twelfth day after the departure oi the caravan from Herat, and there our traveller was hospitably received by Colonel Dol- mage, who filled several important offices under Murad Mirza, uncle of the reigning Shah, and governor oi the city. The disguise was now thrown off, and, reflecting that the truth concern- ing him would become known at Herat on the return o( the Afghans who had travelled with him from that city, he wrote to Yakoub Khan, avowing that though not an Englishman, he was a European, and complimenting the young prince on the acuteness which had penetrated his disguise. For a month he was the honored guest of Colonel Dolmage, and then he set out for Teheran. That city was icached on the 20th of January, 1864, and he proceeded immediately to the Turkish embassy, whence he had started ten months before on his adventurous journey. A suite of apartments was TRAVELS AND ADVENTURES tN ASIA. 309 immediately set apart for him, the British and French ambassadors vied with earh other in showing him kind- ness, and the Shall accorded him a gracious reception. He remained in the Persian capital more than two months, and then set out for Constanti- nople, via Tabreez and Trebizoud. Vambery's adventurous journey was the most remarkable of any in Central Asia during the century, bringing the outside world into touch with a part of the globe that has remained for a^es an almost impenetrable mystery to othei countries, and at the same time settling many doubtful questions- PART IV. Great Wars and Battles OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. CHAPTER XXI. Downfall of Napoleon at Waterloo. HE great battle which ended the twenty-three years' war of the first French Revolution, and which quelled the extraordinary man whose genius and ambition had so long dominated the world, is justly regarded as one of those remarkable events that appear at long intervals and determine the fate of nations. Europe, long tossed by wars and con- vulsions, at length breathed peacefully. Suddenly Napoleon Bonaparte escaped from Elba and the whole scene was changed as if by the magic of an evil spirit. The exertions which the allied powers made at this crisis to grapple promptly with the French Emperor have truly been termed gigantic, and never were Napoleon's genius and ac- tivity more signally displayed than in the celerity and skill by which he brought forward all the military re- sources of France, which the reverses of the three preceding years, and the pacific policy of the Bourbons during the months of their first restoration, had greatly diminished and disorganized. He re-entered Paris on the 20th of March, 181 5, and by the end of May, 310 besides sending a force into La Vendee to put down the armed risings of the Royalists in that province, and besides providing troops under Massena and Suchet for the defense of the southern frontiers of France, Napoleon had an army assembled in the northerst for active operations under his own com- mand, which amounted to between 120 and 130,000 men, with a superb park of artillery, and in the highest possible state of equipment, discipline and efficiency. The approach of the many Russians, Austrians, Bavarians and other foes of the French Emperor to the Rhine was necessarily slow; but the two most active of the allied powers had occupied Belgium with their troops while Na- poleon was organizing his forces. Mar- shal Blucher was there with 116,000 Prussians, and the Duke of Wellington was there also with about 106,000 troops, either British or in British pay. Napoleon determined to attack these enemies in Belgium. The disparity of" numbers was indeed great, but delay was sure to increase the number of his enemies much faster than reinforce- ments could join his own ranks He con- 3X1 812 DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO, sidered also that l< the enemy's troops were cantoned under the command of two generals, and composed oi nations differing both in interest and in feel- ings. His own avmy was under his own sole command. It was composed ex- clusively oi French soldiers, mostly veterans, well acquainted with their officers and with each other, and full oi' enthusiastic confidence in their com mander. If he could separate the Prus- sians from the British, so as to attack each in detail, he felt sanguine oi suc- cess, not only against these, the most resolute oi his many adversaries, but also against the othei masses that were slowly laboring up against his south- eastern frontiers. The French Concealed. The triple chain oi strong fortresses which the French possessed on the Bel- gian frontier formed a curtain, behind which Napoleon was able to concen- trate his army, and to conceal till the very last moment the precise line oi' attack which he intended to take On the other hand, Blucher and Welling ton were obliged to canton their troops along a line oi open country oi con- siderable length, so as to watch tor the outbreak of Napoleon from whichewi point of his chain oi strongholds he should phase to make it. Blucher, with his army, occupied the banks oi the Sambre and the Meuse, from Liege on his left, to Charleroi on his right ; and the Pake of Wellington covered Brussels) his cantonments being partly in front of that city, and be- tween it and the French frontier, and partly on its west; their extreme right being at Courtray and Tournay, while their left appi cached Charleroi ami communicated with the Prussian right. It was upon Charleroi that Napoleon resolved to level his attack, in hopes ot severing the two allied armies from each other, and then pursuing his favorite tactic of assailing each se] arately with a superior force on the battle-field, though the aggregate of their numbers considerably exceeded his own. Over the Frontier. On the 15th of June the Frencharmy was suddenly in motion, and crossed the frontiei in three columns, which were pointed upon Charleroi and its vicinity. The French line oi advance upon Brussels, which city Napoleou re solved to occupy, thus lay right through the centre oi the line oi' the canton- ments id" the allies. The Prussian gen- eral rapidlv concentrated his forces, calling them in from the left, and the English general concentrated his, call ing them in from the right toward the menaced centre oi the combined posi- tion. On the morning of the 16th, Blucher was in position at L/igny, to the north- cast oi Charleroi, with 8o,000 men. Wellington's troops were concentrating at Quatre Bras, which lies due north of Charleroi. and is abont nine miles from L4gny, Ow the i6th, Napoleon in per- son attacked Blucher, and, after a long and obstinate battle, defeated him, and compelled the Prussian army to retire northward toward Wavre. On the same day, Marshal Ney, with a large part ot the French army, attacked the English troops at Quatre Hi as, and a very seven engagement took place, in which N\\ failed in defeating the British, but sue? ceeded in preventing - their sending am DOWNFALL OF NAI'OJJRON AT WA fERLOO. su> help to Blucher, who was being beaten by the Emperor at Ligny. On the news of Blucher's defeat at Ligny reaching Wellington, he foresaw that the Emperor's army would now be directed upon him, and he accordingly retreated in order to restore his com- munications with his ally, which wonl'l have been dislocated by the Prussians falling back from Ligny to Wavre if the English had remained in advance at Quatre Bras. During the 17th, therefore, Wellington retreated, being pursued, but little molested by the main French army, over about half the space between Quatre Bras and Brussels. Decides to Give Battle. This brought him again parallel, on a line running from west to east, with Blucher, who was at Wavre. Having ascertained that the Prussian army, though beaten on the 16th, was not broken, and having received a promise from its general to march to his assist- ance, Wellington determined to halt, \ and to give battle to the French Em- peror in the position, which, from a village in its neighborhood, has re- ceived the ever-memorable name of the field of Waterloo. When, after a very hard-fought and long-doubtful day, Napoleon had suc- ceeded in driving back the Prussian army from Ligny, and had resolved on inarching himself to assail the English, be sent, on the 17th, Marshal Grouchy with 30,000 men to pursue the defeated Prussians, and to prevent their march- ing to aid the Duke of Wellington. Great recriminations passed afterwards between the marshal and tbe Emperor as to how this duty was attempted to be performed, and the reasons why Grouchy failed on the 18th to arrest the lateral movement of the Prussian troops from Wavre toward Waterloo. It may be sufficient to remark here that Grouchy was not sent in pursuit of Blucher till late on the 17th, and that the force given to him was insuffi- cient to make head against the whole Prussian army ; for Blucher's men, though they were beaten back, and suf- fered severe loss at Ligny, were neither routed nor disheartened ; and they were joined at Wavre by a large division of their comrades under General Bulow, who had taken no part in the battle of the 1 6th, and who were fresh for the march to Waterloo against the French on the 18th. But the failure of Grouchy was in truth mainly owing to the indomitable heroism of Blucher himself, who, though severely injured in the battle at Ligny, was as energetic and as active as ever in bringing his men into action again, and who had the resolution to expose a part of his army, under Thielman, to be overwhelmed by Grouchy at Wavre on the 1 8th, while he urged the march of the mass of his troops upon Water- loo. " It is not at Wavre, but at Water- loo," said the old field-marshal, "that the campaign is. to be decided;" and he risked a detachment, and won the campaign accordingly. In Perfect Agreement. Wellington and Blucher trusted each other as cordially, and co-operated as zealously, as formerly had been the case with Marlborough and Eugene. It was in full reliance on Blucher's promise to join him that the duke stood his ground and fought at Waterloo j and those who have ventured to impugn 314 DOWNFALL OF NAPOUCON AT WATERLOO. the duke's capacity as a general ought to have luul common sense enough to perceive that to charge the duke with having won the battle o( Waterloo by the nelp of the Prussians is really to say that he won it by the very means on which he relied, and without the expectation of which the battle would not have been fought. Wellington Criticized. Napoleon himself found fault with Wellington for not having retreated beyond Waterloo. The short answer may be, that the duke had reason to expect that his army could singly resist the French at Waterloo until the Prus- sians came up, ami that, en the Prus- sians joining, there would be a suffi- cient force, united under himself and Blucher, for completely overwhelming the enemy. And while Napoleon thus censures his great adversary, he involuntarily bears the highest possible testimony to the military character of the English, and proves decisively ol~ what para- mount importance was the battle to which he challenged his fearless oppo- nent. Napoleon asks, "If the English army had been beaten at Waterloo, what would have been the use o\ those numerous bodies of troops, ol Prussians, Austrians, Germans, ami Spaniards, which weie advancing by forced march- es to the Rhine, the Alps, ami Py- renees? " The reader may gain a generally ac- curate idea of the localities of the great battle by picturing a valley between two and three miles long, o[~ various breadths at different points, but gener- ally not exceeding half a mile. On each side of the valley there is a wind- ing chain of low hills, running some- what parallel with each other. The declivity from each of these ranges of hills to the intervening valley is gentle but not uniform, the undulations of the ground being frequent and considera- ble. The English army was posted on the northern, and the French army oc- cupied the southern ridge. The artillery of each side thundered at l he other from their respective heights throughout the day, and the charges of horse and foot were made across the valley that has been described. The village of Mont St. Jean is situated a little behind the centre of the northern chain of hills, and the village of La Belle Alliance is close behind the centre of the southern ridge. The high road from Charleroi to Brussels runs through both these villages, and bisects, there- fore, both the English and the French positions. The line of this road was the line of Napoleon's intended advance on Brussels. Advantages of Position. There are some other local particu- lars connected with the situation of each army which it is necessary to bear in mind. The strength of the British position did not consist merely in the occupation of a ridge of high ground. A village and ravine, called Merk Braine, on the Duke of Wellington's extreme right, secured him from nis (lank being turned on that side ; and on his extreme left, two little hamlets, called La Have and Papillote, gave a similar though a slighter protection It was, however, less necessary to pro- vide for this extremity of the position, as it was on this (the eastern) side that the Prussians were coining up. DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO. 315 Behind the whole British position important to sec what posts mere were was the great and extensive forest of in front of the British line of hills of THE DUKE OF WELLINGTON — COMMANDER OF THE ALLIED ARMIES. Soignies. As no attempt was made by the French to turn either of the Eng- lish flanks, and the battle was a day of straightforward fighting ; it is chiefly which advantage could be taken either to repel or facilitate an attack ; and it will be seen that there were two, and that each was of very great importance. 316 DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO. In front of the British right, that is to say, on the northern slope of the val- ley toward its western end, there stood an old-fashioned Flemish farm-house called Gonmont or Hongonmont, with out-bnildings and a garden, and with a copse of beech trees of about two acres in extent round it. This was strongly garrisoned by the allied troops ; and while it was in their possession, it was difficult for the enemy to press on and force the British right wing. Enemy Under Cover. On the other hand, if the enemy could occupy it, it would be difficult for that wing to keep its ground on the heights, with a strong post held adversely in its immediate front, being one that would give much shelter to the enemy's marks- men, and great facilities for the sudden concentration of attacking columns. Almost immediately in front of the British centre, and not so far down the slope as Hougoumont, there was another farmhouse, of a smaller size, called La Haye Saiute, which was also held by the British troops, and the occupation of which was found to be of very seri- ous consequence. With respect to the French position, the principal feature to be noticed is the village of Planchenoit, which lay a little in the rear of their right (that is, on the eastern side), and which proved to be of great importance in aiding them to check the advance of the Prus- sians. As has been already mentioned, the Prussians, on the morning of the iSth, were at Wavre, about twelve miles to the east of the field of battle at Water- loo. The junction of Bulow's division had more than made up for the loss sus- tained at Ligny ; and leaving Thielman, with about 17,000 men, to hold his ground as he best could against the attack which Grouchy was about to make on Wavre, Bulow and Bluchcr moved with the rest of the Prussians upon Waterloo. It was calculated that they would be there by three o'clock ; but the extremely difficult nature of the ground which they had to traverse, ren- dered worse by the torrents of rain that had just fallen, delayed them long ov their twelve miles' inarch. The night of the 17th was wet and stormy ; and when the dawn of the memorable 18th of June broke, the rain was still descending heavily. The French and British armies rose from their dreary bivouacs and began to form, each on the high ground which it oc- cupied. Toward nine the weather grew clearer, and each army was able to watch the position and arrangements 0/ the other on the opposite side of the valley. Line of Battle. The Duke of Wellington drew up his infantry in two lines, the second line being composed principally of Dutch and Belgian troops, whose fidelity was doubtful, and of those regiments of other nations which had suffered most severely at Quartre Bras on the 16th. This second line was posted on the northern declivity of the hills, so as to be sheltered from the French cannonade. The cavalry v/as stationed at intervals along the line in the rear, the largest force of horse being collected on the left of the centre, to the east of the Charleroi road. On the opposite heights the French army was drawn up in two general lines, with the entire force of DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO. 317 the Imperial Guards, cavalry as well as infantry, in the rear of the centre, as a reserve. English military critics highly eulo- gized the admirable arrangement which Napoleon made of his forces of each arm, so as to give him the most ample means of sustaining, by an immediate and sufficient support, any attack, from whatever point he might direct it, and of drawing promptly together a strong force, to resist any attack that might be made on himself in any part of the field. When his troops were all arrayed, he rode along the lines, receiving every- where the most enthusiastic cheers from his men, of whose entire devotion to him his assurance was now doubly sure. On the southern side of the valley the duke's army was also arrayed, and ready to meet the menaced attack. Armies Face to Face. The two armies were now fairly in presence of each other, and their mutual observation was governed by the most intense interest and the most scrutiniz- ing anxiety. In a still greater degree did these feelings actuate their com- manders, while watching each other's preparatory movements, and minutely scanning the surface of the arena on which tactical skill, habitual prowess, physical strength, and moral courage were to decide, not alone their own, but, in all probability, the fate of Europe. Apart from national interests and considerations, and viewed solely in connection with the opposite characters of the two illustrious chiefs, the ap- proaching contest was contemplated with anxious solicitude by the whole military world. Need this create sur- prise when we reflect that the struggle was one for mastery between the far- famed conqueror of Italy and the vic- torious liberator of the Peninsula ; be- tween the triumphant vanquisher of Eastern Europe, and the bold and suc- cessful invader of the south of France ! Never was the issue of a single battle looked forward to as involving conse- quences of such vast importance — of such universal influence. The Struggle Begins. It was approaching noon before the action commenced. Napoleon, in his memoirs, gives as the reason for this delay, the miry state of the ground through the heavy rain of the preced- ing night and day, which rendered it impossible for cavalry or artillery to manoeuver on it until a few hours of dry weather had given it its natural consistency. It has been supposed, also, that he trusted to the effect which the sight of the imposing array of his own forces was likely to produce on the part of the allied army. The Belgian regiments had been tampered with ; and Napoleon had well founded hopes of seeing them quit the Duke of Wellington in a body, and range themselves under his own eagles. The duke, however, who knew and did not trust them, had guarded against the risk of this by breaking up the corps of Belgians, and distributing them in separate regiments among troops on whom he could rely. At last, at about half past eleven o'clock, Napoleon began the battle by directing a powerful force from his left wing under his brother, Prince Jerome to attack Hougoumont. Column aftei column of the French now descended 818 DOWNFAU, OF n \roi.i:oN at WATERLOO. from the west to the southern heights, and assailed that post with fiery valor, which was encountered with the most determined bravery. The French won the copse round the house, hut a party o\ the British Guards held the house itself throughout the d.w. Terrific Cannonade. Amid shell and shot, and the blazing fragments of part of the buildings, this obstinate contest was continued. But still the English held Hougoumont, though the French occasionally moved forward in such numbers as enabled them to surround and mask this posl with part of their troops from their left win;;, while others pressed onward up the slope, and assailed the British rig The cannonade, which commenced at fust between the British right and the French left, in consequence ol 'he attack on Hougoumont, soon became general along hoth lines; and about one o'clock Napoleon directed a grand attack to he made under Marshal Xev upon the centre and left wing of the allied army. For this purpose four columns of infantry, amounting to about [8,000 men were collected, supported by a strong division of cavalry under the celebrated ECellerman, and seventy- four guns were brought forward read} 10 he posted on the ridge of a little undulation of the ground in the inter- val between the two main ranges of heights, so as to bring their fire to b on the duke's line at a range of about seven hundred yards. By the combined assault ot these formidable forces, led on by Ney, " the bravest of the brave," Napoleon hoped to force the left centre of the British position, to take l.a \\.\\ '* Sainte, and then, pressing forward, to occupy also the farm o( Mont St J ran. He then could CUt the mass o\ Wellington's troops off from their line o( retreat upon Brussels, and trom their own left, and also completely sever them from any Prussian troops that might he ap- proaching. The columns destined for this great and decisive operation descended ma- jestically from the French range o( hills, and gained the ridge of the inter- vening eminence, on which the batteries that supported them were now ranged. \s the columns descended again from this eminence, the seventy-four guns opened over their heads with terrible effect upon the troops of the allies that were stationed on the heights to the left of Charleroi road. One of the French columns kept to the east, and attaeked the extreme left oi the allies ; the other three continued to move rap- idly forward upon the left centre of the allied position. Disgraceful Panic. The trout line of the allies here was composed of Bylant's brigade of Dutch and Belgians. As the French columns moved up the southward slope of the height on which the Dutch ami Belgi- ans stood, and the skirmishers in ad vance began to open their fire, Bylant*s entire brigade turned and tied in dis- graceful and disorderly panic j hut there were men more worthy oi the • behind. The second line of the allies here consisted of two brigades of the Eng- lish infantry, which had suffered se- verely at Quatre Bras. But they were under Picton, and not even Xey himselt surpassed in resolute bravery that stern IjOWN'FAU, OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO. $10 and firry spirit. Picton brought his I against the three victorious Pi two brigades forward, side by side, in a ; columns, upward of four times thai HEROIC CHARGE OF THE ENGLISH CAVALRY AT WATERLOO. thin gethe With two-deep line. Thus joined to- r, tliey were not 3000 strong. these Picton had Uj make head strength, and who, encouraged oy the easy rout of the Dutch and Belgians, now came confidently over the ridge. S20 DOWNFALL OF NAPOLKON AT WATERLOO. The British infantry stood firm ; and as the French halted and began to deploy into line, Picton seized the critieal moment : a elose and deadly volley was thrown in upon them, and then with a fierce hurrah the British dashed in with the bayonet The French reeled back in confusion ; and as they staggard down the hill, a brig- ade of the English cavalry rode in on them, cutting them down by whole battalions, and taking- tjoc prisoners. The British cavalry galloped forward and sabred the artillery-m n of Key's seventy-four advanced guns , and then cutting the traces and the throats of the horses, rendered these guns totally useless to the French throughout the remainder of the day. In the excite- ment of success, the English cavalry continued to press on, but were charged in their turn, and driven back with severe loss by Milhaud's cuirassiers. Failure of Great Attack. This great attack (in repelling which the brave Picton had fallen) had now completely foiled; and, at the same time, a powerful body of French cuir- assiers, who were advancing along the right of the Charleroi road, had been fairly beaten after a close hand-to-hand fierht bv the heavy cavalry oi the Ensr- lish household brigade. Hougoumout was still being assailed, and was suc- cessfully resisting. Troops were now beginning to ap- pear at the edge of the horizon on Napoleon's right, which he too well knew to be Prussian, though he en- deavored to persuade his followers that thev were Grouchy's men coming to aid them. It was now about half-past three o'clock ; and though Wellington's army had suffered severely by the unre- mitting cannonade and iu the late des- perate encounter, no part of the British position had been forced. Napoleon next determined to try what effect he could produce on the British centre and right by charges of his splendid cavalry, brought on in such force that the duke's cavalry could not check them. Stood Like a Wall. Fresh troops were at the same time sent to assail La Have Sainte and Hougoumont, the possession of these posts being the emperor's unceasing object. Squadron after squadron of the French cuirassiers accordingly as- cended the slopes on the duke's right, and rode forward with dauntless cour- age against the batteries oi the British artillery in that part oi the held. The artillerymen were driven from their gnus, and the cniiassiers cheered loudly at their supposed triumph. But the duke had formed his infantry in squares, and the cuirassiers charged in vain against the impenetrable hedges of bayonets, while the fire from the inner ranks of the squares told with terrible effect on their squadrons. Time after time they rode forward with invariably the same result ; and as they receded from each attack, the British artillerymen rushed forward from the centres of the squares, where they had taken refuge, and plied their gfuns on the retiring horsemen. Nearlv the whole of Napoleon's magnificent body oi heavy cavalry was destroyed in these fruitless attempts upon the British right. But in another part of the field fortune favored him for a time. Donzelot's infantry took La Have Sainte between six and seven o'clock, DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO. 321 and the means were now given for or- ganizing another formidable attack on the centre of the allies. There was no time to be lost : Blucher and Billow were beginning to press upon the French right; as early as five o'clock, Napoleon had been obliged to detach Loban's infantry and Domont's hor.se to check these new enemies. This was done for a time ; but, as large num- bers of the Prussians came on the field, they turned Lobau's left, and sent a strong force to seize the village of Planchenoit, which, it will be remem- bered, lay in the rear of the French right. Napoleon was now obliged to send his Young Guard to occupy that village, which was accordingly held by them with great gallantry against the reiterated assaults of the Prussian left under Bulow. Heroic Defense. But the force remaining under Napo- leon was now numerically inferior to that under the Duke of Wellington, which he had been assailing throughout the day, without gaining any other ad- vantage than the capture of La Haye Sainte. It is true that, owing to the gross misconduct of the greater part of the Dutch and Belgian troops, the duke was obliged to rely exclusively on his English and German soldiers, and the ranks of these had been fearfully thinned ; but the survivors stood their ground heroically, and still opposed a resolute front to every forward move- ment of their enemies. Napoleon had then the means of effect- ing a retreat. His Old Guard had yet taken no part in the action. Under cover of it, he might have withdrawn his shattered forces and retired upon 21 the French frontier. But this would only have given the English and Prus- sians the opportunity of completing their junction; and he knew that other armies were fast coming up to aid them in a march upon Paris, if he should suc- ceed in avoiding an encounter with them, and retreating upon the capital. A victory at Waterloo was his only alternative from utter ruin, a»d he de- termined to employ his Guard in one bold stroke more to make that victory his own. Between seven and eight o'clock the infantry of the Old Guard was formed into two columns, on the declivity near La Belle Alliance. Ney was placed at their head. Napoleon himself rode for- ward to a spot by which his veterans were to pass; and as they approached he raised his arm, and pointed to the posi- tion of the allies, as if to tell them, that their path lay there. They answered with loud cries of " Vive l'Emperor ! " and descended the hill from their own side into that " valley of the shadow of death," while their batteries thundered with redoubled vigor over their heads upon the British line. Charge on British Centre. The line of march of the columns of the Guard was directed between Hou- goumont and La Haye Sainte, against the British right centre; and at the same time, Donzelot and the French, who had possession of La Haye Sainte, commenced a fierce attack upon the British centre, a little more to its left. This part of the battle has drawn less attention than the celebrated attack of the Old Guard ; but it formed the most perilous crisis for the allied army; and if the Young Guard had been there to 322 DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO. support Donzelot, instead of being en- gaged with the Prussians at Planche- noit, the consequences to the allies in that part of the field must have been most serious. The French tirailleurs, who were posted in clouds in La Haye Sainte, and the sheltered spots near it, com- pletely disabled the artillerymen of the English batteries near them ; and, tak- ing advantage of the crippled state of the English guns, the French brought some field-pieces up to La Haye Sainte, and commenced firing grape from them on the infantry of the allies, at a dis- tance of not more than a hundred paces. The allied infantry here consisted of some German brigades, who were formed in squares, as it was believed that Don- zelot had cavalry ready behind La Haye Sainte to charge them with, if they left that order of formation. In this state the Germans remained for some time with heroic fortitude, though the grape- shot was tearing gaps in their ranks, and the side of one square was literally blown away by one tremendous volley which the French gunners poured into it. Duke at the Front. The Prince of Orange in vain endea- vored to lead some Nassau troops to their aid. The Nassauers would not or could not face the French; and some battal- ions of Brunswickers, whom the Duke of Wellington had ordered up as a re- enforcement, at first fell back, until the Duke in person rallied them and led them on. The Duke then galloped off to the right to head his men who were exposed to the attack of the Imperial Guard. He had saved one part of his centre from being routed; but the French had gained ground here, and the pressure on the allied line was severe, until it was relieved by the decisive suc- cess which the British in the right cen- tre achieved over the columns of the Guard. The British troops on the crest of that part of the position, which the first column of Napoleon's Guards assailed, were Maitland's brigade of British Guards, having Adam's brigade on their right. Maitland's men were ly- ing down, in order to avoid, as far as possible, the destructive effect of the French artillery, which kept up an un- remitting fire from the opposite heights, until the first column of the Imperial Guard had advanced so far up the slope toward the British position that any further firing of the French artillery- men would endanger their own com- rades. Ney's Superb Bravery. Meanwhile, the British guns were not idle ; but shot and shell plowed fast through the ranks of the stately array of veterans that still moved imposingly on. Several of the French superior officers were at its head. Ney's horse was shot under him, but he still led the way on foot, sword in hand. The front of the massy column now was on the ridge of the hill. To their surprise, they saw no troops before them. All they could discern through the smoke was a small band of mounted officers. One of them was the duke himself. The French advanced to about fifty yards from where the British Guards were lying down, when the voice of one of the band of British officers was heard calling, as if to the ground before him, " Up, Guards, and at them!" It was the Duke who gave the order ; DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO. 323 and at the words, as if by magic, up started before them a line of British Guards four deep, and in the most com- pact and perfect order. They poured an instantaneous volley upon the head of the French column, by which no less than three hundred of those chosen veterans are said to have fallen. The French officers rushed forward, and, conspicuous in front of their men, at- tempted to deploy them into a more extended line, so as to enable them to reply with effect to the British fire. The French Routed. But Maitland's brigade kept shower- ing in volley after volley with deadly rapidity. The decimated column grew disordered in its vain efforts to expand itself into a more efficient formation. The right word was given at the right moment to the British for the bayonet charge, and the brigade sprung forward with a loud cheer against their dis- mayed antagonists. In an instant the compact mass of the French spread out into a rabble, and they fled back down the hill pursued by Maitland's men, who, however, returned to their position in time to take part in the repulse of the second column of the Imperial Guard. This column also advanced with great spirit and firmness under the cannonade which was opened upon it, and, passing by the eastern wall of Hougoumont, diverged slightly to the right as it moved up the slope toward the British position, so as to approach the same spot where the first column had sur- mounted the height and been defeated. This enabled the British regiments of Adam's brigade to form a line parallel to the left flank of the French column, so that while the front of this column of French Guards had to encounter the cannonade of the British batteries, and the musketry of Maitland's Guards, its left flank was assailed with a destructive fire by a four-deep body of British in- fantry, extending all along it. Veterans Hurled Back. In such a position, all the bravery and skill of the French veterans were in vain. The second column, like its predecessor, broke and fled, taking at first a lateral direction along the front of the British line toward the river of I53°> aiu ^ * n Captures 7,40/, some oi whom weie likewise wounded, or .\;,ooo in all ; the defeated French lost from 25,000 to ;oaX\> —probablv nearer the lattei num- ber, The Confederates thus lost in killed and wounded at least 25 pel eent. of then force, and yet they preserved their artillery and their organization, while the French suffered an even heavier proportional loss and were turned into a fleeing mob. Heavy Federal Losses. "At Gettysburg the Northerns lost t7,55S killed and wouneled and 5435 missing; in other words, they suffered an actually greater loss than the much larger army of Wellington and Blucher; relatively it was half as great again, being something like 22 per eent. in killed and wontuled alone. This gives some idea o( the comparative obstinacy of the fighting. "But in each ease the burnt of the 80,000 to 85,000 Union troops, and battle fell unequally on different or- ganizations. At Waterloo the English did the heaviest fighting and suffered the heaviest loss, and though at Gettys- burg no t loops behaved badly, as did the Dutch Belgians, yet one or two ot the regiments composed of foreigners certainly failed to distinguish them- selves, Meade had seven infantry corps, one of which was largely held in re serve, Thesix that did the actual fight- ingma) begroupedin pairs. The $4 of the Confederate some 65,000. At Waterloo there were 120,000 soldieis of the Allies under Wellington and Blu> cher, and some 72,000 French under Napoleon; or, there were about 150,000 combatants at Gettysburg and about OO at Waterloo. " In each ease the weaker army made the attaek and was defeated, l.ee did not have to race such heavy odds . s Napoleon, but whereas Najvdeon's de DOWNFALL OS NAPOLEON AT WATERLOO. 327 cond and lliird numbered nominally 23,610 (probably there were in reality eral hundred less than this), and lost in killed and wounded 7586, or 32 per cent., and 974 missing, so that these 1 corps, whose aggregate force was smaller thai] that, of Wellington's Bri- tish regiments at Waterloo, neverthe- suffered a considerably heavier loss, and therefore must have done bloodier and, on the whole, more ob nate fighting. "The first and Kh-v-nth Corps, who were very roughly handled the first day, make ;« much worse showing in the missing column, but their death rolls are evidence of how bravely they fought. They had in all 18,600 men, of whom 6092, or 32 per cent, were killed and wounded and 3733 missing. The Fifth and Twelfth Corps, in the aggregate of 20,147 men, lost 2990, or 15 per cent, killed and wounded and 278 missing. "Thus of the six Union corps which did the fighting at Gettysburg four suf- fered a relatively much heavier loss in killed and wounded than Wellington's British .'it Waterloo, and the other two a relatively much heavier loss than Blucher's Prussians. " In making any comparison betwet the two battles it must, of < oati e, be re- membered that one occupied but a sin- gle day and the other very nearly three ; and it is hard to compare the severity of the strain of a long and very bloody, with that caused by a short, and only less bloodless battle. Gettysburg eon sisted of a series of more 01 om- paratively isolated conflicts ; but owing to the loose way in which the armies marched into action many of the troops that did the heaviest of the fighting were engaged for but a portion of the time. The Second and Third Corps were probably not heavily engaged for a very much longer period than the British regiments at Waterloo. "Both were soldiers' rather than generals' battles. Both were waged with extraordinary courage and obsti- nacy and at a fearful cost of life. Wa- terloo was settled by a single desperate and exhausting struggle ; Gettysburg took longer, was less decisive, and was relatively much more bloody. Accord- ing to Wellington the chief feature of Waterloo was the ( hard pounding,' and at Gettysburg the pounding — or, as Grant called it, the ' hammering ' — was even harder." GHAPTER XXII. Decisive Battles of Austerlitz and Jena. N the 2 1st of November, 1805, a striking and warlike cavalcade was traversing at a slow pace a wide and elevated plateau in Moravia. In front, on a grey horse, rode a short, sallow-faced man with dark hair and a quick, eager glance, whose notice nothing seemed to escape. His dress was covered by a grey overcoat, which met a pair of long riding-boots, and on his head was a low, weather- stained cocked hat. He was followed by a crowd of officers, evidently of high rank, for their uni- forms, saddle-cloths, and plumed hats were heavily laced, and they had the bold, dignified bearing of leaders of men. In front and in the flanks of the party were scattered watchful vedettes, and behind followed a strong squadron of picked cavalry in dark green dol- mans with furred pelisses slung over their shoulders, and huge fur caps sur- mounted by tall red plumes. The leading horseman rode in silence over the plateau, first to one point then to another, examining with anxious care every feature of the ground. He marked carefully the little village from which the expanse took its name, and the steep declivity which sloped to a muddy stream below. No one addressed him, for he was a man whose train of thought was not to be lightly inter- rupted. Suddenly, at length, he drew rein, and, turning to the body of officers, said: "Gentlemen, examine this ground carefully. It will be a field of battle, 328 upon which you will all have a part to act." The speaker was Napoleon. His hearers were his generals and staff. He had been reconnoitring, surrounded and guarded by his devoted Chasseurs of the Guard, the plateau of Pratzen, the main part of the arena where was to be waged in a few days the mighty conflict of Austerlitz. Napoleon's headquarters were then at Brunn. The French host, then for the first time called the "Grand Army," had, at the command of its great chief, in the beginning of September broken up the camps long occupied on the coasts of France in preparation for a contemplated invasion of England, and had directed its march to the Rhine. It was formed in seven corps under Bernadotte, Marmont, Davoust, Soult, Lannes, Ney, and Augereau, with its cavalry under Prince Murat, and the Imperial Guard as a reserve. The Rhine was crossed at different points, and the tide of invasion swept upon the valley of the Danube. From the beginning the movements had been made with a swiftness unprecedented in war. Guns and cavalry had been moved in ceaseless and unhalting stream along every road. Infantry had pressed forward by forced marches, and had been aided in its onward way by wheeled transports at every available oppor- tunity. The Emperor had resolved to strike a blow by land against his foes which should counterbalance the several checks which the indomitable navy of England BATTLES OF AUSTERLITZ AND JENA. 329 had inflicted on his fleets at sea. Austria and Russia were in arms against France, and he was straining every nerve to en- counter and shatter their separate forces before they would unite in overwhelm- ing power. The campaign had opened for him with a series of brilliant suc- cesses. The veterans of the revolution- ary wars, of Italy and of Egypt, di- rected by his mightv genius, had proved themselves irresistible. The Austrians had been the first to meet the shock, and had been defeated at every point — Gunzberg, Haslach, Albeck, Elchingen, Memmingen — and the first phase of the struggle had closed with the capitulation at Ulm of Gen- eral Mack with 30,000 men. Brilliant Successes. But there had been no stay in the rush of the victorious French. The first defeats of the Austrian army had been rapidly followed up. The corps which had escaped from the disaster at Ulm were pursued and, one after an- other, annihilated. The Tyrol was overrun, and its strong positions occu- pied by Marshal Ney. From Italy came the news of Massena's successes against the celebrated Archduke Charles, and at Dirnstein Marshal Mor- tier had defeated the first Russian army under Kutusow. The Imperial headquarters had been established at Schonbrunn, the home of the Emperor of Austria. Vienna had been occupied and the bridge across the Danube secured by Lannes and Murat. Kutusow, after his defeat at Dirnstein, had been driven back through Hollabrunn on Brunn by the same marshals at the head of the French advanced guard, and had now joined the second Russian army, with which was its Emperor Alexander in person, and an Austrian force under Prince L/ichtenstein, accompanied by the Em- peror of Austria. The main body of the " Grand Ar- my" had, under Napoleon, followed its advanced guard into the heart of Moravia. Its headquarters and imme- diate base were now at Brunn, but its position was sufficiently critical, at the extremity of a long line of operations, numbering less than 70,000 disposable men, while the Russo-Austrian army in front amounted to 92,000. So rapid had been the movements since the camp at Boulogne was left, that the common saying passed in the ranks that " Our Emperor does not make use of our arms in this war so much as of our legs ;" and the grave result of this constant swiftness had been that many soldiers had fallen to the rear from indisposition or fatigue, and even the nominal strength of corps was thus for the time seriously diminished. It is recorded that in the Chasseurs a-Cheval of the Guard alone there was a deficiency of more than four hundred men from this cause. But all these laggards were doing their best to rejoin the army be- fore the great battle took place which all knew to be inevitable, and in which all were eager to bear their part. The Army Resting. Napoleon had himself arrived at Brunn on the 20th of November, and during the following days till the 27th he allowed his army a measure of re- pose to enable it to recover its strength after its long toils— to repair its arms, its boots and worn material, and to rally every man under its eagles. His 330 BATTLES OF AUSTERLITZ AND JENA. advanced guard had been pushed for- ward under Mu rat towards Wisehau on the Olmutz road, Soult's corps on his right had pressed Kutusow's retreat to- wards Austerlitz, and the remainder were disposed in various positions to watch Hungary and Bohemia and to maintain his hold upon Vienna. Guard Driven Back. On the 27th the French advanced guard was attacked and driven back by the Russians at Wisehau, and certain information arrived that this had been done by a portion of the main Russian army under the Emperor Alexander. It had been thought possible by Napo- leon that peaceful negotiations might be opened, but this confident advance of his enemies seemed to show that they had by no means lost heart, and when on the 28th he had a personal interview with Prince Dolgorouki, the favorite of Alexander, he found the Russian proposals so insulting and presumptu- ous that he broke off abruptly any fur- ther communication. We have seen Napoleon reeonnoiter- ing on the 2 1st of November, and we have marked the marvellous coup d\ril and prescience with which he foresaw the exact spot where the great battle, then looming before him, must take place. Every succeeding day saw the reconnoissance renewed, and never was a battle-field more thoroughly exam- ined, never w.is forecast by a general of the actual turn of events to be expected more completely justified by fulfilment. It had become certain that the united army of two mighty empires was close at hand. From the tone of Dolgorouki's communication it was evident that both the Russian and Austrian monarchs had resolved to trust their fortunes to the ordeal of battle, and that they, with their generals and soldiery, were eager to retrieve their previous misfortunes, and full of confidence that they would do so. That confidence had been in- creased by the repulse of the French advanced guard at Wisehau ; and they now longed to complete their work by pouring their superior numbers on the comparatively weak French main body. With this knowledge before him, Napoleon proceeded to carry out the plan of action which he had carefully matured. To the astonishment of many veterans in his army, a general retreat of his advanced troops was ordered. Murat fell back from Posoritz and Soult from near Austerlitz. But this retro- grade movement was short, and they were halted on the ground chosen by Napoleon for his battle-line. The out- lying corps of Bernadotte and Davoust was summoned to complete his array. Munitions, food, ambulances were hur- ried to their appointed posts, and it was announced that the battle would be fought on the 1st or 2d of December. Daring Strategy. The line of a muddy stream, called the Goldbach, marked the front of the French army. This stream takes its source across the Olmutz road, and flowing through a dell, of which the sides are steep, discharges itself into the Menitz Lake. At the top of its high left bank stretches the wide Prat- zen plateau, and it appeared to Napo- leon's Staff that he had made an error in relinquishing such a vantage ground to his enemy : but he told them that he had done so oi' set purpose, saying, "If I remained master of this fine BATTLES OF AUSTERLITZ AND JENA. 331 plateau, I could here check the Rus- sians, but then I should only have an ordinary victory ; whereas by giving it to them and refusing my right, if they dare to descend from these heights in order to outflank me, I secure that they shall be lost beyond redemption." Let us examine tlie positions occupied by the French and the Austro-Russian armies at the close of November, and we shall the better understand the general strategy of the two combatant forces and the tactics which each made use of when they came into collision. The Emperor Napoleon rested his left, under Lannes and Murat, on a rugged eminence, which those of his soldiers who had served in Egypt called the " Santon," because its crest was crowned by a little chapel, of which the roof had a fancied resemblance to a minaret. An Impregnable Fortress. This eminence he had strengthened with field works, armed and provisioned like a fortress. He had, by repeated visits, satisfied himself that his orders were properly carried out, and he had committed its defence to special defend- ers under the command of General Claparede, impressing upon them that they must be prepared to fire their last cartridge at their post and, if necessary, there to die to the last man. His centre was on the right bank of the Goldbach. There were the corps of Soultand Bernadotte, the Grenadiers of Duroc and Oudinot, and the Imperial Guard with forty guns. Their double lines were concealed by the windings of the stream, by scattered clumps of wood, and by the features of the ground. His right was entrusted to Davoust's corps, summoned in haste to the battle- J field, and of which only a division of infantry and one of Dragoons had been able to come into line. They were posted at Menitz, and had the defiles passing the Menitz Lake and the two other lakes of Telnitz and Satschau. Napoleon's line of battle was thus an oblique one, with its right thrown back. It had the appearance of being only defensive, if not actually timid, its cen- tre not more than sufficiently occupied, its right extremely weak, and only its left formidable and guaranteed against any but the most powerful attack. Setting a Trap. But the great strategist had weighed well his methods. He trusted that the foe would be tempted to commit them- selves to an attack on his right, essay- ing to cut his communications and line of retreat on Vienna. If they could be led into this trap, the difficulty of movement in the ground cut up by lake, stream, and marsh would give to Davoust the power to hold them in check until circumstances allowed of aid being given to him. Meantime, with his left impregnable and his centre ready to deal a crushing blow, he ex- pected to be able to operate against the Russo-Austrian flank and rear with all the advantage due to unlooked-for strength. The right of the Russo-Austrians, commanded by the Princes Bagration and Lichtenstein, rested on a wooded hill near Posoritz across the Olmutz road. Their centre, under Kollowrath, occupied the village of Pratzen and the large surrounding plateau ; while their left, under Doctorof and Kienmyer, stretched towards the Satchau Lake and the adjoining marshes. 332 BATTLES OF AUSTERLITZ AND JENA. The village of Austerlitz was some distance in the rear of the Russo-Aus- trian position, and had no immediate connection with the movements of the troops employed on either side, but the Emperors of Russia and Austria slept in it on the night before the battle, and Napoleon afterwards accentuated the greatness of his victory by naming it after the place from which he had chased them. An Unequal Contest. The two great armies now in presence of each other were markedly unequal in strength — 92,000 men were opposed to 70,000, and the advantage of 22,000 was to the allies. But this inequality was to a great extent compensated by the tactical dispositions of the leader of the weaker force. Of the two an- tagonist lines, one was wholly exposed to view, the other to a great extent concealed — first advantage to the latter. They formed, as it were, two parallel arcs of a circle, but that of the French was the more compact and uninter- rupted — second advantage ; and this last was soon to be increased by the imprudent Russian manoeuvres. The two armies, barely at a distance of two cannon-shot from each other, had by mutual tacit consent formed their biv- ouacs, piled arms, fed and reposed peaceably around their fires, the one covered by a thick cloud of Cossacks, the other by a sparse line of vedettes. Napoleon quitted Brunn early in the morning of the 1st of December, and employed the whole of that day in ex- amining the positions which the differ- ent portions of his army occupied. His headquarters were established in the rear of the centre of his line at a hig-h point, from which could be seen the bivouacs of both French and allies, as well as the ground on which the mor- row's issue would be fought out. The cold was intense, but there was no snow. The only shelter that could be found for the ruler of France was a dilapidated hut, in which were placed the Empe- ror's table and maps. The Grenadiers had made up a huge fire hard by, and his travelling carriage was drawn up, in which he could take such sleep as his anxieties would per- mit. The divisions of Duroc and Oud- inot bivouacked between him and the enemy, while the Guard lay round him and towards the rear. A Huge Blunder. In the late afternoon of the same day Napoleon was watching the allied posi- tion through his telescope. On the Pratzen plateau could be seen a general flank movement of Russian columns, in the rear of their first line, from their centre to their left and towards the front of the French position at Telnitz. It was evidently supposed by the enemy that the French intended to act only on the defensive, that nothing was to be feared from them in front, and that the allies had only to throw their masses on their right, cut off their retreat upon Vienna, and thus inflict upon them a certain and disastrous defeat. It was forgotten by the Russo-Aus- trians that in thus moving their princi- pal forces to the left, the centre of then position was weakened, and on the right their own line of operations and retreat was left entirely unprotected. When Napoleon detected what was be- ing done, trembling with satisfaction and clapping his hands, he said : "What BATTLES OF AUSTERUTZ AND JENA. 333 a manoeuvre to be ashamed of! They are running into the trap ! They are giving themselves up ! Before to-mor- row evening that army will be in my hands!" In order still more to add to the confidence of his enemy and to en- courage them in the prosecution of their mistaken plan, he ordered Murat to sally forth from his own position with some cavalry, to manoeuvre as if show- ing uneasiness and hesitation, and then to retire with an air of alarm. Promises Victory. This order given, he returned im- mediately to his bivouac, dictated and issued his famous proclamation in which he assured his army that the Austro-Russians were exposing their flank and were offering certain glory to the soldiers of France as a reward for their valor in the coming struggle : he said that he himself would direct their battalions, but that he would not expose himself to danger unless success was doubtful, and he promised that after their victory, they should have comfortable cantonments and peace. The evening of the ist of December closed in. The allied movement to- wards their left was still continuing, and Napoleon, after renewing his or- ders, again visiting his parks and ambu- lances and satisfying himself by his own observation that all was in order, threw himself on a bundle of straw and slept. About eleven o'clock he was awakened and told that a sharp attack had been made on one of the villages occupied by his right, but that it had been repulsed. This further confirmed his forecast of the allied movements, but, wishing to make a last reconnais- sance of his enemy's position, he again mounted, and, followed by Junot, Duroc, Berthier, and some others of his staff, he ventured between the two armies. As he closely skirted the enemy's line of outposts, in spite of several warnings that he was incurring great risk, he, in the darkness, rode into a picket of Cossacks. These sprang to arms and attacked him so suddenly that he would certainly have been killed or taken pris- oner if it had not been for the devoted courage of his escort, which engaged the Cossacks while he turned his horse and galloped back to the French lines. His escape was so narrow and precipi- tate that he had to pass without choos- ing his way the marshy Goldbach stream. "A Cry was Raised." His own horse and those of several of his attendants — amongst others Ywan, his surgeon, who never left his person — were for a time floundering helpless in the deep mud, and the Emperor was obliged to make his way on foot to his headquarters past the fires round which his soldiers were lying. In the obscur- ity he stumbled over a fallen tree-trunk; and it occurred to a grenadier who saw him, to twist and use some straw as a torch, holding it over his head to light the path of his sovereign. In the middle of the anxious night, full of disquietude and anticipation, the eve of the anniversary of the Emperor's coronation, the face of Napoleon, lighted up and suddenly displayed by this flame, appeared almost as a vision to the soldiers of the nearest bivouacs. A cry was raised, "It is the anniversary of the coronation ! Vive l'Enipereur !" — an outburst of loyal ardor which Na- poleon in vain attempted to check with 884 BATTLES OF U'STi-uutz and ji-\\ die words, "Silence till to-morrow. Now j ou have only to sharpen youi lu\ onel Hut the same thought, the same cry, was taken up and flew with lightning quickness from bivouac to bivouac. All made torches of whatevei material was .it hand. Some pulled down the field- shelters foi the pin pose 'some used the straw th.it had been collected to lonu theii beds; and in an instant, as it by enchantment, thousands of lights flared upwaids along the whole French line, and i>\ thousands oi voices the cry was repeated, "Vive I'Empereur!" Thus was improvised, within sight of the as tonished enemy, the most striking of illuminations, the most memorable oi demonstrations, by which the adinira lion and devotion oi a whole army ' ive evei beenshown to its general. His Sappiest Night. it is said that the Russians believed the French to be burning their shelt cms .is .1 preliminary to retreat, and that theii confidence was thereby in- creased. As to Napoleon, though .it first annoyed at the outburst} he was soon gratified and deeply touched bj the lu'.nt felt enthusiasm displayed, and s.iiil that "This night is the happiest oi my lite." Foi some time he continued to move from bivouac to bivouac, tell ing his soldiers how much heappreci ated theii affection, and saying those kindly and encouraging words which no one bettei than he knew how to use. The morning began to break on the id of December. As he buckled on his sword, Napoleon said to the staff gath ered round " Now, gentlemen, let us commence a great day.*' demounted, and from different points were seen ai riving to receive his last orders the renowned chiefs oi his various corps* t/\i> »tct\ e.ieh followed by a single aide- de-camp. There were Marshal Prince Miu.it, Marshal Cannes, Marshal Soult, Marshal Beruadotte, ami Marshal Da- voust. What a formidable circle of men, each of whom had already gath- ered glory on many different fields! Matchless Murni. Murat, distinctively the cavalry gen- eral oi France, the intrepid paladin who had led his charging squadrons on all the battle-fields oi halv ami Egypt ; I. .tunes, whose piowess at Moutehello hid made victory certain; Soult, the veteran of the Long years ol wai on the Rhine and in Germany, the hero o{ Alteukiieheu, and Masseua's most dis- tinguished lieutenant at the battle oi Zurich; Bernadotte, not more renowned as a general in the held than as the ministei oi wai who prepared the con- quest oi Holland; DavOUSt, the stem disciplinariau and leader, unequalled for eool gallantry and determination — all weie gathered at this supreme mo- ment round one oi the greatest masters of wai in ancient or modern times, to receive his inspiration and to part like thundei clouds bearing the storm which was to shatter the united armies oi two Empires, The Emperor's general plan of action was already partly known, hut he now u-peated it to his marshals in detail. He was more than ever certain, from the last reports which he had received, that the enemv was continuing the Hank movement, and would hurl the heaviest attacks on the French right near Tel- nit.-. To Davoust was entrusted the duty BATTUvS oi' AUSTBRUTZ AND TENA. 885 if holding the extreme right and che< b in};, in the defiles formed by the lakes, the heads of the enemy's columns wliidi, since the previous day, had been more and more entangling themselves in i hese difficult passes. < )i Soult's I hree divisions, one was to assist Davousl on the right, while the • .Mil t wo, already foi tned in columns oi attack, were to hold themselves ready to throw theii force on the Pratzen plateau. Bernadotte's two divisions wen- to advance againsl the same position on Soult's left. This combined onslaughl of four divisions on the centre oi the Russo-Austrians which they had weak- ened hy the movement to their left, would be supported by the Kmperoi himself with the imperial Guard and the Grenadiers of Ondinot and Dnroe. Cannes was ordered to hold the hit, particularly the "Santon" height; while Prince Murat, at the head of his horsemen, was to charge through the intervals of the infantry upon the allied cavalry which appeared to he in meat Strength in that part of the field. Napoleon's Strategy. [t was thus Napoleon's intention to await and cheek tin- enemy's attacks which might be expected on both his Banks, and more especially on his i ight, while he hiniseii made a determined and formidable movement againsl theii centre, where he hoped tocut them in i wo, and then, from the dominant posi- tion of the Pratzen plateau, turn an overwhelming force against the masses on their too-far-advanced left, which, entangled and cramped in its action among the lakes, would then be crushed or forced to yield as prisoners. It was eight o'clock. The thick wintry nii.t hung in the valley "I the Goldbach and tolled upwards to the Pratzen plateau. Its obscurity, height ened by the lingering smoke ot bivouac fires, concealed the French columns of attack. The thunder of artillery and t In- rattle of nmsket 1 y told I kit I lie ;d lied attack on the French right had begun and was being strenuously n sisted, while silence and darkness reigned over tin- rest of tin- line. Sud denly, over the heights, tie- sun rose, brilliantly piercing tin- mist and light- ing the battle field tin- " Sun of Ans- terlit/.," of which Napoleon ever after loved to recall the nineinbiaiice. Furious Onslaught. The- moment of action for the French centre had conn-, ...id the COrpS of Soil It and Bernadotte, led by the divisions of Vandamme and St. Hilaire, rushed foi wards. No influence thai couldanimate the minds of these- gallant troops wa , wanting. They fought directly undei the • ye of their Emperor. They were led by chiefs in whom they had implicit confidence. The Pratzen height was escladed at the double, attacked iii front and on the right and left, and the appearance of the assailants was SO sudden and un- expected, as they issued from the cm tain of mist, that the Russians were Completely surprised. They had no defensive formation ready, and were still occupied in the movement towards their hit. They hastily formed in three lines, however, and some of their ar- tillery were able to conic into ait ion. Their resistance was feeble. One alter another, their lines, broken by the stern bayonet charge, were driven back in 886 BATTLES OF AUSTERLITZ AND JENA. hopeless con fusion, and at nine o'clock Napokon was master oi the Pratzcn plateau. Meanwhile, on the Left, Lannes and Murat were fighting an independent battle with the Princes Liehtenstein and Bagration. Murat, as the senior marshal and brother-in-law >.->( the Em- peror, was nominally the superior; but, in real fact, 1 .amies, directed the opera- tions of the infantry, which Murat pow- erfully supplemented and aided with his cavalry. General Caffarelli's divi- sion was formed on the plain on Lati- nos' s right, while General Suchet's di- vision was on his left, supported by the " Santon " height, from which ponied the tire of eighteen heavy guns Dashing Cavalry Charge. The light cavalry brigades oi' Mil- hand and Treilhard were pushed for- ward in observation across the high road to Olmutz. The cavalry divisions ofKellermann, Walther, Nansouty, and d'Hautpoul were disposed in two mas- sive columns of squadrons on the right oi CafTarelli. Against this array were brought eighty-two squadrons oi' ca- valry under Liehtenstein, supported by the serried divisions oi' Bagration's infantry and a heavy force oi' artil- lery. The combat was commenced by the light cavalry oi Kellermann, which charged and overthrew the Russo-Aus- trian advanced guard. Attacked, in turn by the Uhlans of the Grand DukeCon- Stantine, Kellermann retired through the intervals o( Caffarelli's division, which, by a well-sustained fire in two ranks, checked the Uhlans and emptied many oi their saddles. Kellermann re- formed his division and again charged, supported by Sebastiani's brigade of Dragoons. Then followed a succession of charges by the chivalry of France, led by Mu- rat with all the elan of his boiling cour- age. Kellermann, Walther, and Sebas- tian! were all wounded, the first two generals seriously. In the last of these charges the 5th Chasseurs, commanded by Colonel Corbineau, broke the forma- tion of a Russian battalion and cap- tured its standard. Caffarelli's infantry were close at hand, and, pushing for- ward, made an Austrian battalion lay down its arms. A regiment of Russian Dragoons made a desperate advance to rescue their comrades, and, mistaking them for Bavarians in the smoke and turmoil, Murat ordered the French infantry to cease firing. The Russian Dragoons, thus encountering no resistance, pene- trated the French ranks and almost succeeded in taking Murat himself pri- soner. But, consummate horseman and man-at-arms as he was, he cut his way to safety through the enemy, at the head of his personal escort. The Russians Hurled Back. The allies profited by this diversion to again assume the offensive. Then came the opportunity for the gigantic Cuirassiers oi Nansouty, which hurled the Russian cavalry back upon their infantry, and, in three successive on- slaughts, scattered the infantry itself, inflicting terrible losses with their long, heavy swords, and seizing eight pieces oi artillery. The whole of Caffarelli's division advanced, supported by one of Bernadotte's divisions from the centre, and, changing its front to the right, cut the centre of Bagration's infantry, BATTLES OF AUSTKRUTZ AND JEN A. 337 driving its greater part towards Pratzen, separated from those who still fought at the extremity of their line. The Austro-Russiau cavalry rallied in support of Bagration, who was now hotly pressed by Sachet. Then came a magnificently combined movement of Dragoons, Cuirassiers, and infantry. The Dragoons drove back the Austro- Russiau squadrons behind their infan- try. Simultaneously followed the lev- elled bayonets of Suchet's division and the crushing shock of d'Hautpoul's mail-clad warriors. The victory was decided — the Russian battalions were crushed, losing a standard, eleven guns, and i, 800 prisoners. Allied Army Shattered. The rout was completed by the rapid advance of the light cavalry brigades of Treilhard and Milhaud on the left, and of Kellermann on the right, which swept away all that encountered them, and drove the shattered allied troops towards the village of Austerlitz. The Russo- Austrian losses on this part of the field of battle amounted to 1,200 or 1,500 killed, 7,000 or 8,000 prisoners, two standards, and twenty-seven pieces of artillery. While Napoleon had thus struck a heavy blow at the allied centre and had been completely victorious on his left, his right, under Davoust, was with diffi- culty holding its own against Buxhow- den (who had assumed the command of the columns of Doctorof and Kien- mayer), and but that the masses brought against it were unable to deploy their strength it must inevitably have been crushed. Thirty thousand foemen of all arms were pressing in assault upon 10,000 French, already wearied by a 22 long and rapid march to their position at Raygern. But Davoust was able to concentrate what power he had, and to meet at advantage the heads only of the columns which were winding their way along the narrow passes that opened between the lakes and through the marshy ground in his front. A Critical Moment. Even so the strain was terrible, and would have been more than less hardy troops under a less able and determined leader could have stood. But Napoleon was quite alive to the necessities of the gallant soldiers who were standing their ground so staunchly. He ordered his reserve of Grenadiers and the Imperial Guard to move up to the support of his right centre and to threaten the flank of the columns that were attacking Davoust, while he also directed the two divisions of Soult's corps, which had made the attack on the Pratzen plateau against Buxhowden's rear. It was one o'clock, and at this mo- ment, while the orders just given were being executed, the Russian infantry, supported by the Russian Imperial Guard, made a desperate effort to re- trieve the fortunes of the day near Pratzen, and threw themselves in a fierce bayonet charge on the divisions of Vandamme and St. Hilaire, which offered a stout resistance. But, with the Russian Guard ready to join in the combat, the odds against the French divisions were too great. It was the crisis of the day. Napoleon, from the commanding po- sition where he stood, saw before him the Emperor Alexander's guard advanc- ing in dense masses to regain their morning position and to sweep before 338 BATTLES OF AUSTERLITZ AND JENA. them his men, wearied and harassed by the day's struggle. At the same time he heard on his right the redoubled fire of the advanced Russian left, which was pressing Davoust and was threat- ening his rear. From the continued and increasing roar of musketry and artillery it almost seemed as if success must, after all, attend the great flank movement of the allies. Small wonder if even his war-hardened nerves felt a thrill of confusion and anxiety when he saw dimly appearing through the battle smoke another black mass of moving troops. Panic- Stricken Fugitives. " Ha ! Can those, too, be Russians ?" he exclaimed to the solitary staff-officer whom the exigencies of the day had still left at his side. Another look re- assured him, however. The tall bear- skins of the moving column showed him that it was his own Guard, which, under Dnroc, was moving towards the lakes to the support of Soult and Da- voust. His right and rear were, at any rate so far safe. Hut the Russian int«ntry attack had been followed by a headlong charge of the Chevalier Guards and Cuirassiers of the Russian Guard, under the Grand Duke Constantine, brother of the Em- peror Alexander, supported by numer- ous lines of cavalry. So well led and so impetuous was the attack, that the two battalions on the left of Vandam- me's division were broken and swept away in headlong flight. One of these battalions belonged to the 4th of the line, of which Napoleon's brother Joseph was colonel, and the Emperor saw it lose its eagle and abandon its position, shattered and destroyed, forming the one dark spot to sully the brilliancy of French steadfastness on that day of self-devotion. The tide of panic-stricken fugitives almost surged against the Emperor himself. All efforts to rally them were in vain. Maddened with fear, they heard not the voices of generals and officers imploring them not to abandon the field of honor and their Emperor. Their only response was to gasp out mechanically: "Vive l'Empereur!" while still hurrying their frantic pace. Napoleon smiled at them in pity ; then, with a gesture of contempt, he said : "Let them go ! " and, still calm in the midst of the turmoil, sent General Rapp to bring up the cavalry of his Guard. A Bloody Struggle. Rapp was titular "V>lonel of the Ma- melukes, a corps which reached the glories of Egypt and the personal re- gard which Napoleon, as a man, had been able to inspire into Orientals. They, with the Grenadiers-a-Cheval and the Chasseurs of the Guard, now swooped upon the Russian squadrons. The struggle of the m£l£e was bloody and obstinate between the picked horsemen of Western and Eastern Europe; but the Russian chivalry was at length overwhelmed and driven back with immense loss. Many standards and prisoners fell into the hands of the French, amongst others Prince Repnin, Colonel of the Chevalier Guard. His regiment, whose ranks were filled with men of the noblest families in Russia, had fought with a valor worthy of their name, and lav almost by ranks upon the field. It had been the mark of the giant Grena- BATTLES OP AUSTERUTZ AND JENA. 339 diers-a-Cheval, whose savage war-cry in the great cliarge had been, as they swayed their heavy sabres, "Let us make the dames of St. Petersburg weep to-day ! ' ' When success was assured, Rapp re- turned to report to Napoleon — a war- like figure, as he approached, alone, at a gallop, with proud mein, the light of battle in his eye, his sword dripping with blood and a sabre cut on his fore- head. A Gallant Exploit. "Sire, we have overthrown and de- stroyed the Russian Guard and taken their artillery." •' It was gallantly done : I saw it," replied the Emperor. "But you are wounded." "It is nothing, sire: it is only a scratch.'' " It is another quartering of nobility, and I know of none that can be more illustrious." Immediately afterwards the young Count Apraxin, an officer of artillery who had been taken prisoner by the Chasseurs, was brought before Napo- leon. He struggled, wept, and wrung his hands in despair, crying : " I have lost my battery ; I am dishonored : would that I could die!" Napoleon tried to console and soothe him with the words, "Calm yourself, young man, and learn that there is never disgrace in being conquered by Frenchmen." The French army was now com- pletely successful on its centre and left. In the distance could be seen, retiring towards Austerlitz, the remains of the Russian reserves, which had relin- quished hope of regaining the central plateau and abandoned Buxhowden's wing to its fate. Their retreat was harassed by the artillery of the Impe- rial Guard, whose fire ploughed through their long columns, carrying with it death and consternation. Napoleon left to Murat and Lannes the completion of their own victory. To Bernadotte, with the greater part of the Guard, he entrust- ed the final crushing of the enemies who had been driven from the Pratzen pla- teau ; while he himself, with all of Soult's corps, the remainder of his cav- alry, infantry, and reserve artillery de- scended from the heights and threw himself on the rear of the Austro-Rus- sian left near Telnitz and the lakes. This unfortunate wing — nearly 30,000 men — had in vain striven, since the mo fling, to force its way through Da- voi/st's 10,000. Valor Was in Vain. Now, still checked in front and en- tangled in the narrow roads by the Goldbach and the lakes, it found itself in hopeless confusion, attacked and ravaged with fire from three sides simul- taneously by Davoust, Soult, Duroc with his Grenadiers and Vandamme. It fought with a gallantry and stern- ness which drew forth the admiration of its enemies, but surrounded, driven, overwhelmed, it could not hope to ex- tricate itself from its difficulties. There was no way of escape open but the Menitz lake itself, whose frozen surface seemed to present a path to safety, and in an instant the white expanse was blackened by the flying multitude. The most horribly disastrous phase of the whole battle was at hand. The shot of the French artillery which was firing on the retreat broke the ice at many points, and its frail support gave 340 BATTLES OF AUSTERLITZ AND JENA. way. The water welled through the cracks and washed over the broken fragments. Thousands of Russians, with horses, artillery and train, sank into the lake and were engulfed. Few succeeded in struggling; to the shore and taking advantage of the ropes and other assistance which their conquerors strove to put within their reach. About ?,ooo, who had been able to remain on the road between the two lakes, made good their retreat. The remainder were either dead or prisoners. Suspected Traitor. At four o'clock in the afternoon the battle was over, and there was nothing left for the French to do but to pursue and collect the spoils of their conquest. This duty was performed with energy by all the commanders except Berna- dotte (even then more than suspected of disloyalty to his great chief), who allowed the whole of the Russo-Aus- trian right, which had been defeated by Eannes and Murat and driven from its proper line of retreat on Olmutz, to defile scatheless past his front and to seek shelter in the direction of Hungary. After the great catastrophe on the Menitz lake which definitely sealed the issue of the conflict, Napoleon passed slowly along the whole battle-field, from the French right to their left. The ground was covered with piles of the poor remains of those who had died a soldier's death, and with vast numbers of wounded laid suffering on the frozen plain. Surgeons and ambulances were already everywhere at work, but their efforts were feeble in comparison with the shattered, groaning multitude who were in dire need of help. The Emperor paused by every disabled follower and spoke words of sympathy ana comfort. He himself, with his personal attend- ants and his staff, did all in their power to mitigate the pangs of each and to give some temporary relief till better assistance should arrive. As the shades of night fell on the scene of slaughter and destruction, the mist of the morning again rolled over the plain, bringing with it an icy rain, which increased the darkness. Na- poleon ordered the strictest silence to be maintained, that no faint cry from a miserable sufferer should pass un- heard ; and his surgeon Ywan, with his Mameluke orderly Roustan, gave to many a one, who would otherwise have died, a chance of life by binding up their hurts and restoring their powers with a draught of brandy from the Im- perial canteen. Care for the Wounded. It was nearly ten o'clock at night when the Emperor arrived at the Ol- mutz road, having almost felt his way from one wounded man to another as they lay where each attack had been made and each stubborn defense main- tained. He passed the night at the small posthouse of Posoritz, supping on a share of the soldiers' rations, which was brought from the nearest bivouac, and issuing order after order about searching for the wounded and convey- ing them to the field hospitals. Though many of the most noted leaders in the French army were wounded in the great battle, comparatively few were killed. One of the most distinguished dead was General Morland, who com- manded the Chasseurs-a-Clieval of the Guard. His regiment had suffered ter- rible losses in the charge under Rapp BATTLES OF AUSTERLITZ AND JENA. 341 against the Russian Guard, and he himself had fallen, fighting amongst tfie foremost. Napoleon, who was always anxious to do everything to raise the spirit of his troops and to excite their emulation, ordered that the body of General Mor- land should be preserved and conveyed to Paris, there to be interred in a spec- ially magnificent tomb which he pro- posed to build on the Esplanade of the Invalides. The doctors with the army had neither the time nor the materials necessary to embalm the general's body, so, as a simple means of conservation, they enclosed it in a barrel of rum, which was taken to Paris. But cir- cumstances delayed the construction of the tomb which the Emperor intended for its reception until the fall of the Empire in 1814. When the barrel was then opened for the private interment of the body by General Morland's rela- tions, they were astonished to find that the rum had made the dead general's moustaches grow so extraordinarily that they reached below his waist. The Host in Flight. The defeat suffered by the Russians was so crushing, and their army had been thrown into such confusion, that all who had escaped from the disaster of Austerlitz fled with all speed to Galicia, where there was a hope of be- ing beyond the reach of the conqueror. The rout was complete. The French made a large number of prisoners, and found the roads covered with abandoned guns, baggage, and material of war. The Emperor Alexander, overcome by his misfortunes, left it to his ally, Francis II., to treat with Napoleon, and authorized him to make the best terms he could for both the defeated empires. On the very evening of the 2d of De- cember the Emperor of Austria had asked for an interview with Napoleon, and the victor met the vanquished on the 4th. An armistice was signed on the 6th, which was shortly afterwards followed by a treaty of peace concluded at Presburg. The total losses of the Austro-Rus- sians at Austerlitz were about 10,000 killed, 30,000 prisoners, 46 standards, 186 cannon, 400 artillery caissons, and all their baggage. Their armies prac- tically no longer existed, and only about 25,000 disheartened men could be rallied from the wreck. Generous to the Conquered. In the joy of victory Napoleon showed himself generous to Austria and Russia in the terms which he imposed, and he at once set free Prince Repnin, with all of the Russian Imperial Guard who had fallen into his hands. To his own army he was lavish of rewards and acknowl- edgements of its valor, and in the fam- ous order of the day which he published he first made use of the well-known expression — "Soldiers, I am content with you." Besides a large distribu- tion of prize-money to his troops, he decreed that liberal pensions should be granted to the widows of the fallen, and also that their orphan children should be cared for, brought up, and settled in life at the expense of the State. The campaign of Austerlitz is prob- ably the most striking and dramatic of all those undertaken by Napoleon, and its concluding struggle was the most complete triumph of his whole career. It was the first in which he engaged 342 BATTLES OF AUSTERLITZ AND JENA. after assuming the title of Emperor and becoming the sole and irresponsible ruler of France. Unlike the vast masses of men which he directed in subsequent wais, his army was then almost entirely composed of Frenchmen, and its glories belonged to France alone. Though for several years to come the great Emper- or's fame was to remain undimmed by the clouds of reverse, it never shone with a brighter lustre than at the close of 1805. Fierce Battle of Jena. As the bloody battle of Austerlitz was one of those great pivotal strug- gles that decide the fate of empires, so was the equally sanguinary and de- cisive battle of Jena. Never was the superb courage of the far-famed Murat and other great leaders more gallantly displayed than on that historic field. To the Prussian people 1806 was a terrible year, and their subsequent re- prisals of 1 8 14, 1 81 5, and even of 1870, did not efface the memory of Jena, as the French elect to call the little Saxon town. Whatever difference of opinion may exist as to the good faith of Napo- leon and the Prussian Government re- spectively iu their diplomatic relations, all are agreed that the military spirit of Prussia hastened on the war ; and never did nation undertake hostilities at a more unfortunate moment or in clum- sier fashion. The French army, returning slowly from its glorious campaign of Auster- litz, was close at hand, and flushed with victory ; and although in rags, with its pay held advisedly in arrears, it was in high moral feather, and look- ing forward to the fetes that were pro- mised it when it should arrive in France. The Prussian army, on the othei hand, while full of undoubted courage, was precisely in that condition one would expect as the result of its ruling system. Its regiments were farmed out by their colonels ; class distinction was rife among the officers, and the men were ruled by " Corporal Schlague " — in other words, flogged unmercifully into shape. Their drill and traditions went back to days of Frederick the Great, and the only pension granted to the discharged veteran was a license to beg publicly! Wretched was the condition of the soldier, even when serving, yet it was this army, with little or no sympathy between its officers and mer», strapped up in tight uniforms, hampered with absurd regulations, and in every re- spect half a century behind J.he times, that sharpened its sabres on the door- steps of the French ambassador at Ber- lin, and clamored wildly to engage the invincible legions of the Emperor. Disastrous Defeat. It had its wish, against the better judgment of its sovereign, and met with perhaps the most crushing defeat recorded in history, being sacrificed to the gross stupidity of its leaders, of whom a word must be said here in jus- tice to the army itself. The Duke of Brunswick, its actual commander-in-chief, the father of the unfortunate English Queen Caroline, was seventy years old, and credited witl a great military reputation, though au- thentic proofs of it may be searched for in vain. He had fought under the cele- brated Frederick, who disliked him, and had been beaten by the riff-raff in the wars o f the Revolution. One re- BATTLES OF AUSTERUTZ AND JENA. 34S view day at Magdeburg, when a field- marshal, he sprang from the saddle, al- lowed his charger to run loose, and caned a non-com missioned officer for some mistake in a manoeuvre ; but nevertheless it was into the hands of this egregious old dolt that the Prussian fortunes were entrusted. Held a Long Pow-wow. Associated with Brunswick — and in truth they seem to have been unable to do anything without previously holding a long pow-wow when they ought to have been inarching — were Marshal Mol- lendorf, a worn-out old man of eighty- two ; Prince Frederick Louis of Hohen- lohe-Ingelfingen, an infantry general, whose sixty years had afforded him lit- tle opportunity of distinction in the field ; Colonel Massenbach, Hohenlohe's quartermaster-general, whose practical advice was not listened to, probably because it was practical ; and several other officers, some of whom distin- guished themselves later on in the War of Liberty, but the majority men of no account, who squabbled at the councils, disobeyed orders, and had nothing but personal bravery to commend them. At the head of the younger branch of officers was Prince Louis Ferdinand, a dashing, hare-brained young fellow, whose passion was pretty equally divi- ded between the worship of Venus and Mars, and whose early death was much deplored. Between the two factions, ancient and modern, there was per- petual strife, and between these two stools, which the energetic French kicked over in an incredibly short time, the Prussian army came heavily to the ground. "The insolent braggarts shall soon learn that our weapons need no sharp- ening!" said Napoleon, when Marbot told him of the affront to his ambassa- dor ; and again, when he read the fool- ish demand that his troops should cross the Rhine and abandon German terri- tory by a given date, he exclaimed to Bertheir, " Prince, we will be punctu- ally at the rendezvous ; but instead of being in France on the 8th, Ave will be in Saxony." The October of 1806 was a splendid month — a slight frost during the nights, but the days magnificent, with white camuli rolling across the blue, when the blue was not entirely unclouded ; and on the 8th day of that eventful month the French advanced in three great columns into the rocky valleys that led from Franconia to Saxony; an army — when the cavalry and artillery of the Guard joined it — of 186,000 men, led by masters in the art of war. Napoleon in the Ranks. The Emperor accompanied the centre column, composed of the infantry of the Guard, under Lefebvre, husband of the well-known "Madame Sans-Gene," Bernadotte's 1st corps, Davout's 3d Corps, and Murat's Cavalry Reserve; the whole marching by Kronach on the road to Schleitz and Jena. The right column consisting of Soult's 4th and Ney's 6th Corps with a Bavarian divis- ion, set out for Hoff by forced inarches, and the left, made up of Lannes with the 5th Corps and Augereau with the 7th, turned its face towards Coburg, Grafenthal, and Saalfeld. The Prussians, to the number of 125,- 000, which did not include garrisons and sundry detached forces, were also divided into three bodies ; General 344 BATTLES OF AUSTERUTZ AND JENA. Rucliel with the right, 30,000, being on the Hessian frontier about Eisenach ; the main army of 55,000, under Bruns- wick and the King in person, around Magdeburg ; and the left wing, under Hohenlohe, 40,000 strong, being ad- vanced towards the enemy round and about the fortified places of Schleitz, Saalfeld, Saalburg, and Hoff, in defi- ance of Brunswick's orders, which de- sired Hohenlohe to recross the Saale and take post behind the mountains that rise above that river. Dense Ignorance. Their motive was to cut off Napoleon from his base in the Maine valley ; but directly they heard that his march was directed towards their left and centre, they changed their plans and attempted a concentration about Weimar, which exposed their magazines, threw their flank invitingly open to the enemy, and necessitated marches by cross roads and byways in a country of which extraor- dinary fact, their staff possessed no re- liable map ! While this movement was in progress the French came upon them, and struck the first blow at the little town of Saal- burg, where a portion of Hohenlohe's men under General Tauenzien were en- trenched behind the river. It was the first day of the advance, and Murat, with some light cavalry and the famous 27th Light Infantry, lost no time in falling to. Some cannon-shots, an advance of the 27th Iyeger, and Tauenzien melted away in the direction of Schleitz, where on the 9th, about noon, the centre found him drawn up beyond the Wisenthal in order of battle with his back against a height. While Bernadotte, who com- manded, was reconnoitring, Napoleon arrived, and ordered the attack. Ber- nadotte sent the 27th Leger forward under General Maisons, and the regi- ment quickly debouched from the town upon the enemy; but finding himself in the presence of a superior force, Tauenzien again ordered a retreat. Terrific Combat. The 94th and 95th of the Line under Drouet followed close on their heels, mounted the height, and hastened down the other slope; while Murat, riding at the head of the 4th Hussars — the regi- ment in which Marshal Ney had made his debut as a private — charged the cavalry that turned upon him. At the first shock the 4th overthrew the Prus- sians; but they were reinforced by sev- eral fresh squadrons, and Murat sent for the 5th Chasseurs post haste, who com- ing up at the gallop flung their green and yellow ranks into the melee. Tauenzien hurled his hussars and the red Saxon dragoons against the two regiments, and matters looked serious for Murat, although Captain Razout of the 94th opened from an ambuscade and killed fifty of them ; but Maisons arriv- ing with five companies of the 27th Leger poured in such a terrible fire that 200 red troopers went down in a mass and the rest bolted. These dragoons were antiquated-looking fellows, with cocked hats and pigtails, their officers riding with huge canes significantly dangling from wrist or saddle ; and as they went about to the rear of the 4th Hussars and the 5th Chasseurs re-formed and spurred in pursuit, driving them into the woods among their disorgan- ized infantry. It was short and sharp, but the effect upon the Prussians — who left 2,000 BATTLES OF AUSTERLITZ AND JENA. 345 muskets behind them in their flight, nearly 500 prisoners, and 300 killed and wounded — was serious. Murat still pushed on, and next day, the 10th, Lasalle captured the enemy's baggage, and a pontoon train, Napoleon writing that the cavalry "was saddled in gold ;" but on the same day a much more important engagement took place at Saalfeld between the French left, under Marshal Lannes, and Prince Louis, who commanded Hohenlohe's rear-guard. Saalfeld was a little walled town of about 5,000 inhabitants, and partly to allow time for the evacuation of the magazines in its rear, partly from a burning desire to fight, Prince Louis obtained Hohenlohe's permission to re- main there. A Strong Character. He was then thirty-four, brave as a lion, but insubordinate, and of very loose morals. In Prussia he is regarded as a hero, and there is something in his oval face as it hangs in the Hohenzoll- ern Museum with the hair tied with a ribbon, that reminds one of the English "Prince Charlie." He had eighteen guns, eighteen squadrons of hussars, and eleven battalions of infantry ; and with that force he rashly engaged the experienced Lannes, who was advanc- ing with 25,000 troops, although in effect only the artillery, two regiments of cavalry, and the division of Suchet came into action. The division of Suchet found itself before the enemy at 7 o'clock in the morning. Instantly ranging his guns on the heights that commanded the Prussians, Lannes opened fire, and sent part of Suchet' s skirmishers through the woods to gall Prince Louis' right. Until nearly 1 o'clock the Prussians stood their ground, but Suchet working round in their rear and Lannes pouring down upon them in front, they broke and fled, leaving fifteen guns behind them. Two Gallant Charges. Louis charged gallantly with two cavalry regiments flanked by the white- uniformed Saxon Hussars, but Clapa- rede's and Vedel's brigades routed them, and they also retreated. Rallying them with difficulty, he charged again at the head of the Saxon Hussars, whose tall flowerpot shakoes and bright blue pelisses were soon jumbled together in a confused mass among the willow- fringed marshes by the river bank, where the scarlet and blue 9th, and the light blue 10th Hussars made short work of them. So far the French advance had been a succession of triumphs, destined to continue without rebuff for the rest of the war ; and as the Prussian spirit sank at the news of each defeat, that of the invaders rose. Reviewing the 2d Chas- seurs-a-Cheval at Lobensteinonthe 12th of October, Napoleon asked Colonel Bousson how many men he had pre- sent. " Five hundred, sire," said the colonel; " but there are many raw troops among them." " What does that signify? Are they not all Frenchmen?" was the angry reply ; and turning to the regiment, he cried, ' ' My lads, you must not feat death : when soldiers defy death they drive him into the enemy's ranks," with a motion of his arm which called forth a sudden convulsive movement among the squadrons and a wild shout of enthusiasm. r>46 BATTLES OF AUSTERLITZ AND JENA. The losses of the Prussians at Saal- feld, which are variously stated seemed to have been about thirty guns, a thou- sand prisoners, and a similar number of killed and wounded, together with a quantity of baggage ; but these were only the shadows of coming events, and the French columns moved on swiftly, learning by the capture of the post-bag that the enemy were moving on Weimar from Erfurt. Fled in Disorder. Hohenlohe's troops were ordered to place the hills and forests of Thuringia between them and the victorious foe, and, worn out by inarching, were struggling on in the midst of wagon- trains, and bad roads, when fugitives from Saalfeld spread terror among them, and they fled in disorder across the Saale into Jena. Napoleon likewise concentrated his troops, and a map must be studied to understand their movements in and among towns and villages unknown outside the history of this campaign. A strong barrier now intervened be- tween the two armies, French and Prus- sian, the river Saale flowing, roughly, northward to the Elbe through hilly country, and only passable to an army at five points where there were bridges — viz., at Jena, Lobstadt, Dornburg, Camburg, and Koser, the latter place opposite Naumburg. The Prussians having gone helter- skelter across that river at Jena, they were virtually hemmed in an angle, formed by the Thuringian Mountains to the south and the Saale to the west, so that as their fortresses, their remain- ing magazines, and their very capital lay open to the enemy, they had but two alternatives — either to make anothei long flank march to the line of the Elbe or to stay where they were and defend the Saale and its fringe of hills. The Duke of Brunswick, however, seems to have had a genius for keeping himself out of harm's way ; and leaving Hohenlohe to defend the heights of Jena, though with strict orders not to attack, and Ruchel to collect the out- lying forces at Weimar, he set off with his five divisions, bag and baggage, to pass the Saale at Naumburg and reach the line of the Elbe, hastened in this fatal decision by the news of Davout's advance on Naumburg — in other words, he ran away with 65,000 men and left others to do the fighting. Grim Surprises. On the 13th of October the army started — ominous date for the supersti- tiously inclined ; and on the same day Napoleon, expecting to find the entire enemy before him, set out from Gera for Jena, having despatched Montes- quieu, one of his officers of ordinance, to the King of Prussia with proposals of peace — in reality to gain time for his troops to come up. It was, to a great extent, a game of cross-purposes ; for Brunswick, anticipating a free passage at Naumburg, found Davout and death ; Napoleon, expecting the whole Prus- sian army beyond Jena, found only its rear-guard; and Hohenlohe, looking for Lannes and Augereau, received the full weight of the Emperor himself with the bulk of his forces. Lannes preceded the Emperor, ana had a sharp skirmish with Tauenzien beyond the little university town of Jena, and when Napoleon arrived some of the quaint gabled houses were burn- BATTLES OF AUSTERUTZ AND JENA, 347 ing — ignited, it is said, by the Prussian batteries. Jena nestles under the lea of a range of hills, the most important being the Landgrafenberg ; and the high road to Weimar runs through a difficult valley named the Muhlthal from the paper-mill which stood there. A Saxon Parson. Having no mind to force that defile, which determined men might have rendered a veritable Thermopylae, the Emperor made a reconnaissance with Lannes under fire to find some means of carrying the army over the hills on to the plateau beyond, where he should find the Prussians and a natural battle- ground. Lannes's tirailleurs had cap- tured a pass, but it was useless for ar. tillery ; and it was a Saxon parson, exasperated at the sight of the burning town, who pointed out a path on the Landgrafenberg itself, by which, with the help of the sappers, the French could get up their guns. For this ac- tion the worthy man endured such after persecution that he was obliged to leave the country and reside in Paris. How they cut away the rock and hauled each cannon to the summit with teams of twelve horses apiece, how the battery that was to open fire next morn- ing stuck fast in the dark and was as- sisted by Napoleon with a lantern in his hand, is well known. During the long, cold night the Prussian bivouac fires lit up the horizon beyond the hill- tops, but those of the French army made only a faint gleam high up on the crest of the mountain, and the enemy saw nothing to warn them that 40.000 men were tightly packed there, the crossbelts of one almost touching the cowskin pack of his front rank. Suchet's division lay waiting for dawn with its right on the Rauhthal ravine ; Gazan lurked on the left before the village of Cospoda, 4,000 of the Guard formed a huge square, in the centre of which the Emperor snatched a short repose, and the engineers were busy widening the Steiger path for the passage of the guns. The Capitaine Cogniet, then a private in the Grenadiers of the Guard, has told us how twenty men per company were allowed to descend into the nar- row streets of the deserted town below them to search for food ; how they found it in plenty, together with good wine in the cellars of the hotels, each grenadier bringing back three bottles, two in his fur cap, and one in his pocket, with which they drank to the health of the King of Prussia ; how they imbibed hot wine all night, carrying it to the artillery, who were half-dead with fa- tigue; and — ingenuous Cogniet! — con- fessing that the Guard up on the moun- tain side were all more or less elevated in a double sense. Shrouded in Fog. At last the morning came, but with it a fog so thick that the enemy were invisible. Napoleon had been astir at four o'clock, and having sent his final orders to his marshals, issued from the curtai*ns of his blue and white striped tent, and passed before Lannes's corps by torchlight. "Soldiers," said he, (( the Prussian army is turned as the Austrian was a year ago at Ulm. Fear not its renowned cavalry; oppose to their charges firm squares and the bayonet." The cheers of the soldiers still carried no warning to the Prussian lines. Then 848 BATTLES 01- AUSTERUTZ AND JENA, hussars had intercepted Montesquieu during the night, and arguing from his message of peace that there would be no fighting on the 14th, the army had made no provision even tor the day's rations, and lay in the fog in fancied security. Then, about six, when the mist light- ened, came a rude awakening. The 17th l.eger, and a chosen battalion, under Claparede, crept forward in sin- gle line, flanked by the 34th and 40th in close column, commanded by Reille, with the 04th and 88th, under Vedel, in their rear — in short, Suchet's division making silently tor Closwitz, while Gazan felt his way towards Cospoda on Suchet's left. Fire from Ambush. With Gazan were the 2 1st Leger, and the 28th, 100th, and 103d oi the Line, and the two divisions enveloped in the fog drew nearer and nearer to the un- suspecting foe until, after they had groped their way for nearly an hour, Claparede suddenly received the fire oi Zweifel's Prussian battalion and the Saxon ones of Frederick Augustus and Rechten, seeing only the flash of mus- ketry from the wood that surrounded Closwitz. The 17th returned the fire warmly, tiring into the vapor before them, but when they saw the trees looming up in front, Claparede charged and bayoneted them out of the wood and village. Gazan was also successful in his attack on Cospoda, and, advancing farther, took the hamlet of Lutzenrode from the enemv's fnsileiers ; but a withering- fire was soon opened on both divisions by CerrinPs Saxons, which they sustained for some time until the 34th, which had relieved the 17th, went at them with the bayonet and put them to flight, a disorder which carried the rest oi Tau- enzieu's corps away, leaving twenty cannon and a host oi fugitives in the hands of L,annes, who followed at a swinging- pace down hill after the cowards. In less than two hours they had cleared their front for the army on the heights to deploy. A lull came about nine o'clock, ami before the action was resumed Ney had arrived at speed ; Soult with one division took post behind Closwitz ; and Augereau, who was then lamenting the loss oi his amiable wife, after pushing Heudelet, his guns, and cavalry along the Muhlthal towards Weimar, left the Gibbet Hill with Des- jardin and placed himself on Gazan's left among the fine fir woods that clothed the plateau. Preparing for Action. The mist was rising and promised to break, but it was yet some time before the sun shone brightly. Prince Hohen- lohe, whom disaster seemed to pursue, galloped to his troops, who were en- camped on the Weimar road awaiting the French left wing as they thought, where Tauenzien's fugitives soon alarmed him, and called forth his better qualities to prepare for a general action. Hurrying- the Prussian infantry under G-rawert to occupy Tauenzien's lost posi- tions, he posted two Saxon brigades under Burgsdorf ami NehrofF, Pogus- lauski's Prussian battalion, and a strong- force of artillery to hold the Weimar road to the death, with Cerrini, who had rallied and been reinforced by four Saxon battalions, in support. Dyherrn, with five battalions, acted BATTLES OF AUSTERLITZ AND JENA. 349 as reserve to Grawert. Tauenzien was rallied a long way to the rear, and Hol- zendorf, who formed Hohenlohe's left, was ordered to attack the French right, while he himself should fall on their centre with cavalry and guns, pending the arrival of Ruchel from Weimar. Ready for Onslaught. The heights above Jena, the ravines, and the dense woods were capable of the most stubborn defence, and the French would have had to fight climb- ing ; but the passage of the Landgrafen- berg had altered everything, and as the sun shone out about ten o'clock Hohen- lohe saw an astonishing spectacle. The enemy stretched in dark masses along the high ground on his own side of the mountain, outnumbering him in the proportion of two to one, outflanking him to left and right, and prepared to foam down the slope and sweep him off the face of the earth. Nor did the foe allow him much time to digest the surprise ; for the impetu- ous Ney, who had hurried forward with 3,000 men and deployed in the mist between Lannes and Augereau, flung himself upon the village of Vierzehn- Heiligen in the very centre of the bat- tlefield, and anticipated the Emperor's orders for a renewal of the fight. Soult with vSt. Hilaire's division ad- vanced from Lobstadt and constituted the French right ; Lannes, with Suchet and Gazan, formed the centre, and Au- gereau having scrambled out of the Muhlthal, menaced Iserstadt on the left ; the Guard and the artillery being in rear, and Murat's cavalry marching to join the army. Indignant at the firing in his front, Napoleon sent to learn from which corps it proceeded, and was greatly astonished to find that Ney, whom he supposed to be still in the rear, was engaging on his own ac- count. Ney's troops wett the 25th Leger under Colonel Morel, two battalions formed of the picked men of several regiments, and Colbert's light cavalry brigade, formed of the 3d Hussars and 10th Chasseurs-a-Cheval ; and with these the marshal attacked Hohenlohe with his usual bravery, leading them, as his aide-de-camp tells us, "like a coporal of the line." Hohenlohe's horse-artil- lery was in position, and the 10th Chas- seurs, forming under cover of a little wood, darted out upon it, and took seven guns in one swoop under a fear- ful fire; but while they were sabring away, the Prussian cuirassiers of Hol- zendorf and Prittzwitz's dragoons came down with a thunderous rush, and the 10th went about. A Hard Struggle. The 3d Hussars, forming behind the same trees, spurred on the Prussian flank and checked the cuirassiers for a moment, but had to retreat in their turn; and Ney, throwing his infantry into two squares, found himself in a bad case at the moment when Napo- leon reached a height overlooking the conflict. Sending Bertrand to Ney's assistance with two light cavalry regi- ments, he ordered up Lannes; and the gallant Ney made a heroic struggle to hold his own, pushing his grenadiers to the clump of trees that had sheltered his horsemen, and flinging his riflemen at Vierzehn-Heiligen itself. Up came Lannes at the head of the 21st Leger, and as Grawert deployed before the village in magnificent order, 850 BATTLES OF A.USTERUTZ anp JENA opening a terrible fire, L*annes led five of Claparede's and Gazan's regiments to outflank him. [n every par! of the field the crash of musketry and the boom of heavy cannon resounded. Xa- poleon still believed he had the entire Prussian army before him, and the stub- born resistance justified that opinion. Scene of Carnage. The Prussian regiments of Zathow and l.anit.- coveted themselves with glory before Vierzehn-Heiligen. The cuirassiers were true to their traditions of Seidlitz and the Seven Years > War; but inch by inch the French gained ground, although it was an hour after midday before they obtained a perma- nent advantage. Bares fled terrified about the stubble fields, the soldieis cheering them as they fought The October woods were strewn with dc.\d men among the fallen leaves, and the hollow ways were full oi smoke. Thanks to the Prussian hoisc, Ho henlohe took some guns, and his hopes were so far raised that he wrote to Ru- chel, "At this moment we beat the enemy at all points." lie soon learned, however, that Soult had almost anni- hilated his left wing, and Augereau and Lannes under his own eyes drove back his right more than half a mile. The brave man appeared everywhere at once; now heading his cuirassiers, now encouraging the infantry, again peering through the clouds that hung before the batteries ; but it was all to no purpose. Grawert was badly wounded, Pyherrn's five battalions tied before Augereau, and with a tremendous roll- ing of drums the whole French army advanced down the slope, the Guard included, about two in the afternoon. llohenlohe's next letter to Knehcl Was significant " l,ose not a moment in advancing with your as Net unbroken troops. Arrange youi columns so that through your openings there may pass the broken bauds oi the battle." In vain Ruchel arrived at last with 30,000 men ; Soult fell upon him and they made poor stand, the growing unit al- ready communicating itself to the new- comers. The French musicians played under the heavy fire ; Ruchel was seriously hurt; llohenlohe's own regiment and the grenadiers of Hahn gave way; and, most terrible oi all. Murat ami his cavalry came on the scene and over- whelmed everything in a whirlwind oi slaughter. Thousands of Bloody Swords. No battle can show a carnage moie merciless and horrible than that surge of heavy horsemen among the flying Prussians after Jena. They spared noth- ing in their path, and every one oi those fifteen thousand long swords was red with blood from point to hilt. Ruehel's men had the double mis- fortune to meet both the victorious French and their flying countrymen in a disorganized mass rolling down hill, and though here and there individual battalions fought bravely to the last, panic seized the whole army ami it tore madly to the rear. Brown and-gold hussars oi Anhalt Pless ; Light infantry in green jackets piped with red; white Saxon hussars ami grim dragoons with the bristle taken out oi their moustaches, all mingled in a shocking, terror-stricken mob, covering the roads and fields for miles ; Murat's cuirassiers and dragoons BATTLES OF AUSTERLITZ AND JENA. 151 hing and slaying until compelled to halt from very wreai in< Many color, were taken in that pur- suit, and two curious incidents are worthy of record: Quartermaster Hum- bert of the 2d Dragoons captured a standard, but was killed by three m ket-balls, seeing which the dragoon Fauveau leaped to the ground, rescued the prize, and carrying it to his colonel under a hail of shot, said modestly, "It was the Quartermaster Humbert who took this fla^," for which he received the Cross the same day. The Other instance was that of Colo- nel Doullembourg of the ist Dra- goons, who was unhorsed and momen tarily captured, in the confusion his name appearing in the bulletin as killed. " It is not worth the trouble of altera- tion," said Berthier when he protested; and, oddly enough, the mistake still further perpetuated after the Po- lish campaign; for certain squares and streets of Pan's being named after the officer, who fell at Jen* Dottl- lembourg came into - again the < olonel protest st dashing man- ner, and continued to near the enemy, until he was closer to his line, perhaps, than the commanding vessel; keeping lip as warm a fire as his small aima nient would allow. The Niagara now became the vessel next astern oi the Lawrence. The cannonade had the usual effect oi deadening the wind, ami foi two bonis there was very little air. During all this time, the weight oi the enemy's fire was directed against the Lawrence ; the Queen Charlotte having tilled, passed the Hunter and closed with the Detroit, where she kept up a destruc- tive cannonading on this devoted ves- sel. These united attacks dismantled the American brig, besides producing great slaughter on hoard her. Movements of Battleships. At the end oi two hours and a half, agreeable to the report of Captain Perry, the enemy having tilled, and the wind increasing, the two squadrons drew slowly ahead, the Lawrence necessarily falling astern and partially out of the combat. At this moment the Niagara passed to the southward and westward, a short distance to windward of the Lawrence, steering for the head of the enemy's line, and the Caledonia fol- lowed to leeward. The vessels astern had not been idle, but, by dint of sweeping and sailing, they had all got within reach oi their guns, and had been gradually closing, VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON. 855 though not in the prescribed order. The rear of the line would seem to have inclined down towards the enemy, bringing the Trippe, Lieutenant Hold- up, so near the Caledonia, that the lat- ter sent a boat to her for a supply of cartridges. Captain Perry, finding himself in a vessel that had been rendered nearly useless by the injuries she had received, and which was dropping out of the combat, got into his boat, and pulled after the Niagara, on board of which vessel he arrived at about half-past two. Soon after the colors of the Lawrence were hauled down, that vessel being literally a wreck. Getting into Closer Action. After a short consultation between Captains Perry and Elliott, the latter volunteered to take the boat of the for- mer, and to proceed and bring the small vessels astern, which were already briskly engaged, into still closer action. This proposal being accepted, Captain Elliott pulled down the line, passing within hail of all the small vessels astern, directing them to close within half-pistol shot of the enemy, and to throw in grape and canister, as soon as they could get the desired positions. He then repaired on board the Somers and took charge of that schooner in person. When the enemy saw the colors of the Lawrence come down, he confi- dently believed that he had gained the day. His men appeared over the bul- warks of the different vessels and gave three cheers. For a few minutes, in- deed, there appears to have been, as if by common consent, nearly a general cessation in the firing, during which both parties were preparing for a des- perate and final effort. The wind had freshened and the position of the Niag- ara, which brig was now abeam of the leading English vessel, was command- ing; while the gun-vessels astern, in consequence of the increasing breeze, were enabled to close very fast. Rousing Cheers. At forty-five minutes past two, or when time had been given to the gun- vessels to receive the order mentioned, Captain Perry showed the signal from the Niagara, for close action, and im- mediately bore up, under his foresail, topsails, and topgallantsail . As the American vessels hoisted their answer- ing flags, this order was received with three cheers, and it was obeyed with alacrity and spirit. The enemy had attempted to ware round, to get fresh broadsides to bear, in doing which his line got into confu- sion, and the two ships for a short time were foul of each other, while the Lady Prevost had so far shifted her berth, as to be both to the westward and to the leeward of the Detroit. At this critical moment, the Niagara came steadily down, within half pistol-shot of the enemy, standing between the Chippe- way and Lady Prevost, on one side, and the Detroit, Queen Charlotte and Hun- ter on the other. In passing she poured in her broadsides, starboard and lar- board, ranging ahead of the ships, luffed athwart their bows, and continued delivering a close and deadly fire. The shrieks from the Detroit, pro- claimed that the tide of battle had turned. At the same moment, the gun- vessels and Caledonia were throwing in close discharges of grape and canister "1 PERKY PASSING IN AN OPEN BOAT THROUGH THE THICK OF THE FIGHT. 356 VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON. 357 astern. A conflict so fearfully close, and so deadly, was necessarily short. In fifteen or twenty minutes after the Niagara bore up, a hail was passed among the small vessels, to say that the enemy had struck, and an officer of the Queen Charlotte appeared on the taff- rail of that ship, waving a white hand- kerchief, tied to a boarding-pike. Trying to Escape. As soon as the smoke cleared away the two squadrons were found partly intermingled. The Niagara lay w leeward of the Detroit, Queen Charlotte and Hunter ; and the Caledonia, with one or two of the gun-vessels, was between the latter and the Lady Pre- vost. On board the Niagara the signal for close action was still abroad, while the small vessels were sternly wearing their answering flags. The Little Belt and Chippeway were endeavoring to es- cape to leeward, but they were shortly after brought-to by the Scorpion and Trippe ; while the Lawrence was lying astern and to windward, with the Ameri- can colors again flying. The battle had commenced about noon, and it termin- ated at three, with the exception of a few shots fired at the two vessels that attempted to escape, which were not overtaken until an hour late/. In this decisive action, so far as their people were concerned, the two squad- rons suffered in nearly an equal degree, the manner in which the Lawrence was cut up being almost without an example in naval warfare. It is understood that when Captain Perry left her she had but one gun on her starboard side, or that on which she was engaged, which could be used ; and that gallant officer is said to have aided in firing it in person the last time it was dis- charged. Of her crew, 22 were killed and 61 were wounded, most of the latter se- verely. When Captain Perry left her, taking with him his own brother and six of his people, there remained on board but 14 sound men. The Niagara had 2 killed and 25 wounded ; or about one-fourth of all at quarters. This was the official report ; but, according to the statement of the surgeon, her loss vas 5 killed and 27 wounded. Total Loss. The other vessels suffered relatively less. The total loss of the squadron was 27 killed and 96 wounded, or alto- gether, 123 men; of whom 12 were quarter-deck officers. More than a hundred men were unfit for duty, among the different vessels, previous to the action, cholera morbus and dysen- tery prevailing in the squadron. Cap- tain Perry himself was laboring under debility, from a recent attack of the lake fever, and could hardly be said to be in proper condition for service when he met the enemy ; a circumstance that greatly enhances the estimate of his personal exertions on this memorable occasion. For two hours the weight of the enemy's fire had been thrown into the Lawrence, and the water being per' fectly smooth his long guns had com- mitted great havoc, before the carron- ades of the American vessels could be made available. For much of this period it is believed that the efforts of the enemy were little diverted, except by the fire of the two leading schooners, a gun of one of which (the Ariel) had early bursted, the two long guns of the 358 VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON. large brigs, and the two long guns of the Caledonia. Although the enemy undoubtedly suffered by this fire, it was not directed at a single object, as was the case with that of the English, who appeared to think that by destroying the American commanding vessel they wo aid con- quer. It is true that carronades were used on both sides, at an earlier stage of the action than that mentioned, but there is good reason for thinking that they did but little execution for the first hour. When they did tell, the Lawrence — the vessel nearest to the enemy, if the Caledonia be excepted — necessarily became their object, and, by this time, the efficiency of her own bat- tery was much lessened. Shot Passed Through. As a consequence of these peculiar circumstances, her starboard bulwarks were nearly beaten in, and even her larboard were greatly injured, many of the enemy's heavy shot passing through both sides, while every gun was finally disabled in the batteries fought. Al- though much had been justly said of the manner in which the Bon Homme Richard and the Essex were injured, neither of those suffered, relatively, in a degree proportioned to the Lawrence. Distinguished as were the two former vessels for the indomitable resolution with which they withstood the destruc- tive fire directed against them, it did not surpass that manifested on board the latter ; and it ought to be mentioned that throughout the whole of this try- ing day her people, who had been so short a time acting together, manifested a steadiness and a discipline worthy of veterans. Although the Niagara suffered in a much less degrees, 27 men killed and wounded, in a ship's company that mustered little more than 100 souls at quarters, under ordinary circumstances would be thought a large proportior. Neither the Niagara nor any of the smaller vessels were injured in an un- usual manner in their hulls, spars and sails, the enemy having expended so much of his efforts against the Law- rence, and being so soon silenced when that brig and the gnn-vessels got their ranking positions at the close of the conflict. Heavy Casualties. The injuries sustained by the English were more divided, but were necessarily great. According to the official report of Captain Barclay, his vessels lost 41 killed and 94 wounded, making a total of 135, including twelve officers, the precise number lost by the Americans. No report has been published in which the loss of the respective vessels was given ; but the Detroit had her first lieutenant killed, and her commander, Captain Barclay, with her purser, wounded. Captain Finnis, of the Queen Charlotte, was also slain, and her first lieutenant was wounded. The commanding officer and first lieutenant of the Lady Prevost were among the wounded, as were the com- manding officers of the Hunter and Chippeway. All the vessels were a good deal injured in their sails and hulls; the Queen Charlotte suffering most in proportion. Both the Detroit and Queen Charlotte rolled the masts out of them, at anchor at Put-in-Bay, in a gale of wind, two days after the action. VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON. 359 It is not easy to make a just compari- son between the forces of the hostile squadrons on this occasion. In certain situations the Americans would have been materially superior, while in others the enemy might possess the advantage in perhaps an equal degree. In the cir- cumstances under which the action was actually fought, the peculiar advant- ages and disadvantages were nearly equalized, the lightness of the wind preventing either of the two largest of the American vessels from profiting by its peculiar mode of efficiency, until quite near the close of the engagement, and particularly favoring the armament of the Detroit ; while the smoothness of the water rendered the light vessels of the Americans very destructive as soon as they could be got within a proper range. Long Guns in Action. The Detroit has been represented on good authority, to have been both a heavier and stronger ship than either of the American brigs, and the Queen Charlotte proved to be a much finer vessel than had been expected; while the Lady Prevost was found to be a large, warlike schooner. It was, per- haps, unfortunate for the enemy, that the armaments of the two last were not available under the circumstances which rendered the Detroit so efficient, as it destroyed the unity of his efforts. In short, the battle for near half of its duration appears to have been fought, so far as efficiency was concerned, by the long guns of the two squadrons. This was particularly favorable to the Detroit and to the American gun-ves- sels ; while the Matter fought under the advantages of smooth water and the disadvantages of having uo quarters. The sides of the Detroit, which were unusually stout, were filled with shot that did not penetrate. Brave Officers. Captain Perry, in his report of the action, eulogized the conduct of his; second in command, Captain Elliott ; that of Mr. Turner, who commanded the Caledonia ; and that of the officers of his own vessel. He also commended the officers of the Niagara, Mr. Packett of the Ariel, and Mr. Champlin of the Scorpion. It is now believed that the omission of the names of the com- manders of the gun-vessels astern, was accidental. It would seem that these vessels, in general, were conducted with great gallantry. Towards the close of the action, indeed, the Caledonia, and some of the gun-vessels, would appear to have been handled with a boldness, considering their total want of quarters, bordering on temerity. They are known to have been within hail of the enemy, at the moment he struck, and to have been hailed by him. The grape and canister thrown by the Niagara and the schoon- ers, during the last ten minutes of the battle, and which missed the enemy, rattled through the spars of the friendly vessels, as they lay opposite to each other, raking the English ahead and astern. Captain Perry was criticised at the time for the manner in which he had brought his squadron into action, it being thought he should have waited until his line was more compactly formed, and his small vessels could have closed. It has been said that "an officer seldom went into action worse, 360 VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON. or got out of it better." Truth is too often made the sacrifice of antithesis. The mode of attack appears to have been deemed by the enemy judicious, an opinion that speaks in its favor. The lightness of the wind, in edging down, was the only circumstance that was particularly adverse to the Ameri- can vessels, but its total failure could not have been readily foreseen. Clever Tactics. The shortness of the distances on the lake rendered escape so easy, when an officer was disposed to avoid a battle, that no commander, who desired an action, would have been pardonable for permitting a delay on such a plea. The line of battle was highly judicious, the manner in which the Lawrence was supported by the Ariel and Scorpion being simple and ingenious. By steering for the head of the ene- my's line the latter was prevented from gaining the wind by tacking, and when Captain Elliott imitated this manoeuvre in the Niagara, the American squadron had a very commanding position, of which Captain Perry promptly availed himself. In a word, the American commander appears to have laid his plan with skill and judgment, and in all in which it was frustrated it would seem to have been the effect of accident. His end was fully obtained and resulted in a triumph. The British vessels appear to have been gallantly fought, and were sur- rendered only when the battle was hopelessly lost. The fall of their differ- ent commanders was materially against them, though it is not probable the day could have been recovered after the Niagara gained the head of their line and the gun vessels had closed. If the enemy made an error it was in not tacking when he attempted to ware, but it is quite probable that the condi- tion of his vessels did not admit of the former manoeuvre. There was an instant when the enemy believed himself the conqueror, and a few minutes even, when the Americans doubted ; but the latter never despaired ; a moment sufficed to change their feel- ings, teaching the successful the fickle- ness of fortune, and admonishing the depressed of the virtue of perseverance. For his conduct in this battle, Cap- tain Perry received a gold medal from Congress. Captain Elliott also re- ceived a gold medal. Rewards were bestowed on the officers and men gen- erally, and the nation has long consid- ered thi : action one of its proudest achievements on the water. Glory for Our Navy. It is not too much to say that this renowned victory on Lake Erie has done more than any other one event to give that high prestige to the American Navy which has been accorded to it for so long a time. Every great sea battle must be fought, not merely with guns and powder, but with brains. There must be planning, strategy, manoeu- vring, sometimes swift and complicated, and all th;s is the work of the head. Next comes the bravery, the fiery dash, that turns the onset into victory. It is not a little remarkable that the American nation, which, so far as com- merce is concerned, has never claimed to be mistress of the seas, should have had a navy whose exploits from first to last have been the surprise and winder of the world. VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON. 361 During the year following the great battle of Lake Erie was fought one of the most important land and naval bat- tles of the century. At the western end of Jamaica is Negril Bay, a wide, safe and convenient anchorage. There, on the 24th of No- vember, 1 8 14, was assembled one of the most imposing and efficient com- bined naval and military forces that Great Britain has ever sent across the Atlantic. More than fifty ships were there, most of them men-of-war, and the remainder transports. The men- of-war included many vessels of the largest size, and their commanders numbered amongst them the most re- nowned and trusted English officers. Renowned Commanders. Sir Alexander Cochrane' s flag was Loisted on the 80-gun Tonnant, and he had with him Rear-Admiral Malcolm in the 74, Royal Oak. Sir Thomas Hardy — Nelson's Hardy — was in the Ramilis, and Sir Thomas Trobridge was in the Ar- mide. Many others there were, scarcely less well known to fame and fresh from the great deeds which had given to England the undisputed sovereignty of the seas. The decks of the fleet were crowded with soldiers. The 4th, 44th, 85th, and the 21st Regiments, with a proportion of artillery and sappers, had come from North America, where they had fought the battle of Bladensburg, burned the public buildings of Wash- ington, and lost in action their general — the gallant Ross — during the past summer. These had just been joined by the 93rd Highlanders, six companies of the 95th Rifles, two West India Regi- ments, two squadrons of the 14th Dra- goons (dismounted), with detachments of artillery and engineers, and recruits for the regiments which had been al- ready campaigning in America. The whole probably formed an army of about 6,000 men, though of them j could not be said that above 4,400 were troops on which a general could thor oughly depend, as the two West India Regiments, being composed of negroes, were not completely trustworthy, par- ticularly if they were to be called upon to endure much exposure to cold in coming service. Formidable Fleet. Thiir leader was Major-General Keane, a young and dashing officer, who" had been sent out from England to be second in command to General Ross, and. who did not know till he reached Madeira on his voyage that, by Ross's lamented death, he had no senior. Other forces were also on their way, which would eventually join the great armament now in Negril Bay. A fleet from Bordeaux was still on the ocean, the naval squadron of Captain Percy was to effect a junction from Pen- sacola, and more ships were to come from England conveying a commander- in-chief. The object with which so much war- like power had been collected had long been studiously kept secret, but at last it was known that a descent on Louis- iana was intended, and that the first operation would be the capture of New Orleans. It was thought that the Gov- ernment of the United States would be taken by surprise, that little or no re- sistance would be met with, and that the charges of the expedition would be more than covered by the large booty 362 VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON. in cotton, sugar and other products which had not been able to leave the country during the course of the war while the seas were watched by English cruisers. There was no longer delay at the place of rendezvous, and the great fleet got under weigh on the 26th November. Confidence was in every heart, and no forebodings of disaster clouded the an- ticipations of success which, as by sec- ond nature, came to soldiers and sailors accustomed to victory. Loyalty was Doubtful. New Orleans is built on the east bank of the Mississippi, the "father of waters," about eighty miles from its mouth. In 18 14 its inhabitants num- bered from 20,000 to 30,000, of whom the majority were French Creoles, while the remainder were Spaniards and Americans, besides a floating multitude of merchants, sailors and others who had been detained in the city and de- barred from their usual avocations by the war. It was doubtful whether this population was loyal to the American Republic, of which it had only for a few years formed a part, and, indeed, if the defense of the town had fallen into less vigorous hands than it did, it is more than likely that serious disaffec- tion might have showed itself. The mighty flood of the Mississippi, bearing down with it a vast accumula- tion, of detritus, had formed a great delta, and the waters themselves found their way to the Gulf of Mexico through many channels. Its main out- let was, however, the only one naviga- ble for ships of any size, and this had at its mouth a constantly shifting bar, which was impassable for any craft drawing over sixteen or seventeen feet of water. Besides the natural difficul- ties of the entrance to the river, it was further defended by a fort, strong in it- self and almost impregnable by its posi- tion in the midst of impervious swamps. Even supposing that an enemy should be able to pass the bar and the first fort, he would find that when he had as- cended the river about sixty miles two other strong forts presented themselves, whose cross fire swept the channel, at a point, too, where the river makes a bend, and the sailing ships of the day had to wait for a change of wind tc ensure their further progress. No Place for Landing, The banks of the river were composed of slimy morasses, rank with semi-tro- pical vegetation and intersected by bayous, or creeks, utterly impracticable for landing or for the march and man- oeuvring of troops. To the east of the swampy delta formed by the great river, a shallow sheet of open water stretched inland from the Gulf of Mexico, and was only divided from the Mississippi at its further extremity by a narrow neck of comparatively firm land, and on this neck was situated the town of New Orleans. The open water near the gulf was known as Lake Borgne, and, where it widened out eastward of the city, as Lake Pontchartrain. The entire width of the neck of land between Lake Pontchartrain and the river might vary from eight to ten miles, but of this about two-thirds was reed-grown morass, while the remainder was occupied by cotton and sugar plan- tations, separated by strong railings and drained by numerous deep ditches or canals. The whole at certain seasons VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON. 363 of the year was below the level of the river, and was protected from inunda- tion by high artificial dykes, or ram- parts, called in Louisiana levees. "Old Hickory," When the designs of the British ar- mament became apparent, Major-Gen- eral Jackson, of the Unite States army, an officer who had greatly distinguished himself in Indian wars, was entrusted with supreme command at the threat- ened point, and arrived at New Orleans on the 2d of December. As a man who made his mark in history, and who served his country well at a great crisis in her fortunes, his personal description is of peculiar interest: — " A tall, gaunt man, of very erect carriage, with a countenance full of stern decision and fearless energy, but furrowed with care and anxiety His complexion was sal- low and unhealthy, his hair was iron grey, and his body thin and emaciatedj like that of one who had just recovered from a lingering and painful illness. But the fierce glare of his bright and hawk-like eye betrayed a soul and spirit which triumphed over all the infirmi- ties of the body. His dress was simple and nearly threadbare. A small leather cap protected his head, and a short Spanish blue cloak his body, whilst his feet and legs were encased in high dra- goon boots, long ignorant of polish or blacking, which reached to the knees. In age he appeared to have passed about forty-five winters." Immediately on his arrival at New Orleans, General Jackson began making every arrangement for the defence of the town, inspecting and improving the river forts, reconnoitring the shores of Lake Borgne and Lake Pontchar- train, fortifying and obstructing the bayous which gave a waterway to the near neighborhood of the town, and stimulating and encouraging the peo- ple. In truth he had apparently no easy task before him. We have seen how mighty was the force arrayed against him, which was even now lying off the coast ready to advance in a wave of invasion. To oppose it he had at his immediate dis- posal only two newly-raised regiments of regular troops, a battalion of uni- formed volunteers, two badly equipped and imperfectly-disciplined regiments of State militia — some of whose pri- vates were armed with rifles, some with muskets, some with flowling-pieces, some not armed at all — and a battalion of free men of color, the whole amount- ing to between 2,000 and 3,000 fighting- men. Two small vessels of war lay in the river, but these were, so far, un- manned. There were also six gun- boats on Lake Pontchartrain. Commo- dore Patterson was the senior naval officer, and he had few subordinates. Hurrying to the Rescue. Reinforcements were, however, on their way, and were strenuously push- ing forward in defiance of the incle- ment season, swollen streams, nearly impassable roads, and scant supply of food and forage. General Coffee, with nearly 3,000 men, was coming from Pensacola. General Carroll was bring- ing a volunteer force from Tennessee, and Generals Thomas and Adair, at the head of 2,000 Kentuckians, were also on their way down the Mississippi to join in the defence of Kentucky's sister State. Such an army as — even when all should be assembled — General Jack- 364 VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON. son was to command would, to all seem- ing, have little chance in a ranged field against the highly-disciplined soldiery of England; but it had, for its greatest and most reliable advantage, the occu- pation of a position in the highest de- gree difficult of approach, and, when reached, capable by its nature of effec- tual resistance. Fleet All There. On December 8th the leading ships of the English fleet, which had left Ne- gril Bay on November 26th, anchored off the Chandeleur Islands, which stud the gulf opposite to the entrance of Lake Borgne; and by the 12th the whole of the men-of-war and troopships had arrived. It had been recognized that to advance against New Orleans by the channel of the Mississippi was a task too difficult to be attempted, and Sir Alexander Cochrane and Gen- eral Keane had determined to effect a landing on the shore of Lake Pont- chartrain, and hoped, by pushing on at once, to be able to take possession of the town before effectual preparation could be made for its defence. It has been said that Lake Borgne and Lake Pontchartrain were shallow; indeed, their depth varied from six to twelve feet. The troops were, there- fore, transferred from the larger into the lighter vessels, and on the 13th were prepared to enter upon the transit of the land-locked waters. They had not proceeded far, however, when it be- came apparent that the American gun- boats which occupied the lake were prepared to offer resistance to the move- ment, and, until that resistance could be removed, no disembarkation could be attempted. The gunboats, with their light draught of water, could bid defiance to even the lightest vessels of the English fleet, which could not float where they sailed. They could only be reached by ship's launches and barges rowed by seamen, and a flotilla combined under Captain Luckier of the Navy was at once prepared for the enterprise. The boats pushed off, and by noon came in sight of the foe, who would willingly have retreated and given their attackers long and weary toil in their approach, but that, the morning breeze having died away, they were compelled per- force to fight at anchor in line moored fore and aft. Captain Lockier resolved to refresh his men before he commenced the action, and dropping his grapnels just out of reach of the enemy's guns, allowed his crews to eat their dinner. Brilliant Fighting. After an hour's repose the boats again got ready to advance, and, with a hearty cheer, they moved steadily in a long line. Then began one of those brilliant boat actions in which some of the best qualities of the English sailors so often showed themselves. The American guns opened, and a hail of balls was showered on Captain Lockier's flotilla. One or two boats were sunk, others disabled, and many men were killed and wounded. But the English car- ronades returned the fier, and, as the determined, stalwart rowers gradually closed with the Americans, the marines were able to open a deadly discharge of musketry. A last powerful effort, the gunboats were reached, and, cutlass in hand, the bluejackets sprang up their sides. The resistance was stern and unyielding* VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON. 36* worthy of the American Republic. Captain L,ockier received several severe wounds, but, fighting from stem to stern, the boarders at length overpow- ered their enemy, the " Stars and Stripes" was hauled down, and on every vessel the English flag was hoist- ed in its place. A Rough Journey. On the waterway of the lakes there was now no longer any resistance, and again the light vessels, to which the troops had been transferred, essayed to pass over it. But the depth beneath the keels became less and less, and even the lightest craft one after another stuck fast. The boats were of necessity hoist id out, and the soldiers, packed tightly in them, cramped in one posi- tion, began a miserable transit of thirty wiles to Pine Island — a barren spot .vhere all were to be concentrated be- fore further operations were attempted. No boat, heavily laden as all were, could cover the long distance in less than ten hours, and, besides the discom- fort to the men, inseparable from such long confinement, matters were made infinitely .worse by a change in the weather. A heavy rain began, to which a cloak formed no protection, and such as is only seen in semi-tropical coun- tries. The operation began on the 16th, and, with alt the diligence and con- tinued exertion of which officers and men, soldiers and sailors, were capable, it was not finished until the 21st. By day and night for these days boats were being pulled from the fleet to the island and from the island to the fleet. The strain upon the sailors was terrific, and many of them were almost without ces- sation at the oar. Not only had they to support hunger, fatigue and sleepless nights, but the constant changes of temperature aggravated the hardships. Drenching rain by day alternated witli severe frosts by night, and tried to the uttermost the endurance of all. Nor was the army, as it landed in successive detachments on Pine Island, in a better plight. Bivouacked on a barren, swampy spot, which did not even produce fuel for camp fires, the clothes which had been saturated with rain by day and congealed into hard and deadly chilling husks by night, with no supply of food but salt meat, biscuit, and a little rum provided from the fleet, soldiers have seldom been exposed to more severe trials of their fortitude. British Fortitude. But, in spite of all, no complaints or murmurings rose from the expedition. The miseries of the present were for- gotten in the high hopes of the imme- diate future, and this confidence did not arise alone from trust in their own strength, but deserters from the enemy related the alarm that existed in New Orleans, assured the invaders that not more than 5,000 men were in arms against them, that many of the city's inhabitants were ready to join them when they appeared, and that conquest, speedy and bloodless, was within their grasp. Meanwhile, in New Orlean > itself, General Jackson had been meeting difficulties, working to restore confi- j dence, and providing for the necessities of the military situation with all the energy of his nature. The news of the disaster to the American gunboats had filled the people with alarm. Rumors 3Gi) VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON. of treason began to spread, an insur- rection of the slaves was dreaded, the arincd ships in the river were still un- manned, and the expected reinforce- ments had not arrived. A desperate situation demanded the strongest and most unusual measures. Jackson did not hesitate to adopt them, and assumed the great responsibility of proclaiming martial law, so that lie conld wield the whole resources of the town, and direct them unimpaired by faction against his foe. Expresses were sent to the approach- ing additions to his strength, urging them to increase their efforts to push forward. The two war vessels — the Carolina and Louisiana — whose possi- ble importance as factors in the ap- proaching struggle was recognized, were manned and prepared for service ; and even a lawless semi-piraticai band of smugglers was forgiven its crime, taken into the service of the Republic, and organized into two companies of artillerymen. So great, however, was the lack of war munitions that even the flints of these privateers' pistols were received from them as a precious prize, and were forthwith fitted to muskets. Completing Preparations. The whole of the English field army was assembled on Pine Island on the 2 ist of December, but having been so long on board ship, and its various corps having been gathered from many j different points, it became necessary, before further advance was made, to form it in brigades, to allot to each brigade a proportion of departmental staff — such as commissaries, medical attendants, etc. — and to establish depots o: provisions and military stores. In completing these arrangements the whole of the 2 2d was passed, and it was not till the morning of the 23d that General Keane's advanced guard could start for its descent on the main- land. This advanced guard was made up of the 4th, the 85th Light Infantry, and the six companies of the 95th Rifles. To it were attached a party of rocket-men and two light three-pounder field- pieces. The whole was under the command of Colonel Thornton, 85th. Short of Transports. The main body of the force was di- vided into two brigades — the first com- posed of the 2 ist, 44th, and one West India regiment, with a proportion of artillery and rockets, under Colonel Brook ; and the second, containing the 93d and the other West India regiment, under Colonel Hamilton, also provided with rockets and field-guns. The dis- mounted dragoons remained as a per- sonal bodyguard to the general until they could be provided with horses. It was intended that the descent of the army on the mainland should take place on the bank of the Bayou Bienvenu — a long creek which ran up from Lake Pontchartrain to within a short distance of New Orleans through an extensive morass. Every boat that could be sent from the fleet was to be used for the service, but not more could be provided than were sufficient to transport a third of the army at one time. The undertaking was therefore most hazardous, as, if the troops were placed in proximity to the enemy in successive divisions at long intervals of time, each might be cut to pieces in detail. Neither leaders nor rank and file were, however, men to be deterred even by excessive VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON. 367 risks, and, as has been said, they had the assurance of deserters that great resistance was not to be anticipated. Colonel Thornton's advanced guard was therefore embarked. Many miles had to be traversed, and again the sol- diers were exposed to long hours of confinement in a cramped position ; again the heavy rain of the day was succeeded at sundown by a bitter frost. Nor could they proceed after dark had set in, and, during the long weary hours of night, the boats lay in silence off their landing-place. By nine o'clock on the following morning, however, the landing was effected, and with limbs stiffened and almost powerless, with little available food to restore exhausted strength, 1,600 men stood at last upon the enemy's shore. In a Wilderness. Wild and savage was the scene where the little band found itself. A scarcely distinguishable track followed the bank of the bayou. On either side was one huge marsh, covered with tall reeds. No house or vestige of human life was to be seen, and but few trees broke the monotony of the dreary waste. For- bidding as was the spot, and iil-adapted for defence in case of attack, it might have possibly been supposed that Gen- eral Keane, who accompanied the ad- vanced guard, would have here re- mained in concealment till the boats, which had returned to Pine Island, had brought the remainder of his force ; but he judged it best to push on into more open country, influenced by the hope of striking a swift and unexpected blow, and by his fairly well-founded doubts whether even now his enemy's scouts might not now be hovering round him. The advance was formed, and, after several hours' march, delayed by the difficulties of the marshy road, by the numerous streams and ditches that had to be crossed, and by the fetid miasma that filled the air, the track began to issue from the morass, there were wider and wider spots of firm ground, and some groves of orange trees presented themselves. The Advance Discovered. It was evident that human habitations must be near, and increased caution and regularity became necessary. At last two or three farm houses appeared. The advanced companies rushed for- ward at the double and surrounded them, securing the inmates as prisoners, There was a moment of carelessness, however, and one man contrived to effect his escape. Now all further hope of secrecy had to be abandoned. Gen- eral Keane knew that the rumor of his landing would spread with lightning speed, and all that was left to him was to act with determination, and make the appearance of his force as formid- able as possible. The order of march was re-formed so that, moving upon a wide front, the three battalions had the semblance of twice their real strength, and the pace was quickened in order to gain a good military position before an enemy's force could show itself. Onward they pressed, till they found themselves close to the bank of the mighty Mississippi and wheeling to the right, they were on the main road leading to New Orleans. They faced towards the city on a narrow plain, about a mile in width, 368 VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON. with the river on their left, and the marsh which they had quitted on their right. A spot of comparative safety had been reached, the little column halted, piled arms, and its bivouac was formed. It was late in the afternoon before the moment of repose came, but the soldiers prepared to make the most of it ; outposts were placed to secure them from surprise, foraging parties collected food, and fires were lighted. The evening passed with one slight alarm, caused by a few horsemen who hovered near the pickets, and darkness began to set in. In the twilight a vessel was seen dropping down the cur- rent, and roused curiosity among those who had not stretched themselves by the fires to seek much-needed sleep. It was thought that she might be an Eng- lish ship, which had managed to pass the forts at the mouth of the river. She showed no colors, but leasurely and silently she dropped her anchor abreast of the camp and furled her sails. To satisfy doubt she was repeatedly hailed, but no answer was returned. A feeling of uneasiness began to spread, and several musket shots were fired at her, but still reply came not from her dimly-seen bulk. Roar of Guns. Suddenly she swung her broadside toward the bank, and a commanding voice was heard to cry, "Give them this for the honor of America." The words were instantly followed by the flash and roar of guns, and a deadly shower of grape swept through the English bivouac. The light artillery which had accompanied General Keane's advance guard was helpless against so powerful an adversary, and nothing could be done but to withdraw the exposed force behind the shelter of the high levee. The fires were left burning, and, in the pitch-dark night, those who were uninjured were forced to cower low while the continued storm of grape whistled over their heads, and they could hear the shrieks and groans of their wretched comrades who had been wounded by the first discharge. Blaze of Musketry. Thus they lay for more than an hour, when a spatting fire of musketry was heard from the pickets which had been able to hold their position. Whether this fire was only the sign of slight skirmishing at the outposts, or whether it foreboded a serious attack, was for some minutes doubtful, but a fierce yell of exultation was heard, the blackness of night was lighted by a blaze of mus- ketry fire breaking out in semi-circle in front of the position, and the cer- tainty came that the enemy were upon the advance guard in overpowering numbers. The situation seemed almost des- perate. Retreat was impossible, and the only alternatives were to surrender or to beat back the assailants. General Keaue and his followers were not the men to surrender, and at once assumed the bolder course. The 85th and 95th moved rapidly to support the pickets, while the 4th were formed as a reserve in the rear of the encampment. In the struggle that followed there was no opening for tactics, none for the super- vision and direction of a general, or even of the colonels of battalions. The darkness was so intense that all order, all discipline were lost. Each man hurled himself direct at the flashes VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON. 369 of musketry ; if twenty or thirty united for a moment under an officer, it was only to plunge into the enemy's ranks and to engage in a hand-to-hand con- flict, bayonet against bayonet, sword against sword. In the dire confusion of the bloody melee it soon became im- possible to distinguish friend from foe. Americans Give Way. The British field-artillery dared not fire for fear of sweeping away Ameri- cans and Englishmen by the same dis- charge. Prisoners were taken on both sides, and often released at once by the sudden rush of assistance. As both armies spoke the same tongue a chal- lenge was 01 no avail, and till the deadly thrust or shot came no man could be certain who stood in front of Vim. In the nature of zhings such fighting could not be of long continuance. The Americans, astonished by the vigor of the assault, gave way, and were fol- lowed up for some distance ; but the English officers strove to rally their men, and to make them fall back to their first position; and soon all but those who had fallen were re-formed and concentrated. The Americans had been repulsed on all sides, but the fight had cost the English dearly, as, includ- ing the loss from the fire of the ship, 46 were killed and 167 wounded, be- sides 64 taken prisoners. The miserable night wore on, but with the morning's dawn there came a renewal of the inglorious peril. The schooner whose fire had been so dis- astrous on the preceding evening still lay off in the river, and had now been joined by another vessel. They were the Carolina and Louisiana. Safe from 24 any retaliation, their guns covered the shore and effectually precluded any movement of the English, who were obliged — hungry, cold and wearied — to seek shelter under the levee from the shower of projectiles which swept the plain. But meanwhile the rest of the army was landing, and hastening to join their comrades. The roar of the cannon had been heard far over the waters of Lake Pontchartrain, and had added energy to the strong arms that were pulling the boats. By nightfall on the 23rd the two brigades had both arrived on the scene of battle, and had taken up their ground between the morass and the river, but throwing back their left, so as to avoid the fire of the ships. The Brave Defenders. The advanced guard could at last be extricated from the trap into which it had fallen, and the night of the 24th was passed in quiet and in disheartened speculation whether the advance could be resumed or not. The responsibility of decision was, however, removed from General Keane by the unexpected ar- rival on the morning of the 25th of Sir Edward Pakenham and General Gibbs, who had been sent from England as first and second in command. Let us see what had been the course of affairs in New Orleans while the events just related were occurring. At the time that the English army was concentrating at Pine Island the de- fence of the city still depended alone on the small, half-organized force which General Jackson had found under his hand on his first arrival. But on the 2 1st the long-expected reinforcements began to pour in. General Coffee — the 370 VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON. numbers of his following terribly re- duced by the toils of an unprecedentedly rapid march — came at the head of mounted Tennessee sharpshooters, hun- ters and pioneers from their youth. Colonel Hinds brought the Mississippi Dragoons. On the 2 2d General Car- roll's flotilla arrived with a further body of Tennesseeans, and, what was almost moie important, a supply of muskets. Costly Delay. The different corps were not yet, however, actually united in one body, and when the sudden report came that General Keane had actually landed, there was no military cohesion anion;; them. If the English advanced guard had pushed at once on the city, instead of bivouacking during the afternoon of the 23d, they might possibly have en- countered no combined resistance, and have overthrown the Americans in de- tachments. But Keane's halt, however much it may possibly be justified, gave Jackscn the opportunity he required, and enabled him to put all his men in line. The Carolina and Louisiana were sent down the river, with what result we have seen. The land troops were hurried to meet the enemy in the field, and the bitter struggle on the night of the 23d took place. When Sir Edward Pakenham took over the command of the English army he found himself in as unsatisfactory a position as could well fall to the lot of anv general. He found himself com- mitted to a course of action which he had not initiated, and of which possibly he did not approve. He found his force in a cramped position, which offered no scope for the operations of highly trained and disciplined soldiers, and he learned that its advanced guard had suffered, if not a defeat, at least a very serious check. If the end of the campaign was failure, he certainly should not be laden with all the blame. Carefully he re- connoitred the situation, and carefully he considered the state of affairs. It was evident that no advance could be made as long as the Carolina and Louisiana were able to pour forth their murderous fire, and the night of the 25th was employed in erecting on the levee batteries armed with heavy ship- guns sent from the fleet. When these opened with red-hot shot on the morn- ing of the 26th, the doom of the Caro- lina was sealed, her crew escaped in their boats, and she blew up. The Louisiana effected her escape while her consort was the sole object of the Eng- lish artillery. Now that the river was thus cleared, and the left flank of his force was no longer exposed to destruc- tion if it moved forward on the road to New Orleans, Pakenham made his dis- positions for decisive advance. Plan of Battle. He reorganized his army, dividing it into two columns. That on the right — consisting of the 4th, 21st, 44th, and one West India Regiment — he .placed under command of General Gibbs ; the other — comprising the 95th, 85th, 93d, and the other West India regiment, with all the available field-artillery, now increased to ten guns — remained under General Keane, and was to take the left of the line, while the dragoons, few of whom were yet mounted, fur- nished the guards to hospitals and stores. But there was still much to do. Heavy guns, stores, and ammunition had to be VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACK 571 brought from the distant fleet, the wounded had to be disposed of, and the numberless requirements of provision and protection for an army in the field had to be attended to. For two days the English lay perforce inactive, though their outposts were exposed to constant harassing and deadly attack from the American sharpshooters and partisans. In European war, by tacit conven- tion, pickets and sentries confined them- selves to the duties of watchfulness alone ; but the riflemen of America saw in every enemy's soldier a man to be killed at any time, and they stalked in- dividuals as they would have stalked deer in their own backwoods, slaying and wounding many, and causing anx- iety by the never-ceasing straggling fire. Begins to March. A.t length all was ready for the long- delayed advance, and on the bright, frosty morning of the 28th the army began its march. Confidence in a new commander of high reputation had re- stored spirits to the men ; cold, wet, hunger, and broken rest were forgotten, and as the enemy's advanced corps fell back before them, hopes of conquest were renewed. Four or five miles were traversed without opposition. On the dead flat of the plain nothing could be seen far in advance of the columns, and they had no cavalry to scout in front and say what lay in their path. Suddenly, where a few houses stood at a turning in the road, the leading files came in view of the foe's position. In their front was a canal, extending from the morass on their left towards the river on their right. Formidable breastworks had been thrown up, pow- erful batteries erected, while the Louisi- ana and some gunboats moored in the Mississippi flanked their right. Sudden and tremendous was the cannonade, withering the musketry fire that burst upon the English column and mowed down their ranks. Red-hot shot set fire to the houses which were near to them. Infantry Hurled Back. Scorched by flame, stifled with smoke, shattered by the close discharge, the infantry were, for the time, powerless, and had to be withdrawn to either side of the line of attack, and the artillery were hurried forward to reply to the American guns. To no purpose. The contest was too unequal. The heavy guns in the batteries and the broadsides of the Louisiana destroyed the light English field-pieces almost before they could come into action. The infantry again pressed forward, only to find themselves hopelessly checked by the canal. Staggered, shaken, and dis- ordered, the English columns reeled under the blows which they had re- ceived. A halt was ordered, and then, slowly, sullenly, with sorrow, the whole force fell back. Again Sir Edward Paken- ham found himself obliged to bivouac by the river side instead of occupying New Orleans, again he had to consider how the determined American resist- ance was to be overcome. The Eng- lish bivouac was formed two miles from the American lines. A sorry place of rest it was. Once more the outposts were ex- posed to the stealthy attacks of an ever- vigilant, cunning, and active foe. Even the main body was hardly secure, 372 VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON. for, by giving their guns a great eleva- tion, the Americans were occasionally able to pitch their shot among the camp fires. Jackson Fortifying. The possibility of turning the ene- my's left by penetrating the morass which protected it was contemplated, but the idea had to be abandoned as soon as conceived. In the meanwhile General Jackson was vigorously at work in strengthening his already strong po- sition. Numerous parties could be seen laboring upon his lines, and daily rein- forcements came in to swell the num- bers of their defenders. By the sugges- tion of Commodore Patterson, a strong field-work was constructed on the op- posite bank of the river, and armed with heavy ship-guns, from which a flanking fire could be poured on all the space over which the English must at- tack. In view of the many difficulties which presented themselves, General Paken- ham called a council of war, which was attended by all the English naval and military leaders. It was impossible to carry the American lines by assault, for their powerful artillery would deal cer- tain destruction to infantry columns. To turn them was impossible, and their defenders could not be induced by any manoeuvring to leave their protection. The council decided on the only other possible alternative — to treat them as a regular fortification, and, by breaching batteries, to try to silence some of their guns, and to make in them a practicable gap, through which an entrance might be effected. To give effect to this resolution the 29th, 30th, and 31st December were employed in bringing up heavy cannon, accumulating a supply of ammunition, and making preparations as for a regu- lar siege. When these arrangements were complete — arrangements which demanded the most strenuous and unre- mitting toil from everyone, from the general in command to the humblest private soldier — hesitation had no place and delay was at an end. Under cover of night, on the 31st, half of the army stole silently to the front, passing the pickets, and halted within 300 yards of the American lines. Here a chain of works was rapidly marked out, the greater part of the detachment piled their firelocks, and addressed themselves vigorously to work with pick and shovel, while the remain- der stood by armed and ready for their defence. So silently and to such good purpose was the work performed, that before the day dawned six batteries were completed, in which were mounted thirty pieces of heavy ordnance. Shrouded in Gloom. The morning of the 1st January, 181 5, broke dark and gloomy. A thick mist obscured the sun, and, even at a short distance, no objects could be seen distinctly. The English gunners stood anxiously by their pieces, and the whole of the infantry were formed hard by, readv to rush into the breach which they hoped to see made. Slowly, very slowly, the mist at length rolled away, and the American camp was fully exposed to view. As yet unconscious of the near pre- sence of the thirty muzzles which were ready to belch forth their contents, the Americans were seen on parade. Bands were playing, colors flying, and there VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON. 373 was no preparation for immediate deadly struggle. Suddenly the English batter- ies opened, and the scene was changed. There was a moment of dire confusion, a dissolution of the ordered masses which stood ready for review by their general. The batteries were unmanned, the pieces silent. But, though the English salvo was unexpected, there was no real unreadiness to resist and to reply to its stern challenge. Storm of Shot and Shell. The American corps fell quickly into their positions in the line of defence, their artillery, after brief delay, opened with rapidity and precision, the furious cannonade on both sides rent the air with its thunder, and battery answered battery with storm of shot and shell. Heavy as was the attackers' fire, how- ever, it produced comparatively little effect on the solid earthworks of the defence, while the numerous guns which Jackson had mounted, aided by the flanking fire from the works on the opposite bank of the river, were crush- ing in their power. Hour after hour the duel continued, and yet no advantage was gained which would warrant Pakenham in hurling his infantry at the fortifications that stood in their front. The English ammuni- tion began to fail and their fire slack- ened, while that of the Americans redoubled in vigor ; and towards evening it became evident that another check had been suffered, and that again the invading army must fall back. Dire was the mortification in the English ranks, bitter the murmurs that spread from man to man. The army had endured hardships with cheerful- ness, they had undertaken severest toil with alacrity, but they had thought that victory was their due, and still they encountered repeated defeat. Now their encampment was open to the enemy's unremitting fire, and advance or retreat seemed equally impossible. But Pakenham had some, at least, of the best qualities of a leader. He refused to lose heart, and adopted a plan which well merited success by its bold- ness, and whose ultimate failure was in no way to be credited to any laxity on his part. He had recognized that the enemy's flanking battery on the right bank of the Mississippi was, his greatest obstacle, and he conceived the idea of sending a strong force across the river, which should carry this battery by assault and turn its guns against the Americans themselves, while a simul- taneous attack should be delivered di- rectly upon the intrenchments. All at Work. To do this, however, a sufficient num- ber of boats must be provided, and it was necessary to cut a canal from the Bayou Bienvenu wide and deep enough to float the ships' launches now in the lake. Upon this arduous undertaking the whole of the force was at once set to work. Day and night the labor was carried on ; relay after relay of soldiers took up the task, and by January 6th it was accomplished. No better means could have been taken to restore the spirits of the men than the imposing of work, however hard, which seemed to promise a definitely favorable influence on their fortunes. Discouragement and forebodings were still further dissipated by the unex- pected arrival of Major-General Lambert with the 7th and 43rd, two fine battal- 874 VICTOR IICS OF COMMODORE TERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON. ions, each mustering 8oo effective men. Further reinforcements of marines and with the 95th, the light companies of the 2ISt, 4th, and 44th, and the two West India regiments, was to make a demon- stration on the enemv's right ; General t.ibbs, with the 4th, 21st, 44th, and 93rd should force their left; whilst General Lambert, with the ;th and 4317*, re 7 ' mained in reserve. Scaling-ladders and k fascines were provided to till the ditch and mount the wall ; and the honorable dutv oi carrying them to the point of attack was allotted to the 44th, as being the regiment most experienced in Amer- ican war. It was hoped that the fate of VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON. 375 New Orleans would be sealed on the 8th January. While the rest of the army laid down to sleep on the night of the 7th, Colonel Thornton, with 1,400 men, moved to the river's brink. But the boats had not arrived. Hour after hour passed before any came, and then so few were they that only the 85th, with about 50 seamen — in all 340 men — could be em- barked. The duty admitted of no hesi- tation or delay, and Colonel Thornton,' with his force thus sadly weakened, pushed off. Fatal Errors. The loss of time was irreparable. It was nearly dawn ere they quitted the canal, and they should have been on the opposite bank six hours earlier. In vain they made good their landing without opposition ; day had broken, the signal rocket was sen in the air, and they were still four miles from the battery which ought long before to have been in their hands. Before daylight the main body was formed in advance of the pickets, ready for the concerted attack. Eagerly they listened for the expected sound of firing, which should show that Thornton was doing his work ; but they listened in vain. Nor did Pakenham's plan fail him in this respect alone. The army, in its stern array, was ready for the assault, but not a ladder or a fascine was in the field. The 44th, who had been ap- pointed to bring them, had misunder- stood or disobeyed their orders, and were now at the head of the column without the means of crossing the enemy's ditch or mounting his parapet. Naturally incensed beyond measure, the general galloped to Colonel Mullens, who led the 44th, and bade him return witli his regiment for the ladders; but the opportunity for using them was lost, and when they were at last brought up they were scattered useless over the field by the demoralized bearers. A Withering Fire. The order to advance had been given, and, leaving the 44th behind them, the other regiments rushed to the assault. On the left a portion of the 21st, under the gallant Rennie, carried a battery, but, unsupported and attacked in turn by overpowering numbers of the enemy, they were driven back with terrible loss. The rest of the 21st, with the 4th, supported by the 93rd, pushed with desperate bravery into the ditch, and, in default of the ladders, strove to scale the rampart by mounting on each other's shoulders — and some, indeed, actually effected an entrance into the enemy's works. But, all too few for the task, they were quickly overpowered and slain, or taken prisoners. The withering fire that swept the glacis mowed down the attacking columns by companies. Vain- ly was the most desperate courage dis- played. Unseen themselves, the de- fenders of the entrenchments fired at a distance of a few yards into the throng that stood helplessly exposed, while the guns on the other side of the river — yet uninenaced — kept up a deadl;' cannonade, Never have English soldiers died to so little profit, never has so heavy a loss been so little avenged. vSir Edward Pakenham saw his troops in confusion, and the wavering in effort which ever preludes hopeless flight. All that a gallant leader could do was done by him. The 44th had come up. 576 VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERIC JACKSON. but in st> great disorder that little could be hoped from such a battalion, Riding to their head, he called for Colonel Mullens to lead them forward, hut he was not to be found at liis post. Placing himself at their head, the general pre pared to lead them In person; but his horse was struck by a musket ball, which also gave him a slight wound. IK- mounted anothei horse, and again essayed to lead the 44th, when again he was hit. Heath took him before he had t.istcd the lull bitterness oi defeat, and he fell into the arms of his aide Ac camp. Brave Officers. Colonel Mullens was subsequently tried by court-martial and cashiered. General Gibbs and General ECeane did not fail to do their duty as English soldiers. Riding through the ranks, they strove to restore order and to en- courage the failing energy oi the attack, till both weie wounded and were borne from the field. Their leaders gone, and ignorant oi what should be done, small wonder if the troops first halted, then began slowly to retire, and then betook themselves to disordered flight, (.ie.it as was the disaster, its results might have been oven more crushing than they weie but that the ~th and 43d, presenting an unbroken, steadfast front, prevented any attempt on the part of the Americans to quit the shelter oi theii lines in pursuit. We left Colonel Thornton and his 340 men on the right bank of the Mis- sissippi, and four miles from the battery which they had been detailed to take, and whose power was so severely felt by the main body of the English army. They had seen the signal-rocket which told that their comrades weie about to attack, and late though they were, they pressed forward to do their share o( the day's operations. A strong American outpost was encouutered, but it could not withstand the rush of the 85th, ami lied in confusion. The position where the battery was mounted was reached, and to less daring men than Colonel Thornton and his little following might have seemed impregnable. Desperate Assault. Take their countrymen on the other side, the Ameticaus, 1,500 in number, were strongly entrenched, a ditch and thick parapet covering their front. Two held pieces commanded the road, ami flanking fire swept the iMouudover which any attack must be made. The assailants had no artillery, and no fas- Cllies or ladders by means i4~ which to pass the entrenchment. Hut, unappalled by superior numbers, undeterred by threatening obstacles, the English formed for immediate assault. The 85th extended across the whole line ; the seamen, armed with cutlasses as for boarding, prepared to storm the battery, and the few marines remained in reserve. The bugle SOUnded the advance. The sailors gave the wild ehcer that has so often told the Spirit ami determination o( the British service, ami rushed for- ward. They weie met and momentarily checked bv a shower oi grape ami can- ister, but again they pressed on. The 85th dashed forward to their aid in the face oi' a heavy tire of musketry, and threatened the parapet at all points. From both sides came an unremitting discharge; but the English, eagerto be at close quarters, began to mount the VICTORIES OF COMMODORE PERRY AND GENERAL JACKSON. 37? parapet. The Americans, seized with sudden panic, turned and fled in hope- less rout, and the entrenchment, with eighteen pieces of cannon, was taken. Too late ! These very guns had been able already to take their part in deal- ing destruction to Sir Edward 1'aken- ham's morning attack, and if they were now taken — if their defenders were dis- persed—they had done ill that they were wanted to do. Even yet, if the disaster to the Brit- ish main body had not been so complete and demoralizing, they might have been turned upon Jackson's lines and covered a second assault ; but this was not to be. General Lambert, on whom had fallen the command of all that remained of the army, resolved — per- haps, undei the circumstances, with wisdom — to make no further attempts on New Orleans. To withdraw his army was, in any case, difficult ; an- other defeat would have rendered it impossible ; and, as the Americans had gained confidence in proportion as the English had lost it, defeat was only too probable. In the last fatal action nearly 1,50a officers and men had fallen, including two generals, for General Gibbs had only survived his wound for a few hours. The: English dead lay in piles Upon the plain. Of the Americans who had so gallantly defended their country, eight only were killed and fourteen wounded. Alas ! that electricity did not then exist to prevent so great a sacrifice of honor and life; for the preliminaries of peace between England and the United States had been signed in Europe before the campaign of New Orleans was be- gun. CHAPTER XXIV. Great Battle of Gettysburg, ©l*K object to I ■ the is to d< onlj those fame x .1 d< e of lu\ l pov. - es between grei r it) '■ -\ e was v v \ i '. \\ . \\" - Con- sy] Mai id w '- N o e Potomac he i I loose i the \ ire two moot - c Cr\ •'. Wai le halt of Longsb eet and Hill in the vicinitj - Chambersburg x>n « K] was d no fin'.' . Ewell w is '• w i ba S ons op< my, Meade's unexpected e at Get- teysburg a was ton late to cross the Susquehanna. He 8*8 was compelled to concentrate, and hia . .-. brought the invasion and all tei ad\ ance to an end. l.ee's successes at Freda gand tile had given him un- limit and the ion to be en< tij ■ \ . i lied the C in the West, 01 such movements - w here as s Grant to detach •. his hold upon I..,- ob- kg his arm] bj . . . ^ part of it to the West He o something on his own front to relieve the ( situati t ore, dui ing Maj June, :\\;, his arm] was - ned in ever} po sing ; ie PotO U IC -'- I in i i he wai Northern • w ere the primary causes of -. of Pennsylvania, and of . i book the Con ederate army at Gette] sburg \ tno\ em< at to the Potomac in was always an eas] one Confed- 6 commanders, Covered by the >ck and the Blue ftidge Mountains, I.ee had d rulty in making the march, and on the route I scattering the Union forces in the valle] nndei Gen« era] Milroy, an office] and patriotism, but of verj unsound jndg- GREAT BATTLE OF ( <; ?,:', menf and little military ' 1/ ekr* • move in'.. rmy I i ,: sburg, undo Hoo tain. Hooker had quickly d< Con- fcdi ladowed tally followed, an invasion. Aero?;;; fch« PotomflC. if" asked I';- sid< :.' Lin< oln foi pet- to make a dash \'> now ' leai from th< o il reports of I/': would called liim ba< Ic to til-- - of his capil : . ho ■■ .-' j, doubted I lie expe- icy of H( - [t is probable r he li-'i'l misgivings as to Hook< i i nerve and r apa< il y. He, therefoi e, }>■■ irented the propo i '1 < ounter mov< on R ' hmond, and ben ird Hooker '1 him.' oving on interior Lines to cover Washingl 'i'li'- moment Lee pen I Hooker bad . from tli'- line of t' ippahaunoclc his li' pearecL Long \\ u et and Hill inn tely followed Ewell in to the Sh< andoali Valley- On June 15th the Confederate General Ewell crossed the Potomac at Wil- liam, port. Jenkins, with his cavalry, pushed forward to Chai irg; Rodes's divi lion o< ( upied Hagerstown, Md., and that of Edward Johnson, Sharpsburg, while Earl) (ion threatened Harper's Ferry from the vi- cinity of Shepherdstown. On the 21st, while occupying these tions Ewell received fr m Lee to "take Harrisburg." At this time the Confederate army was strung Ottt from V . , .:■/ "< t burg ouf dispo . '.'>•• i idrawal from J - '.-' dly shortened by the on oi 1/ ■ Hill at Chamb< On town an nity . g at '. ►urg on 1 27C. un- g B I pp raiding the country ... 1 .on. A Ravenotu Horde. Their were fearful. 1 hoi.' and bur{ I and the lo 1 of the old must have '■- the hungry hordes swarming up from the South. ( ■ Lee, with irony, n that he • ders all supplies tak< n must be r ■ fully paid for, v. federate not worth but little in the South u# whatever in Pennsylvania, A 1 1 Con - in flour barrels. The ment of these illustrated in th lento one rich old farmer, who was forced to I a five dollar Confc: Dte in '■ of fifty cents in Union money for two old horse-i I o< . Ewell had rapidly marched 011 iritrj R and John sions, sending Early to Vork, ( - 1 li le< only (liUzan miles from Han 380 GREAT BATTLE OP GETTYSBURG. was occupied on the 27th and York on the 28th. This movement had again somewhat scattered the Con- federates, but Lee at Chambersburg with two-thirds of his army was about ready to move forward in support of Ewell's advance against Harrisburg when something happened. General Hooker had followed Lee across the Potomac ; his movements up to June 28th had been well conceived and ad- mirably carried out. His eventual purpose had been to throw himself across Lee's line of com- munications with the Potomac and force the Confederates to a decisive en- gagement on his own tei ins. But a dis- agreement arose between the (General- in-Chief, Hal leek, at Washington, and General Hooker, in regard to the dis- position of the Union troops at Harper's Perry, and Hooker had thereupon asked to be relieved of the command of the Army of the Potomac. Halleck had no confidence in Hooker, and the latter's request was instantly granted. Two Gallant Commanders. At that time there was only two offi- cers in that army whose character and achievements had raised them to the plane of so high and important a com- mand. They were Major General John F. Reynolds, commanding the First Corps, and Major General George G. Meade, commanding the Fifth Corps. It is a curious fact that they were both Pennsylvanians, and both were also West Pointers. Reynolds ranked Meade, and it is known that it was the original intention of the military authorities to confer the chief command on him when Hooker should go. But Reynolds had been sounded, and had declined the command unless allowed certain free- dom of action, which it was deemed inadmissable to grant. Therefore the command was conferred upon General Meade, who in turn gave the Fifth Corps to General Sykes. A Masterly Man. This change occurred near Frederick, Md., on the morning of June 28, only three days before the armies met in mortal combat at Gettysburg. Meade was an able officer, who had grown up with the Army of the Potomac, and luul the confidence cf all the superior generals. Pie was, perhaps, not a dash- ing fighter, like Hooker or Reynolds, but he was, nevertheless, a man of courage and judgment, and knew how to marshal troops on the field of battle as well as any officer living. The three chief figures in the Army of the Poto- mac, Meade, Reynolds and Hancock, were all Pennsylvanians, and all to perform leading parts in the drama upon Pennsylvania soil. The new Federal commander, after taking his bearings, abandoned Hook- er's plan of merely following Lee and placing the Union army square across his communications. Meade's direc- tions from Halleck were to cover Wash- ington and Baltimore. General Meade pushed all his corps directly northwards on the inner line, with the object of attacking any of Lee's forces that came in his way, under the belief that this would compel the Confederates to im- mediately drop his movement across the Susquehanna and turn and fight. That was precisely the immediate effect of Meade's movement. This forward movement of the Union army, then, was what had happened to GREAT BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG. 381 change Lee\s plans. Instead of order- ing Longstreet and Hill forward to the rich fields of the Susquehanna, in sup- port of Ewell, and, perhaps, to the sacking of Harrisburg and Philadel- phia, the concentration of the great rebel fighting ma- chine was o be effected by drawing Hwell's scat- tered divisions back to Gettysburg. It is worth noting here that upon learn- ing of the rapid concentra- tion of the Union army on his immediate flank Lee's original idea was to concen- trate about Chambersburg. There are many well-in- formed people who still cling to the exploded no- tion that the battle of Get- tysburg was an accident. It was not so. After considering the sit- uation for a few hours after the necessity for withdrawal of Ewell was admitted, Gen- eral Lee perceived the im- portance of Gettysburg as a great strategic position by reason of the many excellent turnpike roads which radiate therefrom. At Gettysburg he would not only occupy a commanding position from which to deliver battle, but one available from which to fall back toward the Potomac and one threatening both Washington and Baltimore. These considerations impelled Lee to change his previous order to Ewell to come back to Cham- bersburg, in the following terms : "Headquarters Army of Northern Virginia, Chambersburg, June 28, 1863, — lieutenant General R. S. Ewell, Commanding Corps — General : I wrote you last night stating that General Hooker was reported to have crossed the Potomac, and is advancing by the way of Middletown, the head of hi? GENERAL GEORGE G. MEADE. column being at that point, in Frederick county. I directed you in that letter to move your forces to this point. If you have not already progressed on the road, and if you have no good reason against it, I desire you to move in the direction of Gettysburg, via Heidlers- burg, where you will have a turnpike most of the way, and you can thus join your other divisions to Early's, which is east of the mountains. I think it preferable to keep on the east side ot the mountains. "R. E. LEE, General:" 882 GREAT BATTLB OV GETTYSBURG, The history of the event is proof thai in thus changing the point oi concentra- tion from Chambersburg, which was behind the screen of a mountain range, to Gettysburg, in the close presence oi his enemy, General L»ee made a serious mistake. We cau now sec that he was playing into General Meade's hands, it is obvious, however, from his Pipe Creek plan of defensive battle, that Genera] Meade expected that Lee would be compelled to do this very thing. II. 1. 1 I. ir remained at Chambersburg Meade would have been compelled to cross the mountain to beat him up, and thus might have become the aggres- soi against souio strong position and been defeated. General Meade's Plan. Ou the 28th and 29th the northward movement of the Union army had been rapid; General Reynolds had been put iu command oi the lefl wing, on the dangei flank of the advance. It was composed oi the First, Third and Eleventh Corps. On the 29th these three corps, commanded by a fighting General, who saw his native State foi the first time under the iron hed of the invader, were within ten miles of Get- tysburg, Ou the 30th Reynolds, with the First Corps, had advanced to Marsh creek, within four miles of Gettysburg, while the Third and Bleveuth Corps remained .it Emmittsburg. It was during this day that General Meade's policy oi fighting behind the Pipe creek Hue .1 defensive battle be- comes manifest in the movement of the tioops. While Reynolds was Fai out toward the front ami left, feeling foi the enemy, with orders to fall back be- hind Pipe eieek if practicable or advis- able, iu ease of collision, the other Corps oi the army were back from ten 10 twenty five miles from Gettysburg, Ou the afternoon oi {he 30th Buford's division oi eavah v had occuph d Gettys- burg, and remained theie. How the Battle Began. I,rt us now turn to the Confederate columns that we may understand how the explosion occurred at Gettysburg, and not along ripe creek, as Meade tentatively hoped it would, Rodes, oi Kuril's eoi ps, was moving on Gettys- burg from Carlisle, at the north, by way ol Heidlersburg ; Early was mov< in«; ou Gettysburg from York, at the east, by way oi Heidlersburg; Hill's eoips, followed by Longst 1 eel's two divisions oi Hood and Mel.aws, was moving on Gettysburg from Chambers- burg, at the west, joined by Johnson's division, oi Ewell's somewhere in the vicinity of Cash town, in the movement of the 1st of July. Most of Hill's corps was bivouacked at and. about Cishtown on the night oi the 30th, ready to re- sume the inarch in the morning, Early And kodes weie not far fioiu lleidlers- burg. Fifty thousand Con federates weie within eight miles oi Gettysburg on the morning oi July ist, which was occupied by Buford's small division of cavalry, supported by the First Corps of 9,000 infantry, tour miles oil". Be- sides these there were approximately the 30,000 men oi the Third, Eleventh and Twelfth Corps from eight to ten miles awav. None of the Union troops weie iu motion. On the morning of July t, 1863, Gen- eral Heth'p division of Hill's Confed- erate Corps marched on Gettysburg to GRKAT BATTLE OB GETTYSBURG. 888 capture some shoes for his men, fol- lowed by Pender's division. Buford's cavalry had been put in position some two miles in front of the town, squarely across the road to Cashtown, and op- posed Heth's advance. These opposing i roops collided about 9.30 a. m., on Wednes- day, July r. Buford's posil ion made I he con- centration of the Con- federate army at Get- tysburg impossible un- less lie was hru si icd away. That was the job now undertaken by Ileth, whieh pre- cipitated the greatest battle of the Civil War. Ileth, acting under I/''- orders, did not know this, but thought he was making a sim- ple raid for shoes. Buford had dete< ted the advantages of ( S-et- tysburg, and deter- mined to hold the town until * he could hear from Reynolds. I fe had been fully convinced as early as the nighl previous that the whole Confederate army was conv< ing On Gettysburg. lie sent a courier to Reynolds with the information that the Confederates in force were coming I flown the Cashtown pike, and asking for help and directions. Reynolds, burning to fitdit at the fust opportunity, immediately put the First Corps, under Doubleday, in motion to support Bu- ford, and despatched orders to the Third and Eleventh Corps, further in the rear, to move forward rapidly. His oppor- tunity had come. The Pipe Creek line dropped out of his mind instantly, and he made ready foi battle. He then rode forward rapidly to join Buford at the front. The two generals went up into the belfry of the seminary, GENERAL JAMES LONGSTfcBET. sit uated on ( )ak Ridge. An examlna tion of Heth's lines .and the road beyond Willoughby's run through their field glasses disclosing the rapid advance of large bodies of Confederate infantry and artillery, corroborated Buford's shout to Reynolds on his arrival that the "devil was to pay." Reynolds came down and sent couriers in different di- rections to hurry forward the Union infantry. Buford's cavalry was now hard pressed and slowly yielding to Heth's advance. a$ i GREAT BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG, Buford made a magnificent fight, hold- ing the Confederates at bay for an hour or two. lleth had orders not to bring on a genera] engagement until Lee's army was a;i up, and his movements at first were leisurely. Aieher's and Davis's Brigades were deployed ou the right and left oi the Cashtown road, and pushed forward towards Gettys- burg and the shoes they SO inueh needed. Getting Into Position. Reynolds after making a rapid exam- ination of the field and surrounding topography, which was favorable for defensive military operations, and di- recting Bnford to hold on, with the remark that he would bring up his en- tire three corps to this point, then rode off rapidly to hi ing forward his leading division of infantry, under General James S. W'adsworth. It was hurrie.l across the fields and swung into line behind Buford, who, thus relieved, retired to the rear. General Cutler's Brigade was on the right oi the Cash- town road, and Meredith's Brigade oi Western troops, known in the army as the "Iron Brigade," ou its left fac- ing westward, Cutler confronting Davis and Meredith Archer. It is pretty we'd attested that this great tight was opened bv the Fifty- sixth Pennsylvania, under Colonel Wil- liam Hoffman, though it has been dis- puted bv the men of the Second Wis- consin, of the lion Brigade. However this may be, Cutler's Brigade was struck partially in flank by Davis, and quickly repulsed and driven back. On the left the Iron Brigade, led by the Second Wisconsin, pushed forward for McPherson's wooded ridge simulta- neously with Archer's entry into it from the west. At that moment General Reynolds rode up froiT the right, where he had been anxiously observing Cutler's dis- aster. He ordered the Iron Brigade to advance at the double quick, shouting to the Second Wisconsin, " Forward, men, forward, for God's sake, and drive those fellows out of the woods !" These were probably the last words he ever Uttered. As he turned to look for ami direct the oncoming supports he was struck in the head or upper neck bv a sharpshooter's bullet and fell dead. Death of Reynolds. But his splendid troops lushed for- ward, driving the enemy back, clearing the wood ami capturing General Archer and several hundred oi' his men. Thus perished the great soldier, John F. Rey- nolds. His death was a serious blow to the Union cause, and for the moment, for want oi a directing head with pres- tige sufficient to give moral weight to his commands, endangered Union suc- cess. But his courage and ready. deci- sion determined the field oi battle and, ultimately, the victory. Cutler's lost ground was soon re- covered by a brilliant charge oi the Sixth Wisconsin, of the Iron Brigade, upon the flank of the Davis's Confed- erate brigade, in which it captured the Second Mississippi Regiment and its flag. Davis was repulsed, ami in turn driven back greatly shattered The r-.iion lines were then rectified. The Second and Third Divisions of the Fir^t Corps now arrived, deploying to the right ami left oi Wadsworth under a heavy artillery tire. Thus in half.au GREAT BATTLK OF GETTYSBURG. 885 hour Heth's advance had been checked witli heavy loss. But his two remaining brigades wore brought forward, and Pender's fresli division of 8000 men were at hand. New dispositions were made and the battle renewed. Rodes had now ap- peared from the north, and was coming down upon the right flank of the Union line. Here were 24,000 Confederates converging on a single Union corps of 9000 effectives. Besides, Early, from York, was also arriving on its right rear, with 8000 more. The unequal contest was terrible, but every effort of Iletl), Pender and Rodes to break the heroic First Corps failed until late in the afternoon It received no help until after mid-day, when General O. 0. Howard's Eleventh Corps, 9000 strong, began to arrive. Howard Driven Back. Howard assumed general command. He sent two of his divisions to the north of Gettysburg to protect the right flank against Rodes and Early, the lat- ter coming on from the north-east. General Steinwehr was held in reserve on Cemetery Hill, which was fortified. But Early got upon the flank of How- ard's troops, which were enfiladed by his artillery, and, aided by an onset of Rodes, they were broken and driven back through Gettysburg in disorder. This left the First Corps' right and rear uncovered, and, in turn, forced its rapid retreat through the town to the heights beyond, where it joined Stein- wehr and formed a new line from Gulp's Hill westward. The withdrawal of the First Corps occurred about 4 p. m. Many prisoners were lost by both corps in the retreat through the town. 25 General Lee arrived 011 Seminary Ridge in time to see the victorious advance of his troops and the disorgan- ized Federals streaming up Cemetery Hill. He sent discretionary orders to Ewell to pursue, but that, officer, en gaged in readjusting his broken lines, made no further advance. He has been greatly criticised by Confederate parti- sans for his failure to follow up "his advantages. But as the almost impreg- nable line of Culp's and Cemetery Hill was defeated by at least 10,000 men, 3,50c of whom had not fired a gun, sup- ported by a powerful artillery, it is probable Kwell would have been re- pul ed had he attacked. He reported that the position was for- midable, and that it would have been absurd to attack it then in his condi- tion. Night closed on the first day's battle at Gettysburg. A general battle had been precipitated by the fighting energy of General Reynolds, in spile of Lee's orders to delay an engagement until the whole army was up. No Jackson There. General Lee was now without his great leader and incomparable fighter, General T. J. Jackson, popularly called "Stonewall Jackson," and was com- pelled to bear the whole responsibility of the engagement. It was thought by many that if such an able general as Jackson had been on the field the final result might have been different. The magnitude of this battle of the 1st set aside all theoretical schemes to decoy Lee down to Pipe creek. About midday General Meade, at Taneytown, was informed of Reynold's death and the state of the battle. Later Buford sent word that a "tremendous battle 386 GREAT BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG. was raging with varying success ;" that "there seems to be no directing head,'' and that "we need help now. 1 ' Gen- eral Meade never hesitated when con- fronted with the necessity of changing his plan ; he prepared to fight at Gettys- burg. General W. S. Hancock was "cut forward to assume command and GENERAL T. J. (STONEWALL) JACKSON advise Meade of the practicability of fighting a battle there. His report was favorable, and the whole army was im- mediately sent forward to Gettysburg. Between sundown and 7 a. m. of July [St the Second, Third, Fifth and Twelfth Corps had arrived and gone into position along Cemetery Ridge. The Sixth Corps, twenty-five miles away, did not arrive until afternoon. General Meade himself reached Gettvsbnrg: at mid- night, and rode his lines, giving orders for the disposition of the troops as they arrived. General Hunt, its chief, placed the artillery. On the Confederate side, with the exception of Pickett's division and Law's brigade, Longstreet's corps ar- rived on the morning of the 2d, and the two armies were now concentrated face to face for battle. General Sickles, with the Third Corps, in the absence of definite orders, had established himself somewhat to the front on the extreme left, on some high ground, forming a sort of salient in the main line. After some doubts whether to attack with Ewell on the Union right or its left, with Long- street, General Lee finally selected Sickles as his point of attack on the 2d. Hood and McLaws were to attack up the Emmittsburg road from the south, while Hill pressed Sickles in front from the west. The attack was not de- livered until late in the afternoon, but, like all of Longstreet's work, it was de- livered with great impetuosity and ad- dress when at last it came. Nearly half the Union army was brought to Sickles's aid during the battle, and the Confed- erate advance was only stopped about nightfall, but not until after Sickles had been wounded, his corps driven from its faulty position and the Union leaders almost in despair. It was a fearful trial. GREAT BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG. 387 But as Longs treet afterwards said, his success had driven the Third Corps back into its proper place, where the line was unassailable. Longstreet penetrated no vital part of the line, but he threatened the Union army with a great disaster when Hood's men began the ascent of Round Top ere it was occupied. But General Warren energetically brought troops upon the ground in time to repulse the enemy and save that vital position. Longstreet lost 5,000 men in these assaults, and the Union army an equal number. Union Army Threatened. Ewell was to have attacked the Union right beyond Culp's Hill simultane- ously with Longstreet's movement, but the concert miscarried, and Ewell did not deliver battle until Longstreet's efforts had been exhausted or defeated. It was nearly night before Johnson and Early advanced, Rodes having failed to join in their attack. Early had some success at first along the east front of Cemetery Hill, but was eventually driven back with loss. Farther to the right Johnson's main attack was re- pulsed by the heroic Greene, but he occupied without opposition the breast- works of Ruger and Geary, withdrawn to reinforce Sickles. This unexpected success threatened the Baltimore pike and the rear of the Union army, but it was too dark for the enemy to perceive their advantage, and they sunk to rest without further effort. In the night Ruger's and Geary's commands returned ; finding the Confederates in possession, the leaders made dispositions to attack at daylight and drive them out. Although practically repulsed, the positions obtained by Longstreet on the Union left on the high ground along the Kmmittsburg road and close up to the Round Tops, and by Ewell on the right, determined Lee to persist in his attack on the Third. It was concluded to be feasible to break the Union centre along the west front of Cemetery Ridge, held by Hancock with the Second Corps and part of the First Corps. Pickett's division of the fifteen Virginia regiments had arrived from Chambers- burg. This, with Heth's division, was se- lected for the work in hand. Pettigrew in command of the latter in the absence of Heth, wounded. Pickett was on the right and Pettigrew on the left ; the former was to be supported by Wilcox and Perry's brigades, the latter by Lane and Scales. Altogether the attacking column consisted of not less than 15,000 men, but Pettigrew's troops were unfit for so desperate an under- taking by reason of their fearful losses on the 1st. A Hard Struggle. While these preparations were in progress for the final assault a heavy battle had begun on the Union right for the possession of the abandoned breastworks of the Twelfth Corps. General Williams, who commanded it, attacked Ewell at daylight with the divisions of Ruger and Geary, and the battle continued with varying fortunes until after 10 o'clock. Finally John- son's Confederates, driven back at all points, sullenly retired across Rock creek, and with their retreat the battle of Gettysburg ended on the Union right in decisive victory. On the whole, after the first day's success, Ewell's 388 GREAT BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG. efforts throughout the battle had been feeble aud unavailing. He had been unable to bring the decimated division of Rodes into action at all, and Early and Johnson bad been squarely defeated. These were the results on the right Thunder of Guns. The grand assault of Pickett and Pettigrew, under Longstreet, was pre- ceded at about i p. m. by a tremendous artillery fire from 150 Confederate can- non, responded to by perhaps a hundred Union guns. This cannonade contin- ued for nearly two hours, causing great havoc inside the Union lines, but no great loss of life. It failed to shake the Union soldiery. By order of General Hunt the Union tire was slackened aud finally ceased entirely to give oppor- tunity to bring Up fresh batteries aud ammunition to meet a heavy infantry assault which it was already divined by the Union leaders was now impending. It soon developed. To reach the Federal lines the Con- federates had to march a mile oyer open rolling fields under fire of many bat- teries. Their Hues of battle, nearly a mile long, swept out of the woods along Seminary Ridge about 5.50 P. M., and the erisis of the battle was at hand Their advance was watched hopefully by bee aud I .on gstreet, and eagerly by thousands of admiring eyes on both sides. The Federal soldiers were not unnerved by the threatening sight; the soldiers of Hancock were coolly waiting to redeem their losses at Fredericks burg. As they came on the Federal .-hot and shell aud then canister from a hundred guns began to tear wide gaps in tkeii lines. This frightful tire came from front and think; their line was enfiladed by the batteries on Round Top. bet tig lew's men on the left be- gan to drift aud lag behind under the weight of the Union tire, and Pickett was soon in the lead alone. When, within a third of a mile of the Union front Pickett halted, eoolly readjusted his lines and changing direction more toward the left, resumed his advance. Mad Rush of Federals. Wilcox and berry did not change their direction, but kept straight on, aud soon there was a considerable in- terval between them ami Pickett en the hitter's right. Pickett fnst struck Gen- eral Hays's advanced troops, and then Gibbon's division. Some oi them were slightly pressed back at first, but the Confederates were quickly overwhelmed by the mad rush of the charging Fed- erals. General Stannard's Vermont brigade changed front aud attacked Pickett in flank, in the interval caused by the movement of Wilcox and Perry crowding Kemper's brigade back upon the centre and capturing many pris- oners. At the foot of the acclivity, led by Armistead, with his hat upon his sword point, the Confederates made a last feeble rush, aud penetrated among some ot the Union guns. But attaeked on all sides by the" men of Webb, Hall, Harrow and Stannard, thee were driven back in utter rout. Garuett and Armistead were killed aud Kemper wounded. Pickett lost in this ill-fated charge 3,000 men in about an hour's time. He had ,10 chance from the first. Only a por- tion oi Pettigrew's command reached the front on the Confederate left; they i were easily beaten off by Hays' well- GREAT BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG. 389 posted troops who captured nearly 1,500 prisoners. Wilcox on the ex- treme right, was met by Caldwell's di- vision in front, and the omnipresent Stannard in flank, and beaten easily, losing heavily. During the day a heavy cavalry battle had been fought for posses- sion of the Baltimore pike in the Union rear, between Stuart and Gregg, and .Stuart's designs were thwarted, Pie drew off discom- fited. Thus, his troops beaten at all points, Lee's hopes were shat- ] tered. He ventured no more offen- sive movements. He expected a counter attack, but Meade was sat- isfied with the results already ob- tained, and awaited Lee's move- ments. That night Lee began to send his trains and wounded to the rear, while he held a fortified line along Seminary Ridge throughout the 4th to cover their removal. After nightfall on the 4th he quietly retired from Meade's front by the Fairfield road toward Hagerstown, and the invasion of Pennsylvania had come to an inglorious end within ten days of the time Longstreet and Hill erates with as gallant an army as ever faced an enemy, and under a general- ship unequalled for strategy, dash and GENERAL ROBERT E. LEE— COMMANDER-IN- CHIEF OP CONFEDERATE ARMY. brilliancy. The remainder of the Civil War was merely the closing of the greal tragedy. Other battles were fought and the brave .Southerners continued the struggle with a courage and des- crossed the Potomac to the support of ! peration that challenged the admiration Ewell. ' of the world, but their fate was sealed This pivotal battle marked the turn- and their hopes vanished at the bloody '*!g point in the success of the Confed- ' historic field of Gettysburg. CHAPTER XXV. Battle of Inkerman and Capture of the Malakoff. fNKERM AN has been rightly called the "Soldiers' Victory," but it might be still move justly styled "The British Soldiers' Battle." It was from first to last — from its un- expected opening at early dawn, through all its changing episodes in the hours before noon and until midday brought the crisis, through attack and counter- attack, offence and defence, onslaught and recoil — one of the finest feats of arms accomplished by British troops. It takes rank with Agiucourt, Rorke's Drift, the defence of Lncknow ; with New Orleans and Waterloo : equal to the best o( these, overshadowing some, surpassing others ; in its way unique — a bright and shining tribute to the war- like courage of a nation already laurel- crowned. Many British battles have been won against great odds, under tremendous disadvantages ; but none have better shown inflexible, unconquerable tena- city than Inkerman. It was lighting for safety too; had the British been de- feated at Inkerman their army would have been swept into the sea ; but these great issues were not fully realized by the rank-and-file. They knew they must win the day: that was their business, as it always is. But the fact that they were so near losing it made no great difference to them — all they thought oi was to come to blows, to try conclusions with the enemv, to charge him, bayonet him, shoot him: always supremely mdiffer- ] 390 ent to his vast numerical superiority. and quite undismayed by his courage. So it was that the strange spectacle was seen of a handful resisting thou- sands, of a weak company charging through battalion columns, of stalwart soldiers engaging a crowd of the ene- my single-handed and putting them to rout. When ammunition ran short, as it often did in the deadliest episodes, the men tore up great stones and hurled them at the i'oc] a few scores of gun- ners, when hard pressed, fought on with swords, and rammers, and sponges, and sticks, even with fists — for the story ot the Clitheroe bruiser who felled Rus- sian after Russian with knock-down blows is perfectly true. Men so eager fcr the conflict found officers as willing to lead them; there was no hesitation, no waiting to re- form, to rejoin regiments; any broken body gathered round any commander, all we:e ready to stand fast and die, go forward and die, do anything but re- tire. "What shall I do?" asked Colonel Egerton, at the head of his bare 200, when pitted against unknown numbers. " Fire a volley and charge !"' at once answered the brigadier; and his aide-de-camp, young Hugh Ciifferd, sprang to the front to be in with the fust tight. General Pennefather, at the end o( five hours' fighting, when he had lost more than half his small force, did not abate his confidence one jot : if Lord Raglan now would only give him a few INKERMAN AND THE MALAKOFF. 391 more men, lie said, he would finish the battle out of hand and " lick the enemy to the devil." Waterloo was " hard pounding," as Wellington quietly re- marked afterwards, but it was nothing to Inkerman. A Slow Siege. The battle of Inkerman was brought about by the restored confidence that gr-'at and overwhelming reinforcements gave the Russian generals inside Se- vastopol. After the successful landing, the victory of the Alma, the unim- peded flank march to the south side of the still incomplete fortress, the allied English and French had achieved no fresh triumphs. Prudence had over- ruled the daring but not quite unwar- ranted counsels to go straight in against Sebastopol; an immediate attack was deemed too dangerous, the golden op- portunity passed, and it became neces- sary to sit down before the stronghold and reduce it by the slow processes of a siege. The allies were thus planted in a cor- ner of the Crimea, committed to the highland or upland of the Chersonese, as it was called, the only ground they could possibly occupy when attacking Sebastopol from the south side — ground that no one would have selected had choice been unfettered, for it was rugged, inhospitable, very extensive, and above all exposed on one flank right round, almost to the very rear. Balaclava, the British base of supply, at a distance of six miles from the front, lay open to attack by an enterprising enemy, and almost the whole length of mad which connected it with the Brit- ish camp. How fully the Russians realized this, how nearly they overbore the weak re- sistance offered by the Turks who de- fended this vulnerable point, how nobly a handful of British cavalry spent itsel c in beating back disaster is a well known story. Prince MentschikofF, who commanded the Russian forces in and about Sebas- topol, exultantly foresaw the complete* annihilation of the allies. He believed that they were at the end of their tether. In his reports to St. Petersburg he de- clared that the enemy never dared now to venture out of his lines, his guns were silent, his infantry paralyzed, his cavalry did not exist. Great Russian Host. The Russians, on the other hand, were once more enormously in the as- cendant : troops had been pouring into Sebastopol continuously all through the month of October, 1854 5 a whole army corps had arrived from Odessa ; two other divisions were close at hand on the 2d of November, and .by the 4II1, the eve of the battle of Inkerman, the total of the land forces assembled in and around the fortress must have been quite 120,000 men. This total was just double that of the allies, including the Turks, available for all purposes, in- cluding the siege of a great fortress, which alone might claim the whole efforts of the army. No wonder, then, that Mentschikoff was full of confidence, that, he counted upon an easy triumph, nothing less than sweeping the allies off the upland into the sea. " The enemy," he wrote, " can- not effect his retreat without exposing himself to immense losses. Nothing can save him from a complete disaster. Future times, I am confident, will pre- 392 tNKERMAN AND THE M Al.AKOl-T. servo the remembrance of the exemplary chastisement inflicted upon the pre- sumption of the allies.*' Two of the Czar's sons were hurried post-haste to the Crimea to stiuuil.no the enthusiasm of the hoops and witness their splendid triumph. Some inkling of the impending dis- astei - prematurely so called, as was soon to be proved — crept out and gave general uneasiness even at a distance from the the.me o( war. Friends in Russia warned friends in England to anticipate terrible news. The great effort approaching was prepared under the direction of the Czar himself, and was of a nature and extent to deal an overwhelming blew. Another Battle at Hand. In theCrimeaitselfvagueintelligence reached the allied commanders that a terrible struggle was near at hand. Reports of the reinforcements arriving, of the stir and activity within the for- tress, the repair of roads, the mending of bridges, all the indications that are plain as print to the experienced mili- tary intelligence, warned Lord Raglan and General Canrobert to be on the look- OUt for another momentous battle, tor which, in truth, they were but badly prepared. Seme idea of the disproportion be- tween the armies about to come into collision will rightly be given here, so that we realize at once how overmatched were the allies, how marvellous there- fore was their prolonged resistance and eventual triumph on that now historic 5th of November, the Inkerman Sun- day which in British annals has eclipsed that other anniversary of the Gunpow- der plot. It has been said above that the Rus- sian forces totalled i jo.ooo in ail. Oi these rathei more than half. 01 70,000 men, were actually present in the field. All took part in the action, but some only as covering forces or engaged in feints : these numbered some 30,000j the re maiuder, just 40.000, composed the at- tacking columns, and fought the battle of Inkerman. The whole allied strength that day upon the upland oi the Cher- sonese was 05,000, but batch a quarter of these numbers could be or, as a mat- ter of fact, were used in the coming action. From first to last the total French and English forces on the ground were just 1 5,68 3— half of each, but more exactly 7,464 English and 8,219 French and o( the latter 3,570 were actually engaged. There is no mistake or ex- aggeration in these figures, which are based on official returns on both sides. Few Against Many. It must, moreover, be carefully borne in mind that only a proportion, and a small proportion, oi these 15,000 V on hand in the early stages of the fight. For hours the brunt of the battle fell upon the 2d division, which was bareb 3,000, although opposed to 40,000, and the reinforcements came to them in driblets slowly and affording but meagre assistance and relief. It is from the ex traordinary tenacity shown by British. soldiers in their prolonged and indom- itable resistance against such tremend- ous odds that such great glory was achieved at Inkerman. The allied weakness, of which Lord Raglan was fully aware, was caused by the stress laid upon their forces by the siege operations and the need ot pro- tecting their communications. The ENKBRMAM AM; THE MALAKOFF. '/■)'.. troops, taking them from wrest to and so to the SOUtfa and rear, CO /rout which was twenty miles lo Bef< pol the French were on the left, the English on the right; but ( '••■.. arobert, alws for the rear of his position, kept a large force on the heights above the Tcher- naya valley, and the Englisli perforce garrisoned and defended Balaclava. Defence Weakened. Hence on the right flank of the Brit ish front, round about Inkerman as it came to be called (although the r<:u] site of old [nkerman is on the opp< of the Tchernaya river), the defence was greatly impoverished, being limited in the first instance to a few weak bat- talions of the 2d division. Its im::. ate support — none too close — was a brigade of the Light Divi ion under ( j icral Codrington on the Victoria Ridge adjoining, but on the other side of a wide rough ravine; behind, and three quarters of a mile off, was the brigade of Guards, twice that dists the 2d brigade (Buller's) of the Light Division; the 4th and 3d divi ions. fronting Sebastopol and more or le appropriated to the siege work two or three miles removed from the reme right flank. .'. Prench army corps under Bosquet wa , however, within the lesser dista holding the eastern heights which gave General Canrobert so much concern But the forces thus described made up thesum total of the allied armed strength, and every portion had its particular place and specified duties. None could well be withdrawn from any part without denuding it of troops or dangerously weakening the long defensive line. There were in fact, no reser 1 second line to call up in 1 gency to stiffen and reinforce the fir t. The allies were fighting with their '■'■•■ '■■ 8 tnpos- wW« ''■> ere no fresh troops to inter],'//- and cover it. Serious Situation. The weakn< of the 2d d such an isolated and expo ed po had long been rais- ing. Its commander, Sir Del Evans, deemed his force — w< moi 'ant oul ty~ to be • |y small. He called \\ "most serious." Sir George Bi who commanded the Light D wars equal:;/ solicitous. Lord I the general-in-chief, knew the dan- ger too ; he reported home that his men of the 2d di rere well •'but there ■■■■■ re not enough of them/' But he was ever buoyant and hopeful, anticipating no gnat trouble, yet alive to his perils and fully prepared to :. them. " We have plenty to think i he v/rote to the English War Mini l "and all I can say is thai do our best" Strange to say, that best did not in- clude any artificial strengthening of the position by entrenchments. T ground was admirably suited for ( fence, and might have been made all but impregnable— or, at least, capable of withstanding even determined at- tacks. Earthworks would have g< far to redress the balance of numbers telling so heavily against the all:'' but only on-- meager barrier was erec'' and even this was destined to prove of inestimal e in the battle. The prompt use of the spa act 394 LNKKRMAN ANP THI-: MALAKOFF. then deemed an essential part of the soldier's field training, and, as the opening o( the trenches before Sebas- topol had entailed much labor oi that kind, the troops were spared more of it, even although indispensably neces- sary as everyone now knows Superior Numbers. The Russian general had not tailed to detect the inherent defects in the British line or to note carefully its weakest point Upon this he based his plan oi operations, lie meant to envelop ami crush the exposed right think by vastly superior numbers, while well timed demonstrations that might be expanded into attacks should occupy the allied forces at other parts of the field. This simple and perfectly plausi- ble scheme was to be worked out as follows : Two great columns, making up a combined strength of 40,000 men, with 135 guns, were to constitute the main, the most weighty, and as it came to pass, the only real attack. both were drawn Pom the newly-arrived .ph or Dannenberg's Armv Corps. One, call- ed the 10th Russian Division, com- manded by General Soimonoff, which had entered and was actually quartered within Sebastopol, was to take one flank, the left oi the English position ; the other, under General Pauloff, the 1 1 th division, still outside the fortress and lying north of the Tchernaya river, was to attack the English right. SoimonofTs force was strengthened In other regiments in the garrison, and its infantry strength was 19,000, his guns 38 in number. He was to issue from Sebastopol at a point between tie Malakoff Hill ami the kittle Redan, then follow the course of the Catenate ravine, and to come out on the northei n slopes oi Mount Inkerman, where he was to join hands with Pauloff, who, marching from the heights of [nkerman on the far side of the Tchernaya, was to cross that river and the low swampx ground that margined its course by the bridge near its month. Expected Sweeping Victory. This general commanded 16,000 in- fantry and had with him 96 guns. His orders were to ascend the northern slopes oi Mount lnkeiman and push on vigorously till he met with Soimon- off. When thus combined the whole force oi 40,000 (including artillerymen) was to come nndei the direction oi the Armv Corps commander. General Dan- nenberg, and his orders were to pi ess forward and cany all before him. It was confidently expected that noth- ing could withstand him -that he would ''roll np" the weak opposition of the English right, beat all that he encoun- tered and sweep victoriously onward right past the Windmill Hill to the eastern heights in the rear, and within easy distance oi Balaclava. Meanwhile, Prince Gortschakoff, who now commanded the army hitherto known as Riprandi's, in the valley of the Tchernaya, and had under him a force oi 22,000, with SS onus, was to "'contain" Bosquet — occupy his atten- tion, that is to say, by feints and false attacks upon his position, so that he should be held to these heights and unable to reinforce the English right. Rater, when the main attack had prospered and Dannenberg's victorious troops were seen well to the south of Windmill Hill, Gortsehakoff's demon- INKKRMAN AND THE MAI.AKOIT strations were to be converted into a I attack. He was to go up against the heights with all his force, d back Bosquet, join hands with Dan- nenberg, and the Russians would then be in triumphant possession of the greater part of the Chersonese upland. After that the siege tntu t be raised, the allies must be swept off the plateau, destroyed, taken prisoner, or hurried into disastrous flight upon their ships. To Move In Force. A third conditional operation was entrusted to the troops remaining in garrison, under the command of Gene- ral Moller. He was to closely "watch the progress of the battle," cover the right of the attacking troops with his artillery without attempting to reply to the fire of the allied siege-guns. Whenever confusion showed itself in the trenches, due to the great wave of victory setting from the eastward, he was to move out in force, attack and seize the siege-batteries. Capable military critics have not tailed to condemn the foregoing plan of operations. It erred, in the main attack, by trusting too entirely to numbers, crowding great masses of men on ground not spacious enough to hold them. There was not sufficient room, indeed, upon the Russian battlefield for half the forces engaged. Moreover, this ground, imperfectly known to the men who held it and might have carefully studied it, was cut in two by a great ridge, which divided the two columns intended to join forces, and prevented their conbined action. General Dannen' erg appears to have realized this difficulty and wished his two generals, Soimonoffand Pauloffj to act independeutly, the former directing his efforts against the Victoria Rid altogether to the westward of Mount. Inkerman, and leaving the latter ample space to manoeuvre. But Dannenberg's wishes were not distinct orders, and Soimonoff, obeying M- off, the general-in-chief, held on to the original plan. Again, Gortschakoffs role condemn- ed him to play a waiting game, and give no effective help until that help was no longer urgently required. He was to do nothing, in fact, until the main attack had actually succeeded. The longer the enemy resisted, the longer he remained inactive. Had he exerted a stronger pressure, had his feints been pushed with more insiste;. he would have paralyzed the movement of the French with Bosquet, and by the very direction of his attack weak- ened the English defence at Inkerman. " His advance was, however, left to depend upon a contingency that never occurred" — and while he waited for it his 22,000 men were of absolutely no use in the fight. Rough Battle Field. The whole surface of the field of bat- tle was thickly covered with brushwood and low coppice, amidst which crags and rocky boulders reared their heads. In some places the woods gathered into dense forest glades, and in others the ravines were steeply-scarped quarries difficult of access. Soimonoff started at 5 A. If., amid darkness and mist, which so favored his march that he reached Mount In kerman unobserved, and then and there seizing its highest point, Shell Hill, he placed his guns in battery on the crest .not; INKERMAN AND THE MAI.AKOFF. quite unknown to the British outposts. The night had been reported unusually quiet, although some fancied they hoard fore the alarm was raised. They were pressed back fighting, while the guns on Shell Hill opened a destructive fire. VIKW OF TOWN AND FO the rumbling o\ distant wheels — the wheels, in fact, vf PaulofPs artillery. Just before dawn, too — it was Sunday morning — all the bells o( Sebastopol rang out a joyous peal, not for worship, but to stimulate the courage oi the pious Russian soldiery. Hut outpost duty in those days was imperfectly performed, and the enemy was on top of the British pickets be- KTKKSS OF SEBASTOPOI,. General Pennefather, who was in tern porary command o( the 2d division, realized at once that serious events were at hand. It was not in his nature to retreat before the coming storm. He was a "fine fighter ; " in another rank of life he would have been in his ele- ment with a "bit of a twig" at Donny- brook Fair. "Whenever you see a head, hit it" was his favorite maxim in INKKRMAN AND THE MALAKOFF. y.n war ; and now, where a more cautions leader would have drawn off and lined the Home Ridge in defensive battle, he thrust forward with all his meagre forces to meet the Russian attack. This daring system was greatly aided by the state of the atmosphere ; in the fog and mist no notion of the pitiful number of their opponents reached the Russians, and the handful of English forgot that they were unsupported and so few. Pennefather's plan, born of his fighting propensities and indomitable pluck, found favor with his superiors, for when presently Lord Raglan, the English commander-in-chief, came upon the ground, he did not attempt to inter- fere, but left the audacious Irishman the uninterrupted control of the fight. Russian Column Shattered. They were meagre indeed — these first English defenders of Mount Inkerman. Pennefather had of his own barely 3,000 men all told, and only 500 men came Up in the first instance to reinforce him. But he sent all he had down in the brushwood out in front till it was filled with a slender line. Meanwhile Soim- onoff, waxing impatient and having all ready, was determined to begin without waiting for Pauloff's co-operation. His gnus on Shell Hill had "prepared" his advance, and soon after 7 a. m. he sent three separate columns against the left of the British position on Home Ridge. The first of these, on the extreme right, under road column, as it was called, got a long way round, when it met a wing of the 47th under Fordyce and a Guards picket under Prince Ed- ward of Saxe-Weimar, before whom it turned tail ; the second column had no better fortune on the Miriakoff spur; the third, following up the course of the Miriakoff glen, encountered a wing of the 49th under Grant, who at once gave the order to " fire a volley and charge." His counter-attack was delivered with such determination that it carried all before it; the Russian column was fairly broken tip and driven helter- skelter under the guns on Shell Hill. Smote Fiercely. Now Soimonoff came on in person at the head of twelve battalions, nearly 9,000 men. His aim was the centre and left centre of the allies, and for a time he made good progress. But the first supports, those from the Light Division, arriving, Pennefather at once used them against SoimonofF. He sent on the 88th Connaught Rangers, 400 of them who, feeling the whole weight of the attack, recoiled, and retreating left the three guns of Townshcnd's battery in the enemy's hands. Then the 77th under Egerton, but led also by the brigadier Buller, came up and caught Soimonoff's outside column — caught it and smote it so fiercely that it fled and was no more seen on the field. These Russians were 1,500 strong. Egerton had no more than 250, but he never faltered, and his men, answering like hounds to his cry, tore straight on at the run and smashed in with irre- sistible fury. There was an interval of raging turmoil in which the bayonets made fearful havoc ; then the Russians ran, Egerton pursuing at the charge to the foot of Shell Hill. About this time General Soimonoff was killed. Kg (- r- ton's action had wide-reaching conse- quences. Through it the abandoned three guns were recovered, the 88th ral- lied, the 77th themselves or their rem- 698 INKHRMAN AND THE MALAKOFF. nant held fast for hours the ground it hail secured. These combats disposed of about half the forces Soinionoff had put forward in this attack. The remainder had ad- vanced courageously against the allied centre by both sides of the post-road ; but they also were beaten back, partly by the fire of field guns, partly by the spirited charge of a couple of hundred men of the 44th under Bellairs. Russians Repulsed. Thus in less than an hour Soinionoff 's great effort was repulsed; he himself was slain, and his men driven off the field. For this portion of the 10th Russian division never regained cohe- sion as a formed military force. It was no mere defeat but an absolute over- throw, in which regiments melted away and the whole force was ruined. Many excuses have been offered for their want of success : the dense mist giving exaggerated value to the handful that faced them, they perhaps thought the enterprise too difficult. It is also certain that the English fire was murderously effective upon these compact columns of attack ; some were absolutely decimated, others lost nearly all their officers, and all were so shat- tered and disorganized that no part of them returned to the fight. Thev ought, nevertheless, to have done better ; with such greatly superior forces, backed up by the incessant fire of a formidable artillery, success would probably have awaited bolder and braver men. Meanwhile a portion of Pauloff's di- vision had arrived by a shorter and more direct road, while the rest had circled round after Soinionoff. Some of these people of Pauloff's were at once attracted by the Sandbag Battery, and, soon taking it from the sergeants' guard that held it, made this hollow vantage-ground their own. A mass of men, three great columns, supported this attack, and Pennefather sent Gen- eral Adams against them with the 41st Regiment. He went forward in extended order with a wide front of fire, and the Rus- sians soon fell away ; those in the bat- tery evacuated it ; the columns support- ing broke and dropped piecemeal into the valley. In this splendid affair 500 men disposed of 4,000. Again, at the Barrier, which the rest of Pauloff's men approached with great determina- tion, a small body, the wing of the 30th Regiment under Colonel Mauleverer, achieved an equal triumph — that of 200 over 2,000. Here it was the British bayonet that told, for the men's fire- locks were soaking wet and the caps would not explode. Daring Bravery. But Mauleverer trusted to the cold steel. Officers leapt down daringly in among the Russians; men followed at the charge : the head of the leading column was struck with such impetus that it turned in hasty retreat, causing hopeless confusion in the columns be- hind, and all fled, a broken throng of fugitives, hundreds upon hundreds, chased by seven or eight score. This ended the first Russian on- slaught. Half Soimonoff's division was beaten out of sight ; 6,000 men were lost to Pauloff. At least 15,000 out of 25,- 000 were "extirpated." as the Russians admit in their official accounts, and this by no superior generalship but by the dogged valor, the undismayed re- INKERMAN AND IIIIC MALAKOFF. 399 sistance, of just 3,500 Englishmen. It was a good omen for the issue of the day's fighting, but the end was not yet, and a further terrible stress was still to be imposed upon the overmatched troops. Eager for Battle. Supports, such as they were, now be- gun to arrive. The alarm had spread across the upland rousing every soul, and in every camp near and far the assem- bly sounded, men rushed to arms, half- dressed, fasting, eager only to hurry into the fight. Some of the L,ight Divi- sion, as we have seen, had been already engaged. General Codrington with the rest was in battle array, holding the Victoria Ridge with scanty forces. The Guards' brigade, 1,200 men, under the Duke of Cambridge, was approaching, 700 already close to the Home Ridge ; the 4th division under Sir George Cath- cart, 2,000 strong, was also near at hand. These, with the field-batteries, raised the reinforcements to a total of 4,700 men. Two French battalions had been des- patched to support Pennefather, al- though from some misunderstanding they were not utilized, and Bosquet, who had come up with them, returned to the Eastern Heights, where he was still menaced by Gortschakoff. It was not until much later in the day that General Bosquet realized that the Rus- sians in front of him were only pre- tending to attack, and then he hurried with substantial forces to Mount Inker- man. But until then he allowed him- self to be tied, ineffectively to the wrong place, giving no assistance in the main fight and certain to be "rolled up" in his turn if that fight ended dis- astrously for the English. General Dannenberg had now as- sumed the chief command, and, un- daunted by the first failure, he set about organizing a fresh attack. He had at his disposal 19,000 fresh and un- touched troops : Soimonoff's reserves and Pauloff's regiments which had come round by the lower road. The latter, 10,000 strong, were sent against the English centre and right, their first task being the recapture of the Sand- bag Battery. General Adams was still here with his 700 men of the 41st Re- giment, and he made a firm stand ; 4,000 men attacked him again and again with far more courage and per- sistence than any Russian troops had yet shown; and at last, still fighting inch by inch Adams fell back, leaving the battery in the enemy's hands. Taken and Re-taken. Now the Guards came up under the Duke of Cambridge, and replacing Adams, went forward with a rush and recovered it, only to find it a useless possession. It was presently vacated by one lot, re-entered by the Russians, recaptured by another lot, and then again the Russians, imagining it to be an essential feature in the allied de- fence, concentrated their force to again attack it. Once more they took it, once more the Guards returned, and with irresistible energy drove them out. Thus the tide of battle ebbed and flowed around this empty carcase, and to nei- ther side did its possession mean loss or gain. The 4th division, under Sir George Cathcart, had now arrived upon the ground. He had just 2,000 men, and of these four-fifths were speedily distri- buted in fragments to stiffen and sup- 400 INKERMAN AND THE MALAKOFF. port Pennefather's fighting line just where he thought they were most re- quired. With the small residue, not 400 men, Cathcart was ready for any adventure. There was a gap in the English line between Pennefather's right and the Guards struggling about the Sandbag- Battery, and this opening Cathcart was desired to fill. The order came direct from Lord Raglan, who was now in the field ; but Cathcart thought fit to act otherwise, believing that there was an opening for a deci- sive flank attack. Rushed Like a Torrent. He meant to strike at the left of the Russians, and leaving his vantage ground above he descended the steep slopes with his 400 men. The offen- sive movement was taken up by the troops nearest him — Guards, 20th, 95th. All the men gathered about the Sandbag Battery rushed headlong like a torrent down the hillside, and following up this fancied advantage, jeopardized the battle. For the gap which Cath- cart had been ordered to occupy be' came filled by a heavy column of Rus sians, who took their enemy in reverse and cut them completely off. " I fear we are in a mess," said Cath- cart, taking in the situation; and al- most directly afterwards he was shot through the heart. Only by a desper- ate effort, a series of personal hand-to- hand combats fought by small units courageously led by junior officers, even by non-combatant doctors, did the English regain touch with their own people. They were aided, too, by the opportune advance of a French regi- ment, which took the interposing Rus- sians in flank and drove them off. But if this mad adventure of CathcarVs es- caped the most disastrous consequences, its effect, nevertheless, was to still fur- ther break up and disseminate the al- ready weakened and half-spent forces of the allies. Forced Slowly Back. All this time, Dannenberg had been pressing hard upon the allied centre. Here his attacking column met first Mauleverer with his victorious army of the 30th, and forced them slowly and reluctantly back, but was itself repulsed by a fresh army of the Rifle Brigade and driven down into the Quarry. Thence it again emerged, reinforced, and moved by the right against the Home Ridge. It was in these advances that they pene- trated the gap just mentioned and got upon the rear of Cathcart and the Guards. But the westernmost columns were charged by a portion of the 4th divi- sion, the 2 1st and 63d regiments, over- thrown and pursued ; while the Russian attack on the right of the Home Ridge was met by General Goldie with the 20th and 57th, also of the 4U1 division. Both these regiments were notable fighters, with very glorious traditions: the "Minden yell" of the 20th had stricken fear into its enemies for more than a century, and the 57th " Die Hards" had gained that imperishable title of honor at Albuera. "Fifty- seventh, remember Albuera!" was a battle-cry that sent them with terrible fury into the Russian ranks, and these two gallant regiments hunted their game right down into the Quarry. Once more the most strenuous efforts of the enemy had failed, with what a cost of heroic lives history still proudly INKERMAN AND THE MALAKOFF. 401 tells. Dannenberg, however, if dis- heartened was not yet hopeless. He knew that the allies were hard pressed; if he himself had suffered so had they, and more severely. He had still 10,000 men in hand; many of them, although once worsted, were still not disorgan- ized or disheartened, and his reserves — 9,000 more — were still intact, while guns a hundred in number held the mastery from Shell Hill. Half were Lost. Of the English forces, never more than 5,000 strong, half had been de- stroyed or annulled. True, the French had come upon the ground with two battalions, 1,600 men ; but Bosquet, with the main part of his command, was still a long way behind. Dannen- berg resolved to make another and more determined attack upon the centre of the English position, aiming for that Home Ridge, as it was called, which was the inner and last line of the allied defence. The Russians came on with a strength of 6,000 assailants, formed, as before, in a dense column of attack. One led the van, the main trunk followed, flanked by the others, and all coming up out of the now memorable Quarry Ravine. Pennefather had some 500 or 600 to hold the ridge, remnants of the 55th, 95th, and 77th regiments, and a French battalion of the 7th Leger, with a small detachment of Zouaves. These were very inadequate forces, and the Russians, pushing home with more heart than they had hitherto shown, crowned the crest and broke over the inner slopes of the ridge. The 7th Leger had not much stomach for the fight, but were pushed on by the 26 Zouaves and the men of the 77th, still led by the intrepid Egerton. By this time the main trunk column of the enemy had swept over the Barrier at the head of the Quarry, and the small force of defenders retired sullenly be- hind the Home Ridge. Critical Moment. Now the position seemed in immi- nent danger, and this was, perhaps, the most critical period in the battle. But the advance of the Russians, although in overwhelming strength, was checked by another daring charge — that of a handful of the 55th (thirty, no more) under Colonel Danberry, who went headlong into the thick of one of the rearmost Russian battalions. This small body of heroes tore through the mass by sheer strength, as if it were a foot-ball scrooge, using their bayonets and their butt-ends, even their fists, fighting desperately till they "cleft a path through the battalion from flank to flank, and came out at last in open air on the east of the great trunk column." The noise of tumult in the rear and the vague sense of discomfiture and de- feat shook the leading assailants, and the Russians first halted irresolute then turned and retired. At this time, too, one of the flanking columns, moving up on the Russian right, encountered the 21st and 63d regiments, and was promptly charged and driven back by these regiments, which re-possessed themselves of the Barrier and held it. Then the Russian left column, worsted by British artillery and the French 7th Leger, also retired. It was now but little past 9 A. M.. and as yet the battle, although going against 40-: INKERMAN AND THE MALAKOFF. the Russians, was still neither lost nor won. They still held the ascendant on Shell Hill, -till had their reserves. [rfOrd Raglan, on the other hand, could not draw upon a single man, and Bos- quet's main force was still a long way oil. Now, too, the French got into some difficulty upon the right above the Sandbag Battery, and were in im- minent danger oi defeat. Moreover, the Russians made a fresh effort against the Harrier, coming up onee again out <>t the Quarry. The Harrier was held bv the 2ist and 63d, but the stress put upon them was great, and lVnnefather sent on such scanty support as he could spare. Great slaughter ensued in this conflict. Genera] Goldie, who was now in command oi the 4th division, was killed, and other valuable officers. Allied Guns. The Russian artillery did deadly mis- chief, but now, by Lord Raglan's unerr- ing foresight, it was to be met and over- matched by the allied guns. At an earliei hour of the morning he had sent back to the Siege Park for a couple of eighteen-pounders, guns that in the enormous development oi artillery sci- ence we should think nothing oi nowa- days, but which at lukerman were far- superior to the Russian field-batteries. So eager were the gunners that these two famous eighteen-pounders were dragged up to the front with "man har- ness," by some hundred and fifty artil- lerymen and a crowd of eager officers. The guns were placed in a command- ing position and worked splendidly under the very eves and with the warm approval of Lord Raglan. They soon established a superiority oi fire and spread such havoc and confusion among the Russian batteries on Shell Hill that the power of the latter bewail to wane. Victory, so long in the balance, was at last inclining to the side of the allies. Issue in Danger. Still the battle was not won. If the Russians did not renew their attacks, they still held their ground ; and Bos quet, coming up presently with his whole strength, made a false move which nearly jeopardized the issue. The French general, having with him 3,000 infantry and 24 guns, " hankering after a Hank attack," reached forward on the far right beyond the Sandbag Battery and the spurs adjoining. Here he fell among the enemy, found himself threatened to right ami to left and in front, and, realizing his peril, hastily withdrew. Happily, the Russians did not seize the undoubted advantage that mere accident had brought them by Bosquet's injudicious and hazardous advance. Had they gathered strength for a fresh and vigorous onslaught upon the English right, they might perhaps have turned the scale against them. The French were clearly discomfited and out of heart for a time. Then as the Russians made no forward move, Bosquet regained confidence ; he threw forward his Zouaves and Algerines, and these active troops came upon some Russians which were slowly climbing the slopes, and hurled them down again in great disorder. Our old friends the 6th and 7th French regiments, the earli- est on the field, advanced along the post-road towards the Harrier, where they were covered by the English. This, briefly told, was the sum total of the French performances at the battle of lukerman. INKJiRMAN AND THE MALAKOFF. 403 It is well known to all who study war that, when the crisis of a Wattle com victory is for hi in who has the best dis- posable reserve in hand. Of the forces now engaged the French alone were in this happy situation; the English were all but exhausted. Lord Raglan, as has been said, had not a spare man. As for the Russians, Gortschakoff's su- pineness had robbed his comrades of the lance of 20,000 men, and the gen- eral in-chief, Mentschikoff, although close at hand on the field, did not see fit to bring up the reinforcements from the garrison of the town. "What Can I Do?" But now Marshal Canrobert, never a daring leader, was moved to desist from the fight. When he learnt that the English were all but spent, lie would do nothing more, although he had a very large force of all arms now up and well in hand. No arguments, no ap- peals of Lord Raglan's would in him. "What can I — what can I do?" he asked querulously; "the Russians are everywhere." Had it been left to the French, the field would have been abandoned to the Russians, who were still in possession of the greater part of Mount Inkerman, and the battle would have been practically drawn. On the other hand, a vigorous on- slaught by the still fresh and untouched French might have carried the Flagstaff bastion and led to the capture of Sebas- topol itself. But Canrobert was not the man to take so great a risk or jeopardize so many lives. It was left to Haines, who still held the Barrier, to move up against Shell Hill. Lord West sec- onded him in this bold endeavor, a young lieutenant of the 77th, Acton by name, also went on with a mere hand- ful, and Colonel Horsford came on in support with the remnant of the Rifle Brigade. All this time, too, Lord Rag- lan's 18-pounders were dealing death and destruction among the Russian bat- teries ; and at last Dannenberg, under stress of this "murderous fire" — they his own words — decided to limber up his guns and retire his whole force. This, in fact, was done, and about 1 j'. M. the Russians admitted defeat. Heavy Russian Losses. If in this grand contest the allies were greatly outnumbered by the Russians, the latter suffered the most, their losses being four times as great as those of the victors. They had 12,000 killed and wounded, a large proportion of them left dead upon the field, among them 256 officers. The English lost 597 killed, 39 of them officers, and 3 general officers; 1,760 men and 91 officers wounded. The French lost 13 officers and 130 men killed and 36 officers and 750 men wounded. These figures show plainly on whom the brunt of the fighting fell, and the enormous losses of the Russians were mainly due to the density of their col- umns of attack and the superiority of English musketry and artillery fire. A very large part of the English infantry at Inkerman were armed with the new- fangled Minie rifle, and what powerful aid was afforded by the two 18-pounder guns has been already shown in the course of the narrative. In this Crimean war the key to the situation was the renowned fortress of Sebastopol, and to capture this was the object of the allied armies of England, France and Turkey. These took up a 404 INKERMAN AND THE MALAKOFF. position near Balaclava, located south of Sebastopol, and began the siege of that vast fortress. The Russians made repeated attempts, with overwhelming masses of troops, to force the allied position, which led to the bloody bat- tle of Inkerman, already described. Two Main Outposts. There were two main keys or outposts to the fortresses, one being the Redan and the other the MalakofF. These were provided with all the necessary means for a thorough defence. As the siege dragged on for many mouths the main efforts of the allied commanders finally were directed to closing in upon the defences of the town, and as a first step it was necessary to gain possession of the various outworks and advanced posts. These were the White Works, the Mamelon, the Quarries, the Mala- kofF, and the Redan. It was on June the 6th that a fresh bombardment was undertaken in order to reduce them, both the English and French guns be- ing actively engaged — to the number of 544. The Mamelon was soon crushed, the White Works greatly damaged, and only the MalakofF was able to return the fire at the close of the day. The cannonade was continued all through next day and towards dusk. Bosquet sent forward two brigades, and took possession of the White Works without serious opposition, which dur- ing the night were incorporated with the French trenches. On that same evening, June 7th, about 5.30, three French columns moved out boldly to attack the Mamelon, headed by a brave colonel, Brancion, who was slain just as his men triumphantly crowned the parapet Another column of Turcos took the works by the rear, and this combined attack was for a time per- fectly successful ; then the Russians, reinforced, made a counter-attack, re- took the Mamelon, held it for a time, and were in their turn again expelled. The entry of the French into this works was the signal for an attack upon the Quarries, and this tough job was entrusted to detachments of the 2d and Light Divisions, the whole under Colo- nel Shirley. These Quarries were soon carried, but, being at the rear, they were searched through and through by the enemy's guns, and proved untenable until the Russians came out and were mixed with the assailants. Then the fight rolled back and forward, the vic- tory now inclining to this side, now to that. In the end, however, when dawn broke, the whole of the works the allies had attacked remained in their hands. Awaiting Final Attack. This substantial triumph greatly elated the allies. All who were en- gaged in it hoped that a turn was ap- proaching in this wearisome siege, and impatiently awaited the final attack, which must now, surely, be soon made. This, indeed, was the fixed intention of the allied generals, and in the days fol- lowing the last-named captures, meas- ures were concerted to assault the inner and chief works of the town. Even now the Emperor Napoleoc persisted in advising field-operations, and continued to telegraph orders to Pelissier, the French commander, to that efFect. The sturdy French general protested, pleading how impossible it was for him to exercise his command 44 at the end, sometimes paralyzing, of INKERMAN AND THE MALAKOFF. 405 an electric wire " — and still went his own way. To the emperor's last per- emptory message he replied: "To- morrow, at daybreak, in conceit with the English, I attack the Redan, the MalakofF, and their dependent batteries. I am full of hope." Bad Generalship. Yet this great attack was foredoomed to failure. Everything went wrong, especially with the French commander- in-chief. It is now believed that Pelis- sier, although outwardly firm, was greatly harassed in mind by the con- tinual interference of the emperor. Whatever the reason, he made mistake upon mistake. In the first place, he removed Bosquet from the command of the troops that were to attack the Mala- kofF, and substituted a general but lately landed, and quite ignorant of the ground, which Bosquet knew, as the French say, " as well as his own pocket." In the second place, although it had been arranged with Lord Raglan that the attack should be preceded by a two days' cannonade, the fire of the 17th of June was not resumed by the French on the fatal morning of the 18th, and Pelis- sier suddenly decided to attack at day- break without it. This, the anniversary of Waterloo, when two old foes now were to fight side by side, had been chosen on purpose, and yet it was to be associated with disaster. The French columns intended to assault the Mala- kofF found themselves mixed up and confused in the trenches. It was a brilliant starlight night, and the Rus- sians, seeing them plainly, brought up all their strength to resist. The assailants, when they moved forward, encountered fierce opposition from dogged men posted behind works rapidly repaired, and the French pre- sently retreated with considerable loss. The same misfortune met the English, for Lord Raglan, although aware of the French failure, felt bound to also at- tack. His men never got near the Redan — they were swept away in hun- dreds, as they crossed the open, by a storm of grape. Their leaders were killed, General Campbell and gallant Lacy Yea, and the remnant fell back disheartened. Only at one point, down by the Creek battery, that fiery leader Sir William Eyre had penetrated the defence and entered the town. But he was wounded himself, and the lodgment made was relinquished, failing proper support. Disaster Killed Him. From this grievous disaster Lord Raglan, who was already in failing health, never recovered. The noble English soldier, who had long borne unmerited contumely in proud silence, content to do his duty to the utmost of his power, was now heartbroken at this defeat, and sinking gradually, he died ten days after the 18th of June. How greatly his fine character had impressed all who were joined with him in this chanceful campaign was shown by Pelissier's great grief at his death. The rugged, stern, intractable Frenchman had from the first evinced the highest respect and affection for his English colleague ; and it is said that when Lord Raglan was no more, General Peiissier came and "stood by his bed- side for upwards of an hour, crying like a child." But although Peiissier could yield thus to his generous emotions, he never 406 INKERMAN AND THE MALAKOFF. weakened on the business in hand. Defeat only redoubled his dogged de- termination to succeed in his own way. This indomitable attitude at last won him the respect of his hitherto hostile superiors, and even the Emperor Na- poleon, surrendered his beloved projects, admitted that now every effort must be concentrated on the siege. The affront of failure must now be wiped out — speedily, if possible, but at any rate surely.'j Heaps of Dead. Progress was still slow, but still the force crept steadily forward, until it ap- proached in some places the very foot of the enemy's defences, while, without intermission, the war of weapons con- tinued. The English had established an overwhelming superiority of fire, and their guns worked frightful havoc in the garrison. "Losses!" said a young Russian officer who had accom- panied a flag of truce ; "you don't know what the word means. You should see our batteries : the dead lie there in heaps and heaps." The Russians during the last bombardment lost from 1,000 to 1,500 a day. Yet two more months passed, and the allies were still outside. Neither Pelis- sier, with his strong and masterful spirit, nor Sir James Simpson, Lord Raglan's successor — a much poorer creature — was disposed to risk failure again by another premature or ill-considered at- tack; and while they waited to make all sure, the enemy took his fate in both hands, and sought to relieve the nearly ruined fortress by one last great counter- stroke. The battle of the Tchernaya, or of Tractir Bridge, fought on the 15 th of August, was a despairing but most vig- orous attack upon the French right flank, where the newly arrived Italian — or, more exactly, Sardinian — allies were also posted. Thirty thousand Russians, under Generals Read and Liprandi, with a reserve of 19,000 more infantry, the whole supported by cav- alry and a numerous artillery, came on at daylight, but attacked too soon the heights held strongly by the French, and were driven back with great slaughter. The Sardinians also fought well, and some horse artillery also took part in the fight. Hope Abandoned. The outcome still tarried, but all hope of holding Sebastopol was at an end. Since the commencement of the Crimean campaign the Russians had lost many thousands of men in the fortress and in the field, and their con- dition was nearly desperate. Prepara- tions to evacuate the city were at last be- gun — the great bridge of retreat across the harbor, barricades and obstacles in the streets and approaches. Yet Prince Gortschakoff still hesitated, and wished at the eleventh hour to prolong the de- fence in spite of the tremendous sacri- fice it would entail. But now, at last, opportunity was ripe ; the French most advanced trench was within five-and-twenty yards of the Malakoff, and the hour of attack was at hand. Once more, and for the last time, the guns re-opened fire and blazed away incessantly on the 6th and 7th of Sep- tember, doing, as usual, infinite injury; but in the early morning of the 8th the Russians stood ready, their reserves in hand, their guns loaded with grape. It INKERMAN AND THE MALAKOFF. 407 was not Pelissier's intention to attack the Malakoff — the principal point — be- fore noon. He had observed that at that hour the old guards were relieved by the new, but that the one marched out of the works before the others re- placed. Gallant MacMahon. This was the plan which the French general hugged so closely to his heart that, as he himself put it, he would not whisper it to his pillow. The general control of the attack was placed under Bosquet, but the actual assault of the Malakoff was entrusted to MacMahon, that fine soldier who, years later, be- came President of the French Republic. Other troops filled in the line towards the Redan, where the English, under General Windham, were to come into play; but theirs was essentially an in- ferior and subsidiary role, for under no circumstances should they have attacked the Redan alone. Further subordinate moves were to be made by the French on Flagstaff Bastion, while the Central Bastion was to be dealt with by the Sardinians. At noon exactly, MacMahon's first brigade crossed the open at a run, and found the Malakoff nearly empty; but then the Russian relief came up, and a fierce hand-to-hand struggle began. Every traverse, every coign of vantage, was taken and retaken, the Russians fighting with desperate courage ; and it was not until the French had broken into the work by its eastern face that victory inclined to their side. Still, the conflict was maintained until late in the afternoon, the Russians bringing up every reserve, but all to no purpose, and finally the trico'ior waved over the Malakoff. The key to the fortress was won. Elsewhere fate had been adverse. The French columns on the left of the prin- cipal attack had not greatly, prospered, while the English at the Redan had dis- tinctly failed. No doubt they were more or less doomed to failure from the first; for the Russians retiring from the Mal- akoff, swarmed into the Redan and soon filled it with vast numbers, while the English assailants at best were few. Yet they went up undaunted; many boldly climbed over the huge parapet, and for some time maintained a firm front inside. Fall of the Citadel. Unfortunately, support in sufficient strength was not promptly sent for- ward, and General Windham went back in search of them. This ill-advised step left the combatants, already hardly pressed, without the guidance of any leader of rank, and the unequal contest was not long maintained. Had the French, it is said, turned the Russian guns they had captured in the Mala- koff on to the Redan, that work would have been quite untenable, so that its assault — except, perhaps, as a feint — was really unnecessary. Thus Sebastopol, or its principal part —smoking ruins and an empty shell — fell at last to the allied forces of French and English. Probably the assault upon the Malakoff, if it had not been successful, would not have been renewed ; for everybody agreed that if the fortress was not taken before the second winter arrived, it would have been necessary to raise the siege. CHAPTER XXVI. Overthrow of the French Empire at Sedan. AR between France and Ger- many had been declared on 19th July, 1870 ; and as early as August 2nd — so swiftly had been accomplished the work of mobilizing the hosts of the Fatherland as the " Watch on the Rhine " — King William of Prussia, now in his seventieth year, took command of the united German armies at Mayence. These armies were three in number — the First, on the right, consisting of 60,000 men, commanded by General Steiumetz ; the Second, in the centre, 194,000 strong, under the "Red Prince" (Frederick Charles); and the Third, on the left, 130,000, led by the Crown Prince of Prussia. An additional 100,- 000 men, still at the disposal of any of these three hosts, brought up the Ger- man field-army to a figure of 484,000. Altogether, Germany now had under arms no fewer than 1,183,389 men, with 2 5°>373 horses ! Many of these, how- ever, had to remain behind in the Fatherland itself to man the fortresses and maintain communication with the front ; while others belonged to the cat- egory of supplementary troops, or re- serves, held ready to supply the gaps made in the fighting field-army of nearly half a million men, as above. The corresponding field array of the French was considerably inferior in point of numbers (336,500), equipment, organization, and discipline — in all re- spects, in fact, save that of the chasse- 408 pot rifle, which was decidedly superiot to the German needle-gun. The French, too, had a large number of mitrailleuses, or machine-guns, which ground out the bullets at what they deemed would be a terribly murderous rate. But these instruments of wholesale massacre did not, in the end, come up to the French expectation of them ; while, on the other hand, the Prussian field-artillery proved itself to be far superior in all respects to that of the French. Finally, the Germans had a plan ; the French had none. Profound forethought was stamped on everything the Ger- mans did ; but, on the other hand, it was stamped on scarcely one single act of their enemies. The Germans had at their head a man of design, while the corresponding director of the French was only a " Man of Destiny." The first serious battle was fought on the 4th August at Wissemburg, when the Crown Prince fell upon the French and smote them hip and thigh, follow- ing up this victory, on the 6th, at Worth, when he again assaulted and tumbled back the overweening hosts of MacMahon in hideous ruin, partly on Strasburg, partly on Chalons. On this same day Steinmetz, on the right, car- ried the Spicheren Heights with terrific carnage, and all but annihilated Fros- sard's Corps. It was now the turn of the " Red Prince," in the centre, to strike in ; and this he did on the 16th, with glorious OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 40S success, at Mars-la-Tour, when, against fivefold odds, he hung on to Marshal Bazaine's army and thwarted it in its attempt to escape from Metz. Two days later, the 18th, on very nearly the same ground, there was fought the bloodiest battle of all the war, that of Gravelotte-St. Privat — which resulted in the hurling back of Bazaine into Metz, there to be cooped up and belea- guered by Prince Frederick Charles and forced to capitulate within a couple of months. The Crisis Near. Moltke's immediate object was now to dispose of MacMahon, who had retired on Chalons— thence either to fall back on Paris, or march by a circuitous route to the relief of Bazaine. Which course he meant to adopt the German leaders did not as yet know, though it was of life-and- death importance that they should find out with the least pos- sible delay. Meanwhile the Crown Prince of Prussia with the Third Army continued his pursuit of MacMahon, as if towards Chalons ; and with him co- operated the Crown Prince of Saxony at the head of a Fourth Army (of the Meuse), which had now been created out of such of the "Red Prince's" forces (First and Second Armies) as were not required for the investment of Metz. For several days the pursuing Ger- mans continued their rapid march to the west, but on the 25th, word reached Moltke, the real directing head of the campaign, that McMahon in hot haste had evacuated the camp at Chalons, and marched to the north-west on Rheims, with the apparent intention of doubling back on Metz. Meanwhile, until his intention should become un- mistakably plain, the German leaders did no more than give a right half-front direction to the enormous host of about 200,000 men, which, on an irregular frontage of nearly fifty miles, was sweeping forward to the west, Paris- wards. For three more days this altered movement was continued, and then " Right-hand wheel ! " again resounded all along the enormous line, there being now executed by the German armies one of the grandest feats of strategical combination that had ever been per- formed. The German cavalry had al- ready done wonders of scouting, but it was believed that Moltke's knowledge of the altered movements of MacMahon was now mainly derived from Paris telegrams to a London newspaper, which were promptly re-communicated, by way of Berlin, to the German head- quarters — a proof of how the revelations of the war-correspondent — whom Lord Woolsey once denounced as the "curse of modern armies" — may sometimes affect the whole course of a campaign. On the Double Quick. Not long was it now before the heads of the German columns were within striking distance of MacMahon, who was hastening eastward to cross the Meuse in the direction of Metz ; but his movement became ever more flurried in proportion to the swiftness where- with the Germans deployed their armies on a frontage parallel to his flank line of march. Alternately obeying his own military instincts and the political orders from Paris, MacMahon dodged and doubled in the basin of the Meuse like a breathless and bewildered hare. 410 OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. On the 30th of August an action at Beaumont proved to the French the jtter hopelessness of their attempting to pursue their Metz-ward march. As f he battle of Mars-la-Tour had coin- WILLIAM I. — EMPEROR OF GERMANY. pelled Bazaiue to relinquish his plan of reaching Verden and to fight for his life with his back to Metz, so the victory of Beaumont proved to MacMahon that his only resource left was to abandon the attempt to reach the virgin fortress on the Moselle, and concentrate his de- moralized and rabble army around the frontier stronghold of Sedan. As Sedan had been the birthplace of one of the greatest of French marshals, Turenne, who had unrighteously seized Strasburg and the left bank of the Rhine for France, and been the scourge of Germany, it was peculiarly fitting that it should now become the scene of the battle which wa? to restore Alsace-Lor raine to the Father- land, and destroy the Continental supremacy of the Gauls. Standing on the right bank of the Meuse, in a projecting angle between Luxem- burg and Belgian ter- ritory, the fortressed old town of Sedan is surrounded by mea- dows, gardens, culti- vated fields, ravines, and wet-ditches ; while the citadel, or castle, rises on a cliff-like eminence to the south- west of the place. Away in the distance towards the Belgian frontier stretch the Ardennes — that ver- dant forest of Arden in which Touchstone jested and Orlando loved, but which was now to become the scene of a great tragedy — of one of the most crushing disasters that ever befell a mighty nation. In retiring on Sedan, MacMahon had not intended to offer battle there, but simply to give his troops a short rest, of which they stood so much in need, and provide them with food and am- munition. These troops were worn out with their efforts by day and night and OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 411 continuous rain ; while their apparently aimless inarching to and fro had under- mined their confidence in their leaders, and a series of defeats had shaken their own self-trust. Thousands of fugitives, crying for bread, crowded round the wagons as they made their way to the little fortress which had thus so sud- denly become the goal of a vast army. Mouse in the Trap. On the 31st of August, after making all his strategic preparations, and tak- ing a general survey of the situation, Moltke quietly remarked with a chuckle: "The trap is now closed, and the mouse is in it." That night headquarters were at Vendresse, a town- let about fourteen miles to the south of Sedan ; and early on the morning of the 1st of September, King William and his brilliant suite of generals, princes, and foreign officers were up and away to the hill-slope of Fresnois, which commands a view of the town and valley of Sedan as a box on the grand tiers of an opera does that of the stage. Bismarck, Moltke, and Roon — the king's mighty men of wisdom and valor — were also in his majesty's suite. "Why," remarked a Prussian soldier on seeing this brilliant assemblage take up its position on the brow of the hill and produce its field-glasses, "why, all this is just the same as at our autumn manoeuvres ! " The morning had broken in a thick fog, under cover of which the Germans had marched up to their various posi- tions, some of the columns having moved off at midnight ; and by the time King William had taken his stand on the Fresnois height, a little to the cast of where his son, the Crown Prince, had similarly posted himself in order to direct the movements of the Third Army, the hot September sun had raised the curtain of the mist and dis- closed the progress which had already been made by the stupendous battle drama. This had been opened by the Bava- rians, under Von der Tann, who, cross- ing the Meuse on pontoons, advanced to attack the village of Bazeilles, a sub- urb of Sedan, outside the fortifications on the south-east. The Bavarians had already shelled this suburb on the pre- vious evening so severely that pillars of flame and smoke shot up into the air during the night. In no other battle of the war was such fighting ferocitv shown as in this hand-to hand struggle for Bazeilles. For the Bavarians were met with such stubborn resistance on the part of the French marine infantry posted there, that they were twice com- pelled to abandon their hold on that place by vehement counter-assaults. Women in the Fight. The inhabitants of the village, too — women as well as men — joined in its defence by firing out of the houses and cellars on the Bavarians as they pressed onward, and by perpetrating most re- volting barbarities on the wounded Germans left behind when their com- rades had repeatedly to retreat. The Bavarians, on their part, were so dread- fully embittered and enraged by these things that they gave no quarter, act- ing with relentless rigor towards all the inhabitants found with arms in their hands or caught in the act of inflicting cruelties on the wounded. The struggle for the village became one of mutual annihilation. House by 412 OVERTHROW Ob THE FRENCH EMTIRE. house and street by street had to be stormed and taken by the Bavarians, and the only way of ejecting the enemy from some of these massively built and strongly garrisoned buildings was by NAPOLEON III. — EMPEROR OF FRANCE employing pioneers to breach the walls in the rear or from the side streets and throw in lighted torches. Notwith- standing all the desperate bravery of the Bavarians, the battle fluctuated for nearly six hours in the streets of Baze- illes, fresh troops, or freshly rallied ones, being constantly thrown by both sides into the seething fight. It was not till about 10 A. M. that the Bavarians had acquired full possession of the vill»o— ftseif — now reduced to mere «rceos of ruins ; but as the combat died away in the streets it was continued with equal desperation in the adjacent gardens on the north, where the French made a fresh stand, defending their ground with the most admirable valor. Bazeilles was certainly the scene of some of the most shock- ing atrocities which had been perpetrated by European soldiers since the siege and sack of Bada- joz by the victorious troops of Wellington, and the storming of Lucknow by the infuriated High- landers of Sir Colin Campbell. But it must be remembered that in all three cases the blood of the assailants had been roused to almost tiger-heat by barbarous provocation from the other side. Simultaneously with the san guiuary struggle for Bazeilles > the battle had also been devel- oping at other points. Advanc- ing ou the right of the Bavari- ans the Crown Prince of Saxony — afterwards King Albert — pushed forward towards Givonne with intent to complete the en- vironment of the French on this side. In order to facilitate theii marching, the Saxon soldiers had been ordered to lay aside their knapsacks, and by great efforts they succeeded in reaching their appointed section of the ring of investment early in the day, tak ing the enemy completely by surprise, and hurling them back in confusion both at La Moncelleand Daigny. At the lat- ter place the French, soon after 7 A. m., made two offensive sallies with their renowned Zouaves and dreaded Turcos belonging to the 1st Corps, but were beaten back by a crushing artillery and needle-gun fire. OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 41& For some time the scales of battle hung uncertain on this portion of the field, but reinforcements coining up to the Saxons, the latter made an impetu- ous push across the valley, capturing three guns and three mitrailleuses from the French after half an hour's street- fighting in the village (Daigny), which was now finally wrested from the en- emy. Soon after this the Saxon right was rendered secure by the advance of the Prussian guards, under Prince Au- gust of Wurtemburg, who had made a wide detour to reach their objective, Givonne. The French Scattered. A considerable body of French cav- alry and numerous trains were seen by the Guards on the opposite side of the valley. These offered the corps artillery of the Guards an immediate target for its fire ; and scarcely had the first shells fallen among the French columns when the entire mass scattered in all direc- tions in the greatest confusion, leaving everywhere traces of a complete panic. The cavalry of the Guard was sent by a detour to the right, to bar the road to Belgium, and also establish touch with the Crown Prince's (Third) army, which had been pushed round on the German left. At Givonne the Guards, at a great loss, stormed and captured seven guns and three mitrailleuses, whose gunners were all killed or made prisoners. Beat- en out of Daigny and Givonne, the French hereabouts fled in a disorderly crowd into the woods, or fell back upon the centre, which they incommoded and discouraged by their precipitate appear- ance on a part of the field where they were not wanted. Shortly after, the junction between the Prussian Guards and the Crown Prince was accom- plished, and the ring was now complete. Successes equal to those at Daigny and Givonne were obtained by the Ger- mans in other directions, and the French centre began to recede, though the con- test was still prolonged with desperate /tenacity, the French fiercely disputing every hill-slope and point of vantage, and inflicting as well as sustaining tre- mendous losses. Stubborn Resistance. Meanwhile the French right had been hotly engaged. A railway bridge which crosses the Meuse near Le Dancourt had been broken down by MacMahon, but in the early morning the Crown Prince had thrown some of his troops across the river on pontoons, and was thus enabled to plant his batteries on the crest of a hill which overlooks Floing and the surrounding country. The French, sud- denly attacked in the rear, were more than astonished at the position in which they now found themselves ; but front- ing up towards their assailants with all their available strength, they main- tained a prolonged resistance. Their musketry fire was poured in with, such deadliness and determination, that it was heard even above the deeper notes of the mitrailleuse, now playing with terrible effect on the Germans. General Sheridan said he had never heard so well-sustained and long-contin- ued a small-arm fire. By noon, however, the Prussian bat- tery on the slope above the broken bridge over the Meuse, above La Vil- ette, had silenced two French batteries near Floing, and now the enemy were compelled to retire from the position 414 OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. About half-past twelve large numbers of retreating French were seen on the hill between Floing and Sedan, their ranks shelled by a Prussian battery in front oi St. Menges. Fierce Assaults. The Germans now advanced and seized Floing in the valley, holding it against, all attempts to dislodge them ; but it still remained for them to scale the heights beyond, from the entrenched slopes and vineyards of which they were exposed to a murderous fire. Here the French had all the advantages oi posi- tion, and the Germans could make but little headway in spite of their repeated efforts, so that at this point the battle came to something like a standstill for nearly an hour and a half, the time being consumed in assaults and counter- assaults. At last, on receiving reinforcements, which brought up their strength in this portion of the field to seventeen battal- ions, the Germans once more advanced to the attack, and the French saw that something desperate must be done if their position was to be saved. Hith- erto the French cavalry had done little or nothing, but now was their chance. Emerging from the Bois de la Garenne at the head of the 4th Reserve Cavalry Division, consisting of four Scots-Grey- Jooking regiments of Chasseurs d'Af- rique and two regiments of Lancers, General Marguerite prepared to charge down upon the Germans. Rut he him- self was severely wounded before his imposing mass of picturesque horsemen had fairly got in motion, and then the command devolved on General Gallifet, one of the bravest and most brilliant cav- alry officers in all France — in all Europe. Placing himself at the head of his magnificent array of horsemen, Gallifet now launched them against the seven- teen battalions oi the Germans. Thun- dering down the slope, the shining squadrons broke through the line ol skirmishers scattering them like chaff. But then, in the further pursuit of their stormful career, they were received by the deployed battalions in front and flank with such a murderous lire of musketry, supplemented by hurricanes of grape-shot from the batteries, as made them reel and roll to the ground — man and horse — in struggling, con vulsive heaps. Nowhere throughout the war was the terrible pageantry of battle so picturesquely displayed as now on these sacrificial slopes of Sedan, when the finest and fairest chivalry oi France was broken and shivered by bullet and bayonet as a furious wave is shattered into spray by an opposing rock. A Field of Slaughter. Supported by Bonnemain's division oi four Cuirassier regiments, "these at- tacks," wrote Moltke, ll were repeated bv the French again and again, and the murderous turmoil lasted for half an hour, with steadily diminishing suc- cess for the French. The infantry vol- levs fired at short range strewed the whole field with dead and wounded. Many fell into the quarries or over the steep precipices, a few may have escaped bv swimming the Meuse, and scarcely more than half of these brave troops were left to return to the protection of the fortress. The scene was well described by an eve- witness, Mr. Archibald Forbes: — "At a gallop through the ragged in- tervals in the confused masses of the in- OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 415 fantry came dashing the Chasseurs d'Afrique. The squadrons halted, fronted, and then wheeled into line, at a pace and with a regularity which would have done them credit in the Champ de Mars, and did them double credit executed as was the evolution under a warm fire. That fire, as one could tell by the dying away of the smoke-jets, ceased all of a sudden, as if the trumpets which rang out the Charge !' for the Chasseurs had sounded also the 'Cease firing!' for the German artillery and infantry. Not a needle- gun gave fire as the splendid horsemen crashed down the gentle slope with the velocity of an avalanche. Grand Cavalry Charge, " I have seen not a few cavalry charges, but I never saw a finer one, whether from a spectator's or an adju- tant's point of view, than this one of the Chasseurs d'Afrique. It was des- tined to a sudden arrestment, and that without the ceremony of the trumpets sounding the 'Halt.' The horsemen and the footmen might have seen the color of each others' moustaches (to use Havelock's favorite phrase), when along the line of the latter there flashed out a sudden, simultaneous streak of fire. "Like thunder-claps sounding over the din of a hurricane, rose the mea- sured crash of the battery guns, and the cloud of white smoke drifted away towards the Chasseurs, enveloping them for the moment from one's sight. When it blew away, there was visible a line of bright uniforms and grey horses struggling prostrate among the potato drills, or lying still in death. Only a handful of all the gallant show of five minutes before were galloping back- ward up the slope, leaving tokens at intervals of their progress as they re- treated. So thorough a destruction by what may be called a single volley pro- bably the oldest soldier now alive never witnessed." The French Hurled Back. The French had played their last card. They had endeavored to give the tide of battle a favorable turn by sacrificing their cavalry, but in vain. The Germans now stormed and captured the heights of Floing and Cazal, and from this time the battle became little more than a mere farce. The French were thoroughly disheartened, and ra- pidly becoming an undisciplined rabble. Hundreds and thousands of them al- lowed themselves to be taken prisoners; ammunition-wagons were exploding in their midst, while the German artillery were ever contracting their murderous fire, and walls of bayonets closed every issue. The fugitive troopers, rushing about in search of cover, increased the frightful confusion which began to pre- vail throughout the circumscribed space in which the French army had been cooped up. Still, from the German point of view, a decisive blow was imperative, so that the results of the mighty battle might be secured without a doubt. With this in view, the Prussian Guards and the Saxons from Givonne quarter were launched against the Bois de laGarenne, which had become the last refuge of the battered and broken French; and these were soon driven back from every point, with the loss of many guns and prisoners — back on the fortress of Se- dan in wild turmoil and disorganized flight. 416 OVKRTHROW OK TIIK FRENCH EMPIRE It is to the inside of this fortress that the scene must now change, in ordei that we may pick up and follow what may be called the personal thread oi the great battle-drama, o( which we have but given the leading episodes. Foi it is only at this point that the bat- tle-drama began to enter its most inter- esting, because most surprising phase. Brave Marshal Wounded. Marshal MacMahon, the French com- mander-in-chief, had been in the saddle as early as 5 a m. When riding along the high ground above La Moncelle he was severely wounded in the thigh by the fragment of a shell, and then he nominated Ducrot his successoi in com- mand. By 8 o'clock the latter was e\ ercising this command, in virtue oi which he had ordered a retreat west- ward to Mezieres; but presently he was superseded by General de Wimpflfen, who had but just arrived from Algeria, and who hastened to countermand the retreat on Me.-ietes in favor oi' an at- tempt to break out in the opposite di- rection towards Carignan. This chaos of Commanders and confusion oi' plans proved fatal to the distracted French, who now began to see that there was no hope for them. When riding out in the direction oi' the hardest fighting, Napoleon had met the wounded Marshal being brought in on a stretcher. The Unfortunate Emperor mooned about the field for hours under fire, but he had no influ- ence whatever on the conduct of the battle He had already almost ceased to be Emperor in the eyes of his gen erals, ami even oi his soldiers. De Wimpffen sent a letter begging his im- perial master " to place himself in the midst oi his troops, who could he relied on to force a passage through the Ger- man lines;" but to this exhortation his Majesty vouchsafed no reply. White Flag Goes Up. Eventually he returned into the town and, already showing the white feather, gave orders for the hoisting oi the white flag. Up tlew this white flag as a re- quest to the Germans to suspend their infernal fire; but this signal of distress had not long fluttered aloft when it was indignantly cut down by General Faure, ohicf-of-staff to the wounded MacMa- hon, acting on his own responsibility alone. Foi some time longer the use- less slaughter went on, and then Na- poleon made another attempt to sue for mercy, "Why does this useless struggle go on?" he said to Lebrun, who entered the presence of his Majesty shortly be- fore 3 r. M. "An hour ago or nunc I bade the white Bag be displaved in order to sue for an armistice " Lebrun explained that, in addition to the flying o( the white flag, there were other formalities to be observed in such a case— the signing of a letter by the commander-in-chief, and thesending of it by an officer accompanied by a trum- peter and a flag of truce. These things being seen to, Lebrun now repaired to where WimpfiVu was rallying some troops for An assault on the Germans in Balan, near Bazeilles; and on seeing Lebrun approach with all his paraphernalia for a parley, theangry commander in-chief shouted: l 'No ca pitulation ! Drop that rag! 1 mean to fight on !" and forthwith he started for Balan, carrying Lebruu with him into the fray. OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 41? Meanwhile Duerot, who had been fighting hard about the Hois de la Ga- renne, in the desperate attempt to retard the contraction of the German circle of fire and steel, resolved about this time to pass through Se- dan and join in Wim- pffeu's proposed at- tempt to cut a way out towards Carig- nan. What he saw in the interior of the town may be de- scribed almost in his own words. The streets, the open places, the gates were blocked up by wagons, guns, and the luggage and de- bris of a routed army. Bands of soldiers without arms, with- out packs, were rush- ing about, throwing themselves into the churches or breaking into private houses. Many unfortunate men were trampled under foot. The few soldiers who btill pre- served a remnant of energy seemed to be expending it in ac- cusations and curses. " We have been be- trayed," they cried; "we have been sold by traitors and cowards." Nothing could be done with such men, and Duerot, desisting from his in- tention to join De Wimpffen, hastened to seek out the Emperor. The air was all on fire; shells fell on roofs, and struck 27 masses of masonry, which crushed down on the pavements. " I cannot under- stand," said the Emperor, " why the enemy continues his fire. I have or- dered the white flag to be hoisted. I MARSHAL MACMAHON- FRENCH COMMANDER AT THE BATTLE OF SEDAN. hope to obtain an interview with the King of Prussia, and may succeed in getting advantageous terms for the army." While the Emperor and Duerot were thus conversing, the German cannon- ade increased in deadly violence. Files 418 OVERTHROW Or THE FRENCH EMPIRE. burst out ; women, children and wound- ed were destroyed, and the air was filled with shrieks, curses and groans. "It is absolutely necessary to stop this firing," at last exclaimed the Em- peror, in a state of pallid perturbation. "Here, write this: 'The flag of truce having been displayed, negotiations are \ about to be opened with the enemy. The firing must cease all along the line' Now sign it !" "Oh, no, sire," replied Ducrot; "I cannot sign. By what right could I do so ? General Wimpffen is in chief com- mand." " Yes," rejoined the Emperor; but 1 know not where General Wimp- ffen is to be found. Someone must sign !" "Let his chief-of-staff do so," sug- gested Ducrot ; " or General Douay." "Yes," said the Emperor; '' let the chief-of-staff sign the order." Disgraceful Altercation. But what became of this order is no* exactly known. All that is known is, that the brave Wimpffen scorned even to open the Emperor's letter, calling upon his Majesty instead to come and help in cutting a way out ; that the Emperor did not respond to this appeal ; that Wimpffen, failing in his gallant attempt on Balan for want of proper support, then retired to Sedan, and indignantly sent in his resignation to the Emperor ; that then, in the presence of his Majesty, there was a scene of violent altercation between Wimpffen and Ducrot, in the course of which it was believed that blows were actually exchanged ; and that finally Napoleon brought Wim- pffeu to understand that, having com- manded during the battle it was his duty not to desert his post in circum- stances so critical. Furious Artillery Fire. Let the scene now again shift to the hill-top of Fresnois, where King Wil- liam and his suite were viewing, as from the dress-circle of a theatre, the course of the awful battle-drama in the town and valley below. The first white flag run up by order of Napoleon had not been noticed by the Germans, and thinking thus that the French meant to fight it out to the bitter end, the King, between 4 and 5 P. M., ordered the whole available artillery to concen- trate a crushing fire on Sedan, crowded as it was with fugitives and troops, so as to bring the enemy to their senses as soon as possible, no matter by what amount of carnage, while at the same time, under cover of this cannonade. a Bavarian force prepared to storm the Torcy Gate. The batteries opened fire with fearful effect, and in a short time Sedan seemed to be in flames. This was the cannon- ade which had burst out during the Emperor's conversation with Ducrot, making his Majesty once more give orders for the hoisting of the white flag ; and no sooner was it at length seen flying from the citadel than the German fire at once ceased, when the King despatched Colonel Bronsart von Schellendorff, of his staff, to ride down into Sedan under a flag of truce and summon the garrison to surrender. Penetrating into the town, and ask- ing for the commander-in-chief, this officer, to his utter astonishment, was led into the presence of Napoleon ! For the Germans had not yet the i faiutest idea that the Emperor was in OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 419 Sedan. Just as Colonel Bronsart was starting off, General Sheridan, of the United .Slates Army, who was attached to the royal headquarters, remarked to Bismarck that Napoleon himself would likely be one of the prizes. "Oh, no," replied the Iron Chancellor, "the old fox is too cunning to be caught in such a trap ; he has doubtless slipped off to P. iris." ' What, then, was the sur- prise of all when Colonel Bronsart galloped back to the hill-slope of Fresnois with the astounding news that the Emperor himself was in the fortress, and would himself at once com- municate direct with the King ! This Colonel Bronsart was a man of French ex- traction, being descended (like so many in Prussia) from one of those Hugud not families who had been driven into exile by the cruel despotism of Louis XIV. And now — strange Nemesis of his- tory — to the lineal representative of a victim of this tyranny was given the satisfaction of demanding, on behalf of his royal Prussian master, the sword of the historical successor in French despotism to Louis XIV. The effect on the field of battle, as the fact of a surrender became obvious to the troops, was most extraordinary. The opening of one of the gates of Sedan to permit the exit of the officer bearing the flag of truce gave the first unpression of an approaching capitula- tion. This gradually gained strength until it acquired all the force of actual knowledge, and ringing cheers ran along the whole German line of battle. Shakoes, helmets, bayonets, and sa- COUNT VON MOLTKE -COMMANDER OF THE GER- MAN ARMY AT SEDAN. bres were raised high in the air, anc the vast army swayed to and fro in the excitement of an unequalled tri- umph. Even the dying shared in the general enthusiasm. One huge Prus- sian, who had been lying with his hand to his side in mortal agony, suddenly rose to his feet as he comprehended the meaning of the cries, uttered a loud " Hurrah ! " waved his hands on high, and then, as the blood rushed from hi& wound, fell dead across a Frenchman. On Bronsart returning to the King with his uiomentous message, murmur 420 OVERTHROW Ot* nil-; FRENCH" hmimkk. ed cries of " Der Kaiser ist dat >y (the Kaiser is there) ran through the brilliant gathering, and then there was a moment of dumbfounded silence. ''This is, indeed, a great success," then said the King to his retinue. "And 1 thank thee" (turning to the Crown Prince) "that then hast helped to achieve it." A Sealed Letter. With that the King gave his hand to his son, who kissed it ; then to Moltke, who kissed it also. Lastly, he gave his hand to the Chancellor, and talked with him for some time alone. Presently several other horsemen — some escort- ing troopers — were seen ascending the hill. The chief o( them was General Reille, the bearer of Napoleon's flag of truce. Dismounting about ten paces from the King, Reille, who wore no sword and carried a cane in his hand, ap- proached his Majestv with most humble reverence, and presented hiir with a sealed letter. All stepped back from the King, who, after saying, " But I demand, as the fust condition, that the army lay down their anus,'' broke the seal and read : "Monsieur, my Brother, — Not having been able to die in the midst of my troops, it oulv remains for me to I ''.ace my sword in the hands of your Majesty. I am your Majesty 's good bro- O'cr. "NAPOLEON." ** Sedan, ist September.*' Certainly it seemed that the Emperor flight have tried very much hauler -.ban he had done to die in the midst of his troops, but his own he?.'" was his best judgv in this respect On reading this imperial letter, the King, as well he might, was deeply moved. His first impulse, as was his pious wont, was to offer thanks to Cod ; and then, turning to the silent and gazing group behind him, he told them the contents o( the imperial captive's letter. The Crown Prince with Moltke and others talked a little with General Reille, whilst the King conferred with his Chancellor, who then commissioned Count Hartzfeldt to draft an answer to the Emperor's missive. William to Napoleon. In a few minutes it was ready, and his majesty wrote it out sitting on a rush-bottom chair, while another was held up to him by way oi desk : "Monsieur, my Brother, — Whilst regretting the circumstances in which we meet, I accept your Majesty's sword, and beg you to appoint one of your officers, provided with full powers, to treat for the capitulation oi the army which has fought so bravely under your command. On my part I have nomi- nated General VonMoltke for this pur- pose. I am your Majesty's good bro- ther, "William." " Before Sedan, ist September, iS;o. ,% While the King was writing this an- swer, Bismarck held a conversation with General Reille, who represented to the Chancellor that hard conditions ought not to be imposed on an army which had fought so well. " I shrugged my shoulders," said Bismarck. Reille rejoined that, before accepting such conditions, they would blow them- selves up skyhigh with the fortress. "Do it, if you like; faites sauter," OVERTHROW OF THK I ; RIi 421 replied B lc ; and the King's reply hundred thousand i nd was now handed to the of the their King. On the ho zoc Lowed the captui flami g villa;- The twiligh illy refle< when G lie rode back to link of the pla< e Over all the a, but his way was Lighted by the quiet moon waded thro lurid gleam oi the i • and bered with wind-' to and the fortress which crim- soned y. And as I he up hooting flames oi shell- struck magazine, flew all around the ' German lines the m ions tidings that the Emperor with his army I In marching and in fighting, the troops bad performed prodigies >:j and of valor, but their fatig : time fo ten in the fierce intoxication of .: y ; and when the stan b< to twinkle overhead, and the hill- tops around Sedan to glow with flickering wat< up thenaro: e from more than a hundred t.hou sand grateful German throats, loud and clear through the eth summer night, the deeply pious strain-, ol "Now thank we all our God;" ^n<\ then the curtain oi darku'-/. fell on one of the mo tragie and momenl witnessed by this age of dramatic change "Before going to sleep," wrote Mr. Archibald I ; orbes --the prince, if not the unaninu / the r, of wai \ took song of ribaldry. Verily they are a, OF THE "What were the G doing on this their night of triumph ? Celebrat- ing their victory b il and r: v camp one a walk round the half-obliterated ram- ftarts which surround the once fortified .1 of Donchery. The scene w rhole horizon was lurid with the refle< tion of fire. All along the ley of the Meu e on either side, were the bivouacs of the German host Two Germans — ful, fighting, praying :n many not unlike the men whom Cromwell led. T it that filled the night air was Luthei ous — 'Nun danket alle GrOtt,' 122 OVERTHROW OF TIIK FRENCH EMPIRE. the l Old Hundredth ' of Germany. To hoar this great martial orchestra singing this noble hymn under such circum- stances was alone worth a journey to Sedan, with all its vicissitudes and diffi- culties." Of the 200,000 men whom the Ger- mans had marched up towards Sedan, only about [20, OOO had taken actual part in the battle ; and of these their glorious victory had entailed a loss of 400 officers and 8,500 men in killed and wounded. The French, on the other hand, had to lament the terrible loss of 17,000 killed and wounded, and 24,000 prisoners taken on the field (including 3,000 who had lied over into Belgium and been disarmed). On the part oi the Germans, the Bavarians and the men oi Posen had been the heaviest sufferers, Loud Huzzas Greet the King. On the night oi the battle Kin*;- Wil- liam returned to Yendresse, "being greeted," as he himself wrote, "on the road by the loud hurrahs of the advane ing troops, who were singing the na- tional hymn," and extemporizing illu- minations in honor oi their stupendous victory ; while Bismarck, with Moltke, Blumenthal, and several other staff- officers, remained behind at the village of Donchery — a mile or two from Sedan — to treat for the capitulation of the French army. For this purpose an armistice had been concluded till four o'clock next morning. The chief French negotiators were Generals de Wimpffen and Castel- nau — the former for the army, the latter for the Emperor. Both pleaded very hard for a mitiga- tion of Moltke's brief but comprehensive condition — unconditional surrender of Sedan and all within it. But the Ger- man strategist was as hard and unbend- ing as adamant; and when Do Wimpf- fen, with the burning shame of a patriot and the grief of a brave soldier convuls- ing his heart, talked of resuming the conflict rather than submit to such humiliating terms, Moltke merely point- ed to the 300 guns that were now encir- cling Sedan on its ring of heights, and at the same time invited Wimpffen to send one oi his officers to make a thor- ough inspection of the German position, so as to convince himself of the utter hopelessness oi renewed resistance. Terms are Final. The negotiations lasted for several hours, and it was past midnight when the broken-hearted De Wimpffen ami his colleagues returned to Sedan, having meanwhile achieved no other result than the prolongation oi' the armistice from 4 to o a. m. on the 2nd September, at which hour to the minute, said Moltke, the fortress would become the target of half a thousand guns unless his terms were accepted. On returning to Sedan about 1 a. m., IV Wimpffen at once went to the Emperor to make a report on the sad state oi affairs, and beg his Majesty to exert his personal influence to obtain moil' favorable terms for the army. For this purpose Napoleon readily un- dertook to go to the German headquar- ters at 5 a. m. Soon after he had driven out of the fortress, Wimpffen called a council of war, consisting of all the commanding generals, and put the question whether further resistance was possible. It was answered in the despairing negative by all the thirty-two generals present, save OVERTHROW OF TIIi; FRENCH EMPIRE. 423 only two, Pellc and Cane de Bellemare; while even these two in the end acqui- ■ '1 in the absolute necessity of accept- ing Moltke's terms on its being shown them tliat another attempt to break through the investing lines would only lend to useless slaughter. For in the course of the night the Germans had further tightened their iron grip on the fortress, and thickened the girdle of their guns. No ; there was clearly nothing left for the poor, demoralized French but to yield to the inevitable, and their only chance lay in the hope that the Emperor himself would be able to procure some mollification of their terrible fate. Notable Meeting. But the hope proved a vain one. Driving forth with several high officers from the fortress about 5 a. m., the Emperor, who was wearing white kid gloves and smoking his everlasting cigarette, sent on General Reille to Donchery in scare 1 " of Bismarck ; and the latter, "unwashed and unbreak- fasted," was soon galloping owards vSedan to learn the wishes of his fallen Majesty. He had not ridden far when he en- countered the Emperor, sitting in an open carriage, apparently a hired one, in which were also three officers of high rank, and as many on horseback. Bismarck had his revolver in his belt, and on the Emperor catching sight of this he gave a start ; but the Chancellor, saluting and dismounting, approached the Emperor with as much courtesy as if lie had been at the Tnileries, and begged to know his Majesty's com- mands. Napoleon replied that be wanted to sec the King, but Bismarck explained that this was impossible, his Majesty being quartered fourteen miles away. Had not the King, then, appointed any place for him, the Emperor, to go to? In a Poor Cottage. Bismarck knew not, but meanwhile his own quarters were at his Majesty's disposal. The Emperor accepted the offer, and began to drive slowly towards Donchery, but, hesitating on account of the possible crowd, stopped at a soli- tary cottage, that of a poor weaver, a few hundred paces from the Mense bridge, and asked if he could remain there. "I requested my cousin," said Bis- marck, ''to inspect the house, and he reported that, though free from wounded, it was mean and dirty. Fol- low, said Napoleon, and with him I ascended a rickety, narrow staircase. In a small, one-windowed room, with a deal table and two rush-bottomed chairs, we sat alone for about an hour — a great contrast to our last meeting in the Tui- leries in 1867," the year of the Paris Exhibition. "Our conversation was a difficult thing, wanting, as I did, to avoid touching on topics which could not but painfully affect the man whom God's mighty hand had cast down." Whenever Napoleon led this conver- sation, as he was forever doing, to the terribly hard terms of the capitulation, Bismarck met him with the assura.ice that this was a purely military question, and quite beyond his province. Moltke was the man to speak to about suet things. In the meantime efforts had been mace to find better accommodation for the Emperor, and this was at last discovered 124 OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH 1-MriRJS. in the Chateau Bellevue, a little further up the Meuse. Leaving Napoleon in the weaver's cottage, Bismarck burned back to his quarters on the market-place at Donchery to array himself in his full uniform, and then, as he said, " 1 con- ducted his Majesty to Bellevue, with a squadron of Cuirassiers as escort." King William Absent. At the conference which now began, the Emperor wished to have the King present, from whom he expected soft- ness and magnanimity ; but his Majesty was told that his wish in this respect could not possibly be gratified until after the capitulation had been signed. Oh! if he could but see and plead with the King — was the anguished Emperor's constant thought : but the King- took very good care, or his coun- sellors for him, that he should not ex- pose himself to any personal appeal for pity until the German army had safely garnered a! 1 : *S splendid harvest oi victory. "Meanwhile De Wimpffen had come out of Sedan with the despairing de- cision of the council of war, and the determination to aecept Moltke's inex- orable terms. But even Moltke, the least sentimental and emotional of men could not help feeling a genuine throb of pity for the very hard fate of De Wimpffen — a man of German origin, as his name implied — on whom it thus fell to sign away the existence of an army, of which he had not been four- and-twenty hours in supreme command. After his interview with Napoleon, Bismarck rode to Chehery (on the road to Vendresse\ in the hope of meeting the King and informing him how things stood. On the way he was met by Moltke, who had the text of the oa. pitulation as approved by his Majesty ; and on their return to Bellevue it was signed without opposition. By this unparalleled capitulation 83,- OOO men were surrendered as prisoners of war in addition to the fortress of Sedan with its [38 pieces of artillery, 420 field-guns, including 70 mitrail- leuses, 6,000 horses lit for service, 66,- 000 stand ot arms, 1,000 baggage and other wagons, an enormous quantity of military stores, and three standards. Among the pi isouers yielded up were the Emperor and one oi his field marshals (MacMahon), 40 generals, and 2,825 various other officers, all of whom, by the special mercy of King William, were offered release on parole, though only 500 of them took advantage of this condition, the others being sent to Germany. By the catastrophe of Sedan the French had lost — in killed, wounded and prisoners — no fewer than 124,000 men at one fell sweep ! Full Surrender. With the capitulation sealed and signed, Bismarck and Moltke now hast- ened back to the King, whom they found on the heights above Doncherv about noon. His Majesty ordered the important document to be read aloud to his numerous ami brilliant suite, which included several German princes. Now that an appeal had been taken out of the Emperor's power, the King, accompanied by the Crown Prince, rode down to the chateau of Bellevue to meet the fallen monarch. "At one o'clock," wrote his Majesty to Queen Augusta, " I and Fritz set out, accom- panied by an escort of cavalry belong- ing to the staff. I dismounted at the OVERTHROW OF THE FRENCH EMPIRE. 425 chateau, and the Emperor came out to meet me. The visit lasted for a quarter of an hour. We were both deeply moved. I cannot describe what I felt at the interview, having seen Napoleon only three years ago at the height of his power." And now, while the crushed and broken-hearted Emperor was left to spend his last day on the soil of France prior to his departure or the place of his detention at Wil elmshohe, near Cassel (once, strange to say, the residence of his uncle, King Jerome of Westpha' a), King William, accompanied by Moltke, Roon, Bismarck, and the rest of his paladin?, started on a ride through all the positions occupied by the German armies round Sedan. For five long hours, over hill and dale, from battery J to battalion, and from corps to corps, I through all the various tribes of the 1 Fatherland in arms, rode the brilliant i ' j cavalcade, greeted with triumphant music and frantic cheering wherever it went. " I cannot describe," wrote, the King, "the reception given me by the troops, nor my meeting with the Guards, who have been decimated. I was deeply affected by so many proofs of love and devotion." No wonder the Germans very nearly went mad with joy . For no victory had ever been like this crowning master- piece of Moltke's genius — so colossal, so complete, so momentous in its polit- ical results, which converted the French Empire into a Republic and the Germanic Confederation into an Em- pire. CHAPTER XXVII. American Victories in the War with Spain. 6J-TPON the outbreak of the war i r \ between the United States and V^P^-^ Spain in 1S9S, Admiral Dewey was in command of our Asiatic squadron, which at this time was lying in the harbor of Hong Kong. Colonel Roosevelt, of Rough Rider fame, being then Assistant Secre- tary of the Navy, gave orders from Washington to Admiral Dewey to pro- ceed to Manila and capture or destroy the Spanish fleet which was known to be in those waters. The sailing of the American fleet from Hong Kong on April 27 was promptly cabled to Manila. Many of the better class of residents at once hurried aboard merchant vessels with their valuables and fled. Those left behind took no courage from the con- fident boastings of the Spanish army and naval officers, but gave way to panic from fear of what would happen when the native insurgents made an attack on the town. It was known to the Spanish authorities that the Ame- rican fleet would be almost certain to arrive on the evening of Saturday, April 30th. The Spanish fleet, which at first put to sea to meet and destroy the " cow- ardly Yankees," was recalled Saturday afternoon and lined up at Cavite, where the arsenals, dry-docks and naval war- ships were defended by a long line of earthworks. These works had been greatly strengthened, notably by the addition of several big modem guns. They were regarded as very formidable by old-fashioned Spanish military en- gineers, as were also the fort on Corre- gidor Island, the battery on Cabilla Is- land, and the works on the mainland points to the north and the south. These islands were all in readiness, and a chain of mines which guarded both channels was prepared to blow up each American ship as it passed. Saturday night fell with the Span- iards on land and water quite cheerful over the coming engagement. A short time after midnight, the darkness being intense, one of the guns in Corregidor suddenly boomed out, and all the other guns about the entrance to the bay took up the cry, and the anxious people in Manila poured into the streets. They thought the battle had begun. In reality the American fleet was al- ready past the entrance and was on its way up the opposite side of the bay. It was a night of terror in Manila. The women and children fled to the churches, and men rushed to and fro in the streets. Dismay seized upon the Spanish soldiers. They had not believed that the Americans could ever get past the entrance to the batteries and past the mines. Long before dawn the panic became a frenzy because of reports that came from the interior of the island that the natives were mass- ing for a descent upon the city to pill- age and massacre. When day broke the tens of thousands watching on all sides pf the vast and beautiful harboj AMERICAN VICTORIES IN THE WAR WITH SPAIN. 427 saw the enemy in line of battle about ten miles out, directly in front of Ma- nila. There were nine vessels in all. The Olympia, 5800 tons, a swift com- merce destroyer, carrying four terrible 8-inch guns and ten deadly 5-inch quick- firers. This was Dewey's flagship. The Baltimore, scarcely less formidable than the Olympia, with four eight- inch guns and six six-inch rapid-firers. The Boston, smaller than the Olympia and Balti- more, but still a real and powerful floating fort, with her two eight-inch guns and her six six-inch rapid- firers. The Raleigh, similar to the Boston, with one six- inch and ten five-inch guns. The Concord, with six six-inch guns. The gunboat Petrel, with five six-inch guns. To the rear of these the transport ships, with coal, ammunition and accom- modations for wounded. With a bright American flag floating gayly over each ship, the decks and all visible appointments neat and trim, the fleet seemed to be out for a holiday rather than awaiting an opening for the only real demonstration of an iron- clad fleet in action that the world has had. The Spaniards could hardly be- lieve their own eyes. That this formid- able apparition was in the very centre of their harbor, almost within firing distance of the capital city of their last Eastern possessions seemed impossible, They had not long to watch and speculate. The sun was hardly clear ot the horizon before the American fleet began to steam in slow and stately fashion straight toward the city, near which were anchored three men-of-war from three different nations, French, ADMIRAL GEORGE DEWEY HERO OF MANILA. German and English. The decks and rigging of each of these ships were thronged with eager officers and sailors, discipline seeming to have been forgot- ten in an intense desire to see what the Yankees would do — these Yankees who in three quarters of a century have never sent a hostile fleet into any port of a European Power. On came the American fleet until it was within about three miles of Manila, and then a Spanish gun on the battery at the end of the Mole spoke ; but the 428 AMERICAN VICTORIES IN THE WAR WITH SPAIN. shot fell short. Then from the Span- ish fleet, steaming slowly up from Ca- vite, came several shots at the Ameri- can fleet. The two duelists were now face to face. Is The smaller cruisers Velasco, Don Juan de Austria, and Don Antonio de Ulloa, besides ten gunboats. Then there were the batteries on shore all along the low peninsula. ^■vjriifeA <' MANILA HARBOR — SCENE To expert eyes the Spanish fleet seemed far inferior, yet to the people watching, and, apparently, to the Span- ish officers and sailors, the difference did not seem great. The Spanish ships were of older patterns, rather than smaller, and were far more numerous. There were : The Reina Cristina, of 3090 tons, with six six-inch and two three-inch guns. The Castilla, with four six-inch guns. OF THE GREAT BATTLE. To get the full effect of all of thes€ guns the Spaniards formed so that the Americans would have to face not only all the guns afloat, but also all the guns on shore at Cavite, while from the rear the strong batteries of Manila could, perhaps, send aiding shots. When the American mancenverings brought their ships within range, at about 6.45, the real duel began. The Spanish fleet stood ready, flanked by the Cavite bat* teries on the south. AMERICAN VICTORIES IN THE WAR WITH SPAIN. 429 The American fleet began to steam languidly to and fro. Suddenly there were one or two sharp cracks, and then a succession of deafening roars, and then one long, reverberating roar, that boomed and bellowed from shore to .more. A huge cloud of smoke lay close upon the waters, and around it was a penumbra of thick haze. Through this the Ameri- can ships could be seen mov- ing, now slowly, now more rapidly, flames shooting from their sides, and answering flames leaping from the Span- ish ships and land batter- ies, while now and then from the direction of Manila came hollow rumbles as the big guns there were dis- charged, more from eager- ness to take part than from the hope of lending effec- tive aid. It was impossible to see from shore the effect of many of the shots, but from the fact that the American ships were alternately advancing and re- treating in the course of their manceu verings the Spaniards on shore got the impression that the Yankees were being beaten. When the ships were again seen, the Reina Cristina was wrapped in flames. On her decks sailors, Spaniards and natives, were rushing frantically about. The Isle De Cuba came near, and part of the Reina Cristina's crew— perhaps all that were still alive — and the Span- ish Admiral went aboard her, but hardly wer«i they aboard when she, too, burst into flames. Confusion now reigned throughout the Spanish fleet. On every vessel the decks were slippery with blood and the air filled with the shrieks and groans of the Spaniards. The native sailors rushed about in a frenzy of rage rather tha& ADMIRAL MONTOJO, COMMANDER OF SPANISH FLEET AT MANILA. terror. The Americans were seemingly calm and cool, and still in good order they pressed their advantage. In fact, they pushed on too closely, for now the fire from the Cavite batteries became effective. At this juncture the Don Juan de Austria became a centre of interest. She had been in the very front of battle and received, perhaps, more of the American shots than any other ship. 430 AMERICAN VICTORIES IN TI1K WAR WITH SPAIN. Admiral Monlojo, on the burning Isla de Culm, threw up his anus with a ges- ture of despair as a heavy roai came from the Don Juan de Austria and part of her deck Hew up iu the air, taking with it scores of dead, dying and man- gled. A shot had penetrated one oi hci magazines. She was ruined and sink- ing, but hei eiew refused l*> have her. Weeping, cursing, praying and firing madly and blindly they went down with her, and as the Hon Juan de Austria went down the Castilla burst into flames. Great American Victory. The remainder oi' the Spanish fleet now turned and lied down the long, narrow inlet behind Cavite. Several of the gUU boats were run ashoie, Others fled up a small creek ami were grounded there. The guns of Cavite kept on thundering, and the Americans, pressing theii advantage no further, drew oil'. As they steamed away toward their waiting transports the Spaniards went wild with joy. They thought that in spite of outward appearances the American fleet was ei Lppled, and that as it would he unahle to escape from the harbor it would tall into theii hands. This was telegraphed up to Manila, and soon to Madrid, where it tilled the Ministry with mo- mentary delight ; hut before the Minis- ters at Madrid had read the false news, the Ameiieau fleet, with decks again cleared, ami with fresh supplies of ammunition, wassteaming hack toward Cavite. -This second engagement was short. The last Spanish ship was soon ground- ed or sunk. The Auuiican guns Were now trained on Cavite, and one ship after another steamed along pouring in a deadly fire-. At [I.30 the batteries at Cavite ceased to answer, and the Amei- ieau fleet with ringing cheers from its ex- hausted, hut triumphant crews steamed jubilantly hack to the transport ships. And to the long list of splendid naval victoi ies beginning with the Revolution was added the glorious victory of Ma- nila. In honor of his distinguished services Commodore Dewey was raised to the rank of Admiral, and Congress passed a series of resolutions thanking him ami his men for services rendered theii country. In the following AugUSl the city of Manila was captured by our troops under command oi (uncial Merritt, aided by Dewey's fleet. War in Cuba. During the early part of July such compute victories were gained by the American laud and naval forces iu Cuha as to end the war with Spain. Our Government at Washington despatched the North Atlantic Squadron under command oi' Admiral Sampson, and the squadron under command of Admiral Schley, to Santiago on the southern coast ol" Cuha. Troops to the number (>i* [6,000 were also ordered to Santiago under command of General Shafter. The American officers showed the utmost energy in preparing for the at- tack on Santiago; by July 1st every thing was in readiness, and General Shatter ordered a forward movement with a view oi' investing and capturing the town. The advance was made in two divisions, the left storming the works at San Juan. Our forces iu this assault were composed oi the Rough AMERICAN VICTORIES IN tiir war WITH SPAIN. i::i Riders, commanded by Colonel Wood, subsequently by Ueutenant-Colouel Roosevelt, and the First, Third, Sixth, Ninth and Tenth dismounted cavalry. Catching tin- enthusiasm and boldness of the Rough Riders, these men rushed Igainst the San Juan defences with a Airy that was irresistible. Their fierce assault was met by the Spaniards with a stub bornness bom of desperation. Hour after hour the troops on both sides fought fiercely. In the early morning the Rough Riders met with a similar, though less costly experience to the one they had at Ra Quasi na just a week before, where in a hot skirmish they lost a number of men. They found themselves a target for a terrific Spanish fire, to resist which for a time was the work of madmen. But the Rough Riders did not flinch. Fight- ing like demons, they held their ground tenaciously, now press- ing forward a few feet, then falling back, under the enemy's fire, to the position they held a few moments before. The Spaniards were nomatcn for the Roosevelt fighters, however, and as had been the case at Ra Ouasina, the Western cowboys ar.d Eastern "dan dies" hammered the enemy from their path. Straight ahead they advanced, until by noon they were well along to- ward San Juan, the capture of which was their immediate object. There was terrible fighting about the heights duiing the next two hours. While the Rough Riders were playing such havoc in the enemy's lines, the First, Third, Sixth, Ninth and Tenth cavalry gallantry pressed forward to ri^ht and left. Before the afternoon was far gone these organizations made one grand rush all along the line, carrying the Spaniards off their feet, capturing the San Juan fortifications, ami sending GENERAL WKSi ( r;v mKkriTT, COMMANDER OP AMERICAN akmv AT manii.a. the enemy in mad haste off toward Santiago. It was but three o'cloci when these troops were able to send word to General Shafter that they had taken possession of tin- position he had given them a day to capture. In this attack the cavalrymen were supported by the Sixth and Sixteenth infantry, who made a brilliant charge at the crucial moment. The advance was up a long steep slope, throu Ji a heavy underbrush. Our men were subjected to a terrific fire from the cue- 43-: AMKRICAN VICTOR IKS IX TI1K WAR WITH SPAIN. my's trenches, and the Rough Riders and the Sixth cavalry suffered severely. On the right, General Lawton's divi- sion, supported by Van Home's bri- gade, under command temporarily o( Colonel Ludlow, of the Engineers, drove the enemy from in front of Caney, forc- ing them back into the village. There GENERAL WILLIAM K. SHAFTER, COMMANDER OF AMERICAN ARMY AT SANTIAGO. the Spaniards for a time were able to hold their own, but early in the after- noon the American troops stormed the village defences, driving the enemy out and taking possession of the place. Gaining the direct road into Santiago, they established their lines within three- quarters of a mile of the city at sunset. General Shafter's advance against the city of Santiago was resumed soon after daybreak on the morning of July 2d. The American troops renewed the at- tack on the Spanish defences with impetuous enthusiasm. They were not daunted by the heavy losses sustained in the first day's fighting. Inspired by the grea f advantages they had gained on the preceding day, the American troops were eager to make the final assault on the city itself. Their ad- vance had been an uninterrupted series of successes, they having forced the Spaniards to retreat from each new position as fast as it had been taken. Admiral Samp- son, with his entire fleet, joined in the attack. Thebattles before the intrench- ments around Santiago resulted in advantage to General Shaf- ter's army. Gradually he ap- proached the city, holding every foot of ground gained. In the fighting of July 2d, the Spanish were forced back into the town, their commanding general was wounded, and the day closed with the certainty that soon our flag would float over Santiago. The fleet of Admiral Cervera had long been shut up in the harbor, and during the two days' fighting gave effective aid to the Spanish infantry by throw ing shells into the ranks of the An.eri- cans. On the morning of July 3d, an- other great naval victory was added to the successes of the American arms, ? victory no less complete and memorab 1 . than that achieved by Dewey at Ma- nila. Admiral Cervera' s fleet, consisting of the armored cruisers Cristobal Colon, Almirante Oquendo, Infanta Maria Te- resa, and Vizcaya, and two torpedo-boat destroyers, the Furor and the Pluton, which hod been held in the harbor o* AMERICAN VICTORIES IN THE WAR WITH SPAIN. 433 Santiago de Cuba for six weeks by the combined squadrons of Rear-Admiral Sampson and Commodore Schley, was sent to the bottom of the Caribbean Sea off the southern coast of Cuba. The Spanish admiral was made a prisoner of war on the auxiliary gun- boat Gloucester, and 1,000 to 1,500 other Spanish officers and sailors, all who escaped the frightful car- nage caused by the shells from the American warships, were also made prisoners of war by the United States navy. The American victory was com- plete, and the American vessels were practically untouched, and only one man was killed, though the ships were subjected to the heavy fire of the Spaniards all the time the battle lasted. Admiral Cervera made as gal lant a dash for liberty and for the preservation of the ships as has ever occurred in the history of naval warfare. In the face of overwhelming odds, with nothing before him but inevitable destruc- tion or surrender if he remained fmy longer in the trap in which (he American fleet held him, he made a bold dash from the harbor at the time the Americans least ex- pected him to do so, and, fighting every inch of his way, even when his ship was ablaze and sinking, he tried to escape the doom which was written on the muzzle of every American gun trained upon his vessels The Americans saw him the moment he left the harbor and commenced their work of destruction immediately. For an hour or two they followed the flying Svaniards to the westward alone the 28 shore line, sending shot after shot into their blazing hulls, tearing great holes in their steel sides and covering their decks with the blood of the killed and wounded. At no time did the Spaniards show any indication that they intended to do otherwise than fight to the last. They ADMIRAL CERVERA — COMMANDER OF THE SPANISH FLEET AT SANTIAGO. displayed no signals to surrender even when their ships commenced to sink and the great clouds of smoke pouring from their sides showed they were on fire. But they turned their heads toward the shore, less than a mile away, and ran them on the beach and rocks, where their destruction was soon completed. The officers and men on board then escaped to the shore as well as they could with the assistance of boats sent from the American men-of-war, and then threw themselves upon the mercy 434 AMERICAN VICTORIES IN THE WAR WITH SPAIN. of their captors, who not only extended to them the gracious hand of American chivalry, but sent them a guard to pro- tect them from the murderous bauds of Cuban soldiers hiding in the bushes on the hillside, eager to rush down and attack the unarmed, defeated, but val- orous foe. One after another the Spanish ships became the victims of the awful rain of shells which the American bat- tleships, cruisers and gnu-boats poured upon them, and two hours after the first of the fleet had started out of Santiago harbor three cruisers and two torpedo- boat destroyers were lying on the shore ten to fifteen miles west of Morro Cas- tle, pounding to pieces, smoke and flame pouring from every part of them and covering the entire coast line with a mist which could be seen for miles. Heavy explosions of ammunition oc- curred every few minutes, sending curls of dense white smoke a hundred feet in the air and causing a shower of oro- ken iron and steel to fall in the water on every side. The bluffs on the coast line echoed with the roar of every ex- plosion, and the Spanish vessels sank deeper and deeper into the sand or Mse the rocks ground their hulls to pieces as they rolled or pitched forward or sideways with every wave that washed upon them from the open sea. Admiral Cervera escaped to the shore ill a boat sent by the Gloucester to the assistance of the Infanta Maria Teresa, and as soon as he touched the beach he surrendered himself and his command to Lieutenant Morton and asked to be taken on board the Gloucester, which was the only American vessel near him at the time, with several of his officers, including the captain of the flagship. The Spanish admiral, who was wounded in the arm, was taken to the Gloucester, and was leceived at her gangway by her commander, Lieutenant Richard Wainwnght, who grasped the hand of the gray-bearded admiral and said to him: " I congratulate you, sir, upon having made as gallant a fight as was ever wit- nessed on the sea." The only casualties in the American fleet were one man killed and two wounded on the Brooklyn. A large number of the Spanish wounded were removed to the American ships. Soon afterward the Spanish army in the Province of Santiago surrendered to General Shafter and our war with Spain was ended. CHAPTER XXVIII. War Between the British and the Boers. TIUTIKS between (heal Britain and the Transvaal, or South African Republic, which had been impending for several years, broke out in October, 1899 On the 9th of this month the British Government received the Boer ultimatum, demanding that points in dispute be referred to arbitration ; that all British troops on the border of the Transvaal be instantly withdrawn ; that reinforcements sent to South Africa since June 1st be removed ; that no more troops be landed in South Africa, and that Great Britain answer before 5 o'clock p. m., October nth. On the same date the Gordon Highlanders and troops from India were orde r ed to Lady- smith, a town in Natal. Great Britain, on the 10th, replied that conditions demanded by the Trans- vaal were such as could not be dis- cussed. The British agent was in- structed to apply for his passport, which meant that war was an assured fact, and that communication between the two governments was now at an end. The time fo*- acceptance of the ulti- matum expired at 5 o'clock P. M., Oc- tober nth. Conyngham Greene, the British agent at Pretoria, paid his fare- well visits to President Krnger and the Boer officials. General Prinsloo was appointed commander-in-chief of the Orange Free State forces ; headquarters at Albertina. The Boers occupied Laing's Nek and the British hurriec troops to the western border. The Orange Free State joined tin Transvaal in war against Great Britain, and hurried troops forward to co-operate with the Boer army under command of General Joubert. General Cronje com- manded the Boer forces or the western border, and laid siege to Kimberley, the "Diamond City," and also to Mafe- king, another important town lying north of Kimberley. It will suffice for our present purpose to furnish here a chronicle of the important events of the struggle, which was desperate and bloody, both sides exhibiting the most consummate strategy and the greatest heroism. At Nicholson's Nek about 800 Brit- ish officers and men and two-thirds of a mountain battery were captured, and about 650 prisoners and two guns fell into the hands of the Boers at Storm- berg. Eleven guns were also taken by the Boers at Colenso. General Buller suffered a severe re* pulse at Colenso on December 15, but hi? campaign met with its greatest dis- aster late in January. A flanking move- ment, under the immediate command of General Warren, failed signally, an^ a general withdrawal of the British forces to the south side of the Tuge 1 - River was the immediate result. Mafeking was invested on October 14, and after that date Colonel Baden- Powell, with 1 -600 irregulars, kept at 435 m WAR BETWEEN THE BRITISH AND THE BOKRS. bay a Boer force with a varying strength of from 2,ooo to 5,000 men. Lord Methueii, commanding the British forces on the western border, fought four battles and advanced to within twenty -live miles of beleaguered Kitnberlev. Belmont, Gras Pan and in General Cronje's flight toward Bloemfontein, capital of Orange Free State, his being surrounded at Paarde- burg on February 19 after a series ol rear-guard engagements and his surren- der on February 27, as already stated. Meanwhile Kimberley was incidentally relieved on February 15, after a siege of 123 days. In the latter part of October, soon after the war began, battles were fought in the northern part ot Natal, yet were not decisive. The British troops encountered a strong force of Boers at Dundee, and also at Elands- laagte. On October 2Cth the Boer General Inkas Meyer's column at- tacked the British force under General Symons. The British troops suffered severely, ami General Symons was mortally wounded. At Elandslaagte, October 21st, a British column under General French, commander oi cav- alry, routed the Boers. General Yule withdrew the British forces to Lady- smith, and this town was besieged. The troops at Ladysmith, under com- genkral lord KITCHENER mand of General White, resisted their chief of fikld MARSHAL Roberts' staef. foe bravely, repulsed several attacks, Modder River cost 1,167 lives, ami at Magersfontein, where his progress was stopped, he lost 967 more men. He then remained at a standstill until General Roberts arrived with reinforcements, drove the Boers back, finally captured General Cronje ami some 4,000 of his troops, and raised the seige of Kimber- lev. This occurred on February 27th. Lord Roberts reached Modder River February oth, wdiere a force of British troops had been concentrated. On February nth British cavalry and mounted infantry began the movement and the garrison, consisting at first of 12,000 men, together with the residents of the town, was reduced 10 sore straits and suffered great privations. General Buller and British troops attempting to force their way to Lady- smith, to relieve the besieged town, met with several disastrous repulses and were forced back to the south side of the Tngela River. On January 23d, 24th and 25th they captured Spion Kop (Bluff) after sharp fighting, involving heavy losses, but were compelled to abandon the position. General Buller on the Boer's left flank which resulted I be°-an his fourth attempt to force his 437 438 WAR BETWEEN THE BRITISH AND THE BOERS. way to Ladysmith oil February 14th, and for a number oi days Fought a con- tinuous battle. The disasters that overlook the Boers on the western bonier compelled them to abandon the siege .it Ladysmith, GENERAL SIR GEORGB STEWART WHITE and on February 28th General Dun- donald with the Natal Carbineers and a composite regiment entered Ladysmith. The garrison were on a half pound oi' meal daily per man and were supple- menting the meat ration with horses and mules. It waslearned that General White had withstood a heavy bombard ment, repelled two hard pressed attacks and made two successful sorties, rhe troops suffered much from typhoid fever and lack of food and medical supplies. It will be of interest to the reader to learn what explanation the Boers gave i->\ their retreat and o( the attendant military operations. The following was sent out from the Boer camp at Big- ^arsberg 1 "The Federals have Fallen back on the Biggarsberg chain, crossing Natal >oiith of Dundee. The retreat from Ladysmith was due to the mistake of a certain commandant in ordering his men to retire from the key of the posi- tion without any reason for the move. "On the reeeipt of the bad news from the Modder River on February 28th it was resolved to send the wagons back to Biggarsberg, and soon long strings of ox wag ins lined the roads. Over 1 thonsan I wagons iie westerly route to 1 ie laager southwest o{ Ladysmith, Another COllVO) was sent to the fool of tiie Drakensberg. A large numbei oi tents captured from the Hritish at Dundee and also the ammunition were ol' necessity a ban done 1. "The chief difficulty was in dis- nounting 'Long Tom.' TheBocis were independent of the railway, as is shown by the fact that not one of their two thousand wagons went be rail. Ail travelled by road, together with the field batteries Only the heavy guns, the infantry an 1 wounded went by rail. "When the last train had h ft Hands- laagte a workman's train followed, care- fully blowing up every bridge and cul- vert between Ladysmith and Glencoe, and, when this hail been done, setting lire to the Elandslaagte collieries. Thus the British) with Natal's southernmost collieries in their hands, are unable to draw supplies therefrom. "Under cover of the night and with the collieries sending lurid flames to heaven the bullock w igons WOUnd over the hills, making roads where none be fore existed ; and the four months 1 WAR HETWEEN THE JiRITISH AND THE BOERS. 439 siege of Ladysmith was raised. It is impossible as yet to give the burgher casualties, owing to the disorganization of the ambulance corps and the circum- stances of the retreat." Roberts' victory over the Boer rear guard as he pressed on toward Bloem- fbntein appears to have been decisive. The burghers withstood the cavalry and horse artillery of Colville and Kelly- Kenny, but were turned and dislodged by the infantry. The Welsh and Es- sex regiments drove the Boers from their intrenched positions at the point of the bayonet. The British losses were unknown. As the troops con- tinued to advance Roberts telegraphed the names of few casualties. The Boer losses must have been considerable, as 102 of their dead were left on the field. Aasvogel Kop, which the British reached March iith, was expected to be the last place at which the Boers would make their stand before Bloem- fontein. No such stand was made, and Roberts' cavalry on that date were practically at the gates of Bloemfontein, and the way to the Capital was open to the whole force. Peace proposals having been made by the Boer government, unconditional surrender on the part of the Transvaal and Orange Free State, and an absolute declination to consider any proffer of good offices or intervention on the part of any foreign Power, was the policy decided upon by the British Govern- ment. Leader Balfour's announcement of the terms on which her Majesty's Government were willing to end the war created the liveliest interest among the members of all shades of politics. It quite overshadowed, in the public mind, for the time being, the import- ance of Roberts' advance on Bloem- fontein. The document was very brief, con- sisting of only two telegrams. The first was a communication from Presi- GENERAL FRENCH, COMMANDER OF THE BRITISH CAVALRY. dents Kruger and Steyn, expressing the readiness of the Transvaal and Orange Free State to surrender, pro- vided the independence of the Republic was assured, the reply of the government was a peremptory refusac to entertain any such terms. There must be uncon- ditional surrender. In the Parliamentary lobby the idea of entertaining any such proposals was altogether scouted. The military ex- perts believed that the end of the war was still far distant. A prominent member of the Government stated that no settlement with the South African Republics would be possible which failed as a starting point to provide for the disarmament of the Boers and the demolition of their fortresses. Lord Roberts again turned the Boer 4k> W A R B I r \\ I lND TH E BOE RS. . and with bis entire I which c ived Ventei -seller, tweh west n. The Boers, who number* v men, With ( guns, were entrenched along the main . but the i south low- l flank< i m, Critical Situation. It was now doubtful if t would make any fui If they did they wh< would I i \ es, Such was critics . on in which th< army * Cm March 13th was corres ce of greatest moment Rx and the British Government It ga> eth« U Legrams sent by the two i -us to the Marquis 1 ' S sburj . as ws : •• B] > — rhe ' v this w - ruin wl South A hie.; is now '.' it n< . . ssa h belligt the -the iune God for v g and whet n of illing mis and ion. "With :" : - object and in view 1 ftSS< ' ' Ct that this war w is and is being carried on with purpose of undermining- H< authority in South Airica and of set- up an administration over all of South Afric - ••.dent of He; M.ijes- .\ > go\ eminent, we considei it out duty to sol< is * '. was uu- 1 defensive measure . the threatened iudepeud- South African Repub and inned in ordei to secure and mai incontestable inde- v of both Republics .is so\ national states and to 1 tain a ice that those of Hej est) 's -•.•.'-eets who have taken part 5V< . shall suffel no h.um itever in person or property Terms of Foaeo. "On these conditions, but on these COnd e w e now. as in the peace re-estab- ed in South * hile, if Her Maj< overnment is determined to independence of the repub- Othing left to us and to people b \ ere to the end begun. In S] the overwhelmii eminence oi apire we are confident God, v. - ictinguish- lom in the hearts of ourselves and our fathers, will not Accomplish his work esc< ndants "We hesit 1 make this declara- to 3 our excellency as we feared tl as the advantage wasalw? our side and as long as our pos tions fei hin Her Majesty's colonies, such a might hurt the feelings am! honor of the ■.t now that the prestige of the may be considered t, by the capture of one of oui WAR BETWEEN THE BRITISH AND THE BOERS. 441 forces by Her Majesty's troops and that we have thereby been forced to evacuate other positions which our forces had <:< ' upied, that difficulty is over and we can no longer hesitate to clearly inform your government and people, in the sight of the whole civilized world, why we are fighting and on what conditions we are ready to restore peace." Salisbury's Sharp Reply. The Marquis of Salisbury to the pres- ident of the South African Republic and Orange Pree State: "Foreign Office, March 11. — I have the honor to acknowledge your honors' telegram dated March 5 from Bloem- fontein, of which the purport is princi- pally to demand that Her Majesty's government grant the 'incontestable independence' of the .South African Republic and Free State, 'as sovereign international states,' and to offer on these terms to bring the war to a conclusion. " In the beginning of October last peace existed between Her Majesty and the two Republics under conventions which then were in existence. "A discussion had been proceeding for some months between Her Majesty's government and the South African Re- public, of which the object was to obtain redress for certain very serious griev- ances under which the British residents in South Africa were suffering. "In the course of these negotiations the .South African Republics had to the knowledge of Her Majesty's govern- ment made considerable armaments, and the latter had consequently taken steps to provide corresponding rein- forcements of the British garrisons at Cape Town and in Natal. "No infringement of the rights guar- anteed by the conventions had up to that point taken place on the British Suddenly, at two the South African Republic, af. ing an insulting ultimatum, d war upon Her '■'■ and the Orac Free State, with whom there had not even been any discussion, took a similar step. "IT ty's dominions were im- mediately invaded by I Siege was laid to three to thin the British frontier, a large portion of two colonies was overrun, with great destruction of property and life, and the Republics claimed to treat the in- habitants of extensive portions of Hei Majesty's dominions as if those domin ions had been annexed to one or tht» other of them. "In anticipation of these operations the South African Republics had b accumulating for many years past mili- tary stores on an enormous scale, which, by their character, could only have been introduced for use against Great Britain. Secret Preparations. " Your honors ma eob ervations of a negative character upon the object with which these preparations were made. I do not think it necessary to diV cuss the questions you have raised. But the result of these preparations, carried on with great secrecy, has been that the British Empire has been compelled to confront an invasion which has entailed upon the Empire a costly war and the loss of thousands of precious lives. This great calamity has been the pen- alty Great Britain has suffered for hav- ing of recent years acquiesced to the existence of the two republics. " In view of the use to which the two ■H-: WAR BETWEEN THE BRITISH AND THli BOKRS. Republics have put the position which was given them and the calamities their unprovoked attack has inflicted on Her Majesty's dominions, Her 'Majesty's government can only answer your hon- telegrams by saying- they are not prepared to assent to the independence either of the South African Republic or the Orange Free State." Intervention Solicited. Our government at Washington was asked by Presidents Kruger and Steyn, through the United States Consul Adel- bert S. Hay, at Pretoria, to intervene for the purpose oi restoring peace. The representations made by our govern- ment to Great Britain were to the effect that any thing the State Department could do in the interests oi peace would gladly be undertaken. The well known aversion of the British government to any foreign intervention does not ap- pear to have been aroused, and, while Lord Salisbury stated he was unable to comply with the offer, he expressed his appreciation of the United States' efforts on behalf of humanity. Mr. Hay and the other consuls, sub- Sequent to Presidents Krugerand Steyn sending their peace cablegram to Lord Salisbury, were asked to endeavor to secure the good offices of their respective governments, apparently with a view of bringing outside influence to bear npon Lord Salisbury's reply to the Boer over- tures. These seem to have been fruit- less, except in the instance of the United States consul, whose represen- tations to Secretary Hay were forwarded March 12th to the United States em- bassy in London with the instrnctions outlined above. These Mr. White, the charge d' affairs, personally presented to Lord Salisbury, who received them cor- dially but without committing himself to an)- definite expression of opinion. As the Boer overtures had already been answered to the effect that no propositions including the maintenance of the Republics' independence con Id be considered, the presentation of the American, offer was ahead}' too late, but the premier apparently deemed it a matter of sufficient importance to put himself on record with a formal reply. Europe Indifferent. Salisbury's declaration sounded the death knell oi the independence of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. The appeal of Presidents Kruger and Steyn to the Powers for intervention fell upon unheeding ears. From the capitals oi Europe there was no re- sponse. Despatches from Berlin, Paris, Vienna, St. Petersburg and Rome were all oi the same tenor. Every Govern- ment realized that England was deter- mined to settle the affair herself in her own way this time. There is a marked difference from a diplomatic standpoint between inter- vention and mediation. Intervention implies that one of the parties might perhaps brook no interference, but that intervention would take place despite this. No Power whatever displayed the slightest intention to intervene in any way. Berlin, Paris, Vienna and Rome all notified their representatives at Pretoria that they could not inter- fere. As regards mediation, it was consid- ered highly improbable that any one of the European powers would take the initiative and put the question to Great Britain whether mediation was desired. WAR BETWEEN THE BRITISH AND THE BOERS. 443 The Kaiser's Government replied that Germany would be ready to co-operate in any movement for mediation as soon as it became clear that both parties de- fied it. Very soon stirring- news came from the British column that for a number of days had been pressing on toward the capital of the Orange Free State. Lon- don and all other British and colonial towns were excited and made jubilant by another victory of the British forces. Following is the text of Lord Roberts 1 despatch to the War Office in London announcing his occupation of the cap- ital of the Orange Free State : Lord Roberts' Despatch. " Bloemfontein, Tuesday, March 13, 8 p.m. — By the help of God and the bravery of Her Majesty's soldiers, the troops under my command have taken possession of Bloemfontein. The Brit- ish flag now flies over the Presidency, evacuated last evening by Mr. Steyn, late President of the Orange Free State. Mr. Fraser, member of the late execu- tive government ; the Mayor, the Secre- tary to the late government, the Land- rost and other officials met me two miles from the town and presented me with the keys of the public offices. The enemy has withdrawn from the neigh- borhood, and all seems quiet. The in- habitants of Bloemfontein gave the troops a cordial welcome." The events immediately preceding the entrance of the British into Bloem- fontein are detailed in two despatches from Lord Roberts. One dated Venter's Vlei at half-past 9 o'clock on the even- ing of March 12th, said : " Our march veas again unopposed. We are now ^bout eighteen miles from Bloemfon- tein. The cavalry division is astride the railway six miles south of Bloem- fontein. There were 321 men wounded, and about sixty or seventy were killed or are missing. The wounds are, as a rule, more serious than usual, owing to the expanding bullets which are freely used by the Boers." A second despatch, dated twenty min- utes after 5 o'clock next morning, said: "I directed General French, if there were time before dark, to seize the rail- j way station at Bloemfontein and thus ! secure the rolling stock. At midnight j I received a report from him that, after considerable opposition, he had been able to occupy two hills close to the railway station, which commanded Bloemfontein. A brother of President Stevn has been made a orisoner. The telegraph line leading northward has been cut and the railway broken up. I am now starting with the Third Cavalry Brigade, which I called up from the Seventh division, near Petrusburg, yes- terday, and the mounted infantry, to reinforce the cavalry division. The rest of the force will follow as quickly as possible." British Forces at Bloemfontein A few hours after this despatch was sent the Capital was occupied, an ac- count of which is furnished by an eye- witness as follows : "Bloemfontein, Tuesday, March 13th. — Lord Roberts entered Bloemfontein at half-past one o'clock to-day, followed by the Gordon Highlanders, a cavalry brigade and three batteries of horse artillery. Steyn, Fischer and other prominent officials fled privately from the Capital last night, transferring the seat of government to Kroonstad. The 444 WAR BETWEEN THE BRITISH AND ... .BOERS. State's position had been discussed for several days between the war and peace parties in the town. Prominent digni- taries, among them Kellner and Fraser, sin rendered the town to Lord Roberts at noon to-day. Advance of General French. " General French reached the railway seven miles south yesterday afternoon, destroying the track north and south. The object of this step was to delay the arrival of Joubert and block the retreat of the enemy. Since the affair at Abra- ham's Kraal there has been only a sin- gle skirmish yesterday, when the cav- alry were engaged. With your other correspondent I got within a hundred yards of the Boer's trenches at Abra- ham's Kraal. We were hunted for eight miles and our horses shot. The back of the war here is broken. The populace are cheering Roberts and the soldiers and Union Jacks are flying everywhere." Two newspaper correspondents were the first to enter Bloemfontein. Gen- eral French had sent out scouts to feel their way toward the town, perceiving which the correspondents of the " Sydney Herald " and the " London Daily News/' with one other, galloped forward and entered the town, which wore an every- day aspect. The people were out shop ping or for morning walks, and at first the two newspaper men were regarded as townsfolk. When later it became f known that they were the forerunners of the British army they were greeted cordially and conducted to a club, where they met Mr. Fraser, of the Executive Council; the Mayor and other officials. These they persuaded to take carriages and go to meet Lord Roberts. As the party drove out of the city the British cavalry were closing around like a high net. The deputation soon ar- rived opposite the kopje where Lord Roberts was stationed, and one corre- spondent rode forward and had the honor of announcing to the commander- in-chief that Bloemfontein would sur- render. A little later the deputation began to approach and Lord Roberts went for- ward to meet them. The scene was picturesque in the extreme. A few yards away the grins of a battery pointed their grim mouths toward the late posi- tion of the Boers, while the tin roofs of Bloemfontein shone in the distance. After salutes had been exchanged, a i member of the deputation stepped for- ward and declared that the town, being without defense, wished to surrender, hoping that Lord Roberts would protect life and property. He replied that, provided there was no opposition, he would undertake to guarantee the security of both. Siege of Maf eking. Lord Roberts notified the deputation of his intention of entering the town in state and they withdrew to inform the townspeople. Lord Roberts then made his military dispositions, ordering the First Brigade to follow him and take possession of the town. With his staff and military attaches he descended the kopje, and he arrived on the plain, wdiere he waited until the cavalry approached. Then he entered the city, followed by his personal staff, the gen- eral staff, the military attaches and the troops. The following was reported from Mafekiug under date of February 19th; War between the British and the boers. 445 "Horse meat now composes a consid- erable part of our rations. There is lit- tle grumbling. The first pinch of the siege is over, and the town has settled grimly to stick it out. What may be typhoid malaria has broken out in the women's laager, and dysentery, due to the absence of vegetables, is rife among the garrison. We are thrown upon our own resources. Such luxuries as we had are exhausted or have been com- mandeered for the hospitals, which are filled to overflowing. The children's graveyard, close to the women's laager, grows weekly, as the young lives are cut short prematurely by shell and fever. We look with hope deferred for relief Intense Suffering. " The cheerfulness which was charac- teristic of the early days of the siege has almost deserted us, the men preferring to remain at their posts lather than move about and work up an appetite which cannot be satisfied. The natives are in the worst plight. Those who are unable to obtain work are allowed a small handful of meal daily. Many braving the danger wander about the town with gaunt and hungry faces in search of work, which entitles them to an extra ration of meal. If they find work they are generally too weak to perforin it. " From their advanced posts the Boers rake the streets and the market square. It is impossible to dodge their bullets. We have taken remarkable precaution, however, and the casualties, though heavy, are not what they might have been had less able men been at the head of affairs." The same distress was reported on March 13th, only intensified. A despatch from the besieged town said : " The garrison is holding its own. We have heard numerous rumors that the siege will be raised, but so far that is not the case. We are living along patiently on quarter rations, supple- mented by the occasional capture of cat- tle. Our home-made gun erratically bombards the Boer trenches. Horrible stories are current that the Boers are inflicting nameless tortures upon cap- tured native runners. These may not be true, but they are tending to inflame native passions to such an extent that it may soon be impossible to hold the natives in check. " Owing to the Boers having deliber- ately bombarded the native stadt, which is full of women and children, Colonel Baden-Powell has armed the natives, but he has only allowed them to act on the defensive, although they have clam- ored to be allowed to go out and attack at the point of the assegai. They will be prevented as long as possible from inflicting reprisals on the Boers." Death of General Joubert. The famous Boer General, who was the leading spirit of the war on the Boers' side, died at Pretoria, March 29, 1900. When the advance of Lord Roberts on Bloemfontein made it necessary from a military point of view to abandon the line of defence along theTugela River, which had been so long and stubbornly held by his army, General Joubert conducted with consummate skill the retreat northward to take up fresh de- fensive positions at Biggarsberg, witli Laing's Nek in his rear. Strong enemy and bitter foe as was Joubert, the news of his death excited 446 WAR BEfWEEtf THE BRITISH AND THE BOERS, no rancorous feeling or unseemly satis- faction, even in the army ranged against him in Natal. A kindly sentiment, in fact, had already been produced by sev- eral instances in which General Joubert had, immediately before the outbreak of the war and during its brief course, displayed his humane and courteous disposition, One such was when he sent a message ol condolence to Lady Synions, after the death of General Pcnn Synions in the hospital at Dundee. Praise from an Enemy. Nor did the side oi the Boer Gen- eral's character pass unacknowledged by the British leaders against whom he was pitted. Only two days before his death, Sir George White, th - gallant de- fender oi If inde- pendence, even at the price oi' isolation from the outside world, swayed him to the end. When his countrymen con- ceded their country to the British through sheer inability to maintain a government of their own against their numerous enemies among the native tribes, Pietrus Jacobus Joubert was one of the protesting party. A demand for the re-establishment oi' the Republic was made to Sir Battle Frere, but it was not until Krnger, Joubert and Pic- torius formed themselves into a trium- virate in December, 1880, that they were able to carry their wishes into effect during the troubles in which Mr. Glad- stone's government was then involved. Great Organizer. Joubert took the command in chief oi the burgers ami quickly showed that he had a military organization ol singu- lar effectiveness at his disposal- 1" a few weeks defeats were inflicted on the British troops as they endeavored to pt netrate the Transvaal. Baing's Nek was followed by the overwhelming dis- aster oi' Majuba Hill, in February, 1881, and at the convention signed at the foot of the mountain General Joubert practically won back for the time being f\( independence of his country. His association with Ban! Krnger de- veloped as time went on into active rivalry. A keen contest for the Presi- WAR BETWEEN THE BRITISH AND THE BO] 417 dency of the Republic took place be tweet] them in 1893, when the General received /,ooo, votes, against the 7,881 given to Mr. Kruger. In 1899 "Oom Paul " had it nearly all his own way, gaining re-election by 12,000 votes, whereas Joubert was but third in the contest, with only 2,000 votes. Joubert's Strategy. Under his direction, as head of the military forces the organization of the Rer.ublic'sarmy was brought to a pitch of perfection, as the campaign showed. in taking the offensive in the war, Joubert's strategy showed generalship • jf a high order, and dauntless persis- tency in the face of serious checks when nis fanners met trained troops in close conflict. Xo doubt he W£3 entitled to a great part of the credit for the perfect state of preparation in which the Boer armies took the field at the outbreak of hostil- ities, the ample supplies of heavy artil- lery, and the admirable use made of strong positions of defense. He was active in the first days of mobilization, and exercised constant supervision over the preliminary movements of the in- vasion of Natal. It was he who was in command of the Boers during some of the fiercest as- saults made by General Puller in the effort to beat his way through to Lady- sniith; and it is supposed that he di- rected the masterly retreat northward, without the loss of man or gun, after contesting every foot of the ground, when the strategy of Lord Roberts made his position untenable. He was pre- vented from entering Bloemfontein by General French'scapture of the railroad. Reports of his ill health had been com- mon, and there were stories too, of his unpopularity and loss of authority ; but the general belief was that he was en- gaged in superintending the construc- tion of defenses for Pretoria, in re adi- ness for the expected siege by Lord Roberts. His death following the cap- ture of Cronje, left the Poers without the services of their two most famous and able commanders. Mobility of the Boers. General Joubert could collect his whole army in forty-eight hours, a much speedier mobilization than any other nation could boast of. He divided the Transvaal into seventeen divisions, each under a commander. These again were subdivided into sections, commanded by field cornets and assistant field cor- nets. The wonderful mobility of hi^ forces, practically a mass of irregular mounted infantry, has been the subject of repeated comment and undisguised admira;ion on the part of many British commanders. When the Poers raided British terri- tory, Pechuanaland, in 1884, General Joubert was probably the only promi- nent Boer who refused to support the movement, and his opposition resulted in the withdrawal of the Boers from the territory seized, as he threatened «» resign unless he had his way, saying : " I positively refuse to hold office under a government that deliberately breaks its covenants, and we have made cove- nants with England." Although some of the younger com- manders thought the old soldier wanting in dash and enterprise, his raid into the country south of the Tugela was consid- ered the best piece of Boer leadership during the whole war. It is now known 448 WAR BETWEEN THE BRITISH AND THE BOERS. that lie crossed the Tugela with only 3,000 riflemen and six guns, but so bold and rapid were his movements that the British commanders thought 10,000 Boers were marching on Pietermaritz- burg. For a few days, although in the pres- ence of greatly superior forces, he iso- lated General Hildyard's brigade at Est- court and at the same time threatened General Barton's camp at Mool river. Then, as British reinforcements were pushed up, Joubert recrossed the Tugela without losing a prisoner, a wagon or a gun. General White's estimate of him, pronounced two days before he died, as a gentleman and a brave and honorable opponent, illustrated the tone of all British comment. After the Boers were driven rrun Bloemfontein they concentrated atWep- ener, a short distance to the south-east. This place was held by the British, who successfully resisted several sharp at- tacks. By the latter part of April, 1900, there was great activity in the cam- paign to the eastward of Bloemfontein. It was now six weeks since Lord Roberts' army reached the capital of the Free State, and his army, which had been facing northward, now faced about to the eastward in an effort to drive back several Boer detachments that were operating against its right flank and menacing its line of commu- nications. The advance of two British divisions, numbering about ten thousand men, to the vicinity of Sanua's Post was appa- rently the first step in a flank move- ment by which Lord Roberts hoped to head off the Boer army, when it re- tired from Wepener, Dewetsdorp, Tha- ba Nehu and other points northward. Already Wepener had been abandoned by the Boers and the British garrisou relieved. This would have been neces- sitated by the movements of the British forces toward Sanna's Post, even if no reinforcements had been sent to the Wepener garrison. But the Boer forces on the British flank were not yet captured or defeated. They still held the interior line, and threatened to concentrate for an attack upon some part of the net in which the British commander was trying to en- close them. PART V. MARVELLOUS INVENTIONS AND SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES OP THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. ^5 1 HE electric telegraph, the subma- 4 I rine cable, the telephone, the phonograph, wireless telegra- phy, the electric light and the many applications of electricity to locomotion, resulting in trolley cars, the automo- bile, etc. — these were all unknown at the beginning of the Nineteenth Cen- tury. It has been a century of marvels, of dazzling achievements by inventive genius, and its glory far surpasses that of any other hundred years since the dawn of history. The lightnings of heaven have been tamed and harnessed for the service of man. The electric telegraph must always be associated with the name of Professor Samuel F. B. Morse. He did not conceive the idea of using electricity for commu- nicating thought, but the practical ap- plication of electricity for this purpose, and the success of the wonderful under- taking are due to his inventive genius. Nothing in the way of invention has ever surpassed his triumph, nor has there been any other system of telegraphic signs and letters so perfect as his. He 29 CHAPTER XXIX. Triumphs of Electricity. left but meagre opportunity for inven- tors who should come after him, and yet we now have wireless telegraphy, that amazing triumph of inventive skill. Professor Morse was born at Charles- town, Massachusetts, on the 27th of April, 1 79 1, and graduated at Yale College, 1 810. In 1829 he went abroad for the purpose of completing his art studies. He remained in Europe for more than three years, residing in the principal cities of the Continent. Dur- ing his absence he was elected Professor of the Literature of the Fine Arts in the University of the City of New York. He set out on his return home to accept this professorship in the autumn of 1832, sailing from Havre on board the packet-ship Sully. Among his fellow-passengers were a number of persons of intelligence and cultivation, one of whom had but re- cently witnessed in Paris some highly interesting experiments of the electro- magnet, the object of which was to prove how readily the electric spark 449 450 MARVELLOUS INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES. could be obtained from the magnet, and the rapidity with which it could be disseminated. To most of the passen- gers this relation was deeply interest- ing, but to all save one it was merely the recital of a curious experiment. That one exception was Mr. Morse. To him the development of this newly- discovered property of electricity was more than interesting. It showed him his true mission in life— the way to his true destiny. Art was not his proper field now, for however great his abili- ties as an artist, he was possessed of genius of a higher, more useful type, and it was henceforth his duty to em- ploy it. He thought long and earnestly upon the subject which the words of his fellow passenger had so freshly called up, pacing the deck under the silent stars, and rocked in his wakeful berth by the ocean whose terrors his genius was to tame, and whose vast depths his great invention was to set at naught. Morse's Alphabet. He had long been convinced that electricity was to furnish the means of rapid communication between distant points, of which the world was so much in need ; and the experiments which his new acquaintance had witnessed in Paris removed from his mind the last doubt of the feasibility of the scheme. Being of an eminently practical charac- ter, he at once set to work to discover how this could be done, and succeeded so well that before the Sully reached New York he had conceived not merely the idea of an electric telegraph, but of an electro-magnetic and chemical re- cording telegraph, substantially and essentially as it now exists, and had invented an alphabet of signs, the same in all important respects as that now in use. The testimony to the paternity of the idea in Morse's mind, and to his acts and drawings on board the ship, is am- ple. His own testimony is corroborated by all the passengers (with a single ex- ception), who testified with him before the courts, and was considered conclu- sive by the judges; and the date of 1832 is therefore fixed by this evidence as the date of Morse's conception, and realization also — so far as the drawings could embody the conception — of the telegraph system which now bears his name. Patient Perseverence. But though invented in 1832, it was not until 1835 (during which time he was engaged in the discharge of the duties of his professorship in the Uni- versity of the City of New York) that he was enabled to complete his first re- cording instrument. This was but a poor, rude instrument at the best, and was very far from being equal to his perfected invention. It embodied his idea, however, and was a good basis for subsequent improvements. By its aid he was able to send signals from a given point to the end of a wire half a mile in length, but as yet there was no means of receiving them back again from the other extremity. He continued to experiment on his invention, and made several improve- ments in it. It was plain from the first that he needed a duplicate of his instru- ment at the other end of his wire, but he was unable for a long time to have one made. At length he acquired the necessary funds, and in July, 1837, had a duplicate instrument constructed, and MARVELLOUS INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 451 thus perfected his plan. His telegraph I now worked to his entire satisfaction, and he could easily send his signals to the remote end of his line and re • replies in return, and answer signals sent from that terminus. Having brought it to a successful completion, he exhibited it to large audiences at the University of New York, in September, 1837. In Oc- tober, 1837, Professor Morse filed a caveat to secure his invention, but his patent was not obtained until 1840. Morse, in December, 1837, went to Washington to solicit from the Government an appropriation for the construction of an experimental line from Washington City to Bal- timore — a distance of forty miles. This line he declared would thoroughly test the practicability and utility of the telegraph. His petition was laid before Congress, and a committee appointed to con- sider it. He stated his plan to this body, and proved its practicability by actual experiments with his in- struments. Considerable interest in the subject was thereby aroused in Congress and throughout the coun- try, but he derived no benefit from it. The session wore away in this man- ner, and at length ended without any action being taken in the matter. At length, in 1840, he received his long-delayed patent from the General Government, and, encouraged by this, determined to make another effort to [bring his telegraph into use. He was not able to do so until the session of Congress of 1842-43, when he presented a second petition to that body, asking its aid in the construction of an experimental line between Balti- more and Washington. He had to en- counter a great degree of skepticism and ridicule, with many other obsta- cles, not the least of which was the dif- ficulty of meeting the expense of re- maining in Washington and urging his invention upon the Government. vStill he p red, although it IN PROFESSOR SAMUEL F. B. MORSE, VENTOR OF THK ELECTRIC TJ PH. 1 seemed to be hoping against hope, as the session drew near its close, and his scanty stock of money grew daily smaller. On the evening of the 3d of March, 1843, he returned from the Cap- itol to his lodgings utterly disheartened. It was the last night of the session, and nothing had been done in the matter of his petition. He sat up late into the night arranging his affairs so as to take his departure for home on the following day. It was useless to remain in Wash- ington any longer. Congress would adjourn the next day, and his last hope 1 of success had been shattered. 452 MARVELLOUS INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES. On the morning of the 4th of March he came down to the breakfast-table gloomy and despondent. Taking up the morning journal, he ran over it listlessly. Suddenly his eye rested upon a paragraph which caused him to spring to his feet in complete amazement. It was an announcement that, at the very ELECTRO TELEGRAPH MACHINERY. last hour of the session of the previous night, a bill had been passed by Con- gress appropriating the sum of thirty thousand dollars for the purpose of en- abling Professor Morse to construct an experimental line of telegraph between Baltimore and Washington. He could scarcely believe it real, and, as soon as possible, hastened to the Capitol to seek authentic information. The statement was confirmed by the proper authorities, and Morse's dearest wish was realized. The hour of his triumph was at hand, and his long and patient waiting was rewarded at last Work on the telegraph line was im- mediately begun, and carried on ac- tively. At first an insulated wire was buried under ground in a lead pipe, but this failing to give satisfaction, the wire was elevated upon poles. On the 27th of May, 1844, the line was co~. dieted, and the first trial of it made in the pres- ence of the Government officials and many other distinguished men. Pro- fessor Morse was confident of success ; but this occasion was a period of the most intense anxiety to him, for he knew that his entire future was staked upon the result of this hour. Among the company present to wit- ness the trial was the Secretary of the Treasury, John C. Spencer. Although very much interested in the under- taking, he was entirely ignor- ant of the prin- ciples involved in it, and, there- fore, very ap- prehensive of its failure. It was upon this occa- sion that he asked one of Professor Morse's assistants how large a bundle could be sent over the wires, and if the United States mail could not be sent in the same way. When all was in readiness Professor Morse seated himself at the instrument and sent his first message to Baltimore. An answer was promptly returned, and messages were sent and replies received with a rapidity and accuracy which placed the triumph of the invention beyond the possibility of doubt. Among the first messages ever transmitted was the announcement of the nomination of James K. Polk for the presidency. Congratulations were showered upon the inventor, who received them as calmly as he had previously borne the scoffs of many of these same men. Yet his heart throbbed all the while with a brilliant triumph. Fame and fortune both rose proudly before him. He had won a great victory and conferred a lasting benefit upon his race. Professor Morse is also the inventor of submarine telegraphy. In 1842 he laid MARVELLOUS INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES. 453 the first submarine telegraph line ever put down, across the harbor of New York, and for this achievement received the gold medal of the American Insti- tute. On the ioth-of August, 1843, he addressed a communication to the Sec- retary of the Treasury in which he avowed his belief that a telegraphic cable could and would be laid across the Atlantic ocean for the purpose of connecting Europe and America. His words upon this occasion clearly prove that the idea of the Atlantic telegraph originated with him. They were as follows : u The practical infer- ence from this law is that a telegraphic communication on the electro-magnetic plan may witli certainty be established across the Atlantic ocean. Startling as this may now seem, I am confident the time will come when this project will be realized." SUBMARINE CABLES. In Febrrtary, 1854, Mr. Cyrus W. Field, of New York, ignorant of Pro- fessor Morse's views upon this subject, wrote to him to ask if he considered the working of a cable across the At- lantic practicable. The Professor at once sought an interview with Mr. Field, and assured him of his entire confidence in the undertaking. He entered heartily into Mr. Field's scheme, and rendered great aid in this noble enterprise. He was present at each attempt to lay the cable, and par- ticipated in the final triumph by which his prediction, made twenty-three years previous, was verified. The first Atlantic cable was laid in 1858. After surmounting many obsta- cles and exhibiting a perseverence in the face of discouragements that com- manded admiration, Mr. Field and the four other gentlemen who were associ- ated with him, and had so much faith in the enterprise that they subscribed $1,500,000 to carry it through, suc- ceeded in connecting the two conti- nents and transmitting messages. Great was the rejoicing in both hemispheres, but after 271 messages had been sent the power of transmitting intelli- gence utterly ceased, owing to the employment of too high a battery power. In 1865, a cable having been con- structed and made as nearly perfect as possible by the use of the best materials, and by the most approved method of insulation, the steamship " Great East- ern," freighted with it, sailed from Valentia on the 23d of July. On the second day after starting from the Irish coast, a fault in the electric insulation of the cable was detected ; a tiny piece of loose iron wire had forced its way through the outer covering and the gutta-percha surrounding the electric wire, so as to come in contact with the latter; and, when this piece was cut out and a new splice made, the fault was effectively cured. The cable had again to be raised and examined in the same way on the 29th, when the ship was in two thousand fathoms water, six hundred and thirty- six miles from Valentia, and one thou- sand and twenty-eight miles from New- foundland. A total loss of electric in- sulation or "dead earth," as it is called, was discovered about one o'clock that afternoon. The ship was stopped at once, and as soon as the picking-up machinery could be put in gear, the 454 MARVELLOUS INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES. end of the cable was hauled in again over the bows, and the faulty portion hav ing been cut off and laid aside for ■ minute exatn .. the remainder was spli< . and the operation of pay- out over the stern of the ship was nmenced next morning. Soon after this it became necessary "pick up" the cable to remedy a de- fect which the instruments had de- ted, when that memorable accident .wurred which taxed the ingenuity of .hose on board to remedy it The ma- chinery was still in motion, the cable and the rope traveled aft together, one :o wards the capstan, the other towards the drum, when, just as the cable reached the dynamometer, it parted, thirty feet from the bow, ami with one bound leaped, as it were, into the sea. Consternation on Board. For a moment dismay seized those on board. They were startled at the thought that the cable had parted and dropped into the sea. Nothing was to be done but to adjust the grappling ap- paratus and search for the lost treasure. At first the iron sank but slowly, but soon the picking-up machinery lowered length after length over cog-wheel and drum, till the iron wires, warming with work, heated at last so as to convert the water thrown upon the machinery into clouds of steam. Still the rope descended, and the strain was dimin- ished, when at two thousand five hun- dred fathoms, or fifteen thousand feet, the grapnel reached the bed of the At- lantic; and as the ship drifted across the course of the cable, there was just a surmise that the grapnel might catch it. In the search from August 3d to August nth, the cable was grappled ' three times ; it was lifted each time a considerable way from the bottom, but the grapnel, ropes and lifting machinery were not sufficient to bring it to the surface. Nearly twelve hundred miles of the cable now lav along the bed of the Atlantic Ocean ; one end attached to the shore at Yaleutia, the other sub- merged under nineteen hundred and fifty fathoms of water, and resting on a soft, OOZy bottom. A length of fifty-five hundred miles of cable altogether had been made for great Atlantic enterprise from 1858 to 1863, and uearly tour thousand miles had been swallowed up in the ocean ; a million an J a quarter dollars had been sank; bat the grand hopes were not crushed. The various telegraphic com- panies interested in the completion of the undertaking wisely concluded to resume operations forthwith. Locating the Cable. The storms of twelve mouths had passed over the cable before the prepa- rations were complete ; that it had not drifted was thoroughly believed. The naval commanders had made accurate observation of the exact latitude and longitude ot the spot where the end o( the cable finally disappeared in August, 1865: and, as the same nautical instru- ments, applied in the same way, would find the same spot again, this was the test, and the only test relied on. The Great Eastern arrived on the 1 2th of August at the cable fishing ground. We have not Space to detail the series of snatchings, losings, rais- ings and breakings, dodgings and fish- ings of the vessels engaged in this cable craft, but pass on to the 10th, when while hauling up the grapnel the splice MARVELLOUS WVB - KIES. 455 b"''Vfii the grapnel rope and the buoy and down went rope, grap- nel, cable and all. a good om pit. forth ; it Lgged; th'- Strain on the dynamo- meter (the instrument thai the amount of force 01 weight pulling at the grapo I rope, in addition to it, own /l]t. ; indicated that the grapnel had go\ hold of the cable; it was hauled in ; and lo ! on the 17th ,t the a- eve: ,.; board the ship crowded to the up the wat'rr. »le of 1865, lifted from its z t ed two mile - b meath I of the Atlantic Ocean, now made its ap- led to the flukes of the ;-•;.. itaneo 1 he 1 the sound of th ••.':•. had scarcely ed away when the fact became known that the ca and from the and -apii'd. The cable ;nd, not nv i'y, but with al! in full ' . tale- There it wai the in the middle, then the g then the iron writ then the outer ' >veringof Mai. ill., hemp The p lera to be >lved wa after being I months bot- Atlantic, would transmit an ntia. An operator id of the e ible to his instrum imid breath h >und him. i' .: off his hat and the< man ingenuity and had tri- umphed. Since that day the ends of the earth !. , en brc ght near bmarine cable THE TELEPHONE. Following 'he completion of th'- ,ub- joints of the latter son.' itercept marine cable, the next application of altogether the flow of electricity. tricity that aroused universal in- terest resulted in the discovery and con Amotion of tin: telephone. Suppose you want to communicate with your neighbor across the street; a wire is stretched between the two houses and connected to the two I phones; from the remaining binding screw of each telephone wires are con- ted, say, to th' and the bare wire wound round the bare pi so that there may be metallic contact. Conversation may now be carried on as in the annexed figure. For short dis- tances you will perhaps find least diffi- culty by using a double wire instead of connecting to the bra as the We already know that when sound- waves impinge on anything like the ferrotype plate of a telephone, such a plate is made to vibrate ; and a p:< ce of iron like this vibrating in the neighbor- hood of a magnet will ce turbits lines of force. If these fluctu- ating lines of for' by rings of wire, currents of electricity will be generated in the wire. And go it is every time one into a tele- phone, for ' and ►ng the wire to the other end, in a direction which varies with the "in- and-out action of the telephone. You will clearly see, then, that elec- tricity is produced at the transmitting 456 MARVELLOUS INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES, end. What happens where the listener has his attentive ear to the telephone? The electricity travels ronnu the coil of the \g telephone, and varies the magnetism of the bar within it, which in its turn varies its attraction upon the ferrotype plate beginning to ductor, a telegraphic wire, with elec- tricity for the driving force, is the best transmitter ever discovered. The tele- phone has rapidly sprung into use, and has become a necessity in out large towns, where, on account o( the pros sure of business, time is money and COMMUNICATING vibrate, and it vibrates in such a way as to reproduce the sounds which were spoken into the transmitting end. That we should ever be able to "talk by Lightning" was not dreamed of for many years after the discovery of the I telegraph proved that messages could be transmitted through motions of the electric instrument producing signs. Now we do not have to write the com- munication, but can speak to a person many miles away, and converse almost as freely as we would with one by out- side in the same room. The principle is that of the transmis- sion of sound. The air, the water, woods, metals are all conductors, but it has been proved that a metallic con- in- TELEPHONE. moments count for as much as hours did once. A man of business can call up his neighbor, who is near, or his customer miles away, and in a brief time the matter in hand is disposed oi\ The description of the instrument is as follows : An electro-magnet or spool of copper wire is fastened to the end of a steel bar which has been charged with magnetism ; the ends of the wire are carried down to the outer part of the rubber case, and connected by screws of the line wire. In front of the spool, and a little way from the end of the bar magnet, a piece of "ferrotype" sheet iron is placed. When a current of electricity is sent into the telephone and through the MARVELLOUS i. ONS AND discove; *57 spool of wire, the sheet iron plat' i caused to vibrate in unison with the breaking of the current, by reason of the alternate attractions and cessations of attraction of the plate by the electro- magnet, and a sound is produced, as already explained. The microphone is an instrument for intensifying and making audible very .ounds. It produces its effects by the change of intensity in an electric current, occasioned by variations in the contact resistance of conducting bodies. It lias always been known that many solids are excellent conductors of sound. One of the little experiments of boy- hood is for one lad to hold his head under water while another, not far away, strikes two stones together under the surface. The water coming in close contact with the ear, and being a good conductor of sound, produces something in the nature of a shock, quite as start- ling as would be the firing of a pistol near one's head. This, it must be understood, is not the principle of the microphone or telephone. There must be a conductor for the electric current, but the current itself is indispensable. Thus, not only by the telegraph can words be transmitted, but also in a more direct way, and even the tones of the human voice can be distinguish It is literally true that we talk by Lir>F THE BELL TELEPHONE. lightning, and can speak to a listener a thousand miles away. The cen' has found in electricity its most mar- velous field of discovery. THE PHONOGRAPH. Another marvel of the century pro- duced through the agency of electricity is the phonograph. Very few, even of those who have heard the dulcet strains of some sweet song from the depths of the phonograph. understand in the least the mechanism by which the sounds are produced. The explanation is as follows: The phono- graph is composed of a metal cylinder covered with a layer of wax, on which a pointed pen inscribes tracings, cor- responding to the vibrations caught by a membrane placed on the top of the pen. The wax-coated cylinder is rapidly revolved by means of an electric bat- tery, and as one speaks in front of the membrane, the cylinder advances slowly in a horizontal position, at the same time revolving rapidly. *:s MARVELLOUS INVENTIONS A.XP DISCOVERIES The membrane ^ ^r Bl- ading to the sounds omitted by the The pen moves ace to the vihr.u ions, and peculiar, almost imperceptible tracings on the wax are the result. On top of the mem- plied to thei: eavs, as in the illustra- tion. Not only tan we hear the sounds from the same phonograph into which they are spoken, but the cylinders may he preserved and taken wherever we MR. BDISON TAIXING bnrae i.s a funnel into which the opera- tor speaks. To obtain reproductions of the sounds as inscribed on the wax cylinder, it : : replaced in its original position. An- other pen of different e ustruetion than the first is put into play, and in a most exact and delicate manner transfers to the wax of another cylinder the tracings on the first. The funnel is replaced by a rubber tube having two, four or six branches, according to the number ot the auditors, and the tubes are ap- N TO THK rilOXOOKAPH. -wish ; by placing them again in a me- chanism as above described, the origi- nal sounds may be reproduced. In this manner are made the tmono- graphs found in many hotels and pub- lic places. The first cylinderis care- fully made as above described, and du- plicated as many times as requited. Each cylinder is then placed in a case, and the phonograph may be put in use when required. The new and perfected Edison phon- ograph has aheady gone into very gen- IfAKVEIAOU ' RIBS. d many tribute! in A::. facilitai i tlie machine by riety of ways. '. LISTENING 1*0 SOUNDS FROM THB PHONOGRAPH. by stenographers as a help in the tr; scription of their shorthand no Her< dictated to ainanue now frequently read ear 1887 the idea occurred to me that it was possible to devise an instrument which should do for the eye what the phonograph does for the ear, and that by a combination of the two all motion and sound could be recorded and repro- duced simultaneously. This idea, the germ of which came from the little toy called the zoetrope, and the work of Muybridge, Marie and others, has now been accomplished, so that every change of facial expression can be recorded and reproduced life size, The kinetoscope is only a small model illustrating the present stage of progress, but with each succeeding month new possibilities are brought into view. " 1 believe that in coming years, by my own work and that of others, who will doubtless cuter the field, grand opera can be given at the Metropolitan Opera House at New York, without any material change from the original, and with artists and musicians long since dead." After the instrument was perfected the succession of pictures was found to be rapid, and those instruments exhi- bited in nearly all our towns are found to work most satisfactorily. The applications of electricity during the century have revealed wonders not dreamed of in ordinary human philoso- phy. The problem, long studied by scientists, of procuring from this sub- tle force in nature a light that would be of service and outstrip all other means of illumination has been solved, and in every town now, of any dimensions, electric lighting is in successful opera tion. Pure incandescence is represented by four systems— Edison, Maxim, Swan and Lane Fox. The light from this description of lamp is from the heating of a carbon filament due to its high re- sistance to the passage of the current. This filament is surrounded by a her- metically sealed glass bulb from which a'l the air has been extracted. The life of the lamp depends greatly as to how carefully this process has THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. been carried on. It is not sufficient only to extiaet the air when the lamp is cold, but the process must be carried on, when the lamp is burning, and the exhaustion must be continuous for some time. These lamps can be worked either by an alternating or a continu- ous current machine; and, unlike those of partial incandescence, require a ten- sion current, while the former work I best with a quantity one. The Edison lamp is generally con- sidered to be the pioneei of this system of illumination. Whether this be so or not the name of the inventor has been for a considerable time associated with lighting by incandescence, al- though his early experiments were with a lamp containing a metallic sub- stance. The lamp consists of a blown glass globe containing a very fine fila meut made from the fibre of bamboo MARVELLOUS INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES. 40 1 carbonized. The length is fixed ac- cording to the resistance required. E ' li end of the filament is nipped between a miniature vise composed of platinum connected with the terminals of the lamp. These are fixed in an in- sulated socket, which also holds the glass bulb. The socket is furnished with a screw which fits into a projec- tion on the bracket or holder, so that the act of screwing in the lamp makes the necessary connection with the con- ducting wires. Distribution of Current. Iiy turning a tap the lamp can be re- moved without interrupting- the pas- sage of the current. The maximum duration of the lamp is stated to be twelve hundred hours. The chief fea- ture of the Edison system is the manner in which the inventor distributes the current from a main generator of his own design, which is always used with this system of lighting. The engraving on next page is a per- fect representation of Edison's latest electric lamp, with its various parts shown in detail. Fig. i shows the car- bon horseshoe ready for use, full size ; Pig. 2 represents the horseshoe when just cut from the Bristol board, illus- trating, by its comparison with Fig. i, the enormous shrinkage it undergoes during- the process of carbonization. The only index to the completion of this process is the crackling of the oxide formed on the exterior of the iron boxes in which the horseshoes are placed. After their removal from the boxes the carbons are placed between the jaws of small platinum vises, #, a, supported on thin platinum wires blown in the glass base and forming the electrodes. The resistance of the slender horseshoe- is one hundred ohms. ; and while the lamp shown, Fig. 3, is intended to give a light equivalent to a single four- foot gas jet, it may be forced to give a light equal to eight or ten of such jets. The carbons are so tough that one of them has been subjected to the test of applying and removing the electric cur- rent a number of times equivalent to thirty-six years of actual daily use, and without being in the least impaired. The horseshoe form of the carbon has a great advantage over the voltaic arc, the light being softer, more diffused and less trying to the eyes. It is, besides, perfectly uniform and steady. The lamps are connected in multiple arc, — that is, the two wires leading from the electrical generator run parallel to each other, and the lamps are placed between them and are connected with each wire. Lamps and Wires. The entire lighting apparatus of any building consists in the lamps and a few wires. The lamp in its present form is as simple and as easily handled as a candle, and can be taken from its socket and replaced even while the cur- rent is on. The construction of this socket is shown in Fig. 4. The lamp has, attached to its electrodes, slips of copper which are bent up against the sides of the glass, touching two springs at opposite sides of the socket. One of these springs is connected with one of the electrical conductors ; the other merely touches the copper strip, and J does not form a part of the electrical conductor until it is touched by the thumb screw, b, this latter being con- nected with the second electrical con- ducting wire. To start the light it is 462 MARVELLOUS [NVENTIONS A.ND DISCOVERIES, only necessary to turn the screw, /-, become one of the worlds great bene- till it touches the spring. To stop the , factors. The use o( the electric light light the screw is turned in the reverse I lias tar exceeded the use o( gas during Be* M ? I BDISONS MARVELLOUS INCANDESCENT LAMP direction. From this it is obviousthat an electric lamp is nunc easily managed than a gas burner, as it requires neither lighting nor regulating; while it is equally plain that these lamps, having withstood the test of time, the inventor the same period of time after the intro- duction of each. Many of the largest factories and public buildings are now lighted by electricity, and even in coun- try villages and towns everywhere the electric light has been introduced into has solved o profound problem, and | private residences. The time is doubt- MARVELLOUS INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES 463 less not for distant when it will be the I perfected, and in no branch of science means for almost universal illumination. | have more rapid strides been made than Electrical apparatus is constantly being | in this. RIFLES FIRED BY ELECTRICITY. The practice of firing big guns by electricity is already well established, but hitherto no practical attempt lias been made to explode the shells of small arms electrically. An electric rifle has been designed in which it is sought to cany out this prin- ciple. The source of the current is a bat- tery, A, which is fitted into the stock either from the side or from the ends. The holes B ii are con- nected to springs C C from which the wires J) D run respectively to a spring M, bolted at I to the lock plate, and to the insulated hammer H fixed on the upper part of the trigger G- Q is the shell, containing an insu- lated pin, the head of which, O, pro- jects beyond the base of the shell. If necessary, two pins can be placed pa- rallel with each other and insulated until their points nearly meet. Between the base of the cartridge and the ham- mer is a pin K encircled by a spring and riveted into a cross plate J at one end, the other end being fitted into an insu- lated thimble L, the point of which nearly touches the shell pin head 0. Wli'-ti t!i'- cartridge has been inserted and the gun ( lo ed, the spring M rests on the metal base of the eartrid As the trigger is pulled the hammer ELECTRIC RIFLE. strikes the plate J, forcing the point of the thimble L into contact with the projecting end O of the cartridge pin. An arc is established at P O, which ex- plodes the contents of the cartri'I The point of the firing pin P can be placed anywhere within the explosive powder of the cartridge, but by extend- ing it near the bullet, as shown in the illustration, a more effective explosion of the powder is secured. At the end of the Nineteenth Cen- tury messages could be sent across space, over water and through buildings and mountains without the aid of wires. WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. Professor Gray devised a method of sending signals along light waves, and others tried transmitting telegrams to moving trains by means of the rails. These methods, however, were not suc- cessful in the main, and it was left for M. Guiglielino Marconi, a Florentine yet in his twenties, to discover that Hertzian waves could be generated from electricity and sent across space with out the means of intervening wires. In 1895, while yet quite- young, Mar- coni made experiments across his fa- ther's fields in Bologna, Italy, and 1/ the use of tin boxes, called "capaci- ties," set upon poles of varying height, and connected to separate instruments by insulated wires, he sent and received MARVELLOUS INVENTIONS A.ND DISCOVERIES. by a crude transmitter and receivel I ect cal signals without the aid of in- tervening wires. He soon learned that certain distances could be covered onlj by having the polos for his boxes of tain height, and the height of the es had to be increased with the dis- tance. He experimented with the aid \ l '..;'. Other scientists for some time, and then the wot Id was startled early in 1S00 by the news that messages had been sent by this wireless method across the English Channel from Dovei to Boulogne. Little had been known up to that time of the process, but enthusiasm was now expressed everywhere, and when, in October of the same year, the young wi aid came across to America to te- port the great international yacht races between the Columbia and the Sham rock, tor the New York papers, and succeeded so admirably that messages were flashed across space when both yachts and sending ship were enveloped by fogs and out ot" sight oi land, it was manifest th.it .mother epoch-making discovery had been made. Strange Impulses. The method employed by Marconi seems quite simple when it is known. Hertzian waves are strange undulations generated by electric impulse that tra- vel through the atmosphere and have the peculiar property of jumping from the 'Marconi transmitter and fleeing through space at the speed of light, or seven times around the earth in a se- cond. When Marconi understood that these beams could be sent and received by his first crude method, he at once set to work on improvements, and the following system has been the result. Two tall poles are elected, one .it the sending and one at the receiving sta- tion. Prom these poles are supported Sprits, along each ot" which runs an 01 dinary copper wire extending vertically from the telegraph instruments into the The upper portion o\ the wire is bare, sv^ that the waves of energy ma\ leap off into space as they are sent up the wire h\ the operation of the instru- ment below. This instrument is sim- ply a Large induction coil connected with a strong batter} . Sending the Message. To the coil are also attached two brass knobs (some distance apart), fioni the space between which, when the cur- rent is on, leaps a stream ot' sp.uks. the same as those produced in experiments with the X ray. Xow, when a message is being scut, the transmitting wiie is charged with a current of electricity at high tension, which naturally rushes toward the earth This discharge causes a i.ipid oscillation in the wire as long as the current continues. This oscilla- tion must have an outlet, and, accord- ingly, leaves the wire for its journey across space. This agitation, when it leaches the receiving instrument, pro- duces an opening and closing o( the circuit accordingly as the wavesare con- tinuous or cut short. To use a simple example, let US sup- pose we have a string hanging loose Prom the ceiling. Now take a Ian and wave the air. The result is the string is blown back. Make several motions with the fan at short intervals, and the string will respond to the an waves. This is similar to what occurs in Mar- coni's telegraphing process. He has a switch connected with the sending iu- MARVELLOI > DISCO ,KUIS 465 atrunrnt, and as lirr open this a '." am oi ele< tri< al i pa lows. Jt may readily be Been, tin thai , impart tin ■ ■ i to the tran o to - i ad a ihort wave at ross to 1 h< '- iver, and a long stream would prodnce a long set ol vrave . That i . *hat happens. Sard Problem Solved. When this much of the perfected, it was net i ; - some devic e whereby the genth o lations might h i d and i ted into m< Here wra i a hard task, but it wa - sfully wrought out. lu a metal box, that keeps out to a great extent the Hertzian waves, is a relay instrument, two devices called a "/h'-r'-r" and a "tapper," and a Morse instrument for printing dots and dashes connected to a home batto The ' oik the principal and most & .. : all these instrunn - and upon [\ a depends the of tin: sending operation. It con of a tiny glass tube about as thick as that of a thermometer and two in- ches long, In either i - mall plug of ■.]'. tached to the aerial wire on the pole outside and to a connected with the relay instrum Jt must be understood that a wave so delicate in its impulse would not be able to operate a ma< him o only strong enough to g vi the im- pulse that will complete the circuit of tin: home battery, and the latter then works t.li': writing machine. But how can this impulse be g in ' the Moi >li code ? Simply enough, wht for its property of filin j do, how< ' that will opi • ■■ lay I/t. us imagine the circuit of the relay is like -- n eh | the f in th< ph i e of the push-button. A ind, for lit i i not complete. But let a H zian filiti wrelded together, ( nit .:;.;/' t< <: and tl gives the sufficient electrical en< > ' MARVELLOUS INVENTIONS \NP DISCOVERIES, the writing machine or ticker, Bnt so long is the filings in the cohere* in cohesion the instrument will keep up one continuous busi ; hence no intelligible signals could be sent Here is where Marconi made use of his Decoherer or " Tappet." Littlo but Mighty. It is no nunc than a little hammer attached to an electro-magnet, which, when operated by electricity, will tap against the coherei the same as the tap- per of an electric bell j and this blow decoheres the filings Now, when the Hertzian wave reaches the receiving station it rushes down to the coherer, the filings are welded together, thecii cnit is completed, and the instrument ticks off its dot. At this instant the relay instrument hasalsosent a current to the electro-magnet of the tapper. The ma aws back the little ham- mer and lets it stiike the coherer, the filings are separated, and the station is read} to receive at once the next Bash, Bach succession of waves produce the same effect, and the operation is repeated, the result, being an intelli- gible series of dots and dashes which ate readily translated into then piopet meaning. Messages In- wireless telegraphy have already been sent with accuracy up to no miles, of which sixty were over i water and the test over ImuI. Messa- ges ate ttot lost by the curvature of the earth, which is about 1,000 feet itt eighty miles, and they work .ill right from a wire 130 feet high. Weather conditions cannot interfere, nor can the messages be stolen, for the reason that the transmitters and receivers must be in "tnne." that is, they must wOtl in harmony. 'Phis makes it almost im- possible for the teceivet to take a mes- sage not intended tot him Fhe electric waves do not seem to be impeded by buildings or hills in the intervening space, for experiments have shown that messages sent to given destinations, between which and the sender were high hills, buildings, etc., have been accutatelv tecei\ ed W'lic- thei the Hertzian waves go through 01 around the intercepting object has not yet been ascertained. Quito Inexpensive. The principal cost of installing 1 wireless telegraph plant is that o( the poles, the receivers costing oulv about $(\\ The expense o( maintaining the electrical current is nominal. Each station has both a sending and a re- ceiving instrument, one being turned off when the other is in operation Mes- sages can now be sent at the tate of twenty-five words a minute, so it may readily be seen that when the system is still mote perfect, it may threaten the established telegraph lines. Imagine another Eiffel tower on this side of the Atlantic, with sending and receiving Stations here and at Paris. The ex- pense of laying and operating the great submarine cables would be entirely done away with. Already the system is in use on light- ships, connecting them with the life- saving stations on shore, and many lives and much property have been saved bv its use What, then, if every ship or train had these instruments? Accidents might be avoided, news im- parted without stopping, directions riven for war vessels 1 manoeuvres, and MARVELLOUS IflVBNTIC I • D D 461 ( o . ;jt]< ■•, i other similar uses, Afar< predi< ted that sonu im- prov< mentf in this 1 come He devised a sort oi refli i that ( om entrafa :d id one dire< tion, lil i ar< h 'light, so that they may be directed at will, and only to certain ipo AUTOMOBILES, MOT AUTOMATIC Though Hi'- manufa< tnre and •■ i oi in tli'-ir infancy, the indui - h --in enormo z that it i in half the i in this co ■ ' y \ : <>r many > tempts hav< b< i • ■ • ' ' to olve the problem oi propelling uragoi <<-. and other along the highways without the use of rail run upon, and by some such mo po m >m pressed air or i .t.y. By 1895 a few very ea motive-like affairs had been turned out that op I til :•; ' ther, but n ful to th< that large manul skilled inv . Ic out m In ': ' had the industi g to gr< z Lf-moving car-,, rsally in the large 1 ities, with the p of their inva/li: ■ of the horse in the ' ntry before mac i.ook the lead in t! these conti and formed a £ ionable automobile club ntj 1,700. rhich 1,100 irehi< in© cvei • iort and kind from a fashion- able brougham to a milk-peddli He also planned an 1 will il-- thought il and tnanipul; 1 1 away with m O-CARS AND OTHER VEHICLES. 1 nd ha run bring (0 ion than son oi il • '■ mod* 'j\, ation, tlie thod of propulsion, should jolting, M< and duced a D for the fj: off in front. pell< mor< and U body of the ..:.o much interested in the saying of labor, He first offered it to the tailors of boston; but they, while admitting its usefulness, told him it would nevei be adopted by theii trade, as it would ruin them. Considering the numbei of machines now used by the tailoring interest throughout the world, this assertion seems ridicu- lous. Other efforts were equally unsuccess- ful. Every one admitted and praised the ingenuity of the machine, but no one would invest a dollar in it. Fisher became disgusted, and withdrew from his partnership, and Howe and his fa- mily moved back to his fathci's house. Thoroughl) disheartened, he abandoned his machine. He then obtained a place as engineer on a railroad, and drove a locomotive until his health entirely broke down. With the loss o( his health his hopes revived, and he determined to seek iu England the victory which he had failed to win here. Unable to go him- self, he sent Irs machine by his brother Amasa, iu October, [846, I'pou teach- BWAS ;]'/.' i ■: ICHINE. J>9 ing London, Amasa sought ont Mr. William Thomas, of Cheapside, and explained to him his brother's in\ lion. He found Mir. Thomas willing to 11 ■.'• the machine in hi'. bir.iii'-ss, but upon terma more favorable to himself than to the inv< ■ He offered the sum of I wel *• hun- dred and fifty dollars fof the machine which Amasa Howe bad brought with him, and agre d to pay Elias fifteen dollars per week if he would enter bis - 1 , and adapt the ma< bine to h; - - business of umbrella and ( orset making. A', this was his only hope of earning a livelihood, Elias accepted the offer, and, upon bis brother's return to the United '.:■ U sailed for England, He remained in Mr. Thomas's employ for about eight months, and at the end of that tin)'- left him, having found him bard, exacting, and unreasonable. In Desperate Straits. Meanwhile his sick wif< and three children had joined him in London. he bad found it hard to provide for them on the wages given him by Mr. Thomas; but after being thrown out of employment his condition was de : ato indeed. He was in a strange coun- try, without friends or money, and often !)'• and his little family went whob- days without food. Theirsuffer- yery great, but at length Howe was able (probably b; .nee i from home) to send his family back to bis Gather's hou i lb- himself remained in London, still hoping to bring his machine into use. [| was in train, however, and so, col- lecting wliat few household goods he had acquired in England, he shipped them to America, and followed them thithei himself in another vt • • r I pawn- ing bis model and patent y pay his passage. When he lam York he had half a i and there < ante to him on I a letter telling him that hi dying with consumption in Cambru ; \n Time to Bee Hei Die He could not go to her al once, bad no money, and oo feeble to undertake the < i foot. He compelled t* everal < a i un- til he could obtain the money foi to Cambridge, but at length cceei in reaching that place just in time to i die In th< y ef be r< the annoum i m that the v •• 1 1 1 ontaini bold goods which be bad shipped from England had been lost al ea. i\ eemed to him that Pate was bent upon • ■ in:^ him, so rapid and stunning the blows she dealt him. But a great success was now in store for him, and he wa out of troubles to the realization of bis bright- Soon after his return bo be obtained profitable employment, and, ter still, discovered that his machine had famous duri i i n< e. Pac-similes of it had been i icted by unscrupulous ui< who paid no attention to the patenl of the inven- tor, and these ' opies had been exbibi in many places as " wonders," and bad even been adopted in many important branches of manufacture. Howe at once set to work to defend his rights. He found friends to aid him, and in August, 1850, began those fa- mous suits which continued for four years, and werw at length decided in his favor. 1 1 rsaries made a bold 490 EUAS HOWE'S SEWING MACHINE. resistance, but the decision of Judge Sprague, in 1854, settled the matter, and triumphantly established the rights of the inventor. In 1850, Howe removed to New York , and began in a small way to manufac- ture machines to order, lie was in partnership with a Mr. Bliss, but tor several years the business was so unim- portant that upon the death of his part- ner, in 1S55, he was enabled to buy out that gentleman's interest, and thus be- came the sole proprietor oi his patent. Soon after this his business began to increase, and continued until his own proper profits and the royalty which the courts compelled other manufacturers to pay him for the use oi his invention ^rew from $300 to £200,000 per annum. In 1867, when the extension of his patent expired, it is stated that he had earned a total of two millions of dollars by it. It cost him large sums to de- feud Ins rights, however, and he was very far from being as wealthy as was commonly supposed, although a very rich man. In the Paris Exposition oi 1867, he exhibited his machines, and received the gold medal of the Exposition, and the Cross oi the Legion of Honor, in addition, as a compliment to him as a manufacturer and inventor. He contributed money liberally to the aid of the Union in the Civil war, and enlisted as a private soldier in the Seventeenth Regiment of Connecticut Volunteers, with which command he went to the field, performing all the duties of his position until failing health compelled him to leave the service. Upon one occasion the Government was so much embarrassed that it could not pay the regiment of which he was a member. Mr, Howe promptly ad- vanced the money, and his comrades wore saved from the annoyances which ! would have attended the delay in paying them. He died at Brooklyn, [/>ng Island, on the 3rd oi October, 186;. Mr. Howe will always rank among the most distinguished oi American inventors ; not only because oi the un- usual degree of completeness shown in his first conception oi the sewing- machine, but because of the great bene- fits which have sprung from it. It has revolutionized the industry of the world, opened new sources oi wealth to enter- prise, and lightened the labor oi hun- dreds oi thousands of working people. Many a pale-faced, hollow-eyed woman, who formerly sat sewing her life away for a mere pittance, blesses the name oi Klias Howe, and there is scarcely a community in the civilized world but contains the evidence oi his genius, and honors him as the benefactors of the human race. CHAPTER XXXII. Hoe's Lightning Printing Press. O write the complete history of the printing press would require rs of patient labor and re- search, and a much larger space than the limits of this present work will per- mit. There are few subjects more at- tractive or more worthy of consideration than the history of this wonderful in- vention, which seems more like a romance than a narration of facts. The historian who should essay the task would be required to carry his reader back to the darkest ages of the world, and, beginning with the stamps used for affixing hieroglyphical charac- ters to the now crumbling ruins of Egypt and Nineveh, trace the gradual development of the beneficent concep- tion from the signets of the Israelites, and the stamps used by the Romans for marking certain kinds of merchandise, through the rude process of the Chinese, Japanese and Tartars, to the invention of Johannes Guttenberg, and, finally, to the wonderful lightningsteam-presses of to-day. In these pages it is not proposed to offer to the reader any such narrative. On the contrary, the story of the print- ing press will betaken up just as it was on the point of reaching its greatest perfection, since our subject concerns only the man and his invention where- by it was brought to that state. This man, Richard March Hoe by name, was born in the city of New York, on the 12th of September, 1812. His father, Robert Hoe, was a native of the village of Hose, Leicester, England, and the son of a wealthy farmer. Di ■ liking his father's pursuit, he appr ticed himself to a carpenter. When only sixteen years old. the elder Hoe purchased his indentures from his mas- ter and he sailed for the United States. Energetic Young Man. Robert Hoe was almost penniless when he reached New York, and in this condition entered the store of Mr. Grant Thorburn one day in search of employ- ment. Mr. Thorburn manifested a sud- den and strong liking to the youth, took him to his own house, and when he was prostrated with the yellow fever, during the epidemic of 1804, nursed him tenderly throughout. Setting to work immediately upon his arrival in New York, he made friends rapidly, and prospered in his trade so well that when but twenty years old he was able to marry. His bride was a daughter of Matthew Smith, of Westchester, and a sister of Peter Smith, the inventor of a hand printing press. With this gentleman and Matthew Smith, Jr., his brother, Robert Hoe en- tered into partnership. Their business was that of carpentering and printers' joinery ; but after Peter Smith had completed the invention of his hand press, it gradually grew into the manu- facture of presses and printers' mater- ials. Both brothers died in 1823 and Robert Hoe succeeded to the business. The manufactory of Robert Hoe & 491 492 HOE'S LIGHTNING PRINTING PRESS. Co. was originally located in the centre of the old block between Pearl and Wil- liam Streets, and Pine Street and Maiden Lane. Soon after their establishment there, the city authorities ran Cedar Street right through their building, and they removed to Gold Street, near John. They were twice burned out here, but continued to occupy these premises with their counting-room and lower shop. Steam Presses. Printing by steam had long attracted the attention of persons engaged in the art, and many essays had been made in this direction by different inventors, both in this country and in Europe. The most successful results were the Adams press, the invention of Mr. Isaac Adams, of Boston, Mass., and the Na- pier press, that of a British artisan. It was the latter which was the means of identifying Mr. Hoe with the steam press. The Napier press was introduced into this country in 1830, by the proprietors of the National Intelligencer, but when it arrived these gentlemen were not able to release it from the Custom-house. Major Noah, himself the proprietor of a newspaper, was at that time collector of the port of New York, and he, being anxious to see the press in operation, requested Mr. Hoe to put it together. Mr. Hoe performed this task success- fully, although the press was a novelty to him, and was permitted to take mod- els of its various parts before it was re- shipped to England. It was found to be a better press than any that had ever been seen in this country, and the Com- mercial Advertiser, of New York, and the Chronicle, of Philadelphia, at once ordered duplicates of it from England. Mr. Hoe was very much pleased with this press, but believed that he could construct a much better one. To this end he despatched his new partner, Mr. Sereno Newton, to England to examine all the improvements in machinery there, and bring home samples of such as he thought might be advantageously adopted in this country. Mr. Newton, besides being an ingenious mechanic, was well-read in books, and was con- sidered one of the first mathematicians in New York. Returning from his mission, he constructed a new two- cylinder press, which soon superseded all others then in use. Mr. Hoe's health failed, compelling him, in 1832, to re- tire from the business. Successful Inventor. . Young Richard M. Hoe had been brought up in his father's business, after receiving a fair education. He inherited his father's inventive genius, combined with a rare business capacity, and from the first was regarded as the future hope of the establishment. Upon the withdrawal of his father, a partner- ship was established between himself, his brother Robert, Mr. Newton, and his cousin, Matthew Smith, but the style of the firm remained unchanged. Richard Hoe's first invention was conceived in 1837, and consisted of a valuable improvement in the manufac- ture of grinding saws. Having obtained a patent for it in the United States, he visited England in that year for the same purpose. By his process circular saws may be ground with accuracy to any desired thickness. He readily ob- tained a patent in England, as the ex- cellence of his invention commended it to every one. While there he gave HOE'S LIGHTNING PRINTING PRESS. 493 especial attention to the improvements which had been made in the printing press, in the manufacture of which his firm was largely engaged. Returning to New York, he devoted himself entirely to this branch of his business, and soon produced the ma- chine known as Hoe's Double-Cylinder Press, which was capable of making about six thousands impressions per hour. The first press of this kind ever made was ordered by the New York Su/i } and was the admiration of all the printers of the city. This style of press is now used extensively for printing country newspapers. Demand for Speed. As long as the newspaper interest of the country stood still, Hoe's Double- Cylinder Press was amply sufficient for its wants, but as the circulation of the journals of the large cities began to in- crease, the "double-cylinder" was often taxed far beyond its powers. A print- ing press capable of striking off papers with much greater rapidity was felt to be an imperative and still-increasing need. It was often necessary to hold the forms back until nearly daylight for the purpose of issuing the latest news, and in the hurry which ensued to get out the morning edition, the press very frequently met with accidents. Mr. Hoe was fully alive to the im- portance of improving his press, and, in 1842, he began to experiment with it for the purpose of obtaining greater speed. It was a serious undertaking, however, and at every step fresh diffi- culties arose. He spent four years in experimenting, and at the end of that time was almostready to confess that the obstacles were too great to be overcome. One night, in 1846, while in this mood, he resumed his experiments. The more he pondered over the subject the more difficult it seemed. In despair, he was about to relinquish the effort for the night, when suddenly there flashed across his mind a plan for securing the type on a horizontal cylinder. Solved in a Night. This had been his great difficulty, and he now felt that he had mastered it. He sat up all night, working out his design, and making a note of every idea that occurred to him, in order that nothing should escape him. By morn- ing the problem which had baffled him so long had been solved, and the mag- nificent "Lightning Press" already had a being in the inventor's fertile brain. He carried his model rapidly to per- fection, and, proceeding with it to Wash- ington, obtained a patent. On his re- turn home he met Mr. Swain, the pro- prietor of the Baltimore Sun and Phil- adelphia Ledger, and explained his in- vention to him. Mr. Swain was so much pleased with it that he at once ordered a four- cylinder press, which was completed and ready for use on the 31st of December, 1848. This press was capable of making ten thousand impressions per hour, and did its work with entire satisfaction in every respect. This was a success absolutely unpre- cedented — so marked, in fact, that some persons were inclined to doubt it. The news flew rapidly from city to city, and across the ocean to foreign lands, and soon wherever a newspaper was printed men were talking of Hoe's wonderful invention. Orders came pouring in upon the inventor with such rapidity 494 HOE'S LIGHTNING PRINTING TRUSS. that he soon had as many on hand as he could fill in several years. In a comparatively brief period the Herald, Tribune, and Sim, of New York, were boasting of their "lightning Presses," and soon the Traveller and Daily Jour- ' nal, in Boston, followed their example. Immense Fortune. Mr. Hoe was now not only a famous man, but possessed of an assured busi- ness for the future, which was certain to result in a large fortune. By the year i860, besides supplying the princi- pal cities of the Union (fifteen lightning presses being used in the city of New York alone), he had shipped eighteen presses to Great Britain, four to France, and one to Australia. Two of the pres- ses sent to England were ordered for the London Times. Mr. Hoe continued to improve his invention, adding additional cylinders as increased speed was desired, and at length brought it to the degree of per- fection exhibited in the splendid ten- cylinder press that was nsed in the offices of leading journals, and struck off twenty-five thousand sheets per hour. In 1858, Mr. Hoe purchased the pat- ent rights and manufactory of Isaac Adams, in Boston, and carried on the manufacture of the Adams press from that place. He also established a man- ufactory in England, where he con- ducted a profitable business in both the ; Adams and the Hoe press. Over a mil- lion and a half of dollars were invested in these establishments in New York, Boston, and London, in land, buildings, and stock. The firm manufacture pres- ses of all kinds, and all materials used by printers except type and ink. The ten-cylinder press was sold at fifty thousand dollars, and was regarded as cheap at that immense sum. It is one of the most interesting inventions ever made. Those who have seen it working in the subterranean press- rooms oi great journals will not soon forget the wonderful sight. The ear is deafened with the incessant clashing of the machinery ; the printed sheets issue from the sides of the huge engine in an unceasing stream ; the eye is bewildered with the mass ol' lines and bands ; and it seems hard to realize that one single mind could ever have adjusted all the various parts to work harmoniously. Rotary Printing. Mr. Walter of the London Times is entitled to the honor of being instru- mental in introducing the system of rotary printing for news-work, just as his father deserves that of having intro- duced steam machine-printing. The Walter press was soon adopted as the pattern of a number of machines con- structed in Great Britain and abroad. Some of these machines much developed the idea of the Walter, and embodied fresh and important improvements. In 1870, Messrs. George Duncan and Alexander Wilson, of Liverpool, brought out their "Victory" machine, which included the folding arrangement since added to the Walter press. By this apparatus, newspapers of various sizes are printed, folded, delivered and count- ed into quires or any portion required, at the rate of 200 per minute. Since about 1870 the rotary system of printing has been gradually adopted in the offices of all newspapers having even moderately large circulations. Fac- tories for producing rotary machines HOE'S LIGHTNING PRINTING PRHSS. 495 have been established in various parts of England, while many such machines have been built in France, Germany and America. The most improved and the fastest machines at the end of the century were those of Messrs. Hoe & Co., of New York and London. The most improved of these machines print four or six page- papers at the extraordinary speed of 48,000 per hour or 800 per minute. Papers of eight, ten or twelve pages may be printed at a speed of 24,000 per hour; and a sixteen page paper at 12,000 per hour. The papers can be pasted down the centre margins if required, and counted as delivered in quires of any number fixed upon. The machine de- livers the papers, inset, parted, cut top and bottom, turned out as compact as a pamphlet, and, by a device largely used in America, even folded and wrappered ready to post. This speed is effected by using a reel of paper of double width, about eight feet wide on which can be printed duplicate sets of plates. CHAPTER XXXIII. Miscellaneous Discoveries and Inventions. ARLV in 1896 it was announced that Professor Roentgen, o( Wurzbnrg University, Gei many, had discovered a method by which certain substances could be pho- tographed, not merely showing the ex- terior surface, but also the interior sub- stances. As the composition oi the rays oi light was unknown, these rays were designated by the algebraical term of X, meaning an unknown quantity. The discovery caused great interest throughout the world, ami immediately experiments were begun in many places, especially by professors in medical schools. It was soon ascertained that some parts o( the human body, for example the hand, could be photographed and all solid substances beneath the flesh could be distinctly seen. In this way the bones of the hand are reproduced, and if there should be such a solid sub- stance as a bullet oi' lead, it can be lo- cated and extracted. The importance of this discoverv, especially to medical science, cannot be overestimated. Experiments were carried on at Yale College with the following results: One of the professors laid a sensitive photographic plate horizontally in a wooden box, placed the object to be ex- perimented with on top of the box, and suspended his Crookes tube above them both. He then turned on the electric current, which generated the newly discovered rays in the tube, which, in turn, threw them upon the objects below. 490 In the first experiment Mr. Bumstead used a leather pocketbook containing several coins. He thus photographed the coins, the rays going completely through the leather, the resistance oi which was trifling compared with what it would have ottered to light He also photographed in the same way a pair o( eyeglasses in their case. The result showed that the glasses were photo- graphed, while the case was scarcely visible. A lead pencil showed an excel- lent picture of the lead, with the wooden portion dimly outlined. Surprising Results. A couple of English walnuts which had never been opened were exposed, and a splendid view oi the kernels was obtained. All these exposures lasted about an hour. The experiments were carried on in open daylight, the plates, of course, being kept from the sun. Probably the most interesting of Air. Bumstcad's experiments were those with animals. For this purpose he used a fish, a mouse and a frog. After the usual exposure the backbone of the tish was easily distinguishable. The frog- picture displayed a portion of the skeleton with more or less vivid- ness, the plainest parts being the Leg bones. The most distinct part of the mouse's skeleton was the skull, which could be traced with little difficulty. The little fleshy nose of the mouse did not give nearly as much resistance to the rays as the bone, ami this fact was MISCELLANEOUS DISCOVERIES AND INVENTION 497 the most useful result of the experi- ments. One experimenter relates the result as follows: " My last attempt has resulted in giving me a perfect photograph. I used as a subject the leg of a man which had been fractured in a railroad aeci- PHOTOGRAPH OP HUMAN HAND SHOWING THE ANATOMY IN DETAIL,. dent two years ago. The fracture was in the Upper third of the tibia, or, in other words, in the large hone of the leg a few inches above the knee. I placed an ordinary camera on one side of the leg and directly opposite on the other side of the member I placed the tube at a distance of three or four inches. "The result was a clearly defined photograph. The bone appears rounded and not flat, as in the shadowgraphs heretofore produced. The fracture is perfectly plain. It can be traced all around the bone. The surface of hard- 32 ened lime '.'ill, which forms after a fractured bone has been set, shows clearly. "Then comes the most, remarkable part of the photograph. Running down each side of the bone is a line showing the location of (he marrow. The mar- row is darker in the picture than the bone itself. Then, through the mar- row a dark line can be seen, showing the marl: of the fracture on the oppo- site side of the bone. In the centre of the bone- are two spots, plainly discernible, showing the fibrous tissues of the nerves." A standard medical journal comments as follows, upon the advantages of the discovery : "As far as our present knowledge goes the positive advantages to medi- cine seem to be limited to three condi- tions : fractures, dislocations, and tu- mors of bones, encysted bullets, needles or pieces of glass in the tissues and earthy calculi. "In the locating of bullets, some- brilliant results have been already re- corded, in which the bullet beyond the reach of touch or probe has been found by the X-ray and successfully removed." One experiment at P>erlin, Germany, located a needle in the stomach of a young woman which caused great irri- tation and ineessant expectoration of blood. It was determined as a last re- sort to bring the patient to the Roent- gen laboratory in the hope that the X- ray would locate the needle, and that it might be extracted without endan- gering the young woman's life. The plate plainly showed every bone of the- upper part Oi the body and the needle was found lying point downward in the lower right angle of the stomach. 4 '~»S MISCELLANEOUS DISCOVERIES AtfD INVENTIONS. Surgeons being present, it was re- solved to remove the needle at once. The patient was placed under the in- fluence of chloroform, and the cause of the excruciating sufferings which threatened her life, was taken from the stomach by skillful surgical manipula- tions. The statement has been made that if, at the time President Garfield was felled by an assassin's pistol, this method of photography had been in use, the bullet could have been located and doubtless the life of the President could have been saved. The probes of the surgeons were of no avail ; they were working in the dark. No such fatal result could have happened if this new discovery had been known at that time. Its effects upon medical science are of the most marked and beneficial description. The announcement has already been made that success has attended efforts to photograph the brain, thus locating tumors in that organ. In fact, the whole human body is surveyed and ex- amined in all the workings of its won- drous mechanism. A photograph will tell the surgeon just what internal parts are diseased and will save all explora- tion with the knife. This, apart from the curiosity attending such a discoveiy, has led the scientific world to hail the new photography with delight. DISCOVERY OF LIQUID AIR. One of the most interesting discover- ies in the realm of science in the latter part of the century was that of liquid air, the coldest substance known to man. It was long ago observed that when a gas was compressed so as greatly to re- duce its volume, it became hot. This was called the heat of compression, and, strangely enough, was thought to be generated by the act of compression. It is now understood, however, that the rise in temperature is not caused by an increase in heat, but rather by the con- centration of the manifest heat of a large volume into a small space. Experiments that proved this also suggested that the discovery could be I turned to profit by cooling the heated '' gas down while under pressure, and then allowing it again to expand to its original volume, which would make it fall greatly in temperature. It was soon learned that gas could be compressed and then cooled and allowed to expand until its temperature dropped 200 degrees. For some time it had been held by scientists that air was a permanent gas, and could not be changed in its form, but gradually with experiments the idea arose that if air could be brought to a sufficiently low temperature it could be liquefied. All means known were used without success until, in 1 877, Raoul Pictet submitted oxygen gas to an enormous pressure combined with intense cold. The result was a few drops of clear, bluish liquid that bub- bled violently for a few moments, and then evaporated into the air again. In 1892, a Polander named Olzewski succeeded in performing a similar ex- periment with nitrogen, the other con- stituent of air. And about the same time Professor Dewar, of England, not only performed both of these experi- ments, but also succeeded in producing a small quantity of air in a mushy form — in fact, air-ice. The cost of this first ounce of liquid j air was more than $3,000. While beini? MISCELLANEOUS DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. 499 a very interesting discovery for labora- tory use, such a production and at such an expense was out of the question for commercial purposes. So it remained for Charles E. Tripler, of New York , City, to invent a method whereby this ' wonderful agent can be brought forth with ease and at the cost of about twenty cents a gallon. He saw at once, upon the discovery that air could be liquefied, that it might be a great power generator, and accordingly commenced experiments to simplify the method for procuring it. He investigated the vari- ous means by which refrigeration was developed, such as the immense am- monia plants used in breweries and the like. The principle of cooling by ex- pansion, he learned, was the basis to work upon, and the result of his studies was a simple and satisfactory system for producing this wonderful com- pound. Its Practical Uses. The uses and experiments to which this wonderful discovery may be placed are as odd and interesting as the method of its production. The following are a few of its uses: It is eleven and one-half times as powerful as compressed air, and maybe carried in a pasteboard box, while as much energy in compressed air would need the strongest steel cans. It may supplant some forms of fuel, for, when mixed with any form of carbon, it burns rapidly or explodes. Thus it may be used in interior combustion engines — for instance, the gas engine. When a proper motor has been developed, it will no doubt be used to help solve the question of aerial navigation, for some- thing that combines great power witli lightness seems to be the only reason why ait-ships are not a complete reality. The same may be said of sub-marine navigation. Here liquid air would sup- ply the motive power, and the air for the crew to breathe as well, for a small quantity contains as much air as can be compressed into many great tanks. An automobile is now being made to run by this power. Deep-sea diving would also be aided by the use of casks of this air attached to the diving appa- ratus of the diver, thus doing away in a great measure with the pumps. In mines where water is likely to rush in at any time, it might be used to freeze the surrounding earth, thus preventing great catastrophes. A Perfect Vacuum. In making such vacuum bulbs as those used for electric lights, liquid air would be very useful. After the air has been pumped out as much as possi- ple, the remainder can be frozen into a solid drop at one end, and then the bulb may be closed above it by an ordi- nary blow-pipe, thus giving an absolute vacuum. The most frightful explosions can be produced with the combination of combustibles and liquid air, for oxy- gen is necessary to combustion, and this air contains it in vast quantities. Physicians and surgeons sing the praises of this discovery, for by its aid a wound may be cauterized, or an excrescence " burned " away entirely. Odd experiments, such as freezing a rose in all its color and loveliness, or reducing an egg to a frozen solid that when handled will break up into a thousand fragments and the yolk scat- ter as the pollen of a flower, show what may be done in the laboratory. When 500 MISCELLANEOUS DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS a potato is frozen it becomes as hard as stone, and when fractured shows as beautiful a surface as ivory. Frozen butter may be pounded in a mortar until it is as fine as powder, and a raw beefsteak becomes pale and then breaks like petrified wood. We have generally considered mercury and alcohol nou-freezable, but when brought into contact with this queer li- quid, mercury becomes as hard as rock, and alcohol a white, stringy substance like molasses candy. Steel in bars may be readily reduced to flame by dipping it in a glass of this air aud lighting it. Driven by Air. Tripler succeeded in penecting a machine by which he makes liquid air produce itself. And though it is scoffed at by scientists, who say something cannot be made from nothing, yet Trip- ler maintains that when his machine has once been cooled down he can make almost ten gallons of fresh supply with the use of but three gallons. If this be so, ere long we shall have steamships and locomotives running themselves from nothing but air — in fact, almost perpetual motion. However, just as it is, this new property is a marvel, and to see Tripler's engine running- without a vestige of heat, in fact, with ice on her firebox, and yet the wheels revolv- ing aud producing power, is, to say the least weird and awe inspiring. At the beginning of the century, in- deed, until nearly its close no one dreamed that the great cataract of Nia- gara would ever be utilized for any purpose. It was Nature's awe inspiring wonder, an object of matchless sub- limity, but nothing more. The Falls of Niagara are now used to operate great electric dynamos for generating power for many factories in their neighborhood. The waters of lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron aud Erie empty into the Niagara River, which after leaving Lake Erie flows swiftly for two miles and then widens and separates above Grand Island into two branches. These come together again below the island, and flow slowly about several islands till their combined waters reach the "rapids" about a mile above the falls. The flow of water here is 275,000 cubic feet a second, or half a million tons per minute. This enormous flood was first utilized for power in 1725, when a small saw-mill was erected near the falls and run by its force. Niagara Harnessed. The Niagara Falls Power Company has made cuts in the river a mile above the American Falls. Water is led in from the "rapids" by a canal 12 feet wide and 180 feet long, with capacity of 1 00,000 horse power, to a wheel pit 30 feet wide by 200 feet long and 180 feet deep. Eight steel pen stocks restrain the water in its plunge down to the bottom of the wheel pit, and at the base of each is a 5, 5 oo-horse power vertical turbine. The shaft of each turbine is attached at the upper end to a 5,000-horse power gene- rator, which gives the plant a total capacity of 40,000-horse power. From the wheel-pit the water runs through a tail-race 7,000 feet long, directly under the town of Niagara Falls to an outlet at the base of the cliffs. The Niagara Falls Paper Com- pany uses 7,200 hydraulic horse power from this same point, taking it from thi' canal before it reaches the penstock. MISCELLANEOUS DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. 601 Another plant, operated by the Niag- ara Falls Hydraulic Power Company, takes in water from the rapids 2,000 feet below the other intake, and runs a canal through the town to the edge of the gorge, where two penstocks, eight and eleven feet in diameter, take the water to a power house 200 feet below at the edge of the river. Here horizon- tal turbines develop energy to about 20,000 horse power. An old canal built in 1858 also supplies about 7,500 horse power. On the Canadian side the Niagara Falls Park and River Railway operates a power house with two tur- bines, and generates 2,000 horse power. The theoretical power that is possible from the Falls is that of 7,500,000 horses, of which, however, less than 50,000 is being developed and put to useful account. The turbines that do the work of gen- erating power are arranged in pairs. Each is attached to a 13-foot diameter inlet tube. Two large revolving bronze wheels receive the water, which has first been governed by pressure gates, and led into the wheels by draught tubes, which are so arranged as to keep the dampness out of the machinery. The turbines are 70 inches in diameter, and have 36 blades, each one of 142 square inches and highly polished so as not to give resistance to the water. The axis of each of the great wheels is 1 1 % inches in diameter, and they are all mounted on ball bearings. Each turbine revolves 250 times a minute. Industries using electric power for manufacturing paper, aluminum, car- borundum, calcium carbide, and other chemical industries, street railways of Niagara and a railway of twenty-two miles to Buffalo, are all being operated by this great power generator. Buffalo alone takes many thousand horse power. It was at first thought that the electric- ity thus generated would sometime be taken great distances for power pur- poses, but the tendency is more for industries to move near Niagara than to transmit the power. GOODYEAR'S PROCESS FOR UTILIZING INDIA RUBBER. An American invention of the great- est utility is that of vulcanized India- rubber, the production of a poor man named Charles Goodyear, who, like Howe, spent years of his life and en- dured semi-starvation while persistently experimenting. Beginning in 1834, it was 1839 before, after innumerable fail- ures, he discovered the secret of vulca- nizing the rubber by means of sulphur. Before that date the softening effect of heat rendered rubber practically use- less, but the vulcanized rubber produced by Goodyear was, before his death in i860, applied to nearly five hundied purposes, and gave employment to 60,- 000 persons in Europe and the United States. Since then its utility has very greatly increased, and its employment for bicycles and carriage tires opens up a new field for its use which must enor- mously increase the demand. Goodyear' s history affords another striking illustration of what inventions that have come to be most highly prized cost the men who gave to them time, labor, brain, all the money they had and even life itself. He was called a fool and madman, went ragged and hungry, but never gave up. 502 MISCELLANEOUS DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. DISCOVERIES IN THE ART OF HEALING. Many diseases and injuries which were formerly considered incurable and always resulted in death are now suc- cessfully treated by the masters of med- ical science. Thousands oi persons owe their lives and healthy physical condi- tion to the progress in surgery during the last deeade of the century. With the experiments in treatments for disease by electricity, X-rays, the Pinseu violet light, and Pasteur serums tor plague microbes, the world of science is fast advancing upon the diseases that flesh is heir to. Most scientists are coming around to the belief that a vast number oi ailments commonly attri- buted to various or unknown causes all have their origin in microbes or bacilli, — tiny animal natures that feast them- selves upon the tissues of the human body. Germs of Disease. With this thought in view, they have steadily sought out the particular germs of certain diseases, with the result that many have been classified. The next study was to find some remedy that would effectually chase these intruders out of the system. At present scores oi microbes have been found, some that cause one disease, others that cause others. Thus tuberculosis, or consump- tion of the lungs, diphtheria, plagues, cancers, and yellow fever, each has its own peculiar bacillus, and physicians are daily searching for more and surer enemies to these little pests. Light in almost any form and pure air are very beneficial in these diseases, being deadly enemies to most microbic desired remedies, ami yet in some cases air on a sore surface aggravates the trouble. Dr. Murphy invented a pro- cess for the treatment for consumption in which he pierces one lung by means of a small hollow needle. Through the aperture of the needle he admits a quan- tity of gas which collapses that lung in its diseased part, and it scars over and is healed. Dr. Murphy was also the inventor oi the famous "Murphy but- ton " for piecing severed intestines. Liquid air, though in its crude stages for surgical uses, is yet hailed as a great boon to man. As already stated there is not to be found any other means oi' producing such intense cold, and the effect upon animal tissue of this strange property of air is nearly the same as intense heat, though no blister is oc- casioned. In cauterizing wounds, in removing foreign growths and killing putrid flesh, this method is sure and has few evil after effects. It ernes corns, warts, boils, ring-worms, ivy-poisoning and ulcers, forms of rheumatism and neuralgia, kills typhoid fever germs, as well as diphtheria, and in part supplants the surgical knife. Finsen Light Cure. Probably one of the greatest dis- coveries of recent years in medicine has been that of Dr. Finsen of Copen- hagen for the cure of skin disease by subjecting the affected parts tor strong violet rays of light. It is well known that such maladies are caused by bacteria, and when light in concen- trated violet hues is east upon diseased tissue it has been found that the bacilli organisms. Consequently scientists are i are killed and the skin becomes healthy searching through these media for the i again. MISCELLANEOUS DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. >03 The bactericidal property of light had previously been proved. Investi- gations at the Finsen Laboratory showed that that property, instead of residing in light as a whole, was peculiar to the chemical rays. These rays have a power to irritate the skin and to pene- trate it. He exposed a specimen bacil- lus to bright sunshine in July, and found that the rays killed it in an hour and a half. The light from an electric lamp did the same work in about eight hours. Known by Experiment. It was learned that when the skin was full of blood it was harder for the light to penetrate. This was proved by fastening a piece of sensitized pho- tographic paper behind a man's ear and placing him in the sunlight. After a considerable exposure the paper was unaffected. When the ear was after- wards pressed so as to squeeze the blood from it an exposure of twenty seconds turned the paper black. Now, as soon as Finsen had learned that the blue rays of 1 igh t had the proper- ties of killing disease germs, he set about devising a method for its practical use. The result has been a set of lenses be- tween which is a bright blue, weak, ammoniacal solution of copper sulphate. This water absorbs the red or heat waves and some of the yellow, but allows the blue, violet and ultra-violet rays to pass. To the surface of the skin to be treated is attached by rubber bands a lens be- tween the glasses of which is run a stream of water to cool the surface and keep from blistering the skin, while at the same time the weight of the glass presses out most of the blood. When the rays are turned on, they at once penetrate to the spot where the germs are feeding upon the tissue and destroy them It is said the treatment has been very efficient in smallpox, lupus or tu- berculosis of the skin, baldness in small spots, and other epidermic ailments, and the patients say there is little or no pain, and are quite ready to undergo the treatment. Pasteur's Discovery. In the Pasteur institute for rabies in Paris all the persons treated in 1898 were cured with the exception of three. For the thirteen years since the foundation of the institution to the end of 1898, 13,183 persons were treated in Paris, and out of this number only ninety-nine died. Anti-Toxin. A serum called anti-toxin has largely been put into use as a cure for diph- theria. It is a brownish liquid prepared from the serum taken from the glands in the neck of a horse inoculated with the disease to fever point. The serum is allowed to stand and the anti-toxin comes to the surface and is skimmed off. By injecting the anti-toxin into the blood of the subject there is at once sent through the system a most deadly enemy to the diphtheria germs. One well- known physician in two years' practice with this remedy treated 2,100 cases in malignant form without losing one pa- tient. The after effects are somewhat weakening, however, as the action of the anti-toxin tends to retard the heart's motion. The X-Ray. Brain specialists have hailed with joy the X-ray as a medium for learning 504 MISCELLANEOUS DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. whether clots of blood are pressing on certain parts of the brain, thereby caus- ing insanity, or inaction of some of the faculties. The X-ray is also used for many other surgical and anatomical purposes, as already stated. Skin and Bone Grafting. Improvements along the line of skin- grafting and bone-making has been go- ing on rapidly. It is no uncommon occurrence to graft over burned or dis- eased spots large pieces of flesh and skin, taken from the body of a healthy person. In bone-growing, animal bone has prac- tically supplanted the insertion of for- eign substances, such as plates of silver and the like. Decalcified bone chips (that is bone with the lime taken out) are prepared from the fresh tibia or femur of an ox by being kept in a weak solution of hydrochloric acid for about a week. The periosteum, or outer skin of the bone, and the medullary tissue (marrow) DISCOVERY OF The century has produced scarcely any greater boon for humanity than that of anaesthetics, whereby pain may be alleviated, and in most surgical cases may be absolutely prevented. As early as 1795 sulphuric ether was used for the relief of spasmodic affec- tions of the respiration. The fact that sulphuric ether could produce insensi- bility was shown by the American phy- sicians, Godwin in 1822, Mitchell in 1832, Jackson in 1833, Wood and Bache in 1834 ; but it was first used to prevent the pain of an operation in 1846, by Dr. Morton, a dentist of Boston. The news of his success reached England on December 17th, 1846, and on the 22d, Mr. Robinson, a dentist, and Mr. are removed and the flimsy bone is cut into long strips about one-eighth of an inch wide. These, when they are to be used, may be cut into smaller pieces, and laid in the cavity of the patient left by the old bone being taken out. The skin of the wound is replaced, and grad- ually the grafted bone grows into the bone of the patient and performs its new functions as well as that with which he was born. For cranial defects, larger bones must be sought out and used in the same way. Such are some of the marvellous dis- coveries in medical science by which the close of the century is distinguished. In this most beneficent field of operation for curing disease and abating human suffering, the advance has been such as to almost challenge belief. It is hardly too much to say that modern surgery can take a man to pieces, reconstruct him, and put him together again, having given him a new lease of life. ANAESTHETICS. Liston, the eminent surgeon, operated on patients rendered insensible by the inhalation of sulphuric ether. This material was extensively used for a year, when Sir James Simpson of Edinburgh, discovered the anaesthetic powers of chloroform, and introduced the use of it into his special depart- ment in the University of Edinburgh, which was obstetrics. Since that time chloroform has been the anaesthetic in general use in Europe; both it and ether are extensively used in our own country. Other substances have been used by inhalation, such as nitrous oxide, which is the best and safest anaesthetic for operations that last only one or two M1RCEI.EANE0US DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. 505 minutes, as in the extraction of teeth. The employment of general anaesthe- tics in surgery has greatly increased the scope of the surgeon's usefulness, and has been a great boon to suffering humanity Local anaesthesia, artifi- cially produced, is of great value in minor operations and in painful affec- tions of limited areas of the body. If the Nineteenth Century had fur- nished no other discoveries than this it would deserve to rank high among all the periods of time since the world beo-an. EXPLORATIONS AT THE BOTTOM OF THE SEA. Since the day when Jules Verne wrote his famous ' l Twenty Thousand Lea- gues under the Sea," there has con- stantly been some inventor experiment- ing to solve the problem of travelling by a boat submerged under the surface of the water. Verne's boat, the " Nau- tilus," was a marvel of imagination, but others as wonderful in their reality have appeared, which, though not perfect in all things desired, yet do operate at the bottom of the sea, float under the surface for several hours, and come up safely. Such boats are being constantly studied by the war departments of the great powers, perhaps more than by any one else, for reason of the uses to which they may be put during war. Such a submarii e traveller, supplied with a number of torpedoes and with an air supply to List the crew for a few hours, could send to everlasting rest a whole navy, equipped though it might be with the most modern methods for protection and attack. France, as much as any other nation, has been interested in this subject, and the result of her studies has been several boats brought forth by the skill and in- ventive genius of Gustave Zede. This clever man, in 1886, built at Toulon an experimental vessel, the Gymnote, so as to test the principles he held with a view to embodying them in a larger and more complete war vessel. This boat was not much more than a large White- head torpedo, made of sheet steel in the shape of a cigar, being 56.7 feet long by 5.9 feet in diameter, and with displace- ment of thirty tons. To this shell were attached horizontal and upright rudders, so that she might be steered straight ahead by using the usual rudder, or might be made to dive or rise by use of the horizontal rudder. Electric motors with storage batteries supplied the power for the screw pro- peller, and a speed of seven knots an hour submerged and of nine knots on the surface were secured, while the bat- teries would run constantly for from four to five hours. Buoyancy was se- cured by a watertight compartment fore and aft, and sufficient compressed air was stored to supply the crew of five men when submerged. Besides these contrivances there was a heavy ballast attached to the bottom of the boat on the keel, that could be detached at a moment's notice in case of accident, thus allowing the vessel to rise. A long tube with reflecting lens and mirrors rose from the boat like a mast. This could be bent at an elbow at right angle and made to turn about., so that the image of any object at any point of the horizon could be reflected to the cabin of the boat when it was suiy 506 MISCELLANEOUS DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS merged. Without this "prismscope" it would be almost impossible to keep track of the enemy when on a cruise under the surface. The experiments with the Gymnote were so wonderfully successful that the French government at once set Zede to work making a large one for prac- tical use. The result was the vessel which excited the interest ot all the countries, and which, in honor of the inventor, was named the Gustave Zede. Dimensions of Boat. The length ot this boat is 14; feet, diameter 10.75 tcct < an ^ displacement 260 tons. The hull follows the general lines of the former model, being cigar shaped with very sharp ends. The speed has been increased lo S'_. knots an hour below and 14 knots on the sur- face. Ten men constitute the crew, and enough stored air is carried to last them while below. In the nose of the boat is an opening for discharging .u\ ordinary torpedo. She can operate in deep and shallow water with remarkable success, and trips averaging between seventy and eighty miles are her average runs, thus giving her power to make a fighting dash at any enemy within a ratlins of thirty-five miles, and return in safety. Various boats having the same gen- eral principles have been made and operated with much the same success, among others the Nordenfeldt, the Feral. Goubet, and the Holland, the latter a remarkable vessel built by an Ameri- can, which has been successfully tested by the United States government. Of a different sort altogether, how- ever, is Simon Lake's invention, the Argonaut. Knowins: the difficulties that beset the path ot" the inventor who tries to keep his boat floating under the surface in equilibrium with the water, he set about to contrive one that would travel on wheels at the sea bottom. In all types ot floating boats, there is great danger of misplacing the ballast and thus tipping the boat over on her side. This was what Lake figured against, and accordingly he brought out a boat that would float on the surface propelled by a screw, vet when closed and loaded! with its water ballast, would sink to the bottom and advance along the unknown highways by means of large wheels, after the style of a locomotive. The vessel is thirty- six feet long, cigar-shaped, with blunt nose and pointed stern, and is fitted with a thirty-horse power gasoline engine which operates the screw propeller, driving wheels, the electric dynamo, the MISCELLANEOUS DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. i07 air compressor, and derricks for hoisting the weights Like many other subma- rine boats, she is supplied with air when all but below the surface, by a steel tube reaching up in the air in the shape of a mast. Down this comes a fresh supply of air, and out at another similar one goes the exhaust steam from the engine. In her nose is a searchlight that shoots out rays far ahead into the water; on her bottom is a heavy false keel that may be released in case of accident, allowing her to rise because of added buoyancy. The vessel is guided by a compass, and it is found that this is entirely practicable below as well as above water, only it must be kept high above the machinery, which wouldother- wise affect her needle. Compressed air is resorted to for breathingsupply when the boat is so far below the surface that the engine has to be stopped and the masts are entirely submerged. Then the electricity, stored up by the dynamo while the engine was working, is used to operate the machinery. Trips of 1,000 miles have been made in the Argonaut without landing, a great part of which was spent below. Air supply sufficient for five men for twenty-four hours is easily stored, and with occa- sionally running up near enough to the surface to let the steel tubes send down more air, these trips can last as long as gasoline and food hold out. The accompanying sectional view of Argonaut submerged, shows man in con- ning-tower making observations ; also man steering with third wheel, which rests on the ocean bottom. Water tanks are filled when descending, and pumped dry when ready to come up. The water tank is also shown. A, gasoline en- gine, 30-horse power which supplies all the power in moving and operating the boat. BB, two anchor weights used in sinking boat. C, one of the two driving wheels. E, rudder and guiding wheel. FFFF, living room, in which are placed the engine and all other machinery and apparatus for operating boat. G, air lock; this affords a passage to and from diver's room with- out reducing air pressure. H, diver's room, whence is had free passage into the sea. K, bow compartment where searchlight is placed. L, forward look- out compartment. MM, gasoline tanks. NN, compressed-air reservoirs. OOOO, water-ballast compartments. PP, per- manent keel. PQ, drop keel. R, dy- namo. S, conning-tower. T, binnacle; the compass in this binnacle is in direct view of the outside steering gear, but from the conning-tower is read by re- flection. U, outside steering gear. In general form the Argonant is cylindrical 508 MISCELLANEOUS DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. Simply to go below the surface and not be able to leave the boat would be of little avail. The Argonaut is there- fore fitted with a diving apparatus so that men may leave the boat at any time, explore a wreck, fasten a torpedo to an enemy's war ship, pickup a cable and cut it, or go a-fishing after sharks. This is all done by means of a hole in the bottom of the boat near the forward end. When a diver wishes to leave the boat, he puts on a diving suit and goes into the diving compartment, which has a great heavy door with rubber packing. This door he closes, and cuts off the diving compartment from the living rooms and machinery. Then he turns on the compressed air till the pressure in the room is greater than that of the water that wants to come in. He then lets drop the heavy iron door to the hole in the bottom of the boat, and steps out, and not so much as a drop of water enters the vessel. Or sup- pose in time of war the telegraph cables of the enemy are to be cut. Instead of putting on a diving suit, the man to do the work simply goes into the div- ing room, turns on the air pressure, lets the trap door drop, and by means of a short wooden stick with a hook in the end reaches down and picks up the cable and cuts it. The possibilities of such a boat are very great, both in time of peace and war. In salvaging wrecked ships and treasures a submarine boat would do marvels, as well as in pearl, sponge and coral fishing. The work of laying foun- dations for lighthouses, piers and break- waters would be wonderfully facilitated, as well as in landing armies during a blockade, and blowing up war ships. DEATH-DEALING MACHINES OF WAR. It has been said that improvements in deadly war missiles will before long put a stop to war altogether. One would almost think so when it is con- sidered what marvellous strides inven- tion has taken along this line. Time was, and not long ago either, when the round cannon shot was aimed at the tough oak side of the frigate ; when the grappling chain and cutlass for hand-to- hand conflicts were necessary on all war vessels, and the bayonet and cavalry charge played great parts in land battles. Most of this is now changed. The iron shot gave way to steel projectiles, as the wooden hulls were replaced with steel. The completeness of victories, however, is no less than in centuries past ; distances are only greater. And each increase in the power of improved explosives and projectiles will be met with greater defensive devices, and with greater distances between the firing lines. It will be the brotherhood of man, not the deadliness and fear of weapons, that will bring about univer- sal peace. In weapons and death-dealing ma- chines for land forces there are, at the close of the century, such improve- ments as the far-reaching rifle, with its nickel-capped bullets, the Gatling, Max- im and Hotchkiss guns, smokeless powders, and such explosives as cordite, dynamite, lyddite and nitro-glycerine. Charges play some part, as in the gal- lant fight of San Juan Hill, but, in the main, artillery and long-distance firing 1 prevail. With che navy more marvel- MISCELLANEOUS DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. f,0<> lous improvements have been made. Nearly everything on board ship can now be operated by electricity. Ships are lighted, torpedoes, guns and mines fired, searchlights are operated, torpe- do-boats propelled, and a hundred other devices all controlled by this weird agent. The armor plates of the modern ves- sel are thick and of the hardest steel known, yet they are readily pierced by the enormous shells thrown at the (lis tance of several miles from the throats of great dynamite and compressed air guns. Among the numerous explosives of high power that are coming into use, the newest and possibly the most pow- erful is lyddite. Powerful Explosives. Like others of its class, such as dyna- mite, melinite, cordite, maxinite, etc., it is picric acid brought into a dense state of fusion. Picric is obtained by the action of nitric acid on carbolic acid. When lyddite shells explode they grind their outer coverings into small fragments, and with a noise like the downfall of the heavens, tearing every- thing to pieces for yards around. This explosive was used by the English in the war with the Boers, though the latter complained that such was against the codes of civilized warfare. Gen- eral Kitchener also used it in his cam- paign of the Soudan with tremendous ef- fect. A shell was dropped into a mosque atOmdurman, where 120 Mahdists were worshiping. The mosque and its in- mates were blown into pieces, and only twelve of the worshipers escaped alive. In the war between China and Japan, cordite, a similar though inferior explo- sive, was thrown in a twelve-inch shell into the Japanese flagship Matsushima with the effect of hurling a 4. 7-inch gun from its mounting, firing a heap of ammunition, disabling two more 4. 7- inch guns, and killing and wounding ninety officers and men. Smokeless Powder. Smokeless powder is another deadly explosive, having for its main peculiar- ity the quality of exploding without smoke, giving only a slight violet vapor, that is not sufficient to betray the am- bush of the gun. This kind of powder is made in long cylindrical strings and then cut up into small pieces. In the United States war supply factories, it is coated with plumbago by being placed in receptacles with the powdered black lead or plumbago and shaken up. This coating, being rather oily, keeps the powder from igniting by friction in case of rough handling. Cordite looks a great deal as its name would signify, something like brown jelly pressed into long strings from one- sixteenth to one-half inch in diameter, and dried. Some kinds of smokeless powder look foi all the world like care- fully cut strips of slippery elm bark. It is made in slabs about one-fourth inch thick and a foot and a half to two feet long. This powder is much safer to handle than common black or brown powder, and will bear quite a blow pro- vided no sparks are struck. Like all smokeless powder, it will burn without special danger if a match is applied to it, with a clear, steady flame, not flashing with a big s-s s-s like the old sort. Some of these explosives are cut into pieces just like Saratoga chips, and it is a rather blood-curdling job for one not informed to watch sheP' 510 MISCELLANEOUS DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS loaders hammer homo this stuff into the big shells as though in truth it were only so much potato. Nitro-Glycerine. This is used in some of its forms for war purposes, but more especially for blasting oil-wells and the like, is one of the most difficult of all explosives to manufacture. Itis generally pale yellow in color, is odorless, and has a sweet pungent taste, though when touched to the skin will cause severe headache. It is made in a large tank called an agita- tor, which has a set of revolving pad- dles. Into this are poured equal quan- tities of nitric and sulphuric acids, and altera mixture of 250 pounds is secured, sweet glycerine to the amount of 1,500 pounds is added. The chemicals natur- ally tend to come to great heat, but since 90 degrees explodes the mixture, water pipes are arranged about the vat to keep dowu the temperature. In carrying this explosive there is great danger of jarring. Makers of the stuff generally live only about five years at their work. As in all other factories of powders and the like, no metals are allowed, and the shoes and clothing of the workmen must be changed to suit their employment. Canvas shoes are used, and the men may not turn their trousers at the bottom for fear of bring:- ing in grit and gravel that might strike a spark. Projectiles. These have improved in weight and hardness so that in battle tons of metal are fired through great granite fortifica- tions and steel clad ships with greater ease than the old-time round shot could pierce an oak side. Early in the nine- teenth century methods for throwing hollow shells filled with powder or small shot were invented. From canister, grape and chain shot, there have evolved heavier shells, generally explosive, but also of such hard and sharply pointed steel that no armor can withstand them. Most of the smaller ritles are equipped with balls that pierce the object aimed at cleanly and without jagged edges. Cases have been known where such a ball passing through a person did not even inflict a severe wound. Such is really the result aimed at in civilized war ; either to kill a man outright, or simply temporarily to disable him. Dum-dum Bullet. Some kinds of shells, however, are diabolical in their intent. Among these is the dum-bum bullet, declared bar- barous by the Peace Convention at The Hague in 1899. Some small shot ex- plode after entering the body ; others, like the dum-dum bullet, flatten out when they strike any object of resist- ance, because of their soft material, be- ing only partly covered by a nickel envelope, and these at once make fear- ful, jagged wounds, and are hard to ex- tract. The "Base" Shell. The bottom or blunt end of the shell, which is large and for cannon use, is separate from the rest of the shell. This "base" rests on ball-bearings, and, while the upper portion revolves, it is stationary. Attached to the base and folding up into grooves along the upper part are four murderous scythes. When the shell is thrown from its gun, the rifling of the core starts the point of the shell revolving, the knives, pushed by springs, jump out from the sides of the MISCELLANEOUS DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. 51 i base, and as they go through the ranks of the enemy cut and maim every man in their course. Then, after its work is nearly complete, it explodes and works more havoc. The knives when out- spread cover a diameter of forty-five 1 inches, and it may be imagined what carnage such a missile will create in the rank of a closely lined infantry. Searchlights. These have brought about a great revolution in warfare. By their means lights and signals can be thrown many miles, and the work of the enemy in the night detected. The average search- light is made up of lenses and reflectors so as to condense or diffuse the light of a 25,000 candle-power electric arc lamp. They are made in the shape of a cylin- der about thirty inches deep and from two to three feet in diameter. In the back is a silver-backed reflecting lens, and at the front is a glass door. Within is an electric lamp placed at the focus- ing point of the lens. Between the glass door and the lamp is a smaller re- flecting lens that throws the light of the electric lamp into the large lens, and that lens in turn throws the concen- trated rays out through the glass dooi miles and miles into the night. The whole affair is mounted on a pedestal, and can be moved in any di- rection at will. The rays of light are generally kept together so that a beam l 3,000 feet away covers only the width /of fifty feet. This, however, can be changed at will if desired. Torpedoes. These are the dread of all war ves- sels, and work as much havoc as any other weapon. They are shaped like a cigar, with propeller at the rear and an awful load of dynamite or gun-cotton at the nose. Inside is an electric stor- age battery attached to a motor that operates the propeller. When ready to be discharged at the enemy, a torpedo is placed in a compressed-air device that shoots it out into the water, aimed in a certain direction. The electric bat- tery has been turned on and the rudders so arranged that the torpedo will travel in a given angle. It drives forward at a great speed, the cap on the nose strikes the side of the ship and discharges the explosive, and the ship is torn into pieces. Submarine Mines. Mines are used for protection of the harbors against an incoming enemy. These are big bombs placed at the bot- tom of the harbor or straits and con- nected by electricity so that they may be fired off at will. Charts are made of the harbor, and so figured out that the attendant several miles away can look through a telescope at the approaching enemy, and can tell at just what mo- ment the intruder is over a given mine. He then turns a switch, and the great vessel of steel and iron is blown into the air with a vast volume of water, and rapidly sinks. Some mines are fast to buoys which float at the surface, so that when a vessel coming into the forbidden waters strikes one, an electric spark is carried down to the mine and it ex- plodes. Machine Guns. Among these the Gatling, Hotchkiss and Maxim are the deadliest because of their rapid fire. The Gatling has a number of barrels joined together side by side, and at a distance looks like a 512 MISCELLANEOUS DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. big stubby cannon. There are gen- erally about ten barrels, which revolve upon a pivot. Each chamber has a sep- arate lock which is discharged auto- matically when the barrel reaches its proper position. The machine is worked by a crank ; the cartridges are placed in a rack with grooves that let them slide down into their proper chambers as soon as the fired shells have been ejected. As many as 1,200 shots a minute have been fired by the Gatling gun. The Maxim differs in that it is wholly automatic ; after each recoil of a previous discharge the shock opens the breech, extracts the empty shell, takes a fresh cartridge, cocks the gun, pushes the shell into its chamber and fires the gun. The cartridges are loaded into the gun in a belt, and all the operator has to do to is pull the trigger the first time, and the belt is ground through at the rate of 600 shots a minute. The Armstrong gun is the largest of the rapid-fire guns. It is for large caliber shells, using 4^ pounds of smokeless powder, and throwingsix-inch projectiles weighing 100 pounds with enough force to penetrate fifteen inches of wrought iron. A smaller gun of the same order fires forty-five pound shells at the rate of fifteen per minute. The Driggs-Schroeder and Hotchkiss rapid-fire guns are inventions of Ameri- cans, and are used largely on our battle ships, especially in the " fighting tops." These swing on pivots, so that they may be directed to any quarter. They fire one shot at a time, and to aim the gun an arm-piece similar to that of a rifle is attached. The gunner presses this against his shoulder and steadies it, while his two hands remain free to open the chamber, insert a shell, pull the trigger, and reload. It fires at the rate of thirty-six shots a minute. INVENTION OF THE BICYCLE. Among the inventions that came into popular use during the last quarter of draisine — 1816. the century was the bicycle. Many years previous to this attempts were made to construct some vehicle by which the use of the horse could be set aside, yet its speed could be as- sured. As in nearly all inventions the first efforts were only partially successful and the machines that were built were not adapted to gen- eral use, and were therefore unsat- isfactory. All this has been obviated and it is evident that the bicycle has come to stay. No new method of loco- motion ever leaped so rapidly into public favor. While there have been differences of opinion as to the phy- sical advantages of cycling, the weight of this' opinion is decidedly in favor of it. The exercise is health- ful when not overdone. Even walk- MISCELLANEOUS DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. 513 ing may "be overdone, and is liable to the same objection that might, be made against the wheel. A person must know when his ride has been long HOBBYHORSE — 182 1. enough, and knowing this he should have will power enough to stop. It is nothing uncommon now to see business men in all parts of our coun- try making use of the bicycle. It gives promise of a more robust health and a better physique. Cycling has a short but brilliant his- tory of the past. In endurance man mounted on a cycle has beaten the strongest and fleetest of domestic ani- faster, but where is the horse that could cover forty miles under two hours, as not one but several cyclists have done in the fifty miles championship ? What horse could turn out morning after morning, and trot or gallop over a hun- dred miles a day, as have some cyclists ? mals, the horse, out and out in a twenty- four hours' ride. What horse could compete against a cycler who covers, as some have done, over 300 miles a day ? Horses have trotted a mile rather 33 LAVEMENT'S VELOCIPEDE— 1 866. A practical knowledge of cycling tends to increase one's wonder at these "giant performances." At first the bicycle was likely to be regarded as merely a toy, while young and old attempted to ride it more for the purpose of seeing whether they could do it than for any other reason. The motion was ex- hilarating and the ex- ercise was lively, but not for these reasons would the bicycles be so universally used. There are other and important considerations. As already said, business men in large towns and cities make use of the bicycle instead of — street cars and ordinary car- riages and horses. More and more the bicycle has come to be regarded as useful, and it is not likely that this use will be diminished. Postmen in the sub- urbs of cities and in country places em- ploy it ; errand boys make use of it 514 MISCELLANEOUS DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. everywhere, while at the same time as a vehicle for exercise and pleasure it is a popular favorite. Many improvements in handle bars, in lamps, in saddles, in fact, in all the various parts and appliances of the ma- chine have been made, and these have found ready favor with the general pub- lic. An immense amount of capital and a vast number of hands are em- ployed in the manufacture of this popu- lar invention for locomotion. TRAVELLING IN THE AIR. Scientists and mechanical engineers are looking for some one to bring to perfection a practical flying machine or air ship. They no longer laugh at the idea that aerial flight is a possibility, but instead say that it is not only a possibility but a strong probability. Lilienthal's Method. The reason for this is that a number of men have been steadily experiment- ing upon kites, aeroplanes and balloons, with the idea of being able sometime to direct them at will. Otto Lilienthal, a German inventor, came as near, per- haps, to perfection as any one yet, while Maxim, the gun inventor, was to some extent, successful. The latter built a machine eight feet wide and forty feet long, which by propulsion by screws made a number of flights. This was not only successful in pro- pelling to some distance a machine through the air, but also carried its in- ventor. Near Berlin, Lilienthal built a tower about fifty feet high on a hill, and from this he sailed as far as six hundred feet in easy winds, sometimes against heavy winds, and on several oc- casions he reached a height greater than that from which he started. These experiments though they advanced the science of aeronautics, at last resulted in the inventor's death by collapse of his machine. Professors Chanute and Wil- liam Paul conducted a series of aero- plane flights at Dunne Park, Indiana, on the shores of Lake Michigan, which were in the main successful. No mo- tive power was used, the principle being that a slide down hill would lift the plane a distance into the air, and then by other planes and rudders, the ma- chine was kept in the air for some time. CHAPTER XXXIV. Inventions Applied to Railways and Canals. M OWN to 1850 progress in rail- way building was very slow, ^* but shortly after came a ore: it "boom "in stocks, and the years succeeding [865 were noted for their vast strides in railway im- provements and construction. In 1830 there were not twenty-five miles of rail in the whole country ; at the close of the century the total mileage of the United States was 184,532. This is about half the number of miles in the whole world. In [850 nearly all the roads were con- fined to the North Atlantic States, but in the next decade a number of lines were pushed west to the Mississippi, and shortly after came the first great transcontinental system to the Pacific. The railroads built in the west were necessarily forerunners of civilization, and where the engine had to go under armed guard to keep off the attacks of the Indians, it was not to be expected that construction would be other than cheap. Towns did not have to be con- sulted as to rights-of-way, for towns followed rather than preceded the rail- road. As years went on, however, this cheap method of building was thrown out for new and modern improvements, and everywhere old wooden culverts were replaced by steel bridges, secure rock ballast took the place of the bedding that was formerly so easily washed out, and heavy and continuous steel rails form even and smooth tracks, instead of the old warped iron affairs. Curves have been straightened, steep and dan- gerous grades have been abandoned for cuts and tunnels, many murderous grade crossings have been bridged or tun- nelled, and the roads are supplied with blo^k signals. All this takes enormous wealth, but the roads are constantly increasing in that direction. It is true that many improvements are yet to be expected, even with our "lightning flyers," ere travel will become perfect, but these improvements will be made. Vast Improvements. If the number of miles constructed has been great, even greater has been the development in the luxury and ease of travelling. In 1850 the continuous steel rail had not been invented, and the link-connected cars clattered along over the disjointed rails with a rattle and bang that was nerve destroying. The only conveniences then provided for, even on the " through trains ' ' across the country, were a few telegraph blanks, a separate smoking apartment, and, in some cases, a buffet from which were served food and drink of a pool quality and enormous price. The night train was a thing unheard of and the Pull- man sleeper had not yet made its ap- pearance. To day one journeying from coast to coast need hardly givea thought as to his comforts after he has boarded the modern cross-country "flyer." Trains are really almost smooth-run- 615 61l> RAILWAYS AND CANALS. ning, and are equipped with every de- vice for comfort that man can imagine. Drawing-room, observation, dining, and sleeping cars arranged with an eye to artistic effect as well as to luxurious comfort, are ever being improved upon by the companies, while electric and gas lights, vestibules between cars to keep out noise and dust, barber shops, buffet smoking cars, card rooms, and libraries and music rooms, with waiters and porters at every turn, are daily adding to the ease of travel, as well as to the pocketbooks of the railway mag- nets. To think, then, that all these devices will soon be applied to trains of cars running regularly across every continent on the globe is to wonder what will be the limit of man's power. Immense Engines. In the last year of the century trans- portation as represented by the gigantic railway system of the United States, with its 184,532 miles of roads, recorded a healthy growth ; not so much by added mileage as by improved rolling stock and roadbed, more commodious stations, a faster time card and a slowly (too slowly) lessening casualty list. For the fast transcontinental mail trains exceptionally powerful express engines, with boilers of unusual capacity, were constructed, and the big freight engines of over 100 tons weight of the preced- ing year were followed by others of even greater weight. The steam locomotive continues to be unrivaled as a traction motor, for heavy or long distance work, notwith- standing the experiments with a com- bination steam-electric engine. The fastest trains in the world were those run on the Pennsylvania and Readino- roads from Philadelphia to Atlantic City during the summer mouths. These trains, whose scheduled speed is sixty to seventy miles an hour, frequently made the runs of 55.5 and 58.3 miles at rates of from 68 to 74 miles and hour with trains weighing as high as 290 tons. Fastest Trains. The palm for the fastest regular ex- press service, however, must be awarded to the great French Railroad, Chemin de Fer du Nord, which is unapprpached, in the number and average speed of its fast trains. The service includes no less than forty-five trains, with a run- ning speed, including stops, of over fifty miles per hour, and of these no less than ten are timed to run at speeds of from fifty-four to sixty miles per hour. The service is worked by four-cylinder compound engines. The Great Boston Terminal Station, the largest structure of its kind in the world, was opened for traffic in 1899, and the Philadelphia subway and tun- nel, costing $6,000,000, were also com- pleted. In New York city awards were made for the construction of the tunnel road as a solution of the rapid transit problem. Besides the new East river bridge, under construction, two more were to be commenced at once, unless the tunnels proposed prove more econ- omical. The most important harbor improvement was the cutting of a 40 foot channel in New York harbor. Electricity continued to oust every other form of power for street railway work ; indications were that for city work the underground trolley would be the exclusive system, with the over- head trolley for suburban and short in- ter urban lines. The electrical equip- RAILWAYS AND CANALS. ;n ment of steam roads did not progress as rapidly as anticipated, though the re- sults of the third rail system on the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad were quite satisfactory, and extensions were planned. The great system of the Manhattan Elevated was there is one of similar nature being promoted by American capital that is to be called the International Rail- way, or the Pan-American Road. At the expense of $25,000,000 it is to con- nect this country with the South Ameri- can states, starting from Matamoras, on Map of the Trans-Sirerian and Chinese Eastern Railway. Showing the entire route from Port Arthur to St. Petersburg The dotted line marks the sec- tion where work was not completed in 1900. to be electrically equipped, several thousand tons of third rail having been ordered in 1899. As the century entered upon its clos- ing year there were, in course of con- struction, two marvellous lines: one, the Trans-vSiberian route, being laid by the Russian government from St. Peters- burg, Russia, to Port Arthur, China, thus taking in all the resources of un- known Siberia and China ; the other the " Cape to Cairo " route, as yet only partly built and partly on paper, but a marvel in imagination, extending from the Cape of Good Hope, at the most southern extremity of Africa, up through unknown savage lands to its northern terminal at the old capital of the Pharaohs, Cairo, Egypt. the Rio Grande border, running along the gulf coast to Guatemala, rhen along the border and down through the South American states to the Pacific coast, thus making a thread line from North to South America and connecting the two continents. Had Russia imagined in 1 867 that she could ever have accomplished such a work of engineering skill as that of the construction of the Trans-Siberian and the Chinese Eastern Railways, she ,iever would have sold to the United States foi the paltry sum of $7,000,000 the great territory of Alaska. Instead she would have been our neighbor, wila a sea- port at I ? ort Wrangell, almost at 0111 doors on Puget Sound, and England, with ever-watchful eyes, would turn Besides these two great undertakings, J from Russia at the gate of Herat to 518 RAILWAYS AND CANALS. Russia within a day's march of Vancou vet. But the first work of building this great thread across a continent full of superstitious semi savageswas not com- menced till May 30, 1 Soi, when the Czarovitch, on his way around the world, visited Vladivostok ami drove the first spike. It was then thought that the Trans-Sihei iau could not he completed till 1005 or 100;. Th.it was before the Chino-Japanese War, ami a route had already been mapped out along the southern portion of Siberia to Vladivostok, a port on the Pacific just north o( Korea that is ice-bound all winter. This port was practically the only outlet for Russia on the Pacific, and accordingly great outlay was made tor piers, ice-breakers, etc. Hut after Russia's aid to the Chinese ill the war with Japan, China felt very grateful, and as a mark oi esteem gave her hem-factor great privileges in Man- churia, among which were the rights to build the Chinese Eastern Railway ami to lease Tort Arthur as its eastern ter- minus. This port is open the veai round, so Russia at once gave up her other surveys along the Amui River, and instead began to throw out a line o( loads to the south-east through the most fertile pait o( China, to end at Tort Arthur, ami with branches to Pekin and Vladivostok. The Trans-Siberian Road. This road is practically complete, and after an expenditure oi~ <\ 50,000,000 has a through line from Irkutsk, on l,.ike Baikal, extending 4,000 miles to St. Petersburg, Across tin- lake to Misso yaga trains are being carried on great steel barges or ferryboats. Beyond this point the road runs in more or less com plete state in an easterly directum to Stretinsk, and from the port atVladi vostok directly northward to Khaba- rovka. The country lying between th ; s lattei point and Stretinsk was to haw been covered by a line that would hav« directly connected St. Petersburg with Vladivostok, But with the donation from China, as said before, this line was abandoned, and now the eastern leiiui mis o( the Trans-Siberian route is at Stretinsk, while a little to the south and west of this point, at Kidalova, the main Russian Hue is tapped by the Chinese Eastern Railway Marvellous Bridges. The work aetoss Siberia was full o\ difficulties, much of the laud never hav ing been traversed by white men before. Convict labor has been used to a great extent, therein cutting down expense. Expense has not been spared ir the least, however, to give good construction, ami above all else is considered safety. Bridges that are marvels in civil engl neering span numerous rivers between Stretinsk and St. Petersburg, twenty millions having been expended in this line alone. The largest ami most eostlv of these is the great iron ami stone affair that spans a distance of 3,150 feet over the Yenisei at Krasnoyarsk. It stands on five colossal circular stone piers, with matching stone abutments thrown over the river in five spans. The cost was s t,300,000 ; the work was designed by Kuone, once a German, but now .1 naturalized Russian. Anothei great bridge, costing S-VVO,OOo, extends o\ ei the Obi River at Kolivan. During the winter, when the riveis are deeply RAILWAYS AND CANALS, 510 frozen, such parts of the road as yet have no bridges an strung temporarily on the thick ice, and latei el culverts. Chinese Eastern Railroad. The work of most interest however, thai upon the Chinese Eastern /. Although in direct conjunc- tion with the Trans-Siberian road, this was ent paratein its finances and outward dealings with the public. In [896 Russia contracted with China to build a road through Manchuria, guar- anteeing that the president should be a Chinaman, and that at the end of eighty ie entire ownership of the road was to pa to China upon payment. The route was at once mapped out, and for rapidity of construction this line holds the record. The work was done by Siberian convicts and Chinese coolies, while almo y tool and modern means of equipment is of Amer- ican manufacture. '1'h' long the route are mainly Co . ■■■■' ks, and they dress half in Chii and half in Rus ian costume. The nag of the company is likewise half of one country and half of the other. Of course, the enterprise is wholly Rus- sian; and the result of this enterpri tling. Cities have grown up all along the country that was formerly wilderni To think of the wonderful civilizing effe< t of this railway is startling. The road covers like a hand 400,000 square miles of rich Chinese territory. The main line extends southwest from Ki- dalova to Vladivostok, while about mid- way it is tapped by a directly southern branch at a new town called Habin. m this point it runs to Port Arthur and to Pekin. European methods are in the main crude along engineering lin< American enterprise suppHed this work with u' erything from rteel for bridges to pick-axes and cr< J'o' k drills' | deal of trouble, however, among the native Chinese and also to some extent among the con- victs. It was impossible for these igno- rant people to understand the work:. joh an engine without visible motive power, and they at once came to the conclusion that the work was done by the white man's devil/' The rorkmen str and it was only with the g diffi- ty hat. they were induced to return to work. Eventually they became amused at the workings of the machii though they still thought them con- trolled by evil spirits. The Cape to Cairo Railway. What has been accomplished by the construction of such a great railway may be shown by noting that JIabin, the junction of the two great railwa as well as headquarters of their offi< 1 was not on the map at the close of [899 and yet it is destined to be the Chicago of northern Asia. Already in this' are magnificent office buildings and dwellings, and broad and electrically lighted streets are being paved in the most approved methods. Palatial steam- ships arrive and depart daily, and ma- chine shops, banks, ice-factories and other enter; are numerous. 'J'o sum Up the gigantic effort, a trip of 10,- 000 miles, or nearly half way round the world, can soon be made without chang- ing cars ! Were English capital being inve ted for the building of the Trans-Siberian 520 RAILWAYS AND CANALS. and Chinese Eastern railways, we might see the value of the specula- tion, for it is only that nation that has colonies scattered all over the globe that will greatly benefit by easy means of communication between them. Rus- sia, however, is not building these great distance-bridging webs of steel for the money there is in it ; rather for the purpose of bringing her great do- mains together. But if Russia is outlaying millions of capital in a costly venture, England is risking still more in the scheme to build a railway throughout the length of Africa from the Cape of Good Hope to Cairo. Cecil Rhodes, the genius of South Africa, promul- gated the idea, and though capital has been scarce for the purpose, yet probably by 19 10 the most gigantic of all daring feats will have been completed. From point to point the distance to 1 t covered is about 6, 600 miles. Of this over 3,000 miles is already constructed, but the remaining por- tion, 3,200 miles, is yet to be strung across the most difficult stretches of land in all Africa. The total cost of the whole enterprise is estimated at $125,000,000, but as the northern and southern extremities are already laid, it will need only about #75,000,000 more. Ninety Miles an Hour. Speed on railway trains has been developed to at least ninety miles an hour between stops on level road. This has been done in actual work of carrying mails, and was the out- come of a race against time that took place January 1, 1899, on both the C, B. & Q. and the Noith western railways on their respective lines run- map of the; route op the "cape to cairo" railway. RAILWAYS AND CANALS. 521 ning from Chicago to Omaha. With our new possessions in the Pacific Ocean any time saved on the way to the coast is of importance, and it was to secure mail contracts to these points that such speed was shown. It is no uncommon event to travel at the rate of fifty miles an hour, includ- ing stops, but extremely high rates of speed are not usually developed on passenger trains. When ninety miles are whizzing past in sixty minutes it taxes to the utmost the nerves of the engineer. All sorts of sights and noises are magnified in the night, and even if engines are improved to fly at the rate of 150 miles an hour — which it is said will before long be possible — the driver GREAT CANALS For nearly a century after the dis- covery of America, explorations were made to find the straits that were sup- posed to exist between the northern and southern halves of the continent. At last, when the Isthmus of Panama was found, engineers at once began to dream of an artificial waterway to link the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The canal routes that have received the most publicity are those of Panama and Ni- caragua. Both of these were under way in 1900, though the Panama had ex- pended the more money and was nearer completion. The United States gov- ernment interested itself in the Nica- caragua plan, and authorized an expen- diture of $1 15,000,000 on than route. The Panama Route. In 1900 this canal was cut two-fifths of the way across the Isthmus from Colon on the Atlantic side to Panama on the Pacific, and the cost of complet- of the engine would be able to run his train only a few years before he would be a physical wreck. With the improved headlights sha- dows are increased, and though the long stream of light aids in detecting breaks on the track at night, such a thing as a small fly travelling over the face of the lamp is enlarged to great size in a shadow on the track. The wind whizzes by, and when another train at an equal speed of ninety miles an hour from an opposite direction passes by, the two are coming together at the rate of 180 miles an hour. With all these strains, the engineer wishes to reduce rather than to increase the speed and thus have fewer risks. OF THE WORLD. ing it was estimated at $102,000,000. The route at first lay over twenty-five miles of river, eight miles of the Cor- dilleras mountains that had to be cut down from 100 to 325 feet, and a great part in bottom lands. Great floods of the Chagres River and the opening up of the damp soil causing sickness neces- sitated the change of route. Estimates showed $87,000,000 to be necessary for completion, and eight or ten years' time in which to do the work. The route as laid out is forty-six miles long with the same ports as be- fore, only the Chagres River is not used and in its place canals are to be dug. From Colon fifteen miles is straight cut canal ; after that comes a dam which by controlling the waters of the Chagres will flood the country for 13^ miles, with an artificial lake. This lake is to be used as a channel of the canal, and at the other end follows a section of canal five miles long- which 522 RAILWAYS AND CANALS. is the highest of the whole route, sixty- eight feet above the sea. Six loeks al- together control the water between the sections, while another artificial lake nine miles north of the main route, caused by another dam, will supply wa- ter in dry season. The Nicaragua Canal While well indorsed, this is a great deal more difficult task than the Panama, and but a small part of the work has been done. It is to extend from Grey- town on the Atlantic, to Brito on the Pacific, using as main channels Lake Nicaragua and the San Juan River. Six locks control the water, and the hardest part of the plan is to build a series of dams, some of them 6,000 feet long, to check the flow of the San Juan River so that the whole valley will be flooded and make an immense artificial stream connecting with the lake. Short and steep canals are built at each end of the route and connect the lake and river with the oceans. The route is 169 miles long as compared to forty-six on the Panama, while the sum- mit level, or highest point, is 154 miles long, with one end but thirteen miles and the other two miles from the oceans. Should a break occur in one of the Ni- caragua locks, half this stretch would be emptied of water and the vessels in transport would be stranded. With both these routes in construction a waterway across the Isthmus is assured before 1910. Chicago Drainage Canal. One of the greatest enterprises in the line of canal building was finished by the Sanitary District of Chicago, and con- sists of an artificial waterway connecting the waters of the Chicago River with those of the "Mississippi. Vov years the filth of the Chicago River was such as to give the stream the name of "sewer." The refuse from numerous factories emptied into it, and in heavy weathet or after a thaw these waters flowed fai out into Lake Michigan, from which Chicago gels its water supply, thus being a great menace to the health of the inhabitants. The opening oi this canal effectually turned back the waters of the river from its mouth and made the stream flow towards its source. Reaches the Mississippi. Virtually Lake Michigan thus has an outlet to the Gulf of Mexico, the water flowing steadily up the river and out through the cut that joins the river at its south branch and over a rocky bed and between stone walls to Lock- port, Illinois, where a great controlling dam is situated that lets the water into the Des Plaines River. From this point the river runs by way of the Des Plaines, through the town of Joliet, to the Illinois River, and thence into the Mississippi. The canal is 160 feet wide, is made of six-foot thick masonry, and is deep enough to admit ocean vessels, while it has a capacity of 600,000 cubic feet of water a minute. Part of the route lay along clay beds, and here the work of construction was the easiest •, elsewhere it lay along solid rock, and here blast- ing had to be done ; another part laj along a prairie, and there a wall o( stone thirteen miles long had to be built. To remedy the sewage problem of Chicago the whole sewer system had to be reversed, and the refuse matter made to flow out to the canal instead of into RAILWAYS AND CANALS. 523 the lake as before. To do this large . were construe ted underground, connecting the larger er mains and emptying into the ouf.ii branch of the river. It tools st years to construct the canal and about $32,0' ,0,000 v. • r< i Kpended. The mo: for tli is was raised by taxes, but a large income will be derived from the use of powei developed bythefall of the water <>■:< r the dam at the big controlling works at Lo< kport. The Keil Ship Canal. The great ship canal which is des- tined to connect the Baltic with the Black Sea, work on which was begun in 1898 by the Russian government, has been pushed forward with the great- est zeal and at the same time with a quietness amounting almost to secrecy. When finished the work, on account of its immensity and the almost insupera- ble difficulties to be overcome, will be worth}' of a place be ide such modern wonders as the St. Gothard Tunnel and the Suez Canal. The route unites the River Dnieper, which flows into the Black Sea, with the Dwina, which empties into the Baltic vSea at Riga. It starts at Riga, following the course of the Duna River as far as Duneberg, where it is united , to the Beresina by means of an immense course cut right through the country. The Beresina and the Dnieper are then ; to complete the connection. The total length of the line is about 1,000 English miles, one-eighth ofthedistance being artificially cut through the land. Dimensions of the Canal. The canal is about 307 feet wide, and about thirty feet deep, thus allowing the largest vessels means of passing from one sea to the other. Seventeen large ports, or artificial bays, are to be constructed along the line as well, each capable of containing a large number of ships, so that a Russian vessel, h< ever large it may be, may make the en- tire transit in six days without hin- drance of any kind. The cost of the work, at the lowest estimate, and taking into consideration the means at the disposal of the R sian government as to the adoption of unpaid labor, will amount to about $120,000,000. The whole • is kept within the limits of the Russian Empire, thus allowing Russia absolute sovereignty over the entire course. Put- ting aside the great political advanb. given to Russia by the new enterprise, the gain commercially and economically will be an incalculable one. CHAPTER XXXV. Progress of Agriculture During the Century. T*^^ department of human activity I =J has shown more rapid and satis- _L? ^ factor}' progress than agri- culture. As compared with the ciude ideas, methods and imple- ments that characterized the beginning of the century, the advance exhibited at its close seems almost miraculous. This has been the creative period of agriculture. Original in its movements, it has propounded and settled problems oi great moment to civilization. In the rapidity of its advance it has acquired more than during the previous sixteen centuries. A brief review will be given of a few of its lines of advance. Chemistry had so rapidly progressed that, in 1803, Sir Humphrey Davy de- livered a series of lectures to a farmers' club in London, earning thereby the title of " father of agricultural chemis- try. '' Combustible materials were then regarded as the essential elements of plant nutrition, and mineral matters, as mainly of accidental presence in the plant. The next thirty years witnessed developments in the physical sciences, which, coupled with observations of farm investigators, added much to the stock of facts essential to the formula- tion of general farm laws. The imperfect methods of plant ana- lysis of Davy's time now assumed a far greater aeen racy. In 1835 Boussingault of France founded a private experiment station and carried forward brilliant orisrinal investigations touching the plant and animal physiology. Prom [824 to 1840 the masterly genius of I/iebig massed original and acquired data that resulted in announcements, through a work in 1840, of facts which mark an era in fanning. Famous Discoveries. The prolific data and broad general- izations of Liebig inspired active in- vestigations which have given nu as- tonishing volume of facts. Between [838 and 18^0 Sir John B. Laws, aided by Dr. Gilbert ami ten to fifteen other assistants, began his investigations, now world famous and invaluable. The Royal Agricultural Society of England employed, in 1843, Professor Yoelker for scientific study of farm questions, and he rendered important service. The Highland Society of Scotland like- wise employ an expert. In [852 the first efficient official experiment station for the study of farm problem:, was founded in I y eipsic, Saxony. Europe and the United States now boast of several hundred stations, pri- vate and public. Each employs from one to five trained investigators. Vol- unteers, at the agricultural colleges of two continents, swell the list of origi- nal workers. No age, industry, or pro- fession parallels the numbeis, enthu- siasm, and success of these investiga- tors. They are collecting the richest, broadest, and most useful professional literature of the age — the outcome of chemistry and fertility of the soil and | the most complex of the industries, of 524 ' PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE DURING THE CENTURY. 625 the one which virtually determines the price of food. Investigators in other fields have swelled the volume of facts applicable to agriculture; for chemistry, botany, physiology, anatomy, geology, mineralogy, entomology, and physics are the foundation sciences upon which rational farming is based. We Know the Soil. These investigations have made us acquainted with the physical properties of the soil and taught us how to modify them, regulating the amount of mois- ture by frequent and shallow tillage. They have informed us of the chemical composition of soils and plants and taught us that "all plant food acts through its constituents," which are as valuable from artificial as from natural sources. These have been made avail- able through mechanical and chemical agencies, thus vastly increasing the pos- sibilities of the soil and of population. Chemistry has enabled us to discover the sources of plant food ; it has founded ihe trade in fertilizers — a trade amount- ing to millions of dollars in a single vState of the United States — and modi- fied the type, while increasing the vigor and efficiency, of European agriculture. It has given us the proximate food con- stituents of plants and their functions in animal nutrition, enabling us, in connection with discoveries in animal physiology, to formulate a rational sys- tem of food combinations which afford for each class of animals, for each speci- fic purpose, enough, and no more, of albuminous and carbonaceous constitu- ents for the desired end. This results in a great saving of food and in the utilization of the poorer classes of foods. These scientific investigations have acquainted us, also, with the causes and remedies of many animal diseases, and, through Pasteur's researches, taught us that, through inoculation with weakened virus, certain contagious diseases may be defied. As a result, eighty-five thousand sheep were vacci- nated in one department in France. They have given us the life historj of fungi and insects and, in fact, the means for combating these destroyers of hundreds of millions of food plants annually. Nourishment of Plants. They are now asserting that parasitic growths find their most congenial field with plants whose low vitality results from improper nourishment, and that, by the application of potash salts or other food constituents, health may be restored even to plants affected by yel- lows or by blight. They have proven that quality in plants is a flexible fac- tor subject to modification by fertiliza- tion, by modifying soil, or by the breed- er's art. Through these influences, from Napoleon's time, the sugar pro- duct from the sugar-beet has been more than doubled in its percentage. Varieties of fruits, vegetables, and grains have been amazingly multiplied, and edible products have been converted from coarse and flavorless fruits into such as please the palate, thus creating demand. One American tested six thousand varieties of potatoes, which fact serves as an illustration of the work in this direction. The breadth of the acquired facts forbids special- izing. They touch every phase of farming, and have modified, or are in the process of modifying every import- ant farm operation. PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE DURING THE CENTURA Astounding as it may seem, this is the first age to acquire exact facts in farming. Knowledge is needed to re- place conjecture. Farm facts are farm forces. They broaden the policy and invigorate the system of the fanner. Divorced from tradition and uncer- tainty, the fanner, relying upon prin- ciples in practice, substitutes a vigor- ous for a timid policy. On the farmer himself the outcome is a happy in- fluence. The unthinking working ma- chine is replaced by the broad, self-re- liant director of natural forces and arti- ficial appliances. New Methods. This period is marked by a u.dical change in the character of farm litera- ture. It is no longer an exposition of practices — a list of old processes — mere- ly, but is a teacher of principles upon which good practices may be founded. It is far from being implied that farm- ing is an exact science. It will long remain an art dependent upon acute observation and executive capacity quite as much as on pure science. Wed science to these factors, and an unques- tionable gain of power accrues to the farmer; for he who works in harmony with law works to the best advantage, everything else being equal. A few- only of the more important works in English, originally or by translation, of the great mass ot farm literature due to the period, and which marks the new paths entered upon by agriculture, can be mentioned. In i S 1 2 Sir Humphrey Davy published the first reputable work upon agricul- tural chemistry. In 1854 Professor James F. W. Johnson, of Scotland, pub- lished a most commendable work, for the daw upon u Agricultural Chemis- try," originating in his Lectures to a farmers' club, l.iebig was the author of a notable work, entitled "Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and to Physiology." This work had a great reputation and aided in developing gen- eral chemistry and physiology, apart from its influence on agriculture. It went through six editions. In 1844 Boussingault's "Kconomie Rurale" ap- peared. Experiment Stations. Since this formative period oi modern agricultural literature a number oi im- portant works have appeared, more valuable than those named but o( less comparative importance ; among these are forty yearly reports of the Royal Agricultural Society o( England, con- taining the original work of its chemist and others. Of a like character are the reports of the Highland Agricultural Society. Darwin's " Plants and Ani- mals under Domestication," and Lou- don's encyclopaedias o( agriculture and ot gardening have achieved interna- tional reputation. The experiment stations and agri- cultural colleges have issued a countless number of phamphlets of experiment work. Boards of agriculture have added libraries of matter, largely compilation, to the general fund of literature. The agency of the agricultural press is daily observed, and displays the reading farmer as a growth of the present gen- eration. \ unique feature o( the present is the recognition oi the farmer as an intellectual factor oi the times, by the general press. Most papers now devote a column or more to agriculture, but no stated space to other industries. There PROGRESS [CULTURE DURING THE CI has been a steady increase of attention, on the part of scientific and literary monthlies, to the literature and science of husbandry. The significance of the growth of farm literature will be better appre- hended if CO d in connection with the increase of the schools and associa- tions organized in furtherance of indus- trial i on and progress. Agricultural Societies. Organizations for the promotion of agriculture had their origin in the pre- vious century, one at its beginning, in Italy, and another in 1723, in Scotland; yet no considerable advancement was made during the eighteenth century. 'J' he Highland Society of Scotland, founded in 1783, and the Royal Agri- cultural Society of England, founded in 1838, have, each, several thousand mem- , and specialists for original work and for testing seeds, foods, and fertiliz- ers. Similar societies, lesser and local ones, and fair associations exist in all the continental nations. The board of agriculture established in England in 1793, of which Arthur Young was sec- retary, has its type in State boards of agriculture in most of the States of the United States, all under State aid. Farm organizations have flourished best in the United States, where land ownership and education of farmers are more general. Farmers' clubs and fairs are innumerable, and have been effective in farm advancement. The Patrons of Husbandry, organized in 1867 in the United States, is the most comprehen- sive and far reaching organization of farmers ever known ; it had, atone time, thirty thousand subordinate branches or "granges," numbering two and one-half million of members. Whili in- the political significance of the farmer, its g good consists in influence upon the social and intellectual growth of the farmer family as the unit of farm life. Governments Interested. Central governments, recognizing cheap bread and abundant "materials of art" as the sources of national sta- bility and wealth, have formed, under varying names, at national expense, "departments of agriculture'- to pro- mote farming. In France it was organ- ized in 1834 as "Minister of Agricul- ture and Commerce," and, in 1881, re- organized as "Minister of Agriculture," with departments for forestry, vine cul- ture, etc. Prussia established a (( Min- istry of Agriculture" in 1848, anc Austria did likewise in 1867. Italy- appointed a "Minister of Agriculture, Industry and Commerce" in 1883. !/■ ser continental nationalities give official assistance to agriculture. The United States founded a distinct "De partment of Agriculture " in 1862. It issues monthly and annual reports, also special reports of its statistical, chemical entomological, botanical, and forestry experts. These general movements mark the growth of a complex and important in- dustry. Founded upon the needs of society and the results of profound scien- tific research in the natural sciences, the impulse cannot stop short of industrial schools to teach the science and art of agriculture ; for the materials of in- formation provoke their systematic study. In schools of agriculture we have the great industrial educational movement 528 PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE DURING THE CENTURY. of the age, whose culmination is clearly in the future. Prussia, which furnished the destroyers of the old agriculture, erected the first agricultural college, for the agriculture of the new civilization, at Moglin, under Von Timer's manage- ment It taught mathematics, geology, botany, veterinary science, chemistry, and other sciences. A "arm was con- nected with it for practical instruction. In 1806 Fellenberg founded a school of agriculture in Switzerland. France de- voted an old royal palace at Griguan with its lands to the same purpose. In 18 1 5 private funds established the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester, England. A chair of agriculture was established at Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Thorough Education. This early movement has been fol- lowed by the development of systems of agricultural education in Europe and the United States. In 1862 the United States donated to each State in the Union thirty thousand acres for the founding of agricultural and mechanical colleges. Independent colleges were es- tablished by some of the States. Other States made the agricultural colleges departments of elder institutions, while some have entirely ignored the pur- poses of the donation, and used the funds received to sustain established colleges. The first class, thus far, has achieved the greatest success. The Province of Ontario established an agri- cultural college in 1874. Further facts are needless to mirror the grand movement in agriculture in this age in the directions named. Can- dor compels the statement that agri- cultural colleges are not the offspring of a wide popular demand, but rather are the children of the discerning few who sought to create by them a popular demand for industrial education by the farmer. The fruition of their hopes has been somewhat deferred, but is as- sured. A pioneer movement, it had at first no trained men to guide it. Scholastic men first in charge of the new schools did not comprehend the breadth of the. art and science under their charge. They did not at first understand that these schools should maintain the same relation to farming which the medical colleges does to the medical profession, which the law school does to the legal profession, or which the school of engi- neering does to the art it seeks to give proficiency in ; but they assumed that the education of the citizen was the education of the farmer. Schools of Industry. It is the work of industrial schools to educate the specialist. With the accuni- ulation of industrial data and experience by the teachers of agriculture, agricul- tural education has become more per- manently industrial and capable of dis- arming the prejudices of farmers. The problem is not solved. Its blended art and science, the variety of its depart- ments, the complexity of its laws as viewed by the practical farmer — an in- tellectual and mercantile industrialist — conspire to make agricultural education the gravest education of the age. It has been asserted that the plow ls typical of prevailing civilization ; cer- tainly it is of the condition of agricul- ture. No period of human progress is recalled that was not accompanied by an improved plow. Typical of the art of agriculture, the assertion is safe that PROGKKSS OF AGKICUI/lUKIv DURING THE CENTURY. )2> I fe( tly inverting it. The solid cast-iron plow of the beginning of the century was replaced, in [819, by a plow which was cast in pieces — an invention of Jethro Wood. A little later a single iron truck under the beam was userj. In coulters, bridle adjustments, beams, handles, lightness and quality of mater- ial, the plow improved until the fifth decade, when its character produced a sharp demand. New Implements. The swivel plow, steel plow, double plow, subsoiler, cylinder-plow patterns for various soils, steam plow, double land side plow, sulky plow, screw pul- verizer, rolling cutters, all in manifold forms, have kept pace with the march of the industries. Who shall view the polished steel of the modern sulk}' plow and feel that the plow is not a fit emblem of agricultureand an index of the world's progress? While steam is successfully applied to the plow in England, the fancy may be pleased to note that elec- tricity has been applied to the plow in France by way of trial and also in the United States. The Reaper is second only to the plow, projected in the last century, the first one in successful use was invented by Patrick Bell of Carmylie, Scotland, in 1826. Better machines were intro- duced by Obed Hussey in 1833 and by 530 PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE DURING THE CENTURY. McCormick in 1834, both of the United States. Improvements continued until 1850, when they first began to come into general use in the United States, where costly labor encouraged them. Before this the sickle and scythe gathered the grain of the world, and yet do for many peoples. The necessities of the American Civil War brought the reaper rapidly forward. One man, brute force, and mechanism replace, by the twine-binder, eight to ten men with cra- dles, or many more with the sickle. The plow and the reaper have produced the phenomenal United States, the largest food exporting nation of the world, yet, with very few exceptions, having the smallest proportion of agricultural popu- lation. Great Improvements. Oxen and can.- wheels, but the flail mainly, continued in use far into the century. To-day the steam thresher goes about from farm to farm, threshing a thousand or more bushels per day. Lesser implements have kept pace with the greater in the multiplication of kinds and forms. The square, wooden- toothed, packing, turf-turning harrow of the early part of this period has been generally superseded by harrows of nameless forms of the best materials of the day. The heavy, blunt, iron shovel is replaced by the light, thin, steel shovel ; the straight-handled, heavy, flat-tined manure-forks, by the light, oval-tined, crooked-handled fork. Of the handy, nearly perfect small tools, for every operation of the orchard and farm, it is impossible to speak. The horse hay-forks, the hay-loaders, stackers, grain-drills, planters, horse- rakes, cultivators, and farm wagons deserve passing notice. The greatest mechanical improvements for the farm have been achieved by the Americans, and by other English-speaking peoples. In Spain, Italy, Austria, and Russia, the awkward tools — even the wooden plow of the eighteenth century — are still seen. The spiritless aims and methods born of the feudal system have left their influence on the agriculture of these countries. Agriculture in Europe. Ownership of land and the unlimited opportunities which it gives have aided German agriculture ; but, in spite of its stations and colleges of agriculture, it still clings to unwieldy implements. The stimulus of the great markets of England has obscured, in part, the mis- chiefs of the lease system of its great estates, — four-fifths of England being owned by 7,000 landlords. The Revo- lution gave France small estates ; it has 7,846,000 land-owners. This extreme subdivision of estates hinders the use of the most improved tools, binds a man to a limited circle in the growing of the great staple crops, and, in France, marks his steps with wooden shoes. Machinery has not only released a large fraction of the farm labor to prose- cute other industries and, at the same time, increased the products per capita by performing better work, but has shortened the hours and lightened the labor of the farmer. The losses result- ing from old-time practices have thus been avoided ; for instance, in past times, haying in New England was not finished until late in September, while now it is generally completed in July, thus saving time, money, and material. Few results of the progress of agricul- PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE DURING THE CENTURY. 531 ture, more marked than the contrast between the farm homes of to-day and two centuries ago, are seen. The con- trast need not be drawn, for the advance is the advance of general society, the latter being quite as full and commend- able. Machinery for Everything. Much of the advance of the present times consists in the perfecting of old methods. With better plows we plow better. With concave steel plates which roll on common axes we lighten the soil, without inversion of the turf as by the use of the old square harrow, whose wedge-shaped, turf-turning teeth packed the fine soil. With machinery we pulverize and spread manure and sow grain more evenly than by old hand processes. With corn-planters one man is enabled to do the work often and leave the corn : .n better position for machinery for after tillage. With the smoothing harrow, with its fine, slanting teeth, sixteen acres of corn can be weeded in a day ; while thirty-two men with hand hoes would not stir this surface daily. The economy of shellers, rakes, stackers, and other labor-savers on the farm need not be traced. The gain is not alone in quantity but extends to quality of work. The man- agement of a field of corn from turf to harvest-time will illustrate the gain in tillage. A sulky plow drawn by three horses and controlled by one driver will often turn three acres a day. The old bar-share plow needed three or four pairs of oxen and as many men for its management in plowing one acre daily. Machinery plants an acre of corn hourly, while hand-method of planting required a day or more. One man now cares for fifty acres of corn against three or four by the old order. From sod to harvest, two and one-half days' work are required to raise an acre of corn, while thirteen days' labor were required fifty years before. Among specific advances may be mentioned drainage, which has improved greatly, and vastly extended in area. Tile drainage is a product of this cen- tury and was little known until the middle of it. So firm a footing has it, that the British government loans its credit to private drainage efforts ; and in the United States immense capital is invested in this manufacture. The cul- tivation of the grasses, also, is a product of modern times having its greatest impetus in the nineteenth century. The great hay grass of the United States, timothy, was unknown to English farms until about 1760. Now we have many species of grasses advertised by seeds- men. We adapt our grasses to soil and purpose of feeding. Variety of Grasses. This utilization of the grasses paved the way for the marvellous development of our domestic animals and their pro- ducts, as seen in the present century. The bony, narrow-loined, thin-thighed, flat-sided steer of the past, requiring five years to mature, has been supplanted by his opposite, — an animal raised in one- half of the time and at two-thirds of the expense, with the choicest parts devel- oped almost to perfection. Breeding to special purposes has produced in three hundred and sixty-four days a calf weighing twelve hundred pounds ; it has intensified qualities and increased prices enormously. In 18 10 Collings sold 532 PROGRESS OF AGRICULTURE DURING THE CENTUR?, 11 Comet," a "short-horn" bull, for $5,000, the highest price theretofore paid; but, in 1873, Campbell sold, at New York Mills, a cow tor £40,600. The butter product oi' cows has pro- bably fully doubled, but this is uncer- tain. Butter for common use is a pro- duct of this age, and is most in use by English-speaking peoples. Americans consume about fifteen pounds per capita. Grass or hay and better breeding and feeding has made this consumption possible. Famous Sheep. The merino sheep has certainly dou- bled its wool product. In 1S00 the best bucks yielded only nine to thirteen pounds ; now multitudes are shearing ever thirty pounds, while forty pounds is not unknown. The fineness of the fibre has been increased greatly, the number of fibres to the square inch varying from 7,000 to 48,000. These facts may serve to illustrate the advance in interest in the animal kingdom. In the vegetable kingdom, as ahead) stated, rapid strides have taken place. Chemistry has taught us that liquid manure constitutes one-half of the value of animal voidings, and that the solids suffer from leaching rains. The sav- ing and applying of manures has thus been greatly perfected. Chemistry gave us chemical manures, and from the im- portation of guano in 1840 their use has grown. Older countries use chemicals very largely. Seed breeding has multiplied varieties until they are not only nameless in num- ber and improved in quality, but much superior in prolificacy. Critical experi- ments have shown that size, density, and parentage affect quantity and qual- ity of product. Darwin and others have shown that crop-fertilized plants, par- ticularly oi some genera, are much more vigorous than self-fertilized plants. Hot-house propagation has greatly ex- tended the season which many products can be enjoyed by the masses. Even night has been converted into day by electric light, and plants thereby stimu- lated into continuous growth, while steam-pipes in the soil have given to it a tropical temperature in January. A Ruling Power. When it is considered that the pro- portion of the population of the United States engaged in the cultivation of the soil is less than in Europe, it will be seen that a divorce from traditionary methods and a free use of improved machinery are doing much for agricul- ture. The proportion engaged in agri- culture is constantly decreasing in this country, yet improved machinery has increased constantly since 1 840 the grain grown per capita of total population. Agriculture is known as the " con- servative'' industry. It is all a mistake ; the world cannot advance faster than its agriculture. The accumulated facts of the past have been grouped, and from them has been evolved a more compre- hensive system of farming than has ever prevailed, involving a more ra. tional system of crop rotations and stock management. CHAPTER XXXVI. (5JHE Review of the World's Scientific Progress in the Nineteenth Century. HE wise and the foolish, the At learned and the unlearned, the poet and the pressman, the rich and the poor, alike swell the chorus of admiration for the marvellous inven- tions and discoveries of our own age, and especially for those innumerable applications of science which now form part of our daily life, and which re- mind us every hour of our immense superiority over our comparatively ig- norant forefathers. But though in this respect (and in many others) we undoubtedly think very well of ourselves, yet our self-ad- miration does not rest upon an adequate appreciation of the facts. We must understand the altogether exceptional character of our advance in science and the arts during the nineteenth century. In order to estimate its full importance and grandeur — more especially as re- gards man's increased power of nature, and tne application of that power to the needs of his life to-day, with un- limited possibilities in the future — we must compare it, not with any preced- ing century, nor even with the last mil- lenium, but with the whole historical period — perhaps with the whole period that has elapsed since the stone age. Having thus indicated our standpoint let us proceed to sketch in outline those great advances in science, the arts and literature, which are the glory of the century. In the course of our survey we shall find that the more important of these are not mere improvements upon, or developments of anything that had been done before, but that they are entirely new departures, arising out of our increasing knowledge. Taking first those inventions and practical applications of science which are perfectly new departures, and which have also so rapidly developed as to have profoundly affected many of our habits, and even our thoughts and our language, some of which have been fully described in preceding pages, we find them to be thirteen in number. i. Railways, which have revolution- ized land travel and the distribution of commodities. 2. Steam navigation, which has done the same thing for ocean travel, and has besides led to the entire reconstruc- tion of the navies of the world. 3. Electric telegraphs, which have produced an even greater revolution in the communication of thought. 4. The telephone, which transmits, or rather reproduces, the voice of the speaker at a distance. 5. Friction matches, which have rev- olutionized the modes of obtaining fire. 6. Gas lighting, which enormously improved outdoor and other illumina- tions. 7. Electric lighting, another advance, which bids fair to supercede gas. 8. Photography, an art which is to the external forms of nature what print- ing is to thought 533 534 REVIEW OF THE WORLD'S PROGRES& 9. The phonograph, which preserves and reproduces sounds as photography preserves and reproduces tonus. 10. The Roentgen rays, which ren- der many opaque objects transparent, and open upa new world to photography. 11. Spectrum analysis, which so greatly extends our knowledge of the universe that by its assistance we are able to ascertain the relative heat and chemical constitution o( the stars, and ascertain the existence, and measure the rate of motion, of stellar bodies which are entirely invisible. \2. The use of anaesthetics, render- ing the most severe surgical operations painless. 13. The use of antiseptics in surgical operations, which has still further ex- tended the means of saving life. None to Compare. Now, if we ask what inventions com- parable with these were made during the previous (eighteenth) century, it seems at first doubtful whether there were any. But we may perhaps admit the development of the steam engine from the rude but still useful machine }f Newcomen to the powerful and economical engines of Boulton and Watt The principle, however, was known long before, and had been practically applied in the previous century by the Marquis of Worcester and by Savery; and the improvements made by Watt, though very important, had a very limi- ted result. The engines made were al- most wholly used in pumping watei out of deep mines, and the bulk of the population knew no more of them, nor derived any more direct benefit from them than if they had not existed. In the seventeenth ecntury, the one great and far-reaching invention was that oi the telescope, which, in its im- mediate results of extending our know- ledge ot the universe and giving possi- bilities oi future knowledge not yet exhausted, may rank with spectrum analysis in our own era. The barome- ter and thermometer are minor dis- coveries. In the sixteenth century we have no invention ot the first rank, but in the fifteenth we have printing. Mariner's Compass. The mariner's compass was invented early in the fourteenth century, and was of great importance in rendering ocean navigation possible and thus fa- cilitating the discovery ot America. Then, backward to the dawn of his- tory, or rather to prehistoric times, we have the two great engines oi know- ledge and discovery the Indian or Arabic numerals leading to arithmetic and algebra, and, more remote still, the invention of alphabetical writing. Summing these up, we find only five inventions of the first rank in all pre- ceding times — the telescope, the print- ing press, the mariner's compass, Ara- bic numerals, and alphabetical writing, to which we may add the steam engine and the barometer, making seven in all, as against thirteen in our single century. Coming now to the theoretical dis- coveries of our time, which have ex- tended our knowledge or widened our conceptions of the universe, we find them to be about equal in number, as follows: 1. The determination of the mechani- cal equivalent of heat, leading to the REVIEW OF THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. 635 gr^at principle of the conservation of energy. 2. The molecular theory of gases. 3. The mode of direct measurements of the velocity of light, and the expe rimenta] proof of the earth's rotation. These are put together because hardly .sufficient alone. 4. The discovery of the function of dust in nature. 5. The theory of definite and multi- ple proportions in chemistry. C>. The nature of meteors and comets, leading to the meteoric theory of the universe. 7. The proof of the glacial epoch, its vast extent, and its effect upon the earth's surface. 8. The proof of the antiquity of man. 9. The establishment of the theory of organic evolution. 10. The cell theory and the recapitu- lation theory in embryology. 1 1. The germ theory of the zym otic- diseases. 12. The discovery of the nature and function of the white blood-corpuscles. Turning to the past, in the eighteenth century we may perhaps claim two groups of discoveries : 1. The foundation of modem chem- istry by Black, Cavendish, Priestly and Lavoisier; and 2. The foundation of electrical science by Franklin, Galvani and Volta. The seventeenth century is richer in epoch-making discoveries, since we have: 3. The theory of gravitation estab- lished. 4. The discovery of Kepler's laws. 5. The invention of fluxions and the differential calculus. 6. Harvey's proof of the circulation of the blood. 7. Roemer's proof of finite velocity of light by Jupiter's satellites. Then, going backward, we can find nothing of the first rank except Euclid's wonderful system of geometry, derived from earlier Greek and Egyptian sources and perhaps the most remarkable men- tal product of the earliest civilizations; to which we may add the introduction of Arabic numerals and the use of the alphabet. Thus in all past history we find only eight theories or princip antecedent to the nineteenth century as compared with twelve during that won- derful century alone. ASTRONOMY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. Astronomy in the nineteenth century not only successfully cultivated, but greatly enlarged, every field of investi- gation which it inherited from the pre- ceding century. The instruments and methods of research were greatly im- proved and to them have been added celestial photography and spectroscopy, which are destined to prove no less potent and efficacious than the tele- scope. Photography has shown itself to be a valuable adjunct to the telescope, and the application of the spectroscope has not only ratified the ideas of preceding centuries as to the constitution of the universe, but has created an absolutely new branch of science — that is to say the chemistry of celestial bodies. Let us begin with our globe ; its form and dimensions have been determined as much by means of vast geodetical measures as with the aid of pendulum experiments, and have been reduced REVIEW OF THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. bo an unhoped foi degree of preci- sion It h proven that the ax sof the earth is liable to small periodical movements in reference to the mass of the earth itself; in other words, that the positions of the two restrial poles are not fixed) but shift from place to place at irregular inter- SOI.ak SYSTEM, vals within an area of from fifteen to twenty meters in diameter. The complete study of these move- ments and the determination of the causes upon which they depend are as yet in a state oi rough draft, and the ultimate solution of the problem is reserved for the astronomers of the com- ing' century. The movement of the moon around the earth, which was considered by the astronomers oi the preceding century as one of the most difficult problems to be investigated, still preserved this pre- eminence in the nineteenth century, Astronomers and mathematicians of great renown devoted to this problem the best part of their lives. And although, thanks to their gigan- tic efforts, the tables which are nsed in the calculation of the movements oi the moon have reached a high degree oi precision, nevertheless we have not made such progress as might have been expected. On the other hand OU1 to- pographical knowledge of the lunar sin face has been greatly extended, inasmuch as oi all the planets the moon is that to which pho- tography may be applied with the best results. Regarding the physical constitution of the snn very little was known at the end of the eighteenth century. The scientists of that time had but superficial know- ledge regarding the snn spots and their periods of rotation. A rational study oi the solar surface and of its atmosphere did not be- gin until the year 1842, with the dis- covery of the protuberances and oi' the solar corona. These studies were at fust limited to the short instant of total eclipses, but the continued application oi photo- graphy and spectroscopy very soon offered the means oi' uninterrupted in- vestigations oi' the sun's surface. It was found that the snn spots have not the same period of rotation in the differ- ent distances from the solar equator ; that their frequency and distribution are not stable, but follow a period of eleven REVIEW OF THE WORLD'S" PROGRESS 587 and one half years. It has al a i - rtaiiK d that these period als in the magnetic phe- nomena of the earth with variati entirely parallel. Many attempt been ma* var: ( urately THE ' UPSBD the avei ranee of the earth from the sun ; a dii l am e wrhi< h r on titul the fundamental unit of measure of the sola: ystem and lly of all astro- nomical distances. The numerou and ms into different re- us of the world for the oh ervation of the tram.it of Venus in the years 1874 and 1882 were not so successful as we had the rij^ht to hope. It is n< tain that even on this subject progress has been made by the applica- tion of other methods, and especially by means of the parallax of some of the smaller planets. To the twentieth ( tury will be d the attaining of a greater degree 1 ion, and this is bade possible by the discovery of the mall planet Bros which is nearer to Uie earth than any other planet known. The theories of planetary movements, ording to the principles of uni ■ 1 al . Itation, have m v., and the tables of the ie movemec :. brought to high degree of ■ theory oi tion tent to account for all observed m - its, with the ex* : of those of M hicl still some variations, the cause of which is not known. A ^reat and cele- brated triumph of that theory was the discovery of the planet Neptune, by the of the tele indications gi ven by the perturbatic this planet up nus. Another important addition to the astr I e of the nine- teenth century has been t; very of tl ' ailed asteroids which circu- late between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. The number of the known is a little less than five hundi and its is probable that a ^reat many more will be discovered in the twentieth century. PART VI. RELIGION. LITERATURE AND ART IX TUK NINETEENTH CENTURY, CHAPTER XXXVII. Christianity in the Last Hundred Years. L Vf 3 have already scon the won- derful progress that has boon made during the century in even- department of human effort re- lating to industrial science, the growth of nations, the struggle for equal rights, the victory of man over the forces of nature, and the application of those ces to our daily necessities and com- forts. The record is a marvellous one and we cannot help asking whether it is likely to be repeated in the cen- tury to come. Wo are now to take a step forward, and notice that equal advancement has been made in the progress of Christi- anity and its beneficent influences and institutions. A spirit of skepticism overspread OUT land during the first two deeades of the nineteenth century. It was largely the result of the French Revolution and the writings o( such men as Voltaire and Thomas Paine. The young men of our educational in- stitutions were more than free in their religions opinions, and there was great need of a revival of the faith once deliv- ered to the saints. Looking back, now, upon the last hundred years, we discover a wonderful change. Great champions of the Chris- 538 tian faith arose like giants from theii slumbers, attacked the forces of darkness and infidelity, and emerged from the storm of battle carrying with them their banners of triumph, These honored names are too man} to even be men- tioned here, but our country and the world at large owes them a debt of un- bounded gratitude. Great Missionary Zeal. The remarkable progress of Christi- anity may be seen, fust, in those mis- sions to heathen communities and na- tions by which the evangelical churches have been especially distinguished. The Moravians, or Chnreh of the Brethren, although only a small body of Protest- ants, is celebrated for its missionary spirit. In fact, it is hardly too much to say that the chnreh exists solely to ex- hibit this spirit. Their fust mission — that to the West Indian slaves — was started in 1732, and soon after this stations were established in Greenland, Lapland, North and South America, South Africa and other conn- tries, and enthusiastic Brethren tried even to convert the Gypsies. The largei part of the missionary work, however. done bv the Moravians comes within CHRISTIANITY IN THE LAST HUNDRED V: the limits of the last century. This a to n r ei\ '• the highest commendation on account of the great zeal displayed, tl acri- involved, and the results that I been obtain an example of the kind of .vork the .Moravians are re to undertake, it may be stated that they have had an important leper mis-ion in Jen ince 1867. No work more daii or self-denying than this could be imagined. During the century the Church of England, the English Nonconformists and the Scotch churches of every name Lave had their mission stations in rm parts of the globe, and these i. >ked the greatest religious enthu- siasm, men and money having been furnished lavishly to advan< ause which they represent. The London Society was founded in 1795, the Bap- tist in 1792, and the Wesleyan in lHiy. Thus it will be seen that the work of the last three organizations has nearly all been done in the nineteenth century. Famous American Board. The Americans have not been behind in the endeavor to extend the influence of Christianity. The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions was founded in 1810 by three young men who were moved to do something for the enlightenment and conversion of the heathen. The amazing influence and results attending the labors of this institution are a theme for wonder. In the ninety years of its existence it lias received in voluntary offerings more than $31,000,000. The twelve colleges of the Hoard have an average attendance of more than 2500 pupils. The number of Protestant missionary organizations laboring within the Chi- l I pi re in , upwards of h about 2500 missionary na- nts and more than 8o,O00 municants. There were 30 and <\'j Protestant organ:'/ in missionary work in Japan, with a total membership of up 40,000. What Figures Show. The statistical reports of the United States, Canada, Great Britain, Germany, Continental rmany), Asia, Australia and Africa in totals were: Number lies engaged in k, 242; stations, nearly 5,000 ; out stations, about [5,000; missions: 11,900; native ,000; com- municants, 1,550,000; under instruc- tion, 8ll,000; income in dollars, $l6,- 244,37'- The Scottish missions differ from the others in this, that they are condu< by the churches as such, without the intervention of societies. The Estab- lished, the Free, and the United Presby- terian Churches, hi tensive mis- sions in India, Africa, China, the South Seas and Japan. The English Presby- terian Church has an extensive and suc- cessful mission in China. The Presby- terian bodies cherish the memories of Duff, Wilson and Anderson in India, and of William Burns and Carstairs Douglas in China, who are among the renowned missionaries of the century. The Missionary Society of the Cbui of England has an income more th twice that of any other English ciety. These facts are sufficient to prove that a large part of religious life at the present time expends itself in mission- ary work. The significant events of the 540 CHRISTIANITY IN THE LAST HUNDRED YEARS age are not the building of battleships, the conflicts of navies or the march of armies, but the quiet, zealous, self- denying and persevering efforts of those devoted men and women who, in dark and desolate places, are spreading the light of Christianity, and laying the foundations of civilization and of future republics aud empires. Medical Missions. Certain phases of this great work are worthy of consideration, and some of these have become prominent within the brief space of a few years. The mode of carrying on missionary opera- tions by the various bodies already re- ferred to is essentially one, though, of course, modified by circumstances. For example, medical missions have been found to be invaluable, and in some in- stances an indispensable adjunct to the other agencies. The missions of the Scottish churches have employed education as an evange- listic power to a greater extent than the other bodies. Such institutions as the Christian College at Madras, the mission station at Blantyre, and the Free Church Institution at Lovedale in South Africa, are producing a great effect on the minds of the people. After all, the most that can be said is that a beginning in Christian missions has been made, the ground has been somewhat cleared, and the way pre- pared. The actual population of the world may be taken in round numbers as 1,500,000,000, of whom only about 400,000,000 are professedly Christians. Thus, not so much as a third part of the world is evangelized. The hopeful aspect is that the nations of the East are waking up, and before long great changes must come in China, Japan, India and other parts of the Orient. While so much can be said for the burning zeal of the Protestant churches in extending the domain of Christianity, it must be remembered that the great Roman Catholic Church has not been one whit behind in its irrepressible efforts to lengthen its cords and strengthen its stakes. Its missionaries, baptized with holy ardor, have really been the pio- neers of civilization, aud have been found in the distant islands of the sea, in the wilds of Africa and among the frozen snows of the Polar regions. Notable Record. The missionary zeal of the Papal Church can be traced far back of the nineteenth century, but in the last hundred years it has flamed out with a brilliancy seldom known before, and has partaken of the active spirit of the age. Among the Indians of the wilder- ness, on the banks of streams never yet stirred by navigation, in the snows of the far North and along the outskirts of new settlements, the heroic mission- aries of the Papal Church have toiled, suffered, and, like their Protestant breth- ren, have died when necessary for the great cause to which their lives were devoted. The wonderful advance of Christian- ity during the century is also seen in the rise and growth of Sunday-schools and organizations for calling out the energies and zeal of young people. Up to 1780 Sunday-schools were unknown. At the end of the nineteenth century it would seem impossible for any church to exist without a Sunday-school for the religious education of the young. Iyook out upon some anniversary day, CHRISTIANITY IN THE LAST HUNDRED YEARS. 541 such as has been celebrated in Brooklyn for many years, and see the tens of thousands of children all marching un- der one gospel banner and all members of one great army. One hundred years ago no such sight could have been witnessed, and it is hardly too much to say that the wildest dreamer would never have predicted it. The century has taught the profound lesson that the young are the hope of the church and the world. With all the advantages of secular education, they are unfitted for citizenship and the noblest callings of life without religious training. Army of Waifs. Consider also that great miracle of missionary work seen in all our large towns and cities from one end of the continent to the other. The ragged, the dirty, the maimed, the halt, the blind, the whole vast army of waifs that prowl in the city gutters, are gath- ered into mission schools, while their teachers come from wealthy avenues and mansions. In this way does the relig- ious life of our city churches exercise itself, and every town is covered with a network of religious organizations and is brought within the sphere of Chris- tian influence. In fact, it has come to be admitted that any city church with abundant wealth that is not thus reaching down into the slums in search of jewels that otherwise would be lost is not fulfilling its duty and is a fit subject for reproach. All this has come about during the last half of the century, and is a striking testimony to the leavening power of Christianity and its recent growth. Take into account also the church accommodations in comparison with the population of our country. Here we shall have to refer to different denominations. Reliable authorities es- timate that the five largest denomina- tions comprise fully 60 per cent, of the entire number of communicants ; the ten largest would comprise 75 per cent. In the matter of communicants the Catholic church is first of the de- nominations, with 7,510,000, but vastly inferior in number to the whole body of Protestants. The second denomi- nation is the Methodist, comprising all bodies of that name, with 5,405,- 076. The Baptist ranks third, with 3,717, 373. The Presbyterian is fourth, with 1,278,332; the Lutheran fifth, with I ) 2 33>°7 2 - These are the five largest denominations, embracing communi cants or church members only. Church Statistics. But every denomination has its con- stituency, so to speak, its adherents who form a population by themselves. It is customary to allow two and one- half adherents for each communicant or church member. This would make the Methodist population 18,918,446; the Baptist, 12,990,805; the Presbyterian, 5,525,162; the Lutheran, 4,35^,752. Thus in these five denominations 50,- 000,000 people are included, with a Catholic population of 7,510,000. These figures are interesting as show* ing the remarkable advance that the Christian religion has made up to the present time and the amazing power it wields. Only a certain proportion of church communicants approach the Christian ideal ; many carry the name yet do not seem to be in the possession of that for which the name stands, yet 542 CHRISTIANITY IX T1IK LAST HUNDRED YEARS. throughout Christendom greater ad- vance has been made in the cause of religion during the century than during any previous hundred years si nee the advent oi Christ. It will doubtless be interesting to the reader to pursue the matter of religious statistics a little farther, as showing the present strength oi the churches of America. It would add to the interest if we had statistics going back from year to year to the beginning oi' the century, but no carefully compiled sta- tistics were furnished until the census of 1890. Subsequent to that time we have to rely for facts and figures upon religious journals. We may conclude that the following summary is very nearly, if not quite, correct: Churches in the United States, 180,488; ordained ministers, [14,823; members or communicants, 15,217,048; religious organizations of various de- scriptions, 158,695. The seating capa- city of churches may be put down as 45,000,000, while in the 23,000 places where organizations wdiich own no edi- fices hold their services accommodations could be found for 2,250,000 more. Church Property. The value of church property reaches the enormous sum of 5670,000,000. This is a vast amoirnt of money and is rapidly increasing. Wealthy congregations take a pardonable pride in erecting splendid edifices equipped with all the comforts and appliances necessary for Christian worship. In a sense this is a grand exhibition of religious devotion. It is estimated that at least $10,000,000 are raised yearly by Protestant churches for missionary work, while at the same time the Catholic church carries on its various enterprises at large expense and with untiring zeal. Look next at the great humanitarian movements by which the closing cen- tury has been distinguished, all o( which are the outgrowth of Christianity and the teachings which date back 1000 years. What victories have been gained in the bloody, yet heroic, struggle for equal rights among men. How the shackles have been stricken off from the oppressed and the great principle oi' human, brotherhood has been taught, and has been made to take the place of the old barbaric idea that might makes right and the strongest man is the best man. Humanity a Brotherhood. Here is a field for human contempla- tion that can arouse all the impulses of the human heart and mind. This great distinctive truth of Christianity, that humanity is one vast brotherhood, has gained ground at a surprising rate dur- ing the last hundred years. To be sure, there are still wars and rumors of war, bloody conflicts and the slaughter of God's image made in flesh, but the real question to be considered is, what does the sense of humanity say to all this? There is a deep and horrible aversion to all war which has grown to such an extent as to make itself felt in palaces and halls of legislation. This cannot be doubted when we consider the extent to which arbitration is recommended by the foremost minds of our generation for the settlement of disputes between nations. Not the least of the glories of the nineteenth century may be found in those triumphs of the principle of arbitration by which, without the sword, and in the spirit of CHRISTIANITY IN THE LAST HUNDRED VJ'.ARS. 543 brotherhood, vast issues have been de- rided, which otherwise must have been fought out on battlefields soaked with human blood. It is of great interest to note in this connection the now famous peace pro- position of the Emperor of Russia made in [899. The civilized nations were surprised at the action taken by the Emperor, considering that Russia has always been an aggressive, warlike, and as some would say, greedy power. The object aimed at by this autocratic ruler was the bringing of war to an end in the whole earth and inaugurating a reign of peace. That a government so des- potic and unprogressive as that of Rus- sia should announce and advocate the foremost idea of the age was considered remarkable. The Eraperor's Call. In accordance with the wishes of Emperor Nicholas II. a peace confer- ence was convened at the Hague in the spring of 1899. The call for this con- ference was based on a proposition handed to the representatives of foreign governments at St. Petersburg and was in part as follows : "The maintenance of general peace and the possible reduction of the exces sive armaments which weigh upon all nations present themselves in existing conditions to the whole world as an ideal toward which the endeavors of all governments should be directed. The humanitarian and magnanimous ideas of His Majesty the Emperor have been won over to this view in the conviction that this lofty aim is in conformity with most essential interests and legitimate views of all the powers ; and the Imper- ial Government thinks the present mo- ment would be favorable to seeking the means." After stating the case with remarka- ble force and describing the appalling conditions in which all civilized nations are placed by being compelled to main- tain large standing armies, and by the direful results of war when it comes, a proposition for a conference of all the great powers was made and the hope was expressed that it would result in securing the end in view. Peace Conference. The conference was held, and was an imposing body, made up of distin- guished representatives from the leading nations of the world. The spirit that pervaded its deliberations was admira- ble, but these did not produce the result that had been hoped for. The confer- ence did, however, adopt a scheme of international arbitration and recom- mended it to their respective govern- ments. In all this there is a promise for the future, and it is generally conceded that under the circumstances much was accomplished toward not only prevent- ing war but mitigating its horrors. The thoughtful reader, however, will conclude that it was a sad commentary upon this magnanimous effort in the interest of peace, that upon the very heels of it the war broke out between the British and the Boers, and the same old thunder of guns was heard that echoed over the plains of Europe in the early part of the century, and was heard again in the last half of it, during our Civil War and conflict with Spain. This much maybe set down as hopeful, that the great truths of the gospel under- lying human brotherhood will yet bring I forth "peace on earth." CHAPTER XXXVIII. The Century's Progress in Education and Literature. S Late as 1840 woman in the Uni- ted States was without recogni- zed individuality in any de- partment of life. There was absolutely do provision for her edu- cation in anything beyond the rudi- mentary branches. She was kept closely at home, carding, spinning, weaving, making butter and cheese, knitting and sewing, working day and night, planning and economizing to educate the boys of the family. Such a thing as a career tor a woman was undreamed oi. In eases of extreme poverty the girls might go among the neighbors and earn a miserable pittance doing house- work or sewing. The boy, at twentv- one, was free to carry his labor where it would bring him financial reward. The girls of the family at twenty-one continued to work without wages .is before. When they married their ser- vices weie transferred to their husband, and woman was considered well re- warded by food, shelter and what clothes her husband chose to grant her. Any wages the wife might earn outside her home belonged by law to the hus- band, no matter what the necessity oi mother and children. Woman lost at marriage not only the right to her ear- nings and property, but also the right to the custody of her Derson and her children. No occupations were open to women except cooking, sewing, teaching and factory work. Pew women were suffi- cient! v educated to teach. Those who 54-4 were qualified received from $4 to $8 .1 month and "boarded round," while men for the same service were given $30 a mouth and board. Every woman must marry, either with or without love, for the sake ot support, or be doomed to a life oi hu- miliating dependence, living, after the death o( parents, in the home of mar- ried brother or sister, the drudge and burden-bearer of the family. Women might work like slaves for their rela- tives, receiving only board and clothes, but the moment they stepped outside the home and became wage earners they lost caste. The woman who dared venture into the field of literature was equally under the ban. Strange Ideas of Woman. It was generally accepted that i woman who attempted any vocation outside of domestic service became at once and forever unfitted for the duties oi wife and mother. The idea that woman owes service to man instead ot to herself, and that it is her highest duty to aid his development rather than her own is the last to die. In that day not even woman herself had so much as a dream of entering the profession oi law, medicine and theo- logy. When the genius oi Harriet llosmer impelled her to take up sculp- ture she traveled from one end oi' the country to the other begging for an opportunity to make the necessary study oi' anatomy. When Elizabeth Black- EDUCATION AND UTE1LATU&& 646 well determined to consecrate her lif': to medicine, not. one of the standard medical colleges would admit her a student, and h miraculous to the ordinary reader if it could be examined in all its details. The great bnlk of books in Anr-r is published by about one hundred firms in four chief cities. The output about five thousand titles, in editions of from one hundred to one million Very expensive books are lim- ited to editions of one hundred - These are works of fiction, of which from twenty to one hundred thousand old in a year, and in occa- lal instances a much greater number. Bditionsof school book.sfrom fifty to five 546 EDUCATION AND LITERATURE. hundred thousand copies are common enough. The Appletons for many years sold over one million copies of Web- ster's "Speller" annually, and a Cin- cinnati firm sold every year over one million copies of a popular . series of readers. The American public pays yearly over $50,000,000 for general liter- ature and school books. The century brought forth an enor- mous mass of literature. Novels form the bulk of it. The production of fic- tion has been phenomenal. It was ex- tremely easy to get a book printed and placed upon the market. Hence writ- ings of every kind and upon every sub- ject abounded. As the end of the cen- tury came in sight the demand for books was greater than ever and the flood of new ones was still engulfing the public. Short-Lived Works. Jf course, the greater part of the nine- teenth century will be forgotten. Much of it will live. Much of it that we think will die will be read a long time hence. Much of it that we think will survive the friction of changing tastes and ideas will sink out of sight within a short time. It is difficult to tell at short range just how long a book will live, just what there is in it which makes for permanence. The only method by which we can form any sort of judgment is to analyze the books which have stood time's test and see, if we can, what their qualities are, and compare those qualities with the characteristics of present day litera- ture. It is much more difficult to do this, however, than it is to describe the process, so people will have to wait and see in most cases. The century has undoubtedly made certain contributions of a distinctly valuable character to the literature of the world. We have created a few forms, we have developed many. We have made some progress in thinking, but we have added few ideas which are fundamentally new. We have found some new materials and we have util- ized them. We have some geniuses, and, as is always the case, when genius appears, noteworthy results have fol- lowed. Admirable Histories. What may be considered the most striking and distinctive contribution of the nineteenth century to literature is in the writing of history. The advance has been notable. Before this century, and even during part of it, history writ- ing consisted in narrating the actions of comparatively few people. It told of wars, of politics, of the diplomatic movements of nations, but it did not tell of what the great body of the peo- ple were doing, of the underlying influ- ences affecting society. But we have changed all this. America has contri- buted most to this progress. Francis Parkman is probably the greatest historian of the century, and certainly John Fiske did splendid work. Professor Fiske wrote history upon scientific lines. He spent many years studying the evolution ideas of Darwin, and later the philosophy of Spencer. As a result he viewed history as an evolution — just what, in fact, it is. This marks an advance in historical literature. It brings us nearer the point we are so rapidly approaching, the realization of an historical ideal. The century has given us little new material in fiction. There has been EDUCATION AND LITERATURE. 547 some spiendid novel writing. Many of our novelists have been men and women of real genius. But their characters have been stock characters. The Eng- lish society girl and the romantic hero have been the predominant types. We cannot agree that there was a distinct- ively romantic movement at the begin- ning of the century and that it has been supplanted by realism, which again in its turn is giving away to the historical romance. The romantic movement was notably predominant in Germany and France in the eighteenth century. Rousseau and the Schlegel brothers were its apostles. The movement sought inspiration in mediaevalism, in the symbols of a Chris- tianity that ran to mysticism in the quaint, strictly pre-Raphael art which was supposed to be the result of a sim- ple faith. This was the same movement that has appeared in the so-called Aes- theticism of England in the nineteenth century. It appears periodically, just as a realistic movement does. There is nothing in Balzac more realistic than Scott's treatment of the common peo- ple and certainly Zola is at times as romantic as could be desired. Writers of Repute. What new material the century has given to fiction has been furnished by American writers. Joel Chandler Harris, George W. Cable, William Dean How- ells and others have taken fresh mater- ials and dealt with them with the genius of artists. Their work will live when much that is now popular of the writings of Englishmen will have been entirely forgotten. The writing itself of the Americans may not be so good, but the treatment and the material are superior to anything new which Eng- land has given us. It is impossible to say who has been the greatest story writer of the century. There has been much fiction produced which will live because it is literature, not because its material is new or its treatment novel. This is the kind of work Hawthorne did, and for that reason he stands out as one of the great writers of the century. Great Authors. Many would say that Scott was the greatest writer of the century. Scott was a careless writer and the construc- tion of his novels was bad, but he did three notable things— he put into liter- ature the delightful folk-lore of his own Scottish country, he portrayed in a way pleasing to readers the chivalric hero of mediaeval times, and, what is always popular, he told a story. He was a born story teller. These characteristics made Scott read when he first pub- lished his novels, they make him read to-day. Thackeray was one of the first to de- pict real society life. His people live and move. You feel that you would like to know them. He was intensely real. He was a genuine humorist, and in many respects England's greatest story teller. Dickens was a humanitarian. He was ere of the first of reformers, one of the %"st to make of fiction a great re- forming influence. But many of his characters are artificial. They are stage people, clever, interesting and delight- ful. We would not do without them. We cry over them and we laugh at them. But they are acting, neverthe- less. They are not the real people .148 EDUCATION AND LITERATURE. Thackeray makes his readers acquainted with. George Eliot developed the possibili- ties of the introspective novel. The influence of Lewes upon her must be noted, as it was probably upon his sug- gestion that in her later writings she carried the philosophical novel to such an unprecedented point. Kipling was the most notable novelist at the end of the century. He dealt with so much of our very modern life that we cannot judge what place either that life or the depiction of it will take in the estima- tion of those who are to come after us. He certainly is powerful and possesses a directness of expression that is won- derfully effective. But at times he lacks taste ; at times he is careless. Essay Writing. The century developed a complete and radical change in the essay. The essay of Bacon, latterly evolving into the essay of Swift, and then of Lamb, we have no more. The material which in former periods we would put into essays now goes into novels or histories. Stevenson and the other modern essay- ists write an entirely new form of litera- ture. There are a few good living essayists and several of them are Ameri- cans. The century has developed very few great American novels. The reason is that before the Civil War this country was largely under the literary domi- nation of English writers of the eisrh- teenth century. In the South very few writers of this century were read. It is hard to overcome the effects of a matter of this kind. Whether the great Ameri- can novel will appear in the next century, would be very hard to say. A genius is possible at any time, however, and when the proper sort of a genius appears we will have our great national w r k of fiction. Much that is Good It is too early to say how o. 4i century will rank with the other centuries in the world of letters. We have not made so very much real progress. Whenever we t-ead Plato it seems as if it might have been written in our own time. It will be r> Lang time before we get be- yond Job and Homer. The standards of literatuie ^re fixed and have been fixed for ages, just as have those of painting and sculpture. We have given the world a great deal that is good, but there is an enormous amount of trash for which we will have to be blamed. The trend of the end of the century is to put literature upon a commercial basis. Publishers order books of cer- tain lengths, to be produced within a certain time. Literature cannot be pro- duced in this manner. Genius works in its own way and not according to the orders of publishers. Whether this so- much-a-line method will produce good results is extremely doubtful. The in- crease of education will enormously in- crease the demand for reading. Whether this demand will in the main be largely supplied by the old writers cr whether the new authors will rise to it is a ques- tion for the future to settle. It is evident that from year to year American authors are forcing them- selves to the front, and by their admira- ble productions are taking higher rank in the world of letters. The reading public judges for itself, and it no longer requires the stamp of foreign approval before forming an opinion of any work. EDUCATION AND LITERATURE. 549 IMPORTANT EDUCATIONAL EVENTS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 1803— Land grant by the United States Government for Ohio public schools. 1805 — New York the second State in the Union to establish common school fund. 1806 — First evening school, Bristol, England. 1809 — Ohio vState University founded. 1809— University of Berlin founded, with freedom of teaching. 1814 — Norwegian Storthing first inter- ests itself in education. 1815 — Compulsory education in Prus- sia. 1817 — First institution for deaf-mute instruction in the United States, at Hartford, Conn. 1820 — School books furnished free in Philadelphia schools. 1824 — Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, first in United States. 1825 — Braille system of printing for the blind. 1826— Frobel's "Education of Man" appeared. 18-33 — Universal education law, France. 1833 — First aid to schools by British Parliament. 1834 — Common schools established in Pennsylvania. 1835 — Sewing taught in Boston schools. 1836 — Mount Holyoke Female Semi- nary founded. 1837 — Horace Mann becomes secretary of Massachusetts Board of Ed- ucation. 1837— First School of Design in Eng- land. 1838— First Normal School in United States, Lexington, Mass, 1840 — First kindergarten, near Rudol' stadt. 1840 — Textbook reforms in the United States. 1842 — Universal free education in Swe- den. 1848— Entire Bible printed for the blind, 1849 — First woman to receive medical degree. 1853 — Antioch college; co-education. 1857 — National Teachers' Association organized ; afterwards became National Educational Associa- tion. 1861 — Vassar College founded. 1863 — First cooking school founded in London. 1867 — Department of Education estab- lished in United States. 1868 — First laboratory instruction in mechanics, Imperial Technical School, Russia. 1870 — Union College of Law, first wo« man graduate. 1870 — Elementary educational act, Eng- land. 1872 — University extension, Cambridge, England. 1873 — Kindergartens in United States, at St. Louis. 1874 — First Chautauqua Assembly. 1876 — Manual training schools estab- lished, Sweden. 1878 — University of London admits women. 1879 — Manual training in St. Louis schools. 1880 — Cooking taught in Boston public schools. 1881 — First trades schools in United States, at New York. 550 EDUCATION AND UTERATURE. 1882— Compulsory education in France. 1900 — Kindergarten schools in opera* - (—Summer meeting for University Extension held in Philadelphia tion throughout the United States, UNIVERSITY EXTENSION. The purpose of the University Exten- ifications to teach have boon passed sion movement, which was originated upon by the Society. by the University of Cambridge, in Second — To cooperate as far as possi- '..uul, and subsequently spread to bio with institutions of Learning and the United States, is to provide the other bodies with the purpose of bring- tneans of higher education tor persons ing to the many the best thoughts of the >f all classes and of both sexes engaged tew, to keep the University Extension in the regular occupations of lite. It is idea before the country by the Society's ... intended for all who are willing to give agents and publications. Some of their time to study and in- struction under the guidance of men who have had university training. It offers : Advantages Offered, First — Education by means of sys- tematic courses of lectures and classes in the subjects usually taught at high schools and universities Second — Illustrated lectures and clas- ses in Literature, art, and science, with the purpose o( teaching the appreciation of the beautiful, and rendering life more interesting and enjoyabl Third — Lectures and classes in his- tory, civics, and economics, designed to aid the citizen in studying the problems of free government and modern life and to encourage a sense of responsibility, habits of sound thinking, and right conduct. The American Society for theKxteu- sion of University Teaching was founded at Philadelphia in June, [89a Its objects are : First — To organize groups of people into centres, and to bring together those centres and competent lecturers, chosen from the list of instructors, whose qual- ln the fust year of work twenty-three centres were organized, at which some three hundred lectures were given to a\\ estimated attendance of ten or twelve thousand people. The second season witnessed a satisfactory increase in the number of centres, with a correspond ing increase in the uumlvi of lectures and students. In the academic year [893-94 there were given under the auspices of the Ameiicau Society one hundred and fourteen regular lecture courses, thirty-one class courses, and fifty Summer Meeting courses, or one hundred and ninety-five courses in all, averaging a little over six Lectures each. Rapid Growth. In the year 1S04 95 one hundred and twenty-six regular courses were given, nine class courses, and forty-one Sum- mer Meeting courses, or one hundred and seventy-six courses in all, aver- agiug about six lectures each. Through the "circuit" or union of five or six towns which join to engage the same lecturer, towns distant from University centres have enjoyed the advantages oi' the system, and even villages oi a tew EDUCATION AND LITERATURE. 551 hundred inhabitants have been able to ire com In addition to the winter lectur the centres, the Society has entered upon two other lines of educational ac- tivity. The first is the formation of classes of from twenty to seventy-five members, which, under the direction of its lecturers, engage in the stud history, literature, or civics, through consecutive periods from three to six months. The clas intended to supplement the work of the " Local Centres" proper, and in places where conditions do not admit of the forma- tion of a centre, to supply, as far as possible, its place. The second is the Summer Meeting, which was started in Philadelphia in 1893, where courses were given during four weeks by some of the most eminent professors of Har- vard, Johns Hopkins, Cornell, and the University of Pennsylvania The Chautauqua System of Educa- tion. The Chautauqua plan of summer education was inaugurated in 1874. Its originators were Lewis Miller of Akron, Ohio, and Rev. Dr. John H. Vincent, a bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church. These gentlemen, in August, 1873, selected a site for a summer school on the northern shore of Chautauqua Lake. Here an attrac- tive city of more than five hundred ar- tistic and attractive cottages has been built There is a well-equipped hotel and various buildings for public exer- cises, lectures and recitations. The first assembly began on the first Tuesday in August, 1874, and lasted three weeks. Since then an assembly has been held every year. The Chau- tauqua Literary and scientific Circle was organized in 1878, and compr. a system of home reading circles, wis members pursue of reading laid out by the officers in books and maga- zine articles approved by the board of COUfl The Circle aims to promote habits of reading and study in history, literature, nee, and art, in connection wdth the routine of daily life. The course seeks to give "the college outlook" on the world and life. The essentials of the plan are : A definite course covering four years, each omplete in itself; s; volumes a; he counselors, allotment of time by the week and month, a monthly maga- zine with additional readings and notes, a membership book with review out- lines, and other aid. Individual read- ers may have all the privileges, and local circles may be formed by three or four members. The time required is :t one hour daily for nine months. Certificates are granted to all who com- plete the course. Seals are affixed to the certificates which are granted for collateral and advanced reading. Agricultural Education. As an evidence of the interest felt in agricultural education in the closing years of the century, let it be noted that the State of New York places in the hands of the Agricultural College of Cornell University $25,000 a year to be used in imparting agricultural instruc- tion to the people on their farms and to children in the schools. This has no- thing to do with the system of farmers' institutes, of which some hundreds are held each year in the State of New York and for which the State appro- 552 EDUCATION AND LITERATURE. priation is very much larger. The movement under the direction of Cor- nell University is designed to reach the farmers without compelling them to go anywhere or to take any trouble ex- cept to absorb what is to be put before them. There is no other such instance, we presume, anywhere in the world, of pa- ternal care of the State for the farmer. An interesting fact is that this move- ment did not originate with the State authorities or with the college. It was begun by the farmers themselves in one or two of the counties of the State, who caused the bill to be drafted and scut some of their own number to Albany to promote the passage of the law. For the first year or two the appropriation was 515,000, to be expended in that portion of the State which had asked for it. Later it was increased and the work mr de to cover the entire State so far as the money would go. Instruction on the Farm. The work has been mainly experi- mental, as it could not be foretold what methods would produce the best results, or any results which would justify the cost. It is evident that instruction given in this way is very expensive. Mainly the instruction has been carried on upon two lines ; first, regular work in the schools, carried on by traveling instructors in connection with the re- gular teachers, and secondly, by cul- ture experiments carried on by the farmers themselves, also with the assist- ance of traveling instructors. In the latter case it must not be supposed that young men are sent out to show farm- ers how to plant seeds, or hoe weeds, or distribute fertilizers. That would be silly, and great universities do not do silly things. The work of the instructors in such cases is to show farmers handy ways of so managing their experiments that de- finite and useful information may be obtained from them. To do this is a profession by itself, which is taught in universities, and which farmers, and oilier persons not specially trained, do not usually understand, or at all events seldom practice. An important part of the work of such instructors is to col- lect and preserve the results of these ex- periments, to be published for the bene- fit of those who have helped pay for the instruction, but have not directly re- ceived it. The university authorities consider these experiments made on actual farms by actual fanners, but under such su- pervision that they can be vouched for as accurate, as more valuable to the public than the same experiments made on the college grounds by the college staff. Agriculture in Schools. The work in the rural schools has for its object the imparting of elementary instruction to the pupils. If any of our readers are in doubt as to the possi- bility of really useful agricultural in- struction in the common schools, let him who is presumably a graduate of those schools attempt to answer offhand, as he reads this, the simple question: " How do plants grown ? ' ' The chances are ten to one that he cannot do it. We see the plants grow bigger day by day, with no thought as to the sources of the additional particles of matter which have become incorporated in the piant, or the operation of the power which re- EDUCATION AND LITERATURE. 553 moves them from their original seats, lifts them into the air, and perhaps entirely changes their nature. We may easily find a redwood limb cut ioo feet from the ground, which five men can- not lift ; how did it get there ? It was no small power that raised it. It cer- tainly was not redwood when it went up ; how came it to become redwood ? The object of agricultural instruc- tion in common schools is to enable small children to answer such simple questions as these, which their fathers and mothers for the most part cannot answer. The reason why they should be able to answer them is that they may know exactly what helps and hin- ders growth, and how to cure disease growth. Thus we find immense progress in education. The school-house forms the great mile-post on the highway of pro- gress. It is everywhere in evidence. Free schools extend throughout the civilized world, and reach upward to a plane far beyond the highest level of public education a century ago, linking the common school with the college, and forming a direct stepping stone to university education, which has widened out with similar activity. In methods of education a marked advance has been made, while the text-books of to-day are almost infinitely superior to those of the earlier period. And education is turning its attention in a highly en- couraging degree towards practical sub- jects and away from thatinenbus of the dead languages which was so strenu- ously insisted upon in the past. Man is going back to nature in education, observation is supplementing book knowledge, and experiment taking the place of authority. In short, educa- tion, with its handmaids, the book and the newspaper, is making its way into the humblest homes, and man is every- where fitting himself for an intelligent discharge of his social, industrial and political duties. CHAPTER XXXIX. A Hundred Years of Art. (f) I HERE are great centres of art in fl Europe, the chief of which, at the close of the century, is Paris, where the schools and facilities for in- struction attract students from all parts of the world. Each century adds a superb accumulation to the masterpieces of painting and sculpture which are the subjects of universal admiration, and the long roll of famous artists is con- stantly increasing. Our own country has been consider- ately excused hitherto for its deficien- cies in celebrated art productions on account of its comparative youth and the extraordinary opportunities for ac- quiring wealth, whereby the energies of intelligent people have been diverted from other pursuits. As the country grows older it is but reasonable to sup- pose that in art, as in other things, we sdiall make rapid advances and will not be a reproach to the older nations. Indeed within the last half of the past century we have shown our ability in this direction, and American artists have made enviable names for them- selves in European schools and exhibi- tions. Pictorial art has had a sudden and rapid development. All classes of books, magazines, and even daily news- papers, are now illustrated. It is found that the public taste demands the object lesson, and the periodical that can fur- nish it in the most artistic and attrac- tive style is the one that will outstrip all competitors. The discovery of a 554 process by which photographs can be reproduced in what are called "half- tones" lias added greatly to the effec- tiveness of pictorial illustration. -, Old-Time Pictures. In the early part of the century all book illustrations were exceedingly crude, and in many instances little bet- ter than caricatures. One would think that a skillful Yankee with a block o( pine wood and a jackknife could carve out as good pictures as were to be found in many of the school-books of the day. All along there has been a constant endeavor to perfect the art of illustra- tion, and the success attending this effort has been surprising. Rapid pro- gress has been made, until at the present time no one expects to take up even a penny newspaper without finding a pro fusion of pictures. And along with this growth of pic- torial art the processes by which it is produced have become so cheap as to bring the productions within reach oi the universal public. The poorest cot- tage can have engravings and pictorial works such as were formerly within reach only of the wealthier classes. In reviewing art in the nineteenth century one is impressed with the steady transition toward the new world of artis- tic development. History shows us how different countries have their beginning, their growth, and their decline. This has been particularly characteristic in the past century, as in the early cen- A HUNDRED YEARS OF ART. 555 turies, when art in Egypt, Greece and Italy had its rise and fall. When we look back at 1801 and 1802 we find the most important art figure that of David, who was the first person- ality whom we recall in modern French art. He was closely followed by Ingres, who was of more marked individuality. The influence of new and original thought was evinced in his work. Acad- emic, but less so than David, he had an infusion of original personality charac- teristic of much of the thought of his period. The turbulence of government condi- tions of France at the opening of the century encouraged an originality of thought that we do not find in the other countries. England was noted at the beginning of the century for its able portraiture, but a strong trace of the eighteenth century was obvious in French art. We therefore watch with deeper interest the gradual develop- ment in France. Rival Schools. Following closely upon Ingres comes the romantic school, a departure from English opposition to classicism and severity which had replaced the more emotional work at the end of the eigh- teenth century. We begin to feel another movement in French art as early as 1820, and a great ethical contest followed between classicism and romanticism. At this time the most distinguished English landscapist, Constable, drank the inde- pendent thought that was declaring it- self in France. We now enter upon the greatest period of French art, a period which will be re- called as the most brilliant of artistic productions during the century. The schools of fine art started by Napoleon, which were under governmental pro- tection, were gradually increasing and enlarging, and home patronage became declared. As in this country to-day, so in England and France at the begin- ning of the century most of the art patronage was spent on foreign artists. Home Talent. Both England and France were for many years in the beginning of the century lavish patrons of Italian art, oftener Italian imitation. But in the early 50' s we find the eyes of both the French and English people turned upon their home producers. English por- traiture is distinctly an exception to this, as royalty had placed its stamp of approval on portraiture from the six- teenth century. From 1850 on we watch in France, England and Germany the steady and wholesale development in art. The in- creased wealth and power of these countries led the cultured people to en- large their taste and add to their collec- tions, it having been proven that finan- cial investments in artistic productions, in painting and sculpture, were wise and remunerative. We also notice in the 50' s and 6o's the first evidence of native art produc- tion in the United States. t The school of landscape and figure painters of considerable strength and originality had been gradually forming, and prior to and during the war the American artist was generously patron- ized. The works of many of these men are highly prized by their owners and are gradually becoming the property of local museums. A HUNDRED YEARS OK ART. &£ we approach the end of the centur) ' it was under the management of the wo tool a distinct decadence in French Board of Trade till 1856, when it passed ait, with the exception of its sculpture, undei the control of the [/>rd President which still remains the most tom.uk- and the Vice-president 0! Council on able since the Renaissance. The break Education. The South Kensington ing into two factions of the Salon in Museum, founded in 1851, has played 1889, the immense and illy considered an important part in the art education patronage of the French painters led to of the countrv ovei confidence and .1 tendency to sen sationalism which has not been foj the best in theii progress Cinder the wise management of Sii Frederick Leighton, the Royal Academy in England has attained an importance which has made it one ot the most powerful art bodies in the world* Epoch m Art. The establishment of the South Ken- sington Department of Science and Art marksan important epoch in the history of art instruction in England, it mxy be said to have arisen out of the report ot R select committee of the House of Commons appointed in 1835 u toinquire into the host means of extending a knowledge of the arts and principles of design among the people (especially the manufacturing population) of the coun- try." On the recommendation of this committee a sum of £7,500 was devoted to the establishment o( a Normal School of Design, with a museum and lectures. The school was opened in l$37, and by 1851 52 the government grant foi this school .md its wuious branches throughout the COUntrv had attained the GKmum'ous Hoquost. in 1869 a great stimulus to art educa- tion was given by the foundation, through the bequest of $225,000 by Felix Slade, o( the "Slade An Pro sorships" in the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge) and London. These chairs have been held by Mr, Ruskin and othei persons o( the highest eminence, and it is impossible to overestimate the good which has resulted from this effort to improve the taste and knowledge of the wealthier classes, in whose hands the patronage and direction of art in England mainly rests, In Scotland, a remarkable effort in the di toot ion of art instruction was made by Robert Foulis, the well known printer, in [751 he visited the Conti- nent, engaged drawing- masters, and pur- chased pictures, casts, and engravings; and on his return to Glasgow in 1 753 he stat ted a school o( ait The classes were continued till about 1 ;\"<\ and were fat from a pecuniar)i success; but they afforded training to such excellent art- ists as David Allan and James Tassic, and exercised a most important and amount of $75,000, In 1852, in accord- beneficial influence upon Scottish ait ance with a report ofaselect commit tee, the scheme was reconstructed, and a "Department of Practical Art" ere- Edinburgh which is still in active ope in [760 the Board of Manufactures in Scotland founded a school o( ait in ated, with Sit Henry Cole as superin tendent ; ami a Science Department was added in 1 S 5 ; . ration, and which, undei the name ot "The Trustees' Academy," has allot ded instruction to almost every Scottish A HUNUKKD '/I. A k.S 0I j ART. 657 palntei ol disf in' tioii foi iiiom t ban t century and a quarter, in 1858 this s< hool was affiliated with the Sontli k- nsington ■ and A 1 1. Depart Mi* ni, and il sei v . uol onl / foi 1 lie ,11'. 1 1 ii' 1 [on oi ai 1 ' raftsmen j j j design, but al <> ai .1 k hool foi painters and ■.' ulptori preparatoi y to the life t lass oi ill' Royal .'<' ottish A' ad< my. in [880 art in ii ii' 1 ion was broughl within I li<- •.' op( oi ' he '■>' Otf ish nn; ;■ . lit •/mum' iiIiiim by the establishment oi ili'- Watson Gordon ( I1a.i1 oi Pine Ari in 1 he Universil y oi Edinburgh, in meni oryoi Sii John Watson Gordon, through the bequest oi a sum oi about P'/j/x/j by his brol hei and sistei . in Ireland there are ( lasses in ( onne< • 1 ion with the Royal Hibernian Academy foi .' n'ly from the antique and I he life \ and the Dublin Metropolitan '.>< hool oi Ait u undei the South Kensington Department. Various contin en tal s< hools, espc ially those of Munich and Antwerp, have attained celebrity ; but Paris is now the greal centre of art instruction, in which many British an'l American Student I have \>< < 11 trained. Sm' <■ the time oi j i,. David who, win n in exile, influenced the school oi Belgium the i' i< 11' h have \>< en 1 1 lebrated foi I ' ommand ov< 1 foi tn ; and, in xet eni pears, theii pow< 1 as< oloi isti hasgri a in' ream d. The Pai isian rod hod oi study is admirably adapted foi giving its pupils •'' < ei tain te< lini< al dex» teril 7. he opening oi t he ' went iei Ii < en tury •//' realize thai oi the in' ni' In .■ M' a. Oui arl ists to day have been educated in all oi t he I'' si known s< hools. They nave taken honors in the capitals oi all the countries oi the world and have returned to t.li'ii native land bearing the fruits oi t heii laboi , pos ■• ssed oi great natural ability and unexampled training; thai their productions should be essentially American is now being borne in upon them. A n'l undei the ' lea* skies and v/ifli the wholesome surroundings and untrammeled means foi future develop- ni'-nt, we are convinced that the gi ichool of art in the twentieth century will be ia America. PART VII. Famous Men and Women of Tin: NINETEENTH CENTURY. CHAPTER XL. Celebrated Authors. (*) RE AT intellectual development has characterized the century. This is seen not only in the amazing achievements of mechanical invention and scientific discovery, but also in authorship, in great reforms, and in the brilliant triumphs of oratory and statesmanship. In every department of human activity there have been distinguished workers whose names are written high on the scroll of fame. Our aim is to present a concise biography of the distinguished men and women of the century, describing, in condensed form, their renowned achieve- ments and narrating the important events connected with their bright careers. For convenience in reference the names are arranged alphabetically. ALLEN, ELIZABETH ACKERS, This American poet was born at Strong, Maine, October 9, 1832. She became a contributor to various maga- zines and under the pseudonym of "Florence Percy" became widely known as an author. A volume of poems published in 1867 was favorably received. In i860 she became the wife of Paul Ackers, the sculptor, but sur- vived her husband, and some time after his death was married to Mr. E. M. Al- t len of New York. Her painstaking work has been wide- ly appreciated, and while her produc- *' ons are not so abundant as those of many others, she has gained an enviable dis- tinction as a graceful writer, with fine poetic taste. Her beautiful poem en- 658 titled, "Rock me to Sleep, Mother,'* has become a household treasure. It exalts and ennobles motherhood, and its tender pathos is universally admitted. ALLSTON, WASHINGTON. This eminent American artist and man of letters was born at Waccamaw in South Carolina, November 5, 1779. Being of delicate health he was sent to Newport, R. I., where he remained in school ten years. Having graduated at Harvard College in 1796, he soon af- terward went abroad for the purpose of studying, and perfecting himself as a painter. Soon his productions attracted wide attention. At length he returned to his native land and was eng cged on a large painting of " Belshazzar ; Feast" when he died July 9, 1843. CELEBRATED AUTHORS. 559 In addition to his genius as a painter, Allston possessed poetic talent of a high order. He was the author of "The Sylphs of the Season and Other Poems, " published in 1813. Washington Irving says of him: " There was something to ine inexpressibly engaging in the ap- pearance and manners of Allston. He was of a light, graceful form, with large blue eyes, and black silken hair waving and curling around the pale expressive countenance. Everything about him bespoke the man of intellect and refinement." ANDERSEN, HANS CHRISTIAN. A well-known magazine, the " Quar- terly Review," says concerning this au- thor, " For vividness and reality of de- tail, for breadth and boldness in the description of scenery, and for skill in conveying the impression made on a fine mind and earnest heart by all that is beautiful in nature and true in art, he stands without a rival among recent writers of romance." This is high commendation, yet it accords with the judgment of multi- tudes who have been charmed by his writings. Not only have his works been widely circulated in his own coun- try, but they have been translated into many foreign languages. The young, especially, have found instruction and entertainment in his delightful stories and fairy tales, published in several volumes, and which are characterized jby vivid imagination, quaint humor and not infrequently profound pathos. Andersen was born at Odense, in the island of Funen, April 2, 1805. His father's family was one of some note and at one time had been rich, but when Hans was born had fallen into poverty. He was fortunate enough in early life to meet several influential friends who enabled him to obtain an education at the expense of the State. At an early age he wrote several poems, among which "The Dying Child" was par- ticularly admired. From this time he entered upon an upward career and sur- prised and delighted the public by his tales and romances. Some of his vol- umes of travels have had a wide circu- lation. He died in August, 1875. On his seventieth birthday he was presented with a book containing one of his tales in fifteen languages. ARNOLD, MATTHEW. This English poet, a son of Dr. Thomas Arnold, of Rugby, was born near Staines in Middlesex, December 24, 1822, and was educated at Rugby and Oxford. He gained prominence as an educator and inspector of schools. His first volume of poems appeared in 1848, and in 1857 he was elected pro- fessor of poetry at Oxford. " For com- bined culture and fine natural feeling in the matter of versification," says the Edinburgh Review, "Mr. Arnold has no living superior." His writings em- brace prose as well as poetry, and his views upon religious subjects have at- tracted wide attention. He received the degree of LL. D. from the universi- ties of Edinburgh and Oxford. Died April 15, 1888. ARNOLD, EDWIN. Mr. Arnold has visited America sev- eral times and is well known among the literary circles of this country. He was born June 10, 1832, was educated at King's College, London, and Uni- versity College, Oxford, where he gra- 560 CELEBRATED AUTHORS. dilated in 1854. For a time lie held a government position in India as an educator. The work by which he is best known is entitled, "The Light of Asia," published in 1879. This poem was widely read in America and was considered to possess many claims for admiration. Mr. Arnold is a prolific author, and his works have secured a wide circle of readers. His scholarly and finished style entitles him to high rank among the authors of the day. BANCROFT, GEORGE. He is principally distinguished as the author of the history of our country, but not without note as a diplomatist and statesman ; he was born in Worces- ter, Massachusetts, October 3d, 1800. At the age of thirteen he entered Har- vard College, graduated with high hon- ors in 18 17, and spent two years in study at Gottingen, Germany, where in 1820 he received the degree of Doc- tor of Philosophy. Returning to Ame- rica in 1822, he served a year as a Greek tutor in Harvard College when he and Dr. Cogswell, a fellow-tutor, established the Round Hill School at Northamp- ton, Massachusetts, with which Ban- croft was associated until 1830. In 1823 he published a volume of poems, and subsequently made translations from the German of the minor poems of Goethe, Schiller, etc., and of some of the historico-political works of Heeren. In 1834 appeared the first volume of his " History of the United States from the Discovery of the Continent;" fol- lowed by the second and third volumes in 1837 and 1840 respectively — the whole embracing " The History of the Colonization of the United States." These were succeeded in the interval from 1852 to i860 by five volumes nar- rating the history of the colonial period to the Declaration of Independence, and in 1866 and 1874 respectively by the two concluding volumes, bringing the history to the treaty of peace with the mother-country in 1782. Bancroft sub- sequently published " The History of the Formation of the Constitution of the United States" (2 vols., 1882,) which afterwards formed a constituent part of the revised edition of the com- plete "History of the United States" embraced in six volumes (1882-84). Bancroft served as collector of the port of Boston (1838-41), under Presi- dent Van Buren, and was an unsuccess- ful candidate for the governorship of Massachusetts in 1844. He accepted a seat in the cabinet of President Polk as secretary of the Navy in 1845, and the following year was appointed minister to the court of St. James, a position which he filled until 1849, with honor to his country. A period of retirement from public life followed his return to America. In the civil war he was heartily in accord with the national government, and in 1867 he was ap- pointed by President Johnson, minister to Berlin, serving with distinguished ability until recalled at his own request in 1874. The American press con- tained highly appreciative notices of Mr. Bancroft's character and work on the occasion of his death, January 17, 1891. BEERS, ETHEL LYNN ELLIOT. This American poetess, who is well known for several popular lyrics, was born at Goshen, N. J., in 1827. Her maiden name was Ethelinda Elliott. Her patriotic poem entitled, "The Picket-guard," or " 'All quiet along the CELEBRATED AUTHORS. 561 Potomac,' they say," first published in "Harper's Weekly" in 1861, became instantly popular, and its authorship was contested. Although her poetry is remarkable for simplicity of style and easy versification, it is yet full of life &nd spirit. A volume of her poems ap- peared in 1878, and in the following year she died. Few authors have be- come so widely known by reasons of productions so few in number. BOKER, GEORGE H. Mr. Boker is known especially for his "War Lyrics," published in 1864, in some of which the scenes of the civil war are depicted with graphic force. His first volume was entitled, "The Lesson of Life and Other Poems," and appeared in 1847. Several other vol- umes followed in rapid succession, all of which were well received by the reading public. That he is entitled to a conspicuous place among American poets, is generally conceded. Born in Philadelphia, October 6, 1823, he graduated at Princeton in 1842, and studied law, but never practiced. He was a man of some prominence in public affairs and in 1871 was appointed minis- ter to Constantinople, and in 1874 min- ister to St. Petersburg. He was the editor of "Lippincott's Magazine" sev- eral years. His death occurred in Phila- delphia, January 2, 1890. BONAR, HORATIUS. The author of many beautiful hymns, the fame of which is world-wide, was a native of Scotland, and was born in Edinburgh in 1808. In i856he published "Hymns of Faith and Hope," and a second series of the same in :86i. He was for many years a minister of the 36 Free Church, and published several re- ligious works which have had an enor- mous circulation. He participated act- ively in all evangelistic work, and, in addition to his pastoral labors, was heard frequently in religious conven- tions. Died in 1879. BRONTE, EMILY. Was born in Yorkshire, England, about 1 8 1 9. She was one of the authors of a volume entitled, " Poems by Currer, Ellis and Acton Bell," published in 1846. She was also the author of a novel entitled, " Wuthering Heights," issued in 1847, the merit of which has been variously estimated. Died in De- cember, 1848. It is universally con- ceded that she had talent of a high order, as is evidenced by the fact that fifty years after her death her works were still in demand and had a wide circle of readers. BROWNING, ELIZABETH BARRETT. Mrs. Browning must be considered one of the most gifted poets of our time, her works appealing especially to people of intellectual refinement and cultivated taste. In person she was slight, with dark hair and complexion ; an easy modest manner and cordiality drew to her many friends. She was born at Durham, March 6, 1809. Her father, Mr. Barrett, was a wealthy merchant of London, who gave his daughter in early life the best opportunities for education. At ten years of age she exhibited fine poetical talent, which was diligently cultivated. In 1 8 she was married to the poet, Robert Browning, with whom she re- sided in Italy for many years. She produced in 1851 "Casa Guidi Win- 562 CELEBRATED AUTHORS. dows," a poem which treats of the political condition of Italy. "This," says the "North British Review," a is the happiest of Mrs. Brownings per- formances, because it makes no preten- sions to high artistic character, and is really a simple story of personal impres- sions." Her largest, and withal her greatest work, is "Aurora Leigh," a poem, or novel in verse, which is greatly admired. This was published in 1856, and in the same year a new edition of her poems was issued in three volumes. She died at Florence, Italy, in June, 1 861. BROWNING, ROBERT. This most subtle and intellectual of contemporary English poets, was born at Camberwell, May 7, 18 12. His father, a man of parts, was engaged in the city of London. The future poet, after re- ceiving local education, attended lec- tures at University College, and then travelled abroad. From his earliest years he had been accustomed to write verse, and while still a youth, acquired the triple reputation of poet, musician and modeller. "Pauline," a dramatic poem, written at the age of nineteen, was published in 1833. Two years later appeared his "Paracelsus," which revealed a greater force. Its energy, its boldness of thought, its lofty aspirations, and its grip of human passion, stamped the author as one of the most promising of the younger I poets. In his later poems the poet pressed into his service in a masterly degree, humor, pathos, passion and tenderness; while the whole were distinguished for their ringing and melodious versifica- tion. Browning married in 1846 Eliza- beth Barrett, herself a poetess of high and noble gifts, and with her he wenl to Florence, where they lived in per- fect and happy union. In 1850 Brown- ing published " Christmas Eve and Easter Day," poems which defended catholicity in religion, the good to be discovered in the varying forms of Christianity. The " Browning Society " was estab- lished in 1 88 1 for the purpose of pro- moting the study and influence of the poet's works, and the example of Lon- don has been followed by many other large centres in Great Britain, the colo- nies and the United States. As a poet, Browning is distinguished for his ca- pacity in creating real men and women, and also for the depths of his spiritual insight. His lyrical faculty, dramatic energy, and power of psychological analysis have rarely been equalled. Be- sides being one of the most erudite of poets, he has intense human sympathy and high imaginative gifts, and a pro- found vigorous faith. His style is too frequently obscure and difficult, his ver- sification hard and rugged, and his rhymes forced. Mr. Browning died in December, 1889. BRYANT, WILLIAM CULLEN. Mr. Bryant easily ranks among the first American poets, and in some re- spects excels all others. A profound love of nature, fine poetic fancy, love of home and country and easy versifica- tion characterize his works, which have struck the popular heart and have been widely read. It is perhaps not a little singular that his most famous poem, " Thanatopsis," was written while yet he was a young man at Williams Col- lege. Mr. Bryant was bom in Hampshire CELEBRATED AUTHORS. 563 county, Mass., on the 3rd of November, 1794. In college he distinguished him- self in the languages, became a student of law in 181 2, and afterward practiced law for several years. He removed to ,New York City in 1825, and soon after ' became one of the editors of the " Even- ing Post," which he continued to edit with great ability until his death. A collection of his poems was pub- lished in 1832. Soon after he visited Europe and travelled in Egypt and vSyria, writing letters home, which were afterward collected into a volume enti- tled, "Letters of a Traveller." Mr. Bryant was always a warm advocate of political reforms, opposed the extension of slavery, and ardently supported the Union during the civil war. ' ' No poet,' ' says Griswold, "has described with more fidelity the beauties of the crea- tion, or sung in nobler song the great- J ness of the Creator. He is the trans- lator of the silent language of the. uni- verse to the world." His translations from foreign languages are graceful and accurate reproductions of the originals, rivalling those of Longfellow. Died June 12, 1878. BYRON, LORD. Byron's genius flashed out like a bril- liant meteor, compelling attention, and for the most part admiration. He was born in London, January 22, 1788. In early life he exhibited strong passions, an almost ungovernable will, and, at times, a rashness which occasionally appeared even in his later years. Among his mates he was courageous, quick to take an insult, and was never satisfied until it had been resented. In 1805 he went to Trinity College, Cambridge, which he left two vears after without a degree. During his stay at the University, he published a volume of poems entitled, "Hours of Idleness," which was very severely criticised in the " Edinburgh Review." The poet wrote by way of retaliation, his " English Bards and Scotch Reviewers," a caustic and scath- ing satire, which at the time caused a great sensation and convinced the crit- ics that Byron's genius was not to be terror-stricken or reduced to silence by " paper bullets of the brain." In 1809 he travelled throughout Eu- rope, and while in Greece, surrounded by the classic associations of that coun- try, he warmly espoused the cause of Greek independence, a theme which inspired some of his loftiest strains. On his return to England, he published the first two cantos of " Childe Harold's Pilgrimage," the success of which was so sudden an I extraordinary that, as he tells us, "he awoke one morning and found himself famous." Soon after he took his seat in the House of Lords, to which by birth he was entitled. Byron wrote easily and rapidly. His various works followed one another in rapid succession. Some of his most pathetic verses were inspired by the infelicities of his domestic relations. That he had great faults has been universally admitted ; nor can it be denied that his genius was of the high- est order. Macaulay's critical pen places him in the front rank of modern poets and declares he has never been excelled in the expression of scorn, misanthropy and despair, and that there is not a sin- gle note of human anguish of which he was not master. He died on the 19th of April, 1824, at the early age of 3C, yet had already achieved undying fame. 564 CELEBRATED AUTHORS. CAMPBELL, THOMAS, Author of " The Pleasures of Hope," and mam- other poems marked by true poetic genius, was a native of Scotland, and was horn at Glasgow in 1/77- After a brilliant literary career, he died at Boulogne in 1844, and was buried in Westminster Ahhev, Lord Macamav. Dean Milman, and other celebrities act- ing as pall-bearers. Few poems oi any author have become more generally known, or have been received with greater favor. His poems entitled "llo- henliuden," u Lochiel n and "Gertrude oi Wyoming,*' have been universally popular and were known to all the school-children oi our own country a generation ago CARLETON, WILL M. This popular American poet was horn at Hudson, Michigan, October 21st, [845, He graduated at Hillsdale Col- lege in 1S00. His principal works are "Farm Ballads" (1873), "Farm Leg- ends" (1875), "Young Folks 1 Centen- nial Rhymes'' (1876), and "Farm Fes- tivals" (1883). Air. Carletou's tastes and style qualify him to portray in a very effective man- ner domestic scenes and the experiences incident to country life, an example of which is found in his well-known t >oems entitled "Over the Hills to the Poorhouse,'' and "Betsy and I Are Out." CARLYLE. THOMAS. This distinguished, ami withal, ec- centric author gained by his writings a wide celebrity for originality, graphic description and vigorous English. Bold in thought, a hater of shams, rugged in matter and manner, his striking essays forced themselves upon the atten- tion oi the public. Mr. Carlvle must be considered as one oi the most bril- liant authors oi his day. The work that gave him the greatest reputation was his " History of the French Ke\o lution," which depicted with remark* able force the bloody scenes oi that social and political convulsion. Bom at Ecclefechan, Scotland, in 1795. Died February 5, 1881. CARY, ALICE. This well-known American authoress first came into notice by her contribu- tion to the "National Era,* 1 lor which she wrote under the HOM de piumt of 11 Patty Lee.'' Her M Clovernook," com- prising sketches oi western life, was popular both in America and England. Several works oi fiction, and various poems, have also met with marked favor. Horn near Cincinnati, Ohio, [820, died in New York, where she resided during the latter part oi her life, in iS;i. She was also gifted in the portrayal of domes- tic scenes and the charms of country life. The writings of the Cary sisters have long been familiar to the American people, their moral tone, felicitous ex- pression and elevated sentiment hav- ing given them wide popularity. From their gifted pens have come several hymns that have gained a high degree oi favor. It is rarely that two members of the same family exhibit SO high an order of genius. CARY, PH(EBE. She was the younger sister of Alice and equally gifted. Her birthplace was the Miami Valley, where she was born in i8_\j ; her death occurred in 1871. She published independently several volumes of buoyant pleasant CELEBRATED AUTHORS. 605 verse and contributed a third of the "Poemi of Alice and Phoebe ( '^>ry" published in 1850. During the ■r. of their life the Cary sisters re- sided in New York, were activel) gaged in religions work, and w< re jjgreatly beloved by a large circle of h Lends. COOPER, .iamh.s PENIMORE. The popular author of the (( Leather- Stocking Tales" was bom at Burling- ton, N. J., in September, 1789. His fathei was Judge Cooper, a well-known public man, and his mother's maiden name was Fenimore. About 1790 the family moved to the shore of Otsego Lake in New York where they founded Cooperstown, having taken up a large tract of land winch was then on the outskirts of civilization and the resi- denceof [ndian tribes. Young Cooper entered Vale College in [802, remain':'! there about three ^earsand then entered the navy as a midshipman. In [811 he retired from the navy and was mar- ried the same year. His first literary work was a no/'-l. entitled " Precaution," which was pub- lished in 1^19 and was a failure. Being a man of great energy and conscious that. there was something in him more than he had shown, he continued his literary worfc and published " The Spy," founded on incidents conn'-' ted with the Revolutionary w;ir. It was very Successful and was re-published in Eng- land. It was translated into several languages, and marked the beginning of that long literary career which placed Mr. Cooper's name among the most dis- tinguished American authors. " He has the high praise," says the " North American Review," " and will have the future glory of having str ick into a tu w path, of having opened a mine of 1 baustless wealth. In a word he b the foundation of 'American romance " Other tales from the pen of Cooper followed, many of which were a vivid portrayal of Indian life, with which was made familiar by personal contact with the Red Men. His worl numerous and some of them have been immensely popular, such as " The Pioneers/ 1 "The Last of the Mohicans," "The Deerslayers," "Story of the American Navy," eU etc. He died in Cooperstown in September, 1851- <( He wrote for mankind at large," says W. C. Bryant, "hence it. is thai has earned a fame wider than any Ameri- can author of modern times. The cr< a t.ion of his genius shall survive through centuries to com'-, and only perish with our language." "His writings," says William H. Prescott, (i are instinct with the spirit of nationality. In his produc- tions every American must take an honest pride. For surely no one has succeeded like Cooper in the portraiture of American character, or has given such glowing and eminently truthful pictures of American scenery." CRAIK, DINAH MARIA MULOCH. She was born at Stoke-upon-Trent in 1826. She early took the burden of supporting an ailing mother and two younger brothers, and wrote stories for fashion-books, as well as for graver publications. Her first serious appear- ance as a novelist was in 1849, with her story "The Ogilvies," which was fol- lowed by "Olive, the Head of the Family," "Agatha's Husband." But she never surpassed or even equalled her domestic novel "John Halifax" 666 CELEBRATED AUTHORS. (1857), which has had, and still con- 3 to have, an extraordinary popu- larity, and has been translated into French, Gorman, Italian, Greek, and Russian. The scone is laid at Tewkes- bury, where a marble medallion has n placed to her memory in the abbe) . CROSS. MARIAN EVANS LEWIS QEOR0E ELIOT . A.-. ( r of remarkable power, the daughter of Robot t Kvans, . surveyor. She was bom November v. 1819, and subsequently became one of the most distinguished writers of the century. In 1S5S appeared her "Adam Bede," followed by "The Mill on the Floss" [1859 • "Silas Marner n (1861), etc., etc., u Middlemarch n appealed in 1872, "Daniel lVronda " in [876, She was married in the spring of [880 to a Mr. Cross, and died December J J of the same year. DICkl-NS. CHARLES. The name of Gladstone, or Napoleon, or Lincoln, or McKinley, is not better known than that o\ Pickwick, or M.i- cawber, or Pecksniff, or Uriah Heap, or Mark Tapley, or Barkis, or Sairv Gamp, or Little Nell, or main- others that might be mentioned, all of which, although fictitious, seem quite as real as any his- toric character from Julius Caesar to General Grant. What amazing genius could create these characters and endow them with an endless life? There lias never been but one man who could make fictitious characters so life-like and so universally known, causing them to become, as it were, household names The great novelist, whose works of fiction are known and read throughout the civilized world, and who gained a renown uuequaled by that of any author .cent times, was born at Portsmouth, England, February r, 1812. His father wished him to enter the profession of law, but soon becoming disgusted with it, because he was conscious that it was not his proper sphere, he gave up the study of it, removed to Loudon, and became a reporter for the u Morning Chronicle." b\u this papei he began to wiite sketches that at once attracted attention and showed their author to be possessed of an uncommon faculty foi depicting common life both, in its tragic and humorous phases. Dickens was only -4 \ cars old when he published " Pickwick Tapers." He immediately sprang into popularity, and .me the favorite writer of both Eng- land and America. His subsequent works, such as "Oliver Twist," "Ni- cholas Xickclbv." "David Copper- field. " "A Tale of Two Cities," "The OKI Curiosity Shop." and many others all served to increase his reputation, although it was predicted that he would soon "write himself out." He main- tained his reputation by his wonderful creations in the realm of fiction and the charm of his transcendent genius. Many of his works show intense sj m pathy with the lower classes and the Struggling poor, the hard worked sous and daughters of toil, and those who aie the victims of greed and oppression. It is not too much to say that some of the most important reforms in England which benefitted the laboring classes could be traced directly to the influence of his magic pen. Mr. Dickens came to this country on two occasions. On the fust he angered many of his ad mirers by his caustic comments on American society and customs. On the second occasion he appealed as a public CELEBRATED AUTHORS, rM reader of his own work', and was Wei COmed by thousands in all our largi I cities. Work was his element, in fact, over-work, from which he undoubtedly died, June 9, 1870, and was buried in "Poet's Coriai," Westminster Abbey. EMERSON, RALPH wai.do. Few names in American literature represent so much of that kind of thought which sets others thinking and influences them as does the uame of Ralph Waldo Emerson. He was born in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1803, and died in Concord, Mass., April, 1882. His father was a respected minister, and liis mother was a woman of more than ordinary mind and education. Enter on graduated at Harvard in [821, yet did not take high rank in his class. Ib- was successful, however, in obtaining a prize for an English essay. After grad- uating he became a teacher, and at the same time studied theology under the direction of Dr. Channing. As a young man he is described as grave, gentle and never punishing his pupils except by words. Having 1 be- come a contributor to several magazines and having written a work on "Eng- lish Traits," he became somewhat known as an author, yet the product of his mind came slowly as did the appre- ciation of the reading public. A vein of philosophy runs through his writings, which appeal especially to those of scholarly tendem His publisher] works comprise "Na- ture; Addresses and Lectures;" "Es- says," first and second series; "Repre- sentative Men;" "The Conduct of Life ;" "Society and Solitude ;" "Ut- ters and Social Aims;" "Poems;" "Lectures and Biographical Sketches ;" "Miscellanies." Emerson wrote 0C< sionally in verse from his schoolda yet the charm of his poetry is more that of profound thought than of imagina- tion or vivid description. Obtaining the title of "The Concord Philosopher/' he freqently appeared in public as a irer, but in his later years with- drew from the public gaze and pal his last days in that philosophic repo <• which might be expected from one of his temperament and peculiar menta 1 characteristics. FIELD, EUOENE. A popular American poet, whose pro- ductions, of a pathetic as well as humor ous character, have marie him widely known. He was educated in Ma sa* chusetts, thence going to Wisconsin and entering journalism, and finally be- coming connected with a leading daily of Chicago. Many of his pieces were written for children, and are highly ap- preciated by the little folks. Died in 1 896. GREELEY, HORACE. Our greatest American journalist was born at Amherst, N. H., in February, 181 1, and was the son of a poor fanner, who removed to Vermont in l$21. Having learned the art of printing, young Greeley finally made his way to the city of New York. After being connected with several journals, he founded the "Daily Tribune" in 1841, and continued as its editor up to the time of his death, in 1872. Mr. Greeley was a man of very pronounced opinions, and great ability in advocating and de- fending them. No journalist was ever better known to the people at large, and none in this country ever exerted so vast an influence. In 1872 he was 568 CELEBRATED AUTHORS. the Liberal candidate for President of the United States, but failed of election, the vote of the country being largely given to Grant. The result was a great disappointment to Mr. Greeley whose friends led him to believe he was sure of election, He died November 29, 1872. HALLECK, FITZ=GREENE. This American poet was born at Guilford, Connecticut, July 8, 1790. By his mother he was descended from John Eliot, "the apostle of the Indians." He became a clerk in a bank in New York in 181 1, and in 1832 the private secretary of John Jacob Astor ; 1849 he retired, on an annuity of #200 left him by Astor, to his native town, where he spent the remainder of his days, and died November 19, 1867. From his boyhood Halleck wrote verses, and in 18 19 he contributed, with Joseph Rodman Drake, a series of hu- morous satirical papers in verse to the New York " Evening Post." In the same year he published his longest poem, " Fanny," a satire on the litera- ture, fashions, and politics of the time, in the measure of "Don Juan." He visited Europe in 1822, and in 1827 published anonymously an edition of his poems. In 1 865 he published " Young America," a poem of three hundred lines. His complete "Poetical Writings" have been edited by his biographer (1869). Halleck is a fair poet. His style is spirited, flowing, graceful and harmonious. His poems display much geniality and tender feeling. Their humor is quaint and pungent, and if not rich is always refined. The poem by which he is better known than by any other is entitled, " Marco Bozar- ris," beginning with the well known line, "At midnight in his guarded tent." HARTE, FRANCIS BRET. Mr. Harte has achieved distinction by his poems in dialect and by his prose works which make a point of delineat- ing western life and manners. He was first brought to notice by his jingle en- titled " The Heathen Chinee." He was born at Albany, New York, August 25, 1839, went to California in 1854, learned the art of printing, and in 1857 became connected with a newspaper, first as printer and finally as editor. For six years, beginning with 1864, he was secretary of the United States Mint ar San Francisco. He then connected himself with a magazine called the " Overland Monthly," and afterward held a professorship of recent literature in the University of California. Since that time he has been United States Consul at several foreign ports, at the same time carrying on his literary pur- suits. Many of his books are collections of short tales skilfully written and possess- ing undoubted merit. Among his well- known works are " The Luck of Roar- ing Camp," "East and West Poems," " Tales of the Argonauts," etc. HAWTHORNE, NATHANIEL. The well-known author of the cele- brated "Scarlet Letter" and "House of Seven Gables," together with other works which have placed him in the first rank of modern authors, was born at Salem, Massachusetts, on the 4th of July, 1804. He graduated at Bowdoin College, Maine, in 1825, Longfellow the poet being one of his classmates. His nature was extremely sensitive, his dis- position retiring, his acquaintances few CELEBRATED AUTHORS. 569 and his manner gentle and winning. In person he was tall, broad-shouldered and possessed what might be called a majestic presence. Both in mind and body he was constructed to be a com- manding figure and made a powerful impression upon all who met him. Hawthorne made the acquaintance of Franklin Pierce, afterward President of the United States, who did much to cheer him in his fits of despondency, and when he became President ap- pointed him as our consul at Liverpool, which was the most lucrative office at his disposal. Previous to this, Haw- thorne, under Mr. Polk's administration, was appointed surveyor of the port of Salem, Massachusetts, which he held for three years. In 1850 he published his celebrated "Scarlet Letter," a ro- mance of extraordinary power, and by some considered his masterpiece, al- though for this distinction it has to compete with his " House of Seven Gables " and his " Marble Faun." It is generally conceded that in ele- gance of style, felicity of expression, use of pure English simplicity, clear- ness and force, he is unrivalled among American authors. The criticism has been made that there is a morbid ele- ment in Mr. Hawthorne's writings, a fiery glow of suppressed excitement which renders them unwholesome read- ing. This judgment, however, is not likely to be accepted by the average reader as strictly correct. Died suddenly at Plymouth, Mass., 1864. HEMANS, FELICIA DOROTHEA. This poetess was born at Liverpool, September 25, 1793. Her father, George Browne, was a Liverpool merchant, of Irish extraction ; her mother, whose maiden name was Wagner, was of mixed Italian and German descent. Felicia was distinguished for her beauty and precocity, and at an early age she mani- fested a taste for poetry, in which she was encouraged by her mother. Family reverses led to the removal of the Brownes to Wales, where the young poetess imbibed a strong passion for nature, read books of chronicle and romance, and gained a working know- ledge of the German, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese languages. She also cultivated her excellent musical taste. Her first volume was published in 1 808, when she was only fifteen years of age, and contained a few pieces written about four years earlier. Her second entitled " The Do- mestic Affections," appeared in 1812. In the same year she married Captain Hemansof the Fourth Regiment, whose health had suffered in the retreat on Corunna, and afterward in the Wal- cheren expedition, and who settled in Italy in 18 18. After this time they never met again : their marriage was understood not to have been happy. Mrs. Hemans, though in poor health, now devoted herself to the education of her children, to reading and writing, and spent the rest of her life in North Wales, Lancashire, and later at Dublin, where she died, May 16, 1835. Mrs. Hemans, without great original- ity or force, is yet sweet, natural and pleas- ing. But she was too fluent and wrote much and hastily ; her lyrics are her best productions; her more ambitious poems, especially her tragedies, being, in fact, quite insipid. Still, she was a woman of,true,genius, though her range was circumscribed, and some of her little lyrics, "The Voice of Spring," 570 CELEBRATED A.UTHOKS, ,l The ! ; and," ' The Graves of a Household," " The Treasures of the Deep." and " The Homos of England,*' are perfect in pathos and sentiment, and will live as long as the English lan- guage. These are found in almost <. \ school collection, and this early familiar- ity with her sweet and simple lyrics has helped to keep her memory green. HOLLAND. JOSIAH GILBERT. Dr. Holland is a fine example of an author whose works are pure in senti- ment, contain practical every-day helps for the conduct of life, and are admira- bly suited to the average reader. He was born in Belchertown, Massachu- setts, July 24. 1819, and graduated at the Berkshire medical college at Pitts- field, in 1844. He soon abandoned his profession, however, and after fifteen months as a school superintendent at Richmond, Va,, became assistant editor of the Springfield "Republican," oi which he was part proprietor also from 1851 to 1866. In 1870, with Roswell Smith and the Scribners, he founded "Scribner's Monthly," which he conducted success- fully till his death, October 12, t88i. In this magazine appeared his novels, •'Arthur Bonnicastle" (1873), "The Story of Seven Oaks" (1875), and "Nicholas Minturn" (1876). His '•Timothy Titcomb's Letters" (1858) wen: through nine editions in a few months; and this sale was succeeded by his "Life of Lincoln" and his most popular poems " Bitter Sweet " (1858), u Kathrina" (1867), and "The Mistress of the Manse" (1874). Most of Hol- land's works have been republished in Britain. The works of Dr. Holland have been I widely read by the Ameriean people. His letters to yonng people have passed through many editions, and are well worthy of a plaee in everv household. They abound in a certain practical sense and homely wisdom which stand in striking contrast to the cheap litera- ture o( the day, the influence oi which cannot be considered the most healthful. HOLMES, OLIVER WENDELL. 1'\m main- years Dr. Holmes was the most conspicuous figure in the literary circles of Boston. His ripe culture, his poetic genius, his inexhaustible fund of humor and his genial disposition dis- played in all his productions, made him one o( the best known w liters o( his time. He was born in Cambridge. Massachusetts, August 29, [809, and at the ageof twenty graduated at Harvard College. His father was a Congrega- tional minister ami a writer o\ some note in his day. After leaving college Dr. Holmes studied law, but soon changed his profession to that o( inedi- eine. Having pursued his medical studies in Europe he returned to this country, and in 1838 was elected pro- fessor oi anatomy and physiology in Dartmouth College, subsequently filling the same chair at Harvard. While a yonng man, ami before leav- ing college, he had distinguished him self as a poet and a writer of great ori gmality. One of his first literary suc- eesses consisted of contributions to the " Atlantic Monthly " under the title oi " The Autocrat ot the Breakfast-Table," which were followed later by another series of papers called 77 try. The author excelled in this style of poetry. His genitUi is unquestioned. The poem entitled "The Closing Scene," is said by the " Westminster Review " to be the finest written in the present generation. His best known work as an artist is liis group of " Longfellow's Children." Mr. Read always had the happy faculty of treating subjects of immediate in- terest in such a way as to gain wide attention from the reading public. Mr. Read was born at Chester, Pennsylvania, in 1822, and died in 1872. RILEY, JAMES WHITCOMB. " The Hoosier Poet of America," was born in Greenfield, Indiana, in 1852. Over an assumed name he began to contribute verses in the Hoosier dialect to the Indianapolis papers in about 1875, which attracted considerable attention. Since then his productions have been widely read. They are characterized by a rich vein of humor, as well as pathos, and their setting in dialect gives them additional charm and in- terest. RUSKIN, JOHN; The distinguished prose author and critic, whose masterly works have made a place for themselves in the literature of our day, was born in London, Eng- land, in 18 19. His writings on art, in- cluding "Modern Painters," "The Seven Lamps of Architecture," and " Stones of Venice," are brilliant in thought and exceedingly forcible in style. Ruskin in his writings compels attention. There is something striking in every paragraph. His thought is of the highest order, his words ring like blows on an anvil, and his marshalled 37 sentences are like battalion?* charging in battle. He published nearly thirty works, mainly on art and architecture, and maintained his supremacy in this field of literature to the last. He also con- tributed largely to contemporan':'. literature. He was elected Professor of Fine Arts at Oxford, 1869, and received the degree of LL. D. from the University of Cambridge in 1871. Died in 1899. SAXE, JOHN GODFREY. He excelled especially as a humor- ous poet, and many of his pieces have become familiar to the reading public. When he began to write he struck out into a new field and his venture was most successful. Mr. Saxe was born in Franklin County, Vermont, in 18 16. He graduated from Middlebury College, Vermont, in 1839, and subsequently became editor of the " Burlington Sen- tinel." He was elected State's attor- ney in 185 1. A collection of his poems appeared in 1849. They rank among the most successful productions of their kind, and have obtained extensive popu- larity. A new edition of his collected poems was published in 1864. He pro- duced in 1866 " The Masquerade, and Other Poems," and " Leisure Day Rhymes" in 1875. Died March 31, 1887. SCOTT, SIR WALTER. The very name of Sir Walter Scott strikes a responsive chord in almost ever>' breast, for few are the persons who have not been charmed and de- lighted with the "Waverly Novels" and his sprightly, spirited poems. His name is the chief ornament of Scottish literature, and such is the character of his works that they can perish only 578 . \ rED AUTHORS. with the language inaccuracy ofhis- i throw rag t>\ ei his writings ui ail of charming romi in skillful weaving of the plot, am tfographing the various c so thai the osfl imagines bo «ees the - eyes, S ay be i i to be without a rival. His w have had a phei tj . He was born in E Of delicate health in early lite, ho slowrj eed to a sturdy manhood, and be came distinguished as an author . period comparatively late. Perhaps no other authoi wrote so much when the a^e of fifty-five. It is honorable the memory of Soott that a large amount of his literarj work was undertaken i carried forward for the purpose of meet- ing a pecuniary obligation. " YYaverly " took the world by storm, and Soott who did not acknowledge the authorship, might well suppose he had found the j pot of gold at the end of the rainbow. As a writer it is a truism to say that, since Shakespeare, whom he reseml in many ways, there has never been a genius so human and so creative, so rich in humor, sympathy, poetry, so fertile in the production of new and real characters, as the genius of Walter Scott. "The Lav of the Last Min- strel," and "The Lady of the Lake," hold high rank in the realm of poetry and are full of life and spirit. They are colored by the romance of Scottish (history and Scottish scenery. For a long time Scott resided at Abbotsford, a few miles from Edinburgh, which was one of the famous places to visit by all tourists in Scotland. He died in 1832. SHELLEY. PERCY BYSSHE. Shellev was a brilliant light in the tnament, and although deft* . ; . soon to set, the beams of his glow- ing genius - gei and excite admi- ration akin to wondei Leigh Hunt says concerning Iks " L">vie to a Sky- .." "a little song yet it fills all en." Few men ever possessed the rhei .'og^ee. S tllej was born in Sussex county, Bfland, in August, i.~oj, and lost his b) drowning at Leghorn. Italy, in July, 182a ; vet this youthwhose career was cut off at the early age of thirty imperishable name in the world of letters. His poetry was inspired by an ardent passion for truth and an ardent love of humanity. Shelley's most celebrated productions are "Queen Mab." "The Revolt of [slam," w Rosalind and Helen," " Pro- metheus Unbound." and " Adouais," Of Shelley it might have been said, as oi his own skylark : •' And sing' still Jest soar. And soaring over singetli. STEYENSON. ROBERT LOUIS. This Scotch author was born in Edin- burgh in 1S50. He was bred an engi- neer, but studied law In 1879 he came to the United States and married, after- ward going to reside for a time in France. His contributions to periodicals began to attract attention, and soott he became widely known as a writer of more than ordinary ability. Among his works are "An Inland Voyage," " Travels with a Donkey,*' 11 Familiar Studies on Men and Books," "New Arabian Nights," kl The Dyn- amiter," etc. Mr. Stevenson's best known work is "Dr. Jekyl and Mr. Hyde," which has been dramatized and has met with popular favor. The gifted CELEBRATED AUTHORS. 579 author weal to California in pursuit of health, being addicted to pulmonary Complaint, and died in the Island of Samoa in k&/j. §1 OWE, HARRIET BEECHER. This distinguished American author born at Litchfield, Conn., on the 14th of June, l8l2. She was the third daughter and sixth child of the cele- brated Dr. Lyman Beecher. In early •rhibited literary taste and gained distinction as a graceful writer. In [836, she was married to ProfJ Calvin E. Stowe. In 1850 she went to Brunswick, Maine, where her husband had been appointed professor of Bow- doin College. While here she w: her novel, " Uncle Tom's Cabin," and furnished it to the "National Era'' ''published at Washington; in weekly contributions. The success of this work has been without a parallel in the history of literature, its sale having gone up into the millions here and in Europe, where it has been translated into a number of different languages. When this remarkable story appeared the public mind in America was much agitated, and there can be no doubt that Mrs. Stowe' s work hastened the great crisis that resulted in the Civil War and the destruction of the institu- tion of slavery. Mrs. vStowe was the author of other works that had great popularity, in- cluding " Sunny Memories of Foreign Lands," " Dred, a Tale of the Dismal Swamp," "The Minister's Wooing," "Oldtown Folks," etc. She wrote the "True Story of Lord Byron's Life," published in this country and in Eng- land. This work was severely criticised and brought down upon the devoted head of the authoress a storm of indig- nation. Mrs. Stowe has written other works of great merit, and it may safely aid that no authoress of modern times in any country has achieved a greater success. She died July 1st, 1 896 SWINBURNE, ALGERNON CHARLES. This English poet was born in 1837, and studied at Oxford, which he quitted without a degree If': burst upon the reading public with several poetical dramas, which, between i%i and [865, established his reputation as a poet of extraordinary brilliancy and even auda- city. Subsequently he published "Poems and Ballads," together with other works which fully sustained his reputation. He delights in the weird, the mystical, the very suggestive, and has sometimes been criticised for the latitude of his opinions. His genius, however, is un- disputed. TAYLOR, BAYARD. The works of this author have adorned our American literature and have been most favorably received by the reading public. Both as a poet and a traveller narrating his experiences in the differ- ent parts of the globe, he gained dis- tinction. He was at one time an editor on the " New York Tribune," to. which he contributed a series of letters' descrip- tive of his European travels. A num- ber of volumes issued from his pen, 'and subsequently he was appointed Ameri- can Minister to Germany. He died at Berlin in December, 1878. TENNYSON, ALFRED. For many years Lord Tennyson was without a living peer as a poet. It has been even said that no writer since the days of Shakespeare has exhibited sucb 680 CELEBRATED AUTHORS. wonderful power of clothing poetic thought i'i captivating Language. His poems are nothing less than creations, manyofthein sublime beyond compari- son, and exhibiting the severest culture and most painstaking effort Tennyson was born in 1809 and was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, where, in 1829, he obtained a prize medal for a poem in blank verse on " Timhuctoo." Soon alter he published "The Lady of Shalott," "The May Queen," "The Lotus-Eaters,* 1 "A Dream of Pair Women," etc, etc, In [849 he issued anonymously "In Memorium," which many persons consider the finest 01' all his productions. Many oi its remarkable couplets and stanzas have passed into the common speech ot* our time, and have become favorites of thoughtful persons and even of those religiously inclined. Tennyson's fame grew through all his long life, and it is noteworthy that each new production appeared to increase his reputation and give him a stronger hold upon the affections of the reading pub- lic. More abrupt, more vigorous in thought, more rugged and massive as a poet than Longfellow, his versification was yet easy and graceful, although inferior in this respect to that of our own great poet, just mentioned, whose name is a household word everywhere. Ten- nyson died October 6th, 1892. THACKERAY, WILLIAM MAKEPEACE. A popular English novelist nnd hum- orist, born in Calcutta, in 1811, He was educated at the University of Cam- bridge, which he left without taking a degree. Having inherited from his father a considerable fortune, and not being compelled to labor for his own livelihood, he chose the profession of an aitist, but soon turned his attention to literature. For many years be was a contributor to " Punch," and other periodicals, and gained great popularity. His works of fiction rivalled those of Dickens in popular favor, which is praise enough to be bestowed on any writer. One of his best and most popular works is "Vanity Fair, a Novel Without a Hero'' ; another is entitled " lendeu- nis." He visited the United States in [852 .\no] was very popular as a lecturer in all parts of the Union. Returning to England, he wrote the "Virginians," which is considered one oi his best works of fiction. He died in Decern* ber, 180;, leaving several daughters, some of whom have inherited the^r father's literary tastes and abilities. MARK TWAIN (S, L. Clemens^. Under the nam de plume oi Mark Twain an author appeared about 1867, whose quaint humor attracted immedi- ate attention and soon gained a large circle oi readers. There was a flavor of the western prairies about his pro- ductions and such odd conceits as marked him at once as a humorist of the first order. Probably his best known work is "Innocents Abroad," which gave him considerable reputation. This was fol- lowed by " Roughing It,'' "Tom Saw- yer," "Huckleberry Finn," and othet volumes, all of which have been well received by all classes of readers. His ability in his chosen field is unsurpassed. He was a member of the firm that pub- lished the Personal Memoirs of Presi- dent Grant. Mr. Clemens was born in Missouri in 1835. CELEBRATED AUTHORS. 5X1 WARNER, CHARLES DUDLEY. One of our most popular American authors, born in Massacli 11 setts in 1829, and educated at Hamilton College, New York. He studied law, and in 1857 was admitted to the Philadelphia Bar, but afterwards became a journalist at Hart- ford, Conn. "My Summer in a Gar- den," " Back-Log Studies," " My Win- ter on the Nile," and "Being a Boy," are among his best known works. In connection with Mark Twain he pro duced "The Gilded Age," a novel and play. He also compiled a valuable library of English literature, published in upward of forty volumes. His writ- ings have a genuine humor and abound in graphic descriptions. WHITTIER, JOHN OREENLEAF. "The Quaker Poet." His writings are models of spiritual, benevolent, and patriotic sentiment. Having a warm sympathy with the poor and oppressed, he has employed his graceful pen with fine effect in the cause of humanity, and no author of our time is more beloved. Born at Haverhill, Mass., 1 807; died 1 892. WILLIS, NATHANIEL PARKER. A poet of distinction, whose " vSacred Poems" especially, have had a large circle of admirers. His versification is easy, and his descriptions abound in word painting of a high order. Willis was also successful as a journalist, and a favorite in general society. Born in Portland, Maine, 1807 ; died in 1867. CHAPTER XLI. 6The Distinguished Orators and Statesmen. HE Nineteenth Century has produced many of the most effective and celc- ' I brated orators known to history. While the preceding- century was adorned by great English orators and statesmen, of whom Pitt and Burke are examples, it must be admitted by every impartial observer that a marvellous galaxy of brilliant men shine out in the last hundred years in peerless splendor. BEECHER, HENRY WARD. Few public men during the century achieved greater distinction than this gifted writer and pulpit orator, of whom it has been said "he was a grand out- growth of American institutions.'' He was a son of Dr. Lyman Beecher and was born in Litchfield, Conn., on the 4th of June, 18 13. He appears to have given in childhood but little pro- mise of distinction. But even while a boy he proved that he inherited some- thing of the controversial ability of his father. A forward schoolboy among the elder scholars had got hold of Paine's " Age of Reason," and was flourishing largely among the boys with objections to the Bible. Henry privately looked up Watson's "Apology," studied up the subject, and challenged a debate with the big boy, in which he came off victorious by the acclamation of his schoolfellows. This occurred when he was about eleven years old. He manifested at this period little inclination for severe study, but had conceived a passionate desire to go to sea. His father adroitly used this de- sire to induce him to commence a course of mathematics with a view to qualify himself to become a naval officer. He applied himself energetically to his new 582 studies, "with his face to the navy, and Nelson as his beau ideal." But not long afterwards there occurred in that section of the country a religious "revival," and young Beecher, with many others, was powerfully impressed. The result was that the uaval scheme was abandoned, and his thoughts were directed to the pulpit as his natural and proper sphere. After going through the preparatory studies, he entered Amherst College, where he graduated in 1834; and soon after he commenced the study of theology at Lane Seminar}-, under the direction of his father. He began his ministerial course at Lawrenceburg, Indiana, but removed soon after to Indianapolis. In 1 847 he became pas- tor of Plymouth Church (Congrega- tional) in Brooklyn, where he gathered around him an immense congregation. He was also one of the most popular writers and most successful lecturers in America. His success as a public speaker was due not so much to what is popularly termed eloquence as to a flow of racy and original thought, which, though often enlivened with flashes of quaint humor, was not with- out an undercurrent of deep moral and spiritual earnestness. ORATORS AND STATESMEN. 583 BLAINE, JAMES GILLESPIE. Mr. Blaine was bom of Scotch-Irish parentage at West Brownsville, Pa., January 31, 1830. As a boy at school he excelled in literature and mathe- matics, and at the early age of thirteen entered Washington College in his native county, graduating in 1847. Sub- sequently he became a teacher in the military institute at Blue Lick Springs, Ky., where he married Miss Harriet Stanhope, a teacher in a neighboring seminary. Soon after his marriage he removed to Pennsylvania, and after Studying law for a short time became a teacher in the Institution for the Blind at Philadelphia. In 1854 he removed to Augusta, Me., entering the journal- istic ranks, first as editor of the " Ken- nebec Journal," and later as editor of the "Portland Advertiser." In 1862 the Republicans elected him to the House of Representatives, and for 20 years he served in one or the other of the two Houses of Congress. During the war he favored all judicious and practical resolutions for its vigor- ous prosecution, and at its close he bore an active part in the reconstruction measures of the country. The 14th Constitutional Amendment was called the " Blaine Amendment," as it was for- mulated and earnestly advocated by him. He was largely instrumental in the ne- gotiation of a treaty with England, in which the doctrine of perpetual alle- giance was abandoned, and Great Bri- tain accepted the American principle of equal rights and protection for adopted as wel 1 as for native citizens. From 1869 to 1875 Mr. Blaine was speaker of the House of Representatives, and his record in this capacity is gener- ally conceded to have been a brilliant one. In 1876 Mr. Blaine was elected to the United States Senate, and at once be- came a most prominent and efficient member of that body. In the Republi- can national convention of that year he was a prominent candidate for nomina- tion to the presidency of the United States, and lacked only 28 votes out of a total of 754 of receiving the nomina- tion. At the Republican national con- vention in 1880 his friends again pre- sented his name for nomination, and on the first ballot the vote stood : Grant, 304 ; Blaine, 284 ; Sherman, 93 ; Ed- munds, 34; Washburn, 30; Windom, 10; Garfield, 1. On the election of Mr. Garfield, Mr. Blaine accepted the appointment of Secretary of State, fill- ing the office with rare ability and suc- cess, until the death of the president, when he retired from active public work, and began to write his famous historical work, entitled, "Twenty Years of Congress." In 1884 Mr. Blaine received the Re- publican nomination for President, but after a vigorous contest, failing to secure the electoral vote of the State of New York by the narrow margin of 1,047 votes out of a total of over 1,200,000, he was defeated in the general election. He spent the ensuing four years at work on his book and in foreign travel. At the time of the nominating con- vention in 1888, Mr. Blaine was in Europe, and by formal letter declined to permit his friends to present his name as a candidate for the presidency. He returned, however, in time to aid effi- ciently in the canvass for Mr. Harrison, and on the election of the latter again accepted the appointment as Secretary of State. Among the important ser- vices rendered in this office he took a 584 ORATORS AND STATESMEN. Leading part in settling the Samoan difficulties in the treaty between Ger- many, England and the United States, and successfully invited and most effi- ciently presided over the Pan-American I Congress held in Washington. In June, 1892, Mr. Blaine resigned his office to become a candidate for the Republican Presidential nomination, but failed to receive it. He died in 1S93. BRIGHT, JOHN. For many years Mr. Bright was ac- corded the great honor in England of being " the tribune of the people," de- fending them by his peerless eloquence, his untiring efforts and commanding abilities, from unlawful oppression, and advocating just and equal rights for all citizens. He was a power in Parliament and the nation. He was born in 181 1, and was edu- cated at a Friends' school, his family being members of that sect. He early enlisted in the Anti-Corn-Law League, and was elected to Parliament for the city of Durham in 1843. He remained in Parliament many years, exercising great influence by his sturdy honest)', his liberal opinions and impassioned eloquence. As a consistent friend of liberty and equal rights, he testified his sympathy for the Federal Government during our Civil War by a number of public speeches that attracted much attention. Mr. Bright was an ardent advocate of the Reform bill, granting the right of suffrage to every householder in a bor- ough, which was signed by Queen Vic- toria on the 15th of August, 1867. In March, 1868, he made a powerful ad- dress on Ireland, of whi^h the London "Spectator" said: "Mr. Bnght's grand speech did more to draw the noblest men of all parties nearer to each other than long years of discussion had ef- fected before." He declined the office of Secretary for India, which was offered him, but entered the cabinet ot Mr. Gladstone as President of the Board of Trade in 1 Sc^S, from which he was compelled by ill health to retire in 1870. Died March 27, 18S9. BROOKS, PHILLIPS. This eminent American clergyman was born in Boston, December 13, 1835. He graduated at Harvard College in 1855, and studied at the divinity school near Alexandria, Virginia, and was or- dained in 1859. From this year until 1869 he held Episcopal rectorships in Philadelphia. Mr. Brooks was a man of most impos- ing presence, possessed of rare scholar- ship and eloquence, and attracted marked attention from the beginning of his public ministry. His discourses were profound in thought, elevated in spirit- ual sentiment, abounded in gems of rare beauty, and deeply impressed the cultivated audience that listened to them. Having been called to a rector- ship in Boston, his fame increased, and a short time before his death, which occurred in January, 1893, he was ele- vated to the house of Episcopal Bishops. CHOATE, RUFUS. A scholarly American lawyer, born in Essex, Massachusetts, October 1st, 1799, graduated at Dartmouth in 18 19, and was admitted to the bar in 1823. He sat in Congress from 1830 to 1834, when he settled in Boston. Here his singular eloquence rapidly advanced him to the place of leader of the Massa- ORATORS AND STATESMAN. 585 chusetts bar ; indeed, it has been claimed for him that he was the most eminent advocate New England, or even Amer- ica, has produced. After a term in the United States Senate, 1841-45, he re- turned to his profession ; in 1859, his health giving way, he sailed for Europe, but stopped at Halifax, Nova Scotia, where he died July 13. His writings, with a memoir, were published at Boston in 1862. CLAY, HENRY, When reference is made to America's greatest orators it is customary to men- tion the name of Henry Clay among the very first He was frequently called, "The Mill Boy of the Slashes," from the fact that he was a poor boy and was born in a district in Virginia called "the Slashes." The date of his birth was April 12th, 1777, and he died at Washington, June, 1852. He served successively in the Ken- tucky Legislature, State Senate, United States House of Representatives and Senate ; and was one of four candidates for president in 1 824, and also a candi- date in 1844, being defeated both times. In person, Mr. Clay was tall and slender, had a voice of wonderful range and sympathy, was remarkably easy and graceful in manner, and few orators who ever lived possessed such persua- sive power. "Take him for all in all," says Parton, "we must regard him as the first of American orators ; but pos- terity will not assign him that rank, because posterity will not hear that matchless voice, will not see those large gestures, those striking attitudes, that grand manner, which gave to second- rate composition first-rate effect. His "speeches will long be interesting as the relics of a magnificent and dazzling personality, and for the light they cast upon the history of parties." DEPEW, CHAUNCEY M. This distinguished citizen, prominent in railroad affairs and politics, was born in Peekskill, N. Y., in 1834, and grad- uated from Yale College in 1856. Asa young man Mr. Depew came into notice as an effective stump-speaker and an orator who could adapt himself to al- most any public occasion. Genial in disposition, with an unlimited fund of anecdote and remarkable fluency of speech, he has become widely known and universally popular. In 1 86 1 he was a member of the Legis- lature of New York, and two years later was elected Secretary of State, sub- sequently holding the position of Presi- dent of the " Vanderbilt Roads." His writings consist of addresses and ora- tions delivered on various occasions all of which are finished productions and place their author among the foremost orators of America. Mr. Depew has al- ways taken an active interest in poli- tics. His services are sought in every Presidential campaign and what he has to say commands wide attention. He was elected to the United States Senate from New York in 1899, and took his seat on December 4th of that year. DOUGLASS, FREDERICK. This American orator was born in Maryland in 18 17, his father being a white man and his mother a negro slave. Permitted to work in a ship- yard in Baltimore, he escaped in 1838 to New York and thence to New Bed- ford, Massachusetts, where his negro employer, who had just read Scott's 586 ORATORS AND STATESMEN. u Lady of the Lake," induced him to substitute Douglass for the name of Bailey, conferred on him by his mother. In 1 84 1 he attended an Anti-slavery Convention at Nantucket, and spoke so eloquently on the subject of slavery that he was employed as agent of the Massa- chusetts Anti-slavery Society, and lec- tured for four years with great success. In 1845 he commenced a lecturing tour in Great Britain, where a contribution of seven hundred and fifty dollars was made to buy his freedom. Returning to America he established in 1847, at Rochester, New York, "Frederick Douglass' Paper," a weekly abolition newspaper. Mr. Douglass was appointed to a number of Federal offices at Washing- ton, which he filled with credit to him- self and satisfaction to the several ad- ministrations that selected him for the various positions in which he was placed. In person he was tall, well proportioned, had a rich, mellow voice, good command of language, and at times in his public efforts rose to the highest order of eloquence. EVERETT, EDWARD. He was born at Dorchester, Massa- chusetts, April nth, 1764, and gradu- ated at Harvard in 1S1 1. At the age of nineteen he had alreadv gained a hi eh reputation as a Unitarian preacher in Boston. In 181 5 he was elected pro- fessor of Greek in Harvard College ; and to qualify himself more thoroughlv for his work he visited Europe, where he resided for four years, and had a dis- tinguished circle of acquaintance. Vic- tor Cousin pronounced him "one of the best Grecians he ever knew." In 1820 Everett became editor of the "North American Review,'' and in 1824 a member of Congress, sitting in the House of Representatives for ten years. In 1835-38 he was four times elected governor of Massachusetts ; and in 1841-45 he was minister plenipoten- tiary at the court of St. James. While in England he received the degree of D.C.D. from Oxford, and LL.D. from Cambridge and Dublin. On his return to America he was elected president of Harvard College ; on the decease of Daniel Webster he became Secretary of State ; and in 1853 he was returned to the United States Senate. In i860 he was nominated by the Constitutional Union party for the vice-presidency of the United States, receiving 39 electorial votes out of 303. He died January 15, 1865. Everett's principal works are "A Defence of Christianity " ( 1 8 14); several fine poems ; and his eloquent "Orations and Speeches" (4 vols., 1836-59), covering a wide range of subjects, and indicating a varied, vigorous and flexible genius. His Memoir of Daniel Webster is pre- fixed to the collective edition of his friend's works (6 vols., Boston, 1852.) GAMBETTA, LEON. A French advocate, statesman and renowned orator, born at Cahors, 1838, of Genoese extraction. He early dis- tinguished himself at the bar by his facile address, and, entering into the political arena, became one of the leaders of the advanced Republican party Elected a member of the Corps Legis latif in 1869, Gambetta, on the fall of the empire, September 4, 1870, became a member of the Government of Na- tional Defence ; distinguished himself by his energy, and on Paris being be- ORATORS AND STATESMEN. 587 sieged ,by the German armies, did not hesitate to depart from that city by means of a balloon, in order to get to Bordeaux, from where, for some months, he exercised almost dictatorial power, continuing the war with perhaps more patriotism than prudence. On the election of M. Thiers as Presi- dent of the French Republic, he again resumed his place in the National As- sembly, in the deliberations of which he continued to take an active part. In 1879, ne succeeded M. Grevy as Presi- dent of the Chamber of Deputies, and in 1881 was made Premier, a position he held but a short time, owing to dis- agreement with the Chamber on politi- cal questions. He died in 1883. GARFIELD, JAMES A. The twentieth President of the United States, was born in Cuyahoga County, Ohio, November 19, 1831, graduated from Williams College, Mass., in 1856, and adopted the profession of law. In 1856-60 he was a member of the Ohio Senate, and in 1861 entered the army as Colonel of the 42d Ohio Volunteers, and was made Brigadier-General in 1862. In 1863 was appointed Chief of Staff to General Rosecrans, and served with him up to the battle of Chicka- mauga ; for gallantry in this action he was promoted to Major-General of the Volunteers (September 19, 1863). He resigned from the army to take his seat in the 38th Congress from Ohio, and was placed on the Committee of Military affairs. He continued to serve in Congress upon the most important committees and as Chairman of the Committee on Military Affairs, and also as Regent of the Smithsonian Institute. Tn 1880 he was elected Senator from Ohio, and at Chicago, on June 8, 1880, selected as the nominee of the Republi- can party for President of the United States. On the 35th ballot, the vote stood, Grant, 313 ; Blaine, 257; Sher- man, 10 1 ; Garfield, 50, besides other scattering votes. On the 36th ballot, the vote counted 309 for Garfield, which gave him the nomination. He was elected by 219 votes in the Electoral College against 150 for Hancock. He died at Long Branch, N. J., Sep- tember, 19, 1 88 1, from bullet wounds inflicted in Washington, D. C, by an assassin, July 2, 1881, and was buried at Cleveland, Ohio, amid the lamenta- tions of the whole civilized world. Mr. Garfield was born to command. He was a giant in intellect, an impressive orator, a true-hearted man and an orna- ment to his country, to the highest position in the gift of which, he rose from a poor canal driver in his boyhood. GIBBONS, CARDINAL. This distinguished prelate of the Papal Church was born in Baltimore in 1834, and baptized in the Venera- ble Cathedral of that city, in the very diocese of which he afterward became archbishop. At the age of ten he was taken by his father to Ireland, where he began preparatory studies with a view to the priesthood. His brilliant talents marked him from the outset for a distinguished position in his calling. Step by step he rose to fame and influence, and was especially successful in gaining the confidence of his super- iors, who looked upon him not only as a brilliant scholar and orator, but also as a wise and faithful counsellor. On June 30th, 1886, he was elevated to the position of Cardinal on the 25th anni- 688 ORATORS ANP STATESMAN. versary of his ordination to the priest- hood. Although raised to so high a rank, Cardinal Gibbons has always maintained a quiet, unassuming deport- ment, and has greatly endeared himself to the myriads of his flock in Amc Wise, generous, learned, the author of that noted book, "The Faith of our hers," which stands as the American logy for Catholicity in the niue- ath century, Cardinal Gibbous is in every way fitted to rill the position at the head of the hierarchy in the United States. He has always been loyal and devoted to those great principles of truth and freedom which ensure the welfare of the state and of the people at large. GLADSTONE, WILLIAM EWART. Mr. Gladstone may be called the most eminent English statesman, orator, and author of the nineteenth ceuturv. He was born in Liverpool in December, 1809, and graduated at Oxford in 1831, having gained the highest distinction in classics and mathematics. He was eleeted to Parliament by the Conserva- tives in 1852, and appointed a lord of the treasury by Sir Robert Peel in December, 1 S54. From this time on Mr. Gladstone advanced steadily from one position to another until he was chosen to the very responsible office of chancellor of the Exchequer in the cabinet of Lord Pal- merston. From being a Conservative Mr. Gladstone gradually adopted Lib- eral opinions and principles until in 1S68 he became prime minister. His speeches and orations in Parliament and out were the wonder and admiration of even his opponents. He contemplated great measures for the welfare of his country, including the extension of the suffrage, the formation »f public schools and the disestablishment o( the Irish Church. Mr. Gladstone was preeminently a scholar, and through all his long and distinguished career he found time to indulge in authorship, some of his pub- lished works showing the marked abil- ity which characterized him as a states- man and orator. He passed into a ripe old age laden with honors, and died May 10, 1898. It is enough to say that Mr. Gladstone must be named in that bright galaxy of distinguished men which includes our own Webster and Clay, while in some respects he is easily superior to every other statesman and orator the ceuturv has produced GOUGH, JOHN B. Orator and reformer, whose lectures on temperance and other subjects, deliv- ered throughout America and Great Britain, produced the highest oratorical and dramatic effects, was rescued when a young man from a life of dissipation, and soon rose to unparalleled fame as a platform speaker and temperance advo- cate. Born at Sandgate, Kent, Eng- land, 1 S 1 7 ; he came to Xew York when but a boy, and had a hard struggle with poverty. His later life was marked by comfort and the most happy home influ- ences. Stricken with apoplexy while lecturing at Fraukford, near Philadel- phia, and died, 1886. QRADY, HENRY WOODF1N. He was born in Athens, Ga., May 17, 1851, and died in Atlanta, Ga., Decem- ber 23, 1889, Xo written memorial can indicate the strong hold which this voting orator had upon the Southern people. Although he died at the early age of thirty-eight, his fame was world- ORATORS AND STATESMEN. ;89 wide, and there was perhaps no man in the nation more honored and respected, both North and South, than was this phenomenally gifted writer and speaker during the last few years of his life. On the 2 1 st of December, 1887, Mr. Grady, in response to an urgent invita- tion, delivered an address at a banquet of the New England Club, New York, which attracted wide attention. This, and similar speeches, did much to wipe out the prejudices engendered by the war, bridge the bloody chasm, and draw the two sections into a closer union. HARRISON, BENJAMIN. Harrison is an honored name in the history of our country, several members of this family having distinguished themselves in public life, and two of them, William Henry and Benjamin having been elected to the highest of- fice in the nation. William Henry, " the hero of Tippecanoe," was elected President in 1840 by a large majority over Van Buren, but survived his in- auguration only one month. Benjamin Harrison was elected to the same high office in 1888, receiving the vote of all the old free States except Connecticut and New Jersey. Four years later he was defeated by Grover Cleveland, the most commanding figure in the Democratic party during the last two decades of the century. Mr. Harrison was born at North Bend, Ohio, in 1833, and graduated at Miami University in 1852. He left his law practice in Indianapolis to become col- onel of the Seventieth Indiana Regi- ment, and during the Civil War served in the Army of the Cumberland. He participated in the capture of Atlanta and was made brigadier-general. In 1880 he was elected from Indiana to the United States Senate and was soon re- garded as one of the strong men in the upper house of Congress. His erudi- tion, forcible speech and honesty of purpose gave him an enviable name, and these qualities he exhibited as the Chief Executive of the nation. After retiring from the presidency Mr. Harrison gave lectures upon law in California, and returned to his law practice in which he was always con- sidered as holding the highest rank. LINCOLN, ABRAHAM. Next to the name of Washington none stands higher on the roll of illus- trious Americans than that of Abraham Lincoln. Indeed, the sixteenth Presi- dent of the United States, the skillful pilot who guided our ship of state through the stormy period of the great Civil War, is one of the most majestic figures in history. The occasion was great, and he was not only equal to it, but rose above it in such magnificent proportions as to impress the whole civilized world. While he cannot be called the " Father of his Country," he has been denominated its saviour. The tragic close of his life by the hand of an assassin gave him somewhat of the character of a martyr and has renderec 1 his memory peculiarly sacred. Mr. Lincoln was born in Hardin County, Kentucky, February 12, 1809. He learned the little that the back- woods schools were capable of teaching, ' and was employed in rough farm-work until at the age of nineteen he took on a flat-boat a cargo to New Orleans. This was followed later by a second trading voyage, both of which showed 590 ORATORS AND STATESMEN. the enterprise and self-reliance of the future celebrity. He studied law, re- moved to Springfield, Illinois, and soon attracted attention as a rising young lawyer of marked ability. He was elected to the State Legislature in 1834 and served until 1842, having by this lime become a leader among the Whigs. In the latter year he was married to Mary Todd, daughter of Robert Todd of Lexington, Kentucky. In 1846, Mr. Lincoln, was elected to Congress, but his service was limited to a single term. In 1854, Stephen A. Douglass, United States Senator from Illinois, by his Kansas-Nebraska bill, repealed the Missouri Compromise of 1820, and reopened the question of slavery in the territories. When the Republican party was organized in 1856 to oppose the extension of slavery, Mr. Lincoln was its most prominent representative in Illinois. A public de- bate on the political questions of the hour between him and Senator Doug- lass in 1858, attracted the attention of the whole country and brought out brilliantly Mr. Lincoln's great power in debate, his ready eloquence, his practi- cal common sense, his fund of humor, and placed him among the foremost men of the country, preparing the way for his electior f .o the Presidency in i860. He did all that lay in his power to avert the Civil War, but plainly avowed his intention to uphold, according to his oath, the Constitution and adminis- tration of the laws of the country. How ably, how wisely, how fearlessly, and with what fidelity to his country's cause he did this, with what charity toward his enemies he carried himself, with what far-sighted wisdom his public measures were promulgated, and how he stood like a massive, immovable tower of strength through the great con- flict that rocked our nation, is now a matter of well-known history. The Federal arms having been vic- torious after many defeats, and Mr. Lincoln having proved himself to be master of the situation, he was re-elected by a large popular majority in 1864. In his second inaugural address in March, 1865, he rose above the ordinary rangf of such occasions, and like an inspired prophet set forth the profound moral significance of the war he saw drawing to a close. A month later he entered Richmond, from which Grant had driven Davis and Lee. On the 14th of April, 1865, ne was assassinated by J. Wilkes Booth, an actor, and died the next morning. The national rejoicing over the return of peace was turned into grief for the martyred President. The whole civil- ized world joined in expressions of sor- row for his fate. Mckinley, william. The highest distinction that can be conferred by our country has been bestowed upon this American states- man, who was born at Niles, Ohio, February 26, 1844. He enlisted in the U. S. army in May, 1861, as a private soldier in the 23rd Ohio Volunteer Infantry, and was mustered out as cap- tain of the same regiment and brevet- major in September, 1865. He was prosecuting attorney of Stark county, Ohio, 1869-71. Being elected to Con- gress in 1877 ne lost his seat, through some technicalities in the election, by vote of the house in 1884, but was re- elected and sat continuously as a mem- ORATORS AND STATESMEN. 591 ber of Congress from 1885 to March 4, 1891. He became famous as the author of the protective tariff bill passed by Con- gress in 1890, a measure which was largely modified by Mr. Cleveland's administration, but the wisdom of which has been claimed by Mr. McKinley and his party as being fully vindicated. In 1896 he was nominated with great enthusiasm for the Presidency by the Republican party, and was elected in November of that year by an immense popular majority. In his conduct of the Spanish-American War and his treat- ment of all the difficult questions arising from time to time, his course has been approved by a large majority of his countrymen and his fame as an orator and statesman has been established. MOODY, DWIGHT LYMAN. This celebrated American evangelist was born at Northfield, Mass., January 5, 1837. He came of poor parentage and was deprived of educational advan- tages in his boyhood. For a while he was a salesman in Boston, and in 1856 went to Chicago where he engaged with remarkable success in missionary work. In 1870 he was joined by the well known singer, Ira D. Sankey, who was born at Edinburgh, Pa., in 1840. In 1873, they visited Great Britain as evangelists, attracting vast crowds and laboring with phenomenal success. They afterwards returned to America and worked together in all the large towns, awakening great enthusiasm among the churches and exerting an influence such as had never been known before in evangelistic work. Mr. Moody probably addressed a larger number of people than any preacher of modern or ancient times, his audiences ranging from 5,000 to 20,000 and upwards. Possessed of a strong physique, a hearty genial manner, a voice of great penetration and power, a fluent utter- ance, a simplicity necessitated by his lack of education, but which added greatly to the effect of his discourses, he was for nearly forty years the most con- spicuous figure in religious work. At his home in Northfield, Mass., Mr. Moody planted schools for the education of both sexes, raised hundreds of thou- sands of dollars to establish and equip them, and left them as a monument to his liberal spirit, his great financial ability and his untiring energy in his labors for the welfare of others. Mr. Moody died in December, 1899, and Christian people throughout the civi- lized world expressed their sense of bereavement, and with glowing eulogies honored the man and his work. REED, THOMAS BRACKETT. Few American statesmen have had the reputation of being possessed of such eminent ability as this legislator, who was born in Maine, October 18, 1839. He graduated from Bowdoin College in i860 and studied law. In 1864 he entered the navy as acting assistant- paymaster, remaining in that position until 1865. He then resumed his pro- fession. In 1868 he was a member of the lower branch of the Maine legisla- ture, and next session was a senator. He was attorney-general of the State for two years, and city solicitor for Portland for four years. He was elected a member of Congress in 1876, and afterward was continuously re-elected until he resigned his position in 1899 for the purpose of resuming the IS . \ s ■ -• \ \ s \ d : C the 1 st C press speak . -- i \ e was s pari i . esid< cy, SALISBURY . LORD, *.n in In iS :, ho s in 8 N . g . ss . - . . I 885 - oth< ' . \ : j . S isbnry has commanded :'•. ce of the cons - ■ . is - w as, j et h< and ont : ft w - Brit lore successful or ♦rv SHERM \\. JOHN. \V le no! tor as some of his s, M Sher- - a promi- abi- - H Was a He was Lancastf ■ . Ohio, in 1 823, was 1 at Lancaster, st aw with his bro- at Mansfield, and afterward pi ticed ior ten years. In 1855 he was elected to the Thirty-fourth Congress in the interest of the Free Soil party, and was ...... . - . . \ two Cot* '. : . . . .-. j\n\ . • on the « as ■ ecog . 6 H < 3 t he was States s< . . .. ame q he « as a and asions efibi ts were x. ablican tosecur* nomination v\ . w hich, hon ever, successful. His name is asso resumption v N . tsures ■a h .•'■. pro\ 1 icumen as .1 . In person, Mi Shermi ill and .or, has .1 con^ manner oi lave possessed . over thoughtful .mJ ...... aiott SfHJRQEON, CHARLES HADDON, 1 preacher, who has est since the the A.postles, was bom in 183 ;, was educated in a master's school near Cambridge. Against the oppose many of his relatives w ho ? ients, he ." Baptist \ tews, and became very active in religious work, He preached his first sermon when only sixteen years of age, and a . later preached at Waterbeach near Cambridge, becoming pastor of the chapel there This edifice soon failed f to hold the crowds that came to heat the well known young preacher. l-.'.\ n London having come to him, he finally le pastorate of the new Park Street Chanel, address ing his first congregation there in 1853. ORATORS AND STATESMAN. 693 The chapel was soon found to be too sniall and it was enlarged. The first enlargement, however, proved insuffi- cient, and its size was again increased, and finally it became necessary to build the Metropolitan Tabernacle, which was opened in 1861 and accommodated some five thousand people. Here the famous preacher gathered immense audiences, and carried on a remarkable work in the education of young men for the minis- try, and in establishing a home for orphans. After 1855 Mr. Spurgeon published one sermon a week, the whole number being upwards of two thousand. Pos- sessed of a wonderful voice of vast range and mellow qualities, Mr. Spurgeon could easily address twenty thousand people in the open air and make him- self distinctly heard by this vast multi- tude. His labors, however, told upon him and his death occurred in 1892. SUMNER, CHARLES. This distinguished American lawyer and senator was born in Boston, Massa- chusetts, in 181 1, and graduated at Har- vard College in 1830. He soon after- ward published several volumes of law books which exhibited profound learn- ing. Having travelled abroad several years, he pronounced in Boston on the 4th of July, 1845, an oration on "The True Grandeur of Nations," which attracted much attention in the United States and in Europe, the design of which was to promote the cause of peace. Mr. Sumner was elected to the United States Senate in 1850 as the successor of Daniel Webster. During his long public career he was noted for his schol- arly attainments, his brilliant orations 38 and strong anti-slavery sentiments. All of his public addresses were very elabo- rate, expressed lofty and patriotic views, and are now among American classics. The death of Mr. Sumner occurred in 1874. TALMAGE, THOMAS DeWITT. This widely-known clergyman was born in New Jersey in 1832, and grad- uated at the University of the City of New York in 1853. After holding var- ious Dutch Reform pastorates, he set- tled over a Presbyterian church in Brooklyn in 1869. Having been de- prived by fire of his Tabernacle on two different occasions, he removed to Wash- ington in 1895. He has published several volumes of sermons and other works of a miscellaneous character. His style is graphic and often humor- ous, and his attractiveness as a public speaker drew crowds of hearers. In 1899 he retired from his church in Washington and devoted himself to literary work. VICTORIA, QUEEN. Among the most noted women of the century a place must be accorded to the Queen of Great Britain and Empress of India, whose reign has not only been distinguished by a longer period than was ever before attained by any Eng- lish sovereign, but by remarkable prud- ence, conspicuous womanly demeanor, great wisdom as a ruler and profound concern for the welfare of the many millions of subjects who owe allegiance to the "empire on which the sun never sets." Victoria was born at Kensington Palace, May 24, 18 19. She succeeded her uncle, William IV., June 20, 1837, as Victoria I., and her coronation was ORATORS A.ND STATESMEN, ted in Westminster Abbey June :>, 1838. She was married February 1840, to his late Royal Highness Albert of Saxe-Coburg Gotha, bj whom she had nnmerons issue. In 1 So- the Queen « .1 the 60th anniversary of her reign amid unparal- leled rejoicings on the part of her sub- jects, and congratulations from all the ruler" rf the world. VINCENT, JOHN H. He was born in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, in 1832, studied for the Methodist min- istry and became an itinerant preacher. He edited the Xew York " Sunday School Journal," and in 1874 founded the Chautauqua Assembly. Mr. Vin- cent was intimately connected with educational work at Chautauqua and elsewhere until he became in [888 a bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church. WEBSTER, DANIEL. One of America's most distinguished statesmen and orators, whose intell. nal and oratorical triumphs at the bai and in the forum were long the pride of his country. He had warm polit friends and bitter enemies. The latter accused him of a time-serving spirit, and an unscrupulous ambition to ob- tain the Presidency. His literary style is pure and elevated, and all his writ- ings, including his political speeches, bear the stamp of the highest order of genius. Mr. Webster was born at Salisbury, Xew Hampshire, and was educated at Dartmouth College. He studied law. rose rapidly in his profession and was soon regarded as a fit antagonist for Jeremiah Mason, who was regarded as the greatest lawyer in the State, and was many years older than Webster. He was elected a Representative in Con- gress and took his seat in 1813, Here he distinguished himself bv his legal acumen, his commanding presence and powei fill eloquence. He continued to serve in the House of Representatives until 1828, when he was made United States Senator, repre- senting Massachusetts. He gained great fame by a number of public addresses on important occasions, such as the celebration of the lauding of the Pil- grims, the dedication oi Bunker Hill Monument, etc., while his memorable reply in Congress to Havue, of South Carolina, ranked him as an orator with- out a peer. It was in this speech that he uttered the famous words, "Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable "' Mr. Webster was accused by his op- ponents of being over ambitions to ob- tain the Presidency, and of truckling to the slave power in the endeavor to obtain a nomination for that high office. Be that as it may, he did not succeed, and after a career whose brilliancy, all things considered, has scarcely been equalled in modern times, he died in [852 at Marshfreld, Massachusetts, leav- ing behind him a great name in our country's annals. W1LLARD, FRANCES E. One of our most distinguished Amer- ican women is the subject of this sketch. No one was mote widely known or universally respected. She possessed talents of an unusual order, a warm and earnest spirit, untiring energy, the ability to influence others, and seemed to be lacking in none of those qualities essential to successful achievements. ORATORS AND S IEN. 595 She was an orator of the first rank, and therefore deserves an honored place among the conspicuous names that stand out on these pages. Miss Willard was born in Church- vilh-. N. Y., Septembei 28, 1839, am * was educated at Milwaukee and the I h western Female College at Evans- ton, 111., from which she graduated in 1859. She became Professor of Natural Sciences there in 1862, and was princi- pal of Genesee Wesleyan Seminary in 1866-67. She was known throughout the country for her devotion to the cause of reform, especially that branch of it embraced in temperance work. Jn i ^74 she gave up all other en- gagements to identify herself with the Woman's Christian Temperance Union, and was immediately made correspond- ing secretary, discharging the duties of this office until 1879, when she was elevated from the position of secretary t to that of president. In 1 $76 led Dwight L. Moody in his evangelistic work and render* rvio She organized the Home Protection Move- ment and sent an appeal from nearly 200,000 people to the Legislature of Illinois, asking the temperance ballot for women. In 1888 she was m president of the American branch of the International Council of Wo;, and the World's Christian Union. In [892 she visited England and teceived an enthusiastic welcome from the friends of reform in that country. She- was at the head of the Women's Com- mittee of Temperance Meetings at the World's Pail in 1893. Miss Willard was one of the most celebrated women of the centra nowned leader whose name will 1 be honored, not only by her own but by everybo he died in Xew York, February 18, 1898. CHAPTER XLII. Various Celebrities and their Achievements. (TTX -i great variety of pursuits individuals with exceptional talents dis. *"| ting shed themselves during the century. These comprise Military 2A. Naval Commanders, Inventors, Explorers, Artists, Musicians, Finan- ciers, Statesmen, Orators, Poets, Novelists, Actors, etc. The of :'. i, and their successes are noted. rreatest ALLISON, WILLIAM B. rhe career of this distinguished Sen ator affi >ther striking proof of the power and influence belonging to the individual num. Money talks some men, social influence for others, learning- and culture fol and brains for others. The last-named el< inent of success belongs especially to Mr. Allison. Combined with it is his sterling integrity and a character that has never been called in question. For a long time he has stood in the halls of the United States Senate, tak- ing an active pa: t in all its delibera- tions and debates. lie is considered a statesman, eminently wise and safe. While it may be said that he has gained large experience in Congress, it may also be said that he brought his ex: ence with him. He was a man of pub- lic affairs, prominent and widely known before going to Washington. It was but natural that, having gained a loeal celebrity, he should be transferred to the wider field. Mis native State is Ohio, where he was born at Perry, Wayne County, March 2, 1829. Like many others who have molded the affairs of the nation, he spent his early years upon a farm. 596 In t862 Mr. Allison was eleeted to the 38th Congress as a Republican, He served in this capacity with such fidelity and distinction that he was re- elected to the three succeeding Con- sses. His re-election, his neighbors were accustomed to remark facetiously, was chronic Ho served continuously as a member ofthat body from Decem- ber ;. 1863, until Mat eh ;, iS~i. Often he was appointed on important com- mittees, and, being a willing worker, was soon known as one of the most industrious and aetive members o( the House. At the same time he kept in elose touch with his constituents at homo. Thev marked his achievements and were prond of his advancement in the estimation of the public. He was al- ways found at the post of duty, never shuffled or evaded any question of im- portance, was always willing to have his opinions known, and was always able to give a reason for the faith that was in him. In [873 he was eleeted by the Legis- lature of Iowa to the United States Senate to sneeeed James Harlan, and subsequently was re-eleeted several times almost without opposition. VARIOUS CELEBRITIES AND THEIR ACHIEVEMENTS 690 ARMOUR, PHILIP D. The ancienl nations were in the habit of speaking of the seven won- ders oi the world. If we w- d to give a list oi the seven wonders of America the city of Chicago would mo I uredly be one of them. It sits like a queen at the feet of the great chain of lake , win' h, taken together, are nothing less than an immense inland ■• growth has been rapid and phenominat Within the memory of living men it was only a village, located on marshy ground, then giving no pro be- coming the great metropolis of the West While many causes have combin< render Chicago a city whose growth has been extraordinary, it is no less true that much is due to the enterprise oi her cit- izens, among whom are numbered men of broad ideas, exceptional business ability, and an integrity made of gold unmixed with dross. One of these citi- zens whose remarkable success* fa given fame to Chicago is Mr. Philip l). Armour — a full-grown man, looked at from every point of view, whose busi- ness career, whose unimpeachable char- acter and faithful endeavors in every walk of life, have made him COnspicUi in the city of hi nee and widely known throughout the country. He was born in Stockbridge, X. Y., May ! l6, 1832, and received his education in the district school of his native town. Like many young men. he was und the impression that some other part of the country than the one in which he was born and reared would afford a wider field for activity and success, and started out to seek his fortune, going to California in 1851. This was only two or three years after the discovery of gold, but Mr. Armour found, even at that time, that fort . not picked up in a day. and he u t f ]js_ ointment \\\ 1850, he left Califor- nia. ' '.hat he could do better - .' - where. Mr. Armour went to Milwaukee, Wis., where he embarked in the commiv business, meeting with the '.hat might be expected from a man of his ability. In com.' rith John Plank- ington, of Mil wank- '.ablisbcd a packing house, and for a number of years devoted to the bu his time and energies. This was in 1863, and in 1868 the Chicago ' tabli hmentof P. D. Armour & Co. was founded, which has branch houses in Kansas City and N York, and extends its trad': all over the world. These packing houses are im- mense establishments, and, except by actus ration, no one would be able to get an accurate idea of the vast busi- that is carried on. One of the most magnificent presents Chicago ever received was from him, and the Armour Institute, fully en- dowed, stands not only as one of the finest ornaments of the city, but also as a monument that will perpetuate the memory and philanthropic disposition of the founder. BARTHOLDI, FREDERIC AUQUSTE. A curious irony of fate has decreed that the man whose genius has erected one of the most impressive monuments of peace was born in a land that has for been the cause and the scene of war. The man who gave the best efforts of his life to commemorating international amity is by the remorse- less decree of conflict a man without a country, his native home the spoil of the 598 VARIOUS CELEBRITIES AND THEIR ACHIEVEMENTS. traditional enemies of his race. It was at Colmar, in the vexed province of Alsace-Lorraine, that Frederic Auguste Bartholdi was born, on April 2, 1834, and a true Alsatian he has ever been. Many of his best works are studies drawn from that country, often patriotic in spirit. When the war of 1870 rolled the tide of devastation over his native fields, he was the bravest of the brave in the front rank, vainly striving to repel the resistless invader. And when Ger- man swords cut the provinces away from France, and German bayonets pinned them fast to the German Empire again, he forsook his home rather than live under a foreign flag ; changing his skies, but not his heart. M. Bartholdi studied painting in his youth under Ary SchefTer, at Paris. But the bent of his talents lay toward sculpture, and to that branch of art he finally devoted all his attention. His greatest work is the statue of Liberty which overlooks the Harbor of New /ork. The right hand, bearing a torch was sent to the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876. On Washington's birthday, February 22, 1877, Congress in flattering terms accepted the statue as the gift of the French nation, and set apart Bedloe's Island as its site. The head of the statue was finished and shown at the Paris International Exposition of 1878. On the Yorktown anniversary, October 24, 1 88 1, the framework was all com- pleted, and Hon. Levi P. Morton, Amer- ican Minister to France, drove the first rivet in the first piece that was mounted. More than 300,000 persons visited the workshop while it was being put to- gether. On July 4, 1884, the completed work was formally presented to the United States. Six months later it was taken down, packed, and in May, 1885, sent to America in the French govern- ment's ship "Isere." Meantime, by State appropriation and private sub- scription, the latter largely promoted by the enterprise of the ' ' New York World," a suitable pedestal had been built on Bedloe's Island. The work of putting the copper plates of which the statue is composed upon the framework was begun on July 12, 1886, and in October the great work was done. The unveiling occurred with imposing cere- monies on October 28, 1886. M. Bar- tholdi, M. de Lesseps, Admiral Jaures and many other eminent Frenchmen were in attendance. There were grand parades on land and water, and orations by Senators Evarts and Chauncey De- pew. BELL, ALEXANDER GRAHAM. He was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1847, and was trained in the calling which had become hereditary in his family, that of teaching the deaf and dumb to communicate with others. He studied at the Edinburgh High School, and then at the University of Edinburgh, pursuing the usual courses of study and, in addition, being specially trained in the orthoepic system of his father and grandfather. At the age of twenty he entered the University of London ; but the climate of Great Brit- ain did not agree with his delicatj health, and when his father, three years later, removed to Canada to take a pro- fessorship in Queen's College, Kings- ton, the son gladly accompanied him, and took up his residence in America. Mr. Bell came from Canada to live in the United States in 1872, having been called to Boston University, to be pro- VARIOUS CELEBRITIES AND THEIR ACHIEVEMENTS. 599 fessor of vocal physiology. There he elaborated and perfected the system, which had originated in his family, of causing the dumb to speak and the deaf to hear. He studied every phase of the topic, every department of the science of sound. He examined into the crea- tion of sound by the vocal organs ; the transmission of sounds by various medi- ums ; the reception and comprehension of sound by the organs of the ear. And thus, from endeavoring to make deaf- mutes converse at the distance of an arm's length, he went on to enable men to talk with each other, in their own natural tones of voice, at the distance of many miles. He first began to study the trans- mission of sound by electricity in 1870, the year he came from England to Canada. He was then merely trying to make more effective his teaching of deaf-mutes. His idea was to make, if possible, the tonal vibrations of the air visible to the eye. In this he came close to inventing the phonograph, which Mr. Edison thereafter gave to the world. He found that it was possible, by means of a vibrating plate armed with a stylus, to obtain a visible tracing of sounds upon a sheet of paper, or a smoke-blackened pane of glass. This process bore a close resemblance to the way the small bones of the ear are acted upon by the tympanum, and he con- tinued his experiments with an actual human ear, prepared for the purpose. Mr. Bell produced the first speaking telephone, obtaining a patent for it on February 14, 1876. On that very same day a patent was also granted to Gray for a similar device. The important difference between the two was this : Gray's telephone employed a battery, while Bell's used a magnet only. Mean- time another inventor had been at work, independent of these and indeed uncon- scious of what they were doing. This was Daniel Drawbaugh, a self-taught genius, living in an obscure Pennsyl- vania village. From 1867 to 1876 he devoted himself to electric research, and invented numerous telephones, some of them, it is said, almost identical with that of Bell. These rival claimants appealed to the courts for adjudication of their claims, and the verdicts have repeatedly been in favor of Mr. Bell, so that by common consent he is now regarded as the inven- tor. A company was organized, and tele- phones were introduced into every city and town, and they are now regarded as an every day necessity of business life. Mr. Bell has, of course, realized in enormous fortune from his invention. BOOTH, EDWIN. Edwin Booth was born at Baltimore, Maryland, on November 15, 1833. He was the fourth son of Junius Brutus Booth, himself the foremost actor of his day. The elder Booth was thirty- seven years old when Edwin was born ; at the height of his powers and fame. Between the father and this son a special sympathy existed ; undemonstrative, but deep and lasting. So while he was yet but a child he was taken from school to accompany his father about the country on his dramatic tours. Ed- win's education, therefore, was ob- tained by fits and starts. It was sup- plemented by much experience of the world, both of its caresses and its buffet- ings. The result was that he grew up thoughtful, observant, rather moody; VARIOUS CELEBRITIES AND THKIK. ACHIEVEMENTS i judgment, >e'. :"-•. cliant. infi e i . * 11, He v i at, too, and \ ed both pra animitj . In time, from s fath< .he became his le, and then at last his guardian e only one « ho could s< and influence that inspired but waj a ai d genius. Early in his I tiwin Booth went, with his father and brother, the hitter named I ( nia, and pla] i icisco and at Sa< h of the three had a benefit performance. First came that of the father, Junius Brutus Booth, in which he played " Richard 111.," the pons taking minor parts. Next came the benefit of - Brutus Booth, junior, that actor playing "Othello" to his father's "Iago." Last came Ed- win's benefit and he played "Jarner"* to his father's "Pierre." It was on that occasion, Edwin being- costumed in ck, that his father remarked, casu- ally, "Ned,youdo look like ' Ham . Why didn't yon choose ' Hamlet ' for to-night? " To which the young man answered, carelessly, " At my next bene- fit, I will." This was his first leaning toward the great part of which he has become the world's greatest exponent, and with which his name miKt be \o:- ever intertwined. A: great cost he erected in New York such a theatre as never before had been dreamed of in this country. It was the architectural gem ot the city. Its dimensions were vast, its seating capacity enormous. Its visual and acoustic properties were perfect. Upon its stage the greatest plavs could be enacted with every possible spectacular accessory. The scenery was gorgeous. and ever] mechanical equipment ? : - \ ided. Here Mi Booth gathered about him a company of the best ac and actresses in America, and g*ve rep- 1 atations of the greatest dramas with a perfection of detail and ensemble such as had before been unknown. result was that the unapprecia« tive pn . his theatre empty and flocked to see the "cheap and nasty" sensational plays that third-rate "barn- stormers" produced at rival houses. Mr. Booth was bankrupt, his own and his friends 1 fortunes swept awav and only debts left to remind him of his glorious ambition. He for \ eats lived with the utmost economy, in order to make good to his creditors and his -.ids the losses of his theatre. That done, he accumulated a handsome for- tune for himself. His fame as an actor was unrivalled. Died in 1893, CARNEGIE, ANDREW. Mr. Carnegie was born in Dunferm- line, in Scotland, on the 2$th of No- vember, 1835. When he was twelve years of age he emigrated to America and settled at Pittsburg with his par- ents and a younger brother. He was then almost penniless. He afterward, accumulated many millions, and wields .u\ influence in the industrial wot Id ai great, possibly, as that of any living man. It may be said that Mr. Carne- gie was exceptionally equipped for suc- cess both mentally and morally ; num- bering among his mental qualities shrewdness, persistence, a good mem- ory and an intuitive insight into char- acter, and among his moral qualities integrity, gratitude and geniality. but his phenomenal rise in life must be attributed largely to his following VARIOUS CELEBRIS D THEIR ACHI] fffi certain <\ ^ , Boers contained in preceding pages of this volume the reader will observe that the war began on October nth, 1899. On that day the Boer Government sent their historic ulti- matum. Two days later the British agent left Pretoria, the capital of the Transvaal. Natal and Cape Colonv were invaded, and Laing's Nek was occupied ; Mafeking and Kimberly were invested by the Boers, and an armored train with two guns was captured near Mafeking within the next two days. A combined movement was directed against the Brit- ish force of 4,000 men under General Sy- mons at Glencoe. Commandant Lucas Meyer made the attack on the 29th. Gen- eral Symons, the British commander, carried the hill on which the Boers had established themselves, captured their guns and drove them off, but he was himself mortally wounded and died a "day or two afterwards. A detachment of Hussars was cap- tured while pursuing the retreating foe. Meanwhile, the Boers had seized the rail- way between Glencoe and Ladysmith, and were only dislodged after a stubborn fight at Elandslaagteon the 21st. On this occasion Commandant Viljoen was tilled and two gnus were taken by the 39 British. The attempt to isolate the Brit- ish force at Glencoe thus failed, but, as another attack was threatened, the Brit- ish force was compelled to retire and join the main body at Ladysmith, leav- ing the wounded at Dundee. To cover his retreat, General Sir George White had to fight again, at Reitfontein, on the 24th, and again the Boers were dislodged. The loss on both sides on this occasion was heavy. A little later Colonel Baden-Powell in- flicted some loss on Cronje's command in a brilliant sortie and bayonet charge at Mafeking. Meanwhile Ladysmith was gradually being invested by General Joubert, and the British suffered great loss on October 30th. On that day about one thousand men, consisting of the Royal Irish Fusiliers, and the Glouces- tershire Regiment, with No. 10 Moun- tain Battery, were surrounded at Nich- olson's Nek and forced to capitulate. They were overcome after they had lost their ammunition through a stam- pede of the mule train. The British troops at Colenso were on November 2d forced to retire over the Tugela bridge, and all communication between Lady- smith and the south was cut off. Also the bridges over the Orange River into Cape Colony were seized. Aliwal North, Jamestown and Colesburg were occupied 609 010 LATEST EVENTS IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. on the 1 8th, and a considerable number of the Cape Colonists joined the Boers. The British then began an advance from the south, and Lord Methuen, command- ing at Orange River, pushed on, in an effort to relieve Kimberley, to Belmont, and on November 23d defeated a strong Boer force. Sixty- four wagons were taken and 50,000 rounds of ammunition, with 750 shells, were blown up. The British dealt another severe blow to the Boers at Enslin on the 25th, when the Boers fought under cover of a white flag. A Hard Fight. The position of Kimberley had much influence on the progress of the war. Cecil Rhodes went to the town on Oc- tober 1 2th, and pronounced it "as safe as Piccadilly." The force under Lord Methuen, five days after defeating the enemy at Belmont, effected the passage of the Modder River in the face of eight thousand Boers in " one of the hardest and most trying fights in the annals of the British army." The arrival of Sir Redvers Buller at Durham marked a new stage in the Ladysmith campaign. The Boers, after investing that place, had continued to spread south and toward the Tugela. Before the appearance of the British re- inforcements, they occupied Colenso, as well as Beacon Hill and the Mooi river. Among the prominent incidents of the British advance were a night attack on the Boers at Willow Grange and the armored train engagement at Chieve- ley, on November 15th, when Winston Churchill especially distinguished him- self. General Hildyard made an attack from Estcourt on Beacon Hill, and Gen- eral Jonb Mt had to withdraw in the di- rection of Colenso and Ladvsmith. On the last day of November Ladysmith was effectively shelled by the Boers from Lombard's Kop. On December 8th the British stormed Lombard's Kop and captured a Boer gun. Two days later, General Gatacre attempted to surprise the Boer position at Stormberg, in Natal. The attempt resulted disastrouslv, his forces beine raked by the Boers' rifle and artillery fire, without a possibility ol replying. While the Boer loss in this engagement was slight, the British lost 6S7 officers and men. Met "with Heavy Losses. On the nth General Methuen, in at- tempting to relieve Kimberley, attacked the Boer position at Magersfontein, north of the Modder. The British were forced to retire with heavy losses, Gen- eral Wauchope and the Marquis of Wor- cester being killed. Two days later the Boers, who were advancing south in Cape Colony towards Naauwport, were driven back by General French, with a loss of forty. On the 15th the British sustained another serious reverse. General Buller, in attempting to force a passage of the Tugela river at Colenso, was repulsed, with a loss of 1,097 on- cers and men and eleven guns. Three days later the British War Office an- nounced that Lord Roberts would be sent to command in South Africa, with. Lord Kitchener as chief of staff, and that 100,000 men would be sent to the front. For nearly the whole of the following month the hostilities consisted chiefly in an occasional sortie and in more or less harmless artillery warfare. But on January 6th the Boers made a desperate attempt to take Ladysmith. As early as 2.30 a. M. they attacked two strong LATEST EVENTS IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 611 positions of the British at Caesar's Camp and Wagon Hill. The battle was fiercely fought on both sides, and the positions mentioned were captured and recaptured three times, the British at the end hold- ing their own and inflicting tremendous loss on the Boers. The attack continued until 7.30 p. m., and at dark the Boers were driven out at the point of the bayonet. The Brit- ish losses were 450 officers and men, and those of the Boers were thought to have been very much heavier. On the same day General French reported a "serious •accident" at Colesberg ; a company of the Suffolk Regiment, with seven offi- cers, was captured, and more than a score of officers and men were killed. On this day also Generals Roberts and Kitchener reached Cape Town. Help for Lady smith. On January 12th the British army, under General Warren and Lord Dun- donald, prepared for a general advance from Colenso to the relief of Ladysmith. They crossed the Tugela at Potgieter's and Trichardt's drifts, and Lord Dun- donald's mounted troops engaged in a successful action with the Boers near Acton Homes. On January 20th Gen- eral Clery, with a part of General War- ren's force, fought for thirteen hours, driving the Boers from hill to hill for three miles. Next day he pursued them two miles further. On the 21st the Boers resumed the bombardment of Ladysmith. On January 23d General Buller an- nounced the capture of Spion Kop, the key of the Boer position on the Upper Tugela ; but two days later the news was sent that he was obliged to give up that position. On February 27th it was learned that a supply train had reached General White during this engagement. The losses at Spion Kop in the attempt to relieve Ladysmith were 1,985, and the total loss of the British to that date was nearly 10,000. Rumor placed the Boer losses at Spion Kop at 1,700. Meanwhile the bombardment of Kim- berley was continued, and it was re- ported, though without foundation in fact, that Colonel Plumer had relieved Colonel Baden-Powell on January 23d. The great failure of General Buller's second attempt to relieve Ladysmith was followed by a withdrawal south of the Tugela on January 27th. Important Movements. Three days later General Buller, the undaunted, told his troops that he hoped to be in Ladysmith in a week, and on February 5 th he again crossed the Tug- ela in a third attempt to relieve the be- leagured forces of General White. By the 9th he had recrossed to the south of the Tugela, being unable to make head- way against the strong Boer position at Vaal Krantz. With the operations leading up to the relief of Kimberley the whole course of the war seemed to change. The fact that Lord Roberts and Lord Kitchener had arrived and had gone, early in Feb< ruary, to the British headquarters south of the Modder River, seemed a good omen. From this point a movement for the invasion of the Orange Free State, led by Lord Roberts, began on February nth. An expedition under General Macdonald to Koodoesberg, fifteen miles to the westward, as been made to divert the Boers in that direction. On the 1 2th a force of cavalry, led by General French, who had made a bril- SIS s: EVENTS IN THK NINETEENTH CENT Coles . . le> . i here be n as « ich, n\ ho had the v •-.*.% The . es t M jers Phe s Robi ts 54 s, southeus By this! . G sued 1 Li Kn imy, Oonje's Last Stand. On ■ i fc] to K ( i ■ • arts -■- . ■ ere C i - st s tnd was s ed by the - i est sti« -. s SSlStUH - . - u ith 4,660 Roberts 1 - em< s was . . . \: 1 iTolens ?r sli§ . - - peo:> : g Bullets press to [«adysmith was stnbbotnl) was bj .. diminishing num- . them w v 1 g n\ ithdrav d to ass si Cn je on the ver. On February 13d the Boers gave . its final b* .... on the 24th, I e res rth- On the I smith, and on March 1st, General Bul- ler visitf the city siege and - i the g a vast ami During the the - cam- k - ■ . Bullets losses w< - the en- . e cos . . - - . 5 was un- . : . men. Brir.s'.-. Successes While these si 5 scenes wt erriver andal s ■ successful ft] Bra ha se forci 1 5 5 ter eig s of 1 fig iking ew . - . . sstothe tacre" > seven . se at tl . ' . - . - . ^ was . . . . t J - - ers soners rhesann em dements esberg vith l,ATJvS'i EVENTS IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 613 March opened witli rejoicing through- out the British Empire, and especially in London, over the rel if f of Ladysmith, for now it seemed evident that the war was drawing to a i lo e. For such a hope there seemed good reasons, since the Boers were everywhere retreating, [,u'lysinith being free of them, General Brabant having dislodged them from Dordrecht and a little later put them to rout, and General Gatacre having en- tered Stormberg without opposition. Meanwhile Lord Roberts was pursuing the Boers towards Bloemfontein. On March 7th, at r )sfontein, he turned their flank on the Modder river and put Gen- erals Dewet and Delarey to rout. White Flag Dishonored. Every day the British approached nearer to the Free State capital, their way being stubbornly opposed by the Boers. The latter again resorted to their former tactics of firing on the British undercover of a white flag and using explosive bullets. On March 12th Gen- eral French, the Kimberley hero, again distinguished himself by his capture of hills commanding Bloemfontein. The next day Lord Roberts and the British troops occupied the Orange Free State capitol, which was formally surrendered to him. On the 13th a letter from Presidents Kruger and Steyn, relating to possible terms of peace, and Lord Salisbury's reply, rejecting the proposition for the independence of the two republics, were read in the House of Commons. The offer of the United States to assist in bringing about peace was also declined by the British Government. The entry of Lord Roberts into Bloem- fontein, followed as it was by the occu- pation of Bishof, produced a speedy re- sult of the highest importance. On the 17th large numbers of Free State burg- hers surrendered, opened their shop-,, and went back to their farms, accepting British rule. Meanwhile the efforts to relieve Baden-Rowel at Mafeking were redoubled. A column which included the Kimberley Light Horse had started from the south, and Colonel Plumer ad- vanced from the north as far as Lobatsi, where he was repulsed on the 15th and again, near Mafeking, on the 3 1st. Hav- ing received the submission of the Free Staters and established a stable condi- tion of affairs, Lord Roberts prepared to move on towards Pretoria. March closed with the death of Gen- eral Joubert on the 27th and the capture on the 31st at Korn Spruit of 400 men, including the 10th Hussars and seven pieces of artillery. A Fresh Disaster. April opened with a disaster — that of Reddersburg, where on the 4th 500 men, including three companies of Irish Rifles and two of the 9th Mounted Infantry, were captured by the Boers The next day, at Boshof, the British captured a m all company of Boers, and Colonel de Villebois-Mareuil, the French military expert, wdio had been General Joubert's chief of staff. On April 9th the British garrison at Wepener was isolated, and the siege against Colonel Dalgetty and his men began. On the next day they also at- tacked General Bnller at Fvlandslaagte, in Natal. On the 11th General Gat- acre's recall to England was announced, and a week later the British War Office made public a report from Lord Roberts, in which he severely criticised Generals 014 LATEST EVENTS IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. Warren and Buller and Major Thorny- croft in connection with the battle of Spion Kop. A little later General Warren was ap- pointed Military Governor of Griqua- land West. On April 2 2d Lord Roberts dispatched General Pole-Carew to the assistance of General Rundle, who was hard pressed by the Boers at Wepener. But Generals Hart and Brabant, who had arrived before him, found the in- vestment abandoned and the Boers in full flight. Attempts to head them off as they retired were unavailing. Lord. Roberts' Advance. On April 30th the long-expected ad- vance of Lord Roberts' force from Bloemfontein began. Brandfort was occupied on May 3d, and two days later the Vet River was reached, when after a sharp battle, General Hutton's mounted infantry turned the Boers' flank. The Boer army fell back, and Lord Robeits captured a quantity of stores at Smai- dell. Winburg was also occupied by General Ian Hamilton. On May 12th General Roberts, at the head of the British army, entered Kroonstad, the temporary capital of the Free State, without opposition. Hundreds of Free Staters were re- ported as being anxious to surrender. Meanwhile. General Buller began his advance from Ladysmith, capturing Dundee, Glencoe and Newcastle, the Boers evacuating their positions on the Biggarsberg. On May 17th, Lindley, the latter temporary capital of the Free State, was occupied. Lord Roberts also announced the capture of three Boer Generals. But the piece of news that produced the greatest enthusiasm on the part of the sympathizers with the British cause was that of the relief of Mafeking on May 1 8th. Colonel B. T. Mahon, with his troops from the south, joined forces with Colonel Plumer on the 15th, and after hard fighting for several days, entered Mafeking unopposed. Colonel Baden-Powell, the gallant defender, was at once promoted from the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel to that of Major- General. Retreat of Boers. On the approach of Lord Roberts' army the Boers abandoned their strongly fortified positions on the Rhenoster river and retired across the Vaal river, partly destroying the railway bridge at Vereeniging as they crossed. On the Queen's birthday, May 24th, and the das- following, the left wing crossed the Vaal at Parys, west of the railway bridge. On May 27th the main body of the British army crossed the river un- opposed, near Vereeniging, and camped on the north bank. Roberts' army marched twenty miles on May 28th, reaching Klip River Station, within eighteen miles of Johnannesburg. On the following night the city was cap- tured by the British without serious opposition. Pretoria, the capital of the Transvaal, fell before Lord Roberts' advance, and the last blow was struck in the conquest of the South African Republics. Yet desultory fighting continued around Pretoria, the Boers retreating, then turning upon their enemy and con- tinuing their struggle to save the inde- pendence of their country. In these bloody engagements the British, for the most part, had the advantage and the hopeless nature of the conflict became, LATEST EVENTS IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 615 so far as the Boers were concerned, more apparent every day. There were many sympathizers with the British troops at Pretoria. Lord Roberts entered the town amidst the acclamations of a throng of people, who appeared to rejoice at the near prospect of an end of the struggle "and the dawn of peace. A Conspiracy. Lord Roberts reported to the War Office from Pretoria on August ioth that a plot to carry him off had been discovered. The conspirator against whom the principal indictment was laid was Lieutenant Cordua, an officer of the Staats artillery of the South African Republic. On giving his parole he was allowed to go at liberty in Pretoria. With the other conspirators he was placed on trial. The prisoners at first pleaded guilty, but were advised by their counsel to withdraw the plea and to take their trial. From the evidence it appeared that Cordua, a number of for- eigners formerly in the Boer service and some Boers formed a plan by which the headquarters of Lord Roberts were to be surrounded while the attention of the troops was diverted by the noise of firing in another part of Pretoria. Re- sistance was to be overcome by force and the commander-in-chief carried off, if possible. Lieutenant Cordua and another of the conspirators started off to communicate personally with General Botha. When all the arrangements were nearly com- plete, information was brought to the British headquarters' staff, one of the conspirators having divulged the secret to his sweetheart. The court, on Au- gust 22d, after forty-five minutes' delib- eration, found Lieutenant Cordua guilty on the charge of breaking his parole and entering into a conspiracy to kidnap Lord Roberts. Sentence was deferred until the finding of the court was con- firmed by the commander-in-chief, the judge having announced that the pen- alty of the crime would be death. Lieutenant Cordua was shot on the afternoon of August 24 th, Lord Roberts having confirmed the sentence of death imposed upon the lieutenant on convic- tion of being a ringleader in the plot to abduct him and kill British officers. Under date of September 1, Lord Roberts reported : " I have to-day issued under Her Majesty's warrant of July 4, proclamations announcing that the Transvaal will henceforth form a part of Her Majesty's dominions." The Transvaal Annexed. The annexation of the Transvaal meant in the eyes of the British Gov- ernment and authorities that the coun- try was now an integral part of the British dominions, and all the inhabit- ants British subjects. The British law lays down that any one taken in arms against the Queen, representing the constituted authority, is a rebel and traitor, and liable to the maximum pen- alty of death, under military law he may be court-martialed and shot in- stantly. Whether Lord Roberts meant to adopt this course was doubtful. But the proclamation was a precautionary measure to make his legal position secure should he decide it necessary to treat the Boers as rebels at a moment's notice. The next event of importance in the Transvaal was the sudden disappearance t>16 LATEST EVENTS IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. of President Kroger. The following .uch was received at the War Office in London from Lord Roberts, Septem- bei 13th : " Kroger has fled to Lorenzo Mar- ques, and Botha has been obliged to give over the command of the Boer army, temporarily, to Vilejon, on ac- count of ill health. In consequence of this I have circulated a proclamation as follows : " ' The late President Kroger, with CS and archives of the South African ublic, has crossed the Portuguese and arrived at Lorenzo Mar- ques, with the view of sailing for Europe at an early date; Kroger has formally resigned the position which he held as president ot the South African Republic, thus severing his official con- nection with the Transvaal. Kruger's actions show how hopeless, in his opin- ion, is the war which has now been car- ried on for nearly a year, and his deser- tion of the Boer cav.se should make clear to his fellow burghers that it is useless to continue the struggle any longer.' " Kx- President Kroger was offered an asvlum in Holland. MASSACRES OF FOREIGNERS BY THE CHINESE. AK1.Y in 19OO the attention of our own country and of European nations was turned toward [ ina, and reports of the massacre of the native Christians of China, and of the foreign residents, were received with horror. It was known that -:\ actors in this shocking were Boxers, the appalling de- which were scarcely believed . nee was forthcoming that : be questioned. As to what the Boxer IS, competent mon] comes from various sources consul of the es at Hong Kong, says : 'Thev are divided into lodges, and common signs and pass-wi wn only to themselves. They have Is of interrogating each other and re 1 manners in S and dishes at the table; of g their garments and saluting ther. They hold their meetings Usui st '. places in the dead he nighl Irawbk ad from their bodies, mixing it with water and pledg- ing each other to oaths of vengeance against their enemies The Boxers have adopted a flag bearing the motto : 1 Up With the c v -"■ - :< -y And Down U '.* The Boxer Society was evolved out of that celebrated secret association which is known in the North by the name of Peh-hcn-hui (White Lily S< - ciety)and in the South by the Sau-hoh hui (Triad Society). Like its mothei — ciation, it is a politico-religious or- ganization with verv simple tenets strict internal regulations, the details which are a sealed book to those not longing to it. All that is known to outsiders is that its members practice the art of boxing and prof.-- that in virtue of a cert incantation which thev recite mentally, their person is rendered proof to bul and fatal weapons. The first bistoi mention of them occurs about the mid- dle of the eighteenth eeuturv under the LATEST EVENTS IX Till-'. NINETEENTH CENTURY. 6iT reign of the Emperor ECienlung, when their organization went by the nanr: of I-hwa-men-kiao (Patriotic, Harmonious Sect). But it was not until the time of the Emperor Kiaking that the Boxers began to attract the attention of the ruling power. At the beginning of that Em- peror's reign they were discovered to have obtained a strong footing in the country districts on the borders of Shan- tung and Ifonan, and their activity SO rapidly increased that their sect or a ciation was interdicted in 1809; but in spite of occasional persecutions they have since then steadily increased in power and numbers. The Boxers. In the early days of its existence, the political tendency of the association was antagonistic to the existing dynasty, and its whole energies seem to have been directed to its overthrow. Latterly, however, taking shrewd advantage of the growing frietion between native Christians and non-converts, the Boxers have identified themselves with the tat- ter's cause and adopted opposition to the foreign creed and its professors as their principal creed. Still more recently, to ingratiate themselves with those in power, they adopted the popular legend of "Hing-Tsing mieh yang" (Up with the dynasty ! Down with foreigners !") As to the alleged close connection be- tween the Pekin court and the Boxers, there can be no doubt on the subject. In the first place it is a significant cir- cumstance that the open manifestation of anti-foreign activity by the Boxers coincides with the appearance of Prince Tuan on the political stage at Pekin at the beginning of the year 1900. We may here refer to an incidental de- scription of that important personage vl Princo Tuan," we arc told, "is a com- paratively young man of a little past fifty years, strongly built and with a commanding presence." During the last few years he has been assiduously cultivating the acquaintance of all classes of men, and there are said to be everal other traits in his character that distinguish him from the other mem- bers of the imperial family. Is Seeking a Throne. Evidently he is a man of lofty ambi- tions, for it is widely whispered that since the appointment of his son as heir apparent his aspirations mount no lo than the imperial throne itself. Be that as it may, there can be no room for doubt that he is deeply implicated in the Boxer agitation. To make his con- nection with the Boxers still more clear, it is stated that their leader, a notorious adventurer who made himself conspicu- ous in connection with an insurrection in Honan about 1888, has been staying with the Prince at his palace in Pekin, during which time they are supposed to have secretly plotted and intrigued together. It is highly probable, as is generally believed in well-known circles, that the ambitious but inexperienced Prince is a dupe in the hands of the artful I-hwa leader, who has an object of his own in view in the great conspiracy, which is no other than getting himself in power at court. Whichever may be the greater dupe, there seems to be no doubt that these two men have been working hand in hand. Numerous revolts instigated by the Boxers occurred between 1889 and 1895, 818 LATEST EVENTS IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. aggl ( ssion on Chinese .came nunc marked in the s, the society began a atless against missions, schools and Is, which finally cul- minated in the gene — 1000. in which missionaries and merchants \ v v.-- property Laid waste and de- e these devel- >tendom had tx ck< '. w ith so es tge upon I by the Box< s, etj of the R 01 of :' es acn ised in num in April and Maj . a] passed without rum s I ipidly until the po* ers wert s< ,1 by the ! and the - and missi events attending the Complaints of Outrages lj in Ju • Boxei Russi.. I to down the Boxei sing Man) »ter C --.t a ss ge to \Y >n comp] that tive On J h the miss I Yan Tin was - R Imm< China gerons Boxer ■ - On Jane 8 American missionaries in various pans of China asked President Mckinley for protection. The Chinese foreign office refused the use of the rail- : . to Pekin to foreign troops Next came the news that the City of Tung Chow, near Pekin. was burned and twenty missionaries killed. China pro- against the presence of foreign troops. Attacks on Foreigners. ly in June, Chinese mobs com" pelled a _aeis to seek refuge in the legations, which were surrounded by armed B seers. The threatening aspect of affairs in Pekin cans, anxiety among the European Powers and in the Unil S tes. The Chinese Kmperor led the Powers to aid him in quelling the Boxer uprising. It was announced that Prince Tuan had been ster of Port igr A .. rs The -< Dowager forbade foreign troi - liter Pekin. On June 15th the Japa- •. was burned and the Chan- or killed. On the same date, 4,000 Russian tree;- were lauded at Taku. The next day Pekin mol - '^.. : . for- the legations. cl immediately ordered six regi- ments from Ind China, and 1200 American troops were landed at Taku. On June 2 1st, the American Consul- - Ts i n w as dest r y ed . United States Admiral KemprFurgently ed for more tro - .1 ships, and Ninth Unite S S Infantry sailed Taku. About this time, United 5 Ada Remey was ordered to 9e minister a: Wash- tstice, which The n< \ lay, June roth, j,ooo J - were landed at I .vi EVENTS IX THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 619 T.ikn. Admiral Seymour, (British) with ;ni expedition, endeavored to M a< li Pekin, l>ut was compelled to t urn to Tien-Tsin. n ited that • • ■ surrounding Pekin On July 14i.l1, occurred the battli Ti< n-'J sin, in which epo eral thousand Chin lain. Admiral KLempff announced that the foreign ministers in Pekin had been ordered to leave, but refused. It ited 1 hat 1 he Boxer upi ising spreading and southern provim in revolt. Determined Fight. In the first day'-, combined attack upon the native < il forty guns bombarded the Chinese positions. The righting wras mosl determined, and the allies' lo reheavy. EightChin guns were captured, and the Chin< 1 were driven out of the w< rial after a fierce cannonade. The guns of th< did imi.. damage to the native city, causing many large conflagrations, and finally silem majority of the enem) ' . guns simul- taneously. Then 1500 Russians, assi by small parties of Germans and French, tilted and captured eight guns that were in position on the railway embank- ment and the fort, the magazine of which the Fren< b subsequently blew up. A body of American, British, Japan and Austrian troops then ma : tie, and attacked the west arsenal, which the Chinese had reoccupied. Afterthi hours of the hardest fighting yet <■ d, the Chinese fled. When the arsenal had been evacuated by the Chinese, the Americans, Pr< Japanese and Welsh Fusiliers advanced toward the native city, and joined the other al - The Japa- ■ infantry and a mounted batt advanced to the foot of the walls, sup- ported by the Am' 1 nd French. De pite val the allies were only able to hold I • ing the assault in the morn. The > asuah ined by the allies inglyheav) to the Americans, French and Japan the international column in I on the natii '. i-Tsin. As they mo dil •>■ ei the open plain ard the entra u •■ to 1 1 u < ity the Chi:. adily from the walls. The Russians lost 300 killed and , inded. A Combined Attack. During the night the Japanese, Ameri- ked the city on the left wing. Thejapai Is, and, makii ach, gallantly entered, first of all the inter- national troops. The Americans occu- pied the mc .on and were forced to over absolutely unprote< ound. The Ninth In- fantry and a handful of marines lost many killed and wounded. Colonel 1/ cum was killed while leading his men. Li Hung Chang, the famous diplomat vice: summoned to Pekin from Canton, prepared to an his journey, which he declared was in the interests of peace. In reply to the British, French, American. German, and Portuguese consuls, who officially visited him in a body, Viceroy U Hung Chan^ insisted that his departure ^>r the north had a twofold object, namely, 620 LATEST EVENTS IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY to save the lives of the foreign Ministers in Pekin and to arrange the best terms oi peace possible with the allied Powers. For many days there was the utmost anxiety in our own country and in Europe concerning the representatives of the European Powers and the United States Minister, who, with the attaches of their offices, were shut up in the legations at Pekin, and were threatened with wholesale massacre by the Boxers The air was fall of conflicting reports, and definite intelligence was anxiously awaited. The allied Powers strained every nerve to reach Pekin with a rescuing force, and either save the foreigners there imprisoned or learn their fate. Cheering News. General Chaffee was in command of the American troops, and under date of August 15th, our government at Wash- ington received from him the following- cheering despatch : "We entered Legation grounds at five o'clock last night with Fourteenth and light battery. Eight wounded during day's fighting. Otherwise all well. "Chaffee." On the 19th a despatch was received from Admiral Remey which contained much interesting information in a few words : "Taku, Aug. 18.— Telegraph line to Pekin is interrupted. Information from Japanese sources indicates that the Em- press Dowager is detained in the inner city, which is being bombarded by allies. Chaffee reports that lie entered Legation grounds on the evening of 14th. Eight wounded during day's fighting, other- wise all well. " Remey." The startling feature of the despatch is that fighting within the city of Pekin was continuing, according to the advice.. of Admiral Remey. The inner, or, as it is popularly known, the Forbidden City, evidently had not been taken. It is surrounded by a massive wall of solid masonry more than twenty feet high, and it was not regarded as surprising that the Chinese should make their final stand within its shadows. Prior to the receipt of the despatch it was accepted generally as a fact that the Dowager Empress, in company with the Emperor and a large suite, had left Pekin. While no surprise was evinced at the statement of Admiral Remey that the inner city was being bombarded, some concern was expressed lest the final stand of the Chinese troops within what they regarded as most sacred pre- cincts would prove a serious affair. City of Pekin. Pekin comprises practically four citiei m one. In extent of area it is about the size of New York city. The four segments of it are the Chinese city, the Tartar City, the Imperial city and the Forbidden City. The last is the " Inner city," mentioned in Admiral Remey's depatch, and is the residence of the Emperor and the seat of the Imperial court. Nobody is allowed within its massive walls except by special permis- sion of the Emperor or Empress Dow- ager. The foreigners who have entered its gates are comparatively few in num- ber. The Imperial city is occupied only by the highest Chinese officials and members and attaches of the Imperial Court. The Japanese Minister at Washington received the following under date of LA'IKST EVENTS IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. 621 August 17th from the Japanese Consul at Chee-Foo : "The foreign forces attacked on the eastern side of Pekin Wednesday morn- ing. The enemy obstinately resisted. In the evening the Japanese blew up the Chiao Yang Gate and the Tung Chili Gate of the Tartar city and succeeded in entering. In the meantime other toreign forces entered the Chinese city by the Tung Pien Gate. Detachments were sent immediately to the legations and opened communications. The Min- isters and staffs were found safe. The Japanese loss was over 100, including three officers. The Chinese loss was computed at about 400." Foreigners Safe. Substantially the information con- tained in the above despatch was re- ceived by the Associated Press direct from Tokio. It contained the explicit and reassuring statement that " the Ministers and staffs were found safe." The officials of the Japanese legation were much gratified at the conspicuous gallantry displayed by the Mikado's forces during the advance upon Pekin, and they received with unconcealed pride the congratulations not only of the officials of our Government, but also of the diplomatic representatives of other countries at the capital. Another account is as follows, fur- nishing additional particulars : "The American and Russian flags were planted on the east wall of Pekin at 11 o'clock this morning (August 14th). The Indian troops entered the British Legation at one o'clock and the Americans at three. There was a joy- ful reception from the wall. " The emaciated tenants could have lasted but little longer. They had only three days' rations. The Chinese had been attacking furiously for two days. ! Four thousand shell fell in the Legation during the siege. Sixty-five were killed and 160 wounded. "The Japanese began the battr fore daylight. The plan was to make c general attack on the 15th, and the troops were arriving at camp, five miles east, all night. They were completely exhausted, and slept in the corn fields in the rain. Allies Press On. "The Generals, however, alarmed at the sounds of a heavy attack on the Legations, nushed forward independ- ently, the b. itish, Americans and French on the left of the river and the Russians and Japanese on the right. Beginning at two o'clock in the morning, the Jap- anese diverted the brunt of the resist- ance to the northern city, their artillery engaging the Chinese heavily there. u The Americans and British met with but little resistance until they entered the city, where there was street righting. Reilly's Battery attempted to breach the inner wall. The troops finally entered the foreign settlement through the canal. Company E, Four- teenth United States Infantry, planted its flag on the outer wall, Musician Titus scaling the wall with a rope, by means of which the others climbed to the top." Following the capture of Pekin efforts were made to restore peace and order in China. Germany took a firm stand in demanding the punishment of all offi- cials and others who were in any way concerned in the murder of the German Ambassador, Baron Von Ketteler, who n rs in rHE n*in r kn ckxti IV was d June being to avi «s in the ioth. settlement Chinese quest v u William Germany modified hei demands and an H was - to the Powers, agreement was reached, under the t< - a as reje< b\ the United o \\ hich tin S tps began oui government to leave Pekin on Octob< THE GREAT GALVESTON DISASTER. Is^O calamity that evei visited this country was in stTUCtive of life and property than the hurricane which swept ovei the cit] or S< ptember 8th. days the weathei had fting storm of g i it) . but the people of the fated cit) Suddenly they were overwhelmed by the waters rush- g com the Gulf, driven by the far} of winds. It would be useless to attempt to con- \ e] .v.-.\ of the bed g s< i ties that followed the invasion of the flood. The whole town was ovei wh< iss ay that there was not a building in the whole cit} which was Dot either destroyed oi damaged ts indicated the loss of several hundred lives. The number grew to a thousand. Then it grew to two thousand. Finally it was ted that five thousand persons lost their lives either by drowning or by in- ceivedfrom falling buildings floating debris. Still the honor grew, until the Governor of Texas expressed the opinion that at Galveston and other ices on the coast, 12,000 persons lost their lives as the resu I of the hurricane. Families were rent asunder, husbands and wives were separated ; in some in- stances whole families of half a dozen or more were swept away, and in other instances oulv one or two members o\ amilies escaped Many persons w '.-.. \ ed in comfort all the 1 li\ es were reduced to poverty and want moment Business men (bund I es and Stores had been swept away and the} were compelled to b< ovei ag Heartrending details wert turn the public concerning the av< al devas tatiou and the terrible calamity which Overtook thousands of families in the storm-stricken citj . The whole country sprang to the aid of the sufferers, Train loads of provi- sions and clothing were hurried to the scene of the disaster, and hundreds of thousands of dollars were contributed, these acts of beneficence proving how deep and heartfelt was the sympathy foi those suddenly plunged into want and sorrow. Nurses and doctors went from various cities in the North, South and West, and all that human skill and power could do to mitigate the suffer- ings of the victims was rendered by willing hands and hearts. Galveston is situated on an island. It is noted for many peculiarities, there being among other matters of import- ance, about fifty millionaires, the richest ,• :\, pci capita, in America; many mag nificent dwellings and imposing public buildings. It is called the "Oleandei City*' on account of the vast quantities of that beautiful plant everywhere visi- ble, whole streets being lined with it. 'I ..< / ' ,. IfUMl- t» r< I, K ing oJ Italy, on July, I9OO, if'" v/:. . b Btnmantu 1 I j ■-,//. III 1868 ..' g< in 1878 K 'i'li'- in'' out E [( .'.:: . ' h0 Ighl tO ■■ I J 4 . '.',:;. '',. til'' pari . of E d that tin of destruction - ind a lo< in .'. if tnbert planned in P r- donbling the vigilana E 1 Presidential Election oi 1900. ful in the "ion of [90 - P ent McK ::.i ; r« b of U,' six States that hrvr;:. electors in K>, nam'-. ngtofl and .eky. e 32 icky h& a r-'- v gain °97,394 869,039 1,980,329 13,294 ,311,786 147,545 668,507 1,002,717 212,592 11,380 314,120 1,421,661 305,391 1S60 064,201 435,450 379-994 34,277 460,147 4,837 112,216 75,080 140,424 1,057, 2S6 i,7H,95i 1,350,428 674,913 107, 206 1,155,684 708,002 628,279 687,049 1,231,066 749. "3 172,023 791,305 1,182,012 1870 18S0 28,841 6,85 326,073 672,035 93,5i6 5,880,735 992,622 2,339,5n 52,465 2,906,215 174,620 703,708 1, 109, So 1 604,215 40,273 315,098 1,596,318 n,594 775,88r 990,992 9,658 484,471 560,247 39,S64 537,4541 I4,iSi 125,015 131,700 187,748 1,184,109 14,999 2,539,891 1,680,637 1,194,020 364,399 1,321,011 726,915 626,915 780,894 i,457,35i 1,184,059 439,7o6 827,922 1,721,295 20,595 122,993 42,49i 318,300 906,096 91,874 4,382,759 1,071,361 2,665,260 90,923 3,52i,95i 217,353 705,606 1,258,520 8i8,579 86,786 330,551 1,225,163 23,955 442,014 1,054,670 9,118 1,262,505 40,440 802,525 864,694 194,3 622,700 135,17 146,608 177,60" 269,493 1,542,180 32,610 3,077,871 1,978,301 1,624,615 996,096 1,648,690 939,946 648,936 934,943 1^83,085 1,636,937 78o,773 :*-,i3i,597 2,168,380 39,159 452,402 62,266 346,99! 1,131,116 "9,565 5,082,871 i,399,75o 3,198,062 174,76s 4,282,819 276,53! 995,577 Total 12,866,020 17,069,453 23,111,876 31,443,221138,558,371 50,155,783 62,924,474(76,215,12^ 1,542,359 i,59 I ,749 143,963 332,286 1,512,565 75, "6 618,457 i,3i5,497 20, 789 1S90 1,513,017 59,620 1,128,179 1,208,130 419,198 746,25s 168,493 230,392 391,422 i,S37,353 84,385 3,826,351 2,192,404 1,911,896 1,427,096 i,S58,6 35 1,118,587 66r,o86 1,042,390 2,238,943 2,093,839 1,301,826 1,289,600 2,679,184 132,159 1,058,910 45,76i 376,530 1,444,933 153-593 5,997,853 i,6i7,947 182,779 3.672,316 61,834 313,767 5,258,014 345,5o6 1,151,149 328,808 1,767,518 2,235,523 207,905 332,422 1,655,980 349,390 762,704 1,686,880 60,705 32,052 89,990 180,182! 1900 1,828,697 122,931 i,3", 564 1,485,053. 539.7oo 9o8,355 184^735 278,718 528,542 2,216,331 161,772 4,821,550 2,516,462 2,231,853 i,47o,495 2,147,174 1,381,625 694,466 1,190,050 2,805,346 2,420,982 i,75i,394 1,55!, 270 3,106,665 243,329 1,068,539 42,335 411,588 1,883,669. i95,3io 7,268,012 1,893,810 319,146 4,157,545 398,245 413.536 6,302,115 428,556 J ,34o,3i6 401,570 2,020,616 3,048,710 276,749 343,641 1,854,184 518,103 958,800 2,069,042 92,531 63,44r i54,oor 391,960 APPENDIX B. Canada in the Nineteenth Century. IT may strike citizens of other countries as a somewhat U .umption, nevertheless it may be confidently claimed, that in no other country has constitutional gov- ernment mad'- olid and lasting progress, during the century, as in Canada, More than that, it may be claimed that not only has Canada led the way — she has actually forced the way and is still well in the van. This is not intended to carry with it any disparagement of the American Constitution. 'J "hat wonderful docu- ment is a product of the last century ; it was born full-grown. It seems to have been the design of the Fathers to make change as difficult as possible. They made it almost impossible, and the present situation is a testimonial at once to the perspicuity of the framers of the Constitution and the law-abid- ingness of the people who live under it. In Canada the situation as to Constitu- tional changes is very different. There is nothing that cannot be changed at the will of the Canadian Parliament, or of the Imperial Parliament, and the changes during the century have been many and important. It is a mistake frequently mad': historians, to assume that the modern British Colonial once the wonder and envy of, and the greatest fact in, the world — is due to the exercise of wisdom forced upon the Brit ernment by the loss of the American Colonies. Nothing of the kind. The British government's treatment of its colonies aftw the American E tion was, if possible, still more arrogant ano stupid than it had 1/ arly every one of the blunders of adminis- tration that drove the Americans into revolt was repeated toward Canada. The attempt to rule the colonies from Downing str< et n in for fifty and it was not abandoned until the flag of rebellion had 1/ raised and it was seen that the chc lay between reform and perpetual fer- ment. The cot i of r< sponsible gov- ernment — i. e., absolute freedom from dictation by the British government or Parliament in domestic affairs — was first made to Canada. It was made in full view of the probability — nay, many statesmen thought it was a certainty — that the ion would lead to speedy ranee of the . the cole and the mother country. The contrary has been t: - With the ,nies satisfied and settling their own quarrels the British Empire has leapt new life. The Colonial Empi thought a burden, but it is recognized that it is the Colonial Empire alone which gives Britain if as a world power, and that re gov- ernment is the factor which is lea' : up to closer union. Within the h . 5 Ski W!k ft M k "Nlr^ 0& l?+k^ 1 fiuf PRETORIA DAY IN TORONTO, LOOKING NORTH ON YONGE STREET Canada. All the world was at war, and had been so for many years back. In the course of the wars, the British Em- pire had been rent in twain, the public debt had risen to unimaginable dimen- sions, the country and its credit were supposed to be completely exhausted, and yet it was palpable that struggles and trials immensely greater than any that had been undergone had soon to be faced. The star of Napoleon was strongly ascendant. It was not merely loss of possessions that the country feared. were not one-half of the present figures, wheat was worth $3.75 per bushel. The one bright hope of the nation was in her naval strength. That had been growing prodigiously as the result of her trials. In the early years of the century came victory after victory. At length, Britain had shattered all her rivals at sea, and even the most despon- dent came to recognize that whatevei else might happen, the Empire could not be seriously damaged except from within. The dwellers in what is now Canada CANADA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTUkY a 3 bad their full share in all these anxieties and in addition had some very formid- able troubles of their own. Not only did they stand to lose by every I made by the Empire, but it was for many years an open question whether the Empire might not, at a push, attempt to save itself by throwing Canada to the wolves. They had already experi- enced one notable sequence of this kind. When Britain made up its mind to ognize American Independence, her statesmen also made up their mind that American government had authorized its delegates not to press for this land, which fact the British government ought to have known. Anyhow, away went the land. The loss of it must have been a severe wrench to the loyalty of the British North Americans ; in fact, such a surrender could not have been made had it not been for the pecu- liar composition of the British North American people. These were mainly of two classes : (1/ The French of Quebec and Acadia, !. l],*#i Ol II ' R [O PROVINCIAL PA R I to drive a wedge between France and the United States was of supreme im- portance. So in the final treaty of peace, the Americans got not only all the ter- ritory they were entitled to, but the British also gave them as a free gift all that part of Canada which now forms the States of Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois and Wisconsin. In extenuation, it may be said that the British government thought the country it ceded was worth nothing ; and against this it may be urged that the /DING — TORONTO the offspring of military settlers ; as Frenchmen, sore against the Mother Land which had surrendered them to England; Royalists almost to a man and as such and as ardent Roman Catholics utterly hostile to the French Revolution and all that it implied and almost equally dreading the American Revolution ; also embittered against the Americans by the knowdedge that it was in deference to American com- plaints that England fought France is America. (2). The other principal component of 4A CANADA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY the population was the United Empire Loyalists — the "Tories" who emi- grated, or who were driven with the grossest cruelty and indignity from the United States at the close of the war. This movement was one of the great emigrations of history. It exceeded many times over in numbers the great Boer Trek of which we have heard so much, and the results of it have been much more important. The U. E- Loyalists were by no means the riff-raff which it has pleased some American writers to call them. Early Immigrants. On the contrary, they were distinctly of the better class of Americans. They included the more recent arrivals from Britain ; the official class and all those whose business threw them in contact with the colonial authorities. The task they undertook in emigrating to Canada was one of much greater magnitude than that faced the Boers on any of their treks. They had to face, unpre- pared, a climate of great rigor, to settle a country almost unknown, and in nearly all cases they were not by previous habits of life well calculated to endure the hardships they had to encounter. From the very first, the people were devotedly loyal to the British Crown ; how could it be otherwise, composed as the population was, with the United States to draw off every emigrant or other person with any sentiment of hostility to Britain? Such a people would and actually did submit as gra- ciously as possible on every occasion when Britain in the attempt to create a better understanding with the United States sacrificed Canadian interests — as they were sacrificed on several occasions. For the first decade of the 19th Cen- tury, however, the British North Amer- icans lived in fear of absorption into the United States ; this, notwithstand- ing that the continuous naval victories of Britain kept war away from Ameri- can shores. But it is certain that the different French governments did not abandon the idea of some day recover- ing Canada. They had agents in Can- ada, in the United States, and among the Indians, stirring up anti-British feeling all the time. One of these agents, named McLane, was actually convicted and executed at Quebec. Loyal to the Core. The British forces in Canada were not more than a mere handful, and if there had been any treasonable spirit abroad, history might have had another page to it. That, however, the country, and especially the French part of it, was loyal to the core is proved by the fact that the Roman Catholic clergy in Quebec used to perform Te Dennis whenever news arrived of any such British success as the Battle of the Nile St. Vincent, Copenhagen, or Trafalgar. Yet the fear of war with the United States subsisted. Britain was continu- ally exercising her right of searching American vessels, and impressing Brit- ish subjects found therein. It is likely that the searching was neither conducted in, nor submitted to in the very best drawing-room manner. In 1807 the British man-of-war Leopard on the high seas attacked the American man-of- war Chesapeake, on the refusal of the latter to yield up some British seamen. This rupture created much excitement in both Canada and the United States. CANADA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. AS Forty Americans were killed and wounded in the affair and the British seamen were taken by force. Naturally enough a storm of indigna- tion arose in the States. Nevertheless, war did not then follow. As a matter of fact, Britain offered reparation for the affair and the whole matter might easily have been settled, but unfortu- nately the state of American party politics was such that nothing but a war with Britain would secure the sal- vation of the Republican party and the re-election of President Madison. This is one of many instances fur- nished by modern history in which great public interests have been made to bend to the exigencies of political parties. It is believed that the second war between Great Britain and the United States could have been averted by wise statesmanship and that patience and conciliation which are good for both the individual and the nation. A Foolish War. It is not necessary here to narrate the history of Napoleon's Berlin and Milan decrees, and of the British Orders in Council issued in retaliation. Suffice it to say, that both the French and British injured the United States ship- ping interests, but by all the canons the French being the aggressors, the United States should have gone to war with France instead of England. But it suited best to attack England and Can- ada on the cry of "Free Trade and Sailors' Rights;" and thus and so did one of the most foolish and wanton wars of history begin. The history of that war is wholly creditable to Canada. The American government had supposed that a great number of Canadians would revolt against the "tyranny" of Britain. On the contrary, the Canadian people rose as one man and, along with a mere handful of British troops, led by indif- ferent generals, they gave the Ameri- cans a rude awakening. Defeat after defeat was inflicted upon superior American forces. In quick succession came the loss of Mackinac, the surrender of Detroit, the defeat at Queenston Heights, with a loss of 250 killed and wounded and 900 surrendered. In the next campaign the Americans had learned they could not " rush " Canada. They brought up largely increased armies and achieved some success, nevertheless they had to submit to mortifying defeats at Raisin River, Stoney Creek, Beaver Dams, Chateauguay, and Chrysler's Farm, and at the end of the year were no better off than at the beginning. The cam- paign of 1 8 14 brought the Americans the bloody defeat of Lundy's Lane, with a loss in killed and wounded of 800 out of a force of 5000. The Capitol Burned. In the same year, a British force burned the Capitol at Washington and Navy Yard, and won the battle of Bla- densburg. The Americans have ever esteemed this an act of vandalism, but it was at least an offset to several similar exploits of their own, such as the burn- ing of the Parliament Buildings at York (Toronto), and the burning of unoffending villages such as Newark, Port Dover, etc., acts not justifiable in modern war, and so admitted to be by the more moderate American historians. While the land campaign had been a perfect failure from the American point 6A CANADA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. of \ iew, the naval campaign had been full of equally uncomfortable surprises for the British. The British govern- ment appear to have been totally with- out information as to the American naval strength. At no time did they send one-twelfth of their navy against the United States, and the ships they sent were individually smaller and less powerful than the American vessels. The consequence was that the sup- posedly invincible mistress of the seas received a quick succession of stagger- ing blows ; from which no doubt valu- able lessons were learned. But too late to be of any use in that war, for on Dec. 24, 1 8 14, a Treaty of Peace was concluded. Both nations were heartily sick of the affair. At no time did Britain want war with the United States. All she desired was that the United States should not be made use of by Napoleon in furtherance of his plans for creation of a world empire. As for the American people, in 18 14 the opinion was all but universal that the war they had was not of the kind they wanted. The Treaty of Peace. It was one thing to attack Britain when her face was set against a whole world in arms, led by the invincible Napoleon, and to attack a supposedly helpless and disaffected Canada. It was altogether another thing in i8i4with Britain victorious all along the line, with Napoleon caged, as he was supposed to be, safely in Elba, and with the British people demanding that their government send out Wellington with his Peninsular army, and a sufficient fleet at his back. Besides, in 18 14 Madison's second term was assured and there was no election pending. Every- thing, in fact, made the peace im- mensely popular. It is worthy of mention that not one of the causes of war as described in the American Dec- laration was mentioned at all in the Treaty of Peace. Canada came out of that war a differ- ent country. She began to feel sure of herself and the work of development went on apace. The task which the people had before them was one of enormous magnitude. The domestic situation of the people may be described as one of almost unconquerable diffi- culty in the midst of abounding plenty. At the beginning of the century, L,ower Canada contained about 250,000 people ; Upper Canada about 30,000, who doubled themselves within the next six years. Life in the Backwoods. A great number of them were per- sons who had been gently nourished and were suddenly called upon to face the same kind of a backwoods life that confronted the Pilgrim Fathers at Ply- mouth Rock. The pioneers of this generation, even in the Klondike, have no conception of the severity of the life their forefathers led. The latter had no tools but the axe, the plough, the sickle, the scythe, and the fork. They had to carry their seed and sup- plies on their backs over so-called roads that were only trails or bush tracks and were wholly impassable by horses. They had not only to swing the axe, but to learn how to do it ; and not merely to hold the plough but often to yoke themselves and their wives and pull it. They had to cut their wheat by hand, to thresh it with the flail, to CANADA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. a7 winnow it in the wind, and to pound it into a kind of meal in mortars, or often in a hole excavated in a hardwood stump. Altogether, the requirements made of the early 19th Century pioneer in Can- ada were such that the persons who survived it must have been very clear wheat indeed. One of the pleasant features of it was that there was no trouble with the Indians. There are no tales of massacre of, or by the Indi- ans who were "moved on" during the great expansion of Canada during the fust half of this century. The rights of the Indians were scru- pulously respected. Every acre of their land was bought and paid for, and its former owners provided with new homes before white men were allowed to enter upon it. The consequence of this humane and just policy has been that the Canadian Indian tribes, whose for- mer history was one of turbulence and bloodshed, have settled down and at- tained an advanced degree of civiliza- tion and are as nourishing and contented as any part of Her Majesty's subjects. A System of Tyranny. Hard as was the pioneer life, it was aggravated by many unnecessary evils. The system of government was tyran- nical and irresponsible. The British government kept sending out officials who were bumptious and arrogant to a degree, and appeared to be animated by an idea that the country existed for their benefit. They obstructed neces- sary reforms, were corrupt and partial in their administration, and allowed themselves to be led by cliques to such an extent that life became a burden to all who were not "with the government." Especially against settlers from the United States, of whom a great many came in immediately after the war, was the official ill-feeling shown. So that while settlement went on apace, busi- ness flourished, the vast Canal system set on foot, and educational and reli- gious institutions were being planted, political unrest existed. What aggra- vated the people most was the Clergy Reserve question. In 1791 land had been set apart in Upper and Lower Canada as endowment for "the clergy." These endowments were claimed by the " Established Church," which took the position that the clergy meant the Church of England and Scotland clergy A furious controversy raged for years around this question, the government of course siding with the privileged class. This was but one element of the discontent. The government was not really representative ; it was a mere shadow of freedom that the people, except the ruling class, enjoyed. Outbreak of Rebellion. The new American settlers were of course restive under such a condition. Their situation was very much like that of the Transvaal Outlander of 1890-9, and they were not slow in expressing their opinion of it. Things went from bad to worse, the government resisting every reform until rebellion actually broke out in 1837-39, both in Upper and Lower Canada, under Wil- liam Lyon Mackenzie in the former and Louis Joseph Papineau in the latter. In Upper Canada the affair collapsed after a mere riot. In Lower Canada it was more serious. In both provinces the risings were early crushed and the 81 CANADA IX Till-: NINETEENTH CENTURY. ringleaders thrown into prison. As many as 180 were sentenced to be hanged, but these sentences were only carried out in a few eases, the other sentences being commuted to transpor tat ion to the Antipodal penal settle- ment. Among the persons transported were many Americans who, under the usual American misinformation as to the state of feeling in Canada, had joined the insurgents under the delusion that they represented a revolutionary instead of a reform movement. The United States government had been very lax before and during the Rebellion, conse- quently ill feeling on both sides again arose very high. This was aggravated by the daring act of a few Canadians, who by night crossed the Niagara river, seized an American steam vessel named the Car- oline^ which had been used by the rebels, set her on fire and turned her adrift. The boat went burning on towards the Falls, > probably went to pieces on striking the rapids for she was never seen again. An American citizen was killed during the attack. Diplomatic Correspondence. A good deal of diplomatic correspon- dence followed, but no compensation was ever made by Britain. It is prob- able that American claims in this re- spect were traded off against counter claims on the United States for un- doubted laxity in not preventing Amer- ican citizens from giving aid and com- fort to rebels. Out of the Rebellion grew Reform. The British government sent an able man, Lord Durham, to report on the condition of affairs. This Report is one of the ablest documents in consti tutional annals. If it had been adopted as a whole it would have ended Cana- dian discontent. As it was, it set roll- ing a ball which did not stop. Upon it the British government founded a new constitution for Canada, that of 1841. By it, Upper and Lower Canada were united into a Legislative Union under the name of " The Province of Canada. " It was only a compromise. It grave equal representation to each Province. As Upper Canada was increasing much the more rapidly, a cry against the injustice and in favor of representation by population, was at once started up. The composition of the Upper Chamber was also defective, as it was too much the slave of the government. It soon became evident that this Constitution would be short-lived. Nevertheless it passed some good Reform measures. The Clergy Reserves. It settled the vexed question of the Clergy Reserves by fust taking care of the life interests, and then diverting the endowment to educational purposes. It abolished the Seigneurial tenure, or Feudal system, under which land had been held in Quebec. But government under it became more and more difficult, as the Upper Province's grievance about insufficient representation began to grow. At length the occurrence of the Amer- ican War of Secession drew the atten- tion of the people to the desirabilitv oi uniting themselves for the purpose of self-defence and advancement. Public opinion forced the hands of the poli- ticians. The leading men of both parties agreed to sink all their differ- ences and combine together to effect a CANADA TV THE NINETEENTH CKNTURY. a9 confederation of all the British North American Provinces. At the same time the seaboard colo- nies were moving toward a Maritime Confederation. Approaches were made toward them, and the upshot of it was that delegates were appointed and a grand conference was held, at which a scheme for the Confederation of all the British North American Colonies was agreed upon. The scheme so agreed upon was embodied in a Bill which was submitted to and carried by the Impe- rial Parliament, under the name of "The British North America Act, 1867." By that Act was called into existence the Dominion of Canada, with a Constitution similar in some respects to that of the United v States, in that the country is a Confederation, but differing materially in certain re- spects. The Dominion Parliament. The Canadian statesmen thought to avoid certain weaknesses that had been revealed in the American Constitution by the War of Secession, lately closed. Instead, therefore, of the State or Pro- vince being the unit, as in the United vStates, in Canada the residuum of sov- ereignty, that is all powers not dele- gated to either Confederation or Pro- vince, is reposed in the Dominion Par- liament, the Provinces simply having power over the matters delegated to them, and even there the Provincial Legislation is subject to revision by the Dominion Parliament. Sufficient time has not yet elapsed to prove whether this arrangement will work permanently. There have been fierce controversies between the Provin- ces and the Dominion on matters arising out of jurisdictions. Among them were the Rivers and Streams Case, in which the Dominion undertook to disallow an Act of the Ontario Legislature, dealing with the flotation of lumber on running waters. Another was the Manitoba Schools Case, in which the Dominion disallowed Manitoba legislation abolishing separate schools for Roman Catholics. In both cases the controversies ended in the dis- comfiture of the Dominion government; in the latter, the indignation aroused throughout the Dominion by the attack on Provincial rights contributed largely to the ejection from office of the Con- servative Party in 1896. So far the lesson to be learned from the history of the controversies is that the power to disallow Provincial legis- lation is a most dangerous one to its possessor. Provincial feeling is sure to fire-up in the event of any interference from Ottawa, and it is quite plain that a wise statesman would never use the power unless urgent consideration of public safety compelled him to do so; and even then he would probably 1 more political capital than he would make. Make-up of the Senate. Another fundamental difference be- tween the Canadian and the American Constitutions is in the composition of the vSenate. Canada had so recently come through an agitation for represen- tation according to population, that an arbitrary two Senators for each State was a quite inadmissable scheme, ab 0- lutely certain to give dissatisfaction. No good plan acceptable to all parties could be found. It was necessary to i consider the feelings of the smaller 10A CANADA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. Provinces, so at length a compromise was agreed upon by which an equal number of Senators was assigned to On- tario and Quebec, and the same number for Nova Scotia and New Brunswick combined. These Senators are ap- pointed for life by the Government of the day. It was supposed that by this means a Senate had been formed which would be fairly in touch with the people, and a means was provided by which a small obstructive majority might be swamped if occasion arose. That was where a great mistake was made. In the generation immediately preceding Con- federation there had been fierce political controversies and frequent changes of government. Everyone supposed that under the new constitution the parties would fairly alternate in terms of office. But to the surprise of everybody, the new constitution worked the other way. The Senate lias been reduced to an anomaly and a danger by the fact that during the past thirty years of Confed- eration, one party, the Conservative, held office for twenty-five years, and consequently the Senate became filled with Conservatives to such an extent that there was scarcely a corporal's guard of their opponents. Senate very Obedient. This did not matter much — except that the Senate was abjectly useless — as long as the Conservative party were in power. The Senate obediently passed every Conservative measure that was submitted. But in 1896 the Conserva- tives were ejected from office, and there- upon the Senate became a dangerous 1 nuisance. It began to reject the Liberal govern ment's measures for purely partisan reasons, and otherwise to obstruct the work of the House of Commons. Re- form of the Senate, and the making it responsible to the people is therefore one of the leading issues in Canadian politics as this book goes to press. In other respects the British North America Act has worked exceedingly well. Like all confederations it has proved expensive, for clashing interests have to be reconciled usually by ex- penditure of money. Under it a strong national feeling has grown up where formerly there was nothing but the spirit of loyalty to the Empire — and this without any diminution of the imperial loyalty, but with a decided increase of it. Members and Territories. The Dominion consists of the follow- ing members and territories : Original Members — Ontario, formerly Canada West and Upper Canada, Quebec, formerly Canada East and Lower Canada. Nova Scotia. New Brunswick. 1869. The Northwest Territories and Rupert's Land, the possessions of the Hudson Bay Company were added to Canada. 1870. Manitoba admitted. 1 87 1. British Columbia admitted. 1873 Prince Edward Island admitted. 1880. By Imperial Order in Council. all British Territories and posses sions in North America and islands adjacent, not already included in the Dominion of Canada, except Newfoundland and its dependencies, were annexed to Canada. CANADA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. All Districts — The Territories of Canada are divided into the following dis- tricts : Keewatin. Assiniboia. Saskatchewan. Alberta. Athabasca. Yukon (separate territory, 1898). Mackenzie. Ungava Franklin. The area of the Dominion is 3,653,946 square miles. The length of the frontier line is about 3000 miles. As before stated, the political parties sank their differences and united, in order to bring about confederation. The work being done, and the statesmen having discovered, from close personal contact, that there were radical differ- ences of opinion on nearly every sub- ject, the parties fell apart into their original ranks. The Great Northwest. The first work of any magnitude was to acquire and provide for the govern- ment of the great Northwest. Unfor- tunately this was carried out in such a manner as to arouse the hostility of some of the peoples transferred. In 1 869 a rebellion broke out under the lead- ership of Lous Riel, a French half-breed. He had oratorical, but little material assistance from Fenian organizations in the United States. The affair might have been serious had it not been for the formidable force sent. An Imperial force, under Col. (now Lord) Wolseley, crossed the trackless wilderness between Lake Superior and Red River, but I the insurgents dispersed on its arrival. [ A condition of the entry of British Columbia into Confederation was that a railroad should be built across the continent within ten years — a bargain which at that time was considered physically impossible of fulfillment. Soon after the bargain was made, a general election came on, and immedi- ately afterwards it was discovered that enormous sums had been paid ta the Premier's, Sir John Macdonalds, cam- paign funds by the contractors for the railway. Such was the indignation aroused in the country that the government re- signed. Hon. Alex. Mackenzie acceded to office and was sustained by the country after the dissolution which fol- lowed. He held that the bargain with British Columbia was impossible to fulfill and obtained a modification of it. He remained in office four years, during which much preliminary work on the C. P. R. was done. In 1878 Sir John Macdonald returned to power on the Protection cry. Canadian Pacific Road. As soon as the protection question had been dealt with he took up the Canadian Pacific, made an agreement with a syndicate who, in return for $25,000,000 and 25,000,000 acres of land and the gift of the works already com- pleted, agreed to build the line in ten years, and thereafter to own and run it. The company set to work with almost superhuman energy and actually com- pleted its road, 2000 miles, some of it of exceeding difficulty, in fifty-four months, instead of in the ten years allowed by the contract. More than 300 miles of the road was through solid rock. There were 12 A CANADA IX THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. bridges without number, some of them very large and high, and many costly tunnels. Altogether it was an achieve- ment in railroad building which has not yet been surpassed anywhere. But there had again been a failure to consider the feelings of the people, whose mode of life had been upset by the sudden entrance of civilization. The government had not treated fairly the Indians and Half-breeds whose lands had been taken. Rascally agents and careless and incompetent ministers had combined together to create such a state of affairs that another rebellion broke out. The discontented Indians and Half- breeds sent for Riel, who had been living in Minnesota, and on his arrival took up arms. The first use made of the Pacific Railway was to transport troops for the suppression of the rebel- lion, the troops marching past a gap north of Lake Superior where the rails had not yet been laid. Uprising Suppressed. There was considerable loss of life in this rebellion, and had it not been that the government sent an overwhelming force (whollv Canadian except the com- manding officer) there might have been a general rising throughout the North- west. Even as it was, it is probable that the Canadian government owed its escape from a catastrophe to the fact that its treatment of the Indians had been traditionally just and gentle, and that the variation from its usual line had not been too widespread. In 1878, the government, Hon. Alex. Mackenzie, was defeated by Sir John Macdonald, who had raised a cry in favor of Protection for home industries. What gave strength to this vfy was the feeling of resentment against the Amer- ican government which, in deference to the anti-British feeling, had abrogated a Reciprocity Treaty formerly existing between Canada and the United States. The abrogation was made in the expec- tation that Canada, deprived of its markets, would become discontented and poor, and by and by would want to become part of the United States. What it really did was to stir Canada up to provide markets of its own and to develop its export trade with Britain. The Canadian people readily followed Sir John's lead in the matter. They gave him an enormous majority. In 1879 the Protective Tariff was put in force. In 1882 Sir John was again returned to power, on the cry that the protective tariff needed increasing ; again in 1887, and yet again in 1891. New Premier. Shortly after the last named election he died. He was succeeded iu the Pre- miership by Sir John Abbott, who from ill-health resigned a year afterwards, and by Sir John Thompson who, after leading the Conservative party success- fully for two years, died at Windsor Castle while lie was in the act of await- ing the conferring of the dignity oi Privy Councillor upon him by Her Majesty. The next Premier was Sir Mackenzie Bowell, who took the office in 189^. His party soon became dis- united. The Manitoba School question which had been in politics for some time past, now pressed for settlement. The Liberal opposition, under Mr.J (now Sir) Wilfrid Laurier, began to develop great strength. A cabal was formed against Sir M. Bowell in his patty. U<- vrai fbr< ed to n Sir Charles Tupper was called to J'.-- ■;..;< rship, th< .. Parliatn pired soon i , tlic ' ' ' on i on and I ively di Sir VV j 1 f r i <-] Lanrief powei in June, 1896 Eie seti ,v 100I Question by 1 ition in / of disallowance. His first finatu a prefi reiu e in w of the importation of manttfactntt ... tt of 25 cmnt of the duti- , ■ a ed to ': without asking from Britain, but ;js an au the Mother Country, th< irn- tpnlar in both Canada Britain, and it const the in the imposing 1 1 89; year of her reign. ■ of and her - the latter upon the field of battle in Africa, as their mo\ valuable and aid. of -var Car. ants as did olo- . as K 1 ' - . .v re joyful.', .. ' ' - mem her contrib ■ 1 Sir Donald Smith, ' ■ Jl'r - Alt/,. ':'/-'- , intell:; the : anlt wh.- er of ' 11 Uj .... . - the Afr: of tl which I uvest? THE PROVINCE OF ONTARIO. A bi tline of the I his- tory of the the rill not b ace, the •Ott t by a line 1 from the c the Ohio hich strikes through the Lake of th' jn the north by the English river and south . ates bottfl m\.' including the the CS within its li:. 500 .' nature aim ith • have ye' On entering 14A CANADA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. ince was under the control of a coalition ministry at the head of which was Hon. John Sandfield Macdonald. The leaders of opposition were Alexander Macken- zie, subsequently Premier of Canada, and Edward Blake, afterwards Minister of Justice in the Dominion, then leader of the Dominion opposition, and now member of the Imperial Parliament for South Longford and a leader of the Irish Home Rule Parliament. Hon. John Sandfield Macdonald's government was a fairly able and eco- nomical one. Its management of the finances was careful, and as in the adjustment of accounts at confederation there was a large balance in favor of Ontario, the treasury accounts soon showed a large surplus. A policy of aiding railways was entered upon and bonuses were voted to the extent of several millions of dollars. A line of cleavage soon manifested itself as to the policy to be pursued. Government Defeated. Mr. Macdonald took the autocratic view that the government of the day should select the railway to be aided, while the opposition maintained that the selection should be left to the House. A crisis grew out of the dis- pute, and in December, 1871, the gov- ernment was defeated on Mr. Blake's motion, that the House should make the selection. A ministry was formed under Mr. Blake, but soon afterwards that gentleman retired from the arena of provincial politics and Hon. Oliver Mowat, who had been on the bench for a short time, re-entered politics, and in October, 1872, became Premier of On- tario. He retained the office until July, 1896, a period of twenty-four years, at the end of which he resigned to enter Hon. Wil- frid Lanrier's cabinet as Minister of Justice. In the meantime he had been knighted. His period of office was not only the longest in the history of Brit- ish administrations, but was singularly almost uniformly successful. His finan- cial administration was brilliant. He left the Province in what is probably the soundest position ever attained by an Anglo-Saxon community. Money in the Treasury. It is out of debt, has a large cash surplus in the treasury, and is possessed of solid assets of land and timber of the value of hundreds of millions of dollars. It fell to his share to bear the burden of a number of constitutional controversies with the government of Sir John Mac- donald, and though the Litter gentleman prided himself on his knowledge of con- stitutional law, he was on every occa- sion when the cases got before the Privy Council worsted by the Premier of On- tario. There was also an acrid contest about the boundaries of Ontario, which was won by the Province. The contention of the Dominion was that Ontario ex- tended westward only to about the hear of Lake Superior, but it was establishe i that the Province's claim to territory far to the westward was good. The reform of the judicature system, the perfection of the Liquor Licensing laws, the development of Municipal institu- tions, and the educational system were among the tasks performed during Sii O. Mowat' s premiership. On Sir Oliver's resignation he was succeeded by Hon. A. S. Hardy, who had been Provincial Secretary and CANADA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY AlS Crown Lands Commissioner in the pre- ding regime. After about three trs of fruitful work, Hon. Mr. Hardy resigned on account of ill-health. He was succeeded in the Premiership in October, 1899, by Hon. G. W. Ross, I,. D \)., who now holds the office. Dr. Ross was a member of the. Dominion Parliament in which he distinguished himself as one of the most competent critics and sound debaters. He was called by Sir O. Mowat to join the latter's ministry as Minister of Education in 1SS0. His tenure of this offi< e was marked by the skill and cour- with which he steered his depart- ment through several fierce controver- sies arising out of the peculiar situation in which the Canadian Provinces stood with regard to the education of religious minorities.. Rights of Minorities. The rights of these minorities in Ontario and Quebec are secured by the British North America Act. The vari- ous questions arose out of differences of opinion as to the methods in which the guaranteed rights should be dealt with ; whether grudgingly and according to the strict letter of the law, or according to the spirit of the law. The government of which Dr. Ross was a member took the ground that the minority — Roman Catholic in this case — should be dealt with liberally ; that the efforts of the Legislature should be to secure instead of to limit the rights of the minority. The conse- quence was that when the opposition sought to compel the use of the Protes- tant Bible in the Roman Catholic schools, the government placed itself on record as opposing what, in the shape proposed, would have been persecution. At the ensuing election the govern- ment was sustained. So .also at elec- tions in which the leading questions were whether the Roman Catholic g< hools should be aided or hindered in the collection of their share of the school taxes; and again when it was sought by the opposition to pro cribe the of the French language in the schools. Altogether, Dr. Ross had a stormy term of office and it may safely be said that he left the Education Department not only with the respe< t of his friends, but with that of his political enemies al His premiership has been distinguished by the taking of several important steps looking to the speedier development of the enormous natural resources of the Provii Ontario Timber System. Here it is proper to say a few words about the very successful manner in which the timber resources of Ontario have been managed. Ontario has about [8o,000 square miles of timber land, vast areas of which will, when cleared, maintain a large agricultural popula- tion ; but much of it cannot be profit- ably yjut to any other use than growing timber. The system of administering the timber land is a peculiar one, which has been evolved out of the local cir- cumstances and is proving immensely successful. The Province does not sell the land, but periodically, when the market is good, puts up for sale- by pub- lic auction, the right to cut timber upon certain limits. The purchaser pays down a lump sum for this privilege, in addition to which he has to pay an annual license fee and certain dues at CANADA IN THE \ \ TKrxTU CENTURY. per M. on .ill the timber he cats; and the regulations wl made by the government •.i time to time both his purchase It is not uncommon for purchasers to pay as much as$i,< i r square mile for fch« to cut pine. G judges estimate that notwithstand it the Pro; eived many millions i - Id, yet the rise in been such that the standing unsold lini'. , the public worth more than the whol< the rests were at the previous time. And where..-. onlj .. :Vw years ago I the pine was of any worth iding, now many of the Canadian soft and hard woods possess, si a value quite equal to that of pine. Rich Timber Lands. The whole of the northern part of the Province isdenselj wooded with spruce, poplar and other woods very valuable for purj ses making paper pulp. I. a ts of this laud have been put under lice. ag the last few its, and it will not be long, even if it - not already the case, before the cut of Canadian timber tor the paper mills will exeeed that tor the lumber trade. The forests in the southern pa the Province comprise white pine, of which valuable tree the only consider- able body now standing is in Ontario ; also, hemlock, cedar, t.unarac, oak, elm, ash, maple, basswood, and other valu- able trees for which a good market is now opening up. itly been found necessary to prohibit the exportation of pine logs from Ontario. Michigan lumbermen had been purchasing Ontario limits and tug the pine logs across the Ocor- gian Bay to Bay City, Saginaw, e thus depriving Canadians of so much work. The effect of laving an embargo on the export of pine logs has been very beneficial to Canadian trade, and the step thus taken will doubtless be fol- lowed, by Others looking in the same tion, Ontario's Agricultural Wealth. Ontario is the finest agricultural Prov- ince of the Dominion, and its settled portion will compare for productiveness with any portion of the United States. The following are some figures relating to the more important crops of 1S0S : ■' D| l'KK ». XT. BOSRI Pall wheat . . 25, 158,713 24.OO ing wheat. 6,8 1 ". jFO barley .... 12,663,668 28.9O Oats 86,858,293 36 00 Tease .... 13,521,263 i; Potatoes. . . [4,358,625 84.OO Mangels. . . 21,957,564 458.00 Carrots . . . 4,313,861 347.00 Turnips . . . 64,727,887 427.OO Corn .... 23,44-\s< ; Hay . . . tons 4,399, o63tons 1 And all this iii a Province where hardly an acre had been cleared at the begin- ning of the century. Growth of Canadian Population. If it were not that Canada is over- shadowed by her gigantic neighbor, all the world would be wondering at the progress made by the former country during the nineteenth, which is practi c.dly her fust century. As neai as cm be ascertained, there were in Canada in the year 1800, 230,000 persons, of whom Some 50,000 were in Upper Canada. | There are to-day between 5, -'50,000 and /! BKNTf! CENTURA. AI7 5,500,000, an increase in the century of about 2400 pet cent This is a much ; than v.- by the United Sfc during the 1 , or than tade by the British colonies in North Am- a now compo ng I he United Sta during their first hundred Growth of Canada. Th< . in Canada would a much greater had it not been that the French Proving of the ion, has y little aid from immigration This, however, fa ■ t by the fact that the French in have pi their prim:' virtues and vigor. They are among the most virile and prolific ra< Families of twenty children are still quite common in Quebec; of thirty not at all uncommon, and occa families much ding thirty found. Some idea of the prolii >f the nch Canadians tl led from the fact that tfa in Canada at the conquest in 1750, ; grown until tl. r number at li 2,00 /horn many are living in the . of the United Sta At the last census, 1891, the popula- tion was as : Ontario '//-0/^7 I 744,'4i 744,394 ia 227,093 22 :-:.... 157,524 Manitoba 84,34 2 h Columbia . . . 63,00.3 V Prh. land . $4 54,*97 Terr/ 53*7*5 ^.' v - 2 2,4^,47' V;: Total 4^43^39 In 190 1 estimated 5^ to 5^ millions. 1^ qy .. of hat are equal to the besl edu< L In Q great prog Education. In Ontario under the control of t of Education, Cabinet, and of i with • onal af- fairs are thus brought inl with th< A few of edu- on into the y beneficial, th bt that the :y fuL True that there have h e hot ofthe Bible inl i of the text happily the :. and the reading of chas heap and In .'. ' r "-" ous diffe - by a in the : ')i> maintain a the tax' virate scl In like main* . . centres are all of the Provino h Roman Cat:. and P ISA CANADA IX THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. ONTARIO. Schools. Incl 'ding Separate Schools 6,009 • • 340 7.26 Number of Schools and Scholars. Cost per Scholars. Pupil. 482,777 SS.73 Separate Schools 340 11,620 Protestant Separate Schools High Schools . . County Model Schools . . Normal Schools Normal College Kindergartens 105 Teachers' Institutes . . Niyht Schools 9 543 • • 130 24,39° 2 9-35 60 1,288 . . 3 458 . . 1 176 . . 105 10,693 . . 73 7,627 ineni's iS 1,406 . . Number of Schools and Scholars. Schools. Scholars. British Columbia ... 257 17,189 Prince Edward Island . 581 21,852 Territories 426 16,754 Total for Canada of Public Schools . . 17,558 947,208 Other Schools . . 936 133,031 Total expenditures on schools $8,- 527,410, of which 53,075,407 was paid by the Provincial governments and the HIGHER EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS. Ei idowment. Prop'ty Assessed . Income. Students. McGill Univ., Montreal . . . $2 ,750,000 $2,800,000 $230,000 1,150 University of Toronto . . . 1 ,187,683 ',457,339 119,087 1,332 Trinity University, Toronto, 750,000 325 35,000 475 Dalhousie Univ., Halifax . . 340,000 80,000 22,700 362 Queen's Univ., Kingston . . 400,000 125,000 46,400 635 none 225,000 30,000 475 Victoria Univ., Toronto . . 280,000 320,000 26,000 234 Bishop's Coll., Lennaville, One. 196,275 106,280 21,150 165 King's Univ., Windsor, N. S. .155,000 250,000 9,000 30 N. B. Univ., Fredericton . . 8,884 ... 12,000 80 Acadia Coll., Wolfville, N. S. 155,000 120,000 1 2,000 142 Laval Univ., Quebec .... none 1,000,000 none 300 Mt. Allison College, N. B., . 117,500 120,000 22,500 175 Manitoba Univ., Winnipeg . 1 50,000 600,000 5,50o 135 St. Francis Xavier Univ., An- tignish, N. S 50,000 100,000 1 1 ,000 IOI McMaster Univ., Toronto . . . . . • 134 St. Joseph' s Col . Memramcook, N. B. none 50,000 . . . 165 Number of Schools and Scholars. Schools. Scholars. Quebec, Roman Catholic 4908 275,159 " Protestant. . . 979 38,635 " Schools of Art & ' Manufactures 7 821 " Schools of Agri- culture ... 4 116 New Brunswick . . . . 7778 63,338 Nova Scotia 2385 101,203 Manitoba 1068 39,841 remainder raised by local taxation and from other sources. The above are Universities. There are also 19 Colleges, 19 Classical Col- leges, 8 Ladies' Colleges, and 5 Agri- cultural Colleges. Libraries in Canada. Number. No. of Vols. Ontario 378 Quebec 39 Nova Scotia .... 26 New Brunswick . . . 15 1,134,247 53*1356 97,52i 54,787 I THE NINE1 EENTH CEN1 Aig Libraries in Canada. Number. .\'o. of . .Manitoba 8 34, 730 British Columbia . . 10 [I »5°3 Prince Edward Island 3 8,528 rerritories 1 2, 1 50 Total 1,874,632 Religion. There were, in 1891, date- of the last census, 10,480 churches in Canada, an increase of 1828 in ten years. This is one church for every 461 inhabitants. The Roman Catholics have one church for every 1,115 OI " their adherents, Church of England one foi Methodists one for 251, Presbyterians one for 428, and Baptists one for 240. The number of adherents to each principal form of religion was: Church of England 646 Methodists 847.70V, Presbyterians 75 5, 3 26 Baptists 303,839 Other Denominations 288,233 Total Protestant 2,841,222 Roman Catholics in Quebec . 1,291,709 " " other Provinces 700,308 Total Roman Catholic . . 1,992,017 In 181 1 the proportion of Roman Catholics to the total population was 41.43 per cent.; in 1891 it was 41.21 per cent. The Roman Catholic Church has in Canada one cardinal, seven archbishops, twenty-three bishops, and about 1500 clergy. The Church of England has two metropolitans and fifteen bishops and about 1000 clergy. In all Canada there are 7,164 clergy- men, who increase at the rate of one per cent, per annum. Temperance and Liquor Traffic. Canada is one of the banner countries in the matter of temperance, the Pro- vince of Ontario leading the van. In that Province, the number of convic- tions for drunkenness have decreased nearly one-half during the last fif- teen years. This is owing not only to a very active campaign by the several temperance organizations, but also to the existence and thorough enforcement of a Liquor Licensing Law. Under this law the number of drinking places and the hours of sale have been rigor- ously reduced. For instance, in the City of Toronto, which is not considered a temperance centre, and which has a population of 200.000, there are but 150 licenses ed, and all but one or two of these are genuine hotels; that is to say, there are no "saloons,"' or drinking places pure and simple, such as are to be found by the thousand in the large cities of the United States. Trade of Canada. At the beginning of the century the foreign trade of Canada was practically nothing. Even as late as 1834, the im- ports were but $5,000,000, and her ex- ports about the same. For the year 1899 the figures were as follows: Imports 5162,764.; Exports .... 905 Total trade . $321,661,213 This amounts to about $61 per head for the Canadian population, and it compares as follows with the total trade of other countries. JOA CANADA IN THK NINETEENTH CENTURY. Total trade per head: Canada $61.00 Germany 3&45 France 36.39 Austria 14.50 Russia 4.93 Norway 49-7- Sweden 37»7* United States . . . 24.16 Great Britain . . . 90.23 The exports of Canada, arranged under their various heads, are as fol- lows: Products of the Mine . . . $13,568,585 " Fisheries .... 9,951,304 11 Forest 28,114,295 " Animal 48,024,814 *• Agricultural. . . 37,601,914 " Manufactures . . 12,823,972 " Miscellaneous . . 436,466 11 Coin and bullion 4,016,025 Total $158,896,905 The imports were: dutiable articles $98,349,633 Free 59,709,541 Coin and bullion 4,705,134 Total $162,764,308 There has of late, under the influence of the Preferential Tariff of 25 per cent. — since increased to 33 per cent. — granted to Great Britain in 1897, been a remarkable change in the trade of Canada. The preferential tariff was made not exactly in retaliation for the McKinley Tariff, which hit Canada in several tender places, but as a kind of declaration of independence against the United States, and as a sign that the attachment to the Mother Country was growing stronger than ever. In 1868 the export trade of Canada divided itself in the following proporV dons : With Great Britain . . . .$18,794,840 " United States . . . . 29,324,757 " Other countries . . . 5,251,470 Total $53»37i,o67 In 1800 the following' change had taken place: With Great Britain . . . .885,114,555 u United States . . . . 40,426,856 M Other countries . . . [2,920,626 8138,40-^,037 That is to say, where Britain once took one-third she now takes two-thirds; and where the United States once took much more than a half they now take much less than one-third. The change in the import trade is similar but is less marked, the reason being that there are many articles of American manufacture indispensable in Canada, the corresponding British goods not being suitable. The real significance of the above figures lies in the absolute demonstra- tion which they furnish as to the useless- ness of the United States attempting to exclude Canadian produce. The effect of the hostile American tariffs is that Canadian produce, instead of com- peting in the American markets, goes to England, where it meets the Ameri- can produce on neutral ground, and there the price not only for England but the whole world is settled according to the merits and abundance of the article. It is worthy of remark that under this dispensation the Canadian fanner is increasing his sales of certain articles IDA IN Till-; NINETEENTH CENTURY. A 21 at a very great rate. Among them are the following: Canadian Exports to Britain. 1895. 1899. Grain .... $9,307,916 $24,294,388 Wheat flour . . 448,503 2,102,261 Butter .... 541,420 3,844,051 Cheese .... 15,086,222 17,320,790 Bacon .... 3,79 8 ,34i 10,407,614 Eggs 524,577 1,254,392 Provisions, all, 20,866.963 33,145,050 Wood&mfs. of 10,850,457 17,842,917 Banks and Banking in Canada. There has grown up in Canada a banking and currency system which is at once safe and elastic. The volume of currency in circulation increases almost automatically as business needs it, and shrinks again as soon as business slackens. The banks are incorporated under a Dominion Act, which is over- hauled and renewed every ten years. Every shareholder is liable, not only for the total value of the stock sub- scribed for, but also until twelve months after he has sold his stock for a further equal amount. This liability prevents speculation in bank shares, and while- it perhaps reduces their market values, has a great steadying effect on business, and it so secures the circulation that there has not been a dollar lost to the holders of notes in Canada since this system came into vogue. Banks which issue notes, can do so to the extent of their paid up capital, and they have to keep a reserve of — ■ per cent, against them in legal tender, that is, in gold, silver, or notes of the Do- minion Governmet. Be it noted that bank notes are not legal tender in Canada. Under this system, on a pub- lic demand occurring for money, the banks send it out, and when the demand is over it comes back. As the Canadian banks are not required, like American National banks, to deposit bonds against their currency, it is not the former's interest to force the notes out in slack seasons, as the notes when lying idle are costing them nothing; and conse- quently, on a demand springing up they do not have hurriedly to call in money just at the time when borrowers want it. The growth of the banks in Canada has been astonishingly large, Here are the figures of the last 30 years : 1898. Capital paid up . . $30,507,447 $62,571,920 Notes in circulation 9,350,646 37,873,934 Deposits 33,653,594 236,161,062 Discounts 5 2 > 2 99,o5o 223,806,320 Liabilities 45,144,854 281,076,656 Assets 79,860,976 37 ,583,99I The banks have country branches as follows : In Ontario 306 In Quebec 117 In other provinces 218 Total 641 The total transactions of the Cana- dian chartered banks exceed $1,500,- 000,000 per annum. Post Office and Other Savings Banks. Government savings banks under the management of the Finance Depart- ment exist in the maritime provinces, Manitoba and British Columbia. There are also the Post Office Savings banks, at which deposits of $1 can be made, not to exceed $3,000 in all, or $1,000 in a year. Also, a large number of incor- porated savings banks, which do a flour- ishing business. The number of the several kinds of savings banks is: CANADA IN THE NINJ N II CENTURY, Government • . 15 Post office nks S 14 s ts with those banks arc: With government sav- :s . 378,910 Value of real estate under mortgage . . 35>357»68a :io. ^-0.017 Insurance Business. In nothing is the growth of the busi- ness of a country better shown than in the volume of insurance issued. Canada shows up well in this respect. For fire insurance the premiums re- ceived have increased as follows in 30 years : Fire insurance premiums .1869 $1,785,539 Fire insurance premiums . 1898 7,^40, cchj The amount of property insured was: Property insured .... 1869 $188,359,809 Property insured .... 1898 895,382,846 In life insurance the growth is still more striking : 1 . 1 fe i 11 s u r a D C 1 effected $\ Life insurance in M >80,08 ,-S, In 1869, onl) one seventh of the total business done was transacted with Ca- in companies. In 1898, w * 1 - 's was pi. iced with Canadian com es. Railways The problems which faced the early way builders in Canada wee ver) Population was sparse, money was sca-.ee. the distances to be traversed were very great and the engineering difficulties were formidable aud oi a new class. Before railway building was commenced in Canada, there bad been no such rivers as the St. Lawrence at Montreal met with, and the spanning of that immense stream by a tubulai iron bridge — the first of its kind -was justly regarded as one o( the modern wonders of the world. To show the advance of modern science, it is only necessary to say that a few months ago this bridge was wholly rebuilt as to iis superstructure, and the world outside of engineering circles scarcely heard of it. So, also, with the railway suspension bridge at Niagara Falls It has recently been completely rebuilt, the largest steel arch in the world having been substi- tuted for it, and the change creates only a ripple of notice. Canada possesses three large railway systems. The Grand Trunk system. The Canadian Pacific system. The Intercolonial system. The fust was constructed by private companies which received some govern* mental aid ; the second was built with CANADA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. a 23 Minds and on credit of subsidies given by the government. The third was constructed by and is still operated by the government. The railway mileage is as follows: MILKS. Canadian Pacific 6,301 Grand Trunk 3, 162 Intercolonial 1,355 Other railways 5,933 Electric roads 114 Bridges and tunnels . ... 5 Total 16,870 There has been given per mile by the public to these railways in the fol- lowing proportions : By Dominion government . $8,981 By provincial governments 1 , By municipalities .... 928 Total $U,776 In addition there has been put into them Ordinary share capital $266,669,857 Preference 111,481.933 Bonds 354,946 and with the government and the total cost of the Canadian railways has been close on £1,000,000,000. The train mileage in 1898 was 50,- | 688,283 miles. Number of passengers, 18,444,049. Tons of freight, 28,785,903. Earning $59»7I5>I°5- Working expenses, $39> I 37>549- The mileage in each province is MILES. Ontario 6,674 Quebec 3,315 New Brunswick 1,447 Nova Scotia 933 Prince Edward Island ... 210 Manitoba 1,621 Territories l >77% British Columbia 892 Total 16,870 Compared with the United States the railways of Canada show this : CANADA. Cost per mile . . $61,409 $55,797 Receipts per mile 7,050 3>572 Passengers killed per million car- ried 0.35 O.27 Passengers injured per million car- ried 5.61 3.96 In 1869 the Canadian railways carried 1.34 passengers and 1.46 tons of freight per head of the population ; in 1898, 3.51 and 5.48 respectively; showing that the business done per head of the population had nearly trebled in the time. Canadian Canal System. The beginning of the gigantic Cana- dian canal system dates back more than 150 years. As long ago, the Hud Bay Company constructed of timber a lock at Sault Ste. .Marie for the pur- pose of passing their small vessels to the northwest. This lock was 40x10 feet. It had been almost forgotten when its remains were uncovered dur- ing the progress of some improvements in the year 1900. Alongside it is the new Canadian lock nearly one thousand feet long and on the United States side are locks still larger in area though not in length. Soon after Upper Canada was consti- tuted, the legislature began appropriat- ing money for improvement of the waterways. In 1841, when the popula- tion of the Province was only 450,000, 24a CANADA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. the Legislature voted $2,500,000 for the construction of canals to overcome the St. Lawrence rapids. Soon afterwards the Welland Canal, overcoming Niag- ara, was entered upon. A lock 150 feet long was built. This, by 1875, had become totally inadequate, as well as had the St. Lawrence system, and an enlargement was entered upon which was not completed until 1900, when the last link, the Sonlanges canal was finished, giving a depth of fourteen feet from tidewater to the head of Lake Superior. The following table shows the dimen- sions of the existing canals, commenc- ing at tidewater : Dimensions Length Rise No. of of Locks Miles. Feet. Locks. Feet. Lacline ... 8^ 18 5 ... Sonlanges . . 14 82 y 2 4 Cornwall ...11 48 6 Farran's Point I Z% l Rapide Flat . 3^ nj£ 2 Galops. . . . 7% \y/ 2 3 Welland . . . 26% 326^ 26 Sault Ste Marie 1 % 18 1 The Rideau Canal system, which gives an internal connection between the St. Lawrence and Ottawa, consists of six canals, in all 29^ miles long, with 44 locks. The total expenditure on the canals has been $92,000,000, of which $20, - 000,000 was spent before confederatiou. The revenue averages $2,77,477* Telegraphs and Telephones. As is natural with a highly intelligent and enterprising but scattered people, the Canadians lead the world in the extent of their possessions in the way of telegraphs. There are in the coun- try 30,084 miles of telegraph line, over which, in 1899, 4,786,101 mes- 270x45 800x45 27oq45 (i 900x60 sages were sent, and 2677 telegraph offices. Canada compares as follows with the leading countries: Miles of Line. Offices. Fersons to each Office. Canada. . . United States Great Britain France . . . Germany . . Russia . . . 2,667 22,285 10,816 11,769 22,150 4,623 1,991 3,4io 3,75o 3,273 2,842 22,970 40,084 189,856 43,803 64,622 87,513 78,396 Of telephones, Canada has 43,902; 82,219 miles of wire, over which 114,- 953,381 messages were sent. Mineral Production of Canada. There has been of late great activity in mineral development. Some millions have been spent in exploratory and de- velopment work, and it has become evident that Canada needs only popula- tion and a market to take her place among the leading mineral producing nations. This table shows the extent of the production and its rapid in- crease. Minerals Produced. 1887. 1899. Copper. ... $ 366,798 $2,655,319 Gold. . . . 1,237,804 21,049,730 Iron Ore , 146,917 248,372 Lead . . 9,126 977,250 Nickel . none 2,067,840 Silver . 341,645 1,834,371 Asbestos 226,976 483,299 Coal . . 4,388,206 9,040,058 Graphite . 2,400 16,179 Gypsum 157,277 257,329 Mica . . 29,816 163,000 Petroleum , 556,708 I,2C2, 020 The total value of the minerals pro- duced in 1899 was $48,438,247. CANADA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. A 25 INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT OF CANADA. g>r- COUNTRY in its political in- fc-4 fancy, which was the position ' ® V^> °^ Canada until nearly the middle of the 19th Century, could hardly be expected to have put forth a distinctively national literature. Even now, when the throbbings of the new Canadian nationality are strong and healthful, there are certain pecu- liarities in the position of the country which tend to hinder the attainment of a full national literary life. Canada is a well-educated, sparsely populated, comparatively poor country — however rich in undeveloped resources — lying alongside of the richest country in the world, and only a week distant from the great Mother Land. The Canadian reader has a wide field. The writings of British and American authors are equal- ly acceptable to him, with those of his own country. Canada is by far the best foreign market that American book- sellers possess, taking nearly one-half of the total exportation of American books ; while the import of British, French and German books into Canada is very large. A Great Consuming Market. Such an inflow of outside literature operates to the development of the national intellect along very broad lines ; but it is a distinct detriment to the fortunes of the native author. Then there have been in the way serious copy- right difficulties perhaps not wholly overcome. The effect of the state of affairs which has governed during the last few years is seen in the fact that while Canada has given birth to several authors of great and growing renown, the best work of many of them has been done abroad. Then the early days of Canada were not favorable to literary activity. The life of the pio- neers was too strenuous and communi- cation too difficult to allow much devo- tion to letters. The first generation of their chil- dren received only a modest education, because of isolation and because of the urgent need by the parents of the chil- dren's help. The same things which tended to keep back literary develop- ment, bred a sturdy self-reliance and independence of character, and as soon as population increased so that schools became possible a new era set in and intellectual progress became rapid in spite of the many and great disadvan- tages. The Work of the Press. Perhaps the fierce political discus- sions of the early days of Canada were the greatest stimulus to mental activity. The Canadians have always had fine Parliamentary speakers. The fine old British precedents as to propriety of de- bate have been closely followed, and there has always been a great respect for constitutional argument. The speeches in Parliament and on the stump were well reported and diligently read in thousands of homes. The average Canadian farmer is a remarkably sound politician. He is as a rule far better in- formed on political affairs than is the dweller in cities. The press that supplied him his poli- 26 a CANADA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. tics was, as long as sixty years ago, quite as good as anything else in the world when the poverty of the field is taken into account. It is true that the press was, as it is to day, intensely par- . tisan, but to that may be ascribed a great deal of the activity and alertness that characterizes the people. If the people were fed on a partisan diet, the diet itself was rich and stimulating and bred a certain positiveuess, the marks of which may endure for generations to come. The Literary Future. While it may readily be admitted that Canada has made more progress in cul- tivating her fields than in developing her mind, it must also be admitted that this was inevitable under the circum- stances. But nothing is more certain than that with wealth and leisure will come the literary graces. Canada really intends to be a power in the world, not only in the tables of imports and ex- ports, but in the swaying of the minds of men. In the order of nature physi- cal development must precede mental. Muscle and bone go before brain, and bread and butter must be considered before the muses. The Canadian people is still too young and too busy to have much of a record of intellectual achievement. But be it remembered that there is in them the blood of the most intellectual races in the world. Their ancestry is all right and their climate is such as to enforce mental activity. They are not the people to be satisfied with puiely material greatness. Such progress as they have already made in the arts must be taken with all allowances for the circumstances. And when all these allowances are made it must be admit- ted that the achievement has been wholly creditable. Having regard lor what has been done, it may confidently be predicted that the time will come when Canadian books will be as much sought after as is Canadian bacon ; when Canadian thought will be as widespread as are Canadian ships; and Canadian litera- ture as stately a growth as the Canadian forest. The World of Letters. Let us see what Canada has done in the world of letters. Let us take the more serious studies first. Historians. The most important historical work produced in Canada has been Dr. Kings- ford's "History of Canada," in ten vol- umes. It is a thoroughly exhaustive work, bringing down the history to the time of the Union in 1841. Dr. Kings- ford died just as his last volume issued from the press, leaving a fine field for some equally painstaking successor to continue his work. The only history at all comparable with Kiugsford's is Gar- neau's, which French and British critics pronounced a masterpiece, and Dr. R Christie's six volume history of Lower Canada. John M. McMullen's " History of Can- ada" is another very careful work, as is also H. H. Miles' " History of Canada Under the French Regime." There is also, edited by J. Castell Hopkins, a five-volume " Cyclopedia oi Canadian History and Politics," which needs only enlargement to become a future standard work on Canadian history. Dr. W. H. Withrow, G. Mer- CANADA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. A 27 cer Adam and G. C. R. Tuttle have done some important historical work ; so has Prof. Bryce, whose " History of the Canadian People," £nd " History of the Hudson Bay Company," are of very great value. Among other historical writers are Alexander Begg, J. B. Calkin, Duncan Campbell, Dr. Cauniff, Abbe Casgrain, W. H. P. Clement, Lady J. D. Edgar, Abbe Faillon, Donald Gunn, J. Hannay, Gerald Hart, R. B. Hill, Prof. Hind, Dr. J. G. Hodgins, Thomas Hodgins, Q. C, H. Larue, W. Leggo, Sir James Lemoine, B. Murdoch, D. B. Read, Q. C, E. Reveillaud, E. Richard, Major Richardson, C. G. D. Roberts, C. Roger, Rev. E. Ryerson, H. B. Small, G. Auchinlech, W. Smith, W. H. Smith, Geo. Stewart, Rev. E. R. Stimson, Benjamin Suite, David Thompson, the Misses Lizars and L. R. Turcotte. Sir John Bourinot, Clerk of the House of Commons, has produced some good historical work. J. C. Dent's two books on "The Upper Canadian Rebel- lion and Canada Since the Union," are remarkable exhibitions of pains- taking research and luminous exposi- ricn, Last among the historical works may be mentioned the " University of To- ronto Studies in History," edited by Prof. Wrong and H. H. Langton. These are very able publications de- voted principally to reviewing works on Canadian History. British and Foreign Authors in Canada. First among the living historical and political writers in Canada must be placed Dr. Goldwin Smith who, having passed in Canada more than half of the productive part of his life, may be claimed as a Canadian, at least to the same extent that Agassiz and some other foreign-born writers are claimed as Americans. Dr. Goldwin Smith has been a most prolific author. His writ- ings have been largely devoted to showing the extreme desirability from a material point of view of the closest possible union between the United States and Canada. In the meantime, all the public acts of the United States toward Canada have shown a deep- seated hostility and have tended to sep- arate the two nations instead of to join them, and the countries have indubit- ably been growing farther apart during the last quarter century. Political History. As well as his writings on Canadian questions and much purely literary work, Dr. Goldwin Smith has written a "Political History of the United States," in which he sometimes takes the position of a very candid friend; and a " Political History of the United Kingdom," which will probably be held to be his greatest work, as it embodies the results of a long life-time of keen study and is an entertaining as well as a deeply instructive work. Another eminent English-born writer who resided a long time in Canada and produced some of her work here was Mrs- Anna Jameson, author of " Sacred and Legendary Art." Her book, " Winter Studies and Summer Rambles in Canada," is one of the most pleasing works on Canadian home life. Then there was the talented Strick- land family. Out of six daughters, five attained literary eminence. Two of them, Susannah Moodie and and Cath- 28 v CANADA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. erine Fair Traill, came to Canada when the century was quite young and the latter died only a year or two ago, hav- ing nearly rounded out her hundred years of life. As long ago as 1825 these two ladies had made their mark in literature, and one of Mrs. Traill's best works, " Fearls and Pebbles," was pub- lished as lately as 1S05, when she was considerably over 00 years old. She also wrote "Backwoods of Canada." and " Forest Trees and Wild Flowers." Her sister's most famous works are '• Roughing It in the Bush" and " Flora Lyndsay." Colonel Strickland another member of the same family also settled in Canada and did much excellent liter- ary work. Any pronouncement on the progTess of Canadian historical literature during the century would be very incomplete if it omitted to acknowledge the splen- did work done by Francis Parkman and by other careful American historians as John Gilmary Shea, W. L. Stone and Justin Winsor. Especially, it may be said of Parkman that he has linked his name forever with that of Canada in his imperishable volumes. Constitutional Writers. Canada has done some exceedingly good work in this field. Alpheus Todd's two works on Parliamentary government are valued wherever there are deliberative bodies. Sir John Bouri- not's books on Parliamentary procedure are accepted as authoritative everywhere. A. H. Lefroy's book on " Legislative Power in Canada,'' is a most able trea- tise on the constitution. Other consti- tutional writers are Clement, Houston, Travis, O' Sullivan, Hon. David Mills, etc. Scientific Writers. Canada has made many valuable con- tributions to the literature oi science. Among them may be mentioned Sir Daniel Wilson's works on Anthropol- ogy; Dr. McCauPs on Archaeology; Sir W, K. Logan's on Geology, and Prof. McCurdv'sou Biblical Areluvology. Sir W. E. Logan was the first Director of the Canadian Geological Survey, He made some epoch-marking discoveries — some that lie at the foundation of modern geological science. He was ac- companied in the same field by Dr. Sterry Hunt, Messrs. Billings, Murray, Richardson. Yennor and others, and his work was continued by Dr. Selwyn, Robert Bell. J. F. Whiteaves, J. \Y. Spencer, B.J. Harrington, G. C. Hoff- man and many others whose names are familiar to the readers of scientific pa- pers. The present director of the Sur- vey is Dr. G. M. Dawson, C. M. G., who has made many valuable additions to geological science. Prominent among the scientific writ- ers of the time was Sir J. W. Dawson who, thirty years ago, was very much alone in combatting the then rampant materialistic tone which the discussion on Evolution was taking. He wrote many very able books 011 the line of what has been called Christian Evolu- tion. He endeavored to deliver his favorite science, geology, from the bald materialistic speculations of the time and it is in no small degree owing to his efforts that there may be said to be to-day no school of science which be- lieves in the non-existence of a First Cause. In the field of botany Prof. Macoun has done much able ami lasting work, I and as an explorer Mr. J. B. Tyrrell is CANADA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. A 29 doing work in the Far North of Canada no less important than that achieved by Sir Alexander Mackenzie in the last years of the Eighteenth Century, and by Sir Geo. Simpson in the early part of the 19th. Mr. Warburton Pike also has done some intrepid exploring work and about it has written some very en- tertaining and modest books. The late J. G. Romanes, an eminent scientific writer who, while accepting modern science, kept his hold on his faith, was a Canadian, as are also Prof. Simon Newcomb, the eminent astronomer, and Dr. J. G. Schurman, President of Cor- nell University. The first, and some folk are still bold enough to say the best, of the distinct- ively American humorists was a thor- oughbred Nova Scotian. ' ' Sam Slick ' ' — or as he was known in the flesh, Judge Haliburton, of Halifax, is still excellent reading, full of racy humor and keen satire. Haliburton wrote many other books which exercised influ- ence in their day, but he will live as the author of the Yankee Clockmaker. Hundreds of humorists have come and gone, and will come and go, but Sam Slick is still to the fore. It is to be noted too that several other humorists who have achieved vogue in the United States were Canadians, for instance, Robert Barr (Luke Sharp) ; Bobert Bur- dette ; Mayor Lewis (M. Quad) ; G. T. Lanigan and many smaller lights. Poets and Poetry. The later years of the century in Canada have been brightened by the presence of a singularly able coterie of young lyricists. Chief among them were W. W. Campbell, Bliss Carman, C. G. D. Roberts and Arch. Lampman, now dead. The works of all these young poets show delicacy of feeling, keen inspiration and wonderful facility of expression. Among Campbell's works are "Lake Lyrics," "The Dread Voyage," "Mordred and Hildebrand" and "Beyond the Hills of Dream." Carman's principal works are "Low Tide on Grand Pre," "By theAurelian Wall" and "Ballads of Lost Haven." Roberts' are, "New York Nocturnes," "Songs of the Common Day," "In Divers Tones" and "The Work of the Native." The works of Lampman have been gathered into a sumptuous memorial volume. An entirely new field has been opened by Mr. W. H. Drummond, who in his " Habitant" poems gives us an insight into the life of the French Canadian peasantry — a charming book, racy of the soil, sympathetic and strong. Among a long list of Canadian poets the following are worthy of note : Jean Blewett, Rev. E. H. Dewart, Sir. J. D. Edgar, C. E. Jakeway, Wm. James, Pauline Johnson, Marie Jonssaye, R. H. Kernighan, Evan MacColl, Miss Ma- char, Alex. MacLachlan, Charles Mair, J. R. Ramsay, Carroll Ryan, Charles Sangster, Charles Heavysege, F. G. Scott, Mrs. Harrison, Rev. W. W. Smith, R. G. Starke, J. S. Thomson, A. Weir, Ethelwyn Wetherald, G. W. Wicksteed. General Literature. Among the writers of solider ma- terial there is Principal Grant of Queen's University, by birth a Nova Scotian, a fine example of the scholar who keeps abreast of his times, and in touch with living issues. His book "Ocean to Ocean" is a graphic description of a 30 a CANADA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. trans-continental journey in ante-Cana- dian Pacific days. Along with him may be mentioned Dr. Ryerson, first Superintendent of Education in Upper Canada, who wrote a splendid book on "The United Empire Loyalists" and an autobiography. Let it not be forgotten that if the cheapness of literature is one of the greatest blessings of the age, that cheap- ness is due to two Canadians more than to any other two persons ; for it was George Munro, with his " Seaside Library," and J. W. Lovell with his "Lovell's Library" — both Canadians — who broke down antiquated bookselling arrangements which hampered alike author and public. Fiction— Historical and Other. The fiction writers of Canada have turned to historical subjects as naturally as they turned to their mother's milk. It was inevitable that they should do so. Canadian history is essentially at- tractive, inspiring and fruitful, and when we compare the work of our later writers with that of their American and British contemporaries it will be seen at a glance what a stride Canadian literature is making. Sixty or seventy years ago, some nota- ble contributions to historical fiction were made by Major Richardson, who is now principally known as the author of a very good history of the War of 1 8 12, but whose "Wacousta," "The Two Brothers" and "The Guardsman" were extremely popular in their day. In more recent fiction Canada has made a mark with Win. Kirby's "Le Chien D'Or," published in 1877. This book may almost be said to have re- vived the fashion for novels dealing- with the picturesque features of his- tory. Had it been published twenty years later and pitched in a little more sensational strain it would easily have distanced some of "the most popular novels" which now run into the hun- dreds of thousands of copies. Mrs. Mary Hartwell Catherwood has recalled some striking pages of Cana- dian history in her " Romance of Bol- lard," and her stories of Mackinac. She is an industrious scholar and has ad- mirable skill, together with strong enthusiasm for Canadian subjects. Stories of Western Life. Mr. Gilbert Parker has done much for the good repute of the literature of his native land. Not only has he convinced Canadians that there are mines of liter- ary wealth in their history, but he has opened the eyes of all the world to the richness of those mines. His first sprightly stories of Northwestern life had prepared the way for the more ser- ious works, such as " The Seats of the Mighty" and "The Battle of the Strong," which fairly took the critics by storm, and were by many adjudged to be the best novels of their respective years. As well as the two books above men- tioned, Mr. Parker has written " The Trail of the Sword," "An Adventurer of the North," "The Trespasser," "Translation of a Savage," "Mrs. Fal- chion," and some others, as well as several volumes of bright and artistic short stories. He ranges over a wide field. Though intensely Canadian in fee ing, he is a thorough cosmopolitan in writing, and whether his scene is laid on the breezy prairies, on the glowing CANADA IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. A SI Nile, or in a Loudon drawing room, he is equally at home. He is well-equipped mentally and physically for many years to come. We may fairly hope that ex- cellent as has been his work there is better yet to come. Charles G. D. Roberts is another Canadian who has broken into the world's charmed circle. He has done much serious as well as some light work. His "History of Canada" will take its place among the standard works. A series of novels illustrating Acadia, " The Forge in the Forest," " A Sister to Evangeline," and several volumes of short stories are his principal contribu- tions to fiction. As a poet he has made a shining name. Robert Barr is an expatriated Cana- dian for whom, though, misunderstand- ing his native country, he has lately said some very spiteful things of her, no Canadian feels anything but respect and affection. His pen is facile — per- haps too facile, but for that his early newspaper training is to be blamed — but his matter is strong and its tendency is healthful. His best work is on a Canadian subject, "In the Midst of Alarms," and he has lately struck a vein of mediaeval romance — "Tekla" and " The Strong Arm " which seems to suit him very well. Anglo-Indian Author. Sara Jeannette Duncan (Mrs. Cotes) is a Canadian bred Anglo-Indian author who has made a deep mark in light literature. She has keen perceptions, her style is vivacious and occasionally she uses the knife in so deft a way that even her victim must enjoy the insinu- ating stab. "The Adventures of an American Girl in London," w r ith its sequel, "A Voyage of Consolation," are exceedingly bright books. " A Daugh- ter of To-day," " Adventures of a Mem- Sahib " and "His Honor and a Lady " are more ambitious works and show her at her best. Grant Allen was born and educated in Canada and never ceased to consider himself a Canadian, though his literary work was done in London. He was a simple phenomenon in his faculty of mastering abstruse problems of science and presenting them in such a form that the ordinary unlearned reader could en- joy and profit by them. His scientific writings are immensely popular. As a fiction writer, while he temporar- ily went off after sensation and wrote some sex-novels which had a great run, he executed much other work that was of a wholesome tendency. He will prin- cipally be remembered, however, by his solider works, such as " The Colour Sense," "Evolutionist at Large," "Flowers and Their Pedigrees," "Science in Arcady," etc. Ideal Fiction. Among the newer Canadian writers is Rev. W. C. Gordon, who under the pseudonym of Ralph Connor has put forth "Black Rock" and "The Sky Pilot." If any one can imagine Bret Harte's stories purged of every thing objectionable and infused with a thor- oughly Christian spirit, he would come pretty near to comprehending Ralph Connor. The earnestness of Mr. Gordon's stories is unmistakable. He never haste point his moral — the story itself does that irresistibly. He is probably achiev- ing more good than any other contempo- rary fictionist. His writings, though thoroughly imbued with the religious 32 a CANADA IX THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. spirit, never descend to the mawkish, and though they touch the innermost feelings of the heart, are never repel- lantly sentimental. He is one of the best living types of a thoroughly manly Christian, and the more work that can be got out of him the better for the world at large. Juvenile Literature. In the field of juvenile literature Can- ada has J. Macdonald Oxley who has written much. His work is somewhat in Henty's preserves and it loses nothing in comparison with that prolific Irish- man's books. Miss Lily Dougall, of Montreal, is a writer of serious fiction well known outside of the Dominion. Her princi- pal works are "Beggars All," u What Necessity Knows," "The Zeitgeist," and "The Mormon Prophet." William McLennan, of Montreal, has written several historical novels which have attained wide circulation. Among other Canadian writers of whom space forbids to give more than a brief mention are Mrs. "Seranus" Harrison, whose "Forest of Bourg- Marie" is a delightful tale of French- Canadian life. Mr. T. G. Marquis' "Marguerite de Roberval " turns on a very sad incident and converts it into a delightful book. Mrs. Joanna E. Wood, who has been described as the Miss Wilkins of Ontario, has written sev- eral excellent books describing Ontario life. In the same vein is a recent notable book, "House of Glass," by Wallace Lloyd (Dr. Alger, M.D.). Mr. W. A. Fraser, who has been an intimate friend of Kipling, has imbibed enough of his spirit to enable him to write very LRpFe'15 attractively of the Canadian animal world. Mrs. Henshaw and Clive Phil- lips-Wolley of British Columbia, Mr- Walsh of Montreal, and Miss Marshall Saunders of Halifax are a few out of many who ought to be written of in terms of highest commendation, but this list has to be brought to a close. It would be most unjust though were there no reference made to a group of short story writers who have done splendid work. Mr. E. W. Thomson, now of the " Youth's Companion," has published three volumes of short stories that will compare favorably with anything else of the same class. He is a brilliant writer, full of infor- mation and fancy and abounding in nervous strength. He is fully equal to more sustained work, and ought to essay it. Works on Animals. Another brilliant young Canadian is Ernest Seton Thompson whose "Wild Animals I Have Known," "Want)," and "The Trail of the Sandhill Stag" have struck a sympathetic chord in the heart of every animal-lover. Mr. Thomp- son's insight into animal nature is pro- found. As well as a writer, he ?* an extraordinarily good artist and il* lustrates his own works which deserve to be on the shelf with Burroughs. Thoreau, White of Selborue and the fev — very few, others to whom this pr& cious gift of knowledge of animals is confined. Out of a great number of successful short story writers may be named Stin- son Jarvis, Miss MacMurchy, Duncan Scott, F. G. Scott, Maud Ogilvy, Stuart Livingstone, etc. Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide Treatment Date: MAY 20U2 PreservationTechnologies A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 111 Thomson Park Drive Cranberry Township, PA 16066 (724) 779-2111