S H 385 58 DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE AND LABOR BUREAU OF FISHERIES GEORGE M. BOWERS, CommliBlone* WHALEBONE: ITS PRODUaiON AND UTILIZATION Bureau of Fisheries Document No. 626 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1907 Book__MS_^ d. o |» y 2. H^ DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE AND LABOR BUREAU OF FISHERIES GEORGE M. BOWERS, Commissioner WHALEBONE: ITS PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION Bureau of Fisheries Document No. 626 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1907 cv WHALEBONE: ITS PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION By Charles H. Stevenson Bureau of Fisheries Document No. 626 1 CONTENTS. Page. Baleen S Extracting: and cleaning the baleen 4 Yield and values of whalebone B Utilization of whalebone 8 WHALEBONE: ITS PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION, By Chaeles H. Stevenson. BALEEN . The garniture of the mouth of the whalebone whales is totally different from that of the sperm whale. Instead of teeth, there is a strainer-like appendage called baleen, or whalebone, consisting of sev- eral hundred horny, elastic slabs or plates, which are attached to each side of the upper jaw. The number of slabs on each side ranges from 260 to 360. This number, as well as the length and quality, varies with the species and the size of the whale. The longest slabs are in the middle of each side, and they gradually decrease in length toward the ends of the jaw. l^Tien the whale's mouth is closed, the baleen fits into deep grooves; when the mouth is opened, the baleen springs forward so as to fill entirely the space between the jaws, per- mitting the water to pass through, but imprisoning the small mollusks upon which the animal feeds. The lower edge of each slab of baleen, as it hangs from the upper jaw, is fringed with hair which resembles that of a horse's mane or tail, but is coarser and more brittle when dry. The external sur- face of the slabs has the appearance of enamel ; the interior is fibrous and partakes of the nature of the hair-like fringe. The color is usuall}^ a dull grayish-black or bluish-black, with occasional longi- tudinal streaks of a light horn color. The texture is lamellar in the direction of the breadth of the blade. The material is regarded as a peculiar development of hair, each slab an agglomeration of hairs covered with enamel, the rigidity and elasticity of the substance re- sulting from the peculiar structure. In its chemical and principal physical properties it resembles horn perfectly, and it is particularly interesting as indicating the transition from hair to horn. The different species of bone-bearing whales yield baleen differing much in length, formation, and quality. The choicest is the baleen from the bowhead of the Arctic Seas, which has constituted the great bulk on the market during the last fort}^ years. Some of this is very long, single slabs measuring 10 feet or more in leng-th, the width at the butt approximating 10 or 12 inches. Formerly the Arctic fishermen secured baleen 15 feet in length, but in late years 12 feet is about the maximum. The outer edge is frequently curved, and the slabs taper gradually and gracefully from the base to the fringy end. The externa] and likewise the internal fibers are black- 3 4 WHALEBONE : ITS PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION. ish, slender, and flexible. They are also parallel and quite even, so that the slab may be split its entire length to any required degree of thinness. On its removal from the mouth and before it is dried the material is so elastic and flexible that it is almost unbreakable, but when dry it is somewhat brittle. The Pacific or Northwest right whale yields baleen nearly as long as that of the Arctic or bowhead whale, but heavier, coarser, and more brittle. The edge of the slabs is more nearly straight than in the Arctic species, and the hairy fringe along the edges is much thicker and coarser — indeed, it is quite bristly toward the apex. The South Sea whalebone is shorter and less curved on its outer edge than even that of the Pacific or Northwest right whale, and has fibers rather coarser than the Arctic but finer than the Northwest whalebone. Little of this is now brought in. The baleen of the finback whale is very short, rarely exceeding 4 feet in length; it is 10 or 12 inches broad at the base, rapidly running to a point and becoming triangular in shape. The slabs are somewhat rigid crosswise and the fringe is from 2 to 4 inches long. The fibers are much coarser than those in baleen of the right whales, and this variety is consequently in much less demand, the selling price during recent years rarely equaling one-tenth that of the bow- head whalebone. The average yield of the finback whales taken by the United States fleet is about 250 pounds to each animal. The baleen from the humpback whale is even shorter and of poorer quality than that from the finback; its low value and the small quantity that may be obtained from an individual do not warrant the trouble of saving it. EXTRACTtNG AND CLEANINti THE BALEEN. • The baleen is not firmly secured to the jaw of the whale and may be readily detached. About 12 inches of it is embedded in the gum, while the remainder hangs free. In its normal condition it appears to be partly supported or propped up by the throat, tongue, and lips, which, however, relax their hold after death and the material is loosened by its own weight. A^Hiien a dead whale is found it is often the case that the baleen has already started from the jaw, and this is likewise true at times when a whale remains a day or so alongside the ship before cutting-in. Under these circumstances it is sometimes necessary to lash the baleen to the jaw while in the act of hoisting on board. ■ In extracting the baleen the fishermen hoist the upper jaw on board with the layer of bone attached and separate them on deck. Cutting spades are pushed along the groove between the gum and jaw bone, and in most cases the entire mass is suspended in the cut- ting tackle so that the weight of the whalebone assists in detaching it from the jaws. In this manner it is started on either side and sev- whalebone: its production and utilization. b ered the entire length of the juw. All that remains to be done is to separate the mass into pieces of convenient size, containing from 3 to 6 slabs each. To do this the men work with spades and axes, divid- ing the slabs by cutting through the gum and removing all the blubber and meat and likewise much of the gum. AVhile in the gum, the baleen is not liable to injury from dampness, and may be stowed in the hold, where it remains until the crew have time to clean it. When the season is over and the ship is on the passage to port, it is brought up on deck again and the slabs are carefully separated one from the other by cutting through the gum with an ax. This operation is performed by careful and experienced men, for any mutilation or hacking of the material would seriously affect its value. While the slabs are being separated by some of the men, others are busily engaged in removing the particles of gum with a small hand scraper. The slabs are then carefully washed in salt water in order to remove all foreign substances, and are thoroughly dried by exposure to the atmosphere. If a long sea voyage intervenes before a market is reached, the dry- ing must be carefully attended to, otherwise the whalebone is liable to become damaged. As much of the Arctic ^^halebone at the present time is landed at San Francisco and is consequently but a short time at sea, there is not this necessity for its being so carefully dried. It is discharged on arrival of the vessel in port and placed in stands out of doors where it is thoroughh^ dried by the action of the sun and Avind. Occasionally the whalebone is bunched at sea, but as a rule this is done in port after the slabs have been overhauled and exam- ined. Each bundle contains about 22 full-length slabs and weighs about 80 pounds. Before bunching the baleen is assorted into grades and sizes. That measuring less than (> feet in length is knoAvn as " undersize," and is sold at reduced price. From the time of its re- moval from the head of the whale to the completion of the manufac- turing process great care must be taken to avoid cutting or dam- aging the surface, the slightest nick reducing the value. The quantity of whalebone obtained from the different species of whales varies greatly. The bowhead produces far more than any other, and the right whale comes next in this regard. Even whales of the same species and of equal size and yield of oil may produce widely different quantities. It is commoidy supposed that the age of the whale has much to do with the weight of the Avhalebone, the substance continuing to gain in solidity after the anim-il attains maturity. As a general average for the fleet the^neld in the bowhead whale is from 15 to 20 pounds to the barrel of oil, a 100-barrel whale yielding from 1,500 to 2,000 pounds of baleen, while in the riglit whale the yield is usually about 11 pounds to the barrel of oil. The extreme pro- duction on record is 3,100 pounds, obtained from a bowhead whale by the steamer Mary (iiid llclcn in Bering Sea. October 20. 1883. 6 wha-IjEbone : its production and utilization, yield and values of whalebone. In the early days of the whale fishery the valuable qualities of whalebone were not well known, and comparatively little of the prod- uct was saved. The first importation into England is supposed to have been in the year 1594, when a quantity was picked up among the wreckage of a Biscayan ship. It is stated that from 1715 to 1721 at least £100,000 per annum was paid to the Dutch for whalebone, the price approximating £100 per ton.*^ The price advanced at times to £700 per ton'', but toward the end of the eighteenth century it de- creased to £50 per ton. In the beginning of the nineteenth century wdialebone sold so cheap that few vessels brought any great quantity home, it being more profitable to fill the hold with oil. During the first two decades of the nineteenth century the annual receipts in port from the American fish- eries did not exceed 50,000 pounds, wortli about 10 cents per pound. The demand then increased, raising the price to 25 cents in 1829, when the whalemen brought in over half a million pounds. Owing to a decrease in value to 13 cents, the amount secured decreased to 20(5,432 pounds in 1833. Based on the product of oil, it seems probable that had all the whalebone been saved the total yield during that year would have exceeded 1,500,000 jDOunds, worth, at the present market price, about $9,000,000. For ten years following 1833 the price fluctuated between 13 and 30 cents, and the product i-anged to upward of 2,500,000 pounds. From 1844 to the outbreak of the civil war the output averaged about 2,800,000 pounds annually, the greatest for one year being 5,692,300 pounds in 1853, and the price gradually increased to $1 per pound. Since 1860 there has been a large decrease in the whalebone output; in 1862, for the first time for many years, it fell below 1,000,000 pounds, and only once since then has it exceeded that amount, viz, in 1867, when it Avas 1,001,397 pounds. From that time to 1902 it ranged between 100,000 and 900,000 pounds, and in 1903 the yield was only 74,850 pounds, the smallest since early in the nineteenth century. Of the whalebone taken by American ves- sels during the last twenty-five years, more than 90 per cent has been secured by the North Pacific fleet, mostly in the Arctic Ocean, and the I'euiainder mainly by the Hudson Bay and the Atlantic Ocean fleets. The total product landed from the American fisheries during the nineteenth century doubtless exceeded 90,000,000 pounds, Avorth about $150,000,000 at the present market valuation. The reduction in the jdeld of whalebone has been largely counter- balanced by increase in the value per pound. Indeed the rise in price during the last thirty years has been remarkable. In 1871 the average a Henry Elking, A view of the Greenland trade and whale fishery, with the national and private advantage thereof, p. G5. (London, 1722, 8°.) ''David iMaopherson, Annals of commerce, manufactures, fisheries and naviga- tion, vol. Ill, p, 871. (London, 1805, 4°.) whalebone: its production and utilization. value at the dock was 70 cents per pound. In 1877, owing to the dis- aster to the Arctic fleet in the preceding 3'ear, the price jumped to $3.50 per pound, and the average for the year approximated $2.50. It continued to increase until it reached $6.70 in the summer of 1891, the price during that year averaging $5.38. In the ensuing nine years it ranged from $4 to $2.50. The small yield in the last three years has occasioned very high prices, and in March, 1904, the market for Arctic bone was $0.25 per pound. The quantity of whalebone secured by vessels of other nations is small- The Scotch whalers operating in the vicinity of Greenland and Baffin Land secure about 15,000 pounds annually. Were it not for the occasional successes of the American vessels in the Arctic, whalebone would be at a prohibitive price, and probably more of it would be found in museums than in commercial warehouses. The following summary, compiled from various sources, but espe- cially the ^^n^ialemen's Shipping List, shows the quantity and value of whalebone received from the American fleet each year since 1820 : Statement of the Product of Whalebone in the United States during each Year since 1820. Year. Produc- tion. Average value per pound. Year. Produc- tion. Average value per pound. 1821 Pounds. 62,893 50, 799 103,404 133, 472 152,534 79, 368 106,255 137,323 563, 654 .514,991 279,279 442, 881 266, 432 343,324 965, 192 1,028,773 1,753,104 1,200,000 1,900,000 2, 000, 000 2,120,000 2,410,000 1,127,270 2,532,445 2,195,054 3,252,939 3,341,680 3,003,000 2,281,100 2,869,200 2,916,500 1,259,900 5, 652, 300 3, 445, 200 3,707,500 2,592,700 2,058,8.50 2,571,200 1,923,850 1,337,650 1,038,450 763, 500 488,750 $0. 12 .12 .13 .13 . .15 .16 .18 .25 .25 .20 .17 .13 .14 .21 .21 . 25 .20 .20 .18 .19 .20 .23 .36 .40 .34 .34 .31 .25 .22 .32 .34 .51 .35 .39 .45 .58 .97 .92 .88 .80 .66 .88 1.63 1804 Pounds. 760, 450 619,350 920, 375 1,001,397 900, 850 603,603 708, 365 600, 655 193, 793 206,396 345, 560 372,303 150. 628 160, 220 207,259 286,280 464, 028 368,322 271, 999 254,037 426,968 463,990 352, 490 585,011 334, 572 253, 113 309,710 297,768 369, 8S5 411,315 278, 800 114,960 ■ 207, 850 178,100 246, 120 320, 100 207,6.50 99, 050 109, 980 74.8.50 123,300 79, 900 96,600 SI. 80 1 7] 1822 1865 1823 186f! 1 37 1824 1867 1868 1 18 1825 1 0'^ 1826 1869 1870 1 '>'6 1827 85 1828 1871 1829 . . 1872 1 28 1830 1873 1 08 1831 1874 1 10 1832 1875 1 ■'] 1833 ... . 1876 1 96 1834 1877 2 50 1835 1878 2 46 1836 1879 '> 34 1837 1880 2 00 1838 1881 1882 1883 1884 ICSo 1 63 1839 1 71 1840 ') 87 1841 3 55 1842 2 68 1843 1886 1887 2 73 1844 3 1'' 1845 1888 2 78 1846 1889 3 50 1847 1890 4 22 1848 1891 . . . 5 38 1849.., 1892 6 35 1850 1893 3 08 1851 1894 2. 95 1852 1895 2 83 1853 1896 3. 95 1854 1897 3 50 1855 1898 3.10 185S 1899 2 70 1857 1900 2. 50 1858 1901 2 65 1859 1902 4.20 1860 1903 5. 25 1861 1904 5. 80 1862 1905 4 90 1863 1906 4.50 b WHALEBONE : ITS PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION. UTILIZATION or WHALEBONE. The economic value of whalebone is due to its combined qualities of lightness, elasticity or springiness, and flexibility even when split into very thin strips. It has also the property of permanently retaining any shape that may be given to it when it is heated and then cooled under compression. Although many substitutes have been introduced, such as steel, cattle horn, and turkey quills, nothing has yet been found that competes with it in a combination of all the qualities above noted. It is therefore unrivaled as material for use in whips, corsets, for dress stays, and similar purposes. The cutting of whalebone, that is, changing the rough slabs into the forms and sizes suitable to the different uses, is carried on prin- cipally in New York City and Boston. There are four factories in New York Citj^ and one in Boston. The number of workmen em- ployed is small, rarely exceeding fort}^, all told. The equipment con- sists of two or three long narrow water tanks, a steam box or two, half a dozen drawknives, a splitting machine, a transA'erse cutting knife, a miscellaneous lot of rulers, knives for cutting and scraping, and a very large amount of experience in determining the qualities of the material and the needs of the market. Whalebone is received at the factory in bundles containing 15 to 25 long single slabs Avhich have been roughly cleaned. The first opera- tion in Avorking it consists in cutting off the hair or fringe along the edge Avith a knife or a pair of shears. This hair ranges in length from 2 or 3 to 18 inches or more, and about one-fourth of an ounce in Aveight is secured from an aA^erage slab weighing 4 pounds. It is sold at 10 to 15 cents per pound to brushmakers, Avho combine it with other bristle materials and use it in the manufacture of clothes brushes and the like. Formerly it Avas employed to some extent in upholstery, but at present the product is too small for that purpose. The fiber or grain of Avhalebone is not uniform throughout a single slab. That on the lower side, or edge of the slab as it rests in the mouth of the Avhale, is far more flexible and durable than that on the upper side. The loAver portion is knoAvn as " grain bone," that from the upper side is the " back bone," and between these is the '' dividing-line bone." A 5-poimd slab, measuring 12 inches at the base, yields usually about 1 pound of " backs," one-half pound of " dividing line," and 3^ pounds of " grain bone." The grain bone is the best for all uses. That from the back is entirely devoid of fibrous appearance; it does not split in a straight line, but cuts like horn, and its flexibility and durability are of a low order. The divid- ing-line bone, as the name indicates, is where the tAvo grades above mentioned merge together. This difference in quality determines largely the special uses to Avhich each portion of the material is put. U S B. F —Doc 62e Plate II. BUNDLES OF WHALEBONE AS RECEIVED AT THE FACTORY. whalebone: its production and utilization. \^ To make the material workable, the clean slabs are soaked in tepid water for one or two weeks and then snbjected to the action of steam in a closed box for forty to sixty minutes, whence they come forth ready to be cut ijito strips of the required form and size. Each slab is then fastened, back down, in a bench vise and the cutting is done entirely by draw^ knives operated by hand labor. The first cutting to be made is the removal of the " front." This is the lower edge of the slab, beginning 30 inches from the butt and following the grain of the fiber to the base. It is 3 or 4 inches wide at the base, narrowing quickly to a point at the top, is very thin, and furnishes the best quality of dress bone, selling at the present time at about $10 per pound. It is cut in the manner presently to be described ft)v '' dress bone."' After the " front " comes the " whip bone," the lengths of which range from 30 to T'2 inches. By means of draw^ knives adjustable to any depth, strips are cut from the steamed slab at right angles to the surface, until the cut pieces reach a length of about 72 inches, or the thickness of the slabs reaches the maximum refjuired for whips. It is desirable that the cross section of these whip pieces be square, and to accomplish this the depth at wdiich the knife blade is set is in- creased at each successive cutting. As the thickness of the slab fol- lowing the grain decreases in proceeding from the butt to the top, it is manifestly impossible to haAe the cross section of the whip pieces square at all points, and a medium is follow^ed in having it square about 18 inches from the butt. To avoid changing the gauge of the knife at each successive cutting, six or eight knives gauged at dift'er- ent depths are used. The whip-bone pieces sell for about $7.50 per pound at present. If they are cut less than 30 inches in length, as is sometimes the case, the price is knver, say $6 to $7 per pound. Some cutters prepare no whip bone whatever, and in that case this part of the slab is cut into dress bone. In preparing dress bone the cutting knives are adjusted to a depth of five-sixteenths of an inch, or in some rare instances three-eighths of an inch, so as to remove from the slab a strip of that depth, the thick- ness « being, of course, the same as the thickness of the slab at the place of cutting, and the length running the full length of the fiber. These strips are known as full-length cuts. An examination of the edge of them reveals on either side a layer of dense horny nonfibrous material known as " shell " or " shell bone," sandwiching a layer of dark fibrous material called " grain bone." The shell bone is far more valuable than the grain bone, owing to the fact that it is per- fectly pliable and may l)e worked without danger of splitting, whereas the grain portion is liable to split when pierced by a needle. »Tliis is really the width rather than the thickness, but whalebone cutters use the terms width and thickness with reference to the oriiiinal position of the material in the slab. 10 whalebone: its production and utilization. These full-length cuts, Avhich are nearl}^ always five-sixteenths of an inch thick, are reduced to lengths of 3G inches, thoroughly steamed, run through the splitting machine, and split parallel with the original surface of the slab into thin strips about 1 millimeter (one twenty-fifth of an inch) in thickness. The splitting machine consists of a horizontal knife about 2 inches wide, fixed in a frame on the edge of a table, and subject to changeable gauge by means of screws. As the whalebone is pushed against the edge of the sharp knife a spring holds it down firmly, to assure cutting the full thick- ness of the gauge. In splitting the cut pieces the shell bone on either side is first removed in strips and then the grain bone is split. The strips of shell bone are next scraped with a sharp knife to remove the membranous tissue upon the surface, and are then bun- dled in gross lots ready for the dressmaking trade. Each piece is 36 inches long and, as a rule, five-sixteenths of an inch wide. The thickness ranges from 0.7 millimeter to 1.4 millimeters, and is usually 0.8, 1, or 1.2 millimeters. The last three measurements correspond to 2, 2|, and 3 pounds, respectively, to the gross. Strips of shell bone 0.7 millimeter in thickness weigh about lil pounds to the gross, and those 1.4 millimeters thick approximate 3^ pounds to the gross. At the present time the market price of dress bone strips is $9 to $10 per pound for ordinar}^ grades. The}' are always packed in gross lots, and prices are quoted by the gross rather than by the weight. Some of the shell bone is very light in color, even approaching whiteness, although this is rare, not over 200 pounds of " white bone " being secured annually in America. The lighter the color the more desirable it is as a rule, and for the white or colorless upward of $30 per pound is received by the cutters. This is not because of any peculiar merit in the material itself, but because it is more suitable for use with white dress material. The light bone exists in small streaks only, and until it'-goes through the steam box there is difficulty in determining whether it will come out very light or not. The cut- ters make no attempt to account for the cause of this light coloring. The thin strips of grain bone, after leaving the splitting machine, are cut into different lengths, varying from 8 to 10 inches, and in widths as low as one-eighth of an inch, according to orders from the corset makers. The transverse cutting is done by means of a vertical knife, operated b}^ a lever handle. The longitudinal cutting is quickly accomplished by running each stri]) against a small vertical knife set in a frame and gauged from the side at the proper distance to produce* strips of the desired width. These short pieces are neatly bundled and sold at the present time for about $6.50 per pound. They are commonl}^ known as " corset bones." They are liable to split if pierced by a needle, and are slipped into jackets or casinfirs instead of beinff sewed into the o-arments. II S B, F — Doc 626. Plate III CUTTir^G A SLAB OF WHALEBONE. SPLITTING WHALEBONE. whalebone: its production and utilization. 11 As previously noted, the bone from the back or upper edge of the slab is of lower grade than the grain bone. There is relatively little shell on it, and also a complete absence of the fibrous condition noted in the middle of the grain bone. If cut parallel Vith the surface of the slab in the manner already described, it is extremely liable to warp, curl up, and split, and would sell very low, from 75 cents to $2 per pound. In recent years it has been customary in working up the backs to cut them at right angles with the surface of the slab instead of parallel therewith ; or, as the cutters express it, they are cut " edge- ways instead of sideways." This reduces the tendency to w^arp and split, due hirgely to the very small quantity of shell on the edges of the strips. This portion of the slab is not suitable for dress bone, and is cut up into corset bone as already described. When cut edgeways it sells for $5 or $G per pound. There is a small demand for grain bone in the form of slender round pieces about 1 millimeter in diameter and from 25 to 40 inches long. Some years ago large quantities of these, in lengths of 25 to 28 inches, were used in men's felt hats, being j^laced under the sweat bands to impart stiffness to the brim. Those 27 inches long, the average length, weigh 4 ounces to the gross. The demand for these at present is very smalL Small quantities of slender strips in lengths of 30 to 40 inches are purchased by silk spinners, who use them as turning sticks in their spinning work. These pieces are also em- ployed to a small extent for winding on ornamental sword hilts; this use, however, is more popular in Japan than in this country. In the various processes of splitting and cutting there is consider- able fiber left over in pieces not sufficiently large for use in corset bone. These are commonly split in bristle sizes and used in the man- ufacture of coarse stiff brushes. They appear to be especially suited for flue brushes. The usual selling price of these bristles is about $1 per pound. The shavings of membranous tissue resulting from scraping the shell bone are commonly sold to upholsterers at 15 or 20 cents per pound. This jDroduct is considerable in working Northwest bone; but as Arctic bone constitutes the greater part of that used now^adays, the quantit}^ of shavings produced is very small. They are especially sought after for bedding material. AMien whalebone was cheaper, canes made from this material were someAvhat popular, and a few are made even at present. The Arctic whalebone is rareh' thick enough for this purpose, and usually the back portion of the Northwest bone is employed. Sometimes after the shaping these canes are steamed, twisted, and then set by dipping them into cold water, so that they will retain the twisted shape. The Northwest bone is also sometimes used for making " bare-bone " ^r}iips — that is, whips made entirely of whalebone and without wrapping. 12 whalebonp: : its production and utilization. Formerly whalebone was extensively used in making frames or ribs for umbrellas and parasols. These old umbrellas were very durable, but they closed up somewhat like a lettuce in shape. Artists' sketching umbrellaswnd carriage shades are still made of this material, but they are expensive. Whalebone was in large demand for the manufacture of hoops, when that article of dress was fashionable. It was used in making brooms, also, especially those used by chimney sweeps. Another use w^as as covering for telescopes and other tubes; for this purpose the hair-like fringe and strips made from waste pieces were employed. These were employed also to make imitation haircloth for covering chairs and sofas. The Alaskan natives and the Indians of Washington have made use of whalebone for various purposes, such as in the manufacture of fishing nets, fish hooks, hunters' traps, etc. The scarcity of whalebone has led to the introduction of many sub- stitutes for use in corset and dressmaking, but so far few satisfactory ones have been found. Horn and rattan have been tried repeatedly without success, as they are liable to break and lack the resistance and lightness of whalebone. Thin strips of steel covered with rubber or other composition are in many respects the best substitute. Their fatal defects are their tendency to rust and their sharp edges which cut the fabric. AMiile they have largely replaced wdialebone in the cheaper grades of corsets, these defects prevent their use in dresses and the best corsets. Furthermore they can not be cut to the lengths desired. A very successful substitute, owing to its cheapness, is a preparation of turkey quills sold under a trade name; but this is by no means equal to whalebone. O .fiJe'08 '^<